motherhood and representation at the sackler center for feminist art: judy chicago, catherine opie, canan senol motherhood and representation at the sackler center for feminist art: judy chicago, catherine opie, canan senol by laura allred hurtado a thesis submitted to the faculty of the university of utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts in art history department of art and art history the university of utah august copyright © laura allred hurtado all rights reserved. the university of utah graduate school statement of thesis approval the thesis of laura allred hurtado has been approved by the following supervisory committee members: elena shtromberg , chair januarz , date pproved paul (monty) paret , member januarz , date pprovea jill dawsey , member januarz , date pprovea and by ___________ -=b:..:n:.:::·a=n:::...s:::n=a::jpcjip=----___________ ' chair of the department of art and art history and by charles a. wight, dean of the graduate school. abstract this thesis begins with one central question: how did second-wave feminist artists represent motherhood and how is it represented today? i explore this question through case-studies of three artists and their work: judy chicago's the dinner party ( - ), catherine opie's self-portraitlnursing ( ) and canan senoi's fountain ( ). all three works of art were on display during the inauguration of the sackler center for feminist art at the brooklyn museum in . the physical dominance of the dinner party within the gallery acts as a metaphor for its ideological influence within the scope of feminism itself. my first chapter establishes chicago's need to minimize representations of motherhood by obscuring her as an unwanted guest. yet, the neighboring temporary exhibition "global feminisms," curated by linda nochlin, highlights maternal-representation, indicating a different vantage point in feminism's approach to motherhood. my second chapter investigates the appropriation of madonna del latte iconography in opie's self-portraitlnursing, framing it as an attack on traditional christian values for both personal and political reasons. yet this appropriation maintains the fantasy of the mother-child dyad, which second-wave feminists, like chicago, sought to disrupt. in my third chapter, i explore senoi's video art fountain, which codes the breast as phallic and powerful. further, i draw a connection between julia kristeva's writings on chora with fountain's sound of leaking milk. by examining these three works, this thesis ultimately highlights the complicated relationship between feminism and motherhood. iv t able of contents abstract ......................................................................................... .iii acknowledgements ........................................................................ vi in"troduction ................................................................................... chapter . guess who's coming to dinner? judy chicago's the dinner party and renderin"gs of motherhood at the sackler center for femin"st art ............................................................................................... motherhood in chains ..................................................................... kristeva's critique and the new dinner guest. ...................................... . . madonna del latte: catherine opie and a discourse on maternal passion ............................................................................ the renaissance madonna as foil. ...................................................... . proposing the good nursing mother. .................................................... . conceptualizin"g milk: the semiotics of canan senol's fountain ..................................................................................... ..... the part for the whole: fragmented breasts and central-core imagery .......... . phallic breast: signifier of power ....................................................... the sonic quality of dripping milk .................................................... conclusion ....................................................................................... bibliography ................................................................................... acknowledgments many individuals and institutions have aided me in this study. i am particularly indebted to the university of utah department of art and art history who provided generous funding, travel grants to new york and washington d.c., and the opportunity to teach at the university level. without such consideration, much of my study would have been impossible. thanks are especially owed to professor elena shtromberg, for her thoughtful advice and her genuine interest in my scholastic development, to professor monty paret for his forthrightness-your honesty is invaluable-and for jill dawsey, who encouraged me to pursue this idea from the very beginning. i would also like to thank professor lela graybill, for her theories on the sublime, and professor shelia muller, for her mentoring, dedication and encouragement. for scholastic support, i thank the sackler center for feminist art. thank you to the women of the a venues reading group, the byumoa, and the great basin feminist society, i have consistently looked to you as examples. to ashlee cook, annie burbidge ream, analisa bacall, amanda beardsley, and scotti hill for your friendship, edits, and support. for help with the turkish translations, i thank yeliz lambson. thanks are owed to clara and kaerlig hurtado and alexis and nicole deforge. thank you also to the mothers in my own life: to barbara allred who gracefully and ambitiously dragged five young children to the lacma and to lovisa lyman, for your equal balance of bookishness and maternal passion. thank you to john allred who nurtures and celebrates my independent voice. for the unfailing support of my dearest husband and kindest friend tom hurtado, thank you, thank you, thank you. and finally, to my wild little pack, oh, how i love being your mother. i am so proud of our little family and will always be grateful. vii introduction through a close examination of judy chicago's the dinner party ( - ), catherine opie's self-portraitlnursing ( ) and canan senol's fountain (<;esme) ( ), this study explores three distinct modes of representing motherhood by feminist artists. my study begins chronologically and investigates one central question: how did s feminist artists represent motherhood and how is it represented today? in navigating this question, i position three vastly different works whose context and feminist agendas often conflict and i place them in a cross-generational dialogue. yet, in no way does this investigation pretend to be the comprehensive history of either feminism or representations of motherhood. to do so within the limited scope of a thesis would prove both superficial and futile. grouped together as case studies, the works i discuss were chosen not only because of subject matter but also particularly because of the year and location in which typically, feminism of the s and s is called second-wave feminism. however, within that term there are a wide variety of representational strategies especially regarding motherhood, and the flat equation of judy chicago representing all second- wave feminist art is certainly problematic. the most obvious is mary kelly, a contemporary of chicago, whose approach to representing motherhood is dramatically different. simultaneously to the creation of the dinner party, mary kelly created, the post-partum document, a work that explores many of the reoccurring themes i investigate in this thesis, namely: psychoanalysis, the maternal body, lost and anxiety, language development and gender construction. so as not to encompass the entire second-wave feminist movement with one singular artist, i have often chosen to refer to judy chicago's feminist practices simply as chicago's feminism. they were exhibited. while each work offers a different vantage point, all three converged at a single site, the sackler center for feminist art in . in the united states, was dubbed "the year of feminism" in art. such a bold declaration for the art world was supported by several noteworthy exhibitions, but especially "wack! art and the feminist revolution," and "global feminisms: new directions in feminist art," the many journals published that year on the subject, and the various conferences which explored the issue, in particular the landmark conference "the feminist future: theories and practices in the visual arts" at the museum of modern art. according to rosalyn deutsche, "the events that make-up 'the year of feminism' are engaged, among other activities, in writing the history of feminism and especially, of arts relation to feminism since the s.,, for deutsche, 's vigor was primarily rooted in drafting histories about feminism then in relation to feminism now. however, feminism, as a catchphrase, was not limited to the art world. similar statements were also made on the political front. on january , , senator hillary clinton announced that she would run for president of the united states. yet, throughout her campaign, she was inundated with sexist remarks. according to journalist amanda fortini, when clinton declared her candidacy, "sexism in america, long lying dormant, like some feral, tranquilized animal, yawned and reveal itself ... when it comes to rosalyn deutshe, aruna d'souza, miwon kwon, ulrike muller, mignon nixon, and senam okudzeto, "feminist time: a conversation," grey room (spring ), . see also, kate taylor, "feminist art goes back under the lens," new york sun (march , ), http://www.nysun.com/arts/feminist-art-goes-back-under-the-lens/ / or the special section on feminist art in the washington post, including blake gopnik, "what is feminist art," the washington post (april , ), http://www.washingtonpost.comlwp-dynlcontentlarticle/ / / /what -is-feminist-art ibid., . one of the most famous of these occurred in early when at a campaign rally, clinton was heckled by an attendee to "iron my shirt." women, we are not post-anything."s such blatant gender-based criticism spurred multiple news circuits to explore the impact and legacy of the feminist movement in the s and the s and to position its history in relationship to the sexual politics of . the basic premise of these editorials: what did feminism accomplish and where is it now? i also use this inquiry as a starting point for my study. in particular, i turn my attention to an institution established in , the elizabeth a. sackler center for feminist art at the brooklyn museum. launched as a "museum within a museum," the museum's sackler center is the only major museum to dedicate space solely for the display of feminist art. its establishment in was a momentous in the art world because women artists, and in particular feminist artists, have notoriously been underrepresented and at times excluded from major museums, despite their significant contributions to art production. examining such a significant historic site in feminist art history, at such a remarkable time, provides a rich physical location for exploration. s amanda fortini, "the feminist reawakening: hilary clinton and the fourth wave," new york magazine (april , ), http://nymag.comjprint?/news/features/ index .html the elizabeth a. sackler center for feminist art is a distinct space within the brooklyn museum. the center is separated by a two large glass doors, a "portal entry" that demarcating the center as independent. according to designer susan t. rodriguez, the sackler center was to be thought of as "a visually distinctive environment symbolic of the museum's commitment to creating a permanent home for showcasing feminist art and recognizing and exploring the importance of a woman's point of view." susan rodriguez, "elizabeth a. sackler center for feminist art: about the center: gallery design," brooklyn museum,. accessed january , http://www . brookl ynmuseum.orgleascfa/about/ gallery_design. php in april of , the same year the sackler center for feminist art opened, the well- known guerrilla girls published an ad in the washington post listing the then current statistics of women to men in the dc national museums. guerrilla girls, "reinventing the f word: horror on the national mall," guerrilla girls, , accessed june , http://www .guerrillagirls.comjposters/washposthorror .shtml. inaugural exhibitions often establish the mission statement for new museums and the sackler center opened with two major exhibitions: the permanent exhibition of judy chicago's iconic work, the dinner party and an ambitious survey of contemporary feminist art entitled "global feminisms: new directions in contemporary art." as with the many editorials of , the exhibitions positioned s feminist art practices within a historical context (addressing the question what did s feminism do) and "global feminism investigated feminist art practices now. while all histories are subjective, chicago's version of feminist history dominated the exhibition space of the sackler center. the presence (and influence) of the historic dinner party forefronts it as the consummate masterpiece of all feminist art and champions chicago as the sole author of the feminist artistic narrative. however, equally significant was the adjoining exhibition "global feminisms" which sought to position and display contemporary feminist artistic practices. curators rielly and nocwin claimed this exhibition would, "look to the present and future, instead of the past" presenting feminism as jeminisms broadening the scope of chicago's essentialist feminism and rectifying its ills. in other words, their goal was to make feminism plural, allowing for multiple experiences and perspectives and to offer a new frame of reference to feminist art practices. as for representations of motherhood, very little of the monumental work the dinner party addresses the subject. the small portions in the dinner party that do represent motherhood tend to marginalize the issue, ushering it to the periphery of the work. "global feminisms," however, clearly focuses on motherhood as a feminist topic, maura rielly and linda nochlin, "global feminisms": new directions in contemporary art (new york: merrell, ), . particularly because a significant number of works in the exhibition invoke it. such a dramatic increase in the representation of motherhood in feminist art practices today, i argue, points to a clear change in discourse within feminism itself. chapter one, "guess who's coming to dinner? judy chicago's the dinner party and representations of motherhood at the sackler center for feminist art," investigates the relationship between chicago's feminist art practices and motherhood. mirroring the dominance the dinner party held in the sackler center for feminist art, chicago's work acts as a cornerstone of comparison throughout this thesis. paying particular attention to the illuminated m on the margaret sanger runner and the embroidery on the mary wollstronecraft runner, i posit that the dinner party marginalizes motherhood primarily by obscuring it to the periphery of the piece. for chicago, this marginalization and demotion of the image of the mother reflect a politically motivated desire to challenge assumptions regarding women's lives naturally including motherhood. theorist julia kristeva critiques second-wave feminism in general for avoiding the maternal. because all are born of women, kristeva asserts, motherhood remains a central and pervasive aspect of lived experience that requires rigorous examination. i then tum to "global feminisms" as a site, which disrupts the dinner party's dominance of both the physical and ideological space in the sackler center. as a new banquet guest to the feminist similarly, adrienne rich states in the foreword of her book of women born, "because young humans remain dependent upon nurture for a much longer period than other mammals, and because of the division of labor long established in human groups, where women not only bear and suckle but are assigned almost total responsibility for children, most of us first know both love and disappointment, power and tenderness, in the person of a woman." adrienne rich, of women born: motherhood as experience and intuition, (new york: norton & co.), . dinner party, "global feminisms" ushers in representations of motherhood as a valid feminist subject matter. i examine the sackler center's inclusion of motherhood as feminist subject through two very different works of art, catherine opie's self-portraitlnursing and canan senoi's fountain. these pieces narrow the scope from the broad category of representations of motherhood to a more focused lens on the lactating body and, in particular, the act of breastfeeding. i do this for three reasons. first, images of nursing mothers are among the most pervasive representations of motherhood in art history, due to the long-standing tradition of madonna and child imagery in christian iconography. such pervasiveness encodes images of the lactating body with historical convention. all three artists negotiate this heritage of the lactating mother and ultimately revise, embrace or reject its history. second, breastfeeding is a clear identifier of motherhood that is manifested through a distinct bodily process. as an infant cries, the lactating body responds. third, bodies carry political associations. from the "back-to-nature" pro- breastfeeding campaign of rousseau in the eighteenth century to the propagandistic ads of nazi germany that conflated conservative family values with nationalism, breastfeeding has long been used as a tool for political agendas. i i moralizing narratives continue into the present and are used by both liberal and conservative political agendas to maintain an ideologically driven social order. in no means do i intend to suggest that breastfeeding and/or pregnancy are the definitiveness of motherhood. on the contrary, there is a multitude of ways in which motherhood is performed and expressed. while some of these manifestations are tied to the physical maternal body, many acts of mothering are not. rather, breastfeeding and pregnancy, as bodily processes, are among the few uniquely visceral experience tied specifically to biological reproductive responses. i marilyn yalom, "the political breast: bosoms for the nation," a history o/the breast (new york: alfred a knopf, ): . this renewed attention to representing breastfeeding raises certain questions (all of which are variations of the first inquiry): how do current representations of the breastfeeding mother indicate an overall change in feminist priorities? why was this subject marginalized by s feminist artistic practices? and finally, how does the social climate today regarding breastfeeding and the female body in general fuel such a return to an art historical tradition of depicting lactation? i respond to these questions in chapter two and chapter three. chapter two, "madonna del latte: catherine opie & a discourse of maternal passion," explores opie's return to mothering as subject matter. she does this through an appropriation of renaissance madonna del latte's visual vocabulary, disrupting traditional representations of the madonna through her nudity and butch identity. opie's use of mechanical replication renders madonna del latte images as social constructions. like chicago's dinner party, opie's work is motivated, at least in part, by political ambitions. self-portraitlnursing deconstructs the gender boundaries well established in traditional maternal representation. in addition, opie' s image reinserts a celebration of maternal passion into the canon of feminist artistic production. i consider the writings of psychoanalytical theorist julia kristeva in this chapter, particularly "stabat mater" because of its close analysis and reinterpretation of representations of the virgin mary. throughout the thesis, i rely heavily on kristeva because of the rigor of her investigation in and revision of the maternal body in psychoanalytic terms and because of her explicit statements regarding the need for such thorough investigations both in the s and as recently as . the last chapter, "conceptualizing milk: the semiotics of canan senol," addresses the fragmented lactating breasts represented in senol's fountain. bringing back judy chicago's central core images, particularly the margaret sanger plate, from the dinner party, in which a singular genital part stands in for a whole body, i discuss the way that fragmentation becomes either a violent act against the body or a method that limits the body to biological organs. the chapter then explores and compares senol' s work to both duchamp's fountain ( ) and turkish artist serkan orkaya's artist as fountain ( ). such references as well as formal elements in the composition itself, code the maternal breast as phallus, allowing it to act as a signifier of power. further, i claim that this reversal of masculine power structures is repeated through the sound of dripping breast milk in fountain. addressing this audible element, i suggest that fountain can be paired with julia kristeva's text "revolution in poetic language" ( ) by articulating what kristeva called chom, a maternal pre-language. like senol, kristeva's theories on maternal language serve to revise lacan's theories regarding the patriarchal origins of language. i conclude by asserting that these case-studies attest to the struggle feminist artists have had with the images of motherhood having used a variety of visual strategies to represent her. works dealing with representations of motherhood have seemingly returned as a prominent feminist subject matter as evidenced in the exhibition "global feminisms." however, such a return does not necessarily suggest a return to earlier representational modes, which idealize motherhood. further, the point of this thesis is not to privilege senol and opie over chicago, or to suggest that what is current is simply more progressive, more in tune, or more politically correct than earlier expressions of feminism. rather, the different agendas, practices and artistic strategies used by chicago, opie and senol collide at the sackler center for feminist art in a way that questions modes of representing experience of women's bodies. such multiplicity of narratives, even within a shared time period, points to the ambivalence and affection of feminist artists regarding representations of motherhood. whether wrapped in chains, disembodied or performed, the representations of the maternal that are on view at the sackler center for feminist art do not suggest indifference but rather are diverse investigations into the experience of motherhood. these rigorous examinations indicate and display the complexity of motherhood, an experience that julia kristeva calls, "pregnant with madness and sublimity.,, julia kristeva, "motherhood today" (presentation, colloque gypsy v, paris, france, october , ), http://www.kristeva.fr/motherhood.htrnl. chapter guess who's coming to dinner? judy chicago's dinner party and renderings of motherhood at the sackler center for feminist art "there was one born every year for four years and now ... i am almost a prisoner." margaret sanger's motherhood in bondage the dinner party is a monumental "banquet" that comprehensively reclaims and celebrates women throughout history. although this ambitious project was under the direction of judy chicago, the dinner party was primarily a collaborative effort of over feminist artists and scholarly researchers, who collectively believed in the importance of the project. made of several components, the primary form is a triangular shaped table set to serve thirty-nine women who contributed and influenced history in significant ways. divided into three forty-eight feet long wings, decorated with hand- made ceramic plates, goblets, and delicately embroidered table runners, each individual setting stylistically honors the woman for whom it's set: a famous literary, political, or judy chicago, "the dinner party," brooklyn museum of art sackler center for feminist art, , accessed september , http://www .brooklynmuseum.org/eascfaldinnecparty/home. php. otherwise accomplished woman from western history ranging from the fertility goddess to emily dickenson. in addition to the women represented by an individual ceramic plate and table runner, the heritage floor, which fills the center of the "dining room," is covered in ceramic tiles with the names of lesser-known, yet equally important women written on them. using materials such as ceramics and embroidery, the goal of the dinner party is primarily didactic: to revise traditional patriarchal canons of history, to celebrate women's significant artistic contributions by utilizing what was traditionally women's craft-based media, and to use central-core imagery (images based on the vagina) as a powerful symbol to explore (and reclaim) female sexuality and female universality. according to art historian amelia jones, the dinner party, "asserts itself on such a scale and with such self-assurance that it has [become] a catalyst for feminist debate since its premier.,, originally displayed at the san francisco museum of modem art in march , the piece has drawn just as much controversy as it has acclaim. during the culture wars of the s, politicians, like jesse helms, saw the dinner party plates as sexual and pornographic. is modernist art critics asserted that the work was anti-aesthetic, too craft-based and too kitsch to be a serious contribution to the artistic discourse of the time. perhaps most damning was the response from poststructuralist feminists who amelia jones, "sexual politics: feminist strategies, feminist conflicts, feminist histories," sexual politics: judy chicago's dinner party in feminist art history (los angeles: university of california press, ), . is see jonathan katz, "the senators were revolted:' homophobia and the culture wars," a companion to contemporary art since , ed. amelia jones (new york: blackwell publishing). anette kubitza, "rereading the readings of the dinner party in europe," sexual poltics: judy chicago's dinner party in feminist art history (los angeles: armand hammer museum, ), . condemned the work as naive, reductive and essentialist. poststructuralist feminism is a mode of analysis primarily interested in language and terminology, social construction of sexual difference, and marxist theories of power and social structures. scholars such as griselda pollock, amelia jones, judith butler and laura mulvey, among others, challenged the belief that women's shared experiences are held in common based on a biological predetermined essence of femaleness. in general, poststructuralist feminists saw gender as socially constructed and performative, a phrase coined by butler rather than a biologically determined identity. they viewed the dinner party and much of chicago's feminist practice in general, as exclusionary, drawing only from the experience of white, middle-class women of western society. further, they accused the dinner party of reinforcing masculine ideas of greatness and reestablishing linear narratives in history. in spite of (or perhaps because of) this conflicted response, the dinner party remains a shorthand icon for much of second-wave feminist art and the crowning jewel of the sackler center for feminist art's collection. as elizabeth sackler herself suggests, "the point was to use the wealth of the dinner party . .. as a starting point.,, following sackler's formula, the dinner party begins my examination. while the amelia jones explains poststructuralist feminism in sexual politics as, "a diverse body of critical ideals spearheaded by british art historians griselda pollock and lisa tickner." i would also add laura mulvey to this list. jones, sexual politics, . this was further problematized by chicago's project in general as she took on the role of master artist. although over people worked' on the dinner party, only chicago claimed the right to authorship. by this, critics assert that she reenacted the same patriarchal power structures that so many women were trying to resist. she obliterated the efforts of many women, integrating them with her own. using the dinner party as a starting point is a model, which i follow in this thesis. robin pogrebin, "ms. chicago, party of ? your table's ready in brooklyn," new york times, february , , http://www.nytimes.coml / liarts/design/o party .html. l monumental work visually celebrates the greatness of women throughout time, it does not represent women fairly or equally. of the many accomplishments celebrated, motherhood is marginalized. it is a startling omission considering the historic effects of child rearing on women's lived experience. from this omission questions arise: why is motherhood marginalized in the dinner party? what is the relationship between the dinner party and "global feminisms" at the sackler center for feminist art? how can "global feminisms" be seen as a guest that both critiques and revises chicago's seminal work? i start my analysis with two representations from the dinner party, the sanger m and the wollstonecrajt runner, which depict motherhood as the source of death and imprisonment. despite the significant scale of chicago's narrative about the many contributions of women, these two images are small and insignificant. such reductive fragments minimize the experience down to the margins. motherhood is hidden in the dinner party functioning as a small and insignificant footnote. o worthy of note, julia kristeva's has problematized second-wave feminism (in which the dinner party is included) for its aversion to motherhood as a subject matter. framing "global feminisms" as an invited guest to chicago's dinner party, i posit that motherhood is made visual though this ancillary invitation in the adjoining galleries. as newcomers to the table, "global feminisms" revises the feminist values held by chicago. in her book, sexual politics, amelia jones noted chicago's ambivalent view of motherhood. jones, sexual politics, . though chicago appears to have changed her agenda towards motherhood in her work the birth project ( - ). of this project, chicago said, "few images of birth existed in western art, a puzzling omission as birth is a central focus of many women's lives and a universal experience of all humanity - as everyone is born." judy chicago, "the birth project," through the flower, accessed on june , http://www.throughtheflower.org/page.php?p= &n= . although the birth project has been criticized, like the dinner party, by many art historian andrea liss as "generalized and essentialized symbolism." liss, feminist art and the maternal, . furthermore, the exhibition's inclusion of motherhood as a predominant subject matter makes evident a change in feminist discourses in general and its relationship to the mother today. motherhood in chains the first image of motherhood in the dinner party is that of english writer mary wollstonecraft. among her many accomplishments, wollstonecraft famously wrote a vindication of the rights of women in , one of the earliest manifestos on feminist philosophy. she wrote: how many women thus waste life away the prey of discontent, who might have practiced as physicians, regulated a farm, managed a shop, and stood erect, supported by their own industry, instead of hanging their heads surcharged with the dew of sensibility, that consumes the beauty to which it at first gave luster. wollstonecraft advocated against the false belief that women's natural ability was to feel instead of reason. her belief was that women deserve equal access to education and to the labor force. in , she wrote "it appears to me impossible that i should cease to exist, or that this active, restless spirit, equally alive to joy and sorrow, should be only organized dust.', however, less than one year later, she died at the age of thirty-eight, from a placenta-related infection after giving birth to her daughter, the author mary shelley. mary wollstonecraft' vindication of the rights of women (london: peters, thomas and andrews): , pdf, e-book. mary wollstonecraft, letters written during a short residence in sweden, norway, and denmark (london: cassell & co., ), pdf, e-book. mary shelley is most well known for her novel, frankenstein: or, the modem prometheus, published in . the table runner associated with wollstonecraft, the dinner party: wollstonecrajt place setting (wollstonecrajt runner) depicts the author's limp body splayed out on the birthing bed, covered in a pool of blood. her wild hair stands out straight, suggesting a type of hysteric defeat. she is stretched out, a haggard corpse. stylistically, the wollstonecrajt runner is typical of eighteenth century british folk tradition. the figures are stiff and lack perspective. this naivete of the style flattens the wounded wollstonecraft to the bed obliterating her as she is consumed by the whiteness of the bed-sheets. to the side of the bed, her husband and two daughters weep at the sight. a top hat, used throughout the wollstonecraft runner as a symbol of her influence and intellect, lies discarded on the floor. certainly, maternal mortality rates were common in the eighteenth century. however, chicago's appropriation of such an image in the s allowed her not only to historicize obstetrical death but also to criticize motherhood as a corporeal danger. influential women throughout history have sacrificed themselves in the service of children. chicago's representation of motherhood frames these sacrifices through tragedy and loss. if this statement gets at chicago's intention, the placement of the image complicates this reading. this scene is located on the back end of the runner itself, placing it in the interior of the dinner party table. as a result, the image is only seen while looking at the wollstonecrajt runner from across the room, a full feet away, obscuring visual access, making close analysis difficult. this placement veils chicago's while the runner depicts various stages of wollstonecraft' s life, for the scope of this thesis, i will only focus on the portion that deals with her death. the motif of the top hat is a repeated theme on the wollstonecrajt runner. it hangs first triumphantly on her illuminated letter m and later is used to distinguish her as teacher and writer. it is an interesting choice because a top hat is a man's hat and not a women's. contribution to feminist maternal representation. in the dinner party, the mother is ancillary and insignificant footnote. given the magnitude of the project itself, this placement implies marginalization. the second representation of the maternal is the illuminated letter 'm' on the dinner party: margaret sanger runner (sanger m). sanger coined the phrase "birth control" and founded the american birth control league, a forerunner to the planned parenthood federation of which she began as president. the letter is small, no more than two inches by two inches. stylistically, it references the medieval, typically christian, practice of including small didactic images to the first letter of a book or chapter. the sanger m suggests the christian iconography of the madonna and child. it depicts a mother, whose head is veiled and highlighted with a halo, indicating her sainthood. her body leans towards her baby and her arms wrap passionately around him. as for the child, his mouth is open apparently rooting, an instinctual action in newborns who open their mouths wide and turn their head towards the breast in search of food. however, the infant is left unsatisfied as the mother does not or perhaps cannot offer her breast. she weeps at the insatiable desire of another mouth to feed. the use of gold both on the letter m and on the halo suggests the saintly attributes to motherhood. the bars of the letter m violently slice through her idyllic image, mimicking prison bars and thick metal chains draped around the body, holding her sanger, dedicated her life advocating for women's rights for reproductive knowledge and was arrested several times for it. however, she prevailed and continued to advocate for the reproductive rights of women. this madonna and unfed child portrait stands as a type of anti-icon to traditional madonna del latte images of the early renaissance. the madonna del latte tradition will be explored in more detail in chapter two. captive behind bars. the halo, which typically illuminates light heavenward, confines her movement. she is attacked on all sizes. chicago's framing of motherhood with such violence equates it with imprisonment. the chains on the illuminated letter reference sanger's motherhood in bondage ( ), an annotated collection of anonymous letters. in motherhood in bondage, sanger organized the many letters she received from women explaining their desperate need for birth control into sections, such as "double slavery," "the pinch of poverty," or "methods that fail." an excerpt from letter six from the section "solitary confinement" says: i am a mother of six children all under eight years old ... and now i am almost a nervous wreck being confined so close. i am almost a prisoner ... now i am not complaining about the children being born. i love them and want them, but i don't want them to come into the world without a fair chance to live.,, like the sanger m, motherhood in bondage is not a rejection of the children themselves. rather, the letters attest to the intensity of child rearing, the burden of poverty and the bondage of hyper-fertility. for sanger, the lack of birth control makes motherhood a "sordid and slavish requirement" and she spent a lifetime advocating for the freedom of choice. a choice and a right, sanger believed would change humanity. in , she wrote: on the preparatory drawing for the sanger m chicago wrote, "margaret sanger dreamt of a free motherhood and through that freedom, a new world. she believed that the chains in which women were held also held the whole world prisoner." chicago, "the dinner party." margaret sanger, motherhood in bondage (new york: brentano's, ), . her own mother went through pregnancies ( live births). sanger felt these pregnancies were the primary contributor to her mother's early death. miriam reed, margaret sanger: her life in her words (new york: barricade books, ), iv. ibid., . this is the miracle of free womanhood, that in freedom it ... opens its heart in fruitful affection for humanity. how narrow, how pitifully puny has become motherhood in chains. [o]nce women were freed of involuntary childbearing, they would change the world; that an 'unchained mother' would in its freedom ... open its heart in fruitful affection for humanity. while sanger's comments are perhaps overstated, her optimism for the freedom of motherhood attests to the gravity and impact of involuntary childbearing on women's lived experience. the moment women are allowed the choice of motherhood, rather than having it forced upon them, their hearts would have room for genuine affection. for sanger, this increase of love was only possible when women had ownership of their own bodies and own destinies. the inclusion of sanger in the dinner party suggests the importance of her crusade to second-wave feminisms, such as chicago. the need for reproductive freedom-for easy access to birth control and for legal and safe abortions-that concerned margaret sanger in the early twenties would have certainly been a contemporary issue for chicago. legal debates surrounded and plagued the "pill," which was only authorized to married women in and unmarried women in ? in , the famous roe vs. wade supreme court ruling regarding women's rights to abortion brought on a fury of abortion right debates. notably, chicago's handling of motherhood within the dinner party reflected widely held opinions of second-wave feminists. among other issues, the women's margaret sanger, woman and the new race (chicago: brentanos, ): . in , the supreme court of the united states ruled in the case griswold v. connecticut that a connecticut law prohibiting the use of contraceptives violated the "right to marital privacy." in , the case eisenstadt v. baird expanded the right to possess and use contraceptives to unmarried couples. this ruling was just years before the creation of chicago's the dinner party. see elaine tyler may, america and the pill: a history of promise, peril and liberation (new york: basic books, ). liberation movement fought against "natural" assumptions regarding women's relationship to motherhood and for freedom of reproductive rights. published in , simone de beauvoir's descriptions of the fetus as a parasitic inhabitant offered a theoretical basis for second-wave feminism. beauvoir explains, "[the woman] feels it at once an enrichment and an injury; the fetus is a part of her body and it is a parasite that feeds on it; she possesses it, and she is possessed by it.,, the excerpt implicates the general feeling of ambivalence that underlines chicago's representations of motherhood in the dinner party. in addition, betty friedan's landmark book, the feminine mystique ( ), asserts that many women (namely white, middle-class suburbanites) felt trapped, unfulfilled and, in general, bored in domestic roles. described as the "problem that has no name" and sometimes dubbed the housewife problem, friedan said: each suburban wife struggled with it alone. as she made the beds, shopped for groceries, matched slipcover material, ate peanut butter sandwiches with her children, chauffeured cub scouts and brownies, lay beside her husband at night-- she was afraid to ask even of herself the silent question-"is this all ?,, simone beauvoir, the second sex (new york: alfred knopf, ), . in an interview, beauvoir explained that american feminists first developed their own theoretical views and then discovered the second sex, which helped him articulate their experience. john gerassi, "interview with simone de beauvoir: the second sex twenty-five years later," society, jan-feb. , http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/de-beauvoir/ /interview.htm. beauvoir, the second sex, . betty friedan, the feminine mystique, (new york: w. w. norton & company, ), . while her landmark book captures a particular type of feminism, it failed to articulate the troubles of those who had to work and balance children with little or no outside resources, or those who were unable, due to infertility, social restrictions, gender, or desire, to have children at all. in addition, friedan had little interest in the rights of the lgbt community, referring to lesbians as "the lavender menace." this question, "is this all?," helped spark and ground the feminist movements of the s and s. feminists challenged the social construction of traditional domestic roles and the social expectation of motherhood. accessibility to the birth-control pill helped women challenge these narratives. for the first time in history, motherhood was no longer an inevitable part of a women's life but rather a choice. fueled with newfound liberation, feminist artists, like chicago, rejected myths which regarded mothers as naturally self-sacrificing and passive. according to art historian julia bryan-wilson, "[second-wave] feminists sought to abolish conventional ideas of motherhood altogether.,, both the sanger m and wollstonecrajt runner indicates chicago's efforts to reject such conventions and to recode the maternal experience as one that is bonded, imprisoned, and life threatening. yet if revising maternal representation is chicago's agenda, it is buried by the insignificant size and placement of the image. given the tradition of mother-child imagery in art history, chicago's visual reduction indicates the low priority of representations of motherhood within her feminist agenda. the sanger m and wollstonecraft runner, when studied in detail, do reveal an effort to revise imagery of motherhood. yet, the inability to actually access these images indicates chicago's efforts to make invisible the experience of the mother from the history of women in general. as julia bryan-wilson, "lucy lippard's feminist labor," art workers: radical practices in the vietnam war (los angeles: university of california press, ), . explaining the power structure in which may women found themselves in the s, linda nocwin uses the same idea of imprisonment when she says, "women are often weakened by the internalized demands of the male-dominated society itself, as well as by a plethora of material goods and comforts: the middle-class woman has a great deal more to lose than her chains." in "why have there been no great women artists?" women, art and power and other essays (boulder, co: westview press, ), accessed september , http://www.miracosta.edu/home/gfloreninocwin.htm. feminist art historian andrea liss points out, "the mother remained a silent outcast for many feminists who strategically need[ed] to distance themselves from all that was culturally coded as passive, weak and irrational.,, within the history of women (at least the one constructed by chicago in the dinner party) the mother is "a silent outcast," an uninvited guest who is marginalized, ushered to the sidelines, and made invisible. kristeva's critique and the new guest theorist julia kristeva took second-wave feminists, such as chicago, to task for out casting motherhood. in , the same year chicago's the dinner party was first exhibited, kristeva asserted: now when feminism demands a new representation of femininity, it seeks to identify motherhood with that idealized misconception and, because it rejects the image and its misuse, feminism circumvents the real experience that the fantasy overshadows. the result? a negation or rejection of motherhood by some avant- garde feminist groups. in , kristeva again made a similar assertion, "[w]e have become the first civilization which lacks a discourse on the complexity of motherhood.,, for kristeva, feminist groups, like those associated with judy chicago in , had circumvented the real maternal experience. this lack of discourse on motherhood, according to kristeva, has left society with an unprecedented vacuum. however, kristeva, is not the only scholar to liss, feminist art and the maternal, xviii. julia kristeva, "stabat mater," the kristeva reader ed.toril moi (new york: colombia university press, ), . stabat mater, according to toril moi, was first published in tel quel in under the title "herethique de l'amour' which is a combination of the french word heretique which means heretic and ethique which means ethic. she later changed a portion of the text as well as the tile to stabat mater, latin for "stand mother," referencing the latin hymn regarding the agony of mary at the foot of the cross. in addition to exploring the trope of the virgin mary, the article includes personal poems or narratives regarding her own maternal experience. i kristeva, "motherhood today." notice feminism's reluctance to deal with motherhood as a subject. in , scholar adrienne rich explained in her book, of women born: motherhood as experience and institution, why she chose to explore motherhood, "because it was a crucial, still relative unexplored, area for feminist theory.,, although she originally received resistance from peers, she maintained that motherhood deserved exploration because of "the pressure on women to validate themselves in maternity.,, in , andrea liss repeats rich's words to justify the pressing significance of her book, feminist art and the maternal. she maintains that today within some circles feminism and motherhood remain at odds. like rich, liss points to the resistance she received from fellow feminist colleagues, who asserted that by examining motherhood, she was "risking reifying essentialism.,, if kristeva had visual access to chicago's representations of motherhood she may have not taken feminism to task for its failure to address motherhood. to her credit, chicago certainly does not abandon motherhood wholesale. in both the wollstonecraft runner and the sanger m chicago attempts to reframe motherhood outside of its long- standing legacy as constructed fantasy. the images seriously takes to task the corporeal cost of and the often-desperate economic or physical imprisonment caused by motherhood. while chicago's framing may be read as negative, this imbalance is adrienne rich, of woman born, . rich wrote this in the tenth-anniversary preface of of women born. rich originally wrote the book in , the same year she came out as a lesbian. ibid., . liss, feminist art and the maternal, xv. liss felt these comments were the most shocking because of the colleague's "refusal as a feminist to acknowledge the dilemmas involved in formulated a burgeoning philosophy of lived feminist motherhood." ibid. certainly the second-wave feminist artist, mary kelly, a contemporary of chicago, addressed motherhood through a rigorous scholarly investigation. her project, the post- partum document was created in - , the same year as both the dinner party and kristeva's "stabat mater." returning to kristeva's quote, it is important to note that she suggests that some, but not all, feminist groups negate motherhood. justified given the over indulgent idealism of past representations of motherhood. however, kristeva's comments in "stabat mater" seem particularly pointed towards chicago's apparent visual obliteration of motherhood in the dinner party. perhaps this is excusable. the overall project of the dinner party is an ambitious, if not problematic undertaking and certainly chicago could not within the scope of the project give adequate time to everything and everyone. yet for kristeva, chicago's circumvention of motherhood as subject leaves scholars (and mothers alike) without a satisfactory discourse regarding the complexity of the maternal experience. this desire for a discourse on motherhood framed by a (socially conscious) feminist theory is satisfied in the surrounding galleries at the sackler center for feminist art by the exhibition "global feminisms: new directions in contemporary art." curated by maura reilly and linda nochlin, "global feminisms" was designed to be a major survey of contemporary feminist work, focusing on work done by young feminist artists, born after . in addition, the exhibition was to assert a "new direction" in contemporary feminism abandoning the pitfalls of its second-wave counterpart. conscious of the critiques levied against chicago, nochlin and reilly say, " our understanding of feminist art is more flexible and open than that of the past.,, in fact, much of the agenda of "global feminisms" was to expand feminism as it was framed by the dinner party and chicago's feminism. deborah garwood, in an exhibition review, poignantly suggested "artists who show in the surrounding galleries take on the role of invited guests to an ongoing rielly and nochlin, global feminisms, . banquet.,, if "global feminisms" can be thought of as a guest to the dinner party, it is an unruly one. first, it interjects the maternal experience as a worthy feminist subject matter. four works deal directly with the lactating mother as subject: dutch photographer margi geerlinks's mothers , australian sculptor patricia piccinini's big mother ( ), catherine opie's self-portraitlnursing ( ), and kurdish conceptual artist canan senol's fountain ( ). further, the work of dayanita singh's mona ahmed ( - ), yurie nagashima's untitled ( ), mothers and fathers artist collective's mothers and fathers ( ), lenka klodova's winners ( ), elizbieta lablonska supermother ( ) and eat your heart out ( ) and hiroko okada's future plan # ( ) explicitly explore issues of parenthood, arriving at a variety of conclusions regarding the experience. these works do not work together to form a new definition of contemporary motherhood but rather explored the subject individually, manifesting their feminism based on personal experience and cultural influence. collectively, these works represent percent of the entire exhibition, a far cry from the two small images in chicago's dinner party. second, the exhibition introduces the idea of plural feminisms. for reilly and nochlin, multiple feminisms reframe feminist dialogue from its hegemonic position of addressing solely white, middle-class heterosexual issues and expand the discussion regarding gender, identity and the body in a pluralist sense. while distinct feminisms may contradict each other, maura reilly explains that this expansion challenges, "the deborah garwood and lara taubman, "roundtable deborah garwood and lara taubman discuss global feminisms: new directions in contemporary art with sandra sider," artcritical, accessed may , http://artcritical.com/sider/ssroundtable.htm. in addition, one could also make a case for oreet ashery's self-portrait as marcus fisher i ( ) as an image that explores the lactating breast. false assumption that all women share identical struggles. ,, she continues to explain, "in the plural, [feminisms] signify difference among feminists-not a consensus, but rather a multiplicity of point of view." such efforts at breaking away from consensus and introducing plural feminisms over unified ones and are direct reactions to the spatial and ideological dominance of chicago's the dinner party. at the opening reilly made an explicit effort to distance herself from chicago, saying that although "global feminisms" was placed around the dinner party, it had no formal relation to it other than that it was in the same space. ,, however, her latter comments from the same discussion acknowledge the tension between the two: i am not sure whether the work [the dinner party j will endanger future exhibits, but for 'out of the know' museum visitors there will always be a question of whether the dinner party is complicit with the changing exhibits ... i don't know that chicago's piece will always dominate in that space even though it is by nature dominating. the dinner party does create a context and a set of parameters by which to understand feminism, so it automatically creates a discourse to interpret the meaning of feminism and feminist visual art in that space. it might always cause imbalances that are conceptual, physical or historical, effecting aberrations that are interesting or problematic or both.,, reilly's use of words such as "imbalance," "endanger" "problematic" and "complicit" attest to the complicated relationship between the dinner party and the surrounding rielly and nochlin, . ibid., . the dominance of the piece was first discussed at the "global feminisms" opening symposium. displayed in a large black-walled, dramatically lit triangular room, the piece radiates out from plate to table to room, to gallery to the whole sackler center for feminist art, emanating and echoing its definitiveness as an essential feminist work through its essential central-core imagery. of this choice of display, maura reilly said, "i think that the curators have tried to separate chicago's work with unique lighting and installation techniques, but it may have made more sense if they had maintained the standard white box installation-dr in this instance-a triangle." garwood and taubman, "roundtable. " ibid. garwood and taubman, "roundtable." exhibition, "global feminisms." this spatial tension within the sadder center is indicative of a greater tension within feminism in general. her words, implicate the sadder center as a battleground for a variety of feminist narratives working either with or against the philosophies of the dinner party. certainly i am not suggesting that the "global feminisms" artists, such as those discussed in the following chapters, were students or followers of chicago. they were not, nor were their works in direct reference or a conscious reaction to the dinner party. yet, the popular success (or failure) of chicago's "masterpiece" was widely known. it is safe to say that the dinner party is emblematic of feminist art and to assume that the work would have been known to almost any artist working within a feminist agenda after . chicago's efforts, at least in terms of scale, although not necessarily in terms of context, minimized the impact of motherhood in women's lived experience. the dinner party's ideological dominance in feminist art practices is well documented and this sense of emblematic authority is replicated within the sackler center for feminist art. as a result, the inclusion of multiple representations of motherhood in "global feminisms" stands out. as new "guests" to the dinner party these collective artworks indicate new priorities in feminism today. in fact, "global feminisms" overall re-explores and re-navigates the once taboo territory of motherhood and alters the cannon of feminist art as narrowly defined by judy chicago. rather than tucking representations of motherhood into the margins of "global feminisms," the artists, such as those discussed in the following chapters, can be seen as elaborating on julia kristeva's call for a deeper, more scholarly investigation of the maternal experience. chapter madonna del latte: catherine opie and a discourse on maternal passion "the mother's body has been concealed in western religion, and to reveal her, changes religious belief." luce irigaray "i think [it's] probably hard for some people." s at least that's how catherine opie responded to a interview when asked why people found her work so shocking. yet, self-portraitlnursing ( ) is stylistically a typical representation of motherhood. opie and her son oliver stare lovingly into each other's eyes, united in a way that blurs the lines between self and other. this blurred boundary is reinforced through the action of breastfeeding. the infant suckles at his mother's breast, satisfying his hunger. he snuggles up to her body, folding his legs and arms into her, pushing his foot against her arm, his fist into her breast. visually, they represent an ideal interconnected union. photographing a tender, iconic moment between herself and her child, particularly in the act of breastfeeding, mimics the pervasive iconography of the madonna and child. such a reference is reinforced by the brocaded fabric in the background and the three-quarter s mel hogan, "interview with catherine opie," art threat, february , , http://artthreat.netl / /opie-in-ny-an-interview/. view of the pair. borrowing from the authority of the iconic madonna, opie is elevated to the status of ideal mother. despite this status, she explains, "i am not a young madonna and child. 'm a year old woman with a double chin and wrinkles, nursing my child.,, her age and body are not the only sites of disruption. she is a butch lesbian, with hairy armpits and cropped disheveled hair. her face is red, blotchy, and pock-marked. her large stretch- marked breasts divide and sag with the weight of milk. most significantly, she is completely naked. the word pervert carved across her chest, like a self-declared banner, brands opie's body as different, scarred with the reminders of self-mutilation. behind her is a drape of thick red fabric textured with regal brocaded designs. yet, the brocade tattoo on opie's right shoulder are emblems of alternative counter-culture, contradicting the regality typical of madonna representation. her identity functions as an anti- madonna. in fact, opie's entire physical appearance rejects the idealized mother she ostensibly stages through her use of iconic stylistic conventions. the image subverts the trope of the madonna by presenting opposition: covered/exposed, ideal/real, and religious/secular. using appropriation as a devise, opie molds the madonna and child catherine opie, "a evening with catherine opie" (presentation at out at the center series, the lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, transgendered community center, new york city, new york, march ), gaycenter.orglout. when opie first carved "pervert" across her chest, it was a politically motivated reaction to the cultural wars. see self-portrait/pervert ( ). in , she said, "when i made this piece it was really about what was happening in the country around jesse helms and all the stuff that was coming down about perversion. i wanted my identity to be hidden, but yet i would wear what people would call me on my chest, reclaiming it in the most elegant and beautiful way. there's a dual thing that happens in this self-portrait. because of the cutting and the needles, it shocks people." catherine opie, "catherine opie: american photographer," guggenheim museum, september , http://web.guggenheim.org/exhibitions/exhibition_pages/opie/exhibition.html. representation for her own needs. in doing so, she also calls the original iconography to task, exposing it as a construction and a fantasy that essentialized the complexity of the live experience of motherhood. to explore how opie challenges stereotypes about the maternal, i begin with a comparison to the late fifteenth-century virgo lactan image virgin with child by italian artist antonio boltraffio ( - ). appropriation, photography and parody are concepts used by opie to alter the meaning of the original iconic madonna and child rendering it open to deconstruction. opie's image asks us to see and accept her as butch and mother. turning to the writing of judith butler, i will explore the tension between essentialized and constructed identity. as opie deconstructs the iconic nursing madonna, she duplicitously stakes a claim for herself as a lesbian mother broadening the discourse on representations of motherhood. turning to the gesture of breastfeeding and the moralizing rhetoric regarding lactation as put forth by la leche league, the w orid heath organization, and the american pediatric association (among others), i suggest that opie uses breastfeeding to perform the quintessential act of the "good mother." a brief examination of the legal according to robert s. nelson, the latin etymological origin of the word appropriation means, "to make one's own." robert s. nelon, "appropriation," critical terms of art history ed. robert nelson and richard shiff (chicago: university of chicago, ), . it is right to concede that catherine opie's self-portraitlnursing is stylistically quite similar to chicago's sanger m. both challenge christian vocabulary in order to attack the abiding legacy of madonna imagery, to frame motherhood according to their own political agendas. both images are emblematic of their time. in fact, in terms of content, the sanger letter is quite complex, but the small and insignificant scale of the letter compared to the monumentality of the dinner party does not offer enough room to thoroughly explore the idea. it is perhaps not the image itself but rather the insignificance of size that acts as a type of maternal marginalization or at least maternal distancing typical of chicago style feminism. battles waged on gay rights draws out the civic and political implications of such an photograph. "good mothers" breastfeed and opie uses this gesture to a political end. opie's gesture can be linked to julia kristeva's scholarly examination of the virgin mary in her article "stabat mater" ( ). kristeva calls upon the virgin mary in two ways. first, she claims maternal representation should abandon the enduring ideal of virgin as the quintessential model of motherhood. secondly, kristeva advocates for a partial return to mariology. scholars should explore the drives that constitute maternal love. as kristeva explains, maternal love is terra incognito, which has been left unmapped and unexplored since the abandonment of mary. opie's fleshy and affectionate portrait and appropriation of the virgin can be interpreted as responding to kristeva's dual acceptance and rejection of the virgin as a model for motherhood. the renaissance madonna as foil because opie's self-portraitlnursing clearly draws from madonna visual iconographic vocabulary, it is helpful to point to an original renaissance depiction of mary as a point of comparison. o in giovanni antonio boltraffio's oil painting virgin with child, a virtuous young mother (as indicated by her halo) offers her left breast to her la leche league international, the womanly art of breastfeeding (ny: plume publishing, ), xiii. in a letter to the author, dated august , , catherine opie said, "there was no specific image i was working off of, just a general madonna dellatte feel." opie did not mimic boltraffio. acknowledging this, i choose to work with a specific madonna de latte image as a method that allowed a close formal comparison of similar stylistic choices. due to the realism of photography, the selection of a late renaissance painting, with its emphasize on naturalism, made a more logic choice. however, by the late fifteenth century, madonna dellatte images were less common and stylistically quite different than their fourteenth century counterpart. large healthy son. opie's hair is disheveled and her body blotchy, whereas boltraffio's virgin is luminescent. her carefully arranged hair is pulled tight and her long curls drape neatly down her back. while opie is naked, the madonna's body is shrouded in layers of cloth. a sheer scarf drapes around her neck, modestly covering her single exposed breast. as with self-portraitlnursing, the holy child's bent arm clutches and caresses his mother and her right arm tenderly cradles his foot. similarly, the background is draped with a regal green and gold fleur-de-lis cloth. she is an ideal rendered natural, focused not on the outside world, nor on the viewer who stares at her, but only at the baby at her breast. while opie does not point to this specific renaissance painting as the inspiration for her photograph, self-portraitlnursing does draw upon the long-standing history of madonna dellatte iconography. as devotional objects, each image, regardless of artist, has a shared set of conventions. the most common trope is the modest fully clothed virgin who offers one small exposed breast to a healthy and robust christ child. self- the modest madonna covered the maternal body. however, the realism of the fifteenth century proved slippery. the exposed breast, realistically rendered, could be viewed as erotic. yet, according to marilyn yalom, many artists explained this eroticism "as a sensual enjoyment ... to convey the ideal of spiritual nourishment." thus potential sexual response to the madonna heightened the intensity of devotion. marilyn yalom, "the sacred breast," a history o/the breast (new york: alfred a knopf, ): . fourteenth and early fifteenth century madonna dellatte images used an iconic vocabulary of the disembodied "signed breast" to depict the madonna in order to limit sexual responses to the exposed breast. turning to the writing of megan holmes, one learns that the "signed breast" was positioned unnaturally high and appeared detached from the body. megan holmes, "disrobing the virgin: the madonna lactans in fifteenth-century florentine art." picturing women in renaissance and baroque italy, ed. geraldine a. johnson and sara f matthews grieco, (cambridge: cup. ), . alison bartlett explains this conscious stylizing was a concerted effort to "balance the erotic and the devotional gaze." alison bartlett, "madonnas, models and maternity: icons of breastfeeding in the visual arts" (presentation at the performing motherhood: ideology, agency, experience conference, la trobe university, melbourne, australia, portraitlnursing appropriates similar conventions and by doing so performs the expected trope of the nursing virgin. her photograph draws upon the regal fabric backdrop, similar positioning of maternal arms, the same bent right leg, and the offering of the left breast. the virgin birth of christ followed by the incarnation also extends a significant link between the madonna and opie. as with mary's miraculous virgin pregnancy, opie's sexuality negates conception through intercourse. rather, like the virgin, opie's pregnancy was conceived through alternative fertility treatments, though catherine opie herself has not made any direct statements. with regards to opie's conception, psychoanalyst josefina ayerza asserts: she could be a virgin, you know, today there's many ways for a woman to become pregnant without going through sexual intercourse ... there are two levels here. whether directly through sexual intercourse or in a laboratory tube, in the biological, to make a woman pregnant, you need the sperm. ayerza claims that sperm, in her reading, functions as a type of holy ghost, a present but unseen power. using the terms of christian iconography, she suggests, "the holy spirit, a dove, makes the virgin [in this case, opie] pregnant.,, ayerza posits a reading of the image in terms of christian theological metaphors that are both performed and undermined. however, these christian metaphors and iconographic conventions are merely appropriated in self-portraitlnursing. in mythologies ( ), roland barthes addresses july - , .) see cindy sherman's untitled # and untitled # ( - ) for fost-modern examples of the signed breast. cathy lebowitz and josefina ayerza, "catherine opie: cathy lebowitz interviews josefina ayerza," lacanian ink (may ), accessed february , http://www.lacan.comilacinkxxvil .htm. ibid. the two ways appropriation affects representation. first, appropriation borrows only a portion of the original referent's authority and associated meaning. opie' s appropriation does this by taking on the iconic conventions, the gesture and the manner of the renaissance madonna and child. however, self-portraitlnursing maintains only a fragment of the original referent's meaning. this fragmented meaning is then transferred onto the new object and produces an entirely new cultural symbol. in the case of opie, her appropriation in not a replication of renaissance madonna dellatte images but rather enacts a new madonna. second, appropriation strips the original referent from its intended context, leaving it vulnerable to deconstruction. free from the dogma of religious context, opie's work exposes the renaissance madonna as a trope, leaving her open to revision. significantly, opie does not appropriate the medium by recreating this scene in a painting but instead she selected the medium of photography. photography is a mechanical process rooted in modernity that lends itself to countless reproductions and also offers realism. painting, at least for the renaissance madonna del latte artists, was a devotional practice akin to religious supplication. they created icons, images with transcendental properties of the holy mother. the technological medium of self- portraitlnursing severs the madonna from the religious sphere. drawing from a heritage of staged photography, the role of the madonna is performed and staged. while positing herself within the conventions of madonna dellatte, opie's image is vacant of the religious aura so present in renaissance painting. in a slick mechanical process, the photography has a long history in staging. in fact, all photography is a subjective construction of an image regardless of how objective the medium may seem. however, there seems to be a particular link here to cindy sherman whose large body of self- portraits deal directly with performing a variety of personas for a camera lens. madonna is not only secularized, but the icon is rendered vacant, removed from its religious value. in his seminal essay, "the work of art in the age ofits technological reproducibility," walter benjamin investigates this notion of photography as undermined medium. benjamin suggests that authentic artworks (meaning unique objects), like boltraffio's madonna and child, contain an aura. this aura endows art objects with a type of power, related to practices of rites, rituals and religious devotion. he writes: in even the most perfect reproductions, one thing is lacking: the here and now of the work of art-its unique existence in a particular place. it is this unique existence-and nothing else-that bears the mark of the history to which the work has been subject. ... the whole sphere of authenticity eludes technological ... reproduction. by using the medium of photography, opie unfixes her representation from the sacredness of devotional objects. while opie's performs the virgin, she does so vacantly, selectively referencing particular conventions but avoiding those associated with holiness. digital replication removes the self-portraitlnursing madonna from its iconic status. her efforts destabilize the myth of the ideal mother, or as described by kristeva the "ideal totality that no individual women could possibly embody.,, opie's nudity is also a disruption at the site of appropriation. according to luce irigaray, "the mother's body has been concealed in western religion, and to reveal her, walter benjamin, the work of art in the age of its technological reproducibility and other writings on media, eds. brigid doherty, michael w. jennings, and thomas y. levin (boston: belknap press of harvard university press, ), . julia kristeva, "stabat mater," . changes religious belief.,, for irigaray, maternal nudity reveals not an idealized form of essential, maternal femininity but rather a nonessentialized authentic body. if nudity changes religious beliefs, then it is a powerful tool capable of disrupting all maternal tropes from a fixed and frozen tradition. nudity reveals what is hidden. the naked opie demands that the viewer see her as she is. in a interview, opie says "i guess a lot of people can't accept the fact that a self- proclaimed pervert can actually be a mother who breastfeeds her baby, who has chickens, dogs and a farnily.,, opie's words, with a mixture of humor and pain, suggests the extent to which the gay community has been made suspect. in self-portrait/pervert from , she openly claims this "deviant" role by literally carving the word pervert on her body as a visual identifier of her socially labeled difference from normative behaviors. she uses her body as a platform to celebrate her non-normative identity. the choice to reveal her naked body exposes this lived duality: opie is both mother and pervert. she is scarred, raw, real and thus her nakedness challenges the idealism of the nursing virgin. opie appropriation of madonna dellatte can also be interpreted as parody, a devise rooted in an ironic criticism of its mirrored referent. while imitation can be a source of flattery, it can also be a site of satirical critique. lifted out of its original (religious) context, the imitating madonna exposes the constructed "naturalism" of the original, which is rendered flat. in gender trouble, judith butler explains parody as a mireille astore, the maternal abject. ma research paperldissertation, http://mireille.astore.id.au/mother/index.htmlofcourse,irigaray means christian religions. certainly many greek goddesses were nude. nudity, for the greeks, was a religious tool that conflated virtue with the perfect proportions of the female body. mel hogan and catherine opie, "opie in ny: an interview," art threat: culture and politics february , http://artthreat.netl / / pie-in-ny-an-interview/.in , tyler green called opie "artist, leather dyke, pta mom," in an article of the same title in black book progressive culture, spring , p. - , ills. practice that "serve[ s] to reengage and reconsolidate the very distinction between a privileged and naturalized gender configuration and one that appears as derived, fantasmatic and mimetic-a failed coy as it were.,, thus, according to butler, parody challenges the distinct boundaries between the original and its copy. reused and recontextualized, the pervasive madonna imagery is left open to ridicule. the parody in self-portraitlnursing reveals the false naturalism of the original; the madonna becomes a trope. again, judith butler's texts are helpful in articulating opie's stakes in gender construction. in her book, bodies that matter: on the discursive limits of sex, butler maintains, "gender formation is a continual and ongoing performance in which our bodies are rendered intelligible. in this respect, all gender is a copy for which there is no original, pre-given, essence.,, if gender has no essential origin, if it is unfixed as butler claims, then self-portraitlnursing can be understood as performative. opie acts out the role of madonna (as well as performing a butch identity), thus reframing the meaning of motherhood today. as butler explains, there is no "original, pre-given, essence" which defines motherhood. suggesting that a "true" or ideal motherhood exists is exclusionary to opie (among many others). rather, motherhood, like all identities according to butler, is an ongoing performance. in her gesture to expose the madonna, opie makes fluid the once fixed boundaries between gender and motherhood. she detaches the signifier from the fixed sign of motherhood. judith butler, gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity (new york: routledge, ), . rhonda shaw, "performing breastfeeding: embodiment, ethics and the maternal subject," feminist review: empirical interrogations: gender, 'race' and class ( ), . michele c. cone, "female troubles," artnet, may , , http://www.artnet.com/magazineus/features/cone/cone - - .asp. opie deconstructs representational standards that fix motherhood within a limited narrative. secondly, opie stakes a claim for her own lesbian identity and, her maternal body, in the legacy of maternal representation. the image asks us, quite literally, to see her as she is, both butch and mother. functionally, opie collapses the well-established trope of the mother as idealized, young and feminine. proposing the "good nursing mother appearance is not the only way one performs and constructs identities; actions do as well. yet scholars have said little about the gesture of breastfeeding in self- portrait/nursing. this oversight is significant due to the attention paid to breastfeeding by leading feminist psychoanalysts melanie klein and julia kristeva. in self- portrait/nursing opie uses the gesture of breastfeeding to perform the role of the good mother. in fact, breastfeeding has long garnered the attention of social theorists and current discourses from la leche league equate breastfeeding with "good mothering.,, as a gesture, it is a clear identifier of motherhood, manifested through a distinct bodily process. yet bodies are rarely neutral landscapes and as scholar katherine sutherland see melanie klein, "weaning," love, guilt, reparation and other works - (london: hogarth press, ) and julia kristeva, "stabat mater" and "revolution in poetic language" the kristeva reader, ed. toril moi (new york: columbia university press, ). rousseau's wrote in length about the importance of breastfeeding at a time when most aristocratic women, middle-class women and even his own wife (and mistress) did not breastfeed their children. in book i of emile, rousseau wrote, if "mothers deign to nurse their children, morals will reform themselves, nature's sentiments will be awakened in every heart, [and] the state will be re-peopled." notice the import rousseau places upon mothers, who must breastfeeding, in order to moralize and repopulate the state. interestingly, mary wollstonecraft in a vindication of the rights of women took rousseau to task for his views on women. see jean-jacques rousseau. emile, or on education, trans. allan bloom (new york: basic books, ), . suggests, "lactation and breastfeeding, like all bodily performances, are political.,, therefore, opie' s use of the breastfeeding gesture should be examined not just as an appropriation of madonna and child vocabulary but also as driven by political motivations. la leche league, the largest lactation support organization in the world, while aiming to celebrate the significance of the lactating breast, moralizes the gesture. the league's internationally published book, the womanly art of breastfeeding, states, "for many women, breastfeeding is a fulfillment of what it means to be a woman.,, this assessment problematically implies that maternity and breast milk define the essence of the gendered experience. la leche league also embraces the overly simplistic and problematic motto "good mothering through breastfeeding.,, so-called back-to-nature feminists have also asserted the significance of breast-milk, leading awareness campaigns and staging protests in public spaces with nurse-ins. in addition, the world health katherine sutherland, "of milk, miracles of milk and miracles: nursing, the life drive and subjectivity," frontiers: a journal of women studies , no. (omaha: university of nebraska press, ), . in a history of the breast, yalom maintains, "the rousseauist idea that woman was by nature a giving, loving, self-sacrificing, contingent creature was to form the basis 'for a new ideology of idealized motherhood." this rousseauist idea still maintains currency in today's dogmatic pro-breast-feeding literature. for a more comprehensive historical survey of the political and medicalized breast, see yalom, a history of the breast. la leche league, the womanly art of breastfeeding, . ib·d . i ., iv. in an interview with speigel magazine, badinter takes the trend of back-to-nature motherhood to task. she says, "they want women to breastfeed their children, saying this will protect the babies against allergies and asthma and protect the mother herself against breast cancer. they want us to use washable diapers because it's better for the environment ... this movement is ideologically driven and is leading us back into the eighteenth century, to jean-jacques rousseau and his model of the ideal mother." for more in-depth reading of elisabeth badinter's perspective on the back-to-nature movement, especially as it is tied to breastfeeding. see elisabeth badinter, "women organization advocates a philosophy of breast is best. o mothers today are more than ever assaulted with demands to breastfeed from a variety of sources. thus the breastfeeding body is shaped by moral and medical constructions that equate "good mothering" with act of breastfeeding. this action has specific political implications that are particularly important for opie, a los angeles-based artist. in , california was host to the highly controversial and polarizing debates over gay marriage. california's hotly debated proposition sought to legally define marriage as solely between a man and a woman. framed as pro-family, the often christian-based (but not exclusively) proponents of the proposition aren't chimpanzees," der spiegel magazine online international, , http://www.spiegel.de/internationallzeitgeistlo. , - , .htrnl the who official documents read, "the vast majority of mothers can and should breastfeed, just as the vast majority of infants can and should be breastfed. only under exceptional circumstances can a mother's milk be considered unsuitable for her infant." world health organization, global strategy for infant and young child feeding, (geneva, switzerland: world health organization and unicef, ), http://whqlibdoc.who.intlpublicationsi / .pdf. similarly, the american academy of pediatrics states, "extensive research using improved epidemiologic methods and modem laboratory techniques documents diverse and compelling advantages for infants, mothers, families, and society from breastfeeding and use of human milk for infant feeding. these advantages include health, nutritional, immunologic, developmental, psychological, social, economic, and environmental benefits." gartner lm, et al. "breastfeeding and the use of human milk [policy statement]" pediatrics , no. ( ). in , california proposition altered a section of the family code, which read, "only marriage between a man and a woman is valid or recognized in california." it was quickly invalidated by the california courts, which declared that same-sex couples had a constitutional right to marry. this over turned bill led to more public debate nation wide regarding gay marital rights. proposition , from the election, using the same exact verbiage of proposition , overturned the courts ruling and added a new section ( . ) to article i of the california constitution, declaring marriage only between a man and a woman. as of august , , legislation based on defining marriage between a man and a woman was overturned again by california judicial system. see william n. eskridge and darren r. spedale, gay marriage: for better or for worse: what we've learned from the evidence (cambridge: oxford university press, ). saw their efforts as defending a traditional, religious and sacred institution. the risk involved in expanding the definition of marriage and family, for them, was a tectonic shift, affecting the overall structure of society [and as roland barthes postulates in mythologies, to forever separate the sign of marriage from its original association between man and wife]. those opposed felt the bill illegitimatized a basic legal right for homosexuals. proposition was interpreted as hate-based legislation, designed to restrict gay rights, which legally should have been protected as a constitutional right. further, anti-proposition advocates felt that much of the political campaigning villainized the homosexual community, labeling them as deviant and unfit for child rearing. of this suspicion, opie said: "right, because we're [the gay community] not supposed to have children, don't you know that? we're going to do bad things to our children (laughter), like breast-feed them, and make sure that they're allowed to wear tutus if they want to wear tutus. goddarnrnit, don't you know that he should have a football in his hand!?!" self-portraitlnursing clearly is given new impetus by these debates. her performance as the virgin mother utilizes the moralizing "good mother" gesture as a concerted counter attack on traditional christian values, which define maternity and affix gender roles to the exclusion of others. as an image, it is not simply deconstructing the trope of the virgin mary. rather, it is an aggressive project with personal and political implications, one that seeks to make room for new models of motherhood. opie' s self- portraitlnursing engages a new kind of feminism that seeks to legitimize motherhood for lesbians. feminist scholar linda blum situates the necessity of opie's gesture within a larger crisis of motherhood. in her article "mothers, babies, and breastfeeding in late opie, art threat. see also catherine opie, oliver in a tutu, . capitalist america: the shifting context of feminist theory" she says: feminist scholars, particularly women of color and lesbian activists, began to realize that the right to bear and raise children without sacrificing one's health, one's sanity, or one's job, and without having to be a man's wife, will be a much more difficult right to gain than was the right not to have a child. much like chicago's sanger m, which emblematically sought for women's reproductive rights, opie's self-portraitlnursing advocates for her rights to motherhood. implicitly tied to opie's investment in the political battles over the rights to bear and raise children is her personal desire to have child. in fact, a central theme in opie's practice is her search for family, or at least community life. both self-portrait/cutting and her collection of photographs entitled domestic ( ) reflect a desire and a longing for lesbian domestic life. in an interview with maura rielly, opie says: i wanted to focus on the idea of community, the individuals within that community and how communities are formed .... many of the images are suffused with longing. a lot of this is about my own desire. i've never really had a successful domestic relationship. i've always wanted one. so, in the domestic series, i was traveling around trying to figure out what it was all about. i think i learned a lot. mostly, i realized that the lesbian domestic couple doesn't necessarily have to be based on the heterosexual mode . returning to self-portraitlnursing, one can see this longing and desire fulfilled for opie. it is, after all, a very passionate portrait of the artist with her child, infused with palpably tender mutual affection. she hugs and holds her son with a fervor that borders on pain. by representing the intensity of her love for her child, by cradling him, and mutually caressing each other's skin, opie engages a feminist discourse regarding the representation of maternal passion. certainly, there are political implications at work for linda blum, "mothers, babies, and breastfeeding in late capitalist america: the shifting contexts of feminist theory," feminist studies , no. (women's bodies and the state summer ), . maura rielly, "the drive to describe: an interview with catherine opie," art journal , no. (summer, ): . opie as she set out to deconstruct the virgin as an idyllic (but unreachable) model for perfect motherhood. however, i find power in opie's use of the iconic madonna, not only in its ability to parody and ridicule a false naturalism but also because the appropriation allows for a (returning) discourse on the depth of maternal love. among scholarly contributions to the theories on maternal love, the writings of julia kristeva loom large. in the article "stabat mater," translated as "stand mother," she references the agony of the standing virgin, grieving at the foot of the cross. kristeva defends or at least suggests that the value in the cult of the virgin is that it offers a discourse regarding the intensity of maternal love, which is so often coupled with fear and loss. kristeva asserts that maternal love is not only based on a primal instinctual drive to maintain the survival of ones' off-spring but rather, it is what psychoanalyst janna malamud smith calls, quoting euripides, "a potent spell.,, maternal love is a spell, which embodies both intense passionate attachment and visceral anxiety. kristeva explains that such a love, or a spell, is "a surge of subdued anguish.,, later, in the same essay, she refers to maternal love as, "suffering lined with jubilation.,, similarly, psychoanalyst jacques lacan explored this idea of maternal love. summarizing lacan, the essay largely offers a history of the virgin mary, explaining the various psychological functions she serves. since the scope and direction of this paper is primarily art historical and not psychoanalytical, i will limited my brief comments to her statements regarding maternal passion and its associated representation because they help to inform the vexing problem of opie and her return to idyllic mothering representation. janna malamud smith, a potent spell: motherlove and the power of fear (new york: houghton mufflin, ), . kristeva, "stabat mater," . ibid., . kristeva is clearly informed by lacan and has spent time negotiating and revising lacanian theory. lacan and kristeva differ in terms of the derivation of language. lacan gives the symbolic order (meaning the development of language and culture) to the father while kristeva maintains that language is first fueled by the semiotic, which is a first griselda pollock (while discussing the similar effect of this jubilant anxiety in mary cassatt's work) explains, "both mother and child experience a pleasure so intense and unnamable it is almost akin to suffering. [lacan's] term for this is jouissance." much of our psychic drives are set on recovering this original stage, what lacan calls the stage of the "real." but it is a doomed search, because, as pollock explains, "the voice, the touch and the gaze which once functioned as an enveloping, life-sustaining embrace" has been imagined as an actual fusion with the maternal body and of which the child forever seeks but can never return. in and again in , julia kristeva suggested that there was a paucity of representations that address maternal passion as a result of the feminist artist's abandonment of mariological imagery. yet, catherine opie' s self-portraitlnursing renders motherhood politically engaged and passion infused. of the photograph, andrea liss says, "it is without question one of the most powerful and magnificent contemporary photographic images of mother and child.,, for liss, whom opie's photograph garners the coveted front cover of her book feminist art and the maternal, opie's transgressive identity provides a new iconic and complex cover girl for modem motherhood. yet, some critics take self-portraitlnursing to task for packaging motherhood in the same idealized mother-child dyadic rhetoric of past centuries, from which judy chicago worked so hard break free. while other critics may point to a variety of similar language (that borders between nature and culture), which originating from the mother. for the scope of this chapter, i felt is best to simplify the discussion and focus solely on their joint contribution to a discourse on maternal passion. griselda pollock, mary cassatt: painter of modern women (london: thames and hudson, ), . ibid. liss, feminist art and the maternal, . appropriations of the madonna and label the work unoriginal or simply repetitive. in fact, art history survey texts are filled with a long tradition of famous artworks, which appropriate the iconic virgin for ulterior, and most often political, motives. appropriating mariological vocabulary as a short hand model for "good mothering" and as a tool for politics is certainly not novel. to these critics, i concede that there is a contradiction in opie's image and especially in opie's gesture of idyllic breastfeeding that make it difficult to navigate. while the image may prove to be an emblematic symbol of twenty-first century motherhood, it may, with time, be taken to task, much like chicago's the dinner party, for what may be viewed as its stereotypical singularity and simplistic approach to a complex paradigm that abandons difference and trends towards neutralization. but perhaps the effectiveness of catherine opie's self-portraitlnursing lies in the ambiguity of its meanings, in her rejection and her embrace of the virgin, and the contradictions encapsulated by the image itself. as to the future, it is difficult to stake a claim. perceptions of motherhood, once unfixed, remain dynamic and unclear. during the hay-day of virgo lactans, jean fouquet's madonna and child ( ) provocatively depicts agnes sorel, the mistress of the french king charles vii, as both the queen of heaven and the nursing madonna. such repositioning elevates sorel beyond the courts of france and raises her to the crowning courts of heaven. in the mid- sixteenth century, queen elizabeth i donned the label of the "virgin queen" and in the th century, louise elisabeth vi gee le brun depicted marie-antoinette, the consummate mother, nursing her children so as to counter rumors regarding her immorality and excessiveness. similarly, yosuke yamahata, a photojournalist employed by the japanese government, pictures of the nagasaki victims show a traumatized women nursing her wounded infant to indicate the degree of trauma to political ends. chapter conceptu alizing mll..k: the semiotics of canan senol's fountain "dripping water hollows out stone, not through force but through persistence." -ovid ......... plick ........ . ... . ... plick . . .. .. . .. . .... . . .. plick. the sound of a dripping faucet has a rhythmic quality. it makes audible the mundane by mimicking a clock, ticking off the minutes of time. dripping is used as a filmic device in canan senol's second looped video fountain ( ). the slow leaking sound in the installation amplifies the silence. the source of the sound, however, is not a faucet, but two large breasts hanging full of milk. engorged, the nipples slowly bud and swell. the swelling creates suspense. listening one waits and anticipates the forthcoming syncopated drop. the sound of the leaky milk is disturbingly loud, especially within the reverent silence of a museum. heavy, fleshy and bright white, the breasts are isolated and framed like a portrait against an understated blue cloth. filling the picture frame, the breasts hang udder-like, fragmented from the maternal body. violent and jarring, the fragmentation emphasizes the absent maternal body. this creates an eerie and uncanny effect as the color of the film flickers, occasionally reverting to black and white and then back to full color again. also captured are the slight movements of the maternal body absent but implied. rhythmically, the breasts move up and down. like a puppet on a string, their movement references the ghostly breathing body from which they sprang. the leaking, fragmented breasts, as seen in senoi's video, make absence present. yet, what are the implications of fragmenting the maternal body? the following case study explores the devise of disembodiment in senol' s fountain as a recoding of the maternal breast as a phallic signifier of power. returning to the dinner party as a point of comparison, i pay special attention to chicago's infamous plates, in particular the margaret sanger plate. by comparing chicago's central core imagery with the breasts in senoi's fountain, i discuss the implications of bodily fragmentation. both artists use fragmented genitals as a part that stands in for a whole, albeit to different ends. i then tum my attention to the concept of fountain, which is inherent in senoi's work through both title and subject matter. i examine senoi's citation (and inversion) of duchamp's fountain ( ) and her reference to serkan orkaya's artist as fountain ( ). in recalling these works, senol makes reference to the phallus as a signifier of privilege and power. such references code the maternal breast as embodying the authority of the phallic signifier and in doing so the work can be seen as reordering power structures. i close the chapter with a close reading of julia kristeva's "revolution in poetic language" and examine the sonic quality of fountain as revelatory of kristeva's theories on semiotics. ultimately, like opie's self-portraitlnursing, senol's fountain re- contextualizes the maternal breast through lactation, fragmentation, and appropriation of art historical references, which undermine existing power structures. such practices highlight complications in feminist representations of motherhood and attempt to answer kristeva's call, as laid out in the introduction, for a more complex exploration of the maternal experience. the part for the whole: fragmented breasts and central-core imagery judy chicago's the dinner party margaret sanger plate ( ) is a deep red glazed ceramic plate. the elongated diamond center with four labia-like wings suggests the vagina. according to chicago, the red hue of the sanger plate was selected so as to serve "as a reminder of the bloodshed of many women who died during childbirth or as a result of illegal and unsafe abortions.,, images that exclusively focused on female genitalia were dubbed "central-core imagery" in s feminist practices. explaining the purported goal of such imagery, chicago stated: [t]o be a woman is to be an object of contempt, and the vagina, stamp of femaleness, is devalued. the woman artist, seeing herself as loathed, takes that very mark of her otherness and by asserting it as the hallmark of her iconography, establishes a vehicle by which to state the truth and beauty of her identity. in other words, chicago embraces the imagery of the vagina and elevates it as trademark of her identity, celebrating her mark of otherness. chicago uses vaginal representation in its fragmented state to tout female power and to celebrate a mark of otherness as a way chicago, the dinner party, . chicago points specifically to the red sangrias butterfly as point of reference for the sanger plate. chicago, "margaret sanger," brooklyn museum: sackler center for feminist art, http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/dinnecparty/place_settings/margarecsanger.ph judy chicago, the dinner party: from creation to preservation (new york: merrell publishers, ): . judy chicago and miriam schapiro, "female imagery," womanspace journal ( ), . this practice is similar to the gay community use of the derogatory term "queer" as a celebrated identifier. to counteract the long-standing devaluation of women. not exclusively sexual, the vagina was to be seen as an icon for one's entire identity and as a symbol of unity among other women. the task of central core imagery was, for chicago, "not the flesh painted by a male painter" but rather a particularly female gesture that was liberated from the shackles of male-dominated representation that objectified the female body. faith wilding, another s feminist who worked closely with chicago, explains central-core imagery this way: there's lots of vagina in our work, but it is not about vaginas. rather, we are inventing a new form language [that] radiates a female power. ... these images are universal, for they are about being a human body in the world ... a holy body. thus, the vagina, as a symbol of the real (and sacred) human body, became a symbol of women's liberation rather than an object of shame. yet, senol's isolation of the breast only partially draws from s central-core imagery conceptual philosophy. first, chicago saw the fragmented vagina as an icon of female power, which articulates a universal (and divine) female essence. yet, there is no conceptual indication that the fragmented breasts in senol's fountain are symbolic of a universal womanhood. secondly, while chicago uses the vagina to celebrate the liberation of female sexuality, senol uses the fragmentation to disassociate the breast hannah wilke, marlene mccarty, lauren lesko, carolee schneemann, judy bamber, and miriam schapiro, among others, also explore central core images to investigate the female body. sometimes called cunt art, this collective practice has been seen as some of the most controversial of all feminist art practices. see joanna frueh, "vaginal aesthetics," hypatia , no (november ), - . sexuality certainly was a theme of the vagina art of chicago. she advocated for women to stake a claim in their own sexuality and liberate themselves through such technological advancements as the pill, which would bring on a sexual revolution. judy chicago, the dinner party, . jones, sexual politics, . judy chicago, brooklyn museum. from pervasive sexual connotations. in an interview, senol explains that through fragmentation, the breast ceases to be a sexualized object. stripped of the female body, the breasts in senol's fountain are no longer linked to sexuality. further, in fountain, senol claims that the fragmentation "dismantle[s] the cliche of the sacrificing mother image ... rendering the image devoid of the holy mother concept." thus, the removal of the female body also disassociates the lactating breast from the divine or the well-established iconography of the madonna. such theories assert that fragmentation removes the female body from the loaded signifiers often associated with it. this may be true; however, the close cropping of the breasts in senol's fountain severs the body in a violent act akin to castration. yet, the memory of the erased body remains. the missing whole maternal body, even in its violent absence, implies an invisible presence. the breasts move up and down, rendering the breathing body present. to borrow the words of french art historian jacqueline lichtenstein, "the fragment is defined in terms of both presence and absence. it is something in itself. .. but [it] is also perceived as a sign, an index of a something missing.,, so while the breasts themselves function as fountains and sources of life, they also duplicitously signal a loss-the castrated maternal body from which they sprang. canan senol, email interview with laura hurtado, trans. yeliz lambson, june . canan senol stated, "as the body is concealed, "breast" is both stripped of its object of desire condition and is rendered devoid of the "holy mother" concept." senol, email interview. in no means am i suggesting a type of scapegoat in chicago, but rather i am making clear that senol' s work and her associated writing suggests little about the breast as a universal icon. jacqueline lichtenstein, "the fragment: elements of a definition," the fragment: elements of a definition, ed. william tronzo (los angeles: getty publications), . fragmented breasts, as sources of life, also share a heritage with fertility goddesses while fragmentation signals loss, both senol's fountain and chicago's the dinner party plates also evoke the bounty of being fed. regarding chicago's plates, laura meyer points out that the vocabulary of [the dinner party] was "contained within domesticity [on plates] and that the central-core image was 'served and ready to be consumed.,, food has multiple meanings. on one hand, eating is linked to the domestic sphere but on the other hand, eating also suggests oral sex. similarly, lactating breasts in fountain, like the dinner party plates, makes reference to feeding. the lactating breasts swell and drip with milk. however, senoi's fountain is not a breastfeeding image. in fact, the image includes only the lactating breast. the infant, who suckles upon the breast, is nowhere to be found. the milk drips into a void rather than a mouth. the image, while suggesting a meal, disrupts the traditional give and take characteristic of breast feeding, through lack of a recipient. ultimately, fountain isolates . the lactating breast from both the maternal body and its anticipated function. this who were depicted through exaggerated, fragmented and swollen genital organs. senoi's other self-portrait, from the same year as fountain, is entitled kybele ( ). kybele depicts senol as a powerful, nude woman, seated on a white plaster mountain with a swollen pregnant belly, large breast and expanded hips. the plaster mountain suggests a sculptural quality and the title refers to the anatolian (modem-day turkey) mountain goddess closely associated with caves, fertility and cycle of re-birth. the fertility goddess interpretation associates the female body with primitive fetishes. senol asserts that the work was motivated by her childbirth experience that was "on one hand miraculous and on the other hand a natural and ordinary process of fertility and the functioning of the body in this respect." senol, email interview. see lynn emrich roller, in search of god the mother: the cult of anatolian cybele (berkeley: university of california press, ). meyer as quoted in sexual politics, . sexual responses have been associated with nursing as a mutually gratifying experience and melanie klein describes the nursing pleasure as emerging from a sexualized orifice. klein said, "this gratification is an essential part of the child's sexuality ... pleasure is experienced also when the warm stream of milk runs down the throat and fills the stomach." klein, "weaning," . however, the sexualities at stake for chicago and for senol are ostensibly different especially because there is no one feasting upon the breast. disruption unfixes lactation from the assumed emotional link between the nursing mother and the hungry infant so well established in judy chicago's sanger m, opie's self- portrait/nursing and in the iconic madonna dellatte representations. i \ phallic breast: signifier of power no longer is the lactating breast about performing the "good mothering" through breastfeeding. the purpose of the maternal breast in fountain is, according to senol, "to indicate a bodily process as a source of life." ii i however, i purport to rethink senol's claim. if fountain indicates a bodily process as a "source of life," this reading frames the artwork as a nouveau-fertility icon, which narrows the project (and the maternal body) as essentialist and universal. rather, i argue that it is more accurate to suggest that fountain indicates the maternal breast as a signifier of power. in her negation of the breastfeeding relationship, the breast becomes phallic, the privileged signifier. this reading is supported by formal elements; no longer are the maternal breasts soft and supple but rather, the lactating breasts are hard with engorgement and spurting with milk like unto a phallus. for art historian craig owens the phallus is "the signifier of privilege, of power and of prestige." i from ecrits, famed psychoanalyst jacques lacan writes, "the phallus is the privileged signifier."l thus, the fragmented engorged maternal breasts in senol's fountain frame the maternal body as signifier of power. does framing the maternal breast as phallus implicitly deny the female body? no, senol, email interview. iii senol email interview. craig owens in "representation, appropriation and power," art in america , no. (may, ), . l jacques lacan, "the signification of the phallus," ecrits: a selection (new york: w. w. norton, ), . according to lacan, who negates gendered readings of the phallus by maintaining that it is not an object and is "even less the organ, penis or clitoris, which it symbolizes." i lacan is clear that the "phallus" is only a symbol of power and should not be misread as the masculine penis. if one believes lacan, the phallic breast in fountain does not transform the gender of the maternal body into a male penis. rather, the lactating breast is depicted as phallic so as to be indentified as a source of power. it reorders structures of ·· pnvi ege. the writings of melanie klein are useful in investigating this issue further. klein's theories position the supremacy of the breast as the original object of desire and the locus of all fantasies in contrast to freud's theories regarding the centrality of the penis. in weaning, klein writes: the first gratification which the child derives from the external world is the satisfaction experienced in being fed .... the object of all these fantasies is, to begin with, the breast of the mother.,, from the beginning, the mother's breast plays a central role in human desire. hal foster explains it this way, "the milk is the object of need, the breast is the object of desire, the first such object for everyone." jane gallop, "reading the phallus," reading lacan (new york: cornell university press, ), . yet ellie ragland-sullivan, among others, addresses the potential misreading of phallus or at least a conflation of meanings. she explains that even though the lacanian phallus does not refer to the biological organ, "the penile part object and the phallic differential function are confused in language." such confusion seems implicit in the word itself, which is not only male in gender (in french) but also masculine by association. in fact, it can be difficult to accept lacan's assertion regarding the gender neutrality of the phallus because the physical attributes of the phallus symbol are derivative of the masculine organ. ellie ragland-sullivan, "jacques lacan: feminism and the problem of gender identity," substance ( ): . see sigmund freud, "on narcissism," the freud reader, ed. peter gay (new york: w.w. norton and co., ). melanie klein, "weaning," selected melanie klein, . hal foster, "an art of missing parts," october ( ): - . as such, maternal breast is the first external object of all human desire. for klein, primal emotions such as envy and gratitude develop out of ones access to the lactating breast. the 'good breast' feeds, the 'bad breast' denies. such first emotions impact the adult psyche, according to klein, because they are rooted fundamentally in instincts of life and death. upon weaning, the maternal breast is castrated from the infant. severed and lost, the maternal breast remains the first primal object of all desire. klein continues to explain that, "under the dominance of oral desires, the penis is strongly equated with the breast and in my experience penis envy can be traced back to envy of the mother's breast.,, the breast is not an archetype of the penis as the freudian oral theory suggests. rather, a theoretical desire for the penis, according to klein, is a conflation of the original longing for the mother's breast. klein's theories dismiss the supremacy of the penis as the object of primary desire (as posited by freud) and position the (lactating) breast as the ultimate privileged signifier. thus, penis envy is replaced by breast envy. despite the asserted gendered neutrality of the phallus as asserted by lacan, phallic breasts do conflate, or at least make ambiguous, gender signifiers. the conflation of masculine and feminine signifiers is a strategy i also locate in duchamp's fountain of , from which senol's work takes its name.l duchamp's fountain as a urinal has an industrial use, which is gendered masculine. yet its melanie klein, "a study of envy and gratitude," selected melanie klein, ed. juliet mitchell (new york: the free press, ), . of course, there have been many revisions of marcel duchamp's fountain such as sherrie lavine's and bruce nauman's to name a few. it should be mentioned that duchamp himself authorized reproductions of fountain that question the notion of authenticity in his work. authenticity is a central issue that was contested by duchamp' s fountain. however, it is not a central theme of senol's fountain. as such, i have spent little time addressing it in the scope of this chapter. triangular shape was quickly read as feminine. according to art historian daniele perrier described duchamp's fountain as a "lifeless ceramic bowl, which becomes a fountain only through its male spurt." more importantly, a feminine form emerges in alfred stieglitz's photograph of duchamp's urinal. stieglitz, according to fellow artist beatrice wood, "took great pains with lighting, and did it with such skill that a shadow fell across the urinal suggesting a veil [of the virgin]. the piece was renamed: "madonna of the bathroom.,, ironically, once duchamp's fountain is rendered feminine, it becomes virginal, even if the object is simply a toilet. yet, the anatomical implication in duchamp's fountain is the penis. rather than ejaculating sperm, its phallic secretions are urine. a urinal is a repository of the abject, for masculine bodily waste. as julia kristeva explains, abject fluid, such as urine, "involves ... the defiling, impure, uncontrollable materiality of a subject's embodied existence.,, duchamp's fountain implicates the penis with corporeal impurity. however, senol's fountain differs from duchamp's. her fluid is not "defiling or impure" but is milk the primal object of need. but duchamp is not senoi's only point of reference in exploring the phallus as a william camfield, marcel duchamp, fountain (houston, tx: menil collection, ), . according to historian william camfield, as early as april , , fountain started to receive feminine associations by beatrice wood, van vechten and alfred stieglitz possibly at the encouragement of duchamp. ibid. daniele perrier, "canan senol: once upon a time" n.paradox: international feminist art journal , no. (june /jan ), accessed december , http://web.ukonline.co.uk/n.paradoxa/perrier.htm. it is unclear who gave the new title to the piece. apparently, duchamp was at the stieglitz photo shoot. however, wood's account does not give credit to either artist specifically for this re-reading. see louise norton, "buddha of the bathroom," blind man, accessed august , https://www.msu.edu/courselha/ l uisenorton.pdf julia kriteva, the power of horror: an essay on the abject, trans. leon s. roudiez (new york: columbia university press, ). signifier of power. in my interview with the artist, senol said that a turkish photograph referencing duchamp by serkan orkaya was her original point of reference. orkaya's artist as fountain ( ), according to senol, provoked her. completed one year before senol's fountain, the photograph shows a fully dressed orkaya sitting in front of a red curtain suggestive of both boltraffio's virgin and child and opie's self-portraitlnursing. dramatic lighting enters from the right side windows mimicking the external "divine light" most often found in famous western baroque paintings. he looks out the window, smiles awkwardly while holding onto the head of a woman who kneels down, as senol explains, "to feed on [his] penis."l s however, senol description is a misread. the actual physical penis is unseen. rather it is the artist himself who is stands in as the symbolic phallus, as the signifier of creative power. he is the artist as genius, inspired by divine light. while it may simply be a sexual act of mutual gratification there is an implicit power position of the subordinated women literally bowing to the phallus and suckling it. in a curious reversal of gendered symbols, here the woman feasts upon the male artist. while some might read the image as explicit or misogynistic, scholar koen brams insists that orkaya' s artist as fountain is both a "reclamation [of ducharnp] and a ridiculous joke.,, for brams, artist as fountain deconstructs and critiques "the western artist as creator whose expressions and secretions are all spouting from his masculine penis.,, in its extreme, orkaya's photograph ridicules the dubious myth of the western artist as genius. brams' s reading of the image as a satire is convincing, yet it is difficult senol email interview. koen brarns, it's not what it looks like! i can explain (istanbul, baglam publishing house, ), pdf, e-book sent to the author from the artist. ibid. to interpret orkaya's artist as fountain as an image invested in revealing the exclusion and marginalization of the female subject. perhaps, this exclusion provocatively reinforces what roslyn deutsche calls, "masculinist positions of social authority" and embodies this authority in a male figure. in contrast to orkaya, the breasts, in senol's fountain, claim the position of social authority for the maternal subject. the lactating breast is not only powerful, privileged, and phallic but it is also the primal object of desire and the center of oral fixation. further, the reference to duchamp draws out its feminization and contrasts it with the phallic breasts in senol's revision of fountain. duchamp's symbolic language is associated with a passive function by emphasizing it nature as an object designed to receive. yet, senol's spouting phallic breasts give the maternal body the authority and the (masculine) vocabulary to speak. the sonic quality of dripping milk according to lacan, language is an order of laws, signs and symbols established by the father. thus, the ability to speak and to participate in culture is dictated by phallic privilege. alluding to christian scripture, lacan posits language as an order of symbols, which develops out of the name-of-the-father. o designating language the symbolic order, lacan says, "it is in the name-of-the-father that we must recognize the basis of the symbolic function, which since the dawn of historical time has identified his person with deutsche, . koen brams, it's not what it looks like! i can explain (istanbul, baglam publishing house, ), pdf, e-book sent to the author from the artist. lacan's comments here reference john : which states: in the beginning was the word, and the word was with god, and the word was god. the holy bible. salt lake city, utah: church of jesus christ of latter-day saints, . the figure of the law."l l if in the beginning was the word, the origins of expressions that establish linguistic structure (and thus social law) begin with the masculine. implicit in lacan's assertion is the negation of the mother as a contributor to linguistic development. in order to speak, the father must replace the mother. similar to klein's reversal of penis envy into breast envy, julia kristeva challenges lacanian theory, positing that language originates from the maternal body. in light of lacanian theory, the auditory element of senol's fountain as the voice of the piece (as the voice of the maternal body) is significant. senol's fountain speaks. the milk has a voice. this voice is disruptive, especially within the quiet context of the sackler center galleries. in a review of "global feminisms" entitled "breast intentions," art critic linda camhi opens her critique by saying, "something was dripping in the first rooms of "global feminisms".,, the reviewer wanders the galleries searching for the culprit. when found, she says, "its source: pendulous breasts leak milk ad infinitum.,, this review points to the resonating quality of senol's fountain. it echoes and disrupts the viewing space. as a work of art, it does not allow for passive viewing but rather enters your space, your eyes, your ears, and your body, drawing you to locate it spatially, to discover the voice. katherine sutherland, in her article "of milk, miracles of milk and miracles: nursing, the life drive and subjectivity," says, '''express' means 'to squeeze out'; it is a ' lacan, ecrits, . malcolm bowie, lacan (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ), . linda camhi, "breast intensions: the brooklyn museum surveys the world's female artists," village voice (apr ), accessed february , http://www.villagevoice.coml - - /art/breast -intentions/. ibid. metaphor for speech but applies literally to lactation.,, for sutherland, lactation as a type of communication is already prescribed within the existing language. one expresses words and one expresses milk. according to webster's dictionary, "express," as it is used in language, is a mode of speech that is "direct, firmly or explicitly stated.,, sutherland's comments suggest that milk is an expression of language, explicitly stated. as such, it is a maternal language preexisting before the symbolic order. given this analogy to milk, i interpret senol's work as a disruption to lacan's assertion that language is solely derived from the father. the concept of milk as a metaphor for speech undermines lac an 's patriarchal structure of language acquisition. rethinking language development as posited by lacan, julia kristeva suggests a prelinguistic communication called chora. chora is not associated with signs and signifiers typical of the language developed in the symbolic order. rather, it is a preverbal function, tonal, rhythmic, and according to kristeva's writings in "revolution in poetic language" is "nourishing and maternal.,, the term asserts that words rather sounds have the potential to communicate. chora is, as kristeva suggests, a "vocal and kinetic rhythm" which is not simply random or meaningless but a "concrete operation" that "precedes the acquisition oflanguage.,, further, the chora is a method of communication that arises from lacan' s stage of the "real," inside the sutherland, "of milk, miracles of milk and miracles," . merriam-webster dictionary, express, http://www.merriam- webster.comldictionary/express (august ). \ similar to mary kelly's post partum document which explores language development and the infant's transition to the symbolic order and his entrance into the "name of the father" by ultimately rejecting the mother as no longer necessary. julia kristeva, "revolution in poetic language," the kristeva reader ed. toril moi (new york: columbia university, ), . ibid., . maternal womb. thus, the ability to speak arises from the maternal body rather than against it. the chora is a fluid rhythm of motion that fuels or gives content to the symbolic order. one might think of this in terms of senol's work where the vocal (yet not linguistic) arrhythmic dripping has a voice that disrupts the silence of the gallery space. rather than fully rejecting lacan's symbolic order, kristeva's theory of language acquisition claims the development of language and the ability to speak is more nuanced. for kristeva, language developed through both a female chora and a masculine symbolic order. as philosopher kelly oliver explains, "the symbolic order is what makes reference possible. for example, words have referential meaning because of the symbolic structure of language.,, yet such symbols are fueled by the first linguistic development of the chora. oliver emphasizes that "without the symbolic all [language] would be babble. but without the [chora] all signification would be empty.,, kristeva rethinks lac an 's theory of language acquisition, rejecting his abandonment of the maternal body as necessary for linguistic development. returning to lacan's biblical reference to john, kristeva said, "every god, including the god of the word, relies on a mother goddess.,, for kristeva, language development from the beginning relied on the mother. senol's fountain resonates with kristeva's revision. the sound of the chora is the sound generated by fountain; it speaks in tones and in arrhythmic drops. turning kelly oliver, "summary of major themes in feminist theory hosted by the center for digital discourse and culture," virginia tech university, , accessed march , http://www.cddc.vt.edulfeminismlkristeva.html. ibid. kristeva, "stabat mater," . both to the piece and to the descriptions of chora itself, words like fluid, rhythmic, tonal and maternal, arise. as kristeva asserts, milk and tears "are the metaphors of non- speech, of a 'semiotics' that linguistic communication does not account for.,, as a metaphor for something that cannot be spoken, milk, like tears, functions as a voice for the maternal body, absent in lacan's concept of patriarchal language. according to kristeva, revealing this voice has the revolutionary power to disrupt the dominant patriarchal structure. returning to camhil's review in the village voice, fountain disrupts the silence of the gallery, speaking when silence is expected, luring the viewer to find its source. in "stabat mater," kristeva uses sections of poetic language to disrupt her own academic writing. she writes: language necessarily skims over from afar, allusively. words are always too distant, too abstract for this underground swarming of seconds .... scent of milk, dewed greenery, acid and clear, recall of wind, air, seaweed .... a hunger remains, in place of the heart. a spasm that spreads, runs through the blood vessels, to the tips of the breasts, to the tips of the fingers. it throbs, pierces the void, erases it and gradually settles in. dismissing the usefulness of the symbolic order to articulate the gravity of her maternal experience, kristeva turns to the poetic language, which she calls revolutionary to articulate milk, hunger, and the void. the voice of fountain utilizes the chora to revolutionary means-as a method for disrupting the coded power structure of the gallery space that contains it. her work haunts galleries with its constant soundtrack of dripping fluid, reminding the patron of the maternal body's ability to speak, its ability to revise, of its familiar unfamiliarity. fountain from it very premise, struggles to both subsume and subordinate a male- sutherland, "of milk, miracles of milk and miracles," . kristeva, "stabat mater," . dominated narrative. whether by fragmentation, the inversion of duchamp or through auditory cues, senol subverts a masculine position in order to represent a speaking maternal body in a position of power, and as an object of desire. visually, she does this in three ways. first, her violent dismemberment of the female body removes the breast from the historical conventions of maternal representation. second, she represents the maternal lactating breast as an erect phallus, spurting with fluids. this device refigures the lactating maternal breast with the privileged power of the phallus. lastly, through sound, senol uses the tonal sounds of chara giving voice to her maternal body and that voice indicates the maternal body as revolutionary. conclusion the artworks included in this study reveal attempts by feminist artists to redefine the image of the mother. from the second-wave movement to trends of today, the breastfeeding mother as a feminist subject matter has been marginalized, rejected, transformed, elevated, politicized and revised. the intent of this study was not to place these range of works in conflict because of the multiplicity of their approaches but rather to examine the different vantage points and dialogues that emerge between feminists. in fact, i began this study with the question: how did s feminists represent motherhood and how is it represented today? this inquiry regarding the 'then and now' of feminism persists in intellectual circles. in her october , susan faludi addresses it and suggests feminism, as an overall movement, is in the mist of a generational breakdown, tantamount to matricide. she writes, no one who has been engaged in feminist politics and thought for any length of time can be oblivious to an abiding aspect of the modem women's movement in america-that so often, and despite its many victories, it seems to falter along a "mother-daughter" divide. a generational breakdown underlies so many of the pathologies that have long disturbed american feminism. faludi continues by saying "the contemporary women's movement seems fated to fight a susan faludi, "american electra: feminism's ritual matricide," harper's magazine (october ), . war on two fronts: alongside the battle of the sexes rages the battle of the ages.,, her likening of shifts in ideological approaches to a battlefield between "mothers-daughters" is particularly interesting within the context of this thesis. feminists today, as daughters of the women's liberation movement, who openly embrace the subject of motherhood, simultaneously, at least as faludi would have us see it, reject the doctrines of their feminist foremothers. however, this generational matricide seems to be, as jack halberstam suggests "a red herring.,, to quarrel with faludi, the works discussed in the previous pages reveal a feminist attempt to redefine the image of the mother. certainly, the major emphasis on representations of motherhood in maura reilly and linda nochlin's "global feminisms" is different than judy chicago's peripheral treatment of motherhood. however, this change does not imply that second-wave feminism treated the subject of motherhood lightly; it did not. rather, as this study reveals the s feminism of judy chicago's the dinner party, made revolutionary efforts to break the assumed link between women and motherhood. specifically, the sanger m and the wollstonecrajt runner revise the experience from a fantasy of perfection, by depicting the complicated financial and often corporal reality of motherhood. yet, there are differences that should not be minimized. feminist art strategies and goals have shifted in the past forty years, especially in relationship to representations of the mother. catherine opie's and canan senol's willingness to forefront the maternal as a feminist subject indicates a clear change in feminist priorities from s to the ibid., . jack halberstam, "justifiable matricide: back-lashing faludi," bully bloggers (october , ), http://bullybloggers. wordpress.coml / / /justifiable-matricide- backlashing-faludi-by-jack-halberstaml. present day. their works revolve around the new challenges, such the instability of gender and the precarious (and exclusionary) definition of the nuclear family. while such shifts do not entirely reject their theoretical legacies, the works do attend to the subject of motherhood in ways that chicago did not. however, the new and varied directions of opie and senol visual practices do not embody the matricide suggested by faludi. the goals of one generation are not necessary useful to the next. while attending to a similar question as faludi, this study indicates the various vantage points of chicago, opie and senol. the artists i examine approach the subject of the breastfeeding mother within the context of her own political, personal, social and psychological paradigm. my effort is to place them in conversation, not at war with each other. comparisons, contradictions and differences manifested in each individual work of art point to the richness of chicago's, opie's and senors investigation into the subject of motherhood. contrary to faludi' s claim of generational aggression, i have included works that overlap in their efforts to disrupt existing power structures. much of the work selected seeks to release representation of motherhood from the roots of its christian ideal, the long-standing and pervasive legacy of the nursing madonna. rather than resigning themselves to that heritage, chicago, opie and senol have revised the image of the mother and to overturn assumptions regarding motherhood as a fixed ideal. they have collapsed representational conventions in order to make relevant their own visions of motherhood. ambitiously all three artists can be seen, to some extent, as answering julia kristeva's call for a more scholarly investigation of the maternal subject. such a statement assumes that s feminist practices were spurred from a unified and cohesive center. they were not. from the beginning there were differences. while this study traces ideological changes in feminist art practices, especially as it relates to the subject of mother, i did not set out to superficially position one generation above the other. in addition, the study is in no way a comprehensive survey of feminism and motherhood but should be seen as a series of specific case studies that explore a central idea. this study is not without its gaps. by expanding the scope outside of the very limited three central works, i could have turned to many other early feminist artists who dealt more explicitly with the subject of the maternal. mary kelly's post-partum document is particularly absent from these pages, but is certainly a part of the broader context that i have investigated. in addition, the breast-like phallus form (or phallic breast form) in the sculpture le trani episode ( ) by louis bourgeois would have offered an insightful point of reference. like senol's fountain, le trani episode similarly conflates and confuses male-female binaries and such comparisons would be an interesting investigation for future scholars. however, the strategy for this study was to examine works as single entities and place them in discussion, rather than grouping large amounts of complicated image work into a single framework, which would limit and narrow the interpretation. although the works are examined chronologically, ultimately the study creates a map not necessarily a tidy linear history. returning to the originally question: how did s feminists represent motherhood and how is it represented today? this study suggests that feminist artists have approached the subject differently. by walking through the inaugural exhibitions of the sackler center, i have highlighted the ambivalence and embrace feminist artists have had with the image of the mother. such conflictions manifest efforts to make sense of a complex experience within a feminist 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(autumn ): - . danceland. a production record, by glen cairns b.a., the university of saskatchewan, a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts i n the faculty of graduate studies department of theatre and film we accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard the university of british columbia december © glen cairns, in presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the university of british columbia, i agree that the library shall make it freely available for reference and study. i further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. it is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. department of the university of british columbia vancouver, canada date / / w - / / / f f ^ - de- ( / ) - i i - abstract. the t h e s i s i s a r e c o r d o f the w r i t i n g and r e h e a r s a l p r o c e s s which l e d t o the b r i t i s h p r e m i e r e o f the f u l l l e n g t h canadian p l a y , danceland, a t the o l d red l i o n t h e a t r e , london, i n november o f . the f i r s t chapter i s a d i s c u s s i o n o f the d r a m a t i c t h e o r i e s and h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h which informed the i n i t i a l c r e a t i v e w r i t i n g p r o c e s s . the second c h a p t e r i s t h e f i n a l d r a f t o f the p l a y i t s e l f . the t h i r d chapter i s a r e c o r d o f the r e h e a r s a l and p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , as w e l l as an overview o f the major d r a m a t u r g i c a l problems which the a c t o r s , d i r e c t o r and d e s i g n e r s encountered d u r i n g r e h e a r s a l s o f the p l a y . a f u l l c a s t and crew l i s t and the reviews from the b r i t i s h p r e s s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n the a p p e n d i c e s . the p l a y w r i g h t ' s "experiment" which s i t s a t the h e a r t of t h i s p r o d u c t i o n r e c o r d i s t h a t a r i s t o t l e ' s i d e a o f "place" i s e s s e n t i a l to the c r e a t i o n o f an i n d i g e n o u s , canadian d r a m a t i c l i t e r a t u r e . the w r i t i n g p r o c e s s , however, i s o n l y the b e g i n n i n g o f the t r a n s l a t i o n o f drama from the page t o the stage; and i t i s t h i s f i n a l , r e h e a r s a l and p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s which demands t h a t a l l d r a m a t i c t h e o r y be p l a c e d w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f b e l i e v a b l e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and d r a m a t i c a c t i o n . - i l l - table of contents a b s t r a c t i i t a b l e of contents i i i chapter one the alchemy of p l a y w r i g h t i n g a prologue the idea o f p l a c e the genesis of the p l a y between s t o r y and b a c k s t o r y a b r i e f note on language and s t r u c t u r e chapter two danceland chapter three a p r o d u c t i o n record the o l d red l i o n notes on the s c e n i c treatment notes on sound the r e h e a r s a l process notes for f u t u r e p r o d u c t i o n s l o c a t i n g the spine of the p l a y some thoughts on the p l a y ' s s t y l e f i n d i n g a r e a l i s t i c root for the c h a r a c t e r s some f i n a l thoughts on the p l a y appendix reviews from the b r i t i s h press chapter one. the alchemy of playwrighting: . a prologue saskatchewan l i e s a c r o s s the n o r t h e r n f r o n t i e r o f the great p l a i n s l i k e a b l a n k e t , the p l a c e where the l a s t s t r a n d s o f p r a i r i e e v e n t u a l l y g i v e way t o the muskeg, s c r u b and g r a n i t e of the canadian s h i e l d . i t i s a e u c l i d i a n landscape w i t h a s i b e r i a n c l i m a t e and an o f t e n t i g h t - l i p p e d p r e s b y t e r i a n c u l t u r e , and i t i s the l a s t p l a c e i n the w o r l d i would have expected t o f i n d echoes o f j a z z , b o o t l e g g e r s , and a r s o n i s t s , the ghosts of d e p r e s s i o n e r a american g a n g s t e r s , rumours of community-sanctioned murder, and danceland, one of the l a r g e s t d a n c e h a l l s on the c o n t i n e n t . danceland s i t s i n the bottom o f a g l a c i a l v a l l e y t h a t c u t s l i k e a s c a r a c r o s s the r o l l i n g h i l l s of the p o t a s h c o u n t r y south o f saskatoon. d r i v i n g through the c o u n t r y s i d e a t dawn, you can chase the shadow of your c a r as i t r a c e s a l o n g ahead o f y o u , and a t dusk you can watch through your r e a r view m i r r o r as i t s t r e t c h e s out behind you f o r a m i l e . in the w i n t e r , the snow takes on the c o l o u r s of the sky and the sun, s i l v e r , b l u e , p i n k and mauve. in the s p r i n g the landscape i s a v e r d a n t green; the heat o f summer burns i t t o an i r r e d e s c e n t g o l d . a p e r s o n i s the t a l l e s t t h i n g i n t h i s l a n d s c a p e . you can see the e a r t h curve downward, a hundred m i l e s i n any d i r e c t i o n . the f i r s t time i dropped down i n t o t h a t a n c i e n t g l a c i a l v a l l e y , on a sunswept day i n e a r l y f e b r u a r y o f , i knew i n s t i n c t i v e l y t h a t i had found an a s t o n i s h i n g source o f myth and h i s t o r y ; an almost e e r i l y d e s e r t e d landscape which seems t o beckon t o me l i k e some k i n d o f p e r s o n a l manawaka, a canadian natchez t r a i l . s i n c e t h e n , the v a l l e y and i t s s u r r o u n d i n g v i l l a g e s have become the c r u c i b l e o f p l a c e i n which i set much o f my r e c e n t work, i n c l u d i n g my f u l l l e n g t h p l a y , d a n c e l a n d . you f a l l f o u r hundred metres i n a minute once your c a r c r e s t s the i n c l i n e d curve a t the top of the v a l l e y , and then you s i g h t b l u e , b l u e water. l i t t l e m a n i t o u , saskatchewan, named f o r the n a t i v e god, m a n i t o u , the maker o f e v e r y t h i n g , s l i c e s l i k e a s c i m i t a r , a knifewound through the e a r t h ' s mantle t h a t c r a d l e s a s a l t l a k e f o u r t e e n m i l e s long and l e s s than a m i l e wide, b u b b l i n g up from the depths o f an immense, s u b t e r r a n e a n s e a . as you rumble a c r o s s the g r a v e l causeway at the l a k e ' s n o r t h end, the f e t i d s m e l l o f the s a l t marsh wraps around your f a c e l i k e an unwanted l o v e r ' s hand, i n v a d i n g your mouth and nose and eyes. and then you see danceland, b u i l t on a p i e r halfway down the southern shore of the l a k e , i t s e l e g a n t a r t deco c u r v e s and whitewashed e x t e r i o r r i d i n g a s t r i d e the s h o r e l i n e l i k e a swan. the l a k e was a s a c r e d p l a c e o f h e a l i n g f o r the a s s i n i b o i n e and cree n a t i o n s . they would not f i g h t t h e i r wars i n the v a l l e y , but would t r a v e l beyond i t f o r t h a t p u r p o s e . legend has i t t h a t the l a k e ' s h e a l i n g p r o p e r t i e s were d i s c o v e r e d by a p a r t y o f a s s i n i b o i n e w a r r i o r s , who were t r a v e l l i n g n o r t h t o do b a t t l e w i t h t h e i r n o r t h e r n r i v a l s , the c r e e , when a dozen o f them were s t r u c k w i t h an outbreak o f s m a l l p o x . the a s s i n i b o i n e s made a camp f o r t h e i r s i c k a t the edge o f the l a k e , and l e f t them w i t h horses and s u p p l i e s b e f o r e c a r r y i n g on t o war. one o f the a f f l i c t e d w a r r i o r s , i n a d e l i r i u m , wandered i n t o the s a l t l a k e t o c o o l h i s f e v e r , and then f e l l a s l e e p , f a c e up i n the s h a l l o w , s a l i n e w a t e r . when he awoke, h i s f e v e r had abated and he made h i s way back to the camp where he proceeded t o c a r r y the o t h e r s i c k men i n t o the l a k e , where t h e y , t o o , were c u r e d . the legend goes on t o r e l a t e how, h e a l e d and empowered by the l a k e , the a s s i n i b o i n e w a r r i o r s proceeded t o c a t c h up t o t h e i r war p a r t y and l e a d i t t o v i c t o r y over the c r e e . t h i s s t o r y may o r may not be t r u e , but i t i s a c o m p e l l i n g one. the legend was a p p r o p r i a t e d by the f i r s t homesteaders i n the a r e a , and was used as a f o u n d a t i o n f o r a b r i e f f l o w e r i n g o f c u l t u r e and commerce i n the e a r l y p a r t o f the c e n t u r y . the book, p r a i r i e r e f l e c t i o n s : watrous, venn, manitou beach, renown, amazon and d i s t r i c t s ( p u b l i s h e d i n by the watrous and d i s t r i c t h i s t o r y committee), which i s based on o r a l h i s t o r i e s of the a r e a , p r o v i d e s i n v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t i n t o the p a t t e r n s o f e a r l y european s e t t l e m e n t o f the r e g i o n . the v a l l e y s u r r o u n d i n g l i t t l e lake manitou was f i r s t homesteaded i n by john j . m a c l a c h l a n , on the west s i d e , and by edwin e v i s o n on the e a s t . the s t r e e t s i n town are named a f t e r the f a m i l y members, roy s t r e e t , e l i z a b e t h s t r e e t , a l b e r t s t r e e t and john s t r e e t , t o name a few. these s t r e e t s , i n t u r n , are b i s e c t e d by s t r e e t s named f o r p r a i r i e c i t i e s , winnipeg s t r e e t , saskatoon s t r e e t , regina s t r e e t . the town does not look l i k e much, now, but i n i t was a prime p i e c e o f r e a l e s t a t e , l y i n g as i t does, at the j u n c t i o n of the grand trunk p a c i f i c railway from winnipeg, and the cpr l i n e from moose jaw t o saskatoon and edmonton; b o t h o f these l i n e s connect s o u t h , t o c h i c a g o , new york and denver. with the cpr c a n n i b a l i s i n g the c o u n t r y f o r the b e n e f i t o f i t s grand h o t e l s and d e s t i n a t i o n r e s o r t s a t banff and j a s p e r , the gtpr sensed a good b u s i n e s s opening and o f f e r e d john m a c l a c h l a n $ , f o r h i s p r o p e r t y . t h e i r i n t e n t i o n was t o b u i l d a l u x u r y h o t e l and h e a l t h spa on the shores of the l a k e , and market i t as a d e s t i n a t i o n r e s o r t . m a c l a c h l a n , b e i n g a f e i s t y scotsman, t u r n e d them down and developed i t h i m s e l f . t h i s p r o p e r t y became known as "the main beach", and i t was not long u n t i l h i s n e i g h b o r , e v i s o n , s t a r t e d up the r i v a l , "east beach" s u b d i v i s i o n i n - . by the 's what had s t a r t e d out as a f a m i l y o p e r a t i o n of a two and a h a l f s t o r y b a t h house w i t h twelve rooms f o r b a t h e r s , two l a v a t o r i e s , a w a i t i n g room and a r e a l e s t a t e o f f i c e , blossomed i n t o a f u l l y f l e d g e d r e s o r t , the a t l a n t i c c i t y o f i t s day, h o s t i n g summer r e t r e a t s and p a r t i e s f o r up t o f o u r hundred and f i f t y employees o f the t . eaton company and the hudson's bay, who would a r r i v e from edmonton o r winnipeg or toronto by t r a i n . i t boasted f i v e d a n c e h a l l s , auto l i v e r i e s , seventy seven c o t t a g e homes, the whitmore h o t e l , brown's muskikee wapui sanatorium, the m a i t o u h o t e l , m a r t i n ' s t o u r i s t h o t e l , the hiawatha h o t e l , two drug s t o r e s , moving p i c t u r e shows a t the empire t h e a t r e , e t h i e r ' s g a s o l i n e and s e r v i c e s t a t i o n , a b a r b e r shop, t h r e e g r o c e r y s t o r e s , f o u r i c e cream p a r l o u r s , candy s t o r e s , and two hot b a t h houses. people came by t r a i n from new y o r k , b o s t o n , c h i c a g o , p h i l a d e l p h i a , denver, winnipeg, saskatoon, r e g i n a , moose jaw, and edmonton. the r i v a l r y between the "east beach" and "the main beach" was i n t e n s e . the hiawatha h o t e l burned t o the ground f i v e times i n t e n y e a r s . american t o u r i s t s , e s c a p i n g the s h a c k l e s o f p r o h i b i t i o n , demanded e n t e r t a i n m e n t , j a z z bands, d a n c e h a l l s , and canadian whiskey. the town r o a r e d u n t i l t h a t b l a c k f r i d a y i n , when w a l l s t r e e t c r a s h e d and canada's yankee t r a d e r masters s t a r t e d throwing themselves out of o f f i c e tower windows, and the gods r e f u s e d t o send the r a i n s f o r t e n y e a r s , and the wind swept up from the d e s e r t south of the b o r d e r , s t r i p p i n g a metre of the r i c h e s t t o p s o i l on the c o n t i n e n t o f f the f a c e o f the e a r t h , d e p o s i t i n g i t i n the muskeg, hundreds of m i l e s to the n o r t h . today, danceland and the v i l l a g e o f l i t t l e m a n i t o u , s t a n d l i k e the s t a t u e o f ozymandias, humbled at the western edge o f the s k y , a monument t o t h i s c o u n t r y ' s c o l o n i a l o b s e s s i o n w i t h american c u l t u r e . an a r c h i t e c t u r a l metaphor i f i ever saw one, danceland s t a n d s , d e f y i n g t i m e , r e f l e c t e d i n the b l u e , b l u e l a k e , a winged f i g u r e t h r e a t e n i n g t o set s a i l a c r o s s the eye of the gods. . the idea o f p l a c e . the i d e a t h a t p l a c e s i t s a t the h e a r t o f f i c t i o n i s not a new one, stemming as i t does from sources as d i v e r s e as s o p h o c l e s ' athens, chekhov's moscow, i b s e n ' s o s l o , james j o y c e ' s d u b l i n , samuel b e c k e t t ' s d a r k l y humourous n e t h e r w o r l d o f l i g h t , shadow and emptiness; i n a m e r i c a , the l i s t o f p l a c e s c o n t i n u e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n the s o u t h e r n g o t h i c t r a d i t i o n o f tennessee w i l l i a m s , truman capote and harper lee; i n sam s h e p a r d ' s southern c a l i f o r n i a and i n lou reed's new y o r k ; i n w i l l i a m f a u l k n e r ' s yokanatawptha county and eudora w e l t y ' s natchez, m i s s i s s i p p i . in canada, one t h i n k s of margaret l a u r e n c e ' s manawaka, m i c h e l t r e m b l a y ' s m o n t r e a l , george f . w a l k e r ' s e a s t end t o r o n t o , or j u d i t h thompson's k i n g s t o n . in f a c t , p l a c e as an element o f f i c t i o n i s one o f a r i s t o t l e ' s f o r m a t i v e " u n i t i e s " , the o t h e r two b e i n g time and a c t i o n , so my d i s c o v e r y of i t s h o u l d not have r a t t l e d me t o the c o r e the way i t d i d . but i t d i d . f i n d i n g a p l a c e , i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , l i t t l e m a n i t o u , was l i k e an epiphany i n my ongoing s t r u g g l e as a p l a y w r i g h t . p l a c e , l i k e t i m e , g i v e s me a s p e c i f i c , l o c a l i z e d frame i n which t o s e t the d r a m a t i c a c t i o n . i t g i v e s me, l i t e r a l l y , a p l a c e t o s t a r t a s t o r y , and a p l a c e t o end i t ; i t a l s o t e l l s me a l o t about what happens i n the m i d d l e . who l i v e s t h e r e , what a r e they d o i n g , and why? when you s t a r t w r i t i n g , you a r e i n v a r i a b l y t o l d by both i n s t r u c t o r s and well-meaning f r i e n d s t o "write about what you know". t h i s i s undoubtedly good a d v i c e , but i f i had taken i t as dogma when i s t a r t e d working on danceland, i might have i g n o r e d the voyages o f d i s c o v e r y which are made p o s s i b l e through simple a c t s of i m a g i n a t i o n . most o f us can imagine o t h e r w o r l d s ; we can r e a d , we can t r a v e l , we can l e a r n about o t h e r p l a c e s , o t h e r t h i n g s , o t h e r p e o p l e . y e s , we must w r i t e about "what we know", but we must not l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o a day t o day, documentary a c c o u n t i n g o f e x i s t e n c e . to w r i t e i s t o c r e a t e , on the page, a f i c t i o n a l , y e t b e l i e v a b l e w o r l d which i s p o p u l a t e d by b e l i e v a b l e c r e a t u r e s who are engaged i n b e l i e v a b l e a c t i o n . t h i s w o r l d may be c a l l e d t r a n s y l v a n i a , mars o r the kingdom o f heaven, but from kafka t o kerouac, at the v e r y l e a s t , f i c t i o n i s the r e s u l t of somebody a t t e m p t i n g t o t r a n s p o r t us t o o t h e r r e a l i t i e s through the s i m p l e a c t of s t o r y t e l l i n g . w r i t i n g , l i k e r e a d i n g and l i s t e n i n g , i s r o o t e d i n the i n t e r a c t i o n o f the s t o r y t e l l e r and h i s a u d i e n c e . between us i s where we l i g h t our s y m b o l i c f i r e o f myth, symbol and r i t u a l , and i t i s t h i s communal f i r e of the i m a g i n a t i o n , o f dreams, p o s s i b l e w o r l d s , which u n i t e s us i n s m a l l g r o u p s , i n t r i b e s and i n n a t i o n s . s t o r i e s , i n s h o r t , a r e the bedrock of c u l t u r e . they are the v e h i c l e w i t h which we engage i n s o c i a l t r a v e l . when we w r i t e , when we r e a d , when we l i s t e n , we can be t r a n s p o r t e d , and when we r e t u r n from these voyages of the i m a g i n a t i o n , we can be changed. to accept the a c t o f s t o r y t e l l i n g as a f o u n d a t i o n of c u l t u r e , i s t o a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the s t o r i e s you choose t o t e l l . i f s t o r y t e l l i n g r e a l l y i s the s t u f f o f f i r e , then we must f i g h t t o keep the flame a l i v e , t o a l l o w i t t o warm us and p e n e t r a t e the darkness which surrounds u s , and t o a v o i d b e i n g p u l l e d , l i k e so many moths, i n t o i t s f l a m e s . the words and s t o r i e s o f goethe, m i l t o n and shakespeare are a t h i n s h i e l d from the words and s t o r i e s of the dark messiahs among us who long t o u n l e a s h the dogs o f war, i n t o l e r a n c e and h a t r e d . y e t , w h i l e the pen may be m i g h t i e r than the sword, a w e l l m o t i v a t e d swordsman can take a v i c i o u s whack out of an unarmed p o e t , and t h a t i s p r o b a b l y another reason why g r e a t c u l t u r e s owe t h e i r v e r y e x i s t e n c e to common myths and s t o r i e s ; common b e l i e f s are a g r e a t u n i f i e r o f p e o p l e , and the b e s t way to share and uphold those b e l i e f s , whatever they might be, i s by handing down, through s t o r y , through h i s t o r y , the wisdom and e x p e r i e n c e of p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n s . i t a l s o goes a long way toward e x p l a i n i n g why despots l i k e s t a l i n , h i t l e r , p i n o c h e t , and p o l pot d e d i c a t e d such f r i g h t e n i n g amounts o f energy t o the wholesale s l a u g h t e r of p o e t s . (the r e c e n t e x e c u t i o n of n i g e r i a n p l a y w r i g h t and p o e t , ken s i r o - w i w a , i s another t r a g i c example.) there i s a much more humane way t o temper the s t o r y t e l l e r ' s power: the a p p l i c a t i o n o f informed c r i t i c i s m . c r i t i c s are w i t h us f o r a r e a s o n . they e x i s t t o c a l l our s t o r i e s , as w e l l as our i n t e n t i o n s and a b i l i t i e s as s t o r y t e l l e r s i n t o q u e s t i o n . at b e s t , they can guide a l l o f u s , s t o r y t e l l e r , reader o r l i s t e n e r toward a r i c h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the s t o r y at hand, and a t t h e i r worst they o p e r a t e as c y n i c a l t o u r guides on a decadent r i d e through consumer j o u r n a l i s m . the d u l l ache of h i s t o r y may w e l l be w r i t t e n by the v i c t o r s , but reviews are w r i t t e n by c r i t i c s , and they can s t i n g . to w r i t e a s t o r y , i n any l i t e r a r y form, be i t a n o v e l , a poem, an e s s a y , a l i b r e t t o or a p l a y , i s t o embark on a long and p e r i l o u s j o u r n e y . . the genesis of the p l a y . my own j o u r n e y s t a r t e d the day a f t e r i got home t o saskatoon, from t h a t f i r s t c a r t r i p t o l i t t l e m a n i t o u . three c h a r a c t e r s immediately p r e s e n t e d themselves to me: an e l e g a n t woman i n her mid t h i r t i e s who sang a t danceland; a l i t t l e g i r l i n a flowered s k i r t and a p a i r o f c a s t o f f b o y ' s brogues; and an o l d e r man w i t h s i l v e r h a i r , who s a t i n a w h e e l c h a i r , h i s l e g s covered w i t h a b l a n k e t . i d i d not know how, o r even i f they were r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r , but i c o u l d see them c l e a r l y i n my m i n d ' s eye. the woman wanted t o s i n g t o me, the o l d e r gent regarded me w i t h a c e r t a i n degree of c y n i c i s m and d i s t a s t e , and the l i t t l e g i r l would not speak t o me at a l l . i was not sure how t o s t a r t , how to b e g i n c r a f t i n g these images i n t o a s t o r y , so i d i d two t h i n g s . i wrote a poem about the landscape at l i t t l e m a n i t o u , and i s t a r t e d v i s i t i n g the l o c a l h i s t o r y room o f the saskatoon p u b l i c l i b r a r y . the poem soon mushroomed i n t o a l a r g e r s e r i e s o f landscape poems, and my notebook f i l l e d w i t h a wealth o f d e t a i l , i n c l u d i n g the c u r i o u s l o c a l s t o r y t h a t the d e p r e s s i o n e r a american g a n g s t e r , john d i l l i n g e r , had spent some time here i n the e a r l y 's, hanging out a t the d a n c e h a l l s at l i t t l e m a n i t o u , and t h a t he was rumoured t o have committed a s t i l l u n s o l v e d murder i n the nearby town o f b i e n f a i t . i immediately s e i z e d on t h i s n o t i o n and went o f f a g a i n , s h u f f l i n g through the y e l l o w e d papers of the a r c h i v e s , s e a r c h i n g f o r the t r u t h ; what i found i n s t e a d was t h a t the t r u t h does not n e c e s s a r i l y square w i t h the f a c t s , and f a c t s almost never stand i n the way of a good s t o r y . john d i l l i n g e r may o r may not have been p r e s e n t i n south c e n t r a l saskatchewan d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , but h i s c r i m i n a l e x p l o i t s had s e i z e d the p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n o f people a l l a c r o s s the american and the canadian west. he was s t e a l i n g from the banks, which i n t u r n were f o r e c l o s i n g on s m a l l b u s i n e s s e s and farms. by e a r l y , he had become a p o p u l a r symbol o f r e s i s t a n c e at a time when a s p i r i t o f r e v o l u t i o n was t h r e a t e n i n g t o take h o l d on the north american c o n t i n e n t . unions were m o b i l i z i n g , workers were marching, thousands of men were i n t e r n e d i n l a b o u r camps and, when a union o r g a n i z e r a t the coalmine i n b i e n f a i t , saskatchewan, was shot dead, rumours flew t h a t the k i l l i n g must have been the work of john d i l l i n g e r , who might have c r o s s e d the canadian b o r d e r i n s e a r c h o f a h i d e o u t . i t i s t r u e t h a t the c i t y o f moose jaw, a hundred m i l e s t o the s o u t h , had, i n d e e d , been an o p e r a t i o n a l c e n t r e f o r the american b o o t l e g whiskey t r a d e . y e t , a more l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n o f the b i e n f a i t i n c i d e n t , i s t h a t the u n i o n l e a d e r was murdered by p o l i c e a t the behest of the mine owners and the rumour o f d i l l i n g e r ' s involvement had been f l o a t e d as a k i n d o f a l i b i . a f t e r a l l , i f you cannot t r u s t the p o l i c e t o p r o t e c t y o u , who can you t r u s t ? a l t e r n a t e l y p o r t r a y e d i n the p o p u l a r p r e s s as e i t h e r an e l e g a n t l a d i e s ' man or an agent o f s a t a n , d i l l i n g e r ' s image r e f r a c t e d through the l e n s of urban myth t o become a k i n d o f modern day s a t y r , some k i n d o f l i b i d i n o u s goat-man, a d e v i l w i t h a twelve i n c h p e n i s . indeed, a p e r s i s t e n t urban l e g e n d , s t i l l b e i n g t o l d today, i n v o l v e s h i s m u t i l a t i o n a t the hands o f an f . b . i , agent, who supposedly used h i s pocket k n i f e t o s l i c e o f f d i l l i n g e r ' s male member j u s t to make s u r e he was dead, and the supposed d i s p l a y o f d i l l i n g e r ' s posthumously honoured a n a t o m i c a l r e l i c , p r e s e r v e d i n a b o t t l e of formaldehyde, on a s h e l f at the smithsonian i n s t i t u t e ' s a r c h i v e s i n washington, d . c . s u r e l y t h i s k i n d of m u t i l a t i o n legend i s worthy o f a r e l i g i o u s martyr l i k e s a i n t s e b a s t i a n ; i n any c a s e , the s t a t e hunted john d i l l i n g e r l i k e an a n i m a l . when they found him, they k i l l e d him. while i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t he r e a l l y was j u s t a murderous t h u g , i t must have been what he s y m b o l i z e d , the s t o r i e s he i n s p i r e d , the j e e r i n g o f the people i n the face of the s t a t e , t h a t made him f a r more dangerous than the u s u a l p e r p e t r a t o r s of s p e c t a c u l a r bank r o b b e r i e s and garden v a r i e t y h o m i c i d e s . america was, and i s , r i c h i n s t o r i e s o f legendary c r i m i n a l s , but few of them have i n s p i r e d as much f o l k l o r e as john d i l l i n g e r . my problem, as a p l a y w r i g h t , t h e n , was how t o t r e a t t h i s c h a r i s m a t i c c h a r a c t e r , who o b s t i n a t e l y demanded t o be i n my p l a y . in the f i r s t d r a f t o f danceland, i attempted the o b v i o u s , and p l a c e d d i l l i n g e r i n the c e n t r a l r o l e . the d r a f t was an u n m i t i g a t e d f a i l u r e , r e m i n i s c e n t i n i t s b e t t e r passages o f the worst d i a l o g u e i n a bad jimmy cagney movie. and then i t s t r u c k me t h a t what had made d i l l i n g e r such a powerful t h r e a t i n r e a l l i f e , and such a p o t e n t i a l l y c o m p e l l i n g d r a m a t i c hero i n my p l a y , was not h i s p r e s e n c e , but h i s abscence and the i m p l i e d v i o l e n c e o f h i s imminent a r r i v a l . t e r r o r , a f t e r a l l , l i v e s i n the mind of the v i c t i m . i r e a l i z e d t h a t i was not a f t e r a p o r t r a i t of the man h i m s e l f ; i was now more i n v o l v e d i n an attempt t o evoke h i s almost m y t h o l o g i c a l s t a t u r e . john d i l l i n g e r was, i n d e e d , one of the l a s t s a t y r s i n the w o r l d , s a c r i f i c e d on the a l t a r o f the modern age. the m y s t e r i o u s way i n which he i n f i l t r a t e d the p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n o f h i s day had n o t h i n g t o do w i t h documentary accounts o f h i s gruesome r i d e through the american midwest. r a t h e r , i t l a y i n the c o n v i v i a l , f r a t e r n a l l i e s t h a t passed f o r c o n v e r s a t i o n i n chicago whorehouses, i n booze cans, i n the l y r i c s o f dope a d d l e d j a z z s i n g e r s , and i n the whispers of r u r a l f a t h e r s t o t h e i r sons, "he got away a g a i n . those goddamned bankers deserve i t " . the p l a y d i d not want an h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e as a c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , what i t wanted was a male a n t a g o n i s t , somebody o t h e r than d i l l i n g e r ; an almost demonic s t o r y t e l l e r ; a l o q u a c i o u s and charming l o c a l l i a r who c o u l d weave d i l l i n g e r ' s presence i n and out o f the p l a y l i k e some k i n d o f phantom, a bogeyman whose presence was so p a l p a b l y dangerous t h a t sometimes the s t o r y t e l l e r might even f r i g h t e n h i m s e l f . that i s how the c h a r a c t e r o f murray came t o be b o r n . h i s f i r s t words t o me, long s i n c e e x c i s e d from the t e x t o f danceland were, "sorry i'm l a t e , i was down i n the basement; i t ' s dark down t h e r e and i mighta bumped my head on a p o s t " . at once humourous and s l y , and always r o o t e d i n an a n i m a l i s t i c s e x u a l i t y , murray f l o o d e d i n t o the p l a y , u n i f y i n g the a c t i o n w i t h h i s l i e s , and when he would get caught i n a l i e by one o f the o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s he would make up a new one on the spur o f the moment, even more monstrous than the one b e f o r e , and a l l the time b e l i e v i n g t h a t once a l i e i s spoken i t forms the complete and g o s p e l t r u t h . murray i s a chameleon, but h i s p a r t i c u l a r t a l e n t l i e s i n changing the c o l o u r o f the world t o h i d e the unchanging n a t u r e of h i s own s k i n . to m u r r a y , l y i n g i s a s i n , and t h e r e f o r e , i n a world where everybody l i e s , the worst crime i s t o get caught. the p l a y became, over the next few d r a f t s , a s e a r c h f o r t r u t h , a c r y from the h e a r t from i t s new p r o t a g o n i s t , the t o r c h s i n g e r , l i l y , whose s e a r c h i s f o r p a s s i o n i n a world where men and commerce have k i l l e d the a n c i e n t gods. as i worked on the p i e c e , the d i a l o g u e became s a t u r a t e d w i t h the rythms o f the d e v i l ' s music, j a z z , and the o l d man i n the w h e e l c h a i r , who had p r e s e n t e d h i m s e l f t o me on my f i r s t t r i p to danceland, became l i l y ' s husband, l l o y d , a b r i l l i a n t m u s i c i a n , c r i p p l e d some months b e f o r e the a c t i o n of the p l a y b e g i n s , by a gunshot from the marauding d i l l i n g e r . and the l i t t l e g i r l ? e v e n t u a l l y , she r e v e a l e d t h a t her name was rose. she was m u r r a y ' s d a u g h t e r , and the reason f o r her s i l e n c e was a l s o the reason f o r m u r r a y ' s c o m p u l s i v e , almost p s y c h o p a t h i c l y i n g . . between s t o r y and b a c k s t o r y . having d i s c o v e r e d the i d e n t i t i e s o f the c h a r a c t e r s , and the b a s i c i n t e r p l a y o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i s e t about p l a c i n g them back i n s i d e the parameters o f time and p l a c e : the p l a y takes p l a c e over the course of one day, dawn t o dusk, a t l i t t l e m a n i t o u , saskatchewan, i n the summer of . the scenes take p l a c e a t danceland and i n l l o y d and l i l y ' s c a b i n . o f f s t a g e , e x i s t a number o f g e o g r a p h i c markers: the l a k e , the h i l l s on the n o r t h s i d e , the p i e r below danceland, the hiawatha h o t e l . together they form a u n i f i e d space, the v a l l e y i t s e l f , c o n s t a n t l y r e f e r r e d t o , but never seen. what emerged next was a s e r i e s o f b a c k s t o r i e s , the s t o r i e s o f what happened p r e c e d i n g the a c t i o n o f the p l a y ; a s t o r y about a woman from l i t t l e manitou who, as a t e e n a g e r , ran away from the p r e s b y t e r i a n c o n s t r a i n t s o f home t o pursue a c a r e e r as a band s i n g e r i n c h i c a g o . hanging out i n a l l the d a r k e s t c l u b s , she was taken under the wing of a f o r t y year o l d l i o n of a b a n d l e a d e r , named l l o y d , who, no doubt hungering f o r s e x u a l a d v e n t u r e s , proceeded t o t e a c h her how to s i n g . what f o l l o w e d f o r them was a tumultuous, f o u r t e e n year s t r e t c h o f road t r i p s , through c h i c a g o , d e t r o i t , m i n n e a p o l i s , denver, kansas c i t y and new y o r k . my f e e l i n g i s t h a t l l o y d p r e f e r r e d a h a r d e r , b l a c k e r , s t y l e of p l a y i n g and t h a t t h i s p e r s o n a l j a z z s t y l e , coupled w i t h h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o compromise, i s what p r e v e n t e d them from b r e a k i n g through as a p o p u l a r a c t on r a d i o . so, when the d e p r e s s i o n h i t , and those b i g t o u r i n g combos of the 's c o u l d no l o n g e r a f f o r d t o t o u r , l l o y d and l i l y ' s a c t would have been put under severe s t r e s s ; l l o y d would have to adapt h i s s t y l e of a r r a n g i n g , or l o s e h i s c a r e e r . younger and more a d a p t a b l e , l i l y ' s p r o f e s s i o n a l a m b i t i o n s a r e s t r a i n i n g the bonds of t h e i r m a r r i a g e . in the y e a r s s i n c e they f i r s t met, l l o y d has e v o l v e d i n t o an i r r i t a b l e , m u s i c a l i d e o l o g u e , a b r i l l i a n t , f i f t y year o l d white m u s i c i a n who has p a i d h i s dues, and who now wants t o keep p l a y i n g b l a c k music w i t h b l a c k m u s i c i a n s i n b l a c k c l u b s , and t h i s i s why he i s so e m o t i o n a l l y a t t a c h e d to the c h a r t s which he w r i t e s at the top of scene t h r e e . l i l y , on the o t h e r hand, would have been i n her l a t e t w e n t i e s when these s e i s m i c s h i f t s i n t h e i r l i v e s took p l a c e ; she i s f r u s t r a t e d ; she i s young, her c a r e e r s h o u l d be on the r i s e , but l l o y d ' s i s f a i l i n g . l i l y wants to r e c o r d , to get on the r a d i o , to l e a d her own band, and she wants t o do i t w i t h or without l l o y d . t h i s has d r i v e n l l o y d i n t o a s u s t a i n e d s t a t e of s e x u a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l j e a l o u s y . they both f e e l they have t o prove themselves to each o t h e r ; t h e i r t r a g i c flaw i s p r i d e . domestic t e n s i o n s between the two are r u n n i n g h i g h when one of l i l y ' s a d u l t e r o u s a s s i g n a t i o n s leads them t o the edge o f d i s a s t e r . murray i s a couple of y e a r s younger than l i l y . he would have been two or t h r e e y e a r s behind her at s c h o o l , and has had a l i f e l o n g , s e x u a l o b s e s s i o n w i t h h e r . as an a d o l e s c e n t , l i l y must have seemed u n a t t a i n a b l e to him; but when she suddenly r e t u r n s t o l i t t l e m a n i t o u , i n the summer of , h i s e r o t i c dreams become l i v i n g , b r e a t h i n g f l e s h . a number o f o t h e r back s t o r i e s emerged, but these are the ones t h a t d i d not make i t i n t o the f i n a l d r a f t o f danceland, and i o f f e r them i n the hope t h a t they may shed some l i g h t on the p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r e s s u r e s a t work on the c h a r a c t e r s over the course o f the p l a y ' s a c t i o n . . a b r i e f note on language and s t r u c t u r e . the p l a y c o n s i s t s o f s i x scenes which a l t e r n a t e between l l o y d and l i l y ' s c a b i n at brown's sanatorium and the i n t e r i o r of d a n c e l a n d . the f i r s t a c t c o n t a i n s f o u r scenes and runs a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i f t y f i v e minutes; the second a c t c o n s i s t s of the f i n a l two scenes and runs a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i f t y m i n u t e s . danceland was o r i g i n a l l y intended to be p l a y e d w i t h o u t an i n t e r m i s s i o n , but pragmatic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s such as a bathroom break f o r the a c t o r s and audience as w e l l as the d e s i r e by t h e a t r e managements t o generate revenue through i n t e r m i s s i o n l i q u o r s a l e s d i c t a t e d o t h e r w i s e . much of the d i a l o g u e i s w r i t t e n i n a "phonetic" s t y l e . that i s , i have t r i e d t o approximate the i d i o m a t i c sound o f the e n g l i s h language o f south c e n t r a l saskatchewan. t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of the c h a r a c t e r s of rose and m u r r a y , a l t h o u g h l l o y d o c c a s i o n a l l y s l i p s i n t o a k i n d of s o u t h s i d e chicago s l a n g . what i wanted t o p o r t r a y , more than a n y t h i n g e l s e , was the c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s between the two f a m i l y u n i t s . i f the p l a y was t o be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o quebecois f r e n c h , f o r i n s t a n c e , i would want i t t o be rendered i n a mix o f j o u a l f o r rose and m u r r a y , and a k i n d o f e l e v a t e d , almost p a r i s i a n f r e n c h f o r l l o y d and l i l y . of the f o u r of them, i t i s l i l y who, having f o r s a k e n her r o o t s , possesses the most "posh" a c c e n t . f o r h e r , accent has been an important t o o l i n her c l i m b up the p r o f e s s i o n a l and s o c i a l l a d d e r . the d e l i b e r a t e m i s s p e l l i n g of words i n the s c r i p t i s not meant, i n any way, as a judgement o f the c h a r a c t e r s ' i n t e l l e c t s ; none of them a r e s t u p i d , a l t h o u g h two o f them are q u i t e d e f i n i t e l y uneducated. the p h o n e t i c s p e l l i n g approximations a r e , q u i t e s i m p l y , an attempt t o r e n d e r , on the page, the n a t u r a l sound o f r u r a l , western canadian e n g l i s h . l i k e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e i n the p l a y , the a c c e n t s o f the c h a r a c t e r s should s p r i n g from a s p e c i f i c sense o f p l a c e and c h a r a c t e r . readers of the p l a y w i l l a l s o n o t i c e t h a t the d i a l o g u e i s , i n a sense, "heightened" o r even ( t h a t dreaded word), " p o e t i c " . sandwiched as i t i s between j a z z l y r i c s and the work of t h r e e g r e a t american p o e t s , walt whitman, e z r a pound and c a r l sandburg, t h i s s t y l i z a t i o n o f language seemed the most o r g a n i c treatment p o s s i b l e . i do not i n t e n d the p l a y t o be a throwback t o the l y r i c a l l y b e a u t i f u l , but somehow e m o t i o n a l l y s t e r i l e " p o e t i c t h e a t r e " o f t . s . e l i o t or c h r i s t o p h e r f r y , but r a t h e r , i i n t e n d i t t o be an e x t e n s i o n of the k i n d o f "naive p r i m i t i v i s m " which one f i n d s i n the work o f e a r l y canadian p l a y w r i g h t s l i k e gwen p h a r i s ringwood o r herman voaden. i t i s i n t e n d e d t o be the language o f the l a n d ; i t i s a l s o i n t e n d e d t o be spoken r e a l i s t i c a l l y w h i l e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , p r o v i d i n g a c o u n t e r p o i n t t o the j a z z rhythms which permeate the p l a y . chapter two. danceland. l i t t l e manitou beach, saskatchewan, l a t e august, . characters: l i l y : lloyd: murray: rose: s t y l i s h . t h i r t y t h r e e . a s i n g e r . her husband. mid f i f t i e s . an american bandleader and c l a r i n e t i s t . a l c o h o l i c . l l o y d has o f l a t e been c o n f i n e d t o a w h e e l c h a i r . he has been unable to veric as a m u s i c i a n f o r some t i m e . l a t e t w e n t i e s . handsome. he owns and o p e r a t e s the boat t a x i s e r v i c e on l i t t l e manitou l a k e . m u r r a y ' s daughter. pubescent. set: should be as s i m p l e as p o s s i b l e . e v o c a t i v e , not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . l i g h t and sound a r e the most p e r v a s i v e s c e n i c elements. sound: the a c t o r p l a y i n g l l o y d need not p l a y c l a r i n e t , a l t h o u g h a f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h the embouchure and f i n g e r i n g p a t t e r n s i s h e l p f u l . the p l a y b e n e f i t s from m u s i c a l u n d e r s c o r i n g w i t h s o l o c l a r i n e t . the songs, however, should be sung a c a p e l l a . they a r e more l i k e p r a y e r s o r i n v o c a t i o n s ; a c o n t i n u a t i o n of the a c t i o n of the scenes r a t h e r than m u s i c a l "numbers". note: the name o f the town, b i e n f a i t , i s pronounced "bean-fay". scene one. l l o y d ' s c a b i n . brown's sanatorium. s a t u r d a y . dusk. l l o y d i s s i t t i n g i n h i s w h e e l c h a i r , l e a f i n g through a worn volume o f american p o e t r y . he i s e x c i t e d . h i s hands tremble as he searches through the pages. l i l y i s changing out o f beachwear, g e t t i n g ready t o go down t o the d a n c e h a l l f o r the n i g h t ' s g i g . lloyd: ( f i n d s the poem h e ' s been l o o k i n g f o r . ) h e r e , h e r e , h e r e , h e r e , h e r e . here i t i s , i found i t . e z r a pound, the r i v e r m e r c h a n t ' s w i f e . c'mere; s i d d o w n . . . i want t o read t h i s t o y o u . l i l y : j u s t h o l d your h o r s e s . j e e z , i'm g o i n g t o be l a t e . i knew i d i d n ' t have time to come down here f o r a swim; i should j u s t have met you a t danceland a f t e r the g i g . lloyd: ( g e n t l e . ) come o n . siddown. j u s t s i t down and c l o s e your eyes f o r a minute. t h i s i s b e a u t i f u l . l i l y slams a c h a i r down and then s i t s on i t . he reaches over and s t r o k e s her h a i r . lloyd: l i s t e n . j u s t c l o s e your eyes and l i s t e n . i t ' s the most b e a u t i f u l t h i n g i n the w o r l d . t h i s woman, t h i s chinese woman i s t a l k i n g . . . l i l y : i ' v e heard i t b e f o r e . lloyd: . . . i t h i n k i t ' s supposed t o be h i s g i r l f r i e n d , h i l d a . she was o n l y about s i x t e e n . l i l y : oh, the n a s t y man. lloyd: i t ' s how she f e l t about pound. l i l y : are you sure i t i s n ' t how he f e l t about h i m s e l f ? lloyd: d o n ' t be a c y n i c . s h e ' d do a n y t h i n g f o r him; p r o b a b l y d i e . l i l y : ( d r y . ) lucky him. ( b e a t . ) read me a d i f f e r e n t one, okay? lloyd: a l r i g h t . h e r e . i l o v e t h i s one, i t ' s another pound, i t ' s c a l l e d " a l b a " ; i t ' s l i k e a photograph. (reads.) "as c o o l as the p a l e wet l e a v e s o f l i l y - o f - t h e - v a l l e y she l a y b e s i d e me i n the dawn." pause. lloyd: n i c e , hunh? l i l y : i t ' s a l r i g h t . ( b e a t . ) do they a c t u a l l y do a n y t h i n g , o r does she j u s t keep l y i n g t h e r e l i k e a p l a n t ? lloyd: of c o u r s e . l i l y : does i t say? lloyd: i t ' s i m p l i e d . l i l y : what's i m p l i e d ? lloyd: that t h e y . . . you know. l i l y : what? c r o s s p o l l i n a t e ? she p u r s e s her l i p s t o g e t h e r and p r e t e n d s t o blow some d a n d e l i o n down a t him. l i l y : y o u ' r e a hopeless r o m a n t i c , l l o y d . you s h o u l d get your mind out o f books and back down i n the g u t t e r where i t b e l o n g s . she gets up and resumes d r e s s i n g . l i l y : who e l s e i s i n t h e r e ? anybody a l i t t l e more, o h , s t i m u l a t i n g ? lloyd: ( l e a f i n g t h r o u g h . ) s u r e . l o t s o f p e o p l e . emerson. t h o r e a u . some sandburg. i l i k e sandburg; met him i n a bar i n chicago a c o u p l e o f y e a r s back. l i l y : what's he l i k e ? lloyd: sandburg? he's g r e a t , a g r e a t guy. he accompanies h i m s e l f on g u i t a r when he r e a d s ; h e ' s p r e t t y good, t o o . m u s i c a l but muscular; he w r i t e s r e a l muscular v e r s e . l i l y : oh, i l i k e t h a t . lloyd: (moving o n . ) h e r e ' s a couple by e m i l y d i c k e n s o n . l i l y : that morbid b i t c h . lloyd: l i l y ! l i l y : w e l l , she i s . a l l those tombstones; death r i d i n g p a s t i n a horse drawn c a r r i a g e . lloyd: she was melancholy, t h a t ' s a l l . l i l y : she was c r a z y . d i d you ever meet her? lloyd: no. she d i e d the year i was b o r n . l i l y : lucky y o u . they l a u g h . lloyd: here., h e r e ' s some whitman; walt whitman. "give me the s p l e n d i d s i l e n t sun". does t h a t sound good? whaddaya t h i n k ? l i l y : whatever you want. lloyd: i l o v e you a l l t o p i e c e s . l i l y laughs and resumes d r e s s i n g . l l o y d p i c k s up a b o t t l e o f bourbon o f f the f l o o r b e s i d e him and takes a p u l l o f f i t . then he b e g i n s t o r e a d . lloyd: "give me the s p l e n d i d s i l e n t sun w i t h a l l h i s beams f u l l - d a z z l i n g . g i v e me autumnal f r u i t r i p e and r e d from the o r c h a r d , g i v e me a f i e l d where the unmow'd g r a s s grows, give me an a r b o r , g i v e me the t r e l l i s ' d g r a p e , g i v e me f r e s h c o r n and wheat, g i v e me serene moving animals t e a c h i n g c o n t e n t , g i v e me n i g h t s p e r f e c t l y q u i e t as on h i g h p l a t e a u s west of the m i s s i s s i p p i , and i l o o k i n g up a t the s t a r s . he looks up a t l i l y f o r a moment, then c o n t i n u e s r e a d i n g . . . lloyd: ( c o n t i n u e s . ) "give me odorous at s u n r i s e a garden f u l l o f f l o w e r s where i can walk u n d i s t u r b e d , g i v e me f o r m a r r i a g e a sweet b r e a t h ' d woman of whom i s h o u l d never t i r e , give me a p e r f e c t c h i l d , g i v e m e . . . " he s t o p s r e a d i n g . h i s face i s s t r e a k e d w i t h t e a r s . l i l y : god, i l o v e y o u . he c l o s e s the book and puts i t down. lloyd: ( g r u f f . ) s o r r y . i f o r g o t how maudlin the o l d p e d e r a s t c o u l d be. ( b e a t . ) how was your swim? l i l y : i n v i g o r a t i n g . you s h o u l d t r y i t . lloyd: are you k i d d i n g ? i t ' s a goddamned swamp. l i l y : l i t t l e m a n i t o u s a p l a c e of h e a l i n g , l l o y d . people have been coming here f o r y e a r s ; the a s s i n i b o i n e s , the c r e e . . . lloyd: i t ' s a s m e l l y , s u l p h o u r o u s , e v i l goddamned swamp. the water s t i n k s and the sand i s f u l l o f f l e a s , the g r a s s i s f u l l of t i c k s and the a i r i s f u l l of mosquitoes the s i z e o f goddamned r o o s t e r s ! you c o u l d n ' t get the c l a p cured i n a p l a c e l i k e t h i s . ( b e a t . ) nope. i'm a c i t y guy. gimme the s t r e e t s o f manhattan; g i v e me d e t r o i t , p h i l a d e l p h i a ; g i v e me n i g h t c l u b s and e l l i n g t o n ; satchmo. give me kansas c i t y at dawn. give me new o r l e a n s , w i t h me and the band and you up f r o n t , howling the b l u e s l i k e a wounded s h e - w o l f , s t a n d i n g a l l alone on the jagged edge o f the a t l a n t i c c i t y s h o r e . ( b e a t . ) i s h o u l d have stayed i n chicago and p l a y e d w i t h the band. l i l y : you c o u l d n ' t have p l a y e d w i t h the band. lloyd: i c o u l d ! s i l e n c e . lloyd: i'm a m u s i c i a n , l i l y . i need t o p l a y . ( b e a t . ) howzabout i t ? t o n i g h t . j u s t one s e t . l i l y : not without a r e h e a r s a l , l l o y d . your s t y l e ' s too s t r o n g ; y o u ' l l throw my band o f f s t r i d e . lloyd: so f i r e the bums; w e ' l l swing t h a t d a n c e h a l l s i n g l e h a n d e d . whaddaya say? l i l y : i t ' s not t h a t s i m p l e , i c a n ' t j u s t . . . ( b e a t . ) l e t ' s g i v e i t another week, hunh? i d o n ' t want you t o push y o u r s e l f too h a r d . lloyd: you a f r a i d i ' l l embarass you? l i l y : we've had a g r e a t day, l l o y d . p l e a s e d o n ' t s t a r t . lloyd: i'm not s t a r t i n g a n y t h i n g . pause. l i l y moves away to r e t r i e v e some c l o t h i n g . lloyd: i do embarass y o u , d o n ' t i? l i l y : i'm g o i n g t o p r e t e n d i d i d n ' t hear t h a t , okay? she s t a r t s t o p u l l a l o o s e sundress over her head. lloyd: where'd you get t h a t mark? l i l y s t o p s , m i d - m o t i o n , t o look down a t her h i p . l l o y d wheels over and p u t s h i s hand on h e r . l i l y p l a y f u l l y s l a p s h i s hand away. l i l y : you had a l l a f t e r n o o n f o r t h a t ; you missed your chance. l l o y d grabs a t h e r . lloyd: what i s i t ? a l o v e b i t e ? l i l y : around here? i t ' s more l i k e a f l e a b i t e , and you know i t . l l o y d grabs h o l d o f her hand and won't l e t go. lloyd: what's t h a t supposed t o mean? l i l y : n o t h i n g . j u s t a j o k e . lloyd: you d i s a p p e a r up the beach f o r hours at a t i m e . i d o n ' t know what y o u ' r e d o i n g , o r who y o u ' r e w i t h . . . l i l y : l l o y d , we d i s c u s s e d t h i s b e f o r e we l e f t c h i c a g o . . . lloyd: . . .and how come you have to s t a y i n some fancy h o t e l up i n t o w n . . . l i l y : . . . l l o y d . . . q u i t k i d d i n g a r o u n d . . . lloyd: . . . w h e n i'm s t u c k way the h e l l and gone out here? l i l y : . . . t h a t ' s not f u n n y . . . l e t go! she breaks f r e e . pause. lloyd: i f i so much a s m e l l him on y o u . . . l i l y : what a r e y o u . . . ? d i l l i n g e r ' s dead, l l o y d . sortie woman saw him coming out of a movie t h e a t r e i n chicago l a s t month, the cops s e t up and ambush and shot him down. ( b e a t . ) i ' d b e t t e r go, i'm g o i n g t o be l a t e f o r work. she scoops up the l a s t o f her t h i n g s and heads f o r the d o o r . lloyd: wait a minutei wait a m i n u t e . . . where a r e y o u . . . d o n ' t you walk out on mel i came twelve hundred m i l e s t o t h i s goddamned swamp so t h a t i c o u l d be w i t h y o u . . . l i l y : then be w i t h me! be with me! pause. l i l y : i l o v e y o u , l l o y d . b e l i e v e me. she moves i n t o him and wraps her arms around h i s c h e s t , her face c l o s e t o h i s e a r . l i l y : y o u ' r e my b e s t one; my o n l y one. ( b e a t . ) t e l l you what; i ' l l move my t h i n g s out here from the h o t e l tomorrow. i can always keep the room a t the hiawatha f o r a getaway between s e t s . people i knew as a k i d keep coming backstage t o gawk a t me. p r e s b y t e r i a n s . god. i mean, what do they t h i n k ? i moved t o chicago and grew horns? lloyd: maybe they j u s t wanna look up your ass t o see i f your h a t ' s on s t r a i g h t . they l a u g h . then l i l y moves around and s i t s , g e n t l y , on l l o y d ' s l a p . lloyd: c a r e f u l . c a r e f u l . l i l y a d j u s t s h e r s e l f . l i l y : b e t t e r ? lloyd: i guess. i d o n ' t k n o w . . . l i l y : what? should i get o f f ? she s t a r t s to get o f f him. he stops h e r . lloyd: no, no. i t ' s j u s t . . . i d o n ' t know. ( b e a t . ) sometimes i f e e l l i k e my bones are t r y i n g t o crawl out through my s k i n . ( b e a t . ) y o u ' r e s t i l l so y o u n g . . . ( b e a t . ) d o n ' t leave me, hunh? i couldn't bear i t i f you ever l e f t me. she l e a n s i n and k i s s e s him, l o n g and deep and h a r d . when they f i n i s h k i s s i n g , l i l y gets up o f f l l o y d . s h e ' s c r y i n g . l l o y d reaches out and t a k e s her hand. lloyd: i t d i d n ' t h u r t , you know. the gunshot. i t j u s t s t a r t l e d me more than a n y t h i n g ; t h a t f i r s t e x p l o s i o n . then i was f a l l i n g . i f e l t heat; waves of cramp i n my b e l l y . i t a l l seemed t o be happening so slow. ( b e a t . ) i ' l l never f o r g e t the s i l e n c e ; the s i g h t of those white hotelroom c u r t a i n s hanging s t r a i g h t down; no b r e e z e . then f a r away, a c r o s s the c i t y , i heard the s i r e n s s t a r t to w a i l . p o l i c e . ambulance. ( b e a t . ) jazz everywhere. ( b e a t . ) you were h o v e r i n g over me l i k e an a n g e l . ( b e a t . ) and i f e l t h a t e , l i l y . i remember f e e l i n g h a t e . . . i'm a g e n t l e man; b u t , h a t e . . . i t f e e l s h o t ; l i k e a shot o f bourbon. ( b e a t . ) i l i k e d i t , l i l y . i l i k e d the way hate f e l t . he l e t s go of her hand. pause. lloyd: y o u ' d b e t t e r go, y o u ' r e gonna be l a t e . t h e y ' l l w a i t . l i l y : lloyd: they won't have much c h o i c e . l l o y d p i c k s the b o t t l e o f f the f l o o r and s t a r t s t o wheel away. l i l y : l l o y d ? he s t o p s , but he d o e s n ' t look back. lloyd: yeah? pause. l i l y : save me a shot f o r l a t e r . she t u r n s to leave and almost t r i p s over l i t t l e rose, who has appeared i n the doorway. l i l y : j e s u s ! d i d n ' t anybody t e a c h you t o knock? she takes a q u i c k look back a t l l o y d and then makes her way out the d o o r . rose j u s t stands t h e r e , s t a r i n g a t l l o y d . pause. lloyd: so, what are you s t a r i n g at? rose: n o t h i n ' . lloyd: w e l l , beat i t t h e n . c a n ' t you see i'm busy? rose: y o u ' r e not busy; you were j u s t f i g h t i n ' w i t h your w i f e . lloyd: i s a i d , get l o s t . he wheels away. rose: are you r e a l l y a c r i p p l e ? l l o y d stops and t u r n s back to h e r . lloyd: look. why d o n ' t you go home and t e l l your mother she wants you? rose: because s h e ' s dead. lloyd: oh. s o r r y . pause. rose: i f y o u ' r e a c r i p p l e , how come i seen ya w a l k i n ' w i t h them s t i c k t h i n g s up the road t o the e a s t beach the o t h e r day? lloyd: ( p o i n t e d . ) what do you want? j u s t t e l l me and then go away. rose: my daddy's comin' by i n the boat t o p i c k me up from v i s i t i n ' , and he t o l d me s p e c i a l t o come an' ask yas i f ya wanted a r i d e up t o danceland f o r the d a n c i n ' l a t e r o n , s e e i n ' as how h e ' s g o i n ' up t h e r e anyways an' he says i t must be awful h a r d f o r youse t o get around. lloyd: oh. ( b e a t . ) no. no, t h a n k s . maybe l a t e r . rose: he makes another run a t n i n e , but i t ' l l c o s t you a q u a r t e r , s e e i n ' as how i t ' s a r e g u l a r run an' not a s p e c i a l l i k e t h i s t i m e . lloyd: w e l l , i t h i n k i can a f f o r d i t . i j u s t d o n ' t want t o go y e t . rose approaches him and puts her hand on h i s knee. rose: is i t a r t h u r i t i s ? lloyd: ( s h a r p . ) d o n ' t be s i l l y ! ( b e a t . ) i t ' s n o t . . . i t ' s . . . no, i t ' s not a d i s e a s e . rose: i j u s t thought maybe i t was a r t h u r i t i s . ( b e a t . ) y o u ' l l get b e t t e r , though. l o t s a people do. they come here an' swim i n the l a k e a n ' then go home a l l b e t t e r . t h a t ' s why l i t t l e m a n i t o u ' s c a l l e d the lake of h e a l i n g waters. a l l k i n d s a people come here a l l s i c k an' c r i p p l y , an' then go home b e t t e r . lloyd: ( c o n s i d e r s . ) maybe they do. ( b e a t . ) maybe they do. rose l o o k s a t him f o r a moment. p u z z l e d . rose: d o n ' t be s a d . she s t a r t s to c r a w l up onto h i s l a p . lloyd: c a r e f u l c a r e f u l , c a r e f u l , you might break my bones. lloyd: e a s y . e a s y . t h a t ' s a g i r l . rose s e t t l e s down on h i s l a p and wraps her arms around him. rose: i ' l l be your angel f o r the summer i f you want? murray shouts from o f f , down a t the p i e r . murray: rosel where are ya? rose? rose: i g o t t a go. my daddy's c a l l i n ' . rose: i'm b e i n ' as l i g h t a n ' c a r e f u l as an a n g e l . rose s l i p s o f f l l o y d ' s l a p and s t a r t s t o go. s t o p s . turns back to l l o y d . rose: can i? wouldja l i k e t h a t , i f i was your angel f o r the summer? murray: ( o f f . ) a n g e l ? ! rose?! rose: i c o u l d do s t u f f f o r ya? lloyd: i d o n ' t know, sweetheart. you b e t t e r go. rose: please? lloyd: w e l l . . . ( b e a t . ) whatever you want. rose i s e l a t e d . rose: r e a l l y ? i can h e l p you l i k e an angel? lloyd: s u r e . but the next time you come o v e r , you knock. understand? rose: oh, y e s ! lloyd: now beat i t . she s p i n s on her h e e l s and heads out the d o o r , y e l l i n g a t the top of her l u n g s . . . rose: daddy! daddy! i got somebody t o h e l p , j u s t l i k e an a n g e l ! i got somebody t o h e l p ! i got somebody to h e l p ! l l o y d watches her go. s m i l e s . then wheels a c r o s s the room. there i s t h u n d e r , low and rumbling i n the d i s t a n c e . fade out a s . . . a smokey j a z z r i f f p l a y s . scene two. fade i n . the i n t e r i o r of d a n c e l a n d . e a r l y sunday morning. dawn i s b r e a k i n g through a s i n g l e pane window. a d u s t y white c u r t a i n b i l l o w s on a g e n t l e b r e e z e . l i l y walks through the d e s e r t e d d a n c e h a l l , smoking a c i g a r e t t e . her s i l k d r e s s i n g gown flows out behind h e r . l i l y : ( s i n g s t o h e r s e l f . ) weatherman once the s k i e s were b l u e now each d a y ' s c o l d and g r a y won't you chase the c l o u d s away? i c a n ' t endure the temperature. weatherman i depend on y o u . in my h e a r t t h e r e ' s a c h i l l where t h e r e used t o be a t h r i l l . i need my man weatherman. the winds a r e b l o w i n ' i shake and s h i v e r my thoughts are g o i n ' down t o the r i v e r . . . the doors to danceland swing open. s u n l i g h t s l a s h e s i n t o the s p a c e . l i l y i s s t a r t l e d . she stops s i n g i n g a b r u p t l y . a man i s s t a n d i n g i n the doorway, framed by the l i g h t . l i l y c a n ' t make out who he i s . murray: ( l a c o n i c a l l y . ) knock, knock. s i l e n c e . l i l y : murray? murray: yup. l i l y : you gave me q u i t e a s t a r t . murray: s o r r y , m i s s . i never thought. l i l y : what a r e you d o i n g here a t t h i s h o u r , s h o u l d n ' t you be g e t t i n g ready f o r church? murray: no, m i s s . we d o n ' t a t t e n d . l i l y : ( d r y . ) smart. rose comes b u r s t i n g i n from the shadows b e h i n d m u r r a y . rose: l i l y : we used to go, j e s u s ! but daddy l o s t b e l i e f . murray: no, i n e v e r . you hush, rose. i ' v e got my own ways. ( b e a t . ) s o r r y , m i s s . we d i d n ' t mean to s t a r t l e y a . l i l y : i t ' s a l r i g h t . i j u s t wasn't e x p e c t i n g anyone. the guys i n the band c l e a r out p r e t t y q u i c k l y a f t e r the l a s t s e t , but sometimes i l i k e to s t a y and watch the sun come up. murray: rose: i know. t h a t ' s the b e s t way t o say h e l l o to god, i s n ' t i t ? l i l y : y e s . y e s , i t i s . i never thought of i t t h a t way. rose: he l i v e s i n the l a k e , d o e s n ' t he, daddy? murray: so they say. rose: he l i v e s i n e v e r y t h i n g . in e v e r y l i v i n g t h i n g . t h a t ' s why we d o n ' t have t o go t o c h u r c h ; we can t a l k to god w i t h o u t a p r e a c h e r . rose h o l d s out a w i l d f l o w e r . rose: t h i s i s f o r y o u . l i l y takes the f l o w e r . l i l y : where d i d you f i n d t h i s ? rose: growing a l o n g the road by the l a k e . l i l y : i t ' s b e a u t i f u l . thank y o u . ( b e a t . ) how d i d you know i ' d be here t o g i v e i t to? rose b l u s h e s and l o o k s t o m u r r a y . rose: the god i n the l a k e t o l d me t o . . . murray: ( i n t e r r u p t s . ) we were g o i n ' down t o the p i e r t o s t a r t the boat f o r the mornin' run up the l a k e t o brown's when i seen y e r husband, l l o y d , s i t t i n g down t h e r e on h i s w h e e l c h a i r . l i l y : l l o y d ? ( b e a t . ) oh, j e s u s , he was supposed t o w a i t a t home. she goes t o the window and looks down t o the p i e r . murray: s u r e . he's been s i t t i n ' down t h e r e ever s i n c e i brung him up the l a k e , about n i n e o ' c l o c k l a s t n i g h t . i w o u l d n ' t worry about him, though; i ' v e been k e e p i n ' an eye on him; i even went down a couple times l a s t n i g h t and asked him why he d i d n ' t j u s t come on i n s i d e l i k e everybody e l s e ? murray: ( c o n t i n u e s . . . ) ( b e a t . ) he's been d r i n k i n ' a l o t , eh? c u r s i n ' and d r i n k i n ' an' p l a y i n ' a l o n g w i t h you on h i s c l a r i n e t ; he never missed a song, a l l n i g h t . ( b e a t . ) c r a z y , eh? l i l y : something l i k e t h a t . i ' d b e t t e r s c o o t . l i l y s t a r t s to go. murray: oh, i ' d l e a v e him out t h e r e t o sober up; i ' d l e t him c o o l down a b i t i f i was y o u . w e ' l l take him i n the boat w i t h us when we go; t e l l him how g r e a t you were l a s t n i g h t ; how me an' rose walked ya home a l o n e t o the hiawatha r i g h t a f t e r the show. ( b e a t . ) i hate people when t h e y ' r e a c t i n ' c r a z y ; the s c a r e the bejesus o u t t a me. pause. rose: i'm named a f t e r y o u . l i l y : is t h a t so? murray: (embarassed. ) w e l l , y a b o t h got the name of f l o w e r s . l i l y l a u g h s . rose: a n ' we were w a t c h i n ' you through the c r a c k i n the door 'cause i wanted to see the l a d y i'm named a f t e r , an' daddy s a i d we c o u l d , but o n l y t h i s once, but he bumped the door an' made a n o i s e , so we hadta open i t . murray: we were not s p y i n ' . you q u i t l y i n ' , rose. rose: i'm not l y i n ' . murray: y e s , y a a r e . now you go on down t o the boat an' s t a r t b a i l i n ' . r o s e : b u t , d a d d y . . . murray: i s a i d , g i t g o i n ' or i ' l l send ya home an' never b r i n g y a out f o r the mornin' run up the l a k e a g a i n . rose: but i n e v e r . . . murray: rose, i mean i t . god says l y i n ' s a s i n , an' you l i e d . now g e t . rose runs out the d o o r . i t creaks and slams shut b e h i n d h e r . murray: k i d s , eh? pause. l i l y : thanks. murray: for what? l i l y : the a d v i c e . no sense i n u p s e t t i n g him any f a r t h e r . what's a l i t t l e white l i e ? murray: a l i t t l e white l i e . they b o t h l a u g h . in the d i s t a n c e , l l o y d , down on the p i e r , s t a r t s t o p l a y " i t ' s a s i n to t e l l a l i e " . l i l y laughs and begins t o s i n g a l o n g w i t h the c l a r i n e t , t e a s i n g m u r r a y . l i l y : be sure i t ' s t r u e when you say i l o v e y o u . i t ' s a s i n t o t e l l a l i e . m i l l i o n s of h e a r t s have been broken j u s t because these words were spoken "i l o v e y o u . y e s , i do. i l o v e you". i f you break my h e a r t i ' l l d i e . so be sure t h a t i t ' s t r u e when you say i l o v e you i t ' s a s i n t o t e l l a l i e . she sprawls out on the f l o o r i n f r o n t o f him l i k e a b i g c a t , l a u g h i n g a t her own j o k e . pause. murray: i remember you from s c h o o l up at watrous, b e f o r e you went away t o be a s i n g e r . ( b e a t . ) i remember when ya l e f t h e r e . boy, d i d people t a l k . (he l a u g h s . ) i t ' s no wonder ya s t a y e d away so l o n g . you c o u l d n ' t a come back i f ya wanted. at l e a s t not u n t i l ya got famous enought t a rub i t i n t h e i r noses. l i l y : rub t h e i r noses i n i t . murray: whatever. pause. l i l y : i d i d n ' t , you know. murray: what? l i l y : come back t o rub t h e i r noses i n i t . murray: i know. l i l y : what do you know? murray: why you come b a c k . l i l y : you do, do you? murray: yeah. i do. ( b e a t . ) ya come back because ya c o u l d n ' t s t a y away. l i l y : i came back because my husband i s i l l . murray: an' ya knew t h a t ya c o u l d b r i n g him back here an' the l a k e would h e l p him get b e t t e r . l i t t l e m a n i t o u ' s a s a n c t u a r y ; maybe i t d o e s n ' t look l i k e eden i n the b i b l e , but i t ' s an eden j u s t the same. where e l s e c o u l d ya see a b l a d e a g r a s s throw a shadow f i v e f e e t long? l i l y : i know. murray: i know ya know. t h a t ' s why ya come back. l i l y : i know. murray: t o l d y a , d i d n ' t i? l i l y : y e s , you d i d . i suppose you d i d , y e s . she gets up and goes t o the window o v e r l o o k i n g the l a k e . l i l y : i t ' s so b e a u t i f u l . the l a k e . so b l u e a g a i n s t the brown o f the h i l l s . ( b e a t . ) i t ' s funny how smooth they l o o k . murray: t h e y ' r e n o t , ya know. l i l y : i know. l l o y d and i took the t r a i n out from c h i c a g o . i t ' s a l o t slower than coming out by c a r , but i t ' s e a s i e r f o r him t o t r a v e l t h a t way now. we used t o d r i v e e v e r y w h e r e . . . s t . l o u i s . new o r l e a n s . new y o r k . once we even drove a l l the way t o mexico c i t y , j u s t l i k e a couple o f o u t l a w s , then a l l the way back home t o c h i c a g o . but you know what's funny? on a l l those car t r i p s i never once saw the l a n d as c l e a r l y as i saw i t from the t r a i n . and you know what? i t s c a r e d me. i t s c a r e d the l i v i n g d a y l i g h t s out of me to see how the h i l l s are covered w i t h rose bushes and t h i s t l e and l i t t l e b i t s o f s h a t t e r e d r o c k , and how e v e r y t h i n g i s d r i e d up, s t u n t e d , t w i s t e d out o f shape because the sky i s l y i n g r i g h t on top o f i t . murray: ( e n t r a n c e d . ) i l i k e d r i v i n ' over the p r a i r i e i n a c a r . i t makes ya f e e l r e a l s m a l l , l i k e a mouse r u n n i n ' over a t u r t l e ' s back. pause. murray: i . . . i . . . i s h o u l d be h e a d i n ' out soon. l i l y : d o n ' t h u r r y away on my a c c o u n t . murray: i'm n o t . i t ' s j u s t . . . what a b o u t . . . ? he nods toward rose and l l o y d , down a t the p i e r . l i l y : i t ' s a l r i g h t . rose i s p r o b a b l y t e a c h i n g him how to s k i p r o c k s . pause. murray: i b e t t e r go. pause. murray: i never been anyplace e l s e l i k e you have. w e l l , nowhere s p e c i a l l i k e chicago or new york c i t y . but i can t e l l ya t h a t t h i s p l a c e i s s p e c i a l , t o o , a n t h a t ' s why ya can f e e l the sky l y i n ' r i g h t on top of y a . but i t ' s a good l y i n ' on top of y a , l i k e a t n i g h t when ya were a k i d an' y a ' d s c a r e y e r s e l f an' then pray t a jesus an' h e ' d come an' cover ya a l l over w i t h a warm b l a n k e t of l o v e . l i l y : i see. murray: i know ya do, m i s s . l i l y : l i l y . murray: a l r i g h t . l i l y . i l i k e t h a t . l i l y . ( b e a t . ) l i l y . ( b e a t . ) i never knew anybody famous. ( b e a t . ) but you d o n ' t count, do y a , 'cause i a l r e a d y knew ya b e f o r e . w e l l , s o r t o f . i seen ya around here anyway, when we were k i d s . up a t s c h o o l , o r down a t the e a s t beach, o r smokin' c i g a r e t t e s w i t h the o l d e r guys down under the l a t t i c e work below here at danceland. ( b e a t . ) an' l a t e one n i g h t when i was about t w e l v e , i seen ya l y i n ' a l l a l o n e on the p i e r an' i thought to myself t h a t a l l the soundsa the d a n c i n ' an' the music f l o a t i n ' o u t t a here i n danceland was j u s t a dream an' here we were, the o n l y two s o u l s i n the u n i v e r s e an' b o t h o f us h e a r i n ' the same t h i n g s , j u s t l i k e adam an' e v e . l i l y : nothing but s i l e n c e mixing w i t h the music o f the s p h e r e s . s i l e n c e . murray: was i t h e a r i n ' the music t h a t made ya want t o be a d a n c e h a l l s i n g e r , o r d i d j a always want t a be one? l i l y : always. she p u l l s out a pack o f smokes. l i l y : want one? murray: oh, no. thank y o u , m i s s . . . l i l y . l i l y : oh, come o n . you smoke. i ' v e seen you l o t s o f t i m e s . have a smoke w i t h me, then you can take l l o y d on up t o brown's w i t h y o u . pause. murray takes a c i g a r e t t e . murray: thanks. pause. l i l y l i g h t s t h e i r smokes. murray: d i d you r e a l l y see me l o t s o f times? l i l y : s u r e . y o u ' r e always d r i v i n g p a s t me i n your b o a t . murray: i know. i always see you w a l k i n ' a l o n g the s h o r e . l i l y : then you should wave, s i l l y . murray: i wanted t o a c o u p l a t i m e s , but you always looked l i k e you wanted t o be a l o n e , so i n e v e r . l i l y : w e l l , next time wave. pause. murray: where e l s e d i d j a see me? l i l y : i d o n ' t know. l o t s of p l a c e s . murray: l i k e where? l i l y : a l l o v e r . a t the t r a i n s t a t i o n i n watrous. murray: where e l s e ? l i l y : what's t h i s ? murray: j u s t t e l l me where ya seen me l i k e i t o l d where i seen y o u . l i l y : a l r i g h t . i ' v e seen you d r i v i n g down the l a k e i n your b o a t ; i ' v e seen you p i c k i n g up passengers w i t h your car at the t r a i n s t a t i o n ; and l a t e l a s t n i g h t i saw you out i n the middle of the l a k e , d i v i n g naked o f f your boat and p l a y i n g l i k e a d o l p h i n i n the m o o n l i g h t . murray: i know. i seen ya w a t c h i n ' me. i wanted t a swim over to y a an' t a l k , but i was too embarassed, so i j u s t s t a y e d i n the l a k e , swimmin' an' p l a y i n ' , u n t i l ya l e f t an' went back i n t a h e r e , i n d a n c e l a n d . l i l y : i knew y o u ' d seen me. t h a t ' s why i s t a y e d so l o n g . ( b e a t . ) you s u r p r i s e me. murray: do i? l i l y : oh, y e s . oh, y e s , you do. she moves away from him. pause. murray: so, we're even, eh? l i l y : how so? murray: you were w a t c h i n ' me j u s t l i k e i watched you t h a t n i g h t when i was t w e l v e . l i l y : i suppose so. but we're not c h i l d r e n anymore, are we? pause. murray: do ya l i k e w a t c h i n ' people? l i l y : sometimes. murray: me, t o o . pause. murray: d i d j a ever see y e r s e l f ? l i k e t u r n around an' see y e r s e l f comin' up b e h i n d ya? l i l y : i d o n ' t t h i n k s o , no. murray: i d i d . once when i was twenty f o u r . a n ' i t sure d i d s u r p r i s e me 'cause m o s t l y i j u s t keep an eye out f o r what o t h e r s are d o i n ' , eh? l i l y l a u g h s . murray catches her by the jaw. murray: no. r e a l l y . d o n ' t l a u g h . he r e l e a s e s h e r . murray: one n i g h t i c o u l d n ' t s l e e p , an' then j u s t b e f o r e dawn i got up a n ' went f o r a walk. j u s t t a see the sun comin' up an' t o hear the b i r d s s t a r t t a s i n g i n ' . an' i walked a l o n g here by the l a k e , an' nobody e l s e was around, j u s t l i k e t h i s m o r n i n ' . an' i walked an' walked, an' s a i d a l i t t l e p r a y e r t a the l o r d t a thank him f o r a l l the beauty a n ' such around me, an' then i s a t down on t h i s b i g murray: ( c o n t i n u e s . . . ) rock b e s i d e the l a k e , j u s t l o o k i n ' at the sun comin' up a n a t the water movin' by, an' then i j u s t k i n d a f e l l a s l e e p but my eyes were open a n i c o u l d see e v e r y t h i n g but i was a s l e e p , s i t t i n ' t h e r e l o o k i n ' out at n a t u r e , when a l l o f a sudden t h i s snake s l i t h e r s o u t t a the g r a s s r i g h t i n f r o n t a me. i t was j u s t a g a r t e r snake, r i g h t . t h a t ' s the o n l y k i n d we got h e r e , so i t never s c a r e d me o r n o t h i n ' , i t j u s t got my a t t e n t i o n r e a l q u i c k . so i looked up, an' t h e r e i was, w a l k i n ' down the p a t h toward m y s e l f . ( b e a t . ) i guess t h a t snake s t a r t l e d me a n ' my body woke up b e f o r e my s o u l d c o u l d get back i n t o i t . a n ' i t ' s a l u c k y t h i n g , t o o , i t was a snake i seen, an' not a p e r s o n , 'cause i f a p e r s o n c r o s s e s y e r p a t h w h i l e y e r s o u l ' s o u t t a y e r body they can snap the l i t t l e t h r e a d t h a t keeps i t connected, an' then y e r s o u l d c a n ' t f i n d y a , a n ' i t h a s t a spend a l l e t e r n i t y roamin' around, l o o k i n ' f o r y a , so i t can get back i n t o ya through y e r e y e b a l l s , which i s where i t come o u t . ( b e a t . ) so t h a t made me s t a r t t h i n k i n ' about h a v i n ' a s o u l , an' b e i n ' one a god's c h i l d r e n , but s t i l l b e i n ' a p a r t o f the animal w o r l d , t o o , an' how sometimes t h i n g s mean t h i n g s . i mean, they c a n ' t happen a l l by themselves, can they? l i l y : no. they c a n ' t . pause. l i l y : how o l d ' s your daughter? murray: twelve. l i l y : where's her mother? murray: i dunno. up n o r t h , p r o b ' l y , i d o n ' t know. l i l y : why d i d n ' t she take the c h i l d ? murray: she d i d . s o r t o f . f o r a w h i l e , anyway. then she brought i t back home an' took back o f f w i t h some guy from b a t t l e f o r d , who works a t the sask. ( b e a t . ) c r a z y , hunh? ( b e a t . ) she was an i n d i a n . ( b e a t . ) so a f t e r t h a t , i hadta look a f t e r rose. a n my mom s a i d s h e ' d h e l p ; t h a t y e r l i f e i s y e r l i f e , an' y e r c h i l d i s y e r c h i l d , an' s h o u l d n ' t be made t a be brought up i n the ways o f s t r a n g e r s . ( b e a t . ) t h a t ' s why we d o n ' t go t o c h u r c h anymore. ( b e a t . ) 'cause o f a l l the g o s s i p goes o n . ( b e a t . ) so, i'm not r e a l l y m a r r i e d anymore. w e l l , i am, but j u s t s o r t a . he moves to l i l y . pause. murray: y o u ' r e the one who's m a r r i e d . l i l y : s o r t o f . s i l e n c e . murray: look. the s k y ' s t u r n i n ' i n s i d e o u t . l i l y : y e s . dawn. murray moves i n b e h i n d h e r . they b o t h gaze out the window. murray: the whole sky l o o k s l i k e i t ' s t u r n e d i n s i d e o u t , an' y e r l o o k i n ' down a t i s l a n d s i n the ocean. l i l y : how do you know what the ocean looks l i k e ? murray: i d o n ' t . but i can imagine. l i l y : i ' l l bet you c a n . murray: i love imaginin'. i t's ray f a v o u r i t e t h i n g t a do; besides watchin' people. a n ' every day, winter an' summer, a l l year long, year a f t e r year, ya can look at the sky an' imagine i t ' s . . . a very b e a u t i f u l woman. pause. he begins to n i b b l e on her neck and fondle her b r e a s t s . pause. l i l y moves away from him and stubs out her c i g a r e t t e . l i l y : i've been watching you. murray: i know. i seen ya doin' i t . l i l y : i know. i ' ve seen you see me. she moves i n t o h i s arms and they begin to make love as they dance. murray: when i see my arms goin' around your shoulder blades i f e e l l i k e i'm h o l d i n ' b i r d bones. my arms look bigger than they r e a l l y are, an' my veins s t i c k out a l l blue an' muscley the way i always t h i n k a man's arms should look an' mine never do. l i l y : ssssssshhhhhh! don't t a l k . she pushes h i s s h i r t up o f f h i s chest and nuzzles on h i s n i p p l e s and b e l l y . murray: mmmmmmmmm. so s o f t . so s o f t . he l i f t s her face to h i s , and they exchange long, deep k i s s e s . he undoes her d r e s s i n g gown and s t a r t s to k i s s her b r e a s t s . the door swings open and rose comes r u n n i n g i n t o the d a n c e h a l l . rose: m r . l l o y d says t o . . . she stops dead i n her t r a c k s , t u r n s and heads back t o the d o o r . murray: ( b e l l o w s . ) rose! you get back h e r e . you s i t . he p o i n t s t o the ground a t h i s f e e t . rose h e e l s l i k e an o b e d i e n t dog. murray: now you s t a y p u t . what d i d you see? rose: n o t h i n ' . murray: were you s p y i n ' ? rose: no. murray: d o n ' t l i e , rose. were you s p y i n ' ? l i l y : i t ' s a l r i g h t , m u r r a y . she wasn't s p y i n g , were you rose? rose: no, m i s s . murray: are ya sure? are ya sure ya never seen us n e c k i n ' ? rose: no. murray: good. or e l s e i ' l l take ya out an l e a v e ya a t the s i d e a the road f e r , f e r t h a t t h a t american f e l l a , unh, unh, d i l l i n g e r , yeah, d i l l i n g e r , t a g i t . rose: ( t e r r i f i e d . ) d o n ' t , daddy. d o n ' t . murray: h e ' s . . . h e ' s h i d i n ' up a t b i e n f a i t . i . . . i seen him m y s e l f . a l i t t l e guy i n a hat an' g l a s s e s . an american f e l l a . a n ' he comes up here l o o k i n ' f e r l i t t l e g i r l s who spy, an' he p i c k s them up o f f the s i d e a the road an' takes them away t a feed to h i s dogs. rose: i wasn't s p y i n ' . honest. l i l y : y o u ' r e s c a r i n g h e r , murray, so stop i t . i t ' s a l r i g h t honey, your daddy d i d n ' t mean to s c a r e y o u , d i d you murray? murray: no. but i f y e r l y i n ' , rose, y e r gonna g i t such a h i d i n . . . rose: y o u ' r e the l i a r , daddy! y o u ' r e the l i a r ! murray: ohhh. i am n o t . i am n o t . he s t a r t s to move i n on rose. l i l y : murray, d i l l i n g e r ' s dead and you know i t . some woman saw him coming out o f a movie t h e a t r e i n chicago l a s t month and c a l l e d the c o p s . they s e t up an ambush and shot him down. murray: a n ' he had h i s f a c e changed, so how do you know i t was r e a l l y him t h a t they shot down? oh, come on. l i l y : murray: a n how come the mounties been around, l o o k i n f o r an american f e l l a they say d i d the k i l l i n ' up i n b i e n f a i t l a s t week? why'd anybody except d i l l i n g e r wanna come a l l the way up here j u s t t a do a k i l l i n ' when t h e r e ' s p l e n t y t a do r i g h t a t home i n the s t a t e s ? no. no, i t was him i seen. i know i t . he's h e r e . he's here h i d i n ' out a g a i n , j u s t l i k e he does every summer, an' h e ' l l g i t ya rose i f ya d o n ' t come over here r i g h t now an' take a good l i c k i n ' . rose s h r i e k s and c l i n g s t o l i l y f o r s a f e t y . rose: nooooooooooooooooo ! l i l y : d o n ' t f r i g h t e n the c h i l d . murray: d o n ' t t e l l me how t a r a i s e my d a u g h t e r . l i l y : i'm n o t t e l l i n g you how t o . . . murray: you d o n ' t even have one, so how would you know how to r a i s e i t ? l i l y : because i remember what i t f e l t l i k e t o be one! murray: rose! g i t over here r i g h t now, i'm gonna tan y e r h i d e f o r d i s o b e d i e n c e ! rose c l i n g s harder t o l i l y . rose: nooooooooooooooooo! murray: i s a i d , g i t over h e r e ! he grabs rose from l i l y , and throws the c h i l d a c r o s s the f l o o r . l i l y and rose scream t o g e t h e r . . . l i l y / r o s e : noooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo the c h i l d h i t s the f l o o r , and murray p u l l s h i s b e l t out of h i s b e l t l o o p s i n a s i n g l e motion. l i l y lunges a t him and grabs h i s u p r a i s e d arm. murray stops dead. s u r p r i s e d by her s t r e n g t h . l i l y : i ' l l t e l l you something, m u r r a y . d i l l i n g e r ' s n o t dead. i l i e d . he d i d have h i s face changed. then he drove twelve hundred m i l e s up here w i t h the f . b . i , on h i s t a i l , because h e ' s a f r i e n d of mine and he knew i ' d h e l p him o u t . t h a t ' s h i s white chevy c o n v e r t i b l e t h a t ' s been parked out b e h i n d the hiawatha h o t e l a l l week. he h i d e s out i n my d r e s s i n g room. so i f you l a y so much as one f i n g e r on t h a t c h i l d , o r mention so much as one word about what went on i n here t h i s morning, i'm g o i n g to whisper i n h i s ear what a dangerous son o f a b i t c h you r e a l l y a r e , and h e ' l l hunt you down and put a b u l l e t through your b r a i n j u s t l i k e he d i d t o t h a t poor b a s t a r d o f a u n i o n man up i n b i e n f a i t l a s t week. s i l e n c e . murray: c'mon, rose. we g o t t a go. he h o i s t s rose up o f f the f l o o r and h u r r i e s to the d o o r . as he g e t s t h e r e , he t u r n s back t o l i l y . murray: w e ' l l take y e r husband, l l o y d , w i t h u s , t o o . t h e r e ' s no p o i n t i n h i s w a i t i n ' around a l l m o r n i n ' f o r an a d u l t e r e s s . murray and rose plunge through the doors and run down to the p i e r . s u n l i g h t b l a s t s p a s t them u n t i l the double doors slam s h u t . l i l y i s i n a s t a t e o f shock. l i l y : ( q u i e t l y . ) jesus c h r i s t ! fade o u t . scene three. fade i n . l l o y d ' s c a b i n . e a r l y a f t e r n o o n . sunday. i t i s extremely h o t . l l o y d i s a l o n e , s h a r i n g a couple o f s t i f f c o c k t a i l s w i t h h i m s e l f and working on some new arrangements. he hums a few n o t e s , then t r i e s to w r i t e them down. he's not b e i n g too s u c c e s s f u l and i s g e t t i n g f r u s t r a t e d . he snaps h i s p e n c i l i n h a l f and slams back a c o u p l e b e l t s of r y e . lloyd: j a z z . c h r i s t . what a l i f e . he t o s s e s h i s sheet music i n t o the a i r . i t f a l l s down around him l i k e snowflakes. he hears f o o t s t e p s a p p r o a c h i n g . l i l y : ( o f f . ) l l o y d ? l l o y d wheels away i n t o a dark c o r n e r . we hear the p e r s i s t e n t drone o f f l i e s . l i l y e n t e r s , c a r r y i n g a couple o f s m a l l s u i t c a s e s . l i l y : l l o y d ? s i l e n c e . she puts the s u i t c a s e s down, then s t a r t s t o p i c k up the sheafs o f sheet music. lloyd: (from the shadows.) looking f o r something? l i l y : l l o y d ! ? lloyd: s u r p r i s e , s u r p r i s e . l i l y : y o u ' r e h e r e . lloyd: i l i v e i n t h i s h o v e l , y o u ' r e the one has t o s t a y i n a fancy h o t e l . l i l y : n i c e t o see y o u , t o o . y o u ' r e i n a good mood. lloyd: i d o n ' t have moods. l i l y : good. n e i t h e r do i . ( b e a t . ) are these your new arrangements? i t o l d the boys i n the band i ' d work w i t h them l a t e r t o d a y . lloyd: oh, you d i d , d i d you? and where do i f i t i n t o t h e s e p l a n s ? l i l y : w e l l . . . you d o n ' t . i t ' s my band. lloyd: and t h e y ' r e my arrangements. l i l y : i know, but i t ' s our n i g h t o f f and we've been p l a y i n g the same tunes f o r two weeks now, we need some new m a t e r i a l . i j u s t thought i ' d take them down to danceland and run through them a couple o f t i m e s . lloyd: w e l l , t h i n k a g a i n , m i s s y . think a g a i n . l i l y : but you wrote them f o r me. lloyd: i wrote them f o r me. t h e y ' r e my t i c k e t out of here and i'm not g i v i n g them t o anybody u n l e s s i get t o see a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the a c t i o n . those clowns i n your band c a n ' t even r e a d . you t h i n k i want people h e a r i n g farmers p l a y my arrangements? l i l y : t h e y ' r e not f a r m e r s . t h e y ' r e from saskatoon. lloyd: same d i f f e r e n c e . t h e y ' r e so white t h e y ' r e almost b l u e . who the h e l l do you t h i n k you a r e , l e a v i n g me s t r a n d e d on a p i e r . . . l i l y : lloyd: i d i d n ' t leave you s t r a n d e d . . . i n the middle o f on a p i e r . . . i d i d n ' t even h e l l ' s h a l f a c r e a l l know you were t h e r e n i g h t and then come w a l t z i n g i n here t o s t e a l my arrangements as i f n o t h i n g happened l i l y : i wasn't s t e a l i n g your arrangements; i was j u s t going t o borrow them! lloyd: borrow! is t h a t what you c a l l i t ? borrow? r i g h t . and t e a c h them to a bunch of t h i e v i n g m u s i c i a n s ; the next t h i n g i know i'm h e a r i n g my tunes on the r a d i o and h a v e n ' t got a penny to show f o r i t . s i x months work spread around as f r e e and easy as a case of c r a b s . l i l y : d o n ' t be so v u l g a r . lloyd: oh, i f o r g o t . you r e g a i n e d your v i r g i n i t y when we c r o s s e d the b o r d e r . l i l y : stop i t , l l o y d , i'm s i c k of i t . you throw a j e a l o u s c o n n i p t i o n f i t a t l e a s t twice a day! i do n o t ! lloyd: l i l y : y e s , you d o . you h a v e n ' t l e t up on me s i n c e we got h e r e . two whole weeks. lloyd: and i ' v e got seven more weeks t o go; day a f t e r day cooped up i n t h i s hades hot c a b i n l i s t e n i n g t o the goddamned f l i e s r i c o c h e t o f f the screens w h i l e you s t a y up i n town screwing around w i t h the l o c a l p l a y b o y s . l i l y : i am not screwing around w i t h the l o c a l . . . lloyd: murray t o l d me he saw some man h i d i n g i n your d r e s s i n g room t h i s morning. l i l y : t h a t ' s s t u p i d , l l o y d . how c o u l d murray see somebody who wasn't t h e r e ? lloyd: maybe h e ' s c l a i r v o y a n t . l i l y : t h a t ' s a l a u g h . lloyd: i f t h a t sucker had h a l f a b r a i n i t ' d be l o n e l y , but he d o e s n ' t have any reason to l i e to me. he came r u n n i n g out of danceland t h i s morning as i f h e ' d seen the d e v i l h i m s e l f . he p r a c t i c a l l y kidnapped me o f f the p i e r . i wanted to s t a y and spend the morning a t the h o t e l w i t h y o u , but he w o u l d n ' t l e t me. he was s t u t t e r i n g away and h i s daughter was c r y i n g ; they drove me up the l a k e l i k e a bat out o f h e l l and dumped me out on the beach. i had t o crawl up f o r h e l p to push t h i s goddamned w h e e l c h a i r through the sand and i want t o know where the h e l l you've been! l i l y : p a c k i n g ! g e t t i n g ready t o move out here w i t h y o u , a l r i g h t ? ! lloyd: murray says d i l l i n g e r ' s here and the mounties a r e l o o k i n g f o r him. t h a t ' s why you s t a y e d up a t danceland a l l n i g h t i s n ' t i t ? the papers say he had h i s face changed. l i l y : f o r god's sake, calm down. lloyd: i am not hysterical! i took a b u l l e t i n the b e l l y from t h a t son o f a b i t c h , and i am not h y s t e r i c a l ! l i l y : we were shooting cocaine, we were not screwing! i t ' s not my f a u l t you came b u s i n g i n t o a p r i v a t e h o t e l r o o m . he thought you were a cop. j e a l o u s y , l l o y d ! one o f these days i t ' s g o i n g to k i l l y o u . ( b e a t . ) i was a t the h o t e l . p a c k i n g . a l r i g h t ? e i t h e r a c c e p t my word on i t o r i ' l l pack your waxy o l d c a r c a s s back onto the t r a i n t o c h i c a g o . lloyd: you w o u l d n ' t d a r e . l i l y : j u s t watch me. ( b e a t . ) i d o n ' t know why i d i d n ' t dump you y e a r s ago. lloyd: because you needed my t a l e n t ; you s t i l l do! l i l y : i d o n ' t b e l i e v e t h i s . lloyd: i made you who you are and now t h a t i'm a c r i p p l e , you j u s t shuck me o f f onto the f l o o r l i k e a used r u b b e r . h e l l , the maid' be around i n the morning to p i c k me up. ( b e a t . ) you sucked my t a l e n t l i k e a vampire. sometimes when we'd make l o v e , your hands f e l t l i k e claws i n my back, and i ' d hear your tongue so l o u d i n my e a r , s u c k i n g and s u c k i n g , t r y i n g to suck the music r i g h t out o f my b r a i n , and i ' d know you needed me and i ' d know you hated me f o r i t . l i l y : d i l l i n g e r ? ! f o r the l a s t t i m e , l l o y d , d i l l i n g e r ' s dead! y o u ' r e h y s t e r i c a l l i l y : y o u ' r e wrong about when i s t a r t e d to hate y o u . ( b e a t . ) i t d i d n ' t s t a r t i n b e d . i might have needed you, and god knows i worshipped your t a l e n t , worshipped i t t o the p o i n t where i d i d n ' t t h i n k i had any m y s e l f . lloyd: oh, come o n . . . l i l y : i s t a r t e d to hate y o u . . . i s t a r t e d t o hate you the moment you walked i n t o t h a t hotelroom i n c h i c a g o . lloyd: so what was i supposed t o do? l i l y : the look on your f a c e . . . lloyd: keep on p l a y i n g b l a c k j a c k . . . l i l y : you were p u r p l e w i t h r a g e . . . lloyd: . . . d o w n i n the bar? l i l y : jealousy, lloyd! jealousy! lloyd: you were my wife! l i l y : you were s h o u t i n g . . . lloyd: i loved you! l i l y : you were s h o u t i n g . . . lloyd: i l o v e d you! l i l y : you took away my c h o i c e ! lloyd: i l o v e d y o u . l i l y : you d e s t r o y e d my freedom. ( b e a t . ) you have no i d e a what you walked i n o n . the freedom. the p o s s i b i l i t i e s . to be i n t h a t room w i t h t h a t man. to be s i t t i n g t h e r e w i t h john d i l l i n g e r , the most dangerous man i n the w o r l d . . . i was f l y i n g . i was f r e e . maybe j u s t f o r a minute. maybe j u s t f o r a couple o f h o u r s , but jesus c h r i s t , i c o u l d have been f r e e and i f a p e r s o n c a n ' t be f r e e i n t h i s l i f e , even i f i t ' s o n l y f o r long enough t o f e e l an a s s a s s i n ' s b u l l e t i n your b r a i n , then i t sure as h e l l i s n ' t worth l i v i n g . ( b e a t . ) y o u ' r e not the man i m a r r i e d . y o u ' v e become u n b e l i e v a b l y c r u e l . i d i d not suck your t a l e n t . you were t h i r t y f o u r when we met; i was o n l y s i x t e e n , what d i d i know? i ' d run away from home. i ' d o n l y been i n chicago f o r t e n days lloyd: e x a c t l y my p o i n t . l i l y : what. lloyd: who ever heard of a s i n g e r b e i n g from saskatchewan? nobody. t h a t ' s who. u n t i l i p i c k e d you up and made you who you a r e . l i l y : i am who i am because of me, not because of y o u , so d o n ' t p a t r o n i z e me, you b a s t a r d . lloyd: (mimmicks.) d o n ' t p a t r o n i z e me, you b a s t a r d . j u s t fuck me and make me famous. l i l y : ( b e a t . ) you s e l f p i t y i n g p a r a s i t e . i f y o u ' d j u s t stop f e e l i n g s o r r y f o r y o u r s e l f you might make something of y o u r s e l f a g a i n . b u t , oh, no. y o u ' d r a t h e r c r i p p l e around i n your w h e e l c h a i r , whining and c o m p l a i n i n g . ® lloyd: i do not whine! l i l y : y e s , you do. you whine! you do n o t h i n g but whine and b i t c h and f e e l s o r r y f o r y o u r s e l f . y o u ' r e an emotional c r i p p l e , l l o y d , and i'm not going t o take i t . you l i k e b e i n g s i c k . you l i k e b e i n g a c r i p p l e . you l i k e i t because i t makes you f e e l as i f you have c o n t r o l over me a g a i n , j u s t l i k e when we f i r s t met. lloyd: c o n t r o l ? ! c o n t r o l ? ! nobody c o u l d c o n t r o l y o u . you screwed e v e r y m u s i c i a n and c r i m i n a l i n the midwest! l i l y : so?! ( b e a t . ) you know something, l l o y d ? y o u ' r e r i g h t . i have needs. sexual needs. remember? lloyd: who c a r e s ? l i l y : i c a r e ! and so should you! lloyd: a l r i g h t ! so why d o n ' t you j u s t d i d d l e me and get i t over w i t h ; j u s t q u i t a l l t h i s y i p , y i p , y i p ! l i l y : (to h e r s e l f . ) c h r i s t . s i l e n c e . lloyd: ( l o s t . ) i d o n ' t know what i ' d do without y o u , a l r i g h t ? pause. l i l y : y o u ' d manage. lloyd: p r o b a b l y . but i w o u l d n ' t l i k e i t . l i l y : why not? nobody to boss around? lloyd: naah. nobody t o dance w i t h . ( b e a t . ) y o u ' r e a s w e l l d a n c e r . pause. lloyd: (subdued.) i'm s o r r y . l i l y : ( b e a t . ) j u s t be s t r o n g e r , a l r i g h t ? lloyd: a l r i g h t . i p r o m i s e . ( b e a t . ) i t r e a s u r e y o u . l i l y : d o n ' t t r e a s u r e me, l l o y d . j u s t l o v e me. ( b e a t . ) j u s t l o v e me the way you used t o . pause. lloyd: i l o v e y o u , l i l y . i r e a l l y do. s i l e n c e . lloyd: c'mon. ( b e a t . ) dance w i t h me. l i l y : y o u ' r e k i d d i n g . lloyd: i never k i d about d a n c i n g . pause. l l o y d , v e r y s l o w l y and w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e p a i n , draws h i m s e l f up onto h i s f e e t . he stands f o r a moment, unsure i f he can s u p p o r t h i m s e l f . then he g a i n s h i s f o o t i n g and reaches out to h e r . lloyd: c'mon. j u s t once. for o l d t i m e ' s sake. she goes t o him and takes h i s hands, s u p p o r t i n g h i s w e i g h t . lloyd: ( b e a t . ) we had some t i m e s , hunh? they s t a r t to dance; a slow, c l o s e w a l t z . a f t e r a w h i l e , l l o y d b e g i n s t o s i n g v e r y s o f t l y t o h e r . lloyd: j u s t when romance got i t s s t a r t you d e c i d e d i t was time t o p a r t how c o u l d ya? l i l y j o i n s h i m . . . lloyd/lily: 'cause i t was on a n i g h t l i k e t h i s you l e f t me and d i d n ' t leave a k i s s how c o u l d ya? oh, o h , how c o u l d ya? you know t h a t love i s j u s t l i k e a p p l e p i e i t ' s e i t h e r sweet or t a r t . you c o u l d be the a p p l e o f my eye, but y o u , y o u , you upset the apple c a r t . i was l o o k i n ' forward to a l l those l i t t l e t h i n g s you d i d n ' t do how c o u l d y a , c o u l d y a , c o u l d ya break my h e a r t ? by the time they f i n i s h , they are l a u g h i n g and k i s s i n g . the l a u g h t e r s u b s i d e s . s i l e n c e . lloyd: oh, baby, i ' v e g o t t a siddown. l i l y s l o w l y lowers him back down i n t o h i s w h e e l c h a i r . l i l y : y o u ' r e g e t t i n g b e t t e r , l l o y d . come on, l e t ' s spend some time i n the l a k e , take a mudbath down on the s h o r e . lloyd: d o n ' t be r i d i c u l o u s . no goddamned magic mud i s g o i n g t o get me another band l i k e the dawn p a t r o l boys. l i l y : ( b e a t . ) the mud i s n ' t magic. i t ' s got m i n e r a l s i n i t . lloyd: who c a r e s , i t ' s s t i l l mud. l i l y : i know, but i t ' s s p e c i a l mud. l i k e at k a r l s b a d , i n germany. lloyd: maybe the i d e a o f a mudbath sounds b e t t e r i n k r a u t . l i l y : maybe i t does. ( b e a t . ) look. i t ' s s i m p l e . you cover y o u r s e l f i n mud and then l e t the sun bake i t onto your s k i n ; i t p u l l s a l l the p o i s o n s out o f y o u . then you go f o r a l o n g , s a l t y swim i n the l a k e and wash i t o f f , and then you do i t a g a i n and a g a i n , a l l day l o n g , a l l summer l o n g . lloyd: i know. i j u s t f e e l r e a l l y s t u p i d s i t t i n g around a l l covered w i t h mud i n a w h e e l c h a i r at the beach. l i l y : w e l l , d o n ' t take the w h e e l c h a i r , s i l l y . use your c r u t c h e s . ( b e a t . ) c'mon, l e t ' s go. i ' l l l i m p , so t h a t when we get t h e r e you can say the c r u t c h e s are mine. she goes t o get some towels and t h e i r swimwear. l i l y : when i was w a l k i n g out here i found some long s a l t c r y s t a l s down on the beach. they must have been s i x o r seven i n c h e s l o n g . i was g o i n g t o b r i n g them t o y o u , but i was a f r a i d t h e y ' d t u r n to dust i n my p o c k e t . she hands him h i s t r u n k s and a t o w e l , then s t a r t s to undress him. l i l y : l i t t l e m a n i t o u ' s a s a n c t u a r y ; an eden. i t ' s where i grew up; where i'm from. ( b e a t . ) when we were k i d s we'd come out here on w i n t e r evenings and toboggan down the r a v i n e over by winnipeg s t r e e t , or go s k a t i n g out on the l a k e . and a f t e r w a r d s , a l l the f a m i l i e s would gather a t the h o t e l . not the hiawatha. the o t h e r one. the o l d one. i f o r g e t what i t was c a l l e d . i t b u r n t down. ( b e a t . ) the h o t e l s a t the l a k e a r e always b u r n i n g down. l l o y d i s naked now. lloyd: god, y o u ' r e something. pause. he c r a w l s i n t o h i s t r u n k s . l i l y : i t ' s even more b e a u t i f u l here i n the w i n t e r than i n the summer. e v e r y t h i n g takes on the c o l o u r o f the sky and the sun; e v e r y t h i n g t u r n s mauve and p i n k and b l u e , every shade o f b l u e ; except the h i l l s . the wind blows a l l the snow down i n t o d r i f t s on the l a k e and the h i l l s s t a y as bare and brown i n the w i n t e r as they do i n the summer. i t sweeps the snow back o f f t h e i r brows l i k e my mother used t o sweep the h a i r back o f f my f o r e h e a d . (pause.) i remember w i n t e r n i g h t s when the boys would come down from watrous t o p l a y hockey. we'd a l l t e l l our moms we were coming down t o p r a c t i c e f i g u r e s k a t i n g , but we w e r e n ' t . we were coming down t o watch the boys get rough w i t h each o t h e r . and sometimes, a f t e r t h e y ' d p l a y e d f o r a w h i l e , we'd snuggle down w i t h them i n the s n o w d r i f t s under the l a t t i c e work at danceland and smoke c i g a r e t t e s ; and maybe one o f the o l d e r boys, one o f the tough ones, would neck w i t h you. she hands l l o y d h i s c r u t c h e s . he takes them from h e r , then lowers them down onto the f l o o r . he reaches out and g e n t l y c a r r e s s e s h e r . l i l y : i t ' s funny, you know. i remember one n i g h t ; a f t e r c h o r e s ; a f t e r supper, i n the d a r k ; a f t e r the boys had come down and s h o v e l l e d the snow o f f the i c e , they brought down t h i s can o f g a s o l i n e and poured i t o u t , a l l over t h e i r hockey r i n k . then they had everybody stand back and one o f them, one of the o l d e r guys, i f o r g e t h i s name, he was a g r e a t k i s s e r , h e ' s a farmer now, l i t a match and t o s s e d i t o u t onto the i c e . the whole l a k e seemed t o e x p l o d e . the flames must have been ten f e e t h i g h , and they burned l i k e h e l l f o r about a minute and a h a l f ; they a c t u a l l y set the i c e on f i r e and s c o r c h e d the s n o w d r i f t s a t the s i d e o f the r i n k . i ' l l never f o r g e t i t . they a c t u a l l y burned the snow. and we a l l j u s t s t o o d and watched, h o r r i f i e d , but f a s c i n a t e d , because we knew the f i r e c o u l d n ' t go anywhere; i t was so hot and c o n t a i n e d t h a t i t had t o burn i t s e l f o u t . and when i t was o v e r , except f o r a few patches o f flame, l i n g e r i n g i n the c o r n e r s , the l a k e i c e was covered w i t h a t h i n f i l m of water. and we watched as i t f r o z e ; i t o n l y took about another minute; i t ' s so c o l d here i n the w i n t e r . and t h e n , when i t was f r o z e n , m i r r o r p e r f e c t , you c o u l d see the s t a r s r e f l e c t e d i n i t , the boys rushed out onto the i c e and s t a r t e d gouging and c h i p p i n g away a t i t w i t h the h e e l s of t h e i r s k a t e b l a d e s . and i jumped o u t , t o o . not to wreck i t , but t o p r o t e c t i t ; t o keep i t p e r f e c t ; j u s t one t i n e y c o r n e r o f the i c e r i n k . and when the boys would swoop p a s t me on t h e i r s k a t e s , i ' d slam my elbow i n t o t h e i r r i b s ; i l e a r n e d t h a t from watching them p l a y hockey; and t h e y ' d f a l l down and then get up and g l i d e t o t h e i r b u d d i e s ; and i t happened a g a i n and a g a i n , a h a l f dozen t i m e s , u n t i l they formed a gang and came sweeping down the i c e toward me, and i s t a r t e d jumping up and down, d o i n g i t m y s e l f , gouging and c h i p p i n g away w i t h the h e e l o f my s k a t e b l a d e , b e t t e r than any one o f them c o u l d have done. ( b e a t . ) i never understood why i d i d t h a t . i guess, i j u s t f e l t t h a t i f something p e r f e c t was g o i n g to be d e s t r o y e d , i ' d r a t h e r do i t m y s e l f . ( b e a t . ) t h e r e ' s a power h e r e ; i n t h i s v a l l e y . where e l s e c o u l d you see a b l a d e of g r a s s throw a shadow f i v e f e e t long? i d o n ' t know. lloyd: l i l y : n e i t h e r do i . lloyd: ( b e a t . ) c'mon. i'm j u s t about ready f o r t h a t mudbath. l i l y : good. l e t ' s go, t h e n . she reaches up and g e n t l y c a r r e s s e s h i s f a c e . l i l y : when i t gets d a r k , i ' l l show you how the sky t u r n s i n s i d e o u t . she puts her arms around him and they head f o r the d o o r . fade o u t . scene four. d a n c e l a n d . dusk. sunday. deep mauve l i g h t s p i l l s i n through the c u r t a i n s . g o l d l i g h t flows i n under the d o o r s . rose i s wearing l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g gown. she i s e n t e r t a i n i n g m u r r a y . the two o f them are c o n v u l s e d w i t h l a u g h t e r . as t h e i r l a u g h t e r s u b s i d e s , murray s p e a k s . . . murray: do i t a g a i n , rose. rose: nooooo, daddy. murray: r o s e . . . c'mon, be l i l y a g a i n . rose: no, daddy. murray: c'mon, rose, you do her so good. ( b e a t . ) r o - o s e . ( b e a t . ) be l i l y a g a i n . rose: d o n ' t be monkeynuts, daddy. i t ' s g e t t i n ' dark out an' p e o p l e ' be c o m i n ' . murray: p l e a s e . i ' l l watch the d o o r , rose. p l e a s e . rose: i am too named a f t e r h e r . murray: i know t h a t . j e e z . (he s i n g s s o f t l y . . . ) weatherman, weatherman... rose: ( b e a t . ) a l r i g h t . but j u s t one more t i m e . murray: okay. then w e ' l l put her n i g h t i e t h i n g back i n her d r e s s i n g room. rose: ( r e l u c t a n t . ) a l r i g h t . murray: good g i r l . he g i v e s her a k i s s . then she s t a r t s to s i n g . rose: weatherman once the s k i e s were b l u e now each d a y ' s c o l d and gray won't you chase the c l o u d s away? murray s i n g s a l o n g , l o s t i n h i s own f a n t a s y w o r l d . rose/murray: i need my man weatherman. murray s t o p s s i n g i n g . rose c o n t i n u e s . rose: the winds are b l o w i n ' i shake and s h i v e r my thoughts are g o i n ' down t o the r i v e r . . . murray l o o s e s a hideous growl and chases rose, b o t h o f them screaming w i t h l a u g h t e r , through the d e s e r t e d d a n c e h a l l . he catches her from b e h i n d , h o i s t s her up i n t o the a i r above him, l a u g h i n g and g r o w l i n g . he s t r i p s the d r e s s i n g gown o f f her and then p r e t e n d s t o eat her a l i v e . they c o l l a p s e i n t o a jumble o f arms, l e g s , l a u g h t e r and t e a r s . e v e n t u a l l y they both calm down a b i t . rose: i l o v e y o u , daddy. murray: i l o v e y o u , t o o , rose. pause. then rose t r i e s to p u l l the d r e s s i n g gown away from him. murray grabs a t a t . i t r i p s . s i l e n c e . murray: oh, no. no. you r i p p e d i t . you r i p p e d her n i g h t i e t h i n g . pause. murray: oh, s h e ' s gonna know. she's gonna t h i n k i r i p p e d i t . you see what you d i d ? rose: we c o u l d take i t away w i t h us and then s h e ' l l t h i n k somebody s t o l e i t . murray: oh, t h a t ' s b a d . t h a t ' s bad. t h a t ' s s t e a l i n ' . r e a l l y . d o n ' t you ever s t e a l . no. i'm gonna h a f t a say i r i p p e d i t . i'm gonna h a f t a l i e f o r y a , and t h e r e ' s a worse punishment f o r l y i n ' than t h e r e i s f o r s t e a l i n * . you see what you did?! murray growls and lunges a t rose. she c u r l s up i n a l i t t l e b a l l . rose: mmmmooooomnimmmmeeeeeee! murray stops dead i n h i s t r a c k s . he p i c k s up the d r e s s i n g gown and d i s a p p e a r s i n t o l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g room. s i l e n c e . rose: (whimpers.) mommy? mommy? s i l e n c e . rose l o o k s up. she i s a l o n e . daddy? ( b e a t . ) are you? rose: daddy? ( b e a t . ) daddy, where s i l e n c e . rose: daddy, where are you? pause. c mon, daddy. i rose: know y o u ' r e t h e r e . s i l e n c e . rose: i d i d n ' t mean t o do i t , so come on o u t , daddy. ( b e a t . ) i'm g o i n ' home, daddy. ( b e a t . ) daddy, i'm g o i n ' home now. s i l e n c e . rose: ( s h r i e k s . ) daaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaadddddeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee! she runs out o f the d a n c e h a l l . the doors slam shut behind h e r . s i l e n c e . murray e n t e r s from the gloom of the d r e s s i n g room, s t i l l h o l d i n g l i l y ' s s i l k d r e s s i n g gown. he c a l l s a f t e r r o s e . . . s i l e n c e . rose: daddy? murray: s c a r e d y c a t ! s i l e n c e . murray i s l o s t i n thought. he runs h i s hand over the d r e s s i n g gown, e n j o y i n g t h e smooth f e e l o f the s i l k . then he l i f t s i t t o h i s f a c e and i n h a l e s d e e p l y . murray: mmmmmm. so good. perfume and t a l c u m powder and flower p e t a l s . he i n h a l e s i t s f r a g r a n c e a g a i n . murray: so p r e t t y . a r e n ' t you the p r e t t y one? p r e t t i e r even than when i used to watch you up a t s c h o o l i n watrous. he goes t o the window and peers o u t . nobody's t h e r e . then he c r o s s e s t o the door and q u i c k l y peeks out through the k e y h o l e . a g a i n , nobody's t h e r e . murray undoes the b u t t o n s on h i s s h i r t and g e n t l y rubs the s i l k a c r o s s h i s c h e s t . e v e n t u a l l y , he takes h i s s h i r t r i g h t o f f and stops t o i n h a l e l i l y ' s s c e n t . murray: mmmmm. i can s m e l l y a . y e s , i c a n . i can s m e l l y a . ( b e a t . ) can you s m e l l me? can y a s m e l l my sweat? can ya? i can s m e l l y o u r s . your not so c l e a n . not so p r e t t y t h a t you d o n ' t sweat, t o o . ya sweat j u s t l i k e me, d o n ' t c h a ? (pause.) does y e r husband l i k e the s m e l l of y e r sweat? i bet he d o e s n ' t . i bet he h a s n ' t s m e l l e d y a f e r a long t i m e . a l o n g , long t i m e . an' i bet ya miss i t . m i s s b e i n ' s n i f f e d an' l i c k e d the way i c o u l d s n i f f an' l i c k y a . oh, y e s . oh, y e s , you d o . ( b e a t . ) i'm gonna get ya from him. y e s , i am. i'm gonna g e t you f o r my own. even i f i h a f t a l i e f o r y a ; oh, yeah, i ' d l i e f o r y a . y e s , i would. i ' d l i e t a make you my own. he k i c k s o f f h i s shoes, then undoes the b u t t o n s on h i s pants and pushes them down around h i s a n k l e s , a l l the time r u b b i n g the s i l k d r e s s i n g gown on h i s c h e s t , h i s stomach, h i s t h i g h s . he s t r a d d l e s the d r e s s i n g gown and then l i e s down on top o f i t , s l o w l y making l o v e t o an imaginary l i l y . murray: i l o v e y a , l i l y . y e s , i do. i l o v e y a . an' ya want me. yeah. ya do. i know i t . oh, y e a h , y a needed me so bad t h i s m o r n i n ' . i c o u l d f e e l ya p r e s s e d up a g a i n s t me, t h r o b b i n ' an' a c h i n ' j u s t l i k e me. an' i needed t a f i l l y a up, f i l l ya up a l l creamy, an' then f e e l myself r u n n i n ' s t i c k y back down o u t t a y a , on your t h i g h s an' on mine, an' know t h a t when we f i n i s h e d we'd got each o t h e r ' s shape s t o r e d up i n our bodies an' s o u l s , a n we'd always become each o t h e r ' s shape, whenever we made l o v e , even to o t h e r p e o p l e , 'cause our l o v e would h o l d , as pure an' s t r o n g as s t e e l . i t was. i t was when i was s m e l l i n ' your h a i r , a n f e e l i n ' your s k i n an' h e a r i n ' your b r e a t h i n ' so c l o s e t o the s u r f a c e t h a t i c o u l d t e l l what you were t h i n k i n ' . oh, y e a h , i c o u l d hear your t h i n k i n ' through your b r e a t h i n ' . y e s , i c o u l d . i c o u l d hear your t h i n k i n ' j u s t as l o u d as my own. a shadow passes over the window, s t a r t l i n g m u r r a y . murray: s h i t . oh, s h i t . s h i t . he f r a n t i c a l l y attempts to s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d i s e n t a n g l e h i m s e l f from the d r e s s i n g gown and p u l l h i s pants and s h i r t back o n . having accomplished most o f t h i s , he now d o e s n ' t know what t o do w i t h the d r e s s i n g gown, so he j u s t chucks i t on the floor-. he t h i n k s b e t t e r o f t h i s , runs t o i t , p i c k s i t up and t o s s e s i t o f f i n t o l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g room. s i l e n c e . somebody r a t t l e s the door from the o u t s i d e . murray: who's t h e r e ? is t h a t y o u , honey? is t h a t you? he goes t o the door and opens i t . murray: rose? rose? hon? s i l e n c e . murray p a n i c k s . he slams the door and b o l t s i t . s i l e n c e . murray: d i l l i n g e r . s h i t . he's l o o k i n ' f o r a p l a c e t a h i d e . the door r a t t l e s a g a i n . murray hunches down onto the f l o o r and begins t o crawl toward l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g room. he stops dead. murray: s h i t . he inches back to h i s shoes, g a t h e r s them up and resumes h i s journey a c r o s s the f l o o r . murray: h e ' s comin' i n . . . . h e ' s comin' i n . . . h e ' s comin' i n . . . ooooooooh, s h i t , h e ' s comin' i n h e r e . . . h e ' s c o m i n ' . . . he s c o m i n " . . . he ' s c o m i n " . . . a door opens and bangs shut a t the back o f the d a n c e h a l l . murray crouches i n t o a t i g h t l i t t l e b a l l . h i s whimpering punctuates the s i l e n c e . a l i g h t goes on i n l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g room. s i l e n c e . murray cowers on the f l o o r . the l i g h t goes o u t . the door at the back opens and bangs s h u t . s i l e n c e . in the d i s t a n c e , a couple o f l a r g e dogs b a r k . murray: jesus mercy, jesus mercy, jesus m e r c y . . . pause. he g e t s up and l o o k s o u t the window. nobody t h e r e . he c a u t i o u s l y e x i t s i n t o l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g room. s i l e n c e . m o o n l i g h t streams i n through the window. the c u r t a i b i l l o w g e n t l y on the b r e e z e . murray: ( o f f . ) i t ' s gone. he took i t . s i l e n c e . murray r e - e n t e r s . murray: why'd d i l l i n g e r wanna take her n i g h t i e t h i n g ? ( b e a t . ) s h i t . i bet h e ' s gonna k i l l her f o r s c r e w i n ' around w i t h another guy; t h a t ' s what i ' d do. i ' l l bet h e ' s gonna k i l l her f o r s c r e w i n ' around w i t h . . . me. he g a t h e r s h i s courage and moves t o the d o o r . a s s u r e d t h a t nobody i s t h e r e , he takes a l a r g e b r e a t h and then i n one movement, u n l o c k s the door and d i v e s headlong i n t o the m o o n l i g h t . murray: l l l l i i i i i i i i i i i i i i l l l l l l l l l l l e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e ! h i s v o i c e echoes a c r o s s the v a l l e y . the door at the back c r e a k s open and then bangs s h u t . rose e n t e r s from the shadows, c a r r y i n g l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g gown. rose: s c a r e d y c a t . fade o u t . (intermission.) act two. scene one. the c a b i n . l a t e e v e n i n g . sunday. t h e r e ' s a near empty b o t t l e of bourbon s i t t i n g on the k i t c h e n t a b l e . l l o y d i s i n h i s w h e e l c h a i r , h i s book o f p o e t r y on h i s l a p . lloyd: ( m u t t e r i n g . ) sandburg, sandburg, sandburg. where the h e l l i s sandburg? he l e a f s through the book u n t i l he f i n d s sandburg. lloyd: here i t i s , here i t i s . " l i m i t e d " . he l i f t s the b o t t l e o f f the t a b l e and takes a l o n g p u l l o f f i t . lloyd: ( p l e a s e d as h e l l . ) p o e t r y . j e s u s . n o t h i n ' l i k e a b i t o f p o e t r y f o r a l o n e l y o l d b a s t a r d who's had too much t o d r i n k . he takes another p u l l o f f the b o t t l e and commences to r e a d a l o u d t o h i m s e l f . he i s h a v i n g a w o n d e r f u l , maudlin t i m e . lloyd: i am r i d i n g on a l i m i t e d e x p r e s s , one of the c r a c k t r a i n s of the n a t i o n . h u r t l i n g a c r o s s the p r a i r i e i n t o b l u e haze and dark a i r go f i f t e e n a l l - s t e e l coaches h o l d i n g a thousand p e o p l e . ( a l l the coaches s h a l l be s c r a p and r u s t and a l l the men and women l a u g h i n g i n the d i n e r s and s l e e p e r s s h a l l pass to a s h e s . ) i ask a man i n the smoker where h e ' s g o i n g and he answers: "omaha". pause. l l o y d wipes a t e a r o r two from h i s cheek, c l o s e s the book and takes another p u l l o f f the b o t t l e . then he slams i t down onto the t a b l e . he wheels over t o the window and l o o k s out i n t o the n i g h t . a f t e r a moment, he l i f t s h i s face up to the moon and b e g i n s t o howl l i k e a l o n e l y w o l f , over and over u n t i l he s t a r t s t o l a u g h . h i s l a u g h t e r f i l l s the c a b i n b e f o r e i t b e g i n s t o f a l t e r and l l o y d s t a r t s t o sob. a f t e r a w h i l e , h i s sobbing s u b s i d e s and he becomes v e r y s t i l l . the moonlight flows i n through the window. pause. murray comes b u r s t i n g i n t o the c a b i n . murray: l i l y i l i l y ! l l o y d ? ! h i d e ! h i d e ! h e ' s c o m i n ' ! h e ' s c o m i n ' ! lloyd: who's coming? murray: d i l l i n g e r ! lloyd: ( a n g r y . ) says who?! murray: me! me. i seen him. i seen him m y s e l f . lloyd: t h a t ' s what you t o l d me t h i s morning; d o n ' t l i e t o me. i hate l i a r s ! murray: l l o y d ! l l o y d , ya g o t t a b e l i e v e me; i got no reason t o l i e t o you; i d o n ' t l i e ! i seen him. seen him m y s e l f ; j u s t now; down a t d a n c e l a n d . . . i . . . i . . . i was down t h e r e p l a y i n ' w i t h r o s e . . . my daughter r o s e . . . an' we were p l a y i n ' h i d e an' seek an' games a n ' s t u f f an' then she got s c a r e d one time when i murray: ( c o n t i n u e s . ) h i d too l o n g a n ' r u n home t a my mom; a n ' t h a t ' s when i seen him. ( b e a t . ) ohohohoh, i seen h i s shadow on the window, then i heard him r a t t l i n ' on the d o o r . lloyd: a l r i g h t , m u r r a y , j u s t calm down. j u s t calm down, now. pause. murray takes a couple o f deep b r e a t h s ; then he swallows h a r d as he remembers why he came. murray: where's l i l y ? lloyd: she's up i n town. she s a i d she had a band p r a c t i c e ; and she f o r g o t her makeup o r some damn t h i n g i n her o l d room a t the hiawatha. murray: but i checked the hiawatha, s h e ' s not i n her room. lloyd: ( b e a t . ) i c o u l d use another d r i n k . murray: me, t o o , l l o y d . me, t o o . lloyd: t h e r e ' s a f r e s h b o t t l e of bourbon and a couple o f shot g l a s s e s i n my boot; i n the k i t c h e n . murray goes out t o p i c k up the s h o t g l a s s e s and the b o t t l e . lloyd: ( m u t t e r s . ) d i l l i n g e r . in a p i g ' s eye. murray h i g h t a i l s i t back out o f the shadows, b o t t l e and s h o t g l a s s e s i n hand. lloyd: you d i d r i g h t t o come, m u r r a y . so you j u s t s i t y o u r s e l f down h e r e . we're going t o d r i n k some whiskey and y o u ' r e g o i n g t o t e l l me e x a c t l y what you saw. murray s i t s . l l o y d pours him a shot o f whiskey and watches w h i l e he knocks i t b a c k . then l l o y d pours him a n o t h e r . murray knocks t h a t one back, t o o . l l o y d pours h i m s e l f a s h o t , downs i t , then pours out two more. lloyd: y o u ' r e a l r i g h t now. you d i d r i g h t t o come. ( b e a t . ) so t e l l me what you saw. murray: i was down i n danceland an' i t was g e t t i n ' d a r k . a n ' i seen him pass by the window. that american f e l l a . the one the mounties been l o o k i n ' f o r , d i d the k i l l i n ' up i n b i e n f a i t l a s t week. the same one i seen t h i s mornin' , s n e e r i n ' a t me from the shadows i n . . . i n y e r w i f e , l i l y ' s , d r e s s i n ' room. i seen him around here a c o u p l a times b e f o r e , t o o . lloyd: d i l l i n g e r ? murray: d i l l i n g e r . lloyd: ( b e a t . ) john d i l l i n g e r . pause. l l o y d i s undergoing a s t r a n g e t r a n s i t i o n . h i s v o i c e i s f i l l e d w i t h a c o l d , s t e e l y anger. he i s calm and f o c u s s e d ; he suddenly seems dead s o b e r . lloyd: ( c o l d . ) so you saw him through the window. murray: then he t r i e d t a get i n through the d o o r , o n l y i t was l o c k e d 'cause i got s c a r e d myself a f t e r my l i t t l e g i r l run away. lloyd: is your l i t t l e g i r l a l r i g h t ? is she safe? murray: j e s u s . i d o n ' t know. i sure hope s o . j e s u s . j e s u s , i hope s o . lloyd: a l r i g h t , a l r i g h t . i t ' s a l r i g h t , m u r r a y . she's p r o b a b l y safe a t home. murray: she must be. yeah. she must be, 'cause she was gone about t e n minutes b e f o r e i seen him l o o k i n ' i n a t me through the window. ( b e a t . ) oh, god, i hope so. lloyd: so, then what happened? how do you know f o r sure i t was d i l l i n g e r ? murray: 'cause then he come i n through the back d o o r , an' went i n t a h e r . . . y e r w i f e , l i l y ' s . . . d r e s s i n ' room, an' t u r n e d on the l i g h t . lloyd: d i d you see him then? d i d you get a look a t h i s face? murray: yeah. yeah. he was w e a r i n ' a h a t . lloyd: was he t a l l o r s h o r t ? murray: u n h . . . u n h . . . t a l l ! lloyd: l i a r ! murray reaches over and grabs l l o y d by the knee. murray: no! no! s h o r t ! l l o y d r e c o i l s from m u r r a y ' s g r a s p . lloyd: d o n ' t ! d o n ' t t o u c h my l e g s ! murray: s o r r y ! s o r r y ! lloyd: nobody touches my l e g s ! murray: s o r r y ! lloyd: j u s t be c a r e f u l , a l r i g h t ? ! murray: a l r i g h t . lloyd: a l r i g h t . murray: s o r r y . lloyd: stop a p o l o g i z i n g ! murray: i s a i d i was s o r r y ! lloyd: and s a i d , shut up! murray: i am shut up! j e e z , y o u ' r e not my mom, you know l l o y d c r a c k s him a c r o s s the s k u l l . pause. murray: i'm r e a l s o r r y , l l o y d . i won't t o u c h you no mor< okay? lloyd: never mind. ( b e a t . ) so then what d i d he do? murray: h e . . . h e . . . he p i c k e d up her n i g h t i e t h i n g and, o h , god, l l o y d , he was so u g l y . h i s f a c e i s a l l s c a r s where they s t i t c h e d i t back on, and h e . . . h e . . . he was r u b b i n ' her n i g h t i e t h i n g on h i m s e l f . to g e t the s m e l l . l i k e a . . . l i k e a . . . l i k e an a n i m a l . s n i f f i n i t a n then r u b b i n ' i t on h i m s e l f . lloyd: ( q u i e t . ) i'm g o i n g t o k i l l the b a s t a r d . pause. murray: i hope ya do k i l l him, l l o y d . i hope an' p r a y ya do k i l l him. h e ' s an a n i m a l . j u s t l i k e an a n i m a l . k i l l i n ' people an' s t e a l i n ' t h e i r money. a n ' what he done t a y e r w i f e . . . t a h e r . . . her n i g h t i e t h i n g . h e ' s . . . h e ' s j u s t l i k e an a n i m a l . lloyd: (very c o l d . ) shut up and d r i n k your whiskey, m u r r a y . murray does. pause. lloyd: then what d i d he do? murray: h e . . . h e . . . he t u r n e d out the l i g h t an' h e . . . an' h e . . . he l e f t ! ( b e a t . ) i seen i t a l l ; i seen h i s gun. i thought f e r sure he was comin' out here i n h i s c a r , t h a t white chevy they say he d r i v e s ; the o n e ' s been parked out back o f the hiawatha h o t e l a l l week; comin' out here t a k i l l her f o r l o c k i n ' o u t t a h i s h i d i n ' p l a c e . ( b e a t . ) oh, god, l l o y d , i hope i'm wrong. lloyd: d i d you see h i s c a r when you came in? the chevy? d i d you? murray: no, l l o y d , i n e v e r . an* i sure was l o o k i n ' . lloyd: you came out by b o a t , d i d n ' t you? murray: yeah, i . . . lloyd: i f he was coming out by c a r h e ' d have got here b e f o r e y o u , w o u l d n ' t he? murray: u n l e s s h e ' s h i d i n ' i n the bushes. lloyd: no. he's n o t h i d i n g i n the bushes, m u r r a y . i know d i l l i n g e r . murray: ya do? lloyd: i do. ( b e a t . ) h o t e l rooms, m u r r a y . he h i d e s i n h o t e l rooms. murray: he does? lloyd: he does. which room d i d you check? murray: u n h . . . top f l o o r . lloyd: d i d you knock? murray: nope. i peeked i n through the k e y h o l e . lloyd: good move. never knock on d i l l i n g e r ' s d o o r , the b a s t a r d ' s f a s t as a r a t t l e s n a k e . he i s ? murray: lloyd: he i s . murray: so, where i s he? lloyd: h e ' s at the hiawatha h o t e l , m u r r a y . murray: but i checked the h i a w a t h a . . . lloyd: you d i d n ' t check h a r d enough! ( b e a t . ) nope. he's a t the hiawatha h o t e l i n the view room on the top f l o o r a t the f r o n t w i t h my goddamned whore o f a w i f e . ( b e a t . ) s h e ' s gonna d i e , t o o . murray: oh, no, l l o y d . d o n ' t k i l l y e r w i f e . d o n ' t . j u s t d o n ' t , eh? lloyd: i'm not gonna, m u r r a y . ( b e a t . ) you a r e . he wheels away from m u r r a y . murray: oh, no. no, no. no, no, no, no, n o . . . pause. l l o y d motions f o r murray t o come t o him. murray does. l l o y d pours a couple b i g s l u g s of the rye i n t o t h e i r g l a s s e s , then t u c k s the b o t t l e i n t o the s i d e p o c k e t on h i s w h e e l c h a i r . lloyd: now you l i s t e n , and you l i s t e n good. i'm o n l y g o i n g to t e l l you t h i s once. you get i t wrong, y o u ' r e a dead man. you understand? murray: (nods.) s u r e , l l o y d . s u r e . whatever you want. lloyd: good. t h i s what we're gonna do. we're gonna take t h i s b o t t l e and get back i n your b o a t . we're gonna f i l l i t w i t h g a s o l i n e and s t u f f a r a g i n the t o p . then we're gonna get o f f your boat a t the p i e r below danceland, j u s t l i k e i t ' s a r e g u l a r n i g h t . then i'm gonna h i d e out i n s i d e and y o u ' r e gonna go over t o the hiawatha, l i g h t the r a g on f i r e and t o s s i t through the window on the top f l o o r a t the f r o n t where the s i n n e r s a r e s l e e p i n g . ( b e a t . ) h e l l f i r e , m u r r a y . y o u ' r e gonna f l u s h 'em out w i t h h e l l f i r e . and then y o u ' r e gonna come back over t o danceland t o h e l p me. y o u ' r e gonna h e l p sad o l d job t u r n h i s p a i n to j o y . we're gonna wait i n the shadows and ambush john d i l l i n g e r and h i s s c a r l e t whore o f b a b y l o n . pause. murray: so ya t h i n k t h e y ' l l come? lloyd: where e l s e are they gonna go? murray: ( b e a t . ) okay. okay, l l o y d . i ' l l do i t . lloyd: y o u ' r e a good man, murray. l l o y d reaches down and g i v e s m u r r a y ' s s h o u l d e r a squeeze lloyd: p r o d i g a l s always come home. ( b e a t . ) c h e e r s . murray: c h e e r s . they c l i n k g l a s s e s and shoot back t h e i r d r i n k s . l l o y d hands murray the o t h e r , empty b o t t l e o f bourbon. murray gets to h i s f e e t . he's n e r v o u s , but w i l l i n g . murray: ( b e a t . ) what i f y e r wrong, and h e ' s h i d i n ' on the boat? lloyd: then w e ' l l know where he i s , won't we? h e r e . wait a minute. i ' l l need you to wheel me up from the p i e r once we g e t t h e r e . l l o y d wheels over t o h i s c r u t c h e s , h o i s t s h i m s e l f up onto them and r o l l s the w h e e l c h a i r a c r o s s the f l o o r . the empty w h e e l c h a i r stops i n f r o n t o f murray: he j u s t s t a r e s pause. lloyd: j u s t push i t f o r c h r i s t ' s sake. murray: i know. i know. j e e z . murray s t i c k s h i s hand i n h i s pocket and makes a mock gun, which he p o i n t s a t l l o y d . murray: bang, bang, y e r dead. lloyd: for c h r i s t ' s sake, murray, j u s t s t a r t the b o a t , i ' v e got you c o v e r e d . murray: s u r e , l l o y d . s u r e . i was j u s t s c a r e d , t h a t ' s a l l . murray pushes the w h e e l c h a i r out through the door and watches i t s slow p r o g r e s s through the d a r k n e s s . then he b o l t s out a f t e r i t . l l o y d watches murray go. then he looks around the room. he hobbles over t o the darkened k i t c h e n , opens a drawer and p u l l s a p i s t o l o u t . he t u c k s i t i n t o h i s b e l t and heads f o r the d o o r . on h i s way o u t , he passes h i s c l a r i n e t . s t o p s . p i c k s i t up. lloyd: b e t t e r not f o r g e t y o u . who knows, i might even want t o p l a y a l i t t l e serenade. he hobbles out the d o o r , c l a r i n e t i n hand. fade o u t . d a n c e l a n d . m i d n i g h t . sunday. in b l a c k . . . a lonesome, b l u e s y c l a r i n e t w a i l s . a p e r f e c t r i f f . smokey j a z z . the sound i s coming a c r o s s the water, from l l o y d , who i s a p p r o a c h i n g i n m u r r a y ' s b o a t . fade i n . rose, a l o n e i n the d a n c e h a l l . she i s a p p l y i n g l i b e r a l amounts of l i l y ' s white makeup t o her f a c e . she s t o p s , and s t a r t s to p r a y . rose: the l o r d i s my shepherd, i s h a l l not want. he l e a d e t h me b e s i d e the s t i l l waters he maketh me t o l i e down i n green p a s t u r e s . she s l o w l y l i e s down. then s i t s back up a g a i n . she p u t s on some eyeshadow - her f a c e i s b e g i n n i n g t o look l i k e a kabuki mask. rose: he maketh me t o l i e down i n green p a s t u r e s . she s l o w l y lowers h e r s e l f t o the ground a g a i n , then c o n t i n u e s the p r a y e r . rose: and y e a , though i walk through the v a l l e y o f the shadow of d e a t h , i s h a l l f e a r no e v i l , f o r the l o r d i s my shepherd i s h a l l n o t want. no i she s i t s back up a g a i n , f r u s t r a t e d because she c a n ' t remember the r i g h t w o r d s . . . she adds a p a i r o f huge r e d l i p s t o her face mask. rose: thy r o d and thy s t a f f , they comfort me? y e s . they rod and thy s t a f f , they comfort me. she stands up and begins to s i n g i n a lewd, b l u e s y s t y l e . . . emulating l i l y ' s most p r o v o c a t i v e stage moves. rose: jesus l o v e s me, t h i s i know f o r the b i b l e t e l l s me so. l i t t l e ones to him b e l o n g , he i s w e a k . . . i am weak, but he i s s t r o n g . y e s , jesus l o v e s me y e s , jesus l o v e s me y e s , jesus l o v e s me. the b i b l e t o l d me s o . rose f i n i s h e s the song, then resumes her p r a y e r s . rose: god b l e s s me. god l o v e me. b l e s s the l a k e and the f l o w e r s and a l l the l i t t l e a n i m a l s , t o o . and god? b l e s s a l l the l i t t l e s t a r v i n g b a b i e s . and, god? and, p l e a s e , god? i f i be good as an a n g e l , l e t my mom come home from l i v i n i n your bosom f o r e v e r and e v e r . amen. her mouth drops open j u s t as l l o y d , o f f i n the approaching b o a t , l e t s l o o s e another l o n g , mournful c l a r i n e t w a i l . rose i s s u r p r i s e d , d e l i g h t e d . as i f the sound had come from h e r . rose: (awestruck.) gawd. she l i f t s her f a c t t o the sky and opens her mouth w i d e . the c l a r i n e t w a i l s a g a i n , h i g h and l o u d . rose: ( s t a r t i n g t o s p i n . ) i'm an a n g e l . an animal a n g e l . i'm an a n g e l , i'm an a n g e l , i'm an a n g e l . the door a t the back o f the d a n c e h a l l creaks open and then bangs s h u t . rose s t o p s dead. then she scoops up the makeup and d i s a p p e a r s i n t o the shadows. l i l y e n t e r s from the d r e s s i n g room. l i l y : ( m u t t e r s . ) m a k e u p . . . m a k e u p . . . where the h e l l d i d i l e a v e my makeup? she stops and takes a l o n g , deep b r e a t h . s i l e n c e . l i l y : (low.) c h r i s t i t ' s l o n e l y h e r e . ( b e a t . ) where's o l d l o n g dong d i l l i n g e r when you r e a l l y need him? rose: (from the shadows.) h e ' s dead, m i s s . j u s t l i k e . . . l i l y : j e s u s ! what a r e you d o i n g here? rose: n o t h i n * . l i l y : (sees roses f a c e . ) you l i t t l e t h i e f . y o u ' r e the one who took my makeup. rose: no. l i l y : d o n ' t l i e t o me. rose: i'm n o t . ( b e a t . ) i'm b e i n ' a l o s t a s s i n i b o i n e p r i n c e s s , c r a w l i n ' toward the l a k e through the f e v e r y n i g h t . rose gets down on the f l o o r t o demonstrate what t h a t might look l i k e . she c r a w l s t o l i l y and then s t o p s a t her f e e t . rose: except f o r me, t h e r e ' s j u s t white people l i v i n ' here now. p r e s b y t e r i a n s . l i l y : oh. them. rose: ( b e a t . ) i want t o be l i k e y o u . l i l y : oh. ( b e a t . ) no. no, you d o n ' t . rose: y e s , i do. l i l y : whatever f o r ? rose: because y o u ' r e l i k e an a n g e l . l i l y g e n t l y l i f t s rose up o f f the f l o o r . l i l y : so a r e y o u , sweetheart. so are y o u . rose: i know. t h a t ' s why i l i k e y o u . we're b o t h a n g e l s . animal a n g e l s , c r y i n ' f o r the s t a r s a t n i g h t . l i l y : animal a n g e l s . r i g h t . voodoo v i x e n s i s more l i k e i t . now l e t ' s get you c l e a n e d up and send you home b e f o r e your d a d d y . . . rose: no! she jumps back from l i l y . l i l y : rose? what's the matter? rose: i'm not g o i n ' . i'm s t a y i n ' here w i t h y o u . l i l y : b u t , honey, i t ' s l a t e . . . rose: i'm an a n g e l ; we're both a n g e l s , an' i'm s t a y i n ' here w i t h y o u . l i l y : but people w i l l be worried, about y o u . rose: people s h o u l d be w o r r i e d about y o u . l i l y : what are you t a l k i n g about? rose: y o u ' r e a l l a l o n e , an' you s h o u l d n ' t be. ( b e a t . ) t h i n g s a r e c o m i n ' , i can hear 'em. l i l y : what t h i n g s ? rose: o l d t h i n g s . from the l a k e . i can hear 'em howling l i k e a pack of coyotes p u l l i n ' down a deer i n a s n o w d r i f t . l i l y : now y o u ' r e b e i n g s i l l y ; y o u ' r e f r i g h t e n i n g me. rose: but y o u ' r e an a n g e l , t o o . c a n ' t you hear 'em? l i l y : no, rose, i c a n ' t . t h e r e ' s n o t h i n g t o h e a r ; now l e t ' s wipe o f f t h a t makeup and get you home b e f o r e your d a d d y . . . rose: no! rose crouches low and her mouth drops open. she i s having a s e i z u r e . l i l y watches as rose s t r u g g l e s t o l e t her p a i n o u t . then, from the depths o f rose's b e l l y comes a c r y , low, sraokey, b l u e s y , almost l i k e a c l a r i n e t w a i l . rose s u b s i d e s onto the f l o o r . l i l y goes t o rose and takes her i n her arms. rose i s s o b b i n g . e v e n t u a l l y rose becomes v e r y q u i e t and v e r y s t i l l , slumped i n l i l y ' s arms. pause. rose: ( q u i e t . ) l i t t l e manitou was made from angel t e a r s . t h a t ' s why the l a k e ' s so s a l t y ; i t ' s made from angel t e a r s j u s t l i k e mine. i t ' s a magic p l a c e , and nobody ever drowned here except f o r one b e a u t i f u l a s s i n i b o i n e p r i n c e s s who c o u l d hear the animal a n g e l c r y i n s i d e her so l o u d she had t o l e t i t o u t . and her husband heard i t and was so s c a r e d he beat her up t o make i t s t o p . and i t d i d . but then the p r i n c e s s was so l o n e l y t h a t she wanted t o d i e . then one n i g h t she heard her animal angel a g a i n , f a r away i n the d i s t a n c e , j u s t l i k e a l o n e l y coyote c r y i n g f o r the s t a r s at n i g h t . but the angel was a f r a i d t o come c l o s e on account of i t d i d n ' t want the p r i n c e s s t o get beat up a g a i n . so the p r i n c e s s d e c i d e d t o run away t o be w i t h the angel a g a i n . and my daddy s a i d the god i n the l a k e heard her f o o t s t e p s r u n n i n g a c r o s s the l a k e i c e , and he c o u l d n ' t s t a n d f o r her t o leave the v a l l e y and him be l e f t l i v i n ' a l l a l o n e , so he reached up through the i c e and p u l l e d her down t o l i v e i n h i s bosom f o r e v e r and ever at the bottom o f the l a k e . ( b e a t . ) d o n ' t leave me. mama, d o n ' t l e a v e me. mama, mama, mama, mama, mama, d o n ' t leave me. l i l y p u l l s rose c l o s e i n t o her bosom. rose begins t o calm down. l i l y : i t ' s a l r i g h t . i won't leave y o u . i ' l l p r o t e c t y o u . i won't ever l e a v e y o u . rose: ( h a r d . ) y e s , you w i l l . and i ' l l f i n d you i n the s p r i n g t i m e , j u s t l i k e my mommy. s t a r i n ' up a t me through the l a k e i c e , w i t h your hands a l l t a n g l e d up i n f i s h i n g l i n e . s i l e n c e . the doors t o danceland explode open and l l o y d , i n h i s w h e e l c h a i r , comes c a r e e n i n g i n t o the s p a c e . rose b o l t s through the shadows, out the back door o f the d a n c e h a l l . the f r o n t and back doors squeak and bang shut s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . l i l y : l l o y d ? ! l l o y d wheels around, s t a r t l e d . he p u l l s the gun on h e r . lloyd: where the h e l l i s he? l i l y : who, l l o y d ? who? lloyd: d i l l i n g e r . t h a t ' s who. l i l y : l l o y d , put the gun down b e f o r e you h u r t y o u r s e l f . nobody's h e r e . lloyd: then who the h e l l j u s t went s c u t t l i n g out the back l i k e a s h i t h o u s e r a t ? l i l y : nobody. rose. ( b e a t . ) d i l l i n g e r ' s dead, l l o y d . i t o l d y o u . some woman saw him coming out of a movie t h e a t r e . . . lloyd: d o n ' t l i e t o me. l i l y : . . . i n chicago l a s t month. lloyd: d o n ' t you l i e t o me. l i l y : they s e t up an ambush and shot him down. lloyd: d o n ' t you ever l i e t o me! l i l y : i'm not l y i n g . why would i d i l l i n g e r ' s dead. gone. b u r i e d . d o n ' t you even read the p a p e r s ? ! s i l e n c e . lloyd: (low. b r u t a l . ) dance w i t h me. l i l y : y o u ' r e drunk, l l o y d ; i m a g i n i n g t h i n g s ; h a l l u c i n a t i n g . lloyd: shut up! shut up, shut u p , shut u p , shut up, shut up! l l o y d draws h i m s e l f up onto h i s f e e t , a l l the time b r a n d i s h i n g the gun i n her d i r e c t i o n . he stands f o r a moment, unsure i f he can s u p p o r t h i m s e l f . then he f i n d s h i s b a l a n c e and s l o w l y , w i t h g r e a t a s s u r a n c e , p o i n t s the gun a t l i l y ' s head. lloyd: ( c o l d . ) i s a i d , dance w i t h me. l i l y goes to him. he takes her i n h i s arms, the p i s t o l p o i n t e d t o the back of her neck. they dance i n s i l e n c e . lloyd: what happened t o u s , l i l y ? l i l y : i f e e l o l d when i s l e e p w i t h y o u . l l o y d crumples t o the f l o o r . s i l e n c e . rose appears i n the doorway of l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g room. l i e ? ( b e a t . ) kaput. l i l y : t h e r e ' s your john d i l l i n g e r , l l o y d . are you s a t i s f i e d , now? lloyd: oh, c h r i s t . s i l e n c e . l i l y : c'mon, rose. we'd b e t t e r go. l i l y takes rose by the hand and they head o u t . s i l e n c e . lloyd: oh, c h r i s t , l i l y , come b a c k . come back, hey? come back; l i l y , i l o v e y o u . come back, hey? i l o v e y o u . i l o v e y o u , l i l y . come back, hey? ( b e a t . ) y o u ' r e the c r i p p l e . y o u ' r e the emotional c r i p p l e , l i l y . he sees the b o t t l e of bourbon s t i c k i n g out of the s i d e pocket o f h i s w h e e l c h a i r . he c r a w l s over t o i t and takes a couple of b i g s l u g s . lloyd: i taught you how t o backphrase! i taught you how t o s e l l a tune! ( b e a t . ) b i t c h . you weren't so innocent when we f i r s t met. he takes a couple more p u l l s o f f the b o t t l e . lloyd: y o u ' r e the c r i p p l e , l i l y . y o u ' r e the emotional c r i p p l e . ( b e a t . ) come back, hey? come back and l e t ' s make l o v e . ( b e a t . ) c a n ' t l o v e your man anymore. c a n ' t l o v e the man who l o v e s you because he c a n ' t l o v e you because h e ' s a f r a i d h i s bones might b r e a k . ( b e a t . ) but i c o u l d k i s s y o u . i c o u l d k i s s y o u , and h o l d y o u , and s t r o k e your h a i r . and i f you were r e a l g e n t l e we c o u l d make l o v e , and i n our heads i t would be j u s t the same as i t was b e f o r e . j u s t l i k e b e f o r e , when you l o v e d me. s i l e n c e . the door a t the back c r e a k s open. murray s i d l e s i n through the shadows. murray: l l o y d ? s i l e n c e . murray: i done i t , l l o y d . i t o r c h e d t h e . . . lloyd: go t o h e l l . murray: b u t , l l o y d , i j u s t t o r c h e d t h e . . . lloyd: get out of h e r e ! murray: what's wrong, l l o y d , s h o u l d we t a l k about i t ? lloyd: i s a i d , get out o f h e r e ! murray: okay. a l r i g h t . j e e z , whatever ya say, l l o y d . pause. murray: a r e n ' t ya happy now, l l o y d ? i thought t o r c h i n ' the hiawatha would make o l d job happy. pause. murray: l l o y d ? lloyd: ( s n a r l s . ) what? murray: l l o y d , i t h i n k ya s h o u l d k n o w . . . lloyd: what? murray: f e r y e r own g o o d . . . lloyd: what?! murray: w e l l . . . w e l l , people are t a l k i n ' , l l o y d . people a r e t a l k i n . lloyd: about what? murray: about y o u , l l o y d . about y o u . lloyd: why would people be t a l k i n ' about me, murray? murray: i dunno, l l o y d , but i heard 'em. heard 'em m y s e l f . lloyd: t h a t ' s b u l l s h i t , m u r r a y , and you know i t . murray: no. no, l l o y d . i t ' s not b u l l . i'm not l y i n ' . i was s t a n d i n ' t h e r e w a t c h i n ' the flames l i c k i n ' up the i n s i d e a the c u r t a i n s on the top f l o o r a t the f r o n t , where i t o s s e d the g a s o l i n e , when t h i s woman come u p , s a i d she heard g l a s s b r e a k i n ' , an' i s a i d , yeah, t h e r e ' s a f i r e g o i n ' o n . an' she s a y s , d i d anybody t e l l the people i n the hiawatha o r c a l l the f i r e b r i g a d e , an' i says no, so she run o f f t a do i t h e r s e l f . she run o f f , an' i j u s t stood t h e r e s t a r i n ' a t the f l a m e s . i c o u l d n ' t look away. the flames a h e l l , ya s a i d ; t h a t ' s where s i n s get p u r g e d . an' i j u s t kept s t a r i n ' a t 'em t h i n k i n ' , the flames a h e l l , t h a t ' s what they must look l i k e when t h e y ' r e l i c k i n ' up t a r o a s t y a . then the woman comes back an' s a y s , "what're you s t a r i n ' a t ? " , an' i j u s t s a i d , the flames a h e l l . an' she s a y s , y e r f u l l a hooey, t h a t ' s j u s t an o r d i n a r y h o t e l f i r e , we got 'em around here a l l the t i m e . an' i s a y s , no, n o . look. j u s t l o o k . ya can see the d e v i l i n t h e r e , l a u g h i n ' i n the f l a m e s . he's j u s t l a u g h i n ' an' l a u g h i n ' . l a u g h i n ' a t l l o y d an' h i s w i f e , l i l y , but e s p e c i a l l y l a u g h i n ' a t l l o y d ' s w i f e , l i l y , f e r f a l l i n ' down from grace by s l e e p i n ' i n t h e r e w i t h murray: ( c o n t i n u e s . ) t h a t american f e l l a , d i l l i n g e r , d i d the k i l l i n ' up a t b i e n f a i t l a s t week. ( b e a t . ) so i t o l d her t h a t , a n then i t u r n e d around an* h i g h t a i l e d i t back h e r e , j u s t l i k e y a s a i d t o . ( b e a t . ) do y a t h i n k t h e y re gonna come? lloyd: j u s t l i k e the p r o d i g a l son? murray: yeah. are we gonna k i l l 'em when they do? lloyd: yeah. t h a t ' s r i g h t . murray: i t ' s a l r i g h t t a k i l l 'em, l l o y d . . . lloyd: i know. murray: i t ' s a l r i g h t t a k i l l 'em 'cause t h e i r s o u l s are a l r e a d y i n h e l l . lloyd: t h a t ' s r i g h t , m u r r a y . l l o y d motions f o r murray t o l e a n c l o s e . murray does. l l o y d grabs murray by the neck and s t a r t s t o s t r a n g l e him. murray grabs l l o y d by the arms and p u l l s back, l i f t i n g l l o y d out of h i s w h e e l c h a i r . the men appear t o be d a n c i n g as they f i g h t . t h e i r motion s e t s the d a n c e h a l l ' s m i r r o r b a l l s p i n n i n g . lloyd: you l i e d t o me, m u r r a y . you l i e d about l i l y . i hate l i a r s . . . you l i e d about d i l l i n g e r ; i hate l i a r s , i j u s t hate them! l l o y d i s out o f c o n t r o l . so i s m u r r a y . lloyd: murray: you l i a r ! you l i a r ! l l o y d ! l l o y d ! stop i t ! you l i e d t o me; you stop i t ! yer g o i n c r a z y ! l i e d to me; d o n ' t stop i t ! yer h u r t i n ' me! ever l i e t o me; i stop i t ! i'm y e r f r i e n d ! hate l i a r s . i j u s t stop i t , l l o y d , i'm y e r hate 'em! f r i e n d ! murray has l l o y d by the t h r o a t now, s t r a n g l i n g him. murray takes h o l d o f l l o y d ' s head w i t h b o t h hands and g i v e s i t a sharp t w i s t . he breaks l l o y d ' s neck. l l o y d c o l l a p s e s onto m u r r a y . murray s l o w l y lowers l l o y d t o the f l o o r . s i l e n c e . l l o y d l i e s v e r y s t i l l . murray prods him w i t h h i s f o o t . murray: l l o y d ? pause. murray: l l o y d ? pause. murray: jesus c h r i s t , h e ' s dead. oh, j e s u s , j e s u s , j e s u s . j e s u s , h e ' s dead, an' i k i l l e d him. ( b e a t . ) oh, s h i t . oh, god. i k i l l e d him. murray b o l t s over t o the double doors and throws them open. he i s e n g u l f e d i n b l a c k n e s s . murray: c h r i i i i i i i i i i i i i s t ! ( b e a t . ) oh, c h r i s t , i k i l l e d him, an' what am i gonna do? pause. murray takes out h i s h a n d k e r c h i e f and begins t o wipe h i s f i n g e r p r i n t s o f f a n y t h i n g he might have t o u c h e d . in the course of w i p i n g h i s p r i n t s o f f t h i n g s , he p i c k s up l l o y d ' s u n f i n i s h e d b o t t l e of bourbon. pause. murray: w e . . . w e . . . we drank t h i s b o t t l e a l r e a d y t o n i g h t . i took i t away an' f i l l e d i t w i t h g a s o l i n e j u s t l i k e ya s a i d , l l o y d . what are ya d o i n ' , b r i n g i n ' i t back l i k e t h a t ? what a r e y a d o i n ' ? ( b e a t . ) q u i t l o o k i n ' at me. q u i t l o o k i n ' at me, l l o y d . i done what, ya s a i d , so you got no c a l l l o o k i n ' a t me. ( b e a t . ) l l o y d ? l l o y d ? murray goes over t o l l o y d and, once a g a i n , prods him w i t h h i s f o o t . l l o y d r o l l s o v e r . murray screams and jumps away, as i f h e ' d j u s t stepped on a r a t t l e s n a k e . murray: c h r i i i i i i i i i i i s s s s s t ! he stops on c o n t a c t w i t h the f l o o r on the o t h e r s i d e of the d a n c e h a l l . pause. murray: god l o v e s me. ( b e a t . ) jesus l o v e s me. he l o v e s me, a n ' . . . an' he f e r g i v e s me f e r what i done, so you q u i t l o o k i n ' at me w i t h them d e v i l eyes, l l o y d . you q u i t l o o k i n ' a t me w i t h them d e v i l eyes. pause. the f i r s t r a y s of dawn, g o l d and l a v e n d e r , b e g i n to creep i n through the window. murray gets an i d e a . he s l o w l y and d e l i b e r a t e l y goes t o the w h e e l c h a i r and t i p s i t o v e r . then he drags l l o y d ' s body over t o the w h e e l c h a i r , and s a v a g e l y smashes h i s head a g a i n s t the f l o o r a couple of t i m e s . then he p l a c e s l l o y d ' s gun b e s i d e h i s c o r p s e . murray: i t was your i d e a t a t o r c h the hiawatha, l l o y d . i t was your f a u l t . you were the one a c t i n ' vengeance, not me. i was j u s t d o i n ' as i was t o l d . i t was your i d e a , l l o y d , not mine. a n ' now y e r r e a p i n ' what ya sowed. pause. murray: ya t r i c k e d me, l l o y d . ya t r i c k e d me, but now y e r w i t h the d e v i l , where ya b e l o n g . ( b e a t . ) l y i n ' s b a d , l l o y d , an' you l i e d . i n e v e r . i j u s t d i d as i was t o l d . murray p i c k s up the b o t t l e of bourbon, uncorks i t , takes a b i g p u l l o f f i t , then empties the remainder over l l o y d . murray: h e r e , l l o y d , have a d r i n k . have a d r i n k , you l i a r . murray takes a box o f wooden matches from h i s p o c k e t , s t r i k e s one and throws i t a t l l o y d . he r e c o i l s , e x p e c t i n g an e x p l o s i o n . the bourbon f a i l s t o i g n i t e . murray t r i e s a g a i n . nothing happens. murray: oh, w e l l . y o u ' l l be b u r n i n ' soon enough. he takes h i s hankie and wipes the b o t t l e , then wraps i t up and p u t s i t i n h i s j a c k e t p o c k e t . murray: you made me take t h i s b o t t l e away once a l r e a d y t o n i g h t , l l o y d . so now i'm gonna take i t an' put i t back i n the h e l l f i r e a c r o s s t a the hiawatha, s o ' s i t d o e s n ' t f o l l o w me around l i k e a t a i l f o r the d e v i l t a c a t c h h o l d o n . ( b e a t . ) he sure caught y o u r s , l l o y d . he sure caught y o u r s . the f r o n t doors swing open. murray t u r n s q u i c k l y t o see who i s t h e r e . l i l y : ( e n t e r i n g . ) l l o y d ] l l o y d ? the h o t e l ' s on f i r e . l l o y d ? pause. she sees "the a c c i d e n t " . l i l y : oh, god. she goes t o l l o y d and t r i e s t o r e v i v e him. murray: i . . . i . . . i was p a s s i n ' b y . . . u n h . . . u n h . . . p a s s i n ' by i n my boat an' i , an' i , an' i , i heard a s h o t . l i l y i s too concerned w i t h l l o y d t o pay murray much a t t e n t i o n . murray: t h e . . . t h e . . . the b u l l e t musta missed a n ' . . . a n ' . . . an' l l o y d musta f a l l e n a n ' . . . ( b e a t . ) i was j u s t d r i v i n ' by i n my b o a t , g o i n ' out swimmin', an' i heard a shot so i come i n . i thought y a mighta been i n t r o u b l e , o r l l o y d was, was d o i n ' somethin' c r a z y . . . y e a h . . . people heard the two o f yas h o l l e r i n ' a t each o t h e r a l l day; a n ' then i seen the f i r e an' got r e a l l y s c a r e d , an' then i seen him; seen t h a t d i l l i n g e r f e l l a take out h i s gun an' take a shot a t l l o y d . i musta s t a r t l e d him o r s o m e t h i n ' , 'cause he took o f f o u t t a here l i k e a swallow o u t t a h i s n e s t , swoopin' an' d i v i n ' ; a n ' then i seen l l o y d f a l l . ( b e a t . ) i'm s o r r y , m i s s l i l y . i'm r e a l s o r r y . l i l y : q u i t l y i n g , m u r r a y . murray: i ' m . . . i'm not l y i n ' , l i l y . i d o n ' t l i e . i . . . i heard i t . seen i t . l i l y c a n ' t bear to look a t m u r r a y . l i l y : which way was he p o i n t i n g the gun, murray? murray: u n h . . . u n h . . . towards l l o y d . ( b e a t . ) i never k i l l e d him, l i l y . i never k i l l e d nobody. ( b e a t . ) i t was an a c c i d e n t . i never meant t o do i t . ( b e a t . ) they o n l y hang ya i f ya meant t a do i t , d o n ' t they? ( b e a t . ) i was j u s t comin' by i n my b o a t . . . comin' by t a t e l l l l o y d , f o r h i s own good, what people were s a y i n ' about h i m . . . an' he l o s t h i s temper an' s t a r t e d c h o k i n ' me, c a l l i n ' me a l i a r , an' i . . . an' i . . . i pushed him o f f a me an' he f e l l an' h i t h i s head, an' musta broke h i s neck. ( b e a t . ) t h a t ' s not a murder, i s i t l i l y ? ( b e a t . ) oh, j e s u s , i'm s c a r e d , l i l y . i'm s c a r e d . i never meant t a do i t . l i l y : (moans.) y o u ' r e gonna hang, m u r r a y . murray: i l o v e y a , l i l y . i d o . i always l o v e d y a . even b e f o r e ya run away from here t a be a s i n g e r . ( b e a t . ) come away w i t h me. we c o u l d run away t o g e t h e r . you an' me an' rose. l i l y : where we gonna go, murray? saskatoon? murray: no, no. mexico c i t y . j u s t l i k e a buncha o u t l a w s . o r , o r new y o r k . yeah. we c o u l d d r i v e t a new york c i t y . a n ' e v e r y t h i n g c l o s e up' be w h i z z i n ' by so f a s t i t ' s j u s t a b l u r , an' the sky an' c l o u d s ' be so b i g an' so f a r away t h e y ' l l look l i k e t h e y ' r e h a r d l y movin' a t a l l , a n ' w e ' l l f e e l r e a l s m a l l , l i k e t h r e e l i t t l e mice r u n n i n ' over a t u r t l e ' s back. l i l y : s u r e , m u r r a y . l e t ' s get l o s t . she p i c k s l l o y d ' s gun o f f the f l o o r and p o i n t s i t a t m u r r a y . l i l y : how does i t f e e l , murray? how does i t f e e l t o know y o u ' v e k i l l e d a l i t t l e p i e c e o f jesus? o f f s t a g e , i n the shadows, rose s t a r t s t o s i n g "jesus loves me". i l l murray hears h e r . murray: rose?! i need a w i t n e s s ! a n g e l ! l i l y s t r u g g l e s to p u l l the t r i g g e r . murray cowers on the f l o o r . l i l y c a n ' t do i t ; she l e t s the gun f a l l , u n f i r e d , i n t o her l a p . pause. murray: t e l l ya what. t e l l ya w h a t . . . i ' m . . . i ' m . . . i'm gonna go get the r . c . ' s . i'm gonna go get the r . c . m . p . up i n watrous. t h e r e ' s been a k i l l i n ' h e r e , an' i'm gonna go an' get the m o u n t i e s . ( b e a t . ) are ya comin'? i c o u l d say rose an' me was g i v i n ' you a r i d e out here an' you were w i t h us the whole t i m e . ( b e a t . ) are ya comin'? l i l y : i ' d r a t h e r be s e t on f i r e . murray: okay. a l r i g h t . i t ' s your l i f e . ya g o t t a make y e r own r o a d . l i l y : y o u ' r e goddamned r i g h t . pause. murray: i l o v e y o u , l i l y . ( b e a t . ) we'da made a good c o u p l e , j u s t l i k e adam an' e v e . l i l y : gooooooooooo!!! murray t u r n s and f l e e s the d a n c e h a l l . l i l y c r a d l e s l l o y d . a f t e r a moment, rose e n t e r s from the shadows. rose: h e ' s gone. ( b e a t . ) he took the b o a t . pause. rose moves to l i l y and. l l o y d . then, w i t h her hands, she makes a slow c i r c l e over l l o y d ' s c o r p s e , g a t h e r i n g h i s s o u l i n t o the palm o f her hand, and then r e l e a s i n g i t heavenward l i k e so much d a n d e l i o n down. then she crouches down t o l i l y . rose: i t ' s a l r i g h t . i t ' s a l r i g h t to c r y . ( b e a t . ) we're a n g e l s . l i l y : t h a t ' s r i g h t . animal a n g e l s , c r y i n g f o r the s t a r s a t n i g h t . l i l y ' s jaw drops open i s a s i l e n t scream o f a n g u i s h . a c l a r i n e t w a i l s , h i g h and l o u d , as i f i t i s emanating from the depths of her s o u l . fade o u t . chapter three: a production record. . the o l d red l i o n . the london p r o d u c t i o n of danceland came about, as independent p r o d u c t i o n s o f t e n do, through a combination of p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and s e r e n d i p i t y . i gave a copy o f an e a r l y d r a f t of the p l a y t o my f r i e n d , denica f a i r m a n , i n the summer o f . at the t i m e , denica had been working as an a c t o r w i t h the rsc f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s , and was f e e l i n g f r u s t r a t e d by the a r t i s t i c c o n s t r a i n t s o f working f o r a l a r g e , i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d t h e a t r e company. she read the p l a y , f e l l i n l o v e w i t h the c h a r a c t e r o f l i l y , and bought a one y e a r o p t i o n on the b r i t i s h performance r i g h t s . at the end o f t h a t y e a r , h a v i n g exhausted h e r s e l f p u r s u i n g commercial p r o d u c e r s , name d i r e c t o r s and s t a r a c t o r s i n v a r i o u s u n s u c c e s s f u l attempts t o "package" the p l a y , she t e l e p h o n e d me i n vancouver w i t h the r a d i c a l p r o p o s a l t h a t we s h o u l d j u s t do i t o u r s e l v e s . on the f a c e of i t , s e l f - p r o d u c i n g i s a r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d c o n c e p t , but the r e a l i t y i s t h a t i t takes an i n o r d i n a t e amount of a r t i s t i c commitment and a h e a l t h y bank a c c o u n t . commitment was a q u a l i t y we s h a r e d ; f i n d i n g the money was a p r o b l e m . by the summer o f , denica was a b l e t o r a i s e one thousand, seven hundred and f i f t y pounds from the canadian high commission i n london, f i v e hundred pounds from s i r anthony h o p k i n s , t o whom she had o f f e r e d the p a r t o f l l o y d , f i v e hundred pounds from her f r i e n d , b r i a n hughes, and another thousand pounds from a " f r i e n d " of the p r o d u c t i o n , whose name, i d i s c o v e r e d l a t e r , was joan p l o w r i g h t . with t h i s much cash on hand, denica then remortgaged her house to f i n a n c e the r e s t o f the p r o d u c t i o n . she then c o n t a c t e d our mutual f r i e n d , the glasgow born canadian d i r e c t o r , tom k e r r , and asked him t o d i r e c t the p l a y . a f e l l o w of t r i n i t y c o l l e g e , london, and t r a i n e d as a d i r e c t o r by tyrone g u t h r i e , tom brought a wealth of knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e to the f l e d g l i n g red r i v e r p r o d u c t i o n s . he a l s o demanded, and g o t , a major r e w r i t e b e f o r e he agreed t o d i r e c t d a n c e l a n d . over the next few months, denica and tom o r g a n i z e d the company and managed t o l o c a t e and book a s u i t a b l e venue. the o l d red l i o n t h e a t r e s e a t s s i x t y people i n t h r e e l-shaped rows a l o n g one s i d e and the end o f a twenty by t h i r t y f o o t b l a c k box. l o c a t e d above a pub, two b l o c k s east of angel tube s t a t i o n on the i s l i n g t o n h i g h road, the stage i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y f o u r t e e n f e e t wide by twenty four f e e t l o n g ; a t h r u s t o f s o r t s , w i t h two doors g o i n g o f f s t a g e , one up c e n t r e and the o t h e r down l e f t . the c e i l i n g i s twelve f e e t h i g h , so the l i g h t s , a l l f o u r t e e n of them, have to be yoked up above the g r i d t o a t t a i n any k i n d o f p l a y a b l e atmosphere. my f i r s t r e a c t i o n upon s e e i n g the space was one of sheer p a n i c : i t was so s m a l l . a d m i t t e d l y , i wrote the p l a y w i t h a bare stage i n mind, but i had always imagined i t as a big bare s t a g e . the s e t and costume d e s i g n e r , l i s a r o b i n s o n , and the l i g h t i n g d e s i g n e r , l i z z p o u l t e r , are used t o working i n t i n y performance s p a c e s , and a t our f i r s t meeting t o view the t h e a t r e , they l a t c h e d f e r o c i o u s l y onto my d e s c r i p t i o n of the s e t as b e i n g " e v o c a t i v e , not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " . i know what i meant by t h a t , but what d i d they mean by i t ? i t was a s o b e r i n g moment. . notes on the s c e n i c treatment. l i s a , l i z z , the p l a y ' s d i r e c t o r , tom k e r r , and i had a number o f t a l k s about a s c e n i c treatment f o r the p l a y , and we a l l agreed t h a t what i t needed was a k i n d of s t r i p p e d down minimalism which i s not t h a t e a s i l y a c h i e v e d . e v e r y p i e c e had to be a b s o l u t e l y p r e c i s e , p a r t o f a c o h e s i v e , s t y l i s t i c whole. the o t h e r u n i t i n g p r i n c i p l e we agreed on was t h a t the s e t t i n g s needed t o a c t , p r i m a r i l y , as n e u t r a l p a l e t t e s and t h a t c o l o u r , when r e q u i r e d , s h o u l d be a c h i e v e d through l i g h t . tom was anxious t o c r e a t e a dynamic flow o f movement through the space, and he, w i t h l i s a , d e c i d e d t h a t the b e s t way t o anchor the d e s i g n concept was t o r o o t i t i n the h a r s h r e a l i t i e s of the t h e a t r e ' s e x i s t i n g a r c h i t e c t u r e ; r a t h e r than b u i l d i n g w a l l s and d o o r s , they chose t o i n t e g r a t e the e x i s t i n g w a l l s and doors of the t h e a t r e i n t o the s e t . in f a c t , they d e c i d e d to c r e a t e an environment r a t h e r than a s e t . i had made some panoramic, mm shots i n saskatchewan t h a t p a s t summer, mostly of e n d l e s s s k i e s and r o l l i n g w h e a t f i e l d s , and when i showed them t o l i s a she became e x c i t e d . she d e c i d e d to p a i n t t h r e e w a l l s o f the t h e a t r e as a p r a i r i e s k y , w i t h the doors p a i n t e d l i k e s k y , t o o . l i s a ' s image f o r the p l a y was t h a t p e o p l e would walk through the sky out onto a wooden dance f l o o r , as i f they were d a n c i n g i n the c l o u d s ; and a s e c t i o n o f the f l o o r would be h i n g e d , a l i t t l e above c e n t r e , and h o i s t e d up and down by means o f a p u l l e y , t o form the back w a l l o f the c a b i n . l i s a ' s v i s i o n was, to my mind, d e f i n i t i v e . she found a van l o a d of o l d wood a t a c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e , and used i t t o b u i l d the f l o o r . then, o f f s t a g e , through the doors up c e n t r e and down l e f t , she b u i l t the i n t e r i o r s o f the back e n t r a n c e to the danceland, and l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g room. she l e f t s m a l l s e c t i o n s out of the f l o o r t o c r e a t e a f l o a t i n g s e n s a t i o n . then she p a i n t e d the exposed f l o o r i n a s h i n y , r e f l e c t i v e g r a y , and then l i z z bounced l i g h t o f f i t t o c r e a t e the e f f e c t o f water. then she c l o s e d the doors and p a i n t e d her g i g a n t i c , t h r e e w a l l e d s k y . the o n l y p i e c e s of f u r n i t u r e were a coat r a c k which l i v e d a l t e r n a t e l y i n l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g room d u r i n g the danceland scenes, and then was moved i n t o the c a b i n to f a c i l i t a t e l i l y ' s onstage changes o f c l o t h i n g : a l i t t l e t a b l e f o r l l o y d to put t h i n g s on, and a s m a l l s t o o l f o r murray t o use i n the second a c t . a l l i n a l l , i t was s i m p l e , e l e g a n t and u n i f i e d , a b e a u t i f u l r e n d e r i n g of a t h e a t r i c a l i d e a ; t h r e e spaces i n one. . notes on sound. sound i s an important element i n the p l a y , and mark s c h o l f i e l d , the composer f o r the london p r o d u c t i o n , i n i t i a l l y thought t h a t the p l a y should be s c o r e d l i k e a f i l m , but then he changed h i s mind. he d e c i d e d t h a t s o l o c l a r i n e t and s i l e n c e should be the c e n t r a l m o t i f s i n the s c o r e , and t h a t the s o l o c l a r i n e t r i f f s should always emanate, as r e a l i s t i c cues, from l l o y d . the "musical s i l e n c e " he was l o o k i n g f o r was much harder t o a c h i e v e . in the end, what he d e c i d e d t o do was t o f i l l the scene changes w i t h l o u d , v i n t a g e r e c o r d i n g s o f n o i s y d i x i e l a n d j a z z ; the c u t s he chose were from a r e c o r d i n g o f duke e l l i n g t o n ' s sidemen, and t h i s c h o i c e o f music s e r v e d as a c o n t r a s t t o the p l a y ' s many s i l e n c e s , c r e a t i n g s o n i c shadows. the joyous n o i s e o f e l l i n g t o n ' s j a z z p r o v i d e d a r y t h m i c u n d e r p i n n i n g t o the flow o f the p l a y , as w e l l as emotional c o n t r a s t t o the scenes. the o n l y o t h e r r e c o r d e d cues were a s t e r e o pan o f m u r r a y ' s b o a t , b o t h l e a v i n g and approaching the space; and some v e r y f a i n t l o o n c a l l s . a l l o f the o t h e r sound e f f e c t s , except one, were performed l i v e by the a c t o r s ; the s o l e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g the b a r k i n g dog i n the f o u r t h scene, which was performed from the l i g h t i n g booth by the a s s i s t a n t stage manager, rob payne, who s t a r t e d d o i n g i t as a joke d u r i n g r e h e a r s a l s and ended up stuck w i t h i t . . the rehearsal process. danceland i s a l o v e s t o r y , and i hope t h a t i have c o n s t r u c t e d i t i n a way which demands t h a t the a c t o r ' s words and a c t i o n s be p u l l e d p r o m i n e n t l y forward i n terms o f the d i r e c t o r i a l mix. with tom's guidance on the f i n a l r e w r i t e s , i b a l a n c e d the through l i n e s o f the c h a r a c t e r s by p l a c i n g l i l y at the c e n t r e ; we chose to emphasize her as the p r o t a g o n i s t . she begins the p l a y and she ends i t . i t i s the s t o r y o f her r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h l l o y d , not the s t o r y of her a f f a i r w i t h m u r r a y . the p a r t o f murray i s i n f u s e d w i t h t h e a t r i c a l i t y , and i t i s tempting to l e t the a c t o r p l a y i n g him run rampant a c r o s s the s t o r y l i n e . yet i f he i s not r e i g n e d i n , he t h r e a t e n s to overwhelm the b e l i e v a b i l i t y o f the a c t i o n . tom's s o l u t i o n was t o t r e a t murray as r e a l i s t i c a l l y as p o s s i b l e ; what makes murray so dangerous i s t h a t he a c t u a l l y b e l i e v e s every word he s a y s , and he i s such a good l i a r t h a t he s h o u l d make everybody e l s e b e l i e v e him, t o o . l l o y d and rose a c t as c a t a l y s t s t o the a c t i o n , but have v e r y independent d r a m a t i c l i v e s o f t h e i r own. they b o t h a c h i e v e t h e i r u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e s ; l l o y d ' s j e a l o u s y consumes him, and rose's b e l i e f i n angels f r e e s h e r . murray i s d e s t r o y e d by h i s compulsive l y i n g , and l i l y i s changed i r r e v o c a b l y by the end o f the p l a y . she gets what she wants, t o o . freedom. a p a i n f u l embrace from l i f e . the a c t i n g company assembled f o r the p r o d u c t i o n c o n s i s t e d of denica fairman as l i l y , p e t e r m a r i n k e r as l l o y d , k e v i n howarth as m u r r a y , and c a t h e r i n e holman as rose. each o f them brought commitment, t a l e n t , and a u n i q u e l y i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e o f a c t i n g t o the p r o j e c t . tom's c h a l l e n g e , as a d i r e c t o r , was to b l e n d t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e e n e r g i e s i n t o a u n i f i e d performance s t y l e . the r e h e a r s a l arrangement between tom and i was t h a t i was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r making any changes t o the t e x t which might be n e c e s s a r y to f a c i l i t a t e o r c l a r i f y the a c t i o n o f the p l a y , and t h a t he would do e v e r y t h i n g i n h i s power to stage the p l a y as i had w r i t t e n i t . he was determined t h a t the r e h e a r s a l p e r i o d should not d e t e r i o r a t e i n t o a workshop of the p l a y ; and he was a l s o determined t o g i v e the a c t o r s as b e l i e v a b l e a s e t of d r a m a t i c a c t i o n s as p o s s i b l e . what i d i s c o v e r e d through t h i s p r o c e s s i s t h a t "place", which had been my key i n the w r i t i n g p r o c e s s , can be an u t t e r l y j meaningless i d e a t o a c t o r s . what a c t o r s need, more than a n y t h i n g , i s to be a b l e to f o l l o w the d r a m a t i c a c t i o n o f the s t o r y l i n e by e x p l o r i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the c h a r a c t e r s . "place" i n p r o d u c t i o n e x i s t s i n d e s i g n , i n l i g h t , i n sound, i n e x p o s i t i o n a l d i a l o g u e ; i t cannot, by i t s e l f , d r i v e the n a r r a t i v e o f a p l a y , but the a c t o r s i n the london p r o d u c t i o n became so f a s c i n a t e d w i t h the i d e a t h a t t h e r e were times when i wished i had never thought o f i t . e v e n t u a l l y i brought i n s e v e r a l hand drawn maps o f the a r e a , o u t l i n i n g the l o c a t i o n o f every b u i l d i n g , every town, every r a i l l i n e and e v e r y c i t y between denver and p r i n c e a l b e r t . one day, exasperated by t h e i r seemingly e n d l e s s q u e s t i o n i n g about saskatchewan, i launched i n t o a long monologue about the type of f i s h which l i v e i n l i t t l e manitou lake ( b r i n e s h r i m p ) . t h i s put the "place" i s s u e p r e t t y much t o r e s t , a l t h o u g h on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s when r e h e a r s a l s were g e t t i n g t e n s e , one of the a c t o r s would i n e v i t a b l y ask, "now, what about t h i s p i e r ? where i s i t ? " we had f i v e weeks of r e h e a r s a l , and w h i l e the r e h e a r s a l p l a n o f t e n bumped up a g a i n s t the sometimes uncomfortable concept o f r e h e a r s a l r e a l i t y , tom and i managed t o spend the f i r s t two days w i t h the a c t o r s r e a d i n g and d i s c u s s i n g the t e x t . he then wanted t o put the p l a y on i t s f e e t ; t o do a rough b l o c k so we c o u l d have another look at the p l a y . we t r i e d t o e s t a b l i s h a p a t t e r n of r e h e a r s a l s i n which we would a l t e r n a t e our o b j e c t i v e s as w r i t e r and d i r e c t o r ( t o complete the f i n a l r e w r i t e and to get the p l a y s t a g e d ) . we d e l i b e r a t e l y c r e a t e d "overlaps" i n which i c o u l d get caught up on r e w r i t e s w h i l e he kept the p r o d u c t i o n as a whole moving f o r w a r d . the p a t t e r n t h a t emerged was: two days r e a d i n g and d i s c u s s i o n , t h r e e days rough b l o c k i n g ; f o l l o w e d by a day o f r e a d i n g and d i s c u s s i o n . the scenes we were not happy w i t h a t the o u t s e t of r e h e a r s a l s were the ones i t a c k l e d on the f i r s t weekend. i brought my new m a t e r i a l i n on the monday, and we i n t e g r a t e d i t i n t o the p l a y . the second week was then spent p r i m a r i l y on e x p l o r a t o r y scene work and i m p r o v i s a t i o n s ; the t h i r d was spent p o l i s h i n g scenes and r e s t o r i n g l i n e t r i m s which had been r e q u e s t e d by the a c t o r s i n the f i r s t two weeks; the f o u r t h was spent working up t o a s e r i e s o f r u n s . the f i f t h week was taken up w i t h the a c t u a l move i n t o the t h e a t r e and t e c h n i c a l r e h e a r s a l s . i t was a l s o the week i n which i found a key flaw i n the p l a y ' s s t r u c t u r e . i had one n i g h t to f i x i t ; the crew had f o u r hours to r e - c u e the show. tom and the a c t o r s had f o u r hours t o rehearse i t b e f o r e the f i r s t o f t h r e e p r e v i e w s . i had been bothered f o r some time by the opening sequence o f the p l a y . as o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n , i t was a k i n d o f p o e t i c p r o l o g u e i n which rose was alone on stage p r a y i n g . i t was a mysterious scene, and i knew i wanted t o c r e a t e a sense o f mystery a t the top o f the p l a y , but i n watching the runs of the p l a y i n the r e h e a r s a l h a l l i found i t c o n f u s i n g : i t had no c o n t e x t . i t was s i m p l y a t h e a t r i c a l g e s t u r e , i t was an e f f e c t , not a scene. the s o l u t i o n was t o i n t e g r a t e the p r o l o g u e i n t o the top o f the f i n a l scene of the p l a y and, i n t h i s way, g i v e i t a through l i n e o f d r a m a t i c a c t i o n . i c a l l e d tom i n the middle o f the n i g h t to e x p l a i n t h i s t o him and was g r e e t e d by a long pause, f o l l o w e d by the words, "the crew i s g o i n g t o hate y o u , but y o u ' r e r i g h t . do i t . j u s t d o n ' t t e l l anybody b e f o r e i get a chance to s e t i t up". e a r l y the next morning he got on the phone and worked a s m a l l m i r a c l e of d i r e c t o r i a l d i p l o m a c y ; i got to make my s t r u c t u r a l change. i b r i n g t h i s up as way of i l l u s t r a t i n g the s p e c i a l n a t u r e o f r e h e a r s i n g a new p l a y . i t i s v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r me t o f i n i s h w r i t i n g a p l a y b e f o r e i g e t t o see i t i n "runs". for me, the r e h e a r s a l p r o c e s s i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of my f i n a l w r i t i n g p r o c e s s ; i need t o hear the words out l o u d , and i need t o see the a c t i o n s p l a y e d through i n sequence. i t i s o n l y t h e n , when the whole p l a y i s l i v i n g and b r e a t h i n g i n f r o n t o f me, t h a t i can f i n e tune s t r u c t u r a l elements. . notes for future directors. the r e h e a r s a l and f i n a l r e w r i t i n g p r o c e s s of danceland was f i l l e d w i t h the j o y o f d i s c o v e r y . e v e r y day brought a new c h a l l e n g e ; on some days t h e r e were even some h i g h l y e n t e r t a i n i n g c r e a t i v e b r a w l s . in the end, however, i have come to b e l i e v e t h a t the f i n a l d r a f t o f the p l a y as w e l l as the london p r o d u c t i o n i t s e l f , were d e f i n i t i v e r e n d e r i n g s o f my p e r s o n a l c r e a t i v e v i s i o n . n e i t h e r p r o c e s s would have been complete had i t not been s y m b i o t i c a l l y connected t o the o t h e r . i o f f e r the f o l l o w i n g b r i e f notes on the major s t r u c t u r a l and c h a r a c t e r d i s c o v e r i e s which we made i n london, i n the hope t h a t c r i t i c s , d i r e c t o r s , a c t o r s and d e s i g n e r s o f f u t u r e p r o d u c t i o n s might b e t t e r understand my p e r s o n a l v i s i o n of the p l a y . a. l o c a t i n g the spine of the p l a y . the s p i n e o f the a c t i o n emerges b e s t when l i l y ' s c h a r a c t e r a r c i s p l a c e d i n the c e n t r e o f the d r a m a t i c c o n s t r u c t . the o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s ' a r c s flow o f f , through and around l i l y ' s , l i k e the framework of a g o t h i c b u i l d i n g , and the way f o r a d i r e c t o r t o keep t h i s s t r u c t u r e f l o w i n g i s t o keep i n mind the p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f the o t h e r t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s - they a l l want the same t h i n g : l i l y . in t h e i r own way, each o f them wishes to possess h e r . she i s the p r i z e a t the end o f the game. she i s o b j e c t i f i e d by a l l t h r e e o f them, and t h a t i s why i have chosen to p l a c e her onstage, u n d r e s s i n g , at the top of the p l a y . her beauty i s , i n a way, the c u r s e o f her l i f e . the e f f e c t o f the opening moment s h o u l d be i n t e n s e l y e r o t i c . every eye i n the house, male o r female, s h o u l d be g l u e d to her f l e s h . the e r o t i c i s m o f the moment s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d by the r a p i d r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t something t e r r i b l y wrong i s about t o happen. the purpose of her i n i t i a l o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n by the o t h e r t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s i s t h a t i t s e t s up the e n d i n g , when l i l y i s f i n a l l y f r e e d . when, through the tragedy o f what has happened t o h e r , she becomes f u l l y human. i f the a c t r e s s p l a y s the opening scene w i t h an i n t e n s e b e l i e f i n her p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e (to get out of the c a b i n q u i c k l y , e a s i l y and without h a v i n g a q u a r r e l w i t h l l o y d ) , then the scene w i l l f l y . l l o y d , on the o t h e r hand, wants t o keep her t h e r e , and he i s b e i n g as c o o p e r a t i v e as a " r a t t l e s n a k e i n a s l e e p i n g bag". the s l i g h t e s t move c o u l d set him o f f , and l i l y knows i t . she i s not a f r a i d o f him, and she can g i v e as good as she can t a k e , but foremost i n her mind i s p u t t i n g l l o y d i n a good mood, and then g e t t i n g back to the excitement of her i n c r e a s i n g l y s e p a r a t e l i f e . she wants p e a c e f u l independence. the i n i t i a l i n c i d e n t o c c u r s w i t h i n the f i r s t s i x or seven minutes o f the p l a y , when l l o y d spots a l i t t l e b r u i s e on l i l y ' s h i p . he grabs her and demands an e x p l a n a t i o n . she has n o t h i n g t o h i d e , and brushes i t o f f as "a f l e a b i t e " , and i n d o i n g s o , u n w i t t i n g l y emasculates l l o y d . he f i g h t s back, "what's t h a t supposed t o mean". t h i s a c t i o n l e a d s the a u d i e n c e , through a k i n d of n a r r a t i v e f e i n t , d i r e c t l y i n t o the f i r s t key p i e c e o f b a c k s t o r y , l l o y d and l i l y ' s p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y w i t h john d i l l i n g e r . t h i s p i e c e o f e x p o s i t i o n must be b e l i e v e d by the audience i f the r e s t of the s t o r y i s t o work; the e x p o s i t i o n a l n a t u r e of the scene needs t o be s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r o o t e d i n and d i s g u i s e d b y , r e a l i s t i c , b e l i e v a b l e a c t i o n , and s u r e f i r e changes o f t o n e , pace, tempo and o b j e c t i v e . i t i s a t r i c k y movement, and i t s t r i c k i n e s s i s compounded by the f a c t t h a t i t has two d i s t i n c t h a l v e s . the f i r s t , d r i v e n by l i l y , s h o u l d be l i k e a r o l l e r c o a s t e r r i d e ; the second, d r i v e n by rose, i s more l a c o n i c i n t o n e . i t i s a chance f o r the audience to absorb more e x p o s i t i o n about the p l a c e i t s e l f , and t o e s t a b l i s h the sense o f the v a l l e y b e i n g an almost s u p e r n a t u r a l p l a c e . i t a l s o does something e l s e - i t g i v e s the audience a chance t o get to know l l o y d , to see h i s v u l n e r a b i l i t y , h i s innocence i n the presence of a c h i l d . t h i s i s l l o y d ' s f i r s t and b e s t chance t o get the audience to l i k e him; he i s i n c r e a s i n g l y p a r a n o i d a f t e r t h i s scene. the a c t o r p l a y i n g l l o y d needs t o be v e r y c h a r i s m a t i c , and i t does not h u r t i f , l i k e p e t e r m a r i n k e r i n the london p r o d u c t i o n , he i s a handsome o l d dog as w e l l . l l o y d may be a bent and broken man, but i t i s v i t a l t o see h i s v i r i l i t y t r a p p e d i n s i d e h i s e n f e e b l e d body; the r o o t o f h i s j e a l o u s y i s s e x u a l , and the a c t o r p l a y i n g him s h o u l d be endowed w i t h the l i b i d o o f a s a t y r . sex i s n o t something you can a c t ; a c t o r s e i t h e r have the s e x u a l charisma o r they do n o t . murray makes h i s f i r s t "appearance", as i t were, o f f s t a g e . t h i s was a d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e on my p a r t , as i wanted t o e s t a b l i s h , as b e l i e v a b l y as p o s s i b l e , both the r e a l i t y o f the o f f s t a g e w o r l d (the l a k e , the v a l l e y , the boat) and the mythic paradigm f o r the p l a y . murray i s one o f the a r g o n a u t s , f o r e v e r f e r r y i n g passengers a c r o s s the r i v e r s t y x , a s s i s t i n g people on t h e i r j o u r n e y to h e l l . what i s m u r r a y ' s o b j e c t i v e i n the scene? to use rose as a f o i l , so t h a t he can get c l o s e t o l i l y . my sense o f murray i n t h i s scene r e v o l v e s around the image o f s p y i n g ; he i s most l i k e l y hidden away, j u s t o u t s i d e the c a b i n , l i s t e n i n g i n t e n t l y t o the e n t i r e scene i n e x a c t l y the same manner t h a t he and rose spy on l i l y a t the top o f scene two. when l i l y s t a r t s t o leave the c a b i n , murray pushes rose i n s i d e , w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s to o f f e r her a r i d e . t h i s i s why rose i s so o f f b a l a n c e when she e n t e r s the scene: she has l i t e r a l l y been pushed i n t o the room by m u r r a y . another t h i n g t h a t i s important f o r the a c t r e s s p l a y i n g rose t o remember i s t h a t , no matter how s i c k her r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h murray may be, she i s unaware o f i t s i n h e r e n t s i c k n e s s . i t i s a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l t h a t , a t the b e g i n n i n g of the p l a y , rose loves m u r r a y , and murray l o v e s rose; rose becomes aware o f the danger murray poses to her w h i l e she i s o f f s t a g e , s p y i n g on him d u r i n g the f i n a l d a n c e h a l l scene i n the f i r s t a c t . the a c t o r s must not pass moral judgements on the c h a r a c t e r s ; they must embrace the i d e a t h a t the two c h a r a c t e r s love each o t h e r , because the e x i s t e n c e of t h e i r l o v e g i v e s them a t r a g i c h e i g h t from which t o f a l l . l i l y ' s songs, e s p e c i a l l y the f i r s t two, can be p r o b l e m a t i c , and i n g r a p p l i n g w i t h them from b o t h a c o n c e p t u a l and a p r a g m a t i c , r e h e a r s a l p e r s p e c t i v e , what i have come t o understand i s t h a t l i l y s i n g s f o r the s i m p l e reason t h a t she loves s i n g i n g . her mind i s brimming w i t h song l y r i c s ; she r e l a t e s her l i f e t o songs. t h i s came up a l o t i n r e h e a r s a l w i t h d e n i c a , who, a f t e r a l l , was the person who was g o i n g t o have t o s t a n d up i n f r o n t of an audience and s i n g them every n i g h t , and who wanted, r i g h t l y , t o know e x a c t l y why l i l y would s i n g i n the f i r s t p l a c e . i t was a d i f f i c u l t a c t i n g q u e s t i o n , and tom wanted an answer, t o o . my i n i t i a l response to d e n i c a ' s q u e s t i o n was t h a t , i n w r i t i n g the p l a y i had always assumed t h a t l i l y i s a b e a u t i f u l s i n g e r , and t h a t when she s i n g s , she keeps s t i l l . while t h i s might be an adequate response t o another w r i t e r , t o an a c t o r i t i s the k i n d o f response which makes no sense; i t i s not a r e a s o n , i t i s an e f f e c t and, t o d e n i c a , i t f e l t l i k e an a r b i t r a r y c h o i c e , an example o f a w r i t e r imposing h i s w i l l on a c h a r a c t e r . she r e s i s t e d p l a y i n g t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r t r a i t u n t i l i f i n a l l y c o n v i n c e d her t o "at l e a s t t r y i t " . when she d i d , she found an emotional s t i l l n e s s a t the h e a r t o f the c h a r a c t e r , and from t h a t sense o f s t i l l n e s s she was a b l e t o f i n d o t h e r moments of emotional repose w i t h i n the p l a y . danceland i s v e r y dark i n t o n e , and i t s c e n t r a l a c t i o n i s r o o t e d i n the c h a r a c t e r s ' s t r u g g l e s f o r t h e i r v e r y s u r v i v a l . in o r d e r t o o f f s e t t h i s d a r k n e s s , i have g i v e n each of the f o u r c h a r a c t e r s "something e x t r a o r d i n a r y " t o do. l l o y d r e c i t e s p o e t r y , rose b e l i e v e s i n a n g e l s , murray i s , i n h i s own t w i s t e d way, an e r o t i c a l l y charged poet o f the l a n d , and l i l y i s an e x t r a o r d i n a r y s i n g e r . i t i s s i m p l y wrong, a m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t e x t , i f an a c t r e s s assumes t h a t because l i l y l i v e s her l i f e on the t h i n edge o f v i o l e n c e and a d d i c t i o n , t h a t she moves around l i k e a r o c k s i n g e r and s i n g s w i t h a t h r o a t f u l l of g r a v e l . in my view, t h i s d e s t r o y s the n o t i o n o f her as a "great j a z z s i n g e r " , i t d i m i n i s h e s her s t a t u r e and, i n d o i n g s o , d i m i n i s h e s the t r a g e d y o f her f a l l . having her s i n g l i k e grace s l i c k o r j a n i s j o p l i n a l s o d e s t r o y s the p e r i o d and s t y l e o f the p i e c e . i gave her songs t o s i n g because i wanted her to have moments o f t r a n s c e n d e n t beauty which p r o v i d e a s t a r k c o n t r a s t t o her amoral (but never immoral) l o v e f o r rough sex, a l c o h o l and d r u g s . to d i s r e g a r d the p i t c h and melody and i n t r i c a t e j a z z p h r a s i n g s of the songs on the lame p r e t e n s e t h a t she i s a "hard" woman, t u r n s l i l y i n t o a b a w l i n g f i s h w i f e o r a h a r l o t , and t h a t has never been my i n t e n t . l i l y i s a s i n g e r , an a r t i s t , and t h a t , by d e f i n i t i o n , i m p l i e s t h a t she i s adept a t a r t i f i c e . the o t h e r mistake an a c t r e s s can make w i t h the songs i s t o "turn them out" to the a u d i e n c e , t o t u r n them i n t o l i t t l e m i n i m u s i c a l t h e a t r e numbers. t h i s , t o o , would be a f a t a l m i s t a k e . she s i n g s when she s i n g s because, t o her mind, t h a t i s the b e s t , and most n a t u r a l , way f o r her to communicate - her s i n g i n g i s both a c h a r a c t e r t r a i t and a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the d r a m a t i c a c t i o n o f the scenes. b. some thoughts on the p l a y ' s s t y l e . scene two, l i l y and. m u r r a y ' s "seduction" scene, i s about twenty minutes l o n g , and i t i s v e r y t r e a c h e r o u s t e r r i t o r y f o r the a c t o r s . what we d i s c o v e r e d i n r e h e a r s a l was t h a t i t h e l p s t o t h i n k o f the scene as f o u r s e p a r a t e movements which b l e n d t o g e t h e r i n a l a r g e r sweep o f a c t i o n . i t moves from the s t i l l n e s s and p u r i t y of l i l y ' s song ( p r a y e r ) i n which she s i n g s , "i need my man, weatherman", through the entrance of rose and m u r r a y , t o r o s e ' s subsequent e x i t from the d a n c e h a l l . these two s e c t i o n s are p r i m a r i l y e x p o s i t i o n a l and, h o p e f u l l y , i have a c h i e v e d my own s tandards o f a r t i f i c e and b u r i e d the e x p o s i t i o n d e e p l y enough i n s i d e a s p e c i f i c s e t of a c t i o n s t o c a r r y the s t o r y f o r w a r d . i t h i n k the key t o making t h i s p a r t o f the scene work, m e t a p h o r i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , i s t o t h i n k of the e x p o s i t i o n as a s a i l , and the a c t i o n s o f the c h a r a c t e r s as the wind - i t i s the f r i c t i o n between them t h a t generates the energy which moves the boat o f the s t o r y f o r w a r d . the movement of the "seduction" scene, i s f r a u g h t w i t h s t y l i s t i c p e r i l . i t needs t o be an i n t e n s e l y e r o t i c scene, but i t must never s i n k t o the l e v e l o f pornography. while i t i s a scene c o n c e i v e d i n c e l e b r a t i o n o f animal l u s t , i t more about e r o t i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s than e r o t i c i n e v i t a b l i t i e s . t h i s movement o f the scene b r i n g s up a l a r g e r , a e s t h e t i c q u e s t i o n , and i t i s one which the d i r e c t o r and a c t o r s of t h i s p l a y must d e a l w i t h , because i f the treatment o f e r o t i c i s m i s m i s h a n d l e d , the p r o d u c t i o n w i l l s t r a y from t r a g e d y t o b r u t a l i t y . the p l a y i s , f r a n k l y , meant to be e r o t i c , and i t r a i s e s many of the same e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s as e r o t i c l i t e r a t u r e i n g e n e r a l . s p e c i f i c a l l y , how t o make something d e l i b e r a t l y e r o t i c without e x p l o i t i n g the c h a r a c t e r s , the a c t o r s or the a u d i e n c e . how does an a r t i s t demarcate the l i n e between e r o t i c a and pornography? i t i s a p r e s s i n g q u e s t i o n f o r modern w r i t e r s , and w h i l e some people m a i n t a i n t h a t i t s i m p l y cannot be done, i s t e a d f a s t l y m a i n t a i n t h a t the dogmatic foes of e r o t i c a are wrong. from a modern a c t o r ' s p o i n t o f view, i t i s d i f f i c u l t to s u s t a i n a b e l i e f i n the p r o l o n g e d f o r e p l a y o f the scene. a c t o r s , i n the p r o d u c t i o n s i have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h , always want to touch too soon. and once the c h a r a c t e r s t o u c h , n o t h i n g , i s going t o keep those two c h a r a c t e r s from engaging i n f e r o c i o u s sex r i g h t t h e r e on the dance f l o o r and i n p l a i n view o f anybody who c a r e s to i n t e r r u p t . once they t o u c h , the scene i s o v e r . the p o i n t o f the scene i s s e d u c t i o n , not conquest. i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r a r t i s t s of my age to imagine a time when the sexual act was bound up i n a p r o s c r i b e d r i t u a l of manners, c o u r t s h i p and s e d u c t i o n , but i f t h i s scene i s t o work, we must engage our i m a g i n a t i o n . the f i n a l movement of t h i s second scene i s a crescendo o f a c t i o n , a l l o f i t c o m p l i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t f o r every a c t i o n t h e r e i s a w i t n e s s ; a s i t u a t i o n which demands, from the p o i n t o f view o f p e r s o n a l ego, i f n o t h i n g e l s e , a c o n t i n u i n g s t r u g g l e f o r the h i g h e s t c h a r a c t e r s t a t u s . the moment a w i t n e s s i s p r e s e n t , domestic s i t u a t i o n s which would be normal f o r medea o r even june c l e a v e r , need t o be j u s t i f i e d i n o r d e r t h a t the witness not see us f o r what we r e a l l y a r e . c o n s i d e r the s i t u a t i o n o f a policeman who i n t e r v e n e s i n a domestic d i s p u t e ; the v i c t i m i n v a r i a b l y t u r n s v i o l e n t upon the i n t e r v e n o r , and t h i s i s the essence o f the f i n a l movement of the scene. the a c t o r s i n the london p r o d u c t i o n , unsure o f the s o c i a l g r a c e s o f south c e n t r a l saskatchewan i n the mid 's, would o c c a s i o n a l l y ask me "what would i f e e l i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n ? " when they would have been b e t t e r a s k i n g , "what would the c h a r a c t e r do i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n ? " . i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o know the answer t o t h a t f i r s t q u e s t i o n . what would any o f us f e e l i f we were suddenly t r a n s p o r t e d t o another t i m e , another p l a c e , i n which the customs of the day seemed v e r y f o r e i g n ? the second q u e s t i o n , "what would the c h a r a c t e r do?" can be r e a d i l y answered because i t can be r e l a t e d back t o the c o n c r e t e evidence which c o n t a i n e d i n the t e x t ; i t has a frame o f r e f e r e n c e . in my view, a c t i n g i s d o i n g , and t h a t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , i n c l u d e s d o i n g n o t h i n g . a c t i n g i s about b e l i e v i n g i n the g i v e n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t i s about watching w i t h an u n p r e j u d i c e d eye, about a c t i v e l i s t e n i n g , and about responding t r u t h f u l l y w i t h i n the s t y l i s t i c c o n s t r a i n t s o f the p l a y as w e l l as i n the p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f the c h a r a c t e r s . s t y l e , l i k e accent o r g e s t u r e , i s d e r i v e d from the s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r demands of l i v i n g i n s i d e c e r t a i n k i n d s o f c l o t h e s , c e r t a i n k i n d s o f environments and c e r t a i n s o c i a l v a l u e s , but s t y l e , f o r many younger a c t o r s , has become a p a s t i c h e of c l i c h e and g e s t u r e , r a t h e r than something which beats at the l i v i n g h e a r t of a c h a r a c t e r . t r y t o imagine oscar wilde without s t y l e , t r y t o imagine sarah bernhardt or noel coward; t r y to imagine m a r l o n brando as s t a n l e y kowalski without c o n j u r i n g up a d e f i n i t i v e sense o f s t y l e . s t y l e , i n my view, i s an o r g a n i c component of the a c t o r ' s c r a f t , and t o a c t any o f the p a r t s i n danceland r e q u i r e s a sense of s t y l e . the a c t o r s must r o o t t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s w i t h i n the parameters o f 's s o c i a l v a l u e s , and then express them t r u t h f u l l y w i t h i n the s t y l e d i c t a t e d by the s c r i p t which was d e s c r i b e d , a c c u r a t e l y , i t h i n k , by hugh c r u t t w e l l , a former p r i n c i p a l o f r . a . d . a . and a champion o f the london p r o d u c t i o n , as " p o e t i c melodrama w i t h a p r i m i t i v e f e e l t o i t " . hugh's use o f the word melodrama made me c r i n g e , but s i n c e he o f f e r e d h i s c r i t i q u e on the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t the producer wanted a quote to h e l p her r a i s e money f o r the p r o d u c t i o n , i have t o conclude t h a t he wrote t h a t dreaded word, melodrama, a f t e r a good d e a l o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n . as ibsen s a i d i n an enemy o f the p e o p l e , the o n l y t h i n g we have i n t h i s l i f e i s our r e p u t a t i o n . o r , as my g r e a t f r i e n d and sometime c o l l a b o r a t o r , cape b r e t o n p l a y w r i g h t bryden macdonald once put i t , "the o n l y t h i n g i own i s a bad r e p u t a t i o n , and somebody e l s e gave i t t o me". i s u s p e c t t h a t when an a r t i s t of hugh c r u t t w e l l ' s a b i l i t y p u t s pen t o paper a t the behest of a f r i e n d who i s p r o p o s i n g to produce and s t a r i n a new canadian p l a y and hoping t o r a i s e money from h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n t a c t s and acquaintances on the b a s i s o f h i s c o n s i d e r e d o p i n i o n about i t s p o t e n t i a l q u a l i t y , h i s i n s t i n c t would be t o cover h i s r i s k s and w r i t e an honest assessment o f the t e x t . maybe i t h i n k too h i g h l y o f p e o p l e , but my honest r e a c t i o n t o hugh's quote was t h a t he o b v i o u s l y meant i t , and i took i t t o h e a r t i n the f i n a l d r a f t . c. f i n d i n g a r e a l i s t i c root for the c h a r a c t e r s . the p l a y i s i n c o n s t a n t danger o f b o i l i n g o v e r , e s p e c i a l l y i f a d i r e c t o r l e t s the emotions o f the moment get overheated t o the d e t r i m e n t of the b e l i e v a b i l i t y o f d r a m a t i c a c t i o n . the p l a y burns h o t , e m o t i o n a l l y , but no matter how f a n t a s t i c the c h a r a c t e r ' s s i t u a t i o n s become, i t needs t o be c o n s t a n t l y grounded through the p r i s m o f b e l i e v a b l e a c t i o n and o b j e c t i v e . in s h o r t , i f i t gets o v e r h e a t e d , i t d e t e r i o r a t e s i n t o melodrama. these c h a r a c t e r s e x i s t i n s i d e a c l a u s t r o p h o b i c , almost m y t h i c a l w o r l d , and the reason they get so c r a z y i s t h a t they keep t r y i n g t o make r a t i o n a l sense out o f the c o n s t a n t l y s h i f t i n g c o n t r u c t they form on the b a s i s o f t h e i r b e l i e f i n m u r r a y ' s l i e s . p o l i t i c s may be the a r t o f the p o s s i b l e , but my p l a y , i n my o p i n i o n , must occur w i t h i n the realm o f the p r o b a b l e , and t h a t i s the p l a y ' s p r i m a r y c h a l l e n g e to a c t o r s , d i r e c t o r s and d e s i g n e r s - t o make i t r e a l without t r a p p i n g i t i n s i d e the mundanities o f day t o day r e a l i t y ; t o be brave and a c t o u t , t r u t h f u l l y , the a c t i o n s o f a myth, the f a n t a s i e s of an unrepentant l i a r , an e x a g g e r a t o r , a t e l l e r o f t a l l t a l e s . in h i s d i r e c t o r i a l approach, tom r e c o g n i z e d from the o u t s e t t h a t the p l a y , through i t s p o e t i c language, i t s s t r u c t u r a l antecedents and i t s m y t h i c a l paradigm, r e p r e s e n t s a k i n d o f heightened r e a l i t y . he a l s o r e c o g n i z e d , from the e a r l i e s t stages of h i s d r a m a t u r g i c a l work on the t e x t , t h a t the o n l y way an audience can g a i n access to the m y t h i c a l w o r l d of the p l a y i s i f the w r i t e r , d i r e c t o r and a c t o r s p r o v i d e a r e c o g n i z a b l e , r e a l i s t i c frame of r e f e r e n c e . l i k e the b e s t s u r r e a l i s t p a i n t i n g s , the p l a y had t o be r o o t e d i n everyday r e a l i t y and be d r i v e n by a p r e c i s e sense o f l o g i c . for example, t h e r e i s a s h o r t d i a l o g u e s e c t i o n i n the t h i r d scene, l i l y and l l o y d ' s b i g f i g h t and r e c o n c i l i a t i o n scene, which makes a g l a n c i n g r e f e r e n c e to t h e i r emotional s t a t e . when l l o y d accuses l i l y o f having sex w i t h john d i l l i n g e r , she r e t o r t s t h a t they were "shooting c o c a i n e . not s c r e w i n g " . i t ' s a b r i e f moment, but i t has consequences which were i n i t i a l l y missed by the a c t o r s (i guess t h i s was my f a u l t f o r n o t p a i n t i n g l l o y d and l i l y ' s a d d i c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t i e s more b r o a d l y ) . i t j u s t seems to me t h a t i f l i l y was s h o o t i n g c o c a i n e , a c t u a l l y u s i n g n e e d l e s , not more than n i n e months b e f o r e the s t a r t o f the p l a y , t h a t she, and i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d , l l o y d , were r e g u l a r u s e r s . i f they had c r o s s e d the b o r d e r i n t o canada, t h e i r s u p p l y o f c o c a i n e would more than l i k e l y have been cut o f f , and even i f they managed t o s c r a p e t o g e t h e r enough time and money t o s c o r e b e f o r e they l e f t c h i c a g o , undoubtedly, two weeks i n t o t h e i r s t a y a t l i t t l e m a n i t o u , they have run out o f c o c a i n e . they are i n the t h r o e s o f k i c k i n g t h e i r a d d i c t i o n - not j u s t i n t h i s scene, but from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f the p l a y . i t i s not a p r e t t y thought, but i t goes a l o n g way toward e x p l a i n i n g the manic r i s e and f a l l o f t h e i r emotional s t a t e s i n the scene. when the dope runs out t h e r e i s h e l l t o pay; i t i s always somebody e l s e ' s f a u l t t h a t the s i t u a t i o n , has become so d e s p e r a t e , and the l a s t t h i n g an a d d i c t w i l l admit i s t h a t he or she i s t e r r i f i e d of g o i n g i n t o w i t h d r a w a l ; "i'm not an a d d i c t . what are you t a l k i n g about? of course i d o n ' t need another f i x " , i s the s t a n d a r d speech when, of c o u r s e , t h a t i s e x a c t l y what an a d d i c t needs. d e n i a l i s a c e n t r a l p a r t o f a d d i c t i o n , and t h a t i s why the c h a r a c t e r s i n the p l a y never acknowledge t h a t they are j u n k i e s , even though, i n t h e i r d r a m a t i c r e a l i t y , t h a t i s what they a r e . in the s t r a t o s p h e r e o f j u n k i e s , a l c o h o l i c s l i v e a t the bottom; t h e y take an i n f e r i o r d r u g , and t h a t i s why, i n her d e s p e r a t i o n , l i l y accuses l l o y d o f r e l y i n g too h e a v i l y on the b o t t l e . she does not a c t u a l l y c a r e t h a t he i s an a l c o h o l i c , f o r she i s an a l c o h o l i c h e r s e l f ; her admonishment t o l l o y d about h i s a l c o h o l i s m i s a c r y f o r h e l p as much as i t i s a moral judgement. l i l y i s d e a l i n g w i t h her e n f o r c e d detox p e r i o d b e t t e r than l l o y d f o r the simple reason t h a t she has something m e a n i n g f u l , the band and the d a n c e h a l l , w i t h which t o occupy her t i m e . but i n the end, t h e r e i s n o t h i n g l i l y can do to calm the c h e m i c a l i n f e r n o t h a t i s r a g i n g through l l o y d ' s body, except t o t e l l a s t o r y about w i n t e r , a s t o r y about the b i t t e r c o l d , a s t o r y about the e x t r a o r d i n a r y beauty of the landscape; a s t o r y t o l d i n d e f i a n c e o f the unbearable heat o f the day; a f a n t a s t i c s t o r y , almost a l l t r u e , which calms the f i r e i n h i s nerve e n d i n g s . she subdues l l o y d w i t h a b a r r a g e of language, the s t o r y o f the n i g h t the l o c a l boys s e t the i c e o f the l a k e on f i r e . by the end of the scene, l i l y and l l o y d have a c h i e v e d peace t o g e t h e r f o r the f i r s t time i n the p l a y . the f i r s t a c t ends w i t h rose and m u r r a y , p l a y i n g t o g e t h e r i n the d a n c e h a l l . murray has brought rose t h e r e t o make up w i t h h e r , a f t e r t h e i r t e r r i b l e encounter e a r l i e r i n the a c t . that i s why he has d r e s s e d her up i n l i l y ' s c l o t h e s , and why he i s encouraging her t o make fun o f l i l y . murray i s l i k e a c h i l d i n t h i s r e g a r d ; he i s j e a l o u s o f rose's a t t r a c t i o n t o l i l y . i t i s my b e l i e f t h a t the s e x u a l t e n s i o n which a r i s e s between murray and rose i n the course o f the scene i s a new e x p e r i e n c e f o r both o f them. i do not b e l i e v e t h a t murray makes a h a b i t o f s e x u a l l y abusing h i s daughter. i t i s j u s t t h a t i n t h i s one i n s t a n c e , t h e i r p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t , c o u p l e d w i t h the smooth f e e l o f l i l y ' s s i l k d r e s s i n g gown and h i s sudden awareness o f rose's budding s e x u a l i t y , arouses him. t h i s d i s g u s t s him, and t h a t i s why he r e a c t s so v i o l e n t l y when rose a c c i d e n t a l l y t e a r s the d r e s s i n g gown. he d r i v e s her from the d a n c e h a l l because he f i n d s h i m s e l f i n a s t a t e o f such a r o u s a l t h a t he i s a f r a i d he w i l l be unable t o c o n t r o l h i m s e l f . i t i s a l s o important f o r the a c t o r p l a y i n g murray t o remember t h a t murray has p r o b a b l y not had sex s i n c e the n i g h t he murdered h i s w i f e , f i v e o r s i x y e a r s ago; t h a t h i s s e x u a l i t y i s bound up w i t h a profound sense o f g u i l t ; and t h a t h i s sense o f g u i l t has been g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by the h a r s h p r o t e s t a n t morals o f the community. h i s f e t i s h i s m , t h e n , i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f y e a r s o f s e x u a l r e p r e s s i o n . the d i r e c t o r i a l and d r a m a t u r g i c a l key t o the scene, as tom k e r r so a d r o i t l y d i s c o v e r e d i n the london p r o d u c t i o n , i s t h a t rose, o f f s t a g e , i s watching murray masturbate - t h i s t e r r i f i e s her because she sees, f o r the f i r s t t i m e , what he might have done t o h e r . so, even though rose l e a v e s the s t a g e , i t i s a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l to "stage", as tom d i d , her o f f s t a g e a c t i o n s . e v e r y knock a t the d o o r , every shadow t h a t c r o s s e s a window, i s c r e a t e d by rose and s u b s e q u e n t l y m i s i n t e r p r e t e d by m u r r a y . by the time rose r e - e n t e r s , a t the end of the scene, f o r her "scardeycat" l i n e , she has d e c i d e d two t h i n g s : she hates m u r r a y , and she i s never g o i n g to l e t him touch her a g a i n . the s t r u c t u r a l antecedents to the scene, slamming d o o r s , a c c e l e r a t i n g a c t i o n and the d i s s o l u t i o n of i d e n t i t y are pure f a r c e , a l t h o u g h the i n t e n t remains t r a g i c , and t h i s f a r c i c a l s u b - s t r u c t u r e comes t o the f o r e i n the opening scene o f the second a c t , when murray and l l o y d a r e p l o t t i n g revenge out a t l l o y d ' s c a b i n . as a d r a m a t i c gambit, the t e c h n i q u e o f t w i s t i n g an e s s e n t i a l l y t r a g i c s t o r y through some j u d i c i o u s t h e f t s from feydeau, has some b u i l t - i n dangers, not the l e a s t o f which i s t h a t i f the p h y s i c a l comedy gets too f a r out o f hand, i t becomes i m p o s s i b l e f o r l l o y d t o b e l i e v e m u r r a y ' s e v i l s t o r y about john d i l l i n g e r m a s t u r b a t i n g w i t h l i l y ' s d r e s s i n g gown. l l o y d ' s b e i n g c o n v i n c e d by m u r r a y ' s " i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e evidence" o f l i l y ' s m i s s i n g d r e s s i n g gown i s as p i v o t a l t o the p l o t of danceland as iago's m a s t e r f u l d e c e i t w i t h desdemona's h a n d k e r c h i e f i s t o o t h e l l o . the f i n a l scene o f the p l a y i s a l s o the l o n g e s t , c l o c k i n g i n at about t h i r t y minutes and, l i k e the long scene e a r l y i n a c t one, i s b e s t handled by t h i n k i n g of i t as a s e r i e s of movements w i t h i n an o r c h e s t r a l whole. the f i r s t two movements (rose alone and then rose w i t h l i l y ) l e a d t o rose's r e l e a s e o f her l o n g suppressed memories o f the n i g h t murray murdered her mother. i b e l i e v e t h a t rose witnessed the murder and t h a t m u r r a y , s u s p e c t i n g t h i s , has t u r n e d the i n c i d e n t i n t o a k i n d o f m y t h i c a l event which he o f t e n t e l l s h e r , as a k i n d of macabre bedtime s t o r y . and i t i s h i s r e p e a t e d t e l l i n g o f the s t o r y t o rose which has convi nced her t h a t some k i n d o f fearsome, p r i m i t i v e god l i v e s a t the bottom o f the l a k e . rose i s not possessed o f s u p e r n a t u r a l powers, a l t h o u g h , over the y e a r s , she has come to b e l i e v e t h a t she has them. her long " c l a r i n e t w a i l " i s an a c t u a l c r y from her h e a r t , a v o c a l i z e d response to the p a i n f u l u n l o c k i n g o f a t e r r i f y i n g c h i l d h o o d memory. t h i s i s the f i n a l b i t o f e x p o s i t i o n i n the p l a y , and a f t e r t h i s , the a c t i o n should be s p u r r e d forward w i t h a mounting rhythm t o the p l a y ' s c l i m a x , which i s l l o y d ' s d i s c o v e r y t h a t he has been duped by murray and h i s r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t murray has caused him t o d e s t r o y the l a s t hopes f o r h i s m a r r i a g e . the murder o f l l o y d i s extremely t h e a t r i c a l , and l i z z p o u l t e r , the l i g h t i n g d e s i g n e r i n the london p r o d u c t i o n , used t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y f o r the show's f i r s t n o n - r e a l i s t i c cue: she faded i n the l i g h t from a s p i n n i n g m i r r o r b a l l as the men began t h e i r dance of d e a t h , and then faded i t back out as murray r e a l i z e s what he has j u s t done. t h i s moment, however, f o r a l l i t s i n n a t e t h e a t r i c a l i t y i s the a n t i - c l i m a x o f the p l a y , and tom's d i r e c t i o n s t r e s s e d t h i s f a c t . a g a i n , murray i s such a powerful presence i n the p l a y t h a t he can unbalance the a r c o f the s t o r y , and p u l l i t o f f - c e n t r e , away from the t r a g e d y o f l i l y and l l o y d ' s doomed r e l a t i o n s h i p . the key t o keeping the p l a y on t r a c k here i s t o u n d e r p l a y m u r r a y ' s c r a z i n e s s i n t h i s scene. the a c t o r ' s o b j e c t i v e s h o u l d be "to s t a y calm" i n the face o f i m p o s s i b l e p r e s s u r e s . another key to the s u c c e s s f u l s t a g i n g o f the scene i s t o p l a c e l l o y d ' s body j u s t above c e n t r e stage; by p l a c i n g him h e r e , he remains p r e s e n t i n the a c t i o n and, i n f a c t , c o n t i n u e s t o d r i v e i t even a f t e r h i s d e a t h . on a more pragmatic n o t e , l l o y d ' s f i n a l p o s i t i o n i s the same p o s i t i o n from which l i l y must end the p l a y . her presence b e s i d e l l o y d ' s i n e r t form i s d i c t a t e d by her r e l a t i o n s h i p t o him; she cannot l e a v e him. once she sees l l o y d , she must go t o him. her o b j e c t i v e s a r e to h e l p him, t o r e v i v e him, t o l o v e him, and t o p r o t e c t him. she must c o n c e n t r a t e on l l o y d w i t h every f i b r e o f her b e i n g . murray i s not as important t o her as l l o y d i s . in f a c t , she would p r o b a b l y be r e l i e v e d i f murray k i l l e d h e r , t o o . t h i s i s i m p o r t a n t , because i f the a c t r e s s f o c u s s e d too s t r o n g l y on m u r r a y ' s predicament, she would d i m i n i s h her own; i f she d e c i d e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , to p i c k up the gun and chase murray around the room i n p u r s u i t o f revenge, t h i s f i n a l scene would d e t e r i o r a t e i n t o melodrama. i have seen t h a t c h o i c e t r i e d i n a number o f r e h e a r s a l s , and i t does not work. d. some f i n a l thoughts on the p l a y . e v e r y a r t i s t who approaches danceland w i l l b r i n g a u n i q u e , i n d i v i d u a l v i s i o n t o the p l a y , and i welcome t h i s . i t i s the f u s i o n o f our a r t i s t i c energy which s i t s a t the h e a r t o f t h i s c o l l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s we have come t o c a l l "theatre". i do, however, want to request one t h i n g from the d i r e c t o r s , d e s i g n e r s and a c t o r s who w i l l be engaged i n f u t u r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f the p l a y . be m i n d f u l o f one t h i n g : the a u d i e n c e . they have come t o "hear a p l a y " ; they have come t o w i t n e s s the b e l i e v a b l e u n f o l d i n g o f a s t o r y , and a l l o f u s , myself i n c l u d e d , are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h a t . we must a l l o w the audience to e n t e r the w o r l d o f the p l a y , and we must a l l o w them t o empathize w i t h the c h a r a c t e r s . we must share the p l a y w i t h them. having completed the p l a y , my journey as a p l a y w r i g h t has come f u l l c i r c l e ; i must move on to o t h e r p l a y s and o t h e r p l a c e s . for me, the t e x t o f danceland i s an a r t i f a c t , a map of my c r e a t i v e j o u r n e y t o t h i s p o i n t i n t i m e . i f the p l a y i s "about" a n y t h i n g , i t i s about b r e a k i n g a l i f e l o n g embrace o f a d d i c t i o n and d e a t h . l i l y ' s tragedy i s t h a t she, l i k e a l l o f u s , must l i v e ; her triumph i s t h a t she manages to do i t at a l l . the times november , hot tip from an icy zone another c r a c k e r from canada. t o r o n t o - b a s e d g l e n c a i r n s s h o u l d be added t o the l i s t o f hot w r i t e r s emerging from the i c y zones n o r t h o f the u n i t e d s t a t e s . c a i r n s ' s p o e t i c , f i e r c e l y sexual p l a y danceland, s e t i n smalltown saskatchewan i n the ! s , i n l i t t l e manitou where the h e a l i n g powers of the l a k e cannot quench l u s t and j e a l o u s y , i s the b e s t work i have seen at the o l d red l i o n ( e c ) . i t i s an e x c e p t i o n a l f r i n g e p r o d u c t i o n . a r r e s t i n g l y d i r e c t e d by tom k e r r , danceland i s an a l l e g o r y of angels and s i n n e r s . i t i s a l s o the s t o r y o f s h a t t e r e d m a r r i a g e , f r u s t r a t e d and f e t i s h i s t i c e r o t i c i s m , and o f an i n t e n s e l y d i s t u r b e d c h i l d . denica fairman i s o u t s t a n d i n g as l i l y , the t o r c h s i n g e r who has f l e d c h i c a g o ' s u n d e r w o r l d . l i l y , h i g h l y sexed but f a r from a c l i c h e d s c a r l e t woman, has r e t u r n e d home i n the hope o f c u r i n g l l o y d , her saxophonist husband, c r i p p l i n g l y wounded i n the t h i g h by one of her gangland i n t i m a t e s . fairman performs w i t h acuteness and ease and has a s u l t r y bloom on her s i n g i n g v o i c e . she i s s t r o n g l y supported by k e v i n howarth's i n t e n s e murray, the dangerous l o c a l man she becomes i n v o l v e d w i t h , and p e t e r m a r i n k e r ' s p o s s e s s i v e l l o y d , a g o a t - e y e d c l i n t eastwood. c a t h e r i n e holman, b a r e - l e g g e d i n her flowery f r o c k , looks u n s e t t l i n g l y l i k e a n i n e - y e a r - o l d as rose who, a f t e r the drowning o f her n a t i v e american mother, i s i n the s p o r a d i c a l l y t h r e a t e n i n g c a r e o f m u r r a y , her f a t h e r . holman i s p r o f o u n d l y d i s t u r b i n g , screaming w i t h the g r i e f o f an i n a r t i c u l a t e a n i m a l , or powdering her f a c e a g h o s t l y white as she r e p e a t s psalm l i k e an i n c a n t a t i o n and l a y s h e r s e l f down, l i k e a f r o z e n c o r p s e . - kate b a s s e t t (p. ) what's on in london november - , danceland. j u s t t r y to imagine the m u l t i - l a y e r e d drama enacted i n t h i s london p r e m i e r e by t o r o n t o - b a s e d w r i t e r , d i r e c t o r and filmmaker g l e n c a i r n s as b e i n g l i k e a c r o s s between a ' 's gangster movie, twin peaks and a f i l m n o i r t h r i l l e r , and you might get some i d e a o f i t s p o w e r f u l , edgy and mesmeric q u a l i t i e s . but i t seems u n f a i r to make such comparisons, because c a i r n s i s c l e a r l y a d r a m a t i s t w i t h a unique t h e a t r i c a l v i s i o n , and i f o r one look forward t o s e e i n g more o f h i s work staged h e r e . j a z z , booze, d r u g s , sex, mythology, r e l i g i o n and a g o o d - v e r s u s - e v i l theme a r e a l l i n g e n i o u s l y woven t o g e t h e r i n t h i s h a u n t i n g c a u t i o n a r y t a l e . a t f i r s t , the s t o r y seems s i m p l e . l i l y , a t o r c h s i n g e r , and l l o y d , her wounded bandleader husband, a r e on the run from john d i l l i n g e r , a m e r i c a ' s " p u b l i c enemy number one." they end up i n l i l y ' s b i r t h p l a c e - l i t t l e m a n i t o u , saskatchewan. the town was once a s a c r e d p l a c e o f h e a l i n g f o r the indigenous i n d i a n s , l a t e r becoming a b u s t l i n g r o a r i n g twenties spa r e s o r t ; but p o s t - w a l l s t r e e t c r a s h i t has begun t o d i e . in t h e i r s a f e haven t h i s f r a c t u r e d c o u p l e hope t h a t the l o c a l magic mudbath and the m i n e r a l - r i c h l a k e w i l l cure t h e i r sulphourous swamp o f a m a r r i a g e . the a c t i o n v e e r s m a i n l y between danceland, one o f the l o c a l dance h a l l s , and the h o t e l room where j e a l o u s o l d e r husband l l o y d fumes from h i s w h e e l c h a i r , knocks back the d r i n k and spouts p o e t r y . but when l i l y encounters l o c a l boat-man and b r o o d i n g f e t i s h i s t murray and h i s twelve year o l d daughter rose, the scene i s s e t f o r a complex e x p l o r a t i o n o f human f o l l y and cooped-up l u s t , a l l i e d w i t h the d e s t r u c t i v e power o f myth and l e g e n d . a l l t h i s may appear r a t h e r f o r b i d d i n g , and some o f c a i r n s ' i d e a s do seem t o be o v e r s t a t e d - not l e a s t the second a c t scenes i n v o l v i n g the l i t t l e g i r l and her cosmic c o n n e c t i o n s . but the p l a y i s b u r s t i n g w i t h h i g h l y - c h a r g e d moments, and o v e r a l l i s a t h o r o u g h l y a b s o r b i n g and h a u n t i n g p i e c e o f t h e a t r e . c r e d i t i s due to tom k e r r ' s c o n t r o l l e d d i r e c t i o n , l i s a r o b i n s o n ' s e f f e c t i v e p l a i n wood s e t t i n g , l i z z p o u l t e r ' s atmospheric l i g h t i n g and some e n t h r a l l i n g a c t i n g from a c a s t o f f o u r : denica fairman as the s e n s u a l l i l y t o r n between too many men; p e t e r m a r i n k e r as the doomed l l o y d ; c a t h e r i n e holman as rose, the "animal-angel" who c r i e s t e a r s f o r the s t a r s a t n i g h t ; and k e v i n howarth as the monstrous murray who d i s c o v e r s t h a t i t r e a l l y i s a s i n t o t e l l a l i e . - roger foss (page ) time out november - , . d a n c e l a n d . in l i t t l e m a n i t o u , saskatchewan, john d i l l i n g e r , "america's most wanted", may or may not be dead. l i l y , a d a n c e h a l l h o s t e s s , l l o y d , her c r i p p l e d j a z z - m u s i c i a n husband, m u r r a y , her would-be l o v e r and h i s s m a l l daughter, rose, w a i t f o r the g r e a t man t o appear. l i l y i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t he i s dead, s h e ' s read i t i n the p a p e r s , but l i k e the o t h e r s she w a i t s f o r a redemption t h a t never comes. "danceland" i s b i l l e d as "a new canadian p l a y " , but when the a u t h o r ' s notes are more i n t e r e s t i n g t h a n the p l a y i t s e l f , we know t h a t the w r i t i n g i s i n deep t r o u b l e . there are some s t u n n i n g word p i c t u r e s through which we can f e e l and see the wide expanses o f western canada. but u n l i k e sam shepard, f o r i n s t a n c e , who t a c k l e s the same emotional t e r r i t o r y , c a i r n s ' w r i t i n g i s e s s e n t i a l l y p r o s e . i t s i m p l y l i e s t h e r e w i t h i t s g r e a t leaden beauty and does not budge, r e d u c i n g d i r e c t o r tom k e r r ' s v e r y f i n e work and l i s a r o b i n s o n ' s g r a c e f u l l y e v o c a t i v e s e t t o the i l l u s t r a t i o n of a book at bedtime. the powerhouse c a s t a r e l e f t t o go r i g h t over the t o p , but they a l s o manage t o f i n d moments of q u i e t s t r e n g t h . they a r e a l l e x t r a o r d i n a r y , but i t i s the sublime c a t h e r i n e holman as rose, the l i t t l e c h i l d , who burrows deep i n t o the h e a r t o f t h i s t a l e , r i p p i n g i t open t o r e v e a l the c r y o f a n a t i o n t r a p p e d i n i t s p a s t and f r i g h t e n e d o f i t s f u t u r e . - bonnie greer (page ). danceland r e c e i v e d i t s b r i t i s h premiere at the o l d red l i o n t h e a t r e i n i s l i n g t o n , n o r t h london on november , . p l a y w r i g h t . g l e n c a i r n s d i r e c t o r tom k e r r set/costume design l i s a robinson l i g h t i n g design l i z z p o u l t e r composer mark s c h o l f i e d / (the b r o t h e r jonathan) c a s t : l i l y . . denica fairman l l o y d . p e t e r m a r k i n k e r murray k e v i n howarth rose c a t h e r i n e holman f o r red r i v e r p r o d u c t i o n s : company/stage m a n a g e r . . . . h e l e n dolan a s s i s t a n t stage manager..rob payne f i n a n c i a l c o n s u l t a n t wendy a b e l p u b l i c i t y sue hyman a s s o c i a t e s new alignments in ritual, ceremony and celebration new alignments in ritual, ceremony and celebration (roger) neil cameron school of arts faculty of arts griffith university submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of master of philosophy january synopsis new alignments in ritual, ceremony and celebration increasingly, cultural workers and artists from many disciplines are finding themselves involved in the creation of public and private rituals, ceremonies and celebrations. focusing on ritual and celebration in australian contexts, this thesis posits a new categorisation of the types of event that might be encountered, grouping and examining them according to their action upon participants with the aim of enabling a more practical methodology of design in contemporary societal conditions. existing categories, which have defined these age-old activities in terms of anthropological observation or social intention, must now be regarded as obsolete because they take no account of rapid and widespread changes in degrees of adherence to traditional belief systems, in social orientation and in western cultural practices. there is a need to reappraise why individuals and communities might continue to hold rituals and celebrations, and how these can be designed, managed and operated most effectively. the thesis identifies four major categories of ritual: transformation, reinforcement, transcendence and catharsis. it argues that, by recognising the differences between how each category operates for participants and also certain commonalities across categories, effectiveness of design is facilitated. in developing parameters for each category and giving examples of contemporary praxis, the writer stresses the importance of understanding traditional ceremonies so that elements of a rich repertoire of techniques developed over long periods can be planned into new rituals for contemporary application, despite the dissipation of shared, coherent belief systems in a highly secularised culture. this impels consideration of questions of cultural sensitivity, raises the need for close community involvement in design, and requires exploration of managing the challenges of multiple signification. contemporary cultural contexts for ritual and celebratory events are marked by plurality, multi-vocalism and multicultural experience. designers thus need to achieve, out of difference, an event that produces coherence, deep effects for each participant and a sense of shared experience. the thesis demonstrates means to this end through informed praxis, that is, by practitioners ensuring that theory and practice are working together in these complex contexts that involve the well being of individuals and communities. the categories have been identified through investigations into the literature of myth, ritual and celebration, helpful frameworks developed in cognitive science, and extensive research provided by thirty years of practice in the field. as a designer and director of rituals and celebrations, the writer seeks both to confirm the importance of the artist within the process and to demonstrate a new, practical, ethically located and effective approach for the education of intending practitioners. no claim is made that the four categories are definitive or mutually exclusive of one another. it is accepted that in many situations the categories might coalesce, be added to and/or fragment. however, the categorisation provides a fresh vantage point from which to view the potentially powerful effects of ritual experience, an effective tool of construction for the use of artists and cultural activists working in this field, and an informed basis for praxis. in developing this new categorisation the writer argues an ongoing need for rituals and celebrations to clarify and enrich the lives of individuals and the community while stressing the importance of careful and appropriate design of such events. statement of originality this work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. to the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously written or published by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself. signature of candidate ……………………………………. table of contents synopsis ..................................................................................................................... statement of originality.................................................................................... table of contents ................................................................................................. list of illustrations ............................................................................................ acknowledgements .............................................................................................. foreword: ubiquitous inscriptions ............................................................. chapter one: the dynamics of ritual.......................................................... ritual metalanguage.............................................................................................. bisociative and multisociative processes ........................................................... alignment processes ............................................................................................. transformation...................................................................................................... reinforcement ...................................................................................................... transcendence ..................................................................................................... catharsis............................................................................................................... chapter two: transformation....................................................................... transformation in rites of passage..................................................................... initiation of young people ..................................................................................... rites of marriage .................................................................................................. symbolism in new transformation rituals........................................................... chapter three: reinforcement...................................................................... the altar................................................................................................................. sacred mountains................................................................................................... belief and culture in new reinforcement rituals .............................................. theatre in new reinforcement ritual and celebration ...................................... myth and archetype in new reinforcement rituals ............................................ methodological transparency ............................................................................ chapter four: transcendence ...................................................................... transcendence and the arts in ceremony, ritual and celebration .................. transcendence in festivals .................................................................................. artificial and/or oppressive avenues of transcendence ................................ the dangers of transcendence in ritual and celebration ..................................... the ethics of engagement in transcendence ...................................................... transcendence in new rituals and celebrations.............................................. chapter five: catharsis .................................................................................. catharsis in death rites ...................................................................................... catharsis experiences at birth ceremonies ...................................................... catharsis in new ritual, ceremony and celebration ........................................ . a means of acceptance .................................................................................. . models for hope .............................................................................................. . a mode of expression. .................................................................................... chapter six: conclusion ................................................................................. overview ............................................................................................................... issues for practice, policy and training ........................................................... the poetics of new ritual and celebration ....................................................... bibliography ........................................................................................................ list of illustrations photographer event year designer artist graeme batterbury ‘the ark’ at woodford folk festival fire event neil and faridah cameron faridah cameron unknown melbourne international festival neil and faridah cameron faridah cameron graeme batterbury initiation procession at woodford folk festival fire event neil cameron n/a graeme batterbury choral procession at woodford folk federation fire event neil cameron n/a donna larkham monster puppet at woodford folk festival fire event faridah cameron and emma pryce emma pryce graeme batterbury ‘circle of life’ at maleny folk festival fire event neil cameron, faridah cameron and paul lawler faridah cameron jeff wright tree of life sculpture at woodford folk festival, new year faridah cameron and paul lawler faridah cameron graeme batterbury choir at woodford folk festival fire event neil cameron n/a graeme batterbury ‘altar of precious’ things at woodford folk festival fire event neil and faridah cameron faridah cameron graeme batterbury ‘pillars of wisdom’ at fire event at woodford folk festival various various serge grimaitre ‘the dream maker’ at fire event at woodford folk festival neil cameron neil cameron acknowledgements i would first like to thank my supervisors, associate professor patricia wise and jondi keane, for their help over the past four years; their patience, intelligence, support and critique have been invaluable and given me a foundation of thinking that will serve me well for life. a special thanks to my work colleague in so many rituals and celebrations, intellectual companion in so many discussions and wife in so many supporting ways, faridah cameron. also, my gratitude to the staff of the theatre department of griffith university, michael foster and sharon goodall, who have helped me in many directions, and to margie mackay and mahony kiely for their rich contribution to the discussions of ritual and celebration and its practice in australia. neil cameron january, new alignments in ritual, ceremony and celebration illustration – public celebration i think we are seeking the experience of being alive, so that our life’s experience on a purely physical plane will have resonance within our own innermost being and reality, so we actually feel the rapture of being alive. that’s what it is all finally about, and that’s what these clues help us find within ourselves. (campbell, : ) although ceremony, ritual and celebrations occur at a private level with birthdays, spontaneous and informal events, individual rituals, private ceremonies, these are not within the scope of this dissertation. we are concerned with ceremony, ritual and celebrations that involve the individual in the public and community domain. foreword: ubiquitous inscriptions all peoples from all epochs and all cultures have staged rituals and celebrations. the need to name children, initiate young people, marry and observe death rites, to celebrate the gods, the hunt, the harvest, tell stories and dance together is ubiquitous. regardless of their degree of isolation or the nature of their environment human beings have come together in formalised gatherings. the world is enriched and textured by these events: every religion or belief system, every tribe, every city has its own versions and variations; it is common to all peoples; it is characteristic human behaviour. in western industrialised cultures the need to stage rituals and celebrations remains ubiquitous but we often find a sense of what could be authentic amid the blur of cultural input that we experience in contemporary society. we put out our hand to touch inscriptions of handprints on the walls of ancient caves made by indigenous australians many thousands of years ago, searching for clues. we watch with deep interest as documentaries describing the wedding rituals of solomon islanders unfold in their richness and vitality. and many of us ask ourselves how our rituals and celebrations can find more meaning and effectiveness, how we can recover the feeling of empowerment that accompanies these acts when they retain rich layers of cultural significance. in australia today some artists have made their practice in this field. perhaps it has ever been so. artists have long been part of the glue that surrounds ritual and celebration: they make sacred space, play music and song, construct images, tell stories. but in spite of their roles in other cultures and at other times, it is in the here and now that they must function, and artists who become involved in contemporary ritual and celebration can feel that the way ahead is confused and unclear. studies by frazer, levi-strauss, campbell, and many more recent scholars have given us much insight into the ritual, ceremonial and celebratory practices and habits of cultures all over the world, but they remain quiet on what we can do to better organise ourselves in relation to this important and rewarding pursuit in current western societies. there is much comment on how our rituals and celebrations are diluted, emaciated and disempowered but few commentators address how this can be remedied. where, then, do artists look to find guidelines and directions in this complex field? i believe the first step to enrich and empower our rituals and celebrations in australia now is to understand how rituals and celebrations work and what structures are being employed in cultures where practices are still intact. this is not to say that we need to engage in acts of appropriation, which would be neither culturally acceptable nor effective. it is a question, rather, of understanding more about the dynamics of rituals and celebrations. from there one can begin to design more meaningful experiences based on an understanding of their dynamics in contemporary society. we need to renegotiate the traditional categories that usually prescribe rituals and events in australia and, while using the experience of other cultures to better understand how ritual and celebrations work, start to define an australian context for these significant events. prior to the social revolution of the sixties, it was very unusual for artists of different disciplines to be involved in modern ritual and celebrational events, but then groups of artists started once again to enter the field of public events. the work of welfare state in britain and bread and puppet theatre in the us had an enormous influence on this field in the late sixties. when artists left the purpose built environments of galleries, theatres and concert halls to take their work (back) into the wider society they found a myriad of different social situations in which to involve themselves. ritual and celebration together constituted one of those newly entered fields. my own role as a theatre director was challenged in australia when emerging social needs placed theatre and accompanying art forms into ritual and celebratory environments. there was a demand for theatre to fill a ritual vacuum left by organised religion as well as for devising mechanisms for public celebration. i found myself producing theatre in ritual and celebratory contexts (festivals, private rituals, social focus points, celebration of community) which were certainly out of line with the more formal theatre traditions, which used scripts, actors, theatres and scenery. to discover ways of coping with such new environments it was necessary to reappraise traditional theatre structures and develop new languages that would succeed in this new role. the work seemed to leave traditional arts domains and engage in realms of therapy, social development, new political alignments, deprived communities, private and public ritual expression and festivals of all types. australian ritual and celebration found itself in radically new environments as people sought ways that felt appropriate for their changing social and cultural contexts to mark important stages and events in their personal and community lives. given increasing secularisation, christenings became much less common, leaving no way to celebrate the birth of a child; church and even registry office marriages became less popular and informal secular structures moved in to replace them; initiation structures became confused; and death rites increasingly moved out of the formal rites of churches to become the province of relatively standardised ‘funeral homes’. festivals with a traditional basis related to the land and cycles of the year were replaced by specialty and boutique experiences that were sometimes motivated by commercial considerations. in the course of these changes, it was frequently the case that the symbolic languages of ceremony and ritual lost their original, deeper connections and became detached and confused. although the needs were still there, meaningful vehicles in which to hold them were often usurped by agendas such as tourism and other commercial forces. the commodification of ritual and celebration is commonplace with the effect that where people expect to find enrichment and a rewarding experience they can find themselves wrecked on shores of commercialism. it seemed to me vital to recognise that there was one group of people who could work closely with ritual and festival to reclaim and renegotiate a sense of integrity and richness for these oldest of human expressions, and that group was artists. i set out to learn how to design rituals and celebrations that i hoped would have a resonance within the community and the individual, and in some ways offset what i felt to be a degrading of these processes that had led to dissatisfying experiences for participants. i emphasise well-designed pathways because it is possible to create situations which fast track individuals into special states which are manipulative and inevitably sterile. to create an ‘excited crowd’ is relatively easy. various techniques can often be observed being used at large public events – chanting in staccato rhythms, loud rock and roll music, pumped up commentary – but these are frequently part of spectacle without substance, spectacle which usually also has predominantly commercial aims. to reach a state of celebration that meets the expressed needs of certain communities requires different techniques clearly based on a deep understanding of the processes that participants go through in various situations. there is a great deal of tension in the interface in australia between commercial and state concerns who use ritual and celebratory techniques to further sub-agendas such as tourism, financial gain, political or nationalistic aims, and others who try to create events with no other aim than to genuinely achieve the experience of shared ritual and celebration around a shared concern. often commercial and state interests have little or no idea of the cultural erosion effects that manipulation of important events have on a society. without a careful understanding of the significance and societal uses of ritual and celebration, business and government can sometimes transform the genuine into the simulacral, diluting, degrading, until our festivals are impoverished, only there to meet commercial objectives; a level of impoverishment at which we have no mechanics for our rites and gatherings, and where our ability to express our community values becomes thwarted because those community values have gone or have been reshaped beyond recognition. this dissertation revisits and develops my exploration of contemporary ways to engage with ritual and celebration. based in a methodology of critical analysis, synthesis and evaluation, it presents a means of considering and categorising rituals and celebrations which i hope might establish a new language and understanding of ritual and celebration in australia today. this approach aims to: provide some frameworks for artists who are involved in working with communities to develop ritual and celebratory events; be an aid to conceptualising such events; bring a fresh opportunity for meaning into attempts to express ourselves in these areas; and also, through developing knowledge, act as protection against misuse, either intentional or unintentional. whereas in traditional cultures as well as in the christian churches and other religions, the shamans, priests, and other officials are carefully trained in management of ritual and ceremony by more experienced practitioners, often artists in contemporary secular contexts are invited to play pivotal roles in such events when their training has been in arts practice or arts management, not processes of ritual. my study seeks to open out discussion of this burgeoning field and to provide frameworks for those who work in it. to do this i focus on sites where indigenous peoples have evolved ritual and celebration and try to discover the underlying forms that are often found in these events. with these forms as a guide, i develop a set of concepts which i apply to various examples of practical work spanning the last twenty years, thus demonstrating the ‘new’ forms and illuminating the ‘new’ categories. my study sets out to provide practitioners involved in the design and implementation of such events with a set of tools to work with, conceptually and contextually. given that what i am concerned to explore is a creative practice – a practice of designing new kinds of rituals, ceremonies and celebrations – i have sought ways of understanding this practice that are themselves creative. that is, just as the kinds of events i will describe give themselves permission to range across cultural signs, symbol systems, community beliefs and social settings, so i have given myself permission, as a researcher, to seek out ways of understanding and working with such events which do not tie themselves down to particular disciplinary concerns or theoretical debates. since my aim is to provide practitioners with useful means to work reflectively and reflexively in designing or participating in such events, i have sought out conceptual frameworks that will provide insights into purposes, modes, structures and affects. but i have avoided establishing these in terms that might settle into rigidity, binarise or require specialist knowledge. new ritual and celebratory expressions in the australian context are culturally dynamic. the modes of thinking about them, with them, in them and through them that i have developed are therefore flexible, open to different engagements by different practitioners working in diverse contexts, yet posited with a sufficient sense of ‘category’ and ‘process’ to enable ready application. chapter one: the dynamics of ritual ritual metalanguage men and women, of a given group or culture, wholly attending, in privileged moments, to their own existential situation. (turner in macaloon ed., : ) the context referred to by turner can be complex. we can be talking about indigenous peoples, belief systems or postmodern society, however we cannot escape the function of ‘attendance’. we construct privileged moments to pay attention to ourselves as much now as ever we did regardless of where we have come from and regardless of where we live. ritual, ceremony and celebration create these privileged moments where we enact our ‘social dramas’ (turner in macaloon ed., : ) and enter special states where the normal is disrupted and the individual plays out another form of social behaviour. these states, these privileged moments, are often described as ‘liminal’ or ‘threshold zones’. liminal comes from the latin ‘limen’ and means both lintel and the step or threshold of a door affording entrance to a house (partridge, : ). in contemporary cultural theory, ‘liminal’ tends to refer to ‘in between’ sites, states or zones into which traces of other sites, states or zones may slip, leak or stray; they are at once ‘unique’ and ‘becoming other’ (deleuze and guattari, ; diprose and ferrell eds., ; broadhurst, ; grosz, , ). the liminal states of ritual, celebration and ceremony move individuals and communities from one state to another, through a ‘threshold zone’, and the image of a doorway connecting and giving access to different spaces is therefore apt in this context. they are occasions in which as a culture or society we reflect upon and define ourselves, dramatise our collective myths and history, present ourselves with alternatives, and eventually change in some ways while remaining the same in others. (macaloon, : ) the oed gives for liminal: ‘ of, pertaining to, or constituting a transitional or initial stage of a process. also, marginal, incidental, insignificant… of, pertaining to, or situated at a limen; occupying a position on, or on both sides of, a boundary or threshold.’ in australia the mysteries of this reflexivity produce layers of intensity. indigenous people, colonists, immigrants and refugees try to find privileged moments to attend wholly to themselves, to enter a liminal state in safety and to gain the insight such an experience brings. the noise of the contemporary world is loud, at times deafening, and it makes attention difficult. for some the metalanguages of belief can still cope with the challenge but even they can be hard pressed to keep their attention. where then can we turn to find the structures we need to attend, to wholly attend, to ourselves? how can we leave our normally stable world and enter that most ‘holy’ of states, the virtual world of metaphor and myth, ritual and celebration? how can we negotiate the unstable gateways to self-knowledge and enter ‘modes of existence and realisation’ (dell hymes cited in macaloon ed., : ) that reveal an ‘inner world’? where are the pathways, the road signs and the maps that can lead us forward? where are the rituals, ceremonies and celebrations by means of which we can access the liminal states necessary for such experiences? what needs do we have for such experiences in contemporary culture and how do we understand them? these overarching questions have driven this work and will be explored in various contexts throughout. in traditional indigenous societies the structure that holds ritual, ceremony and celebration is culturally integrated. for older western culture, what francis huxley calls the ‘way of the sacred’ (huxley, : ) lay parallel to the way of carnival, and both were able to sustain a structure capable of holding a society’s needs for celebratory expression. but with the diminished importance of the church in australia and the confusion that attends much of popular culture, many struggle for a new way forward to convene meaningful reflexive experiences. the degrading of these experiences can be impoverishing for we must not undervalue the importance of such avenues of expression. ritual is a form by which culture presents itself to itself. in ritual, not only are particular messages delivered, but ritual also creates a world in which culture can appear. further, ritual creates a setting in which persons can appear, by appearing in their culture, by devising a reality in which they reflexive is used here as ‘arousing consciousness of ourselves as we see ourselves’. (turner, : ). that is, we can reflect on – or think about – an experience, and we can also be reflexive by acknowledgement of the effect of our own presence on and in the experience, as a participant, a researcher or a practitioner. may stand as part. in their rituals, we see persons dramatizing self and culture at once, each made by the other. (kuper in macaloon ed., : ) turner states that ritual in tribal society has ‘an immense orchestration of genres in all available sensory codes’ (in macaloon ed., : ). the integration of life and belief provides robust frameworks to organise reflexive events that contain what turner has described as metalanguages (in manning ed., : ). these traditional integrated structures have become increasingly unavailable to us in the west as our cultural ritual meta-patterns, which were largely found in organised religion, have come under severe stress. all too often the need for meaningful experience is being widely misunderstood by government, institutions, commercial forces and at times by the community itself. this misunderstanding is contained in a complex paradox. to achieve liminal situations, as individuals and as communities, we must enter states of dislocation and disruption. yet the very structures responsible for organising and funding significant events are understood to have overall responsibilities to stabilise and regulate experiences for society (manning ed., : ). barbara myerhoff states that ritual has a grammar which is ‘not of the everyday world’, and that ‘the order of things is dislocated and everything becomes full of emotion, allusive, symbolic and representational’ (in macaloon ed., : ). the tension between stability and instability puts many of the structures that organise major celebrations into conflict. those charged with managing such events, and the structures they work with/within, are resistant to the state of ‘antistructure’ (turner in macaloon ed., : ) that is needed in celebration, yet they understand the value of such cultural activities. this produces conflicting agendas that lead to confused outcomes. i have found myself in many situations where the design of an event is deeply compromised by various other forces: advertising hanging within theatre environments; sponsors needs over the participants; requests to ‘popularise’ the content; different aims and objectives by the organisers; television needs and media manipulation. some of our festivals are under threat by commercial interests which are invasive, corrupting the community purpose and usefulness of events. j. m. caballero bonald says in festivals and rituals of spain: amongst the most common source of changes are private interests in the community…that have altered the celebration of a festival in favour of a more spectacular display in order to satisfy the demands of tourism. in some cases they have added only the superficial decorations, but in others they have systematically weakened and diluted the nature of celebration. ( : ) can artists help identify and design new directions and yet escape this paradoxical tension between the needs of commerce (albeit often seen as community economic development), and the needs of culture? for me, the answer to this lies in the ways in which the event itself incorporates certain ‘meta’ elements which can enable it to have the symbolic coherence to negotiate complex socio-cultural settings without losing the capacity to work for communities. clearly artists, in spite of the above difficulties, will be attracted to ritual and celebration, especially when we note manning’s description: ‘celebration is a “text”, a vivid aesthetic creation that reflexively depicts, interprets and informs social context’ ( : ). to retain the integrity of ritual and celebration artists must, as turner states, develop ‘other languages or metalanguages, non verbal as well as verbal…particularly when societies advance in scale and complexity’ (in manning ed., : ). the challenge in the contemporary context is how to produce such a metalanguage of myth, symbol and representation when the extent of shared cultural meaning seems to be so much less than it was, yet when the abundance of cultural symbolism and representations is so overwhelming. for the designer of new rituals, ceremonies and celebrations, there is a need to recognise that in fact a considerable range of symbol and opportunity for mythic representations remains available but that what has broken down are many of the richly coherent cultural narratives that used to provide a context for them. that is, the problem for designers is not so much a loss of symbolic material but a loss of textual frameworks to carry that material. what i have increasingly developed is a practice which draws on the body of myth, symbol and archetype that remains recognisable, but weaves those elements into other textual forms. these forms do not try to replicate the coherent, integrated past narratives from which the symbolic elements come, rather they carry new expressions of still familiar symbols and representations in new formations, or assemblages, that are able to speak to the communities for whom the event is designed. i will deal with how this can be managed in the context of practice later in the dissertation. new rituals, ceremonies and celebrations are constantly being developed in new social environments created by social change (manning, : ). we have witnessed over the last two or three decades a significant increase in community based or government sponsored events that have taken the place of previous practices as a means of expressing community focus and reflexive exploration. the increase in festivals of all types in australia has been nothing short of phenomenal. in effect, as individuals and communities struggle to redefine ritual and celebration in the cultural space left by a decline in formal religions and the rise of commercial pressures, artists have increasingly been invited to ‘fill the gap’ left by earlier ritual practitioners, such as priests, in designing events. the cultural aesthetic which many artists inhabit is poorly equipped discursively to handle the community interface needed to create new and effective rituals that can work in the community at large. the discourses of postmodernism tend to privilege poststructuralist theory, and particularly deconstructive approaches. however, postructuralist and postmodern discourses do not easily translate into situations in which the central concern is to communicate with communities. this does not mean that postmodern/postructuralist theoretical insights and procedures of practice are not useful to the practitioner who works with communities, but practitioners will need to concentrate on the communities’ discourses, and not expect communities to accommodate themselves to the discourses of contemporary cultural theory. if artists want to be able to gain access to the creation of appropriate rituals within communities, clearly they must begin by developing a deep understanding of what happens to the individual within the context of ritual and celebration. the biggest problem faced by serious designers of new ritual, ceremony and celebration is to understand that the participants are not actors who will learn a part, but real individuals who will respond deeply to the experience they are having. ritual, celebration and ceremony are powerful vehicles for human expression and as such should be taken very seriously. many projects i have been involved with are concerned with trauma of various kinds. the people are in crisis and mistakes in the process can have disastrous personal repercussions. in such situations the artist embraces a heavy responsibility. for example we have worked with canteen (an organisation for the support of young people with cancer) at a national conference where the teenagers wanted to hold a remembrance service for friends who had died. the artist/community interface was complex and had little space for error. we designed the event in close consultation with the young people (and those who work with them) and checked the design at every stage. such young people are not only facing a life threatening disease but are also suffering from personal loss and their fragile state can be damaged by unskilled and clumsy work methods. but traumatic contexts are not the only situations needing great sensitivity and a strong methodology. almost all ritual and celebratory events with which i have been involved have potentially volatile interfaces with the community. these include weddings, public events, initiations, naming ceremonies, greeting and farewell events, festival rituals and state ceremonies, all of which can have consequences for the participants that most arts events do not. mental anguish, public embarrassment, psychological damage, strained relationships, political and social alienation are only some of the consequences of rituals and celebrations going wrong. we need to identify positive experiences and adapt traditional categorisations into new alignments, with new languages that make sense to both practitioners and participants, thus avoiding damaging social and personal effects. it is vital within such a new synthesis between artist and community that artists are cognisant of the complexities involved in this sort of artistic pursuit. there are a range of existing guidelines that can inform this emerging form of artistic expression and assist in the pedagogical framework. as observed earlier, traditional rituals cannot be readily translated by the metalanguages of contemporary western society. however, we can gain great insight through studying them and examining their structures. they have evolved from individual and societal needs spanning epochs and have built in protective apparatus for participants and also observers; they have evoked symbolic landscapes to accompany psychological and social change and have established patterns, rhythms and structures that fulfil major tasks of ritual and celebration in community. by understanding their templates, artists can enrich their own practice and the communities with whom they engage. the lengthy experience and the accompanying knowledges of western and non-western ritual traditions can help us design our own ceremonies responsibly and minimise risk for participants and observers. understanding of the liminal aspect of ritual can be greatly increased if we consider the importance of research into life science and cognitive studies. ritual marks the threshold between communal, cultural structures and personal psycho-physiological processes. cognitive science contributes to our understanding of how the individual and the collective interact and the means by which the many levels of change initiated and structured by rituals are integrated. designers of new rituals must learn to recognise how ritual changes the people involved on a physiological/psychological level and thereby design effective and responsible rituals that are no longer supported by unquestioned traditions and histories. notwithstanding the reality that learning and culture alter the expression of emotions and give emotions new meanings, emotions are biologically determined processes, depending on innately set brain devices, laid down by a long evolutionary history. (damasio, : ) by working with some insights provided by science and with traditional understandings, artists who want to develop work in this realm can develop a ‘language’ that brings together old knowledge with new. such a synthesis will produce for the practitioner an understanding of liminal experiences for individuals and groups involved in ritualised events. a public celebration is a rope bridge of knotted symbols strung across an abyss. we make our crossing hoping the chasm will echo our festival sounds for a moment, as the bridge begins to sway from the rhythm of our dance. (grimes cited in cohen, : ) the new language and ideas for structuring ritual, ceremony and celebration that i develop here are designed to strengthen the bridge, allowing it to sway to the rhythm of the dance and, i hope, prevent the long fall into the abyss. but to do this, we need to understand ways in which contemporary australians respond to various ritual and celebratory situations. ethnographic and anthropological categorisations of ritual can be misleading. they are often focused on the rites of indigenous societies with traditional rituals whose metalanguage is completely different from that with which we are familiar. apart from the obvious dangers of culturally insensitive appropriation, confusion – even, in extreme cases, personal or production disasters – can occur if artists attempt to restage rites in inappropriate contexts. to demonstrate the importance of being alert to changing categorical relationships we might take an example of death rites. when we examine traditional death rites we might view them as rites of passage . there is a belief structure in place that allows the participants to see the dead as negotiating a transition between life and an after life. the deceased is seen to be going through a rite of passage. when this belief system is not in place and the death ritual becomes a secular experience it is no longer a rite of passage but a cathartic experience for the mourners, usually designed to celebrate and accept the person’s passing. many secular funeral rites are now designed for the living and not the dead. therefore the design of the death rite in the contemporary west is going through changes of semiology and the death rite is re-categorising itself along with its symbols, procedures, and associated activities – which should be deeply responsive to the state of the participants (and often are not). the artist who does not understand the subtle changes of emphasis within such rites can experience great difficulty in developing appropriate forms. how then can we set up a helpful new categorisation that will inform contemporary practice? rituals and celebrations are structured to achieve a ‘special state of mind’ within the individual and this study will seek to establish a system of categories based on these ‘special states of mind’ rather than on societal function. i will examine these ‘states of mind’ in detail but must first develop terms that can help us better to describe what is happening cognitively during these experiences. to do that i draw on scholarship concerning cognitive function. i approach this aspect of my work cautiously, given that the disciplinary locus for cognition is the sciences, and my disciplinary locus is the arts. yet if we are to understand new rituals and celebrations and be able to design meaningful ceremonies and rituals, it has become clear to me in the course of my research that we must familiarise ourselves with current perspectives about cognition. we can also develop a ‘working language’ for categorising the special states of mind experienced during ritual and celebration. turner ( : ) followed arnold van gennep, quite rightly in a specific anthropological context they were engaged in, to categorise death rituals as a rite of passage for traditional societies. ‘by organizing and managing the passage of persons from one set of normative positions, roles, rules and social states to another, ritual serves social order and continuity’ (macaloon ed., : ) bisociative and multisociative processes the chaos of infinite possibilities can become a world of meaning only through the institutions of these specific forms and structures. (martin, : ) in the last forty years we have learnt a great deal about how the individual functions at a cognitive level. the mind and how it functions remains to a considerable extent ‘the great mystery’ but the work of various sciences has shed a clearer light on our ‘inner workings’. science is developing new languages to express these discoveries which are beginning to influence many other domains and bodies of knowledge and can help us understand ritual, ceremony and celebration in a fresh light. we can see that ritual, ceremony and celebration have structures designed to encourage certain cognitive changes within the individual – to remove them from ‘normal’ day-to-day behaviour and create environments that can bring them into special cognitive states. we create then a special place where the routines of the daily world are broken and where it is possible to observe, discuss, or criticize the real world seen standing on its head. (myerhoff in macaloon ed., : ) ideas of bisociative process were introduced by the critic, scientist and writer arthur koestler in the nineteen sixties. koestler was one of the pioneers of cognitive study and science has since greatly added to, adapted and developed his original ideas, but aspects of his work can provide a means of focusing the processes involved in the frameworks developed here. he coined the term ‘bisociative thought’ in his book the act of creation written in , and although many may now prefer to describe cognitive processes in other terms, it still presents a very useful starting point in the context of this study. koestler’s idea of ‘bisociation’ might be seen in the following way. when we think, we are using what he calls ‘matrices of thought’ ( : ). he suggests that our cognitive functions consist of thought clusters which have their own rules, frames of reference, associative contexts, types of logic, codes of behaviour and universes of discourse. ‘the ‘matrix is derived from the latin for womb and is figuratively used for any pattern or mould in which things are shaped or developed, or type is cast…they can be subject to transformations without losing matrix…is flexible: it can be adapted to environmental conditions; but the rules of code must be observed and set a limit to flexibility’ ( : ). in koestler’s model, matrix systems make connections in various ways. in other words, rather than having rigid modes of thinking we have highly variable sets of interrelating matrices which can be rearranged into new configurations. all coherent thinking and behaviour is subject to some specific code of rules to which its character of coherence is due – even though the code functions partly or entirely on subconscious levels… (koestler, : ) to function as ordinary human beings, to be able to apply ourselves to life, we need many systems or matrices of thought. koestler uses the word ‘matrix’ to describe any ability, habit, or skill, any pattern of ordered behaviour governed by a ‘code’ of fixed rules. we learn by assimilating experiences and grouping them into ordered schema, into stable patterns of unity in variety. they enable us to cope with events and situations by applying the rules of the game appropriate to them. the matrices which pattern our perceptions, thoughts and activities are condensations of learning into habit. the process starts in infancy and continues into senility; the hierarchy of flexible matrixes with fixed codes – from those that govern the breathing of his cells, to those which determine the pattern of his signature, constituting a creature of many layered habits… (koestler, : ) it is important to note, however, that these implicit codes can be reformed into new alignments which break habits of thought. he suggests that in science various matrices of thought combine together to form new knowledge whereas in the creative realm they break up and merge into new alignments. the merging of matrices is the way, he suggests, that we create new intellectual syntheses. the break up and reforming of matrices can be seen as the ‘creative process’ or, to put it another way, the formation of new thoughts and alignments. [the creative act] does not create something out of nothing; it uncovers, selects, reshuffles, combines, synthesises already existing facts, ideas, faculties, skills. (koestler, : ) their identity, i.e. they are both flexible and stable. also, matrixes have a constant attached to them called their determinant which remains unaffected by any of these transformations’. (koestler, : ) koestler describes this sociative process as bisociative and as such suggests only two matrix domains coming together to merge or clash. he is discussing the acts of creation which negotiate changes within just two determinates to create the new. holyoak and thagard give this description of koestler’s idea of matrix interrelationships: ‘…interlocking two domains of knowledge previously seen as unrelated or even incompatible’ ( : ) however, koestler admits that the operation of matrix control is ‘governed by certain rules which i am unable to name’. in the light of increased understanding of cognitive processes we might now describe the process as multisociative. we have complex matrix relationships both in the vertical, or hierarchical, sense and in the horizontal, or emergent, sense. matrix assemblages are able to split up, merge and develop negotiated borders: ‘…there are virtues not only to distribute but also insulation, that is mechanisms that keep processes apart’ (varela, : ). this process is sometimes known as ‘syncretic thought’ and is understood by ladislas segy as the …unconscious mental ability to unite harmoniously several manifold, originally different, often simultaneously occurring, overlapping, diverging, sometimes inconsistent, concepts, relationships between things, actions and emotions. (segy, : ) such matrices can negotiate new alignments, move into and out of new territories, dissolve into external conditions and also reclaim themselves again. we can recognise by our lived experience that at times our thoughts are following familiar combinations of matrices which stabilise cognitive function and preserve the known while at other times matrices are in a changing mode, readjusting, destabilising, creating the new. ‘every voyage is intensive, and occurs in relation to thresholds of intensity between which it evolves or that it crosses’ (deleuze and guattari, : ). francisco varela describes cognitive systems thus: theories and models no longer begin with abstract symbolic descriptions but with a whole army of neurallike [sic], simple, unintelligent components, which when appropriately connected have interesting global properties. these global properties embody and express the cognitive capacities being sought. (varela, : ) explaining the process, varela continues: the strategy, as we have said, is to build a cognitive system not by starting with symbols and rules but by starting with simple components that would dramatically connect to each other in dense ways…today people prefer to speak of emergent or global properties, network dynamics, non linear networks, complex systems or even synergies. (varela, : ) if we can accept that our mental architecture is made up not of large, unified, stable concrete systems but rather matrices combining together in aggregates which are able to adjust to various conditions, forming ‘societies in the mind’ (varela, ) then we can better see how various cognitive tasks are carried out and, what is vital to this study, how they are aligned. deleuze and guattari talk about the ‘negotiation’ between these (matrix) states which territorialise, deterritorialise and reterritorialise in different ways and at different speeds or intensities. ‘everywhere there arise simultaneous accelerations and blockages, comparative speeds, differences in deterritorialization creating relative fields of reterritorialization’ ( : ). we not only bring into zones of intensity matrices that are directly useful but also matrices that might be useful. we are constantly moving the attention of the mind, or the ‘protoself’ as damasio ( ) calls it, into unknown territory and must be ready for any contingency. if we are to talk about ‘intensity’ (deleuze and guattari, : ), we need to be able to combine many complex variations at any given moment. these matrix movements have borders to negotiate, mechanics for mixing and staying apart, liminal thresholds and archways of access. those different parts [of the brain] are coordinated in terms of their circuits such that the dormant and implicit records can turn into explicit…images, rapidly and in close proximity. the availability of all those images allows us, in turn, to create verbal description of the entity and that serves as a base for definition. (damasio, : ) in saussure’s model of the signifier and the signified, it is almost as if the signifier not only brings up the concept of itself but it is surrounded with many other matrix systems. these might be called upon depending on the context of the signified, the interpretation of its context, the emotional level of its interaction – informational and experiential damasio describes ‘protoself’ as ‘a coherent collection of neural patterns which map, moment by moment, the state of the physical structure of organisms in its many dimensions’ ( : ). units which might be needed to move the signifier in any way it might be needed. we see an assembly of matrices not just concerned with the direct use of words but also in countless other contexts. bateson described this as imagining an encounter between a and b, two ideas meeting in the mind. thus there comes into existence another class of information, which b must assimilate, to tell b about the coding of messages or indications coming from a. messages of this class will be, not about a or b, but about the coding of the messages. they will form a different logical type. i will call them metamessages. (bateson, : ) again, for our purposes the apparent binary ‘a and b’ needs to be replaced with a notion of ‘multisociative’, but the idea of the ‘metamessage’ is very useful. the structures used within ritual, ceremony and celebration have evolved to encourage matrix realignment from the normal to the ‘special’– to create conditions in the self (and in the community) that will allow the loosening of the normal alignment which is so important to ordinary daily survival, and produce the new forms of assemblages needed to fulfil less ordinary personal and societal needs. the individual and the group cannot bring about receptive and special states spontaneously at any given moment. a rational appeal to the intellect is not always effective in changing alignments and it could be said that the intellect sometimes prevents radical change. varela’s idea of ‘cognitivism’ can clarify ritual function in this regard. there is a difference, however, between what we usually mean by the ‘subconscious’ and the sense in which mental processes are said to be unconscious in cognitivism: we usually suppose that whatever is in the subconscious can be brought to consciousness – if not through self conscious reflection, then through disciplined procedures such as psychoanalysis. cognitivism, on the other hand, postulates processes that are mental but cannot be brought to consciousness at all… indeed, it is typically noted that if such cognitive processes could be made conscious, then they could not be fast and automatic and so could not function properly. in one formulation these cognitive processes are to be considered ‘modular’ (to comprise of subsystems that cannot be penetrated by conscious, mental activity). (varela, : ) in other words ritual, ceremony and celebration change our matrix assemblages by processes that often bypass our logical intellect. we cannot ‘think’ our way into these special states of mind. the main function of ritual structures is to bypass the ‘normal’ logic of everyday life and allow change to occur, either on a temporary or permanent level, without necessarily engaging the intellect in any usual way. matrix assemblages cannot be changed at will into desired configurations without guidance and stimulus. this is where the forms of ritual, ceremony and celebration have a strong role to play. to achieve desired states potent techniques have been developed by cultures throughout the world which encourage matrix assemblages to change in specific ways. ritual, ceremony and celebration also have another cognitive role to play and that is to provide structures of protection that can facilitate these changes and negotiate liminal moments with safety. again, we cannot think out the safety structures with ordinary logic but need to be given structures that are ‘modular’ (to use varela’s phrase) and that work almost without the intellect being involved. however, not only the brain is concerned in achieving special states. the whole body is involved. in ritual and celebration the external stimulus carried through the senses is critical to cognitive alignment. koestler describes this as follows: …at moments of intense aesthetic experience we see not only with our eyes but with our whole body. the eyes scan, the cortex thinks, there are muscular stresses, innervating of the organs of touch, sensations of weight and temperature, visceral reactions, feelings of rhythm and motion – all sucked into one integrated vortex. ( : ) the anthropologist barbara myerhoff explains the ritual process as ‘step[ping] out of our usual conscious, critical mentality’, as ‘losing oneself’ (in macaloon ed., : ). i am suggesting, using koestler’s metaphor, that we can understand ritual, ceremony and celebrations as mechanisms by means of which we can achieve special alignments in our matrix assemblages – that is, experiences involving a ‘metamatrix’, beyond familiar or habitual modes of assembling ourselves. the point is not to turn artists into cognitive scientists, but to recognise that since artists work with metaphor, the language of cognitive science thus explained can assist the development of a set of understandings to assist artists working on new ritual and ceremony. it is now possible to attempt a definition, or at least a map, of the ritual and celebratory pathways by which matrix alignments suitable for such activities are approached. we will be able to identify many matrix alignments within all events of these kinds, but we are searching for the primary or major dynamic in each. alignment processes the point in examining other people’s rites is not to steal from them or even borrow from them but to evoke a more fruitful thinking about our own. (grimes, : ) although i recognise that these are in some ways arbitrary, i have established four alignment processes that could be used by artists in contemporary ritual and ceremonial practice. others might choose other lines of axis and define the experiences in other ways but the following categories have provided design criteria which have proved robust within my practice over the past twenty years. my approaches are based, as grimes suggests, on consideration of my practice contexts and my practices in relation to contexts in which traditional patterns of ritual and ceremony continue to serve their communities effectively. in examining my praxis i realised that in designing these types of events i was aiming to achieve an emotional pathway for the participants that created the ‘special states’ mentioned above. these special states could not be arrived at without carefully constructed procedures in place and an understanding of how they operated. i also realised that the special states differed and their pathways reflected that difference. in other words i had to understand the particular context, design pathways to suit the most effective liminal situation and provide structure to enter and retreat from the consequent ‘special state’. the criteria for design i used were based in careful analysis of what type of experience the participants wanted to have (a celebration, a wedding, a death rite, a memorial rite) so that i could structure the alignment processes appropriately. the needs, intentions and desired outcomes of these contexts differ greatly and it was vital to understand what sort of procedures led to what sort of results. the following categories helped me understand the pathways that might be constructed to allow people to reach the ritual and celebratory states that they wanted. detailed examination of them follows in chapters two–five, with reference to traditional practice, exploration of issues for contemporary practitioners and examples from my own practice. it is important to note that there are other secondary matrix alignment processes in almost all ritual and celebratory experiences and in fact all the categories summarised below can be found at different times, in different combinations within ritual and celebration. but for the purposes of this study we will concentrate on the primary or major function: the main central alignment objective of the event. transformation these rituals encourage participants to change their metamatrix assemblages in major and permanent ways. transformational rituals encourage realignments within the participant that form new orientations and allow radical change to be managed successfully. transformational experiences are by their nature one-way systems and because of this are surrounded by fear and instability. forms for ritual must therefore reflect these tensions. the oxford english dictionary defines transformation as ‘the action of changing in form, shape, or appearance; metamorphosis… a changed form; person or thing transforming.’ ‘metamorphosis’ perhaps best describes this process. the participant is changed or transformed permanently by the ritual, but is at the same time protected and steered through the experience of change to emerge ready to experience the future. reinforcement the participant in reinforcement rituals and celebrations wants to enter a particular state of mind and uses already existing frameworks or prescribed forms to reach this state. again the oxford english dictionary can help: ‘…the act of strengthening or increasing in any way’. these external ‘concrete’ forms allow the participant to align matrix assemblages by means of frameworks or templates. the realignment is intended to be temporary, and afterwards the participant can return to ‘normal’ alignments again. this is in stark contrast to permanent transformational alignment processes described above. transcendence the participant is encouraged to enter special states of mind that can be called ‘oceanic’ (koestler, : ). ‘transcendence: the action or fact of transcending, surmounting or rising above’ (oxford english dictionary). these rituals and celebrations have similar qualities to reinforcement in that they are temporary states of alignment, but they differ greatly from reinforcement in that they do not have firm frameworks that can hold the matrix assemblages. rather, they encourage a relaxation of the tensions between matrix alignments. by this means, usual assemblages are released, allowing the participant to enter a state of communitas (turner in manning ed., : ). catharsis cathartic experiences resemble transformation in that change is intended to be one-way and permanent. these rituals are often used when the participants have experienced a crisis or trauma which has upset their matrix alignments. cathartic rituals provide a formal structure by means of which the participant can realign and make appropriate adjustments to their experienced reality. chapter two: transformation illustration – river event last season’s fruit is eaten and the fulfilled beast shall kick the empty pail. for last year’s words belong to last year’s language and next year’s words await another voice. (t.s. eliot, : ) this first classification can be seen operating in many situations but most strongly in rites of passage which have a strong transformational content and as such are powerful tools for steering participants through times of change, of transforming from one state to another. a detailed examination of existing traditional rites of passage reveals structures and methodologies useful to the design of modern rituals that are concerned with transformation – changes that bring about permanent realignment. transformation in rites of passage … a face still forming (t.s. eliot, : ) rites of passage are held at key moments in life. there are formal moments linked with age transitions such as birthdays, initiation, marriage and death, and also informal moments concerned with more social changes such as school and university graduations, new jobs, retirements and even divorces. we might think of these, in the terms i have developed above, as times when the individual needs radically to alter matrix alignments and move from one self-identity to another. it is characteristic of a rite of passage that it is understood as a one-way process whereby the participant will be permanently changed. such rites are particularly significant as they are recognised, usually publicly as well as privately, as marking and facilitating change within the life of a person and/or a community. it is good to remember the rites of passage that mark the end of who we were and the beginning of who we will become, and the images that support us in our crossing. (woodman cited in cohen, : ) these changes, transformations, ‘crossings’ are seen as socially and regeneratively important to healthy development within a wide range of cultures. for a rite of passage that is celebrated ritually to be really effective, to achieve its culturally transformative purpose, the participant must realign meta-assemblages in important and dynamic ways. the world is changing for the participant and rituals give an excellent opportunity for people and communities to process that change. participants who are going through transformational experiences on a physical or social level need accompanying rituals that will facilitate a realignment of their lives. this process hopefully allows participants to go into their future lives feeling comfortable about their new role thereby producing a balanced situation free from trauma. one of the important factors about ritual function in these situations is not so much that there is some magical change in the person within the ritual/rituals but that the guidance that operates within these structures is preparing the initiate to enter a different state in life with all of its new and unfamiliar complexities. the ritual itself provides the focus for the change but it is the structural support within the system that is vitally important. marriage and initiation rites for example are transformational experiences. in both of these cases participants cannot just change instantaneously but need structures which encourage change in meta-matrix systems while providing a stable protective framework at a time of vulnerability. participants at all times of change can become more vulnerable. as the sense of self is undergoing great change the subject’s ability to protect his or her ‘personal identity’ can become more fragile and even break down as the subject tries to step into the new identity defined by the expectations of the society. the function of these types of transformational rituals is to protect and guide the individual through such times and to provide a symbolic focal point where the change is formalised in such a way that a person’s subjectivity is aligned more readily with the new social role marked by the event. damasio comments: the entire biological edifice, from cells, tissues, and organs to systems and images, is held alive by the constant execution of constructive plans, always on the brink of partial or complete collapse should the process of rebuilding and renewal break down. the construction plans are all woven around the need to stay away from the brink. ( : ) rites of passage require powerful techniques of realignment if actual transformation is to be achieved. ronald grimes, a leading authority on contemporary ritual, emphasises the seriousness of these changes: ‘[a] transformation is not just any sort of change but a metamorphosis, a moment after which one is never the same again’ (grimes, : ). transformational experiences are fraught with psychological danger, and ‘the function of ritual is to pitch you out, not to wrap you back in where you have been all the time’ (campbell, : ). this means that the designer of such rituals must properly understand the pressures and difficulties felt by the participant if unwanted consequences are to be avoided. since the threshold zone is a no man’s land, it is dangerous, full of symbolic meaning, and guarded. a rite of passage is a set of symbol-laden actions by means of which one passes through a dangerous zone, negotiating safely and memorably. (grimes, : ) the techniques to bring about ‘transformation realignments’ have to be effective and protective, yet to achieve permanent change in the consciousness of the subject/s, the structures that operate must sometimes be extreme. therefore strong safeguards must be built into these situations. initiation of young people illustration – initiation ceremony what we call the beginning is often the end and to make an end is to make a beginning. (t.s. eliot, : ) in many traditional societies young people go through various rites to signal their change of status in the community but these rites must be effective in transforming their consciousness as well. in talking about initiation rites bill moyers sees these experiences as a rebirth: ‘all children have to be twice born, to learn how to function rationally in the present world’ (cited in campbell, : ). the first is the real birth and the second the ritual birth into adult life. if we look at traditional initiations we can learn a great deal about their structures that can inform new ritual practice. for example, the !kung people of botswana initiate their young women by a process of isolation and preparation. …coming of age is treated as a time for celebration. at the onset of the first menstrual period, the young woman is taken to a special shelter away from the camp. here women and old men gather to sing special songs and perform a dance. the dance is performed by the women and two old men who attach twigs to their heads to imitate the horns of the eland. (ingpen and wilkenson, : ) boys too go through threshold assemblages in most cultures. in quilici’s studies of papua new guinea’s traditional village cultures he found various rites and although he does not define which particular village we might take the following as a common example: boys who must submit to the initiation ordeal sit terrified on the ground (painted with ash, the symbol of death) waiting to be “devoured” by the monster which is set up in the middle of the village once a year. at the culmination of the ceremony, several men grab the boys and throw them, almost flying, through the open mouth of the monster: as he passes through the monster’s mouth each boy dies and is reborn as man. (quilici, : ) i have observed boys from the walpiri people of the central desert leave for initiation as cheerful, carefree children and then, after many weeks with their elders, return as sombre, serious young men who seemed totally transformed from their former childhood selves . strong measures are needed to transform a child into an adult, because ‘on the brink of illumination the old ways are very seductive and liable to pull us back’ (ramakrishna cited in osbon, : ). for any child to leave his or her past life, ‘put away childish things’ (i corinthians : v. ) and adopt a new orientation with adult responsibilities is a delicate transition that must be handled carefully by the adults in that child’s community. in examining the structures of many rites of passage ceremonies we can immediately notice a sequence of deterritorialising and reterritorialising. different techniques are used at different points in the sequence. rites of passage display three distinct phases – the preparation before the actual event, the focal moment of transformation and the release, the celebration of achievement. french ethnologist arnold van gennep (cited in turner in macaloon ed., : ) positioned the three stages as ‘separation, transition and reincorporating’, which provides a useful way of conceptualising the processes involved. in terms of the notion of matrices, we can observe that the journey to alice springs made by writer to work on an arts programs for young men from the walpiri people. preparation phase is concerned with slowly loosening the metamatrix assemblages that hold childhood in place and preparing the young person to negotiate new alignments. the focal moment is the formal moment of change with new assemblages being introduced and able to be taken on. the release is the celebration that cements into place the new alignments, enforcing that new orientation by large-scale community approval. obviously these apparently neat separations do not necessarily occur in practical situations. where different transitional points occur, the distinctions between them can be blurred, but the model is useful in conveying the overall process, its aims and built-in protections, and to observe the techniques that are employed to achieve these transitions. let us look at the methodology of ritual. in the first stage of preparation young people might experience a number of processes which might include isolation from their normal lives, pain being inflicted, deprivation of food and sleep, and enforced fear of the unknown. all of these factors can provoke massive disorientation. in traditional ritualised rites of passage, it is almost always the case that a young person is subjected to psychical and/or physical isolation and/or hardship to a sufficient extent that the orientation towards childhood is left behind. the following is an extreme example: young men…had hung themselves up from poles by thongs attached to their bodies through slits made in their chest or back muscles; others trailed behind them bison skulls tied with holes through their calves. such deeds were much more than bravery and endurance; they were offerings of personal suffering to the gods. (burland, : ) yet in such rituals, whether gentle or extreme, protective structures are in place to substitute new adult feelings and to shepherd the young person through this difficult time. clearly, if a girl was separated from her family to be placed in an isolated hut or a boy was tortured without clear reason, the experience would have long lasting traumatic effects. but in the context for a !kung girl, the separation is because she has ‘become a woman’, she will be with other girls experiencing the same, and the event is culturally acknowledged. for the boys in the above examples, the suffering takes place in the context of proving their bravery, the idea of becoming a man, the experience happening alongside others in similar pain, with elders to monitor the process. in these ways the desired transformation can occur. other methods operate in a similar way. circumcision is found in the initiation rites of some koori and murri people (burland, : ) as is scarification, and scarring by sharp stones also takes place in some african tribes (cohen, : ). these are possible methods of realignment if the ritual surrounding the young people is supportive both ideologically and emotionally. as grimes puts it, ‘while the short term tactical consequences are negative, the long term strategies are constructive’ ( : ). transformation is easier and has strong protective qualities when there are strong belief systems in place to make sense of the process. young people understand culturally what is happening to them and they see the cultural context of their transformation as being important to them. rational reasons for the transformation ritual can be constructed to make sense of something that might, without these rationales, be frightening and confusing. the ritual as a spontaneous outburst or release of inner stress took place first, and only afterwards was the conceptual (mostly religious) framework created to justify the act itself. (segy, : ) the next stage of the ritual is implementing the moment of transition: the focal moment. the climax has arrived and the young person is taken through this pivotal moment fully prepared for the change. sometimes these moments only formalise what has gone before but sometimes the formal moment is dramatic. the young man will jump off the high platform (cohen, : ), kill a special animal (muller, klaud and muller, : ) or leap a special sacred stone (macintyre, : ) to shed the past assemblages and embrace the new. these moments are not private but take place in front of peers and senior people, putting pressure on the participants to perform well and show their adult behaviour. this further encourages realignment. the gateway is passed through offering a metaphoric portal of the transformation. this is followed by the final stage, the reincorporation into the group. the young man or woman is welcomed back into the group with special songs, food and celebration and treated as a young adult rather than a child. participants have hopefully been transformed in their consciousness by the whole experience and are now accepted as adults by the community. the assimilation starts up again…[the] postulants…are cleaned, fed or covered with strengthening, nutritious foods (e.g. grains or flour), painted red, given new clothes and often a new name, and, having come back to life, they return to their society. (konemann, : ) another factor that is important within the rituals associated with rites of passage (and will be explored more deeply later) is the use of symbol, analogy and metaphor which surrounds such experiences. in traditional settings, these occur within cohesive belief systems where powerful symbolic and interrelative language has been built up. symbols and metaphors provide not only a rationale for the experience within the belief structure but also act as powerful reinforcement for the senses. using what turner refers to as ‘social drama’ (in macaloon ed., : ), masks, music, costume, movement, makeup, etc (the ‘theatre’ of the ritual) also acts as reinforcement for the young person and provides a rich textual environment for change within many layers of assemblages. having sketched out some form of pattern for initiations for young people in traditional structures we might now turn our attention to initiation in contemporary society. we are currently faced with real problems in achieving these transitional moments. the young people are going through enormous changes – sexual awakening with all of its contemporary dangers; new responsibilities at complex levels in their schooling and family life; the development of ethical and behavioural choices relating to political decisions and emotional landscapes; dealing with the problems of drug and alcohol use; as well as finding a pathway through the maze of exploitative forces that surround them (they are a major target for large scale commercial systems which affect everything from their diets to their clothes, from their self-identify to their interaction within youth culture). they are under great pressure to make decisions within a complex and sometimes dangerous or oppressive environment. we, as a society, do little to temper commercial forces that operate in powerful and insidious ways to manipulate the young, although we attempt to counterbalance these forces through our educational system and parental guidance. one of the complex aspects of this situation is that there are many levels to a young person’s entry into the adult world, each one negotiated at a different time in the teenage years. in our society there can no longer be just one moment, as there are so many levels to the initiation of young people into the contemporary world of adults. not only are there many levels and times to the passage but also different needs thrown up by these different situations. in other words, the young people are transforming at different speeds and intensities, at different levels and within different cultural milieus. although in contemporary australian society non-indigenous formal initiation ceremonies for young people are now mostly painless and are contained in religious services such as confirmation or bar mitzvah, or in legal thresholds such as the drinking and voting age, many feel that young people are unable to transform into adults in a productive manner. they enter adulthood through ‘rights of passage’ rather than rites of passage. without some form of dramatic psychological and social process it can be difficult to make key transformations at important moments. we can see lack of understanding of the needs of young people in this context with the phenomenon of ‘schoolies’. this is a period of a week in australia when young people celebrate leaving school. it is a very important moment when young people leave a way of life they have experienced since the age of five and enter the responsibilities of leaving home to undertake university, jobs, and other new experiences. we could have no clearer situation for a rite of passage. but instead of an authentic rite which encompasses the transition from school life into the adult world, the celebration turns into a week of massive drinking and partying, heavy use of drugs and in some cases violence and bloodshed. young people (many under eighteen) are exploited at many levels, having little experience in coping with this sort of situation. the situation has become so serious in the gold coast area that the queensland government has instigated a review to try to curb abuse. let us examine the three stages of traditional initiation mentioned above in the light of the schoolies experience. the preparation for the ritual is non-existent. while we provide ‘public education’ material, we do not communally structure any preparation phase that would equip the young people to protect themselves throughout the ritual. the second phase of the focal and symbolic moment of transformation is also ignored. it is only the third section of celebration that is fully engaged but is more ‘party’ than a genuine celebration of transformation. our society fails to realise the true nature of the ritual event and the results can be catastrophic. the young people are justified in their feelings – they want to celebrate this key moment in their lives – but when left to their own devices they have little cultural guidance as to how to behave. we have not provided the structures that allow transformation to occur. if we are to learn from traditional forms, schoolies rituals must be couched in appropriate adult forms, as adulthood is the state that the young people will enter. the solution is not to remove from young people the capacity and choice to devise their own celebrations of change, but to provide, within the frameworks of their families and various communities, rites that precede their self-directed celebrations. that is, acknowledgement of transformation and initiation into adult forms of responsibility could be put in place in familiar contexts before the young people engage in celebration in unfamiliar contexts shot through with the excesses of consumer capitalism. later i will address festivals of misrule (wild festivals of anti-structure) which are categorised under transcendence. in the case of schoolies, the young people engaging in the event, and those who gain commercially from it, have applied the structures of misrule rather than the structures of initiation. this encourages the wild behaviour of the young people. the older structures of speech nights and ‘formals’ do have clear traditions within initiation structures. they do build in appropriate preparation, formal moments, adult recognition, serious intention and parties afterwards to celebrate. but these forms have often failed to engage in current cultural signification and, where we should be contemporising initiation rites with applicable structures, we stay in inappropriate modes that alienate the young people. many commercial and governmental agencies are all too ready to take advantage of this lack by advertising the party week in their area. for four consecutive years i was asked to design a ‘ritual’ for young people on the sunshine coast of queensland to try to provide a serious transformational experience in their school leaving ritual. we worked with theatre structures, using parades, poetry, music and song with symbols of gateways, bridges, fire images and birds (flight). we involved the young people in the process by encouraging them to write wishing flags for the future, we made videos in which they recorded their aspirations, and we invited them to help prepare the celebration. each year, in spite of the good intentions of the organisers and many participants, the alcohol-free evening was swamped with drunken teenagers, many of them under age, and there were a lot of drugs present. the music being offered was pop music played at high volume with dj’s suggesting that everyone party. in spite of these difficulties the young people responded to the ritual and there - schoolies week on the sunshine coast run by community solutions were moments when their responses indicated that they realised the crossing they were making. but the momentary atmosphere of deeper recognition was quickly lost in the party that followed. we can see that a better understanding of the dynamics of rites of passage can help us to better identify the ways in which we can solve the problems we experience in situations of this kind. the challenge is to design events that incorporate the symbols and practices important to youth culture yet at the same time achieve the structures and effects of transformation which might encourage more lasting recognition of the import of change and less dangerous behaviours in celebrating it in contexts of their own choosing. it is worth noting here that when there are no ‘official’ initiations young people will sometimes attempt to instigate them themselves, without senior guidance, sometimes with tragic results. young boys test their bravery in uncontrolled conditions such as riding on the top of trains (cohen, : ) or taking on other wild dares in which they can be badly injured. cars and motorbikes, drug and drinking experiences provide ample dangerous scope for proofs of bravery associated with manhood. the adolescent phase is often very confused and deeply problematic but can also be life threatening. australia’s high male teenage suicide rate might also indicate alienation felt during these vulnerable teenage years. many people have striven to introduce more meaningful rites again in a secular context. ronald grimes: the past two decades have witnessed a resurrection of interest in the construction of rites of passage…without constant re-invention we court disorientation. without rites that engage our imagination, communities, and bodies, we lose touch with the rhythms of human life course… (grimes : ) paul hill, national director of the rites of passage institute, which works with young people in this area, explains his organisation’s goals in terms of an intersection of the social and the personal: it is based on the multi-cultural premise that a group must recognise and affirm itself before it is able to share and appreciate the differences of others. rites of passage as a process also recognise that entry into adult life involves the realisation of social obligations and the assumption of responsibility for meeting them. what initiation does is to set a time on the journey for bringing the individuals into formal and explicit relation with their kindred. it also confronts them with some of their basic social ties, reaffirms them and thus makes patent to them their status against the days when they will have to adopt them in earnest. rites of passage as a developmental and transformational process will not only provide self- development and cultural awareness, but will foster a sense of belonging; adolescents and adults will become part of community life – not persons alone, lacking support, sanction, and purpose. (hill, internet site www.rites of passage.org/passage .htm] three factors emerge from a consideration of initiation rites in today’s secular settings. firstly, the structures of traditional rituals with the three phases carefully and fully supervised can help the young people realise a genuine transformational experience. secondly, they must have a supporting ontology that reinforces the journey being made with symbol and metaphor. thirdly, a deeper understanding of the psychology of transformation and its processes can help us design appropriate events and might help us avoid errors. these three points will be important in the design of new transformational rituals. although they take place in very different circumstances, the same factors are visible in the next example of transformation. rites of marriage let no man put asunder. (the solemnisation of marriage, book of common prayer) there are many forms of marriage found throughout the world but they all share some essential common factors. two people go through a ritual that is usually legally binding, in which they commit to forming a permanent relationship with each other that is subject to certain social and cultural rules. these social rules vary but usually involve agreements about fidelity, care of children and property sharing. the ceremony often involves a public statement, the formal acceptance of the conditions within a legal/lore structure and has witnesses (witnesses are often a legal requirement). ‘the web of marriage is made from propinquity’ (lindberg cited in cohen, : ) and not only binds the bride and groom but re-orientates the relationships between family and friends, and transforms the pre-existing familial arrangements. in these ways, the marriage ceremony is certainly transformational. in the christian marriage rite, a few words by the couple (and a priest or minister) change their legal situation, their relationships with family, their status and their relationship to each other. in http://www.rites/ christianity, they also commit themselves to monogamy, giving up the right to have relationships with others outside of the marriage. (in some cultures there are systems of polygamy but the rules outside of the relationships are still in place.) the ceremony is not only transformational for the bride and groom but for many of those in attendance as well. when couples get married they activate a wide range of associated societal links that involve many people and, in many cases, inheritance alignments, family allegiances, belief and cultural enforcement, property sharing and status issues. it is a major step and the traditional ritual of marriage has built into its structure forms and techniques that encourage feelings of transformation for the participants and for the community supporting the rite. the drive to procreate and the desire to provide nurturing structures for the young remains a central preoccupation in human societies and where it is strongly acculturated it produces powerful reactions within the psyche. marriage rituals provide a metaphoric melding, a dynamic process and a safe procedure for transformational changes to happen. they formally cement new relationships and can provide public acknowledgement and expression to private feelings of love. here i will concentrate on the ways in which transformation is brought about within marriage ceremonies. although one can see large differences in the way that different cultures design their ceremonies to bring about transformation, the two factors identified in initiation – staged change and symbolic framework – are clearly in operation. this is obvious when rites of marriage are considered in terms of the model of preparation, focal point and release. grimes observes that ‘both the preparation and aftermath of a wedding are ritualized, patterned like filings dancing around a magnet, pulled into orbit by the force of ceremony and celebration’ ( : ). the preparation for realignment can be long and complex depending on cultural pressures. (marriage rites, like initiation rites, vary in their intensity, and thereby in potency to transform.) couples go through a period of adjustment during the ‘betrothal’ and/or ‘engagement’ process that prepares them for the change. there can be a build up of excitement and tension around this and the planning of the actual ceremony. paths that will be taken through this transformational state are negotiated and agreed upon, and often involve the parents, friends and representatives of supporting belief structures (the priest, the imam, the rabbi, the shaman, the celebrant) to bring about a feeling of confidence. assemblages of cultural beliefs accompany this process with concepts of duty, commitment, family obligations and sharing acting as bonds between the two people. the planning of the clothes that will be worn, the food and drink that will be eaten, the place where the ceremony will be held, the music, the processions, the formal words that will be spoken, are all discussed and decided. the preparation and loosening of matrix assemblages in readiness for the new alignments of marriage are commonly culturally elaborate, and can be extreme as can be seen in bali where girls have their teeth filed (cohen, : ). the wedding itself produces the focus of change. in a typical western marriage the rites are enforced as an important ‘special moment’ with special clothes; the use of a sacred space, a specially chosen secular space, or a designated legal space; legal papers to be signed; blessings; pre-organised formal movement and many other factors which include the two participants formally accepting each other in front of their community or witnesses taken to represent the community. this formal transitional moment is released into a period of intense celebration: bells are rung, triumphal marches played, or other musical accompaniments used in more secular settings; rice or confetti is thrown; and the occasion is, in contemporary settings, documented with photographs and videos. the final stage is reached and the couple is shown the approval of the society with an unrestrained party helped often by special foods, speeches, drink and dancing. the honeymoon follows to allow consolidation and when the couple returns their community treats them in a different way, enforcing the new alignment. as well as the three phases of staged change, the second factor of rites of passage is also present with strong symbolic structures enforcing the ritual. what turner positions as ‘social drama’ unfolds with music, dance, metaphor, symbolic movement, exchange of symbolic gifts that enforce an acknowledged physiological change. looking at familiar australian wedding structures we can clearly see symbolic pathways. hearts and flowers, wearing white, the father giving away the bride, best man, rings, wedding marches, horseshoes, confetti and rice, garters, ribald jokes, cake cutting, toasts, tin cans on cars, are just some of the social drama which is enacted with a wide array of symbolic props. although in australia marriage ceremonies have gone through significant changes and religious structures are not being used as routinely to organise these transformative processes, many people still follow traditional patterns, at least in form. new conditions are being placed on marriage ceremonies. people are marrying for a second time and second marriages can include the children of the first marriage. there are same sex weddings and marriages between people of different cultures and beliefs. this brings new aspects into the procedures. yet in many cases the same transformational structures are being used in spite of the different social configurations. strong ceremonial structures will enforce a feeling of unity, bring confidence to the decision, provide witness protocols, strengthen new ties and provide a ceremonial environment that fits the emotional and psychological requirements for a change in consciousness and in social role. a build up of tension as the couple is being prepared, a concentrated point of change in the service and a celebration of release afterwards can be found in new style weddings as well as old. as a designer of new rituals i have been asked, on occasion, to design weddings. i have lent heavily on the three stages outlined above and have in no way tampered with what i call the rhythm or traditional structure of the wedding – preparation, focal point and celebration. close consultation over many months, fully involving the main participants, a specially constructed focal moment and a celebration to follow, seem good guides to the structure. but in the style of the wedding i depart greatly from the usual traditional marriage. couples wanting a new ritual to celebrate their union seek to understand and have control of their process and to inhabit the ceremony with a symbolism and meaning that aligns with their lives. they are not trained nor experienced in staging these events but are sure that they want the ceremony to ‘make sense’ to them at every level. i used basic elements from the traditional western wedding and adapted them to the situation, and also used non-western elements in some cases. what follows is the design for a wedding that i organised and the reasons for certain decisions. close friends and family arrived at a beautiful spot, a beach, early in the morning and worked all day to construct the event. the guests arrived during the last hour of the day and at sundown separated into two groups – male and female. the female guests joined the bride on a small, rocky outcrop overlooking the beach. they made a small campfire to which they added incense, sang (pre-organised) songs led by professional singers and musicians, and talked among themselves. the men, meanwhile, gathered at a distance up the beach and made another focal group with drummers, flags, songs and images made earlier in the day. the idea of isolating the sexes immediately created a dynamic. the men were boisterous and full of energy and the women more centred and cohesive; they were apart, but knew they would soon come together as a unified group. wedding guests were now reflecting the situation of the bride and groom, if somewhat less intently – they were apart and would soon be unified. this design also provided moral support and a feeling of intensity for the bride and groom. as the sun set (the end of a day and the end of an era) the men made their way down the beach towards the women, beating drums, lighting fire torches, flares and smoke effects while the women stood and encouraged the men onward. the men now stopped about thirty meters from the base of the rocks. the women challenged the groom to answer questions (he could consult with his male friends as to the correct answers) and the men could advance ever closer if the bride (and her female friends) felt the answers were ‘up to par’. neither the groom nor the men knew what the questions would be. while all this was done in good spirits and in an atmosphere of fun, the questioning served other functions. it provided a strong participatory role for the guests – they were helping the couple ‘get together’; it replaced tension and anxiety with a more informal atmosphere without abandoning form; and it allowed a poetic element into the proceedings. the mechanism provided the guests and the couple with a mode of expression that allowed them to express what they felt. the questions were sometimes serious – ‘what must you abandon to further the journey?’; and some were amusing – ‘where’s your white horse?’ sometimes the men were allowed to advance if they got a particular answer just right and at other times were forced to retreat with cries of derision. after about ten questions the groom was allowed to climb the rocks to join the bride. then all processed to the next phase of the ceremony. this is the formal phase, the focal point officiated by a legal celebrant, and a marriage in the eyes of the law. it is very important in this phase to recognise the dynamic of formalisation. an important agreement or action is about to take place. there is no room for ambiguity, confusion, haphazard action, anarchy or any dissembling. it is a time to be clear and to follow agreed form. witnessing is also a crucial aspect to consider. the guests are there to hear a public declaration of two people’s love and to also witness the legal situation. the design of this section must take account of these factors. the vows or promises can take many shapes, but jokes and insincerity are not appropriate. music can be used as well as visual symbols to enforce the meaning of the event. the vows themselves are now commonly adjusted to the feelings of the couple but i still included the lines ‘i, … take you, … to be my husband/wife’. i believe this concentrates the formal moment. in particular cases when both participants might have children, the young people might be asked to ‘give away’ or ‘present’ their parent and accept the new marriage. this is a case of adaptation from an old tradition. in traditional weddings a father must ‘give away’ his daughter and formally recognise the new arrangement. in this new wedding the tradition is used but in another context. this formal section now gives way to the wedding feast. in this example, the guests helped by bringing food cooked during the day. the food was especially decorated. there were songs, informal speeches, choral works, eating, drinking and dancing, all lit by firelight. in this case music was provided by family and friends, many of whom were professional artists, but it is interesting to note that most of the budget for a wedding might be spent on professional artists from different disciplines to give artistic quality to the event. at this wedding, the artists present had no formal training in organising weddings but were experts in music, leading choral singing, making visual images and organising dance. a good ritual designer will coordinate this interface as seamlessly as possible. the above example demonstrates the adaptation of older traditions that have worked psychologically for millennia, changing them to meet new community needs and provide meaning for the participants. symbolism in new transformation rituals artists have no motive for deceit or concealment, but strive to find perfect expressive form for their experience. (turner, : ) in both of the examples above (youth initiation and weddings) we have seen strong structures that are used in traditional cultures being adapted for contemporary society. when artists are working within contemporary transformational rituals in australia it is of crucial significance that the symbolic language being used is relevant to the participants. the fact is that in former times men did not reflect upon their symbols; they lived them and were unconsciously animated by their meaning. (jung, : ) when rituals are detached from traditional structures, the symbolic language must change. but to what? how can a symbolic language be established for settings which are no longer replete with commonly agreed cultural values and symbols based in shared belief systems? how can a holistically structured assemblage be created to accompany new rituals? these are complex and important questions and there are no easy answers. when deep structures found in established belief systems lose relevance or fall from use in a culture, the symbolic landscape becomes fragmented. this does not mean that previous cultural symbols are completely erased. but it does mean that they have been loosened from the belief structures that gave them coherent significance in terms of ceremony or ritual. the signifiers of belief and ritual have to a considerable extent become floating signifiers in contemporary australian culture, disconnected from a signifying system. for example, some parts of a previously monocultural, christian symbolic landscape have been carried into secular versions of christian ceremonies, such as civil weddings, others have been lost, yet most continue to carry redolences of symbolic import without established structures. the culture tends to produce new symbolic usage – such as the relatively recent appearance of a practice of placing crosses at sites of road accidents. in this instance the central christian symbol has attached itself to a highly contemporary circumstance to mark and recall tragedy, but for those familiar with older signifying systems the recent practice evokes european roadside shrines, a practice never transported to the australian expression of christianity. in these ways, symbols acquire new purposes but they are not completely severed from their traditional structures. we can see clearly in australia that symbolic language is appropriated and used not only out of context, driving the meaning of the symbol into new and sometimes inappropriate contexts, but also removing the symbol from its historic evolution and recontextualising it. rock groups use the world’s symbolic languages with little information as to ‘meaning’; fashion acquires any symbol it finds can be put to new and exciting use; and the commercial world is continuously appropriating symbolic contexts to sell products. the colonisation of symbolic languages is so widespread that not only have coherent links between symbolic languages largely broken down, but the links to their previous narrative contexts as well. this makes it difficult to establish a symbolic language able to carry a ritual succinctly without semiological confusion. at a wedding, hearts might symbolise love for one couple and sentimental kitsch for another. peter watson, in his book about european ideas in the twentieth century (a terrible beauty), explains how the sociologist daniel bell describes this dilemma using the notion of ‘designer’ culture (watson, : ). bell suggests that today humans enter a kind of supermarket of beliefs and plug in whole systems, parts of systems and even systems unrelated to belief, thereby forming lifestyle combinations that suit the individual but have difficulty translating into whole systems of unified meaning. he sees modern belief almost as a ‘fashion accessory’. [contemporary society] implies the rejection of any naturally ascribed or divinely ordained order, of external authority, and of collective authority in favour of the self as the sole point of action. (bell cited in watson, : ) we are faced with personal and social symbolic worlds where not only does the semiology operate in fragments that have little previous relationship to each other but they also differ in their referents from one person to the next. in terms of the focus of this study, the production of coherent cultural events involving ritual and ceremony, parts of specific cultural forms cannot be lifted out of context and freely mixed, willy- nilly so to speak, with any real hope of success. yet to ignore the language of symbols would be to lose a defining characteristic of effective transformational ritual. when i design events, i address this sensitive problem in the following way. i do not presume that either the participants or any audience have in place a metastructure to hold a common set of symbols. this is particularly true in australia, where the metastructural frameworks are less stable than in older cultures. (i do not include indigenous australians here, as the use of their symbolic language would be inappropriate without their explicit presence in the event). the widespread nature of multicultural input, the erosion of a strong unifying belief structure, the breakdown of symbolic meaning through popular culture and the adoption of personal symbolic design are all factors in this fragility. however, although the meaning that surrounds symbolic signifiers is more fluid, it can be made to work in powerful ways by ‘packing’ around the symbols a context that informs the symbol. it is almost a process of inventing a symbolic language with its own landscape which only holds true to the moment and operates within its own context. this ‘forces’ meaning into the ritual at different levels yet allows free interpretation without trying to capture some central notion of a fixed truth. so then, how is this realised in practice? the first step is involving the participants in deciding the symbolic language that will be used. this can be done in groups or individually, but it is vital to establish a landscape that will provide unity. to take a simple example: i am asked to stage a transformation ritual and i choose to use the journey across a river as a narrative element for enactment of transformation. the river has strong mythological roots as well as a symbolic history that can operate at a simple or complex level. groups are formed to each create a boat that will symbolically sail across the water from one state of being to another. each individual in the group creates her or his own personal symbolic language by making designs on the boat that convey feelings about transformation. the boat is then carried in the ritual by the group which made it. symbolic unity is held by the boats and their journey, but personal symbolism which has important meaning for the participant is allowed to function. a landscape is created to be inhabited by personal expression which might or might not be recognised by the audience. ritual provides meaning where the audience is not asked to understand a metanarrative (some sort of central truth) but rather that the boats may mean many things, and each person brings his or her own meaning to the event. on the next level one might ask the whole audience to participate. they might be invited to write on small white ribbons their hopes for the transformational situation and these ribbons are used to decorate the boats. perhaps no one but the writer knows what is on a particular ribbon, but when they see a thousand other ribbons they know that it is the ribbon not the message that becomes the ritual object. a further step is to install other lines of symbolic richness. the crossing of the symbolic river in transformational terms means that there is no return. there might then be a symbolic bonfire which burns the boats in an atmosphere of celebration. just as caesar in bc crossed the rubicon and burned his boats so that the th legion could have no retreat from the ensuing civil war, in transformation ceremonies one is encouraging a permanent way forward with no retreat. fire is a powerful symbol of transformation which literally destroys what is there, establishing the drama of things to come. the use of fire very aptly demonstrates the relationship between our cultural expression and our physiological relationship to environment. fire is not only a cultural symbol which involves our feelings about transformation and change, it also involves a physical response which triggers many historical relationships as well as the actuality of warmth and light. its strength as a symbol is that it operates on so many levels involving not only intellectual reading but also unconscious understandings. such uses of symbols, and many others, can work together, multiplying the meaning. the theme remains constant, but the multi-layered approach provides a wide range of symbolic language. i work very hard on research in any project to provide as many links as possible. the aim is to create a dense cultural environment which allows each member of the audience to take out of it what s/he will at whatever level. however, it is vital that the event makes overall symbolic sense to the artistic team and, although participants and audience may not determine a symbolic cohesion, there is a central group that does. this is vital to the integrity of the whole experience. the symbolism must not be thrown together haphazardly without a careful interlocking, and this is especially true when using the symbols of other cultures. we have examined two examples of transformational rituals in order to demonstrate the methodology, structures and guidelines which will help in designing new transformation rituals of many different kinds: birth and naming ceremonies, significant birthdays, retirements, legal procedures, major civic moments (e.g. south african independence, or the bringing down of the berlin wall) and many others. i want to stress here that although the above examples vary greatly, the underlying objective is always transformation and in understanding the dynamics of transformation in general we can begin to understand the common transformational links that run through a wide range of experiences. we have been guided by traditional transformational structures and discussed the potential for new and meaningful symbolic pathways that the artist and others might use to design new ritual which will transform and protect the participants as they go through important liminal situations. with such frameworks in mind, designers, those commissioning events and communities more generally can guard against these same structures being used inappropriately. chapter three: reinforcement illustration – community ritual knowing myself yet being someone other. (t.s. eliot, : ) reinforcement rituals and celebrations can be found in situations when the participant wants to bring into alignment certain existing feelings and/or beliefs – certain matrix assemblages in a certain order. the ritual system is designed to take the participant through previously learnt routines or understood methodologies to align assemblages in desired ways. the participant wants to evoke a state of mind and body that brings around itself various elements such as support, comfort, stimulation, refreshment, clarity and calmness. a system must be employed to bring these elements into alignment. to use a simple example: a christian prayer of thanks is a reinforcement ritual. the participant goes through a particular physical and mental system already prescribed to bring about a certain alignment that allows access to, in this case, an outlet for thanks. catholics, for instance, reinforce feelings of faith through the weekly services. participants go through a learnt process which starts with entering the church – the wearing of appropriate clothes, genuflecting, holy water, lighting candles and so on. the symbolic environment enforces all aspects of catholic belief – an altar, statues, pictures, spoken prayer are examples of the objects and actions contained here. after the service, participants go through a reverse process (final blessing, final hymn, genuflection, leaving the church) until they are back in the external world with their beliefs reinforced within the continuation of their normal lives. there are many types of reinforcement rituals and celebrations in australia. these are activated when a community or individual wants to have a ‘special’ experience that reflects and strengthens the feelings and values that they find important. it might be the annual anniversary of a town where the denizens want to hold a special event to mark their community feelings about the place where they live. it might be an italian community that has organised a festival to celebrate their culture. it might be the opening of parliament. reinforcement is by far the most common form of ritual and celebration, and is found in a very wide range of situations. reinforcement rituals vary from transformation structures in three major ways. the most obvious is that reinforcement rituals are structured to move participants from the normal to the ‘special’ and back again without the dramatic, permanent change of alignments, ‘destruction and reconstruction’ (turner, : ), found in transformation rituals. that is, reinforcement rituals are not designed to realign major matrix systems into new forms but to allow temporary alignment changes which, although at times moving and powerful, simply return the participant to normal life enriched. the second difference is that reinforcement rituals have an already existing, familiar frame of reference. in other words, to reinforce a set of feelings and ideas there must be set of feelings and ideas there in a stable form in the first place. (in transformation rituals the participants move into a new set of feelings and ideas to which, before the ritual, they had no access.) the third major difference is that reinforcement ritual procedures do not follow gennep’s three-phase model of separation/preparation, transition and reincorporation/celebration. the speeds of entrance and exit, the diffused focal points, the varied contexts, make for a very different rhythmic system. in fact one might say that there is such a variety of different rhythms with multiple focal points that there can be no phasal model to guide the designer. instead, in contrast to transformational events, these rituals must develop new criteria altogether. they are much more concerned with creating pathways, environments, or systems which act as a key to accessing already existing landscapes of feelings and ideas. as noted, reinforcement rituals and celebrations cover a wide spectrum of human activity and can be found in many forms. to understand the dynamics of this category we must examine the way in which temporary alignment pathways are activated and deactivated without permanent and massive change. i will concentrate on two examples to illustrate this. the altar entering mundo entero. altars are most interesting tools for use in the process of reinforcement. we inscribe our ideas into objects laid out in special ways: ‘the structure and apparatus of the altar appeal to our psyche because they give form to the formless’ (linn, : ). our relationship with this external configuration is very varied. ordinary objects can be imbued with meaning (for example flowers, lights, shells, special fabric) or on the other hand they might carry important iconic assemblages both personal (for example photographs, memorabilia, household objects) and ‘universal’ (for example, pictures and sculptures of buddha or christ). ritual action surrounding altars might also carry special meaning (zen bells, lighting of incense and candles, for example) which brings the space ‘to life’. the altar has the power to align a collection of beliefs or feelings (certain desired states) by a prescribed interaction with objects and actions. altars have various foci. they can hold the idea of god, of the dead, of magic, of the divine or of the past found in ancestor worship or remembrance. they can be found within spectacularly designed holy buildings or in a more humble aspect in ordinary homes. they can provide an in-house personal worship kit or be used for massive community gatherings. they can be found in almost every type of belief system and in many secular settings. they are interactive and often attract ritual movement around them. they have perceived protective properties and can constitute focus for prayer. all altars have symbolic meaning local to individual cultures. dana salvo, an artist interested in altars, travelled in mexico, where he observed: animalistic symbolism, christian imagery, crucifixes, family mementos, faded photographs, votive candles, blinking lights, balloons, fruits, an occasional tv, dolls, images of popular culture, the flag… (salvo cited in gutierrez, : ) we can see that these mexican altars are not significantly different from the altars found in the home of, say, a buddhist family in singapore which might contain a candle or lights, a picture or sculpture of buddha, a picture of the family, flowers and some food and drink. altars can even be detached from established belief altogether. in fact many people have ‘informal’ secular altars in their homes, with an agreeable set of objects put in a certain place in a certain order that reflects and evokes a certain set of feelings important to them. altars need not necessarily be objects placed in a special space within a building. the kuthso bushmen of the kalahari desert formalise a ritual altar by forming a circle on the ground: ‘… the hunters throw short arrows at the skull of a gazelle lying in the middle of a magic circle’ (quilici : ). this ritual interaction with the animals they hunt will, they believe, bring about successful hunting. the sand paintings of the navajo are used to bring ‘cures’ to the ill and can also be described as a kind of altar: the sand-pictures are made in this wise; upon the floor of the hogan is spread fresh sand smoothed flat; then upon this background the medicine man and his assistants make symbolic figures, by sifting through thumb and finger coloured powders from mineral and charcoal. (curtis, : ). indigenous australians in a wide range of regions similarly use sand paintings and the marking out of temporary ceremonial grounds in other ways, with certain rocks, marks in the earth, feathers and tree branches, for example. altars, then, are collections of objects given ‘special’ meaning and laid out in a certain order in a designated space. that there is an interactive process involved is significant. the participant actually goes through a set of movements that activate the altar’s use. the participant is allowing the ritual arrangement and/or movement and the symbolic nature of the objects to cause a certain state of mind, linking the person to a set of feelings and thoughts that they want to achieve. further, certain ritual procedures can be reversed and lead the participant back to a normal state – ‘the way forward is the way back’ as t.s. eliot wrote ( : ). altars can also be used for ‘black magic’ and fetish worship. here the objects found on the altar are imbued with powerful and even malevolent force – these are very different to the more benign and widespread altars evoking ‘the heavens, the sun, the moon, and the stars’ (gutierrez, : ) mentioned above. investigations into magic practices have shown that sacred objects can have such an effect as to bring about the death of a tribal member by the psychology of the act alone. in a range of australian indigenous contexts, a kadaitcha can ‘point the bone’ to cause illness or death. in others, the shaman’s collection of sacred objects can be laid out in special ways to bring harm to an individual. in many traditional cultures it is accepted that ‘witches…can transfer their power to any object…calabash, seashell, pearl, an amulet or a piece of cloth’ (muller and muller, : ). regardless of the processes, if there is shared belief in their efficacy the impacts on individuals or groups of such practices using objects to ‘cast spells’ or ‘lay curses’ can be extraordinarily dramatic. it follows that reinforcement processes through the use of objects arranged as altars can produce other kinds of strong effects for participants. reinforcement takes place through the juxtaposition of a certain set of components. thus it can be seen that the altar objects and their ritual use could attract a set of matrices into a special pattern in the consciousness of participants. if the participant has built the altar or is very familiar with the iconography of the altar and goes through familiar and well-known procedures, certain learnt matrix systems will form. in the discussion of matrix formation above we saw that matrix forms were flexible, moveable and that their edges could be negotiated and changed. the objects on the altar animate a certain set of matrices into a practised pattern of orientation. they deterritorialise the ‘normal’ and reterritorialise the ‘special’ in a prescribed or at least familiar way. this might be found within an all-embracing religion or at a micro level with pictures of the family, but the main function of objects on the altar is to align matrices into desired patterns in order to produce particular effects/affects. each time the same procedure is undertaken, the process is strengthened. we are seldom dealing with separate symbols but with clusters of made up objects, actions, sounds, states, orders, contracts, each unit, act or thing, at once itself and standing for more than itself, the ensemble making more than the sum of its parts. (turner, cited by beazley in gutierrez, : ) the introduction of a physical procedure (lighting candles or incense, ringing bells, singing a song, putting the hands together, prostrating the body, entering a ‘special’ space) reinforces the matrix alignments by including the body in the process. ‘senses paint by metaphor’, as wallace stevens put it (www.wesleyan.edu/edu/wstevens/morn- poem.html). on holy ground and in places particularly invested with the sacred, men and women of every faith surround themselves with objects they deem to be particularly potent loci of the holy to periodically ritualize their relationship. (gutierrez, : ) ritual objects on an altar relate to each other by further accelerating the impact of reinforcement. the picture of a son killed in a war will be placed next to a picture of the passion, which will nestle beside flowers and an old medal awarded to the father, which sits on top of a box with napoleon on the lid. indeed, we might be able to conclude that it is in the very juxtapositioning of the objects, each opening its own symbolic meaning, that the matrix alignment is achieved. the picture of the dead boy brings with it a matrix of mourning, but its position beside christ allows two territories to be implicated in one another; ‘jesus died but was saved’ lies beside ‘our son is dead and he too is saved’. the father’s medal was won ‘saving his country’ therefore ‘our son’s life was not wasted’ and the picture of napoleon enforces heroic myth in the whole assemblage. the flowers bring with them feelings of renewal and love. even on formal public altars (within churches or temples) we can find the juxtaposition of objects reinforcing each other by symbolic association. the christian altar for example: the flowers, the white cloth, the cross, the chalice, the picture of a dove or a lamb, all link into other powerful symbolic systems enforcing the central message. the altar’s capacity through its objects to reterritorialise a wide range of matrices in a known ‘comfort’ assemblage is powerful. each ritual object is able to lose its own direct meaning and merge into the pattern of the whole, or recapture its own associations again if the participant needs to refocus on it individually. a concept of altars can be extended to include war memorials, art installations, graveyards, memorial spaces, and the mobile altars found in the processions of a deity and the venerated dead – wherever people need to re-establish a spiritual and/or community stability through the use of prescribed objects. when an individual needs to find an external formal procedure, a physical system to align various assemblages, s/he will be able to utilise reinforcement forms and systems that bring about desired matrices. an example might be an anzac day event. the soldiers and their families march to a prescribed place uniquely designed to bring about a feeling of remembrance and to reinforce what the soldiers believe their friends died for. there is the journey that slowly prepares the participants for the experience. people walk in formation, at a slow pace, drums beating in a formal mode with a solemn atmosphere. they assemble at the cenotaph that has a particular design. it has a perimeter that forms a ritual space, crossing which encourages alignment. it has steps which further process the way into the space. there are the names of the dead shining in reflective metal against dark grey stone that suggests endurance and formality. there is an eternal flame to mark the life force and perhaps a statue on the top depicting a hero in action. the participants approach the sacred place with wreaths that reflect the headgear worn by victorious roman generals and with bunches of flowers full of the symbolism of regeneration. the system is very precise and enables the participants to restructure their remembrance of fallen comrades and the community to understand the nature of the sacrifice involved. people often use altars to contain important ideas that can be used when necessary. this is especially true in the case of tragedy or need. it is a pathway, a physical metaphor, a code that can access the strengths found in certain thoughts, feelings and ideas. everyone uses them to a certain extent to bring about reassurance and newfound strength. the young girl who lays out pictures of movie stars in a certain way to represent her yearnings for a wonderful relationship; a dinner party layout with crystal, candles and glass; the painter laying out certain objects in certain ways; or a child organising toys as her friends. ‘altar’ practices are found in little things and in large- scale operations but all are systems to bring about affirmation. we might ask why we feel reassured by going through a reinforcement experience. the model i am using for cognitive assemblages is useful here. tony buzan, who developed the mental processing techniques of mind mapping, puts forward a simple but effective model for the way we learn and hold feeling and ideas. every time we have a thought, the biochemical/electromagnetic resistance along the pathway carrying the thought is reduced. it is like trying to clear a path through a forest. the first time you struggle because you have to fight your way through the undergrowth. the second time you travel that way will be easier because of the clearing you did on your first journey. the more times you travel on that path, the less resistance there will be, until, after many repetitions, you have a wide, smooth track that requires little to no clearing. a similar function occurs in the brain: the more you repeat patterns or maps of thought, the less resistance there is to them. therefore, and of greater significance, repetition in itself increases the probability of repetition. in other words, the more times a mental event happens, the more likely it is to happen again. (buzan, : ) we can see that when reinforcement rituals are activated they often bring into alignment polished pathways already well used and well trodden. these pathways lead to assemblages that manifest safe atmospheres, warm memories, connections to belief systems that provide strength, intellectual buttresses, emotional reassurances and a host of other experiences, which in turn provide comfort and assurances that the world is under some sort of personal control. we lay out all sorts of assemblages that reassure us and make sense not only of the changing world around us but also of our role in that world. we can assess these assemblages, which are sometimes unavailable to us in day- to-day thought, by going through ritual systems. in other words, the assemblages are already established and can be reached through already existing pathways. when i am asked to design events that have strong elements of reinforcement, i often use altars as a vehicle that will carry certain aligned meanings. (it is no accident that the catholic church uses portable altars in religious parades. these act as a focus in the confusion of movement and concentrate the belief towards a central object which acts as a symbolic pathway to wider, connected systems.) i work with the community to build all sorts of secular altars, both mobile and static. they need to be formally laid out, each object representing what is important to the participants, each object further enforcing the meaning of the next. we use candles for illumination to represent the energy of the life force; we ask for full participation from the community involved to select the objects; we make the theme specific to provide cohesion; the altars are built to tower over an audience in a parade or form intimate concentration spots in small venues. an example might be that a fishing community wants to have a festival. we might construct altars by placing within real wooden rowing boats objects that have special significance to the fishermen. each object has a candle beside it. each boat is carried through the streets by its crew and placed in a special place on the beach. in altars and their associated rituals and accoutrements we can see processes of reinforcement in operation with objects. this can be extended to certain places as well. sacred mountains realms of harmony and joy. (tao poem) simply to enter and interact with a special space can also involve a reinforcement process, but instead of revered objects laid out in special ways we have a designated place being imbued with these same dynamics, with the effect that ‘to live in sacred space is to live in a symbolic environment’ (osbon, : ). these spaces can be completely constructed by humans, often producing buildings of great beauty; chartres cathedral is testimony to this. but they can also be found in natural settings of all kinds. powerful natural environments can allow the participant in ritual to embody into themselves symbolic attributes of the natural world. i want to concentrate on one type of natural space by way of an example – the mountain. these have strong dynamics that illustrate well the reinforcement process . mountains have been used as sacred spaces for as long as history is recorded. the power of such a mountain is so great and yet so subtle that, without compulsion, people are drawn to it from near and far, as by the force of an invisible magnet; and they will undergo huge hardships and privations in their inexplicable urge to approach and worship the centre of this sacred power. nobody has conferred the title of sacredness on this mountain, and yet everybody recognises it; nobody has to defend its claim, because nobody doubts; nobody has to organise its worship, because people are overwhelmed by the mere presence of such a mountain and cannot express their feelings other than by worship. (lama anagrika govinda cited in bernbaum, : xiii) the inaccessibility and remoteness of sacred mountains contribute to their connection with spiritual and natural significance and they have a set of symbolic values before they are even approached. the ethereal rise of a ridge in the mist, a glint of moonlight on an icy face, a flare of gold on a distant peak – such glimpses of transcendent beauty can reveal our world as a place of unimaginable mystery and splendour. (bernbaum, : xiii) unadulterated natural environments have no codes and signals within themselves and therefore the feedback systems are non-negotiable and lack certain ambiguities. it is human narrative that introduces potential for multiple meaning to such sites. it can be a profound experience, travelling into a dangerous environment, experiencing hardships and ascending towards the sky. the symbolic objects we embrace within the reinforcement process are in this circumstance the result of nature at its most spectacular and not the result of human contrivance. the arrangements that go into operation are rather of concepts. there are links here with mythologies of an epic nature that can include ascension to bliss or heaven, the heroic journey, ascetic wisdom and the divine. mountains can provide a rich symbolic environment to inspire human thought: dante’s purgatory, jesus’ temptation, black elk’s vision, the magic perfection of shangri la, the home of greek gods at mount olympus and a vehicle for the visions of buddha. we can embody the experience by actually getting physically involved, by leaving the ‘normal’ world as we know it and ascending into the unknown. by facing the ever-increasing risks as we climb higher and eventually reach the summit, seeing the world laid out before us, we can physically ‘live’ the sacred journey. the secular experience can be powerful also. the british climber eric shipton, who climbed the heights of nanda devi in the himalayas, describes this feeling: we were now in the inner sanctuary of the nanda devi basin and at each step i experienced that subtle thrill which anyone of imagination must feel when treading into unexplored country. each corner held some thrilling secret to be revealed for the trouble of looking. (bernbaum, : ) mountains as special sites go back to the beginning of recorded history. in exodus, for example, believers are exhorted to ‘set bounds around the mount and sanctify it’. some mountains are used for religious pilgrimages, for example during the festival of fatima in portugal, and the pilgrimage destinations of croagh patrick in ireland and mount fuji in japan. others have a spiritual taboo that states that they cannot be climbed: machapuchare in nepal, t’ai shan in china and uluru in australia. volcanic sites are surrounded by myth and legend, gunung agung in bali for example, while others have become centres of habitation and refuge such as machupicchu in peru. some are strongly connected to belief and history (mount arrarat and mount parnassus for example) and some are revered for their sheer physical height, beauty and prominence (everest, mont blanc and annapurna). the mountain may reinforce by association with mythological narrative, historical precedent, or symbol (height, prominence, ascension), but in each case the mountain – the sight of it or the act of climbing it – provides an environment which has all the symbolic attributes needed for a sacred space. mountains obviously have a deep significance to humans and allow us to embrace their physical nature in ceremony, ritual and celebration. why do mountains produce such powerful responses? certainly mountains have, by their very nature, the ability to provide dramatic physical environments that can contain a symbolic journey and a satisfying resolving moment – the reaching of the summit. they also provide a slow disengagement, a sort of spiritual decompression procedure, which allows the participant to return to the normal state. therefore they provide an excellent physical procedure accompanied by suitable symbolic environments that allow matrix assemblages to change into highly charged special states and then allow them to return to normal without harm. the ‘compulsion to resolve’ is a strong urge; the human condition needs stabilising after disruption, and cultural practices acknowledge and further this urge in many ways. a ritual must allow the resolution process to occur or the participant will feel unresolved and unsatisfied, as if they have not completed the circle. we know that when there is a breakdown of matrix stability we need strong guidance structures if we are to be able to reconstitute our matrices again with any efficiency. mountains, like altars, produce a stable landmark for the deterritorialising process, providing a symbolic environment as consciousness is rearranged. they also provide a return path for the reterritorialisation process, to stability. we might note here that the engagement of the body as well as the mind in this kind of ritual is very significant. the climbing of mountains is a physical process that lends itself to intensifying the matrix alignments of the symbolic journey: the overcoming of difficulties, showing courage and at last arriving at a ‘heightened’ completion. matrix intensities are resolved at a physical and metaphorical climax. for the religious pilgrim this difficult process of climbing and arrival brings into alignment a metamatrix of belief by the physicality of the mountain on one hand and its symbolic form on the other. for non-religious travellers, mountains still carry the capacity to embody symbol and therefore can invoke secular experiences of intensity and completion. reinforcement of the realignment process can be brought about through the length of the walk and/or climb. struggling through difficult environments for many hours, days or weeks, allowing a slow but rhythmically steady process towards the arrival at a sacred space, gives the reinforcement ritual time to develop in rich ways and impels a powerful conclusion to the experience. as the pilgrims walk along they are free from the usual diversions of life. a walker is unable to read or watch television. a climber is concentrated on the physical challenge. i have mentioned when discussing altars that certain associated actions (bells, drums, incense, etc) will assist and focus reinforcement journeys. in the case of sacred mountains the act of walking and climbing provides similar functions. everyday norms of social status, hierarchy and interaction are ideally abandoned in favour of development of spontaneous association and shared experiences. (coleman and elsner, : ) many pilgrims climbing croagh patrick on reek sunday in ireland walk in their bare feet, cutting and injuring themselves. this intense experience (we have discussed pain as an enforcer of matrix realignment in initiations) powerfully drives the participant from the normal to the special state, reinforcing belief. the more the physical journey challenges the pilgrim, the more the symbolic journey towards a sacred space is focused, the more able participants are to align meaningful assemblages to the idea of the belief system that underpins the act they are undertaking. ritual knowledge is rendered unforgettable only if it makes serious demands on individuals and communities. (grimes, : ) for a person who understands a journey up and down a mountain as part of a mythic structure, or simply as a significant symbolic structure in secular terms, the encounter with the mountain takes on the qualities of ritual whether or not the occasion is formally ritualised. that is, the person’s pre-existing notion of what realignments, what feelings, they can expect to experience during their encounter with the mountain, will contribute to the nature of the actual felt experience. at the same time, the actions undertaken will begin to adopt a ‘sense of ritual’, a ‘sense of being special’ as they are gone through and after they are over. in these ways the encounter with the mountain reinforces the system of signification to which particular subjects believe such encounters relate. they genuinely feel moments of trial, elation, reflection, insight and resolution. in the great majority of cases they will return to ‘normal life’ with their belief systems affirmed and the ‘sense of self’ enriched. if mountains are not available, or the concept of them has become central to regular practice of belief, then we tend to build representations of them. art historian vincent scully has observed that in pre-historic times people constructed sacred buildings to resemble mountains. he demonstrates his point with the pre-columbian temples of mexico: …the temple imitates the shape, intensifies it, clarifies it, geometricizes it, and therefore makes it potent, as if to draw water down from the mountain to the fields below. (wilson, : ) we need look no further than the gothic spire to find a christian physical manifestation of the sacred mountain. mountains are not the only natural symbol that acts as an environment for reinforcement. we could examine the power of rivers, caves, trees, lakes, seas and many other natural phenomena to invoke particular dynamics that people might use to bring about reinforcement. what is important here is that they have a particular commonality. they are able to provide a physical landscape that allows matrix associations to configure in certain ways that bring about intensities of meaning. that is, matrix alignments can be established by means of objects on an altar or objects found in nature. what is important here is the capacity for external objects or places to act as agents of ‘internal’ realignment. within belief systems we have already built churches and temples that hold sacred space, but what about the design of sacred space within secular surroundings? how do artists create sacred space or, as we might term them, physical systems of symbolic function able to induce reinforcement? in my experience there are two types of sacred space. the first is described in detail above and that is a natural space with special attributes. i therefore try to locate reinforcement rituals and celebrations within these spaces whenever possible. we have staged events in the desert, on islands, beside rivers, in gorges, on beaches and in a wide selection of powerful environments. as i have commented when discussing mountains, it is often an accelerating factor when the space has a symbolic resonance that connects with the culture involved – a river space perhaps when reinforcing a river community or a beach with a seafaring group. the second type of sacred space is artificial environments made by humans. they can be purpose built (cathedrals for example) or can be adapted to be used as a sacred space (an old mill, house or a warehouse with the appropriate atmosphere). they can also be spaces preselected by the community, which have no sense of the sacred about them in any way. this is where an artist, using as much creative understanding as possible, must create the atmosphere and symbolic apparatus that encourages reinforcement. this can be difficult. a town square with heavy traffic can be chosen by the town council for their anniversary celebrations but can be totally unsuited to the objectives of reinforcement of what is important to the townsfolk. cutting off traffic temporarily, doing the event at night with special lights, enclosure of space to make it discrete, the use of the old town hall with its bell tower as a stage, beautiful sound and visual images can all help turn the normal into a system that will create a ‘sacred space’ so important to the ritual system. these examples, altars and natural or built spaces, illustrate how reinforcement systems work in different situations. i will now discuss certain dynamics found in new reinforcement rituals and celebrations. belief and culture in new reinforcement rituals the most beautiful and profound emotion we can experience is the sensation of the mystical. to know what is impenetrable to us really exists…the feeling is at the centre of true religiousness. (einstein cited in segy, : ) as reinforcement rituals and celebrations are environments that restate and focus what is important, we can see clearly why belief systems use them heavily. this is where the word ritual may have acquired its common usage as something repeated again and again. a capacity to capture, territorialise and colonise domains of meaning and consequently operate as a holistic system is fundamental to many belief systems (christianity, islam, hinduism, indigenous belief groups for example). such systems can provide a rationale for creation, birth, life, death and the meaning of the world, and will manifest themselves in initiations, death rites, marriages and most of the other ceremonies we have discussed. a holistic belief system also provides a symbolic language for altars, sacred places, pilgrimages and other form of reinforcement. an individual’s matrix assemblages are aligned in ways that seem to remain consistent with others in the group and thereby sense is made of the world and manifested through ritual and celebration. as jung observed: the unconscious was contained and held dormant in christian theology. the weltanschauung that resulted was universal, absolutely uniform – without a room for doubt. (jung cited in mcguire and hull, : ) when one is involved in the interface between existing belief systems and notions of new ritual, the greatest tact and caution must be used. as mentioned above, established belief systems are large cohesive assembly systems which often find reterritorialisation (in the ritual and celebratory sense) problematic. i was asked to stage a new ritual in one of australia’s cathedrals within an event organised by the church. i adopted the story of jonah as a theme. we reconfigured the pews to face each other with a long pathway in between. we staged the story as a shadow puppet play. we wore bare feet, staged a lantern parade through the darkened space and staged personal rituals that picked up a secular view of the story. although we showed the greatest respect for the belief system and kept well within their guidelines, many of the church going congregation were scandalised. we had tampered with the ritual that a portion of the regular churchgoers were used to and employed their ritual objects in different ways. we had cut off their familiar pathways to reach their desired special state and they felt dislocated. (many others, i should add, really enjoyed the event). before designing new rituals and events that include participants who are operating in strong belief systems, it is important to understand that there can be appropriation or conflict issues not only around different value systems but also with the very way ritual is organised. i have been subjected to many complaints from specialist christian communities who see new ritual, even when it is positioned in a completely secular setting, as somehow usurping their own way of worship. the word ‘pagan’ is often used, as if new ritual in a secular setting was operating as a belief system itself rather than serving as a community artistic expression. in my own work there is no metaphysical or religious context for the event and i avoid any activation of a religious context. but for some, the redolences of symbols and forms carry whole ‘other’ belief systems with which they may not be at all familiar yet which they consequently over- determine. the contemporary western culture that we have observed to be secularised and replete with many fragmented residual signs and few cohesive narratives also has sections that can operate in tightly controlled assemblages or systems. people can react negatively if new rituals and celebrations do not treat their part of the culture sensitively in the terms that they feel it ‘should’. in australia we live in a multicultural society and this means that we are dealing with the sensibilities of a wide spectrum of cultures. appropriation becomes a difficult issue and the mixing of cultures leaves much room for symbolic and metaphorical confusion. this is because symbols and metaphors continue to carry the traces of the belief systems in which they were developed. a large number of such metaphors guide our understanding of ordinary life and speech… the metaphoric correspondences are not fundamentally between words, but rather between systems of concepts. (holyoak and thagard, : ) careful research, constant consultation and feedback, and a sharing of ideas is essential, but it still leaves gaps which the designer of new ritual must try to circumvent, not always with complete success as the example above suggests. there are also many projects in which i have shared design of events with indigenous australians that stretched methodology to the limit. i find there are two strategies which can provide structures for reinforcement and can at least ameliorate the differences between people. one is to search for story frameworks that can be common to the human condition and these can be found in myth and archetype, which will be discussed shortly. the other is theatre which, if carefully used, can bring people together and operate as a pathway to reinforcement of community values. theatre in new reinforcement ritual and celebration illustration – monster puppet prove the natural world magical and the magical world natural. (ovid cited in hirsch, : ) as previously stated, reinforcement rituals and celebrations are structures that participants can use to access what is important to them. in the secular settings of festivals and community events where there is no one operating metasystem of belief, there are few guides as to form. the designer needs to be able to provide temporary systems that ‘make sense’ of the event being planned and this means providing the event with a story, or perhaps a more accurate way of expressing it would be a symbolic narrative, which can transcend normal differences and communicate to all in some way. ritual is not simply the culmination of memory; it requires the imagination. even when a rite commemorates the past – somehow transporting participants back into mystic time or transporting mythical origins into the present – imagination constructs the bridge. ritualising is an imaginatively suffused act. (grimes, : ) a framework to carry the symbolic narrative can be found in theatre, which is a particularly useful medium, but there are many others that can be used in any combination or on their own – music, dance, writings, multimedia, storytelling, poetry, photographs, voice, visual arts, sound, lights, parades, festivals, walks, sculpture and performance art. the value of thinking new ritual and celebration in terms of theatre is that not only can theatre make use of these other forms, but it has a highly developed set of understandings and techniques in relation to matters such as spatiality, time, movement, blocking, sequencing and so on – the elements that frame narratives and provide the momentum and rhythm of events. theatre processes within ritual, ceremony and celebration have a long history and fulfil many functions (story telling, enactment of belief, social comment, visualisation of ideas among others) and have a strong role to play in reinforcement processes. once literacy and a rich vocabulary of visual, aural and dramatic expressions exist, then society has a permanently available, ‘liminoid’ resource in which all tabooed, fantastic, possible and impossible dreams of humanity can be explored in blueprint. (martin, : ) i might take one stream of theatre, masks, to demonstrate theatre’s interaction with ritual and celebration. there is a wealth of information about the use of mask in indigenous ceremonies, especially in the embodiment of animals. sometimes animals are imitated in the hunting process – !kung ‘become’ deer with huge antlers, native north american dancers wear, for example, huge buffalo heads, inuit peoples wear bone masks depicting sea animals. …there are grounds for believing in making the link between himself and what he ate and depended upon, primate man became animal. he shed his humanity in order to possess the animal spirit and for its spirits to possess him…in ‘rehearsing’ its movements and behaviour the hunters must learn more about their prey… [as] the group pursued animals made human, the hunter would develop his own responses and intuition. it was a necessary magic. these animals were the early hunters’ sustained life force, and their instinct was to become at one with that life force. (harwood, : ) whether by ‘instinct’ or by design, certain types of embodiment allow the hunter to ‘become’ the prey and establish the links needed to understand the animal and therefore tighten the hunting relationship with it. but hunting is not the only relationship that is important in this mimesis. the mask is used to represent certain animal characteristics which, in an anthropomorphic process, act as a range of symbolic forces in various ceremonies. in cuzco, peru, men wearing puma costumes appeared at the end of the ceremony to initiate the sons of noble families into manhood. jaguar and puma were said to represent the animals into which the incas’ ancestors had been transformed. (mack ed., : ) animal masks are worn for many ritual reasons. in some beliefs they hold the power to bring rain (e.g. the bush cow masks of the guli in the ivory coast intercede with goli, the great sky goddess who controls rain [segy, : ]); they can represent the dead (e.g. congolese luba initiation dance [quilici, : ]); or they can battle with evil (e.g. monkey masks of oruro, bolivia [mack ed., : ]). masks can embody a type of synthesis between the animal itself and the symbolic world of the culture: ‘to speak not just to the other, but also from its vantage point, is to harness something of its numinous, primitive power’ (hirsch, : ). but masks are not confined to representations of animals. they can also represent many facets of belief that play parts in the ceremonies and story telling of indigenous peoples. although varied in style, masks symbolise concepts that are universal: gods, good and evil, death, creation, fertility, natural forces and societal organisation. they represent for many belief systems ‘man’s intuitive reaction to the mysteries of life’ (segy, : ). while we need to acknowledge that they are culturally constructed rather than ‘intuitive’, masks in this context are very serious and often are not only emblematic but believed by participants to contain actual spirits. the performer wearing the mask is ‘filled’ with the spirit of the depiction. cesare poppi writes in his essay ‘the other within’: [masks] create fixed types, giving definite form to otherwise imprecise symbolic and dramatic characters. in this sense masks simplify mutable individual mood and status by providing permanent identities. they allow a structured, predictable…dramatic narrative to unfold recurrent events. the role-playing that the masker takes on…is no simple celebration of freedom and creativity, but formalizes action; the behaviour of masks is expected and even prescribed. (poppi in mack ed., : ) the flow between the belief icon and the individual ‘playing’ of a part is strongly activated through the mask ceremony until a full synthesis can be created – each is embodied in the other. there are many cases of ‘possession’ where the ‘actors’ have totally lost themselves in a deep trance and feel ‘possessed’ by iconic forces. the embodiment is fully engaged – reinforcement and belief have become one. mask is not confined to images covering the face; ochre, ash and clay can be used to cover the face and body, and these can be further enforced by elaborate costumes or simple wrist and ankle objects – feathers, leaves, shells. in the west there is much evidence that masks were used in ancient times in much the same way we have seen above – the celtic deer rites of northern europe or dionysiac practices of ancient greece are famous examples and many others have been recorded. but mask is less common in contemporary western religious practice and in these contexts it is used in a ‘ceremonial’ manner rather than an embodiment process (the masks of the inquisition used in many spanish festivals for example). it is interesting that there is a renewed interest in masks in various more informal spiritual and self- development groups. the use of mask within traditional folk festivals carried on from generation to generation awakens the symbolic ‘language’ of ancient belief with symbolic figures of ‘green men’ who represent fertility, ‘bear people’ conjuring fear and giants manifesting the mythical. masks are now found in our rituals and celebrations mainly in the theatre and dance mode. in the east mask has also been used in theatre. in japanese noh plays for example: the actor gives up his individuality when he puts on the mask, and his interpretation of the part he plays is completely governed by the mask he has chosen. in other words each mask has its own kurai-dori – this is ‘position’ or level of quality. (nakamura, : ) in my own practice, which is strongly based in the theatre mode, masks can be very useful in reinforcement processes. they can transcend the normal and allow an immediate transference into suspended disbelief. this is especially true when working with a community. without denying that good mask work in performance needs a strong training base it can be taken on by community members in ritual and celebration to good effect. the ability of the mask to transform the participant and produce a meta- theatre language is very potent. in hastings we designed a ritual and celebration with environmental groups who wanted to reinforce the feeling of care for the sea within their community. we used masks of sea creatures in a parade which was able to animate the plural aspects of representing the animals, putting them into a theatre setting, providing an embodiment process that made the fish display emotional qualities and at the same time convey the damage they were suffering due to local pollution levels without turning the event into an expression of political didacticism. we have explored mask as an example of theatre within the specialised confines of ritual and celebration but there are many other aspects of theatre that operate as a powerful tool for the reinforcement of belief, both religious and secular. theatre’s capacity to ‘bring to life’ aspects of human thought and its ability to form strong matrix structures that provide models for reinforcement has obviously been recognised and utilised since ancient times. theatre not only provides an imaginative landscape but is often accompanied by physical activities that destabilise the normal matrix alignments and allow potential movement into special states. music, sound, movement, dance, rhythm, visual stimulus and various other methods are powerful tools in this regard. the dancing performer with his stamping, swaying, stooping movements made a stronger, more instantaneous sensory impact than the idea for which he stood. the music of different drums and the singing and the clapping, often shrieking of the participants did more than create a communal bond; it released unknown individual tensions. (segy, : ) the form of events that i design for reinforcement rituals has similarities to conventional theatre but is, in fact, a different cultural product, placing itself more within the traditions of folk or community events than ‘works of art’ in contemporary theatrical settings. conventional theatre has writers, actors, props, costumes, sets, light and sound systems, tickets, publicity and all the other accoutrements of a cultural product set within the structures of the arts. it is a work of art to be judged as such and consumed at a level of art appreciation and quality entertainment. ritual and celebratory theatre, by contrast, uses many theatre techniques and relationships (it usually has, for example, an audience who have come to watch the event). it has, however, a different cultural placement. it is not a theatre product but rather a community process of expression – as long as it fulfils its major task of reinforcement then it has succeeded. that is, it operates from a different position in terms of aesthetics and performance values as much as it operates from different positions in relation to cultural settings. the participant within a reinforcement event that uses ritual theatre as a pathway is not ‘acting’ in the normal sense of the word, s/he is not ‘staging a play’ but rather going through a process which is personally important. the participants do not develop a character, they do not ‘pretend’ to be someone else, they have a different relationship to the visual images, music and movement sections than an actor would. they are asked to be themselves and, although theatre practice is utilised and a performance environment is produced, they are asked to behave in this landscape in ritual and celebratory modes. it is my job as an event designer to bring about conditions, which encourage this state. i ask each participant to help make the visual images they might use for the event. this encourages a personal involvement in the ritual. participants are free to place their own personal symbolism onto these ritual objects. all participants will wear the same clothes, thereby breaking down the feeling that there are ‘stars’. it is vital that all participants feel at the same level within these experiences. although the participants learn what they have to do there is no formal ‘full dress rehearsal’ and this means that the ritual is only executed once. participants may be singing in the event and although the songs might be well prepared musically before the event they are not rehearsed within the ritual until the actual event. these and many other techniques guarantee that the participant will go through an authentic ritual experience, freed from having to produce a cultural product with an expectation of artistic excellence. they are free to feel what they want and to express these feelings as they want within the prescribed limits of the ritual. this demonstrates the differences in the performance process the participant goes through, but how does it produce a feeling of reinforcement? we can see that the participant is lifted from the ‘normal’ in this experience and enters special zones. the normal assemblages that hold the self in place are loosened and the new world created in a landscape which has only one central function and that is to present the participant with an environment symbolic of what they wish to affirm. this is achieved by careful consultation with the community that is involved. one cannot enter into a community with predetermined views and ideas. it is vital to interact carefully and design an event that the community wants. ron grimes describes the role of the ritual ‘diviner’ within new rituals: circumspection and allusion are of the essence to this model. yes, you want results, but you know that too conscious a fixation on them will get you the opposite – some contrived, self-conscious piece of bad poetry. so you wait, attend, contemplate, watch, see what emerges. you follow impulses like a scout sniffing the wind. you watch for a raised eyebrow, a hesitation, a sneeze that has the ring of a song. attuned, you snatch it deftly and edit minimally. your aim is to find, “to define”, the right tone. ( : ) each ritual differs depending on the subject matter that is to be reinforced. if it is a project where a group of women want to go through a reinforcement ritual and celebration about being a woman, the songs, images, masks, clothes, poems, statements, visual images, props, movement, dances, symbols, myths, archetypes would be worked on by the groups of women creating their own ritual landscape. myth and archetype in new reinforcement rituals illustration – fire sculpture using wheel as symbol they always repeat certain forms which can be studied down the ages amongst all peoples. (jung, : ) while there is clearly debate as to whether jung’s notions of universal myth structures and archetypes can be sustained, there is no question that myth has a strong role to play in new ritual and celebrations, and that the structures and symbols drawn upon will often blend the localised with parts of a shared heritage of international narratives from many cultures. participants can not only reinforce their values and feelings in a local context, but the event can be deeply enriched by utilising strong symbolic stories from inherited knowledge that may or may not remain widely familiar. how this can take place in contemporary australian contexts will be described subsequently, but first it is necessary to examine the dynamics of myth. the word ‘myth’ has mixed contextualised meanings operating in general usage and it is important that the usage for the purposes of this study is positioned carefully. news media and others use the word ‘myth’ to describe a lie or misapprehension – the myth of a ‘politician’s statement’ or the myth of ‘the unemployment figures’ for example. however the use of the word myth in the context of this study is in its traditional sense – a ‘meta story’ (barthes, ) carrying elements concerned with cultural meaning and aspects of shared human experience, such as we find in the greek myths or the arthurian cycle, for example, or in the gallipoli and ned kelly stories: …as a total of linguistic signs, the naming of myth has its own value, it belongs to a history...meaning is already complete, it postulates a kind of knowledge, a past, a memory, a comparative order of facts, ideas, decisions. (barthes, : ) there is a direct functional relationship between belief and myth: the myth often carries the archaeological bones of a belief system. the ancient greek myths once constituted part of a complex belief system by which the greeks made sense of their world and expressed their understanding of the metaphysical. but a culture’s holistic belief system can slowly transform itself into a mythology as the beliefs are eroded. the greek myths are not understood as belief systems today but as stories full of rich texture and poetry, meta-stories which have retained important human wisdom and continued to remain potent on a deep textual level. when belief systems lose their grip as holistic socio- cultural apparatus and either diminish or die, the poetics, a certain commonality of understanding that is left in the ongoing mythic narrative, can continue to contribute greatly to how humans interpret experience. we might not believe that the journey of ulysses was true; it is no longer a belief system, but its power to concentrate and formalise a widely recognised ‘story model’ is of great significance. one culture’s belief system is often another’s mythology. myth’s ability to capture and crystallise a model distilled from a belief system makes it a perfect mould for ritual and celebration. myths not only carry stories about the human state through time and culture but also carry characterisations of the psyche, of the way we behave and understand the world. it’s wonderful the way these things [myths] recur…it’s a pictorial script, and rearranging the forms rearranges the order of the experience, the depth of the experience… (campbell, : ) these characteristics allow myth to be a consistently potent force within ceremony, ritual and celebration and to express shared understanding long after the belief systems out of which they came have stopped operating. in this way, myth can provide a relatively consistent ‘thought mould’, a seemingly constant structure, which has the potential to carry inherited world knowledge into new rituals. the poetics and shared insights of myth mean that its structures, even when they are traces, can be carried with substantial elements ‘intact’ into new knowledge systems. that is, while contemporary knowledge has destabilised holistic belief systems, the mythic aspects of those belief systems continue to produce meanings that capture redolences of belief, and can therefore introduce a sense of continuity and stability to communities using new rituals to address the effects of the destabilisation of previous belief systems. we might take creation stories as an example. each belief system provides us with an explanation of our beginnings. the bible tells us that before the moment of creation ‘the earth was without form and void’. in the following hindu poem the same idea is developed: there can be a great deal of confusion about this point. one culture can refer to another’s belief system as a ‘myth’. in australia the ‘dreamtime’ stories which constitute the aboriginal belief system are referred to by some non-aboriginal people as ‘myths’ yet christians would be upset if the term ‘myth’ was used to describe their own belief system. these issues are very sensitive in contemporary cultural interaction. was neither being nor non-being then, neither air nor space beyond. what was it, forcibly stirring? where? in whose keeping? (rig veda x. , cited in maclagan, : ) the void is filled in most creation stories by gods who mate to give birth to creation (the sun and the moon, for example, found within the sumerian belief system and many others); a father god who fashions the world over a period of time, like the seven days of genesis (‘in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth’); or a mother god who becomes the earth (e.g. the hopi people’s corn mother). frequently the world is spoken into being: ‘and god said, “let there be light”; and there was light’. the poetics of each story are different and beautiful, expressing the images and understandings of the people who created them. i want to examine one creation story and try to explore the enduring, dynamic nature of the myth contained therein. i have chosen adam and eve as the example but almost all myths can be tracked in this way. a quick examination of the story: after god creates the world, he creates adam out of earth by breathing into his nostrils and eve is made from one of adam’s ribs. they are placed in the garden of eden but told by god not to eat the fruit of the ‘tree of the knowledge of good and evil’. eve is persuaded to eat the fruit (usually represented as an apple) by a serpent and she in turn hands the fruit on to adam. they gain the knowledge of good and evil and so gain knowledge of their nakedness. god is angry and they are evicted, and sent into the world to suffer pain and death. the garden is a place of unity, of nonduality of the male and female, good and evil, god and humans. you eat duality, but you are on the way out. (campbell, : ) it is a powerful allegory which, in a few short lines written several thousand years ago, has permeated our imagery and imagination in countless forms. what is it about this story that provides a myth of such enduring power? it is typical in form of many creation stories which ‘explained’ the way the world was formed, in this case to the early jewish peoples. it has all the hallmarks of a creation story: a void, a god, the making of a man and a woman from clay and the inheritance of knowledge. this story was taken literally by the parent belief system at a time when the jewish people were evolving their culture and it has carried through as part of the bible to recent times. although it is still held as truth by some, knowledge of evolution has placed it into the category of myth for most people in the western world. but the story can still ‘hold true’ in a mythological sense. let us look at the dynamics. the world did come from space and we are, in our evolutionary and historical profile, the inheritors and carriers of knowledge. the banishment from paradise is a poetic and powerful image that carries a deep psychological resonance about our consciousness emerging from the natural, instinctual world and our realisation of pain and death. the myth can carry today new meaning within its fixed structure – our eviction from the garden of eden echoes environmental concerns about the destruction of the earth or the plight of the poor in the united states symbolised in steinbeck’s east of eden. imagery abounds from this simple story: take apple computers for example, whose name carries a promise of working effectively with knowledge but also of entering a technological ‘paradise’ where the interface with complex machines is ‘trouble free’. the myth of adam and eve and the garden of perfection can be seen in many ceremonies, rituals and celebrations. it is not necessarily that the story is played out in full but we can see that the mythological idea has great potency. we can tap the resonances within the human psyche held in this story and express feelings of modern concern within its borders. it has become a host myth, a metalanguage, able to contain itself, capable of fragmentation in dislocated sites and capable of holding ideas totally unrelated to its original intention. when i was asked to design a reinforcement ceremony in an australia city, the event was deeply informed by the adam and eve story. the story itself was not told. few people attending the event would have recognised the source of the theme, but the myth’s internal symbolic dynamics were certainly utilised. it was a community celebration of a new park that had been built by the local council but with enormous input from the local people. they had been involved at every stage of planning and building and the feeling around the space was very positive and energised. the local people wanted to mark their involvement by holding a ceremony. i designed the project with the local people as a return to eden. using the adam and eve story, they quickly saw that the universal story of the human eviction from paradise could be staged in reverse with the people returning to their own land that they communally cared for and creating a new paradise. a gate was then built which people would pass through to enter the park, each one bringing with them symbols (which they had built themselves) of what they considered to be important to the life of the park – community, friendship, and environmental care. the deep resonance of the original myth of expulsion from paradise was utilised by a return to paradise – the local community felt that if they observed various community and environmental precepts they could have a better relationship with their common land and with each other. we can see in thousands of world myths similar dynamics at work providing structure, models, analogies, thought moulds and matrix assemblages which can be territorialised, deterritorialised or reterritorialised but tend to retain their deep structure. they can be understood as cognitive maps that continue to guide us into symbolic worlds that can be adapted time and time again in new ways. as campbell sees it, ‘by participating in ritual, you are actually experiencing a mythological life’ ( : ). the usefulness of the many mythic narratives with which i work is that they open themselves to interpretations that differ for each community and each individual involved as participant or audience – everyone develops his/her individual interpretation of the stories and symbols drawn upon. my work is never the same from one event to the next. i am interested in opening myths out to as wide a range of readings as possible without losing the original strength to be found within them. archetype too has the capacity to hold concentrated knowledge through into strong analogical models which can be used within ritual and ceremony and it is therefore able to reinforce feelings and concepts about human behaviour. archetypes provide extremely powerful assemblage paradigms that are fluid, translatable between contexts and open to being drawn on in diverse cultural frames. the figures are easily identifiable and as such, can carry messages within an event. in jung’s terms, ‘emotional manifestations, to which such thought patterns belong, are recognisably the same all over the earth’ ( : ). they can seem ‘built into our very system’, as bateson describes it ( : ). of course, as with the earlier example of the tree of life, the levels of complexity or degrees of subtlety involved in their effects from culture to culture will vary greatly. archetypes are particularly useful in ritual because they often attract certain acknowledged meanings without explanational narrative. an elderly woman wearing long white clothes, walking together with ritual participants and carrying their wishes can signify at once the wise woman – a fit person to carry such objects of importance to a community – and wisdom itself. a young man and woman carried by the community on a decorated palanquin of flowers represent the future hopes of the group. death can be represented by a skeleton on fire. i have brought together various factors that make up reinforcement rituals and celebrations and drawn into the discussion factors that might be helpful in the design of such events. it can be seen that the most important aspect of reinforcement is ensuring that the individuals and communities involved are able to feel personal, symbolic and narrative investment in an event that has as its central concern ritual attention to matters to which those individuals and communities wish to attend. methodological transparency multidisciplinary, plurivocal involvement of community members with artists, working through important values in symbolic narratives, raises the issue of transparency of methodology and subject matter between the designer/s and participants, not only in reinforcement events but other types of new rituals and celebrations. the postmodern condition is marked by a breaking down of the grand narratives that used to inform rituals and celebrations most of which discouraged/avoided community examination of the processes involved and prevented the expression of personal subject matter within the event. new rituals and celebrations strive to enable a deeper involvement of participants in the design and development of individual modes of receptivity and expression within larger events. but the act of involving communities is not in itself productive of transparency for participants. transparency of aim and method, of content and process, is an issue that needs to be thought through by designers if they are to produce rituals and ceremonies that take place in a context of understanding. rituals staged as secular experiences, rather than governed by coherent, shared belief structures, have produced a new dynamic in the relationship between participants and designers of ritual and celebrational events. the subject matter – which used to orientate the participant towards metanarratives, of which many examples can be found within christian churches, for instance – now tends to centre on questions of exploration of self and community. this impels not only transparency concerning the methodologies of rituals and celebrations in the sense of exposing the inner workings and structures of events, even within performance, but also a transparency of the relationships of meaning between participants and the event. the demythologisation of old ritual and celebratory traditions does not disable the potential of the event to ‘work within the individual’ but rather moves the subject of the event from a relatively unreflective relationship to an informed reflexive experience. such a dynamic, without losing the magic and power of the experience, allows participants to understand at deeper levels how they think and relate to symbol, to narrative, to their communities, to their own feelings and thoughts. if the focus of old ritual is the experience that makes a particular belief concrete, the focus of new ritual is the recognition of how one produces, co-constructs or makes belief or ‘shared meaning’ happen. process enters content at this level. the experience is not diminished by this, only the totality to which it owes allegiance (it escapes a grand narrative of purpose). the transparency, and therefore the effectiveness, of new ritual actually benefits from strategies that expose, indeed celebrate, that the focus of the ritual is the interaction between individual and communal construction of meaning and experience. participants are invited to be active not only in the planning and construction of objects, story, performance, but in the construction of communal meanings from individual experience, and individual meanings from communal experiences (as opposed to in some sense partaking in ‘a slice of an authentic experience’ which they are given or are conditioned to access). thus, the question of transparency is played through in a field that is volatile, dynamic, and productive in process. consideration of this aspect of transparency of methodology highlights a significant way in which new ritual and celebration provides a response to what is often characterised, both in popular commentary and in some branches of postmodern theory, as a western culture ‘emptied of agreed meaning’ (or ‘coherent values’) by its very proliferation of signs, values, information. in recognising transparent meaning construction in new ritual and celebration, we also go some of the way to explaining the marked upsurge of these kinds of events in the contemporary west. that is, we might notice that communities are actively seeking new means of making meaning. if designers working with communities do not render transparent the processes and responsibilities of meaning construction in rituals and celebrations, they will fail to provide communities with an invaluable aspect of what they (knowingly or not) seek from such events. illustration – sculpture of tree of life to demonstrate this point more fully it is useful to examine in detail an example of ritual and celebration design in the field. the sculpture illustrated above was built by faridah cameron as part of an event intended to convey the idea that we can understand the growth of life by using the symbol of a tree – with deep roots to gather sustenance for growth and withstand turbulence, a sturdy trunk to carry the weight of the expanded life and a canopy which symbolises diversity and the spreading of ideas where one leads to another in an interrelated symbiosis. the flowering of the tree can convey the idea of celebration of the growth of those ideas and the fruit the future growth that detaches from the tree and spreads more widely. the idea within the ritual was to represent symbolically the way in which the human life can be expanded though exploration and the gaining of wisdom. it was a new year event at the woodford festival in which was dedicated to exploring and reinforcing the idea of the exploration of self and the community. a tree was chosen as probably the most effective way to represent this idea quite simply because it has done so over such a long time in so many cultures (persian rugs, stained glass windows, its symbolic use in story and paintings, signs, pottery and so on). but in contemporary society a simple rendition of a tree does not in fact convey the idea we wanted to produce – a sense of knowledge gained and disseminated. if the symbolic use of the tree was realised with no semiological linkage to other metanarratives it seemed insipid and diluted and certainly did not realise the reinforcement apparatus of the gaining of wisdom. ‘tree of life’ carpets made in the kashan area in iran are generally referred to as meditation carpets because the owner can contemplate the inner meanings of the image within an old and established religious language. the symbol of the tree simply does not have that affect in australian society today and its use as an image will not bring about a movement from the ‘normal’ to the ‘special’. it is here that we must understand that the symbol must be exposed as a mechanism and the process of interaction observed and then converted into images that carry contemporary meaning. in making more transparent the workings of the tree of life symbol, far from subduing the power of the symbol to produce the magic of illumination, instead actually allows the symbol to start to work again in contemporary society in new and meaningful ways. the participants, in their exploration to find their own meanings in the tree of life symbol, also explored how meaning works within symbolic languages. the subject ‘tree of life’ is converted from a traditional symbol to the participant’s relationship to the tree of life as a symbolic text and how then the tree of life is working as a symbol within that exploration. http://www.spongobongo.com/perk .htm but how is this achieved in praxis? if the representation of a tree and even its universality as a symbol is not available to us (redolent of metanarratives) in anything but a highly diluted form, how then do we go about expressing the idea of the tree of life in a community context of new ritual design? the participants worked with many ideas that explored the history of the symbol, its strengths and weaknesses in being able to capture and hold concepts of life’s exploration and its application, and also explored the symbol’s capacity to express each participant’s life in this context. the symbol was ‘road tested’ in its effectiveness to act as a conveyer of the participants’ feelings toward the subject of their relationships to ‘life’s journey’ and their desired knowledge paths. in general the tree did stand the test of symbolic use in describing the participants’ feelings in these areas despite many other ideas and concepts which were suggested. there was for example a suggestion that the event explore guattari and deleuze’s rhizomes (which, of course, they pose against ‘tree thought’ as more useful by virtue of not being burdened with ‘root and branch’ thinking). but the long and multifarious symbolic history and present of the tree, as it emerged, proved more amenable and accessible in and for a community. the job of the artists and participants was now to build a ritual that described that exploration. artist faridah cameron spent many weeks investigating what the tree symbol meant to her and many of the participants. from those conversations and research and many aspects of the resulting information she constructed a ‘tree of life’ to be used in a contemporary ritual and celebration. in older rituals the tree of life might have manifested itself as a representational figure of a tree with various sub symbols painted upon it. but because of the process of new ritual she and a team of participants produced a pentagonal pyramid (about ten metres high) filigreed with tree of life imagery (based on australian flora and fauna) which opened like a flower to reveal wishing flags attached to a central stamen-like column. the flags had been written on small lengths of cotton fabric by thousands of people during the five-day festival and expressed the festival goers’ feelings towards the subject matter of the ritual. at the climax of the ritual performance fireworks showered like pollen into the night sky before the pyramid closed again to be consumed by the bonfire within, which was held up by a tree trunk. in a vast parade of light, hundreds of lantern images of flora and fauna built as emblems of each participant’s personal expression of the theme circled the structure, carried by those who had made them. this tree of life was not expressing the symbology of inherited mega-structural narrative and had no ambition to do so, even though it drew on a range of older metanarratives in development. the process was much more concerned with how the symbolic machinery worked and building of that exploration into the ritual. a pyramid is not the same shape as a tree; its structural strength comes from a different dynamic far removed from a tree. yet the structure holds the idea of the tree of life on its surface and in its opening to shower the ritual with new ideas is redolent of a flower opening up and dispersing its seeds. (this is especially true in the australian context where fire is often needed to generate new plant life.) the disparate ideas work together towards a ‘new’ understanding. in koestler’s terms this aspect of the sculpture’s structure would be a perfect example of bisociation – two ideas (matrixes) which are released from their normal alignment to join together in a new form, forcing both a questioning of the disintegration of the normal held by each one, and new meaning that is made from their synthesis: ‘amongst chosen combinations the most fertile will often be those formed of elements drawn from domains which are far apart…’ (poincare cited in koestler, : ). but the sculpture and its ritual usage are also, through artistic research and participant involvement, an outcome of multisociative processes. this sculpture had not been created in isolation as an artistic work but in the process of ritual invention. in the deconstruction of the tree of life as a symbol and its reconstruction in the form of a pyramid, a journey of reinvention was undertaken by the participants who, in a series of multiple movements, had provided a dialogue which ‘opened’ the text of the symbol and also reconstituted a symbol, forcing a reassessment of the interaction of the individual and the group with the symbolic object. thus this ‘journey’ in process was potentially much more rich than the passive consumption of symbol used in some more traditional ritual contexts. if we can extrapolate from this one example to general principles we can see how allowing and facilitating access and interaction with the process, new ritual in turn makes the exploration and its expression the ritual subject matter. this process also to a considerable degree protects the ritual from the conscious and unconscious agendas of both artists and participants because it consistently examines and expresses the process rather than surface content. exclusionary, racist, xenophobic, fascist, misogynist tendencies can be at work in the conscious and unconscious lives of communities and may be a part of the structure they desire in the rituals they request. i stress here the unconscious aspects as they are often the most difficult to detect and are by their very nature subversive of shared events. for example, it is often true in communities that various factions assert dominance in spite of the community’s best efforts to resist this process. (children are seen as troublesome, disabled people are forgotten, deviance is treated with suspicion, etc). new ritual structures afford protection in this area because they address these issues directly, as a part of the process, as a part of the subject matter. transparency also protects the community from the unconscious actions of the designer. because the designer is the ‘expert’ and is ‘in control’, nothing really prevents the designer from ‘knowing better’ and implementing the conditions of an experience which is in keeping with the community’s desire but injects connections and ideas that reflect his/her own personal cognitive process and history. such a process is unlikely to provide a solution/resolution for the community. an open and cooperative methodology in the making of symbol and meaning can reveal these leanings from both the community and the artist’s point of view. oppressive agendas, however unconscious, are difficult to sustain when they are subject to the examination of function. it should also be said that within this interaction, the reconstitution and expression of such a process can demonstrate that the real ‘magic’ of symbols and of rituals involving symbols does not lie in a metaphysical domain. rather, it lies in the symbol’s power to illuminate understandings in operation in the ritual and understandings being invited by the ritual. that is, the liberating and life-enhancing aspects of ritual and celebration are to found in the various aspects of the process of producing and experiencing it. chapter four: transcendence illustration – choral parade florescence of celebration… (manning ed., : ) transcendence has a strong relationship to reinforcement in that the participant is taken from a normal state to a special state, but whereas reinforcement has prescribed and expected forms, transcendence has not. the participant moves into a formless structure, closely associated with feelings of release and joy – an ‘oceanic’ affect as koestler called it ( : ). the usual conditions that control the ego, the sense of ‘i’, are loosened and the participants find themselves in a type of ‘free flight’ where they experience a feeling of participation, identification or belonging; in other words, the self is experienced as being part of a larger whole, a ‘higher unity’ (koestler, : ). this ‘participation mystique’, as joseph campbell described it ( : ), is found in many kinds of rituals and celebrations. arthur koestler elaborates on the sense of a ‘larger whole’ or ‘higher unity’ that he sees as the ‘common denominator of these heterogeneous emotions’, noting that it: …may be nature, god, mankind, universal order, or the anima mundi; it may be an abstract idea, or a human bond with persons living, dead, or imagined. i propose to call the common element in these emotions the participatory or self-transcending tendencies. ( : ) ceremony, ritual and celebration give structure to such a process when control over ‘self’ becomes unstable in these types of social situations. transcendence is a particular human trait and in some ways most mysterious. perhaps it can be related to instinctual responses towards community protection where the normal feelings of self protection are bypassed, allowing powerful feelings of group identity which, in turn, produce acts of selflessness and sacrifice. or perhaps it reflects times when our relationship with the external world becomes imbued with meaning and we transcend the tendency towards feelings of separation and isolation. koestler gives examples of such experiences in ordinary life: listening to the organ in a cathedral, looking at a majestic landscape…observing an infant…being in love – any of these experiences may cause a welling up of emotion, a moistening or overflow of the eyes, while the body is becalmed and drained of tension. a few steps higher on the intensity scale and the ‘i’ seems to no longer exist…awareness becomes de-personalised and expands into the oceanic feeling of limitless extension and oneness with the universe. ( : ) but this ‘oceanic feeling’ is not always brought on by passive mental and physical experiences. as alexander orloff expresses it in carnival – myth and cult: mesmerised, reeling in a trance, dancing wildly to the deafening drums, bells, cymbals and flutes, our spirits soar. briefly abandoning oneself to the irresistible call we surface spontaneously, liberated, like millions of possessed souls we burst into the blinding brilliance of ecstasy, joy, floating on the intoxicating effervescence of free form madness. ( : n.p.) transcendence and the arts in ceremony, ritual and celebration you must become ignorant again and see the sun again with an ignorant eye and see it clearly in the idea of it. (wallace stevens in ryan, : ) there is no doubt about the capacity of the arts to bring about transcendence. one might say that one of the functions of art is to provide an abstract environment wherein the individual can experience integration into the wider world. keats called this function ‘negative capability’ where ‘man is capable of being in uncertainties, mysteries and doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact or reason’ (letter to brother december , , cited in hirsch : ). the arts can provide a psychic ‘language’ and in so doing create new perspectives and understandings. choral singing, for example, in one form or another, is used in ceremony, ritual and celebration throughout the world. here is an extract from amanda lohrey’s short story ‘the clear voice suddenly singing’ in which a woman observes a local choir in hobart: i think they open up a part of themselves that they have pretty well kept closed for years. somehow through singing they are rediscovering in themselves those parts of themselves that gave them great joy when they were a child, and letting them go again, but in the company of others. in order to let it go at all they have to go very calmly and deeply inside themselves…(lohrey, : ) later in the story there is the comment that: the liberation of singing in groups is that it is an art form where i don’t have to be the best, where my ego is not involved…[i can] experience the music rather than my ego through music. that’s the most amazing liberation. (lohrey : ). it seems as if the human voice is able to unhinge usual individual matrix alignments and allow a free flow of transcendent feeling to attach to the ‘universal’, or at least unified and plurivocal, feelings of the group. the music and the act of singing together provide a conduit through which this happens. in the case of a choir this is further enhanced by the lyrics which are often deeply emotionally affecting. i use choral singing often in events where transcendence is an objective. australia is particularly rich in choirs of all types. there has been a significant increase in the number of choirs formed in community settings all around the country. we usually associate choirs with belief systems, for example choral music found in traditional churches. but the secularisation of the society and the influence of multiculturalism have produced a plurality of approach which liberates this singing form into a multiplicity of styles and attitudes. within the repertoire of a single community choir one might be able to hear classical christian anthems, african lullabies, west indian reggae, gospel, british and bulgarian folk songs and the beatles. given that they are not established as an adjunct to religious rites or official state functions, these choirs have been formed for the feeling of pleasure that they give the participants (transcendence, in other words) and are positioned well to be involved in ritual and celebration. we have often brought together a choir of around four hundred people who, in a surprisingly short time, sing together and express community vision. music of all types is able to ‘transport’ the individual into transcendent states, or in deleuze and guattari’s terms, ‘music has always sent out lines of flight, like so many transformation multiplicities’ ( : ). the use of drums in indigenous rites, chanting within religious structures, hymns at a remembrance service, singing at a festival can all serve to ‘move’ ego-based matrix assemblages into transcendent states. dance, too, can activate this process. we can see this operate in the dancing of the dervishes, scottish highland dancers and in indigenous ceremonies: so he dances through life as though he wanted to dance till he collapses, and thereby discovers that he is able, through his rhythmic dancing, to develop at the same time a second spirit. (marrett cited in huxley, : ) visual arts are also able to inspire feeling and encourage transcendence. mask, altars, costumes, icon, image, painting, sculpture, decoration, fetish, all offer visual signifiers, semiological mappings which guide, enforce and symbolise transcendence. similarly, poetry and story contribute; words taken out of normal configurations and placed in powerful new combinations force new alignments and allow new understandings that can transcend the ordinary. poetry protects us from this automatization, from the rust that threatens our formulation of love, hate, revolt and reconciliation, faith and negation. (kristeva, : ) poetry also provides a clue to the way rhythm works in the alignment process. hirsch puts it as follows: it is a combination in english of stressed and unstressed syllables that creates a feeling of flux, of surprise and inevitability. rhythm is all about recurrence and change. it is poetry’s way of charging the depths, hitting the fathomless. it is oceanic. ( : ) perhaps the arts in this context provide an external focus that can act as a unifying element for transcendent feeling. singing in a choir, for example, forces listening: we must concentrate on the external and bring our internal world into a harmony with it, thereby loosening our hold on self and ‘mainlining’ an intense interaction with the outside world. visual arts channel our ‘seeing’ in the same way. cezanne expressed this idea in relation to paintings when he commented that ‘painting…gives concrete shape to sensations and perceptions’ (cited in barrow, : ). we become realigned through powerful associations with signification that allows us to move into the ‘external’ in special ways. ceremony, ritual and celebration are forms that provide particular pathways for this movement. as barrow puts it in relation to dance: the whole community seems larger than the aggregates of its parts; the individual becomes part of a larger dynamic movement that is bound by solidarity to the group…[the dances] instil order and mutual reliance. they sweep aside insecurities and hesitations that introversion engenders; but above all they offer plausible initial conditions from which some of the rich diversity of civilization can blossom and grow. (barrow, : ) transcendence in festivals exultation is the going of an inland soul to the sea. (emily dickenson cited in linscott, : ) there is no better environment in which to discuss the processes of transcendence than the world of festivals. festivals are very diverse in type, ranging from the sacred to the profane. although there are many types of festivals, for convenience i will concentrate on four main groupings and it must be noted that in many situations these categories overlap and merge: • festivals of belief (sacred festivals) • cyclical festivals (times and seasons of the year) • festivals of misrule (mardi gras, etc) • community festivals (civic, special interest groups, etc) festivals of belief can be found in almost every culture in the world. we need look no further than charismatic christianity or balinese fertility rites to see that the individual within these events can experience transcendence. music, visual stimulus, rhythmic movement, singing and chanting are often used to bring about a state of euphoria where the deity is celebrated. a strong culture of belief provides a safe structure in which to experience such feelings. the participants carrying the enormously heavy figure of the madonna in the pilgrimage of the virgin of la cabeza (baballero bonald, : ) are in a highly charged emotional situation but the formality of the church and the known ritual framework protect the celebrants from hysteria. we must make no mistake about the dangers that can manifest themselves in these situations: people can be become hysterical and ‘mindless’, so the celebratory and ritual structures that are put in place are of vital importance. i witnessed a balinese funeral where two hundred men carried an eight tonne, twenty metre high funeral tower through the streets and the slightest mistake would have resulted in death . and in some extreme situations people are killed, as can be witnessed in the running of the bulls in pamplona (caballero bonald, : ). however, most festivals of belief are not so dangerous and pass peacefully enough with gentle experiences of transcendence found in procession, music, dancing and various ritual activities. in fact many transcendent experiences can be quiet and reflective. as noted earlier, in contemporary australia meta-structures of belief have weakened and there has been a narrowing of opportunity for people to share in this type of belief experience. cyclical festivals are celebrations to note particular times in the yearly cycle and can include events related to seasonal food gathering, solstice and equinox dates, civic remembrance, holidays and other events. there seems to be a need to ‘mark’ our yearly trip around the sun. in ancient societies where food gathering was completely dependent on an understanding of the rhythms of nature we can appreciate the importance of noting these times, and the celebration of sowing, harvest and so on continued long into the agricultural period. there also seems to be a need to create milestones that measure our community history and deepen our sense of communal identification. however in contemporary australia these cyclical festivals can suffer crisis in identification; a spring festival of renewal can turn into the fosters melbourne cup. cyclical festivals related to agrarian societies and food gathering struggle for identity in contemporary contexts. the celebration of the harvest or the coming of spring seems to have little relevance in an urban supermarket culture where all types of food are to be had at any time of the year. an added complication has dampened these rhythmic gatherings in australia. we have inherited, in the main, european semiotic systems which are inappropriate in the southern hemisphere. winter festivals are held in the summer and visa versa. we receive cards with snow and reindeer on them; we put up christmas trees (which symbolise the turning of the year at the winter solstice and the immanent return of spring); we serve traditional foods designed for winter gatherings, in hot australian summers. these practices and rituals are symbolically inappropriate. such symbolic confusion dilutes the enriching nature of festival and diminishes the capacity for transcendence. we could gain greatly from re-orientating our cyclical festivals to the right season of the year and/or surrounding them with a more contextualised symbolic environment. used appropriately, familiar symbols take on new meaning. victor turner quotes indian scholar m. n. srinivas: we see it with new eyes. the commonplace has become marvellous. (turner, : ) visit to bali in the capacity for ceremonies of transcendence to link us with enriched understandings of our world is great and it is a loss to a culture when they malfunction due to colonial inheritance. let us now turn to the third type of festival, which has very different aims and still has a potent presence in australia. festivals of misrule transgress normal societal constraints, and free the participant from the shackles of normal behaviour; they subvert the usual rules and allow the individual and the community to ‘let off steam’. our day-to-day world is full of worries and tensions, and transcendence releases the participant from a build up of pressure. frazer describes this release of pressure in the celebrations of the hos people of northern india when they have brought in the harvest: they have a strange notion at this period, men and women are so overcharged with vicious propensities, that it is absolutely necessary for the safety of the person to let off steam by allowing for a time full vent to the passions. (frazer, : ) this release of pressure can also inspire a feeling of transcendence and consequent joy. to fill the body of the sun and moon, to speak to the wind and to hear the wind talking back to you, through you, is to project psychic life into animate and inanimate nature alike. (hirsch, : ) festivals of misrule allow suppressed emotion to surface and express itself – ‘the reverse of their daily selves’ (turner, : ). we can see this at south american mardi gras celebrations or in some european festivals where normally ‘well-behaved’ citizens break out of their day-to-day world to behave in ways that would not usually be acceptable. at the same time, structures of dominance can ‘safely’ be ridiculed: the inanity and absurdity of our mundane reality, our fanatical preoccupation with power, money, war, weapons, political structures and appearances reduces us to laughter. with scornful derision we dismiss the lies, tear down the veil of pretence, expose the venality and hypocrisy of our civil tyrants, and mock their oppressive authority. we ridicule the politicians who sell us illusion and who enslave us in their industrial paradise. we collectively vent our hostility and suspicion, scorning their twentieth century gods: science, technology and money. (gabriel garcia marquez cited in cohen, : ) one example of this is the ‘festival of married women’ held in las aguedas in spain in which women are given complete license to express their day-to-day frustrations in a few days of excessive behaviour. unfaithful husbands are burnt in effigy; the drinking and carousing reaches such intensity that the men are forced to hide in lofts and cellars. when the festival is over the women return to normal life; and the wild behaviour exhibited at the festival is not mentioned again (caballero bonald, : ). festivals of misrule also allow politically and culturally repressed minority groups to have a period of ‘freedom’. partly, this is because only in rites, can we renounce our oddities and be truly entired. (auden cited in martin, : ) but of course, allowing minority communities to vent their feelings is politically expedient if authorities are to prevent a ‘pressure cooker‘ syndrome building up to explosion point. ludic and metaphorical celebrations enjoy their greatest vitality amongst those who are marginal not only to the cultural mainstream of modernisation, but also to political power. (manning, : ) festivals of misrule go back to the beginnings of recorded history. we can read about them in the dionysiac rites of the ancient greeks (in which only women held secret and wild ceremonies) and saturnalia in rome (in which the slaves and under classes would take over the city for seven days of wild dancing and drinking). the festival of fools held in europe in the middle ages elected a ‘king’ and the thieves, prostitutes and beggars would take over the town in a wild orgy of license and misrule. in all these celebrations the usual laws of restraint were cast aside and mayhem abounded. even church clerics sang parodies of the holy mass in mock services while the common folk dressed as nuns and priests and behaved in licentious ways. by the nineteenth century northern europe, through the combined efforts of the churches and industrialism, had completely suppressed any such activity. the festivals of misrule started to lose their meaning and much of their original energy. cities like cologne, basel and venice held more formal carnivals and, although splendid and spectacular, these were tame imitations of the past. today we can still find the wild energy of the ancient festivals of misrule in south america, where the mardi gras produces a week of elaborate costume, wild dancing, drinking and licentious behaviour. ‘mardi gras’ or ‘fat tuesday’ is the day before lent and the last chance for feasting before the catholic season of denial. in rio de janeiro the whole city participates in a true carnival of misrule. (the word carnival comes from the latin carne vale or ‘farewell meat’). normal work is suspended as the population dances in tens of thousands to the beat of the rumba. in other places (san francisco and sydney for example) the gay community has taken up the mardi gras theme. a frequently oppressed minority can temporarily cast off its usual status and ‘come out’ for a night of wild music, parties and parades, but it can also express issues of deep concern such as hiv/aids and discrimination. as turner notes of carnival, ‘the messages it delivers are often serious beneath the outward trappings of absurdity, fantasy and ribaldry’ (turner, : ). the wearing of masks by an entire group (masked balls, parades, festivals) also disguises identity and allows special behaviour. the individual who disguises himself becomes that “other” who he dare not be in normal circumstances. hence, the therapeutic meaning of carnival, its cathartic condition, derives from that alteration, that change of identity. (caballero bonald, : ) we could reasonably say that the mask is at its most potent when the image corresponds closely to the symbolic and imaginative world of the individual and brings together closely associated matrix systems of signifying relevance. the mask is an object of magic because of its efficient capacity for cognitive assemblage. if the participant is wearing a mask, his or her ‘normal’ personality can change, s/he is disguised, s/he has taken on external attributes. this process allows the wearer to ‘fill’ the external matrix assemblages that the mask contains and move from the ‘normal’ into desired states. these moments are, above all else, rituals of horizontal integration, fragments of brotherly equality snatched out of the divided reality of status and role differences… at its most intense such a moment confers ecstasy, and at the minimum it lifts the normal limits, controls and structures in favour of unbuttoned relaxation. the masks go with the freedom because they conceal our social and role-bound selves, thus allowing an escape from such inhibiting structures as hierarchy, responsibility and decorum. the selves underneath the masks cannot be called to account tomorrow for the activities of tonight: normal rules are suspended. (martin, : ) the social function of festivals of misrule is clear, but why is the experience of transcendence important to individual participants? i have referred above to the tension and stress that build up within us in our day-to-day life and the release of these pressures within festivals. matrix alignments are taken out of ‘holding’ alignments and merge in ‘playful’ ways in a temporary situation which brings with it feelings of delight. …human life is a precarious and wondrous balance between what levi strauss ( ) called the “classificatory urge” – the penchant for logical structuring and regulating the cosmos – and what peckham ( ) terms “man’s rage for chaos” – a mischievous, sensual delight with irregularity and misrule. encompassing order and disorder, celebration resonates powerfully with the polarities of the human condition. (manning, : ) whether we understand these ‘polarities’ as part of ‘the human condition’ in an apparently essentialist reading, or recognise, as levi strauss did, that they are discursively constructed, this ‘playful’ condition is more than just a safety valve. it also provides a creative mechanism for thinking. nietzsche remarked, ‘i know of no other manner of dealing with great tasks than as play; this…is the essential prerequisite’ (cited by babcock in macaloon ed., : ). to be ‘creative’ we must allow times when the matrix systems are permitted to interact in new ways that might allow new possibilities and future directions. making spaces that invite creativity is essential to psychological health as well as cultural survival. antonin artaud understood at least this: that without a theatre of mask and trance, of simulation and vertigo, the people perish – and this is true of the most complex and large scale society as it is the most obscure [tribal] band. (turner in manning ed., : ) it also encourages reflexivity, which is important to self-understanding. matrix systems are relaxed during transcendence experiences, but there is always the reflexive self which is able to observe. ‘celebration is a “text”, a vivid aesthetic creation that reflexively depicts, interrupts and informs its social context’ (manning ed., : ). not only do festival structures provide overt ways to observe the self but also in the expression of creativity perhaps they reveal for us aspects of self we might not otherwise encounter: ‘one might even say that the masks, disguises and other fictions of some forms of play are devices to make visible what has been hidden, even unconscious…’ (turner in manning ed., : ). we can see that it is of value to the participants to be able to view the world in a new way and in doing so understand it better. avoiding the pitfalls of ‘polarities’, turner positions transcendence and celebration carefully in terms of the multiple experiences of subjects in culture, in liminal states and in the everyday: i have used the term “antistructure”…to describe both liminal and what i have called “communitas”. i meant by it not a structural reversal, a mirror imaging of the “profane” workaday socioeconomic structure, or a fantasy rejection of structural “necessities”, but the liberation of human capacities of cognition, affect, volition, creativity, etc., from the normative constraints incumbent upon occupying a sequence of social statuses, enacting a multiplicity of social roles and being acutely conscious of membership in some corporate group…or the affiliation of some persuasive social category. ( : ) a sense of entering a liminal state is often shared with others in the community. is there any of us who has not known this moment when compatible people – friends, congeners – obtain a flash of lucid mutual understanding on the existential level, when they feel that all problems, not just their problems, could be resolved, whether emotional or cognitive, if only the group…could sustain its intersubjective illumination? (turner, : ) in other words, when celebratory structures allow participants to reach special states, many important societal and individual experiences can be played out. nietzsche described it as a ‘freedom above things’ (cited by babcock in macaloon ed., : ). as bernice martin writes, ‘ritual is always a paradoxical combination: a taste of transcendence and an experience of belonging at the same time’ ( : ). the fourth type of festival is the community festival. most festivals involve a community of people; however this category is driven by its identification with community. a brief description will suffice. community festivals range from small street events to national, high profile experiences. the community can be defined for example by geographical means (town, suburb, etc.), by area of interest (jazz or folk music, etc), by age and sex (youth, women, etc.) or by experiential groupings (veterans, single parents, etc). what is important is that the design of the event reflects the ‘in communitas we find an inversion of structured situations of everyday reality’ (maria goldwasser cited in turner, : ) interests, culture and identification of the community involved. this can be more difficult than it seems with variant aims and objectives producing differing symbolic markers and codes. in the context of transcendence, the differences that are likely to cause disjunctions must be analysed and, if possible, circumvented to achieve a community identification and celebration. it is important to determine what feelings and ideas are commonly held amongst the group, the criteria by which they define themselves as a group, and how the values thus represented are translating into festival. festival is a concentrated symbolic operating system which brings these factors into focus, emphasises these common values and celebrates them. artificial and/or oppressive avenues of transcendence pure liminality…is just a fleeting point of transition, and an attempt to turn all life into liminal ecstasy is doomed from the start. (martin, : ) we have examined the role of the arts and festivals in transcendent experiences but i would like to touch on the use of artificial stimulants to achieve these aims. drugs break down the matrices that organise normal perception and can bring about profound experiences as well as ‘bad trips’. drugs have been taken in ceremonies in many cultures and for some indigenous peoples are deeply related to ‘spiritual’ experience. these experiences are organised by the community’s elders who are experienced in the effects. the use of the drugs is explained to the individual in spiritual and cultural terms. the use of marijuana in parts of india or peyote in mexico can be cited as examples. alcohol is another transcendent agent used very commonly in festivals. the wine drunk in spain, the beer at munich or the guinness at folk festivals acts as a ‘matrix shifter,’ allowing people to loosen accustomed controls and inhibitions in order to sing, dance and transcend into community feeling. matrix alignments are deeply affected by artificial stimulants and they can thus impart a feeling of transcendence. however there are clearly dangers which i will now discuss. the dangers of transcendence in ritual and celebration of things ill done and done to others harm. (t.s. eliot, : ) of the four categories of experience, transcendence is the one most open to abuse. as explained above, the ‘abandonment’ of usual control can place the participant in uncontrolled conditions that can be harmful to themselves and to others. transcendence can ‘blind [us] to reality’ (gallanter, : ) and drive crowds into behaving as hysterical mobs. soccer is to some people a harmless social ritual but for others it constitutes feelings ‘akin to drug addiction or religious rapture, or both’ (trifonas, : ). the fans are famous for their unruly, unpredictable and at times violent behaviours. these effects are well documented, and have been variously characterised as ‘symbolic war’ (morris, : ) or ‘recreational waste’ (eco cited in trifonas, : ). it is clear that in such ‘mob’ situations, forces of transcendence are (advertently or inadvertently) being brought into powerful focus and driving people (often from socially deprived or marginalised groups) into emotional states that can become uncontrollable, with outcomes ranging from isolated vandalism and violence to widespread rioting. ‘unhealthy’ social aggregates can use ritual and celebratory structures to brainwash vulnerable people to oppressive/repressive causes. these techniques can be used to bring about within the individual a state that can result in negative and even destructive consequences such as terrorism, fanaticism, extremism. for example, marc gallanter, in cults, describes how emotionally vulnerable people can be controlled and often exploited by unscrupulous or misguided fanatics: such changes in subjective experience (or alterations in consciousness) can undermine the psychological matrix in which our views are rooted so we lose track of internal signposts. they may also introduce a feeling of mystery, or a sense that forces beyond our control are operating. thus, they can prime us to accept unaccustomed explanations for our experiences and adopt new attitudes implied in these explanations. (gallanter, : ) political systems, religious systems, social systems and even criminal systems can take advantage of these structures to affect the individual and/or the community. we need only look to nazi rallies of the nineteen-thirties for proof of this. these gatherings used music, symbol, fire, drumming, movement, spectacle, oratory, chanting and light to bring about a feeling of communitas and feelings of cohesive oneness – the very methods that are used in an olympic opening. we can see that structures which encourage transcendence can be used by any individual or group to bring about these states. the ethics of engagement in transcendence the question arises: who judges what is a healthy transcendence and what is an unhealthy transcendence? where is the arbitration between one culture and another, one group and another? for example, the mass might be for catholics a moment of communitas, wonder and individual freedom. but in the light of a considerable array of oppressive values and historical effects, many non-catholics might see the mass as the means the church uses to brainwash the faithful. the same argument can be put in relation to charismatic, fundamentalist protestant and islamic organisations. it might also, therefore, be argued that we need to distrust the whole process of transcendence, claiming that individuals and groups should not lose ‘control’ of their normal assemblages. i would like to make two points here. the first is that there can be no doubt that the more understanding we gain of how this process works, the more choices we can make as participants and event organisers. we can choose to ignore the process, believing that transcendence is undesirable or not appropriate. we can choose what sort of participation we might want to have and at what level we want to have it. we can use our critical judgement as to the integrity and potentials of the event. the onus is on the practitioner to exercise very careful reflexivity about these matters. while they may engage with the many cultural experiences that can be discovered through transcendence, they remain fully in command of their decision-making processes. the second point is that designers of new ritual and celebration who might be very conversant with techniques of transcendence must use their judgement and experience in examining who is putting forward the event and for what reasons. a careful appraisal of the motives and aims of the host organisation is vital. the feelings of communitas and celebration, the moment when the community members are in a vulnerable state of trust, can be used by those with vested interests to promote their own aims. instead of the community planning an event that is promoting the cultural life of the people, the event can be hijacked by individuals and organisations devoted to financial profit or other types of exploitative activity. it is crucial that genuine attempts to celebrate community and shared interest based in a majority sense of what is appropriate for that community are not undermined by parties for their own gain. as noted earlier, one important means to avoid these effects is to ensure transparent participant involvement in processes of meaning making such that in reflecting on the developing design, the relative positions of participants reveal themselves. nevertheless, in the context of rituals of transcendence, there is a particular onus on the designer to be alert to the potential for misuse of the context. we might ask at this point: how does one determine what is a genuine attempt at celebration? ros derrett in a study of four nsw festivals defines the objectives as follows: it is important to define what is a sense of community… it is useful to assess all key factors that contribute to making effective festivals and how a community’s sense of itself and its place emerge as major elements. it is evident that a historical perspective allows for a strong narrative to emerge, which in turn demonstrates the values, interests and aspirations of the host community…this core of culture includes a shared environment that is maintained by the members of the community; a way of life and sets of beliefs that have intergenerational implications and have a major influence on everyone living within that culture. (derrett, : ) and festivals and events demonstrate the popular definitions of a sense of community through offering connections, belonging, support, empowerment, participation and safety. the sort of informed participation afforded by festivals and events provides residents with a sound overall view of their community. (derrett: : ) so where are the guidelines when deciding upon an event of this sort? organisers must use their own judgment and make their own ethical decisions, but the aims and decisions of the event designer must be made clear to the participants and they must be given a real picture of not only what will happen but why it is going to happen. the community participating in rituals or celebrations involving transcendence must be fully informed as to the aim and directions of the organisers; and those participating in the actual event must be involved in transparent processes of meaning making. as a ‘rule of thumb’ the following questions might be asked at the outset. in the view of the invited designer, is the host organisation made up of people of integrity who are genuinely attempting to hold an event for cultural, social or educational enrichment? is the host organisation trying to pursue an agenda that is unknown to the participants? does the host organisation have a fixed ideological position that it wants to promote? if so, is that position one with which the designer is ethically comfortable and is the designer convinced that the potential participants share that position? does the host organisation aim to produce a relevant community event for the good of the participants and does it have no aims to exploit them either ideologically or commercially? it is very difficult to draw lines, as it is in many professions. this dissertation determines no strict position in relation to these matters, but i would like to make it clear that many grey areas exist within this situation and that, finally, an artist who is invited to design events will need to make a series of reflexive, subtle, careful ethical decisions both before agreeing to involvement and consistently during involvement. i have discussed the use of alcohol and drugs in traditional festivals but the abuse of this nexus to ecstasy is widespread. turner’s ‘antistructure’ can become negative in uncontrolled situations of excess. violence and bad behaviour from overuse of alcohol and from drug taking can occur when the ‘party’ culture finds itself detached from community festive aims. the occasional excess found in festivals of misrule can become habitual and regular, and in some cases the antistructure becomes the everyday. we can clearly see this in the difference between taking drugs for illumination within spiritual celebratory contexts and taking drugs as a leisure activity. given the break down of traditional safeguards in contemporary contexts, and given the law, it would be most unwise for a designer to make such activity part of a community event. of course, communities will themselves introduce such elements to their celebrations and while a designer might anticipate that, s/he cannot in most situations prevent it. obviously, however, there are implicit dangers in achieving special states by the use of artificial stimuli. an example might be the australian celebration of new year. it is traditional to celebrate new year with drinking and wild celebration. apart from local folk traditions there might be psychological reasons for new year celebrations. communities and individuals might need a milestone at which to review their lives and even attempt to change them (new year resolutions). the new year, representing a new beginning, focuses this particular energy. drinking (the release of the normal assemblages), discussion of the past (reviewing the past year) and the celebration of change (a new start) might all contribute to this process. in scotland there is a firm community structure based in the folk tradition that controls the situation culturally – people gather at certain places, share feelings of communitas, sing and dance, go into each others’ houses and exchange presents. no one could deny that the drinking is excessive, but the family community atmosphere and the positive spin on the evening puts restraints on destructive behaviour. members of the community experience transcendence within traditionally prescribed structures. in australia the culture does not have many of these traditional structures in place and consequently for many people new year can become a drunken party with few aims other than getting inebriated. the woodford folk festival in queensland has brought to bear structures that echo those found in older communities where new year is a time of significance. in spite of the drinking and extremely large crowds there are very few examples of violence or other destructive/unpleasant behaviour at this festival. music-making and dancing are encouraged in the festival precinct, providing a positive outlet of energy and good feeling. families with children are encouraged to attend, putting some societal restraints on behaviour. a one-minute silence for people who have died during the year is held just before midnight, giving a feeling of seriousness to the occasion. fireworks, singing, hugging, dancing and good wishes for the new year are shared at midnight, encouraging transcendent celebration within a positive structured setting. the understanding of structure and the dynamics of transcendence can turn a potentially negative situation of random drunkenness into a more positive feeling of celebration. transcendence in new rituals and celebrations the celebrants’ hope…is that the rhythm of performance will find an echo in life, if only for a moment. (manning, : ) this tradition has a long history. the old celtic new year was held on st october and the community believed that the dead would return to their homes. if they could cross the doorstep before midnight they could stay in the house for the coming year. to stop the ghosts from doing this they were sent away with presents and gifts. all this coincided with the harvest and the last excesses before the winter privations. at midnight the dead returned to the underworld and the community could celebrate. when the roman’s moved to the present new year many traditions were carried over with the change of date. first footing and other community celebrations are held to this day. ceremony, ritual and celebration give a safe and symbolic behavioural structure for transcendence experiences and it is equally important to provide a methodology for bringing participants back to their normal day-to-day life. in cognitive terms healthy, structured transcendence encourages a weakening of the border regions that protect stable assemblages and allow a merging process to occur. some sacred, rhythmic and community festivals can have quiet, reflective and reflexive atmospheres where the participant gives way to a calm and dense feeling of transcendence – a community parade for example, or a cultural experience shared. these celebrations usually have structures and take place in settings in which the participant is in little danger of any real disruption. a wooden instrument-making workshop at a festival holds a concert with a small but knowledgeable audience. there is a rich feeling of communitas and strong feelings of transcendence but the quiet, gentle nature of the event throws up no disruption to the audience or the structure that supports it. these types of transcendent experience are also stable in their cultural context and their symbolic and semiological language is kept intact. designers of these events of transcendence must use sensitivity and skill to capture the essence but this can be achieved with care and good management. the individual becomes very vulnerable, however, in festivals and events which allow the forces of misrule to operate. the normal matrix has been destabilised, therefore the celebrational structure must be robust. designers of new ritual and ceremony need to be very aware of the dangers inherent in this form of experience. turner makes the point that ‘it takes a good deal of structure to produce antistructure’ (cited by manning ed., : ). he writes: it takes a great amount of order to produce ‘a sweet disorder’, a great deal of structuring to create a sacred play-space and time for antistructure. if “flowing” – communitas is “shared flow” – denotes the holistic sensation when we act with total involvement, when action and awareness are one (one ceases to flow if one becomes aware that one is doing it) then, just as a river needs banks to flow, so do people need framing and structural rules to do their type of flowing. (turner, : ) if structure is too insistent then the spontaneous nature of transcendence is gone and if there is too little structure then chaos and confusion can emerge. it is a delicate situation when proven traditional structures well tested by time evaporate and our culture is left marooned, unable to mobilise situations of celebration effectively. in reinforcement and transformation rituals the symbolic can be seen as essential, but there is an irony operating in the world of misrule: meaning is thrown into disorder because, frequently, the symbolic order is ‘turned upside down’, disorganised, disarrayed. as both turner and wallace argue, the factors of one’s culture are learnt by experiencing them confused, inverted, rearranged. but more than simply reinforcing traditional relationships and structures, such displacements and contradictions prompt speculation about, reflection on and reconsideration of the order of things. (babcock in macaloon ed., : ) of course, rather than provide illumination, refreshment and elucidation, disorder can produce confusion and frustration. this is where the designer of new rituals must consider the practice paradox of structuring disorder, organising disorganisation, which is a necessary element in transcendence celebrations. where do the signposts lie? how does one control the uncontrollable? if, as turner says, ‘carnival engulfs all its categories in a dynamic, many levelled domain of multi-framed antistructure and spontaneous communitas’ (in manning ed., : ) then how can we provide for this without suppressing the very forces that make it happen? the true carnivals are true to ambiguity. once they become clearly defined, once they move into the indicative cultural mood of binary oppositions, meditations, and the like, they cease to be true to themselves, to be true to the bared human condition they so signally express and enigmatically represent. the politicisation of the festival spirit of ambiguity and its channelling towards goals approved of by power hierarchies, secular or sacred, destroys this fecund ambiguity and makes of carnivals its own sanctimonious ghost. (turner in manning ed., : ) and if the festival is made to express pure and naked hegemony, it becomes a massive political rally of the type staged under totalitarian political systems. on the other hand, if it is made to express pure opposition, it becomes a political demonstration against the system. in either case it ceases to be carnival. (cohen cited by manning ed., : ) i believe the answer lies in understanding the dynamics of transcendence. we have noted the effect of the arts in this process and their power to align participants in positive and nourishing ways that invite reconsideration of themselves and ‘the world’. in the context of transcendence celebrations, however, the artist must produce a structure that allows ambiguity; must encourage a flexibility of sign and activity without descent into anarchy and damage or, on the other hand, ‘killing’ the true moments of transcendence with too much control. so what guidelines are there to help overcome these problems and produce good and responsible design, which sets out the conditions for transcendence to occur? as we have found in other types of ritual and transformation, a study of traditional forms practised by folk or indigenous cultures can give us structural information. these methodologies have evolved through long experience and can offer clues to our own events. we have seen how music and dance can provide avenues of transcendence but i would like to take an example from my own practice that might illuminate the approaches to the problem. the woodford folk festival is one of the biggest music festivals in the western world and gains much energy from three types of festival structure. it is a community festival (a community defined by a common interest in folk music stages the event), it is a cyclical festival (held at new year) and it is a festival of misrule (singing, dancing and celebration situated ‘against the mainstream’). each year my company and i stage the closing ceremony and aim towards the transcendent experience. we would like the audience and participants to experience through our ritual the psychological benefits of a ‘new start’ felt at new year, to lose their ordinary day-to-day reality to share in feelings of uplift and communitas, and to be able to enjoy the experience of transcendence without resorting to hysteria and mob rule. to do this we look to an ancient element of ritual and celebration practised by peoples since the beginning of culture – fire. even without going through the extensive history of the use of fire in ritual we can see that it has great potency. one has only to examine the cremation ceremonies of bali or the effect of the olympic flame to see that it is able to hold a certain power for a wide variety of people in almost all cultural contexts. perhaps the deep resonance that fire holds can be found in its importance not only in our present world but throughout human history. it has practical applications: it warms us, cooks our food, provides power for our electricity, cauterises wounds, provides light, disposes of refuse, acts as a catalyst, cremates bodies and has many other uses. it has, as mentioned earlier (in relation to transformation), great symbolic power and appears in countless myths, stories and cultural events, from prometheus to cathy freeman’s circle of fire at the sydney olympics. steven j. pyne in his account of the history of fire in australia comments: …fire is inextinguishably tied to life. where ice reduces, removes, and buries, fire enhances, multiplies, stimulates, recycles, and animates, a plural not a singular process, massaging a varied, subtle biota. it is above all vital – at times awesome but also playful. always associated with life. life made fire possible – and fire, in return, dramatised australia’s life. its history, natural or cultural, could not be understood without it. to invoke the lands that evolved from old australia is to conjure up a burning bush. ( : ) the woodford fire event has come to represent something of this natural and mythic power for many thousands of australians who may attend once, or who may return year after year. it was the final event in the international millennium broadcast. to explicate the process of staging a large event of transcendence such as this, i would like to take the three objectives stated above (the new start, the feelings of communitas and prevention of loss of control) and examine them separately. the event takes place in a large natural amphitheatre that holds , people sitting on grass in a bush setting. the event has a central fire sculpture approximately metres tall and a large stage to one side with musicians and a choir. before the ritual starts we have a commentary describing the general themes. the performance itself is split into four sections – a procession, a ritual, fireworks and the burning of the fire sculpture. the event takes up to one and a half hours and has over one thousand participants. it is a ritual of antistructure; it takes the participant out of the day to day and places them into a radically different world where fire destroys the beautiful in a reversal of the ordinary rules of preservation and order. we might take an example of one year. in we built the altar of precious things. as people arrived at the site the altar, which took the form of a tower (see illustration below), held the centre of the performance ground, and they could explore its plurality of symbolism while waiting for the event to commence. the first aim of our new year rituals is to produce a feeling in participants and audience of a ‘new start’, of a time to close the past and move forward into the future with renewed energy; a time when transcendent feelings produce a motivation to accept the passing of the particular section of our lives represented in the yearly cycle and to be able to enter the new phase with as much understanding as possible. this particular performance also suggested that by identifying what was important and precious to the individual and the community those aspects could be taken into the new year. illustration – fire sculpture, ‘the altar of precious things’ the ritual focuses the participants’ and audience’s attention on their individual and shared important and precious matters, producing an awareness of what might be valuable in their lives. it then celebrates, therefore also reinforcing, these knowledges. the culminating moment of the setting alight of the towering fire sculpture really represents the past year, and in its dramatic burning the old year is metaphorically destroyed. but in the life giving symbolism of the fire a phoenix-like effect, a feeling of renewal, pervades. the old year is gone but the new one is here for us to embrace. audiences ‘go with this’ strongly, and the moment is always accompanied by thousands of cheering voices, howls and whoopings, keenings and trills, vocalising the pluralities of the witnesses. the voices and applause rise and fall with the stages of the blaze, as different elements of the sculpture are reached by the flames. it might seem that ‘destroying’ the past, or even, more simply, the destruction of the beauty of the sculpture, might produce in an audience a feeling of great sadness. but in seeing what is important being ‘lost’ in the fire, its importance is made dense, and of course it is not really lost, it is only a metaphor. the participants still have their precious things but now their importance has been magnified. without an actual feeling of loss there can be no transcendence to the future. it might also be supposed that this feeling of concentration on important things passing would be difficult to reverse as the flames grow higher and finally consume the image, but nothing could be further from the case. the large bonfire that follows, when the wooden and bamboo frame that held the images collapses onto itself, seems to have a quality of renewal which is enforced by choral singing and a large circle folk dance executed by the whole performing group of four hundred people. fireworks also herald in the new year, producing further feelings of celebration. the second aim of our new year events is to create a feeling of communitas through transcendent feelings. apart from the transcendent feelings that accompany the shared witnessing and communal involvement described above, the fire produces an enormous amount of light and heat which transform the large audience, who have been sitting in the dark, into a consolidated group. they are now warmed by the fire and can see and communicate with each other. the subject matter of the event is never didactic but remains an open text with which all ages and types of peoples can identify. in the participants and the audience were invited to work with concepts of what was precious to them. there was no judgment as to what that was and people could decide their own way of interpreting this. but the cumulative imagery and individual expression in the long stages of the ritual performance that preceded the burning of the tower produced a strong feeling of community expression. the third aim is to allow transcendence without loss of control – antistructure with structure. without careful planning and the establishment of phases of build up and release, the audience can easily become discontented and frustrated. the feelings of communitas and enrichment produced by the fire could just as easily have been impatient chants to destroy and burn the sculpture. the sculpture must therefore be carefully placed in a context of respect to prevent it becoming the object of destruction. for example, in the event parades of children carrying lanterns were accompanied by music that was especially chosen for its expression of beauty and calm. these were followed by rituals of struggle and emergence, also accompanied by various smaller elements of fire. all of this preceded the bonfire. careful preparation of the performers adds to this context of respect. before the actual lighting of the fire there is a parade into the area of the ‘firelighter’, who is dressed in black and wearing special decorative signs, carrying the flame that will ignite the final huge blaze. this has a very central function in keeping a sense of ‘order’ and ‘respect’ in the proceedings. the role is one that would in former times have belonged to a priest or shaman – a figure who demonstrates that the forces being utilised in the ceremony are powerful and deserving of respect through being ‘managed’ by someone who, through frequent use, understands them and their significance more than the rest of the participants can. in the woodford events, the figure has been me (the designer/director). although most in the audience would not be aware of that, the hundreds of participants in the event are aware. the procession was slow and the firelighter went through a ritual, which signalled emergence. this section illustrates the crucial design function of ‘structure in antistructure’ and the use of symbols and symbolic acts that ‘contain’ the event within manageable limits despite the many, many thousands involved and the apparently uncontrolled nature of a large fire. the participants also contributed to this feeling by positioning themselves and the objects they carried in various arrangements that constituted a circle around the tower. the performers’ bodies were turned towards the tower, not towards the audience, so producing a sense of attentiveness rather than an invitation to ‘go crazy now because a big destruction is going to happen’. in such events, all of these factors contribute to allow the audience and participants to experience transcendent feelings in a calm way and without a loss of inner or communal control. so we can see how careful consideration of design, and the informed structuring of ritual performance to ensure that important stages are passed through, enable an extremely large and potentially ‘out of control’ situation such as the woodford fire event to achieve its aims. anecdotally, most people, participants and audience, seem to leave the event with a warm sense of community and feelings of private insight, joy or healing. on the simplest level, they have shared in something special, and they take from it what seems most special to them. for some, we hope the experience is profoundly moving, causing genuine reassessment of their lives and/or their sense of themselves in relation to others in the context of new year. but however large or small an event, the responsibility of the creative team, and in particular the designer, is to be mindful of how transcendence ceremonies need to have open textuality that leaves room for individual interpretations while containing some capacity for shared myth and symbol, and structures that encourage communitas. this means paying careful attention to every element of the event in terms of its sequencing, processes, representations, performance, spatiality and rhythms for without this structure transcendence can become negative and unruly. chapter five: catharsis illustration – cathartic experience i woke to find myself in a dark wood where the right road was wholly gone. (dante, : ) catharsis has a form not unrelated to transformation. it is a one-way process from one state to another, but it commonly suggests going from a state of crisis to a stronger position. there are various types and levels of cathartic experiences. some are very mild, some sudden and dramatic, some happen in the context of crisis. it is a process that realigns matrix systems that have already been destabilised by external factors. ritual and celebration provide structures for this specialised transformation to happen – ‘catharsis is a necessary condition for therapeutic change’ (scheff, : ). in times of crisis, metaphorically, a dantesque journey to the centre of hell allows us to move from ‘the dark wood’ to ‘behold the stars’ again; by embracing our fears it seems we can ‘move through them’: ‘effecting the proper purgation of these emotions’ as aristotle put it (poetics, vi). freud’s theories, and a range of psychoanalytical views developed since freud, would suggest that someone in crisis can recover from emotional trauma by examining the problem they are suppressing. at a community level, ritual and ceremony can provide a ‘safe’ structure for this to happen. ritual and ceremony can be designed to meet the needs of an individual or a community in crisis and by formally acknowledging the situation be able to transform feelings of negativity and fear into attitudes of positive realignment. this is not to posit some ‘miracle cure’ for people in times of crisis, but ritual and celebration, as we have seen in our other examples, can be powerful and restorative forces if carefully structured. however, catharsis need not always be at times of crisis and can happen in gentler circumstances when participants need structures to express emotions and feelings which are important to them. it can be found, then, in rituals and celebrations that leave the participant feeling enriched, comforted, refreshed and realigned through having, by one means or another, addressed that which is preventing or hindering the experience of well-being. firstly i will discuss how ritual and celebratory cathartic structures can encourage positive change at times of crisis. catharsis in death rites the bustle in a house the morning after death is solemnest of industries enacted on the earth. (emily dickinson : ) when we experience the death of someone close to us, despite the inevitability of death and even when there is time to ‘prepare’ for it, we will experience degrees of grief. sudden and unexpected death can produce serious trauma. moving on from the loss of someone of importance to us can be extremely difficult. we need to accept that we shall never experience that person’s presence again, that they are really gone. we also have a heightened recognition at such times that we ourselves are to make the ‘appointed rendezvous’ with death, to quote walt whitman. the structures of funerals have always helped the bereaved community accept the death, celebrate the deceased and allow movement towards readjustment. a ‘rite’ comes from the greek meaning for a ‘thing done’. death rites encourage acknowledgement and acceptance of what has happened; they help realign matrix systems to speed recovery from trauma. a prescribed ceremony can allow us to channel feelings of loss in a psychologically healthy way. without the formal structure of a ceremony our acceptance of death and recovery from loss can be prolonged. varela comments: suffering arises quite naturally and then it grows as the mind seeks to avoid its natural grounding in impermanence and a lack of self. ( : ) the ceremony provides a symbolic progression through suffering. we all need to tell our story and to understand our story. we need to understand death and cope with death, and we all need help in our passages from birth to life to death. (moyes cited in campbell, : ) rites help us because they enforce what has happened but build in apparatuses which contain methodologies for coping with the trauma. in other words we are forced to accept the death: by viewing the body; by the actual burial or cremation; by taking home or scattering cremated remains. there can be no doubt that the person is dead. we must accept the situation, for refusal to face the facts can only lead to delusion and denial. on the other hand, this must be tempered with a structure that promotes support for the bereaved, a celebration of the dead person’s life, a procedure of community respect and a graceful and powerful completion. i might also add that legal and social adjustments (wills, personal belongings, social responsibilities etc.) need be attended to and a formalised burial structure allows a completion of this aspect as well. obviously, given the significance of death, cultures have developed sophisticated strategies to cope with the process of acceptance of death. traditional societies have evolved many different structures that work within and for their cultures, developing over time ceremonies which aptly reflect shared beliefs, both in funerary rites and in whole community rituals. an example of an annual ritual of catharsis can be found in mexico on the day of the dead. here the community embraces death and transforms feelings of sorrow and fear into celebration. on the night before all saints day ( nd november) all night vigils with the whole family present are held in the graveyards. at the cemetery, the people quietly disperse among the cluttered tombstones. bright garlands of marigolds ornament the graves. a trail of their golden petals leads back to the village. it is strewn as a beacon, a pathway especially for the souls of los ninos, the children, and the little angels. the fragrance of incense mingles with the damp, musty odour of the surrounding jungle. (begalke, dia de los muertos: website) the whole space is lit with candles and fire, and special parades and ceremonies are held. the next day sweets made as figures of death are eaten, skull masks worn, skeleton costumes paraded and great feasting is held. at night death is burnt in effigy and fireworks lit. the community transforms the fear of death into a celebration of life. our own death rites in australia, however, are in some disarray. the majority of contemporary death rites are secular packages organised by funeral agencies. these rites are often kept necessarily bland so as not to offend the various religious beliefs of a portion of the participants and at the same time to avoid precipitating extremes of emotion. further, because of the absence of what was in previous times a fit between community, congregation and priest or minister, ceremonies often reflect no familiarity with the person who has died, and ‘many have come out feeling that the funeral did not represent what the person believed in life’ (gill and fox, : ). it is my view that most people do not receive the benefit of catharsis from attending rituals such as these because, as gill and fox observe: the professionals have to focus on the bereaved, since they seldom knew the person who has died. the family and friends…focus on the person who has died. here there is a potential conflict of interests and confusion around the focus of the funeral. ( : ) we might have some justification in saying that when the ritual becomes impersonal it loses much of its potency to help people. in such circumstances, dissatisfied participants are inclined to follow the funeral with their own rituals – going to the pub and telling stories about the person; going to a special spot that the person loved and having silence and celebration there of the home-made kind; having a private ritual for scattering of ashes weeks after the actual funeral ceremony; having a concert or party in celebration of the person’s life; sewing a square for a quilt and so on. precisely because so many people are deeply, or vaguely, dissatisfied with available rites (religious or commercial) they are increasingly taking the rites back into their own hands, having adjunct private and public rituals. artists are sometimes asked to design such rituals. in the dead good funeral book john fox and sue gill outline ways in which artists and communities can combine to design their own rites. these include painted coffins which represent images of the person’s life, special songs and poems which bring comfort, parades and celebrations suited to this kind of event and much legal and management advice which allows family and friends more control of the ceremony. it is often difficult to find ritual structures for cathartic expression when it is not an individual death but a whole community that is struck by disaster: flood, fire, human atrocity. christian belief structures can be put under enormous pressure in their attempt to carry meaning at times of deep and sudden crisis in contemporary society. non- believers can find these rituals and ceremonies not only irrelevant but sometimes even offensive. present day worship involves symbolic complexities that arose from periods of history…[which] reflect in some degree social and psychological conditions which no longer exist. they arose in response to needs that were to some extent specific to their culture and society of the time. how adequate are such symbolic complexities to the expressive needs of people in modern western societies…? …there is reason to believe that much symbolism loses its resonance. that it “wears out” and becomes alienated from the interior religious dispositions of people. can it be revived or must new symbolic vehicles be discovered? (o’dea cited in scheff, : ) within my own practice i have been invited to design community ceremonies. when a gunman shot thirty-five men, women and children in port arthur, tasmania, on sunday april , , the whole community was traumatised. the massacre took place in the historic setting of one of australia's most brutal early penal settlements. it became international news that shocked the world. to stage an event in circumstances such as these can be very difficult. consultation with the community must be conducted with sensitivity and thoroughness. when designing community events we do not hold a public meeting and canvas through the press to attract interest. rather, we find the community leaders one by one and talk through their feelings and needs. in port arthur the local people wanted to do something to facilitate the healing process but did not know exactly what would be most useful and appropriate. as mentioned earlier, myths and stories can give insights into the human spirit and a strong thematic base from which to proceed. one great recurring theme that seemed appropriate to the situation was the journey into unknown danger, the descent into darkness and the emergence to find new hope. i suggested taking well-known myths and stories that told of human journeys through difficulty towards eventual triumph and emergence from suffering. (dante, ulysses, the inanna myths, as well as folk stories from indigenous america, africa and australia). this would hopefully distance the community from the actual event while at the same time demonstrating the capacity of the human spirit to survive pain. with this plan approved by the community, the planning phase began. the community decided to stage the ‘festival of journeys’ on the site where the massacre had taken place. the port arthur authority could not have been more helpful, providing premises and assistance at every level. credit, too, must go to the tasmanian government, who gave us wholehearted support without knowing whether or not the event would be successful. events and festivals have a better chance of success when they are very carefully planned and organised. we ordered the tents, food, sound systems and lights, staging and all the other infrastructure needed to hold a one-day festival. we also started to involve the local people, without whose help and participation this could not possibly succeed. the members of the community who we had first approached were invaluable in establishing further contacts and resources, and were involved in each step. the churches, the schools, local artists and musicians, organisations and many individuals helped and guided us through the process of preparation. we worked with many school groups on small pieces of theatre depicting the stories chosen; we formed a local choir, organised a children’s lantern parade, built a large lantern boat, practised shadow puppet performances, rehearsed story telling and all sorts of other activities. many problems emerged which were tackled not so much by us as by the community leaders who, at every turn, tried to alleviate people’s fears and worries. it takes courage to walk back into the scene of a disaster and i was constantly aware of the particular bravery displayed by the community. after the massacre the national and international media attention had been horrific for some local people. their grief and suffering had been exploited in a multitude of ways. as a result of this they wanted no publicity for the event and did not want any press to attend. everyone who lived locally knew about the event and, because of the initial consultation process, felt that the event would be ‘worth coming to’ and had confidence in attending. the involvement of young people through the schools was also a guarantee that the parents would support the project. the day arrived for the festival and it was beautiful weather. many people from the community turned up to help us ‘rig’ the festival and many brought flowers to decorate the space. as darkness descended, two hundred children dressed in white came onto the site carrying candle-lit paper lanterns that they had made. a large lantern ship carried by twelve local adults led the parade. on its side poetry of renewal was written and messages of hope were painted. the boat was placed on a bonfire and ceremonially burnt while the choir sang. the various theatre shows and other performances were presented at various locations within the site. food and drink were enjoyed around the bonfire. the feeling among the people was strongly emotional, but not negative. the climax of the evening was a bush dance. i had concerns about this. would the community want to dance on the very spot where this terrible tragedy happened? again the local people had been our guides and approved the idea. people danced and sang, people cried and hugged one another; people expressed their grief and community spirit. a feeling of catharsis swept through us all. it ended with large groups of local people standing together with their arms around one another. people are increasingly designing or seeking their own ways of dealing with important situations, and increasingly calling on the skilled members of their communities to enhance the occasions. so there are all sorts of community events aimed at recovery. this can be seen in the way the childers community turned the site of the backpackers’ hostel into an instant shrine at which, while leaving flowers and written messages, strangers met with people directly touched by the tragic fire that killed international backpackers. the community found other ways of ritualising what had happened there, such as candlelit vigils. there were community meetings about what should happen to the site and how it should be marked by a monument of some kind and then there was another gathering (ceremony, ritual) in order to ‘consecrate’ the monument. the ceremonies relating to bali were staged on a local, national and international scale and we now have televised global ritual moments, such as september . australians as a community are evolving ways to express their responses to shared tragedy and are attempting to bring meaningful pathways to expressing these deep and important feelings. catharsis experiences at birth ceremonies before you were conceived i wanted you before you were born i loved you before you were an hour i would die for you this is the miracle of life. (maureen hawkins cited in cohen, : ) birth ceremonies could easily have been included in this study under the heading of transformation, but i have placed them here in order to explore the process of catharsis as the need to express intense but pleasurable emotion. having a baby is certainly an experience of this kind. when a child is born, rituals can provide formal ‘transformational’ structures for parents to be realigned to this new situation; adjustments must be made to the matrix assemblages of the partners to create modus operandi that will cope with the new phase of life ahead. a ritual provides a structure for the parent to process this radical change. however, while the ceremony can be transformational, it also has another function which is at the heart of catharsis: it gives ritual and celebrational structure to the expression of powerful emotion. new parents experience feelings of awe and wonder, feelings of pride, feelings of thankfulness, all of which need expression. the emotions surrounding birth are not necessarily less powerful than those experienced in relation to death, they are simply operating in a different domain. let us look at some traditional examples of birth rituals. in certain north american indian cultures the father will present the baby to the sky for the gods to recognise the birth. in the blackfoot people an elder will …purify himself with burning sweetgrass on an altar of clay and glowing embers. he marks the palm of his hand with red ochre, then paints the baby’s face with the sign of the tribe – one horizontal line below the eyes, another above the mouth. finally the baby is held aloft and shown the sun so that its radiance will follow this new being through the circles of life. “creation, we acknowledge your gift of this sacred being.” (cohen, : ) in some aboriginal cultures the baby will be smoked to purify the birth, with other members of the community involved – the women in the northern kimberly region of australia for example: at this “baby smoking” the mother and grandmother first collect the branches and leaves of the konkerberry bush. they dig a shallow fire pit and draw a spiral in the sand. twigs, bits of bark and broken konkerberry branches are set in place. they light the fire and toss crushed bark mixed with water onto the flames to produce purifying smoke. as green leaves are spread over the fire the rich smoke rises. the mother hands her child to her mother. lifting her breast, the mother squeezes milk into the fire… the baby’s grandmother waves him through the purifying smoke. (cohen, : - ) the christian ceremony of baptism which includes the adoption of ‘godparents’, anointing the child’s head, white clothes, the font, the priest’s traditional words, is a well known ritual in western culture. to enter into this font is to plunge into the mythological realm… symbolically, the infant makes the journey when the water is poured on its head. (campbell cited in cohen, : ) however as we have found in other situations in our society, once belief structures weaken, our community seems at a loss as to how to proceed. if our death ceremonies have become commercialised/secularised at the risk of loss of cathartic efficacy, our birth ceremonies have all but vanished for those not actively affiliated with a religion, and there is little outlet for the parents to process their feelings of pride in producing a new member of the family and the community. naming ceremonies are sometimes organised by parents to try to bridge this gap. artists are sometimes involved in designing experiences that have the capacity to suitably channel the feelings of the parents. discussion with the family to locate personal symbolism, music and songs that have significance, and other ritual and celebratory techniques can be used, but this is not a widespread practice. cathartic experiences through expressions of thanks, pride and joy in relation to birth are increasingly closed off from ‘community’, and informally lodged in the private space of a couple’s first days with the child at home. catharsis in new ritual, ceremony and celebration the black moment is the moment when the real message…is going to come. at the darkest moment comes the light. (campbell, : ) in discussing all of the above experiences, where rituals, ceremonies and celebrations act as vehicles for cathartic benefit, we find that in contemporary australian society it has become difficult to locate continuing, pertinent forms, whereas in traditional societies these avenues are still familiar, open and used to good effect. in western contexts we can no longer assume the capacity to locate an intact semiotic system to carry meaning in relation to birth and death. thus we can find ourselves sharing the feeling expressed by roose-evans: ‘i stand baffled and bewildered at my own boundaries, not knowing how or where to cross’ ( : ). while certain demographics, or communities facing tragedy, may look to each other for participation in a recognised need for ‘home made’ ritual, many people cannot recognise that they may ‘need’ to have a ceremony, or they may look for appropriate ceremonies and find impersonal responses or find that organised religion no longer carries sufficiently developed cultural meaning and personal connections for the contexts in which it exists. this is an area that can benefit greatly from the involvement of some artists experienced in the design of ritual and ceremony and familiar with the language of symbols. as we found in transformation ceremonies, the commonality of structure found in many traditional cultures can provide clues. transformation ceremonies must move the participants from one stable situation to another situation which is also stable, but new, and by examining traditional ceremonies, three stages were identified: preparation, focus and acceptance. unlike transformation ceremonies, ceremonies for catharsis must move the participants from instability to stability. three levels of engagement are identifiable in such ceremonies, but these must act concurrently rather than sequentially. the three levels are: a means of acceptance, a model for hope and a mode of expression. if we take death rites in traditional societies as an example we can see this categorisation working. . a means of acceptance in traditional death rites we find ways of demonstrating that the person has really died. scheff notes that ‘the positive theory of ritual was suggested by durkheim – religious beliefs and practices not only create and sustain the fundamental social structure of a society, but maintain the member’s sense of reality’ ( : ). the body is therefore often displayed to the community. sometimes the person dies again in symbolic form. the body is disposed of in ways that make any ‘return’ impossible (usually burial or cremation). in some japanese funerals the bones and ashes are sorted through by the mourners and taken home. after some cremations in this country the family take the ashes and perform their own disposal ceremony. clearly given the legal constraints on sites and means of burial and cremation, new ritual for this purpose must be developed such that mourners can feel involved regardless of the site in which the central moment of a funeral rite takes place. this first level of acceptance can be very traumatic, so systems must be built into the ritual to offer models for hope. . models for hope these are often found within the belief system. where the belief system is weak, however, or not shared by all, new ways must be found. koestler comments that ‘virtually any explanation – valid or not – which commands belief has a calming and cathartic effect’ ( : ). the role of artists in this delicate process can be profound. it takes a great deal of experience to organise successful cathartic experiences in such sensitive conditions but the arts can refresh and make meaningful the funeral process. symbolism can become personal to the participants, and their genuine participation in the planning process can also work to produce meaningful closure. symbols, grimes observes, ‘are part of a system of implicit knowledge, and ritual is an improvisation, reconstruction, or anticipation based on that knowledge’ ( : ). sue gill and john fox suggest that, far from being a single event taking place in an hour or so, ‘a funeral needs to be an extended experience, with several occasions for paying tribute to the dead and marking our leave taking…over the days, weeks and months to come’ ( : ). acceptance of the situation can be helped by providing buttress systems. these are external support systems that not only provide comfort in themselves but also provide infrastructure for a reconstruction of the participants’ matrix assemblages during the process of grief. whereas the inner symbolism and subject matter of traditional rituals might not be appropriate in a secular situation these traditional methodologies can be very useful in providing models of structure in the design of new contemporary rituals. myth and story inform subject matter when designing a cathartic ceremony. myths provide prescribed assemblages which carry within them messages of hope, courage and reassurance. …the first is to retreat from the world scene of secondary effects to those causal zones of the psyche where difficulties really reside, and there to clarify the difficulties, eradicate them…and break through to the undistorted, direct experience and assimilation… (campbell, : ) . a mode of expression. the final level contained in a ritual of catharsis gives avenues for the expression of emotion: people can cry, tear their hair, sing, dance and even in some cases become drunk – undertake ‘discharges of distress’ as scheff describes it ( : ). this level can take various forms depending on the cultural milieu, but the ritual structure is designed to include this function. within new ritual design various strategies are adopted to allow this legitimate avenue of emotional response. designers must be aware that people might exhibit strong and distressed emotional responses to the ritual. this means that permission must be allowed within the experience for public displays of grief. in one case we were asked to stage a ritual event for the families and friends of children murdered through domestic violence. this event had to be held in secret as many of the women were in refuge situations. we had to think through strategies that would allow time and space for the expression of emotion. the event had three sections. the first was a parade with each mother carrying a small seed lantern. the second stage was the placing of these lanterns on a ceremonial structure of solidarity and the third was a small and intimate concert with poetry and songs. the first section with the lanterns was designed symbolically to focus the women’s feelings on their loss. each made her own lantern and inscribed it with messages of love and by joining in a parade they hopefully experienced a sense of solidarity with others who had suffered this abuse. the event was very slow with many gaps for talking and communication. as each woman put her lantern onto the ceremonial structure she had a chance to say something or not depending on her feelings. in the final section the women had a chance to get up on a small stage and read poetry, sing, tell stories or just express their thoughts. if they were uncomfortable with this an actor would read or sing their choice thereby giving them an opportunity to express themselves. they could also join a small choir or write in a book, as well as eat together and communicate their feelings. designers unaccustomed to experiencing grief must have the confidence to allow feelings to flow and allow channels of expression. one word of warning: this type to event can be very traumatic for the participants and if not properly handled can lead to deep emotional distress of the wrong kind. guidance from experts in the area of grief and constant consultation with the people taking part is essential. happier cathartic situations also benefit from understanding the three levels of the experience. in birth rites we can also see the processes of acceptance, models of hope (in this case for the child’s future) and avenues to express powerful and important emotions. we have staged ‘naming rituals’ which try to bring these levels of experience together. on average one child is murdered per month in queensland. information from the department of family services. chapter six: conclusion illustration – new year celebration what was it, forcibly stirring? where? in whose keeping? (rig veda x. , cited in maclagan, : ) overview ritual and celebration are complex human activities that reconstitute and reform within different cultures and milieus. in the west we can detect, allied increasing secularisation, patterns of migration and globalisation, a major shift in the underlying design of ritual and celebration. not only do we see differences in the way these events are formed but also in who forms them. there is, significantly, an emergent trend whereby individuals and communities are more frequently recognising a need for ritual and celebration, and seeking assistance in staging them in ways that take account of a wide range of community members and/or individual needs. ritual and celebration in the contemporary australian context are not only marked by a series of new expressions of community, but by a valuing of difference within communities. artists or cultural workers invited to assist in forming events need to be especially alert to these trends in cultural expression and in community values. in pluralistic contemporary settings there can be no assumption of shared belief structures when artists replace priests or shamans in ‘leading’ people through a ritual or celebration, but there must be careful attention to shared values, shared stories, shared traces of many previous symbolic frameworks and a deeper understanding of the relationship between organiser and participant, and process and result. this being the case, designers of new ritual and celebration need to concentrate process and structure, on the ‘movement’ of the event, adopting and adapting content and its semiotic nuances through an understanding of the appropriate stages of the process for the nature of the event and awareness of cognitive and physiological changes involved. that is, whereas in monocultural settings with intact belief structures ritual and ceremony arrived from generation to generation in neat packages of traditional process, content and symbol, in multicultural, secularised contemporary settings, the process must drive the selection of content and symbol. thus it is essential for designers/artists to undertake sensitive working through of individuals’ and communities’ senses of why they want an event and what they hope to achieve through holding it, before deciding on the process and then, consultatively, designing the content. in this dissertation i have taken the view that ritual and celebration are in fact systems that are organised to align individuals and groups in certain ways and i have utilised some contemporary knowledge of cognitive response to understand this process. instead of using the traditional social reasons for holding these activities as guides to understanding the inner dynamics of ritual and celebration i have explored the individual response within communal experience. i have defined categories of ‘transformation’ and ‘catharsis’ which encourage cognitive realignment on a permanent basis, ‘reinforcement’ processes which concentrate and focus existing feelings and beliefs and ‘transcendence’ which allows a movement from an awareness which centres upon the self to communal experience. through this i have provided criteria and examples that should help designers of new ritual and celebration to produce events that are more effective and meaningful in terms of their efficacy for both the community and the individual. it is hoped too that these categorisations also lend more transparency to the processes and content of ritual and celebration, allowing participants to have more understanding of what is involved and to be able to gain insight and enrichment from the construction of meaning both within the self and in their interaction with the community. i have also tried to emphasise the importance of these activities not only in societal operation but also in the psychology and physiology of individuals. i hope i have been able to demonstrate how essential these activities are to cultural life, and at the same time suggest that communities are, anyway, increasingly recognising that importance. we have seen how ritual, ceremony and celebration can illuminate individual lives by allowing a venue for reflexivity, can promote community understanding and can enrich contemporary life both artistically and socially. issues for practice, policy and training a crucial issue that emerges as a result of this research is the question of who sets the agenda for ritual and celebration. rites of passage for the individual and the society, our ability to celebrate, our capacity to express feelings and beliefs, our interaction with the search for an understanding of ourselves, our joy in and enrichment of community, and the establishment of shared values are all held (although not exclusively) within the domain of ritual and celebration. these events are, especially in their more massive forms, deeply influential in moulding public opinion, establishing a sense of identity (individual and social) and contributing to the political and social atmosphere. we have explored the powerful ways in which these systems operate often without the participant being fully aware of the dynamics involved. we have observed how powerful a tool art can be within these processes. in whose keeping, then, do our rituals and celebrations lie? this is a very serious question for in inappropriate, manipulative or careless hands these events can be used not for the edification or benefit of people, but rather to control a subservient society. but certainly for the present age, which prefers the sign to the signified, the copy to the original, representation to reality, the appearance to the essence…illusion only is sacred, truth profane. nay, sacredness is held to be enhanced in proportion as truth decreases and illusion increases, so that from the higher degree of illusion comes the highest degree of sacredness. (feuerbach cited in debord, : ) in such a cultural context, ritual and celebration are particularly open to misuse and the motives behind such events must be addressed. we need to be constantly cautious of oppressive political or sectarian aims that undermine ritual and celebratory processes. have some of our rituals and celebrations been subverted by groups whose object is not community and cultural development, and a free expression of the human condition, but in fact only the generation of income or an undeclared social or political agenda? one might be invited to come to a festival to celebrate one’s values and one’s community but in fact the organisers are solely interested in extracting profit from one’s social inclination to do this. are we witnessing a widespread corruption of genuine cultural expression in favour of simulacra experiences designed only to make money? in my many years of experience in the field and in the last four years of research i have seen much evidence that this is too often so. for the professional designer (but perhaps not the participant) it is relatively easy to identify ritual and celebratory events that have commercial motives at their base. dean maccannell identified an early glaring example that seems to sum up what has become the widespread plagiarism of traditional systems: a -storey fibreglass [sic] statue of jesus christ is the centre piece of a new biblical amusement park called holy land, being built near mobile, ala. the park…will include visits to heaven and hell, noah’s ark, gladiator fights, the tower of babel and the belly of the whale temporarily occupied by jonah. all this for $ a ticket. (tourist brochure cited in maccannell, : ) just as with this kind of commercialisation in theme parks and media products, when commercial forces design rituals and celebrations for traditional or contemporary community occasions their tendency is clearly to ask few questions about the inner meaning, the form, the history and the raison d’être. the subject matter is most often treated superficially and leans towards consumption and passive absorption rather that participation. if there is participation then it is too often heavily weighted towards mass sentimentalised reinforcement of stereotyped, simplified ‘values’ or towards mass indulgence in ‘party culture’. this is not to say that there is not an attempt by some commercial forces to produce a ‘good product’ that will please their market. the events industry, which has swept australia, is often involved in manufacturing ‘products’ providing ‘fun’ experiences that are apparently good value for money. in some cases the commercial nature of the event is explicit and its promotion contains no pretence that it is anything other than a commercial transaction – a celebratory experience in exchange for money. festivals abound where the only reason that they are held is for the profit of organisers and sponsors, and consumers are aware of this. other organisers of ritual and celebration are more sinister in their motives, disguising their real commercial agendas inside of what appears to be a ‘real’ community event. these are the events about which we need to be concerned, culturally and ethically. we might ask the question: if commerce produces a good festival, what is wrong with that? the answer might be that nothing is wrong as long as the participant understands the difference between the commercial product, which is essentially designed for fun and commercial profit, and the ritual and celebratory event, which is essentially designed for cultural and community reflexivity. the dividing line between structure genuine and spurious is the realm of the commercial. spurious social relations and structural elements can be bought, sold, traded and distributed throughout the world. (maccannell, : ) what might be the difference in these two forms? the commercial event often utilises symbol, cultural expression, semiology, the arts, and tradition in a trajectory which captures the outward potency of these phenomena without understanding their natures, cohesive qualities and significance in cultural terms. the real danger of this is not the event itself but the way in which the utilisation of these cultural tools in careless ways corrupts the trajectory that contains feelings of self-exploration, meaning making, and enriched communitas. it is a source of anxiety that our kind of society has the capacity to develop beyond the point where individuals can continue to have a meaningful place in it. (maccannell, : ) governments, too, allow financial and sometimes political agendas (especially tourism) to outweigh the human need for community ritual and celebration. facilities built for tourists on the gold coast, for example, are designed for visitors to have ‘fun’ and are actively forming cultural attitudes in the community and becoming one of the key areas of cultural identity. one can understand the argument put forward that tourism will bring much needed income into the area concerned. and in the case of theme parks, for example, the public construes the site as nothing but a site of consumption, not overlaying it with other community values. however, when something ceases to be transparently designed only for consumption and masquerades as a ‘festival’, it moves into a more ambiguous cultural role in relation to which communities bring other expectations. this can be seen in some of the many attempts to regulate schoolies week on the gold coast, including the staging of a range of cultural events as part of a ‘schoolies festival’. clearly, this was an attempt at harm minimisation, but the parallel provision of ‘safe’ events did not reduce the proliferation of commercially arranged ‘events’ that had no such aim, or worse, had only the surface signifiers of such an aim but in fact were sites of large scale commercial exploitation. further, a ‘festival’ sounds somehow less dangerous for potential participants than the wholesale consumption of alcohol, party drugs and sex popularly associated with schoolies week, but none of the usual activities ceased simply because the event acquired the name ‘festival’. many agencies are prepared, sometimes quite unconsciously, to create any event that will bring in tourist dollars even if it has the potential to damage the very community it is attempting to help. the cultural agenda, which is so important to the genuine development of any group of people, is abandoned without understanding its value and sometimes even ‘sold’ as a product. ‘festivals and conventions organise the economic life of entire cities around cultural productions’ (maccannell, : ). it would be unfair to say there are no attempts by government to understand the deeper motivations of ritual and celebration, as can be seen, for example, in a range of the events staged as part of or alongside the sydney olympics, some of the activities funded during the centenary of federation, or the ceremonies organised to commemorate the bali massacre. however, such an awareness frequently does not translate into public policy; it is not embedded as an expectation of australian cultural life. just as britain’s building of huge housing estates after the war was to utterly transform the cultural life of the people, so too are the sprawling housing developments found in australia. in southeast queensland we can see a very high level of development featuring expansion of large- scale estates with adjacent shopping cities. hundreds of thousands (soon millions) of people are being housed in a social and community framework which is deeply influenced by consumerism, and thus overlaid with a particular kind of ‘monoculture’ regardless of the cultural identities of the residents. it is difficult to imagine where the systems will lie that will be able to bring ritual and celebration to these communities with any meaningful text. will vast sections of our population only experience the simulacrum, the copy, the shallow imitation of ritual and celebration? and if this is so, what might be the consequences? at present we see a tendency towards having no naming ceremonies, having drunken rites of passage, marriages controlled by wedding caterers, meaningless death rites, festivals which only celebrate consumerism, little participation and much consumption. before we are really aware, the rituals and celebrations which have risen from genuine social need could fade and be replaced entirely by events which exploit, manipulate and degrade. (we only have to think of the commercialisation of christmas and easter to see this dynamic in operation.) as orwell and others have argued, in societies that allow this to happen variety and richness of cultural expression become lost and are replaced by mass, manufactured experience. no one knows yet who will inhabit this shell [of industrial capitalism] in the future:…specialists without spirit, libertines without heart, this nothingness imagines itself to be elevated to a level of humanity never before attained. (max weber cited in maccannell, : ) there are urgent questions to be asked about whether we want to live in such a world, where spectacle overtakes meaning. the spectacle is the bad dream of modern society in chains, expressing nothing more than its wish to sleep. the spectacle is the guardian of that sleep. (debord, : ) obviously, we could see a time in the not too distant future where populations are ensnared and subdued not by political forces but by cultural/leisure/fun-based structures through which, in spite of the resources used, the money spent and the creative and inventive drive employed, citizens are not spiritually enriched and empowered but impoverished and culturally disabled. thirty years ago maccannell was noticing that there remained a concern with ‘reality’ and ‘truth’. the dialectic of authenticity is at the heart of the development of all modern structure. it is manifest in concerns for ecology and front [sic], in attacks on what is phony, pseudo, tacky, in bad taste, mere show, tawdry and gaudy. these concerns conserve a solidarity at the level of the total society, a collective agreement that reality and truth exists somewhere in society, and that we ought to be trying to find them and refine them. (maccannell, : ) while a notion of the ‘total society’ has become difficult to prosecute in a context of globalisation, and while the parameters of ‘solidarity’ and ‘collectivity’ have clearly redrawn themselves in many respects and are likely to manifest in dispersed and plural cultural sites, there is an increasing desire for both intimate and large scale community expressions that deal in more than the ‘wow factor’. if that need is to be met, we must understand the importance of ritual and celebration in order to preserve and further their integrity and usefulness. they offer themselves as channels of expression for values to which communities really do aspire. in my own professional experience, there can be little doubt as to the value and enthusiasm felt by individuals and communities who participate in meaningful events. they are a phenomenon worth understanding, worth preserving and/or reinventing. why enact rites at all?…ritual is one of the oldest forms of human activity we know. it may have been the original multi-media performance – an archaic, unifying activity. it is not only integrated with storytelling, dance and performance, but it also provides the matrix out of which other cultural activities such as arts, medicine, and education gradually emerged, differentiating themselves from one another. (grimes: : ) new agents (artists, celebrants, festival designers, communities, caring organisations and others) are being involved in new methodologies, new approaches and new directions. i have demonstrated that organising new rituals, ceremonies and celebrations requires a deep understanding of the dynamics of these events. this means we must develop new training systems in response to these new needs. to avoid cultural erosion, we must produce a new kind of artistic activist/cultural facilitator who can understand, stimulate, articulate, design and help to perform ritual and celebration in a way that is meaningful at any level or in any part of society. ‘culture can continue, via its production, to provide a basis for community...’ (maccannell, : ). to this end, the emergence of a new kind of artist is critical. it is through inventive and creative methods that communities and individuals can develop rituals and celebrations, to express their feelings and ideas in an atmosphere of understanding, appreciation of difference, shared values explored reflexively, and ethical frameworks based in careful thought about a community’s expressed needs and aspirations. ‘festivals assist in nurturing and sustaining those things that are important to the members of that community’ (derrett, : ). trained artists and other cultural workers can open new possibilities based on contemporary thinking. ritual and celebration can provide a bridge that allows a rich flow between the arts world and the world of the community, which are all too often separated. in effect, becoming artistically involved in new ritual and celebration involves working with communities to develop a shared meaningful symbolic language based on the individual’s shared experience within that community. this movement constructs new meanings within the deconstructed condition and develops new ways that can operate with a degree of semiological cohesion in community settings. the postmodern turn has helped break down rigid, inflexible models of community identity which had become redundant. the task of artists working in this field is to use the arts with communities to develop new languages to express their new feelings of communitas, and those feelings will vary from one context to another. the prevailing discourses being used by community artists moved, some time ago, increasingly away from established modernist social analysis based in marxist frameworks. they are now moving away from more recent policy driven concerns about ‘professional’ and ‘amateur’, ‘elitist and ‘accessible’ arts, questions of consumption and participation, and discussions of quality. there is at the moment a greater concern with (a return to?) questions concerning the function of art and how is it being used: what does art ‘do’ to us and how does it work? at the same time, community artists are increasingly rethinking communities, apprehending strongly that their working contexts are shot through with difference and plurality, with which they must engage and from which they must produce work. this transformation is also occurring within ritual and celebration – what function does it have, who is operating it, what does it ‘do’ to us, how does it work and who does it work with and for? however, i must say here that within my experience there has never been a time when the languages of cultural development within community settings have been weaker and more impotent. despite some highly informed voices among those in the field who continue to work with communities, the dominant tone of policy and funding frameworks remains caught in the binaries outlined above, and they do not constitute frameworks that facilitate work that is engaged with communities and driven by communities. ‘community arts’ has become a term that even community artists frequently avoid using, in case it positions their work on the side of the binaries to which ever diminishing funding and support are less likely to flow. yet these are the artists who are most concerned with the question of communities expressing themselves, and who are also most alert to the ways in which communities are being reshaped by contemporary conditions and, more to the point, reshaping themselves in many ways. there are danger signals being activated in such quarters about the apparent public redundancy of meaningful discourse in the area of arts in the community, for there are deep consequences for a society that treats these vital questions with nonchalance or, even worse, contempt. it is easier in every way to facilitate a vital, reflexive culture responsive to change in productive ways than to try to repair deep, widespread cultural damage caused by hegemonics or neglect, as we can clearly see from historical precedent. facilitation of community cultural development requires transparency in policy as well as in practice with communities. it also requires that community cultural workers be equipped with knowledge and approaches that enable communities to express themselves, rather than show communities ‘what is good for them’. in the context of this study, this means that artists in the area of ritual and celebration need to be trained. however, that training should not be simply as arts professionals who expect to carry the full responsibility for artistic development and design of their work with communities. it is clear from my work that their role as artists is to open up the text of rituals and celebrations and to enable access not only to the practice of the activity and the design factors that accompany it, but also to their own and their communities’ understanding of the ways in which it functions, how it works. training establishments must work hard to design and facilitate new languages which expose these understandings and reflect new approaches. we need courses and teaching units based on carefully developed, reflexive, transparent methodologies that will be valuable tools for potential workers in this field. through such training and processes individuals and communities can come to further understand the importance of ritual and celebration and why they are efficacious. they can also defend their integrity and protect them from invasion by other interests. in these ways they can experience the full potency of such events to enrich and edify their lives. in addition to approaches to thinking new communities, what they might be and be becoming, and how they might engage with themselves, it has also been part of this project to explore some of the ways in which cognitive science is transforming understanding of human response. while science has enlarged its past horizons beyond order and symmetry to embrace diversity and unpredictability, the humanities have yet to embrace the full force of commonality and pattern as a unifying factor in the interpretation of human creativity. (barrow, : ) this knowledge will provide valuable clues about the function of cultural development and the arts which may in turn suggest means to establish the importance of these phenomena in the development of tolerant, sharing, expressive and rich communities. for my work, it has suggested some schema that enabled me to explore the dynamics of my practice and thus develop working categories and frameworks – that is, commonalities and patterns – that can assist in ensuring that ritual and celebratory design takes place with attention to its affects. ‘working through cultural productions, people can communicate emotions and complex meanings across class, group and generational lines’ (maccannell, : ). it is important to notice that creative work can carry ‘complex meanings’, but the primary question for those assisting communities in culturally producing themselves becomes one of understanding how meaningful cultural production takes place in such complex settings. in coming to grips with this question in the course of this study, i have found that wide theoretical research empowers praxis. particularly valuable have been a range of ideas concerning open text, and the movements of textuality in discursive fields, proposed by philosophers and cultural thinkers quoted in this text and drawn upon in the thinking that informed it. these theoretical frameworks, too often resisted by those working in community arts, help the practitioner to understand the semiological problems and potentials that occur in new ritual and celebration. similarly, contemporary considerations of subjectivity, difference and identity also help in understanding the manifold values, desires, talents and stories each participant brings to the context of production. the most important agency for the purposive and culturally productive development of ritual and celebration must lie in the hands of the community itself. in my own practice i can say that people, both individually and communally, have the desire to transform, reinforce, transcend and utilise catharsis within their lives. i resist the claims of some that condemn communities as apathetic and self-interested. i embrace the opportunity for further developing a sense of communitas. i have seen the way in which the arts in these environments can renew and refresh the human spirit, further understanding, produce human expression of great complexity, provide visions and suggest directions for development. the poetics of new ritual and celebration ambiguity is richness (borges cited by martin, : ) it is now time to develop a set of new criteria that enables a free flowing, ethical and artistically rich dialogue between artist and community. deconstruction has been able to dismantle manipulative metanarratives that distanced the community from processes and subject matter but has left us with a problem of how to re-engage in new directions in coherent ways. what follows are some suggested strategies to help us in this regard. firstly, the whole process has become more open and transparent and this has allowed a more conscious involvement for both the artist and the community. i have developed a new language, a set of frameworks, which describes this condition, this new relationship, which provides a much better means for community members to hold rituals and celebrations which have meaning that they have developed in place of imposed structures from other domains. drawing on this work, the artist and community can share a better understanding of how these events work – their history, their methodology, their structures, their similarities and their differences; why these events are held – social functions, witness, cultural sharing; and where these events are held – sense of place, sacred space, cultural environments. deconstruction produces instability of sign but on the other hand opens up new negotiations of meaning where symbol and sign can be seen to be a moveable expression of meaning and therefore used to full effect when properly understood and renegotiated in a setting of commonality. a deeper understanding of the how, the why and the where can only enrich the structures of design. the process of working out commonality yet accounting for difference can also help focus what is important to the community. in this way, there is expression of value in the process as well as the result. it is observed that communities are creating festivals and events to emphasise the value they recognise in feelings of ownership and belonging…’ (derrett, : ). a recognition of floating signifiers can locate a new appreciation of the flexibility of meaning that surrounds the sign, which is a valuable pathway in itself. how signs work becomes integrated into the language of ritual and celebration and this produces a dialogue of values which can be extremely useful in the context of design. this is so because the symbolic is always characterised by ‘double sense’. it is the raison d’être of symbolism to disclose the multiplicity of meaning out of the ambiguity of being. (martin, : ) through careful attention to process, the more esoteric language of some postmodernist theory can readily be retranslated into useful community dialogues of re-evaluated meaning. secondly, a developed awareness can be established of the connection between the cultural event and the experience of the individual in/of the event (that is, psycho- physiological interaction). i have demonstrated that rituals and celebrations are not just socio-cultural experiences but dynamic systems designed to affect the mind in special ways. i have described and explored four such systems. such a recognition produces a new discipline within ritual and design practice which allows much more understanding about what is actually happening. this transparency in turn produces a certain protection from exploitation, self-seeking sub-agendas and misuse. transparency is not a matter of limiting interpretation, engagement or possible meaning, or reducing the ‘magic’ of the event. it is about a clear and open disclosure of how mystery connects to our life -- the context of mystery. in many cases this means the demythologised answers and purposes of grand narrative are replaced with the mechanism of our own bodies, the relation of our own physiological processes to desires, communal structure and unavoidable transitions and fears. if new ritual is to separate itself from the ability to enact oppressive hidden agendas, then transparency does not spoil the ‘magic act’ because new ritual no longer presents the ‘act’ or the symbol as magic/mystery. but the experience remains of special states achieved in the forms i have outlined: reinforcement, transformation, transcendence and catharsis. they are understood as a function of the very mechanism of our life, our body, our concrete relationships to people, our kin and our neighbours as well as the others of otherness. each new evocation brings about a different reconstruction of old representations, weaves new links amongst them, integrates into the field of symbolism new information brought to it by daily life: the same rituals are enacted, but with new actors; the same myths are told, but in a changing universe, and to individuals whose social position, whose relationship with others and whose experiences have changed. (sperber cited in martin, : ) the third aspect to this new work is that it invigorates, centres, and empowers the individual’s capacity to participate in social rituals and celebrations which are important to experience of the human condition. naming ceremonies for communities to recognise their new members, rites of passage, marriages, death rituals, festivals of all kinds, civic and community celebrations, parades, communal mourning, expressions of belief, the experience of pilgrimage and sacred space, dancing, singing and telling stories, symbols of private feeling, formal avenues of public feeling, political and social envisioning, an unleashing of the imagination and many other facets of ritual and celebration can all become accessible through a process which becomes meaningful and inclusive of the people participating. it is important that there is an apparatus, a mechanics, to allow access and availability. but this apparatus must contain a certain ambiguity because it must hold what has to be learnt as a mystery. we cannot bite off the knowledge as a piece of information but rather must go through a process which allows access to understanding which in itself is unavailable without the participation. …the place where language escapes from itself and us is the place where language comes to itself: it is the place where language is saying. (ricoeur cited in martin, : ) it is this process which must be always available to our society, and artists can become new translators, the facilitators of saying. the fourth aspect is that new ritual and celebration can produce new art forms which can be enormously rewarding in their own right. the interaction of artists and the community in this area is producing a new avenue of artistic expression which can be moving and beautiful to experience. as the artists give their skills to community voice we are able to experience a form of human expression that is freed from the area of commodification, from the concept that these are cultural products for sale and from the idea that the arts could become a function based on the model of industry. this axis is producing dialogue which puts a new rigour into the role of the arts in community and, while linking with the historical past, is forging potent links with contemporary movements. giving a mode of expression to the community and the individual to take more control over their cultural expression and to better understand how culture works in this area can produce events which demonstrate integrity and shared values and not only express a local point of view but also truly contribute to the arts canon as valuable expressions of what it might mean to be human. whereas it might seem that in the practice i have outlined artists are somehow being disabled as cultural producers – that they might be losing control, and indeed a certain mystique – in fact they are facilitating cultural emergence of great importance. if we are to have confidence that artist and community can furnish the society with rich and vital expression we need look no further than emergence theory: …understanding emergence theory has always been about giving up control, letting the system govern itself as much as possible, letting it learn from the footprints. we have come far enough in that understanding to build small-scale systems for our entertainment and edification, and to appreciate more thoroughly the emergent behaviour that already exists at every scale of our lived experience. are there new scales to conquer, new revolutions that will make the top-down revelations of the industrial age look minor by comparison? (johnson, : ) one last aspect is that participation in the poetics of ritual and celebration gives a particular avenue to myth and archetype which is rich in illuminating many delicate facets of life and produces a mode of expression which articulates that. this exposure with its interactive dynamic brings myth and archetype into focus in rewarding ways as well as model narrative structures that can be used in the design process. its function is to reveal models and, in so doing, to give meaning to the world and to human life…it is through myth…that reality, value, transcendence slowly dawn. through myth, the world can be apprehended as a perfectly articulated, intelligible, and significant cosmos. (eliade cited in martin, : ) ceremony, ritual and celebration can be found in all cultures, in all geographical locations and in all historical times. it is not unreasonable to suggest that they will remain a part of human behaviour in the future. the deeper the understanding we have of the dynamics of this complex and beautiful form of human expression, the more our ceremonies, rituals and celebrations will reflect the deepest wisdom and understanding our culture has to offer, and the more our shared moments will reflect us, in all our differences. when we act in everyday life we do not merely re-act to indicative stimuli, we act in frames we have wrestled from genres of cultural performance. and when we act on stage, whatever stage that might be, we must now, in this reflexive age of psycho-analysis and semiotics as never before, bring into symbolic or fictitious worlds the urgent problems of our reality. we have to go into the subjunctive world of monsters, demons, and clowns, of cruelty and poetry, in order to make sense of our daily lives, earning our daily bread. and when we enter whatever theatre our lives allow us, we have already learnt how strange and many layered everyday life is, how extraordinary the ordinary. we then no longer need in auden’s terms the “endless safety” of ideologies but prize the “needless risk” of acting and interacting. 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( ) festivals and rituals of spain, times mirror press: new york cameron, neil ( ) maleny folk festival, mimburi press: maleny campbell, joseph ( ) hero with a thousand faces, fontana: london campbell, joseph ( ) the way of animal powers, times books: london campbell, joseph ( ) the power of myth, doubleday books: usa campbell, joseph ( ) transformation of myth through time, harper and row: new york carroll, john ( ) the western dreaming, harper collins: australia christian james l. ( ) philosophy – an introduction to the art of wondering, harcourt brace college publishers: fort worth cohen, david ( ) the circle of life, harper collins: san francisco coleman, simon and elsner, john ( ) pilgrimage, british museum press: london curtis, natalie ( ) the indian’s book university press of the pacific: portland damasio, antonio ( ) the feeling of what happens, heinemann: london dante ( ) the inferno, trans. by dorothy l. sayers, penguin: new york dante ( ) the divine comedy - the inferno, trans, by mark musa, penguin: middlesex davey, beed and seal, graham ( ) the oxford companion to australia folklore, oxford university press: oxford debord, guy ( ) the society of the spectacle, zone books: new york deleuze, gilles and guattari, felix ( ) a thousand plateaus, university of minnesota: minneapolis dennett, daniel ( ) consciousness explained, little, brown and company: boston derrett, ros ( ) ‘festival and regional destinations’, rural society, vol. , no. dessaix, robert ( ) ‘at the last secret’ in secrets, macmillan: sydney diprose, rosalyn and ferrell, robyn, eds. 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ceramics / submorphemics luise von flotow (ed.), translating women karen meschia electronic version url: http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/ doi: . /miranda. issn: - publisher université toulouse - jean jaurès electronic reference karen meschia, “luise von flotow (ed.), translating women”, miranda [online], | , online since december , connection on february . url: http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/ ; doi: https://doi.org/ . /miranda. this text was automatically generated on february . miranda is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives . international license. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / luise von flotow (ed.), translating women karen meschia references luise von flotow (ed.), translating women (ottawa: university of ottawa press, ), p, isbn - - - - luise von flotow’s latest publication comes fourteen years after her seminal translation and gender, and its title, explained in the opening words of her preface, “it is time to write about 'women and translation' again”, announces the author’s programmatic intent. in her introduction to the fifteen essays that make up the work, von flotow suggests that the new-found assertiveness and agency of feminist translators in the s and s has flagged somewhat over the last decade. the advent of queer theories and the questioning of stable sexual identities, whilst complexifying and enriching many areas of research, “seem[s] to have found less of an echo or application in translation studies” ( ). she points out that this blurring of boundaries simultaneously precludes using identity as a basis for oppression yet undermines its potential as a source of collective political power, and yet there is a great deal of scope for examining the common ground between butler’s account of the performative, contingent aspects of gender identity construction and those involved in the translation process. this idea of translation as a discursive performance enacting gender identity politics runs through the selection. the title, of course, reads several ways and the essays deal with men and women as translators of women and men in all combinations, although women’s texts do predominate. the result is as delightfully intricate as the book’s william morris cover design, thanks to the variety of temporal and spatial settings involved. these take us from an eleventh-century japanese account of court life, the pillow   book,   to an analysis of twenty-first-century american “chick” literature; not luise von flotow (ed.), translating women miranda, | chronologically, but with each essay echoing or expanding on themes present elsewhere. poetry features widely; almost half the essays deal either with poets in translation, such as james underhill’s gender-based assessment of translations of emily dickenson, or with women poet-translators like adrienne rich and karolina pavlova, using translation to hone their art, or with translator-poets who integrate poetry into their work in different, strategic ways. this editorial choice is not accidental, foregrounding the subjective, creative dimension of linguistic and cultural transfers, seen always as contingent, negotiated, contested constructions, which, at best open up space for what susan bassnett calls “a form of meeting … an encounter between writers” ( ) and, one hopes, with readers, but which may also foreclose understanding, distort or dismember (hence von flotow’s aim to “re-member” ulrike meinhof’s writing). collectively, the essays engage with problematics familiar within translation studies: the translator’s ambiguous status, issues of “fidelity”, contextualisation, linguistic and cultural aporia, but here the gender perspective and the diverse typology of documents shed fresh light on old questions, drawing unexpected methodological parallels and offering new ways of seeing. several essays revisit the ways translation has historically offered empowerment to women otherwise excluded from artistic and cultural expression. alison e martin’s essay on botanical translation describes how a legitimate female authorial voice emerged in eighteenth-century enlightenment europe through such authoritative writing. tom dolak’s essay on nineteenth-century russian poet karolina pavlova demonstrates simultaneously how her sex barred her from recognition in her own right whilst her prolific activity as a translator both endowed her with status and nourished her creativity. rather different is the case of poet, novelist and essayist helen maria williams, widely acknowledged in her own time. anna barker analyses her translation of paul et virginie, amended by eight of her own sonnets, as an individual, artistic response to an inextricable identity crisis when, after championing the french revolution, she subsequently became persona non grata, threatened with imprisonment. this question of the translator’s personal involvement or empathy with their subject matter, which thus becomes a site for negotiating identity, recurs in several essays. two extreme examples are madeleine stratford’s and kate sturge’s essays on susan bassnett and ruth behar, both well-known figures in their fields and renowned for their innovative, experimental writing. sturge’s methodological reflexion is enlightening, reiterating the common ground between translation proper and ethnological “cultural translation”, then underlining the subjective, fragmentary nature of the textual inscription that both ultimately involve. no coincidence that both essay titles are concerned with naming; it is the identity of the translator and the translated, and their consequent power relation, which is at stake. as stratford’s sub-title (“susan bassnett’s 'life exchange' with alejandra pizarnik”) indicates, bassnett’s treatment of the argentine poet’s work goes far beyond that of the “invisible” translator, making texts available to a new audience. in exchanging lives— poems and translations her name features alongside pizarnik’s and in the poem “sólo un nombre”, “alejandra” actually becomes “susanna”. this borderline position between personal creation and translation has been criticized, and stratford suggests that the book is more about bassnett’s work than that of pizarnak, no longer alive to approve or contest this authorial position. sturge’s “the story of ruth and esperanza” raises luise von flotow (ed.), translating women miranda, | similar issues. although insisting that behar’s chief concern in translating an obscure, illiterate mexican woman’s life story was precisely to redress an inherently unequal power relationship, sturge finally wonders whether behar’s reflexive use of her personal biography does not ultimately overshadow esperanza’s. if treading the fine line between authorial transparency and respect for the source text is difficult, several essays reveal the dangers of unacknowledged adaptations to the target culture, often carrying unspoken assumptions about the prevailing gender regime. bella brodski maps the terminological fortunes of “french theory” as it crossed the atlantic. ana bogic recalls the circumstances of the first american translation of beauvoir’s deuxième sexe, revealed by toril moi in a article as a “sorry mess” and relegating beauvoir to secondary status in relation to sartre by indiscriminate cuts in the philosophical content. two other essays, one on translations of american “chick” texts into french, the other on tahar ben jelloun’s l’enfant de sable, translated into american, mirror each other interestingly. anne-lise ferral demonstrates how french adaptations in subtitling sex and the city and ally mcbeal produced a different construction of female sexuality based on a traditional, seductive, more passive role for women in france than the overt, aggressive sexuality displayed by the americans. conversely, pascale sardin criticizes ben jelloun’s translator for eluding the linguistic problems raised by the author’s skilful, ambiguous use of grammatical gender in his story of a girl raised as a boy: excessive cautiousness in neutralising gender references not only weakens the narrative drive but edulcorates the book’s subversive potential. von flotow’s own contribution discusses translating ulrike meinhof’s writings. in tackling the politically sensitive issue of rehabilitating a “gifted public intellectual” ( ), now remembered only as a terrorist, she raises fundamental ethical questions about the translator’s responsibility, whilst offering a convincing framework, articulating analogies between memory and translation, for approaching the latter both as process and product. the resulting text, she says, is “unavoidably marked by difference and history, as though read through a haze” ( ). von flotow explicitly places this essay within a tradition of gender activism, citing other female reputations restored thanks to such scholarly memory work. this is the affirmative answer to her introductory questions as to the continuing relevance, for translation practices today, of gender identity politics. in translation and gender von flotow regretted that translators’ feminist commitment was often visible in their metatext, much less so in the textual product itself. carolyn shread returns to this critique in her insightful analysis of translating marie vieux- chauvet’s les   rapaces, thus bringing the reader full circle and offering new perspectives. she first draws on narrative theory to propose an alternative conceptualisation of identity, seen as a positioning around shared narratives rather than shared identity attributes, then argues that if feminism forms and informs translator and text, then a feminist translation may not carry clearly identifiable feminist markers, “yet it would not be the same translation without the reading, processing and writing of the feminist translator” ( ). reading this volume leaves us in no doubt of the continuing relevance and heuristic value of such an approach. luise von flotow (ed.), translating women miranda, | index mots-clés: traduction, traductologie, féminisme keywords: translation, translation studies, feminism authors karen meschia maître de conférences université toulouse – le mirail karen.meschia@gmail.com luise von flotow (ed.), translating women miranda, | 	luise von flotow (ed.), translating women 반건호·배재호·문수진·민정원 - - 시 뇌염에서 살아남은 아이들 중 산만하고 행동이 과다해지 고 충동 조절 및 인지기능 장애가 발생한다는 보고가 년대 초에 다수 발표되었다. ) 그들은 우울증을 포함한 기분 증상, 틱 증상, 인지 기능 손상으로 인한 학습 장애 등의 다 양한 증상뿐 아니라 반 사회적, 파괴적 행동을 포함한 행동 문제, 주의력 결핍 문제 등의 adhd에 해당하는 증상들을 보였다. 이는 처음으로 adhd 유사 증상의 원인으로 신체 적 결함을 고려하게 된 사건이며, 단순한 도덕적 조절 능력 결핍이 아닌 ‘뇌염 후 행동장애(postencephalitic behav- ior disorder)’라는 진단을 내리게 되었다. ) 그로 인해 출생 당시 선천적 결손이나 주산기 무산소증, 주산기 질병 등이 뇌 의 이른 기질적 손상을 가져오고, 그로 인해 행동상의 문제 나 학습 장애, 주의력 결핍 등을 유발할 수 있다는 인식이 확 산되었다. ) 이러한 환자들을 단일 질환으로 분류하고 이에 대해 수많은 치료법이 개발되었으나 효과가 없었다. adhd가 이러한 뇌염 등의 질병에 의해 유발되는 것은 아니지만, 단 순한 도덕적 결함으로 인한 개인적 문제 차원에서 뇌의 기 질적 변화로 인한 질병으로 인식되기 시작했다는 점에서 의 의를 찾을 수 있다. . kramer-pollnow 증후군 franz kramer( ~ )와 hans pollnow( ~ )는 년 “on a hyperkinetic disease of infan- cy”에서 행동문제가 있는 명의 아이들(세 명의 소녀 포함) 에 대해 보고하였다. ) “아이들한테 나타나는 가장 분명한 증상은 엄청난 운동 량이다. 그것도 무척 급하게 행동한다. 잠시도 차분하게 기다 리지 못하고 방 안을 이리저리 뛰어 다닌다. 특히 높은 가구 에 기어올라가는 것을 선호한다. 누군가 말리려 하면 성을 낸 다.” ) 이러한 내용은 오늘날 adhd의 주 증상 중 하나인 과잉행동 특성과 상당부분 일치한다. “특별한 목표 없이 하던 행동들은 다른 자극을 받으면 쉽 게 다른 행동으로 넘어가는 산만함을 보인다. 아이들은 과제 를 완수하기가 어렵고 간단한 질문에도 대답을 못한다. 어려 운 과제에 집중하는 것은 대단히 곤란하다. 그러다 보면 학 습에 문제가 생긴다. 지적 능력 평가도 곤란하다.” ) 이 부분 은 역시 adhd의 주 증상 중 하나인 주의력결핍에 해당한다. “지속력이 떨어지고 특정 과제에 집중하기도 어렵다. 기분 도 불안정하다. 쉽게 흥분하고 자주 분노를 터뜨리며 별 것 아닌 일에 눈물을 터뜨리거나 공격적으로 변한다.” ) 이는 adhd의 충동성향과 부합되는 내용이다. 하지만 “일초도 가만히 있지 못하는 아이의 행동 문제에도 불구하고 자신 들이 좋아하는 과제에는 오랜 시간 집중할 수 있다. 나이가 들면서 과활동성이 소실되거나 감소한다.”는 기술은 충동성 향에 대한 의심을 불러오기도 하는 대목이다. dsm-iv ) 의 진단 기준 중 “사회적, 학업적, 또는 직업적 기능의 현저한 손상” 대목에 해당하는 내용도 기술한 바 있 다. “과잉행동 아이들은 종종 불복종하는 행동특성이 있으 며, 학습 문제도 심각하다. 학교에서는 학급 수업 진행을 방 해하고 혼란에 빠뜨리며 친구들과 어울려 노는 것이 어렵고 친구 사이에서 왕따 되기 일쑤다.” ) dsm-iv ) 의 연령 기준에 대한 부분도 이미 kramer- pollnow 증후군 기록에 언급하고 있다. 이들이 보고한 사례 들은 내지 세에 과잉행동이 시작되고 세 경에 절정을 이 룬다고 하였다. 상당수 아이들은 열성 질병이나 간질성 경련 후에 행동 문제가 나타난다는 내용도 기술하였다. ) kramer와 pollnow는 이러한 아이들의 장애를 “아동기 의 과활동성(hyperkinesis of childhood)”라고 지칭하였 다. 이처럼 공격적 행동, 충동성, 혼란스러울 정도의 안절부 절못함, 학습장애 등을 보였으나, 당시 유행하던 뇌염 후 행 동장애와는 차이가 있었다. 뇌염 후 행동장애에서 보이는 수 면장애, 야간에 나타나는 초조감, 이상한 몸동작 등이 없었 고 주간에만 증상을 보였다. ) 원인적 접근에서 뇌의 장애를 더 고려했다는 점에서 역사 적 가치가 있으나 연구를 진행하던 중, 그들이 모두 유태인이 었기 때문에 나치의 강제 이주가 이루어지면서 후속 연구자 료를 찾기는 어렵다. ) 하지만 이는 who의 질병분류에 영 향을 미쳤고, ‘hyperkinetic’이라는 용어는 icd- 의 ‘hy- perkinetic disorder’로 이어졌다. ) . adhd의 치료에 대한 최초 기록, charles bradley adhd 치료와 연구에 가장 획기적인 내용은 년 char- les bradley라는 정신과의사가 쓴 ‘the behavior of child- ren receiving benzedrine’이라는 논문에서 찾을 수 있 다. ) 그는 미국 로드아일랜드 주에 위치한 emma pend- leton bradley home(현재는 bradley hospital)의 의료 부장으로 재직하면서 기뇌조영술(pneumoencephalogra- phy) 후에 두통이 있는 아이들을 치료하기 위해 벤제드린(ben- zedrine, 주 : benzedrine은 amphetamine 제제로 년 부터 기관지확장제로 시판되었고 흡입형 제제였으며, 현재는 propylhexedrine으로 대체되어 사용되고 있음 ) 을 투여하 였다. 그는 두통이 뇌척수액의 손실로 인해 발생하는 것이라 생각했으며, 따라서 두통을 치료하기 위해서는 맥락총에서 뇌척수액 생산을 촉진시키면 될 것이라고 생각했다. 뇌척수 액 생산을 촉진시키기 위해 당시 사용되고 있던 가장 강력 한 정신 자극제인 벤제드린을 투여하였다. 벤제드린 투여 후 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애의 역사적 고찰 - - 에도 두통은 그다지 호전되지 않았으나, 일부 환아에서 학교 생활에 큰 변화가 있었고 학습효과도 눈에 띄게 좋아졌다. 아이들은 이 약을 “arithmetic pills”로 불렀다. 그러한 아 이들의 행동 변화를 감지한 bradley는 그의 병원에서 행동 문제를 보이는 명의 환자들을 대상으로 벤제드린을 투여 하였다. “벤제드린을 투여한 반수의 환자들에서 학교 생활 의 두드러진 호전이 나타났고, 일과 수행에 있어 훨씬 빠르고 정확하게 집중할 수 있게 되었다.”라고 기술하였다. ) 하지만 당시에는 행동문제 치료에 심리요법이 주류를 이루고 있었 고, 안타깝게도 이러한 약물 효과에 대한 재검증이 이루어지 지 않았다. adhd 치료약물의 본격적 사용은 그의 논문 발표 후 년여가 지나서야 시작되었다. ) . adhd의 기질적 원인 분석 시도, minimal brain dysfunction(mbd) adhd의 원인에 대한 인식이 still경의 도덕적 결함으로 인한 행동 문제에서 tredgold의 뇌의 기질적 문제로 인한 행동 문제 ) 로 변화된 이후, kahn과 cohen ) 은 ‘organic drivenness’라는 표현을 사용하기도 하였다. lewin ) 은 지 적 기능이 떨어지는 아동과 성인 환자에서 뇌손상과 안절부 절못하는 증상과의 관련성을 제시하였으며, 전두엽을 제거 한 동물실험 결과와 결부시켜 설명하였다. 그 밖에도 뇌염과 감염, 납중독, 경련성 질환 등 뇌에 영향을 미칠 수 있는 다양 한 원인들과 그에 따른 환자들의 행동 문제에 대한 보고가 다 수 발표되었다. ) 이러한 연구 결과들을 바탕으로 뇌손상과 행동문제의 관련성에 대한 인식이 정착되기 시작하였고, str- auss와 lehtinen ) 은 뇌손상 아동에서 여러 가지 정신증상 이 나타날 수 있으며, 특히 과잉행동과 뇌손상과의 관련성을 지적하고 이러한 증상을 보이는 아동들을 하나의 증후군, minimal brain damage syndrome으로 분류하였다. 오 늘날 주의력결핍증상 중 많은 부분이 이미 그의 논문에서 기술한 증후군과 일치한다. ~ 대에 들어서는 ‘두뇌 손상아동 brain-damage children’ ) , ’미세 뇌손상 mini- mal brain damage’ ) , ‘미세두뇌기능장애 minimal cereb- ral dysfunction’ ) , ‘미세뇌기능장애 minimal brain dy- sfunction(mbd)’ ) 등으로 명명되었고, 그 중 mbd가 가장 흔히 통용되었다. 이렇듯 다양한 명칭과 보고에도 불구하고 여전히 통일된 질병개념은 등장하지 않았다. ) . 주의력저하와 과활동성 치료제의 승인, 리탈린(ritalin) bradley가 과활동성, 주의 집중에 장애를 보이는 환자를 대상으로 벤제드린을 투여하여 효과가 있었다는 보고 ) 가 있었으나, 당시 그 결과는 주목 받지 못했다. 하지만 점차 정신 질환 치료에 있어 심리치료 이외에 생물학적 치료의 필요성이 강조되기 시작하였고, 과활동성을 보이는 아동들 의 치료에 있어서도 점차 중추신경자극제의 효과에 대한 관 심이 커지고 있었다. ) bradley가 adhd환자들에 있어 벤제드린의 효과를 발표 한지 년이 지난 년, adhd 역사에서 가장 획기적 사 건 중 하나가 일어났다. 메틸페니데이트(methylphenidate) 성분의 리탈린이 처음으로 의약품으로 승인된 것이다. ) 이 약 품은 년 ciba사의 화학자인 leandro panizzon이 합 성하였고, 년부터 리탈린이라는 이름으로 판매되기 시작 하였다. 리탈린이라는 이름은 panizzon의 아내의 애칭인 rita 에서 온 것이라고 한다. 평소 저혈압을 앓고 있던 아내가 테니 스 시합 도중 저혈압으로 쓰러질 것을 우려하여 시합 전 자극 제로 이 약을 사용하였다. 그로 인해 리탈린은 시판 당시 만 성 피로, 기면증, 우울증, 그와 관련된 정신 증상 등에 효과 가 있는 것으로 알려졌다. 그러나 점차 과잉행동이나 주의 산만 증상에 효과가 있음이 알려지면서 이러한 증상을 보이 는 환자들에게 사용되기 시작하였고, ) 훗날 adhd치료에서 가장 중요한 역할을 담당하는 약물이 되었다. 하지만 치료가 진행되고 있었음에도 불구하고 질병으로서adhd의 통일된 개념은 확립되지 않았다. . 질병으로서의 adhd 이렇듯 이미 세기 초부터 adhd 개념이 언급되기 시작 하였고 치료 또한 시도되었으나, 현재 사용되는 adhd 개념 에 접근하기 시작한 것은 년대 들어서였다. 과다한 행동 의 의학적 원인에 대한 논의가 지속되고 mbd 개념이 확산 되면서 뇌의 손상이 행동 장애로 이어진다는 가설은 탄력을 받게 되었다. ) 하지만 행동 문제를 보이는 모든 아동들이 뇌 손상을 가지고 있어야 한다는 이 이론은 많은 비판을 받 게 되었고 뇌 손상의 평가 방법에 대한 논란도 커졌다. - ) 또한 뇌 손상이 없는 아동들에서도 행동 문제가 보고되었다. ) 이러한 논란에도 불구하고 그간 축적된 자료를 바탕으로 미국 정신의학계의 진단체계인 dsm-ii(the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-ii) ) 에서 ‘아동기 과잉행동 반응 hyperkinetic reaction of child- hood’이라는 명칭으로 공식 진단으로 인정하고 다음과 같 은 두 문장으로 정의하였다. “과활동성이고, 안절부절못하고, 산만하고 집중 시간이 짧은 소아들. 행동은 대개 청소년기에 감소함.” 하지만 진단명에서 알 수 있듯이 아직도 뇌의 기질 적 원인보다는 주변 자극에 대한 과도한 ‘반응’ 개념으로 이 해하고 있으며, 안타깝지만 그때까지도 adhd는 청소년기 가 되면 사라지는 문제로 여겼다. dsm-iii ) 에서는 douglas ) 가 주장한 것처럼 과잉행동 반건호·배재호·문수진·민정원 - - 보다는 충동조절, 주의력, 각성 영역의 결함에 좀 더 초점을 맞추게 되었고, 그간 mbd 아동에서 문제가 되었던 특수 학습 장애 영역을 adhd에서 분리시켰다. 진단명도 dsm- ii의 ‘반응 reaction’에서 ‘장애 disorder’로 바뀌었다. 하지 만 과잉행동증상에 대한 중요성이 인식되지 않았고, add with hyperactivity(addh)와 add without hyperac- tivity(add)로 명명하였다. 두 아형 사이의 임상적 차이가 미미하다는 논란이 지속되었고 과잉행동이 중요한 증상군임 이 받아들여져서, ) 년 dsm-iii-r 에서는 두 아형에 대한 개념을 삭제하고, 오늘날 사용되고 있는 주의력결핍 과 잉행동장애(adhd)로 진단명이 변경되었다. ) add with- out hyperactivity 진단은 미분류 add(undifferentiated add)로 남았다. 년, 개정된 dsm-iv에서도 adhd라는 명칭은 그대 로 쓰이고 있지만 주의력-결핍 우세형(predominantly inat- tentive type), 과잉행동-충동 우세형(predominantly hy- peractive-impulsive type), 복합형(combined type)의 가지 아형으로 분류되었다. ) 년 개정된 dsm-iv-tr ) 에서도 진단체계는 크게 바뀌지 않았으나, dsm-v에서는 일부 진단 기준 변화와 함께 현재 아형을 없애고 하나의 진단 으로 가는 방안과 기존의 주의력 결핍형 대신 attention de- ficit disorder(add) 진단을 채택하는 것을 고려하고 있다. ) . icd- 과 dsm-iv의 차이 년에 icd- 에서는 주의가 산만하고 과다행동을 보 이는 아동들을 hyperkinetic reaction of childhood로 분류 하였다. ) 이후 icd- 에서는 hyperkinetic syndrome으 로, ) icd- 에서는 hyperkinetic disorder(hkd)로 분 류하였다. ) dsm-iv와 icd- 은 다음과 같은 차이가 있다. ) 첫째, icd- 은 dsm-iv보다 진단 기준의 적용을 광범위하고 강력하게 요구한다는 점이다. 둘째, icd- 은 부주의함, 충 동성, 과활동성의 세 가지 영역을 모두 포함해야 진단할 수 있는 단일질환 개념이지만, dsm-iv에서는 주의력-결핍 우 세형(predominantly inattentive type), 과잉행동-충동 우세형(predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type), 복합형(combined type)으로 그 아형을 분류하고 있어서 위의 세 가지 영역이 모두 충족하지 않는 경우에도 진단을 붙일 수 있다. 셋째, icd- 은 한 가지 진단만을 붙이도록 되어 있으나, dsm-iv에서는 일부 공존질환을 동시에 진단 하는 것을 허용하고 있다. 두 진단 체계간 차이로 인해 나타나는 결과는 명백한 유 병률의 차이이다. - ) lee 등 ) 은 같은 환자군에서 dsm- iv와 icd- 기준을 적용하여 진단할 경우 hdk가 %, a- dhd 복합형은 . %로 더 많이 진단된다고 하였다. hkd 는 adhd보다 신경발달학적 손상, 학업의 문제, 인지적 장 해가 더 심한 것으로 보고되었고, , ) 중추신경자극제 치료 에 더 잘 반응하는 것으로 알려졌다. ) . 성인 adhd 년대 이후 다음과 같은 세 가지 유형의 연구보고가 늘어나면서, 아동은 물론 성인 adhd에 대한 관심도 늘기 시작하였다. 먼저, mbd 아이들의 장기 추적 관찰에서 이 들 문제가 성인기에도 계속 된다고 보고 하였다. ) 둘째, 과잉 행동을 보이는 아이들의 부모에 대한 연구가 진행되면서 그 들의 부모 역시 비슷한 문제가 있음을 알게 되었다. ) 세 번 째 유형은 충동성, 공격성, 정서불안정, 우울성향 등을 보이 는 성인들에 대한 보고이다. ) 년 캐나다 mcgill 대학의 virginia douglas 교수 는 이들 아동에서 과잉행동뿐 아니라 주의력저하 문제를 제 기하였으며, 그녀의 동료인 gabrielle weiss는 장기 추적 연구를 통해 과잉행동증상은 나이를 먹으면서 줄어들지만 주의력문제와 충동조절 문제는 지속되며 이 증상들이 중추 신경자극제에 특히 반응이 좋다고 주장하였다. ) 앞서 말한 것처럼 이전에는 청소년기가 되면서 점차 증세가 사라지고 성 인기에는 확실히 사라진다고 믿었던 이론에 의심을 갖게 되었 고, 점차 성인 adhd 연구가 시작되었다. 초창기 성인기 adhd 추적 연구는 주로 몬트리올 팀 ) 와 뉴욕 연구진 , ) 에 의해 이루어졌다. adhd 증세의 지속 여부에 대한 결과, 몬트리올 연구에서는 과거 adhd 아동의 반 정도가 세 시점에서 아동기의 증세가 지속된다고 하였 다. ) 뉴욕 연구진의 추적 연구에서도 아동기 adhd 진단군 이 성인기에 adhd로 진단되는 비율이 %였다. ) 즉, 아동 기의 adhd 증상이 성인기가 되어도 반 정도에서는 남아 있 었으며, 뉴욕 연구진의 또 다른 장기 추적 연구에서는 아동기 에 adhd로 진단된 경우 성인기에 약물남용, 반사회적 성격 장애로 진단되는 경우가 대조군에 비해 유의하게 많았다. ) adhd가 아동기에 발병한 후 거의 반수가 청소년기를 거 쳐 성인기까지 증세가 지속된다는 보고가 늘면서 성인 adhd 의 진단기준과 치료에 대한 관심도 늘고 있다. 년 미국 fda에서 아토목세틴(atomoxetine)을 소아청소년은 물론 성인 adhd 치료제로 승인하면서 성인 adhd에 대한 약 물치료 폭이 넓어졌고, ) 년에는 성인 adhd의 진단과 치료 기준 마련을 위해 개 나라의 여명의 전문가가 참 여한 european network adult adhd가 만들어지기도 하였다. ) 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애의 역사적 고찰 - - 년경 발표될 것으로 예상되는 dsm-v에서는 이제까 지 성인 adhd 연구와 진료과정에서 논란이 되어 온 ‘ 세 이하 발병’이라는 진단 기준을 ’ 세 이하 발병’으로 바꾸고, 성인의 경우 일부 아형 진단 시 ‘진단 기준 개 항목 중 개 이상 만족’을 ‘ 개 이상’으로 낮추는 작업이 진행되고 있다. ) 이와 같이 아동기에 발병하는 adhd가 성인기로 이행되는 것을 반영하는 진단 기준의 변화가 예상된다. . 역사 속 유명인사 중에 adhd가 있었을까? 역사 속의 유명인 들을 분석함으로써 과거 인물에게서 adhd의 실존 가능성을 알아볼 수도 있다. 이는 adhd 진단과 약물치료에 반대하는 집단은 물론 adhd 치료를 옹 호하는 쪽에서도 내세운다. , ) 흔히 인용되는 대표 인물 중 건축가로는 시카고를 대표하는 frank lloyd wright, 예술가 중에는 salvador dali, pablo picasso, vincent van gogh, 문학작품을 남긴 작가로는 charlotte bronte 와 emily bronte, samuel clemens, emily dickenson, scott fitzgerald, edgar allan poe, ralph waldo emerson, robert frost, george bernard shaw, hen- ry david thoreau, leo tolstoy, tennessee williams, virginia woolf, william butler yeats, 천재 작곡가인 wolfgang amadeus mozart, 위대한 사업가로는 andrew carnegie, malcolm forbes, henry ford, bill gates, david neeleman, paul orfalea, ted turner, 탐험가 중 에는 christopher columbus, 발명가 중에는 wright bro- thers, alexander graham bell, thomas edison, benjamin franklin, 등이 있으며, 위대한 학자인 albert einstein이 있다. 저명한 정치가로는 james carville이나 john f. kennedy를 든다. 미국의 유명한 사진작가인 ansel adams도 포함된다. 과거 인물은 아니지만 최근 활 동했거나 활동 중인 운동선수 중에는 terry bradshaw, michael phelps, pete rose, nolan ryan, michael jordan, jason kidd, 연예인 중에는 ann bancroft, jim carrey, steve mcqueen, jack nicholson, elvis presley, sylvester stallone, robin williams 등이 있다. 이러한 분류는 자서전과 역사적 자료를 바탕으로 개연성 을 추정하는 것이며, 학문적 근거를 바탕으로 하는 것은 아 니므로 보다 많은 체계적 평가와 분석이 필요할 것이다. 하 지만 이러한 움직임이 정신의학적 입장에서 역사 속의 유명 인물을 평가하려는 시도로 이어지기도 한다. 예를 들어 자서 전을 토대로 본 체 게바라(che guevara)의 어린 시절은 전 형적인 adhd 기준에 부합하며, 그의 어머니 역시 성인 adhd 에 해당한다. ) 그의 성인기 기록 역시 성인 adhd로서의 기 준에 합당하다. fidel castro와 같은 동료 혁명가들의 충고 에도 불구하고 아프리카와 남아메리카에서 벌인 게릴라 활 동 역시 부적절한 충동성향 때문이라는 분석이다. . adhd 연구의 최신 경향 최근 adhd의 ‘회복’에 관한 개념도 새로이 제시되고 있다. 단순히 약에 의한 증상의 소실을 치료의 목표로 보는 것이 아니라 그에 따르는 사회적, 총체적 기능의 개선이 이루어져 야 이를 관해라고 볼 수 있다는 것이다. ) 즉, 주의력 결핍이 나 과다행동과 같은 단순한 증상으로서의 개념이 아니라, 전반적 뇌기능 장해와 그로 인한 다양한 기능의 소실로 규 정되는 개념으로 나아가고 있는 것이다. adhd에 관한 기질적, 생물학적 연구도 진행되고 있다. adhd 환자군의 가족력 증거에 대한 연구도 계속 늘고 있 으며, ) 도파민 d , d 수용체 변이와 관련이 있다는 보고 가 있으며, ) dbh, htr b, snap- 등의 유전자 관련 연구도 진행되고 있다. ) 최근 국내 연구진에 의한 연구도 활 발히 진행되고 있다. , ) 유전적 원인 뿐 아니라 환경 원인에 대한 연구도 보고되었는데, 소아기 시절의 납이나 pcbs의 중독과 관련이 있다는 보고 ) 이후, 출생 전 알코올 노출과 dat 유전자와의 연관성 ) 과 같은 환경 원인과 유전자와의 연관성에 대한 연구도 진행되고 있다. 최근 뇌영상 기술의 발달로 fmri가 등장하면서 adhd 환자군의 뇌 부분 활성도와 관련된 많은 연구가 진행되었다. 전전두엽, 선조체에서의 활성도 저하가 보고되었고 , ) 선조 체에서 도파민이 피질선조체 시냅스의 시냅스 후 신경세포를 활성화시킨다는 보고도 있었다. ) 보상관련 기전과 관련해서 는 배쪽 선조체의 활성도가 저하된다는 연구 결과가 있었다. ) shaw 등 ) 은 adhd 아동과 정상아동과의 뇌 피질 성숙 도 변화를 비교한 결과를 발표하면서 질병의 중추신경계 병 리를 규명하는데 크게 일조하였다. 이와 같이 adhd의 발병 기전과 질병 특성을 설명할 수 있는 생물학적 근거가 제시되 고 있다. 결 론 이처럼 adhd는 오래 전부터 존재하였으나 세기에 들 면서 임상적으로 관심을 갖게 되었고, 최근 백 여 년 동안 ‘뇌염 후 행동장애’, ‘뇌 손상 아동’, ‘mbd’, ‘아동기 과잉행동 반응’, ‘add’, 등 여러 가지 이름으로 불려왔다. 앞으로도 새 로운 뇌 병변 발견이나 새로운 기전의 발견 등으로 인해 진 단명이 바뀔 수도 있겠으나, 질병 개념에 차이는 변하지 않을 것이다. 향후 adhd의 더 정확한 원인 및 치료방법에 대한 반건호·배재호·문수진·민정원 - - 연구가 필요하다. 중심 단어：주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 ·역사 ·고 찰 ·메틸페니 데이트. references )	 american psychiatric association. diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders rd ed rev (dsm-iii-r). washington dc: american psychiatric press; . )	 mash ej, david a. abnormal child psychology th ed. bel-mont: cengage learning; . p. - . )	 hartmann t. the edison gene: adhd and the gift of the hunter child. rochester: park street press; . p. - . )	 shakespeare w. henry iv part ii. new york: digireads; . p. . )	 alexander c. an inquiry into the nature and origin of mental de- rangement: comprehending a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their effects. london: pams press; . p. - . )	 american psychiatric association. diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders th ed (dsm-iv). washington dc: american psychiatric association; . )	 still gf. some abnormal psychical conditions in children: the 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(dsm-iv-trtm). washing- ton dc: american psychiatric press; . )	bell as. a critical review of adhd diagnostic criteria: what to ad- dress in the dsm-v. j atten disord ; : - . 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애의 역사적 고찰 - - )	 world health organization. manual of the international classifi- cation of diseases, injuries, and causes of death, th revision. ge- neva: world heath organization; . )	 world health organization. manual of the international classifi- cation of diseases, injuries, and causes of death, th revision. ge- neva: world heath organization; . )	 lee si, schachar rj, chen sx, ornstein tj, charach a, barr c, et al. predictive validity of dsm-iv and icd- criteria for adhd and hyperkinetic disorder. j child psychol psychiatry ; : - . )	karloviæ d, zori?iæ z, buljan d. correspondence between dsm iv adhd and icd hyperkinetic disorder in croatian sample. acta clin croat ; : - . in: lange kw, reichl s, lange km, tucha l, tucha o. the history of attention deficit hyperac- tivity disorder. attent defic hyperact disord ; : - . )	 schachar, r. childhood hyperactivity. j child psychol psychiatry ; : - . )	leung p, luk s, ho t, taylor, e, mak f, bacon-shone j. the diag- nosis and prevalence of hyperactivity in chinese schoolboys. br j psychiatry ; : - . )	taylor e, sandberg s, thorley g, giles s. the epidemiology of childhood hyperactivity. oxford: oxford university press; . )	santosh p, taylor e, swanson j, wigal t, chuang s, davies m, et al. refining the diagnoses of inattention and overactivity syn- dromes: a reanalysis of the multimodal treatment study of atten- tion deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd) based on icd- crite- ria for hyperkinetic disorder. clini neurosci res ; : - . )	 menkes m. a five-year follow-up study of the hyperactive child with minimal brain dysfunction. pediatrics ; : - . )	morrison jr, stewart ma. the psychiatric status of the legal families of adopted hyperactive children. arch gen psychiatry ; : - . )	 hartcollis p. the syndrome of minimal brain dysfunction in young adult patients. bull menninger clin ; : - . )	 weiss g, hechtman l, milroy t. psychiatric status of hyperac- tives as adualts: a controlled prospective -year follow-up of hyperactive children. j am acad child psychiatry ; : - . )	 mannuzza s, klein rg, bonagura n, malloy p, giampino tl, ad- dalli ka. hyperactive boys almost grown up: v. replication of psychiatric status. arch gen psychiatry ; : - . )	mannuzza s, klein rg, bessler a, malloy p, lapadula m. adult psychiatric status of hyperactive boys grown up. am j psychiatry ; : - . )	faraone sv, biederman j, spencer t, michelson d, adler l, reim- herr f, et al. atomoxetine and stroop task performance in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. j child adolesc psycho- pharmacol ; : - . )	kooij sj, bejerot s, blackwell a, caci h, casas-brugué m, car- pentier pj, et al. european consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult adhd: the european network adult adhd. bmc psychiatry ; ; - . )	add/adhd treatments. famous people with adhd and add. 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[accessed on jan ]. avilable from: http://www.adhdrelief.com/famous.html. )	 teive ha, zavala ja, munhoz rp, lara dr, lima p, palmini a. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and the behavior of “che” guevara. j clin neurosci ; : - . )	 steele m, jensen ps, quinn dm. remission versus response as the goal of therapy in adhd: a new standard for the field? clin ther ; : - . )	 faraone sv, doyle ae. the nature and heritability of attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder. child adolesc psychiatr clin n am ; : - . )	 bobb aj, castellanos fx, addington am, rapoport jl. molecu- lar genetic studies of adhd: to . am j med genet b neu- ropsychiatr genet ; : ? . )	 faraone sv, perlis rh, doyle ae, smoller jw, goralnick jj, hol- mgren ma, et al. molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperac- tivity disorder. biol psychiatry ; : - . )	 song dh, jhung k, song j, cheon ka. the g/a polymor- phism of the norepinephrine transporter gene (net) is involved in commission errors in korean children with 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linking nucleus accumbens dopamine and blood oxygenation. psychopharmacology (berl) ; : - . )	 scheres a, milham mp, knutson b, castellanos fx. ventral stria- tal hyporesponsiveness during reward anticipation in attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder. biol psychiatry ; : - . )	shaw p, eckstrand k, sharp w, blumenthal j, lerch jp, green- stein d, et al. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is character- ized by a delay in cortical maturation. proc natl acad sci usa ; : - . the political science oral history program scribed, or the transcriptions are being corrected, at the present time. the following is a list of these inter- views, which should be available by january, : vincent r. browne, james m. burns, gwendolyn carter, robert a. dahl, david easton, leon epstein, heinz eulau, marian irish, robert martin, warren miller, louise overaker, william riker, john turner, vernon van dyke, and john wahlke. when additional interviews have been completed and transcribed, information about their availability will be released, approximately once a year, in ps. neh projects dealing with women and politics themes* kenneth kolson, deputy to the director, division of education programs, national endowment for the humanities i. overview of the neh** in order to "promote progress and scholarship in the humanities and the arts in the united states," congress passed the national foundation on the arts and humanities act of . this act established the national endowment for the humanities as an independent grant- making agency of the federal govern- ment to support research, education, and public programs in the humanities. grants are made through five divisions—education programs, fellowships and seminars, general programs, research programs, and state programs, and two offices, the office of challenge grants and the office of preservation. the staff of these divisions and offices guide applications through a peer review process to recommend projects for funding. the final responsibility for awards rests by law with the chairman of the endow- ment, who is appointed for a four- year term by the president of the united states, with the advice and consent of the senate. the chairman is advised by the national council on the humanities, twenty-six distin- guished private citizens who are also nominated by the president and confirmed by the senate. the humanities in the act that established the national endowment for the humanities, the term humanities includes, but is not limited to, the study of the following disciplines: history; philosophy; languages; linguistics; literature; archaeology; jurisprudence; the history, theory, and criticism of the arts; ethics; comparative religion; and those aspects of the social sciences that employ historical or philosophical approaches. what the endowment supports the national endowment for the humanities supports exemplary work to advance and disseminate knowl- edge in all the disciplines of the humanities. endowment support is intended to complement and assist private and local efforts and to serve as a catalyst to increase nonfederal support for projects of high quality. although the activities funded by the endowment vary greatly in cost, in the numbers of people involved, and in their specific intents and benefits, they all have in common two requirements for funding: significance to learning in the humanities and excellence in conception. how applications are evaluated generally, each application sub- mitted to endowment programs is assessed by knowledgeable persons outside the endowment who are asked for their judgments about the quality of the proposed project. nearly , scholars and profession- als in the humanities serve on approximately panels throughout the course of a year. the judgment of panelists is often supplemented by individual reviews solicited from specialists who have extensive knowl- edge of the specific subject area dealt with in the application. the endow- ment receives approximately , applications each year, of which about , are funded. our annual budget is in the neighborhood of $ million, of which only about % is spent on administration. special initiatives the foundations of american society. within its existing programs, the endowment has encouraged study, research, and discussion about the history, culture, and principles of the foundation period, an emphasis that began with the neh initiative on the bicentennial of the u.s. con- stitution. proposals may deal directly with the events and achievements of the founding period, including the ratification of the constitution, the establishment of the federal govern- ment, and the works of philosophy, politics, literature, and art that were produced during the founding period. they may also treat later events, achievements, and works that have resulted or developed from the founding period or that reflect or respond to its concerns and principles. the columbian quincentenary. as part of the international observance of the th anniversary of christopher columbus's voyage of discovery to the new world, neh invites proposals for original scholar- ship on related topics and for the dissemination of both new and exist- ing scholarship. topics may include the expansion of european civiliza- tion through the efforts of the spanish and portuguese crowns and the establishment of new societies and new forms of cultural expression through encounters among native american, european, and african june the profession peoples. proposals may also explore the ideas—political, religious, philo- sophical, scientific, technological, and aesthetic—that shaped the processes of exploration, settlement, and cultural conflict and transforma- tion set into motion by columbus's momentous voyage. it is important to note that appli- cations responding to special initia- tives are not sequestered for review, that is, they are not reviewed sepa- rately or against special criteria. nor are these applications privileged in any way. thus, applicants are well advised not to turn their projects inside out in order to relate them to an neh initiative. ii. the neh and political science because the neh (unlike, for example, nsf) organizes its work according to purpose and audience— rather than by discipline—prospective applicants should be guided by the nature of their project when request- ing guidelines and application materials. for example, a political scientist seeking time off from teach- ing to prepare a scholarly manuscript for publication should probably look to the division of fellowships and seminars for support. political scien- tists wishing to hold a conference on some aspect of women and politics research would approach the division of research programs. any kind of auricular project or, say, a summer institute on the bill of rights for high school social studies teachers would be brought to the division of education programs. any member of the endowment staff can help prospective applicants match their projects with the appropriate program officer. political scientists should proceed with caution, however. while the endowment's purview extends to the social sciences, our activities are con- fined to those projects that are essen- tially historical or philosophical. political philosophy has always received generous support from the endowment. illustrative grants might include those awarded to wilson carey mcwilliams of rutgers uni- versity in support of various projects on the u.s. constitution and the topic of religion and politics. richard flathman of the johns hopkins university has led a summer seminar on "political freedom," and david l. schaefer of holy cross has directed several summer institutes for schoolteachers on "polis and res publica." arlene saxonhouse of the university of michigan received funding for a fellowship project entitled "unity and diversity in greek political thought." michael gillespie of duke university received support for "the origins and mean- ing of nihilism." that the national endowment for the humanities should put a premium on political philosophy reflects the origins of our discipline as well as legislative intent, but one might argue that there is also some rough justice in it, considering that political philosophers are less likely to be supported by other sources to which political scientists naturally turn—the national science foundation, for example—for funding. in addition to political philosophy, jurisprudence, which is specifically mentioned in our enabling legisla- tion, has also served as a gate through which many political scien- tists (e.g., joel grossman of the uni- versity of wisconsin, walter murphy of princeton university, or henry abraham of the university of virginia) pass. even in this area, however, explicit efforts by appli- cants to connect proposal topics to enduring humanities themes or texts are to be encouraged. proposals on public law and jurisprudence topics sometimes are less persuasive than they need to be because their narra- tives immerse the reader in case law prematurely—that is, without first showing that the topic at hand— namely, the meaning of justice—has concerned humanities scholars continuously since the time of socrates. many political scientists, including those whose professional reputations have been based on empirical, analytical scholarship, have found that they can best render their proj- ects competitive at the neh by adopting the approach of political history. in recent summers, for instance, college teacher seminars have been offered by sidney tarrow of cornell university ("historical studies of collective action and political change") and by stephen t. holmes of the university of chicago ("origins and development of european liberalism"). in , bernard brown of the city univer- sity of new york offered a summer seminar, in situ, on "modern french politics." daniel elazar of temple university has offered summer insti- tutes designed for elementary and secondary school teachers on the subject of federalism. for some of the political scientists participating in these projects, the appeal of these topics might well have lain primarily in their contemporary significance. but ahistorical grant proposals from political scientists are not ordinarily competitive at the neh. each of the projects listed above was successful as an neh grant proposal in large part because the historical dimen- sions of the topic under considera- tion were fully explicated in the proposal narrative. many other "mainstream" politi- cal scientists have had their work supported by the endowment. for example, the endowment has sup- ported some of the research that fred i. greenstein of princeton uni- versity has conducted on leadership in the modern american presidency. russell hardin of the university of chicago is heading a collaborative research project that compares demo- cratic institutions throughout the world. aaron wildavsky of the uni- versity of california, berkeley, has offered a summer seminar on "polit- ical cultures." the endowment is not even allergic to numbers per se. as a political scientist, i have taken particular pleasure in encouraging my more empirically-oriented colleagues to cast their scholarship in terms that relate to enduring humanities texts and themes, and to express their ideas in language that transcends the merely technical or methodological. all applicants, not just political scientists, should bear in mind that the endowment will not fund "proj- ects that advocate or promote a particular political, ideological, reli- gious, or partisan point of view." this proscription does not require that political scientists feign value neutrality when they seek funding from neh. it does mean that proj- ects must not be tendentious. appli- cants whose projects have direct im- plications for public policy need to take special pains to show that they aim to advance learning, rather than ps: political science & politics neh projects merely raise consciousness. political scientists should under- stand that their proposals will not necessarily be reviewed by scholars in their own discipline, let alone in their particular area of sub-disciplinary expertise. in general, the "discipli- nariness" of the review will be deter- mined by the number of proposals that a grant program receives at a particular deadline. for example, in a high-volume program such as summer stipends, it is easy (because the number of applications is suffi- ciently large) to justify convening a separate panel to review proposals in a particular discipline. where the number of applications is more modest, several categories will some- times be collapsed, resulting in hybrid panels (e.g., political science, jurisprudence, and economics). sometimes political science applica- tions are reviewed with history proposals. in the division of educa- tion programs, which receives a fairly small number of applications, many of which (e.g., a proposal to reform the honors program at a small liberal arts college, or a proposal for a summer institute for school teachers on the italian renaissance) are intrinsically interdis- ciplinary, applications always receive a generalist review. supplemental review by specialists is sought when needed, but there is no guarantee that a political scientist's proposal to the education division will be read by even one colleague in the field. this need not be a disadvantage so long as applicants understand that they should cast their projects in terms that colleagues in other disci- plines can understand. in many of the endowment's funding programs—the low-volume programs, by and large—members of the endowment's professional staff become deeply involved in the devel- opment of applications. in those pro- grams that offer such services staff members are charged with helping applicants make their proposals as competitive as possible. every review process has its vagaries, of course, and staff approbation is no guaran- tee of success. but our records indi- cate that those applications receiving extensive staff work are more likely to be funded. pertinent here is the testimony of kathleen b. jones, san diego state university, who has offered two neh summer seminars for school teachers on "authority, democracy, and the citizenship of women": in my own experience, submitting a preliminary proposal and having an experienced member of the staff review it makes all the difference between a successful proposal and one that will be disregarded. when i initially submitted my summer seminar proposal i was told that i had the germ of a good idea, but that it was inappropriately presented. the criticisms offered were extensive, pre- cise, encouraging and supportive. i went through at least two more revi- sions (also reviewed), and then sub- mitted a final proposal. this process, which few are aware of or exploit, should be emphasized. iii. recent neh support for women and politics research projects on the general topic of women and politics are eligible in all of the endowment's divisions. the purpose of the project and the audi- ence to which it appeals will deter- mine the program in which to make application. whether it receives a disciplinary review or a generalist review, a pro- posal on women and politics will be read against program criteria, which will vary according to the nature of the project (a conference, a seminar, a curriculum project, a film, a trans- lation, or whatever), but panelists will in any event ask whether the project is likely to yield a significant contribution to learning in the humanities. because it will be com- peting with worthy proposals from other disciplines, a women and politics proposal will have to appear every bit as central to the humanities as projects on, say, buddhism or plutarch or emily dickenson. there is no reason, of course, why this should pose a problem. but it is an argument for explicitness. do not assume that reviewers will automati- cally concede the importance of your topic for learning in the humanities. scholars working in the field will be heartened to know that the endowment has made a substantial investment in women and politics scholarship. the titles listed below, drawn from several divisions of the neh, reflect the range and breadth of projects undertaken in this area. all grants listed were made in fiscal or . fellowships for university teachers grants provide support for mem- bers of the faculty of ph.d.-granting universities to undertake full-time independent study and research in the humanities. rachel g. fuchs, arizona state university, "charity and welfare for mothers in th-century paris." joan g. zimmerman, howard university, "instrumentalism versus conceptualism in drafting the equal rights amendments, - ." fellowships for college teachers and independent scholars grants provide support for teachers in two-year, four-year, and five-year colleges and universities that do not grant the ph.d., and also for independent scholars and writers, to undertake full-time inde- pendent study and research in the humanities. robert c. bannister, swarthmore college, "women and the social sciences in america, - ." dolores e. janiewski, mount holyoke college, "the politics of suffrage in the new south." mary kelley, dartmouth college, "achieving authority: women's entrance into public life in early america." carol farley kessler, pennsylvania state university, delaware campus, "new lives, new worlds: utopian novels by american women, to the present." alice s. klak, eastern oregon state college, "graphics of the women's suffrage campaign." cheryl e. martin, university of texas at el paso, "popular atti- tudes and ideology in northern mexico, - ." elaine m. smith, alabama state university, "a biography of june the profession mary mcleod bethune." margaret ann strobel, university of illinois, chicago, "socialist feminism and women's unions in the s." summer stipends grants in this category provide support for college and university teachers and others to undertake full- time independent study and research in the humanities for two consecutive summer months. college and univer- sity teachers must be nominated by their institutions. lisa e. emmerich, kenyon college, "promoting civilized motherhood: the case of the 'save the babies' campaign." james henderson, valparaiso university, "equal pay to men and women for equal work: the early debate, - ." mark e. kann, university of southern california, "the other liberal tradition in early america: civic virtue and gender." susan e. marshall, university of texas, austin, "the american antisuffrage movement, - ." thomas a. j. mcginn, vanderbilt university, "prostitution and the law: the formation of social policy in early imperial rome." robyn l. muncy, le moyne col- lege, "female reformers and policymakers in the progressive era, - ." kristen b. neuschel, duke univer- sity, "gender roles in the french aristocracy, - ." carolyn j. stefanco, wheaton college, "divided loyalties: nelly kinzie gordon's civil war." travel to collections these $ grants help defray travel costs, thereby enabling scholars to study humanities materials in libraries, archives, museums, or other repositories. nancy fix anderson, loyola uni- versity, new orleans, "annie besant and the status of women in india: anti-imperialism versus human rights." terry d. bilhartz, sam houston state university, "anna howard shaw and the crusade for women's rights." janet farrell brodie, california state polytechnic university, "women and freethought in the united states, - ." dorothy sue cobble, rutgers uni- versity, "waitresses: their work, culture, and unions in the twentieth century." susan p. conner, central michi- gan university, "poverty and marginality: the role of prostitu- tion in french revolutionary social control." esther s. cope, university of nebraska, "a woman prophet's critique of english politics and religion." ragena c. dearagon, gonzaga university, "aristocratic widows and the english crown, - ." suzanne k. engler, university of southern california, "power and dependence: the women of flowerdew hundred plantation." j. wayne flynt, auburn univer- sity, "pattie r. jacobs, woman suffrage, and southern sectional- ism." diana greene, alliance of inde- pendent scholars, "karolina pavlova and the position of women in the s." lisbeth m. haas, university of california, santa cruz, "gender and political identity in the barrios of southwest, - ." june e. hahner, suny at al- bany, "women's rights and poli- tics in brazil, - ." claire hirshfield, pennsylvania state university, ogontz campus, "women's political auxiliaries in late victorian and edwardian england." carolyn c. jones, saint louis university, "the price of citizen- ship: women and federal taxa- tion in th-century america." susan lynn, university of missouri, saint louis, "women and progressive politics, - ." martha h. swain, texas woman's university, "ellen s. woodward: southern gentle- woman and new deal official." gayle t. tate, indiana university, "the kin keepers: political philosophies of african-american women." carolyn e. wedin, university of wisconsin, whitewater, "mary white ovington, cofounder of the national association for the advancement of colored people." younger scholars grants provide support for high school and college students to con- duct research and writing projects in the humanities for nine weeks during the summer under the supervision of a humanities scholar. sarah k. flotten, kenyon college, "the women's suffrage move- ment in minnesota, - ." mark w. sabel, swarthmore col- lege, "the southern white woman as activist in the black civil rights movement." brande m. stellings, yale univer- sity, "republican ideology and the language of early th- century working women's protests." joan d. wellman, university of kansas, "a feminist critique of plato's republic." summer seminars for college teachers grants provide support for schol- ars of the humanities to direct summer seminars at institutions with collections suitable for advanced study. karen offen, stanford university, "the woman question in an age of revolutions: europe and america, - ." summer seminars for school teachers grants provide support for accom- plished teachers and scholars to ps: political science & politics neh projects direct summer seminars at colleges, universities, museums, libraries, and similar institutions. seminars are usually organized around a close reading of significant humanities texts. kathleen b. jones, san diego state university, "authority, democracy, and the citizenship of women: hobbes, locke, rous- seau, and wollstonecraft." elisabeth i. perry, vanderbilt university, "feminist classics in american culture, - ." research editions grants support various stages in the preparation of authoritative and annotated editions of works and documents of value to humanities scholars and general readers. arlie r. hochschild, university of california, berkeley, "the emma goldman papers." patricia g. holland, university of massachusetts, amherst, "the papers of elizabeth cady stanton and susan b. anthony." research conferences grants support conferences de- signed to advance the state of re- search in a field or topic of major importance in the humanities. noralee frankel, american historical association, "confer- ence on women in the progressive era, - ." humanities projects in libraries and archives grants assist museums, historical organizations, and other similar cul- tural institutions in the planning and implementation of interpretive pro- grams that use cultural and artistic artifacts to convey and interpret the humanities to the general public. eileen dubin, stockton state college, "women, war, and peace: the american experience in the th century." barbara matz, west virginia women's federation, "west virginia women's cultural history project." diantha schull, the new york public library, "women as a force in united states history." public humanities projects grants support projects designed to increase public understanding of the humanities. through this pro- gram, the endowment recognizes exemplary public programs and pro- motes model humanities projects of potential national significance. proj- ect formats may include public symposia, community fora, debates, interpretive pamphlets, or audio- visual materials. robert maniquis, university of california, los angeles, "humanities program for the bi- centennial of the french revolu- tion." donald m. rogers, university of hartford, "extension of the right to vote." gene ruoff, university of illinois at chicago, "jane addams' hull- house: humanities programs for the centennial. elementary and secondary education in the humanities cathryn adamsky, university of new hampshire, "women in nineteenth-century american culture." iv. conclusion neh reviewers do not take it for granted that the research interests of political scientists lie at the heart of the heart of the humanities. they must be persuaded. but political scientists focusing on questions of enduring interest to humanities scholars—questions about the mean- ing of justice, the tension between liberty and equality, the requirements of citizenship, the political status of women, etc.—will find that they are preaching to the choir. such projects, and those that adopt an essentially historical approach to their subjects, will continue to attract support from the endowment. without doubt, future funding patterns will also reflect changing scholarly interests and the develop- ment of new topics, conceptual frameworks, and methods of analy- sis. as the project titles listed and referred to in this essay reveal, the humanities are vital and capacious- capacious enough to extend from plato to nato (or perhaps, given my topic, from doting to voting, or from becky thatcher to margaret thatcher). we invite you to discuss your ideas with us. v. neh directory division of education programs, room / - division of fellowships and seminars, room / - division of general programs, room / - division of research programs, room / - division of state programs, room / - office of challenge grants, room / - office of preservation, room / - office of public affairs, room / - national endowment for the humanities pennsylvania avenue, n.w. washington, dc notes t h i s manuscript was originally prepared for delivery at the meeting of the apsa com- mittee on the status of women roundtable in atlanta, georgia, september , . **this section consists of prose liberally appropriated from overview of endowment programs, a general information booklet pre- pared by the neh office of publications and public affairs. june "we shall be as a city upon a hill": john winthrop's vision and the urban history of new england / lamphere, louise. from working daughters to working mothers: immigrant women in a new england industrial community. ithaca, ny and london: cornell university press, . pp. xviii, appendices, bibliography, index, tables. $ . (u.s.) / mcgaw, judith. most wonderful machine: mechanization and social change in berkshire paper making, - . princeton, n.j.; princeton university press, . pp. xv, . appendices, bibliography, illustrations, index, tables. $ . (u.s.) / blewett, mary. men, women, and work: class, gender, and protest in the new england shoe industry, - . champaign, iii.: university of illinois press, . pp. xxii, . appendices, bibliography, index. $ . (u.s.) all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine "we shall be as a city upon a hill": john winthrop's vision and the urban history of new england lamphere, louise. from working daughters to working mothers: immigrant women in a new england industrial community. ithaca, ny and london: cornell university press, . pp. xviii, appendices, bibliography, index, tables. $ . (u.s.) mcgaw, judith. most wonderful machine: mechanization and social change in berkshire paper making, - . princeton, n.j.; princeton university press, . pp. xv, . appendices, bibliography, illustrations, index, tables. $ . (u.s.) blewett, mary. men, women, and work: class, gender, and protest in the new england shoe industry, - . champaign, iii.: university of illinois press, . pp. xxii, . appendices, bibliography, index. $ . (u.s.) bruce c. daniels trends and questions in new historical accounts of policing volume , numéro , june uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu daniels, b. c. ( ). compte rendu de ["we shall be as a city upon a hill": john winthrop's vision and the urban history of new england / lamphere, louise. from working daughters to working mothers: immigrant women in a new england industrial community. ithaca, ny and london: cornell university press, . pp. xviii, appendices, bibliography, index, tables. $ . (u.s.) / mcgaw, judith. most wonderful machine: mechanization and social change in berkshire paper making, - . princeton, n.j.; princeton university press, . pp. xv, . appendices, bibliography, illustrations, index, tables. $ . (u.s.) / blewett, mary. men, women, and work: class, gender, and protest in the new england shoe industry, - . champaign, iii.: university of illinois press, . pp. xxii, . appendices, bibliography, index. $ . (u.s.)]. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ book reviews/comptes rendus experience that the photographs in this section are so very apt. paired photographs, taken only two years apart, show the remnants of trees pulled from superb farmland to be replaced by the non-descript architecture which passes for modernity and "progress." another plate (# ) shows literally the signs of the city to come and then farm buildings being razed to add to the recently constructed shopping centre. the most dramatic plate relates to a section of etobicoke, which, in the space of years, was utterly transformed with the building of highway . but the plates on pages and are equally as meaningful. on the former, cows graze in front of a barn-yard, located three kilometres from woodstock; in the background grain is stacked. in the subsequent shot of this same location years later, the cows, grain and barn-yard are all gone; the landscape in an "eclipsed form" awaits the inevitable factories and housing. page shows an old rural road being remade as a city street, the street incorporating a plaque commemorating a world famous dairy cow and the farm whence it came! in a chapter on hamlets and villages, martin documents the steady decline in the villages and hamlets as changing spatial relation ships and transportation affect their functions, but plate serves to remind one that change can be revolutionary this plate shows the village of iroquois whose heart was destroyed to accommodate the st. lawrence seaway and its associated hydro-electric scheme. the subsequent chapter distinguishes between village and town on the basis, of course, of function and size, but also on the "rule of thumb" that at the centre of a town, the "downtown", would have at least a block built up with three storey structures. the chapter reminds us of the ever present agent of fire as a force for change, that the roads of these towns were not asphalt and required boardwalks and that the past is manifest most especially at second floor level since first floors have often been removed from the street because of the aesthetic offence they create. in chapter , entitled "cities," the stress is upon technology, which, martin holds, set in motion the building of the city by improvements in transportation, and which provided the means of vertical expansion. the chapter shows how much that was fine in our older cities has been drastically affected by the banking industry, by the city fathers and by those bent on "urban renewal." much that was distinct and pleasing has been removed to be replaced by the bland. this is well illustrated by pages and , which serve to illustrate not only the changes in transportation from trolley-car to omnibus to automobile, but the wanton destruction of much that was pleasing in st. george's square, guelph. it is also exemplified on pages and , in photographs of toronto street, in the city of that name. this, martin notes, has been described "as the street which died"; a street from which "perhaps the finest grouping of nineteenth century commercial buildings on the continent" was removed to accommodate a parking garage and some office buildings, including an architectural monstrosity erected on behalf of revenue canada. here, as else where, martin does not mince words, and since his values are mine i am sympathetic. the chapter also contains useful photographs that illustrate the process by which streetscapes are changed as fire destroys, as streets are incorporated into the city replacing pine trees with telephone posts and concrete buildings. there is much to lament here, but there are also positive reminders. our city streets have less mud and fewer "pot-holes" and the twentieth-century city is, at night, much better lit than its earlier counter-part, which in the absence of street-lighting was pitch black unless the moon shone. well enough! there are other chapters germane to those interested in things urban such as transportation and industry, chapters which can also stand in their own right, but these three serve to "savour the flavour." this book will be of interest to urban and social historians, to landscape architects and to cultural and historical geographers. it presents some marked contrasts, even for those who might be expected to be so familiar with landscape to admit to surprise; one of the most telling demonstrations is that trees are now more abundant than at any time during the past century. the book can be used as illustrative material in teaching. who will buy it? i am not sure, but we will all be grateful that this innovative piece exists. i am sure the author hopes that his book will be a financial success. in a day and age in which government philosophy seems to be that success is to be measured in dollars, we may have to be grateful to the ontario heritage foundation, the canada council, the ontario arts council and the office of the secretary of state for their insights: works such as this one may well remind us of the important function of such agencies. my personal thanks to virgil margin. john clarke department of geography carleton university ottawa "we shall be as a city upon a hill": john winthrop's vision and the urban history of new england "we shall be as a city upon a hill," governor john winthrop exhorted his fellow emigrants on the flagship arabella shortly before the great puritan expedition of discharged its passengers on to the shores of boston harbour. winthrop's fleet of eleven ships was not the first to bring religious dissenters to the area: a small congregation of separatists form urban history review/revue d'histoire urbaine vol xjx, no. (june ) book reviews/'comptes rendus scrooby, england and leyden, holland (the pilgrims) had been trying to wrest a living from the cod and corn of plymouth since ; and transient groups of west country fishermen and religious zealots had planted tenuous little settlements in , and at modern-day dorchester and salem. but the history of massachusetts, of puritanism in the new world, of new england, began in earnest with the arrival of the seven-hundred men and women who together with winthrop founded the towns of cambridge and boston as the urban heart of the massachusetts bay colony. to some historians and to much of the popular culture of the next three centuries, the history of the american nation also began with the arrival of the massachusetts bay puritans. the first english men in north america, the jamestown settlers of , are curiously shortshrifted in american folkculture. in the hazy, collective portrait americans have of their distant past, the puritan has always towered above the other early settlers in the picture. not only have they provided the visual imagery — pointed hats, shiny buckles, black and white clothes — they have also provided the controlling metaphor of the american mission. no one ever expressed this better than winthrop. in the same shipboard sermon, he predicted that "men shall say of succeeding plantations: the lord make it like that of new england . . . the eyes of all people are upon us." the arrogance of winthrop and this little settlement of puritans -the sheer effrontery of this assertion of preeminence — would quickly have been unmasked for its absurdity except for one niggling point: winthrop turned out to be right. the eyes of much of the world have been upon the puritans, new england, the american revolution and the united states ever since; and the sense of being a city upon a hill has remained at the core of american self-definition. so, too, within the american nation, new england has continued to provide more than its fair share of the standards, the benchmarks and the definitions for the rest of the country. nowhere is this more apparent than in the world of academic historical writing. historians write far more about new england than they do about any other region. partly, the over- emphasis is a function of the disproportionate number of colleges and universities in new england which creates a sizeable professoriat looking for scholarly targets. partly, it is a function of the successful hornblowing which started with winthrop and the puritans. and, partly, the over-emphasis reflects the reality of an american past in which new england has indeed played the most conspicuous role. other sections of the united states have identities as discrete historical regions: the south as tragic anachronism; the west as egalitarian democracy; texas and california as wild or wacky cultural icons. but all of these regions have regional histories. only new england's past purports to speak for the nation. the three books reviewed below are distinguished examples of the new england genre of historical writing that says: as goes new england so goes the nation. all three authors are far too sophis ticated either to state explicitly or even to believe that this could possibly be true. yet, all three are rather like emily dickenson who described her views of the world to a friend by saying: "i think new englandly." each of the three books examines changes in the industrial economy and the effects of these changes on the social structure of a community or system of communities. each book by itself makes a major contribution to labour, economic and urban history: taken together, they add a new lush layer to the historiography of communities and of industrial capitalism in new england and the united states. lamphere, louise. from working daughters to working mothers: immigrant women in a new england industrial community. ithaca, ny and london: cornell university press, . pp. xviii, . appendices, bibliography, index, tables. $ . (u.s.) mcgaw, judith. most wonderful machine: mechanization and social change in berkshire paper making, - . princeton, n.j.; princeton university press, . pp. xv, . appendices, bibliography, illustrations, index, tables. $ . (u.s.) blewett, mary. men, women, and work: class, gender, and protest in the new england shoe industry, - . champaign, iii.: university of illinois press, . pp. xxii, . appendices, bibliography, index. $ . (u.s.) louise lamphere's analysis of the two spheres of family and work in central falls, rhode island is the product of amazingly creative research. an anthropologist by formal training, lamphere worked in the mills of central falls as a participant-observer to learn of her subject firsthand. she also supervised a team of researchers that conducted lengthy family interviews — some as long as eight hours with members of one family — and she combined all of this with traditional qualitative and quantitative historical research extending back to and the first federal census. moreover, lamphere situated her evidence in a sophisticated theoretical framework and presents it in a lively narrative. the result is a book that should win major prizes. the heart of lamphere's argument centres on changes in the conditions of working women over the course of the twentieth century. in , the year for which she collects the bulk of her data for the early part of the century, most women working in the mills were unmarried daughters living at home with their parents. by contrast, in , the end-date of her analysis, most of the working women were married and mothers of young children. at both ends of the time span, working women tended to be poor and to be from identifiable ethnic groups, usually of recent origin in the area, french canadian, irish and urban history review/revue d'histoire urbaine vol. xix, no. (june ) microsoft word - larise_du-plessis__review__ e indo-pacific journal of phenomenology volume , edition may page of issn (online) : issn (online) : issn (online) : issn (online) : ---- issn issn issn issn (print) : (print) : (print) : (print) : ---- the ipjp is a joint project of the humanities faculty of the university of johannesburg (south africa) and edith cowan university’s faculty of regional professional studies (australia), published in association with nisc (pty) ltd. it can be found at www.ipjp.org this work is licensed to the publisher under the creative commons attributions license . doi: . /ipjp. . . . . book review mors et vita: keeping death alive through sorrow’s profiles richard j. alapack ( ). sorrow’s profiles: grief, and crisis in the family. london, uk: karnac books. soft cover ( pages). isbn- : - - - - by larise du plessis alapack’s magnum opus on profiles of sorrow is both gut wrenching and profoundly real, yet untainted by dogmatic realism. it is a heartfelt conversation. the book is not written for the unfussy ‘thinker’ or for the frail-hearted and it takes courage to engage with the text. this is not an easy read; it is dense and cuts uncensored to the core of human existence. refreshingly, it is at once erudite as well as down-to- earth. in this review i first outline my broad impressions and position as reviewer. this is followed by a discussion of the content of the book, extracting the essence from each of the book’s five parts. finally, i conclude the review with a reflection. throughout the review i attempt to allow alapack do most of the talking. however, because we are standing in relationship by virtue of his book, i also answer back where i can. this is my personal voice, not the voice of current intellectual debate. i simply undertake to ask relevant and, i hope, enriching questions. i also do not claim to present a comprehensive review of the compass and complexity contained in the pages of this book. instead, i only hope to present an authentic voice in response to alapack’s scholarly dialogue. what he values is self- evidently true. alapack’s warm ‘hearthead’ narrations and hermeneutic reflections at once arouse and crush me (see tarnas’, , p. , description of the existential situation). alapack’s book can be compared to a pot of slow-brewing coffee. thus, it is not instant coffee, which is sipped in haste, but a sensory tour de force, rich, fragrant and colourful. to continue the coffee analogy, this narrator lovingly harvests the beans – they are red, bright, glossy, firm, and just right. he reveres them for their life. then he slowly allows the beans to mature. when he brews them, their aroma suffuses the house. he drinks slowly, with affection, sharing with others, in conversation, experiencing a moment when time stands still, a moment to savour, always. the use of this analogy does not mean that alapack’s contribution to knowledge in this book is weak or half-formed. on the contrary, from an existential hermeneutic perspective his contribution furthers understanding in a manner that is difficult to achieve. alapack declares that the crux of his argument in this text revolves around the question: is death reduced to death by western rationalism and ‘livelihood’? however, through my reading i found a different crux, one that is more welcoming, gentler and not as cynical. i found this crux in an insight revealed near the end of the text: “if we learn to love, we may learn how to think” (alapack, , p. ). in this section, with reverence for the insights of martin heidegger who, according to alapack, gave death a life of its own, alapack demonstrates how death can be lived. he affirms “echoes of heidegger have haunted this entire book. his works also provide the conceptual framework for grounding my findings and putting them into a big picture” (alapack, , p. ). with death as both an ontological and existential idea, alapack’s challenge is situated in the question: how do we keep death alive? it is not possible to reduce his book to a brief academic review without falling prey to the very notion of logical reductionism that he disapproves of in his book. this would result indo-pacific journal of phenomenology volume , edition may page of the ipjp is a joint project of the humanities faculty of the university of johannesburg (south africa) and edith cowan university’s faculty of regional professional studies (australia), published in association with nisc (pty) ltd. it can be found at www.ipjp.org this work is licensed to the publisher under the creative commons attributions license . in the removal of the considerable heart contained in the book. such an approach would prescribe that i trample across his soul with my feet. with economy and artful precision in his use of words, alapack succeeds in articulating his ideas masterfully. the read left me with the reassuring sense that he is an adroit communicator who is able to convey exactly what he intends to convey. unswervingly, alapack conveys the message that to grieve takes courage. the reader should be forewarned that to engage with this book, with its raw take on the lifeworld of humans, also takes guts. alapack’s book is rich in poetry and prose. lines worth quoting abound. the text contains psychology, philosophy, theory, literature, history, therapy, and human connection. he speaks of political and cultural contexts. he makes himself vulnerable through sharing intimate conversations with his children and grandchildren. he composes his argument by drawing on the ‘lifewords’ of great thinkers - spirits like alfred lord tennyson, t. s. eliot, emily dickenson, rumi, lorca, kierkegaard, nietzsche, freud, heidegger, levinas, c. s. lewis, albert camus, mahler, munch, van gogh, atom egoyan, and billy bob thornton. these spirits are summoned to play the symphony of ‘sorrow’, which alapack ( ) describes as “ … a large umbrella, whose various spokes include narratives, parables, stories, a therapeutic dialogue, and presentations of the essential vision of major thinkers” (p. ). structure the book contains twenty three chapters, including illustrative end notes, which are structured into five parts. in this section i attempt to provide insight into the writer’s voice through a selection of extracts from the text. my selection and presentation do not follow the book’s structure slavishly. in the introduction, alapack generously establishes the scholarly and personal panorama of the book. he declares that he seeks “personal and in-depth knowledge of sorrow’s profiles” (alapack, , p. xii). in this section, the question of how we live our death forms a central theme. alapack does not seek “… to explain, conquer, or defeat grief; i (he) orchestrate(s) no quick-fix that would overcome regret, or liquidate longing” (alapack, , p. xii). i agree with his reflection that “in attempting to capture a wide range of sorrow’s profiles, i do not just stretch the envelope with a variety of narrative forms – i burst it … my writing is deliberately and consciously outside the academic norm … i’m either one step ahead or behind. you will judge” (alapack, , p. xv). i believe that alapack finds himself within a core of healing and whether that core is ahead or behind depends on where the reader has chosen to be positioned. the text is not lobbying for a single epistemology to triumph over all else, although at times the possibility occurred to me that it might actually be doing exactly that. when considering existential matters, existential-phenomenological- hermeneutic worldviews should, at the very least, be situated on the leading edge. alapack ( ) desires that his words may “… both pluck your heart strings and challenge your brain” (p. xv), and in my case they definitely did. although they are appositely titled, it is superfluous to this review to catalogue alapack’s chapter headings. instead, i have briefly highlighted the five parts that contain the book’s twenty three chapters. part one talks to the general pattern and typical processes of grief. in this section, alapack illustrates three phases of grief, illuminating that extraordinary ‘moment’ of mourning. in part two, he provides three concrete studies of death in the family, while part three provides a re-visioning of death. this re- visioning forms the foundation of part four where alternative approaches when intervening in the grief process are considered. alapack entertains grief across a broad front not limited to death. for him, grief includes divorce, disasters, and racism. sorrow does not stand alone. finally, in part five he untangles death’s kindred phenomena - mercy, revenge, regret, and longing. essences: it seems impossible to do alapack’s formidable perceptiveness justice. theorising about themes extracted from the five parts would be presumptuous, and confining his grasp to an anaemic theoretical model would be insulting. in this section, while remaining cognisant of my interpretive bias, i attempt to portray alapack’s perceptiveness as essences gleaned from the five parts. i decided to present these essences in this manner so as to preserve his gritty nuance. alapack starts part one by describing authentic grief work and building a case for its complexity. there are no short-cuts, quick-fixes, coping strategies, sedation, or sprinting offered to overcome grief. the transformative grief process is complex and unique. its complexity derives from the failure of logic and the fickle malleability of meaning, and it is as unique as our fingerprints. alapack conceptualises the grief process as occurring along a continuum that is structured in three phases. he describes the first phase as ‘the algebra of loss’, the second is about ‘overbinding’, and the third is ‘recovery’. in his exposition, he indicates where his view concords with mainstream literature and where the views are his own. his take on the progression of indo-pacific journal of phenomenology volume , edition may page of the ipjp is a joint project of the humanities faculty of the university of johannesburg (south africa) and edith cowan university’s faculty of regional professional studies (australia), published in association with nisc (pty) ltd. it can be found at www.ipjp.org this work is licensed to the publisher under the creative commons attributions license . grief is, to me at least, agreeably radical. it is in no manner subordinate to any formulaic, linear, reductionist cause-and-effect or one-size-fits-all conceptualisation. instead, like crisp morning air, he refreshes when he speaks of sanctioned rituals, symbols and ‘moments’ that evoke embodied emotions; of overbonding through the missed touch and longing. the essence is captured by the phrase “absence is a mode of presence” (sartre, , pp. - , cited in alapack, , p. ). the question is then what marks recovery or healing in the grief-process alapack’s heart-full approach suggest that at times grief-work need not cease, but that healing occurs in the embrace of sorrow – another essence. in deepening this idea, alapack distinguishes between ambivalence and ambiguity. while ambivalence jams grief-work, ambiguity brings healing and is a “phenomenon of maturity”. (merleau-ponty, , pp. - ,, cited in alapack, , p. ). ambivalence is “based on a splintered ego that targets itself for emotions it would prefer to disown, deny or suppress” (alapack, , p. ). for alapack, life is lived in the “moment” and our stories and lives are a succession of “moments”. (throughout the book alapack employs “moments” to advance arguments.) transformative “moments” are considered in part two. in the chapter “vigilance for life on a death watch” alapack reveals his innermost self through recounting (and reliving) his mother’s dying and death. he also recounts the conversation he had with his daughter when she first encountered death. further, he talks of a home that shatters when a brother or sister dies. in the next part, after setting out a heideggerian context, alapack puts forth a re-visioned myth for the faces of sorrow. re-visioning forms the essence of part three, where he positions the ‘life of death’ within psychology, christianity and philosophy. he asserts “... the question is simple: what have we to lose in suspending belief and acting as if there is nothing? nothing? our gain is the capacity to create meaning, be honest, be resolute, and act humanly” (alapack, , p. ). this re-visioned myth clearly calls for an alternative approach to intervening in the grief-process. this alternative approach is presented in part four. however, prior to this alapack honours the many complexities in grief intervention. this is encapsulated in the following quote: “as i indicated in chapter ten, heidegger demonstrates that there is no ‘cause’ of death except life itself. like that will definitely happen but indefinitely in terms of time and mode; the only surprises about the next oil disaster will be time, place, manner, and magnitude” (alapack, , p. ). alapack’s book makes it clear that sorrow does not stand alone. in part five he untangles sorrow’s kindred phenomena, and the extract below concerns his discussion of regret. he says: i have dragged regret from pillar to post. i delve into it thoroughly, not only because it is incredibly common in everyday life, but also because it is largely neglected in mainstream psychology, psychiatry, and psychoanalysis. more importantly, and as mentioned previously, it holds that middle position of supplanting grief but being qualitatively different from depression. (alapack, , p. ) finally, alapack ( ) “rakes through the ashes” (p. ) of the completed substance of his book. he refers to this process as unconcluding reflections. here, amongst many heartfelt reflections, he answers the earlier question regarding the resolution of grief with the following conclusion: “sorrow, i have argued, is the optimal resolution” (alapack, , p. ). reflecting on alapack’s reflections western science although alapack is ill at ease with dualism and western rationalism with its implicit reductionism, within this book it is possible to accuse alapack himself of dualism. this dualism occurs when he contrasts western thought with ‘hearthead’ approaches. this thought unsettles me. although alapack says that he draws distinctions, these distinctions come with a sting. i question why there is no place in his here-and-now lifeworld for more tolerance of other views. i wonder why there is not even a striving towards integration, if not reconciliation. it is possible that my reading of the existential debate is naïve and that i am misguided in labelling alapack’s words towards the other as harsh. i can understand his wrath with certain non-in-depth worldviews, especially if these worldviews go about their business without questioning. however, i am unable to understand his failure to gently embrace them. he appears to provide no space, time or depth for others to enter his life-circle. to use a common phrase, this is somewhat like the pot calling the kettle black. while there may be good reason to take this stance, his case is weak when he dismisses brief grief- work with pithy one-liners. this contrasts starkly with the depth and tolerance radiating from the remaining text. throughout most of the text alapack is a giant and speaks with noble wisdom on sorrow’s profiles. this is why i feel a need to understand, a need for clarity, direction – the contradiction is intolerable. so, i ask indo-pacific journal of phenomenology volume , edition may page of the ipjp is a joint project of the humanities faculty of the university of johannesburg (south africa) and edith cowan university’s faculty of regional professional studies (australia), published in association with nisc (pty) ltd. it can be found at www.ipjp.org this work is licensed to the publisher under the creative commons attributions license . again: when he so beautifully questions the protean faces of grief and sorrow, why does he dismiss western reductionism and refuse to engage? it is perhaps possible that he provides a useful deconstruction of the grief-process and death within this paradigm. perhaps there is no place for coping, quick-fixes and mind-only approaches, even if coping is living the thing itself in the only way a person is able. perhaps i am not yet ready to understand this. entering into a debate on the social construction of the word science and the meaning it holds would be tedious and misplaced in this review. however, it would be remiss of me not to challenge alapack’s notion of science and his venomous elevation of science as arch-culprit and vehicle of callous reductionism. i ask myself if we really need a culprit and whether there is always an enemy or someone to blame. surely this way of thinking is more us-and- them dualism. if not death, is the enemy rationality slain at the altar of dogma? know thy enemy. make love, not war. peace. however, i also wonder if perhaps i have missed the point. i wonder if alapack’s description of so-called western reductionism, inherited from the ancient greeks, is his achilles heel. i understand and mostly agree with his position of rebellion. however, i fear that this opposition may be alapack’s undoing, his fall from grace into a dualistic juxtaposition where he finds himself transformed into the thing he so feverishly seeks to avoid. it saddens me to view alapack’s work in this light, with his efforts sullied and the book’s voice of authority weakened. perhaps alapack contrived the tension i am experiencing with the express aim of tearing at me with a philosophical gust. that way i can mould my own conclusion and continue to chisel away at my worldview. if this was indeed his intention, then it has been masterfully achieved. in chapter eleven, while proposing an alternative approach to intervention, alapack clarifies his apparent discontent with the western rational approach. at this point i perceive a distinct glimpse of his soul. he does not dismiss the one-dimensional place of cognitive-behavioural, self-help quick fixes, or psychopharmacological remedies. he also does not align himself with freud, his followers, or revisionists of psychoanalysis. in fact, he affords everyone a place, not as a resolve or healing, but as a crutch, often a much-needed one. alapack unfailingly takes umbrage with one- dimensional and exclusionary ways. he says “i concur with kierkegaard that natural scientific reductionism cheats us out of passionate wonder ... in this book i do not walk the well-beaten path of mainstream rationalistic natural science psychology. but i do not kill positivism’s sacred cows either. i did not even slice the ‘sacred’ out of them. surely, i have confronted them and tried to dialogue with them. but by and large, i just left them to chew contentedly in the barn” (alapack, , p. ). however, it is also clear that alapack does not tolerate the idea that all views are equally fine. is alapack relenting? is he giving in? is acceptance germinating? read and discover. on non-ritualistic quick-fixes alapack abhors what he terms cookbook fixes. however, prior to chapter eleven he appears to be prescribing yet another cookbook approach – as if there is only one way. relating as a psychologist to alapack’s ideas, i am compelled to ask him “are you bankrupt in your viewpoint on cognitive and behavioural practice?” i also ask “are the rationalists (perhaps cut-off from their emotions) wrong and simply unable or unwilling to fathom the depths of sorrow?” i challenge alapack to walk in their moccasins. he should at least join in the world of different fingerprints, for without this he would not be able to draw his distinction. perhaps these thinkers deserve honour for preparing the soil for his harvest. it continues to feel wrong to allow alapack his harshness towards the faceless ‘them’. i am not an ‘anything goes’ kind of a person, but somehow his one-liner criticisms feel unresolved, leaving me with disquiet. i wonder if this is perhaps contrived tension. i shall leave it there, lest i be guilty of hypocrisy. on collective culture what alapack ( ) says of kierkegaard and nietzsche i can say of his own narrative: “he privileges the singular, the unique individual, the one with courage and human power” (p. ). this leads me to ask “what about cultures that are driven by the collective and people who are not individuated?” the question remains open as he firmly places responsibility for death and life where it belongs, with me and you. if you are unwilling to accept this responsibility, then do not read alapack’s book. however, perhaps this provides you with an urgency to read the book. i have another difficulty with the book. my impression from his words is that only those who have undergone a protracted journey have experienced a valid grief-process. westerners, whose fingerprints take them to quick-fixes, are portrayed as cop-outs. i would have liked alapack to have been more inquisitive about these people, to have explored their opinions and gravitas without assuming the opposite. however, after having glimpsed alapack’s soul i like to believe that he would not judge so indo-pacific journal of phenomenology volume , edition may page of the ipjp is a joint project of the humanities faculty of the university of johannesburg (south africa) and edith cowan university’s faculty of regional professional studies (australia), published in association with nisc (pty) ltd. it can be found at www.ipjp.org this work is licensed to the publisher under the creative commons attributions license . harshly. perhaps this is my misunderstanding. perhaps it was intended for me to misunderstand in order to understand. alapack questions and declares during the course of the book, alapack asks many questions. he wonders whether his book adequately embodies: . “a balance between life-filled narratives and thought-rich reflections, including their political ramifications. only you will decide”. (alapack, , p. ). to which my answer is an unequivocal yes. . “an alternative to our de-personalised behavioural technology.” (alapack, , p. ). “i desire to present a psychological … psychology, warm, passionate, and tender ...” (alapack, , p. ), “intimately, and individually” (alapack, , p. ). to my mind he has also achieved this desire. . “(a)n intellectually challenging and heartfelt approach to the faces of sorrow?” in this case, alapack provides his own answer: “piggybacking on amedeo giorgi’s ( ; ) demonstration that approach, method, and content are dialectically related, i add style-of-communication to his triad and affirm that the question of adequacy addresses at least four interconnected issues: a) my underlying vision; b) my sources of information and insights; c) my methods for gathering the relevant lifeworld data; and d) the written forms with which i communicate my knowledge” (alapack, , p. ). reflecting on these thoughts alapack points out that “one can truly use a plethora of ways to make knowledge-claims. nobody needs to be hamstrung by the narrow medical model and psychology’s th century natural scientific approach. kierkegaard affirms that the natural scientific method, when it encroaches upon the sphere of the spirit, is dangerous and pernicious” (alapack, , p. ). final words in conclusion, alapack’s thoughts on eliot’s poem echo mine on sorrow’s profiles: he “…articulate(s) the absolute difference between a genuine concrete lifeworld option and the empty possibility of purely abstract, speculative mental gymnastics” (alapack, , p. ). in this book alapack provides a valuable contribution to the understanding of grief. it should be read by every psychotherapist, psychologist and doctor, and by anyone with an interest in healing regardless of epistemology. everyone will relate to it. intelligent researchers will find his method refreshing and worthy of stirring the enquiring mind. this book is truly about the human condition. alapack is a master at argument. to advance, shape and direct argument he uses four cards picked from his voluminous sleeve: exactness; provocation; suspense and faith in the reader. the work’s complexity and density of ideas notwithstanding, alapack writes consummately with a rare ability to embody his ideas through exactness of phrase. he says what he wants us to hear. irritation then enters the fray as he provokes and agitates. the reader is left discomforted. he uses the dogmatic and the self- contradiction as currency for provocation. with irritation and anger come confusion, guilt and sorrow. the reader rehashes the ideas just stirred. then anger ferments and confusion boils. alapack does not readily answer what he has stirred. doubt shifts the balance first this way, then that. nagging irritation hangs, always there, scratchy, uncomfortable, agonising. no time to reflect, ideas swirl. understanding is suspended; suspense energises. finally, there is resolution, bubbling through the mire. brewing. alapack trusts his reader to click, to make the connections. alapack’s words set the stage and direct the actors. we take it in, in the moment. like music, ideas are ephemeral – contrasts and wispy patterns only discernible after the moment. this makes for ever- growing and living understanding. this is unique understanding, real understanding, and not a barren, stillborn abstraction. this understanding bankrolled by irritation. through this method alapack made up my mind and i drew the right conclusion. his faith is vindicated. mors et vita. complexity lost, complexity found. simple, not simpler. bravo. indo-pacific journal of phenomenology volume , edition may page of the ipjp is a joint project of the humanities faculty of the university of johannesburg (south africa) and edith cowan university’s faculty of regional professional studies (australia), published in association with nisc (pty) ltd. it can be found at www.ipjp.org this work is licensed to the publisher under the creative commons attributions license . referencing format du plessis, l. ( ). mors et vita: keeping death alive through sorrow’s profiles [review of the book sorrow’s profiles: grief, and crisis in the family by r. j. alapack]. indo-pacific journal of phenomenology, ( ), pp. doi: . /ipjp. . . . . about the author formerly at rhodes university (grahamstown, south africa), larise du plessis is a clinical psychologist and lecturer in the department of psychology, university of johannesburg. she teaches undergraduate and postgraduate students in personality theories, childhood and adolescent psychotherapy, psychodynamic therapy and psychological assessment. her current research interests are the professional training of psychotherapists and posttraumatic growth. e-mail address: lduplessis@uj.ac.za references tarnas, r. ( ). the passion of the western mind. pimlico, london. microsoft word - ubc_ _november_south_cluny.docx 	 	 when	‘i’	belong	i	don't	care	about	‘you’:	the	role	of	self-construal	 and	social	inclusion	in	pro-social	behaviour	directed	at	animal	out- group	recipients	 by		 cluny	south	 	 b.a.	(hon.),	central	st	martins,	the	university	of	the	arts	london,	 	 	 a	thesis	submitted	in	partial	fulfillment	of		 the	requirements	for	the	degree	of	 doctor	of	philosophy	 in	 the	faculty	of	graduate	and	postdoctoral	studies	 (interdisciplinary	studies)	 [marketing/	forest	resources	management	/	psychology]	 	 the	university	of	british	columbia	 (vancouver)	 	 august	 	 ©	cluny	south,	 	 	 ii	 the	following	individuals	certify	that	they	have	read,	and	recommend	to	the	faculty	 of	graduate	and	postdoctoral	studies	for	acceptance,	the	dissertation	entitled:	 	 when	‘i’	belong	i	don’t	care	about	‘you’:	the	role	of	self-construal	and	social	 inclusion	in	pro-social	behaviour	directed	at	animal	out-group	recipients.	 	 	 submitted	 by	 cluny	south	 	 in	partial	fulfillment	of	the	 requirements	for	 the	 degree	of	 doctor	of	philosophy	 in	 interdisciplinary	studies	(marketing,	forest	resources	management,	 psychology)	 	 examining	committee:	 michael	meitner,	forest	resources	management	 co-supervisor	 katherine	white,	sauder	school	of	business	 co-supervisor		 hal	herzog,	psychology,	wcu	 supervisory	committee	member	 mark	schaller,	psychology	 university	examiner	 marc-david	l.	seidel,	sauder	school	of	business	 university	examiner	 	 	 additional	supervisory	committee	members:	 	 supervisory	committee	member	 	 	 	 	 	 iii	 abstract	 	 this	dissertation	is	aimed	at	improving	understanding	of	the	mechanisms	at	play	in	 prosocial	behaviour,	as	a	function	of	recipient	group	identity	(i.e.	in-group	vs.	out- group	member),	self-construal,	and	social	inclusion.	while	some	research	has	 examined	the	impacts	of	self-construal	on	prosocial	behaviour,	as	well	as	the	 downstream	reactions	to	threats	of	exclusion,	little	research	has	looked	at	the	 impact	that	perceptions	of	inclusion	may	have	on	prosocial	behaviour.	moreover	 even	less	research	has	looked	at	how	promises,	or	reminders,	of	social	inclusion	 may	be	specifically	experienced	by	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal,	 and	how	this	may	impact	their	subsequent	prosocial	behaviour	towards	out-group	 (vs.	in-group)	targets	of	concern.	the	goal	of	this	dissertation	is	to	explore	the	 interaction	between	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal,	with	a	focus	on	the	 downstream	consequences	for	prosocial	behaviour	directed	at	out-groups.			 	 across	five	experimental	studies	i	demonstrate	that	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	may	behave	more	prosocially	towards	out-group	targets	 (more	inclusively	in	two	grouping	tasks,	and	more	prosocially	in	two	donation	 tasks)	under	normal	conditions,	in	comparison	with	individuals	high	in	 interdependent	self-construal.		i	also	offer	evidence	that	following	an	affirmation	of	 social	inclusion	status	the	pattern	reverses	and	individuals	with	high	independent	 self-construal	behave	less	prosocially	towards	out-group	targets.	furthermore,	i	 provide	some	tentative	evidence	to	support	the	argument	that	individuals	with	high	 	 iv	 independent	self-construal	may	be	motivated	to	behave	prosocially	towards	out- group	targets	in	order	to	maximise	social	connection	potential,	and	that	feelings	of	 similarity	may	increase	this.	finally,	i	demonstrate	that	feelings	of	connection	to	 cause	may	mediate	these	mechanisms	in	the	case	of	donation	intentions.		 		 taken	together	this	dissertation	builds	on	previous	research,	and	then	extends	it	to	 demonstrate	that	while	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	may	 behave	more	prosocially	to	out-groups	under	normal	circumstances,	promises	or	 reminders	of	inclusion	may	reverse	this	pattern,	decreasing	prosocial	behaviour.	i	 provide	some	preliminary	evidence	that	the	increase	(decrease)	in	prosocial	 behaviour	is	as	a	result	of	increased	(decreased)	motivation	for	social	interaction.			 	 	 	 	 	 v	 lay	summary	 in	this	research	i	demonstrate	that	under	normal	circumstances,	individuals	that	are	 high	in	individual	self-construal	(having	a	sense	of	self	that	is	more	self	focused	as	 opposed	to	more	other	focused)	behave	in	a	more	prosocial	way	towards	out- groups	and	distant	others.	however,	following	a	reminder,	or	assurance,	that	they	 belong	and	are	socially	included,	individuals	that	are	high	in	individual	self- construal	behave	in	a	less	prosocial	way	towards	out-groups	and	distant	others.	i	 show	that	perceptions	of	similarity	and	connection	between	donors	and	recipients	 of	prosocial	behaviour	alter	the	responses	by	donors,	and	argue	that	their	behaviour	 may	be	driven,	in	part,	by	a	desire	to	maintain	a	sense	of	belonging,	or	to	improve	 social	connection	with	others.		 	 	 	 vi	 preface	 i	am	the	primary	author	of	the	work	presented	in	this	ph.d.	dissertation.	i	was	 responsible	for	conducting	the	literature	review,	developing	the	hypotheses,	 designing	the	experiments,	collecting	the	data,	analyzing	the	data,	and	preparing	the	 manuscript.	katherine	white	and	michael	meitner	assisted	in	designing	the	 experiments.	katherine	white,	michael	meitner,	and	hal	herzog	provided	 intellectual	contributions.	none	of	the	text	of	the	dissertation	is	taken	directly	from	 previously	published	or	collaborative	articles.	 	 the	research	presented	in	this	dissertation	was	supported	by	standard	research	 grants	from	the	social	sciences	and	humanities	research	council	(sshrc),	awarded	 to	katherine	white.		 	 ethical	approval	for	all	experimental	studies	was	obtained	from	the	ubc	office	of	 research	services	behavioural	review	board	(human	ethics)	under	the	following	 certificate	number:	h - .	 	 	 	 	 vii	 table	of	contents	 	 abstract………………………………..…………………………………………………………………..……iii	 lay	summary……..…………………..………………………………………………………………………..v	 preface………………………………..………………………………………………………………………....vi	 table	of	contents………………………………..……………………………………………………..….vii	 list	of	figures………………………………..………………………………………………………...……xii	 list	of	acronyms………………………………………………………………………………….…….….xv	 acknowledgements………………………………..……………………………………………..….…..xvi	 dedication………………………………..……………………………………………………………..….xviii	 chapter	 :	introduction………………………………..……………………………………………….... 	 . 	overview	of	the	dissertation……………………………………………………………..…. 	 chapter	 :	when	i	belong	i	don't	care	about	you:	the	role	of	self-construal	 and	social	inclusion	in	prosocial	behaviour	directed	at	animal	out-group	 recipients…………………………………………………………………………………………………….… 	 . 	introduction	of	dissertation	topic…………………………………………………..…… 	 . 	conceptual	background……………………………………………………………………... 	 . . 	social	identity	and	self-construal:	our	relationships	with	others… 	 . . 	exclusion	and	belonging:	impacts	of	inclusion	on	sense	of	self…..… 	 . . 	prosocial	behaviour:	mechanisms	and	motivations	for	donation	 behaviour	and	inclusive	attitudes	explored………………………………………… 	 chapter	 :	empirical	investigation……………………………………………………………..… 	 . 	pre-test	study………………………………………………………………………………….… 	 	viii	 . . 	overview……………………………………………………………………………………. 	 . . 	procedure………………………………………………………………………………....... 	 . . 	results……………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . . 	discussion………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . 	study	 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 	 . . 	overview……………………………………………………………………………………. 	 . . 	procedure…………………………………………………………………………………... 	 . . 	results……………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . . 	discussion………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . 	study	 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 	 . . 	overview……………………………………………………………………………………. 	 . . 	procedure…………………………………………………………………………………... 	 . . 	results……………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . . . 	role	of	exclusion	manipulation	in	grouping,	and	 anthropomorphism	tasks………………………………………………………………. 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	in	grouping,	and	 anthropomorphism	tasks………………………………………………………………. 	 . . 	discussion………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . 	study	 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 	 . . 	overview……………………………………………………………………………………. 	 . . 	procedure………………………………………………………………………………....... 	 . . 	results…………………………….………………………………………………….…….... 	 	 ix	 . . . 	role	of	positive	affect	manipulation	in	donation	 intentions…………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control	+	affect)	in	donation	 intentions…………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control	+	affect)	on	empathy	 and	connection	to	cause	as	dependent	variables………………………..…. 	 . . . 	tests	of	mediated	moderation……………………………………….….… 	 . . 	discussion…………………………………………………………………………….….. 	 . 	study	 ……………………….……………………………………………………………….…... 	 . . 	overview………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . . 	procedure……………………………………………………………………………….... 	 . . 	results……………………………………………………………………………………... 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation,	poster	frame,	and	 interdependent	self-construal	in	donation	intentions………………….... 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame,	and	 independent	self-construal	in	donation	intentions………………………... 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame,	and	 independent	self-construal	in	actual	cash	donation……………………… 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame,	and	 independent	self-construal	in	connection	to	cause……………………….. 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame,	and	 independent	self-construal	in	empathy	for	cause………………………….. 	 	 	 x	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame,	and	 independent	self-construal	in	similarity	to	cause………………………….. 	 . . . 	tests	of	mediated	moderation…………………………………………….. 	 . . 	discussion………………………………………………………………………………… 	 . 	study	 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 	 . . 	overview………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 . . 	procedure………………………………………………………………………………… 	 . . 	results……………………………………………………………………………………... 	 . . . 	role	of	poster	and	self-construal	in	donation	intentions,	cash	 donation,	and	empathy………………………………………………………………… 	 . . 	discussion………………………………………………………………………………… 	 chapter	 :	general	discussion……………………………………………………………........... 	 . 	general	discussion…………………………………………………………………………... 	 . 	theoretical	implications……………………………………………………………….….. 	 . 	practical	implications………………………………………………………………………. 	 . 	research	limitations	and	directions	for	future	research….……………… 	 . 	concluding	remarks………………………………………………………………………... 	 chapter	 :	figures………………………………………………………………………………………. 	 references………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 appendix:	experimental	materials	&	follow-up	analysis…………………………… 	 a. 	pre-test:	follow-up	analysis……………………………………………………………. 	 a. 	self-construal	scale…………………………………………………………………………. 	 a. 	study	 :	scales………………………………………………………………………………… 	 	 xi	 a. 	study	 :	experimental	grouping	task	instructions…………………………… 	 a. 	study	 :	scales………………………………………………………………………………… 	 a. 	study	 :	future	life	manipulation……………………………………………………. 	 a. 	study	 :	anthropomorphism	picture	&	task	instructions…………………. 	 a. 	study	 :	follow-up	analysis…………………………………………………………….. 	 a. 	study	 :	scales………………………………………………………………………………… 	 a. 	study	 :	writing	manipulation	task	instructions……………………………. 	 a. 	study	 :	charity	poster	&	task	instructions……………………………………. 	 a. 	study	 :	follow-up	analysis…………………………………………………………... 	 a. 	study	 :	need	fulfillment	scale……………………………………………………… 	 a. 	study	 :	poster	frame.…………………………………………………………………… 	 a. 	study	 :	follow-up	analysis………………………………………………………...… 	 a. 	study	 :	poster	manipulation…………………………………………………….…… 	 a. 	power	analysis	for	studies…………………………………………………………….. 	 	 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 xii	 list	of	figures	 	 figure	 .	social	identity	vs.	personal	identity	.………………………………………………...… 	 figure	 .	optimal	distinctiveness	model	(odm)	of	the	self………………………………... 	 figure	 .	construals	of	the	self…………………………………………………………………………. 	 figure	 .	self-construal	and	prosocial	behaviour	path	(studies	 ,	 ,	and	 )……….. 	 figure	 .	self-construal	and	prosocial	behaviour	path	(study	 )……………………….. 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(pre-test	study)………………………………… 	 figure	 .	sample	age	by	percentage	(pre-test	study)………………………………………… 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(study	 )………………………………………...… 	 figure	 .	sample	age	by	percentage	(study	 )………………………………………………...… 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(study	 )………………………………………… 	 figure	 .	proportion	of	in-group	made	up	of	animals	as	a	function	of	condition	 (control	vs.	inclusion)	and	self-construal	(study	 )………………………………………….. 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	proportion	of	in-group	made	up	of	animals	as	a	 function	of	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	self-construal	(study	 )………… 	 figure	 .	entitativity	scores	of	the	in-group	as	a	function	of	condition	(inclusion	 vs.	control)	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )……………………………………… 	 figure	 .	anthropomorphism	of	dog	picture	as	a	function	of	condition	(control	vs.	 inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )………………………………………… 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	ratings	of	anthropomorphism	as	a	function	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )………. 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(study	 )…………………………………...……. 	 	xiii	 figure	 .	sample	age	by	percentage	(study	 )……………………………………..………….. 	 figure	 .	donation	intention	as	a	function	of	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	 independent	self-construal	(study	 )………………………………………………………………. 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	donation	intentions	as	a	function	of	condition	 (control	+	affect	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )…………. 	 figure	 .	connection	to	cause	as	a	function	of	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	 and	self-construal	(study	 )…………………………………………………………………………….. 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(study	 )……………………………………….... 	 figure	 .	sample	age	by	percentage	(study	 )……………………………………………...…. 	 figure	 .	donation	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	frame	(similar	vs.	different)	 and	interdependent	self-construal	(study	 )……………………………………………………. 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	donation	intentions	as	a	function	of	poster	style	 (similar	vs.	different)	and	interdependent	self-construal	(study	 )…………………... 	 figure	 .	donation	to	cause	as	a	function	of	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	 poster	type	(similar	vs.	different),	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )….... 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	donation	intention	as	a	function	of	poster	style	 (similar	vs.	different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self- construal	(study	 )………………………………………………………………………………………..… 	 figure	 .	actual	cash	donation	as	a	function	of	poster	style	(similar	vs.	different),	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )…...… 	 figure	 .	connection	to	cause	as	a	function	of	independent	self-construal,	 inclusion	manipulation,	and	similar	vs.	different	poster	frame	(study	 )………..... 	 	xiv	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	connection	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	style	 (similar	vs.	different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self- construal	(study	 )………………………………………………………………………………………..… 	 figure	 .	empathy	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	style	(similar	vs.	different),	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )……... 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	empathy	for	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	style	 (similar	vs.	different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self- construal	(study	 )………………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 figure	 .	similarity	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	style	(similar	vs.	different),	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )……… 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	similarity	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	style	 (similar	vs.	different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self- construal	(study	 )………………………………………………………………………………………….. 	 figure	 .	sample	age	by	percentage	(study	 )………………………………………………… 	 figure	 .	conceptual	models	(hayes,	 ;	 )	used	in	studies	 - …………...… 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 xv	 list	of	acronyms	 	 anova	 analysis	of	variance	 bc	spca	 british	columbia	society	for	the	prevention	of	cruelty	to	animals	 fne		 	 fear	of	negative	evaluations	(scale)	 hai	 	 human	animal	interactions	 ida	 	 individual	differences	in	anthropomorphism	 idaq	 	 individual	differences	in	anthropomorphism	questionnaire	(scale)	 ihsr		 	 intergroup	helping	as	status	relations	 inq	 	 interpersonal	needs	questionnaire	(scale)	 jn	 	 johnson-neyman	 mmr	 	 moderated	multiple	regression	 mturk		 mechanical	turk	 ntb	 	 need	to	belong	(scale)	 odt	 	 optimal	distinctiveness	theory	 sct	 	 self-categorization	theory	 sd	 	 social	desirability	(scale)	 sit	 	 social	identity	theory	 sms	 	 social monitoring system	 spss	 	 statistical	package	for	the	social	sciences	 thwb		 thwarted	belonging	(scale)	 weird	 western,	educated,	industrialised,	rich	and	democratic	(societies)	 	 	 	xvi	 acknowledgements	 	 these	years	spent	at	ubc	came	at	a	time	in	my	life	when	i	was	changing	direction	 and	embarking	on	a	new	adventure.	many	people	have	supported	and	encouraged	 me	along	the	way.		 to	my	supervisor,	kate	white,	i	owe	enormous	thanks.	i	know	i	wasn't	always	the	 easiest	student,	but	you	nonetheless	offered	me	amazing	support,	resources	and	 encouragement	over	the	many	years	it	has	taken	to	get	here.	you've	shaken	me	out	 of	my	comfort	zone	time	and	again,	and	encouraged	me	to	challenge	myself	and	to	 achieve	more	than	i	ever	thought	would	be	possible.	it	has	been	really	exciting	 learning	with	you	and	you	have	opened	my	mind	to	a	fascinating	body	of	research.	 thank	you	so	very	much.	 i	would	also	like	to	thank	my	other	supervisor	michael	meitner.	mike,	you	were	 more	than	open	minded	and	generous	as	i	blundered	around,	trying	to	find	the	right	 direction	to	take	my	research.	you	offered	me	many	wonderful	opportunities,	and	 opened	my	mind	to	interesting	and	engaging	projects.	it’s	always	been	a	lot	of	fun	 working	with	you,	and	i	am	grateful	for	the	time	i	have	spent	doing	so,	as	well	as	the	 many	chances	you	have	given	me	to	learn	and	grow,	sometimes	at	your	expense.	i	 owe	you!	 to	my	outside	supervisor,	hal	herzog,	i	thank	you	for	your	outrageous	enthusiasm	 and	fantastic	sense	of	humour.	your	inspirational	presence	in	the	field	of	 anthrozoology	both	lit	my	thirst	for	research	in	this	area	and	then	fanned	the	flames.	 as	well	as	encouraging	me	to	be	brave	and	bold,	you've	been	a	fantastically	 supportive	member	of	my	committee	and	a	steadying	influence	at	times.	i	am	deeply	 honoured,	and	very	lucky,	to	have	had	you	on	my	team.		 finally,	a	special	thanks	goes	to	my	very	first	supervisor,	paul	wood,	who	believed	 in	me	from	the	outset	and	encouraged	me	to	take	this	path	from	the	beginning.	 	xvii	 although	you	were	not	with	me	at	the	end,	i	thank	you	immensely	for	your	very	 kind	and	personal	support	that	set	me	on	this	adventure.		 in	addition	to	my	supervisory	committee,	i	would	like	to	say	thank	you	to	everyone	 in	the	marketing	division	at	sauder,	especially	darren	dahl,	joey	hoegg	and	sandra	 robinson,	for	their	kind	support	over	the	years.	thank	you	also	to	hillel	goelman,	 and	more	recently	barbara	weber,	at	the	isgp.	i’d	also	like	to	thank	all	the	staff	at	 sauder,	forestry	and	isgp.	in	particular,	i	would	like	to	thank	florence	yen	for	her	 wonderful	support	and	kindness	at	sauder,	and	for	taking	care	of	me.		a	final	ubc	 shout	out	must	also	go	to	my	fellow	phd	students,	and	especially	yoonji	shim	and	 johannes	boegershausen,	who	were	always	very	generous	with	their	time.				 lastly,	i	would	like	to	thank	all	my	friends	and	family,	who	have	supported	me	and	 cheered	me	on	over	the	years.	thank	you	to	my	partner,	rick,	who	was	always	there	 at	my	darkest	hours;	you	are	my	rock,	as	well	as	the	love	of	my	life.	endless	thanks	 also	to	my	parents	for	encouraging	me	to	be	brave	and	fearless	and,	in	the	words	of	 my	father,	to	“murder	the	bums.”		i	may	not	be	making	the	front	page	of	the	san	 francisco	chronicle,	but	i	think	i	won	the	game!	i	also	want	to	pay	a	posthumous	 tribute	to	my	grandfather,	charles	fairfoot,	who	always	encouraged	me	to	keep	on	 going	even	when	life	was	tough,	and	whose	immortal	phrase	“don’t	let	the	buggers	 get	you	down!”	still	spurs	me	on	when	times	are	tough.	you	were	the	best	granddad.	 thanks	also	to	my	kids	for	putting	up	with	a	student	mother,	which	can	be	even	 more	embarrassing	than	having	a	non-student	mother	j.	finally,	thanks	to	my	 friends	in	canada	and	england	who	encouraged	me	on	my	crazy	dream—i	am	lucky	 to	have	you	all.	i	hope	i	have	shown	you	that	by	doing	this	that	pretty	much	anything	 is	possible,	if	you	try	hard	enough!				 	 	 	xviii	 dedication	 	 this	dissertation	is	dedicated	to	my	family,	without	whom	i	would	be	a	lesser	 person.	to	my	partner,	rick	gibson,	my	children,	orlanda	south	and	arlo	maguire,	 and	my	parents,	peter	and	marie	south,	i	would	like	to	acknowledge	the	part	you	all	 played,	and	the	price	you	all	paid,	for	this	research	work.		any	success	i	accrue	as	a	 result	of	this	work,	i	share	with	you.	any	pride	i	acknowledge	as	a	result	of	this	 work,	i	share	with	you.		for,	in	the	words	of	the	english	poet	john	donne,	no	man	is	 an	island.		 	 "no	man	is	an	island	entire	of	itself;	every	man		 is	a	piece	of	the	continent,	a	part	of	the	main;		 if	a	clod	be	washed	away	by	the	sea,	europe		 is	the	less,	as	well	as	if	a	promontory	were,	as		 well	as	any	manner	of	thy	friends	or	of	thine		 own	were;	any	man's	death	diminishes	me,		 because	i	am	involved	in	mankind.		 and	therefore	never	send	to	know	for	whom		 the	bell	tolls;	it	tolls	for	thee."		 john	donne,	 	 	 	 chapter	 :	introduction		 	 over	a	quarter	of	a	century	of	research	(see	baumeister	&	leary,	 ;	williams,	 ;	leary	&	cottrell,	 	for	narrative	literature	reviews)	has	been	devoted	to	 examining	the	effects	of	social	isolation	on	the	human	psyche,	and	in	particular	the	 impact	that	social	exclusion	may	have	for	subsequent	social	interactions,	such	as	 prosocial	behaviour.		a	few	researchers	(e.g.,	brewer,	 ;	dewall,	baumeister,	&	 vohs,	 )	have	also	looked	at	the	impact	that	belonging	satiation	and	 reassurances	of	social	inclusion	may	have	for	subsequent	interactions,	including	 attitudes	to	distant	humans	and	even	other	species	(waytz	&	epley,	 ;	waytz,	 ).	results	from	the	research	into	the	impacts	of	exclusion	and	inclusion	on	 downstream	reactions,	however,	have	been	mixed.		some	research	has	found	that	 exclusion	increases	antisocial	behaviour	(twenge,	baumeister,	tice,	&	stucke,	 ),	and	reduces	prosocial	behaviour	and	cooperation	(catanese	&	tice,	 ;	 twenge,	baumeister,	dewall,	ciarocco,	&	bartels,	 ;	van	beest	&	williams,	 ),	whilst	other	research	has	demonstrated	that	prosocial	behaviour	may	 increase	following	exclusion	(lee	&	shrum,	 ),	especially	if	an	opportunity	to	 reconnect	still	exists	(maner,	dewall,	baumeister,	&	schaller,	 ;	cuadrado,	 tabernero,	&	steinel,	 ).			 	 alongside	this	work	on	social	exclusion	and	belonging,	another	separate	but	related	 body	of	research	has	been	explicitly	examining	the	motives	for	prosocial	behaviour	 (batson,	 ;	batson,	ahmad,	&	stocks,	 ;	duclos	&	barasch,	 ;	martela	&	 	 	 ryan,	 ).	in	particular,	researchers	in	this	stream	have	focused	on	how	prosocial	 motivation	may	differ	depending	on	the	status	and	group	membership	of	both	 donor	and	target	(brewer,	 ;	hopkins,	reicher,	harrison,	cassidy,	bull,	&	levine,	 ;	jonas,	schimel,	greenberg,	&	pyszczynski,	 ;	leeuwen	&	tauber,	 ;	 sturmer	&	snyder,	 ;	tajfel	&	turner,	 ),	as	well	as	examining	how	 behaviour	may	be	impacted	by	perceived	similarity	or	closeness	to	the	cause	 (burnstein,	crandall,	&	kitayama,	 ;	sturmer	&	snyder,	 ).			 	 further	recent	interest	has	focused	on	the	moderating	effect	that	self-construal	 orientation	may	have,	both	on	threats	to	belonging	(pfundmair,	graupmann,	du,	 frey,	&	aydin,	 ;	pfundmair,	graupmann,	frey,	&	aydin,	 ;	ren,	 wesselmann,	&	williams,	 ),	as	well	as	on	group	behaviour	(yuki	&	takemura,	 ),	and	prosocial	behaviour	directed	towards	both	in	and	out-group	targets	 (duclos	&	barasch,	 ;	kemmelmeier,	jambor,	&	letner,	 ).	self-construal	 may	best	be	defined	as	what	people	believe	about	the	relationship	between	the	self	 and	others,	and	specifically	how	separate	or	connected	an	individual	is	to	others	 around	them.	two	views	of	self-construal	are	usually	distinguished;	that	of	 independent	self-construal,	which	concerns	an	individual’s	self-determination	and	 distinctiveness,	vs.	that	of	interdependent	self-construal,	which	concerns	an	 individual’s	shared	self	and	maintenance	of	relationships	with	others	(markus	&	 kitayama,	 ;	 ).	traditionally	individuals	with	highly	independent	self- construal	are	considered	to	be	more	likely	to	behave	according	to	their	own	 preferences	and	for	their	personal	pleasure,	compared	to	those	with	high	 	 	 interdependent	self-construal,	who	are	thought	to	be	more	likely	to	value	 interpersonal	relationships,	and	others’	feelings	and	evaluations	(sung,	choi,	&	 tinkham,	 ).	however,	when	it	comes	to	prosocial	behaviour,	it	appears	that	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	are	just	as,	if	not	more,	charitable	 towards	others	(kemmelmeier,	jambor,	&	letner,	 ),	and	are	distinctly	more	 likely	to	behave	prosocially	to	out-group	members.	individuals	high	in	 interdependent	self-construal,	on	the	other	hand,	appear	to	show	a	marked	in-group	 bias	(duclos	&	barasch,	 ).		 	 this	dissertation	is	focused	on	the	intersection	of	these	bodies	of	research;	prosocial	 behaviour	directed	towards	out-groups,	as	a	factor	of	social	inclusion	status,	donor	 self-construal	orientation,	and	social	identity.	the	hope	of	this	research	is	to	 forward	an	argument	as	to	why	prior	research,	investigating	the	downstream	 prosocial	responses	following	inclusion	and	exclusion,	may	have	delivered	 divergent	results,	and	to	make	some	progress	towards	filling	in	gaps	in	our	 knowledge	regarding	this	important	area	of	research.	specifically,	i	propose	that	at	 least	some	of	the	divergent	past	findings	on	prosocial	behaviour	patterns	towards	 out-groups	may	stem	from	a	failure	to	account	for	the	interaction	between	self- construal	and	social	inclusion	status	and,	in	particular,	the	motivational	impact	that	 a	need	for	social	inclusion	has	for	individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	self- construal.		 	 	 	 furthermore,	i	argue	that	the	social	identity	of	the	recipient	of	the	prosocial	 behaviour	(as	compared	to	the	donor)	is	of	crucial	importance.	in	addition,	i	offer	 forward	evidence	that	although	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	are	 considered	to	show	less	in-group	bias	(duclos	&	barasch,	 ),	they	may	 nonetheless	behave	as	poorly	towards	out-group	targets	as	do	individuals	with	high	 interdependent	self-construal,	under	specific	(inclusion)	conditions.		finally,	i	bring	 a	novel	out-group	target,	non-human	animals,	to	the	table,	in	order	to	investigate	 how	perceptions	of	similarity	to	an	out-group	may	mediate	prosocial	intentions	for	 individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	self-construal.	in	summary,	my	research	 seeks	to	further	the	understanding	of	the	impact	that	self-construal	orientation	has	 on	inclusive	behaviours	and	prosocial	intentions	towards	out-group	members,	as	a	 result	of	social	inclusion	status.		 	 . 	overview	of	dissertation		 	 this	dissertation	is	comprised	of	one	essay	that	includes	six	studies	(one	pre-test	 study,	one	correlational	study,	and	four	experimental	studies,	including	one	 experimental	field	study).		the	essay	seeks	to	build	on	previous	research	and	 further	probe	the	motivations	driving	prosocial	behaviour	towards	distant	others,	 including	non-humans,	as	a	function	of	social	inclusion	status,	and	to	examine	the	 moderating	influence	of	self-construal	orientation.	 	 	 	 to	this	end,	i	first	present	evidence	that	individuals	show	a	propensity	to	gauge	 others	around	them,	including	both	humans	and	animals,	in	terms	of	their	potential	 to	offer	opportunities	for	social	interaction	and	connection	(pre-test	study).	i	also	 show	that	independent	self-construal	correlates	with	anthropomorphic	tendencies		 (assignment	of	human	attributes	to	non-human	others).	i	then	seek	to	demonstrate	 how	self-construal	orientation	may	impact	the	formation	of	in-groups	and	out- groups	(study	 ),	and	show	that	a	positive	relationship	exists,	between	independent	 self-construal	orientation	and	the	inclusion	of	animal	out-group	members	into	a	 self-formed	in-group.	i	propose	that	this	happens	for	two	reasons;	first,	because	 individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	self-construal	have	more	relaxed	in-group	 boundaries	and	are	more	open	to	admitting	others,	and	second	because	individuals	 that	are	high	in	independent	self-construal	will	be	more	likely	to	view	animals	from	 a	perspective	of	having	social	connection	potential.		 	 building	on	from	this,	i	replicate	the	findings	of	study	 	in	an	experimental	lab	 setting	(study	 ),	and	then	go	on	to	demonstrate	the	moderating	influence	of	social	 inclusion	status,	especially	for	individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	self- construal.	specifically,	study	 	provides	evidence	that	an	affirmation	of	social	 inclusion	may	result	in	the	consolidation	of	in-group	boundaries,	and	a	decrease	in	 the	ratings	of	anthropomorphism	(assignment	of	human	attributes)	given	to	 animals,	for	individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	self-construal.	furthermore,	 study	 	also	offers	evidence	to	support	the	claim	that	a	high	interdependent	self- 	 	 construal	orientation	may	provide	a	buffer,	both	against	threats	of	social	exclusion	 and	promises	of	social	inclusion.		 	 following	this,	i	then	extend	these	findings	(study	 ),	to	an	important	new	 dependent	variable,	donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	animal	charity,	and	offer	 evidence	for	the	role	that	both	social	inclusion	status,	as	well	as	self-construal	 orientation,	may	play	in	this	setting.	specifically,	i	provide	evidence	that	donation	 intentions	are	higher	under	normal	conditions,	but	are	reduced	following	assurance	 of	social	inclusion,	for	individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	self-construal.	 however,	i	show	that	the	same	effect	is	not	seen	for	individuals	that	are	high	in	 interdependent	self-construal.	i	propose	that	this	happens	as	a	result	of	individuals	 who	are	high	in	independent	self-construal,	giving	to	an	out-group	animal	charity,	in	 order	to	bolster	belonging	needs,	and	i	argue	that	this	behaviour	should	reduce	if	 belonging	needs	have	already	been	met	through	an	assurance	of	social	inclusion.	in	 study	 ,	i	also	seek	to	demonstrate	that	this	behaviour	is	not	as	a	result	of	general	 positive	affect	following	social	inclusion,	but	is	specific	to	an	increase	of	belonging	 that	happens	following	affirmation	of	inclusion.	see	figure	 	for	a	diagram	of	the	 projected	prosocial	behaviour	path	as	a	consequence	of	self-construal	and	 belonging.		 	 in	study	 ,	i	then	demonstrate	the	effect	that	a	perception	of	similarity	(vs.	 difference)	to	the	out-group	charity	may	have	on	donation	support,	as	evidenced	 with	both	donation	intentions	and	actual	cash	donation.	once	more,	i	demonstrate	 	 	 the	moderating	influence	that	both	social	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	 orientation	have	on	the	process,	as	well	as	the	mediating	role	of	connection	to	the	 cause.	see	figure	 	for	a	diagram	of	the	projected	prosocial	behaviour	path	as	a	 consequence	of	perception	of	similarity	(vs.	difference)	to	the	out-group	charity.	i	 also	examine	(study	 )	the	influence	that	participant	variables,	such	as	gender	and	 pet	ownership,	may	have	on	the	mechanisms	involved.		 	 taken	together,	the	results	across	the	first	four	studies	suggest	that,	following	 assurances	of	belonging,	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	will	behave	 in	a	less	inclusive	fashion,	and	will	donate	less	towards	out-group	causes.	i	argue	 that	this	happens	as	a	result	of	a	reduction	in	need	for	social	connection—a	need	 that	is	especially	active	in	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal,	and	that	 acts	as	a	motivating	mechanism	for	prosocial	behaviour.	finally,	i	demonstrate,	in	a	 brief	experimental	field	study	(study	 ),	the	risky,	delicate	and	challenging	nature	of	 using	manipulations	and	reminders	of	belonging	on	people’s	sense	of	core	belonging	 status,	and	the	potential	for	such	manipulations	to	backfire.	study	 	also	poses	the	 question	as	to	whether	the	current	research	findings	extend	to	public	(vs.	private)	 donation	settings.		 	 	 	 	 	 chapter	 :	when	‘i’	belong	i	don’t	care	about	‘you’:	the	role	of	 self-construal	and	social	inclusion	in	prosocial	behaviour	directed	 at	animal	out-group	recipients.	 	 . 	introduction	of	dissertation	topic		 “human	beings	are	a	part	of	the	animal	kingdom,	not	apart	from	it.	the	separation	of	 "us"	and	"them"	creates	a	false	picture	and	is	responsible	for	much	suffering.	it	is	part	 of	the	in-group/out-group	mentality	that	leads	to	human	oppression	of	the	weak	by	 the	strong	as	in	ethnic,	religious,	political,	and	social	conflicts.”		 mark	bekoff	( ),	 animals	matter.	 “humans	are	like	other	social	animals	in	that	their	hostility	to	outsiders	is	the	flipside	 of	strong	friendliness	towards	their	own	group.	the	distinction	between	friends	and	 enemies	is	as	central	to	human	life	as	it	is	to	the	lives	of	wolves,	meerkats	and	 chimpanzees.”		 mary	midgley	( ),	 hobbes'	leviathan,	part	 :	his	idea	of	war. 	 as	the	above	quotes	highlight,	we	share	many	commonalities	with	other	animal	 species.	according	to	serpell,	in	his	history	of	the	human-animal	relationship	(in	the	 company	of	animals,	 ),	for	millennia	traditional	hunter-gatherers	regarded	the	 other	animals,	which	they	lived	amongst	and	hunted,	as	equals.		however,	a	 fundamental	shift	of	mindset	occurred	around	 , 	years	ago,	with	the	advent	of	 farming	and	domestication,	from	which	the	human-animal	relationship	has	never	 fully	recovered.	as	a	result	of	this	shift,	the	previously	more	integrated	attitude	 	 	 human	beings	harboured	towards	the	animal	world	has	been	riven	into	one	of	 “them”	and	“us”	and,	in	its	wake,	a	more	ambivalent	and	fickle	relationship	with	the	 animal	world	has	emerged.		for	the	modern	day	domestic	animal,	says	serpell,	the	 human	is	its	overlord	and	master,	and	the	animals	are	reduced	to	his	servants	and	 slaves.		 	 despite	this	shift	of	power,	many	humans	continue	to	seek	out	the	company	of	 animals,	integrating	them	into	their	daily	lives	as	treasured	pets	and	even	casting	 them	in	the	role	of	surrogate	family	members.		however,	the	acceptance	of	a	modern	 day	domestic	animal	into	the	human	world	has	become	a	highly	complex	equation.	 it	is	an	equation	in	which	associated	costs	may	be	due,	and	‘honorary	human’	status	 (midgley,	 ;	serpell,	 )	may	be	conferred	as	a	means	based	mechanism	for	 enabling	their	exploitation	as	potential	social	resources,	only	to	be	withdrawn	when	 the	need	abates.		 	 this	research	examines	the	modern	day	human-animal	relationship,	but,	more	 specifically,	it	examines	the	inclusive	behaviour	of	humans	towards	animals,	and	the	 prosocial	actions	that	individuals	direct	towards	domestic	animal	charities.	the	 research	takes	a	novel	approach	to	the	topic	of	human	animal	interaction	(hai),	by	 using	the	literatures	on	intergroup	social	psychology	and	prosocial	marketing	to	 make	novel	predictions	regarding	when	animals	will	be	more	likely	to	be	regarded	 as	more	or	less	in-group	(vs.	out-group)	members,	and	when	individuals	will	be	 more	likely	to	support	animal-based	charities.	in	doing	so,	the	current	research	 	 	 delves	into	the	research	on	self-construal	(aaker	&	lee,	 ;	block,	 ;	cross,	 hardin,	&	gercek-swing,	 ;	gardner,	gabriel,	&	lee,	 ;	markus	&	kitayama,	 ;	 ;	singelis,	 ),	intergroup	behaviour	(turner,	hogg,	oakes,	reicher,	&	 wetherell,	 ;	yuki	&	takemura,	 ),	social	inclusion	and	exclusion	 (baumeister,	dewall,	ciarocco,	&	twenge,	 ;	nezlek,	kowalski,	leary,	blevins,	&	 holgate,	 ;	williams	&	sommer,	 ;	williams,	 ),	human	animal	 interactions	and	anthropomorphism	(amiot	&	bastian,	 ;	epley,	akalis,	waytz,	&	 cacioppo,	 ),	as	well	as	motives	for	prosocial	behaviour	(batson,	ahmad,	&	 stocks,	 ;	duclos	&	barasch,	 ;	sturmer	&	snyder,	 ).			 	 in	my	research,	i	argue	that	humans	may	construct	more	inclusive	in-group	 categories,	which	include	animals	within	them,	in	order	to	fulfill	social	belonging	 needs.	however,	when	belonging	needs	are	satiated,	boundaries	may	tighten,	in- group	categories	may	become	more	exclusive,	and	animals	may	once	more	be	 categorized	as	out-group	members.	in	addition,	i	argue	that	self-construal	 orientation	will	moderate	this	behaviour	since,	according	to	yuki	and	takemura	 ( ),	self-construal	orientation	fundamentally	impacts	the	lens	through	which	in- groups	are	perceived,	and	the	mechanisms	by	which	members	are	categorized.	 furthermore,	i	suggest	that	the	effect	will	be	mediated	by	feelings	of	connection	to	 the	cause,	and	moderated	by	the	perceived	similarity	between	human	and	animal	 targets.	additionally,	i	propose	that	the	effect	is	linked	to	the	mechanisms	that	give	 rise	to	anthropomorphism	directed	towards	non-humans,	as	well	as	prejudice	 towards,	and	dehumanisation	of,	human	out-group	members.	finally,	i	predict	that	 	 	 these	patterns	will	extend	into	prosocial	donation	support	behaviour,	directed	 towards	distant	others	and,	more	specifically	in	my	research,	domestic	animal	 charities.	 	 . 	conceptual	background	and	hypothesis	development	 . . 	social	identity	and	self-construal:	our	relationships	with	others.	 	 tell	me	with	whom	you	associate,	and	i	will	tell	you	who	you	are.	 johann	wolfgang	von	goethe	( ),		 the	maxims	and	reflections	of	goethe	 	 man	is	by	nature	a	social	animal;	an	individual	who	is	unsocial	naturally	and	not	 accidentally	is	either	beneath	our	notice	or	more	than	human.	society	is	something	 that	precedes	the	individual.	anyone	who	either	cannot	lead	the	common	life	or	is	so	 self-sufficient	as	not	to	need	to,	and	therefore	does	not	partake	of	society,	is	either	a	 beast	or	a	god.	 aristotle	( a- b),		 politics	 	 as	goethe	and	aristotle	highlight,	humans	are	not	only	intensely	social	creatures	 that	need	to	exist	within	a	social	framework	in	order	to	function	properly,	but	are	 also	more	or	less	defined	by	the	social	frameworks	they	find	themselves	inhabiting.		 a	number	of	theories	have	been	put	forward	to	explain	the	mechanisms	governing	 how	we	understand,	and	define,	our	sense	of	self,	as	well	as	how	our	sense	of	self	 contributes	to	our	social	identity	and	impacts	the	social	connections	in	our	lives.			 	 	 social	identity.	 social	identity	theory,	(sit;	tajfel	&	turner,	 ),	defines	social	identity	as	a	 person's	knowledge	that	he	or	she	belongs	to	one	or	more	social	categories	or	 groups	(hogg	&	abrams,	 ).	a	social	group	is	a	set	of	individuals	who	hold	a	 common	social	identification,	or	view	themselves	as	members	of	the	same	social	 category.	through	a	social	comparison	process,	persons	who	are	similar	to	the	self	 are	categorized	with	the	self,	and	are	labeled	as	the	in-group,	whereas	persons	who	 differ	from	the	self	are	categorized	as	the	out-group.	there	are	two	important	 processes	involved	in	social	identity	formation;	namely,	self-categorization	and	 social	comparison,	each	of	which	produce	different	consequences	(hogg	&	abrams,	 ).	the	consequence	of	self-categorization	is	an	accentuation	of	the	perceived	 similarities	between	the	self	and	other	in-group	members,	and	an	accentuation	of	 the	perceived	differences	between	the	self	and	out-group	members.	the	 consequence	of	the	social	comparison	process	is	the	selective	application	of	the	 accentuation	effect,	primarily	to	those	dimensions	that	will	result	in	self-enhancing	 outcomes	for	the	self.		most	importantly,	in	social	identity	theory,	one's	self-esteem	 is	enhanced	by	evaluating	the	in-group	and	the	out-group	on	dimensions	that	lead	 the	in-group	to	be	judged	positively,	and	the	out-group	to	be	judged	negatively	 (stets	&	burke,	 ).		 	 according	to	hogg	and	abrams	( ),	the	social	categories	in	which	individuals	 place	themselves	are	parts	of	a	structured	society,	and	exist	only	in	relation	to	other	 contrasting	categories	(i.e.	male	vs.	female;	human	vs.	animal),	with	each	category	 	 	 possessing	more	or	less	power,	prestige,	status,	and	so	on.	individuals	derive	their	 identity,	or	sense	of	self,	largely	from	the	social	categories	to	which	they	belong,	 with	each	person	maintaining	memberships	in	a	unique	combination	of	different	 social	categories.	in	such	a	way,	the	make	up	each	person's	self-concept	is	unique.	 one	of	the	key	assumptions	within	social	identity	theory	is	that	individuals	are	 intrinsically	motivated	to	achieve	positive	distinctiveness,	through	the	striving	for	a	 positive	self-concept.	however,	at	the	same	time,	people	are	also	motivated	to	strive	 for	a	positive	social	identity,	through	membership	with	groups	that	are	positively	 distinct	from	relevant	out-groups.		 	 much	of	social	identity	theory	deals	with	intergroup	relations.	intergroup	relations	 may	be	understood	as	the	manner	by	which	individuals	come	to	see	themselves	as	 members	of	one	group,	or	category	(the	in-group),	in	comparison	with	another	 group	or	category	(the	out-group).		according	to	social	identity	theory,	one	 consequence	of	this	categorization	may	be	intergroup	conflict	and	ethnocentrism	 (turner,	hogg,	oakes,	reicher,	&	wetherell,	 ).	furthermore,	evidence	has	 shown	that	stereotyped	perceptions	of	in-group	members	and	out-group	members	 may	be	enhanced	and	made	more	homogeneous	by	identification	with	the	in-group	 (haslam,	oakes,	mcgarty,	turner,	reynolds,	&	eggins,	 ).	in	sum,	based	on	the	 extant	research,	we	can	conclude	that	having	a	particular	social	identity	means	 feeling	a	part	of	a	certain	group,	being	like	others	in	the	group,	and	seeing	things	 from	the	group's	perspective.	all	of	this	entails,	according	to	turner	and	colleagues	 	 	 ( ),	“a	shift	towards	the	perception	of	self	as	an	interchangeable	exemplar	of	 some	social	category,	and	away	from	the	perception	of	self	as	a	unique	person.”		 	 two	other	related	theories	have	more	recently	emerged	from	social	identity	theory;	 self-categorization	theory	(sct;	turner,	hogg,	oakes,	reicher,	&	wetherell,	 ;	 turner,	oakes,	haslam,	&	mcgarty,	 ),	and	optimal	distinctiveness	theory	(odt;	 brewer,	 ;	leonardelli,	pickett,	&	brewer,	 ).	according	to	self- categorization	theory,	rather	than	seeing	interpersonal	and	intergroup	dynamics	as	 being	at	either	end	of	a	bipolar	spectrum,	identity	should	be	categorized	and	seen	as	 operating	at	different	levels	of	inclusiveness.	these	levels	of	inclusiveness	vary	from	 the	self	as	a	human	being,	to	the	self	as	a	part	of	a	group,	and/or	compared	to	other	 groups.	amiot	and	bastian	( )	argue	we	may	usefully	approach	our	 understanding	of	human-animal	relations	from	this	type	of	intergroup	perspective.		 according	to	brewer	( ),	and	brewer	and	gardner	( ),	seen	this	way,	the	self	 may	be	viewed	as	existing	within	a	framework	of	concentric	circles,	with	personal	 identity	at	the	core,	and	various	social	identities	surrounding	the	self	(see	figure	 ).	 	 optimal	distinctiveness	theory,	on	the	other	hand,	purports	to	fill	a	gap	that	has	 been	missed	by	both	social	identity	theory	and	self-categorization	theory.	this	gap	 is	centered	around	what	drives	identification	with	in-groups,	particularly	in	the	 chronic	long-term	(brewer,	 ).	optimal	distinctiveness	theory	suggests	that	 individuals	are	faced	with	two	basic	competing	human	needs:	to	be	part	of	social	 group,	but	also	to	satisfy	one’s	own	individual	needs.	accordingly,	a	tension	exists	in	 	 	 which	the	two	opposing	identity	needs,	or	forces,	compete.	on	one	side	is	individual	 uniqueness	(differentiation/distinctiveness),	and	on	the	other	side	is	a	need	for	 validation	and	similarity	that	can	only	be	found	through	in-group	homogeneity	 (inclusion/assimilation).	individuals	are	compelled	to	form	an	identity	that	satisfies	 both	needs,	through	the	striking	of	an	‘optimal’	balance.	this	‘optimal	balance’	 resides	somewhere	between	the	desire	for	distinctiveness	(i.e.	feeling	unique	or	 different	from	others),	and	the	desire	for	assimilation	or	belonging	(i.e.	feeling	 similar	to	others)	according	to	brewer	( ;	see	figure	 ).		 	 self-construal.	 an	alternate	way	of	thinking	about	the	self,	in	relation	to	others,	is	from	the	 perspective	of	self-construal.	as	previously	discussed,	self-construal	is	best	defined	 as	what	people	“believe	about	the	relationship	between	the	self	and	others,	and	 especially,	the	degree	to	which	they	see	themselves	as	separate	from	others,	or	as	 connected	with	others”;	with	a	crucial	distinction	hinging	on	the	role	assigned	to	 ‘other,’	in	terms	of	the	self-definition	(markus	&	kitayama,	 ,	p.	 ).	for	those	 with	a	more	independent	construal	of	self,	‘others’	are	less	implicated	in	one’s	self- definition,	or	self-identity,	and	there	is	a	strong	sense	of	individuality.	this	includes	 a	feeling	of	oneself	as	an	agent	in	control,	standing	out	from	the	crowd	and	being	 “true	to	one’s	own	internal	structures	of	preference,	rights,	convictions	and	goals”	 (markus	&	kitayama,	 ;	see	figure	 ).		individuals	with	highly	independent	self- construal	are	therefore	considered	to	be	more	likely	to	behave	according	to	their	 own	preferences,	and	for	their	personal	pleasure.			 	 	 on	the	other	hand,	individuals	with	a	strongly	interdependent	self	are	thought	to	 define	their	own	identity	through	their	relationship	with	other	people	in	the	group.	 as	a	result,	individuals	with	a	highly	developed	interdependent	self-construal	see	 the	connectedness	between	people	as	fundamentally	important	and,	as	a	 consequence	of	this,	are	more	likely	to	behave	in	accordance	with	“anticipated	 expectations	of	others	and	social	norms”	(markus	&	kitayama	 ,	p.	 ).	they	 value	harmonious	relations,	and	their	actions	are	focused	on	fostering	relatedness	 and	connection	to	others	(chuang,	xie,	&	liu,	 ;	cross,	hardin,	&	gercek-swing,	 ;	markus	&	kitayama,	 ;	singelis,	 ),	as	well	as	working	to	maintain	 harmony	(bagozzi,	verbeke,	&	gavino	jr.,	 ).	for	those	with	a	relatively	more	 interdependent	self-construal,	‘others’	are	often	included	within	the	boundaries	of	 the	self,	since	the	contexts	of	‘other’	relationships	are	seen	as	defining	features	of	 the	self.	in	this	situation	the	individual	self	may	be	seen	as	a	“fraction”	(lebra,	 )	 of	a	larger	social	unit.	as	a	result,	self-esteem,	for	those	high	in	interdependent	self- construal,	is	largely	born	of	self-restraint	and	accommodation.	this	may	be	 contrasted	with	those	individuals	that	are	higher	in	independent	self-construal,	who	 are	more	likely	to	derive	self-esteem	from	an	individual	pride	of	self-achievement	 and	distinction	(cross,	bacon,	&	morris,	 ).			 	 self-construal	research	has	been	approached	from	both	an	individual	difference	 perspective	(aaker	&	lee	 ;	block	 ;	singelis	 )	and	a	cultural	 perspective	(cross	et	al.,	 ;	gardner,	gabriel,	&	lee,	 ;	graham,	waytz,	 meindl,	iyer,	&	young,	 ;	markus	&	kitayama	 ).	looking	at	self-construal	in	 	 	 terms	of	individual	differences,	singelis	( )	argues	that	traits	of	both	 independent	and	interdependent	self-construal	may	co-exist	within	one	individual.	 from	a	cultural	perspective,	on	the	other	hand,	the	independent	(or	idiocentric)	self	 is	assumed	to	be	stronger	in	western	cultures,	and	the	interdependent	(or	 allocentric)	self	more	prevalent	in	non-western	cultures	(cross,	 ;	cross	et	al.,	 ;	markus	&	kitayama,	 ,	 ).		 	 more	recent	research	has	embraced	both	social	identity	theory	and	self- categorization	theory	alongside	self-construal,	to	further	explore	how	different	 culturally	embedded	self-construals	might	interact,	in	terms	of	group	processes	 (yuki	&	takemura,	 ).		yuki	and	takemura	propose	a	socio-ecological	approach	 that	focuses	on	the	differences	in	group	processes	across	cultures,	and	specifically	 between	collectivist	cultures,	containing	more	individuals	with	higher	levels	of	 interdependent	self-construal,	and	individualist	cultures,	comprised	of	individuals	 with	higher	levels	of	independent	self-construal.	yuki	and	takemura	argue	that	 there	exist	two	distinct,	and	differing,	concepts	of	how	in-group	membership	is	 understood,	which	are	dependent	on	self-construal	orientation.	collectivist	non- western	cultures,	according	to	the	socio-ecological	perspective,	are	more	likely	to	 view	their	in-group	as	a	non-permeable	long-term	structure,	containing	inter- connective	networks	founded	on	shared	connections	that	must	be	kept	in	harmony.		 on	the	other	hand,	individualist	western	cultures	are	likely	to	see	in-groups	as	more	 dynamic	in	nature,	based	on	shared	categories	within	the	group,	which	are	 paramount	to	social	identity.	in	these	latter	in-groups	members	are	interchangeable,	 	 	 and	differ	in	their	prototype-based	position	in	the	group.		 societies	dominated	by	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal,	tend	to	 have	higher	interpersonal	and	intergroup	mobility,	also	termed	‘relational	mobility’	 (yuki	&	takemura,	 ).	relational	mobility	is	defined	as	the	degree	to	which	 there	is	an	availability	of	social	identity	options,	such	as	opportunities	to	acquire	 new,	maintain	current,	or	sever	old	relationships	(yuki,	maddux,	&	masuda,	 ;	 yuki	&	shug,	 ).	where	there	is	low	relational	mobility	it	is	critical	for	 individuals	to	work	hard	to	maintain	long-standing	relationships	and	groups.	this	is	 because	with	low	relational	mobility,	group	memberships	are	long	standing,	 ascribed	and	predetermined,	and	it	is	hard	for	individuals	to	leave	their	groups,	 even	if	they	are	found	to	be	unsatisfactory.	where	there	is	high	relational	mobility,	 on	the	other	hand,	there	exists	an	abundance	of	opportunities	to	meet	strangers	and	 create	new	relationships	(yuki	&	takemura,	 ).			 	 high	relational	mobility	affords	those	experiencing	it,	typically	individuals	with	a	 more	independent	self-construal,	the	powerful	freedom	to	choose	which	groups	 they	belong	to	at	any	given	moment;	allowing	them	to	select	according	to	personal	 goals	and	social	categories.	on	the	other	hand,	high	relational	mobility	also	brings	a	 “sword	of	damocles” 	situation,	in	which	individuals	must	constantly	monitor	 intergroup	status	differences,	in	order	to	associate	with	groups	of	the	highest	status,	 																																																								 	 	the	sword	of	damocles	originates	in	a	text	of	the	orator	cicero,	and	refers	to	a	great	sword	that	 hung	over	the	throne	of	king	dionysius,	to	denote	the	belief	that	with	great	power	and	fortune	also	 comes	great	danger	and	fear.	 	 	 	 and	best	category	fit.	moreover,	individuals	must	also	take	care	to	monitor	their	 own	personal	belonging	status,	and	take	action	to	maintain	an	optimal	level	of	 inclusion	(pickett	&	gardner,	 ).	 	 conversely,	societies	dominated	by	low	relational	mobility,	more	frequently	seen	in	 collectivist	societies	and	primarily	populated	by	individuals	with	high	 interdependent	self-construal,	experience	little	opportunity	to	change	group	 membership.	yamagishi	and	kosugi	( )	suggest	we	consider	this	type	of	 situation	as	a	“collectivist’s	collectivism”	whereas,	according	to	socio-ecological	 perspective,	north	america,	filled	primarily	with	individuals	high	in	independent	 self-construal,	may	be	better	termed	an	“individualist’s	collectivism”	(yuki	&	 takemura,	 ).	the	result	of	this	difference,	argue	yuki	and	takemura,	is	that	 people	high	in	interdependent	self-construal,	or	those	living	in	collectivist	cultures,	 not	only	have	a	strong	motivation	to	maintain	harmonious	intragroup	relations,	but	 also	consider	their	memberships	within	their	in-groups	to	be	chronically	 guaranteed.		 	 these	findings	are	supported	by	the	research	of	mandel	( ),	demonstrating	that	 when	people	were	primed	with	interdependent	self-construal	they	were	able	to	 identify	more	individuals	on	whom	they	could	depend	than	people	primed	with	 independent	self-construal.	according	to	mandel	( )	this	creates	a	cushion	effect,	 which	in	turn	encourages	people	primed	with	interdependent	self-construal	to	be	 more	likely	to	take	on	certain	types	of	risks.		for	individuals	with	a	higher	 	 	 independent	self-construal,	however,	group	membership	is	more	precarious,	due	to	 the	dynamic	nature	of	in-group	formation,	and	the	group’s	more	porous	and	fluid	 boundaries.		 	 yuki	and	takemura’s	argument	is	supported	by	evidence,	suggesting	that	people	 from	individualist	cultures,	and	people	with	a	more	independent	self-construal,	do	 indeed	have	distinctive	group	mechanics,	compared	to	people	from	more	collectivist	 cultures	or	those	with	a	more	interdependent	self-construal	(buchan,	croson,	&	 dawes,	 ;	buchan,	johnson,	&	croson,	 ;	yamagishi,	makimura,	foddy,	 matsuda,	kiyonari,	&	platow,	 ).	one	example	of	this	is	that	people	with	a	more	 independent	self-construal	often	show	more	in-group	bias,	in	terms	of	trust,	 compared	to	people	with	a	more	interdependent	self-construal.		while,	at	first	 glance,	this	finding	may	appear	counterintuitive,	it	can	be	better	understood	if	we	 accept	that	there	are	two	bases	for	trust	of	strangers	within	in-groups.	the	first	is	 based	on	a	social	identity	theory	approach	of	shared	social	categories	leading	to	 equitable	resource	distribution	(brewer	&	kramer,	 ;	foddy,	platow,	&	 yamagishi,	 );	the	second	is	based	on	a	more	personalized	trust,	which	stems	 from	shared	connections	and	interpersonal	ties	(coleman,	 ).		evidence	(yuki,	 maddox,	brewer,	&	takimura,	 )	supports	the	proposal	that	collectivists	(japan)	 may	be	more	likely	to	show	trust	for	an	unknown	out-group	member	who	has	 shared	connections,	in	the	form	of	indirect	interpersonal	ties,	than	individualists	 (usa)	will	be.		 	 	 finally,	one	last	area	of	interest,	regarding	self-construal	and	intergroup	behaviour,	 relates	to	the	proclivity	for	demonstrating	in-group	bias.	research	has	shown	that	 evaluative	in-group	bias–the	act	of	favouring	members	of	one’s	own	in-group	over	 out-group	members–may	be	greater	in	those	with	a	more	individualist	orientation,	 if	the	targets	of	evaluation	are	category	based	and	therefore	evaluation	is	related	to	 shared	categories	(bond	&	hewstone,	 ;	heine	&	lehman,	 ;	rose,	 ;	 snibbe,	kitayama,	markus,	&	suzuki,	 ).	conversely,	if	groups	are	instead	 defined	by	relational	shared	connections,	then	individuals	higher	in	interdependent	 self-construal	may	be	found	to	be	more	likely	engage	in	evaluative	in-group	bias	 (endo,	heine,	&	lehman,	 ).		 	 in	sum,	research	evidence	supports	the	claim	by	yuki	and	takemura	( )	that	 social	identity	differences	between	independent	and	interdependent	self-construals	 primarily	exist	in	terms	of	the	kinds,	rather	than	the	levels,	of	group	orientations.	as	 a	result	of	the	differences,	individuals	that	are	more	individualist,	or	have	a	higher	 independent	self-construal,	will	be	more	driven	to	define	social	groups	in	terms	of	 an	inter-group	comparison.	in	this	situation,	the	focus	will	be	on	the	shared	 categories	that	group	members	enjoy,	with	the	self	viewed	as	a	prototypical	group	 member,	and	with	individuals	motivated	to	achieve	higher	intergroup	status.	this	 may	be	contrasted	with	individuals	that	are	more	collectivist,	or	have	a	higher	 interdependent	self-construal,	who	may	be	more	likely	to	utilize	intra-group	 comparison,	in	which	groups	are	defined	in	terms	of	shared	connections	with	 bounded	interpersonal	networks,	and	members	are	motivated	to	maintain	 	 	 harmonious	reciprocal	relationships	between	members	of	the	same	group.	simply	 put,	according	to	this	conceptualization,	the	sense	of	self,	seen	as	typical	of	 independent	self-construal,	is	not	a	form	of	self	that	is	alienated	or	in	social	isolation	 from	society,	as	has	been	previously	argued	by	some	(cushman,	 ),	but	is	rather	 a	form	of	social	orientation	in	which	social	identity	is	more	fluid	and	category	 driven.		 		 as	a	consequence,	i	chose	with	the	current	research	to	build	off	two	perspectives	 regarding	the	self.	on	the	one	hand,	i	work	from	an	optimal	distinctiveness	theory	 approach,	which	argues	that	the	self	is	a	combination	of	personal	identity	and	social	 identity,	existing	in	a	state	of	tension,	with	a	level	of	fluidity	that	allows	for	some	 movement	between	both.	in	addition	to	this,	however,	my	research	also	embraces	 specific	aspects	of	yuki	and	takemura’s	( )	socio-ecological	perspective,	which	 argues	that	distinct	differences	exist,	not	just	in	how	the	self	is	constructed,	but	also	 in	how	the	self	interacts	with	its	closest	groups,	in	terms	of	social	connection.	rather	 than	seeing	interdependent	self-construal	from	a	narrow	perspective,	where	the	self	 is	defined	as	a	fraction	of	a	greater	social	whole,	and	independent	self-construal	 from	an	equally	narrow	perspective,	in	which	an	individual	exists	in	isolation	from	 the	group,	i	follow	in	the	tradition	of	the	socio-ecological	perspective.	as	a	result,	i	 argue	that	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal,	and	individuals	with	 high	interdependent	self-construal,	are	likely	to	be	equally	concerned	with	their	 social	identity.	however,	i	argue	that	because	social	identity	is	experienced	in	a	 fundamentally	different	way	for	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	(in	 	 	 which	social	identity	is	precarious	but	fluid),	compared	to	individuals	with	high	 interdependent	self-construal	(in	which	social	identity	is	assured	but	rigid),	 obtaining	an	optimal	social	identity	status	will	require	different	maintenance	 strategies	for	these	people.	moreover,	i	argue	that	even	more	social	monitoring	will	 be	required	by	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal,	in	order	to	 maintain	an	optimal	balance	of	self	and	social	identity.	 	 additionally,	i	propose,	that	one	of	the	reasons	why	people	with	high	independent	 self-construal	have	previously	been	found	to	express	a	more	inclusive	and	 benevolent	attitude	towards	out-group	targets	(duclos	&	barasch,	 ;	leeuwen	&	 tauber,	 ;	sturmer	&	snyder,	 )	is	because	people	with	a	high	independent	 self-construal	are	more	open	to	categorizing	out-group	members	as	in-group,	and	 including	them	within	a	self	formed	in-group.	i	argue	that	this	is	as	a	result	of	the	 more	flexible,	and	porous,	nature	of	their	in-group	boundaries;	along	with	the	 propensity	of	individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	self-construal	to	form	in- groups	primarily	based	on	shared	categories,	rather	than	based	on	the	shared	 connections	that	are	more	typical	of	interdependent	self-construal	grouping	criteria.		 as	a	result	of	this	theorizing,	i	have	generated	the	following	hypothesis:	 hypothesis	 :	 	 out-group	members	will	form	a	higher	percentage	of	a	self-formed	in-group,	 the	higher	a	person	measures	on	independent	self-construal.	 	 additionally,	i	predict	that,	since	individuals	with	a	high	independent	self-construal	 	 	 experience	a	lower	baseline	state	of	social	inclusion	than	do	individuals	with	a	high	 interdependent	self-construal,	they	will	therefore	also	be	more	vigilant	for	cues	of	 potential	for	social	connection	coming	from	out-group	members	that	they	may	come	 in	contact	with.	this	prediction	directly	builds	from	the	work	of	pickett,	gardner,	 and	knowles	( ),	who	show	that	the	need	to	belong	enhances	sensitivity	to	 social	cues.	i	therefore	propose	a	second	hypothesis:	 hypothesis	 :	 	 the	higher	an	individual’s	measure	in	independent	self-construal,	the	greater	 the	number	of	items	that	have	high	social	connection	potential	will	be	put	in	 a	self-formed	in-group.		 	 i	do	not	expect	to	see	the	same	pattern	in	individuals	with	high	interdependent	self- construal.		 . . 	exclusion	and	belonging:	impacts	of	inclusion	on	sense	of	self.	 	 the	loneliness	whose	worst	alarm,	is	lest	itself	should	see—and	perish	from	before	 itself,	for	just	a	scrutiny—	the	horror	not	to	be	surveyed—but	skirted	in	the	dark,	 with	consciousness	suspended,	and	being	under	lock.																																																																																																																														 	 emily	dickenson	(c. )	 the	loneliness	one	dare	not	sound		 	 after	all,	what	are	any	of	us	after	but	the	conviction	of	belonging?	 	 wallace	stegner	(c. )	 on	teaching	and	writing	fiction		 	 	 	 if	the	in-groups,	and	others	with	whom	we	interact,	are	such	an	important	part	of	 our	self-construal,	then	it	stands	to	reason	that	our	social	inclusion	status,	and	a	 sense	that	we	belong,	will	be	vital	to	personal	wellbeing.	past	research	has	noted	 that	humans	are	intensely	social	creatures,	with	a	deep	urge	to	seek	company	and	to	 meaningfully	interact	with	fellow	humans	on	a	regular	basis	(see	baumeister	&	 leary,	 ,	for	a	comprehensive	review).	the	negative	consequences	from	failed	 inclusion	can	be	powerful	and	immediate	(baumeister,	dewall,	ciarocco,	&	twenge,	 ;	nezlek,	kowalski,	leary,	blevins,	&	holgate,	 ;	williams	&	sommer,	 ;	 williams,	 ).	people	report	not	only	lower	levels	of	belonging	following	 ostracism,	but	also	lower	control,	self-esteem,	and	meaningful	existence	(zadro,	 williams,	&	richardson,	 ),	even	when	the	source	of	ostracism	is	a	machine	 (williams,	forgas,	&	von	hippel,	 ).		it	should	therefore	hardly	be	surprising	to	 find	that	most	people	devote	significant	energies	into	maintaining	social	 connections	throughout	their	lives,	and	managing	reasonable	levels	of	what	we	 might	term	good	‘social	health’	(leary,	tambor,	terdal,	&	downs,	 ;	pickett	&	 gardner,	 ).		 	 research	into	responses	to	both	in-group	and	out-group	members,	following	threats	 to	social	inclusion,	have	generated	mixed	results,	however.	twenge,	baumeister,	 tice,	and	stucke	( )	have	found	that	social	exclusion	may	lead	to	an	increase	in	 violence	and	aggression.	twenge,	baumeister,	dewall,	ciarocco,	and	bartels	( )	 have	put	forward	evidence	to	show	that	it	reduced	cooperation	and	prosocial	 behaviour.		cuadrado,	tabernero,	and	steinel	( )	have	noted,	however,	that	 	 	 excluded	individuals	may	behave	more	prosocially	than	included	individuals,	if	they	 have	the	hope	of	reconnecting.	this	echoes	the	findings	of	maner,	dewall,	 baumeister,	and	schaller	( ),	which	found	that	social	interactions	following	 exclusion	crucially	depended	on	a	number	of	factors,	one	of	which	being	whether	 there	existed	the	potential	for	social	connection	with	novel	acquaintances.	the	 notion	that	individuals	will	respond	to	exclusion	by	engaging	in	positive	behaviours	 with	others	has	been	referred	to	as	the	reconnection	hypothesis	(baumeister	&	 leary,	 ;	maner,	dewall,	baumeister,	&	schaller,	 ).	researchers	have	found	 evidence	for	the	reconnection	hypothesis	in	various	areas,	including	workplace	 interactions	(bernstein,	sacco,	brown,	young,	&	claypool,	 ),	ingratiation	 behaviour,	(romero-canyas,	downey,	reddy,	rodriguez,	cavannaugh,	&	pelayo,	 ),	and	discrimination	(smart	richman	&	leary,	 ).		 	 sometimes	it	is	not	possible,	or	desirable,	to	connect	with	other	people,	however.		 epley,	akalis,	waytz,	and	cacioppo	( )	found	that	both	acute	exclusion,	as	well	 as	chronic	isolation,	motivated	people	to	look	for,	and	if	necessary	create,	social	 connections	with	non-humans.	building	on	this,	epley	and	colleagues	have	offered	 evidence	that	anthropomorphism	may	be	driven	by	sociality	motivation.	 anthropomorphism	is	the	attribution	of	human	traits,	emotions,	intentions,	 behaviours,	or	looks	to	non-human	entities,	and	is	considered	to	be	an	innate	 tendency	of	human	psychology,	being	shown	from	a	very	young	age	(see	epley,	 akalis,	waytz,	&	cacioppo,	 ,	for	a	more	detailed	description).	the	finding	that	 anthropomorphism	may	be	driven	by	sociality	motivation	follows	on	from	previous	 	 	 research	in	the	area	of	anthropomorphism,	and	has	been	recently	corroborated	by	 the	research	of	powers,	worsham,	freeman,	wheatley,	and	heatherton	( ).	 powers	and	colleagues	( )	have	proposed	that	over-attributing	animacy	to	non- humans	is	an	adaptive	strategy—one	that	allows	isolated	individuals	to	cast	a	wide	 net	when	looking	for	social	connection,	and	to	maximize	opportunities	to	connect.	 work	in	a	separate,	but	not	unconnected,	stream,	has	come	to	similar	conclusions.	 gardner,	pickett,	and	knowles	( )	have	proposed	that	the	mechanisms	involved	 in	belonging	regulation,	may	be	understood	as	similar	to	those	regulating	hunger,	 with	social	snacking	(e.g.,	re-reading	letters/	looking	at	photos	of	friends)	and	social	 shielding	(e.g.,	use	of	parasocials	such	as	plants,	pets,	etc.)	taking	place,	when	no	 social	interaction	with	human	contacts	appears	to	be	immediately	possible.		 	 past	research	has	also	explored	the	interactions	between	exclusion	and	self- construal.	ren,	wesselmann,	and	williams	( )	found	that	an	interdependent	 self-construal	orientation	facilitated	participants’	recovery	from	social	exclusion,	 even	if	it	didn't	seem	to	impact	the	feeling	of	initial	pain.	pfundmair,	aydin,	du,	 yeung,	frey,	and	graupmann	( )	have	suggested	that	an	interdependent	self- construal	orientation	may	help	buffer	a	person	from	the	negative	impacts	of	 exclusion,	in	a	way	that	a	high	independent	self-construal	orientation	may	not.	this	 buffering	hypothesis	is	also	supported	by	uskul	and	over	( ),	who	have	 provided	evidence	that	the	strategic	importance	of	others,	be	they	close	or	distant,	 may	mediate	responses	to	social	exclusion,	if	it	does	occur.		 	 	 	 pfundmair,	graupmann,	frey,	and	aydin	( )	also	support	these	findings	with	 further	research,	demonstrating	that	participants	with	a	collectivist	orientation	 show	little	difference	on	a	range	of	measures	(antisocial	intention,	prosocial	 intention,	avoiding	intention,	affect),	following	either	social	inclusion,	or	social	 exclusion;	when	compared	to	participants	with	a	more	individualist	orientation.	in	 their	studies,	pfundmair	and	colleagues	describe	more	individualist	participants	as	 reporting	higher	prosocial	intention	and	affect,	following	inclusion;	but	reporting	 more	antisocial	intention	and	avoiding	intention,	following	exclusion.	pfundmair,	 graupmann,	du,	frey,	and	aydin	( )	have	also	previously	found	that	 participants	with	a	more	individualist	orientation	experience	re-inclusion	 differently	to	continued	inclusion;	with	more	residual	exclusion	feelings	reported,	 along	with	reduced	fulfillment	of	basic	psychological	needs.	collectivists,	in	this	 research,	did	not	differentiate	between	re-inclusion	and	continued	inclusion.	this	 finding	adds	further	support	for	the	notion	that	a	collectivist	orientation	may	buffer	 against	the	negative	impacts	of	exclusion,	and	a	more	individualist	orientation	may	 experience	increased	susceptibility	and	threat	from	exclusion,	which	is	harder	to	 overcome,	in	terms	of	negative	impacts	to	basic	need	fulfillment.	 	 a	lesser	amount	of	research	has	looked	at	the	positive,	or	negative,	impacts	of	 inclusion,	or	at	the	impacts	of	inclusion	following	exclusion.	results	from	the	studies	 that	have	been	carried	out	have	delivered	mixed	findings.	on	the	one	side,	brewer	 ( )	and	dewall,	baumeister,	and	vohs	( )	have	put	forward	evidence	to	 support	the	view	that	people	may	experience	belonging	satiation;	and	that	those	 	 	 who	feel	very	socially	connected	will	be	less	motivated	to	connect	with	others,	or	 gain	social	acceptance	elsewhere.	waytz	and	epley	( )	have	similarly	 demonstrated	that	assurances	of	social	connection	can	result	in	the	dehumanization	 of	others,	as	well	as	an	increase	of	perceived	distance,	between	oneself	and	distant	 others.		conversely,	a	number	of	studies	have	found	affiliation	motivation	to	be	a	 positive	predictor	of	prosocial	behaviour	(baumeister	&	leary,	 ;	dewall	&	 richman,	 ;	pavey,	greitmeyer,	&	sparks,	 ;	zaskodna,	simek,	&	mlcak,	 ).	specifically,	ng	( )	has	shown	that	social	inclusion	may	help	recover	 depleted	self-control,	and	thompson	( )	found	that	priming	participants	with	 relevant	social	affiliation	had	an	impact	on	self-perceived	morality.		thompson	also	 found	that	a	prime	of	social	affiliation	affected	allegiances	to	a	person’s	own	social	 group	and	the	community,	with	some	individuals	more	likely	to	report	greater	 concern	for	others	wellbeing	and	a	wider	moral	concern	for	others	beyond	their	 own	group.	mikulincer	and	shaver	( )	found	a	sense	of	being	loved	made	 participants	less	negative	towards	out-groups,	and	cuadrado,	tabernero,	and	 steinel	( )	similarly	found	that	included	individuals	reported	higher	levels	of	 positive	affect	and	trust	following	inclusion,	as	well	as	exhibiting	more	prosocial	 behaviour.	 	 building	on	from	this	body	of	past	work,	i	have	opted	in	my	research,	rather	than	to	 concentrate	solely	on	social	exclusion–a	negative	and	unpleasant	experience	by	all	 accounts–to	instead	focus	my	investigation	primarily	on	its	lesser	researched	 counter,	social	inclusion	and	sense	of	belongingness.	specifically,	i	wish	to	 	 	 investigate	whether	social	inclusion	status	might	impact	prosocial	behaviour	in	the	 form	of	less	benevolent	and	receptive	intentions	expressed	towards	out-group	 members.	furthermore,	i	wish	to	investigate	whether	the	impact	of	social	inclusion	 status	on	prosocial	behaviour	will	vary	as	a	function	of	self-construal	orientation.		 	 following	previous	findings	(duclos	&	barasch,	 ;	ren,	wesselmann,	&	williams,	 )	demonstrating	that	interdependent	self-construal	appears	to	offer	some	 protection	against	exclusion	threats,	i	anticipate	that	people	with	a	high	 interdependent	self-construal	orientation	will	react	less,	to	both	inclusion	and	 exclusion	manipulations,	when	compared	to	people	with	an	independent	self- construal	orientation.	i	propose	that	this	is	because	they	are	essentially	buffered	 against	these	conditions	by	their	social	belonging	status,	which,	as	previously	 detailed	by	yamagishi	and	kosugi	( ),	is	assured	as	a	result	of	the	lack	of	 potential	for	intergroup	social	mobility.	on	the	other	hand,	i	predict	that	people	 with	an	independent	self-construal	orientation	will	respond	to	an	inclusion	 manipulation	by	showing	less	interest	in	interacting	with	non-humans,	and	 therefore	including	less	animals	in	their	self	formed	in-group.	moreover,	i	anticipate	 that	people	with	an	independent	self-construal	orientation	will	respond	to	an	 exclusion	manipulation	by	showing	more	interest	in	interacting	with	others	that	are	 not	associated	with	the	act	of	exclusion–non-humans	in	this	instance–and	therefore	 including	more	animals	in	a	self	formed	in-group.		 	 	 	 i	propose	that	this	is,	in	part,	because	people	with	high	independent	self-construal	 are	likely	to	have	a	more	flexible	group	perspective,	which	allows	for	increased	 group	mobility	and	more	porous	group	boundaries	and,	furthermore,	are	more	 likely	to	define	in-group	identity	by	category	than	by	interconnected	ties	(yamagishi	 &	kosugi,	 ;	yuki	&	takemura,	 ).	drawing	on	these	insights,	i	propose	that	 people	with	high	independent	self-construal	will	be	able	to	re-categorize	others	and	 themselves	fairly	easily	into	groups–as	opportunity	or	need	presents–and	will	seek	 to	do	so	in	order	to	maintain	belonging	needs.	one	of	the	key	elements	specific	to	 my	research	is	that	this	ability–to	flexibly	re-categorize	people	according	to	need– which	may	be	seen	in	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal,	should	 likewise	facilitate	categorizing	animals	into	sources	of	social	potential,	and	 awarding	animal	parasocials	an	honorary	human	status	more	easily	(see	midgley,	 ;	serpell,	 ).		 	 there	are	solid	foundations	to	the	notion	that	people	will	be	willing	to	award	human	 attributes	to	non-human	animals	when	it	suits	their	needs.	epley,	waytz,	akalis,	and	 cacioppo	( )	have	demonstrated	that	people	will	attribute	minds	to	animals	 when	in	need	of	companionship,	and	bastian,	loughnan,	haslam,	and	radke	( )	 have	detailed,	conversely,	how	people	will	deny	mental	capacities	to	animals	if	they	 wish	to	eat	them,	in	order	to	enable	moral	disengagement.		put	simply,	humans	are	 pretty	adept	at	re-categorizing	non-human	others	as	honorary	humans,	when	it	 suits	their	needs;	and	are	prepared	to	dehumanize	humans,	and	deny	minds	to	 others,	to	justify	ill	treatment	(kozak,	march,	&	wegner,	 )	or	lack	of	assistance	 	 	 (cuddy,	rock	&	norton,	 ).		consequently,	i	propose	that,	as	a	result	of	the	 manner	in	which	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	construct	their	 sense	of	social	self–and	therefore	function	in	group	settings–individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	may	be	viewed	as	more	‘socially	opportunistic’	than	 individuals	with	high	interdependent	self-construal.		 	 all	individuals	are	considered	to	monitor	social	cues	in	order	to	maintain	optimal	 belongingness,	and	this	behaviour	is	considered	to	increase	in	the	face	of	belonging	 threats	(pickett	&	gardner,	 ).	i	argue,	however,	that,	due	to	the	precariousness	 of	their	social	inclusion	status,	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	should	 be	especially	vigilant	for	cues	of	social	potential.		as	a	result	of	this,	i	propose	that	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	will	also	be	more	sensitive,	and	 adept,	at	monitoring	for	cues	of	social	potential	in	non-human	others.	furthermore,	 i	propose	that	when	it	comes	to	fulfilling	their	needs	for	social	connection,	people	 with	high	independent	self-construal	orientation	will	be	more	willing	to	conscript	 social	resources,	or	‘friends’,	from	a	variety	of	other	outside	sources,	in	order	to	 fulfill	personal	needs,	compared	to	those	with	a	more	interdependent	self-construal.	 consequently,	i	expect	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal,	under	 normal	conditions	(control),	to	not	only	anthropomorphize	more	than	individuals	 with	high	interdependent	self-construal,	but	also	to	anthropomorphize	more	 following	an	exclusion	manipulation,	and	less	following	an	inclusion	manipulation.		 	 	 	 this	expectation	is	because,	as	previously	discussed,	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	are	more	prone	to	construct	in-groups	to	suit	current	 needs.	furthermore,	if	needs	are	satiated	in	one	domain	(for	example	social	 connection),	they	will	be	more	likely	to	move	on	to	look	for	greener	pastures	in	the	 form	of	better	social	status	opportunities.	as	a	result	i	have	developed	four	more	 hypotheses,	as	follows:	 hypothesis	 :	 	 people	with	higher	independent	self-construal	will	put	a	higher	percentage	of	 animals	into	a	self-formed	in-group,	following	an	exclusion	manipulation,	 than	they	will	do	normally	(control	condition).	 	 hypothesis	 :	 	 people	with	higher	independent	self-construal	will	give	higher	ratings	of	 anthropomorphism	for	a	non-human	subject,	following	an	exclusion	 manipulation,	than	they	will	do	normally	(control	condition).	 	 hypothesis	 :	 	 people	with	higher	independent	self-construal	will	put	a	lower	percentage	of	 animals	into	a	self-formed	in-group,	following	an	inclusion	manipulation,	 than	they	will	do	normally	(control	condition).	 	 hypothesis	 :	 	 people	with	higher	independent	self-construal	will	give	lower	ratings	of	 anthropomorphism	for	a	non-human	subject,	following	an	inclusion	 manipulation,	than	they	will	do	normally	(control	condition).	 	 	 	 . . 	prosocial	behaviour:	mechanisms	and	motivations	for	donation	 behaviour	and	inclusive	attitudes	explored.	 	 we	make	a	living	by	what	we	get,	but	we	make	a	life	by	what	we	give.		 winston	churchill	 	 giving	to	others,	in	the	form	of	money	or	time,	is	widely	cherished	across	many	 cultures	as	a	moral	good,	if	not	a	moral	imperative.	but	why	do	we	give?	a	common	 assumption,	founded	in	moral	and	religious	history,	and	evidenced	in	the	writings	of	 thomas	aquinas,	david	hume,	adam	smith,	charles	darwin,	herbert	spencer,	 william	mcdougall,	and	more	recently,	in	contemporary	psychology	(hoffman,	 ;	krebs,	 ;	batson,	 ),	is	that	we	help	out	of	an	altruistic	desire	to	do	 good	to	others;	a	desire	often	fanned	by	empathetic	feelings.	however,	a	variety	of	 motivations	to	behave	in	a	prosocial	manner	exist,	beyond	pure	altruism.		 	 simpson	and	willer	( )	highlight	the	critical	roles	that	social	mechanisms	such	 as	normative	rules,	social	reputations	and	group	relations	play	in	our	prosocial	 behaviour,	at	times	obscuring	the	true	underlying	individual	motivations.		sturmer	 and	snyder	( ),	approaching	prosocial	behaviour	from	a	group-level	theory,	 argue	that	people	may	behave	prosocially	out	of	a	motivation	to	gain	social	or	 material	rewards;	to	gain	satisfaction	at	sticking	or	demonstrating	personal	values;	 to	avoid	feelings	of	distress,	shame	or	guilt	at	others’	suffering;	or	to	demonstrate	 empathy	to	others.	in	the	latter	case	they	argue	that	empathy	concerns	may	be	 	 	 especially	motivational,	if	the	donor	feels	similar	or	close	to	the	cause.	batson,	 ahmad,	and	stocks	( )	adopt	a	similar,	but	benefit	directed,	approach,	and	 separate	prosocial	motivation	into	four	forms	of	benefits,	only	one	of	which	involves	 altruism.	these	benefits	are	egoism	(benefit	another	to	benefit	oneself),	altruism	 (benefit	another	as	an	ultimate	goal),	collectivism	(benefit	another	to	benefit	the	 group),	and	principlism	(benefit	another	to	uphold	a	moral	principle).	duclos	and	 barasch	( )	also	argue	that	charitable	behaviour	towards	others	is	most	 frequently	be	driven	by	hopes	of	a	self-benefit,	such	as	that	of	personal	happiness.	in	 line	with	this	prior	research	i	propose	that	most	of	the	prosocial	behaviour	that	is	in	 evidence	in	my	research	will	take	place	as	the	result	of	either	a	‘self	benefit’	or	a	‘self	 benefit	from	group	benefit’	motivation,	in	which	the	good	of	the	group	is	seen	as	 overlapping	with	the	good	of	the	self.		 	 not	surprisingly,	motivations	to	behave	prosocially	are	also	usually	contingent	on	 the	complex	social	relationships	that	exist	between	the	giver	and	receiver,	and	their	 respective	groups.	in	many	situations	prosocial	behaviour	is	directed	towards	close	 others,	family,	and	in-groups,	with	distant	others	are	viewed	as	competitors	(van	 vugt	&	park,	 ).			indeed,	sturmer	and	snyder	( )	found	that	when	people	 behaved	prosocially	to	demonstrate	empathy	to	others,	it	appeared	to	be	especially	 motivational	if	the	donor	felt	similar	or	close	to	the	cause.	this	makes	intuitive	 sense	to	most	people,	as	may	be	evidenced	by	the	common	use	of	the	proverb	 ‘charity	begins	at	home.’	offering	evidence	for	the	human	propensity	towards	in- group	focused	giving,	previous	research	has	demonstrated	that,	in	life	and	death	 	 	 situations,	people	are	more	likely	to	help	kin	than	non-kin	(burnstein,	crandall,	&	 kitayama,	 ).		supporting	this	finding,	other	research	has	demonstrated	that	 primes	of	mortality	salience,	in	north	americans,	leads	to	an	increase	in	donations	 that	are	specifically	directed	to	in-group	charities	(jonas,	schimel,	greenberg	&	 pyszczynski,	 ).	do	thoughts	of	impending	death	prompt	us	to	draw	up	the	 hatches	on	a	castle	under	siege,	as	suggested	by	the	findings	of	castano	( ),	who	 demonstrated	that	people	under	a	mortality	salience	threat	are	more	likely	to	 tightly	define	an	in-group,	and	strictly	regulate	who	is	admissible?	 	 despite	the	remonstrations	of	singer	( )	that,	from	a	utilitarian	perspective,	 there	is	nothing	remotely	rational	about	giving	to	our	nearest	and	dearest	instead	of	 to	distant	others,	it	seems	that	we	may	be	hard	wired	to	prioritize	‘close	others.’		 this	appears	to	hold	true	even	when	the	categorization	‘close	others’	makes	little	 sense.	brewer	( )	and	tajfel	&	turner	( )	have	previously	both	found	that,	 even	when	groups	were	divided	by	trivial	criteria	(e.g.	the	minimal	group	 paradigm),	people	preferred	to	give	time	or	money	to	in-groups.	likewise,	 kuchenbrandt,	eyssel,	bobinger,	and	neufeld	( )	have	found	that	when	robots	 were	categorized	as	in-group	members	(vs.	out-group	members),	participants	were	 more	likely	to	anthropomorphize	them,	interact	with	them,	and	increase	their	 evaluations	of	them.	as	cialdini	( )	famously	noted,	the	influential	pull	of	 ‘similarity’	is	strong,	even	when	its	supposition	is	false.		 	 nonetheless,	some	notable	examples	of	out-group	helping	do	exist	(van	leeuwen,	 	 	 ;	van	leeuwen,	&	täuber,	 ;	van	leeuwen,	&	täuber,	 ),	which	poses	 the	question	as	to	what	motivates	us	to	help	distant	others?	hopkins,	reicher,	 harrison,	cassidy,	bull	and	levine	( )	have	approached	this	question	from	a	 strategic	angle,	demonstrating	that	group	members	may	be	motivated	to	help	out- groups,	but	for	very	different	reasons	to	those	motivating	in-group	helping.	motives	 for	out-group	helping	thus	include	the	wish	to	disconfirm	negative	stereotypes	of	 their	group;	for	example	to	counter	the	supposed	meanness	of	scottish	people	 (hopkins,	reicher,	harrison,	cassidy,	bull,	&	levine,	 ).	leeuwen	and	täuber	 ( )	have	furthered	this	body	of	research	into	the	strategic	side	of	out-group	 helping	(see	leeuwen	&	täuber,	 ,	for	an	over	view)	by	examining	instances	in	 which	out-group	helping	may	also	act	as	a	tool	to	communicate	in-group	warmth,	or	 to	bolster	collective	pride	(leeuwen,	dijk,	&	kaynak,	 ).		 	 some	out-group	helping	may	have	more	sinister	self-orientated	motives,	however.	 although	some	dispute	the	necessity	of	an	out-group	(brewer,	 ),	according	to	 social	identity	theory	(tajfel,	 ;	tajfel	&	turner,	 )	the	denigration	of	out- groups,	and	the	bolstering	of	in-groups,	is	a	necessary	part	of	intergroup	behaviour,	 with	an	out-group	being	a	necessary	requirement	for	in-group	definition	(yuki	&	 takemura,	 ).	this	intergroup	comparison	behaviour	serves	as	an	effective	way	 in	which	to	maintain	self-esteem;	serving	both	self-protective	and	self-enhancing	 functions,	especially	in	times	of	identity	threat	(branscombe,	ellemers,	spears,	&	 doosje,	 ).	nadler	( ;	 )	and	nadler,	harpaz-gorodeisky,	and	ben-david	 ( )	have	described	cases	of	‘defensive	helping,’	in	which	out-group	assistance	is	 	 	 focused	on	low	status	dependent	groups.	in	this	manner,	defensive	helping	acts	as	a	 way	for	an	in-group	to	maintain	social	dominance	and	power	over	an	out-group,	 especially	in	the	face	of	threatened	in-group	stability.		 	 this	approach	to	intergroup	helping	follows	a	social	identity	perspective	(turner	&	 reynolds,	 ),	basing	itself	on	self-categorization	theory,	in	order	to	build	an	 ‘intergroup	helping	as	status	relations’	(ihsr)	model.	the	‘intergroup	helping	as	 status	relations’	model	argues	that	dominant	groups	help	others,	in	order	to	signal	 their	status	to	other	groups.	in	summary	therefore,	we	can	see	that	much	intergroup	 prosocial	behaviour	is	motivated	by	self	benefit,	be	it	in	the	form	of	in-group	helping	 or	out-group	helping	(sturmer	&	snyder,	 ;	duclos	&	barasch,	 ).		 	 in	addition	to	the	membership	status	of	the	recipient	and	donor,	relative	to	each	 other,	the	self-construal	of	the	donor	also	has	the	potential	to	impact	prosocial	 behaviour.	self-construal	orientation	appears	to	influence	attitudes	towards	a	range	 of	societal	goods,	including	environmental	conservation,	sustainability	and	prosocial	 behaviour	(arnocky,	stroink	and	decicco,	 ).	past	research	has	suggested	that	 individuals	from	individualistic	cultures	may	be	less	cooperative	than	individuals	 from	collectivist	cultures,	because	the	former	mainly	focus	on	their	own	outcomes	 and	less	on	the	welfare	of	others	(hemesath	&	pomponio,	 ;	kagan	&	knight,	 ;	mcclintock,	 ;	parks	&	vu,	 ;	probst,	carnevale,	&	triandis,	 ).	 however,	as	previously	discussed,	according	to	yuki	and	takemura	( ),	this	 argument	runs	the	risk	of	grossly	oversimplifying	the	mechanisms	involved	in	 	 	 cultural	self-definition	and	social	identity.		 	 duclos	and	barasch	( )	have	put	forward	evidence	for	a	more	nuanced	 perspective,	arguing	that	a	more	collectivist,	or	interdependently	orientated	self- construal	orientation	is	specifically	connected	to	benevolent	and	prosocial	 behaviour	towards	in-group	recipients.	this	finding	is	supported	by	the	research	of	 kemmelmeier,	jambor	and	letner,	( ),	who	found	that	individualistic	societies	 in	the	usa	were	more	disposed	to	favour	out-group	targets,	than	were	more	 collectivist	societies.	this	may,	in	part,	be	because,	in	individualistic	societies,	 personal	virtues	such	as	self-determination	and	self-identity	are	typically	valued	 apart	from	group	membership.	kemmelmeier,	jambor	and	letner	( ),	in	the	 same	research,	also	note	a	tendency	to	use	personal	choices,	such	as	voluntary	 giving,	as	a	means	by	which	to	signal	personal	characteristics	and	interests	to	 others,	which	provides	additional	support	for	the	proposition.		 	 if	the	arguments	of	duclos	and	barasch	( )	are	correct,	and	much	charitable	 behaviour	is	indeed	fueled	by	a	motivation	to	increase	personal	happiness,	it	 appears	reasonable	to	expect	that	this	will	be	fulfilled	in	different	ways	by	those	 high	in	interdependent	self-construal,	compared	to	those	high	in	independent	self- construal.	after	all,	if,	according	to	yuki	and	takemura	( ),	people	high	in	 interdependent	self-construal	regard	their	in-group	as	a	rigid	long-term	entity;	with	 non-porous	boundaries	and	a	membership	that	is	fixed	for	life,	a	good	deed	done	to	 an	in-group	member	is	likely	to	have	higher	potential	to	bring	personal	happiness	 	 	 longer	term	than	any	good	deed	done	to	an	out-group	member.	conversely,	for	 people	high	in	independent	self-construal,	in-group	boundaries	are	more	flexible	 and	porous,	and	members	may	come	and	go.	as	a	result,	an	out-group	member	 today	might	possibly	be	an	in-group	member	tomorrow.	the	consequence	of	this	is	 that	people,	with	a	high	independent	self-construal	orientation,	might	be	expected	 to	be	as	likely	to	provide	beneficence	to	an	out-group	member	as	an	in-group	 member.	indeed,	previous	research	has	demonstrated	that	out-group	recipients	 may	always	fare	better	seeking	support	from	independent	self-construal	orientated	 donors	(duclos	&	barasch,	 ).	 	 in	an	ideal	world	there	would	be	no	prejudice	towards	others,	we	would	exist	in	 harmony	without	suffering	and	pain,	and	all	humanity	would	adhere	to	the	highest	 moral	codes	of	conduct	in	all	relationships.		philosophers,	psychologists,	sociologists	 and	policymakers,	however,	are	left	to	grapple	with	the	practicalities	of	poor	day-to- day	behaviour,	and	aggressive	forms	of	prejudice	and	discrimination	towards	 others.	much	interest	has	been	directed	at	discovering	methods	to	combat	prejudice	 and	promote	more	inclusive	attitudes	towards	distant	others.		 	 one	area	for	potential	research	is	grounded	in	the	topic	of	moral	identity,	and	 explores	the	options	for	expanding	our	moral	circle	of	concern	to	more	distant	 others,	as	a	method	for	improving	intergroup	conflict,	fostering	benevolence,	and	 promoting	inclusive	behaviour	to	out-groups	(aquino,	&	reed,	 ;	reed	&	 aquino,	 ).	the	‘moral	circle’	is	the	boundary	drawn	around	those	entities	in	the	 	 	 world	deemed	worthy	of	moral	consideration,	and	may	be	influenced	by	inclusion	 and	exclusion	framing	effects	(laham,	 ),	as	well	as	similarity	and	difference	 frames	(bastian,	costello,	loughnan,	&	hodson,	 ).		gaertner,	mann,	murrell,	and	 dovidio	( ),	in	a	similar	vein,	have	suggested	that	the	re-categorization	of	 individual	members	representations	of	an	aggregate,	has	potential	to	act	as	a	 method	for	reducing	both	negative	bias	towards	out-group	members,	as	well	as	 positive	bias	towards	in-group	members.	levine,	prosser,	evans,	and	reicher	 ( ),	likewise,	offer	evidence	that	expanding	social	categorization,	via	a	shared	 group	membership	(rival	soccer	teams	vs.	all	soccer	fans),	may	be	a	successful	 manner	in	which	to	increase	helping	behaviour	towards	recipients	in	need,	and	one	 that	allows	for	a	transgression	of	traditional	group	boundaries.		 	 focusing	on	the	commonalities	that	we	share	with	others	has	been	found	to	 improve	our	view	of	them	(dovidio,	gaertner,	isen,	&	lowrance,	 ;	gaertner,	 dovidio,	banker,	houlette,	johnson,	&	mcglynn,	 ).	indeed,	bastian,	costello,	 loughnan,	and	hodson	( )	found	that	comparing	animals	to	humans	had	the	 result	of	not	only	expanding	moral	concern	towards	animals,	but	also	towards	 human	out-groups;	reducing	both	speciesism	and	racial	prejudice.		recent	research,	 looking	at	human-animal	relations	from	an	intergroup	perspective,	has	likewise	 found	animal	attitudes	are	higher	when	a	more	encompassing	frame	that	includes	 ‘other’	within	self	is	applied	(amiot	&	bastian,	 ).	batt	( )	likewise	has	found	 that	attitudes	towards	animals	improve	in	accordance	with	how	much	participants	 perceive	the	animal	species	to	be	similar	to	themselves.		tam,	lee,	and	chao	( )	 	 	 have	demonstrated	that	when	nature	is	anthropomorphized,	people	are	both	more	 likely	to	feel	connected	to	it,	and	more	likely	to	engage	in	protective	conservation	 behaviour.	i,	therefore,	predict	that	primes	of	similarity	to	a	cause	will	increase	an	 individual’s	feelings	of	connectedness	to	it,	as	well	as	increasing	donation	support	 for	it.	however,	once	more,	i	predict	that	self-construal	and	inclusion	status	will	 moderate	these	results.	 	 in	summary,	past	research	has	delivered	mixed	evidence	in	the	field	of	prosocial	 behaviour	towards	others,	following	threats	or	affirmations	of	inclusion.	while	 some	research	has	suggested	that	social	exclusion	may	negatively	predict	prosocial	 behaviour	(beest	&	williams,	 ;	catanese	&	tice,	 ;	twenge,	baumeister,	 dewall,	ciarocco,	&	bartels,	 ),	other	research	has	suggested	that	it	may	 positively	predict	it	(lee	&	shrum,	 ).	my	proposition	is	that	the	discrepant	 findings	might	be	due,	at	least	in	part,	to	a	failure	to	account	for	the	role	that	self- construal	orientation	may	play	in	determining	responses	to	exclusion	and	inclusion	 threats,	in	the	context	of	charitable	giving.	moreover	i	propose,	additionally,	that	the	 influence	that	self-construal	orientation	may	have,	on	perceptions	of	similarity	(vs.	 difference)	to	target	cause,	should	also	be	accounted	for.	i	posit	that,	just	as	with	my	 predictions	regarding	the	group	formation	task,	people	with	an	independent	self- construal	orientation	will	express	greater	donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	 charity,	and	more	feelings	of	psychological	closeness	and	connection	to	the	cause,	 than	people	with	an	interdependent	self-construal	orientation.	however,	i	expect	 this	effect	to	be	mitigated	as	a	result	of	an	affirmation	of	social	belonging	(i.e.,	as	in	 	 	 the	inclusion	condition),	as	well	as	their	perceptions	of	how	similar,	or	different,	 they	are	to	the	target	cause.		 	 in	the	current	research,	i	endeavor	to	build	upon	these	two	areas	of	prosocial	 research–work	on	charitable	giving	and	work	on	inclusive	behaviour	expressed	 towards	others–by	examining	the	moderating	roles	that	self-construal	orientation,	 and	inclusion	status,	may	play.	in	line	with	past	research	(duclos	&	barasch,	 ),	i	 predict	that	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	will	normally	behave	 more	prosocially	towards	out-group	members	than	will	individuals	high	in	 interdependent	self-construal.	i	argue	that	this	is	as	a	result	of	two	factors:	first	 because	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	form	more	flexible	dynamic	 in-groups	based	on	shared	categories	than	do	individuals	high	in	interdependent	 self-construal,	and	second	because	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	 are	more	vigilant	to	cues	of	social	connection	potential	in	out-group	members,	and	 will	behave	in	a	more	socially	opportunistic	manner	if	a	self-benefit	to	do	so	is	 apparent.		 	 as	a	result,	when	we	compare	high	independent	self-construal	individuals	to	high	 interdependent	self-construal	individuals,	the	former	may	appear	‘fair-weather	 friends,’	adding	and	dropping	others	from	flexible	in-groups	in	order	to	fulfill	social	 resource	needs.	on	the	other	hand,	the	latter	may	appear	to	be	more	socially	rigid	 and	loyal,	tightly	bound	to	pre-determined	in-groups,	with	little	opportunity	for	 intergroup	movement	or	admission	of	outsiders.	following	an	assurance	of	social	 	 	 inclusion,	however,	i	propose	that	this	pattern	will	not	persist.	i	predict	that,	under	 circumstances	when	social	inclusion	is	assured,	high	independent	self-construal	 individuals	will	re-assess	their	grouping	priorities	and	switch	to	a	more	in-group	 defensive	strategy.	this	strategy,	i	propose,	will	be	more	akin	to	that	seen	in	 individuals	high	in	interdependent	self-construal,	in	which	in-group	similarity	and	 distinctiveness	is	important,	in-group	boundaries	must	be	defended,	and	out-groups	 must	be	strongly	differentiated	from.		 	 i	also	predict	that	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	will	be	highly	 responsive	to	manipulations	that	re-categorize	out-group	members	as	in-group	 members.	specifically,	i	argue	that,	under	normal	(control)	conditions,	individuals	 high	in	independent	self-construal	will	be	more	likely	to	feel	higher	levels	of	 connection	to	an	out-group	cause	framed	as	being	similar,	and	express	higher	 prosocial	/donation	behaviour	towards	an	out-group	cause	framed	as	being	similar,	 than	to	an	out-group	cause	framed	as	being	different.	however,	following	an	 affirmation	of	social	inclusion,	i	predict	this	pattern	will	reverse,	and	that	 individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	will	prefer	out-group	causes	that	are	 different	from	the	in-group,	since	they	offer	less	threat	to	in-group	distinctiveness.			 as	a	result,	i	predict	that	framing	an	out-group	cause	as	similar	(vs.	different)	to	an	 individual	high	in	independent	self-construal	will	moderate	donation	support.	 moreover,	i	predict	that	the	interaction	between	self-construal	and	inclusion	status	 will	moderate	this	moderation.	finally,	i	predict	that	feelings	of	connection	to	the	 cause	will	mediate	donation	intentions,	for	individuals	high	in	independent	self- 	 	 construal.	as	a	result,	i	have	generated	the	following	remaining	hypotheses:	 	 hypothesis	 :		 	 under	normal	conditions	(control	group)	people	with	a	higher	independent	 self-construal	orientation	will	express	increased	donation	intentions	for	an	 out-group	animal	charity	than	people	with	a	low	independent	self-construal	 orientation.		 	 hypothesis	 :		 	 under	normal	conditions	(control	group)	people	with	a	higher	independent	 self-construal	orientation	will	express	increased	donation	intentions	for	an	 out-group	animal	charity	that	is	framed	as	similar	(vs.	different)	to	them,	 since	it	offers	increased	connection	potential.		 	 hypothesis	 :	 	 affirmation	of	social	inclusion	(inclusion	manipulation)	will	result	in	reduced	 donation	intentions	expressed	for	an	out-group	animal	charity	for	people	 with	a	higher	independent	self-construal	orientation,	compared	to	under	 normal	conditions.		 	 hypothesis	 :	 	 affirmation	of	social	inclusion	(inclusion	manipulation)	will	result	in	 increased	donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	animal	charity	that	is	framed	 as	different	(vs.	similar)	to	the	donor	for	individuals	with	a	higher	 independent	self-construal	orientation,	since	it	offers	less	of	a	threat	to	in- group	distinctiveness.	 	 	 	 	 	 hypothesis	 :	 	 feelings	of	connection	to	the	cause	will	mediate	donation	support	for	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	orientation.		 	 hypothesis	 :	 	 people	with	an	interdependent	self-construal	orientation	will	not	express	 higher	or	lower	donation	intentions	as	a	result	of	social	inclusion	(delivered	 via	an	inclusion	manipulation).		 	 	 	 	 	 chapter	 :	empirical	investigation		 	 . 	pre-test	(social	potential)	study	 . . 	overview.	 my	initial	study	(study	 )	had	two	goals.	the	first	goal	was	to	explore	the	role	that	 self-construal	might	play	in	group	formation	and	inclusive	behaviour	towards	 others.	the	second	goal	was	to	explore	whether	affiliation	motivation–the	desire	to	 socially	connect	with	others–might	also	play	a	role	in	group	formation,	and	 specifically	the	decision	to	include	traditional	outsiders,	such	as	animals,	into	a	self- formed	in-group.	however,	i	expected	this	to	be	contingent	on	whether	the	animals	 offered	an	opportunity	for	social	interaction.	support	for	this	pattern	of	behaviour	 comes	from	previous	research,	which	has	demonstrated	that	people	are	chronically	 motivated	to	create	and	look	for	social	connections	and,	if	no	suitable	human	 options	are	available,	they	will	be	open	to	attributing	human	characteristics	onto	 animals,	or	other	objects	(epley,	akalis,	waytz,	&	cacioppo,	 ;	gardner,	pickett,	 &	knowles,	 ;	powers,	worsham,	freeman,	wheatley,	&	heatherton,	 ),	in	an	 attempt	to	re-frame	them	as	social	resources,	capable	of	gratifying	social	needs.	this	 behaviour	has	been	termed	social	anthropomorphism	(epley,	akalis,	waytz,	&	 cacioppo,	 ),	or	social	shielding	(gardner,	pickett,	&	knowles,	 ).	 	 not	all	non-humans,	however,	are	likely	to	offer	the	same	degree	of	potential	for	 social	interaction.	for	example,	a	fish	might	be	considered	to	offer	less	“social	 interaction”	potential,	than	a	friendly	dog,	for	most	people.	similarly,	with	humans,	 	 	 there	is	likely	to	be	a	variation	in	“social	interaction”	potential,	with	a	stranger	 perhaps	offering	less	potential	as	a	meaningful	social	resource	than	a	friend	or	 valued	family	member.		with	this	in	mind,	this	pre-test	(social	potential)	study	was	 designed	with	the	specific	purpose	of	building	a	list	of	human	and	animal	items	that	 would	represent	a	range	of	potential	for	social	connection	and	use	as	a	social	 resource.		 	 . . 	procedure.	 materials.	 the	pre-test	study	was	administered	in	the	marketing	research	lab	of	a	canadian	 university,	using	 	undergraduate	student	participants	( %	female,	median	age	=	 - years	old),	who	participated	in	the	study	in	exchange	for	course	credit.	 participants	completed	the	study	on	qualtrics	survey	software,	at	individual	 computer	terminals	in	groups	of	 - 	per	session,	and	were	told	that	they	would	 be	completing	a	single	task	with	no	further	explanation	given.	participants	were	 asked	to	rate	twenty-four	animal	items	and	twenty-four	human	items,	on	a	ten	point	 scale,	for	their	potential	to	offer	a	social	interaction	likely	to	provide	an	opportunity	 for	one,	or	more,	of	the	following	elements:	nurturing,	physical	or	emotional	 intimacy,	love,	trust,	companionship,	communication,	comfort,	validation,	affection,	 support,	and/or	a	feeling	of	belonging,	being	needed	or	being	understood	by	 another.		 	 	 	 animal	items	were	chosen	to	include	a	wide	range	of	domestic	and	wild	animals	that	 were	likely	to	be	regarded	as	having	high	vs.	low	social	connection	potential,	and	 included	items	such	as	“butterfly”,	“horse”,	“chick”,	“small	monkey”,	“cat”,	and	 “dolphin”	on	the	high	social	potential	side	and	“snail”,	“goldfish”,	“tuna”,	“turkey”,	 “alligator”,	“stick	insect”	on	the	low	social	potential	side.		human	items	were	also	 chosen	to	include	a	range	of	items	that	were	likely	to	be	regarded	as	having	high	vs.	 low	social	connection	potential,	and	included	items	such	as	“nurse”,	“friend”,	 “manicurist”,	”partner”,	“advice-columnist”,	“mother”	on	the	high	social	potential	 side	and	“dentist”,	“stranger”,	“tele-marketer”,	“dead	person”,	“border-control	 officer”,	“sleeping	person”	on	the	low	social	potential	side.	 	 the	rating	section	of	the	study	took	less	than	ten	minutes	to	complete.		following	 this	task,	basic	demographics	were	collected	and	participants	were	thanked	and	 debriefed.	 	 . . 	results.	 demographics.	 demographics	collected	showed	that	participants	in	the	sample	identified	as	 . %	 chinese,	 . %	south	asian,	 . %	korean,	 . %	south	east	asian,	 . %	caucasian,	 . %	japanese,	and	 . %	other.	results	also	showed	that	 . %	of	participants	 reported	having	lived	in	the	usa	or	canada	for	over	 	years,	 . %	for	 - 	 years,	 . %	for	 - 	years,	and	 . %	for	under	 	years.	participants	identified	as	 . %	female.	age	demographics	(collected	as	a	categorical	variable)	were	as	 	 	 follows:	 . %	under	 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old	 and	 . %	over	 	years	old.		 	 mean	ratings	were	collected	for	all	animal	items,	which	ranged	from	a	high	of	 m= . 	(sd	=	 . )	for	a	labrador	dog	to	a	low	of	m= . 	(sd= . )	for	a	skunk.	 the	average	for	animal	ratings	was	m= . 	(sd= . ).	mean	ratings	were	collected	 for	all	human	items	which	ranged	from	a	high	of	m= . 	(sd	=	 . )	for	mother	to	a	 low	of	m= . 	(sd= . )	for	a	dead	person.	the	average	for	human	ratings	was	 m= . 	(sd= . ).	see	appendix	a. 	for	detailed	analysis	of	results.		 	 following	the	analysis	five	low	social	animal	items	and	five	high	social	animal	items	 were	chosen,	with	preference	given	to	the	highest	and	lowest	examples,	as	 measured	by	their	means.	as	a	result	a	final	animal	list	was	created	which	composed	 of	the	following	items:	(high	social)	labrador	dog	(m= . ,	sd= . );	horse	 (m= . ,	sd= . );	dolphin	(m= . ,	sd= . );	cat	(m= . ,	sd= . );	rabbit	 (m= . ,	sd= . )	and	(low	social)	skunk	(m= . ,	sd= . );	snail	(m= . ,	 sd= . );	stick	insect	(m= . ,	sd= . );	tuna	(m= . ,	sd= . );	alligator	 (m= . ,	sd= . ).	similarly,	a	list	of	five	low	social	human	items	and	five	high	 social	human	items	were	chosen,	with	preferences	given	to	the	highest	and	lowest	 examples,	as	measured	by	their	means.	as	a	result,	a	final	human	list	was	created	 which	composed	of	the	following	items:	(high	social)	mother	(m= . ,	sd= . );	 partner	(m= . ,	sd= . );	friend	(m= . ,	sd= . );	co-worker	(m= . ,	 sd= . );	nurse	(m= . ,	sd= . )	and	(low	social)	tele-marketer	(m= . ,	 	 	 sd= . );	sleeping	person	(m= . ,	sd= . );	border	control	officer	(m= . ,	 sd= . );	mall-security	guard	(m= . ,	sd= . );	stranger	(m= . ,	sd= . ).	 	 . . 	discussion.	 the	results	of	the	pre-test	enabled	a	final	list	of	twenty	items	to	be	created	that	was	 balanced	between	items	that	ranged	in	terms	of	social	connection	potential,	and	 included	a	balance	of	human	and	animal	items.	following	on	from	the	pre-test,	the	 first	study	was	constructed	to	examine	if	a	relationship	existed	between	self- construal	and	the	types	of	items	that	were	selected	in	a	group	formation	task,	and	to	 explore	whether	affiliation	motivation	towards	out-group	members	might	play	a	 role	in	decisions	regarding	in-group	membership.		 	 . 	study	 		 . . 	overview.	 past	research	has	found	that	people	high	in	independent	self-construal	may	be	more	 disposed	to	extend	favourable	attitudes	and	behaviours	towards	prototypical	out- group	members	than	people	with	high	interdependent	self-construal	 (kemmelmeier,	jambor	&	letner,	 ;	duclos	&	barasch,	 ).	one	of	the	reasons	 for	this	finding	may	lie	in	the	differing	perceptions	of	what	potential	exists	for	 intergroup	mobility.	as	previously	noted,	yuki	&	takemura	( )	propose	that	 individuals	with	a	more	interdependent	self-construal	orientation	are	more	likely	to	 view	their	in-group	as	a	non-permeable	long-term	structure,	within	which	inter- connective	networks	must	be	kept	in	harmony	and	group	membership	is	fixed.		 	 	 conversely,	individuals	with	a	more	independent	self-construal	orientation	are	 more	likely	to	see	in-groups	as	more	dynamic	and	fluid	in	nature,	with	the	group	 category,	not	the	membership,	being	paramount	to	identity.		 	 while	more	a	more	dynamically	defined	and	relaxed	approach	to	in-group	 membership	and	boundaries	may	have	advantages,	one	potential	negative	 consequence	is	that	belonging	may	not	be	as	assured,	or	guaranteed,	since	social	 inclusion	is	experienced	as	a	more	precarious	state	(triandis,	 ).	cushman	 ( )	has	gone	as	far	as	to	argue	that	a	more	independent	outlook,	such	as	that	 found	in	a	person	high	in	independent	self-construal,	may	render	a	person	under	 constant	threat	of	becoming	socially	isolated,	and	lacking	in	social	sustenance.	this	 may	be	contrasted	with	the	chronically	assured	belonging	status,	experienced	by	 individuals	with	higher	interdependent	self-construal,	who	are	confident	that	they	 will	remain	as	members	of	their	more	rigid	fixed	groups,	bound	as	they	are	by	 interconnected	ties	that	buffer	and	protect	them	against	threats	to	belonging	 (gardner,	pickett	&	knowles,	 ;	powers,	worsham,	freeman,	wheatley,	&	 heatherton,	 ;	uskul	&	over,	 ).		with	this	in	mind,	one	task	of	study	 	was	 to	explore	whether	people	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	would	be	more	 rigid	in	terms	of	in-group	definitions	and	less	likely	to	include	animals.	 	 another	task	of	study	 	was	to	explore	whether	affiliation	motivation–the	desire	to	 form	social	connections–might	play	a	role	in	the	decision	to	include	traditional	 outsiders,	such	as	animals,	into	an	in-group.	as	previously	indicated,	support	for	this	 	 	 motivation	is	supplied	by	research	demonstrating	that	people	are	motivated	to	 create	and	look	for	social	connections,	and,	if	no	suitable	human	options	are	 available,	they	will	be	more	open	to	include	non-humans	in	their	social	framework	 (epley,	akalis,	waytz	&	cacioppo,	 ).	 	 belonging	status	is	vital	to	monitor	and	maintain.		past	research	has	put	forward	a	 sociometer	or	social	monitoring	system	(sms)	concept,	in	which	attention	to	social	 aspects	of	the	environment	are	heightened,	whenever	a	threat	is	perceived	(leary,	 tambor,	terdal,	&	downs,	 ;	leary	 ;	pickett,	&	gardner,	 ).	while	most	 research	has	typically	measured	the	effect	of	the	social	monitoring	system	in	 situations	of	social	rejection	(leary,	kelly,	&	schreindorfer,	 ),	gardner,	pickett,	 and	knowles	( )	have	clearly	stated	that	the	purpose	of	the	social	monitoring	 system	is	to	attune	individuals	to	information	that	will	help	them	navigate	the	social	 environment	more	successfully,	whatever	the	belonging	state	they	find	themselves	 in.	in	light	of	this	argument,	i	propose	that	it	is	reasonable	to	expect	that	people	high	 in	independent	self-construal	will	be	more	likely	to	actively	monitor	their	state	of	 belonging,	due	to	the	more	precarious	nature	of	their	social	bonds,	and	will	 therefore	be	especially	attuned,	vigilant,	and	responsive	to	signals	of	social	 interaction	potential	in	others.		 	 with	this	past	research	in	mind,	study	 	was	designed	to	examine	whether	self- construal	effects	(independent	vs.	interdependent	self-construal)	would	manifest	in	 a	group	selection	task,	in	which	participants	were	asked	to	identify	in-group	 	 	 members	from	the	pre-tested	list	of	human	and	animal	targets.	i	predicted	that	 individuals	with	a	higher	independent	self-construal	orientation	would	be	more	 open	to	selecting	animals	to	put	in	an	in-group	than	individuals	with	a	more	 interdependent	self-construal	orientation,	for	two	reasons.	first,	i	expected	this	 increased	openness	among	individuals	with	a	higher	independent	self-construal	 because	individuals	with	a	higher	independent	self-construal	orientation	have	a	 more	flexible	view	of	what	may	be	categorized	as	an	in-group	member,	along	with	a	 greater	expectation	for	relational	mobility	(yuki	&	takemura,	 ).	in	contrast,	i	 predicted	that	individuals	with	a	more	interdependent	self-construal	orientation	not	 only	believe	that	there	is	less	potential	for	intergroup	mobility,	and	regard	group	 boundaries	as	being	less	porous,	but	also	will	be	more	likely	to	regard	animals	as	 rigidly	out-group,	and	therefore	will	be	inclined	to	include	less	animals	in	a	self- formed	in-group	category.		 	 second,	i	anticipated	that	individuals	with	a	more	independent	self-construal	 orientation	would	be	more	motivated	to	group	according	to	social	connection	 potential,	since	their	belonging	needs	are	less	guaranteed,	as	a	result	of	the	more	 precarious	and	dynamic	nature	of	their	existing	in-groups.	on	the	other	hand,	 individuals	with	a	more	interdependent	self-construal	would	be	more	motivated	to	 group	according	to	existing	relational	connections,	along	with	more	rigid	and	formal	 group	rules.	in	summary,	my	hypotheses	(h )	were	that	animals	would	form	a	 higher	percentage	of	a	self-formed	in-group	the	higher	a	person	measures	on	 independent	self-construal,	and	a	lower	percentage	of	a	self-formed	in-group	the	 	 	 higher	a	person	measures	on	interdependent	self-construal.	furthermore,	i	 predicted	(h )	that	social	affiliation	motivation	would	have	a	greater	influence	the	 higher	a	person	measured	on	independent	self-construal.	 	 . . 	procedure.	 a	sample	of	 	american	participants	was	recruited	using	mechanical	turk,	and	 completed	the	study	online	using	qualtrics	survey	software,	in	exchange	for	 monetary	compensation.		sample	size	was	based	on	practical	considerations	 regarding	recruitment	and	budgetary	constraints,	but	i	aimed	to	get	 	people	for	 this	first	correlational	study.	the	study	was	a	correlational	design	that	included	a	 grouping	task,	as	well	as	a	measure	of	trait	self-construal	orientation,	using	a	 previously	validated	 -item	scale	(singelis,	 ).		 	 materials.	 participants	were	told	that	they	would	be	completing	two	unconnected	tasks.	the	 first	task	required	them	to	complete	a	series	of	measures,	which	began	with	a	 condensed	 -item	individual	differences	in	anthropomorphism	questionnaire	of	 which	 -items	were	intended	to	measure	anthropomorphism	(condensed	idaq;	α	=	 . ).	this	condensed	 -item	idaq	contained	only	animal	related	questions	and	 was	adapted	from	a	longer	 -item	measure	devised	by	waytz,	cacioppo	and	epley	 ( )	which	also	contained	machine	and	nature	related	questions.		the	condensed	 idaq	was	administered	for	exploratory	reasons,	since	it	has	previously	been	shown	 to	be	predictive	of	increased	moral	care	and	concern	being	expressed	towards	 	 	 animals.		the	condensed	idaq	contained	questions	such	as	“	to	what	extent	does	a	 cheetah	experience	emotions?”	and	“	to	what	extent	does	the	average	fish	have	free	 will?”.		after	the	condensed	idaq	participants	completed	the	 -item	self-construal	 scale	(singelis,	 ;	independent	self-construal	α	=	. ,	interdependent	self- construal	α	=	. ).	this	scale	includes	twelve	questions	designed	to	measure	trait	 independent	self-construal,	such	as	“my	personal	identity,	independent	of	others,	is	 very	important	to	me	”	and	“i	enjoy	being	unique	and	different	from	others	in	many	 respects”,	as	well	as	twelve	questions	designed	to	measure	trait	interdependent	self- construal,	such	as	“i	have	respect	for	the	authority	figures	with	whom	i	interact”	and	 “even	when	i	strongly	disagree	with	group	members,	i	avoid	an	argument”.		this	 was	followed	by	a	 -item	fear	of	negative	evaluation	(fne)	scale	(leary,	 ;	α	=	 . ),	designed	to	measure	people’s	sensitivity	to	criticism	from	others,	and	also	 used	for	exploratory	purposes.	the	fne	contains	questions	such	as	“	i	am	afraid	that	 people	will	find	fault	with	me”	and	“	other	peoples	opinions	of	me	do	not	bother	 me”.		participants	then	completed	a	 	item	loneliness	scale	(hughes,	waite,	 hawkley,	&	cacioppo,	 ;	α	=	. )	that	consisted	of	the	following	questions:	“do	 you	feel	that	you	lack	companionship?”,	“do	you	feel	isolated	from	others?”	and	“do	 you	feel	left	out?”		 	 the	idaq,	and	fne	scales	were	administered	as	a	cover	story	for	the	study	being	 offered	as	two	unconnected	tasks.	however,	i	also	wished	to	measure	participant’s	 trait	measures	on	idaq	and	fne,	and	check	for	correlations	with	self-construal	 orientation,	loneliness,	and	grouping	of	humans	and	animals.	anthropomorphism,	 	 	 as	previously	detailed,	has	been	shown	to	increase	with	a	desire	for	social	 connection	(epley,	akalis,	waytz,	&	cacciopo,	 ).		fne	has	been	shown	to	impact	 impression	management	and	social	comparison	behaviour,	in	intergroup	settings,	 and	has	been	linked	to	stereotyping	of	out-group	members	and	polarization	of	 evaluations	of	both	in-and	out-group	members	(stephen	&	stephen,	 ).	the	 - item	loneliness	scale	was	administered	to	measure	loneliness,	which	has	previously	 been	shown	to	impact	people’s	attitudes	towards	animals	(epley,	akalis,	waytz,	&	 cacciopo,	 ).			 	 following	these	preliminary	measures,	participants	were	told	they	were	now	to	 complete	second	unrelated	task,	which	was	designed	to	investigate	how	people	 categorize	information.	they	were	asked	to	create	two	groups,	from	a	list	of	humans	 and	animal	items	that	included	human	items	such	as	“your	mother”,	“a	friend”,	“a	 telemarketer”,	“a	sleeping	person”	and	animal	items	such	as	“a	dog”,	“a	cat”,	“a	 snake”,	“a	snail”.	see	appendix	a. 	for	full	list	and	details.	the	groups	were	depicted	 as	empty	boxes,	with	one	box	already	containing	a	“yourself”	item	at	the	start.	 participants	were	requested	to	click	and	drag	items	into	a	relevant	box;	to	leave	no	 item	unselected;	and	were	told	that	each	group	must	have	at	least	 	items	within	it.		 following	the	grouping	task,	participants	were	asked	a	number	of	demographic	 questions.	finally,	participants	were	probed	for	hypothesis	guessing,	in	an	open- ended	response	format,	and	thanked.		 	 	 	 	 . . 	results.	 on	inspection	of	the	open-ended	responses,	no	participants	appeared	to	guess	the	 study	 	hypotheses.	my	exclusion	policy	was	to	exclude	participants	if	they	failed	all	 attention	checks,	or	if	they	accurately	guessed	the	key	study	hypotheses.	ten	 participants	failed	all	attention	checks	and	were	therefore	removed	from	the	study	 (leaving	n= 	remaining).		 	 power.	 a	post	hoc	power	analysis,	using	g*power	 . ,	indicated	that	with	the	sample	size	 remaining	(n= )	there	was	sufficient	power	(>. )	to	detect	correlations	of	. 	and	 greater,	with	a	critical	r= . 	at	 %	confidence.		 	 demographics.	 demographics	collected	showed	that	participants	in	the	sample	identified	as	 . %	 caucasian,	 . %	black,	and	 . %	mixed	other.	results	also	showed	that	 . %	of	 participants	reported	having	lived	in	the	usa	for	over	 	years.	participants	 identified	as	 . %	female.	age	demographics	were	as	follows:	 . %	under	 	years	 old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old	and	 . %	over	 	years	old.		 	 a	combined	self-construal	measure	was	computed,	which	has	been	used	in	past	 research	(aaker	&	williams,	 ;	singelis,	 ),	and	is	reported	as	having	a	high	 consistency	score	of	alpha	=. 	(zhang,	feick,	&	price,	 ).	it	is	calculated	by	 	 	 adding	the	reversed	independent	self-construal	score	to	the	standard	 interdependent	self-construal	score.	the	results	of	study	 	showed	a	significant	 negative	correlation	(r( )=-. ,	p=. )	between	self-construal	(measured	using	 a	combined	self-construal	scale,	zhang,	feick,	&	price,	 ;	α	=. )	and	the	 percentage	of	animals	that	were	included	in	the	in-group;	indicating	that	less	 animals	were	included	the	higher	participants	measured	in	interdependent	self- construal	(and	more	animals	included	the	higher	participants	measured	in	 independent	self-construal).	in	order	to	probe	whether	the	effect	was	driven	more	 by	one	self-construal	orientation,	than	the	other,	i	also	separated	self-construal	into	 its	two	components	to	run	tests.	these	subsequent	analyses	revealed	that	that	being	 higher	in	independent	self-construal	was	significantly	positively	correlated	with	a	 higher	percentage	of	animals	being	included	in	a	self	designated	in-group	 (r( )=. ,	p=. ).	the	reverse	was	true	with	interdependent	self-construal,	in	 that	higher	interdependent	self-construal	was	positively	correlated	with	a	lower	 percentage	of	animals	being	included	in	a	self	designated	in-group;	although	not	 significantly	when	measured	alone	(r( )=-. ,	p=. ).	thus,	the	tendency	to	 include	out-group	members	in	the	in-group	was	more	driven	by	being	higher	in	 independence,	than	by	being	lower	in	interdependence.		 	 interestingly,	the	results	of	study	 	also	revealed	a	positive	correlation	(r( )=. ,	 p=. )	between	independent	self-construal	orientation,	and	how	many	“high	 social”	items	were	put	in	the	in-group.	put	another	way,	the	higher	participants	 rated	in	independent	self-construal	the	more	items	they	put	in	their	in-group	that	 	 	 were	rated	as	“high	social	potential”.	the	“high	social”	items	included	both	human	 and	animal	items.		there	was	no	significant	correlation	between	the	number	of	“high	 social”	or	“low	social”	items	put	in	the	in-group	for	participants	and	high	 interdependent	self-construal	orientation	(r( )=. ,	p=. ).	 	 in	terms	of	trait	measures	the	results	of	study	 	also	revealed	a	significant	positive	 correlation	(r( )=. ,	p=. )		between	anthropomorphism	(measured	in	the	 idaq)	and	independent	self-construal.	loneliness	(measured	using	the	 -item	 loneliness	measure)	and	independent	self-construal	were	negatively	correlated		 (r( )=-. ,	p=. ).		fear	of	negative	evaluation	(fne)	and	loneliness	were	 positively	correlated	(r( )=. ,	p=. ).		study	 	also	showed	a	significant	 positive	correlation	between	fne	and	interdependent	self-construal	(r( )=. ,	 p=. ).		the	results	showed	that	neither	trait	anthropomorphism	(ida),	 (r( )=. ,	p=. ),	nor	the	loneliness	measure,	(r( )=-. ,	p=. ),	were	 significantly	correlated	with	the	percentage	of	animals	being	included	in	a	self- formed	in-group.	an	independent	samples	t-test	showed	no	significant	differences	 between	genders	on	measures	of	any	of	the	variables	(fne,	idaq,	self-construal,	 percentage	of	animals	in	in-group).		 	 . . 	discussion.	 as	predicted,	the	results	of	study	 	provided	support	for	h ;	that	the	higher	a	 person	measures	on	independent	self-construal,	the	higher	the	percentage	of	a	self- formed	in-group	will	be	animal	out-group	members.	as	a	result,	study	 	provided	 	 	 some	non-causal	support	for	the	argument	of	kemmelmeier,	jambor	and	letner	 ( );	that	interdependent	self-construal	is	associated	with	more	in-group	 favouritism.	additionally,	study	 	supported	the	proposition	of	yuki	and	takemura	 ( );	that	people	with	a	more	independent	self-construal	orientation	may	have	 more	permeable	boundaries	to	their	in-groups	and,	if	sufficiently	motivated,	may	be	 more	willing	to	allow	traditional	out-group	members	in.		 	 the	results	of	study	 	also	show	that	independent	self-construal	and	trait	 anthropomorphism	(measured	through	the	idaq)	appeared	to	be	positively	 correlated,	offering	support	for	the	argument	that	people	with	a	more	independent	 self-construal	orientation	may	be	more	open	to	categorizing	animals	as	potential	 “honorary	humans.”		trait	anthropomorphism	on	its	own,	however,	did	not	appear	 to	be	correlated	with	inclusion	of	animals.			 	 study	 	also	revealed	a	positive	correlation	between	how	many	“high	social”	items	 were	put	in	the	in-group	box,	and	high	independent	self-construal,	and	thereby	 offered	support	for	h :	that	the	higher	individuals	measure	in	independent	self- construal,	the	greater	the	number	of	items	that	have	high	social	connection	potential	 will	be	put	in	a	self-formed	in-group.	there	was	no	correlation	between	the	number	 of	“high	social”	potential	items	in	the	in-group	and	high	interdependent	self- construal.	this	result	provides	evidence	that,	while	participants	with	high	 independent	self-construal	are	likely	to	include	more	“high	social”	humans	and	 	 	 animals	in	a	self-formed	in-group,	the	same	relationship	is	not	in	evidence	for	 participants	with	high	interdependent	self-construal.			 taken	together,	the	results	of	study	 	therefore	offer	support	for	the	suggestion	that	 at	least	some	of	the	motivation	for	the	choices	made	in	the	group	selection	task,	in	 people	with	an	independent	self-construal	orientation,	results	from	a	desire	to	 maximise	social	connection	potential.			 	 the	next	task	was	to	investigate,	in	more	detail,	the	motivations	and	mechanisms	 that	enable	traditional	outsiders,	such	as	animals,	to	be	admitted	into	an	in-group.	 study	 	had	offered	evidence	for	one	potential	motivation,	the	desire	to	socially	 connect.	study	 	therefore	was	designed	to	manipulate	social	connection.	 	 limitations.	 a	limitation	of	study	 	may	be	noted	from	the	power	analysis,	which	showed	only	 sufficient	power	to	detect	a	correlation	of	. 	and	higher.	while	some	of	the	 correlations	were	over	. ,	others	were	in	the	region	of	. -. .	to	be	sure	of	the	 robustness	of	these	results	it	would	therefore	be	advisable	to	replicate	this	study	in	 future	research.	a	further	note	regarding	study	 	is	that	the	demographic	 descriptives,	particularly	in	the	areas	of	ethnicity	and	age,	differed	considerably	 from	the	pre-test	study	demographic	descriptives.		 	 	 	 	 	 . 	study	 	 . . 	overview.	 social	exclusion,	in	almost	any	form,	is	considered	to	have	a	significant	impact	on	 individuals,	and	the	negative	consequences	of	failed	inclusion	can	be	powerful	and	 immediate	(williams,	 ).	however	the	detailed	impacts	of	exclusion	and	 inclusion	on	subsequent	social	interactions	with	others–including	in	the	realms	of	 prosocial	behaviour–appear	to	be	complex	and	nuanced.	as	previously	noted,	epley,	 akalis,	waytz,	and	cacioppo	( )	argue	that	both	induced	exclusion,	and	chronic	 isolation,	can	motivate	people	to	create	and	look	for	social	connections	with	others,	 even	including	non-humans.	gardner,	pickett,	and	knowles	( )	have	suggested	 that	when	social	connection	with	humans	is	not	an	option,	seekers	may	instead	look	 to	the	use	of	parasocials,	such	as	plants	or	pets—a	phenomenon	they	call	social	 shielding.	while	less	research	has	examined	the	impacts	of	social	inclusion,	both	 brewer	( ),	and	dewall,	baumeister,	and	vohs,	( )	have	proposed	that	not	 only	may	people	experience	belonging	satiation,	but	also	that	those	who	feel	socially	 connected	may	be	less	motivated	to	connect	with	others	or	gain	social	acceptance	 elsewhere.	waytz	and	epley	( )	have	also	demonstrated	that	social	connection	 may	enable	dehumanization	of	others,	and	increase	perceived	distance	between	 ourselves	and	less	close	others.		 	 a	variety	of	research	has	explored	the	impact	of	inclusion	and	exclusion	on	different	 self-construal	orientations.	pfundmair,	aydin,	du,	yeung,	frey,	and	graupmann	 ( )	argue	that	possession	of	a	more	interdependent	self-construal	orientation	 	 	 may	buffer	a	person	from	the	negative	impacts	of	exclusion,	offering	protection	in	a	 form	that	people	with	a	more	independent	self-construal	do	not	have	access	to.	 pfundmair	and	colleagues	also	found	that	participants	with	a	collectivist	orientation	 showed	little	difference	on	a	range	of	measures	(antisocial	intention,	prosocial	 intention,	avoiding	intention,	affect)	following	either	social	inclusion	or	social	 exclusion,	as	compared	to	participants	with	a	more	individualist	orientation.	 	 considering	this	prior	research,	study	 	included	both	an	inclusion	and	an	exclusion	 manipulation,	in	order	to	examine	how	social	exclusion	and	social	inclusion	might	 impact	a	grouping	task,	and	to	further	probe	the	role	that	social	connection	might	be	 playing	in	the	selection	of	in-group	members,	dependent	on	self-construal	 orientation.		based	on	the	previous	findings,	i	expected	people	with	a	more	 independent	self-construal	to	respond	to	an	inclusion	manipulation,	in	which	they	 were	assured	of	their	future	belongingness	status	with	other	humans,	by	showing	 less	interest	in	interacting	with	non-humans,	and	therefore	including	fewer	animals	 in	their	self	formed	in-group.		on	the	other	hand,	i	expected	people	with	an	 independent	self-construal	orientation	to	respond	to	the	exclusion	manipulation–in	 which	they	were	told	that	they	would	be	more	socially	isolated	over	their	lifespan– by	showing	more	interest	in	interacting	with	non-humans,	and	therefore	including	 more	animals	in	their	self	formed	in-group.	in	addition,	i	predicted	that	participants	 measuring	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	might	demonstrate	less	of	a	 reaction	to	both	the	inclusion	and	exclusion	manipulations,	being	somewhat	 buffered	to	these	conditions.		 	 	 in	summary,	i	hypothesized	(h )	that	people	with	a	higher	independent	self- construal	orientation	would	respond	to	the	inclusion	manipulation	by	putting	a	 lower	percentage	of	animals	into	a	self-formed	in-group.	on	the	other	hand,	i	 predicted	(h )	that	following	an	exclusion	manipulation,	people	with	a	higher	 independent	self-construal	orientation	would	put	a	higher	percentage	of	animals	 into	a	self-formed	in-group.	furthermore,	i	predicted	that	people	with	a	higher	 interdependent	self-construal	would	produce	less	of	a	response	to	either	 manipulation.	 	 study	 	also	included	an	anthropomorphism	task	as	a	dependent	variable,	in	order	 to	probe	whether	anthropomorphism	varied	with	self-construal	and	the	inclusion	 manipulation.	based	on	past	research,	along	with	the	results	of	study	 ,	i	 hypothesised	(h )	that	under	normal	conditions	(control),	participants	with	high	 independent	self-construal	orientation	would	be	more	likely	to	anthropomorphize	 animals,	especially	on	factors	relating	to	social	connection,	but	that	following	an	 inclusion	manipulation	this	effect	would	reduce,	or	disappear.		i	expected	(h )	this	 effect	to	reverse	following	exclusion,	and	that	individuals	with	higher	independent	 self-construal	will	give	higher	ratings	of	anthropomorphism	for	a	non-human	 subject.		 	 . . 	procedure.	 study	 	took	the	form	of	a	single	factor	 -level	(control,	inclusion	and	exclusion	 manipulation)	mixed	experimental	design,	with	self-construal	measured	as	a	 	 	 moderator	variable.	the	study	was	administered	in	the	marketing	research	lab	of	a	 canadian	university,	using	 	undergraduate	student	participants	( %	female,	 mage	=	 ),	who	participated	in	the	study	in	exchange	for	course	credit.	the	sample	 was	a	convenience	sample	and	condition	was	assigned	randomly,	using	the	 randomizing	embedded	coding	system	in	qualtrics	survey	software. the	sample	 size	was	based	on	practical	considerations,	regarding	recruitment	and	budgetary	 constraints,	with	a	rule	of	thumb	approach	regarding	power,	based	on	previous,\	 similar	studies. 	 participants	completed	the	study	at	individual	computer	terminals,	in	groups	of	 - 	per	session,	and	were	told	that	they	would	be	taking	part	in	two	unrelated	 studies.		‘study	one’	was	described	as	a	study	looking	at	personality	characteristics,	 in	which	i	was	interested	in	how	general	life	views	and	personal	sense	of	self	related	 to	future	life	events.	‘study	two’	was	described	as	a	study	looking	at	categorization	 behaviour.		 	 after	filling	in	a	number	of	trait	scales,	participants	were	randomly	assigned	to	one	 of	three	conditions:	control,	inclusion,	and	exclusion.	dependent	on	condition	 participants	either	received	no	prediction	at	all	(control),	a	future	life	prediction	 that	they	would	have	plenty	of	friends	(inclusion),	or	a	future	life	prediction	that	 they	would	have	few	friends	(exclusion).	following	the	future	life	prediction,	 participants	were	told	they	would	now	be	starting	the	second	study.		 	 	 	 participants	were	told	the	next	study	was	looking	at	how	people	categorized	 information.	the	first	task	they	completed,	was	the	same	grouping	task	as	was	used	 in	study	 .	in	addition,	they	were	asked	to	rate	their	self-formed	in-group,	in	terms	 of	entitativity	(group	cohesiveness).	the	prediction	for	this	was	that	people	with	a	 higher	independent	self-construal	would	rate	the	self-formed	in-group	higher	in	 entitativity,	since	people	with	a	higher	independent	self-construal	not	only	form	 new	groups	more	easily,	but	also	derive	meaning	specifically	from	category	based	 groups	that	they	have	chosen	to	belong	to.	conversely,	people	with	a	higher	 interdependent	self-construal	consider	themselves	tied	to	long	term	group	 structures;	which	makes	it	not	only	harder	to	form	meaningful	new	groups,	but	also	 makes	it	more	likely	that	any	meaningful	new	groups	formed,	will	be	based	on	pre- existing	relational	ties,	rather	than	categories.	therefore,	i	expected	that	people	 with	a	higher	interdependent	self-construal	would	feel	less	attached	to	their	new	 self-formed	group,	and	would	therefore	rate	it	lower	in	entitativity.	furthermore,	i	 predicted	that	the	manipulation	condition	would	have	an	impact	on	perceptions	of	 entitativity	of	the	self-formed	in-group.	specifically,	following	an	exclusion	 manipulation	i	expected	people	to	rate	the	self-formed	in-group	higher	in	 entitativity,	as	a	form	of	defensive	behaviour;	whereas	following	a	reassurance	of	 chronic	inclusion,	a	self-formed	in-group	would	not	seem	so	important	to	personal	 happiness,	and	would	be	evaluated	lower	in	entitativity.		 	 participants	then	completed	an	anthropomorphism	photo	task,	designed	to	measure	 how	much	they	were	anthropomorphizing,	especially	in	the	social	realm.	following	 	 	 this,	participants	responded	to	a	manipulation	check,	a	hypothesis	probe	and	some	 demographic	questions.	participants	were	then	debriefed,	offered	candy	as	a	mood	 elevator,	and	thanked.			 	 materials.	 participants	were	asked	to	complete	the	same	 	item	self-construal	scale	( 	items	 independent	self-construal,	 	items	interdependent	self-construal)	as	used	in	study	 .	participants	were	also	asked	to	complete	the	same	amended	individual	 differences	in	anthropomorphism	questionnaire	(idaq;	α	=. 	)	previously	used	 by	waytz,	cacioppo,	and	epley,	( )	to	monitor	attitudes	to	animals,	and	the	same	 	item	fear	of	negative	evaluation	(fne;	α	=. )	scale	(leary,	 ).	in	addition	a	 -item	need	to	belong	(ntb;	α	=. )	scale	(leary,	kelly,	&	schreindorfer,	 )	 was	administered	(see	appendix	a. ).	these	personality	scales,	taken	all	together,	 served	to	support	the	cover	story;	namely	that	i	was	interested	in	how	personality	 traits	influenced	future	life	behaviour.	the	specific	scales	were	selected	based	on	 past	findings,	demonstrating	their	potential	to	interact	with	human	animal	 interactions	(hai),	social	exclusion	threats,	and	intergroup	evaluations	and	 behaviour.	the	ntb	scale	was	developed	to	measure	need-to-belong,	the	desire	to	 form	meaningful	social	attachments.	need-to-belong	is	arguably	a	fundamental	 human	motivation,	and	is	considered	to	conform	to	motivational	patterns	of	 satiation	and	substitutions	(baumeister	&	leary	 ).		 	 prior	to	receiving	one	of	the	three	experimental	conditions,	participants	also	 	 	 completed	a	 -item	loneliness	scale	(hughes,	waite,	hawkley,	&	cacioppo,	 ;	α	 =. ).	this	was	administered	in	study	 	in	accordance	with	behavioural	research	 ethics	board	requirements,	as	a	precautionary	screening	test	for	vulnerable	 participants,	who	might	experience	a	more	pronounced	reaction	to	the	future	life	 prediction.		 	 the	future	life	prediction	manipulation	has	been	successfully	used	on	many	 occasions	(epley,	akalis,	waytz	and	cacioppo,	 	and	twenge,	baumeister,	 dewall,	ciarocco	and	bartels,	 ),	to	evoke	feelings	of	loneliness/	exclusion	or	 feelings	of	belongingness/	inclusion	in	participants,	and	takes	one	of	three	forms	 (exclusion,	inclusion,	and	control).		with	the	exclusion	manipulation,	participants	 were	told	that	their	answers	to	the	prior	questions	had	enabled	a	‘future	life	 prediction’	to	be	constructed,	which	predicted	that	they	would	lack	long-term	 friendships	and	relationships	and	be	lonely	through	much	of	their	life.		with	the	 inclusion	manipulation,	participants	were	told	that	their	answers	to	the	previous	 questions	had	enabled	a	‘future	life	prediction’	to	be	constructed,	which	informed	 them	that	they	would	always	have	friends	and	loved	ones	in	their	life.	in	the	control	 condition,	participants	were	not	told	they	would	be	given	a	future	life	prediction,	 and	did	not	receive	one.	see	appendix	a. 	for	the	full	wording	of	the	‘future	life	 prediction’.	participants	were	then	moved	onto	what	they	were	told	was	the	second	 study.	 	 in	this	next	section,	participants	were	asked	to	complete	the	same	grouping	 	 	 selection	that	was	completed	in	study	 ,	and	to	rate	the	self	created	in-group	on	a	 - item	entitativity	scale	developed	for	the	study	(α=. ).	this	measure	asked	 participants	to	respond	to	a	series	of	statements,	as	follows	“i	am	proud	to	think	of	 myself	as	a	member	of	this	group”,	“this	group	is	meaningful	and	cohesive”,	“this	 group	is	important	to	its	members”,	“members	of	this	group	are	similar”,	and	 “members	of	this	group	share	common	goals”,	on	a	scale	of	 - ;	where	 	=	not	at	all,	 and	 	=	extremely.	following	this	task,	participants	were	asked	to	rate	a	photograph	 of	a	black	labrador	dog	on	a	variety	of	factors	relating	to	anthropomorphism,	and	 especially	social	anthropomorphism	(α=. );	using	an	amended	version	of	a	scale	 originated	and	previously	used	by	epley,	waytz,	and	cacioppo	( )	and	epley,	 akalis,	waytz	and	cacioppo	( ).	social	anthropomorphism	has	been	previously	 identified	by	epley,	waytz,	and	cacioppo	( )	as	a	tendency	to	anthropomorphize	 based	on	specific	values	that	may	offer	potential	for	social	connection,	which,	for	 example,	are	expressed	in	the	statement	“this	dog	can	be	sympathetic”.	this	may	be	 differentiated	from	more	general	anthropomorphism	values,	such	as	can	be	seen	 expressed	in	the	statement	“this	dog	can	suffer	from	embarrassment	at	times”.		 	 the	black	labrador	dog	was	photographed	in	a	lying	position,	looking	towards	the	 camera.		see	appendix	a. ,	for	both	the	photograph	and	the	amended	 anthropomorphism	scale.	following	this,	demographics	were	collected,	along	with	a	 manipulation	check	asking	them	to	recall	which	future	life	prediction	they	received,	 and	to	rate	their	mood	following	the	prediction,	using	an	 -item	scale	(positive:	 happy,	positive,	content,	supported;	negative:	left	out,	isolated,	negative,	lonely).	at	 	 	 the	end,	participants	were	asked	a	hypothesis	probe	question	to	check	hypothesis	 guessing.	participants	were	then	debriefed	and	thanked.	 	 . . 	results.	 two	participants,	rated	moderate	on	the	 -item	loneliness	scale	(hughes,	waite,	 hawkley,	&	cacioppo,	 ),	and	were	categorized	as	vulnerable	in	accordance	with	 behavioural	research	ethics	board	requirements.	they	were	therefore	screened	out	 of	the	experimental	study,	before	administration	of	the	manipulation,	as	a	 precautionary	measure	(leaving	n= 	remaining).	the	study	exclusion	policy	 stipulated	that	participants	would	be	screened	out	if	they	failed	all	attention	checks,	 or	if	they	accurately	guessed	the	key	study	hypotheses;	which	no	participants	did.		 	 power.	 a	post	hoc	power	analysis	was	conducted,	using	g*power	 . .	with	a	sample	size	of	 	in	a	multiple	regression	model,	with	 	predictors	( 	predictors	and	 	interaction	 term)	and	an	observed	r 	of	 . ,	ρ 	was	calculated	at	 . ,	which	provided	a	 power	estimation	of	 . ,	at	 %	confidence	level.		a	post	hoc	power	test	 conducted,	using	g*power	 . ,	for	an	independent	sample	t-test	revealed	that	with	a	 sample	size	of	 	( 	per	condition)	an	observed	d= . ,	with	critical	t	of . ,	was	 needed	for	a	power	estimation	of	> . 	at	 %	confidence	level.	furthermore,	a	 post	hoc	power	test	for	correlations	revealed	that	with	a	sample	size	of	 ,	an	 observed	correlation	of	. ,	was	needed	for	a	power	estimation	of	> . 	at	 %	 confidence	level.	 	 	 manipulation	check.		 to	assess	whether	participants	responded	as	expected	to	the	manipulation,	they	 were	asked	to	recall	the	prediction	they	received	in	a	multiple-choice	question	at	 the	end	of	the	study,	after	demographics	were	taken.	they	were	also	asked	to	 answer	some	post	prediction	mood,	and	manipulation	probe	questions.	when	asked	 to	recall	their	prediction,	 . %	participants	were	able	to	do	so	with	accuracy,	 . %	 inaccurately	remembered	getting	a	future	belonging	(inclusion)	prediction	when	in	 fact	they	were	in	the	control	group	(no	prediction),	and	 . %	could	not	remember	 their	prediction.			 	 post	manipulation	measurements	of	positive	mood	were	also	tested	across	 conditions	(inclusion,	exclusion,	control),	at	the	end	of	the	study	following	the	 manipulation	probe.	a	one-way	between	groups	anova	revealed	a	significant	main	 effect	of	condition	on	post	prediction	mood,	f( , )= . ,	p<. ,	η=. .	post	hoc	 comparisons,	using	tukey’s	hsd	test,	indicated	that	the	post	prediction	mood	scores	 in	the	exclusion	condition	(m=	 . ,	sd= . )	were	significantly	lower	than	the	post	 prediction	mood	scores	in	both	the	control	condition	(m=	 . ,	sd= . ),	(p<. ),	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ]	and	the	inclusion	condition	(m=	 . ,	sd= . ),	(p<. ),	 %	 ci	[- . ,- . ].	furthermore,	post	hoc	comparisons	indicated	that	that	the	post	 prediction	mood	scores	in	the	inclusion	condition	were	significantly	higher,	than	the	 post	prediction	mood	scores	in	the	control	condition	(p<. ),	 %	ci	[ . , . ].	it	 must	be	noted,	however,	that	a	levene’s	test	of	equality	of	error	variances	was	 	 	 significant	f( , )= . ,	p=. 	and	therefore	the	assumption	of	homogeneity	of	 variance	was	violated	in	the	test.		 	 demographics.	 demographics	collected	showed	that	participants	in	the	sample	identified	as	 . %	 asian,	 . %	caucasian,	 . %	east	indian,	 . %	black,	and	 . %	other.	results	also	 showed	that	 . %	reported	living	in	canada	less	than	 	years,	 . %	reported	living	 in	canada	 - 	years,	 . %	reported	living	in	canada	 - 	years,	 . %	reported	 living	in	canada	 - 	years	and	 . %	reported	living	in	canada	 	years	or	over.	 participants	identified	as	 . %	female.	the	mean	age	was	 . 	years	old.	see	 appendix	a. 	for	detailed	demographic	and	trait	analyses.		 	 means	comparisons.		 independent	samples	t-tests	were	carried	out	between	the	control	group	and	 respective	conditions	(exclusion;	inclusion),	as	separate	analyses.	tests	showed	no	 significant	differences	between	conditions,	on	the	either	the	grouping	task,	or	the	 anthropomorphism	task.	see	appendix	a. 	for	detailed	results.		 	 regression	tests	for	moderation.	 moderated	multiple	regressions	were	carried	out	in	spss,	using	process	v. 	(hayes,	 )	to	examine	a)	whether	the	manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	exclusion	condition)	 influenced	participant	intentions	and	evaluations,	including	the	percentage	of	 animals	that	were	included	in	a	self-formed	in-group	and	b)	whether	these	effects	 	 	 were	moderated	by	independent	and	interdependent	self-construal	orientation.	 following	cohen	and	cohen	( )	and	wendorf	( ),	i	dummy	coded	the	 condition	so	that	the	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	and	the	exclusion	 manipulation	(vs.	control),	were	run	as	separate	tests,	and	the	results	reported	 independently.	independent	self-construal	and	interdependent	self-construal	scales	 were	kept	separate	for	the	analysis,	but	were	mean	centered	in	accordance	with	 guidelines,	stipulating	that	this	practice	renders	subsequent	tests	of	hypotheses,	and	 regression	coefficients	for	x	and	m,	more	meaningful	and	substantially	 interpretable,	as	well	as	to	reduce	the	likelihood	of	errors	in	interpretation	(hayes,	 ).	all	dependent	measures	were	subjected	to	separate	moderated	multiple	 regressions,	with	each	manipulation	condition	and	the	control,	independent	and	 interdependent	self-construal	scores,	and	their	interactions,	simultaneously	entered	 as	predictor	variables.		 	 . . . 	role	of	exclusion	manipulation	in	grouping,	and	anthropomorphism	 tasks.	 summary.	 against	expectations,	the	exclusion	manipulation	appeared	to	have	no	significant	 impact	on	either	of	the	dependent	variables	(grouping	task	and	anthropomorphism	 task),	in	terms	of	a	main	effect.	this	was	despite	appearing	to	be	successful	as	a	 manipulation,	and	despite	being	accurately	recalled	by	participants.	furthermore,	a	 regression	model	showed	no	significant	interaction	of	self-construal	(independent;	 	 	 interdependent)	with	the	exclusion	condition.	see	detailed	analyses	below,	and	 appendix	a. 	for	covariate	analyses.		 	 grouping	task	&	independent	self-construal.	 the	percentage	of	animals	included	in	a	self-formed	in-group	was	regressed	on	to	 the	dummy	(exclusion	condition)	and	moderator	variables.		the	social	exclusion	 manipulation,	independent	self-construal,	and	the	interaction	together	were	not	 found	to	account	for	any	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	the	inclusion	of	 animals	into	an	in-group	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. .		 independent	self-construal	did	not	significantly	predict	inclusion	of	animals	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ]	nor	did	the	social	 exclusion	manipulation,	b=- . ,	se	= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ],	although	it	appeared	to	result	in	a	very	minor	reduction.	in	sum	however	 there	was	no	conditional	effect	found	for	either	the	manipulation	or	self-construal.		 neither	was	a	significant	two-way	interaction	between	the	social	exclusion	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion),	and	independent	self-construal	found	b=- . ,	se	 =	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].			 	 grouping	task	&	interdependent	self-construal.	 the	percentage	of	animals	included	in	a	self-formed	in-group	was	regressed	on	to	 the	dummy	(exclusion	condition)	and	moderator	variables.		the	social	exclusion	 manipulation,	interdependent	self-construal	orientation,	and	the	interaction	 together	were	found	to	account	a	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	the	 	 	 inclusion	of	animals	into	an	in-group	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	f( ,	 )= . ,	 p=. .		interdependent	self-construal	significantly	predicted	less	inclusion	of	 animals	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ],	but	the	 social	exclusion	manipulation	did	not,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ]	.	in	sum	there	was	no	conditional	effect	found	for	the	 manipulation.		neither	was	a	significant	two-way	interaction	between	the	social	 exclusion	condition	(control	vs.	exclusion),	and	interdependent	self-construal	 orientation	found	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )= . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].			 	 anthropomorphism	of	dog	picture	&	independent	self-construal.	 ratings	of	social	anthropomorphism	were	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	and	 moderator	variables	for	the	dog	picture.	for	the	picture	the	social	exclusion	 manipulation,	independent	self-construal	orientation,	and	the	interaction	together	 were	found	to	account	for	a	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	ratings	of	social	 anthropomorphism	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. .	independent	 self-construal	significantly	predicted	ratings,	b=- . ,	se	= 	. ,	t( )= . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . , . ],	but	the	social	exclusion	manipulation	did	not,	b=- . ,	 se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ]	.	there	was	no	significant	two- way	interaction	between	the	social	exclusion	condition	(control	vs.	exclusion),	and	 independent	self-construal	orientation,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].	 	 	 	 	 anthropomorphism	of	dog	picture	&	interdependent	self-construal.	 ratings	of	social	anthropomorphism	were	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	and	 moderator	variables	for	the	dog	picture.	for	the	picture	the	social	exclusion	 manipulation,	interdependent	self-construal	orientation,	and	the	interaction	 together	were	found	to	account	for	a	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	ratings	 of	social	anthropomorphism	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. .	 interdependent	self-construal	did	not	significantly	predict	ratings,	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ],	neither	did	the	social	exclusion	 manipulation,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].	there	 was	no	significant	two-way	interaction	between	the	social	exclusion	condition	 (control	vs.	exclusion),	and	interdependent	self-construal	orientation,	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].	 	 controlling	for	gender,	age	and	ethnicity	in	the	above	analyses	revealed	no	 significant	results,	as	detailed	in	the	appendix	a. .	controlling	for	the	trait	measures	 (fne,	idaq,	ntb,	short	loneliness	scale)	also	revealed	no	significant	findings.	see	 appendix	a. 	for	detailed	results.	in	sum,	study	 	failed	to	support	the	hypothesis	 (h ),	that	following	an	exclusion	manipulation	people	with	a	higher	independent	 self-construal	orientation	will	put	a	higher	percentage	of	animals	into	a	self-formed	 in-group.	furthermore	study	 	failed	to	support	the	hypothesis	(h ),	that	following	 an	exclusion	manipulation	people	with	a	higher	independent	self-construal	 orientation	will	anthropomorphize	more.	subsequently,	i	focused	the	remainder	on	 my	analysis	on	the	comparison	between	the	inclusion	and	the	control	condition.	 	 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	in	grouping	and	anthropomorphism	 tasks.	 grouping	task	&	independent	self-construal.	 the	percentage	of	animals	included	in	a	self-formed	in-group	was	regressed	on	to	 the	dummy	(inclusion	condition)	and	moderator	variables.		the	social	inclusion	 manipulation,	independent	self-construal	orientation,	and	the	interaction	together	 were	found	to	account	for	a	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	the	inclusion	of	 animals	into	an	in-group	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. .	while	 independent	self-construal	alone	did	not	significantly	predict	inclusion	of	animals,	 the	social	inclusion	manipulation	did,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ]	.	importantly	a	significant	two-way	interaction	between	the	 social	inclusion	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self-construal	 was	found	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,-. ].	 	 		 grouping	task	&	interdependent	self-construal.	 the	percentage	of	animals	included	in	a	self-formed	in-group	was	regressed	on	to	 the	dummy	(inclusion	condition)	and	moderator	variables.	the	social	inclusion	 manipulation,	interdependent	self-construal	orientation,	and	the	interaction	 together	were	found	to	account	a	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	the	 inclusion	of	animals	into	an	in-group	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	 p=. .		interdependent	self-construal	significantly	predicted	inclusion	of	animals	 																																																								 	note	i	report	the	unstandardized	coefficient	(b),	rather	than	betas.		because	betas	are	not	properly	 standardized	in	interaction	terms	they	are	not	interpretable,	whereas	b	represents	the	difference	 between	the	un-weighted	means	of	the	groups	involved	(see	cohen,	cohen,	west,		&	aiken,	 ).	 	 	 b=-. ,	se=. ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ],	as	did	the	social	 inclusion	manipulation,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ]	.	there	was	also	a	significant	two-way	interaction	between	the	social	inclusion	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	interdependent	self-construal	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )= . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ].			 	 controlling	for	demographics	(ethnicity,	age,	gender)	revealed	no	significant	 findings.	controlling	for	the	trait	measures	(fne,	idaq,	ntb,	short	loneliness	scale)	 also	revealed	no	significant	findings	(see	appendix	a. 	for	results).		 to	both	probe	and	visualize	the	nature	of	the	interaction,	a	floodlight	analysis	 (spiller	et	al,	 ),	also	known	as	the	johnson-neyman	(jn)	technique,	was	 performed	using	process	(hayes,	 ).	a	floodlight	analysis	was	chosen,	over	a	 spotlight	or	simple	slopes	analysis	(rogosa,	 ;	bauer	&	curran,	 ),	to	avoid	 the	necessity	of	making	an	arbitrary	choice	for	values	of	m,	and	to	allow	for	the	 results	to	be	of	use	beyond	sample	specific	circumstances	(hayes,	 ,	p.	 ).		 	 as	illustrated	in	figure	 ,	the	analysis	showed	that	that	under	normal	 circumstances	(control	condition),	participants	that	measured	higher	in	 independent	self-construal	appeared	to	include	significantly	more	animals	in	a	self	 designated	in-group,	than	participants	measuring	higher	in	interdependent	self- construal.	however,	for	participants	that	received	an	inclusion	manipulation,	prior	 to	the	grouping	task,	telling	them	that	a	future	life	prediction	suggested	they	would	 always	be	strongly	included	by	other	humans,	this	pattern	significantly	reversed.	in	 	 	 the	inclusion	condition,	participants	showing	a	higher	independent	self-construal	 orientation	were	now	less	likely	to	include	animals	in	their	self-designated	in-group,	 than	were	participants	measuring	higher	in	interdependent	self-construal.		see	 figure	 ,	for	the	regression	lines,	with	a	visualization	of	the	regions	of	significance,	 as	derived	from	the	johnson-neyman	technique,	as	well	as	figure	 ,	for	a	floodlight	 analysis	for	each	interaction,	as	a	plot	of	 x à y	as	a	function	of	m	along	with	 confidence	bands	(bauer	&	curran,	 ;	preacher,	curran,	&	bauer,	 ;	rogosa,	 ;	spiller	et	al.	 ).	 	 entitativity	&	independent	self-construal.	 participants	were	also	asked	to	rate	the	entitativity	of	their	self-formed	in-group,	on	 a	number	of	items,	following	the	grouping	task.	the	entitativity	score	was	regressed	 on	to	the	dummy	and	moderator	variables.		the	social	inclusion	manipulation,	 independent	self-construal	orientation,	and	the	interaction	together	were	found	to	 account	for	a	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	the	entitativity	rating	of	the	in- group	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. .	while	the	social	inclusion	 manipulation	alone	did	not	significantly	predict	the	entitativity	rating	of	the	in- group,	independent	self-construal	did,	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ]	.	furthermore	a	marginal	trend	was	found,	albeit	not	significant,	 for	the	two-way	interaction	between	the	social	inclusion	condition	(control	vs.	 inclusion),	and	independent	self-construal	orientation	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ],	which	shows	that	while	normally	(control)	there	 appears	to	be	a	strong	positive	correlation	between	independent	self-construal	 	 	 orientation	and	subsequent	rating	of	the	entitativity	of	a	self-formed	in-group,	this	 relationship	disappears	with	an	inclusion	condition.		 	 entitativity	&	interdependent	self-construal.	 regression	analysis	revealed	no	significant	results,	in	any	variables	when	 interdependent	self-construal	was	investigated.	see	appendix	a. 	for	detailed	 results.		 	 see	figure	 	for	a	visual	comparison	of	the	trends	in	entitativity	ratings,	for	both	 independent	and	interdependent	self-construal.	 	 anthropomorphism	of	dog	picture.	 ratings	of	social	anthropomorphism	were	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	and	 moderator	variables,	for	the	dog	picture.	for	the	picture,	the	social	inclusion	 manipulation,	independent	self-construal	orientation,	and	the	interaction	together	 were	found	to	account	for	a	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	ratings	of	social	 anthropomorphism	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. .	 independent	self-construal	significantly	predicted	ratings,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . , . ],	as	did	the	social	inclusion	manipulation,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ]	.	there	was	no	significant	 two-way	interaction	between	the	social	inclusion	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	 and	independent	self-construal	orientation,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].	 	 	 while	there	was	no	consistent	significant	two-way	interaction	between	the	social	 inclusion	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self-construal	 orientation,	there	was	significance	in	the	area	of	high	independent	self-construal.	i	 therefore	opted	to	visualize	the	interaction	and	the	region	of	significance	using	the	 johnson-neyman	technique.	a	floodlight	analysis	for	the	interaction,	as	a	plot	of	 x à y	 as	a	function	of	w,	along	with	confidence	bands,	offered	some	tentative	support	for	a	 hypothesis	that,	under	normal	conditions,	participants	with	high	independent	self- construal	are	more	prone	to	anthropomorphizing	animals	on	factors	specifically	 relating	to	social	connection,	but	that	following	an	inclusion	manipulation,	this	effect	 reduces.	note	however	the	lack	of	statistical	significance	for	the	overall	model,	 requires	caution	to	be	taken	over	any	statistical	inferences	that	may	be	made	from	 the	result	(hayes,	 ).	see	figure	 	for	a	visual	representation	of	the	results,	and	 figure	 	for	a	floodlight	analysis	of	the	interaction,	as	a	plot	of	 x à y	as	a	function	of	 w	along	with	confidence	bands	including	the	region	of	significance.		 	 anthropomorphism	of	dog	picture	&	interdependent	self-construal.	 ratings	of	social	anthropomorphism	were	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	and	 moderator	variables	for	the	dog	picture.	for	the	picture	the	social	inclusion	 manipulation,	interdependent	self-construal	orientation,	and	the	interaction	 together	were	not	found	to	account	for	a	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	 ratings	of	social	anthropomorphism	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	 p=. .	interdependent	self-construal	did	not	significantly	predict	ratings,	b= . ,	 se	=	 . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ],	but	the	social	inclusion	 	 	 manipulation	did,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ]	.	 there	was	no	significant	two-way	interaction	between	the	social	inclusion	condition	 (control	vs.	inclusion),	and	interdependent	self-construal,	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].	 	 . . 	discussion.	 study	 	replicated	the	findings	of	study	 ,	and	provided	an	extension	to	the	findings	 when	participants	were	manipulated	to	feel	social	inclusion.	specifically,	in	study	 	i	 was	able	to	provide	further	support	for	h ;	that	when	participants	were	asked	to	 make	in-groups	and	out-groups	under	normal	conditions	(control),	participants	 with	higher	independent	self-construal	appeared	to	put	a	relatively	high	percentage	 of	animals	into	their	in-group.		 	 study	 	did	not	provide	explicit	support	for	my	prediction	that	participants	 measuring	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	would	react	less	to	both	the	 inclusion	and	exclusion	manipulations,	being	somewhat	buffered	to	these	 conditions.	however,	study	 	did	provide	evidence	that	participants	who	measured	 high	in	interdependent	self-construal,	would	react	in	a	different	direction	to	those	 high	in	independent	self-construal.	furthermore,	it	is	perhaps	indicative	that	the	 area	of	significance	in	the	regression	model	with	interdependent	self-construal	was	 in	the	low	regions,	rather	than	the	higher	regions;	in	other	words	the	result	was	 seen	for	those	low	in	interdependent	self-construal.	this	finding	suggests	that	the	 	 	 pattern	was	being	driven	primarily	by	high	independent	self-construal,	which	is	in	 line	with	previous	research	and	the	predictions.			 	 the	ratings	of	entitativity	for	the	self-formed	in-group	showed	a	(non-significant)	 trend	for	higher	ratings	with	people	who	were	higher	in	independent	self-construal.		 this	effect	disappeared	with	an	inclusion	manipulation.	although	not	significant,	 this	pattern	may	be	compared	with	the	results	measuring	high	interdependent	self- construal,	where	there	appeared	to	be	no	association	between	entitativity	and	 interdependent	self-construal.	this	result	provides	some	very	tentative	support	for	 an	argument	that	under	normal	conditions	individuals	with	high	independent	self- construal	may	rate	a	self-formed	in-group	as	more	cohesive	and	perhaps	more	 meaningful,	than	they	do	after	an	affirmation	of	inclusion.		 	 in	terms	of	the	social	exclusion	condition,	study	 	did	not	support	hypothesis	h ,	 which	predicted	that	following	an	exclusion	manipulation	people	with	higher	 independent	self-construal	would	put	a	higher	percentage	of	animals	into	a	self- formed	in-group	than	in	the	control.	furthermore,	it	did	not	offer	support	for	h ;	 that	people	with	higher	independent	self-construal	will	give	higher	ratings	of	 anthropomorphism	for	a	non-human	subject	following	an	exclusion	manipulation	 than	they	will	normally	(control	condition).	i	have	no	conclusive	explanation	to	offer	 for	this	result,	since	i	could	find	no	relationship	with	any	of	my	measured	variables	 thought	to	moderate	exclusion	threat	responses,	such	as	fear	of	negative	evaluation	 (maner,	de	wall,	baumeister,	&	schaller,	 ).	i	can	at	this	stage	only	speculate	 	 	 regarding	other	reasons	for	the	null	result.	perhaps	the	younger	age	of	my	 participants	may	have	acted	as	a	boundary	condition,	or	perhaps	my	chosen	 dependent	variables	failed	to	draw	out	a	response	from	excluded	participants.	for	 example,	perhaps	my	participants	did	not	perceive	an	opportunity	to	reconnect	 would	be	manifested	in	the	outcome	variables.	as	previously	detailed	by	maner,	de	 wall,	baumeister,	and	schaller	( )	exclusion	manipulations	can	at	times	deliver	 complex	results.		 	 in	terms	of	the	social	inclusion	manipulation,	the	results	of	study	 	provided	 substantial	evidence	for	h ,	that	following	an	inclusion	manipulation	people	with	 higher	independent	self-construal	will	put	a	lower	percentage	of	animals	into	a	self- formed	in-group	than	normally	(control	condition).	i	found	a	significant	two-way	 interaction	between	the	social	connection	condition	(control	vs.	social	inclusion),	 and	measured	self-construal	(high-low	levels	of	independent	and	interdependent	 self-construal).		repeating	the	findings	of	study	 ,	this	demonstrates	that,	under	 normal	circumstances	(control	condition),	participants	that	measure	high	in	 independent	self-construal	are	more	likely	to	include	more	animals	in	a	self-formed	 in-group.	however,	if	participants	receive	an	inclusion	manipulation	prior	to	the	 grouping	task,	telling	them	that	a	future	life	prediction	suggests	that	they	will	 always	be	strongly	included	by	other	humans,	this	pattern	significantly	reverses.	in	 this	social	inclusion	condition,	participants	showing	higher	independent	self- construal	were	significantly	less	likely	to	include	animals	in	their	self-designated	in- group	than	in	the	control	condition.		 	 	 this	finding	has	interesting	theoretical	implications,	in	that	it	offers	an	original	new	 explanation	for	what	may	be	driving	the	effects	of	generosity	and	inclusivity	 towards	distant	others,	that	are	seen	in	people	with	high	independent	self-construal.		 inclusivity	towards	distant	others	was	lower	in	study	 ,	for	people	with	high	 independent	self-construal,	that	received	an	inclusion	manipulation,	in	which	they	 were	assured	of	their	chronic	future	belonging.		study	 ,	therefore,	offers	some	 support	for	the	argument,	that	the	desire	for	belonging	or	social	inclusion	may	be	 the	motivation	fuelling	more	inclusive	and	generous	behaviour	towards	distant	 others	in	this	group.	 	 regarding	the	anthropomorphism	findings,	although	the	interaction	between	 inclusion	measure	and	independent	self-construal	was	not	significant	across	the	 entire	range,	i	believe	the	fact	that	the	floodlight	analysis	showed	a	large	region	of	 significance	in	the	medium	to	upper	region	of	independent	self-construal,	offers	 some	tentative	evidence	in	support	of	h ;	that	people	with	higher	independent	self- construal	will	give	lower	ratings	of	anthropomorphism	for	a	non-human	subject,	 following	an	inclusion	manipulation,	than	they	will	normally	(control	condition).	 furthermore,	it	offers	some	support	for	the	hypothesis	that	increased	 anthropomorphism	may	be	related	to	a	desire	for	social	connection,	in	those	higher	 in	independent	self-construal.		 	 the	motive	for	an	increase	in	anthropomorphism	behaviour	is	that,	by	adopting	a	 hyper	vigilant	approach	to	cues	of	social	connection	potential,	and	by	relaxing	 	 	 boundaries	of	what	is	considered	capable	of	meeting	those	needs,	an	individual	may	 maximise	social	connection	possibilities	in	situations	when	humans	are	either	not	 desirable	or	not	available.	this	finding	is	in	line	with	the	social	monitoring	system	 (sms)	concept,	the	primary	purpose	of	which	is	to	attune	individuals	to	information	 that	will	help	them	navigate	the	social	environment	more	successfully,	whatever	the	 belonging	state	they	find	themselves	in	(gardner,	pickett	and	knowles,	 ).	 	 furthermore,	by	visualizing	the	interaction	and	the	region	of	significance,	using	the	 johnson-neyman	technique,	i	show	that	under	normal	conditions	participants	with	 high	independent	self-construal	are	more	prone	to	anthropomorphizing	animals	on	 factors	specifically	relating	to	social	connection,	but	that	following	an	inclusion	 manipulation	this	effect	reduces.	whilst	not	a	conclusive	finding,	the	result	offers	 support	for	the	findings	of	past	research	demonstrating	that	anthropomorphism	is	 often	highest	in	people	that	lack	human	social	contact	(epley,	akalis,	waytz	&	 cacioppo,	 ).	the	fact	that	no	significant	effect	was	found	in	participants	with	a	 high	interdependent	self-construal	is	unsurprising,	since	we	would	expect	 participants	with	a	more	interdependently	orientated	self-construal	to	be	less	open	 to	using	animals	as	parasocials,	as	well	as	less	open	to	re-categorizing	others	for	the	 purposes	of	social	connection,	for	reasons	previously	outlined.	 	 in	summary,	the	results	of	study	 	follow	in	the	direction	of	prior	research,	 demonstrating	that	social	inclusion	may	indeed	negatively	impact	inclusive	 attitudes	towards	distant	others	and	out-group	members	(dewall,	baumeister	&	 	 	 vohs,	 ;	waytz	&	epley,	 ;	 ).	the	results	of	study	 ,	when	taken	 together,	also	offer	some	support	for	the	argument	that	animals	may,	at	times,	be	 used	to	play	a	compensatory	role	for	lack	of	human-to-human	relations,	but	that	 when	human-to-human	relations	are	assured,	and	this	compensatory	role	is	no	 longer	required,	then	the	use	of	animals	as	parasocial	support	mechanisms	may	 reduce.		this	re-prioritization	approach	builds	on	past	research	of	brown,	young,	 sacco,	bernstein	and	claypool	( ),	who	put	forward	a	reprioritization	hypothesis,	 which	proposed	that	following	social	acceptance;	a	proximal	cue	that	indicates	 group	based	survival	needs	have	been	satisfied,	individuals	may	shift	their	motives	 towards	other	activities	and	interests.		 	 that	the	pattern	of	response	to	an	inclusion	manipulation;	as	described	above,	is	 more	apparent	in	people	with	an	independent	self-construal	orientation,	also	builds	 on	past	research	by	pfundmair,	graupmann,	frey	and	aydin	( ),	as	well	as	by	 ren,	wesselmann	and	williams	( ).	both	of	these	research	groups	have	offered	 up	evidence	that	people	with	a	more	interdependent	self-construal	orientation	may	 not	be	as	susceptible	to	promises	of,	or	threats	to,	social	inclusion.	moreover,	the	 results	of	study	 	offer	further	support	for	the	argument	of	yuki	and	takemura	 ( )	that	people	with	a	more	independent	self-construal	orientation	should	 regard	in-group	boundaries	as	more	permeable,	than	people	with	a	more	 interdependent	orientation.		 	 	 	 finally,	study	 	offers	up	some	evidence	to	support	and	potentially	build	on	the	 work	of	epley,	akalis,	waytz	&	cacioppo	( );	that	people	will	anthropomorphize	 more	when	they	are	in	need	of	social	connection,	by	demonstrating	a	trend	for	this	 behaviour	that	is	specific	to	people	high	in	independent	self-construal,	and	not	for	 people	high	in	interdependent	self-construal.	this	builds	on	the	results	of	study	 ,	 which	found	that	there	was	a	significant	positive	correlation	between	trait	 anthropomorphism	(measured	in	the	idaq)	and	independent	self-construal.	taken	 together,	the	results	of	study	 	and	study	 	further	support	and	build	upon	the	past	 research	of	epley,	akalis,	waytz	&	cacioppo	( ),	by	providing	evidence	that	 following	a	reassurance	of	chronic	social	inclusion,	anthropomorphism	ratings	 specifically	reduce	for	people	high	in	independent	self-construal,	offering	support	 for	the	notion	that	anthropomorphism	may	be	a	mechanism	that	has	evolved	to	 facilitate	a	sense	of	social	inclusion	in	situations	where	human	company	may	not	be	 available;	also	that	this	is	more	of	a	threat	for	people	high	in	independent	self- construal,	than	for	people	high	in	interdependent	self-construal.		 	 study	 	and	 	used	an	inclusion-grouping	task	as	the	main	dependent	variable.	 however	inclusion	of	out-group	members	into	an	in-group,	whilst	demonstrating	a	 high	level	of	inclusive	behaviour,	does	not	demonstrate	some	of	the	more	tangible	 prosocial	behaviours	that	may	be	directed	towards	out-group	members,	such	as	 charitable	giving.	in	study	 ,	therefore,	i	wished	to	investigate	whether	the	 behaviour	observed	in	study	 	and	 	might	extend	into	something	with	financial	 benefits,	such	as	donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	charity.	i	also	wished	to	test	 	 	 whether	feeling	either	more	empathy,	or	more	connection,	to	an	out-group	cause	 would	influence	donation	support	for	it,	and	specifically	whether	this	would	 decrease	following	a	belonging	manipulation.	previous	research	has	found	empathy	 to	be	associated	with	increased	prosocial	behaviour	(batson,	 ;	batson	&	shaw,	 ;	davis,	 ;	dovidio,	piliavin,	schroeder,	&	penner,	 ;	eisenberg	&	miller,	 ;	penner,	dovidio,	piliavin,	&	schroeder,	 ;	stocks,	lishner	&	decker,	 ).	 with	this	in	mind,	i	also	elected	to	measure	connection	and	empathy	to	cause	as	 additional	dependent	variables.	i	predicted	that	connection	to	cause	would	be	 predicted	by	independent	self-construal	and	would	be	moderated	by	the	inclusion	 manipulation.	for	empathy	i	was	less	certain	as	to	my	prediction,	since	past	findings	 regarding	the	connection	between	empathy	and	prosocial	behaviour	have	been	 mixed,	with	some	finding	a	relationship	and	others	not	(see	eisenberg	&	miller,	 ;	underwood	&	moore,	 )	for	a	meta-analysis	review).		 	 finally	in	study	 	i	wished	to	eliminate	the	possibility	that	good	mood	or	positive	 affect	(derived	from	an	inclusion	manipulation)	may	be	driving	the	mechanisms.	 specifically,	i	wished	to	eliminate	the	possibility	that	the	reduction	in	prosocial	 inclusive	behaviour	for	people	high	in	independent	self-construal,	was	as	a	result	of	 positive	affect,	rather	than	it	being	as	a	direct	result	of	an	affirmation	of	social	 inclusion.		in	order	to	examine	this,	study	 	included	a	positive	affect	condition,	 alongside	the	inclusion	and	control	conditions.	 		 																																																								 	note:	a	limitation	of	study	 	may	be	noted	from	the	power	analysis,	which	showed	sub-optimal	 power	( . )	to	detect	an	effect	size	of	. 	and	higher	in	regressions.		again,	as	per	study	 ,	to	be	 sure	of	the	robustness	of	these	results	it	would	be	advisable	to	replicate	this	result	in	future	research.	 	 	 . 	study	 	 . . 	overview.	 study	 	had	a	number	of	goals.	first,	i	wished	to	rule	out	the	impact	that	positive	 affect	might	be	having	on	the	results.	it	is	possible	that	just	feeling	happy,	as	a	result	 of	the	inclusion	manipulation	that	delivered	a	reassurance	of	long-term	social	 inclusion,	might	account	for	the	behaviours	so	far	seen.	past	research	on	positive	 affect	has	found	it	to	be	positively	associated	with	prosocial	behaviour	(aderman,	 ;	cunningham,	steinberg,	&	grev,	 ;	george,	 ;	george	&	brief,	 ;	 isen,	clark,	&	schwartz,	 ;	isen	&	levin,	 ;	isen,	shalker,	clarke,	&	karp,	 ;	rosenhan,	salovey,	&	hargis,	 ;	rosenhan,	salovey,	karylowski,	&	hargis,	 ).	in	order	to	account	for	this	possibility,	in	study	 	i	included	a	positive	affect	 condition,	as	well	as	an	inclusion	condition	and	a	control.		 	 another	aspect	i	wished	to	account	for	in	study	 	was	the	potential	role	of	 participants’	baseline	trust	and	thwarted	belonging.		twenge,	baumeister,	dewall,	 ciarocco,	and	bartels	( ),	twenge,	ciarocco,	cuervo,	bartels,	and	baumeister	 ( ),	as	well	as	beest	and	williams	( )	and	catanese	and	tice	( )	have	all	 offered	evidence	to	suggest	that	social	exclusion	may	increase	aggression	and	 negatively	predict	prosocial	behaviour.	however,	lee	and	shrum	( )	have	 argued	that	being	explicitly	rejected	may	conversely	lead	to	more	prosocial	 behaviour.		in	light	of	these	mixed	findings	regarding	the	influence	of	social	 exclusion,	we	may	concede	that	trait	personality	differences	may	account	for	the	 mixed	results.			 	 	 in	study	 	i	had	measured	need-to-belong	(ntb),	amongst	other	traits,	with	no	 significant	results.	however,	it	is	possible	that	not	only	do	people	differ	in	terms	of	 their	need	to	be	socially	included,	but	people	may	also	differ	in	terms	of	how	much	 their	need	to	be	socially	included	is	currently	being	met—a	measurement	that	may	 have	a	greater	impact.	thwarted	belonging,	the	extent	to	which	there	may	be	unmet	 belonging	needs	or	a	perceived	discrepancy	between	one’s	desired	and	actual	levels	 of	belonging,	has	been	found	to	predict	self-defeating	behaviours	which	include	 increased	aggression	and	reduced	prosocial	intentions	(thau,	aquino,	&	poortvleit,	 ;	twenge,	baumeister,	tice,	&	stucke,	 ).	belongingness	theory	states	that	 people	have	a	fundamental	need	to	maintain	high	quality	relationships	with	other	 people,	and	that	when	belonging	needs	are	thwarted	people	will	react	adversely	 (baumeister	&	leary,	 ).	adverse	reactions	happen	because	the	satisfaction	of	a	 fundamental	need	has	been	denied,	causing	individuals	to	suffer	from	ego	depletion	 and	identity	threat	(thau,	aquino,	&	poortvleit,	 ).			 	 with	this	in	mind	it	is	reasonable	to	predict	that	people	with	higher	thwarted	 belonging	might	respond	differently	to	an	inclusion	manipulation,	than	those	who	 have	their	belonging	needs	generally	met.	for	study	 ,	i	therefore	decided	to	 measure	trait	thwarted	belonging	prior	to	the	manipulation.	i,	additionally,	opted	to	 measure	trait	levels	of	trust.	the	reason	for	this	is	that	baumeister,	brewer,	tice	and	 twenge	( )	also	suggest	that	that	one	of	the	reasons	why	aggression	increases	 and	prosocial	behaviour	decreases	when	belonging	is	thwarted	is	that,	despite	 having	a	heightened	interest	in	forming	new	relationships,	people	may	restrain	 	 	 themselves	because	they	are	also	distrustful	of	others.	one	question	for	study	 ,	 therefore,	was	whether	high	levels	of	thwarted	belonging,	and	low	levels	of	trust,	 might	attenuate	responses	to	the	inclusion	manipulation,	and	if	so	whether	the	 effect	would	be	the	same	for	both	self-construal	types.		 	 in	study	 	i	also	wished	to	investigate	whether	a	different	manipulation	of	 inclusion–that	of	reliving	a	past	real	life	event	in	which	you	felt	strongly	included	 and	writing	about	it–would	serve	to	act	as	an	inclusion	manipulation.	writing	tasks	 such	as	these	have	been	successfully	used	by	a	number	of	studies	to	make	salient	or	 prime	emotions	and	mind	states	(e.g.	arndt,	greenberg,	&	cook,	 ,	knowles	&	 gardner,	 ;	pickett,	gardner,	&	knowles,	 ;	manner,	dewall,	baumeister,	&	 schaller,	 ;	waytz	&	epley,	 ).	from	a	practical	perspective,	such	reminders	 of	past	events	of	social	inclusion	offer	more	possibilities	for	real-life	applications	 than	the	more	onerous	future	life	predictions,	which	take	time	to	set	up	and	may	be	 less	plausible	in	a	day-to-day	setting.	replicating	my	previous	findings,	with	an	 alternate	manipulation,	would	therefore	not	only	potentially	increase	the	 robustness	of	my	research,	but	also	the	applicability	of	it.		 	 additionally,	and	perhaps	most	importantly,	in	study	 	i	wished	to	investigate	 whether	the	previously	seen	inclusive	behaviour	might	extend	into	another	form	of	 prosocial	behaviour,	one	with	direct	financial	benefits.	the	potential	of	increasing	 donations	for	out-group	charities	has	direct	applicability	in	a	real	world	setting.	 many	conservation	charities,	as	well	as	charities	aimed	at	benefiting	third	world	 	 	 causes,	struggle	to	attract	sufficient	donors	and	funding.	for	this	reason,	in	study	 	i	 substituted	a	donation	support	dependent	variable,	in	place	of	the	inclusion-group	 task.	my	prediction	(h )	was	that	prosocial	effects	seen	in	studies	 	and	 	would	 carry	over,	and	that	under	normal	conditions	(control),	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	would	donate	more	to	an	out-group	charity	than	 individuals	with	high	interdependent	self-construal.	conversely,	however,	i	 predicted	(h )	that	under	inclusion	conditions,	individuals	with	high	independent	 self-construal	would	behave	more	like	individuals	with	high	interdependent	self- construal,	and	donate	less	than	in	the	control	condition.	my	prediction	(h )	for	 individuals	with	high	interdependent	self-construal	was	that	they	would	not	only	 donate	less	for	an	out-group	charity	than	those	high	in	independent	self-construal	in	 general,	but	also	that	the	inclusion	manipulation	would	have	little	impact,	based	on	 previous	findings	(pfundmair,	graupmann,	frey,	&	aydin,	 ;	powers,	worsham,	 freeman,	wheatley,	&	heatherton	 ).		finally,	i	also	wished	to	test	whether	 feeling	either	more	empathy,	or	more	connection,	to	an	out-group	cause	would	 influence	donation	support	for	it,	and	specifically	whether	this	would	decrease	 following	an	inclusion	manipulation.	my	expectation	here	was	that	feelings	of	 connection,	or	empathy,	for	a	cause	would	potentially	mediate	donation	behaviour.	 	 . . 	procedure.	 study	 	took	the	form	of	a	single	factor	 -level	(control,	inclusion	and	positive	affect	 manipulation)	mixed	experimental	design,	with	self-construal	measured	as	a	 moderator	variable.	a	convenience	sample	of	 	american	participants	( %	 	 	 female)	was	recruited	using	mechanical	turk,	and	completed	the	study	in	exchange	 for	monetary	compensation.		condition	was	assigned	randomly,	using	randomizing	 embedded	coding	within	qualtrics	survey	software.		 	 the	sample	size	was	based	on	standard	calculations,	using	g*power	 . ,	for	a-priori	 multiple	regression	with	three	predictor	variables	( 	continuous,	 	categorical,	and	 the	interaction),	using	random	sampling	at	 %	confidence	level.	residual	variance	 was	estimated	at	 -(r )	=	 . .	variance	explained	by	special	effect	(self-construal	 as	a	continuous	variable)	was	estimated	at	 . .	calculations	estimated	a	sample	 size	of	 	or	greater	would	be	needed	for	each	regression	model,	in	order	to	 achieve	a	power	of	> . .		 	 participants	were	told	that	they	would	be	completing	a	series	of	assignments	that	 would	include	a	short	writing	skills	task,	as	well	as	a	poster	evaluation	task.	after	 filling	in	a	number	of	trait	scales,	ostensibly	to	assess	mood,	participants	were	 randomly	assigned	to	one	of	three	conditions:	control,	inclusion,	and	positive	affect.	 dependent	on	condition,	participants	were	asked	to	complete	a	writing	task,	the	 subject	of	which	they	were	told	was	randomly	generated.	in	fact	participants	were	 either	told	to	“think	about	a	time	in	which	you	went	to	the	grocery	store“	(control	 condition),	to	“think	about	a	time	in	which	you	felt	very	happy”	(positive	affect	 condition),	or	to	“think	about	a	time	in	which	you	felt	a	strong	sense	of	being	 included	or	belonging”	(inclusion	condition).	participants	were	asked	to	recall	the	 event	as	vividly	as	possible,	then	to	write	a	paragraph	describing	the	past	event	in	as	 	 	 much	detail	as	they	were	able.	this	writing	task	has	previously	been	used	 successfully	(e.g.	knowles	&	gardner,	 ;	pickett,	gardner,	&	knowles,	 ;	 manner,	dewall,	baumeister,	&	schaller,	 ;	waytz	&	epley,	 ),	as	a	way	of	 manipulating	a	sense	of	social	inclusion/exclusion.	following	the	manipulation,	 participants	were	thanked	and	immediately	moved	on	to	the	next	task;	which	they	 were	told	involved	evaluating	a	charity	poster	appeal	for	a	british	columbia	society	 for	prevention	of	cruelty	to	animals	(bc	spca)	animal	shelter.		they	were	asked	to	 express	donation	intentions,	in	a	 -item	measure,	as	well	as	to	state	how	much	 empathy,	and	connection,	they	felt	for	the	cause.	demographics	were	then	collected.	 finally	participants	were	probed	as	to	the	subject	of	the	writing	task	that	they	 received,	as	a	manipulation	check,	before	being	debriefed	and	thanked.		 	 materials.	 participants	were	asked	to	complete	the	same	 -item	self-construal	scale	as	used	 in	study	 	and	 	(scale	reliability:	interdependent	self-construal	 	items α=. ;	 scale	reliability: independent	self-construal	 	items α=. ).	furthermore,	a	 - item	thwarted	belonging	(thwb)	scale	was	administered,	(scale	reliability α=. ), which	was	sourced	from	the	 -item	interpersonal	needs	questionnaire	(inq;	van	 orden,	cukrowicz,	witte	&	joiner	jr.,	 );	a	scale	designed	to	measure	thwarted	 belongingness	and	perceived	burdensomeness.	the	thwarted	belongingness	scale	 (thwb)	contains	questions	conceived	to	measure	a	person’s	level	of	unmet	 belonging,	as	opposed	to	their	desire	or	need	to	belong	(ntb;	see	appendix	a. 	for	 full	scale).	participants	were	asked	to	respond	on	a	 -point	scale	( 	=	not	very	true	 	 	 of	me,	 =very	true	of	me)	to	a	series	of	questions:	“	i	feel	like	i	belong”,	“i	am	close	to	 other	people”,	“i	have	at	least	one	satisfying	interaction	every	day”,	“other	people	 care	about	me”,	“i	am	fortunate	to	have	many	caring	and	supportive	friends”,	“i	feel	 that	there	are	people	i	can	turn	to	in	times	of	need”,	as	well	as	the	following	reverse	 coded	questions	“i	feel	disconnected	from	other	people”,	“i	rarely	interact	with	 people	who	care	about	me”	“i	often	feel	like	an	outsider	in	social	gatherings”.	in	 view	of	the	results	from	the	need-to-belong	measure,	administered	in	study	 ,	i	 anticipated	higher	unmet	belonging	needs	might	heighten	responses	in	the	inclusion	 condition.		in	addition	a	 -item	trust	scale	(scale	reliability α=. )	was	 administered	using	the	same	a	 -point	scale	( 	=	not	very	true	of	me,	 =very	true	of	 me)	to	respond	to	two	statements	“i	can’t	depend	on	people	to	have	my	best	 interests	at	heart”,	”i	feel	that	people	can	be	counted	on	to	help	me”.		trust	has	been	 previously	shown	to	promote	prosocial	behaviour	(cuadrado,	tabernero,	&	steinel,	 ;	thau,	aquino,	&	poortvliet,	 ).		moreover	trust	has	been	found	to	be	 affected	by	empathy,	and	is	potentially	closely	related	(feng,	lazar,	&	preece,	 ;	 ickes,	stinson,	bissonnette,	&	garcia,	 ).	since	both	empathy	and	prosocial	 behaviour,	in	the	shape	of	donation	intentions,	were	to	be	measured	as	dependent	 variables,	i	wished	to	measure	trust	as	a	potential	covariate	trait.		 	 the	writing	task	that	followed	these	measures	was	used	in	place	of	the	future	life	 prediction,	in	order	to	hopefully	increase	robustness	of	the	findings,	through	the	use	 of	a	different	manipulation	for	social	inclusion.	writing	tasks	have	been	used	by	a	 number	of	past	researchers	(e.g.	knowles	&	gardner,	 ;	pickett,	gardner,	&	 	 	 knowles,	 ;	manner,	dewall,	baumeister,	&	schaller,	 ;	waytz	&	epley,	 ),	in	order	to	make	specific	frames	of	mind,	or	emotions,	salient	for	 participants.		participants	were	encouraged	to	take	time	to	conjure	up	a	past	 occasion	as	vividly	as	possible	first,	then	to	relive	it	through	the	writing	of	a	detailed	 description	of	the	event	that	included	their	feelings	during	the	event.	the	detailed	 instructions	are	given	for	each	condition	in	the	appendix	(a. ).	 	 in	the	next	section	of	the	study,	in	place	of	the	grouping	task	used	in	study	 	and	 study	 ,	participants	were	requested	to	view	a	poster	for	an	animal	charity,	 purportedly	to	assess	how	they	think	about	pictorial	images,	and	then	to	rate	the	 cause	on	a	number	of	dependent	variables	(see	appendix	a. 	for	poster).	the	 dependent	variables	included	a	 -item	donation	intentions	measure:	“how	likely	are	 you	to	donate	to	this	cause”,	“how	willing	are	you	to	donate	to	this	cause”	and	“how	 inclined	are	you	to	donate	to	this	cause”,	captured	using	a	 -point	scale	(low-high)	 (scale	reliability:	α=. ).	participants	were	then	asked	how	much	empathy	they	 felt	for	the	cause,	and	how	connected	they	felt	to	the	cause,	using	a	 -point	scale	 (low-high).	demographics	were	collected.	participants	were	then	asked	to	recall	 their	writing	task	as	a	manipulation	check,	before	being	debriefed	and	thanked.		 	 . . 	results.	 my	study	exclusion	policy	stipulated	that	participants	would	be	screened	out	if	they	 failed	all	attention	checks,	or	if	they	accurately	guessed	the	key	study	hypotheses;	 which	no	participants	did.		 	 	 power.	 post-hoc	power	analyses,	using	g*power,	detected	sufficient	power	(>. )	to	detect	 correlations	of	r( )=. 	and	higher,	effect	sizes	of	d= . 	and	higher	for	 independent	samples	t-tests	for	condition	(group	sizes:	 , ),	and	effect	sizes	of	 d= . 	and	higher	for	independent	samples	t-tests	for	gender	(group	sizes:	 , )	 at	 %	confidence.	see	appendix	a. 	for	power	analysis.		 	 manipulation	check.		 to	assess	whether	the	manipulation	had	been	effective,	participants	were	asked	to	 recall	the	writing	task	they	received,	in	a	multiple-choice	question	at	the	end	of	the	 study,	after	demographics	were	taken.	when	asked	to	recall	their	writing	task	 . %	of	participants	were	able	to	do	so	with	complete	accuracy.			 	 demographics.	 demographics	collected	showed	that	participants	in	the	sample	identified	as	 . %	 caucasian,	 %	black,	 . %	latin	american,	 . %	south	east	asian,	 . %	asian	and	 . %	mixed	other	(see	figure	 ).	results	also	showed	that	 %	of	participants	 reported	having	lived	in	the	usa	for	over	 	years.	participants	identified	as	 . %	 female.	age	demographics	were	as	follows:	 . %	under	 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	 years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old	and	 . %	over	 	years	old	(see	figure	 ).		 	 	 	 	 demographic	and	trait	correlations.		 results	of	study	 	revealed	few	significant	or	conclusive	correlations	between	the	 demographic	and	trait	participant	variables	measured,	with	one	exception	for	social	 desirability,	which	was	significantly	positively	correlated	with	independent	self- construal	(r( )=. ,	p=. )		and	significantly	negatively	correlated	with	 interdependent	self-construal	(r( )=-. ,	p<. ).		see	appendix	a. 	for	 detailed	non-significant	results.				 	 means	comparisons.		 an	independent	samples	t-test	was	carried	out	between	the	inclusion	group	and	 affect	+	control	condition	as	a	separate	analyses.	the	t-test	showed	no	significant	 differences	between	conditions	on	the	donation	dependent	variable	(t( )=- . ,	 p=. ,	nor	for	empathy	to	cause	(t( )=- . ,	p=. ),	nor	connection	to	cause	 (t( )=- . ,	p=. ).		furthermore	a	separate	independent	samples	t-test	was	 carried	out	between	the	control	group	and	affect	+	inclusion	condition.	this	also	 showed	no	significant	differences	between	conditions	on	the	donation	dependent	 variable	(t( )= . ,	p=. ,	nor	for	empathy	to	cause	(t( )= . ,	p=. ),	nor	 connection	to	cause	(t( )= . ,	p=. ).	finally	a	separate	independent	samples	t- test	was	carried	out	between	the	affect	group	and	control	+	inclusion	condition.	this	 also	showed	no	significant	differences	between	conditions	on	the	donation	 dependent	variable	(t( )=- . ,	p=. ),	nor	for	empathy	to	cause	(t( )=- . ,	p=. ),	nor	connection	to	cause	(t( )=- . ,	p=. ).						 		 	 	 an	independent	samples	t-test	was	carried	out	to	test	for	a	difference	between	 genders,	as	separate	analysis.	the	t-test	(t( )= . ,	p=. ,	d=	 . )	showed	a	 significant	difference	between	genders	on	the	donation	dependent	variable,	with	 females	expressing	higher	donation	intentions	(m= . ,	sd= . )	than	males	 (m= . ,	sd= . ).	no	gender	difference	was	found	regarding	empathy	to	cause	 (t( )= . ,	p=. ),	or	connection	to	cause	(t( )= . ,	p=. ).		 	 regression	tests	for	moderation.	 moderated	multiple	regressions	were	carried	out	in	spss	using	process	v. 	(hayes,	 )	to	examine	a)	whether	the	manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	control	vs.	affect	 condition)	influenced	participant	donation	intentions,	actual	donation	and	 evaluations	of	the	cause,	and	b)	whether	these	effects	were	moderated	by	 independent	and	interdependent	self-construal	orientation.	following	cohen	and	 cohen	( )	and	wendorf	( ),	i	dummy	coded	the	condition	so	that	the	 inclusion	manipulation	vs.	control,	the	affect	manipulation	vs.	control,	and	the	affect	 manipulation	vs.	the	inclusion	manipulation	were	run	as	separate	tests,	and	the	 results	reported	independently.	independent	self-construal	and	interdependent	 self-construal	scales	were	kept	separate	for	the	analysis,	but	were	mean	centered	in	 accordance	with	guidelines,	stipulating	that	this	practice	renders	subsequent	tests	 of	hypotheses	and	regression	coefficients	for	x	and	m	more	meaningful	and	 substantially	interpretable,	as	well	as	to	reduce	the	likelihood	of	errors	in	 interpretation	(hayes,	 ).	all	dependent	measures	were	subjected	to	separate	 moderated	multiple	regressions	with	each	manipulation	condition	and	the	control,	 	 	 independent	and	interdependent	self-construal	scores,	and	their	interactions	 simultaneously	entered	as	predictor	variables.	as	in	the	previous	studies,	 unstandardized	coefficients	(b)	are	reported	rather	than	betas.	because	betas	are	 not	properly	standardized	in	interaction	terms	they	are	not	interpretable,	whereas	 b	represents	the	difference	between	the	unweighted	means	of	the	groups	involved	 (see	cohen	et	al.	 ).		 	 . . . 	role	of	positive	affect	manipulation	in	donation	intentions.		 regression	analyses	showed	no	significant	results	for	the	affect	manipulation	when	 compared	to	the	control	condition	in	a	series	of	separate	models.	furthermore,	the	 pattern	of	the	non-significant	influence	was	in	the	same	direction	for	both	affect	and	 control,	for	all	the	models	with	independent	self-construal.	these	findings	 supported	my	prediction	that	the	results	seen	following	an	inclusion	manipulation	 were	not	as	a	result	of	positive	affect,	but	were	specifically	as	a	result	of	perceptions	 of	social	inclusion.	although	the	pattern	varied	a	little	in	the	interdependent	models,	 in	consideration	of	the	fact	that	in	study	 	and	study	 	the	main	significant	effects	 seen	were	all	in	terms	of	people	high	in	independent	self-construal,	and	low	in	 interdependent	self-construal,	the	decision	was	made	to	focus	on	the	difference	 between	the	inclusion	vs.	control	conditions	and	interactions	between	inclusion	and	 independent	self-construal	for	the	remainder	of	the	research.	i	therefore	opted	to	 analyze	the	affect	and	control	conditions	combined	together,	in	comparison	with	the	 inclusion	condition,	for	the	remainder	of	study	 .	see	appendix	a. 	for	a	 	 	 comparison	of	all	of	the	affect	vs.	control	models;	affect	vs.	inclusion	models;	and	 control	(only)	vs.	inclusion	models.	 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control	+	affect)	in	donation	 intentions.	 following	the	procedures	previously	outlined,	i	regressed	donation	intentions	on	 the	dummy	(control	+	affect	vs.	inclusion)	and	moderator	variables.		 	 donation	intentions	and	independent	self-construal.	 summary	of	results.	 in	a	separate	model	with	independent	self-construal	the	inclusion	manipulation	did	 not	significantly	predict	donation	intentions,	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	 although	independent	self-construal	did.	of	greater	interest,	however,	was	the	 significant	interaction	between	independent	self-construal	and	the	inclusion	 manipulation.	as	predicted,	and	in	line	with	study	 ,	whether	donation	intentions	 were	greater	for	the	inclusion	condition,	over	the	control	+	affect	condition,	 depended	on	participant’s	independent	self-construal.		as	illustrated	in	figure	 ,	 the	higher	an	individual’s	independent	self-construal,	the	higher	the	donation	 intentions,	in	the	control	+	affect	condition.	however	this	pattern	was	reversed	with	 the	inclusion	manipulation.		see	analysis	results	below.	 	 	 	 	 	 regression	model	of	donation	intentions	&	independent	self-construal.	 donation	intentions	were	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	(inclusion	condition)	and	 moderator	variables.		the	inclusion	manipulation,	independent	self-construal	 orientation,	and	their	interaction	were	found	to	account	for	any	significant	 proportion	of	variability	in	donation	intentions	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	 f( , )= . ,	p=. .		independent	self-construal	did	significantly	predict	donation	 intentions	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	[ . , . ]	but	the	inclusion	 manipulation	did	not,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	.	in	sum	there	was	no	conditional	effect	found	for	the	manipulation	but	there	 was	for	self-construal	orientation.		there	was	a	significant	two-way	interaction	 between	the	manipulation	(control	+	affect	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self- construal	orientation	found	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ].			 	 regression	model	donation	intentions	&	independent	self-construal	controlling	for	 gender.	 donation	intentions	were	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	(inclusion	condition)	and	 moderator	variables	with	gender	entered	as	a	covariate.		the	manipulation,	 independent	self-construal	orientation,	and	their	interaction	were	found	to	account	 for	a	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	donation	intentions	in	the	overall	model,	 r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. ,	when	gender	was	controlled	for.		independent	 self-construal	did	significantly	predict	donation	intentions	on	its	own	b= . ,	 se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . , . ],	but	the	inclusion	manipulation	 	 	 did	not,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ]	.	in	sum	 there	was	no	conditional	effect	found	for	the	manipulation.		there	was	a	significant	 two-way	interaction	between	the	manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect),	and	 independent	self-construal	orientation	found	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ]	when	controlling	for	gender.	gender	did	significantly	 predicted	donation	intentions	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].	see	figure	 	for	a	visualization	of	this	with	the	johnson- neyman	point	showing	the	region	of	independent	self-construal	values	(filled	area	 above	 . )	for	which	a	floodlight	test	would	reveal	significant	differences	 between	the	two	groups,	and	figure	 	for	a	visualization	of	the	floodlight	analysis.	 	 controlling	for	demographics	and	trait	measures	(thwarted	belonging,	trust,	social	 desirability)	revealed	no	different	findings	to	the	above,	although	gender,	trust	and	 thwarted	belonging	were	predictive	of	donation	intentions	in	the	models	with	 independent	self-	construal,	and	improved	predictive	models.	see	appendix	a. 	for	 detailed	covariate	results	including	demographic	covariates.		 	 donation	intentions	and	interdependent	self-construal.	 summary	of	results.	 in	a	separate	model	with	interdependent	self-construal	the	inclusion	manipulation	 did	not	significantly	predict	donation	intentions	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	and	 did	not	appear	to	differ	significantly	from	the	control	+	affect	condition.	the	 regression	model	showed	no	significant	interaction	between	interdependent	self- 	 	 construal	and	the	affect	manipulation.	controlling	for	the	trait	measures	(thwarted	 belonging,	trust,	social	desirability)	revealed	no	significant	or	different	findings	to	 the	above.	see	main	analysis	results	below.	see	appendix	a. 	for	detailed	covariate	 results	including	demographic	covariates.		 	 regression	model	of	donation	intentions	&interdependent	self-construal.	 donation	intentions	were	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	(affect	condition)	and	 moderator	variables.		the	affect	manipulation,	interdependent	self-construal	 orientation,	and	their	interaction	were	not	found	to	account	for	any	significant	 proportion	of	variability	in	donation	intentions	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	 f( , )= . ,	p=. .		interdependent	self-construal	did	not	significantly	predict	 donation	intentions	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	[- . , . ]	nor	did	the	 inclusion	manipulation,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ]	.	in	sum	there	was	no	conditional	effect	found	for	the	manipulation	or	for	 self-construal	orientation.		there	was	no	significant	two-way	interaction	between	 the	manipulation	(control	+	affect	vs.	inclusion),	and	interdependent	self-construal	 orientation	found	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )= . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].			 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control	+	affect)	on	empathy	and	 connection	to	cause	as	dependent	variables.	 empathy	and	feelings	of	connection	to	a	target	have	been	previously	found	to	 influence	prosocial	behaviour	(see	batson,	 ;	batson	&	shaw,	 	for	further	 insights).	in	addition	to	the	donation	intentions	dependent	variable	study	 	also	 	 	 measured	two	other	variables,	empathy	to	cause	and	connection	to	cause,	in	order	 to	assess	whether	they	might	be	mediating	the	result.	a	correlation	analysis	showed	 empathy	to	be	positively	related	to	donation	intentions	r( )=. 	p<. ,	and	 connection	to	cause	was	also	positively	related	to	donation	intentions	r( )=. ,	 p<. .	however,	there	were	no	significant	results	found	for	empathy	as	a	 dependent	variable	in	any	of	my	regression	models.	there	was	an	approaching	 significant	regression	model	with	independent	self-construal	and	connection	to	 cause,	which	followed	the	same	pattern	as	donation	intentions	and	produced	a	 significant	interaction.	no	significant	results	or	patterns	were	found	with	 interdependent	self-construal.	see	detailed	results	analysis	below.		 	 empathy	to	cause	&	independent	self-construal.	 empathy	to	cause	was	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	(inclusion	condition)	and	 moderator	variables.		the	inclusion	manipulation,	independent	self-construal	 orientation	and	their	interaction	together,	were	not	found	to	account	for	a	 significant	proportion	of	variability	in	empathy	to	cause	in	the	overall	model,	 r =. ,	f( , )=. ,	p=. .		independent	self-construal	did	not	significantly	 predict	empathy	to	cause	b= . ,	se=. ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	[- . , . ]	nor	 did	the	inclusion	manipulation,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [- . ,	 . ]	.	in	sum,	there	was	no	conditional	effect	found	for	the	manipulation,	nor	 for	self-construal	orientation.		there	was	no	significant	two-way	interaction	 between	the	manipulation	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	independent	self-construal	 orientation	found	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].			 	 	 empathy	to	cause	&	interdependent	self-construal.	 empathy	to	cause	was	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	(inclusion	condition)	and	 moderator	variables.		the	inclusion	manipulation,	interdependent	self-construal	 orientation,	and	their	interaction	together,	were	not	found	to	account	for	any	 significant	proportion	of	variability	in	empathy	to	cause	in	the	overall	model,	 r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. .		interdependent	self-construal	did	not	significantly	 predict	empathy	to	cause	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	[- . , . ]	nor	 did	the	inclusion	manipulation,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=-. ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	in	sum,	there	was	no	conditional	effect	found	for	the	manipulation	or	for	 self-construal	orientation.		there	was	no	significant	two-way	interaction	between	 the	manipulation	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	interdependent	self-construal	 orientation	found	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].			 	 connection	to	cause	&	independent	self-construal.	 connection	to	cause	was	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	(inclusion	condition)	and	 moderator	variables.		the	inclusion	manipulation,	independent	self-construal	 orientation,	and	their	interaction	together,		were	found	to	account	for	an	 approaching	significant	proportion	of	variability	in	connection	to	cause	in	the	 overall	model,	r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. .		independent	self-construal	did	 significantly	predict	connection	to	cause	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 [ . , . ],	but	the	inclusion	manipulation	did	not	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	in	sum	there	was	no	conditional	effect	found	for	 the	manipulation	but	there	was	for	self-construal	orientation.		there	was	a	 	 	 significant	two-way	interaction	between	the	manipulation	(control	vs.	inclusion),	 and	independent	self-construal	orientation	found	b=- . ,	se	= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ].		 	 connection	to	cause	&	interdependent	self-construal.	 connection	to	cause	was	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	(inclusion	condition)	and	 moderator	variables.		the	inclusion	manipulation,	interdependent	self-construal	 orientation,	and	their	interaction	together,	were	not	found	to	account	for	any	 significant	proportion	of	variability	in	connection	to	cause	in	the	overall	model,	 r =. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. .		interdependent	self-construal	did	not	significantly	 predict	connection	to	cause	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	[- . , . ],	 nor	did	the	inclusion	manipulation,	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	 ci	[- . ,	 . ].	in	sum	there	was	no	conditional	effect	found	for	the	manipulation	or	 for	self-construal	orientation.		there	was	no	significant	two-way	interaction	 between	the	manipulation	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	interdependent	self-construal	 orientation	found	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=. ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ].			 	 see	figure	 	for	a	visual	comparison	of	the	trends	for	both	independent	and	 interdependent	self-construal.	 	 . . . 	tests	of	mediated	moderation.	 in	consideration	of	the	previous	result,	my	next	goal	was	to	test	a	mediated	 moderation	model,	to	see	if	connection	to	cause	acted	as	a	mediator	for	the	 	 	 mechanisms	involved.	mediated	moderation	occurs	when	two	predictor	variables	 (for	example	condition	and	self-construal)	interactively	affect	a	mediator	(such	as	 connection	to	cause),	which	in	turn	influences	an	outcome	variable,	such	as	 donation	intentions	(morgan-lopez	&	mackinnon,	 ).	based	on	my	previous	 results,	i	wished	to	investigate	whether	the	mechanism	that	was	driving	donation	 intentions	was	mediated	by	connection	to	the	cause.		 	 connection	to	the	cause	as	a	mediator	(with	inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect	–	model	 ).	 i	conducted	a	moderated	mediation	model	(model	 ;	hayes	 )	with	condition	 (inclusion	=	 ;	control	+	affect	=	 )	as	the	independent	variable,	donation	intentions	 as	the	dependent	variable,	connection	to	cause	as	the	mediating	variable,	and	 independent	self-construal	and	the	moderating	variable	on	the	link	between	 condition	and	connection	to	cause	(see	figure	 	for	conceptual	models	used).		 	 connection	to	cause	was	regressed	on	to	the	dummy	(inclusion	condition)	and	 moderator	variables.		the	manipulation,	independent	self-construal	orientation,	and	 their	interaction	together,	were	found	to	account	for	an	approaching	significant	 proportion	of	variability	in	connection	to	cause	in	the	overall	model,	r =. ,	 f( , )= . ,	p=. .		independent	self-construal	did	significantly	predict	 connection	to	cause	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . , . ].	 however,	there	was	no	significant	conditional	effect	of	the	manipulation	(vs.	 control)	on	donation	intentions	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p= ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	nor	was	there	a	significant	conditional	effect	of	the	manipulation	(vs.	 	 	 control)	on	connection	to	cause	b=- . ,	se	=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [- . , . ].	there	was	a	significant	interaction	between	the	manipulation	(vs.	 control)	and	independent	self-construal	on	connection	to	cause	b=- . ,	se	= . ,	 t( )=- . ,	p=	. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ].	finally,	there	was	a	significant	 conditional	effect	of	connection	to	cause	on	donation	intentions	b= . ,	se	=	 . ,	 t( )= . ,	p<	. ,	 %	ci	[ . , . ].		 	 to	test	this	potential	mediation	effect,	i	followed	the	bootstrapping	method	(with	 	iterations)	advocated	by	preacher,	rucker	and	hayes	( )	and	hayes	 ( ).	this	procedure	tests	the	null	hypothesis	that	the	indirect	path	from	the	 interaction	term	to	the	dependent	variable	via	the	mediator	does	not	statistically	 differ	from	zero.	if	zero	is	not	contained	in	the	confidence	intervals	computed	by	the	 bootstrapping	procedure	then	one	can	conclude	that	the	indirect	effect	is	indeed	 significantly	different	from	zero	at	p=. .	bootstrap	estimates	generated	a	 %	 confidence	interval	around	the	indirect	effect,	with	zero	falling	inside	the	confidence	 interval,	indicating	the	mediating	pathway	was	not	significant	at	all	levels	of	w	 (independent	self-construal)	index=- . ,	boot	se= . 	 %	boot	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	although	the	trend	was	the	same	as	seen	in	the	moderation	models,	since	 there	was	a	zero	in	the	confidence	intervals	i	could	not	conclude	that	connection	to	 cause	offered	a	mediating	pathway	to	donation	intentions,	in	this	model.			 	 	 	 	 	 . . 	discussion.	 study	 	was	able	to	repeat	the	main	findings	of	study	 ,	whilst	using	a	different	 inclusion	manipulation	(writing	about	a	past	inclusion	event	as	opposed	to	an	 affirmation	of	future	inclusion).	study	 	was	also	able	to	extend	the	pattern	of	these	 previous	findings	across	a	new	dependent	variable—that	of	prosocial	behaviour,	in	 the	form	of	donation	intentions	directed	towards	an	out-group	animal	charity	cause.		 	 specifically,	in	study	 	i	was	able	to	provide	strong	support	for	h ,	in	that	under	 normal	conditions	(control	group),	people	with	high	independent	self-construal	did	 appear	to	express	higher	donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	animal	charity,	when	 compared	to	people	with	lower	independent	self-construal,	as	well	when	compared	 to	those	with	higher	interdependent	self-construal.	a	word	of	caution	must	be	 offered	for	the	latter	of	these	two	observations,	however.		i	cannot	report	the	 pattern	between	self-construals	as	statistically	significant,	since	the	observation	is	 based	visual	trends	only,	and	no	comparative	tests	were	undertaken	between	the	 two	types	of	self-construal;	which	were	measured	as	continuous	variables.		 although	this	result	is	therefore	tentative,	i	believe	it	is	at	least	worth	noting,	since	it	 follows	in	line	with	past	research	which	has	demonstrated	that	higher	 interdependent	self-construal	is	primarily	connected	to	benevolent	and	prosocial	 behaviour	towards	in-group	recipients,	rather	than	out-group	recipients	 (kemmelmeier,	jambor	and	letner,	 ),	whilst	individuals	with	high	independent	 self-construal	appear	to	show	less	preference	for	the	group	membership	status	of	 the	target	(duclos	&	barasch,	 ).		 	 	 study	 	was	also	able	to	provide	strong	support	for	h :	that	an	affirmation	of	social	 inclusion	(inclusion	manipulation)	would	result	in	reduced	donation	intentions,	as	 well	as	reduced	connection	to	cause,	expressed	towards	an	out-group	animal	 charity,	for	people	with	a	high	independent	self-construal	orientation,	compared	to	 under	normal	conditions	(control).	this	was	in	line	with	findings	in	study	 	and	 	 for	the	inclusion	of	animals	in	an	in-group	outcome	variable.		 	 study	 	also	provided	evidence	that	the	influence	of	inclusion	on	donation	 intentions	was	not	as	a	result	of	feelings	of	positive	affect.	study	 	did	this	by	 demonstrating	that	a	separate	affect	condition	did	not	produce	similar	results	to	the	 inclusion	condition,	but	rather	produced	results	that	were	more	in	line	with	the	 control	condition,	for	models	with	independent	self-construal.	specifically,	study	 	 showed	that	the	affect	manipulation	did	not	increase	or	decrease	donation	 intentions	for	an	out-group	animal	charity,	for	people	with	an	independent	self- construal	orientation.	 	 study	 	also	found	evidence	to	support	the	expectation	(h )	that	for	individuals	 with	high	interdependent	self-construal,	the	inclusion	condition	would	have	little	 influence	on	donation	intentions	(or	connection	to	cause).	again	this	finding	is	in	 line	with	past	research,	showing	that	an	interdependent	self-construal	may	buffer	 an	individual	against	threats	of	exclusion	(pfundmair,	graupmann,	frey	&	aydin,	 ;	powers,	worsham,	freeman,	wheatley	and	heatherton,	 ),	and	extends	 the	finding	into	a	new	area;	that	of	promises	for	inclusion.	 	 	 controlling	for	personality	trait	measures	(thwarted	belonging,	and	trust)	in	study	 	 revealed	no	significant	or	different	findings	to	the	above,	although	both	higher	levels	 of	trust	and	reduced	levels	of	thwarted	belonging	were	predictive	of	donation	 intentions	in	the	models	with	independent	self-construal,	and	therefore	improved	 predictive	models.	they	did	not	appear	to	interact	with	any	of	the	other	dependent	 variables,	so	my	tentative	prediction–that	thwarted	belonging	might	attenuate	 responses	to	the	inclusion	manipulation–was	not	proven	to	be	true.		 	 study	 	notably	found	a	main	effect	of	gender	on	donation	intentions,	as	evidenced	 by	an	independent	samples	t-test,	showing	that	females	expressed	significantly	 higher	donation	intentions	than	males.	this	is	in	line	with	much	previous	research,	 evidencing	that	females	donate	more	to	charity	appeals	than	do	males	(einolf,	 ;	 hodgkinson	&	weitzman,	 ;	 ;	 ;	kirsh,	hume,	&	jalnadoni,	 ;	 mesche,	rooney,	steinberg,	&	denton,	 ;	winterich,	mittal,	&	ross	jr.,	 ),	and	 show	more	positive	attitudes	to	animal	welfare	(heleski,	mertig,	&	zanella,	 ;	 herzog,	betchart,	&	pittman,	 ;	hills,	 ;	mathews	&	herzog,	 ;	schenk,	 templar,	peters,	&	schmidt,	 )	and	therefore	was	somewhat	expected.	 regression	analysis	models	for	gender	in	study	three	revealed	no	significant	 interactions	between	gender,	self-construal	and	inclusion	for	the	donation	 intentions	task,	although	gender	was	predictive	of	donation	intentions	when	added	 as	a	covariate	in	the	models	with	independent	self-construal,	and	therefore	 improved	predictive	models.	 	 	 	 study	 	did	not	find	strong	evidence	in	support	of	h ,	that	connection	to	the	cause	 was	mediating	donation	to	the	cause.	however,	in	the	independent	self-construal	 models	tested,	visualizations	showed	that	the	non-significant	results	were	in	the	 predicted	direction	(see	a. ).			study	 	did	not	test	the	influence	of	 anthropomorphism	(as	a	trait,	or	as	a	result	of	a	specific	task)	on	donation	 intentions,	and	whether	self-construal	and	inclusion	interacted,	since	study	 	did	 not	involve	an	inclusion	task.		 	 finally,	study	 ,	while	it	did	find	some	evidence	that	connection	to	the	cause	might	 be	predicted	by	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal,	did	not	find	any	evidence	 that	empathy	for	the	cause	was	predicted	by	inclusion	or	self-construal.	this	null	 finding	may	offer	potentially	interesting	theoretical	insights.		while	some	previous	 research	has	suggested	that	empathy	is	strongly	associated	with	increased	prosocial	 behaviour	(batson,	 ;	batson	&	shaw,	 ;	davis,	 ;	dovidio,	piliavin,	 schroeder,	&	penner,	 ;	eisenberg	&	miller,	 ;	penner,	dovidio,	piliavin,	&	 schroeder,	 ;	stocks,	lishner	&	decker,	 ),	other	lines	of	research	have	 produced	contradictory	results.	underwood	and	moore	( )	found	no	 relationship	between	empathy	and	prosocial	behaviour	in	a	large	meta-analysis	 review.	more	recently	steele,	schreiber,	guiltinan,	nass,	glynn,	wright,	kessler,	 schlumpf,	tu,	smith,	and	garratty,	( )	found	no	relationship	between	empathy	 and	blood	donation	behaviour,	and	dickert,	sagara,	and	slovic	( )	found	that	 empathy	did	not	increase	donation	intentions,	but	only	the	amount	actually	given	 once	a	decision	was	made.	in	view	of	these	contradictory	findings,	my	null	results	in	 	 	 study	 	for	empathy	as	a	dependent	variable	are	not	a	total	surprise.		my	results	 perhaps	beg	the	question	as	to	whether	a	more	nuanced	exploration	of	the	impact	of	 empathy	may	offer	potential	for	future	research.		 	 in	conclusion,	the	results	of	study	 ,	when	taken	alongside	study	 	and	 ,	follow	in	 the	direction	of	prior	research,	demonstrating	that	social	inclusion	may	negatively	 impact	prosocial	attitudes	towards	distant	others	and	out-group	members	(dewall,	 baumeister	&	vohs,	 ;	waytz	&	epley,	 ).		that	the	pattern	of	response	to	an	 inclusion	manipulation,	as	described	above,	is	primarily	seen	in	people	with	high	 independent	self-construal,	also	builds	on	previous	research	by	pfundmair,	 graupmann,	frey,	and	aydin	( ),	as	well	as	ren,	wesselmann,	and	williams	 ( ),	offering	up	evidence	that	people	with	a	more	interdependent	orientation	 may	not	be	as	susceptible	to	promises	of,	or	threats	to,	social	inclusion.		 	 study	 	used	a	donation	intentions	dependent	variable.	however,	intention	to	 donate	is	not	the	same	as	actual	donation.	in	study	 	i	wished	to	investigate	whether	 the	behaviour	observed	in	study	 	might	extend	into	something	with	real-life	 financial	benefits:	in	other	words,	cash	donation	towards	an	animal	charity.	i	also	 wished	to	further	explore	the	motivations	for	out-group	giving	in	individuals	high	in	 independent	self-construal.	to	do	this	i	planned	to	test	whether	feeling	similar,	or	 different,	to	an	out-group	cause	would	influence	donation	support	for	it,	and	 whether	similarity	or	difference	would	interact	with	either	the	inclusion	 manipulation	or	self-construal.	my	planned	method	for	doing	this	was	to	use	a	 	 	 poster	for	an	animal	charity,	with	a	wording	frame	that	discussed	either	how	 different	animals	are	from	humans	“animals	are	different,”	or	one	that	discussed	 how	similar	animals	are	to	humans	“animals	are	similar.”		 	 i	predicted	that	individuals	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	would	preference	 in-group	giving,	and	would	therefore	donate	more	to	an	“animals	are	similar”	 poster	frame.	this	is	because	i	predicted	that	individuals	high	in	interdependent	 self-construal	would	potentially	see	the	“animals	are	similar”	frame	as	an	in-group	 cue,	vs.	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	frame,	which	i	anticipated	that	they	 would	see	as	a	clear	out-group	cue.	i	did	not	anticipate	that	individuals	high	in	 interdependent	self-construal	would	show	any	interaction	with	the	inclusion	 manipulation,	as	previously	detailed.			 	 furthermore,	i	predicted	that	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	would	 also	preference	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	frame	normally	(control	condition),	 yet	for	somewhat	different	reasons.	study	 	demonstrated	that	individuals	high	in	 independent	self-construal	donated	more	to	an	out-group	(animal)	charity	than	 individuals	high	in	interdependent	self-construal,	when	the	charity	wasn't	framed	as	 either	in-group	or	out-group.		i	argue	that	this	was	because	in	study	 	all	 participants	would	have	seen	the	charity,	by	default,	as	an	out-group	charity.		 	 we	have	seen	that	individuals	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	express	lower	 donation	support	for	out-group	charities	than	individuals	high	in	independent	self- 	 	 construal.	i	have	previously	argued	that	the	motivation	for	higher	out-group	giving	 by	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	is	because	a)	they	have	more	 flexible	notions	of	in-group	and	out-group	boundaries,	and	so	they	are	more	likely	 to	view	out-group	members	as	potential	targets	to	recruit	as	in-group	members	and	 b)	since	they	are	not	as	chronically	reassured	of	their	social	inclusion	status,	 compared	to	individuals	with	high	interdependent	self-construal,	they	monitor	and	 are	more	vigilant	for	cues	of	social	connection	potential	in	others.	as	a	result,	in	 study	 ,	when	the	out-group	charity	is	specifically	framed	as	similar,	i	argue	that	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	will	still	see	it	as	an	out-group,	but	 will	take	the	“animals	are	similar”	frame	as	a	cue	of	social	connection	potential	and	 will	therefore	also	donate	more	to	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	frame.		 	 support	for	a	helping	based	on	similarity	hypothesis	is	longstanding.	psychological	 literature	has	demonstrated	that	even	arbitrarily	manipulated	cues	of	similarity	 (shared	names,	birthdays,	etc.)	are	associated	with	positive	perceptions	towards	 another	(berger,	messian,	patel,	del	prado,	&	anderson,	 ;	finche	&	cialdini,	 ;	gueguen,	pichot,	&	le	dreff,	 ;	heider,	 ).	krebs	( )	found	that	 when	strangers	were	perceived	as	more	similar	participants,	were	more	willing	to	 assist	them	and	give	up	resources	to	do	so.	even	animals	have	been	found	to	 preference	helping	similar	others	(quervel-chaumette,	dale,	marshall-pescini,	&	 range,	 ).	more	recently,	research	in	marketing	has	found	that	the	more	similar	 to	humans	animals	appear,	the	more	favourably	they	are	treated	(connell,	 ).	 costello	and	hodson	( ;	 )	additionally	found	that	inducing	perceptions	of	 	 	 human-animal	similarity	facilitated	more	inclusive	attitudes	to	both	animal	and	 human	outsiders,	and	predicted	less	prejudicial	attitudes	towards	even	human	 immigrants.	researchers	working	in	the	area	of	conservation	and	hai,	have	also	 found	that	a	strong	relationship	between	perceived	similarity	to	humans	and	 preference	for	animal	welfare	exists	(butterfield,	hill,	&	lord,	 ;	hills,	 ;	 kellert,	 ;	kiesler	&	kramer,	 ),	while	batt	( )	suggests	that	humans	are	 predisposed	to	liking	others	on	the	basis	of	perceived	shared	bio-behavioural	traits.		 	 with	this	in	mind,	another	goal	of	study	 	was	to	investigate	whether	connection	to	 cause,	and	empathy	to	cause,	would	moderate	(and	potentially	mediate),	specifically	 based	on	perceived	similarity	to	cause.	my	prediction	was	that	an	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	would	increase	both	empathy	and	connection	to	cause.		 	 limitations.	 it	should	be	noted	that	one	limit	of	study	 	was	potential	power	for	detecting	the	 interactions	in	the	main	regressions.	although	g*power	calculations	indicated	that	 power	would	be	sufficient	for	detecting	the	main	(conditional)	effects,	interaction	 effects	in	regressions	are	typically	smaller	(aiken	&	west,	 )	and	therefore	 require	higher	power	to	detect.	accurate	calculations	for	complex	regression	models	 require	estimates	of	expected	effects	sizes	(unstandardized	regression	coefficients),	 at	each	level	of	the	categorical	variable	(or	an	estimate	of	the	size	of	relationships	 between	continuous	variable	interactions	and	other	predictor	variables)	for	all	the	 conditional	and	interaction	effects	in	the	population,	which	often	may	not	be	known	 	 	 a	priori	(hayes,	 ).		while	g*power	 . 	is	a	respected	and	commonly	used	tool	 for	power	analysis	(faul,	erdfelder,	buchner,	&	lang,	 ),	it	has	been	argued	it	 may	be	limited	in	correctly	detecting	power	for	significant	coefficients,	in	complex	 regressions,	including	those	that	include	interactions	and	mediations	(aberson,	 ;	fritz,	&	mackinnon,	 ).	power	analysis	is	a	rapidly	evolving	field	and	 tools,	such	as	pwr ppl	for	r,	are	currently	in	development	for	power	detection	of	 mediation	and	complex	moderation	results	(aberson,	 ).		in	the	meantime	a	 word	of	caution	must	be	made	for	the	interaction	results,	and	a	suggestion	for	future	 replication	is	made,	in	order	to	verify	the	results	of	this	study.		 	 	 . 	study	 	 	 . . 	overview.	 study	 	had	a	number	of	objectives.	first,	i	wished	to	investigate	whether	the	 behaviour	observed	in	study	 	might	extend	into	something	with	real-life	financial	 benefits–in	other	words,	actual	cash	donation	towards	an	out-group	(animal)	 charity.	for	this	reason,	study	 	was	designed	to	collect	an	actual	cash	donation	 measure,	as	well	as	a	three-item	measurement	of	donation	intentions.		 	 second,	i	wished	to	explore	more	of	the	whens	of	the	process	(hayes,	 )	by	 examining	another	potential	moderator	of	the	mechanism	in	study	 .	specifically,	i	 aimed	to	investigate	whether	a	feeling	of	closeness	and	oneness	(vs.	distance	and	 otherness)	with	the	target	(in	my	case	an	animal	charity),	may	influence	prosocial	 behaviour,	and	if	so	whether	it	would	have	significant	effects	regardless	of	self- 	 	 construal	and	inclusion	status.	in	order	to	do	this	i	added	an	additional	factor	to	 study	 :	that	of	framed	similarity,	or	difference,	to	the	cause	targets.	my	prediction	 in	this	regard	was	that	under	normal	conditions	all	participants	would	donate	more	 to	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	frame.	following	an	inclusion	manipulation	i	 anticipated	that	participants	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	would	still	 donate	more	to	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	frame,	due	to	the	lack	of	impact	 inclusion	manipulations	have	on	participants	high	in	interdependent	self-construal.	 however,	for	participants	high	in	independent	self-construal,	i	predicted	a	different	 response	following	an	inclusion	manipulation.	for	these	participants,	i	predicted	 that	an	“animals	are	different”	poster	frame	would	prove	more	appealing,	since	 such	a	frame	would	be	more	likely	to	act	as	a	reinforcement	of	in-group	and	out- group	boundaries.		 	 to	clarify,	i	anticipated	that	an	inclusion	manipulation	would	do	two	things.	first,	it	 would	act	to	reassure	participants	high	in	independent	self-construal	of	their	social	 inclusion	status,	and	thereby	reduce	a	desire	to	seek	further	social	connection	with	 similar	others.	while	i	predicted	that	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	frame	would	 appeal	to	these	participants	under	normal	conditions	(control)	precisely	because	it	 indicates	social	connection	potential	and	encourages	a	relaxing	of	in-group	 boundaries,	as	supported	by	prior	research	demonstrating	that	perceptions	of	 similarity	increase	prosocial	behaviour	(connell,	 ;	costello	&	hodson,	 ;	 krebs,	 ),	under	conditions	in	which	the	participants	had	recently	been	assured	 of	their	social	inclusion	within	a	human	in-group	by	a	social	inclusion	manipulation,	 	 	 i	predicted	that	it	would	hold	little	appeal,	and	might	even	present	itself	as	 threatening.	this	latter	prediction	is	based	on	what	i	argue	may	be	the	second	 downstream	result	of	an	inclusion	manipulation	on	individuals	with	a	high	sense	of	 independent	self-construal:	an	activated	desire	to	bolster	the	status	of	the	in-group	 and	clearly	differentiate	it	from	an	out-group.		 	 as	previously	discussed,	i	argue	that	individuals	with	high	independent	self- construal	hold	an	essentially	more	precarious	sense	of	social	inclusion	or	belonging	 than	do	individuals	with	high	interdependent	self-construal.		as	a	result,	while	they	 are	willing	to	see	the	social	potential	and	similarity	of	animal	out-group	members	 when	looking	to	increase	social	connection	and	inclusion,	when	they	are	satiated	 with	belonging	they	will	be	likely	to	view	animals	as	more	out-group,	as	evidenced	 by	the	findings	of	studies	 	and	 .		under	recently	affirmed	inclusion	circumstances,	 i	argue	it	should	be	more	beneficial	for	individuals	with	high	independent	self- construal	to	fortify	and	defend	in-group	boundaries	against	out-group	targets,	 clearly	differentiating	themselves	and	their	in-group	from	an	out-group.	this	type	of	 behaviour	has	been	previously	addressed	from	both	social	identity	theory	(sit),	and	 optimal	distinctiveness	(odt)	theory	(brewer,	 ;	hornsey,	&	hogg,	 ;	 spears,	doosje,	&	ellemers,	 ).	donating	to	a	clearly	labelled	out-group	charity	 (“animal	are	different”),	which	is	defined	by	its	inferior	properties,	would	therefore	 act	to	signal,	and	solidify,	higher	in-group	status,	and	offer	more	potential	as	an	 action	of	self-benefit,	than	donating	to	a	potentially	in-group	status	threatening	out- group	charity	(“animal	are	similar”).	in	summary	i	had	two	hypotheses	for	study	 .	 	 	 first	i	predicted	(h )	that	under	normal	conditions	(control	group)	people	with	a	 higher	independent	self-construal	orientation	would	express	increased	donation	 intentions	for	an	out-group	animal	charity	that	was	framed	as	similar	(vs.	different)	 to	them,	since	it	would	offer	increased	connection	potential.	second	i	predicted	 (h )	that	an	affirmation	of	social	inclusion	would	result	in	increased	donation	 intentions	for	an	out-group	animal	charity	that	was	framed	as	different	(vs.	similar)	 to	the	donor	for	individuals	with	a	higher	independent	self-construal	orientation,	 since	it	would	offer	less	of	a	threat	to	in-group	distinctiveness.	 	 this	argument	is	in	line	with	prior	research,	suggesting	much	prosocial	behaviour	 by	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	is	motivated	by	a	desire	to	fulfill	 personal	happiness	and	self	benefit	needs	(duclos	&	barasch,	 ).	moreover,	it	is	 also	in	line	with	prior	research,	suggesting	that	giving	to	lower	status	out-groups	 acts	as	a	mechanism	for	signalling	in-group	strengths	and	bolstering	in-group	status	 (nadler,	harpaz-gorodeisky,	&	ben-david,	 ).		 	 with	the	above	in	mind,	a	third	goal	of	study	 	was	to	also	drill	a	little	deeper	into	 the	how	of	the	mechanism	(hayes,	 ),	to	see	if	a	feeling	of	connection	to	the	 cause	might	be	underpinning	at	least	some	of	the	effect	seen	in	study	 .	specifically,	 i	wished	to	test	whether	perceived	connection	to	cause	would	act	as	a	mediator	for	 donation	support	(donation	intentions	and	actual	cash	donation),	and	whether	it	 would	mediate	primarily	with	the	similar	(vs.	different)	prime.	my	prediction	(h )	 was	that	connection	to	cause	would	indeed	mediate	the	effects	of	independent	self- 	 	 construal	orientation,	inclusion	and	their	interaction,	on	the	two	dependent	 variables.	 	 prior	studies	have	provided	evidence	that	feeling	more	similar	and	connected	to	 others	enables	an	opening	of	admission	to	one’s	in-group	to	a	broader	set	of	others	 (cuddy,	rock,	&	norton,	 ).	additionally,	past	research	on	intergroup	relations	 argues	that	salient	in-group/out-group	categories	play	a	key	role	in	regulating	the	 perception	of	self-other	similarities	(sturmer	&	snyder,	 ).	as	a	consequence,	 people	come	to	perceive	in-group	members	as	more	similar	to	each	other	(and	the	 self),	whereas	out-group	members	are	more	dissimilar	to	the	in-group	(and	the	self)	 (wilder,	 ).		as	carnegie	( )	and	cialdini	( )	have	both	notably	 observed,	we	like	things	better	when	we	feel	we	share	commonalities.	salience	of	 the	differences	and	divisions	between	in-groups	and	out-groups,	on	the	other	hand,	 may	provoke	negatives	feelings,	such	as	anxiety	or	threat	(dijker,	 ;	jackson	&	 sullivan,	 ;	stephan	&	stephan,	 ).	sturmer	and	snyder	( )	argue	that	 when	there	is	perceived	dissimilarity	between	helper	and	target,	helping	is	more	 likely	to	occur	as	a	function	of	perceived	cost	and	benefits	to	self.	the	only	 exception,	it	seems,	is	when	there	is	a	question	as	to	whether	a	target	is	seen	to	be	a	 typical,	or	atypical,	out-group	member,	and	under	these	circumstances	the	pattern	 may	be	broken	(manis,	nelson,	&	shedler,	 ).		 	 in	sum,	an	integration	of	the	prosocial	helping	literature,	along	with	the	research	on	 intergroup	processes,	suggests	that	different	processes	and	motivations	are	likely	to	 	 	 drive	prosocial	responses	that	are	dependent	on	the	nature	of	the	in-group	vs.	out- group	relationship	between	helper	and	target,	and	perceptions	of	differences	or	 similarities.		 	 finally,	in	study	 	i	wished	to	measure	empathy	to	the	cause	and,	further,	explore	its	 relationship	with	the	other	variables.	while	study	 	found	that	empathy	was	not	 predicted	by	inclusion	and	self-construal,	past	research	has	had	mixed	results,	and	 findings	suggest	that	a	more	nuanced	relationship	between	empathy	and	prosocial	 behaviour	may	exist	(underwood	&	moore,	 ).	cialdini,	brown,	lewis,	luce,	and	 neuberg	( ),	in	their	exploration	of	the	mechanisms	by	which	empathy	works,	 found	evidence	to	support	an	argument	that	empathetic	concern	only	increases	 helping	behaviour	through	its	relation	to	perceived	oneness,	or	self-other	overlap.	 they	provide	evidence	that	empathy	itself	does	not	increase	prosocial	behaviour,	 when	perceived	oneness	is	eliminated,	and	have	gone	on	to	question	the	empathy- altruism	model,	as	a	result.	cialdini	and	colleagues,	additionally,	offer	the	added	 insight	that	if,	rather	than	empathy,	it	is	self-other-overlap	that	promotes	prosocial	 behaviour,	then	helping	under	these	circumstances	would	not	be	selfless,	but	should	 rather	be	seen	as	helping	directed	towards	the	self.			 	 this	argument	(cialdini	et	al.,	 ),	is	supported	by	other	research,	demonstrating	 that	empathy	may	only	predict	helping	of	in-group	targets,	and	not	that	of	out-group	 targets	(sturmer	&	snyder,	 ).	specifically,	sturmer	&	snyder	( )	found	that	 when	there	is	perceived	dissimilarity	between	helper	and	target,	empathy	was	less	 	 	 likely	to	act	as	a	motivator	to	help.	in	study	 	i	had	offered	no	in-group	choice,	which	 may	have	been	a	reason	for	empathy	not	being	significantly	predicted	in	any	of	my	 models.	however,	in	study	 	i	was	offering	the	two	different	poster	frames	 (“animals	are	similar”	vs.	“animals	are	different”),	and	based	on	past	findings	 (cialdini,	brown,	lewis,	luce,	&	neuberg,	 ;	sturmer	&	snyder,	 ),	my	 prediction	was	that	empathy	ratings	would	be	higher	for	the	poster	that	emphasised	 self-other	overlap.		 	 i	also	wished	to	measure	gender	in	study	 ,	expecting	it	again	to	predict	donation	 intentions.	in	addition,	i	also	opted	to	measure	pet	ownership	status	in	my	 demographics,	as	a	potential	participant	variable	that	might	impact	the	donation	 and	empathy	dependent	variables,	since	pet	ownership	has	previously	been	found	 to	correlate	with	higher	concern	for	other	animals	(bowd,	 ;	bjerk,	Østdahl,	&	 kleiven,	 ;	pagani,	 ;	paul	&	serpell,	 ).		 	 . . 	procedure.	 study	four	took	the	form	of	a	 	(condition:	control	vs.	inclusion	manipulation)	x	 	 (poster	frame:	animals	are	similar	vs.	animals	are	different)	mixed	experimental	 design,	with	self-construal	measured	as	a	moderator	variable. a	convenience	 sample	of	 	american	participants	( %	female)	was	recruited,	using	mechanical	 turk,	and	completed	the	study	in	exchange	for	monetary	compensation.		condition	 was	assigned	randomly	using	randomizing	embedded	coding	within	qualtrics	 survey	software.		 	 	 the	sample	size	was	based	on	standard	calculations,	using	g*power	 . ,	for	a-priori	 multiple	regression	with	four	predictor	variables	( 	continuous,	 	categorical,	and	 the	interaction),	using	random	sampling	at	 %	confidence	level.	residual	variance	 was	estimated	at	 -(r )	=	 . .	variance	explained	by	special	effect	(self-construal	 as	a	continuous	variable),	was	estimated	at	 . .	calculations	estimated	a	sample	 size	of	 ,	or	greater,	would	be	needed	for	each	regression	model,	in	order	to	 achieve	a	power	of	> . .		 		 as	with	the	previous	study,	participants	were	told	that	they	would	be	completing	a	 series	of	assignments,	that	would	include	a	short	writing	skills	task,	as	well	as	a	 visual	and	text	evaluation	task.	after	filling	in	a	number	of	trait	scales,	ostensibly	to	 assess	personality,	participants	then	completed	one	of	two	versions	(control	vs.	 inclusion)	of	the	same	writing	task	that	was	used	in	study	 ,	and	has	been	 previously	used	to	manipulate	social	inclusion	(e.g.	arndt,	greenberg,	&	cook,	 	 ,	knowles	&	garner,	 ;	pickett,	gardner,	&	knowles,	 ;	manner,	dewall,	 baumeister,	&	schaller,	 ;	waytz	&	epley,	 ).	following	this	participants	 were	shown	one	of	two	posters	(animals	are	similar	vs.	animals	are	different),	 designed	to	frame	similarity	or	dissimilarity	to	the	charity.	after	viewing	each	 poster	and	accompanying	text,	participants	were	asked	to	express	donation	 intentions	towards	the	cause	in	the	same	 -item	measure	used	in	study	three,	as	 well	as	to	state	how	much	empathy,	and	connection,	they	felt	for	the	cause.	finally	 they	were	asked	how	similar	they	felt	to	the	cause.	participants	were	then	asked	 how	donating	made	them	feel	on	a	personal	level.	 	 	 following	this,	participants	were	informed	that	they	had	completed	the	final	task	 and	would	be	receiving	a	bonus	of	an	extra	 	cents	for	their	work.	they	were	 advised	that	they	could	choose	to	keep	the	entire	bonus,	or	donate	part,	or	all,	of	it	 to	the	cause	that	they	had	been	rating.		demographics	were	then	collected,	and	lastly	 participants	were	asked	which	writing	task	they	had	completed,	before	being	 debriefed	and	thanked.	all	of	the	money	selected	by	participants	to	be	donated,	was	 donated	to	the	bc	spca	at	the	close	of	the	study.	 	 materials.		 participants	were	asked	to	complete	the	same	 	item	self-construal	scale	as	used	in	 study	 ,	 	and	 .	(scale	reliability:	interdependent	self-construal	α	=. ;	 independent	self-construal	α	=	. ).		 	 following	this	a	 -item	need	fulfillment	scale	was	administered,	which	is	a	scale	 adapted	by	pfundmair,	graupmann,	frey	&	aydin,	 )	from	zadro,	williams,	and	 richardson,	( )	and	is	designed	to	measure	four	fundamental	needs	using	 -items	 for	each	need.	examples	and	scale	reliability	are	as	follows:	belonging	(e.g.	i	feel	 poorly	accepted; α =. );	self-esteem	(e.g.	i	feel	others	fail	to	perceive	me	as	worthy	 and	likeable;	α	=. );	autonomy/control	(e.g.	i	feel	in	control	of	my	life; α		=. );	 and	meaningful	existence	(e.g.	i	feel	my	existence	is	meaningless;	α =. ).	similar	to	 the	interpersonal	needs	questionnaire	(inq),	of	van	orden,	cukrowicz,	witte	and	 joiner	jr.,	( ),	used	in	study	 ,	the	need	fulfillment	scale	contains	questions	 designed	to	measure	the	level	of	a	person’s	unmet	needs	and	each	statement	was	 	 	 measured	using	a	 -point	scale	( =not	at	all	true,	 =	very	true;	see	appendix	a. 	for	 full	scale).	i	opted	to	utilize	this	scale,	in	preference	to	the	(inq),	since	in	study	 	i	 wished	to	separate	and	identify	other	unmet	fundamental	needs,	in	addition	to	only	 belonging.	my	prediction	was,	primarily,	that	higher	unmet	belonging	needs	would	 correlate	with	higher	independent	self-construal.	this	expectation	is	based	on	past	 research,	suggesting	that	independent	self-construal	may	be	associated	with	lower	 sense	of	belonging	(cushman,	 ;	gardner,	gabriel,	&	lee,	 ;	ren,	wesselmann,	 &	williams,	 ).	regarding	the	other	needs,	i	predicted	that	independent	self- construal	would	be	positively	correlated	with	self-esteem	and	autonomy,	in	line	with	 previous	research	(feather	&	mckee,	 ;	gardner,	gabriel,	&	lee,	 ).		 	 participants	were	then	randomly	assigned	to	one	of	two	conditions:	control,	or	 inclusion.	dependent	on	condition,	participants	were	asked	to	complete	the	writing	 task,	previously	used	in	study	three;	the	subject	of	which	participants	were	told	was	 randomly	generated.	in	fact,	participants	were	either	told	to	“think	about	a	time	in	 which	you	went	to	the	grocery	store“	(control	condition),	or	to	“think	about	a	time	in	 which	you	felt	a	strong	sense	of	being	included	or	belonging”	(inclusion	condition).	as	 before,	participants	were	asked	to	recall	the	event	as	vividly	as	possible,	then	to	write	 a	paragraph	describing	the	past	event,	in	as	much	detail	as	they	were	able.		 	 following	the	manipulation,	participants	were	thanked	and	moved	on	to	the	next	 task,	which	they	were	told	was	a	visual	and	text	evaluation	task	that	involved	 assessing	a	charity	poster	appeal	for	a	british	columbia	society	for	prevention	of	 	 	 cruelty	to	animals	(bc	spca)	animal	shelter.		participants	were	shown	the	same	 poster	picture	as	in	study	 ,	with	one	of	two	pieces	of	text	accompanying	it.	the	first	 piece	of	text	was	designed	to	frame	feelings	of	similarity	(“animals	are	similar”)	and	 began	“while	you	look	at	this	poster	please	consider	how	similar	animals	are	to	 human	beings”.	the	second	piece	of	text	was	designed	to	frame	feelings	of	 dissimilarity	(“animals	are	different”)	and	began	“while	you	look	at	this	poster	 please	consider	how	different	animals	are	to	human	beings”.	see	appendix	a. 	for	 picture	and	full	text	of	both.		after	viewing	each	poster	and	accompanying	text,	 participants	were	asked	to	express	donation	intentions	towards	the	cause	in	the	 same	 -item	measure	used	in	study	three	(scale	reliability:	α	=	. ),	as	well	as	to	 state	how	much	empathy	and	connection	they	felt	for	the	cause	on	a	 -point	scale	 ( =not	at	all	true,	 =	very	much).	following	this,	they	were	asked	how	similar	they	 felt	to	the	cause	on	a	 -point	scale	( =not	at	all	true,	 =	very	much).	lastly,	 participants	were	asked	answer	how	donating	makes	them	feel	and	why	they	do	it	 in	an	open	ended	response.		 	 the	final	task	for	the	participants	was	to	select	how	much,	if	any,	of	a	 	cent	bonus	 they	wished	to	allot	to	the	charity	cause,	using	a	slider	scale.	demographics	were	 collected,	which	included	income	and	pet	ownership,	participants	were	asked	to	 recall	which	writing	task	they	had	completed	as	a	manipulation	check,	and	then	 debriefed	and	thanked.		 	 	 	 	 . . 	results.	 my	study	exclusion	policy	stipulated	that	participants	would	be	screened	out	if	they	 failed	all	attention	checks,	or	if	they	accurately	guessed	the	key	study	hypotheses.	 nineteen	participants	failed	all	attention	checks,	and	were	removed	from	the	study,	 leaving	n= 	remaining.		 	 power.	 post-hoc	power	analyses,	using	g*power,	detected	sufficient	power	(>. )	to	detect	 correlations	of	r( )=. 	and	higher,	effect	sizes	of	d= . 	and	higher	for	 independent	samples	t-tests	for	gender	(group	sizes:	 , )	at	 %	confidence.	 see	appendix	a. 	for	power	analysis.		 	 manipulation	check.		 to	assess	whether	the	manipulation	had	been	effective,	participants	were	asked	to	 recall	the	writing	task	they	received,	in	a	multiple-choice	question	at	the	end	of	the	 study	after	demographics	were	taken.	when	asked	to	recall	their	writing	task	 . %	 of	participants	were	able	to	do	so	with	complete	accuracy.			 	 	 	 demographics.	 demographics	collected	showed	that	participants	in	the	sample	identified	as	 . %	 caucasian,	 . %	black,	 . %	latin	american,	 . %	asian,	 . %	south	east	asian,	 and	 . %	mixed	other	(see	figure	 ).	results	also	showed	that	 . %	of	 participants	reported	having	lived	in	the	usa	for	over	 	years.	participants	 	 	 identified	as	 . %	female.	age	demographics	were	as	follows:	 . %	under	 	years	 old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	 . %	 - 	years	old;	and	 . %	over	 	years	old	(see	figure	 ).	in	terms	of	pre-tax	 income	 . %	reported	under	$ , ,	 . %	reported	$ , -$ , ,	 . %	 reported	$ , -$ , ,	 . %	reported	$ , -$ , ,	 . %	reported	 $ , -$ , 	and	 %	reported	over	$ , .	 	 	 demographic,	trait	and	other	correlations.	 results	of	study	 	revealed	that	independent	self-construal	was	positively	 correlated	with	the	following	(inq)	individual	needs:	self-esteem	(r( )=. ,	p	 <. );	belonging	(r( )=. ,	p	<. );	control	(r( )=. ,	p	<. );	and	 meaningful	existence	(r( )=. ,	p	<. ).	independent	self-construal	was	also	 negatively	correlated	with	loneliness	(r( )=-. ,	p	<. ).	interdependent	self- construal	was	not	correlated	with	self-esteem	(r( )=. ,	p	=. )	or	meaningful	 existence	(r( )=. ,	p	=. )	and	only	moderately	with	belonging	(r( )=. ,	p	 <. )	and	control	(r( )=. ,	p	=. ).	interdependent	self-construal	was	not	 correlated	with	loneliness	(r( )=-. ,	p	=. ).	unmet	belonging	needs	measured	 in	the	inq	were	also	negatively	correlated	with	donation	intentions	(r( )=-. ,	 p=. ),	connection	to	cause	(r( )=-. ,	p=. )	,	and	empathy	to	cause	(r( )=- . ,	p=. ).	put	another	way,	the	more	you	felt	your	belonging	needs	were	met,	 the	higher	your	expressed	donation	intentions,	connection	to	cause,	and	empathy	to	 cause,	as	well	as	independent	self-construal.	my	prediction	had	been	that	higher	 unmet	belonging	needs,	specifically,	would	correlate	with	high	independent	self- 	 	 construal	based	on	past	research,	but	my	research	results	did	not	support	this	 finding.	furthermore,	i	predicted	that	higher	unmet	belonging	needs	would	 attenuate	responses	in	the	inclusion	condition.	controlling	for	unmet	belonging	did	 improve	prediction	in	the	main	regressions,	when	unmet	belonging	was	entered	as	a	 covariate.	the	conditional	effect	of	unmet	belonging	was	also	marginally	significant	 at	predicting	donation	intentions	on	its	own.	see	regression	analyses	in	appendix	 a. 	for	further	details.		in	terms	of	donation	measures	the	three-item	donation	 intentions	score	was	found	to	be	significantly	correlated	with	the	actual	cash	 donation	measure	(r( )=. ,	p	<. ).	 	 means	comparisons.	 an	independent	samples	t-test	was	also	carried	out	to	test	for	a	difference	between	 genders	as	separate	analysis.	results	showed	that	females	(n= )	(m= . ,	 sd= . )	indicated	significantly	higher	donation	intentions	than	males	(n= )		 (m= . ,	sd= . ),	t( )= . ,	p<. ,	d=	 . ,		as	well	as	higher	connection	to	 cause	ratings	(females	m= . ,	sd= . ;	males	m= . ,	sd= . )	,	t( )= . ,	 p<. ,	d=	 . 	higher	similarity	to	cause	ratings	(females	m= . ,	sd= . ;	males	 m= . ,	sd= . )	,	t( )= . ,	p<. ,	d=	 . 	and	higher	empathy	to	cause	 ratings	(females	m= . ,	sd= . ;	males	m= . ,	sd= . )	,	t( )= . ,	p<. ,	 d=	 . .	they	also	made	higher	(if	not	significantly)	actual	cash	(cents)	donations	 (females	m= . ,	sd= . ;	males	m= . ,	sd= . ),	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	d=	 . .	i	therefore	carried	out	the	primary	regression	models	controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 an	independent	samples	t-test	was	also	carried	out	to	test	for	a	difference	between	 pet	ownership	vs.	non-ownership	as	a	separate	analysis.	pet	owners	significantly	 differed	on	donation	intentions,	connection	to	cause,	similarity	to	cause	and	 empathy	for	cause	ratings	(although	not	as	strongly	as	gender),	and	differed	with	 near	significance	on	actual	cash	donation.	see	appendix	a. 	for	detailed	analysis.	 	 regression	tests	for	moderation.	 moderated	multiple	regressions	were	carried	out	in	spss,	using	process	v. 	(hayes,	 )	to	examine	a)	whether	poster	style	(animals	are	similar	vs.	animals	are	 different)	influenced	participant	ratings	of	connection	to	cause,	similarity	to	cause,	 and	empathy	to	cause,	as	well	as	donation	intentions,	and	actual	cash	donation,	and	 b)	whether	these	effects	were	moderated	by	the	manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	control	 condition)	and	independent	self-construal	orientation.	in	consideration	of	the	fact	 that,	based	on	previous	research	and	the	results	of	study	 ,	interdependent	self- construal	was	not	expected	to	predict	any	of	the	primary	dependent	variables	it	was	 not	entered	into	any	of	the	main	regression	models	of	study	 .	one	exception	was	 made	to	investigate	whether	interdependent	self-construal	interacted	with	poster	 type	to	predict	donation	intentions	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	vs.	“animals	are	 different”	frame.			 	 following	cohen	and	cohen	( )	and	wendorf	( ),	i	dummy	coded	the	 condition	for	the	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	as	well	as	for	the	poster	style	 different	(vs.	similar).	independent	self-construal	was	mean	centered,	in	accordance	 	 	 with	guidelines,	stipulating	that	this	practice	renders	subsequent	tests	of	 hypotheses	and	regression	coefficients	for	x	and	m	more	meaningful	and	 substantially	interpretable,	as	well	as	to	reduce	the	likelihood	of	errors	in	 interpretation	(hayes,	 ).	all	dependent	measures	were	subjected	to	separate	 moderated	multiple	regressions	with	each	manipulation	condition	and	the	control,	 independent	self-construal	scores,	and	their	interactions	simultaneously	entered	as	 predictor	variables.	as	in	the	previous	studies,	unstandardized	coefficients	(b)	are	 reported	rather	than	betas	(β).	because	βs	are	not	properly	standardized	in	 interaction	terms	they	are	not	interpretable,	whereas	b	represents	the	difference	 between	the	un-weighted	means	of	the	groups	involved	(see	cohen	et	al.	 ).		 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation,	poster	frame	and	interdependent	self- construal	in	donation	intentions.	 summary	of	results.	 in	a	regression	model	(model	 ;hayes,	 )	with	interdependent	self-construal,	as	 expected	the	inclusion	manipulation	did	not	significantly	predict	donation	 intentions	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect.	neither	did	interdependent	self-construal	 predict	donation	intentions,	nor	the	poster	frame.	there	was	no	significant	three- way	interaction	between	interdependent	self-construal,	poster	frame	and	the	 inclusion	manipulation,	which	again	was	as	predicted.	of	interest,	however,	was	the	 significant	two-way	interaction	between	interdependent	self-construal,	and	poster	 frame.		 	 	 	 in	a	two-way	regression	model	(model	 ;hayes,	 )	with	interdependent	self- construal,	neither	interdependent	self-construal,	nor	the	poster	frame	predicted	 donation	intentions.	however,	there	was	a	significant	two-way	interaction	between	 interdependent	self-construal,	and	poster	frame.	as	predicted,	whether	donation	 intentions	were	greater	depended	on	the	poster	frame,	as	well	as	participant’s	 interdependent	self-construal,	with	donation	intentions	related	to	interdependent	 self-construal	only	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	frame	and	not	in	the	“animals	 are	different”	poster	frame.	see	detailed	analysis	following.		 	 regression	model	of	donation	intentions.		 i	submitted	the	donation	intentions	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	with	interdependent	self-construal	and	poster	type	entered	as	independent	 variables.	the	regression	model	in	total	was	highly	significant	r 	=	. ,	p	<. ,	 f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	conditional	effect	for	the	poster	type	b=- . ,	 se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	nor	for	the	interdependent	self- construal	measure	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . .	there	was,	however,	a	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	 interdependent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [ . ,	 . ].	the	two-way	interaction	showed	that	individuals	with	higher	 interdependent	self-construal	indicated	higher	donation	intentions	with	the	 “animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	than	they	did	with	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	 text.	a	test	of	highest	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	an	Δr 	of	. 	 f( , )	=	 . ,	p=	. 	as	a	result	of	the	two-way	interaction.		 	 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(poster	style	x	interdependent	self-construal)	 revealed	that	the	effect	on	donation	intentions	was	significant	at	the	lower	values	of	 interdependent	self-construal	(θx à y	l	w=	interdependent	sc- . 	=- . ,	se=	 . ,	p=. )	 but	not	significant	at	the	higher	levels	(θx à y	l	w=	interdependent	sc . 		= . ,	se= . ,	 p=. ).		see	figure	 	for	a	visualization	with	the	johnson-neyman	point	showing	 the	region	of	interdependent	self-construal	values	(filled	area	below	- . )	for	 which	a	floodlight	test	would	reveal	significant	differences	between	the	two	groups,	 and	figure	 	for	a	visualization	of	the	corresponding	floodlight	analysis	with	 confidence	intervals.	 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame	and	 independent	self-construal	in	donation	intentions.	 summary	of	results.	 following	the	procedures	previously	outlined,	i	regressed	donation	intentions	on	 the	dummy	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	moderator	variables.		in	a	regression	model	 with	independent	self-construal,	the	inclusion	manipulation	did	not	significantly	 predict	donation	intentions	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	neither	did	independent	 self-construal,	nor	the	poster	frame.	of	interest,	however,	was	the	significant	three- way	interaction	between	independent	self-construal,	poster	frame	and	the	inclusion	 manipulation.	as	predicted,	and	in	line	with	study	 ,	whether	donation	intentions	 were	greater	for	the	inclusion	condition,	over	the	control	condition,	depended	on	 the	poster	frame,	as	well	as	participant’s	independent	self-construal.		in	view	of	the	 result	of	the	t-test,	and	my	prediction	that	gender	would	significantly	predict	 	 	 donation	intentions,	i	produced	a	second	regression	model	that	included	gender	as	a	 covariate.	this	model	was	significant	and	increased	significance	in	the	majority	of	 the	conditional	and	interaction	effects.		 	 regression	model	of	donation	intentions.		 i	first	submitted	the	donation	intentions	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	 hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	was	not	significant	r 	=	. ,	p	=	. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	condition	b= . ,	 se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	nor	for	independent	self- construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	or	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was,	however,	a	significant	interaction	between	 inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	 poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p= . ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	 however,	there	was	a	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	independent	 self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	and	 most	interestingly	a	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion	 and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].			 	 the	three-way	interaction	showed	that	in	the	control	condition	individuals	with	 high	independent	self-construal	indicated	significantly	higher	donation	intentions	 	 	 with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	than	they	did	with	the	“animals	are	 different”	to	us	text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	condition	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	preferred	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	text.		 a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	an	Δr 	of	. 	f( , )	=	 . ,	p=	. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	interaction.		 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	type)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	donation	intentions	was	 significant	with	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	and	 low	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).		 covariate	analyses.	 a	regression	model	was	then	produced	entering	in	gender	as	covariate.	gender	was,	 as	predicted,	a	strong	predictor	of	donation	intentions.	see	results	below.		 	 regression	model	of	donation	intentions	controlling	for	gender.	 this	time	controlling	for	gender	i	once	more	submitted	the	donation	intentions	 measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	 was	significant	r 	=	. ,	p	<. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	 the	inclusion	condition	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	 nor	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was,	however,	a	significant	conditional	effect	of	the	independent	 self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 	 	 [- . ,	- . ],.	there	was	also	a	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	 independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	a	significant	 interaction	between	poster	type	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	and	most	importantly	a	significant	three- way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].		there	was	also	a	 significant	conditional	effect	found	for	gender	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p< ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].			 	 the	three-way	interaction	showed	that	(as	before	without	gender)	in	the	control	 condition	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	indicated	significantly	 higher	donation	intentions	with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	than	they	did	 with	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	condition	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	preferred	the	“animals	are	 different”	to	us	text.		a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	an	 Δr 	of	. ,	f( , )	=	 . ,	p=	. ,	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	interaction.		 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	type)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	donation	intentions	was	 significant	with	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	and	 low	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).	see	appendix	figure	 	for	a	visual	 	 	 of	the	moderated	moderation	model,	controlling	for	gender	and	figure	 	for	a	 visual	of	the	corresponding	floodlight	analysis	with	jn	points	and	confidence	bands.	 	 probing	the	conditional	effects	of	the	focal	predictor,	at	values	of	the	moderators,	 revealed	the	effect	to	be	significant	with	the	control	condition	at	low	independent	 self-construal	(z=- . )	effect	=	- . ,	se=	 . ,	t( )=	- . ,	p=. ,	 %	 ci	[- . ,	- . ],	approaching	significant	in	the	control	condition	at	high	 independent	self-construal	(z= . )	effect	=	 . ,	se=	 . ,	t( )=	 . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	low	 independent	self-construal	(z=- . )	effect	=	 . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	 . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	approaching	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	 high	independent	self-construal	(z= . )	effect=	- . ,	se=	 . ,	t( )=	- . 	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 covariate	analyses.	 a	regression	model	was	also	produced,	entering	in	pet	ownership	as	a	covariate,	and	 another	model	produced,	with	unmet	belonging	as	a	covariate.	pet	ownership	 predicted	donation	intentions,	but	less	strongly	than	gender.	likewise,	unmet	 belonging	predicted	donation	intentions,	but	again	not	as	strongly	as	gender.	see	 appendix	a. 	for	pet	ownership	and	unmet	belonging	results.		 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame	and	 independent	self-construal	in	actual	cash	donation.	 	 	 summary	of	results.	 in	a	regression	model	with	independent	self-construal,	the	inclusion	manipulation	 did	not	significantly	predict	actual	cash	donation,	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	 neither	did	independent	self-construal,	nor	the	poster	frame.	likewise,	there	was	no	 significant	three-way	interaction	between	independent	self-construal,	poster	frame	 and	the	inclusion	manipulation.	in	view	of	the	result	of	the	t-test,	and	my	prediction	 that	gender	would	significantly	predict	cash	donation,	i	produced	a	second	 regression	model	that	included	gender	as	a	covariate.	this	delivered	no	significant	 effects	or	interactions,	although	significance	was	approaching	at	times.	a	 visualisation	(figure	 .)	shows	that	the	patterns	were	in	the	predicted	direction	 with	individuals	who	were	high	in	independent	self-construal	showing	higher	actual	 cash	donation	for	a	similar	poster	than	for	a	different	poster	under	normal	(control)	 conditions,	with	a	reversal	of	the	pattern	following	an	inclusion	manipulation.		 	 regression	model	for	actual	cash	donation.	 i	submitted	the	actual	cash	donation	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	was	not	significant	r 	=. ,	p	=	. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	condition	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	nor	for	independent	self-construal	 measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. 	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	 there	was	a	marginally	significant	effect	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b= . ,	 se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	 interaction	between	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	 	 	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	 between	inclusion	and	poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	 ci	[- . ,	 . ].	moreover,	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	 and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	no	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion	 and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 	. ].	a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	a	non- significant	Δr 	of	. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	 interaction.		 	 regression	model	for	actual	cash	donation	controlling	for	gender.	 this	time	controlling	for	gender,	i	submitted	the	actual	cash	donation	measure	to	 the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	was	not	 significant	r 	=. ,	p	=. ,	f( ,	 )= . .	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	the	 inclusion	condition	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	 nor	for	independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	was	just	significant	for	poster	type	on	its	own	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	a	 marginally	significant	conditional	effect	found	for	gender	b=- . ,	se= . ,	 t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].		there	was	no	significant	interaction	 between	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	an	approaching	significant	interaction	 between	inclusion	and	poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	 	 	 ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	 independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	no	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion	and	 independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	a	non-significant	 Δr 	of	. ,	f( , )	=	 . ,	p=	. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	interaction.	see	 figure	 .	for	a	visual	representation	controlling	for	gender.		 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame	and	 independent	self-construal	in	connection	to	cause.	 following	the	procedures	previously	outlined,	i	regressed	connection	to	cause	on	 the	dummy	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	moderator	variables.		 	 summary	of	results.	 in	a	regression	model	with	independent	self-construal,	the	inclusion	manipulation	 did	not	significantly	predict	connection	to	cause	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	 neither	did	independent	self-construal,	nor	the	poster	frame.	of	interest,	however,	 was	the	significant	three-way	interaction	between	independent	self-construal,	 poster	frame	and	the	inclusion	manipulation.	as	predicted,	and	in	line	with	the	 donation	intentions	models,	whether	connection	to	cause	were	greater	for	the	 inclusion	condition,	over	the	control	condition,	depended	on	the	poster	frame,	as	 well	as	participant’s	independent	self-construal.		in	view	of	the	results	of	the	t-test	 and	previous	regression	models,	i	produced	a	second	regression	model	that	 	 	 included	gender	as	a	covariate.	this	model	was	a	better	predictor	and	there	was	 increased	significance	in	the	majority	of	the	conditional	and	interaction	effects,	as	a	 result	of	adding	gender.		 	 regression	model	for	connection	to	cause.	 i	next	submitted	the	connection	to	cause	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	 hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	was	approaching	significant	r 	=. ,	p	 =	. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	once	again	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	 condition	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	nor	for	 independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	or	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )= . ,	p= . ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	however	a	significant	 interaction	between	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	 between	inclusion	and	poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	 ci	[- . ,	 . ].	however,	there	was	a	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	 and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [ . ,	 . ],	and	most	interestingly	a	significant	three-way	interaction	between	 poster	type,	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].		the	three-way	interaction	showed	that	in	the	 control	condition	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	indicated	 significantly	higher	connection	to	cause	with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	 than	they	did	with	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	 	 	 condition	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	preferred	the	“animals	 are	different”	to	us	text.	a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	 an	Δr 	of	. ,	f( , )=	 . ,	p=. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	interaction.		 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	type)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal,	revealed	that	the	effect	on	donation	intentions	was	 significant	with	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	and	 near	significant	with	low	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).		 	 probing	the	conditional	effects	of	the	focal	predictor	at	values	of	the	moderators,	 revealed	the	effect	to	be	significant	with	the	control	condition	at	high	independent	 self-construal	(z= . )	effect	= . ,	se=	 . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [ . ,	 . ],	but	not	significant	in	the	control	condition	at	low	independent	self- construal	(z=- . )	effect	- . ,	se=	 . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	low	independent	self- construal	(z=- . )	effect	 . ,	se=. ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	nor	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	high	independent	self-construal	(z= . )	 effect	- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 regression	model	for	connection	to	cause	controlling	for	gender.		 i	submitted	the	connection	to	cause	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	controlling	for	gender.	the	regression	model	in	total	was	significant	r 	=	. ,	 p	<	. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	once	again	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	 	 	 condition	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	however,	 there	was	a	significant	conditional	effect	for	independent	self-construal	measure	on	 its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].	i	found	no	 conditional	effect	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was,	however,	a	significant	interaction	between	 inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	and	between	independent	self-construal	and	poster	type	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	 significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	 t( )=- . ,	p= . ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	lastly	there	was	a	significant	three-way	 interaction	between	poster	type	and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	 t( )=- . ,	p<. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,- . ].		there	was	a	significant	conditional	 effect	for	gender	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	,t( )=- . ,	p<. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].	the	three-way	interaction	showed	that	in	the	control	condition,	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	indicated	significantly	higher	 donation	intentions	with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	than	they	did	with	the	 “animals	are	different”	to	us	text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	condition	individuals	 with	high	independent	self-construal	preferred	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	 text.		a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	an	Δr 	of	. ,	 f( , )	=	 . ,	p<	. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	interaction.			 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	type)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	donation	intentions	was	 	 	 significant	with	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	 and	near	significant	with	low	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).	 	 see	figure	 	for	a	visual	showing	the	conditional	effect	of	poster	style	(x;	similar	vs.	 different)	on	connection	to	cause	(y)	as	a	function	of	condition	(w;	control	vs.	 inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(z)	from	a	moderated	moderation	model,	 controlling	for	gender,	and	figure	 	for	a	visual	of	the	corresponding	floodlight	 analysis,	with	jn	points	and	confidence	bands.		 	 	 probing	the	conditional	effects	of	the	focal	predictor	at	values	of	the	moderators	 revealed	the	effect	to	be	significant	with	the	control	condition	at	high	independent	 self-construal	(z= . )	effect= . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	 . 	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [ . ,	 . ],	but	not	significant	in	the	control	condition	at	low	independent	self- construal	(z=- . )	effect	= . ,	se= . 	,	t( )=	- . 	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	low	independent	self- construal	(z=- . )	effect	= . ,	se=	 . ,	t( )=	 . 	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	high	independent	self- construal	(z= . )	effect	=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	- . 	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame	and	 independent	self-construal	in	empathy	for	cause.	 	 	 following	the	procedures	previously	outlined,	i	regressed	empathy	for	cause	on	the	 dummy	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	moderator	variables.		 	 summary	of	results.	 in	a	regression	model	with	independent	self-construal,	the	inclusion	manipulation	 did	not	significantly	predict	empathy	for	cause	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	 neither	did	independent	self-construal,	nor	the	poster	frame.	of	interest	however,	 was	the	small	but	significant	three-way	interaction	between	independent	self- construal,	poster	frame	and	the	inclusion	manipulation.	as	predicted,	and	in	line	 with	the	donation	intentions	and	connection	to	cause	models,	whether	empathy	for	 cause	were	greater	for	the	inclusion	condition,	over	the	control	condition,	depended	 on	the	poster	frame,	as	well	as	participant’s	independent	self-construal.		in	view	of	 the	results	of	the	t-test	and	previous	regression	models,	i	produced	a	second	 regression	model	that	included	gender	as	a	covariate.	this	model	was	a	better	 predictor	and	there	was	increased	significance	in	the	majority	of	the	conditional	and	 interaction	effects,	as	a	result	of	adding	gender.		 	 regression	model	for	empathy	for	cause.	 i	next	submitted	the	empathy	for	cause	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	 hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	was	significant	r 	=. ,	p	=. ,	f	( ,	 )=	 . .	once	again,	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	condition	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	nor	for	independent	 self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 	 	 [- . ,	 . ],	or	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was,	however,	a	significant	interaction	between	 inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	 poster	type	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	however,	 there	was	a	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	independent	self- construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	and	most	 interestingly,	a	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion	and	 independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 - . ].		the	three-way	interaction	showed	that	in	the	control	condition	individuals	 with	high	independent	self-construal	indicated	significantly	higher	empathy	for	 cause	ratings	with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	than	they	did	with	the	 “animals	are	different”	to	us	text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	condition	the	poster	 style	made	little	difference	to	empathy	for	cause	ratings.		a	test	of	higher	order	 unconditional	interaction	produced	an	Δr 	of	. 	f( , )	=	 . ,	p=	. 	as	a	 result	of	the	three-way	interaction.		 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	type)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	empathy	ratings	was	 significant	with	low	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. )	but	 not	significant	with	high	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. ).	 	 	 	 probing	the	conditional	effects	of	the	focal	predictor	at	values	of	the	moderators	 revealed	the	effect	to	be	near	significant	with	the	control	condition	at	high	 independent	self-construal	(z= . )	effect	= . ,	se= . ,	t	( )= . 	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	near	significant	in	the	control	condition	at	low	 independent	self-construal	(z=- . )	effect	=- . ,	se= . ,	t	( )=- . 	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	but	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	low	 independent	self-construal	(z=- . )	effect	= . ,	se= . ,	t	( )= . 	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	nor	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	high	independent	self- construal	(z= . )	effect	=- . ,	se= . ,	t	( )=- . 	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 regression	model	for	empathy	to	cause	controlling	for	gender.		 i	submitted	the	empathy	for	cause	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	controlling	for	gender.	the	regression	model	in	total	was	significant	r 	=. ,	 p	<. ,	f	( ,	 )=	 . .	once	again	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	 condition	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	nor	for	 independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	or	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was,	however,	a	significant	 interaction	between	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	 between	inclusion	and	poster	type	b= . ,	se=. ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	however,	there	was	a	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	 	 	 independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	and	most	interestingly	a	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	 type,	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].		i	found	a	conditional	effect	of	gender	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p<. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].	the	three-way	 interaction	showed	that	in	the	control	condition	individuals	with	high	independent	 self-construal	indicated	significantly	higher	empathy	for	cause	ratings	with	the	 “animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	than	they	did	with	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	 text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	condition	the	poster	style	made	little	difference	to	 empathy	for	cause	ratings.	a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	 an	Δr 	of	. ,	f( , )	=	 . ,	p=	. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	interaction.		 	 see	figure	 	for	visual	of	the	conditional	effect	of	poster	style	(x;	similar	vs.	 different)	on	empathy	for	cause	(y)	as	a	function	of	condition	(w;	control	vs.	 inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(z)	from	a	moderated	moderation	model,	 controlling	for	gender,	and	figure	 	for	a	corresponding	visual	of	the	jn	points	 along	with	confidence	bands.		a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	 poster	style)	at	values	of	independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	 empathy	for	cause	was	near	significant	at	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	and	significant	with	low	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).		 	 	 	 probing	the	conditional	effects	of	the	focal	predictor	at	values	of	the	moderators	 revealed	the	effect	to	be	significant	with	the	control	condition	at	high	independent	 self-construal	(z= . )	effect= . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	 . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [ . ,	 . ],	but	not	significant	in	the	control	condition	at	low	independent	self- construal	(z=- . )	effect	=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	low	independent	self- construal	(z=- . )	effect	= . ,	se=	 . ,	t( )=	 . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	high	independent	self- construal	(z= . )	effect	=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 . . . 	role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame	and	 independent	self-construal	in	similarity	to	cause.	 following	the	procedures	previously	outlined,	i	regressed	similarity	to	cause	on	the	 dummy	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	moderator	variables.		 	 summary	of	results.	 in	a	regression	model	with	independent	self-construal,	the	inclusion	manipulation	 did	not	significantly	predict	similarity	to	cause	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	 neither	did	independent	self-construal,	nor	the	poster	frame.	of	interest,	however,	 was	the	small	but	significant	three-way	interaction	between	independent	self- construal,	poster	frame	and	the	inclusion	manipulation.	as	predicted,	and	in	line	 with	the	donation	intentions	and	connection	to	cause	models,	whether	similarity	to	 	 	 cause	ratings	were	greater	for	the	inclusion	condition,	over	the	control	condition,	 depended	on	the	poster	frame,	as	well	as	participant’s	independent	self-construal.		 in	view	of	the	results	of	the	t-test	and	previous	regression	models,	i	produced	a	 second	regression	model	that	included	gender	as	a	covariate.	this	model	was	a	 better	predictor	and	there	was	increased	significance	in	the	majority	of	the	 conditional	and	interaction	effects,	as	a	result	of	adding	gender.		 	 regression	model	for	similarity	to	cause.	 i	next	submitted	the	similar	to	cause	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	was	significant	r 	=	. ,	p	=	. ,	f	( ,	 )=	 . .	once	again	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	condition	b= . ,	 se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	nor	for	independent	self- construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	or	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was,	however,	a	significant	interaction	between	 inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	 poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	 however,	there	was	a	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	independent	 self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. 	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	and	 most	interestingly	a	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion	 and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. 	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].		the	three-way	interaction	showed	that	in	the	control	condition	 	 	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	indicated	significantly	higher	 ratings	of	similarity	to	the	cause	with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	than	they	 did	with	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	condition	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	provided	higher	ratings	of	 similarity	in	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	text.	a	test	of	higher	order	 unconditional	interaction	produced	an	Δr 	of	. ,	f( , )	=	 . ,	p=	. 	as	a	 result	of	the	three-way	interaction.		 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	type)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	similarity	ratings	was	not	 significant	with	low	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. )	but	 was	significant	with	high	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. ).	 	 probing	the	conditional	effects	of	the	focal	predictor	at	values	of	the	moderators	 revealed	the	effect	to	be	significant	with	the	control	condition	at	high	independent	 self-construal	(z= . ),	effect	= . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	 . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [ . ,	 . ],	but	not	significant	in	the	control	condition	at	low	independent	self- construal	(z=- . ),	effect	=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	low	independent	self- construal	(z=- . ),	effect	= . ,	se=	 . ,	t( )=	 . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	nor	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	high	independent	self-construal	 (z= . ),	effect	=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 	 	 regression	model	for	similarity	to	cause	controlling	for	gender.		 i	next	submitted	the	similar	to	cause	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	was	significant	r 	=	. ,	p	<	. ,	f	( ,	 )=	 . .	there	was	a	marginal	conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	condition	b= . ,	 se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ]	but	no	significant	effect	for	 independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	or	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was,	however,	a	significant	 interaction	between	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	 between	inclusion	and	poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	 ci	[- . ,	 . ].	however	there	was	a	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	 and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [ . ,	 . ],	and	most	interestingly	a	significant	three-way	interaction	between	 poster	type,	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].		there	was	a	significant	conditional	effect	of	 gender	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p<. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].	the	three- way	interaction	showed	that	in	the	control	condition,	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	indicated	significantly	higher	ratings	of	similarity	to	the	 cause	with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	than	they	did	with	the	“animals	are	 different”	to	us	text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	condition	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	provided	higher	ratings	of	similarity	in	the	“animals	are	 	 	 different”	to	us	text.	a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	an	 Δr 	of	. ,	f( , )=	 . ,	p=. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	interaction.		 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	style)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	similarity	to	cause	was	 significant	at	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	but	 not	significant	with	low	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).		 	 see	figure	 	for	a	visual	of	the	conditional	effect	of	poster	style	(x;	similar	vs.	 different)	on	similarity	to	cause	(y)	as	a	function	of	condition	(w;	control	vs.	 inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(z)	from	a	moderated	moderation	model,	 controlling	for	gender,	and	figure	 	for	the	corresponding	jn	points	and	confidence	 intervals.		probing	the	conditional	effects	of	the	focal	predictor,	at	values	of	the	 moderators	revealed	the	effect	to	be	significant	with	the	control	condition	at	high	 independent	self-construal	(z= . ),	effect= . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	 . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	but	not	significant	in	the	control	condition	at	low	 independent	self-construal	(z=- . ),	effect	=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	- . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	low	 independent	self-construal	(z=- . ),	effect	= . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	 . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	not	significant	in	the	inclusion	condition	at	high	 independent	self-construal	(z= . ),	effect	=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=	- . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 	 	 . . . 	tests	of	mediated	moderation.	 conditional	process	analysis	for	connection	to	cause.		 my	next	goal	was	to	test	a	moderated	mediation	model	(model	 ;hayes,	 )	 using	conditional	process	analysis.	conditional	process	analysis	was	carried	out	to	 investigate	the	mediation	of	connection	to	cause	on	donation	intentions	and	actual	 cash	donation,	whilst	being	moderated	by	inclusion	(x),	self-construal	(w)	and	 poster	type	(z).	conditional	process	analysis	is	a	process	by	which	mediation	 analysis	and	moderation	analysis	are	combined	in	a	single	model	of,	in	my	case	 moderated	mediation,	and	is	used	to	understand	and	describe	the	conditional	 nature	of	the	mechanisms	by	which	a	variable	transmits	its	effect	on	another	and	to	 test	hypothesis	about	such	contingent	effects	(hayes	 ).			 	 covariate	analysis.	 in	view	of	the	results	of	the	t-test	and	previous	regression	models,	i	carried	out	the	 conditional	process	analyses	with	connection	to	cause	as	a	mediator	with,	and	 without,	gender	as	a	covariate.		 	 regression	model	for	connection	to	cause	as	a	mediator.	 my	previous	mmr	analyses	established	that	both	the	manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	 control)	x	independent	self-construal	interaction,	as	well	as	the	three-way	 interaction,	manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	control)	x	independent	self-construal	x	 poster	type,	was	associated	with	connection	to	the	cause;	as	well	as	with	donation	 intentions;	and	with	actual	cash	donation.	a	regression	test	that	placed	connection	 	 	 to	cause	in	as	a	covariate	confirmed	that	the	mediator	(connection	to	the	cause)	 was	related	to	both	donation	intentions	b= . ,	t( )= . ,	p<. 	and	actual	 cash	donation	b= . ,	t( )= . ,	p<. .	to	test	the	potential	mediation	effect	 i	followed	the	bootstrapping	method	(with	 	iterations)	advocated	by	preacher,	 rucker	&	hayes	( ).	this	procedure	tests	the	null	hypothesis	that	the	indirect	 path	from	the	interaction	term	to	the	dependent	variable	via	the	mediator	does	not	 significantly	differ	from	zero.	if	zero	is	not	contained	within	the	confidence	intervals	 (ci)	computed	by	the	bootstrapping	procedure,	then	one	may	conclude	that	the	 indirect	effect	is	indeed	significantly	different	from	zero	at	p<. .		 	 a) connection	to	cause	on	donation	intentions.	 a	first	stage	moderated	moderated	mediation	model	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	 delivered	an	index	test	of	moderated	moderated	mediation	with	a	slope	that	was	 statistically	different	from	zero,	index	=	- . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	 =	- . 	to	- . .	probing	the	interaction	we	may	see	that	the	indirect	effect	of	 inclusion	on	donation	intentions	through	connection	to	cause	(mediator)	is	positive	 for	those	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	 are	different”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	 . 	to	 . ,	but	not	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	high	independent	 self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type:	(point	estimate:	- . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ).	nor	was	it	different	from	 zero	for	individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	 are	different”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- 	 	 . 	to	 . ),	nor	for	individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	 in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ).	 	 a) connection	to	cause	on	donation	intentions	controlling	for	gender.	 a	first	stage	moderated	moderated	mediation	model	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	this	 time	controlling	for	gender	delivered	an	index	test	of	moderated	moderated	 mediation	with	a	slope	that	was	statistically	different	from	zero,	index	=	- . ,	 boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	=	- . 	to	- . .	probing	the	interaction	we	 may	see	that	the	indirect	effect	of	inclusion	on	donation	intentions	through	 connection	to	cause	(mediator)	is	positive	for	those	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	(point	 estimate:	 . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	 . 	to	 . ,	but	not	different	 from	zero	for	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	 “animals	are	similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	 from	- . 	to	 . ).	nor	was	it	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	low	 independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	(point	 estimate:	- . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ),	nor	for	 individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	 to	 . ).	 	 	 	 	 b) connection	to	cause	on	actual	cash	donation.	 a	first	stage	moderated	moderated	mediation	model	delivered	an	index	test	of	 moderated	moderated	mediation	with	a	slope	that	was	statistically	different	from	 zero,	index	=	- . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	=	- . 	to	- . .	 probing	the	interaction	we	may	see	that	the	indirect	effect	of	inclusion	on	cash	 donation	through	connection	to	cause	(mediator)	is	positive	for	those	individuals	 with	high	independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	 type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	 . 	to	 . ,	but	 not	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	( . )	 in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ).	nor	was	it	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	 low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	 (point	estimate:	- . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ),	nor	for	 individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	 to	 . ).	 	 a) connection	to	cause	on	actual	cash	donation	controlling	for	gender.	 a	first	stage	moderated	moderated	mediation	model	delivered	an	index	test	of	 moderated	moderated	mediation	with	a	slope	that	was	statistically	different	from	 zero,	index	=	- . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	=	- . 	to	- . .	 probing	the	interaction	we	may	see	that	the	indirect	effect	of	inclusion	on	cash	 donation	through	connection	to	cause	(mediator)	is	positive	for	those	individuals	 	 	 with	high	independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	 type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	 . 	to	 . ,	but	 not	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	( . )	 in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ).	nor	was	it	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	 low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	 (point	estimate:	- . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ),	nor	for	 individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	bootse=	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	 to	 . ).	 	 conditional	process	analysis	for	empathy	and	similarity	to	cause.	 as	a	final	test	i	also	produced	moderated	mediation	models	(model	 ;hayes,	 )	 using	conditional	process	analysis	to	investigate	the	mediation	of	similarity	to	cause	 and	well	as	empathy	for	cause,	on	both	donation	intentions	and	actual	cash	 donation,	whilst	being	moderated	by	inclusion	(x),	self-construal	(w)	and	poster	 type	(z).	the	empathy	to	cause	and	similarity	to	cause	models	were	only	produced	 as	simple	models,	without	gender	added	as	a	covariate	since	findings	did	not	change	 substantially	although,	in	line	with	previous	findings,	gender	did	improve	the	 prediction	of	both	models.		both	of	these	mediation	analyses	can	be	found	in	the	 appendix	(a. ).	 	 	 	 	 . . 	discussion.	 summary.	 the	results	of	study	 	repeated	the	findings	of	study	 ,	by	demonstrating	that	 following	an	inclusion	manipulation,	donation	intentions	significantly	reduced	for	 individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	self-construal,	as	compared	to	donation	 intentions	under	normal	(control)	conditions.		in	an	attempt	to	advance	the	findings	 of	study	 ,	study	 	further	probed	the	mechanisms	involved	in	prosocial	donation,	 through	the	use	of	a	similar	vs.	different	poster	frame	for	the	out-group	cause.		 under	normal	(control)	circumstances	individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	self- construal	expressed	higher	donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	cause	that	was	 framed	to	highlight	similarities	with	them	(“animals	are	similar	to	humans”).	 however,	following	an	inclusion	manipulation,	donation	intentions	reduced	for	this	 cause.	following	an	inclusion	manipulation,	individuals	that	are	high	in	independent	 self-construal	expressed	higher	donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	cause	that	was	 framed	to	highlight	differences	with	them	(“animals	are	different	to	humans”).		 	 in	doing	so,	study	 	offered	support	for	h :	that	under	normal	conditions	(control	 group),	people	with	an	independent	self-construal	orientation	will	express	higher	 donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	animal	charity	that	is	framed	as	similar	(vs.	 different)	to	them.	the	results	for	ratings	of	connectedness	to	the	cause	mirrored	 the	pattern	of	donation	intentions,	as	did	the	result	for	actual	cash	donations	(albeit	 not	significantly),	in	a	simple	moderated	moderation	model.			 	 	 	 furthermore,	study	 	extended	the	findings	beyond	donation	intentions,	directed	 towards	an	out-group	animal	charity	cause,	into	actual	cash	donations,	in	a	model	 that	was	mediated	by	connection	to	cause.		a	series	of	mediation	analyses	showed	 that	feelings	of	connection	to	cause	acted	as	a	significant	mediator,	and	produced	a	 significant	 -way	moderated	moderated	mediation	model	for	both	donation	 intentions	and	actual	cash	donations.	see	detailed	discussion	following.	 	 one	of	the	specific	goals	of	study	 	was	to	investigate	whether	a	feeling	of	closeness	 and	oneness	(vs.	distance	and	otherness)	with	the	target	could	be	manipulated,	in	 order	to	influence	prosocial	behaviour,	and	if	so	whether	it	would	have	significant	 effects	regardless	of	self-construal	and	inclusion	status.	in	order	to	do	this	i	had	 constructed	two	posters	that	framed	similarity	“animals	are	similar”,	or	difference	 “animals	are	different”,	to	the	cause.	my	prediction	had	been	that	under	normal	 circumstances	(control	conditions),	all	participants	would	prefer	the	“animals	are	 similar”	frame,	and	this	would	be	expressed	by	an	increase	in	donation	intentions.		 	 the	results	of	study	 	supported	my	prediction	that	participants	high	in	 interdependent	self-construal	would	normally	donate	more	to	the	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	frame.	regression	analysis	showed	a	significant	two-way	interaction	 between	poster	type	and	interdependent	self-construal	regarding	donation	 intentions.	put	another	way,	participants	with	high	interdependent	self-construal	 expressed	higher	donation	intentions	for	the	“animals	are	similar”	cause	in	which	 the	poster	framed	the	targets	as	similar	to	humans,	and	lower	donation	intentions	 	 	 for	the	“animals	are	different”	cause	in	which	the	poster	framed	the	targets	as	 different	to	humans.		in	line	with	my	predictions,	i	found	no	significant	evidence	to	 suggest	that	interdependent	self-construal	appeared	to	interact	with	the	inclusion	 condition,	to	predict	either	donation	intentions	or	actual	cash	donations	in	any	 regression	models.	this	finding	also	supports	my	hypothesis	(h )	and	extends	past	 research	by	offering	evidence	that	individuals	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	 are	not	only	little	impacted	by	exclusion	threats	(gardner,	pickett,	&	knowles,	 ;	 powers,	worsham,	freeman,	wheatley,	&	heatherton,	 ;	uskul	&	over,	 ),	 but	that	they	are	also	little	impacted	by	inclusion	promises.		however,	as	expected,	 interdependent	self-construal	did	interact	with	the	similar/different	prime,	in	that	 higher	interdependent	self-construal	predicted	donation	intentions	for	the	“animals	 are	similar”	poster	and	cause.	this	finding	is	also	in	line	with	past	research,	which	 has	found	interdependent	self-construal	to	be	associated	with	in-group	giving,	as	 well	as	with	increased	interpersonal	closeness	(holland,	roeder,	van	baaren,	 brandt,	&	hannover,	 ).		 	 as	outlined,	study	 	was	able	to	offer	evidence	in	support	of	my	prediction	(h )	that	 individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	would	preference	the	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	frame,	under	normal	(control)	conditions.	my	argument	for	this	 prediction	is	that	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	will	feel	more	 affinity	and	connection	to	out-group	causes	because,	unlike	individuals	high	in	 interdependent	self-construal,	they	do	not	see	out-groups	members	as	rigidly	out- group.	this	is	because,	as	previously	argued,	individuals	high	in	independent	self- 	 	 construal	a)	have	more	flexible	notions	of	in-group	and	out-group	boundaries,	and	 so	are	more	likely	to	view	out-group	members	as	potential	targets	to	recruit	as	in- group	members	and	b)	are	not	as	chronically	reassured	of	their	social	inclusion	 status,	compared	to	individuals	with	high	interdependent	self-construal,	and	so	 monitor	for	cues	of	social	connection	potential	in	others.		 	 as	a	result,	in	study	 	when	the	out-group	charity	is	specifically	framed	as	similar	i	 predicted	that	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	would	still	see	it	as	 an	out-group,	but	would	take	the	“animals	are	similar”	frame	as	a	cue	of	social	 connection	potential	and	would	therefore	donate	more	accordingly	to	the	“animals	 are	similar”	poster	frame.	regression	analysis	in	study	 	supported	this	prediction	 by	showing	a	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion	and	 independent	self-construal	for	donation	intentions.	under	normal	circumstances	 (control),	participants	with	high	independent	self-construal	did	express	higher	 donation	intentions	for	the	“animals	are	similar”	cause,	in	which	the	poster	framed	 the	targets	as	similar	to	humans,	and	lower	donation	intentions	for	the	“animals	are	 different”	cause,	in	which	the	poster	framed	the	targets	as	different	to	humans.			 	 this	support	for	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	frame	in	study	 	additionally	 offers	support	for	the	argument	(h )	that	in	normal	circumstances	(control),	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	express	higher	donation	intentions	 to	out-group	animal	charities	because	they	feel	a	similarity,	connection,	or	oneness	 with	them.	such	a	feeling	of	oneness	may	have	purpose,	in	that	it	is	likely	to	boost	a	 	 	 sense	of	belonging	or	social	inclusion,	which	may	be	especially	motivational	for	 individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal.	additionally,	as	we	have	previous	 noted,	it	make	sense	for	individuals	seeking	social	connection	to	reduce	barriers	to	 in-group	entry,	and	to	be	more	relaxed	regarding	how	they	implement	in-group	 boundaries.	past	research	supports	the	behaviour	of	relaxing	boundaries	when	we	 feel	others	are	similar	(cuddy,	rock,	&	norton,	 ).		 	 following	an	inclusion	manipulation,	however,	i	predicted	that	participants	high	in	 independent	self-construal	would	respond	differently	to	participants	high	in	 interdependent	self-construal.	i	predicted	(h )	that	an	“animals	are	different”	 poster	frame	would	prove	more	appealing	for	participants	high	in	independent	self- construal	following	an	inclusion	manipulation.	the	reason	for	this	prediction	is	that	 i	anticipated	that	an	inclusion	manipulation	would	reassure	participants	high	in	 independent	self-construal	of	their	social	inclusion	status,	satiate	their	belonging	 needs	(dewall,	baumeister,	&	vohs,	 ),	and	so-by	reduce	a	desire	to	find	 similarities	with	out-group	members	or	seek	further	social	connection	with	others.	 while	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	frame	would	appeal	to	these	participants	 under	normal	conditions	(control),	precisely	because	it	indicates	social	connection	 potential	and	encourages	a	relaxing	of	in-group	boundaries,	under	conditions	in	 which	the	participants	had	been	previously	assured	of	their	social	inclusion	within	a	 human	in-group,	i	predicted	that	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	frame	would	hold	 little	appeal.		 	 	 	 once	assured	of	belonging	and	inclusion	there	is	little	to	be	gained	from	finding	 similarities	with	out-group	members.	in	fact,	it	may	even	be	threatening	to	do	so,	 since	finding	similarities	with	out-group	members	might	potentially	challenge	the	 recently	affirmed	social	inclusion	and	in-group	status,	maybe	even	presenting	itself	 as	a	threat	to	group	distinctiveness.	under	these	circumstances,	it	may	be	seen	as	 more	beneficial	to	reinforce	in-group	and	out-group	categories,	and	donate	more	to	 a	poster	that	clearly	affirms	that	animals	are	different	from	humans.	this	argument	 is	supported	by	a	wide	body	of	intergroup	research	on	group	differentiation	in	the	 face	of	comparison	groups	(brown,	 ;	jetten,	spears,	&	manstead,	 ;	jetten,	 spears,	&	postmes,	 ;	van	knippenberg	&	ellemers,	 ).		this	finding	is	also	in	 line	with	past	research	on	intergroup	processes,	suggesting	that,	dependent	on	the	 nature	of	the	in-group	vs.	out-group	relationship	between	helper	and	target	and	 perceptions	of	differences	or	similarities,	different	processes	and	motivations	are	 likely	to	drive	responses.	sturmer	and	snyder	( )	argue	that	when	there	is	 perceived	dissimilarity	between	helper	and	target,	helping	is	more	likely	to	occur	as	 a	function	of	perceived	cost	and	benefits	to	self.	the	only	exception,	it	seems,	is	 when	there	is	a	question	as	to	whether	a	target	is	seen	to	be	a	typical	or	atypical	out- group	member,	and	under	these	circumstances	the	pattern	may	be	broken	(manis,	 nelson,	&	shedler,	 ).		 	 study	 	was	also	able	to	build	on	study	 	by	providing	further	evidence	in	support	of	 h ,	that	connection	to	the	cause	might	act	as	a	successful	mediator	for	donation	 intentions.	my	prediction	(h )	had	been	that	perceptions	of	connection	to	cause	 	 	 would	mediate	the	effects	of	independent	self-construal	orientation,	inclusion	and	 their	interaction,	on	the	two	dependent	variables.	the	findings	of	study	 	supported	 this	in	a	model	with	poster	type,	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	predicting	 donation	intentions,	and	additionally	provided	some	boundary	conditions	to	 demonstrate	how	self-construal	and	inclusion	status	would	impact	this	mechanism.		 	 for	the	cash	donation	dependent	variable,	a	moderated	regression	analysis	showed	 no	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion	and	 independent	self-construal	for	actual	cash	donations,	although	the	patterns	were	in	 the	same	direction	as	with	donation	intentions,	and	actual	cash	donations	and	 donation	intentions	correlated	significantly.		controlling	for	gender	and	pet	 ownership	improved	significance	and	effect	size	marginally.	a	conditional	process	 analysis,	using	a	first	stage	moderated	moderated	mediation	model,	however,	 confirmed	that	connection	to	cause	significantly	mediated	in	a	model	with	 independent	self-construal,	poster	type	and	inclusion,	and	significantly	predicted	 both	donation	intentions	and	actual	cash	donations.		controlling	for	gender	 increased	the	effect	size	and	significance	level.		 	 as	with	study	 ,	gender	in	study	 	was	found	to	positively	predict	donation	 intentions	and	actual	donations,	with	females	expressing	significantly	greater	 donation	intentions	and	making	a	near	significantly	greater	actual	donations.	this	is	 in	line	with	most	past	research,	which	shows	a	consistent	trend	of	females	donating	 more	to	charities	(einolf,	 ;	hodgkinson	&	weitzman,	 ;	 ;	 ;	kirsh,	 	 	 hume,	&	jalnadoni,	 ;	mesche,	rooney,	steinberg,	&	denton,	 ;	winterich,	 mittal,	&	ross	jr.,	 ).	study	 	additionally	measured	pet	ownership	and,	as	might	 be	expected,	this	also	positively	predicted	donation	intentions	and	actual	cash	 donations	to	a	domestic	animal	charity.	study	 	also	measured	individual	belonging	 needs,	and	again	as	expected	this	also	predicted	donation	intentions,	although	not	 strongly.	none	of	the	covariates	measured	(gender,	pet	ownership,	unmet	 belonging)	interacted	with	the	other	independent	variables	however.		 	 study	 	also	provided	evidence	to	show	that	empathy	to	the	cause	may	be	predicted	 by	perceptions	of	similarity	vs.	difference	to	the	cause,	as	a	function	of	inclusion	 status	and	self-construal.		this	is	in	line	with	prior	research	(cialdini,	brown,	lewis,	 luce,	&	neuberg,	 ),	which	has	offered	evidence	that	empathetic	concern	only	 increases	helping	behaviour	through	a	relationship	to	perceived	oneness,	or	self- other	overlap.	a	regression	analysis	showed	a	significant	three-way	interaction	 between	poster	type,	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	regarding	empathy	 to	cause.	under	normal	circumstances	(control),	participants	with	high	independent	 self-construal	expressed	higher	empathy	to	cause	for	the	“animals	are	similar”	 cause	when	the	poster	framed	the	targets	as	similar	to	humans,	and	lower	empathy	 to	cause	for	the	“animals	are	different”	cause	when	the	poster	framed	the	targets	as	 different	to	humans.	however,	following	an	inclusion	manipulation	this	pattern	 reversed	for	the	“animals	are	different”	cause.	participants	with	high	independent	 self-construal	expressed	higher	empathy	to	cause	for	the	“animals	are	different”	 cause,	following	a	belonging	manipulation.	there	was	no	significant	impact	of	 	 	 independent	self-construal	seen	for	empathy	to	cause	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	 cause	poster	following	a	belonging	manipulation.			 	 in	study	 ,	a	conditional	process	analysis	did	not	find	evidence	to	support	a	claim	 that	empathy	to	cause	was	significantly	mediating	donation	intentions	or	actual	 cash	donations,	as	a	function	of	poster	type,	inclusion	status,	and	self-construal.		 	 taken	together,	the	findings	of	study	 	support	prior	research	on	the	helping	based	 on	similarity	hypothesis.	krebs	famously	( )	found	that	when	strangers	were	 perceived	as	more	similar,	participants	were	more	willing	to	assist	them	and	give	up	 resources	to	do	so.	more	recently,	research	in	marketing	has	found	that	the	more	 similar	to	humans	animals	appear	the	more	favourably	they	are	treated	(connell,	 )	and	that	anthropomorphism	may	promote	a	sense	of	kinship	(veer,	 ).		 costello	and	hodson	( )	found	that	inducing	perceptions	of	human	animal	 similarity	facilitated	more	inclusive	attitudes	to	both	animal	and	human	outsiders,	 and	predicted	less	prejudicial	attitudes	towards	immigrants.	likewise,	batt	( ),	 working	in	the	area	of	conservation,	found	a	strong	relationship	between	perceived	 similarity	to	humans	and	preference	existed,	which	suggested	that	humans	are	 predisposed	to	liking	species	on	the	basis	of	perceived	shared	bio-behavioural	traits.		 	 limitations.	 one	limit	of	study	 	again	was	potential	power	for	detecting	the	interactions	in	the	 main	regressions.	although	g*power	calculations	indicated	that	power	would	be	 	 	 sufficient	for	detecting	the	main	(conditional)	effects,	interaction	effects	in	 regressions	are	typically	smaller	(aiken	&	west,	 )	and	therefore	require	higher	 power	to	detect.	as	previously	noted,	accurate	calculations	for	complex	regression	 models	require	estimates	of	expected	effects	sizes	(unstandardized	regression	 coefficients)	at	each	level	of	the	categorical	variable	(or	an	estimate	of	the	size	of	 relationships	between	continuous	variable	interactions	and	other	predictor	 variables)	for	all	the	conditional	and	interaction	effects	in	the	population,	which	 often	may	not	be	known	a	priori	(hayes,	 ).		while	g*power	 . 	is	a	respected	 and	commonly	used	tool	for	power	analysis	(faul,	erdfelder,	buchner,	&	lang,	 ),	it	has	been	argued	it	may	be	limited	in	correctly	detecting	power	for	 significant	coefficients	in	complex	regressions,	especially	for	those	that	include	 mediations	as	well	as	interactions	(aberson,	 ;	fritz,	&	mackinnon,	 ;	hayes,	 ).	power	analysis	is	a	rapidly	evolving	field	and	tools	such	as	pwr ppl	for	r	are	 currently	in	development	for	power	detection	of	mediation	and	complex	 moderation	results	(aberson,	 ),	in	addition	to	other	methodology	specifically	 aimed	at	addressing	the	problem	of	indirect	effects	within	mediated	regression	 models	(fritz,	&	mackinnon,	 ;	ma	&	zeng,	 ;	zhang,	 ).	in	the	meantime,	 a	word	of	caution	must	be	offered	for	the	interaction	and	mediation	results,	and	a	 suggestion	for	future	replication	is	made	in	order	to	verify	the	results.		 	 	 	 	 	 	 . 	christmas	giving	study	(study	 )	 . . 	overview.	 the	christmas	giving	study	(study	 )	had	two	goals.	the	main	aim	was	to	examine	 the	roles	that	self-construal	and	inclusion	would	play	in	donation	behaviour,	in	the	 real-world	setting	of	a	field	study.	the	hope	was	to	replicate	the	previous	findings,	 in	a	setting	that	would	enable	my	research	to	provide	practical	feedback	that	might	 assist	others	when	devising	strategies	for	cause	marketing	campaigns.	the	second	 aim	of	study	 	was	to	test	a	novel	new	manipulation	for	inclusion	in	the	form	of	a	 charity	poster,	with	wording	designed	to	manipulate	feelings	of	inclusion	(vs.	 control).	i	therefore	had	two	predictions;	first	(h )	that	under	normal	conditions	 (control	group)	people	with	a	higher	independent	self-construal	orientation	would	 express	increased	donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	animal	charity	than	people	 with	a	lower	independent	self-construal	orientation,	and	second	(h )	that	an	 affirmation	of	social	inclusion	(inclusion	manipulation)	would	result	in	reduced	 donation	intentions	for	an	out-group	animal	charity	in	people	with	a	higher	 independent	self-construal	orientation,	as	compared	to	under	normal	conditions.		 	 . . 	procedure.	 three	research	assistants,	using	intercept	methods	and	paper	surveys,	administered	 the	field	study	in	early	december,	in	the	indoor	mall	of	a	canadian	city	suburb.		in	 total	 	participants	were	recruited	to	participate	in	the	study	in	exchange	for	 $ . .	participants	were	told	that	the	study	was	for	non-commercial	academic	 research	looking	at	the	topic	of	donation	interest	in	animal	causes,	and	would	take	 	 	 between	 	and	 	minutes	to	complete.	a	consent	form	was	administered	to	all	 participants	prior	to	beginning	the	study.	of	the	 	participants	recruited,	 	 participants	either	did	not	complete	the	survey,	or	withdrew	consent,	resulting	in	a	 final	sample	of	 	participants	( %	female,	mode	age	=	 	years	and	older).		 	 participants	filled	in	the	 -item	self-construal	scale,	used	in	previous	studies.	they	 were	then	shown	a	small	poster	for	an	animal	charity	and	asked	to	rate	the	cause	on	 a	variety	of	measures.	following	this	a	 -item	donation	measure	was	taken,	as	well	 as	single	item	empathy	measure.	a	short	belonging	scale	was	administered	and	 demographic	questions	were	collected.	participants	were	then	thanked	and	given	a	 debriefing	form.	finally	participants	were	given	$ . 	as	compensation	for	the	study	 in	single	dollar	coins.	after	the	money	had	been	passed	over,	but	before	they	had	 left,	participants	were	informed	that	the	administrator	was	collecting	donations	for	 the	charity	on	the	poster	and	they	were	offered	the	opportunity	to	donate	any	or	all	 of	the	compensation	that	they	had	been	given	should	they	wish.	this	served	as	a	 second	dependent	variable.	all	proceeds	were	donated	to	the	bc	spca.	 	 materials.	 participants	first	completed	the	 -item	self-construal	scale	(singelis,	 ;	 independent	self-construal	α	=	. ,	interdependent	self-construal	α	=	. )	used	in	 the	previous	studies.	one	item	in	the	interdependent	self-construal	scale,	“it	is	 important	to	me	to	respect	decisions	made	by	the	group”,	showed	extremely	poor	 	 	 correlation	with	all	the	other	items,	and	was	flagged	for	removal	increasing	the	 shortened	scale	reliability	(α	=	. ).		 	 participants	were	then	shown	one	of	two	small	advertising	posters	and	asked	to	 look	at	it.	both	posters	were	identical	except	for	the	text	on	them,	which	was	either	 neutral	(control),	or	belonging	(inclusion	manipulation)	in	content.	in	the	inclusion	 condition	participants	were	encouraged	to	think	during	the	holiday	season,	about	 how	much	they	were	cherished	by	others,	and	to	celebrate	their	sense	of	 belongingness.	in	the	neutral	condition	participants	were	encouraged	to	think	 during	the	holiday	season,	about	taking	time	off	to	relax,	and	enjoying	the	 opportunity	to	do	things	they	wanted.	both	also	urged	participants	to	think	about	 donating	to	the	bc	spca	at	this	time	of	year	(see	appendix	a. 	for	poster	 materials).		 	 participants	were	then	asked	to	evaluate	the	cause,	on	five	criteria	using	a	 -point	 scale	( =	very	much,	 	=	not	at	all;	scale	reliability	α	=	. ).	specifically,	they	were	 asked	how	much	they	liked	the	cause,	were	favourable	to	the	cause,	were	positive	 about	the	cause,	considered	the	cause	desirable,	and	considered	the	cause	good.	a	 - item	donation	intentions	measure	(α	=	. )	was	then	taken	as	the	dependent	 variable.	this	measure	required	participants	to	answer	on	a	 -point	scale	regarding	 how	likely,	how	inclined	and	how	willing	they	were	to	donate	to	a	campaign	for	the	 cause	on	the	poster	they	had	been	shown.	following	this	participants	were	asked	 how	much	empathy	they	had	for	the	cause,	and	a	 -item	belonging	scale	(α	=	. )	 	 	 was	administered:	“i	feel	connected	with	others”,	“i	feel	isolated	from	the	rest	of	the	 world”,	“	i	have	a	sense	of	belonging”	using	a	 -point	scale.	brief	demographics	were	 collected	(age,	gender,	and	pre-tax	income)	in	category	form.		 	 . . 	results.	 the	study	was	by	necessity	short	in	length	and	administered.	as	a	consequence	no	 attention	checks	were	included,	nor	was	a	question	regarding	the	research	 hypothesis	asked.	no	participants	who	completed	the	survey	and	gave	consent	were	 excluded.		 	 power.	 a	post	hoc	power	analysis	was	conducted,	using	g*power	 . .	with	a	sample	size	of	 	in	a	multiple	regression	model	with	 	predictors	( 	predictors	and	 	interaction	 term)	and	an	observed	r 	of	 . ,	ρ 	was	calculated	at	 . ,	which	provided	a	 power	estimation	of	 . 	at	 %	confidence	level.		a	post	hoc	power	test	conducted	 using	g*power	 . 	for	an	independent	sample	t-test	revealed	that	with	a	sample	size	 of	 	( 	per	condition)	an	observed	d= . ,	with	critical	t	of . ,	was	needed	for	 a	power	estimation	of	> . 	at	 %	confidence	level.	furthermore,	a	post	hoc	 power	test	for	correlations	revealed	that	with	a	sample	size	of	 ,	an	observed	 correlation	of	. ,	was	needed	for	a	power	estimation	of	> . 	at	 %	confidence	 level.	see	appendix	a. 	for	power	analysis	output.	 	 	 	 	 manipulation	check.	 the	 -item	belonging	scale	was	intended	to	serve	as	a	manipulation	check.	it	was	 expected	that	higher	ratings	of	belonging	would	be	seen	in	the	inclusion	condition.	 however,	the	short	belong	scale	measure	was	not	found	to	vary	by	condition,	with	 the	control	condition	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . )	not	being	significantly	different	 from	the	inclusion	condition	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . )	according	to	an	independent	 sample	t-test	t( )= . ,	p=. .		 	 demographics.	 demographic	data	was	not	collected	on	ethnicity	within	the	survey,	however,	 administrators	confirmed	that	the	sample	was	highly	caucasian	in	content.	survey	 results	showed	that	 . %	were	 - 	years,	 . %	were	 - 	years,	 . %	were	 - 	years,	 . %	were	 - 	years,	and	 . %	were	over	 	years	old	(see	figure	 ).	in	terms	of	pre-tax	income	 . %	reported	under	$ , ,	 . %	reported	 $ , -$ , ,	 . %	reported	$ , -$ , ,	 . %	reported	$ , - $ , ,	and	 . %	reported	over	$ , ,	with	 . %	missing.	participants	 identified	as	 %	female.		 	 demographic,	trait	and	other	correlations.	 results	of	the	study	 	revealed	a	significant	positive	correlation	(r( )=. ,	 p<. )		between	donation	intentions	(measured	in	the	 -item	measure)	and	 independent	self-construal,	compared	to	between	interdependent	self-construal	and	 donation	intentions	(r( )=. ,	p=. ).	independent	self-construal	also	correlated	 	 	 positively	with	cause	rating	(r( )=. ,	p=. ),	but	not	with	actual	cash	donations	 (r( )=. ,	p=. ).	empathy	for	the	cause	did	not	correlate	with	either	 independent	self-construal	(r( )=-. ,	p=. ).	nor	interdependent	self- construal(r( )=-. ,	p=. ).		actual	cash	donations	did	not	correlate	with	 donation	intentions	(r( )=. ,	p=. ).	there	was	a	positive	correlation	between	 actual	cash	donations	and	age	r( )=. ,	p=. ,	but	not	between	donation	 intentions	and	age	r( )=. ,	p=. .		 	 means	comparisons.		 an	independent	sample	t-test	showed	that	females	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . )	rated	 the	cause	significantly	higher	than	did	males	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . )	t( )=	- . ,	p=. ,	d=	 . ,	however	neither	gender	were	significantly	more	likely	to	 express	higher	intentions	to	donate	t( )=	 . ,	p=. ,	or	give	higher	cash	 donations	t( )=	 . ,	p=. .		 	 an	independent	sample	t-test	showed	that	participants	in	the	control	condition	 expressed	significantly	higher	empathy	for	the	cause	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . )	than	 did	participants	in	the	inclusion	condition	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . )	t( )=	 . ,	 p=. 	d= . .	participants	in	the	control	condition,	however,	expressed	 significantly	lower	donation	intentions	for	the	cause	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . )	than	 did	participants	in	the	inclusion	condition	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . )	t( )=	- . ,	 p=. 	d= . .	there	was	no	difference	on	cash	donations	between	conditions	 t( )=	- . ,	p=. .	 	 	 regression	tests	for	moderation.	 moderated	multiple	regressions	were	carried	out	in	spss	using	process	v. 	(hayes,	 )	to	examine	whether	poster	style	(control	vs.	inclusion)	influenced	participant	 donation	intentions,	actual	cash	donations,	and	empathy	to	cause,	and	whether	 these	effects	were	moderated	by	self-construal	orientation.		 	 following	cohen	&	cohen	( )	and	wendorf	( ),	i	dummy	coded	the	 condition	for	the	inclusion	manipulation	vs.	control.	independent	and	 interdependent	self-construal	were	mean	centered,	in	accordance	with	guidelines	 (hayes,	 )	stipulating	that	this	practice	renders	subsequent	tests	of	hypotheses	 and	regression	coefficients	for	x	and	m	more	meaningful	and	substantially	 interpretable,	as	well	as	to	reduce	the	likelihood	of	errors	in	interpretation.	all	 dependent	measures	were	subjected	to	separate	moderated	multiple	regressions	 with	each	manipulation	condition	and	the	control,	each	self-construal	scores,	and	 their	interactions	simultaneously	entered	as	predictor	variables.	as	in	the	previous	 studies	unstandardized	coefficients	(b)	are	reported	rather	than	betas	(β).	because	 βs	are	not	properly	standardized	in	interaction	terms	they	are	not	interpretable,	 whereas	b	represents	the	difference	between	the	un-weighted	means	of	the	groups	 involved	(see	cohen	et	al.	 ).		 	 . . . 	role	of	poster	and	self-construal	in	donation	intentions,	cash	donation,	 and	empathy.	 summary	of	results.	 	 	 against	expectations,	neither	independent	self-construal,	nor	interdependent	self- construal	had	any	significant	impact	on	donation	intentions	or	cash	donations	in	 study	 .	furthermore,	neither	self-construal	significantly	interacted	with	the	poster	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion).	the	poster	condition	appeared	to	have	a	strong	 conditional	effect,	with	inclusion	positively	predicting	donation	intentions	and	 empathy	to	the	cause,	in	separate	regression	models,	with	both	independent	and	 interdependent	self-construal.	see	detailed	analyses	below.			 	 moderating	influence	of	poster	on	independent	self-construal	for	donation	intentions.	 i	submitted	the	donation	intentions	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	with	independent	self-construal	and	poster	(control	vs.	inclusion)	entered	as	 independent	variables.	the	regression	model	in	total	was	significant	r 	=	. ,	p	 <. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	a	significant	conditional	effect	for	the	poster	b= . ,	 se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ]	and	for	the	independent	self- construal	measure	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . .	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	poster	and	independent	self- construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 moderating	influence	of	poster	on	independent	self-construal	for	actual	cash	 donations.	 	 i	submitted	the	cash	donations	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	 with	independent	self-construal	and	poster	(control	vs.	inclusion)	entered	as	 independent	variables.	the	regression	model	in	total	was	not	significant	r 	=. ,	p	 	 	 =. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	conditional	effect	for	the	poster	b=- . ,	 se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	nor	for	the	independent	self- construal	measure	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	poster	and	independent	 self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 moderating	influence	of	poster	on	independent	self-construal	for	empathy	to	cause.	 i	submitted	the	empathy	to	cause	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	with	independent	self-construal,	poster	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	the	 interaction	between	them,	entered	as	independent	variables.	the	regression	model	 in	total	was	significant	r 	=. ,	p	=. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	an	approaching	 significant	conditional	effect	for	the	poster	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	but	not	for	the	independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	 own	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	 significant	interaction	between	poster	and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	 se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 moderating	influence	of	poster	on	interdependent	self-construal	for	donation	 intentions.	 i	submitted	the	donation	intentions	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	with	interdependent	self-construal	and	poster	(control	vs.	inclusion)	entered	 as	independent	variables.	the	regression	model	in	total	was	significant	r 	=	. ,	p	 =. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	a	significant	conditional	effect	for	the	poster	b= . ,	 	 	 se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ]	but	not	for	the	interdependent	 self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	poster	and	 interdependent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 moderating	influence	of	poster	on	interdependent	self-construal	for	actual	cash	 donations.	 i	submitted	the	cash	donations	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	 with	interdependent	self-construal,	poster	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	the	 interaction	between	them,	entered	as	independent	variables.	the	regression	model	 in	total	was	not	significant	r 	=. ,	p	=. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	conditional	 effect	for	the	poster	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	 nor	for	the	independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . .	there	was	no	significant	interaction	 between	poster	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 moderating	influence	of	poster	on	interdependent	self-construal	for	empathy	to	cause.	 i	submitted	the	empathy	to	cause	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	with	interdependent	self-construal,	poster	(control	vs.	inclusion),	and	the	 interaction	between	them,	entered	as	independent	variables.	the	regression	model	 in	total	was	significant	r 	=. ,	p	=. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	a	significant	 	 	 conditional	effect	for	the	poster	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	 [- . ,	- . ]	but	not	for	the	interdependent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	a	 significant	interaction	between	poster	and	interdependent	self-construal	b=- . ,	 se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		 	 . . 	discussion.	 results	for	study	 	were	mixed.	there	appeared	to	be	a	main	effect	of	condition,	 with	participants	in	the	control	condition	expressing	significantly	lower	donation	 intentions	for	the	cause	compared	to	participants	in	the	inclusion	condition,	 according	to	independent	sample	t-tests.	this	finding	was	corroborated	by	the	 regressions,	which	showed	a	conditional	effect	for	the	condition	also.	h 	was	 therefore	not	supported	by	the	results.	there	also	appeared	to	be	a	main	effect	 found	for	empathy,	but	in	a	reverse	direction	with	reduced	empathy	reported	in	the	 inclusion	condition.	no	clear	effect	was	found	for	either	self-construal,	in	terms	of	 donation	intentions	or	cash	donations.	h 	was	therefore	also	not	supported	by	the	 results.	interdependent	self-construal	interacted	with	the	inclusion	condition	to	 produce	a	negative	prediction	for	empathy;	in	that	empathy	was	reduced	following	 the	inclusion	manipulation.		neither	rating	of	cause	nor	empathy	for	cause	were	 found	to	mediate	donation	intentions.	while	previous	research	has	found	that	 gender	moderates	prosocial	behaviour,	and	may	be	mediated	by	empathy	(willer,	 wimer,	&	owens,	 ),	this	finding	was	not	supported	by	study	 .		 	 	 	 the	somewhat	mixed	findings	of	study	 	were	disappointing,	but	possibly	speak	to	 the	complexities	of	running	field	studies	where	it	is	hard	to	control	for	confounding	 variables.	intercept	surveys	by	their	nature	must	be	kept	short	and	it	is	hard	to	 collect	sufficient	data	to	manage	for	other	variables.	the	sample	size	was	relatively	 small,	due	in	part	to	the	time	window	i	had	been	able	to	negotiate,	in	which	to	 collect	data.		 	 moreover,	the	demographics	in	this	survey	varied	dramatically	from	all	previous	 studies,	with	the	age	range	of	participants	being	mainly	over	 	years.		research	 shows	that	belonging	needs	may	be	experienced	differently	over	a	lifespan,	and	that	 responses	to	inclusion	and	exclusion	threats	may	differ	with	age	(andersson,	 ;	 minichiello,	browne,	&	kendig,	 ;	newsom	&	schulz,	 ;	nicolaisen,	&	 thorsen,	 ;	schultz	jr.,	&	moore,	 ).	specifically	research	has	suggested	that	 loneliness	has	a	curvilinear	relationship	with	age	(lasgaard,	friis,	&	shevlin,	 ),	 with	those	under	 	years	and	over	 	years	experiencing	the	highest	levels	of	 loneliness	(victor,	&	yang,	 ).	in	view	of	these	findings	the	skewed	age	 demographic	in	my	sample	may	have	impacted	experiences	of	the	manipulation,	as	 compared	to	my	previous	studies.	 	 another	question	hovers	around	how	successful	my	novel	manipulation	had	been	at	 increasing	feelings	of	inclusion.	in	consideration	of	the	fact	that	the	manipulation	 check	noted	problems,	in	that	the	 -item	belonging	scale	failed	to	offer	significantly	 different	results	between	conditions,	it	may	be	questioned	as	to	whether	the	 	 	 inclusion	manipulation	that	i	had	constructed,	functioned	as	planned.	for	some	 people,	perhaps	those	with	a	good	network	of	social	support,	it	may	indeed	have	 functioned	to	increase	a	sense	of	belonging;	but	for	others,	perhaps	lonely	and	 isolated	it	may	have	had	a	reverse	effect	and	made	current	loneliness	more	salient.	 it	is	possible,	therefore,	that	it	may	have	functioned	as	both	an	inclusion	and	 exclusion	manipulation.	this	is	clearly	of	concern,	and	offers	a	warning	to	future	 researchers,	who	may	be	looking	to	try	out	novel	inclusion	and	exclusion	 manipulations.		 	 a	final	aspect	of	this	study,	that	caused	challenges,	was	the	experiences	of	all	the	 research	assistants	when	collecting	the	data.	there	was	often	confusion	over	 questions	on	the	part	of	the	respondents	and	some	respondents	particularly	 struggled	with	the	self-construal	scales.	this	is	may	be	seen	evidenced	in	the	poorer	 scale	reliability	for	these	scales,	than	may	be	normally	expected,	and	the	need	to	 remove	one	item	entirely	from	the	interdependent	self-construal	scale.		in	 consideration	of	the	fact	that	this	scale	was	developed	with	students	in	mind	it	is	 possible	that	it	lacks	reliability	and	validity	across	older	age	groups	in	the	general	 population.		in	addition	it	was	challenging	to	administer	the	cash	donation	 dependent	variable	at	times,	and	the	results	may	reflect	this	struggle.	many	people	 appeared	to	feel	awkward	taking	part	of	the	compensation	payment,	and	donating	 another	part,	and	so	there	was	often	an	all-or-nothing	response.	furthermore,	being	 forced	to	make	the	choice	regarding	donation	in	a	public	setting	may	have	 influenced	the	response.	past	research	has	found	that	people	will	respond	 	 	 differently	to	charity	appeals,	as	a	factor	of	whether	they	are	being	made	in	public,	 or	private,	setting	(froming,	walker,	&	lopyan,	 ;	kristofferson,	white	&	peloza,	 ;	simpson,	white	&	laran,	 ;	white	&	peloza,	 ;	wu,	gao,	&	mattila,	 ).	it	is	also	possible	that	the	fact	that	participants	were	filling	in	the	survey	in	 public	with	an	administrator,	may	also	have	influenced	responses	to	the	donation	 intentions	dependent	variable.	research	has	noted	that	reputational	incentives	may	 influence	donations	and	may	depend	on	the	situational	(public	vs.	private)	context	 (reinstein,	&	riener,	 ;	simpson,	&	willer,	 ).	studies	 - 	had	all	taken	place	 in	a	private	setting,	in	which	participants	could	be	relatively	sure	that	their	 responses	to	questions	regarding	donation	support	and	inclusive	behaviour	were	to	 be	kept	confidential.	however,	study	 	was	conducted	in	public	and	as	such	 presented	a	major	difference	in	context.		 	 in	sum,	study	 	was	not	able	to	offer	much	support	for	my	predictions,	and	did	not	 support	my	expectation	that	independent	self-construal	would	interact	with	an	 inclusion	manipulation	to	reduce	donation	intentions.		 	 	 	 	 	 chapter	 :	general	discussion	 	 . 	general	discussion	 results	across	four	studies	provide	converging	evidence	in	support	of	h 	and	h ;	 that	an	affirmation	of	social	inclusion	or	belonging	will	reduce	out-group	directed	 prosocial	behaviour,	in	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal.	study	 	 offers	evidence	to	support	h :	that	under	normal	conditions	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	may	behave	more	inclusively	towards	out-group	targets	 in	a	grouping	task,	whilst	individuals	with	high	interdependent	self-construal	 behave	less	inclusively.	study	 	also	provides	evidence	for	a	relationship	between	 trait	anthropomorphism	(finding	human	attributes	in	objects	and	non-human	 others)	and	high	independent	self-construal,	and	supports	h :	that	high	 independent	self-construal	is	positively	related	to	the	inclusion	of	more	items	in	the	 in-group	that	rate	high	in	potential	for	social	interaction.	this	is	supportive	of	the	 argument	that	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	may	use	‘social	 potential’	as	a	cue	for	in-group	selection.		 	 study	 	replicates	the	findings	of	study	 	and	offers	evidence	in	support	of	h :	that	 the	pattern	reverses	following	an	affirmation	of	social	inclusion	status,	after	which	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	behave	less	inclusively	towards	 out-group	members,	in	addition	to	offering	support	for	h ;	and	that	they	will	also	 offer	reduced	ratings	of	social	anthropomorphism	in	a	photo	task.	taken	together	 study	 	and	 	offer	evidence	that	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	 	 	 may	be	evaluating	and	including	out-group	members,	as	a	result	of	the	social	 resource	potential	they	offer,	but	that	this	behaviour	ceases	following	confirmation	 of	their	own	social	inclusion	status.	this	finding	is	supported	by	prior	work	of	 pickett,	gardner,	and	knowles	( ),	demonstrating	that	a	higher	need	for	 belonging	correlates	with	enhanced	monitoring	of	social	cues.	moreover,	i	extend	 the	work	of	pickett,	gardner,	and	knowles	( )	into	the	domain	of	self-construal,	 by	offering	evidence	to	support	the	proposition	that	under	normal	circumstances	 (control),	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	will	be	more	inclined	to	 monitor	for	social	cues,	which	may	indicate	a	potential	for	increased	social	 connection.	study	 	also	shows	that	the	pattern	reverses	following	an	affirmation	of	 inclusion,	and	i	suggest	this	may	be	as	a	result	of	a	reduced	need	for	social	 connection	and	an	activated	desire	to	signal	in-group	distinctiveness	following	an	 affirmation	of	belonging.	study	 	also	offers	evidence,	supporting	h ,	to	show	that	 individuals	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	are	buffered	against	affirmations	 of	inclusion.	 	 study	 	extends	the	pattern	into	the	domain	of	prosocial	behaviour,	that	of	donation	 support	directed	towards	an	out-group	cause,	and	offers	some	evidence	to	support	 h :	that	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	will	normally	express	 higher	donation	support	for	out-group	causes,	but	that	following	an	affirmation	of	 inclusion	they	will	express	less	donation	support.	study	 	repeats	the	findings	of	 study	 	and	offers	evidence	to	demonstrate	that	individuals	with	high	independent	 self-construal	prefer	to	donate	to	out-groups	that	seem	similar	to	them,	under	 	 	 normal	conditions,	but	that	following	an	affirmation	of	inclusion	they	prefer	to	 donate	to	out-groups	that	appear	different	from	their	in-group.	this	finding	 supports	h .	study	 	also	provides	evidence	in	support	of	h :	that	a	perception	of	 connection	to	the	cause	mediates	donations	towards	the	cause	for	individuals	with	 high	independent	self-construal.		 	 taken	together	the	research	provides	support	for	an	argument	that	individuals	with	 high	independent	self-construal	may	be	more	open	to	admitting	out-group	members	 to	an	in-group,	and	more	supportive	of	out-group	causes,	because	they	are	looking	 for	opportunities	to	connect	with	others,	and	therefore	are	vigilant	for	cues	of	social	 connection	potential	in	others.	in	doing	so,	my	research	provides	support	for	an	 argument	that	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	may	be	equally,	if	 not	more,	invested	in	managing	their	social	inclusion	status,	compared	to	 individuals	with	high	interdependent	self-construal.	in	addition,	i	argue	that	 following	a	confirmation	of	social	inclusion,	individuals	with	high	independent	self- construal	experience	a	reduced	desire	to	seek	social	resources,	and	an	increased	 desire	to	signal	and	defend	in-group	status,	which	may	result	in	a	reduction	of	 inclusive	behaviour	towards	out-groups	and	a	consolidation	and	differentiation	of	 in-group	and	out-group	boundaries	(tajfel,	 ;	tajfel	&	turner,	 ;	yuki	&	 takemura,	 )	in	order	to	maintain	self	esteem	(branscombe,	ellemers,	spears,	&	 doosje,	 ).		 	 	 	 	 . 	theoretical	implications	 this	paper	contributes	to	the	growing	literature	examining	the	impacts	of	social	 exclusion	and	inclusion	on	prosocial	behaviour	(beest	&	williams,	 ;	catanese	&	 tice,	 ;	cuadrado,	tabernero	&	steinel,	 ;	lee	&	shrum,	 ;	maner,	 dewall,	baumeister,	&	schaller,	 ;	twenge,	baumeister,	dewall,	ciarocco,	&	 bartels,	 ).	while	most	previous	work	has	focused	on	the	negative	downstream	 consequences	of	social	exclusion,	i	have	instead	focused	on	social	inclusion,	and	 have	built	on	past	research	detailing	the	negative	downstream	results	of	social	 exclusion	(twenge,	baumeister,	dewall,	ciarocco,	&	bartels,	 ),	by	 demonstrating	that	there	may	also	be	negative	downstream	consequences	to	 inclusion,	especially	with	regard	to	prosocial	support	for	out-group	targets.		 	 furthermore	this	dissertation	seeks	to	extend	the	existing	research	into	the	impacts	 of	self-construal	orientation	on	prosocial	behaviour	(duclos	&	barasch,	 ;	 kemmelmeier,	jambor,	&	letner,	 ;	pfundmair,	graupmann,	frey,	&	aydin,	 ;	ren,	wesselmann,	&	williams,	 ;	simpson,	white,	&	laran,	 ),	to	 propose	some	boundary	conditions	regarding	the	whens	and	the	hows.	specifically,	 regarding	the	former,	i	offer	evidence	that,	when	individuals	with	high	independent	 self-construal	experience	an	affirmation	of	inclusion,	they	will	express	lower	 donation	intentions,	and	behave	less	inclusively,	than	under	normal	conditions.	 regarding	the	latter,	i	demonstrate	in	my	research	that	the	impacts	of	social	 inclusion	appear	to	primarily	affect	those	individuals	high	in	independent	self- construal,	whereas	individuals	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	remain	 	 	 relatively	impervious.	this	finding	is	in	line	with	past	research	on	the	responses	of	 individuals	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	to	social	exclusion.	furthermore,	i	 make	a	novel	proposition,	that	this	happens	as	a	result	of	individuals	high	in	 independent	self-construal	seeing	prosocial	inclusive	behaviour	as	a	means	by	 which	to	improve	social	connection	and	to	feel	more	socially	included.		on	the	other	 hand,	individuals	who	are	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	will	consider	 themselves	chronically	assured	of	inclusion,	as	a	result	of	their	longstanding	rigid	 in-group	standing,	and	will	therefore	be	relatively	unmoved	by	exclusion	or	 inclusion	manipulations.	to	support	this	proposition,	i	offer	preliminary	evidence	 that	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	make	inclusion	choices	based	on	 the	social	potential	of	others	(study	 ),	and	are	more	likely	to	anthropomorphize	 others	on	attributes	relating	to	social	potential	(study	 ).	furthermore,	i	 demonstrate	(study	 )	that	for	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal,	 donation	intentions	towards	out-group	targets	is	mediated	by	feelings	of	connection	 to	the	target,	and	moderated	by	perceptions	of	similarity	vs.	difference	with	the	 target.		 	 additionally,	i	contribute	to	the	small	body	of	research	looking	into	 anthropomorphism,	as	a	function	of	social	exclusion	(epley,	waytz,	akalis	&	 cacioppo,	 ;	eyssel,	&	reich,	 ;	powers,	worsham,	freeman,	wheatley,	&	 heatherton,	 ;	waytz,	epley,	&	cacioppo,	 ;	waytz	&	epley,	 )	and	 provide	tentative	evidence	that	not	only	is	independent	self-construal	specifically,	 and	positively,	related	to	a	tendency	to	socially	anthropomorphise,	but	also	that	 	 	 feelings	of	social	inclusion	may	interact	with	independent	self-construal	to	reduce	 ratings	of	social	anthropomorphism—a	finding	that	builds	on	the	recent	work	of	 bartz,	tchalova,	and	fenerci	( ).			 	 taken	together,	this	research	adds	a	degree	of	depth	and	nuance	to	the	existing	 body	of	literature	by	demonstrating	the	moderating	influence	of	self-construal,	and	 extends	previous	work	on	the	negative	downstream	effects	of	social	exclusion	to	 include	that	of	social	inclusion.	finally,	this	research	also	demonstrates	that	the	 findings	extend	beyond	human	out-groups,	struggling	to	enjoy	adequate	prosocial	 support,	by	evidencing	that	the	findings	are	also	relevant	in	the	context	of	animal	 out-groups.	in	doing	so	it	builds	on	recent	research	that	is	looking	at	human-animal	 relations	through	an	intergroup	lens	(amiot	&	bastian,	 ).	 	 . 	practical	implications	 	 from	a	managerial	perspective	the	current	research	provides	important	insights	for	 marketing	practice,	especially	in	the	realms	of	cause	marketing	and	prosocial	 behaviour.	in	studies	 	and	 	i	explicitly	investigated	whether	the	more	inclusive	 behaviour	of	the	earlier	studies	might	extend	into	other	forms	of	prosocial	 behaviour	with	direct	financial	benefits,	and	provided	evidence	in	the	affirmative.	 the	potential	of	increasing	donations	for	out-group	charities	has	clear	direct	 benefits	for	real	world	setting,	since	many	conservation	charities,	as	well	as	 charities	aimed	at	benefiting	third	world	causes,	struggle	to	attract	sufficient	donors	 and	funding.	however,	so	far,	little	academic	research	has	examined	the	 	 	 psychological	mechanisms	behind	this	behaviour.	my	hope	is	that	this	research	goes	 some	way	to	improving	understanding	of	the	motivational	mechanisms	that	 increase	and	decrease	prosocial	behaviour,	towards	out-groups	and	distant	others,	 and	will	be	able	to	offer	valuable	insights	for	conservation	organizations,	animal	 welfare	and	humane	charities,	and	even	third	world	appeals,	wishing	to	leverage	 these	concepts	to	improve	prosocial	behaviour.			 	 one	important	result	of	my	research	was	the	finding	that	individuals	that	are	high	in	 independent	self-construal	may	behave	less	prosocially	when	they	are	assured	of	 their	belonging	status.	while	there	are	clear	ethical	problems	associated	with	 encouraging	people	to	feel	lonely	expressly	in	order	to	boost	donation	behaviour,	 charities	should	ensure	that	they	do	not	prime	the	opposite	(social	inclusion),	as	this	 may	well	reduce	donation	behaviour.	furthermore	it	should	be	noted	that	 manipulations	of	belonging	can	be	tricky,	as	may	be	seen	in	my	final	study	(study	 ),	 when	a	novel	attempt	at	an	inclusion	manipulation	appeared	to	backfire,	potentially	 causing	some	of	the	older	study	participants	to	become	more	aware	of	their	lack	of	 social	connections.		 	 one	other	final	finding	from	my	research	is	the	corroboration	of	past	findings,	 showing	that	individuals	high	in	interdependent	self-construal	do	appear	to	give	 less	to	out-group	charities	than	do	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal	 (duclos	&	barasch,	 ;	kemmelmeier,	jambor,	&	letner,	 ;	pfundmair,	 graupmann,	frey,	&	aydin,	 ;	ren,	wesselmann,	&	williams,	 ).	charities	 	 	 with	tight	budgets	may	wish	to	plan	accordingly	with	this	in	mind	in	order	to	 maximise	return	on	their	marketing	investments.		 	 mitigating	this	issue	somewhat,	my	research	points	to	the	need	to	highlight	self- other	similarities	in	charity	appeals,	which	should	meet	with	increased	support	 regardless	of	self-construal	orientation.	this	builds	on	previous	marketing	research,	 suggesting	that	the	more	similar	to	humans	animals	appear,	the	more	favourably	 they	will	be	treated	(connell,	 ).	as	has	been	previously	noted,	a	strong	 relationship	between	perceived	similarity	to	humans	and	preference	exists,	which	 suggests	that	humans	are	predisposed	to	liking	species	on	the	basis	of	perceived	 shared	bio-behavioural	traits	(batt,	 ).		however,	as	also	noted,	the	framing	of	 appeals	that	highlight	similarities	needs	to	be	carefully	worded	in	order	to	avoid	the	 dangers	of	priming	mortality	salience	(costello	&	hodson,	 ).		 	 moreover,	as	my	research	notes,	cues	of	similarity	may	come	in	many	forms.	 although	i	used	direct	text	to	highlight	similarity	in	study	 ,	study	 	highlighted	 another	form	of	‘seeing	similar’	–	that	of	anthropomorphism.	anthropomorphism	 has	been	found	to	promote	a	sense	of	kinship	(veer,	 ),	and	its	use	is	prevalent	 in	marketing	fields,	as	evidenced	by	the	familiar	use	of	brand	spokes-characters	 such	as	kellogg’s	tony	the	tiger,	and	the	united	states	forestry	service’s	smokey	 the	bear.	not	surprisingly,	conservation	workers	have	found	that	animals	that	 appear	to	embody	more	human	characteristics	are	indeed	perceived	as	more	 charismatic	and	appealing	by	the	public	(ducarme,	luque,	&	courchamp,	 ),	and	 	 	 conservation	charities	have	already	attempted	to	leverage	anthropomorphism	as	a	 conservation	tool	(chan	 ;	tam,	lee,	&	chao,	 ),	with	some	degrees	of	 success.	as	has	been	previously	noted,	however,	individuals	have	a	tendency	to	 anthropomorphize	more	when	they	are	socially	excluded	(epley,	waytz,	&	 	cacioppo	 ),	and	to	dehumanize	more	when	they	are	socially	included	(lucas,	&	 livingston,	 ;	waytz,	&	epley,	 ).	this	research	serves	to	sound	a	note	of	 caution	regarding	the	potential	damage	that	might	conceivably	arise	from	 incautious	use	of	such	tools.	further	research	looking	into	the	mechanisms	by	which	 anthropomorphism	works	in	this	setting	would	therefore	be	recommended.		 	 in	summary,	this	research	suggests	that	marketers	involved	in	cause	marketing	and	 prosocial	appeals	would	do	well	to	make	an	effort	to	understand	the	specific	 motivations	of	their	donors,	and	carefully	tailor	their	charitable	marketing	materials	 accordingly,	to	ensure	that	they	are	relevant	and	appealing	to	their	key	supporters	 and	customers.		 	 . 	research	limitations	and	directions	for	future	research	 there	are	a	number	of	general	areas	highlighted	by	this	research	that	would	benefit	 from	additional	future	research.	one	area	i	did	not	have	time	to	fully	explore	was	 whether	anthropomorphism	could	be	harnessed	in	any	positive	ways,	to	increase	 feelings	of	similarity	and	social	connection	towards	out-group	targets.	in	view	of	 past	research	on	intergroup	comparison	and	anthropomorphism	(leyens,	 rodriguez-perez,	rodriguez-torres,	gaunt,	paladino,	vaes,	&	demoulin,	 ),	this	 	 	 appears	to	be	an	area	worthy	of	future	study.		likewise,	i	was	not	able	to	explicitly	 explore	whether	anthropomorphism	impacted	donation	behaviour,	rather	than	just	 inclusive	behaviour,	and	therefore	this	would	be	another	area	that	would	benefit	 from	further	research.			 	 another	connected	area	of	research	that	i	was	not	able	to	pursue	is	the	area	of	 mimicry.	mimicry,	in	this	case,	is	defined	as	the	apparently	unconscious,	or	 automatic,	imitation	of	gestures,	behaviours,	facial	expressions,	speech	and	 movements.	not	only	has	past	research	indicated	that	mimicking	increases	a	sense	 of	rapport,	interpersonal	closeness,	and	liking	and	potentially	boosts	prosocial	 behaviour	(chartrand	&	bargh,	 ;	lakin,	jefferis,	cheng,	&	chartrand,	 ;	van	 baaren,	holland,	kawakami,	&	van	knipperberg,	 ),	but	people	have	also	been	 shown	to	mimic	more	when	they	feel	they	are	similar,	even	if	similarity	is	incidental	 (guéguen,	&	martin,	 ).	likewise,	evidence	has	been	offered	in	support	of	the	 argument	that	connectedness	to	the	mimicry	target	may	moderate	the	behaviour	 (van	baaren,	janssen,	chartrand,	&	dijksterhuis,	 ).	further	research	also	shows	 that	people	are	more	likely	to	mimic	each	other	when	they	are	excluded	and	seeking	 to	socially	connect	(lakin	&	chartrand,	 ;	lakin,	chartrand,	&	arkin,	 ;	 uldall,	hall,	&	chartrand,	 ).	evidence	suggests	that	people	with	a	more	 interdependent	self-construal	may	mimic	more	than	people	with	independent	self- construal	(ashton-james,	van	baaren,	chartrand,	decety,	karremans,	 ;	van	 barren,	maddux,	chartrand,	de	bouter,	&	van	knippenberg,	 ),	making	mimicry	 	 	 a	potentially	potent	tool	for	use	with	individuals	high	in	interdependent	self- construal.		 	 on	a	more	specific	level,	future	research	in	this	area	could	benefit	from	exploring	 whether	these	findings	are	applicable	in	the	context	of	cultural	self-construal.	past	 research	has	demonstrated	that	individualistic	regions	within	a	wider	country	may	 be	more	predisposed	to	donating	to	charity	(kemmelmeier,	jambor,	&	letner,	 ),	and	it	would	be	useful	to	examine	how	experiences	of	inclusion	might	 moderate	cultural	self-construal.	future	research	might	also	look	to	replicate	these	 results,	by	priming	individual	self-construal	within	a	study	framework,	as	opposed	 to	measuring	it.	study	 	also	highlighted	another	potential	line	of	future	research:	 that	of	the	influence	of	public/private	settings	on	the	mechanisms	involved	in	this	 current	research.	whether	these	findings	only	hold	true	in	a	private	setting	would	 be	a	very	valuable	area	to	explore.		 	 in	terms	of	generalizability,	it	would	be	useful	to	replicate	some	of	these	studies	in	 the	field	if	at	all	possible,	as	well	as	with	more	diverse	and	greater	samples,	in	order	 to	be	sure	of	the	robustness	of	the	results.	furthermore,	i	measured	only	inclusive	 behaviour	and	charitable	donation.	future	research	might	look	to	ascertain	whether	 these	findings	might	extend	to	other	prosocial	dependent	variables,	such	as	 volunteer	work.	moreover	my	research	looked	at	one	specific	out-group,	non- human	animals.	past	research	has	found	that	human-animal	similarity	primes	may	 result	in	reduced	prejudice	towards	out-groups	containing	other	humans	(hodson	&	 	 	 costello,	 ).	it	would,	therefore,	be	interesting	to	see	if	the	effects	with	self- construal,	witnessed	in	my	research,	extend	to	these	groups	as	well.	on	the	topic	of	 non-human	species	it	may	also	be	noted	that	the	future	belonging	manipulation	 used	in	study	 	is	worded	to	specifically	manipulate	feelings	of	human	belonging.	 while	this	manipulation	has	been	used	to	good	effect	in	past	research	it	is	possible	 that	it	may	have	primed	‘human	association’	as	opposed	to	general	belonging.	in	 consideration	of	the	interspecies	context	of	this	research,	future	research	might	look	 to	test	whether	the	effects	hold	true	in	a	non-human	specific	belonging	context	 moving	forward.			 	 another	area	that	would	also	be	potentially	valuable	to	explore	in	terms	of	future	 research	would	be	to	further	tease	apart	what	other	self-benefits,	beyond	social	 connection,	may	drive	prosocial	behaviour	as	a	factor	of	self-construal	orientation.	 as	previously	noted,	self-benefits	may	include	personal	benefits,	such	as	those	that	 involve	increasing	pleasure/decreasing	suffering	(for	example:	increasing	social	 inclusion,	personal	group	status;	highlighting	individual	distinctiveness),	or	social	 identity	based	benefits,	such	as	those	that	confirm	a	positive	group	stereotype,	or	 disconfirm	a	negative	group	stereotype.	more	broadly,	future	research	might	chose	 to	explore	the	connection	between	empathy	and	the	mechanisms	detailed,	as	well	as	 to	look	at	extending	this	research	into	the	existing	research	on	guilt,	self-construal	 and	similarity	to	target	(chen	&	moosmayer,	 )	in	a	prosocial	setting.	 	 	 	 	 research	limitations.	 in	terms	of	research	limitations,	as	previously	noted	many	of	the	studies	may	be	 noted	to	lack	power,	in	places	at	least,	and	at	times	p-values	approached	significance	 only.		whilst	study	 	and	 	were	well	powered	to	detect	the	conditional	effects	in	 each	regression	model,	they	may	not	have	been	sufficiently	well	powered	to	detect	 all	of	the	smaller	interaction	effects.	in	view	of	this,	the	fact	that	the	trends	and	 patterns	seen	in	the	interactions	were	repeated	over	a	number	of	samples	in	the	 different	studies,	adds	at	least	some	robustness	to	the	findings.	these	are	 admittedly	first	steps	in	a	novel	area	of	research,	and	to	be	more	sure	of	the	 robustness	of	the	findings	it	would	be	advisable	to	attempt	to	further	replicate	these	 in	future	research.		 	 another	limitation	of	my	findings	may	result	from	the	demographic	differences	seen	 in	my	samples.	whilst	student	samples,	typically	drawn	from	western,	educated,	 industrialized,	rich,	and	democratic	(weird)	societies,	are	commonly	used	in	 behaviour	science	research,	it	is	acknowledged	that	they	may	have	unusual	features	 that	limit	universal	replicability	(heinrich,	heine,	&	norenzayan,	 ).	in	 particular	attention	should	be	drawn	to	the	high	asian	ethnic	bias	in	many	of	my	lab	 sample	demographics,	compared	to	my	mturk	samples.	demographic	differences,	in	 terms	of	both	age	and	ethnicity,	were	quite	large	between	all	of	my	mturk	studies	 and	my	lab	studies.	these	demographic	differences	may	be	considered	a	weakness,	 or	a	strength,	considering	the	patterns	across	all	studies.	the	fact	that	interaction	 trends	were	repeated	with	reasonable	consistency,	despite	these	changes	in	 	 	 demographics,	may	speak	to	the	potential	for	my	findings	to	be	generalizable	 beyond	specific	populations.	a	word	of	caution	must	be	noted,	however,	regarding	 the	failure	of	the	short	field	study	to	replicate	the	results	of	the	previous	 	studies.		 	 . 	concluding	remarks	 	 in	summary,	this	dissertation	provides	novel	insights	into	the	prosocial	actions	and	 intentions	directed	towards	animal	out-groups,	as	a	function	of	self-construal.	more	 specifically,	i	focus	on	the	whens	and	hows	that	describe	the	circumstances	under	 which	self-construal	orientation	and	inclusion	status	will	interact	to	produce	more,	 or	less,	prosocial	results.	over	five	empirical	studies,	the	current	research	examines	 a	key	factor	(social	inclusion)	that	interacts	with	independent	self-construal	to	shift	 prosocial	behaviour,	in	the	form	of	inclusive	behaviour	and	donation	intentions	 towards	out-group	members	that	are	non-human	animals.	i	also	investigate	how	 perceptions	of	similarity	(vs.	difference)	with	an	out-group	may	moderate	prosocial	 intentions,	and	how	assessments	of	connection	to	the	cause	may	mediate	prosocial	 intentions,	both	as	a	function	of	self-construal.		 	 in	study	 	and	 ,	i	demonstrate	that	independent	self-construal	is	positively	related	 to	the	inclusion	of	out-group	members	into	a	self-formed	in-group	under	normal	 circumstances,	but	that	following	an	affirmation	of	social	inclusion	the	relationship	 reverses.	furthermore,	i	suggest	that	this	pattern	is	as	a	result	of	a	desire	to	fulfill	 social	connection	needs	for	individuals	with	a	high	independent	self-construal,	and	i	 show	that	this	effect	is	not	as	a	result	of	positive	affect.	in	study	 	and	 ,	i	 	 	 demonstrate	the	same	pattern	in	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal,	 only	this	time	with	donation	intentions	as	expressed	towards	an	out-group	cause.		 additionally,	i	show	that	framing	the	cause	as	similar	(vs.	different)	has	the	effect	of	 increasing	donation	support	for	individuals	high	in	independent	self-construal.	i	 propose	that	this	is	as	a	result	of	an	increased	interest	for	social	connectedness,	and	 demonstrate	that	connection	to	the	cause	acts	as	a	mediator	to	predict	donation	 intentions.		taken	together,	the	studies	make	theoretical	and	practical	contributions	 to	established	literature	streams	in	the	areas	of	prosocial	behaviour,	self-construal,	 and	the	downstream	effects	of	exclusion	and	belonging	on	the	self.	i	hope	that	this	 dissertation	provides	useful	insights	in	the	area	of	prosocial	behaviour	as	 specifically	directed	towards	out-groups,	including	animal	out-groups.		 	 	 	 	 	 	 chapter	 :	figures	 	 figure	 .	social	identity	vs.	personal	identity		 	 	 	 	 	 ©	brewer,	 .	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	optimal	distinctiveness	model	of	the	self	 	 	 	 ©	brewer,	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	construals	of	self	 	 	 a) independent	view	of	self,	b)			interdependent	view	of	self			 ©	markus	&	kitayama,	 .	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	self-construal	and	prosocial	behaviour	path	(studies	 ,	 	and	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 independent sc interdependent sc social	connection	 monitoring	 assured belonging out-group recipient in-group recipient 	 	 figure	 .	self-construal	and	prosocial	behaviour	path	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 independent sc social	connection	 monitoring	 assured belonging similar out-group recipient different out-group recipient activates	in-group	bias	 and	differentiation	 	 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(pre-test	study)	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 chinese	 south	 asian	 korean	 south	 east	asian	 caucasian	japanese	 other	 et hn ic it y	 by 	p er ce nt ag e	 	 	 figure	 .	sample	age	by	percentage	(pre-test	study)	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 under	 	years	 old	 - 	years	old	 - 	years	old	 over	 	years	old	 a ge 	b y	 pe rc en ta ge 	 	 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 caucasian	 black	 other	 et hn ic it y	 by 	p er ce nt ag e	 	 	 figure	 .	sample	age	by	percentage	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 under	 	 years	old	 - 	years	 old	 - 	years	 old	 - 	years	 old	 - 	years	 old	 over	 	 years	old	 a ge 	b y	 pe rc en ta ge 	 	 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 asian	 caucasian	 east	indian	 black	 other	 et hn ic it y	 by 	p er ce nt ag e	 	 	 figure	 .	proportion	of	in-group	made	up	of	animals	as	a	function	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	a)	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	b)	 	 regression	lines	with	johnson-neyman	points	showing	the	regions	of	a)	 independent	self-construal	and	b)	interdependent	self-construal	values	(filled	areas	 above	- . 	and	below	 . 	respectively)	for	which	a	floodlight	test	would	reveal	 significant	differences	between	the	two	groups.		 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	proportion	of	in-group	made	up	of	animals	as	 a	function	of	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 	 		 	 figure	 .	a)	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	b)	 	 floodlight	analysis	of	the	conditional	effect	of	the	condition	(x;	control	vs.	inclusion)	 on	inclusion	of	animals	in	the	in-group	θx à y	as	a	function	of	m	for	a)	independent	 and	b)	interdependent	self-construal	orientation,	along	with	confidence	bands	 (bauer	&	curran,	 ;	preacher	et	al,	 ;	rogosa,	 ;	spiller	et	al.	 .)		 	 as	can	be	seen	in	figure	a)	when	m≥-. 	the	confidence	bands	are	entirely	above	the	 zero	and	in	figure	b)	when	m≤. 	and	m≥ . 	the	confidence	bands	are	entirely	 above	the	zero.		 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	entitativity	scores	of	the	in-group	as	a	function	of	condition	 (inclusion	vs.	control)	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 .	a)	independent	self-construal	 							 .	c)	interdependent	self-construal	 	 	 a	visual	representation	of	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	condition	(x;	control	vs.	 inclusion)	on	ratings	of	entitativity	of	the	formed	in-group	(y)	by	self-construal	(w)	 	 figure	 .a)	shows	that	while	normally	(control)	there	appears	to	be	a	strong	 positive	correlation	between	independent	self-construal	and	subsequent	rating	of	 the	entitativity	of	a	self-formed	in-group,	this	relationship	reduces	with	an	inclusion	 condition.		 	 figure	 .c)	shows	no	change	in	entitativity	rating	as	a	result	of	the	inclusion	 condition	for	interdependent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	anthropomorphism	of	dog	picture	as	a	function	of	condition	 (control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 	 figure	 .	a)	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	b)	 	 figure	 .	a)	a	visual	representation	of	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	condition	(x;	 control	vs.	inclusion)	on	ratings	of	(social)	anthropomorphism	(y)	by	independent	 self-construal	(w).		 	 figure	 .	b)	a	visual	representation	of	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	condition	(x;	 control	vs.	inclusion)	on	ratings	of	(social)	anthropomorphism	(y)	by	independent	 self-construal	(w)	while	controlling	for	individual	differences	in	 anthropomorphism.		 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	ratings	of	anthropomorphism	as	a	function	 of	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 																											 %	ci	upper	limit	 	 	 	 	 							point	estimate	 	 	 	 	 							 %	ci	lower	limit	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	c)	the	conditional	effect	of	the	condition	(x;	control	vs.	inclusion)	on	 ratings	of	(social)	anthropomorphism	(θx à y),	as	a	function	of	independent	self- construal	orientation	(w),	controlling	for	individual	differences	in	 anthropomorphism.	as	can	be	seen	when	w	≥ . 	the	confidence	bands	are	 entirely	below	the	zero.		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 caucasian	 black	 lamn	 american	 south	east	 asian	 asian	 other	 et hn ic it y	 by 	p er ce nt ag e	 	 	 figure	 .	sample	age	by	percentage	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 under	 	 years	old	 - 	years	 old	 - 	years	 old	 - 	years	 old	 - 	years	 old	 over	 	 years	old	 a ge 	b y	 pe rc en ta ge 	 	 	 figure	 .	donation	intentions	as	a	function	of	condition	(control	vs.	 inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	b)	regression	lines	showing	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	condition	(x;	 control	vs.	inclusion)	on	donation	intention	(y)	by	independent	self-construal	(w)	 while	controlling	for	gender.		 	 note:	johnson-neyman	point	showing	the	region	of	independent	self-construal	 values	(filled	area	above	 . )	for	which	a	floodlight	test	would	reveal	significant	 differences	between	the	two	groups.		 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	donation	intentions	as	a	function	of	 condition	(control	+	affect	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	 (study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 								 	 	 	 	 								 	 	 			 %	ci	upper	limit	 	 			point	estimate	 	 	 			 %	ci	lower	limit	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	effect	of	the	condition	(x;	control	vs.	inclusion)	on	 donation	intentions	(θx à y),	as	a	function	of	independent	self-construal	orientation	 (w),	controlling	for	gender.	as	can	be	seen	when	w	≥	 . 	the	confidence	bands	are	 entirely	below	the	zero.		 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	connection	to	cause	as	a	function	of	condition	(control	vs.	 inclusion)	and	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	a)	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .b)	 	 	 figure	 .	a)	a	visual	representation	of	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	condition	(x;	 control	vs.	inclusion)	on	ratings	of	connection	to	cause	(y)	by	independent	self- construal	(w).		 	 figure	 .	b)	a	visual	representation	of	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	condition	(x;	 control	vs.	inclusion)	on	ratings	of	connection	to	cause	(y)	by	interdependent	self- construal	(w).	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	sample	ethnicity	by	percentage	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 caucasian	 black	 lamn	 american	 asian	 south	east	 asian	 other	 et hn ic it y	 by 	p er ce nt ag e	 	 	 figure	 .	sample	age	by	percentage	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 under	 	 years	old	 - 	 years	old	 - 	 years	old	 - 	 years	old	 - 	 years	old	 over	 	 years	old	 a ge 	b y	 pe rc en ta ge 	 	 	 figure	 .	donation	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	frame	(similar	vs.	 different)	and	interdependent	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	regression	lines	showing	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	poster	(x;	 similar	vs.	different)	on	donation	intentions	(y)	by	interdependent	self-construal	 (w).	note:	johnson-neyman	point	showing	the	region	of	interdependent	self- construal	values	(filled	area	below	- . )	for	which	a	floodlight	test	would	reveal	 significant	differences	between	the	two	groups.		 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	donation	intentions	as	a	function	of	poster	 style	(similar	vs.	different)	and	interdependent	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 							 											 %	ci	upper	limit	 	 	 							 											point	estimate	 	 	 	 							 											 %	ci	lower	limit	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	effect	of	the	poster	(x;	similar	vs.	different)	on	donation	 intention	(θx à y),	as	a	function	of	interdependent	self-construal	orientation	(w).	as	 can	be	seen	when	w	≤	- . 	the	confidence	bands	are	entirely	below	the	zero.		 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	donation	to	cause	as	a	function	of	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	 poster	type	(similar	vs.	different)	and	independent	self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 		 	 high	independent	self- construal	(z)	=	 . 	 	θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 low	independent	self- construal	(z)	=	- . 		 θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	effect	of	poster	style	(x;	similar	vs.	different)	on	donation	 intention	(y),	as	a	function	of	condition	(w;	control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	 self-construal	(z)	from	a	moderated	moderation	model,	controlling	for	gender.			 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(condition	x	poster	style)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	donation	intention	is	 significant	at	both	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	as	 well	as	with	low	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).		 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	donation	intentions	as	a	function	of	poster	 style	(similar	vs.	different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	 self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 															 %	ci	upper	limit	 	 	 															point	estimate	 	 	 															 %	ci	lower	limit	 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	two-way	interaction	between	condition	and	poster	style	 (θxw à y	)	as	a	function	of	independent	self-construal	(z)	when	controlling	for	gender.	 as	can	be	seen	when	z	≤- . 	and	≥ . 	the	confidence	bands	are	entirely	above	 and	below	the	zero	respectively.		 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	actual	cash	donation	as	a	function	of	poster	style	(similar	vs.	 different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	 (study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	a	visual	representation	of	the	conditional	effect	of	poster	style	(x;	similar	 vs.	different)	on	actual	cash	donation	(y),	as	a	function	of	condition	(w;	control	vs.	 inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	(z)	from	a	moderated	moderation	model,	 controlling	for	gender.			 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	connection	to	cause	as	a	function	of	independent	self-construal,	 inclusion	manipulation	and	similar	vs.	difference	poster	frame	(study	 )	 	 			 	 	 	 	 high	independent	self- construal	(z)	=	 . 		 θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 low	independent	self- construal	(z)=- . 		 θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	effect	of	poster	style	(x;	similar	vs.	different)	on	 connection	to	cause	(y),	as	a	function	of	condition	(w;	control	vs.	inclusion)	and	 independent	self-construal	(z)	from	a	moderated	moderation	model,	controlling	for	 gender.			 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	style)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	connection	to	cause	was	 significant	at	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	and	 near	significant	with	low	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).		 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	connection	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	 style	(similar	vs.	different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	 self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 																	 																 %	ci	upper	limit	 	 	 																point	estimate	 	 	 																 %	ci	lower	limit	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	two-way	interaction	between	condition	and	poster	style	 (θxw à y	)	as	a	function	of	independent	self-construal	(z)	when	controlling	for	gender.	 as	can	be	seen	when	z	≤- . 	and	≥ . 	the	confidence	bands	are	entirely	 above	and	below	the	zero	respectively.		 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	empathy	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	style	(similar	vs.	 different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	 (study	 )	 	 	 		 	 	 	 	 high	independent	self- construal	(z)	=	 . 		 θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 low	independent	self- construal	(z)	=	- . 		 θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	effect	of	poster	style	(x;	similar	vs.	different)	on	empathy	 for	cause	(y),	as	a	function	of	condition	(w;	control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	 self-construal	(z)	from	a	moderated	moderation	model,	controlling	for	gender.			 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	style)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	empathy	to	cause	was	near	 significant	at	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	and	 significant	with	low	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	empathy	for	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	 style	(similar	vs.	different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	 self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 %	ci	upper	limit	 	 	 point	estimate	 	 	 	 %	ci	lower	limit	 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	two-way	interaction	between	condition	and	poster	style	 (θxw à y	)	as	a	function	of	independent	self-construal	(z)	when	controlling	for	gender.	 as	can	be	seen	when	z	≤- . 	and	≥ . 	the	confidence	bands	are	entirely	 above	and	below	the	zero	respectively.		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	similarity	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	style	(similar	vs.	 different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	self-construal	 (study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 high	independent	self- construal	(z)	=	 . 		 θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 low	independent	self- construal	(z)	=	- . 		 θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	effect	of	poster	style	(x;	similar	vs.	different)	on	 similarity	to	cause	(y),	as	a	function	of	condition	(w;	control	vs.	inclusion)	and	 independent	self-construal	(z)	from	a	moderated	moderation	model,	controlling	for	 gender.			 	 a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	(inclusion	x	poster	style)	at	values	of	 independent	self-construal	revealed	that	the	effect	on	similarity	to	cause	was	 significant	at	high	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	 . 	=- . ,	p=. )	but	 not	significant	with	low	independent	self-construal	(θxw à y	l	z=	- . 	= . ,	p=. ).		 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	floodlight	analysis	of	similarity	to	cause	as	a	function	of	poster	 style	(similar	vs.	different),	condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	independent	 self-construal	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 %	ci	upper	limit	 	 	 point	estimate	 	 	 %	ci	lower	limit	 	 	 	 	 figure	 .	the	conditional	two-way	interaction	between	condition	and	poster	style	 (θxw à y)	as	a	function	of	independent	self-construal	(z)	when	controlling	for	gender.	 as	can	be	seen	when	z	≤- . 	and	≥ . 	the	confidence	bands	are	entirely	 above	and	below	the	zero	respectively.		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 figure	 	sample	age	by	percentage	(study	 )	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 - 	years	 old	 - 	years	 old	 - 	years	 old	 - 	years	 old	 over	 	 years	old	 a ge 	b y	 pe rc en ta ge 	 	 	 figure	 .	conceptual	models	(hayes,	 ;	 )	used	in	studies	 - 	 conceptual	moderation	model	 	(hayes,	 )	used	in	study	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 conceptual	moderation	model	 	(hayes,	 )	used	in	study	 	&	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 percentage	of	 in-group	made	 up	of	animals	 	 	 	 	 independent	 self-construal	 	 	 	 	 inclusion	 manipulation	 	 	 	 	 donation	 intention	 	 	 	 	 independent	 self-construal	 	 	 	 	 inclusion	 manipulation	 	 	 conceptual	moderated	mediation	model	 	(hayes,	 )	used	in	study	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 conceptual	moderated	moderation	model	 	(hayes,	 )	used	in	study	 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( ).	the	differences	of	the	personality	 features	and	of	the	emotional	empathy	for	volunteering.	academic	journal	of	 interdisciplinary	studies,	 ( ),	 .	 zhang,	z.	( ).	monte	carlo	based	statistical	power	analysis	for	mediation	models:	 methods	and	software.	behaviour	research	methods,	 ( ),	 - .	 zhang,	y.,	feick,	l.,	&	price,	l.	j.	( ).	the	impact	of	self-construal	on	aesthetic	 preference	for	angular	versus	rounded	shapes.	personality	and	social	 psychology	bulletin,	 ( ),	 - .	 	 	 	 	 appendix:	experimental	materials	&	follow-up	analyses	 	 	 a. 	follow-up	analyses	for	“social	connection”	potential	items	(pre-test	 study).	 	 demographic	differences.		 an	independent	t-test	found	no	significant	gender	differences	in	ratings	of	any	of	the	 individual	animal	and	human	items,	nor	any	significant	gender	differences	in	ratings	 of	grouped	high	social	and	low	social	animal	and	human	items.		a	one-way	anova	 found	no	significant	differences	in	ratings	of	animal	items	across	age	categories.		 however,	a	number	of	human	items	showed	significant	differences	across	age	 categories.	these	were	cousin	f( , )= . ,	p=. ;	advice	columnist	 f( , )= . ,	p=. ;	and	grandmother	f( , )= . ,	p<. .		a	one-way	anova	 found	no	significant	differences	in	ratings	of	animal	items	across	ethnicity,	except	in	 the	case	of	the	small	monkey	item	where	there	was	a	significant	effect	of	ethnicity,	 f( , )= . ,	p=. .	a	one-way	anova	found	no	significant	differences	in	ratings	of	 most	human	items	across	ethnicity,	except	in	the	cases	of	cousin,	f( , )= . ,	 p=. ;	kindergarten	teacher	f( , )= . ,	p<. ;	dance	coach	f( , )= . ,	 p=. ;	dentist	f( , )= . ,	p=. 	and	grandmother	f( , )= . ,	p=. 	where	 there	were	significant	effects	of	ethnicity.	in	order	to	minimize	effects	of	age	and	 ethnicity	the	items	that	showed	a	significant	variation	based	on	age	or	ethnicity	 were	excluded	from	use	in	the	final	selection	list.	 	 	 	 	a. 	self-construal	scale	(singelis,	 )	 (scale	of	 - ,	where	 	=	strongly	disagree,	 	=	strongly	agree)	 	 interdependent:	 . i	have	respect	for	the	authority	figures	with	whom	i	interact:	 . it	is	important	for	me	to	maintain	harmony	within	my	group:	 . my	happiness	depends	on	the	happiness	of	those	around	me:	 . i	would	offer	my	seat	on	a	bus	to	my	boss	 . i	respect	people	who	are	modest	about	themselves:	 . i	will	sacrifice	my	self-interest	for	the	benefit	of	the	group	i	am	in:	 . i	often	have	the	feeling	that	my	relationships	with	others	are	more	important	 than	my	own	accomplishments:	 . i	should	take	into	consideration	my	parents’	advice	when	making	important	life	 plans:	 . it	is	important	to	me	to	respect	decisions	made	by	the	group:	 . i	will	stay	in	a	group	if	they	need	me,	even	when	i’m	not	happy	with	the	group:	 . if	my	brother	or	sister	fails,	i	feel	responsible:	 . even	when	i	strongly	disagree	with	group	members,	i	avoid	an	argument:	 	 independent:	 . i’d	rather	say	“no”	directly,	than	risk	being	misunderstood:	 . speaking	up	during	a	meeting	is	not	a	problem	for	me:	 . having	a	lively	imagination	is	important	to	me:	 . i	am	comfortable	with	being	singled	out	for	praise	or	rewards:	 . i	am	the	same	person	at	home	that	i	am	at	work:	 . being	able	to	take	care	of	myself	is	a	primary	concern	for	me:	 . i	act	the	same	way	no	matter	who	i	am	with:	 . i	feel	comfortable	using	someone’s	first	name	soon	after	i	meet	them,	even	 when	they	are	much	older	than	i	am:	 . i	prefer	to	be	direct	and	forthright	when	dealing	with	people	i’ve	just	met:	 . i	enjoy	being	unique	and	different	from	others	in	many	respects:	 . my	personal	identity,	independent	of	others,	is	very	important	to	me:	 . i	value	being	in	good	health	above	everything:	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	scales	 i)	concise	version	(animal	anthropomorphism	only)	of	 	item	individual	 differences	in	anthropomorphism	questionnaire	idaq	(waytz,	cacioppo,	&	 epley,	 ).		 	 . to	what	extent	does	the	average	fish	have	free	will?	 . to	what	extent	are	pets	useful?	 . to	what	extent	is	the	average	amphibian	lethargic?	 . to	what	extent	do	cows	have	intentions?	 . to	what	extent	does	a	cheetah	experience	emotions?	 . to	what	extent	does	the	average	insect	have	a	mind	of	its	own?	 . to	what	extent	is	the	average	cat	active?	 . to	what	extent	is	a	tortoise	durable?	 . to	what	extent	does	the	average	reptile	have	consciousness?	 . to	what	extent	is	the	average	dog	good	looking?	 	 idaq	items	are	bolded.	non-bolded	items	are	clearly	observable	items	added	to	 dissociate	anthropomorphism	from	dispositional	attribution.	all	items	rated	on	a	 	 (not	at	all)	to	 	(very	much)	scale.	idaq	is	computed	by	summing	of	bolded	items.		 	 ii)	brief	fne	scale	(leary,	 ).	 	 .	i	am	usually	worried	about	what	kind	of	impression	i	make.	 .	i	am	afraid	that	others	will	not	approve	of	me.	 .	when	i	am	talking	with	someone,	i	worry	about	what	they	may	be	thinking	about	 me.		 .	i	am	afraid	that	people	will	find	fault	with	me.	 .	i	often	worry	that	i	will	say	or	do	the	wrong	things.	 .	i	am	frequently	afraid	of	other	people	noticing	my	shortcomings.	 .	i	worry	about	what	people	will	think	of	me	even	when	i	know	it	doesn’t	make	any	 difference.	 .	sometimes	i	think	i	am	too	concerned	with	what	other	people	think	of	me.	 .	i	am	unconcerned	even	if	i	know	people	are	forming	an	unfavourable	impression	 of	me.	(r)	 .	if	i	know	someone	is	judging	me,	it	has	little	effect	on	me.	(r)	 .	other	people’s	opinions	of	me	do	not	bother	me.	(r)	 .	i	rarely	worry	about	what	kind	of	impression	i	am	making	on	someone.	(r)	 	 iii)	 -item	loneliness	scale	(hughes,	waite,	hawkley,	&	cacioppo,	 ).	 	 please	answer	the	following	questions	about	how	you	feel	right	now	 	 . do	you	feel	that	you	lack	companionship?	 . do	you	feel	left	out?	 . do	you	feel	isolated	from	others?	 	 	 	 ( 	=	not	at	all,	 	=	a	little,	 	=	somewhat,	 	=	very	much)	 a. 	study	 	experimental	grouping	task	item	list	and	instructions	 	 please	make	up	two	groups	by	dragging	items	from	the	list	below	into	two	boxes.	 one	box	already	has	“yourself”	in	it.	each	group	must	have	a	minimum	of	 	items.	no	 item	may	remain	unselected.		 	 labrador	dog;	dolphin;	horse;	cat;	rabbit	(hs)	 skunk;	snail;	tuna	fish;	alligator;	stick	insect	(ls)	 	 mother;	nurse;	a	friend;	your	partner;	fellow	student/worker	(hs)	 mall	security	guard;	a	stranger;	telemarketer;	sleeping	person;	border	control	 officer	(ls)	 	 [hs	=	high	social	;	ls	=	low	social]	 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	scales	 	 i)	need-to-belong	(ntb)	scale	(leary,	kelly,	cottrell,	&	schreindorfer,	 ).	 	 please	answer	this	second	block	of	questions	about	how	much	you	feel	each	of	the	 following	statements	is	true	of	you.			 				 please	answer	on	a	scale	of	 - ,	where	 	is	not	at	all,	and	 	is	extremely	true	of	you.		 	 . if	other	people	don't	seem	to	accept	me,	i	don't	let	it	bother	me	(r)	 . i	try	hard	not	to	do	things	that	will	make	other	people	avoid	or	reject	me	 . i	seldom	worry	about	whether	other	people	care	about	me	(r)	 . i	need	to	feel	that	there	are	people	i	can	turn	to	in	times	of	need	 . i	want	other	people	to	accept	me	 . i	do	not	like	being	alone	 . being	apart	from	my	friends	for	long	periods	of	time	does	not	bother	me	(r)	 . i	have	a	strong	"need	to	belong"	 . it	bothers	me	a	great	deal	when	i	am	not	included	in	other	people's	plans	 . my	feelings	are	easily	hurt	when	i	feel	that	others	do	not	accept	me	 	 ii)	ucla	loneliness	scale	v. 	(russell,	 ).	 	 -point	scale	( =	never,	 =	rarely,	 =	sometimes,	 =	always)		 	 . how	often	do	you	feel	you	are	“in	tune”	with	the	people	around	you?	(r)	 . how	often	do	you	feel	you	lack	companionship?		 . how	often	do	you	feel	there	is	no	one	you	can	turn	to?	 . how	often	do	you	feel	alone?	 . how	often	do	you	feel	part	of	a	group	of	friends?	(r)	 . how	often	do	you	feel	that	you	have	a	lot	in	common	with	the	people	around	 you?	(r)	 . how	often	do	you	feel	that	you	are	no	longer	close	to	anyone?		 . how	often	do	you	feel	that	your	interests	and	ideas	are	not	shared	by	those	 around	you?	 . how	often	do	you	feel	outgoing	and	friendly?	(r)	 . how	often	do	you	feel	close	to	people?	(r)	 . how	often	do	you	feel	left	out?	 . how	often	do	you	feel	that	your	relationships	with	others	are	not	meaningful?		 . how	often	do	you	feel	that	no	one	really	knows	you	well?		 . how	often	do	you	feel	isolated	from	others?		 . how	often	do	you	feel	you	can	find	companionship	when	you	want	it?	(r)	 . how	often	do	you	feel	that	there	are	people	who	really	understand	you?	(r)	 . how	often	do	you	feel	shy?	 . how	often	do	you	feel	that	people	are	around	you	but	not	with	you?	 . how	often	do	you	feel	that	there	are	people	you	can	talk	to?	(r)	 . how	often	do	you	feel	that	there	are	people	you	can	turn	to?	(r)	 	 reverse	scoring	(r).	higher	scores	equal	greater	degrees	of	loneliness.	 	 	 a. 	study	 	future	life	manipulation	(twenge,	baumeister,	dewall,	ciarocco,	 &	bartels,	 ).	 	 thank	you	for	your	time	so	far,	and	all	your	answers	to	study	two.	based	on	what	 you	have	told	us,	we	were	able	to	generate	a	personalized	future	life	prediction	for	 your	profile.	we	hope	it	will	be	of	interest.				 	 future	alone	(exclusion).	 		 you’re	the	type	of	person	that	will	end	up	alone	later	in	life.	you	may	have	friends	 and	relationships	with	other	people	now,	but	by	your	middle	age	most	of	these	 people	will	have	drifted	away	from	you.	you	may	even	marry	or	have	several	 marriages,	but	these	are	likely	to	be	short-lived.	your	relationships	with	other	 people	don’t	last,	and	when	you’re	past	the	age	where	people	are	constantly	forming	 new	relationships,	the	odds	are	you’ll	end	up	being	alone,	without	human	company,	 more	and	more.		 	 	 future	belonging	(inclusion).	 	 you're	the	type	of	person	who	has	rewarding	relationships	with	other	people	 throughout	life.	you're	likely	to	have	a	long	and	stable	marriage	and	have	 friendships	with	people	that	will	last	into	your	later	years.	the	odds	are	that	you'll	 always	have	human	company	in	the	form	of	friends	and	people	who	care	about	you.		 	 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	anthropomorphism	picture	and	task	instructions	 	 		 	 	 please	choose	the	answer	that	indicates	the	extent	to	which	you	agree	or	 disagree	with	each	statement.	scale	of	 - ,	where	 =	strongly	disagree,	and	 =	 strongly	agree	 	 this	dog	can	sometimes	be	thoughtful		 this	dog	may	be	considerate	at	times		 this	dog	can	be	sympathetic		 this	dog	can	suffer	from	embarrassment	at	times	 this	dog	can	behave	in	a	creative	way	 this	dog	may	sometimes	be	devious	 this	dog	can	get	jealous	 this	dog	can	be	aggressive		 this	dog	is	sometimes	active		 this	dog	may	be	fearful		 this	dog	can	be	agile		 this	dog	may	sometimes	be	lethargic		 this	dog	looks	muscular		 this	dog	can	be	energetic		 this	dog	looks	friendly		 this	dog	seems	keen	to	play	 	 *items	in	bold	are	social	anthropomorphism	items.	 	 	 a. 	follow-up	analyses	study	 		 	 demographic	and	trait	correlations.	 results	of	study	 	revealed	a	significant	positive	correlation	(r( )=. ,	p<. )		 between	anthropomorphism	(measured	in	the	idaq)	and	independent	self- construal	(compared	to	between	interdependent	self-construal	and	idaq	 (r( )=. ,	p=. ).	loneliness	(measured	using	the	 -item	loneliness	measure)	 and	independent	self-construal	were	negatively	correlated		(r( )=-. ,	p=. ).	 study	 	showed	a	significant	negative	correlation	between	fne	and	independent	 self-construal(r( )=-. ,	p=. ),	following	a	somewhat	similar	pattern	to	study	 ,	which	showed	a	significant	positive	correlation	between	fne	and	interdependent	 self-construal.		the	results	showed	that	neither	trait	anthropomorphism	(measured	 with	the	idaq),	(r( )=. ,	p=. ),	nor	the	loneliness	measure,	(r( )=-. ,	 p=. ),	were	significantly	correlated	with	the	percentage	of	animals	being	included	 in	a	self-designated	in-group.	an	independent	samples	t-test	showed	no	significant	 differences	between	genders	on	measures	of	any	of	the	following	variables	(idaq,	 self-construal,	percentage	of	animals	in	in-group),	which	was	in	line	with	 expectations.	females	had	significantly	higher	ratings	of	fne	(m= . ,	sd= . )	 compared	to	males	(m= . ,	sd= . ),	according	to	an	independent	samples	t-test	 (t	( )=- . ,	p=. ,	d= . ),	and	females	also	had	marginally	higher	scores	of	 ntb	(m= . ,	sd= . )	than	males	(m= . ,	sd= . ),	according	to	an	 independent	samples	t-test	(t	( )=- . ,	p=. ,	d= . ).	 	 grouping	task:	means	differences.	 an	independent	samples	t-test	showed	that	the	mean	of	the	percentage	of	self- formed	in-group	made	up	of	animals	was	lower	in	the	exclusion	condition	(m= . ,	 sd= . ,	se=	 . ,	n= )	than	in	the	control	condition	(m= . ,	sd= . ,	se= . ,	 n= ),	although	not	significantly	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	d= . ,	 %	ci[- . , . ].	 when	comparing	the	inclusion	group	with	the	control	group	in	a	separate	test,	the	 mean	of	the	percentage	of	self-formed	in-group	made	up	of	animals	was	also	lower	 in	the	inclusion	condition	(m= . ,	sd= . ,	n= )	than	in	the	control	condition	 	 	 (m= . ,	sd= . ,	se= . ,	n= ),	although	again	not	significantly	t( )=- . ,	 p=. ,	d= . ,		 %	ci[- . , . ]		 	 anthropomorphism	task:	means	differences.	 an	independent	samples	t-test	showed	that	the	mean	of	the	ratings	of	 anthropomorphism	was	lower	in	the	exclusion	condition	(m= . ,	sd= . ,	se=	 . ,	n= )	than	in	the	control	condition	(m= . ,	sd= . ,	se= . ,	n= ),	 although	not	significantly	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci[- . , . ].	an	independent	 samples	t-test	also	showed	that	the	mean	of	the	ratings	of	anthropomorphism	was	 lower	in	the	inclusion	condition	(m= . ,	sd= . ,	se=	 . ,	n= )	than	in	the	 control	condition	(m= . ,	sd= . ,	se= . ,	n= ),	although	again	not	 significantly	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci[- . , . ]		 	 regression	analysis	covariate	results	summary.	 controlling	for	gender,	age,	and	ethnicity	in	the	subsequent	analyses	revealed	no	 significant	results	between	the	control	and	exclusion	conditions.	ethnicity	did	 marginally	significantly	predict	inclusion	of	animals	into	an	in-group	b=- . ,	 se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . , . ]	in	the	grouping	task	in	the	 regression	analysis	model	between	the	inclusion	and	control	conditions	with	 independent	self-construal	as	a	variable,	but	it	had	no	significant	effect	with	 interdependent	self-construal	in	the	same	model,	nor	did	it	have	any	significant	 effect	with	the	anthropomorphism	rating	task	with	either	independent	or	 interdependent	self-construal.	controlling	for	fne,	ida,	and	ntb	in	the	subsequent	 analyses	revealed	no	significant	results	between	the	control	and	exclusion	 conditions	in	the	grouping	task,	neither	did	they	revealed	any	significant	results	 between	the	control	and	inclusion	conditions	in	the	grouping	task.		all	three	 significantly	predicted	ratings	of	anthropomorphism	between	the	control	and	 exclusion	conditions.	 	 	 	 regression	model	tables	(study	 )	 percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals.	control	vs.	exclusion	comparison	tables.		 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 gender	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 gender	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	age.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 age	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	age.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 age	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ethnicity.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ethnicity.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	fne	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 fne	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	fne	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 fne	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ntb	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ntb	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ntb.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ntb	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ida	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ida	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ida.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ida	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 anthropomorphism	ratings	of	dog	picture.	control	vs.	exclusion	comparison	tables.		 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 gender	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 gender	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	age.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 age	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	age.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 age	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ethnicity.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ethnicity.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	fne.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 fne	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	fne.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 fne	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ntb.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ntb	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ntb.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ntb	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ida.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ida	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p<. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	exclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ida.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ida	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals.	control	vs.	inclusion	comparison	tables.		 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 gender	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 gender	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	age.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 age	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	age.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 age	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ethnicity.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ethnicity.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	fne.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 fne	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	fne.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 fne	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ntb.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ntb	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ntb.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ntb	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 independent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ida.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ida	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	percentage	of	in-group	made	of	animals	by	 interdependent	self-construal,	controlling	for	ida.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ida	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 anthropomorphism	ratings	of	dog	picture.	control	vs.	inclusion	comparison	tables.		 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 gender	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 gender	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	age.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 age	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	age.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 age	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ethnicity.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ethnicity.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	fne.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 fne	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	fne.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 fne	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ntb.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ntb	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ntb.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ntb	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ida.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ida	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	inclusion)	on	anthropomorphism	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	ida.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ida	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	scales	 	 i)	thwarted	belonging	scale	(adapted	from	interpersonal	needs	 questionnaire.	inq;	van	orden,	cukrowicz,	witte,	&	joiner	jr.,	 ).	 	 - 	point	scale	where	 =	not	at	all	true	for	me,	and	 =	very	true	for	me		 	 . other	people	care	about	me	(r)	 . i	feel	like	i	belong	(r)	 . i	rarely	interact	with	people	who	care	about	me		 . i	am	fortunate	to	have	many	caring	and	supportive	friends	(r)	 . i	feel	disconnected	from	other	people		 . i	often	feel	like	an	outsider	in	social	gatherings		 . i	feel	that	there	are	people	i	can	turn	to	in	times	of	need	(r)	 . i	am	close	to	other	people	(r)	 . i	have	at	least	one	satisfying	interaction	every	day	(r)	 	 ii)	 -item	trust	measure	 	 . i	can’t	depend	on	people	to	have	my	best	interests	at	heart	(r)	 . i	feel	that	people	can	be	counted	on	to	help	me		 	 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	writing	task	instructions	 	 writing	about	a	real	life	experience.		 			 the	next	section	of	this	study	is	looking	at	how	well	people	are	able	to	describe	a	 real	life	event	in	a	short	writing	exercise.	you	will	be	given	a	randomly	generated	 subject	to	write	about	from	our	list.	please	write	a	paragraph	on	this	topic	in	the	 space	below.			 	 	 inclusion:		 	 take	a	moment	to	think	about	a	time	in	which	you	felt	a	strong	sense	of	being	 included	or	belonging,	be	it	with	a	group,	friends	or	with	family.	try	and	recall	it	 as	vividly	as	possible.	then,	in	the	space	provided,	please	describe	what	the	 occasion	was,	who	was	with	you,	what	you	did,	and	how	exactly	you	felt	so	included	 or	felt	a	strong	sense	of	belonging.	please	write	a	paragraph	using	clear	detail.		 	 	 positive	affect:	 take	a	moment	to	think	about	a	time	in	which	you	felt	very	happy.	try	and	recall	 it	as	vividly	as	possible.	then,	in	the	space	provided,	please	describe	what	the	 occasion	was,	where	you	were,	what	you	did,	and	why	exactly	you	felt	so	happy.	 please	write	a	paragraph	using	clear	detail.	 	 control:	 take	a	moment	to	think	about	a	time	in	which	you	went	to	the	grocery	store.	 try	and	recall	it	as	vividly	as	possible.	then,	in	the	space	provided,	please	describe	 when	your	last	visit	was,	where	you	went,	what	you	bought,	and	how	often	you	buy	 groceries.	please	write	a	paragraph	using	clear	detail.	 	 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	charity	poster	task	&	instructions	 	 	 please	take	a	moment	to	look	at	a	poster	for	the	bc	spca	(british	columbia	society	 for	prevention	of	cruelty	to	animals)	animal	shelter.	 	 	 	 please	answer	the	following	questions	in	relation	to	the	poster	on	a	scale	of	 - 	( =	 strongly	disagree,	 	=	strongly	agree):	 	 . how	inclined	are	you	to	donate	to	this	cause?		 . how	willing	are	you	to	donate	to	this	cause?		 . how	likely	are	you	to	donate	to	this	cause?		 	 	 	 	 	 	 a. 	follow-up	analyses	study	 		 	 donation	intentions	&	cash	donation	means	by	gender.		 a	series	of	independent	samples	t-tests	showed	a	significant	difference	in	donation	 intentions	between	males	(m= . ,	sd= . )	and	females	(m= . ,	sd= . ),	 t( )	=	 . ,	p=	. ,	d= . 	.		moreover,	the	cash	donation	dependent	variable	 also	showed	a	significant	difference	with	females	(m	= . ,	sd	=	 . )	donating	 significantly	more	than	males	(m	= . ,	sd	= . ),	t( )	=	 . ,	p	=	. ,	d=	 . 	.		 	 demographic	and	trait	covariate	correlations	&	relationships.	 results	of	study	 	revealed	relatively	few	significant	or	conclusive	correlations	 between	the	demographic	and	trait	participant	variables	measured,	with	one	 exception	for	social	desirability,	which	was	significantly	positively	correlated	with	 independent	self-construal	(r( )=. ,	p=. )		and	significantly	negatively	 correlated	with	interdependent	self-construal	(r( )=-. ,	p<. ).		there	was	 found	to	be	a	significant	relationship	between	trust	for	both	interdependent	self	 construal	(r( )=. ,	p<. )	and	independent	self	construal	(r( )=. ,	 p=. ).		there	was	also	found	to	be	a	significant	relationship	between	thwarted	 belonging	for	both	interdependent	self	construal	(r( )=. ,	p<. )	and	 independent	self	construal	(r( )=. ,	p<. ).		there	may	have	been	a	potential	 relationship	between	ethnicity	and	empathy	but	the	small	cell	count	for	all	other	 ethnicities	other	than	“caucasian”	prohibited	a	conclusive	x 	test	result.		 	 role	of	positive	affect	manipulation	in	donation	intentions		 regression	models	control	vs.	affect	model.	 in	a	separate	model	with	independent	self-construal,	the	affect	manipulation	did	not	 significantly	predict	donation	intentions	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	and	the	 affect	manipulation	did	not	appear	to	differ	significantly	from	the	control	condition.	 this	was	despite	being	accurately	recalled	by	participants.	furthermore	the	 regression	model	showed	no	significant	interaction	between	independent	self- 	 	 construal	and	the	affect	manipulation.		in	a	separate	model	with	interdependent	 self-construal,	the	affect	manipulation	also	did	not	significantly	predict	donation	 intentions	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	and	again	did	not	appear	to	differ	 significantly	from	the	control	condition.	the	regression	model	again	showed	no	 significant	interaction	between	interdependent	self-construal	and	the	affect	 manipulation.		controlling	for	the	trait	measures	(thwarted	belonging,	trust,	social	 desirability)	revealed	no	significant	or	different	findings	to	the	above.	see	detailed	 analyses	in	tables	following.		 	 regression	models	inclusion	vs.	affect	model.	 again,	in	a	separate	model	with	independent	self-construal,	the	affect	manipulation	 did	not	significantly	predict	donation	intentions	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	and	 the	affect	manipulation	did	not	appear	to	differ	significantly	from	the	inclusion	 condition.	furthermore,	the	regression	model	showed	no	significant	interaction	 between	independent	self-construal	and	the	affect	manipulation.		in	a	separate	 model	with	interdependent	self-construal	the	affect,	manipulation	did	not	 significantly	predict	donation	intentions	in	terms	of	a	conditional	effect,	and	again	 did	not	appear	to	differ	significantly	from	the	inclusion	condition.	the	regression	 model	again	showed	no	significant	interaction	between	interdependent	self- construal	and	the	affect	manipulation.	controlling	for	the	trait	measures	(thwarted	 belonging,	trust,	social	desirability)	revealed	no	significant	or	different	findings	to	 the	above.	see	detailed	analyses	in	the	tables	following.	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 regression	model	tables	(study	 )	 donation	intentions.	control	vs.	affect	comparison	tables.		 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 gender	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 gender	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	thwarted	belonging.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 thwarted	belonging	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	thwarted	belonging.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 thwarted	belonging	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	trust.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 trust	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	trust.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 trust	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	social	desirability.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 social	desirability	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(control	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	social	desirability.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 social	desirability	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 donation	intentions.	inclusion	vs.	affect	comparison	tables.		 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 gender	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 gender	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	thwarted	belonging.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 thwarted	belonging	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	thwarted	belonging.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 thwarted	belonging	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	trust		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 trust	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	trust.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 trust	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . 	,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	social	desirability.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 social	desirability	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	social	desirability.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 social	desirability	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 donation	intentions.	inclusion	vs.	control	(no	affect)	comparison	tables.		 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self- construal,	controlling	for	gender.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 gender	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self- construal,	controlling	for	gender.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 gender	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 	 	 donation	intentions.	inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect	comparison	tables.		 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self- construal,	controlling	for	gender.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 gender	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self- construal,	controlling	for	gender.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 gender	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self- construal,	controlling	for	ethnicity.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self- construal,	controlling	for	ethnicity.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 ethnicity	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . 	,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self- construal,	controlling	for	age.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 age	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self- construal,	controlling	for	age.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 age	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self- construal,	controlling	for	thwarted	belonging.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 thwarted	belonging	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self- construal,	controlling	for	thwarted	belonging.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 thwarted	belonging	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	trust.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 trust	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self-construal,	 controlling	for	trust.		 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 trust	 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . 	,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	independent	self- construal,	controlling	for	social	desirability.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 independent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	independent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 social	desirability	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,	p=. 	 	 	 table	 .	results	from	a	regression	analysis	examining	the	moderation	of	the	effect	of	 condition	(inclusion	vs.	control	+	affect)	on	donation	intentions	by	interdependent	self- construal,	controlling	for	social	desirability.	 	 	 	 	 coeff.	 	 se	 	 t	 	 p	 	 	 	 	 	 	 intercept	 i 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 <. 	 condition	(x)	 b 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 interdependent	self-construal	(m)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 condition		x	interdependent	self-construal	(xm)	 b 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 social	desirability	 	 - . 	 . 	 - . 	 . 	 	 r 	=	 . ,	mse	=	 . 	 f( ,	 )	=	 . ,		p=. 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	need	fulfillment	scale	(zadro,	williams,	&	richardson,	 )	 	 (se:	self	esteem;	c:	control/autonomy;	b:	belonging;	m:	meaningful	existence;		 r:	reverse	coded.)	 	 please	answer	the	following	questions,	using	a	scale	of	 - ,	where	 	is	not	at	all	true,	 and	 	is	very	true.		 	 . i	feel	good	about	myself	(se)	 . i	feel	somewhat	inadequate	(se)	(r)	 . i	feel	others	fail	to	perceive	me	as	worthy	and	likable	(se)	(r)	 . i	am	able	to	do	things	as	well	as	most	other	people	(se)	 . people	in	my	life	care	about	me	(b)	 . i	feel	poorly	accepted	(b)	(r)	 . i	feel	like	i	have	a	connection	with	others	(b)	 . i	feel	like	an	outsider	(b)	(r)	 . i	feel	in	control	of	my	life	(c)	 . i	feel	i	am	able	to	live	my	life	as	i	want	(c)	 . i	feel	somewhat	frustrated	with	my	life	(c)	(r)	 . i	feel	like	i	am	free	to	decide	for	myself	how	to	live	my	life	(c)	 . i	feel	my	existence	is	meaningless	(me)	(r)	 . i	feel	like	my	actions	have	an	important	effect	on	my	life	(me)	 . often	in	life	i	feel	non-existent	(me)	(r)	 . my	life	is	meaningful	and	worthwhile	(me)	 	 	 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	poster	frame	 	 	 	 dissimilar	condition	text:		 while	you	look	at	this	poster	please	consider	how	different	animals	are	to	human	 beings.	for	example	humans	are	truly	unique	when	it	comes	to	learning	and	cognitive	 abilities.	humans	experience	complex	emotional	states,	and	have	needs	and	 motivations	that	cannot	be	matched	by	those	of	animals.	we	are	able	to	inhibit	our	 instincts	and	use	sophisticated	reasoning	in	a	way	that	animals	are	not	able	to.		humans	 have	language	and	are	able	to	build	complex	societies,	something	animals	cannot	do	 either.	animals	are	really	very	different	to	human	beings.	 	 similar	condition	text:		 while	you	look	at	this	poster	please	consider	how	similar	animals	are	to	human	 beings.	for	example	animals,	like	humans,	are	able	to	learn	to	use	tools	and	possess	the	 mental	capacity	to	make	complex	choices.	animals	have	feelings,	may	experience	 physical	and	emotional	pain	and,	like	us,	have	needs	and	motivations	that	go	beyond	 mere	survival.	many	animals	also	understand	abstract	concepts	such	as	cause	and	effect	 relationships,	are	able	to	communicate	clearly	with	each	other,	and	live	in	close	knit	 social	groups,	as	we	do.	animals	are	really	very	similar	to	human	beings.	 	 	 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	follow-up	analyses	 	 pet	ownership:	donation	intentions	and	other	dependent	variable	means	tests	 in	terms	of	donation	intentions,	actual	cash	donation,	connection	to	cause,	similarity	 to	cause	and	empathy	for	cause,	independent	samples	t-tests	showed	that	pet	 owners	expressed	significantly	higher	ratings	than	did	non-owners.	see	details	 below.	 	 pet	owners	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . )	indicated	significantly	higher	donation	 intentions	than	non	owners	(n= ;	m= . ,	sd= . ),	t( )= . ,	p<. ,	 d= . ,	se=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	as	well	as	higher	connection	to	cause	ratings	 (pet	owners	m= . ,	sd= . ;	non	owners	m= . ,	sd= . )	,	t( )= . ,	p<. ,	 d= . ,	se=. ,	 %	ci	[ . , . ],	higher	similarity	to	cause	ratings	(pet	owners	 m= . ,	sd= . ;	non	owners	m= . ,	sd= . )	,	t( )= . ,	p<. ,	d= . ,	 se=. ,	 %	ci	[ . , . ],	and	higher	empathy	to	cause	ratings	(pet	owners	 m= . ,	sd= . ;	non	owners	m= . ,	sd= . )	,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	d= . ,	 se=. ,	 %	ci	[ . , . ].	they	also	made	higher	actual	cash	donations	(pet	 owners	m= . ,	sd= . ;	non	owners	m= . ,	sd= . ),	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 d= . ,	se= . 	 %	ci	[ . , . ].		i	therefore	carried	out	regression	models	 controlling	for	pet	ownership.		 	 role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame	and	interdependent	 self-construal	in	donation	intentions	 following	the	procedures	previously	outlined,	i	regressed	donation	intentions	on	 the	dummy	(control	vs.	inclusion)	and	moderator	variables.		 	 summary	of	results	 in	a	regression	model	(model	 ;	hayes,	 )	with	interdependent	self-construal,	 the	inclusion	manipulation	did	not	significantly	predict	donation	intentions	in	terms	 of	a	conditional	effect—neither	did	interdependent	self-construal,	nor	the	poster	 frame.	there	was	no	significant	three-way	interaction	between	interdependent	self- 	 	 construal,	poster	frame	and	the	inclusion	manipulation,	which	was	as	predicted.	of	 interest,	however,	was	the	significant	two-way	interaction	between	interdependent	 self-construal	and	poster	frame.	as	predicted,	whether	donation	intentions	were	 greater	depended	on	the	poster	frame,	as	well	as	participant’s	interdependent	self- construal.			 	 regression	model	of	donation	intentions		 i	submitted	the	donation	intentions	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	was	not	significant	r =. ,	p=. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	condition	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )=. ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	nor	for	interdependent	self-construal	 measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	 or	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	 interdependent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	poster	type	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	a	 significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	interdependent	self-construal	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	but	no	significant	 three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion,	and	interdependent	self- construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 .	 ].			 	 role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame	and	independent	self- construal	in	donation	intentions	 controlling	for	pet	ownership	 this	time	controlling	for	pet	ownership	i	once	more	submitted	the	donation	 intentions	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	 model	in	total	was	significant	r =. ,	p=. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	 conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	condition	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p=. 	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	nor	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	 t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	also	no	significant	conditional	 	 	 effect	of	the	independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	 t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	a	significant	interaction	 between	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	 and	poster	type	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	 was	a	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	independent	self-construal	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	and	most	importantly	 again	a	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion,	and	 independent	self-construal	b=-. ,	se=. ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].		there	was	also	a	significant	conditional	effect	found	for	pet	ownership	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p= ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].			 	 the	three-way	interaction	showed	that	(as	before	without	pet	ownership)	in	the	 control	condition	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	indicated	 significantly	higher	donation	intentions	with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	 than	they	did	with	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	 condition,	independent	self-construal	made	no	difference	to	donation	intentions	 with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	while	with	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	 text	ratings	were	highest	for	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal.	a	test	 of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	an	Δr 	of	. ,	f( , )= . ,	 p=	. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	interaction.	a	test	of	the	conditional	interaction	 (inclusion	x	independent	self-construal)	at	values	of	poster	style	revealed	that	the	 effect	on	donation	intentions	was	significant	only	in	the	“animals	are	different”	 poster	(θxw à y	i	z=	diff	= . ,	p=. )	and	not		in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	 condition	(θxw à y	i	z=	sim	=- . ,	p=. ).			 	 role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame	and	independent	self- construal	in	actual	cash	donation	 controlling	for	pet	ownership	 	 	 this	time,	controlling	for	pet	ownership,	i	submitted	the	actual	cash	donation	 measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	model	in	total	 was	not	significant	r =. ,	p	=. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	conditional	effect	of	 the	inclusion	condition	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	nor	for	independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	 t( )=- . ,	p=. 	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	was	approaching	significant	for	poster	 type	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	 was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. 	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	an	 approaching	significant	conditional	effect	found	for	pet	ownership	b= . ,	 se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		there	was	no	significant	 interaction	between	inclusion	and	poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p=. 	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	moreover	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	 poster	type	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	no	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	 inclusion,	and	independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	produced	a	 non	significant	Δr 	of	. 	f( , )	=	 . ,	p=	. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	 interaction.		 	 role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame	and	independent	self- construal	in	donation	intentions	 controlling	for	unmet	belonging	 this	time	controlling	for	unmet	belonging	i	once	more	submitted	the	donation	 intentions	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	 model	in	total	was	significant	r 	=	. ,	p	=. ,	f	( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	 conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	condition	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ]	nor	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	 t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	a	significant	conditional	effect	 of	the	independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- 	 	 . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	- . ].	there	was	a	significant	interaction	between	 inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	 poster	type	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	 was	a	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	independent	self-construal	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ],	and	most	importantly	 again,	a	significant	three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion,	and	 independent	self-construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 - . ].		there	was	also	a	significant	conditional	effect	found	for	unmet	belonging	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p= ,	 %	ci	[ . ,	 . ].			 	 the	three-way	interaction	showed	that	(as	before	without	unmet	belonging)	in	the	 control	condition,	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	indicated	 significantly	higher	donation	intentions	with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text	 than	they	did	with	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	text.	however,	in	the	inclusion	 condition,	independent	self-construal	made	no	difference	to	donation	intentions	 with	the	“animals	are	similar”	to	us	text,	while	with	the	“animals	are	different”	to	us	 text	ratings	were	highest	for	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal.		see	 appendix	figure	x	for	visual.	a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	interaction	 produced	an	Δr 	of	. 	f( , )= . ,	p=. 	as	a	result	of	the	three-way	 interaction.		 	 role	of	inclusion	manipulation	(vs.	control),	poster	frame,	and	independent	 self-construal	in	actual	cash	donation	 controlling	for	unmet	belonging	 this	time	controlling	for	unmet	belonging,	i	once	more	submitted	actual	cash	 donation	measure	to	the	mmr	analysis	(model	 ,	hayes	 ).	the	regression	 model	in	total	was	not	significant	r =. ,	p=. ,	f( ,	 )=	 . .	i	found	no	 conditional	effect	of	the	inclusion	condition	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	 p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	nor	for	poster	type	on	its	own	b= . ,	se= . ,	 	 	 t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	conditional	effect	 of	the	independent	self-construal	measure	on	its	own	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	 inclusion	and	independent	self-construal	b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	was	no	significant	interaction	between	inclusion	and	 poster	type	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].	there	 was	no	significant	interaction	between	poster	type	and	independent	self-construal	 b= . ,	se= . ,	t( )= . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ],	and	no	significant	 three-way	interaction	between	poster	type,	inclusion,	and	independent	self- construal	b=- . ,	se= . ,	t( )=- . ,	p=. ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		there	was	 no	significant	conditional	effect	found	for	unmet	belonging	b= . ,	se= . ,	 t( )= . ,	p= ,	 %	ci	[- . ,	 . ].		a	test	of	higher	order	unconditional	 interaction	produced	a	non	significant	Δr 	of	. ,	f( , )= . ,	p=. 	as	a	result	 of	the	three-way	interaction.		 	 role	of	similarity	to	cause,	and	empathy	for	cause	as	mediators	on	donation	 intentions	and	actual	cash	donation	as	a	factor	of	the	inclusion	manipulation	 (vs.	control),	poster	frame,	and	independent	self-construal.	 	 similarity	to	cause	 my	previous	mmr	analyses	established	that	both	the	manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	 control)	x	independent	self-construal	interaction	as	well	as	the	three-way	 manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	control)	x	independent	self-construal	x	poster	type	 interaction	were	associated	with	similarity	to	the	cause,	as	well	as	with	donation	 intentions	and	with	actual	cash	donation.	a	regression	test	that	placed	similarity	to	 cause	in	as	a	covariate	confirmed	that	the	mediator	(similarity	to	the	cause)	was	 related	to	both	donation	intentions	b= . ,	t( )= . ,	p<. 	and	actual	 cash	donation	b= . ,	t( )= . ,	p<. .	to	test	the	potential	mediation	 effect	i	followed	the	bootstrapping	method	(with	 	iterations)	advocated	by	 preacher,	rucker	&	hayes	( ).	this	procedure	tests	the	null	hypothesis	that	the	 	 	 indirect	path	from	the	interaction	term	to	the	dependent	variable	via	the	mediator	 does	not	significantly	differ	from	zero.	if	zero	is	not	contained	within	the	confidence	 intervals	(ci)	computed	by	the	bootstrapping	procedure,	then	one	may	conclude	 that	the	indirect	effect	is	indeed	significantly	different	from	zero	at	p<. .		 	 b) similarity	to	cause	on	donation	intentions	 a	first	stage	moderated	moderated	mediation	model	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	 delivered	an	index	test	of	moderated	moderated	mediation	with	a	slope	that	was	 statistically	different	from	zero,	index	=	- . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	=	 - . 	to	- . .	probing	the	interaction	we	may	see	that	the	indirect	effect	of	 inclusion	on	donation	intentions	through	similarity	to	cause	(mediator)	is	positive	 for	those	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	 are	different”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	 %	ci	from	 . 	to	 . ),	 but	not	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	 ( . )	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	 %	ci	 from	- . 	to	 . ).	nor	was	it	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	low	 independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	(point	 estimate:	- . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ),	nor	for	individuals	with	low	 independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type	(point	 estimate:	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ).	 	 c) similarity	to	cause	on	actual	cash	donation	 a	first	stage	moderated	moderated	mediation	model	delivered	an	index	test	of	 moderated	moderated	mediation	with	a	slope	that	was	statistically	different	from	 zero,	index	=	- . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	=	- . 	to	- . .	probing	 the	interaction,	we	may	see	that	the	indirect	effect	of	inclusion	on	cash	donation	 through	similarity	to	cause	(mediator)	is	positive	for	those	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	(point	 estimate:	 . ,	 %	ci	from	 . 	to	 . ),	but	not	different	from	zero	for	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ).	nor	 	 	 was	it	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	 %	ci	 from	- . 	to	 . ),	nor	for	individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	 %	ci	from	 - . 	to	 . ).	 	 empathy	for	cause	 my	previous	mmr	analyses	established	that	both	the	manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	 control)	x	independent	self-construal	interaction	as	well	as	the	three-way	 manipulation	(inclusion	vs.	control)	x	independent	self-construal	x	poster	type	 interaction	were	associated	with	empathy	for	the	cause,	as	well	as	with	donation	 intentions	and	with	actual	cash	donation.	a	regression	test	that	placed	empathy	for	 cause	in	as	a	covariate	confirmed	that	the	mediator	(empathy	for	the	cause)	was	 related	to	both	donation	intentions	b= . ,	t( )= . ,	p<. 	and	actual	 cash	donation	b= . ,	t( )= . ,	p<. .	to	test	the	potential	mediation	 effect,	i	followed	the	bootstrapping	method	(with	 	iterations)	advocated	by	 preacher,	rucker,	&	hayes	( ).	this	procedure	tests	the	null	hypothesis	that	the	 indirect	path	from	the	interaction	term	to	the	dependent	variable	via	the	mediator	 does	not	significantly	differ	from	zero.	if	zero	is	not	contained	within	the	confidence	 intervals	(ci)	computed	by	the	bootstrapping	procedure,	then	one	may	conclude	 that	the	indirect	effect	is	indeed	significantly	different	from	zero	at	p<. .		 	 a) empathy	to	cause	on	donation	intentions	 a	first	stage	moderated	moderated	mediation	model	(model	 ,	hayes	 )	 delivered	an	index	test	of	moderated	moderated	mediation	with	a	slope	that	was	 statistically	different	from	zero,	index	=	- . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	 =	- . 	to	- . .	however,	in	this	case,	probing	the	interaction,	it	may	be	seen	 that	the	indirect	effect	of	inclusion	on	donation	intentions	through	similarity	to	 cause	(mediator)	is	not	different	from	zero	for	those	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	(point	 estimate:	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . )	,	and	not	different	from	zero	for	 	 	 individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ).	nor	 was	it	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	 %	ci	 from	- . 	to	 . ),	nor	for	individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	 %	ci	from	 - . 	to	 . ).	however,	the	indices	of	conditional	moderated	mediation	by	 independent	self-construal	find	that	again	the	slope	that	was	statistically	different	 from	zero	was	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type,	index	=	 . ,	boot	 se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	=	 . 	to	 . ,	and	not	in	the	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	type,	index	=	- . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	=	- . 	 to	 . 	.	 	 b) empathy	to	cause	on	actual	cash	donation	 a	first	stage	moderated	moderated	mediation	model	delivered	an	index	test	of	 moderated	moderated	mediation	with	a	slope	that	was	statistically	different	from	 zero,	index	=	- . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	=	- . 	to	- . .	 however,	again	we	see	that	probing	the	interaction	delivers	an	indirect	effect	of	 inclusion	on	donation	intentions	through	similarity	to	cause	(mediator)	that	is	not	 different	from	zero	for	those	individuals	with	high	independent	self-construal	 ( . )	in	the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	 %	ci	 from	- . 	to	 . ,	and	not	different	from	zero	for	individuals	with	high	 independent	self-construal	( . )	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type	(point	 estimate:	- . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ).	nor	was	it	different	from	zero	 for	individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	 different”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	- . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ),	nor	 for	individuals	with	low	independent	self-construal	(- . )	in	the	“animals	are	 similar”	poster	type	(point	estimate:	 . ,	 %	ci	from	- . 	to	 . ).	 however	the	indices	of	conditional	moderated	mediation	by	independent	self- construal	find	that	again	the	slope	that	was	statistically	different	from	zero	was	in	 the	“animals	are	different”	poster	type,	index	=	 . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 	 	 %	ci	=	 . 	to	 . 	and	not	in	the	“animals	are	similar”	poster	type,	index	=	 - . ,	boot	se= . ,	bootstrap	 %	ci	=	- . 	to	 . .	 		 	 	 	 	 a. 	study	 	poster	manipulation	 	 																													 	 	 (neutral	condition)	 	 								 	 	 											(inclusion	condition)	 	 	 the holiday season is a time to celebrate for most of us. it’s a chance to take some time off work, to relax and enjoy hobbies, as well as other recreational activities. during the festive season therefore also spare a thought for animals in need and consider a donation to the bc spca. enjoy this opportunity to do the things you want to do and take time out! many animals however are delivered to the bc spca over this holiday period. ! ! the holiday season is a special time we share with friends, family and loved ones. it gives us a chance to think about how much we are cherished and valued by those around us. during the festive season however also spare a thought for animals in need and consider a donation to the bc spca. enjoy this opportunity to celebrate your sense of belongingness and to rejoice over the positive connections you have with those people that are nearest and dearest to you! ! ! 	 	 a. 	power	analysis	outputs	for	all	studies.	 	 study	 	power	analysis	 options: exact distribution analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two correlation ρ h = . α err prob = . total sample size = correlation ρ h = output: lower critical r = - . upper critical r = . power ( -β err prob) = . study	 	power	analyses	 	 exact - linear multiple regression: random model options: exact distribution analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two h ρ² = . h ρ² = α err prob = . total sample size = number of predictors = output: lower critical r² = . upper critical r² = . power ( -β err prob) = . t tests - means: difference between two independent means (two groups) analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two effect size d = . α err prob = . sample size group = sample size group = output: noncentrality parameter δ = . critical t = . df = power ( -β err prob) = . 	 	 exact - correlation: bivariate normal model options: exact distribution analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two correlation ρ h = . α err prob = . total sample size = correlation ρ h = output: lower critical r = - . upper critical r = . power ( -β err prob) = . 	 study	 	power	analyses	 	 f tests - linear multiple regression: fixed model, r² increase analysis: a priori: compute required sample size input: effect size f² = . α err prob = . power ( -β err prob) = . number of tested predictors = total number of predictors = output: noncentrality parameter λ = . critical f = . numerator df = denominator df = total sample size = actual power = . 	 exact - correlation: bivariate normal model options: exact distribution analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two correlation ρ h = . α err prob = . total sample size = correlation ρ h = output: lower critical r = - . upper critical r = . power ( -β err prob) = . 	 	 t tests - means: difference between two independent means (two groups) analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two effect size d = . α err prob = . sample size group = sample size group = output: noncentrality parameter δ = . critical t = . df = power ( -β err prob) = . 	 	 t tests - means: difference between two independent means (two groups) analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two effect size d = . α err prob = . sample size group = sample size group = output: noncentrality parameter δ = . critical t = . df = power ( -β err prob) = . 	 	 study	 	power	analyses	 f tests - linear multiple regression: fixed model, r² increase analysis: a priori: compute required sample size input: effect size f² = . α err prob = . power ( -β err prob) = . number of tested predictors = total number of predictors = output: noncentrality parameter λ = . critical f = . numerator df = denominator df = total sample size = actual power = . 		 	 	 exact - correlation: bivariate normal model options: exact distribution analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two correlation ρ h = . α err prob = . total sample size = correlation ρ h = output: lower critical r = - . upper critical r = . power ( -β err prob) = . t tests - means: difference between two independent means (two groups) analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two effect size d = . α err prob = . sample size group = sample size group = output: noncentrality parameter δ = . critical t = . df = power ( -β err prob) = . 	 study	 	power	analyses	 	 exact - correlation: bivariate normal model options: exact distribution analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two correlation ρ h = . α err prob = . total sample size = correlation ρ h = output: lower critical r = - . upper critical r = . power ( -β err prob) = . 	 	 t tests - means: difference between two independent means (two groups) analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: tail(s) = two effect size d = . α err prob = . sample size group = sample size group = output: noncentrality parameter δ = . critical t = . df = power ( -β err prob) = . f tests - linear multiple regression: fixed model, r² increase analysis: post hoc: compute achieved power input: effect size f² = . α err prob = . total sample size = number of tested predictors = total number of predictors = output: noncentrality parameter λ = . critical f = . numerator df = denominator df = power ( -β err prob) = . 	 the roles of “mothers” n opera as exemplified by fides (meyerbeer’s, le prophete); kostelnika (janaek’s, jenufa); mrs. patrick de rocher (heggie’s, dead man walking) by caroline hilda harder b. mus., western washington university, m. mus., western washington university, a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of musical arts in the faculty of graduate studies (voice performance) the university of british columbia (vancouver) august © caroline hilda harder, abstract mothers in operatic piots are mostly absent; when present, they are generally sung by a mezzo-soprano and are considered “supporting” roles. this dissertation attempts to eluci date what led to the scarcity ofmothers as important characters in opera, and to the apparent stereotyping ofthe role with the mezzo-soprano voice type. chapter introduces the topic, while chapter explores the aesthetics ofthe singing voice throughout various periods during which the “preferred vocal ideal” changed, as vocal ranges were equated with the personifi cation and stereotyping ofcertain character types. influences which affected the evolution of plot paradigms are also investigated. a summary of opera libretti from the seventeenth to the twentieth century supports historical evidence drawn from the above context and identifies the mother characters in these operas (see appendix a). chapters , , and offer three case studies ofthe treatment of operatic “mothers” who are central to the plot ofthe operas in which they, respectively, appear: fids from giacomo meyerbeer’s le prophète, kostelniëka from janáek’s jenufa, and mrs. patrick de rocher from jake heggi&s deadman walking. each includes an investigation ofthe opera’s context, the dramatic study ofthe mother character, an analysis ofthe musical settings ofthe drama, and performance aspects. a briefinterview with jake heggie is included in appendix b. this study concludes that the presence/absence ofthe mother character is influenced by vocal aesthetics as conventionalized by metastasian opera seria plots, and by subsequent opera plot conventions formulated through socio-cultural values. despite the difference in time, place and musical style among the operas studied, the problems and feelings ofthe mother character have not changed much from the nineteenth century to the twentieth. whether sung by a mezzo-soprano, or, occasionally, by a soprano, a timeless stereotype of the mother character emerges: a woman tormented between the love for her children and her moral duties. iv table of contents abstract ii table of contents iv list of examples v acknowledgements vi dedication vii chapter : introduction chapter summary literature review chapter : aesthetics and opera plot paradigms the aesthetics ofthe voice opera plot developments chapter : meyerbeer’s “le prophete” and the role of fides context ofthe opera the character offidès and her music chapter : the role of kostelni(ika in janaek’s “jen(jfa” the context ofthe opera janáek’s speech melody (napèvky m uv) kostelnika (sacristan) chapter : the role of mrs. patrick de rocher, in jake heggie’s “dead man walking” plot synopsis the context ofthe opera characteristics ofheggie’ s compositional style mrs. patrick de rocher the music ofmrs. patrick de rocher chapter : conclusions appendices appendix a appendix b v list of examples . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act ii, fidès’ arioso (# ), mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act ii, scene et quatuor (# ), mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act ii, arioso (# ), mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act ii, scene et quatuor (# ), mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act ii, arioso (# ), mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act iv, compliante (# ), mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act iv, compliante (# ), mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act iv, finale, a) couplet et morceau, (# ) c (jean) mm. - b) l’ exorcisme (# ) d (fidès), mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act v, cavatine et air (# ) mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act v, cavatine et air (# ) mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act v, scene et grand duo (# ) mm. - . : meyerbeer, le prophète, act v, scene et grand duo (# ) mm. - . a., b.: janáek speech melodies - . : janáek,jenzfà, act i, r. , mm. - . : janáèek, jenzfa, act i, r. , mm. - . : janáëek, jenzifa, act i, r. : — r. , mm. - . : janáek, jenzfa, act i, r. : m. — r. , mm. - . : janá&k, jen fa, act ii, r. , mm. - . : janáek,jenüfi, act ii, r. : —r. , mm. - . : janá&k, jen fa, act ii, r. , mm. - . : janá&k, jenzfa, act ii, r. , mm. - . janáek, jenifa, act ii, r. , mm. - . : janáèek, jenzfa, act iii, r. : — r. , mm. - . : heggie, dead man walking, act i, prelude, mm. - , . : heggie, dead man walking, act i, scene , mm. - , . : heggie, dead man walking, act i, scene , mm. - - . : heggie, dead man walking, act i, scene , mm. - - . : heggie, dead man walking, act i, scene , mm. - . : heggie, dead man walking, act i, scene , mm. - . : heggie, dead man walking, act i, scene , mm. - - . : heggie, dead man walking, act!, scene , mm. - : : heggie, dead man walking, act ii, scene , mm. - : : heggie, deadman walking, act ii, scene , mm. - - : : heggie, dead man walking, act ii, scene , mm. - - vi acknowledgements when i first chose this subject and took on this project, i had no idea ofits magnitude and scope. i could not have completed it without the help of several people. first, i owe a debt ofgratitude to my graduate committee. in particular, i wish to thank dr. vera micznik, my academic research supervisor, for wading through everything i wrote and offering her sage advice and her guidance in seeing this project to its fruition. her time and expertise have been greatly appreciated. she has gone above and beyond her call of duty. as well, i am grateful for the affirmation, support, and valuable insights ofprofessor nancy hermiston, my supervisor and voice adviser. professor roeloff oostwoud’s input into the project as a committee member was also appreciated. i also wish to thank jake heggie for taking the time to correspond with me, answer my questions, and as well, for his letter ofconsent from bent pen music, inc., to allow scanning ofmusical examples from his opera, dead man walking. finally, i am greatly indebted to my family for their unwavering support and practical help, especially during computer-related crises. in particular, i owe much gratitude to my husband, manfred, for assiduously reading through each ofmy drafts, and for his moral sup port, and encouragement. gloria dei. vii dedication this thesis is dedicated to my family: my husband manfred, and our children and grand children; and also in memory ofmy sister, anita (rahn) born (nee lind) ( - ) chapter introduction mothers as operatic characters are mostly absent from operatic plots, and when present are most often performed by mezzo-sopranos and typically considered “supporting” or “bit” roles.’ on the rare occasions when the mother is a lead or a supporting role, she is characterized through one ofthe stereotypes associated with the mezzo-soprano voice: “witches, bitches, and britches.” one case in point is the mother and witch in humper dinck’s hansel und gretel, where the same person is often cast in the jekyll and hyde position as both the mother and the witch, raising her to the status ofa lead character. she is a mean mother given to hysteria, threatening the children with beatings (from their father) and driving them away from the security ofhome. although the same casting ofthe role of mother and witch is often due to monetary concerns, in the plot neither the witch with her chameleon nature and evil machinations, nor the mother, serves as a positive female role model for the children. as a “bitch” stereotype, klytenmästra from richard strauss’s elektra also comes to mind. considered to be a lead character, she carries on an affair while her husband is at war and then together with her lover murders her husband on his return. her son is exiled and her categorization ofroles used by canadian actors’ equity association in order to determine pay scale is lead, featured, supporting, bit, or chorus bit. this is a singer’s expression, often usedjokingly particularly among mezzo-sopranos. “britches” refers to cross-dressing roles and will not be examined in detail in this document. an adaptation from a nineteenth century grimm’s fairy-tale where the step-mother wishes for the children’s demise due to family’s poor economic status and lack offood, and forces the father to abandon his children deep in the forest. see jacob and wilhelm grimm, kinder undhausmärchen gesammelt durch die brüder grimm (marburg: n.g. elwert’sche verlagsbuchhandlung, ), - . daughters are totally neglected. she is both bitch and witch, a madwoman who lives with hallucinations and nightmares, eventually murdered by her own son and daughter. the gypsy azucena, the mother ofmanrico in verdi’s ii trovatore, is a third example of a mezzo-soprano lead character in a stereotyped mother role. she is herselfthe daughter of a witch burned at the stake for having caused illness in the old count’s infant son. azuce na avenges her mother’s death by throwing the baby onto the embers ofher mother’s ashes only to later discover that she has mistakenly thrown her own baby onto the pyre. her act aria “stride la vampa,” sung as she is tending the fire, is sinister and evocative ofincantation. later in the opera when she is identified as the one responsible for the count’s son’s disap pearance, azucena is likewise branded a witch and sentenced to the same fate as her mother. we have to recognize that the scarcity of real mother roles in operatic plots is a strange phenomenon. biologically speaking, it is a fact that all operatic characters received life through a mother. however, while marriages are quite common in opera plots, mother hood and maternal love seem to have been neglected. as jennifer barnes points out, most of the daughters (and sons) in opera don’t have a mother. wouldn’t dorabella and fiordiligi (cosl fan tutte), who had only the wily despina to guide them, have fared better with mo therly advice? juliet’s mother (gounod’s romeo andjuliet) is not in the cast of characters in the opera at all, yet appears in shakespeare’s play. the mothers ofrosina (ii barbiere), or gilda (rigoletto), mimi (la bohème), or sophie (der rosenkavalier), luisa (luisa miller) or mignon (mignon) are also absent. by contrast, fathers are highly ranked on the pedestal jennifer barnes, “where are the mothers in opera?” opera quarterly ( ): - . also reprinted in sarah cooper, girls, girls, girls: essays on women and music (n.y.: new york university press, ), - . ofopera plots even though they often meddle in their daughters’ lives, most often negatively, and are usually responsible for their demise. as catherine clement points out, nineteenth century daughters in opera tend to die. she summarizes: “nine [diej by knife, two ofthem suicides; three by fire; two who jump; two consumptives; three who drown; three poisoned; two of fright; and a few unclassifiable, thank god for them, dying without anyone knowing why or how.” where are the mothers who would so obviously defend them? although a few mothers are nevertheless portrayed in opera, i will argue that the long tradition ofignoring mothers in opera plots already existed in the early development ofopera in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. as mothers begin to appear more often in the nineteenth century, they are treated, as my opening examples show, as stereotyped characters often with negative features (see also appendix a). klytemnastra is a formidable mother driven by the lust for power. hansel and gretel’s mother is seen through a fairy tale’s depic tion ofan evil stepmother. azucena, like her mother is considered a witch. moreover, other nineteenth century mothers are almost invisible, ineffectual, and have little influence, such as with strauss’s adelaide (arabella). finally, opera in the twentieth century continues to include more mothers as operatic characters (see appendix a). the inclusion ofwomen into opera plots grew in general as did plots about women’s lives. canadian tim sullivan’s opera florence, the lady with the lamp and american mark adamo’s opera little women (based on the book ofthe same in her article jennifer barnes includes other daughters in her list; heroines still young enough to be living with family or guardians. i chose mignon, rosina, dorabella and fiordiligi and sophie from her list. in addition, her list also includes arnina (la sonnambula); zerlina (fra diavolo); charlotte ( werther); senta (der fliegende hollander); elizabeth (tannhauser); lulu (berg); joan ofarc, in rossini’s (giovanna d ‘arco) and tchaikov sy’s (maid ofnew orleans); angeline (cenerentola), the title role in cendrillon; valentine (les huguenots); antonia (les contes d’hoffinann); lisa (pique dame); and the title roles in la wally, iris, lolantha, and tiny (paul bunyan). catherine clement, opera, or the undoing of women (minneapolis: university ofminnesota press, ), . name) are two examples; american vivian fine’s women in the garden is an opera composed by a woman about women (virginia woolf, gertrude stein, isadora duncan, and emily dickinson). do these examples suggest a possible paradigm shift in the thinking of composers and their librettists? is there a move away from the traditional stereotypes, towards the portrayal ofmothers in their maternal, loving role as characters in opera? my thesis seeks to understand the role of“mother” as an operatic character, by focus ing on the questions raised above, and attempts to explore why these roles are most ofthe time specifically assigned to the mezzo-soprano voice type, as the opening examples show. i shall do so by drawing on three operatic mothers who are central to the plot ofthe operas in which they respectively appear and are lead characters: fidès from giacomo meyerbeer’s le prophète, kostelni&a from janáek’s jenüfa, and mrs. patrick de rocher from jake heggie’s deadman walking. the importance ofthe character in each opera is shown by the fact that each mother interacts with the other characters through her own arias, not just short recitative and ensemble scenes (a fate faced in opera plots by secondary characters such as nurses who often replace mothers). notably, these characters span the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and each ofthem intersects deeply with the general constraints placed women in their respective societies. each mother is significant in her own right and aids in reaching a conceptualization ofthe operatic mother through her own distinctive voice and character. chapter summary the discussion in chapter will explore the aesthetics ofthe singing voice, showing that the “preferred ideal” influenced the stereotyping of operatic characters, as each vocal jay grout and hermine weigel williams, a short history ofopera th ed. (new york: columbia uni versity press, ), - . range was equated with the personification ofcertain character types. the emergence ofthe mezzo-soprano voice type will also be examined. further, opera plot paradigms will be brought as historical evidence in support ofthe aim ofthis thesis, to understand better the evolution ofthe role of“mother” as an operatic character. chapter will discuss the role offidès in giacomo meyerbeer’s five act grand opera le prophète, with libretto by eugene scribe, which premiered at the paris opéra on april , . fidés, as mother to jean de leyde the false prophet is not only the female lead, but the most important character in the opera. the emphasis on the relationship between mother and son replaces the typical theme ofromantic love, and their duets equal those ofoperatic lovers. this was the first opera to designate the role ofmother for mezzo-soprano. in addi tion, meyerbeer’s choice ofa “mother” as a lead character in her maternal, loving role, and his musical treatment, serve as a founding stone for the subsequent traditions analyzed in this study. chapter will focus on the role ofkostehiicka buryjovká in leo janáek’s jenzfa, which premiered in brno, czechoslovakia in . janá&k wrote the opera to his own libretto based on gabriela preissová’s play, jejipastorkyna, meaning “not own daughter.” in the opera, jenüfa is both stepdaughter and foster daughter to kostelnicka, whose own name means sacristan. it is an important study because women as characters are prominent in the operas ofjanáëek, and as a stepmother, the lead role ofkostelnika offers valuable insight into the stereotypical character type ofthe mother as viewed in a different culture and in a modernist time. in chapter , i will investigate the third opera with a mother as a lead character. the american opera, deadman walking, composed by jake heggie with librettist terence mcnally, premiered in san francisco in , and has since become one ofthe world’s most performed operatic new works. based on the award winning book by sister helen prejean, the opera depicts her ownjourney into louisiana’s prison system to become the spiritual adviser to a convicted death row inmate whose composite name is joseph de rocher. joseph’s mother is not given a first name and is known only as mrs. patrick dc rocher. her identity is seen through her husband, although he is not a character in the opera. as this is a contemporary opera, not a lot of research is available on the opera or on the composer jake heggie, and therefore a character study on ivfrs. patrick de rocher will give new insights into the dramatic and musical treatment ofmothers at the beginning ofthe twenty-first century. literature review little prior research has been conducted on the topic of mothers in opera prior to mine. since opera plots seldom include mothers in principal roles, the lack ofresearch aiming to discover possible reasons for this is highly surprising. besides an essay by jennifer barnes, i found no other written material asking questions similar to mine. the mothers barnes writes about in her research are janá&k’s jenüfa from jeni°ifa, puccini’s chô-chô-san ofmadame butterfly and angelica from his suor angelica. these young mother roles are designated for the soprano voice type and therefore do not fall into the cate gory ofmothers which i am addressing. in order to delimit my research, i am focusing on roles applicable to my voice type as a mezzo-soprano. catherine clement’s book, opera, or the undoing of women, is cited in many ofthe works i consulted on feminist criticism jake heggie, official website <http://www.jakeheggie.comi accessed august , . helen prejean, cjs, deadman walking (new york: random house inc., ) related to women in music. her scholarship has been important for opening dialogue into a feminist viewpoint in musicology and music analysis, and is therefore important to this study. however, her chosen characters are primarily soprano heroines. in addition to works already cited, feminine endings, by susan mcclary, musicology and difference, edited by ruth solie, and carolyn abbate’s unsung voices, among others, have increased my know ledge and understanding ofthe topic as it relates to feminist critique. a historical reading ofopera plots from the standpoint of“where we’ve been and where we may be headed,” is essential in placing characters in context interpretatively. there is little direct information about mothers as characters in opera but, rosand, rosselli, heriot, pleasants, andré, and grout, have provided some perspective. the most recent research of martha feldman, opera and sovereignty, is an excellent resource on opera seria. in researching the individual operas, important sources for gaining insight into the career and musical language ofmeyerbeer include letellier and becker, while pendle’ s comprehensive study on the works ofthe librettist eugene scribe provides valuable information on his colla boration with meyerbeer, and on french opera ofthe nineteenth century. similarly, tyrrell, kulka, ewans, and wingfield are the notable scholars whose research is influential in under standing the operas ofjanáek. several dissertations were located via proquest, which offered some information, and led to further resources. heggie’s visibility has greatly increased since the year premiere ofdeadman walking. however, the focus of scholarly material investigated is mostly on his vocal works (ofwhich many are composed for mezzo-soprano). his website and links to reviews ofthe opera and its social implications have been the main sources ofavailable information. two dissertations were consulted through proquest. a master’s thesis by kendra lynch “a comparative analysis offour pieces by jake heggie,” from california state university, provided valuable biographical information on the composer. a second recent dissertation, “a stylistic analysis ofjake heggie’s opera: deadman walking,” by sean teet from the university ofnorthern colorado, is from . teet’s analysis is focused primarily on sister helen prejean and joseph de rocher, although he does include mrs. patrick dc rocher’s act ii aria, “don’t say a word.” in addition to these, kirk’s book american opera sheds light into the musical styles that shaped american opera. an email interview with jake heggie pertaining mostly to the opera is included as appendix b. (detailed biographical information is available in the above-named theses). finally, discussing my topic with colleagues, friends, and acquaintances, has generat ed genuine interest and discussion on their part. my thesis is unique in its approach and through the questions that are raised. further, as the topic ofmothers as characters in opera has not been extensively researched, this thesis will inform the reader and offer insight that can be applied to mothers’ presence and status as dramatic opera characters. finally, my research will offer an in-depth look at the three mothers who are lead characters in view of re-valorizing the interpretative potential ofboth mothers as characters, and ofthe mezzo- soprano voice. as a fmal note, the pitch range indications used will be categorized according to the acoustical so ciety ofamerica, endorsed by the u.s.a. standards association, and is shown below. : u.s.a. standards association chapter aesthetics and opera plot paradigms according to musicologist roger parker, the majority of operas that form the present day international repertory belong to the period between and .” for this reason, our perception ofopera as a genre is based on the dramaturgy and the characters in these operas. stereotyped plots from this period have introduced characters that have become the most common archetypes. the leading roles are most generally young lovers, typically monopolized by sopranos and tenors. fathers (bass or baritone) and daughters (soprano) are also in good company as lead characters, while servant roles are most often old women and men, designated for mezzo-soprano and baritone voice types. in addition, there are “breech es” roles for mezzo-soprano (women cross-dressing to play male roles), and “villain” roles for baritone or bass. mothers, seen as operatic characters in their maternal role, seem to be missing from these character representations. the three roles ofmothers studied here are therefore exceptions from the norms. they are main characters designated for the mezzo- soprano voice type, propelling both role and voice to a prominence seldom received before. therefore, this chapter explores pertinent historical evidence and likely causes that support the absence and/or presence of mothers as operatic characters, in order to ferret out possible conclusions to this investigation. roger parker, “nineteenth century opera,” howard mayer brown, et al, “opera (i).” grove music online. oxford music online. jul. . <http://www.oxfordmusiconline.comlsubscriber/article/grove/music/ pg >. owen jander and ellen t. harris, “breeches part.” in grove music online. oxford music online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.conilsubscriber/article/grove/music/ (accessed june , ). the aesthetics ofthe voice the aesthetics ofthe voice is a significant starting point as the description of operatic characters above is associated with a specific category ofvoice. this historically based and “conditioned” convention ofstereotyping characters with specific voice types is still primari ly the accepted norm today, and the narrative that established this is worthy ofconsideration in order to contextualize the role ofmothers as operatic characters. despite the fact that the voice types—soprano, tenor, baritone, or bass—do not always fit neatly into a similar plot design, some generalizations emerge that support the stereotyping ofvoice with character.’ the relevance ofthese generalizations in this present discussion pertains more to the aesthet ics ofvoice types and their effect on the characterizations they may be correlated with, rather than to the characterizations themselves. the vocal aesthetics ofthe soprano voice developed in the baroque period became the preferred ideal, favored due to its ability for flexibility and expressiveness. in bacilly wrote: considering the voice according to its musical range, using the musical terminology of soprano, contralto, tenor bass, etc., we find that the higher voice ranges are more successful in effective performance even though all of the vocal ranges ought to be equally suitable for training. this is due to the fact that a greater number ofthe emotions or passions will appear to good advantage in the higher voice ranges than in the lower ones. the bass voice is suitable for almost nothing but the emotion of anger, which appears rarely in french airs.. . similarly, tosi ( ) and mancini ( ) wrote their treatises on singing for sopranos, and the soprano voice was universally considered the most suited for rapid divisions and ‘ catherine clement, “through voices, history,” in siren songs: representations ofgender andsexuality in opera, edited by mary ann smart (princeton, n.j.: princeton university press, ), , . although clement discusses this with regards to individual voices and their social roles, it applies equally to the aesthetics ofthe voice types. t. harris, “voices,” in the new grove handbook in music performance practice: music after , eds. howard mayer brown and stanley sadie (basingstoke: macmillan publishers, ), . emotional expression. according to ellen t. harris, this pertained not only to the female soprano voices, but the castrato voices also (soprano or mezzo-soprano).’ tosi, a soprano castrato, describes voices by their range and their ability in the following manner: a soprano has generally the most volubility, and becomes it best [sic]; and also equally the pathetick. the contr ‘alto more ofthe pathetick, than the volubility; the tenor less ofthe pathetick, but more ofthe volubility than the contr’alto, though not so much as the soprano. the bass, in general more pompous than any, but should not be so [sic] boisterous as now too often practiced.’ accordingly then, the aesthetics ofthe soprano voice was seen as ideal for the emotional expression that was cultivated in opera. suitability for a role was based on an aural percep tion ofwhat a specific voice type could signify in terms ofthe affect ofthe music. voices took on a certain persona simply by virtue oftheir characteristic sound. therefore, it was no mistake that in the eighteenth-century, castratos sang the roles ofheroes or noble lovers, and metastasian heroine roles were composed in the female soprano voice range.’ this tradition ofcasting women with female soprano voices as the plots’ heroines continued into subse quent centuries. notably, the heroines in mozart’s operas are all female sopranos, as are those ofverdi, puccini, strauss, and wagner, and all operas which are in the mainstream of the operatic repertory canon (although the type of soprano varies from opera to opera). the above quotes would indicate that the lower voices were not favored because they were weightier and less able to express the desired affects, a view held by other theorists as well. according to nigel fortune, the theorist giovanni battista doni felt nothing but con poid . thjd metastasian libretti available in groves music online did not stipulate whether these roles were sung by women or castrati. it likely could have been either. tempt for the contralto voice, dismissing it as “unnatural and too feminine.” but as we shall presently see, the lower female voice was not categorized yet in modem terms ofmezzo- soprano or contralto. mezzo-soprano as a voice type the mezzo-soprano voice type as a designation did not begin occurring with regulari ty until the end ofthe eighteenth century. no clear distinction was necessary between contralto and a middle-ranged voice, as the typical soprano range during the seventeenth and the first halfofthe eighteenth century was c to g .’ most female operatic roles were written in this range. as the opera genre grew in popularity, and because they were the principal female characters, the women who sang these roles became the first divas. anna renzi, the leading seventeenth century italian soprano who created the roles ofdeidamia in sacrati’s lafintapazza ( ), and octavia in (monteverdi’s l ‘incoronazione di poppea ( ), is an example. during the first half ofthe eighteenth century, a greater need to distinguish between the soprano and mezzo-soprano voice types resulted as composers began extending the upper soprano range in their compositions, and addingfioritura passages which required a lighter voice with an agility necessary to successfully negotiate the coloratura demanded in these nigel fortune, “italian seventeenth-century singing,” music and letters, xxxv ( ): ff. owen jander, et al, “mezzo soprano,” in groves dictionary ofmusic and musicians, ed. stanley sadie, vol. (new york: macmillan publishers ltd., ), - . for example, handel’s range for soprano did not exceed beyond an a very often. see also owen jander, et al. “soprano,” in grove music online. oxfordmusic online. jun. . <http://www.oxfordmusiconline.comlsubscriber/article/grove/music/ > new soprano roles. the new higher soprano roles further solidified the soprano aesthetic and the prima donna status ofthese singers, as this was the vocal aesthetic sought for principal female characters. notably, the aesthetic ofthe slightly lower ranged, more robust mezzo- soprano voice was unsuited to these roles. therefore, the idealized soprano voice pushed women with lower ranged voices further into the background, as the roles available to them were the occasional character parts of old women, nurses, confidantes, or occasional mothers, which would be smaller, second ary roles. additionally, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, lower voiced parts for women’s roles in opera could also be sung by castrati (due to their treble quality), or tenors who often sang the role ofnurses in the seventeenth century. a representative example is sacrati’s lafintapazza ( ), where both tetide (achilles’ mother) and deidamia’s nurse are designated for tenor voice type. similarly, in cesti’s iiporno d‘oro ( ), the nurse filaura is also cast as a tenor. for women who were not sopranos, the primary avenue to pursue prominent careers was to sing the androgynous roles, as they were sometimes allotted these roles en travesti, even while castrati were still available. examples include sartorio’s giulio cesare ( ) where cleopatra’s ptolemy is a contralto, and in legrenzi’s totila ( ) the general vitige is also written for contralto. similarly, in perti’s la rosaura ( ) gelindo is a contralto, and princess cunegonda ofbohemia is cast as a contralto, but disguised as a man. while these roles were most often designated for castrati, women were also cast in them at times. a representative example is victoria tesi ( - ), who excelled in male roles. see pleasants and also john rosselli, singers ofitalian opera (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), , . in several of handel’s operas, women were also cast in male roles. one example is rinaldo, where francesca vanino sang the role the captain goffredo in the premiere and francesca bertolli sang the role ofthe saracen king argante in the revival. ’margheri ta duristani created the title role in handel’s radamisto ( , london), which was then tak en over by the castrato senesino. and in , handel wrote the role of solomon for the mezzo-soprano caterina galli. benedetta pisaroni ( - ) began her career as a sopra no, but also sang male roles, premiering the role ofmalcolm in rossini’s la donna del lago ( ), and performing alsace in semiramide and the title role in tancredi. in addition to these cross-dressing or breeches roles, when contralto voice types were cast into nurse roles they were categorized as “old women.” two examples include penelope’s old nurse in monteverdi’s ii ritorno d’ulisse, and derisbe’s old nurse in thomas clayton’s arsino ( ). while these are only a small sampling, they underscore that until middle-ranged female voices reached the designation ofmezzo-soprano, the lower voice aesthetic was felt to be more suitable for masculine (androgynous) and older (old) women roles. the older women characters would be past their child-bearing years, a fact worth noting for its implications towards the exclusion of “mothers” in their maternal role as operatic characters. this growing distinction between the soprano and mezzo-soprano vocal ranges can be further illustrated by the descriptions provided by j.j. quantz and charles burney. for ex ample, in - the castrato senesino was described by quantz as having a “penetrating, clear, even, and pleasant deep soprano voice (mezzo-soprano) which he rarely used above anthony hicks, “rinaldo,” in the new grove book ofopera, ed., stanley sadie (new york: macmil lan press ltd., ), . owen jander, . f .” yet in england, charles bumey referred to him as a contralto. in , quantz de scribed faustina bordoni, whose vocal range was b — g ,as “having a mezzo-soprano voice that was less clear than penetrating.” however, bordoni and her greatest rival cuzzom (whose range was c — c )were considered the two most important sopranos ofthe eighteenth century. as well, rossini considered the contralto his favorite female voice, and wrote several operas where the leading heroic male role was written in this range specifi cally for the female voice. thus, the vocal range in the title role ofhis opera tancredi ( ) is g — g ,and similarly, in the role ofarsace in semiramide ( ), the range is g — g# . notably, the heroic role ofarmando in meyerbeer’sil crociato in egitto ( ), written for the castrato giambattista velluti, is also written in a similar vocal range and does not exceed an f . as the nineteenth century progressed, the descriptions for contralto and mezzo- soprano roles were not clearly distinguishable; however, more female roles whose vocal range reached above a g were added to the repertory by the major composers. in summary, vocal aesthetics occupied a critical space in establishing the association ofcharacter archetypes with vocal range. the distinction between the vocal categories of thid he’ pleasants, the great singers: from the dawn ofopera to our own time (london: macmillan publish ers, , ), . jander, . the prima donnas primarily billed themselves as sopranos and sang soprano repertoire even ifthey were not truly sopranos. as an example, in the nineteenth century both maria malibran and giudit ta pasta were indeed mezzo-sopranos, but sang soprano opera repertoire. henri beyle stendhal ( — ) noted that although pasta’s range was from a to c# or d ,her true designation was that ofmezzo-soprano and “any composer who writes for her should use the mezzo-soprano range for the thematic material ofhis music.” see also henry pleasants, great singers, . i would also point out that some roles that mezzo-sopranos sing today are designated for soprano voice type in the score. marcellina in mozart’s nozze di figaro is a prime example. cinistopher headington, roy westbrook and terry barfoot, opera: a history (london: arrow books ltd., ), . soprano, mezzo-soprano, and contralto became markers ofthe types ofroles women sang. the soprano voice type predominated as the ideal choice for heroine type ofroles, as it still does today. as shown above, the lower female vocal ranges were considered aesthetically appropriate only for the secondary roles of old women, occasional mothers, and lower classed servant-type of characters. due to the reign ofthe castrati whose vocal ranges were similar to the women, heroic male roles sung en travesti or as breeches roles also became available to the lower ranged voices. towards the end ofthe eighteenth century as the mezzo-soprano range became more prominent, this voice type became more often considered for major roles, first, by replacing the castrato in the heroic male roles and, as the nineteenth century unfolded, as major female characters. notably, the “mother” as an operatic character would progress from a minor, infrequent operatic character to a recurring and principal character of choice, which the three chosen operas will illustrate even though their infrequent occurrences testify to a continued distrust in the ability ofthe mother character and the lower female voice to captivate operatic audiences. opera plot developments the genre ofopera as a whole is reflective of its times, and transformations occurred within its evolution that paralleled those in other art forms. significant influences brought about new categories within the genre. the projection of social structure, as influenced by aristotelian principles, led to a separation oftragic and comic genres as well as dissemina tion ofmoral and institutional messages. further, issues of gender and class were reard strohm (with michel noiray), “the eighteenth century,” howard mayer brown, et a!. “op era (i).” grove music online. oxford music online. jul. <http://www.oxfordmusicon!ine.coni/subscriber/article/grove/music/ pg >. addressed in the plots of operas. while these issues will not be advanced further in this investigation due to space limitations, they have influenced the evolution ofplot paradigms. for this investigation, i have examined individual operas from each main period in the opera genre, in order to discern the treatment ofthe “mother” as an operatic character. the objec tive was to determine character, voice type distribution, and the frequency ofmothers or nurses (who were often substitutes for mothers) as dramatic personae in opera plots. i began by reading synopses of operas from seventeenth-century italy, france, germany and england. seventy-two italian operas were mentioned by the musicologists considered, but i was unable to find librettos for twenty-five ofthem. ofthe remaining forty-seven operas, only fourteen included mothers or nurses. in noting vocal aesthetics and characterization, the leading male roles (primo uomo) were designated for either soprano or alto, indicative of the castrati filling them. secondary male roles were likewise designated for either soprano or alto, similarly with castrati in mind, although actual performance would allow for exceptions as already noted. the leading lady was always a soprano. she could be a daughter or a wife, but was not a mother. tenors were present occasionally as a love inter est, sometimes as masked commedia dell’arte characters, as nurses, or more minor male characters. basses or baritones characters vary from those of“position” to servant or villain types. operas were mentioned or discussed in grout and william’s short history ofopera, the oxfordilu sfratedhistory ofopera, edited by roger parker, and ellen rosand and wendy heller’s books. my sources to locate the librettos were the new grove book ofoperas, edited by stanley sadie, and the new grove dictio nary ofopera in grove music online. oxford music online. while these women were described as being mothers, their children were not necessarily present as characters in the operas. the composers and librettists ofoperas with mothers or nurses will follow. cesti’s orontea (cicognini, ) includes a mother, aristea (alto). his la don (apolloni, ) includes a mother’s ghost and nurse, dirce (alto). his opera iiporno d’oro (sbarra, ) in cludes a nurse, filaura (tenor), who is also a comic character (all forty roles in this opera are written for either natural male voices or castratos). cavalli’s didone (busenello, ) in cludes a mother, ecuba (mezzo), and a nurse (soprano), while his ercole arnante (buti, ) has a mother, deianira (soprano). cavalli’s ormindo (faustini, ) includes a nurse, erice (tenor). his opera giasone (cicognini, - ) was the most frequently performed opera of the seventeenth century, and includes medea and hypsipyle (both sopranos), who are each mothers oftwin sons that have been fathered by jason (giasone), and a nurse (alto). landi’s sant’ alessio (rospigliosi, ) includes a mother and a nurse (unnamed, sung either by a boy soprano or a castrato). °manelli’s andromeda (ferrari, ) includes a mother (voice type not specified). mazzochi’s and marazzoli’s chi soffre speri (l’egisto, ) includes a mother, alvida (soprano). monteverdi’s ii ritorno d’ulisse (badoaro, ) includes a mother, penelope (soprano), and a nurse, ericlea, (mezzo). rossi’s version of orfeo (buti, ) includes a nurse, while monteverdi’s orfeo (striggio, ) does not. finally, sacrati’s la fintapazza (strozzi, ) includes a mother, thetide (tenor) and a nurse (tenor). in his opera giulio cesare in egitto (bussani, ), pompey’s widow comelia, mother of sesto, is a soprano, and cleopatra’s nurse rodisbe is a tenor. except for in sant’ alessio, and]! ritorno d’ulisse, the mothers are not seen as positive role models, but rather are portrayed as vain, ambitious, or vengeful. the french, german, and english operas mentioned by the musicologists totaled twenty-six, for which i was able to read twelve. only the seventeenth century french operas piero weiss, opera, a history in documents (new york: oxford university press, ), - . oflully and quinault include two mothers. in the title role, alceste ( , soprano) is a mother oftwo children, who offers herselfas a sacrifice to save her husband, while in persée ( ) the gorgon medusa (tenor) births monsters from her blood. in charpentier’s and corneille’s médée ( ), medea (soprano) is the abandoned lover who not only murders her sons but also poisons her rival creusa. the investigation ofthe above-mentioned seventeenth century operas is not compre hensive, but a pattern emerges that illustrates a stereotyping of characters in opera plots according to voice type. mothers listed are predominantly altos, supporting my earlier observations regarding their vocal aesthetic. moreover, mothers in their maternal roles are infrequent operatic characters, and several are negatively characterized. interestingly, the use oftenor in the role ofnurse as a motherly figure is worth noting, and points to the use of servants as a comic effect rather than in a nurturing role. the most significant current ofthe eighteenth century can be found in the conven tions established in opera seria through the literary reforms of apostolo zeno and pietro me tastasio. zeno favored historical subject matter and sought to rid opera plots ofthe use of its excesses, which included supernatural interventions, use ofmachinery, and comic episodes. what zeno began, metastasio completed. the plethora of characters, both human and super natural, confusing plots, and comic scenes gave way to a cast ofabout six stereotyped cha racters, orderly plots, restrained emotions together with refmed and courtly language. as well, metastasio favored a happy ending (lieto fine), and the stock figure ofa tyrant offering clemency is present at times. as drummond notes, with the literary reform, the plots re flected the activities ofan autocratic court, where political and amorous intrigues were pitted jay grout, a short history ofopera, . . note: la clemenza di tito, sface, ré di numida, ii ré pastore, catone in utica, and ipermestra are examples. against conflicts arising from exhibitions ofdespotic power versus servitude, duty over ob edience, virtue over vice, and temptation over fidelity. moreover, aristotelian principles sway the criteria important to the themes ofthe libretti of metastasio. mothers are not significant as operatic characters and are mostly absent from opera seria. with the elimination of the comic scenes from metastasian plots, even the nurses were removed. a paternalistic society present in life is also present in the “lives” ofthe characters on stage. feldman argues that the reason for this is found in the quintessential father figure who was structurally embodied in the divine king since men were seen as the dominant generative force by early-modern europeans. further she states: far from grounding itself in realistic polities and genealogies, opera seria thrived on roaming representations ofkinship and power in which omnipresence was all. . . its taken-for-granted nature depended on highly saturated and pliable signs—the divine king, noblesse oblige, the magnanimous prince, the royal crown, the divine sword, the altar and sun, the sacred cup. enormously plaint, opera seria sounded the absolutist order in a general way while numerous changes were rung on the messages it was understood to express. through much ofthe eighteenth century, opera seria was maintained and controlled (spon sored) by the tastes ofcourt cultures, from naples to st. petersburg, and from lisbon to vienna, or by associations ofaristocrats at centers such as venice, milan, or london. metas tasio articulated an eighteenth century ideal, and the impact ofhis influence can be seen in the number of settings ofhis librettos. the main composers ofopera seria were scarlatti, leo, and vinci in italy, keiser, hasse, and graun in germany, and handel in england. d. drummond, opera in perspective (london: j.m.dent & sons ltd., ), . martha feldman, “the absent mother in opera seria,” in, siren songs ed. mary ann smart (princeton, n.j.: princeton university press, ), . feldman, “the absent mother,” . feldman takes these signs - the divine sword, the altar and sun, and sa cred cup from the opera artaserse. however, the blueprint is typical ofmany ofthe libretti ofmetastasio. so cietal hierarchy is exemplified in the opera as well as in life. rameau and gluck continued the french tradition ofmusique en tragedie, although seven teen of gluck’s twenty opera seria composed - were to metastasian librettos. in all, the twenty-seven opera librettos by metastasio were given more than a thousand settings in the eighteenth century, which attests to both the popularity and influence ofthese works. on investigating the twenty-seven librettos ofmetastasio (the new grove dictionary ofopera, in grove music online), the mother figure does not fare well as a character in the plots. martha feldman notes that apostolo zeno showed no special aversion to mothers being represented onstage. the mothers present in zeno ‘ s libretti griselda ( ), merope ( ), and andromaca ( ), for example, are “valorous, protective ones.” mothers appear in only four ofmetastasio’s libretti. these are: thetis inachille in sciro ( ), whose plot is parallel to sacrati’s lafintapazza ( ), but the libretto does not mention a nurse; ciro riconosciuto ( ) where mandane’s son cyrus’ life is threatened by her father, king of media, as it is foretold that he will lose his throne to a descendent; the title character, semiramide ( ), who rules the country ofassyria disguised as her son; and dirce in thomas bauman, “the eighteenth century: serious opera,” in the oxfordillustratedhistory ofopera, ed. roger parker (oxford, n.y: oxford university press, ), . note: frederick the great was always involved in the selection of librettos (favoring metastasio), and in began to write plots himself in french prose which his court poet translated into italian verse for the composer graun (montezuma, ). as well, his ka pelimeister j.f. agricola preferred the libretti ofmetastasio, which were often set at berlin opera. see, pier tosi, . agricola, and juliana baird, introduction to the art ofsinging by johann friedrich agricola, trans. and ed. julianne c. baird (new york, n.y: cambridge university press, ), . jay grout, , . note: the number of operas written by th c. composers testifies to the popu larity ofthis form ofentertainment. a tabulation of leading composers ofthe period shows nearly works, or an average ofabout operas each. the sum total ofthe production ofall composers would of course be much greater. one reason for this was that audiences insisted on new music each season while they also welcomed the old familiar librettos year after year. (grout ) as well, artaserse was one ofmetastasio’s most popular texts with over settings between and . martha feldman, “the absent mother in opera seria,” . demofoonte ( ), who suppresses both her marriage and her motherhood in order to protect her honor and her son’s life (the son does not appear in the opera). by the last quarter ofthe eighteenth century, with the birth ofopera buffa and its hybrid dramma giocoso, opera seria was still performed but interest in the form began to wane. the castrati lost their popularity and soon disappeared. a changing shift toward comic opera was becoming apparent. an outgrowth from the italian commedia dell’arte, opera buffa resulted largely from the re-inclusion of comic scenes in between the acts of opera seria, which zeno and metastasio thought to be detrimental to the majestic and heroic seria plots. with similar character types to those developed in the comic operas ofthe seven teenth century, the comedy moved from the lower class farce to social satire between the bourgeoisie and their servants. characters were often nobility disguised as servants and included deceitful husbands and wives, pedantic lawyers and notaries, bumbling physicians, and pompous military. with the shift in genre, a more realistic treatment of characters was possible particularly between the lovers. comic characters opened up possibilities for the return ofnurses, servants, and confidantes to plots, and feminine figures gained in stature allowing for the possibility ofmothers to be included as operatic characters. ° goldoni (librettist) and galuppi established some successful models, ofwhich ilfulo sofo di campagna ( ) is an example. however, it was composer niccolô piccini’s and librettist goldoni’s rome opera, la buonajigliuola ( ), whose libretto was based on it should be noted that while dirce has a child, her role in the opera is not that of“mother,” but rather a typi cal young “love interest” female character. john drummond, opera in perspective, . trowell. “libretto (ii).” the new grove dictionary ofopera. ed. stanley sadie. grove music online. oxfordmusic online. accessed jun. . <http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/ pg >. see also thomas bauman, “the eighteenth century: comic opera,” the oxfordillustrated history ofopera, . samuel richardson’s extremely popular novel, pamela; or, virtue rewarded, which became one ofthe best and most popular operas ofits time. both novel and opera reflected senti ments that had become favorable to the women who were theatre patrons. martha feldman acknowledges that a different type ofheroine emerged, more impassioned and also dis tressed, which suited the new bourgeois ethos of sentimentality and sincerity. by the ’s, sentimentalism was reflected in existing literature that praised the importance of marriage and family and stressed the importance ofwomen in their role as mothers. martha feldman argues, “ sentimental opera was arguably women’s drama about women. . . the sentimental theater coincided with growing pressures on women, public and private, to embody newly formed ideals ofnaturalness and simplicity, to be better mothers, attentive to new standards ofnurturing, health, and hygiene.” this ideal ofmarriage and motherhood was found in the literature ofjean-jacques rousseau, such as his novel emile, which was translated into italian from until the end ofthe eighteenth centhry, and also in the writing offrédéric melchior grimm, whose writings corresponded with the opera reform in paris. gluck and calzabigi’s opera alceste ( ) illustrates this well. in the italian ver sion, the children ofalceste and admeto are included and sing with their mother. as well, alceste makes the ultimate wifely sacrifice in her willingness to die in her husband’s place. grout, . martha feldman, opera and sovereignly (chicago and london: university of chicago press, ), . martha feldman, opera andsovereignly, . ibid., . catherine jean cole, “nature’ at the opera: sound and social change in france, - .” vol. (phd. diss. university of chicago, ), chapter . cole argues that this is one aspect which brought about reform in french opera ofthis period. my survey ofthe eighteenth century opera seria and buffa libretti shows that the role ofmother as a character in opera is not often included, although as with gluck, in the exam ples below the mothers are treated somewhat more respectfully. comic opera, with its inclu sion of servants, does provide opportunity for the presence ofnurses or maids as characters, who in their role can be seen as surrogate mothers to their charges. as they are ofa lower social class, maternal presence is projected, but not necessarily seen. apart from the list of mothers taken from my investigation ofmetastasio librettos (which i have not included in this tally), the new grove book ofoperas edited by stanley sadie lists nine eighteenth- century operas that include mothers. among them are handel’s and haym’s giulio cesare ( , cornelia), gluck’s and roullet’s iphigenie en aulide ( , clitemnestre), mozart’s and da ponte’s le nozze di figaro ( , marcellina), and mozart’s and schikaneder’s die zauberfiote, ( , queen ofthe night) (see also appendix a). the nineteenth century brought on a set ofnew opera plots, but the stylized conven tions ofopera characters were firmly in place especially within voice type divisions, although the tenor would replace the castrati in the principal male role and the mezzo-soprano voice type would develop and take over the “breeches” roles. a greater range of characters were explored providing a wider scope for realism (verismo), naturalism, and emotional expression reflective ofthe romantic period and its exploration ofthe human condition. the novels continued to be a source of inspiration for operatic subjects, but they also kept mostly quiet about mothers. goethe’s sorrows ofyoung werther provided the inspiration for jules massenet’s werther ( ). other “literary” operas include gounod’s faust (carré and goethe) in , romeo etjuliette (shakespeare) in , thomas’s mignon (goethe) in , and bizet’s carmen (mérimée) in , among others, none ofwhich feature mothers. both french and italian opera subjects moved from classical antiquity to medieval or modem history with direct application to contemporary issues and individuals, which, how ever, again, mostly excluded mothers. giordano’s andrea chénier (illica, ) is based on the life ofthe poet ofthe same name; cilea’s adriana (adrienne) lecouvreur (scribe and colautti, ) is based on the life ofthe eighteenth century actress; verdi’s opera un ballo in maschera ( ), set to a libretto by scribe entitled gustav iii, is also based on historical fact. the popularity ofthe simple stories ofverismo opera at the end ofthe century, in which the “real-life” emotions ofcharacters are depicted, is best exemplified by mascagni’s cavalleria rusticana (targioni-tozzetti and menasci, ). yet none ofthe above examples are concerned with motherhood. mothers begin to find expression more in comic and verismo operas than in serious opera where father figures predominate, but the corresponding biological mother is most often missing. verdi’s operas are prime examples: luisa miller (cammarano, ), rigoletto (hugo, ), simon boccanegra (piave, ), la traviata (piave, ), and la forza del destino (piave, ), to name a few. yet, tchaikovsky’s queen ofspades (composer and m. i. tchaikovsky as librettists, ) includes a grandmother and a maid; and ofcourse, catherine the great appears metaphorically as the “noble” mother figure. in cavalleria rusticana, turrido’s mother lucia, a peasant woman whose husband is not in the opera, is a major figure in the opera. and in nicolai’s die lustigen weiber von windsor (mosenthal, ), mrs. page (mother ofanne) together with mrs. ford are central charac ters in their comical and satirical deflation of falstaff. similarly, mignon, carmen, and jay grout, . adriana lecouvreur, show that women can become the major characters around which an opera revolves. as opera continued into the twentieth century, i would argue that the feminist move ment which began in europe and america toward the end ofthe nineteenth century had some bearing on the inclusion ofmothers as operatic characters, as well as a greater number of women in opera in general. for example, susan b. anthony in virgil thomson’s opera, the mother ofus all (libretto by gertrude stein), is a symbolic mother as she represents the birth of feminism. the opera chronicles aspects ofher life as she advocated for women’s rights in late nineteenth-century america, and was involved in the women’s suffrage movement. further, fragility and vulnerability in the face of fate, as seen in pelléas et mélisande ( ) and madama butterfly ( ), were to provide a more basic theme than the gods and heroes ofwagner. as well, the distinctive national subjects introduced by the composers from eastern european countries brought new cultural distinctness, but as arnold whittall suggests, it did not produce radically different librettos. a list ofmothers who appear in the nineteenth and twentieth century opera plots listed in stanley sadie’s the new grove book ofoperas can be found in appendix a. it should be noted that the listed operas are primarily from the mainstream of opera repertory, those most performed, and range from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries. from a total of operas listed, included mothers as an operatic character. ofthese (which i have not included in any other tabulation), were nineteenth-century operas and lwere ‘ arnold whittall, “opera (i), (vi) the th century,” in howard mayer brown, et al. “opera (i).” grove music online. oxford music online. jul. . <http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/ pg >. arnold whittall, ibid. twentieth-century operas. seven operas belonged to the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries; one nineteenth-century mother was a silent role. additionally, nineteenth-century and twentieth-century mothers were designated for mezzo-soprano voice type, while nine teenth-century and twentieth-century mothers were designated for soprano. these, and all the previous examples show that while mothers may not be represented prominently in opera plots, their presence has become increasingly evident as vocal aesthetics changed, and history ofopera has evolved into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. chapter meyerbeer’s “le prophete” and the role of fides the role offidès in meyerbeer’s le prophète was foundational for launching the mezzo-soprano voice into a position equivalent with her soprano sisters, namely, as a principal female operatic character in a serious opera. moreover, this opera set the stage for introducing a new type ofpersona or character type — the mother — into opera plots. these two aspects — the mother and the mezzo-soprano voice — combined would set a precedent that other composers would follow. further, cast in this unexpected position ofprimary lead, the mother role of fidès was equal to the usual heroine roles sung by the soprano voice type and in le prophète superseded the customary female love interest ofthe opera (as will be shown below). henry chorley describes fidès as a different type ofoperatic character, and le prophète as “the first serious opera relying for its principal female interest on the charac ter ofthe mother. . the pathos ofmaternal tenderness and devotion, pure of all passion had been hitherto unattempted [sic] till it was tried in this opera.” following a short plot synop sis, this chapter will establish context for the opera, and then analyze the character of fidès to show how her role as a “mother” is significant in its impact on opera plots. plot synopsis giacomo meyerbeer’s opera le prophète with libretto by eugene scribe had its tri umphal premiere at the paris opéra on april , to a sold out audience. this was angela cofer. “pauline viardot-garcia: the influence ofthe performer on nineteenth-century opera,” (dma diss., u. ofcincinnati, ): . in proquest dissertations and theses, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did= &sid= &fmt= &clientid= &rqt= &vname=pqd. (accessed april ). the quotation is from henry f. chorley, thirty years ‘musical recollections (new york: alfred a. knopf, ), . meyerbeer’s third grand opera and in its plot and structure in five acts, it conforms to the characteristics ofthe french grand opéra style. act i takes place in a rural district near dordrecht in holland. the peasants have gathered and are enjoying the peaceful morning. berthe (soprano), an orphan and vassal of count oberthal (bass), sings ofher own joy. fidès (mezzo), the mother ofjean ofleyden (tenor), is coming to bring berthe home to her son so that they can be married, but berthe cannot leave without the permission ofthe count. simultaneously, three anabaptists, namely, zacharie (bass), jonas (tenor), and mathisen (baritone), arrive to stir up rebellion among the peasants, but are subdued by count oberthal and his soldiers. berthe asks permission to marry jean, but finding her attractive, the count refuses. the peasants react to this, but the soldiers disperse them and take fidès and berthe captive. act ii takes place in leyden at the inn kept by jean and his mother. jean is worried because his mother and berthe have not arrived. the three anabaptists who are among the villagers in the inn remark on jean’s resemblance to a painting ofking david in the munster cathedral in westphalia. jean recounts his dream to the anabaptists, in which he is crowned and acclaimed as a messiah, but then surrounded by flames and a river ofblood. the anabaptists interpret his dream to mean that he has been chosen to become their leader, but he is indifferent, seeking only a simple and happy life with berthe. no sooner have they left when berthe bursts in, seeking protection from count oberthal from whom she has escaped. jean hides her but oberthal arrives with fidès, threatening he will kill her unless jean hands over berthe. in an anguished decision, jean saves his mother over his fiancee. the anabaptists return and coerce jean into becoming their prophet and in this way exact vengeance on oberthal. reluctantly he agrees, and leaves without saying goodbye to his mother. jean becomes convinced that god has called him to defend his people. act iii. the anabaptists are camped in a forest in westphalia near mt)nster holding nobles as prisoners as they hope to extort large sums ofmoney from them. ice-skaters (ballet) arrive bringing provisions for the camp. zacharie recounts the anabaptist victories and dispatches mathisen with soldiers to march on munster before the emperor’s troops can defeat them. oberthal has infiltrated the camp but is found out. jean, now known as the prophet, has become disillusioned with all the bloodshed, but on learning that berthe is still alive and is now in mtlnster, defers oberthal’s execution and concludes that god wants him to go on to lead the anabaptist soldiers to victory. in scene i ofact iv the bourgeoisie in münster are disgruntled due the prophet’s tyranny. at the public square, fidès, now wandering as a beggar, is seeking alms so a mass can be said for her dead son as she believes he has been killed on orders from the anabaptist prophet. berthe has escaped from count oberthal and arrives in disguise, but the two women recognize each other. learning from fidès that jean is dead, berthe determines to avenge his death by murdering the prophet. scene ii takes place at mt)nster cathedral where the coronation ofthe prophet (jean) is taking place. fidès prays that berthe will succeed in her assassination plan. fidès is horrified to recognize the prophet as her son jean, and is accused ofblasphemy since the prophet is considered to be divine. jean insists that she is delusional and mad, and forces her to deny him as her son. she does so in order to save his life, and jean’s exorcism offids’ “madness” is considered a miracle, praised by the people. jean leaves for a celebration in his honor and fidôs is taken away by soldiers. act v. in crypts beneath the palace, the three anabaptists plot betrayal against jean. fidès is brought in, enraged, yet fearful. when jean comes to see her, she upbraids him as a counterfeiter and blasphemer who has shed innocent blood, but fervently pleads with him until he becomes repentant. berthe has found admittance to the crypts and plans to set fire to the store ofexplosives in order to kill the prophet. at first she is overjoyed to fmd jean alive, but on learning that he is the prophet, she denounces him and kills herself. in the fmal scene, a coronation banquet is being held in the great hail ofthe palace. when the emperor’s soldiers enter the hall to capture him, jean orders the doors to be sealed. an explosion erupts, and flames shoot up trapping everyone inside. as the great hall begins to collapse, jean sees fidès who has come to express her love and to die with him. together, they commit themselves to god. context of the opera following the premiere ofle prophète, meyerbeer wrote to his mother: “many people have said that this opera stands head and shoulders above ‘robert’ and les hugue nots. the reception was very enthusiastic [sic].” °the london premiere, again to a sold out audience, took place in . indeed, by , the opera had received performances at the paris opéra alone, and had earned worldwide recognition with performances at all the major international opera houses for decades. ’ meyerbeer had completed the first draft ofthe opera by , and had filed it with a notary in paris on march until a suitable company ofprincipal singers, which he felt was important for the success ofthe opera, would be contracted by leon pillet, the director ofthe opéra. the delay in production was further hampered by the difficult negotiations over heinz and gudrun becker, giacomo meyerbeer, a lfe in letters, trans. mark violette; general editor, reinhard g. pauly (london: christopher hehn ltd.), . robert ignatius letellier, the operas ofgiacomo meyerbeer (madison, n.j.: fairleigh dickinson university press, ), , . the premiere was based on scribe’s five act version ofthe libretto, as the original version was in four acts; the second scene ofact one becomes act two in the version. see alan armstrong, “meyerbeer’s le prophète: a history of its composition and early performances,” (phd diss., ohio state university, ), vol. : - . meyerbeer made considerable revisions for the characters, adding the act i cavatine for berthe, but greatly reducing her role in act and . he also reduced the fmale ofact (couplets bachiques). see also n. # . meyerbeer had originally planned the tenor role for gilbert-louis duprez, but he was no longer able to vocal ly sustain the demands ofthe role. gustave-hippolyte roger was hired to replace him as jean, but meyerbeer had to reduce the tenor role considerably for his lighter voice. as well, the original berthe was to be marie cornélie falcon ( - ) who had created the role ofalice in robert le diable and valentin in les hugue nots, but she had been forced to retire because she lost her voice. see steven huebner, “le prophète,” the new grove book ofoperas, ed. stanley sadie (new york: macmillan press ltd., ), . who would play the role offidès. in a letter to scribe in december of , meyerbeer states: one ofthe three primary roles ofthe piece, and possibly the most interesting, is that ofthe mother. there is no one at the moment at the opéra for this post, and it appears to me that before all else it would be necessary to know from the director ofthe opéra ifhe can and ifhe will engage an artist oftalent for this role: this is a vital question. further, he considered the role ofmother important to the success ofthe opera right from its inception. this is also seen in his letter to his agent gouin in , which outlines reasons why pillet’s choice ofrosine stolz for the role was unsuitable. while the details about stolz’s voice are not important to this study, meyerbeer’s thoughts about the role and voice quality are: i found that one ofthe greatest difficulties was in the casting ofthe role ofthe mother. for musical reasons i had decided to write the part for a true contralto.. .this role ofmother always bore a character ofunction, religious maternal love, and resignation, and finally, was always sweet, and there was only a single moment of soaring strength in the entire role, that ofthe finale ofthe fourth act: for these reasons i did not think madame stolz right for the part, on which depends a good portion ofthe success ofthe work.” in fact, the continued letters and discussion over this role point to its significance and its importance to meyerbeer. the only other role ofsignificance to him was that of jean, the rest he felt were “accessories.” meyerbeer’s aural and visual perception for the role officlès was pauline viardot, whom he considered the best choice for the opera’s success. in the same letter ofjanuary , he informed his agent ofthis: alan armstrong, “meyerbeer’s le prophète: a history of its composition and early performances,” vol. : . ibid., : , . from a letter dated january , . see also giacomo meyerbeer: briefivechsel und tagebucher. ed. by heinz and gudrun becker. iii: - . armstrong, : . the woman who would be admirable in this role, and who would increase the chances of success ofthis work tenfold is pauline garcia-viardot. her defects are not defects for this role: she is not pretty, but she does not need to be since she must represent an old woman. one may believe that her voice will possibly not have all the energy necessary for the opéra, but in this role energy is isolated to one sole instant. instead ofthat her beautiful and impressive contralto voice, her big sound, sweet and suave, these are the required qualities the role offidès demands. however, it was not until the opéra came under the new management of roqueplan and duponchel in that viardot was retained to sing the role offidès. her performance was viewed as a great success by the majority ofthe reviewers, both vocally and in characte rization. in some ways, the success ofthe opera was linked with her performance, and conversely, part of her success was due to the character of fidès. an example can be found in a critique ofviardot by henry chorley: • .how admirably she was fitted by nature to add to the gallery ofportraits a figure which as yet did not exist there. her remarkable power of identification with the character set before her was in this case aided by person and voice. the mature burgher woman, in her quaint costume, the pale, tear worn devotee. . . was till then a being entirely beyond the pale ofthe ordinary prima donna’s comprehension; one to the presentation of which there must go as much simplicity as subtle art, as much oftenderness as of force, as much renunciation ofwoman’s ordinary coquetries as of skill to impress all hearts by the picture ofhomely love, and desolate griefand religious enthusiasm. it is not too much to say that this combination to its utmost force and fineness was wrought out by mme. viardot, but (the character being an exceptional) to the disadvantage ofevery successor. there can [sic] be no reading of fidès save hers. the reviewer from the times oflondon, likewise, had high praise for viardot, but also for the character of fidès: alan armstrong, : . although meyerbeer calls viardot a contralto, the range and tessitura written for her in this opera are more characteristic ofwhat would be considered a mezzo-soprano voice type today. angela cofer, “pauline viadort-garcia: the influence ofthe perfonner on nineteenth-century opera,” , . she cites from henry chorley, thirty years’ musical recollections, . but the masterpiece ofthe opera, and ofmeyerbeer, is fidès the mother ofthe prophet, the devoted martyr to her love oftruth and her maternal affection. fidès has surpassed both alice and valentine, while retaining some ofthe characteristics ofboth, and that ofself-sacrifice in particular. she is the grandest picture in the whole gallery ofthe french school of opera—a school which, by the way, in spite of its powerful contrasts and vivid dramatic coloring, we never can regard as the truest or the most effective. the adulation that viardot received and the success ofher interpretation ofthe role of fidès cemented her career, °and launched the mezzo-soprano voice range as a vocal cate gory appropriate for a leading lady of an opera, into operatic history. at the same time, her success advanced meyerbeer’s choice of a mother as a lead character into a new type ofrole. according to pleasants, the role “disclosed a type ofmatronly heroine especially suited to the mezzo-soprano voice,” ’and b.l. scherer likened the character of fidès to “a matriarch equal in nobility and pathos to the great father figures ofverdi’s operas.” it is already clear from the plot that fidès as mother of jean ofleyden the false prophet, is not only the female lead, but is also a woman of strength and dignity, particularly in view ofthe losses and conflicts she endures. her visibility as an older female character and as a mother is significant particularly in a patriarchal society where mothers were mostly seen as homemakers, with an invisible presence in society. a further look at the character of the review was dated wed. july , and is from the premiere performance at the royal italian opera, covent garden. it was probably written by james w. davison, who was music critic ofthe times from to . he wrote under the pen name of arthur pendragon. (as per basil f. walsh) http://www.meyerbeer.com/prophrev.htm (accessed august , ). viardot became a celebrity in paris, where due to the politics ofthe opera company, she had been unable to establish herself. she sang the role offidès in over two hundred performances in all the major european opera houses ofher day. see angela cofer, “pauline viadort-garcia,” . hepleasants, the great singers, . bl scherer, “meyerbeer: the man and his music,” meyerbeer: le prophète, (columbia , cd. ). also found in on c.d. liner notes (a re-issue ofthe recording). see also angela cofer, “pauline viardot garcia,” . fidês through meyerbeer’s musical depiction, will point to the centrality that the mother and the mezzo-soprano voice acquire in this opera. the character of fidès and her music meyerbeer had asked his librettist scribe, to “give the mother naïve language with the inflections ofbygone speech in order to characterize the old woman and peasant.” with this in mind, he later wrote to his agent gouin that he envisioned the character offidès as an older, but sweet, gentle woman, with “unction, religious maternal love, and resignation... there was only a single moment of soaring strength in the entire role, that ofthe finale ofthe fourth act.m musically, meyerbeer achieves this characterization in several ways and these will be shown below. act i. scene (# ) act i, is relatively short, and is expository in that meyerbeer introduces the main characters — berthe, fidès, the anabaptists, and oberthal — and characterizes them musically. berthe has become engaged to jean and is looking forward to her marriage. fidès is introduced as jean’s sweet, but humble mother who is also an innkeeper. the anabaptists are revolutio nary figures and oberthal (bass) naturally takes on the role ofvillain (heard only in recita tive). jean is not present physically in this act, but is introduced through his mother. there is not a lot ofphysical action here, and the act is more of a snapshot ofevents that are taking place within the characters’ lives. armstrong, . alan annstrong, . see footnote # above. “donnez a la mere tin langage narfet avec les tournures de l’ancien langage pour caracteriser la paysanne, et la vielle femme.” as suggested by karin pendle, eugene scribe and french opera ofthe nineteenth centuty (michigan: ann arbor, ), . a musical tableaux ofthe opening “prelude” and the “choral pastoral” sets the tone for the act. meyerbeer’s use ofwinds, oboes, clarinets, and flutes establishes a scene remi niscent ofa rustic peasant setting alongside the flowing river meuse, which is reinforced by bassoons and lower strings in an accompaniment of several series of drones in open fifths. in this aural setting we are first introduced to berthe in her act i “cavatina,” (added for the premiere at the request ofjeanne castellan). fidès is then introduced in the number (# ) “scene” where she is characterized as a simple peasant woman and devoted mother, and shown in her relationship to berthe. meyerbeer establishes fidês’ relationship to berthe through recitative, in which both engage in musical dialogue with each other (# scene), and also in their “romance a deux voix” (# ). fidês does not have an aria in this act although she is visually present in the whole act. meyerbeer illustrates the relationship between the two women further in the use ofhis harmonic language. he uses the key off major as a means ofconnecting similar emotions and circumstances together. for example, berthe’s cavatina is composed in the key of b” major and noticeably, when the harmony moves to the dominant harmony ofb” which is f, she is singing about her fiancé jean. similarly, in her recitative, when fidès is referring to her home and berthe’s place within it, the harmony moves to f major. this occurs in the second number which is composed primarily in recitative and is a dialogue between the two women during which their relationship is established and moved forward. the recitative for fidès is more arioso. meyerbeer gives her short phrases, often one or two measures in length, which are punctuated with rests long enough to register a stop in vocal sound, indicative of shortness ofbreath and tiredness. additionally, the rhythm and medium range ofthe vocal line are reflective of spoken speech, and as the contour is some- what rolling, gives a sense that she is embracing berthe through her musical line. in the ac companiment however, florid motivic material suggestive ofmotion is set in two four bar phrases and two three bar phrases, which add structure to the section that would otherwise sound broken-up. the text for this section is included below. ofthe girls ofdordrecht berthe is the prettiest and the most sensible, and i want to unite you. and, as oftomorrow, i want berthe to take my place in my tavern and at my fine counter, the finest, mind you, berthe, ofthe whole city of leyden! let us go, let us go, let us go! for my son expects us by this evening, for my son expects us by this evening. let us leave! act i. romance a deux voix (# ) fidès’ s acceptance and approval of berthe are further seen in the romance a deux voix (# ), a strophic duet between fidês and berthe, which is also composed in f major, thus underscoring the common interest ofthe two women in jean. both women support each other as they seek count oberthal’s permission for the marriage, but fidês is the first to plead berthe’s case. their common bond is jean, and the ensuing familial happiness is pro jected in the refrain of each couplet where their voices unite in parallel thirds as seen in their identical text, “allow it, my kind, my good lord.” moreover, their final cadenza is an “des flues de dordrechtj berthe est la plus gentille/ et la plus sage, etjeux vous unir/ etje veux des de main/que berthe me succêde/ dans mon hôtellerie/ et dans mon beau comptoir;! de toute la yule de leyde!/ partons, partons, partons!i hâtons-nous, hâton-nous/ car mon fils nous attend! pour ce soir/car mon fils nous attend! pour ce soir. partons !“ mon doux, mon bon seigneur.” impassioned plea to the count, matched in parallel coloratura, the spirit ofwhich is similar to the coloratura of berthe’ s aria. fidès is clearly supporting her. in their intoned happy “ah’s,” both are confident that the count will forgo his droit de seigneur. this duet is an event, which as a set number is static in its action. it is an emotional and passionate plea to the count that elicits a response. there is an underlying tension in the nature ofthe request that creates a dramatic situation used by the anabaptists to further incite the listening crowd to action, and later, jean, to join their cause. both scribe and meyerbeer could have used a different incident to stir up rebellion. not only was it a way to bring a love interest into the opera (as was expected by nineteenth century audiences), but it also addressed the inequities ofthe society berthe and fidès were a part of. however, the force ofthe peasant chorus’sffoutcry ofhorror and infamy is clearly indicative of scribe’s and meyerbeer’s own views about the social injustice thrust upon women. act ii. arioso (# ) the music for fidès in act ii is the arioso (# ), “ah, mon fils.” the arioso is com posed in a two-part ab form, where the a section is in the key of f# minor and the b section is in the key off# major. it is here that fidès’ s noble expression of love for her son is first heard and where she is first plunged into her deep suffering, her “paradise lost.” this is the best known aria ofthe opera, and it is noted for its simplicity, yet fervent dramatic expres sion. meyerbeer composed it with “unction and religious maternal love” as he indicated to his agent, °and all her love and pathos are embodied in each ofthe simple short statements. this alluded to in berthe’s text, “je connais votre droit supreme,” (nun. - ). is an excellent audition aria for mezzo, and one that i use personally. to footnote , and footnote . the a section includes five short sections in a rondo form, which i will identify as — abaca (mm. - , ex. . and . ). meyerbeer indicates apianissimo dynamic and that it should be sung with shyness and weeping. a six measure orchestral introduction ending with a fr. chord of f# minor in m. , leads into the actual section “a,” which begins with the resolution ofthe previous chord to the dominant c# (see ex. . , m. ). this in turn leads to the arrival ofthe tonic in m. . section “a” is characterized by two important motives: one orchestral, underlying mm. - , and one vocal, separated into two gestures, mm. - , and - . the orchestral motive also unfolds in two parallel gestures seen in mm. - , and mm. - , and is then continued by the violas using fragmented material in mm. - . in a state ment and response, each gesture outlines a i-v progression expressing the welling-up of emotion, and in the response, the grateful blessing indicative ofthe b section ofthe arioso. the fragmented material which is interjected with a rest is indicative of fidês’s sorrow and falling tears. the vocal motive begins in m. with the words “ah, mon fils sois béni!” (“ah, my son, be blessed!”), and is superimposed contrapuntally and coordinated with the orchestral melody. it consists oftwo short, expressive descending gestures. the first is a diminished third resulting from the two upper and lower appoggiaturas of c#—d natural and b# that both resolve to c#, and the second is the descending diminished seventh a-b#, also resolving to c#. originating in the baroque “sigh” figures, these gestures create a plaintive cry which is also supported by the plaintive sound ofthe clarinet. the descending melodic contour inter jected with eighth rests, in its brevity, is representative offidès’s sorrow and falling tears similar to the orchestral gesture in mm. - . a weffing up of emotion is heard in the d’une voix timide, et pleurant. ) - . cd cd cd e. cm c d cl ) q cd i ) (iq cd cd r,j e cl) - o cl ) cm _ p 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sixteenth rests are representative ofher sorrow and tears. if if ex. , act ii. scene et quatuor, # . mni. - ms. a j; dj’t( ie’ (‘di] u _____=:i;:;;;;ee::e.:::::: (i i ii) .— .-— ‘-iiii). t v’ r i’ r vi i r i • ii t v y ti :‘(tl ,i — luti. h it i. i it_ ais — — . { ) i , f. - p h t i i!il -. i ,,rr.r r i :—• cresu. /n‘- ir. _ s(fl(iz....z’’’ dinii’ i i .i — —l -- _i - . zr - ,--- j i f ‘y .j :‘ / ‘,,. i; (f. v_r -- - — j_ yr f.-- -— i ‘ . ii’ -, i. ‘ r ‘r. i. i r. i . - i; l i - — -i- -/i/— ( ‘i•” -j-_i.—j—j w-’ t se iwii nwi non non jblrtcz nis hi(ii jt tetc ie ics....te a a vieiiies — se ma allegro. i • if ‘ c iiiii.i i -, : r r - p v i r p recit ,-,- i . . e; -.- - ff . . po . •o . • . “et son enfant la fuit et ia délaisse!” in the b section ofthe arioso (mm. - ), the tonic remains the same except that the mode changes to f# major, harmonically outlined as i—tv — v — i — v (cadenza) — i (see ex. . ). this music for fidés is full ofelation and religious fervor, which is striking in the key of f# major after the plaintiveness ofthe f# minor. the juxtaposition ofthe minor — major tonality illustrates fidès’ own feelings of sadness over jean’s loss of berthe, as opposed to the depth oflove for her son and her devotion to god. the text painting ofthe words “s’élève ma prière” (my prayer rises) in m. carries the melodic line to its highest vocal range in this aria, an a# ,which also emphasizes this “elevation.” a tonic iv — v — i is reached at m. as the progression moves clearly via the tonic to a full cadence at m. . in the cadenza, meyerbeer also extends the range from a c# - g# - c# . in order to achieve the effect ofsanglottant (sobbing), the rhythms are dotted, and the descending passage that returns to c# is marked by accents. the “ah” in the cadenza is an expression of gratitude to jean, but the descending line is one ofhumility as jean saved her, fidés, over berthe. meyerbeer’ s notation that she embraces jean indicates an outward physical expression ofher inner feelings (see ex. . mm. - ). s b act iv. complamte de la mendiante (# ) act iv is a major act for fidès musically. her number “complainte de la mendiante” (# ) is important for seeing the progression meyerbeer follows in delineating her character. her character does not progress dramatically until the finale, yet throughout the opera devel opment occurs through inner, psychological growth. meyerbeer expresses this as her music expands in range, grows in length, and becomes more virtuosic as the opera progresses. the increased intensity in her music also points to the centrality ofher character in relation to the opera’s final resolution. the first scene ofthis act takes place at the city square in munster where fidès is seen begging for alms from the rich nobles in order to buy a mass for the son she believes dead. from meyerbeer’s direction in the score at the beginning ofthe scene, we are told that fidès appears worn out and exhausted, as one who has travelled a long way. the pictorial musi cal introduction illustrates this clearly. in this “complainte” or lament, it becomes apparent that fidès is unaware that jean has become the prophet and is still alive. as well, it is not until fidès meets and recognizes the disguised berthe that it becomes known (through their recitative and ensuing duet, # ), that she believes it is the prophet who had her son jean killed. the number “complainte de la mendiante” (# ), is a strophic two verse aria in an abab form, with part a composed in the key of e minor and part b in e major. example . shows a portion ofthe a section. the first musical phrase a (mm. - ) has measures, which begin and end on the dominant, and are characterized by short motives that are mostly descending and separated by rests. these short motives are suggestive ofthe ”fidès. . . parait épuisée de fatigue, sur l’avant-scène.” plaintiveness offidês’s voice, which is also indicated in the score (d’une voix plaintive). i will call the first two ofthese descending motives “the crying motif’ as it expresses fidès’s text begging (“donnez”) in mm. - , and again in mm. - . the phrase is repeated varied at mm. - , ending the first a section ofthis aria on g major. the b section ofthis aria, in e major, is more continuous, (molto dolce) and has broader gestures imploring pity and money from the rich in order to buy a mass for her dear child. one ofthe most poignant moments comes towards the end ofthis b section shown in example . (min. - ), where, overcome with grief, words fail her and she can only utter cries of “ah’s” (“sanglottant”), first on the pitch b in the octave where natural speech occurs, and then in chest voice an octave lower. the b section concludes dramatically with modula tions further away from e minor, to eb major and minor when she talks about herselfbeing frozen and dead. ”doimez, donnez pour une pauvre âme! give, give for a poor soul! and donnez, donnez a la pauvre femme! give, give to the poor woman.” — s s p’ em i -j — — . act iv. march du sacre (# ) and finale (# ) in his letter to his mother (whose blessing he sought at important moments in his life), meyerbeer noted that the “march” and the “finale” (# and # ) lasted twenty-two minutes, and that musically and dramatically they were the high point ofthe opera. the “finale,” a magnificent cathedral scene in five sections, with its high drama and huge choral display, marks a huge dramatic shift for fidès and the greatest conflict between mother and son. meyerbeer’s stage directions of“tremblante,” “avec indignation,” and “d’une voix suffoquée par les larmes” in the third number ofthe finale “couplets et morceau d’ensemble” (#c), illustrates her heightened emotions. similarly, the orchestra tempo is marked allegro agitato at the opening, which also increases the tension. confrontation between mother and son are brought to a head at the end ofthe finale in the “couplet et morceau” (c) ex. . a, and the “exorcisme” (#d) ex. . b. the blasphem ous “exorcism” ofhis mother which elevates jean to divine status, heightens his mother’s griefand despair. to increase the dramatic situation as mother and son encounter each other, meyerbeer employs a bass line in the orchestra that passes through a sequence ofdiminished fifth tremolo chords — c — f#, d — ab, e — b” (ex. . a, mm. - o). these tritones of “exorcism” music correspond to jean’s text, “may the light descend upon your brow poor mad woman and enlighten you.” similarly, as fidès renounces jean as her son, (“ah! people! . . . i deceived you! he is not my son!) , an exact repetition ofjean’s music is hej and gudrun becker, giacomo meyerbeer, a life in letters, . these tritones are also identified by robert w. gibson, “meyerbeer’s ‘le prophte’: a study in operatic style,” (diss., northwestern u., chicago, ), . ann arbor, mi: university microfilms. microfilm. ”que la sainte lumière descende sur ton front pauvre insensëe et t’éclaire.” “ah! . . . peuple! . . . je vous trompais! ce n’est pas mon fils!” c, ) cd cl ) cd cl ) cd - ) c, ) y) cd — . cl ) - . c) — cl ) cd cl ) cd _ . = c) • - cd )- . — . cl ) c) - cl ) c l) c ,) cd cd . ‘ !_ c) • l) c) . cd o i-. cd (j i — . — rj t b s s u , act v. cavatina and air (# ) the act v scene takes place in the crypts. the “cavatina and air” (# ), is a highly dramatic and emotionally charged scene for fidès. considered to be a “tour deforce” aria for mezzo-soprano voice because of its coloratura (as it was for pauline viardot), it requires an extensive range. °the vocal range encompasses more than two octaves, the widest ofall the music for fidès, from a — c . however, the coloratura is not an end in itself. this is where the dramatic and emotional limits ofher character are stretched, requiring strength and endurance. furthermore, this same endurance is required ofthe singer who embodies her persona. the vocal virtuosity required in this scene gives credence to the experiences fidès has had. she has lost her son and then found him, met with his rejection and realized that he is the false prophet who is being worshipped as messiah. her son needs divine intervention and forgiveness petitioned through her supplication and prayers, which meyerbeer expresses in several ways in this scene. the number “scene, cavatine et air” (# ) is an expanded scena in four sections. the overall harmonic structure ofthis scena can be summarized as follows: opening recitative ab major, — cavatina — d” major, — recitative — d natural, — cabaletta — ab m — eb m — ab m. the harmonic form ofthe cavatina is aba and together with the opening recitative will be discussed first. the opening recitative in ab major is in two parts. in the first part ofthe recitative, fidès is full of fear and foreboding in her text, “ prêtres de baal.” as example . shows, meyerbeer progresses into the second part marked allegretto moderato (m. ) via an ibid. in the letter to his mother following the paris premiere, meyerbeer wrote: “during the rehearsals there was general concern as to whether a fifth act would even be possible after the fourth. nevertheless, miss viar dot’s big aria in the fifth act made such a stunning impression that she was greeted with four rounds ofapplause the likes ofwhich i have experienced only in vienna. the response was so overwhelming that the performers had to pause before beginning the duet.” augmented fr. — c# dominant — f# major tonally, before returning to ab (m. ). melodically, the vocal contour has wide intervals and passes from chest to head voice and back again with little preparation, while still requiring a legato line from the singer. this corresponds to the vocal gamut ofher emotions, from righteous indignation to anger, and also in pitch range, beginning with a b# ,which rises unaccompanied to an f#s on the word “colère” (wrath) in m. , then a g natural on the word “frappe” (strike) in m. , that is repeated on an al) , and then tumbles into low chest register ending on a” on the text “punish all ingrate child ren” ’in mm. — . moreover, the orchestra has its own commentary, corresponding in its descent from f’ — f’ natural — e’ in contrary motion to the vocal line. the remote key of f# and the rise from f#s to abs in the vocal line is reminiscent ofthe invoked blessing of fidès’s arioso in act two, and jean’s invocation for the exorcism ofher madness (now over ab major and a’minor from jean’s g major and g minor). when her inner tumult has subsided, fidès’s full forgiveness and deep love for her son are expressed in the cavatina (see ex. . , - ). the cavatina (“ toi qui m’abandonne”) has an overall form ofaba that progresses harmonically from d’ — ab — db. the aria is an expression offull forgiveness for her son, with the return to the a section ending with a passionate cadenza, full of love and compas sion (see ex. . , mm. — ). meyerbeer extends the length and range in this cadenza (a —b ” )and again uses the “ah!” when words fail, in this way expressing the height and depth ofher anguish and grief. in this section the bass clarinet is heard prominently imitating the the complete text in this section is as follows: “que sur son front coupable! ëclate ta colère, i frappe, frappe, toi qui punis! tous les enfants ingrats!” “on his guilty brow! may thy wrath burst, i strike, strike, thou who punish / all ingrate children!” “que la sainte lumière! descende sur ton front, / pauvre insensëe, et t’ëclaire!”/”may the holy light! descend upon your brow, / poor madwoman, and enlighten you!” i c) c) cd cd i. i o cd o cl ) cl ) o cd ‘ cd cd cd cl cl) o gq c ) o a. u , u , u , a recitative in the key of d follows as orchestral trumpets announce the entry ofan officer who informs fidès that the prophet is arriving (“woman, prostrate yourselfbefore your divine master”). the low double bass rumblings accompany ominous feelings in fidès’ short response, marked in the score (“d’une voix suffoquée par l’émotion”), which then opens into a cabaletta with extensive coloratura and virtuosic type of singing, clearly expressing her feelings. the cabaletta is ana’a ba ccontinuous form, and its harmonic progression is a” major — eb major— ab major. the sections are marked by time and tempo changes, with the c section in / at a fiery allegro tempo of . the variation in the a’a sections is in the cadenzas, the first accompanied by harps as fidès calls for a heavenly thunderbolt to strike truth into her son. the second cadenza adds the plaintive clarinets as she asks for a heavenly flame to touch his soul. the c section is a type ofcoda as it increases in tempo, coloratura, and vocal range. the tessitura sits both low and high, with a melodic line that both leaps and flows between the registers, which, like each section is indicative ofthe gamut of emotions she is experiencing. in addition to the harps, a fanfare by the trumpets, trom bones, and horns adds considerable color as the voice invokes the holy spirit to descend and bring jean’s heart to repentance. ”fermne prosterne-toi devant ton divin maître.” the form is also noted this way by robert ignatius letellier, the operas ofgiacomo meyerbeer, . are characteristic ofa fmal section ofa cabaletta as noted by don randel, ed. the new harvarddic tionary ofmusic (cambridge, massachusetts: belknap press ofharvard university press, ), . act v. scene et grand duo (# ) the “scene et grand duo” (# ) ofact v between fidès and jean, is where reconcil iation occurs. jean is reconciled to his mother and to god. the inclusion ofthis duet is critical and again points to the centrality ofthis mother. it matches that ofa main duet, which by convention is usually designated for the operatic pairs of lovers. in this instance meyerbeer omitted the duet between jean and berthe, in this way raising the significance of the role of fidès. in fact, the reunion with berthe (which follows the duet) is short in comparison. meyerbeer calls it a “pastorale,” and it is actually a trio for berthe, jean, and fidès where together, they recount happier days spent in their humble peasant surroundings. the shape ofthe scene and grand duo is recitative — duet, recitative — duet, followed by a coda. both duets follow a similar pattern. fidès begins with a “statement” to which jean responds, and then bothjoin together in duet in similar motion during the first, while more contrasting in the second duet portion. in the first statement (ex. . ), fidès emphati cally addresses her son’s culpability with indignation and righteous anger (in the key ofa” minor). as example . shows, jean’s response is in a” major as he tries to soften her anger with his explanation. however, as remorse begins to sets in, acknowledgment ofhis guilt elicits the key ofat minor and an exact repetition offidès’s opening music. rj ) co c) r.d i- t i - — • cd cd c c i cd c s — cd _ c) _ cl ) cl ) . i cd cd o cd cd . o — f r’ cl ) cd cl ) cd ‘t - “ c) r j . c- cd o cd - — • o cd - cd cl ) cl ) - cd • cl ) !d cd ) -* cl ) cl ) cl ) cl ) cl ) ‘ cl ) cd cd < • e. ‘ e ( cd c) f ) - cd - cd cd i ) u , her text, “come there is still time. . . god from heaven calls you to him.” the duet ends in unison. fidès persistently urges jean to seek god’s pardon through the repetition ofthe same text whereas jean’s speaks ofhis repentance. cadenzas before concluding this chapter i want to point to the importance ofthe cadenzas in the music for fidès as a unifying means for her character. while they signal an impending cadence harmonically, they are not treated as decoration, mere ornamentation, or pure virtuosic display by meyerbeer. the cadenzas for fidès are related to each other in expression. as her suffering increases in intensity the cadenzas correspondingly extend in tessitura, range, and rhythmic impetus. some ofthe cadenzas are accompanied, but each has moments when nothing but pure voice is heard. neither the tenor ofthe words, nor their intent is disturbed when the orchestral accompaniment is silent. the voice alone explodes in an exclamation oftrue emotion that can compel and be understood without words. this is similarly expressed by carolyn abbate who writes: pure voice commands instant attention (both ours and that ofthe onstage audience), in a passage that is shockingly bare of other sound. in opera, we rarely hear the voice both unaccompanied and stripped oftext — and when we do.. .the sonority is disturbing, perhaps because such vocalizing so pointedly focuses our sense ofthe singing voice as one that compels.. .to move us without rational speech. therefore, the cadenzas serve an important function. in the case ofthe early music and baroque type ofornamentation, a cadenza can “speak” through lament or seduction by its ”viens, ii en est temps encore. . . le dieu du ciel t’appelle a iui.” cjo abbate, “music’s voices,” in unsung voices: opera and musical narrative in the nineteenth centuiy (princeton, n.j.: princeton university press, ), . “affect,” or as with fidés express depths ofgratitude and devotion, or depths ofanguish for which words are impossible. refer to examples . , . , and . to compare. in conclusion, scribe’s and meyerbeer’s creation ofthe role of fidès was instrumen tal in inaugurating the mezzo-soprano voice type into leading lady type ofroles that were gender equivalent rather than travesty roles. while the success ofpauline viardot in the role of fidès initiated this, it is the aural qualities which characterize the voice type that are sig nificant. steane describes the mezzo-soprano voice type as one of“common sense. . . it suggests primarily a woman ofrational disposition, a mature character, not a flighty soprano. similarly, in using words like “sweet” and “suave,” and “unction” (the ability to soothe), and gentle, meyerbeer felt that the mezzo-soprano voice type best characterized the role he had written. the adjectives used to describe fidès set the bar that meyerbeer used to characterize her in her music as illustrated above, and raised the mother figure to high and noble heights. similarly, the strength ofmeyerbeer’s relationship with his mother amelia can be seen in the noble characterization offidès. the blessing conferred on jean by fidès is reminiscent ofthose by amelia for her son, giacomo. finally, her character personifies godly wisdom, unconditional, and sacrificial love, which are key themes in this opera. ° fidès, in her role as mother in meyerbeer’s opera le prophète, is a tightly knit character jb steane, voices: singers & critics (london: gerald duckworth &co. ltd., ), . refertoffi. . robert letellier, “the thematic nexus of religion, power, politics and love in the operas of giacomo meyerbeer.” © by robert letellier. http://www.meyerbeer.com/nexus.htm. (accessed march , ).this theme is explored by letellier. see also matthias brzoska. “meyerbeer, giacomo.” new grove dictionary ofmusic and musicians, ed. stanley sadie (new york: macmillan, ) : . who, as a mezzo-soprano voice type principal female personage, is central to the opera’s resolution. the role offidês tests both the vocal and physical stamina ofthe performer in that the highest tessitura and most dramatic scenes occur in the last two acts ofthe opera where she is front and center in the ensuing action. therefore, the singer must take care to guard against both vocal and physical fatigue. furthermore, the simplicity of fidès’s peasant character belies the vocal requirements necessary to sing the role, which the act ii arioso (# ) with its simpler phrasing may imply. this is a role that belongs to the be! canto type ofroles requiring long legato lines and the ability to sing coloratura passages, particularly in the cadenzas which require a performer with an advanced vocal technique, a wide vocal range, and a bel canto type ofvoice. finally, based on the musical analysis conducted, with some of the hannonic complexities and intricate vocal lines, this role can be considered vocally and musically difficult, but not insurmountable. chapter the role of kostelnrka in janaek’s “jenufa” kostelnika, the second mother in this investigation, is a central character in leo janáek’s third opera, jenzfa ( ). she is a complex character drawn from nineteenth century moravian peasant culture and village life. kostelnika is not her proper name, but is a name designation meaning “sacristan,” given in light ofthe function this mother performs in the village. she is never called by her first name, though her last name, buryjovká, is made known from the plot. i have included her in this investigation ofthe roles ofmothers in opera in order to determine whether, as a stepmother, and as a representative ofa turn-of- the- century central european culture, she fits the general archetype ofmothers in the broad er perspective ofoperatic characters examined here. the opera is based on gabriela preissová’s ( - ) play, jejipastorkyña (her stepdaughter), first produced at the national theatre in prague in . janá&k wrote his own libretto and kept the prose structure ofthe play. the play’s subject matter was adapted from two actual incidents preissová had read about while in moravia. the first was a crime involving ajealous peasant who slashed the face ofhis brother’s fiancée because he was in love with her. the second involved a woman who helped her stepdaughter throw her illegi timate baby into the sewer. however, preissová did not want to have two murderesses as jeji pastorkyfia means “not own daughter,” and can be translated as both foster-daughter and stepdaughter. from a letter to max brod, who completed the german translation, janáek asked for stieftochter rather than ziehtochter or pflegetochter, although the ue adopted the pflegetochter (foster-daughter). see stanley appelbaum, “introduction to the dover edition,” jenzfa, leo janáëek, (mineola, n.y.: dover publications, inc., ), xiii. i will refer to kosteinika as stepmother. tyrell, janáek‘s operas, a documentary account (london, boston: faber and faber ltd., ), . see also karel brusak, “drama into libretto,” jenzifa; katya kabanová, by leo janáek and gabriela preis soya (london: j. calder; new york: riverrun press inc., ), . part ofher play and therefore chose the stepmother as the perpetrator instead. a brief synopsis ofjanãek’s opera libretto follows. plot summary the buryja family tree begins with the old, widowed grandmother buryjovka, whose two sons are both deceased before the opera begins. laca and teva are stepbrothers from the first ofburyjovká’s sons, whereas jenüfa is the daughter of buryjovká’s second son, thomas, whose wife (jeniwa’s mother), died and who had married kostelnika. but thomas also died, leaving kostelnika to raise his daughter jenüfa. therefore, kosteinika is a stepmother to jenilfa. teva is grandmother buryjovká’s grandson, and jenüfa’s cousin, whereas laca and jencifa are step cousins. the two half-brothers are at odds because steva, who is good- looking but irresponsible, has just inherited the valuable mill, and because ofwealth may be able to buy his way out ofthe army. laca received only a minor inheritance from his step father, and is forced to work at the mill. further, he is hopelessly in love with jenilfa, and on returning from his own conscription learns that jenifa has become engaged to steva. act i takes place at the buryja mill, where jencfa is anxiously awaiting the arrival ofher fiancé steva, hoping he will not be drafted so that they can be married before her pregnancy is revealed. grandmother buryjakovä scolds her for her absentmindedness, and laca teases her mercilessly. the mill foreman and laca are also heard in conversation, with laca hoping that steva will be drafted, and the foreman relating that he has been exempted. steva arrives intoxicated with a group ofrecruits and musicians who continue their celebration. their merriment and dancing is interrupted by kostelnika, who has observed teva’s drunkenness and withholds permission for his marriage to jenfifa until he can remain sober for a whole year. angry and jealous that teva has been exempted, laca confronts jenüfa with his feelings for her, and in an ensuing struggle which occurs as he attempts to kiss her, he deliberately slashes the “rosy cheeks” teva so admires. act ii takes place at koste nika’s home about five months later. having learned ofjenilfa’s pregnancy, kostelnika has kept her hidden in the house, away from the villagers. jenüfa has given birth to ason and he is now eight days old. kostelniëka tries to convince teva to marry jenfifa. steva refuses, offering money instead, as long as the child’s paternity remains a secret. he has already become engaged to the mayor’s daughter, karolka. when laca arrives, kostelnika is frantic with worry and tells him everything. at laca’s hesitation at accepting teva’s child as his own, in desperation, kostelnika tells him that the baby is dead. she sends him away, and left alone decides that she will “take the child and give it back to god,” and rushes offinto the winter night. kostelnika returns to fmd jenüfa awakened from a drug-induced sleep, and explains that she has been sick with a fever for two days, during which her baby has died. telling jemifa that steva has rejected her, kostelnika advises her to marry laca. jenüfa reluctantly agrees. act iii, takes place two months later at kostelnika’s home on jenüfa’s and laca’s wedding day. guests who begin to arrive include the mayor and his wife, steva and karolka, and some ofthe village girls, who have come to sing a wedding song to jenfifa. as kostelnika is about to give her formal blessings to the marriage, a commotion is heard outside. a frozen body ofa baby is found under the ice and jenüfa identifies its red bonnet as that belonging to her own baby. the horrified crowd threatens to “stone her to death,” but it is kostelnika who saves her by confessing to the murder. before she is arrested and led away, kostelnika begs for forgiveness from jemifa, admitting that she loved herselfmore than her stepdaughter. john tyrell, janádrk ‘s operas, . jenifa, understanding that her stepmother killed the child out of love for her, forgives her. alone, jencifa tries to dissuade laca from marrying her, but he remains firm. the opera draws to a close as laca and jeniifa pledge to meet the future together. the context of the opera leo janáèek’s opera jejipastorkyña (her stepdaughter), more commonly known as jen fa, premiered at the na veveii theater in bmo on january , , after a long compo sition period which began in . although janácek wanted to see the opera premiere in prague, it was rejected by the director ofthe prague national theatre, karel kovaovic ( - ). the bmo premiere was conducted by janácek’s former student, cyril metodèj hrazdira ( - ), and despite the fact that the orchestra did not have the specified number of instruments requested in janácek’ s score, the performance was a success. the applause after the first act was so favorable that janácek was called out after the conclusion of each act. the press also gave favorable reviews, especially the prague critic emanuel chvála ofthe národnipolitika (national politics), and the bmo critics considered it the “first realistic moravian opera.” the first act was completed on march , , according to the dates janácek inserted into his copy ofpreissová’s play. teaching duties and also janácek’s immersion in his ethnographic studies and collection of folk songs interrupted further composition. anoth er possible reason cited as a cause for this break is that he may have been rethinking his approach to composing opera. janácek returned to the composition ofjenzfa again near the end of , and acts ii and iii were completed amidst the backdrop ofhis personal grief at the loss ofhis daughter olga. in march of , while in st. petersburg, she had contracted typhoid fever, and due jaroslav vogel, leo janáéek, a biography, . john tyrrell, “leo janáek,” in groves dictionary ofmusic andmusicians, ed., stanley sadie (new york: macmillan publishers, ), . to residual weakness from rheumatic fever was unable to recover. olga died on the th of february, , and janáek wrote march , as being the completion date ofthe opera. the opera is dedicated to her, and twenty years after olga’s passing, janãek wrote in his autobiography: “i would bind jenzfa with the black ribbon ofthe long illness, the pain, and the sighing ofmy daughter olga and my little boy vladimir (who had died of scarlet fever in , at the age oftwo).” janáek continued to send requests to kovalovic, the director ofthe prague national theatre, to have the opera performed there, but each time he was refused. in the meantime, there were additional revivals ofthe opera in bmo, in - , , , and , for which janáek continued to make revisions. the most significant revisions that would speed up the drama were made for the — production, before the publishing ofthe vocal score. some revision suggestions, mainly shortening specific orchestral interludes and two ensembles came from hrazdira; others were made by janáèek himself. during one of the revisions a substantial part ofkostelni&a’s aria ofact i (act i, from r. --”aji on byl zlatobiivy,” — up to one measure before r. (around measures) was cut by janáëek him self, and so it did not appear in the published vocal score. in fact, it did not reappear in printed score until after , and was not included in productions ofthe opera until after . tyrrell, jandtek’s operas, a documentary account, (london; boston: faber and faber ltd., ), . taken from his autobiography of . also in tyrrell’s “cd notes,” leo.i jan&ek, jenzifa, (sir charles mackerras and the vienna phitharmonic, , decca - - ), . t has been noted that kovafovic refused janá&k on the grounds of a cynical and cutting review ofhis opera the bridegrooms in . a thorough account ofthe details ofthe revisions and cuts can be found in the pre face to the orchestral and vocal score. scholarly research, including that by john tyrrell and charles mackerras, was conducted ofthe existing orchestral parts of - , and the original version ofthe opera was restored as much as possible. universal editions issued a kovatovic version in . since the ue edition of , the act i aria has been included. there has been much debate as to whether the act i aria was dropped it would take nine invitations before kovafovic would attend a brno performance of the opera, and it was only through the persistence ofcolleagues and friends that the opera was finally produced in prague ml . koval’ovic felt that the work had some structural issues, and would only produce it ifjanáek would agree to a number ofcuts and changes to the score. these were mainly orchestral changes and an addition to the fmal scene that john tyrrell calls a “grandiose canonic apotheosis.” following its eventual triumphant premiere at the prague national theatre on april , , and its subsequent success in vienna in , leo janáèek’s opera jenñfi became part ofthe main repertory of operas. like janáek’s other operas, women characters and their stories play a significant role in jen fa. the opera has three generations ofwomen giving advice to each other. moreover, the plays or novels which janáek adapted into his operas have female characters that fit into a similar archetypal pattern. as michael ewans points out, these are suffering women who are centre stage and more significant than the male characters ofthe operas. a younger female for example, is the primary lead and considered the heroine. she is contrasted with an equally significant older woman character that is authoritarian and harsh.’°° in janáek’s operas jenzfa, osud (fate), and kát’a kabanová, all three older women, kostelnika, mila’s mother, and kabanicha respectively, are mothers. mila’s before the opera’s brno premiere, or during the revivals. the original hill manuscript score and piano-vocal score were destroyed at janáek’s request in , and only the copyist tross’s copy remains, which includes all the revisions together, including those by kovai’ovic, making it difficult to determine exactly when the cuts were made. see john tyrrell, “preface,” in leo.janáek, jenifa, jeffpastorkyna, librettist, gabriela preissová, brno version ( ) full score, eds. john tyrrell and sir charles mackerras, uf , , . see also john tyrrell, janáek: years ofa l, vol. (london: faber and faber ltd., ), - . ibid. ewans, janáek’s tragic operas (london: faber and faber ltd., ), . ibid., . michael ewans discusses this in more detail. controlling mother is the cause ofthe death ofher daughter in a murder-suicide. similarly, kabanicha domineers her son, and ultimately her ill treatment ofher daughter-in-law, kát’a, causes her to commit suicide. finally, kostelnika’s censure ofteva as well as her prohibi tion ofjenüfa’s and teva’s marriage changes their lives irrevocably. thus these strong older women characters provide compelling dramatic contrast to their younger counterparts, and a wealth of opportunity for janáèek’s interpretation and imaginative composition. moreover, as mother characters they illustrate the nineteenth-century czech proclivity for choosing wives and mothers over husbands and fathers as dominant and influential operatic characters.’°’ janá&k’s speech melody (napévky miuvy) an important aspect ofjaná&k’s compositional style lies in the dramatization ofhis characters. unique and human, they grow out of janáèek’s interpretation ofczech human speech with its related melodic curve. janáek collected fragments ofhuman speech and referred to them as nápëvky mluvj or speech melodies. an examination ofthe concept of speech melody is important to this investigation and analysis ofthe character ofkostelnika. although there is some debate as to when janáek actually began to develop speech melody, due to the long history ofthe opera’s composition there is evidence that speech melodies impacted his composition ofjenzfii.’° furthermore, i will show evidence of it in my musical analysis. j tyrrell, czech opera, (n.y., n.y.: cambridge university press, ), . ‘° according to tyrrell and cemohorská (another janá&k scholar), janáek himselfprovided five different dates for the beginning ofhis concept of speech melody. these are , , , , . is generally the accepted date among scholars. cernohorská sees speech melody as a culmination ofhis interest infolksong, not his starting-point. see john tyrrell, years ofa - . vilem tausky, notes that in lec tures during the ’s janáek was heard telling his students that he had been “collecting speech rhythms for over years.” (this would indicate as the start date for beginning his collection ofspeech melodies). as janáek became more immersed in his ethnographic studies and collection offolk songs mainly in the regions ofmoravia and slovakia in the late ’s, he also began to notate conversations that he heard into short melodies. janáek discovered that although most ofthe peasants were illiterate, their culture was orally expressed through approximately songs. moreover, because the words ofthe moravian peasants were “short and rather chunky,” their sentences in turn were brief and disjointed, and the musical phrases followed suit. this was noted on examination ofthe collection of janá&k’s moravian folk poetry in song, where the short sentences are evident in the two measure phrases common to these songs, as well as in the rhythmic irregularity within the phrases at times, due to text declamation. speech melody entails expressions ofhuman speech that are notated in musical tenns. most people, regardless ofnationality, do not speak in a monotone “monodrone.”° we inflect our words and sentences by raising or lowering pitches to emphasize what we are saying. for example, when ending a sentence that is a question, there is a natural tendency to inflect the end ofthe sentence upwards. word stress, and syllable length and stress, are also a factor. the short sentence: “oh no, you don’t!” is an example. ifthe reader practices speaking this sentence several times with different intonations, it will become apparent that meaning changes with each different inflection. it is almost impossible to speak this sentence with intent on a single monotone pitch. moreover, the reader will likely note that see, vilem tausky, “recollections ofleo janáek,” in janáyek, leavesfrom his life, ed., and trans., vilem and margaret tausky, (london: stanmore press ltd., ), . george martin, “leo janãek: a life in music,” . this is a term adopted from speech pathologist linda rammage (part ofthe vancouver, b.c. voice clinic team) that aptly describes some peoples’ manner of speaking, but it is not considered the ideal. infusing our speech with energy will naturally produce speech inflection that raises or lowers as we communicate our intent. there is a melodic curve that occurs, and that the inflection ofthis short sentence is within a range of a fifth, the syllables corresponding roughly to the musical pitches: doh — soh — me — doh.’° further, on singing the sentence using the musical pitches, it will become apparent that the words ofthe sentence tend to move faster in speech than in singing because we instinctively project note values onto the words when singing them, which take a slightly longer time to complete. this will become significant during my discussion ofkostelnika’s music where note value duration is at times determined by syllabic or word stress. in studying the difference between the singing and speaking voice, it is obvious that the range in speaking is far more limited in pitch range than in singing. the pitch range we speak in a normal voice lies generally within a range ofa perfect fourth or fifth interval, which corresponds to my example above.’ this range is not fixed to a specific pitch range in that it is unique according to each individual and varies with the size oftheir larynx (hence their voice type). however, during excited speech, spoken pitch range can exceed that of an octave, particularly in female voices.’ similarly, in the singing voice this spoken pitch range is known as chest voice, and can be carried up as high as c# — f# with limited laryngeal adjustment. ‘° i have found this to be a very good vocal exercise when used with students who are particularly interested in using “belt” voice in the pop or musical theatre genre, as it naturally encourages crico-thyroid muscle in volvement in vibration ofthe vocal folds, and reduces the pressure at vocal fold level. mckinney, the diagnosis and correction ofvocal faults (nashville, tennessee: genevox music group, ), . see chapter for a detailed analysis of speaking voice function, including assessment and correction. james mckinney, . according to his studies, an untrained singer can often sing an octave and a fifth in chest voice. the opinion on this varies. mathilde marchesi ( - ) felt the highest note sung in chest voice should be e or f for females. see barbara doscher, the functional unity ofthe singing voice, ’ ed. (metuchen, n.j. & london: scarecrow press, inc. ), . see also richard miller, the structure ofsinging (n.y.: schirmer books, ). chapter . similarly, in his studies of speech melody, janáek observed snippets of everyday conversations, noting the inflection ofthe voice, the rhythm, and duration ofthe words, and the emotions behind the words. he “observed the area around the speakers, their movement, the time ofday, lightness and darkness, coldness and warmth.”° janáèek felt they were a “window into the soul,” and “like a photograph ofthe moment.” the notated speech melodies became raw material for instrumental and vocal motives. he did not quote them directly. since these were based on real people and their experiences of life, the gestures of these melodies (as opposed to specific words or conversations) and their emotional intent were essential to janáek. he felt that the motives with their tone color imbued the music with “national spirit,” and were foundational for “creating a national work ofart.” janá&k explained his speech melody concept on numerous occasions: nápëvky mluv [speech melodies] are an expression ofthe whole state ofthe organism and all phases of spiritual activity which flow from it. they show us the fool and the wise one, the sleepy and the wakeful, the tired and the nimble; they show us the child and the old one, morning and evening, light and darkness, scorching heat and frost, loneliness and company. the art of a dramatic composition is to make nápjvky which like magic convey the vitality ofhuman beings in certain phases oflife.’ also: every person, even the most unmusical, has an intonation in his speech, which pleasant or not, springs from a musical sensibility and, accordingly, can be carried over in its subtlest shades into musical language. in my activity as a composer i have borne in mind that a person’s voice changes with every hour that passes, since he is subject to the effects ofoutward impressions and inward experiences. a person’s feelings are always there ‘° leo janáek, as quoted in john tyrrell, janáek: years ofa lfe (london: faber and faber ltd, ), . john tyrrell, years ofa . michael beckerman, janáek as theorist (stuyvesant, n.y: pendragon press, ), . ‘ leoi janáek in michael beckerman, janáoek as theorist, . in speech, expressed in its intonation and especially in its speed, even its pitch.” two examples from his collection of speech melodies further illustrate janáek’s concept and methodology. the first is a conversation he overheard while at the railway station, at twilight, six o’clock on th offebruary, , between two young women who were waiting for the train. janá&k observed that the first speaker was taller than her ffiend. she had rosy cheeks and was wearing a red overcoat, “flouncing petulantly” as she spoke “scornfully.” her friend was paler, dressed in a “shabby darkjacket,” and her answer was given as a “sad echo” in response to her friend. he further noted that the friend did not move, “halfthrough obstinacy, half still expectant” (see example .a). f_— —--- ______________ . _________ bu-demia-dv st vm,io ne-p’i-jdel we’ll stand here but i know he won’t come! what does it matter! ex. .a although this conversation only lasted a mere . ofa minute, seeing the written pitch in flection these two women used, it is possible to ‘hear’ the scorn in the descending phrase, “i know he won’t come,” as well as ‘feel’ the sadness in the second woman’s immediate jtyrrell, years ofa life, . vilem and margaret tausky, eds., and trans., janácyek, leavesfrom his ljfe (london: kahn & averill, ), - . t’ p —=—- - to jo response, “what does it matter!” the bottom system is janá&k’s harmonization ofthe speech melody. the second example is taken from janáek’s notated conversation with smetana’s daughter which took place in december of . as part oftheir conversation janáek remarked that she spoke very quietly (despite her reputation ofbeing highly strung), and also admired the low register ofher voice, particularly as she had a soprano singing voice. the segments chosen for illustration are smetana’s daughter’s responses to janáek. her first was a response with regards to possibly having inherited her father’s manner of speaking, the second, a response relating how her father would state his age, and the third, her question to janá&k, asking ifhe had perfect pitch’ (see example .b). th to irme bu de - .hemt - - de-st mu - a- te u hoc-nout that interests me very much i am sixty-three years old can you pitch an ‘a’? ex. .b from these snippets ofconversation, it is possible to observe the low vocal pitch range, a calm manner of speaking seen by the quarter note values and the repeated pitches (as op posed to what may be expected from a person with a high strung nature where the melodic contour may have greater variance), as well as the natural upward inflection at the end ofthe phrase when asking a question. of interest also, are the minor and diminished intervals that occur as a result ofher vocal inflection, the difference in speed between the delivery ofthe .a and .b, and how their different textures could influence janáek’s vocal text setting and character dramatization. janáek has not been alone in his interest in the effect ofspeech on melodic contour. ibid., , . voice studies were conducted by voice scientists in the twentieth century that measured the contour ofpitch during various emotional states. in one study of , twenty-three actors of various nationalities were asked to express eight different emotional states that included neutral, love, joy, sorrow, fear, solemnity, comedy, irony, sorrow, and fear, by reading a single sentence. important to the study is that the contours ofthese emotions could be scientifically analyzed by measuring the phonation frequency, amplitude, and spectra ofthe speaker. on examination, regardless ofnationality (which included a group of czech students), the mean phonation frequency ofjoy was raised, while it was lowered in sorrow, and intermediate in the neutral mode. a similar study which analyzed the four emotional states of sorrow, anger, fear, and neutral also revealed interesting findings. statistically, according to sundberg, the findings resulted in sadness showing the lowest average phona tion frequency, the neutral state and fear being higher, and anger, the highest. as frequency can be measured in pitch, this type of study is helpful in determining how the range ofemotions can be identified according to specific melodic contour and range. further, it aids in understanding the significance ofjanáek’ s own study of speech melody with its far-reaching compositional possibilities. as already noted, the detailed information included with each ofhis examples, plus his intuitive interpretation of speaker and speech, are an indication ofhow intricate his operatic characters are constructed. there fore, to quote the programme leaflet from the premiere: “the principle on which jenfa was written is the following: janáëek recognized that the truest expression ofthe soul lies in johan sundberg, the science ofthe singing voice, (dekaib, illinois: northern illinois university press, ), . different studies were conducted in , , and . sundberg . see p. - for a detailed discussion and spectrograph images on these studies among others. melodic motifs ofspeech. thus instead ofthe usual arias he used these [speech] melodies. in so doing he achieved a truthful expression in places where this is surely one ofthe most important kosteinika (sacristan the character ofkostelnièka is pivotal to the outcome ofthe story, more significant than laca’s jealousy is to the disfigurement ofjenüfa, which caused teva’s rejection ofher. kostelnika’s character is unique in that she stands in opposition to the encountered tradi tional views and presentations ofwomen during this time, many ofwhom were likely illiterate’ and seen only in their roles in the home. kostelnika is an empowered woman, successful in a man’s world. she is educated and has endured an abusive marriage. widowed while jenüfa was still little, she became a working parent who lovingly and sacrificially raised her abusive husband’s daughter as her own) °moreover, kostelnika is such an exceptional woman, as the foreman notes to laca in scene two ofthe play, that the priest put her in charge ofthe chapel, a position nomally held by a man. as the kostelnika’ ’(sacristan), she is a highly respected member ofthe church who leads proces sions, is responsible for burials, and knows how to cure the sick.’ understandably, she is proud ofher accomplishments and ofher success in raising and educating jenüfa, despite her tyrrell, janáyek’s operas, . george martin, “leo janãek: a life in music,” . in scene , act i ofthe play, she describes to the mayor’s wife how she even sold her marianthaller, given to koste nika at her christening, to buy food for jenüfa, instead ofselling the house, moving and finding work and childcare. see, barbara day, trans. “jenüfa” in eastern promise, edited by sian evans and cheryl robson (london: aurora metro publications ltd., ), . name kosteinika is derived from the czech word for church “kostel.” see karl brusak, “drama into “drama into libretto,” . ibid., . see also scene ofact ofthe play. see, barbara day, “jenilfa,” - . hardships. further, in her stature as the sacristan, she sets the example for the strict moral principles ofher society. kostelni&a’s act i aria, a tak byckom li (r. end of r. ) dramatically, this aria occurs at the buryja mill, and is part of a larger scene that in volves the main characters as well as villagers. prior to kostelnika’s aria, teva, jeni°tfa’s lover, arrives drunk with the other recruits, celebrating his exemption from the draft. after throwing money at a band ofmusicians, he leads the villagers in a dance which is interrupted by kostelnika’s entrance. in her aria, she shares her personal experiences of living with a profligate, alcoholic, and physically abusive husband, hoping to dissuade her stepdaughter jenüfa from marrying teva. gradually, her plea becomes more assertive, forbidding jeniifa to marry teva unless he proves that he can stay away from alcohol for an entire year. she ends up threatening jem°ifa that god will punish her if she does not obey. toward the end of the scene, the recruits as well as kostelni&a’s own mother-in-law, grandmother buryja, comment on what a “stem” woman she is. in his musical setting ofkostelnika’s aria, janáek omits much ofher background, turning her into a rather authoritative, strict, and stony stepmother. it is hard to understand why janá&k would have cut the middle section ofher act i monologue since the omitted section would have heightened the impression that kostelnika’s rigid moral principles as a sacristan are behind her disapproval of teva. i have included the middle section in my analysis not only because it belongs to the most recent scholarly edition ofthe opera, but also, and especially, because it helps to flesh out her personality and provides perspective and rationale for her opposition to teva. the music ofkostelnika’s act i aria (r. -end ofr. ), without the cut (see fn. ), is a fairly lengthy scene, and for purposes of clarity i will discuss the aria by musico dramatic sections. the aria is through-composed, but both musically and dramatically it falls into several shorter subsections that can be divided into three larger groupings: the first from r. to ; the second from r. through one measure before r. (this is the middle [b] section of ca. measures that janáek at some point cut from the score); and the fmal section (c) begins just before r through to the end of r . preceding kostelni&a’s emphatic entrance and interruption of teva’s wild drunken frolic with the recruits and villagers (right before the actual beginning ofthe aria, r. - ) is a shortfortissimo, orchestral dissonant chromatic ascending passage making her arrival frigh tening, as if it were that noise that silenced the startled revelers. their silent reaction provides a counterpoint to the third act, where on the contrary, the villagers react with horrified cries when she admits to the murder ofthe baby. section a (r. through r. —a total of measures) begins with the text, “a tak bychom li cel’m ivotem” (and this is the way your whole life would be. . .). dramatically this section is expository, introducing koste nika’s rebuke and her motivation for refusing to allow jeni°ifa’s marriage to go forward. her entrance and interruption ofthe merriment of teva and the recruits are an over-reaction to the dancing and celebration. after the short four measure transition ofascending chromatic scales discussed above, it begins on a tonally stable / chord in a flat minor (r. ), which remains the prevalent tonal anchor in this section. however, the tonality gets a strong modal character through the emphasized raised sixth degree ofthe scale (f natural) suggesting the dorian mode. musically, this short section plays an introductory role, as in addition to establishing the tonality, it introduces one ofthe most important motives (see ex. . ), and establishes kostelnika’ s declamatory style. the vocal setting depends highly on janáek’s own libretto, which he chose to write in prose rather than in verse. this opening section is punctuated by short vocal melodic phrases, one or two measures in length that are fitted to the text. the short motives are related to the language. czech words are generally accented on the first syllable, sometimes lengthened on the second syllable, therefore leaving the final syllable short and weak.’ the parlando-style repeated cbs pitch is situated in the upper middle part ofthe chest voice, a pitch that is increased from a normal speaking range and level, exhibitive ofrigidity and an already increased level ofagitation. the texture ofthe vocal line does not have the melodic curve that jenüfa’s music often has, which endows it with much more softness than kostelni&a’s lines. this is a straight-forward no-nonsense type ofdeclamation, whose harshness and intonation in monodrone denote a tragic urgency. the tone becomes more scattered with exaggerated expressive jumps shown, for example, in the melodic rise in pitch for punctuation and emphasis on jenüfa’s name at r. : , “and you, jenüfa, you jenüfa.” the highest and most extreme vocal jump in this section is over an octave to g ,at the text, “could be picking up the scattered money!” (r. : — r. : ). this short exclamatory speech melody on the czech text “penize sbirat” (scattered money) with its repetition and octave leap are pithy, delivered with aggravation, directed at teva and by relation referencing kostelnika’s late husband. janáek seems to use consistently this device ofrepeating a short declamatory statement twice with the goal ofemphasizing a character’s urgent and obstinate goal ofper suasion, as well as a more “primitive,” “rough,” “peasant” means of insistence through repetition ofwords rather than by lengthy argumentation. ‘ milena janda, ubc, vancouver, b.c. czech coach. see also jaroslav vogel, leoj janáek, a biography, , . the last two measures ofthis section (r. : ) begin an important two measure speech melody motive on the text, “you are all the same [you buryjas!]” (ex. . ). the speech accents ofthis motive highlight the sarcastic dig directed to teva that carries with it some punch. by association, it also includes the recruits as they are privy to her sweeping outburst. vocally, it occurs at the upper end ofthe chest register for the voice, creating strident vocal declamation. the motive gains its sarcastic effect not only from its irregular rhythm—a syncopation in / on the second syllable ofthe word “vërná” followed by a quadruplet eighth figure over three beats—but also by placing this longer note on the modal “dorian sixth” f natural, the highest note ofthe motive, stridently outlining the discordance between this major sixth and the subsequent descending minor arpeggio of the tonic a flat (see ex. . ). this is a recurring motive that will be heard both in the voice and in the orchestra in the following b section and will be described further there. aside from actual repetitions ofthe same motives, most ofjanáèek’s motives seem related through either varied repetitions or transpositions ofpitches, or rhythmic similarities or variations, all being based on the language accentuations ofthe text. it is this commonality of declamation that unifies the style ofthe entire aria. “vernãjste si rodina!” until otherwise noted, english translations are by milena janda, vancouver, b.c. czech coach. this is a clear example of speech melody as the accentuation and rhythm ofthe music follow the patterns ofthe czech language. t c the b section has a total of measures, from r through one measure before r . it begins on the words “aji on byl zlatohl’ivy” (he had the same golden locks). this is the development section ofthe aria, both dramatically and musically. it is here that kostelnika develops her case, providing personal details that justify her opposition to jenüfa’s relation ship with teva in light ofher own bad experience with her late husband, namely teva’s uncle. dramatically, one can discern three parts in her argument: first she describes the early part ofher relationship with her late husband, relating how her mother warned her but she did not listen; then she recounts that he squandered their money and got drunk every day; and in the third, more intensified, section, she conveys that she suffered but survived physical abuse, concluding that teva is not a worthy partner for jenüfa. in the last subsection, jenüfa joins her stepmother in a short duet. harmonically, the a ’minor of section a continues until r. where a new less stable texture settles in, with new inflections towards c minor. this is followed by a long ambiguous section at r. , where a more stable e flat minor pedal seems to act as tonic, but turns out in the end to have been leading back to ab minor (at r. + ) with a motivic version of . almost similar to that ofr. (see more below). however, the remainder of this section is otherwise unstable, moving through a series ofunresolved ct dominant and diminished chords before returning to a” minor at the end ofthe b section. the speech melody motive described above (ex. . ), returns in this section stated by both voice and orchestra. the melodic contour and the pitches are identical as shown in the example, but the rhythm has been slightly altered to fit the new text at r : — (see ex. . ). here each note ofthe motive is an eighth note, but the strong accents over the first four notes change the rhythm to a duple rather than triple one. janáek repeats the motive again at r , in both the orchestra and voice, but with different text. the motive is continued by transposition and sequenced, heard both in winds and low strings, with the final note over lapping the beginning ofthe next repetition. the last is by the low strings, and a segment of this motive is continued by the cellos, reflecting kostelni&a’s deep pain, significantly con nected with the text, “he beat me cruelly, beat me cruelly.” example . shows another related speech melody motive at r. : , , heard first from the orchestral wind section, and then on kostelnika’s opening phrase in this section of text which is “he was ofthe same golden mane” (see ex. . ). the melodic contour has similarities to example . , but the melody emphasizes the raised sixth and seventh scale degrees, and is made up ofminor and major seconds and a perfect fourth, giving it a modal quality. here the clarinets and bassoon support the voice, while the cellos repeat the . motive during the rests. significantly, this motive is taken up by the orchestra; koste nika does not repeat it. her vocal line returns to an increasingly more obsessive, single-pitched monodrone declamation, and a melody that is a variation ofthe strident . motive. motive . is also part ofthe orchestral texture, but is fragmented with pitches moving in descending rather than ascending order. by using kostelnièka’s own motives, janáëek continues to illustrate the harshness ofher character as well as the severity ofher experiences. “a tu me bijãval, a tu me bijával.” ‘ ”aji on byl zlatohl’ivy.” , \\ w at r , in emphasis ofthe text, “[the miller ofveborany] is not worthy to stand beside my stepdaughter,” janáek uses a variant ofthe . (r. : , ) motive, elongating the pitch values to duplets (see ex. . , r. : , ), contrasting the triple divisions used by jeniifa whose voice just joined kostelniëka. in this rather jagged and punctuated melody, through several ascending transpositions, kostelnika’s rebuke reaches a fevered high tessitura to a (r. ) and except for briefmoments ofrelease, stays at that level. as ifto echo kostelnika’s agitated spirit, the dynamic level ofthe orchestra rises and the texture thickens. here the d’ monodrone ofkostelniëka’s opening vocal rebuke becomes a c natural pedal, and the harmony has a c major quality, despite the fact that the accompanying chromatic motives in the violins sequence upwards by half step, rendering the tonality unstable. this unstable tonality underscores kostelnika’s thoughts that she is saving jeni°ifa from teva, and by association, from a life and fate similar to hers. further, janáek returns to this same tonality again in act ii, as kostelnièka rationalizes that she can save jenüfa by taking the child back to god. “fe tl’eba veboransk m yná], jstë nenh hoden státi vedle moji pastorkynë!” “ = < p u , the final section (c) beginsjust before r through to the end ofr . this is not a recapitulation ofprevious musical material, and although the ab minor key returns, it is against an f natural pedal (horns) and a c” pedal (low strings and tympani) which blur the tonality. this is the climactic section of kostelnika’s rather public rebuke, like an ax falling on the head ofjenüfa’s hopes ofnot having to bear the brunt ofher moral failure. there is an outburst ofobjection by the recruits in the middle ofkostelnika’s rebuke, just as she has rescinded consent to jenüfa’s and teva’s marriage until teva can remain sober for one year. the recruits interrupt but, significantly, use kostelnièka’s own motive ( . ), in diminution and therefore much quicker on the text, “she’s a hard woman” (see ex. . , r : — : , ). these words are sung between tenors and baritones, and then baritones and basses, each voice interjecting before the other has finished. this slight to koste nika is more pointed when the b section ofthe aria is included, because their music refers to the same motive on “all the buryja men,” and by inference, kostelnièka challenges both teva’s and the recruits’ values. with the recruits’ music, janá&k moves by ct association to db major tonality and ends with the tonic d” reached via secondary dominant chords with ct associa tion. kostelnika’s threat, “god will punish you severely ifyou don’t obey me, god will punish you severely,” is apocalyptic as inadvertently, not aware ofjenüfa’s pregnancy, she is bringingjudgment on herselfas well. “ale ja to phsná enská!” this example is also mentioned by john tyrrell, “musical aspects,” from, leoj janádek, jenifa (sir charles mackerras and the vienna phitharmonic, , cd, decca - - ), . ”bhtë tvrdë ztrestá kdy mne nepos echne, bi°ih të tvrdë ztrestá!” ewans, janáek’s tragic operas, . ewans also makes reference to this. . i with this analysis i have shown the continuity that flows from one section to another and also the musical motives which connect the b section to a and c. the obsessive mono- drone pitched phrases in the b section in fact strengthen the moral rigidity ofher character, and the jagged speech melodies with their modality and often high vocal tessitura intensify the severity ofher experiences. interpretively, the high tessitura and the declamatory motives, which are coarse and reflective ofkostelni&a’s stem character, are difficult for a singer to maintain since they go against the grain ofthe bel-canto type of legato singing. this aria requires a dramatic vocal timbre, in order that the assertive repetitions sound like a reinforcement of orders that brook no further objections. act ii act ii is relentless for koste nika. her character is fully defined through the drama turgy and also through janáek’s music. she is confronted with her own moral dilemma and the cultural traditions whose rigid social values have defmed her life and her position as a sacristan. religion and morality were seen as highly important, setting a high standard for the behavioral code ofthe villagers, and are significantly personified by kostelnièka. chastity before marriage was an important traditional aspect of a religious peasant community. while pre-marital sex was forbidden, the courtship practice ofbundling was a legitimized arrangement where young men and women could explore their sexuality, but without actual intercourse. as christine worobec states, intimate encounters. . . also provided them with an opportunity to examine a prospective suitor or bride for physical defects that would make a permanent union undesirable. bundling customs were furthermore the ultimate traditional expression ofthe double standard. with community approval young men tested their girlfriends’ moral strength by making sexual advances. only a girl who controlled her temptress impulses and refused to give sexual favors was worthy ofmarriage. young women were at greater risk, for promiscuity that resulted in pregnancy was cause for disgrace and public humiliation, as well as damaging prospects for a good marriage. the public disgrace and stigma pronounced on the girl was rarely the same for the father ofthe child. an example from the late nineteenth century, taken from the region ofblata in southern bohemia, further illustrates this: a fallen young woman was forced to stand in front ofthe village church with two short boards fitted about her wrists like the stocks or pillory, (known as “s housli&ama” or “with violins” in czech). she was expected to greet parishioners with ‘welcome to church; i have sinned carnally.’ and as they left mass she entreated them with ‘i greet you with god’s word — where can i ever put down this fiddle.’ ifthe young girl was fortunate enough to eventually marry, derisive sons were sung at her wedding to remind her ofher earlier transgression. from these two examples, it is possible to discern the anxiety and dilemma that both kostelnièka and jeni°ifa find themselves in. unable to bear the censure ofthe villagers, kostelnika keeps jenüfa hidden in the house, while explaining that jeni°ifa has gone to vienna. the pretense in her lie is justified by the rationalization that she has saved them both from ridicule and shame. additionally, in her position as sacristan kostelnika is morally superior to the rest ofthe villagers, and therefore, jenüfa’s fall is a considerable blow to her pride. ‘ as quoted by diane paige, “women in the opera’s ofleo janáëek,” (phd diss., university of california, ), - . she quotes, christine d. worobec, “temptress or virgin? the precarious sexual position of women post emancipation ukrainian peasant society,” in russian peasant women, eds. beatrice farnsworth and lynne viola (new york and oxford: oxford university press, ), . diane paige, “women in the opera ofleos janáek,” . see also barbara alpem engel, “peasant morality and premarital sexual relations in late nineteenth century russia,” journal ofsocial history vol. , no. (summer ): - . she notes that transgressing sexual norms, women were judged harshly, publicly shamed in various ways, for example, tarring the gates ofthe home ofthe unchaste girl. ( ) similar court ship practices ofbundling are noted in her article. the incessant pounding d’ tremolo heard inact i becomes a c# in the orchestral prelude ofact ii (c# minor), and continues into the first scene in kostelnika’s and jenüfa’s dialogue and short duet. turning to the sharp side from cb is indicative ofheightened agitation which is expressed by orchestral tutti tremolo. it takes on further guises throughout this act depending on the harmonic material janá&k is using. however, despite her heightened emotional state in scene one, the melodic line of kostelnika’s music is less angular and softer, until her thoughts turn to teva and his son; then her melodic line rises in pitch and takes on the reproach ofthe first act aria. janáek reminds us that teva’s drunkenness and lack of character (to kostelnika’s mind) are not far from her thoughts, as the music ofthe recruits and teva’s arrival in act i are heard in the or chestra on kostelni&a’s text, “and all that time his father, that worthy fellow, did not care a rap!” (r. ). the theme returns again at r. as kostelnika describes how the howling of the baby will “drive them mad!” while kostelnika sees the child as an object ofmisery and her music sounds repri manding due to short monodrone pitched phrases, jenüfa sees a child born out of love. in their short duet section, her music is lyrical with the gentleness of a loving mother who places her child’s needs above her own.’ this is contrasted even more in the second scene, where in her monologue kostelnika vents her hatred for both teva and the baby, and her melodic lines become angular and clipped. however, kostelni&a is forced to become more conciliatory in scene three in her attempt to persuade teva to marry jenüfa, seeing this as the ‘ “a jeho hodn otec se ani ye snu o to nestará! ale bude beat, bude domrzat!” (act ii, english translations are taken from otakar kraus and edward downes. taken from leo. janáéek, jenzfa, (sir charles mackerras and the vienna philharmonic, decca - - , cd. ). ‘‘ ewans, janáyek ‘s tragic operas, - . ewans covers this in some detail. only way to save them both from ridicule. in her dialogue with teva, kostelnika’s music displays moments ofhigh tension both in the tessitura ofher vocal line, and its dissonance, and janá&k again returns to the repeated tremolo to sustain dissonance and instability. it is only while she is reduced to begging on her knees that her music briefly takes on a more lyrical quality. act ii scene . co chvila by scene five ofact ii, kostelnika stands in sharp counterpoint to the gentler and humbled jenüfa who learns to accept teva’s abandonment, her baby’s death, and her own fate. whipped into irrationality through her hatred of teva and the baby, kostelnika has become an anguished, guilt-ridden woman. known as co chvila, kostelni&a’s aria encom passes all ofscene five and is pivotal for her, as it is the culmination ofall her lies and deceit, and is climactic in the opera’s overall dramaturgy. therefore, i would like to focus on some ofthe aria’s defining moments, which will be discussed in three main sections based on the dramatic structure. the aria is through-composed, and its tonality ranges from both minor and major modes, inclusive ofpassages ofunresolved chordal progressions, and melodic material that uses both whole tone and octatonic material to create modal sounding melodies. the first section, a, is comprised ofthe first thirty-one measures (to the end ofr. ), while the second, b section, begins at r. and continues through to the end ofr. , and the conclusion begins at r. . harmonically, the predominant tonal areas ofthe aria can be identified according to the sections. section a, to the end ofr as noted above, is to the text: “in a moment. . . a moment. . . and i have to wait here a whole eternity a soul’s eternity. what if i took the child off somewhere? no. . . no. . . the baby’s the only obstacle, a life long disgrace! that would be a way ofredeeming her life, and it’s god who knows best how everything stands.” the beginning ofthis section is drastically different from the previously analyzed act one aria. the “con sordino” tremolando violins, the slow tempo, and the legato vocal phrases indicate from the outset a lyricism that was absent in the act i aria. although the aria’s two opening statements of “in a moment” are still short, in their lyrical softness and their interac tion with the muted violins they sound more like bel canto recitative-arioso figures than the coarse, speech-like motives ofthe first aria. the melody is, however, still based on speech accents, and the one that janáek uses here is a version of laca’s own, “in a moment, i’ll be back,” from the previous scene. janáek transfonns it slightly by raising it up an octave to conform to kostelnika’s vocal range, dropping down a semi-tone to e” from laca’s e natural, and changing the intervals from whole tone, half-step order, to a half-step rise and then fall for kostelnika (see exs. . and . ). chvfla. ..co chvfla. . . aja si mám zatim pi’ejit celou vënost ce ië spaseni? co kdybych radéji dité nëkam za vezia? ne. . . ne. . . jen ono je na pi’ekaku, a hanbu pro ce ivot! já bych tim ji ivot vykoupila. a pãnbüh, onto lejlèpe vi, jak to vecko stoji.” co chvila budu tady.” :• : • t,i c u ) the tonal area in the first eight bars ofthe a section alternates between b” minor _ e” minor ,which janáèek uses effectively to heighten the tension dramatically and illustrate the brink at which kostelnika stands, and her inner struggle with the choices she is facing. he then begins a development ofthe dramaturgy, moving through several tonal centers as kostelnièka rationalizes the child’s death as her only recourse (see text above). these occur from r. : (second halfofms.) to r. : , and are e” major — ° — a major — d’ — c major ic major —b (heard against an a” pedal). the opening tremolo in the strings is reinforced by the winds from r. : on, as kostelnika’s agitation is emphasized through this section. melodically, the vocal line combines local tonal allusions with pitches moving in half and whole tones, occasionally suggesting octatonic formations, while the accompaniment tremolos are formulaic without anchoring a stable tonal reference. therefore, through both tonal and melodic means, janáèek continues to reference kostelnika’s guilt-ridden state. at r. : — , on the text, “[i could by such] a deed save her life,” janáek moves temporarily to a c major! c major harmony. as in the first act aria, kostelni&a thinks it is she, rather than god, who can save jenüfa’s reputation. as kostelnika gains courage to commit the deed, janáek changes the texture ofthe orchestra at r. , by adding the harp in a chordal texture, moving the violins back to “arco,” and expanding a more lyrical, “espressivo” accompaniment to the entire orchestra. a b’ minor chord is intoned against an a” pedal in the double bass and cello, acting as a seventh to the chord, thus creating tension and dissonance. now the gestures ofthe vocal line become longer and longer, with crescendos and decrescendos, supported by similar phrasing in the ‘‘ “já bych tim ji ivot vykoupila. . orchestra. with the insistence and repetition ofthe text “god knows best how everything stands,” the intensity, range, speed and volume grow. again, it is a reminder of kostelnika’s act i aria, and the role she sees herself in as jenüfa’s fierce protector. the b section of co chvila begins at r. and continues through to the end, for a total ofeight measures. harmonically, this section is dominated by g major — d major . this corresponds to the text: “so to the lord our god i’ll send the boy! it will be swifter and better! then, when the spring melts the ice away, there’ll be no trace ofhim! god will surely take him; he is too young to have sinned yet!” this section is newly articulated by a change in texture—the tremolos emphasize every beat with new, shimmering, repetitive, pitch oscillations infortissimo, the orchestra is in tutti here, and the texture is very thick, all playing in measured tremolo, except for the harp which continues its motive from the a section. the pitch range between the instruments is also quite wide; the low strings go as low as f ,two and a half octaves below middle c, while the flutes reach a range ofgb intensifying the drama. the voice gradually reaches a maximum oftension by rising to higher and higher registers, culminating with a climactic moment on high bb (r. : ), whose motive is almost identical to what the violins played in the previous scene; in this way janáèek reminds us ofkostelnika’s lie to laca, saying that the baby has died (act ii, scene , r. : - . see ex. . (violins), and . [r : ]). the presence ofthe motive is also im portant for the final section ofthe aria as janáek uses it as a recurring speech melody. panubohu chiapee zanesu . . . bude to krati a ehi! do jara, ne ledy odejdou, památky nebude. k pánubohu dojde dokud to nieho nevi.” s it is ironic that throughout this rationalization ofher premeditated act ofmurder, a g major/minor, the dominant of c major, is prevalent (though with an added eb). this is significant in keeping with my earlier remarks that janá&k moves to the c major tonality during times when kostelnika rationalizes that she is the bestjudge to “fix the situation” (see above). seeing the child’s removal as the only recourse, kostelnika usurps god’s role as judge, which janáek articulates through the dominant of c major. the importance of c major will be further seen at the end ofact iii, when janá&k again returns to it as kostelnika appears as a contrite, broken woman, and the key signifies the hope she feels at jenifa’s forgiveness ofher reprehensible act.’ in the harmonic structure ofthe third and concluding section ofthe aria, an ab minor pedal is heard against b” minor and e natural diminished chords, before the big climactic moment underscored by a b minor° chord, and the aria is brought to a sharp close through a sharp unprepared move from the prevalent eb minor harmony into a final a major chord. this section begins at r. with yet another change oftexture and motivic structure, increas ing the tension even more. this corresponds with the text: “how they would taunt me! how they would taunt moreover, the section is the harbinger ofkostelnika’s emotional demise. the harmonic instability ofthe tritone intervals established between the tonic notes ofthe b’ minor and e natural diminished chords, as well as between the e” and a major harmonies, emphasize this psychological downfall. the orchestra responds in a flurry of activity, as the descending motive (ex. . ) is shortened to thirty-second notes, and is heard john tyrrell. musical aspects,” from, leoj janáëek, jenüfa, (sir charles mackerras and the vienna phil harmonic, , cd, decca - - ), . see also michael ewans, janáek’s tragic operas, - . both refer to the significance ofthe key of c major at the end ofact iii. the other observations about the key ofc are my own. by se na mne, na jenüfu sesypali!” like a pedal in an orchestral tutti. before shrieking out the words that will haunt her, “just look at her! just look at her! just look at her, kostelnika,” the villagers are already imitated in the orchestra. afortissimo c ’ ,the most extreme in kostelnika’s range, is reached at the vortex ofher madness. as she rushes to collect the child and commit the murder, the orches tra continues this “kostelnika” ’motive in its exact repetition (see ex. . , r. : - ). at the end ofact ii, after kostelnièka’s blessing ofthe marriage ofjenüfa and laca, the motive is reiterated in the orchestra as she curses teva and herself. in addition, as the draught forces the window open, the orchestra’s vivid depiction ofthe “kostelnika” motive is heard by kostelnièka as “the icy voice ofdeath forcing his way in.” janáek uses this motive in various guises in act iii to underscore the physical and mental demise ofkostelni&a, which has continued since the murder ofthe baby. it is heard even when she is not singing, for example, as the guests arrive for the wedding, and while the herdswoman addresses jenüfa. kostelnika sings a whole tone version as she begs jenüfa not to go outside, which jenüfa imitates as she identifies her baby in scene (r : — ), but at the same time the chromatic half-step motive is heard in the orchestra. at the start of kostelnika’s confession the orchestra remains in shocked silence, and unaccompanied, kostelnika sings the whole tone version to the text, “that deed was mine! mine the punish ment!” (see ex. . ). ‘ janãek referred to this motive by her name. “jako by sem smrt nauhova a!” “s “to müj skutek, müj trest boi!” . — i ) i - c) cd cd ii. cd g ‘— cd .cz cd i-* cd - c) o cd d cd o cd cd o o - _ + ) . — . — = cd o . cd — cd < c) ii rj ‘- cd cl) cd i - i- still believed it was the right course ofaction, as noted by her words, “so you see, i have acted right after all.” however, there is a redemptive moment for kostelnika. it is jenüfa’s acceptance ofher own failure and her belief in the redemptive nature of god that allowed her to offer kostelnika forgiveness, which is represented by janáek’s use of c major tonality.’ humbled by jenüfa’s forgiveness, kostelnika recognizes it as her hope and strength. on her final words ofconfession, “even on me, the savior’s gaze will light,” (act iii, r. : - ) the tonal centre of c major returns, accompanied by harp and viola arpeggios. kostelnièka will receive god’s redemption, and as she is led away the orchestra plays a c major chord in tremolo against the c major harp and viola arpeggios. paradoxically, the c major ofkostelnièka’s previous utterances, full ofpride and representative ofher moral authority, has also led to her own demise. and it is jenüfa’s own humility that will kindle a flame ofreconciliation in kostelnika. in the character ofkostelnika, janáek has drawn a portrait of an older woman who fits the archetypes of stepmothers as generally portrayed in nineteenth century literature. without the inclusion ofthe mm. in act i, kostelnika is seen as a stony and cold authoritarian in her rebuke of teva. this, together with janáek’s portrayal ofkostelnika’s obsessive hatred ofteva and his son which results in her inhuman act of infanticide in act ii, coincides with the nineteenth century tradition offolklore and its stories about evil step ‘“vidite ejsem to piece dobl’e uini a.” see also, john tyrrell, “musical aspects,” , and michael ewans, janá’ek ‘s tragic operas, - . “aji na ni spasitel pohlëdne!” translation, deryck viney. mothers.’ her redeeming act is her confession in act iii which saves jenüfa from the villagers’ retribution and shows a brief evidence ofher true humanity, but it is overshadowed by her reprehensible act and the act i scene. similarly, janáek’s musical portrayal ofkostelnifta’s character also supports the general archetypal portrayal ofmothers through the mezzo-soprano voice type. this is done, however, within janâek’s own stylistic norms, showing tensions through the unstable tonality with unresolved chords, use oftritones, etc. the juxtaposition oftwo possible tonal areas ab minor against the repetition of c’ in the act i aria, and the pedal tones which are heard against chordal tones that are dissonant to it, illustrate kostelnika’s rigidity. in the speech melodies discussed, the motivic material often unfolds in whole tones and half-steps, in dissonant successions, and her phrases are short and clipped. furthermore, kostelni&a’s vocal tessitura is consistently placed in the upper middle to high end ofher range, which in itself creates some harshness and tension indicative ofanger and an unstable emotional state. using the “kostelniãka” motifas an example ofcharacterization, ( . ) janáek said: “the motifs ofevery word in jenüfa are close to life. perhaps some can almost speak.” while kostelnièka’s character does soften with her repentance at the end ofact iii, and jenüfa’s acceptance ofthe murder ofher baby as an act ofsacrificial love, janáèek’s main focus was foiklore and mythological tales were considered a window to understanding traditions and customs of the czech peasants. the german folktale movement as seen through the grimm brothers and those associated with them, similarly influenced a movement begun in bohemia in the ’s. unlike the german folktale move ment, the czech movement sought to create new literature, rather than simply document and edit tales. exam ples include boena nmcovä’s popular folk tales andlegends (národni báchorky andpovësti, - , - ), based on local tales she had recorded herself, and karel jaromfr erben’s collection one hundred slavonic folk tales and legends in original dialects (sto prostondrodnich pohádek a povësti slovanskjch v nápeich pivoddnich, ), which were based on foreign material that he rewrote into stylized prose.’ see jack zipes “introduction” the complete fairy tales ofthe brothers grimm, translated by jack zipes, (new york: bantam books, ), xvii — xxxi. see also john tyrrell, czech opera, . ‘mirka zemanova, ed., trans., “janátek ‘s collectedessays, (london: marion boyars; n.y.: rizzoli interna tional publications, ), . on her rigidity and self-righteousness, allowing his sympathies to rest with the wronged step daughter, jenüfa. chapter the role of mrs. patrick de rocher, in jake heggie’s “dead man walking” the opera dead man walking, with music by jake heggie and libretto by terrence mcnally, gives us the opportunity to explore the mind and feelings of a mother ofthe present day through the character of mrs. patrick de rocher, the mother of joseph de rocher, a convicted criminal on death row. as in the case ofthe previous mothers studied, the role is sung by a mezzo-soprano and is next in importance to the opera’s main protagonists, sister helen prejean and joseph de rocher. therefore, following a plot synopsis, this chapter will examine the opera’s context and jake heggie’s compositional style, as well as provide a detailed analysis ofthe role ofmrs. patrick de rocher. plot synopsis the prologue ofthe opera depicts the scene ofthe crime that takes place at a louisiana lake in the ’s. a teenaged couple is enjoying a romantic tryst. joseph and anthony de rocher, two brothers who have been watching from the shadows, shatter this tranquil moment and a violent and grisly crime unfolds. the young woman is raped and both teens are brutally murdered. the brothers are both convicted ofthe crime, but anthony is sentenced to life in prison whereas joseph receives the death penalty. act i opens at hope house many months later, where sister helen prejean of st. joseph ofmedaille and other sisters, work with the children from the families in a poor neighborhood outside ofnew orleans. sister helen has become a pen pal to joseph de rocher. at his request, she drives to angola state penitentiary where father grenville, the prison chaplain, advises her that prison is not a woman’s place, and the warden george benton informs her that joseph refuses to acknowledge his guilt, but will likely ask her to become his spiritual adviser. joseph is somewhat aggressive and irritable on meeting sister helen, but when he asks, she agrees to become his spiritual adviser. sister helen accompanies mrs. patrick de rocher, joseph’s mother, to the pardon commission hearing. joseph’s mother pleads for her son’s life, but is interrupted as owen hart, the father of one ofthe murdered teens, angrily lashes out at her. following the hearing the parents ofthe victims, owen and kitty hart and howard and jade boucher confront sister helen, offended by her continued comfort and advocacy for the monster who murdered their children, challenging her lack of support for them. the pardoning board denies joseph de rocher’s request for clemency. sister helen returns to the death row and tries to get joseph to confess his guilt, but he is remorseless. emotionally drained from her experiences with joseph and “woozy” from hunger, she waits for news from a further appeal made to the governor. overwhelming stage direction in the score. thoughts begin to crowd her thinking. she hears the children and sister rose, and soon their voices are joined by the taunting voices ofthe victims’ parents, and all invade her conflicted thoughts amidst the jeer ofthe inmates’ “woman on the tier.” upon hearing that final pardon from execution has been denied, the imagined ridiculing voices, hunger, and exhaustion overwhelm sister helen, and she faints. act ii opens to the announcement ofjoseph’s execution date, august th at midnight, which is mocked by the guards and the other inmates. as the reality of execution sets in joseph is confronted by his past, but, nervous and agitated, remains defiant. at the same time sister helen experiences a nightmare during which she cries out as she sees the murdered teens. sister rose, who has heard her scream, comforts her but also challenges her that she must first fmd her own forgiveness and love for joseph before she can help him. the fmal scenes take place on the date ofexecution. sister helen and joseph fmd some mutual interests and she also continues to urge joseph toward acknowledgement ofhis guilt and reconciliation. joseph’s family comes for a fmal visit and his mother reminisces over poignant memories ofjoseph’s childhood, which she will always remember. the parents ofthe murdered teens arrive to witness the execution. again, their conflicted thoughts surface, but owen hart shares some ofhis pain with sister helen and asks her to visit him. just before midnight, after joseph has been prepared for his execution, sister helen tells him that she has driven to the crime scene, but wants to visualize it through his eyes. she asks him to describe the events ofthat night. joseph does so and is fmally able to fmd his way to forgiveness, love, and redemption. sister helen assures him that he is now a son ofgod and that she will be the face ofchrist and of love for him. joseph’s walk to the death chamber is accompanied by the sung recitation ofthe lord’s prayer, but the rest ofthe scene proceeds in profound silence. joseph is strapped to the gurney and only the sounds ofthe injections and his heartbeat are heard until the execution is over. the opera closes with sister helen’s a cappella singing ofthe children’s hymn from the opening scene ofact i: “he will gather us around, all around. he will gather us around. by and by, you and i, all around him, all around him. all around him. gather us around.” the context of the opera the american opera deadman walking, the first for both composer jake heggie and librettist terrence mcnally, premiered on october , to critical acclaim, and in its short history has become one ofthe most performed new works in the contemporary operatic repertory. it was commissioned by lotfi mansouri the director of san francisco opera, and at the premiere, mezzo-soprano susan graham sang the role of sister helen prejean, baritone john packard portrayed the condemned convict joseph de rocher, and mezzo-soprano frederica von stade sang the role ofhis mother, mrs. patrick de rocher. while few new operas have enjoyed repeated productions due to the expense of staging opera and the risk of poor box office sales, deadman walking has been produced by a number ofamerican opera companies and received several premieres outside ofusa, including canada (calgary, ), germany (dresden, ), scandinavia (copenhagen, - ), austria (vienna, ), and australia (sydney, ). a new production was mounted in nebraska (lincoln) in , and several others are projected for in us and europe.’ ° the story ofthe opera was adapted from the national bestselling non-fiction book, dead man walking: an eyewitness account ofthe death penalty in the us by sister helen prejean cjs, a louisiana nun who chronicled her experiences as a result ofbecoming a spiritual adviser to a condemned convict on louisiana’s death row in . her book also provided the basis for tim robbins’s award winning movie, deadman walking, that starred susan sarandon (who won an oscar for best actress) and sean penn in the primary roles. like the movie’s main character, matthew poncelet, the “dead man” joseph de rocher ofthe opera is a composite character drawn from the two convicts about whom prejean wrote and whose executions she witnessed. unlike the two real convicts elmo patrick sonnier and robert lee willie who were subjected to electrocution, joseph dies by lethal injection (as does poncelet in the movie). with the exception of sister helen prejean, the cast, including mrs. patrick de rocher with her sons, are fictitious characters but drawn from the various accounts of actual persons written about in the book. jake heggie describes his opera as “american and timely” and “universal and so timeless.” ’martin kettle describes deadman walking as universal in its themes and moral scope, and also an “aesthetically and culturally distinctive american opera.” the ‘ jake heggie, “about the opera,” official website, http://www.jakeheggie.com. ( ), (accessed november , ). ‘ jake heggie, as quoted by robert faire, “song oflife on death row,” austin chronicle, (january , ): http://www.austinchronicle.comlgyrobaseflssue/print?oid=l (accessed august, , ). m& kettle, the guardian, from the jake heggie: “official website,” (accessed august , and no vember , ). opera is both contemporary american and timeless in several ways. it shows some ofthe influences that american opera is noted for (see below).’ one ofthese influences is the musical theatre genre, heggie’s first love,’ ofwhich several aspects are evident in the opera. for example, mcnally and heggie have drawn characters from american life, and heggie also includes short dialogue, in addition to recitative at moments where he feels it is important (this will be shown below). similarly, his musical compositions show evidence of styles prevalent in the musical theatre genre (see below under heggie’s compositional style). further, tim robbins’ movie provided inspiration for the opera plot, which, however, is not a re-creation ofthe movie; there are obvious differences between them. the movie does not open with a depiction ofthe crime and keeps the audience in suspense until the end when the crime is revealed. as well, poncelet does not fully “confess” to the crime, nor does he address both sets ofparents before his execution. moreover, the realism created in the prologue’s depiction ofthe horrific crime and the execution at the end are not meant as a melodramatic display (an aspect ofamerican opera—see flu. ), but rather to allow the audience to see the psychological development and human aspect of its main character as the opera progresses, and powerfully reinforce the main themes ofthe opera. these aspects as discussed above, as well as the choice oftopic, combine to illustrate heggie’s claim ofthe in her book, american opera, elise kirk discusses some ofthe eannarks that shaped american opera. among these she mentions choice of subjects which not only tend to reflect back on the american people, their history and their culture, but also show a proclivity toward verismo. moreover the influence of melodramatic techniques that enhance and move the dramaturgy forward are also evident in american opera. (kurt weill and mark blitzstein are examples). further, american literature and motion pictures also provided inspiration for opera and shaped its overall sound and temperament. see elise kirk, american opera (urbana and chicago: university ofillinois press, ), - . jake heggie, as quoted in “opera preview: ‘dead man walking’ confronts the issue of capital punish ment,” (june , ): http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/ / .stm (accessed december , ) through sister helen prejean’s website: www.prejean.org. opera being “american,” and also shows attributes associated with the musical theatre genre that have influenced his writing. the opera’s central female character, sister helen prejean, is a living person who, because ofher experiences now actively campaigns against the death penalty, a topical us issue. together with name recognition due to the success ofthe movie, this might suggest that the opera is about the death penalty. however, on reading the libretto and hearing the music, it is evident that the opera is concerned with far more than that. mcnally and heggie have created “real” people who grapple with themes ofthe human condition: love, hatred, redemption, and the capacity ofthe human heart to offer forgiveness. as jake heggie says, the goal was not in creating a documentary of sister helen’s true-life story or to recreate the movie on stage. . . and it’s not a soapbox for a political issue. he further says, [the death penaltyj raises the stakes to life and death throughout the whole thing. it’s a ticking bomb, but that’s the backdrop. the central issue is these two people who are finding how love can transform and transcend and redeem their lives.’ for sister helen prejean, the opera is “about the search for redemption — everybody’s redemption. . . it helps us journey into the deepest places ofour hearts where we struggle with hurts and forgiveness, with guilt for our failings and the need for redemption.” jake heggie, as quoted in “and then one night, the making ofdead man walking: creative process,” the pbs award-winning documentary ( ): http://www.pbs.org/kqued/onenight/creativeprocess/players/heggietran.html (accessed august , ) jake heggie, as quoted by robert faire, “song oflife on death row,” austin chronicle, (january , ): http://www.austinchronicle.comlgyrobase/issue/print?oid= (accessed august , ). sister helen prejean, deadman walking, heggie/mcnally, erato - . characteristics of heggie’s compositional style heggie’s and mcnally’s opera deadman walking is a relatively new opera that has been added to the repertory. it has been performed and studied less. moreover, heggie’s own compositional style uses a less conventional musical language than is typical ofthe main repertory operas, and this will be discussed below. in writing the music for the opera in general, heggie considered the psychology of the characters. in the award winning documentary on pbs he was noted as saying, i got to know these characters so well and got to know the psychology behind why they do what they do so clearly that by the time i started writing their music, the sounds they make were very, very, clear to me. by the time terrence finished the first act, i had a really good idea of what i was going to do. he’d set up great dramatic situations that inspired music, and the language was [sic] very spare and clear. he wrote a play; he didn’t write a libretto.’ similarly, heggie explained his attempt to find the music that best represented the “voice of the character”: terence mcnally, my librettist, is always saying when he writes a play, he needs to find the language that that character would use, not that he would use, but that the character would use. and so the responsibility ofthe composer is to find the music that that person would sing. not the music that i necessarily want them to sing but the music that honestly i believe they would sing. and it’s all about being honest through the text and through the music and through to these characters.’ heggie was a composition student ofthe american composer ernst bacon ( - ), who introduced him to the poetry ofemily dickenson and text setting. he also ‘ jake heggie, quoted in “and then one night, the making ofdead man walking” pbs documentary. ( ): http://www.pbs.org/kqed/onenightjcreativeprocess/players/heggietran.html (accessed august , ). jake heggie, as quoted by robert faire, “song oflife on death row,” austin chronicle, (january , ): http://www.austinchronicle.com/gyrobase/issue/print?oidl (accessed / / ). studied with the canadian-born pianist, teacher, and composer, johanna harris ( - ), the widow ofamerican composer roy harris. heggie’s musical style has also been influ enced by composers like barber, bernstein, porter, and gershwin. he describes his music as tonally based and “very lyrical in nature.” °perhaps some ofthe lyrical aspect comes from the fact that heggie is a prolific song composer and has over songs to his credit.’ ’his inspiration comes from the voice and has been influenced by classical singers like dame janet baker, regine crespin, frederica von stade, and renée fleming, but he also loves singers like barbra streisand, shirley horn, ella fitzgerald, and julie andrews. further, his knowledge ofthe voice has affected the lyricism in his compositions, creating music that is very accessible. baritone john packard, heard in the debut role ofjoseph dc rocher, says of heggie’s style, “jake has a unique ability to write as language is spoken. it has a musical line, but it is very much like the spoken line.” susan graham agrees: “jake’s writing carries these sweeping melodic lines.. . and he set it [the music] so it was as easy to sing as it could possibly be. [ ic]” he uses a wide variety of singing styles such as parlando, declamatory recitative, and arioso as a means to describe his characters’ emotions and states ofmind, and to “speak” their language. ‘ jake heggie, quoted from an interview with sean c. teet, “a stylistic analysis ofjake heggie’s, opera: deadman walking.” da diss. university ofnorthern colorado, . tn proquest dissertations and theses, http://proquest.umi.comlpqdweb?did= &sid= &fmt= &clientid= &rqt= &vname= pqt (accessed november, , ). from an interview heggie gave to fanfaire in september, . http://www.fanfaire.com/heggie/interview.htm. (accessed november , ). kentha lynch, “a comparative analysis offour pieces by jake heggie.” masters thesis, california state university, . tn proquest dissertations and theses, http://proquest.umi.comlpqdweb’?did= l&sid= &fmt= &clientid= &pqt= (accessed au gust ), . ‘ tbid., , . although heggie considers his music tonal, he also qualifies it as being free tonal. as he states, “sometimes it’s just clearly in a key, but very often it’s not clearly in one key. it’s moving through several different key areas and there’s a lot of sort [sic] of chromatic commentary on that tonality.” heggie uses dissonance to express the text and the emotions ofthe character, and not for the sake ofdissonance. as he explains: harmony is about emotional color, about psychology. what’s going on underneath, that’s what the harmony really tells, and the vocal line. . . is very closely connected so that the words can be understood, but also so that the shape ofthe line also enhances the emotion, the psychology, whether it’s a very static line, or very arching, or very angular line. all ofthat will be determined by the impetus for singing and the moment, the dramatic line. for me, everything is the service to the drama, every thing. this explanation is an important aspect of heggie’s compositional style and clearly defines his music, illustrating how he defines his characters musically. chromaticism is a means to an end, not an end in itself. it serves the dramatic elements. further, dissonance is a way of portraying a character’s conflicted emotions, and chromatic commentary as noted by heggie above, is a means ofaccomplishing this. in addition, he connects the character with the drama, by using motives that appear throughout in various guises including rhythmic, harmonic, and melodic. according to heggie, “they serve the drama well and clarify the story for the audience.” to allow freedom ofexpression for his characters he often alters the rhythmic patterns, employs meter change as well as fermatas to indicate a shift in focus, all ofwhich serve to show what the characters are experiencing. sean teet, “a stylistic analysis ofjake heggie’s opera; deadman walking,” , . thjd sean teet, . in listening to this opera it becomes evident that some ofthe musical elements heggie uses include influences from musical theatre, jazz, gospel, and soft rock. each ofthese different styles is, most ofthe time, associated with respective characters, contributing to emphasize some aspect oftheir personality. for patrick de rocher, heggie writes an aria that shows elements of soft rock, and for sister helen he includes an “elvis” tribute to show an aspect ofher humanity. particularly, in the music ofmrs. patrick de rocher, elements of jazz and blues are present. heggie frequently bases his harmony on seventh chords with upper extensions of ths, ths, or ths, using flats or sharps on these scale degrees at times. similarly, the third or fifth intervals above the root are also lowered. he also uses cluster chords or chromaticism to express the text and heighten the drama. referring again to heggie’s explanation ofdissonance, the use ofthese devices provides the emotional color and psychology necessary for his character depiction, as well as connections with specific american styles, such as jazz or blues. another influence is spoken prose text, a musical theater element used simply as a way ofmoving the drama forward more effectively than if it was sung. heggie uses this judiciously during moments when silence increases the mounting tension in the scene. act i, scene for mrs. patrick de rocher is an example. musically, heggie’s setting oftext flows very much like natural speech rhythms and inflections in terms ofrising or dropping ofthe melodic line and its associative note durations. heggie does use recitative (shorter, more declamatory sections in his vocal writing), but an important feature ofhis musical style is his use of arioso, which has characteristics ofa recitative, but also, has a lyrical flowing quality to it. again, as heggie has noted, arioso is his preferred choice because it “support[s] a continuous flow ofmusic without interruption.” it should also be noted that his arioso style places the music and prose text very much within the middle range ofthe voice type in order to communicate the text clearly. as noted in appendix b, setting words so they can be understood is an important consideration for heggie’s compositional style. another aspect ofheggie’s style that is worth scrutiny is his use ofthe aria form. an important musical form in the opera genre, heggie uses this form with care. in fact, in this opera only the three main characters, sister helen, joseph de rocher, and his mother, mrs. patrick de rocher, have each been given an aria. the lyrical lines and closed form ofthe aria style is suggestive of a moment ofreflection rather than moving the dramaturgy forward. the remainder oftheir music is written in recitative or arioso style. as a final note to heggie’s compositional style, when asked directly about key struc tare, heggie commented that he does not have an overall key structure in mind when begin ning composition. as noted in appendix b, he simply “listens” to what he “hears” and then writes it down. it is obvious that consideration must be given to the range that encompasses the particular voice type chosen for the character. mrs. patrick dc rocher the themes ofthe opera and the journey that sister helen describes above (see p. ) apply equally to all the characters ofthe opera and resonate powerfully in both libretto and music. while the opera’s focus is mainly on sister helen and herjourney with joseph de rocher, the depth given to joseph’s mother and the victims’ parents is critical to the opera’s success, and also to its move away from being a “death penalty” opera. human suf fering has existed since the beginning oftime. the characters ofthis opera allow us to step ‘ see appendix b away from ourselves and enter into their world, not masochistically to enjoy their pain, but rather to empathize. mrs. patrick de rocher, the focus ofthis chapter, is portrayed as a real person on her own unique and difficult journey. she is a woman with two ofher sons in prison, one who is to be executed for murder, and the second incarcerated for life. as frederica von stade says, “she must have been out to lunch for some reason while they were growing up, probably struggling to keep everything in her life together against terrible odds.” one ofthese odds is poverty. we are told this woman was poor. and according to the atlanta attorney millard farmer, percent of death-row inmates in the southern states are poor — “they get the kind ofdefense they pay for” (not necessarilyjustice).’ similar to the real mother in the book, mrs. patrick de rocher did not have the means to support the kind ofdefense that would have seen her son receive life imprisonment over the death penalty. thus this woman is doubly damned. in the eyes of society she is seen as the mother ofa monster who has committed a horrific crime, punishable by death according to law, and in her own eyes she has failed in her role as his mother despite the fact that she loves her son. frederica von stade, deadman walking, heggie/mcnally, erato - . ‘ mill&d farmer, spoken in , to sister helen prejean, deadman walking (new york: random house, inc., ), . the relevance ofthis opera’s description ofa mother as victim because ofthe crime committed by her child ren as an important theme in contemporary life, is supported by the similar real life experiences ofanother mother, canadian, monique lépine, whose son also committed a horrific crime in . as noted in an inter view given to maclean’s before the release ofher book aftermath, she was not seen as a victim, but rather as a mother ofa criminal. when asked what it felt like to be the parent ofthe man who killed them [the women], she said: “the shame was terrible. you feel you have no real value anymore. you want to be alone; you don’t want to see people anymore. and the guilt! i’m not a murderer, but that was my son. even at my church, i was nev er mentioning that i was the mother ofmarc lépine. nobody knew who i was.” see monique lépine and kate fillion, “maclean’s interview: monique lépine,” (rogers: october , ): http:/www.macleans.calcanadalnationallarticle.jsp?content= _ _ &pa. (accessed december mrs. patrick de rocher is thus a victim ofthe society she lives in and, as adequately described in the opera, is disadvantaged particularly because she lives in the south, which was more backward due to poverty, and more conservative. the very fact that she is only identified through the name ofher husband underlines her rather subordinate social position. heggie also speaks to this as appendix b will show, when he says: “up to the ’s, there were places a woman couldn’t even get a credit card by herself. her husband had to do that. she was given a place in society only through her husband. and this was the poor south, in the ’s and ’s. . . so i think perhaps that had something to do with her identity.” further, in the opera her character stands in opposition to sister helen. she is portrayed as a poor and disadvantaged woman trapped by patriarchal societal values, and as a result, she is psychologically incapable ofbeing a nurturing mother and role model to her children. it is sister helen, a woman never having borne children, who, in her role as spiritual adviser, becomes the mother to joseph that his own birth mother could not be. therefore, mcnally’s and heggie’s portrayal of mrs. patrick de rocher’s journey provides important social commentary, in addition to realizing the opera’s important themes. the music of mrs. patrick de rocher act i scene (mm. — o this scene takes place at the courthouse, where mrs. patrick de rocher, joseph’s mother, appears for the first time in the opera. she has entered the room where the pardon commission is meeting to review joseph’s case, and she is granted a hearing to try to convince the committee to spare her son’s life. also present are mrs. de rocher’ s other two , ). portions ofthis interview given by lépine were also heard on cbc one in october, , prior to the release ofher book, aftermath, published by penguin, november, . sons, the parents ofthe murdered teenagers, sister helen, and sister rose. the audience is addressed as ifit were the hearing committee. throughout joseph’s mother’s monologue, all the stage directions, costumes, gestures, and language show how poor and uneducated she is, and therefore the disadvantaged position from which she is fighting for the life ofher son. her only and most powerful means ofpersuasion is her love for her son, reflected in the emphasis ofhis human qualities, and in her plea that his death is not going to change any thing about the admittedly horrifying deeds he committed. clearly, heggie’s musical setting ofthe libretto is very much centered on highlighting every emotional nuance invoked by her speech. the scene lasts over eight minutes and consists of a lengthy monologue during which the vocal styles consist ofspoken text, declamatory recitative, and arioso. there are two major sections to this scene. section i, begins at m. after mrs. de rocher has been announced and she enters with her sons, and continues until her speech is abruptly inter rupted by the angry intervention ofowen hart (the father of one ofthe murdered teens) at m. . section ii, begins at m. and continues until the end (m. ). section i consists of several smaller sections organized according to the subject about which joseph’s mother is talking: in ta (nun. - ) she first comments on her lack offamiliarity with speaking in the microphone and then describes the difficult childhood that joseph had; in lb (mm. - ) she just exclaims that there is also “good in joe”; in ic (mm. - ) with a change oftempo to allegretto, the time signature to a consistent %, and the key signature to three flats, she tries to endear joseph to the audience by describing the gift he gave her for mother’s day. this is where the interruption ofthe enraged father occurs (mm. - ). part ii ofjoe’s mother’s monologue is more continuous, but can also be divided into ha (mm. - ), a recitative in a slower tempo of / and no key signature, where she recovers from the shock ofthe insults just received and now “speaks directly from the heart” (noted in the score); then part jib (mm. - ), outlining all the suffering ofher family from her son’s crime. finally, the last subsection lie (mm. - ) is very emotional as she apologizes for being reduced to tears in public, but also appeals to the audience for clemency to stop the suffering, since “nothing can undo what’s happened.” section i (mm. - this section includes a lengthy orchestral introduction with spoken dialogue, followed by a recitative (ia, mm. - ), and a two-part arioso (lb. - ), and (ic, mm. - ). as the scene begins, the music has stopped and a paralegal steps forward to announce “the defendant’s mother: mrs. patrick de rocher” in spoken words to the members ofthe pardon commission (the audience). the stop in music draws immediate attention and focus to the character of mrs. dc rocher who enters, together with her two other sons, both in their teens. according to the stage directions, it is obvious that they are poor. the introductory opening music (exs. . and . , mm. - ) accompanies the characters as they move on stage, and is scored for sparse, pizzicato strings, with doubling by bass clarinets and bassoon. it briefly becomes passionate at mm. - , referring to music from the opening prelude at mm. - (ex. . ). in the prelude this music is scored for tutti orchestra and aforte dynamic, and the similarity to mm. - occurs in the flutes and violins. however, in this scene it is played only by bass clarinets and bassoons in apianissimo dynamic, the plaintive timbre and overtones ofthese instruments and soft dynamic suggestive ofmrs. dc rocher’s grief and fear. as well, the clarinets and bassoons play dissonant dyads that move by half steps, similar to the motivic material ofmm. - of - w e cd i- i- cd • e cd d cd cd . c l - . cd cd cd cd cd o cd cd c d ‘ - c d u i i— i— - cd o cd i - i - . < p p — -i — x c , i- a ( > c a - - - . — g — . to u o — b c c — to c - . — a i b c — a a to i a b a a a c % .) i- i , (‘ i — i (‘ i r j r j - \\ — i h a a to a a to to a to a c to , to x to to a co she waits for an answer, but there is she taps the none. just a hostile - _——.-.-_- microphone. silence. n. ___ _____ ____ . ._ --l --___.-—- p ‘e _________________ . l.__________________________________ --—jj----- rknl is his ohat taik i tool like tm on iv or something. von all ask roe quoslions. or do ust talk? - ____ ‘a on all right, ma ma’ - _ i_ss________=z=__-__ja - _ _____ — ex. . (conti act i, scene , mm. - the harmonic movement (as shown in ex. . ) is not centered on a particular tonic, but rather meanders through allusions to various tonal centers, including parallel minor seventh chords without a third (mm. - , fromb —bb _d ,etc, and continuing with a series of alternating consonant chords mm. - ). these various tonal centers attest to the fact that mrs. patrick de rocher is insecure in this unfamiliar and frightening situation as she comes face to face with the pardon committee. the rhythm changes suggest the character’s movements described in the score. the motivic material such as the chromatic half-step rise off i f# in m. for example will reappear, particularly in the second halfof the scene. there is a plaintive motive in mm. - (see ex. . ) played by the horns in e, which comes back in mm. - (ex. . ) and then in varied forms during mrs. de rocher’s recitative, and subsequent sections ofthe scene. further on in the scene, heggie passes the motive to various instruments, sometimes oboes (m. ), bassoons (m. , which are shown in ex. . ), and clarinets (m. , as seen in ex. . , and again at m. ); each instrument, distinctive for its color and timbre, illustrates shades ofmrs. de rocher’s feelings. however, the rest ofthe introduction features further changes oftexture, including full measure, silent fermatas accompanying mrs. de rocher’s spoken words. there are pedal tones on f, then on e, over which the violas play new motivic material consisting of oscillating dyads ofopen fifths and a dissonant major second (mm. - , ex. . ) that will become part ofthe accompaniment for the recitative section. the plaintive motive and the oscillating dyads are significant in that they return often in this scene and clearly illustrate the terror mrs. de rocher feels at the thought of speaking to this committee, and being in the public eye. this fear is evident in that when about to begin speaking, she is unable to utter words, and instead, her older son who sees her fear, interjects to ask whether she is airight (sung). this is followed by a long latent silence as joseph’s mother collects herself and approaches the microphone and begins the spoken part ofher monologue. “is this what i talk into? i feel like i’m on tv or something. do you all ask me questions, or do ijust talk? sister helen helped me write something. i don’t read so good [sic]. my eyes. i’m sorry.” the silence of the orchestra here is startling and palpable. her questions, an attempt to overcome her fear, are met only with “hostile silence” in return (according to the stage directions). (cx. . ) the repeat ofthe introduction, which follows (mm. - , see ex. . ) is played out over a very long minute, and presents a picture, not ofa helpless woman, but of one almost frozen with fear at having to speak publicly and prove to a group ofbureaucratic men that her son is not a monster, but should be given mercy. frederica von stade stated, “i know a lot ofpeople who would rather die than speak in front ofa group under any circumstances. then there is that total lack ofcontrol she has in bargaining with strangers.” ’the hostile silence creates vulnerability in mrs. patrick de rocher’s character, but she is also able to move beyond her fear and proceed as the introductory music with the plaintive motive begins again. this introduction ushers in mt. de rocher’s recitative, which begins at m. (ex. . ). in part due to fear, mrs. de rocher speaks in simple, short sentences, but these also show that she is a woman with only a basic education. this is noticeable in her usage of english grammar in her first spoken words and also briefly at m. , where she hesitates over the pronunciation ofthe word dyslexia, pronounced phonetically (die [sic] — le — leek — seeya). musically, the phrase structure fits the short sentences which are most often two measures in length. heggie separates the short musical phrases with rests, and marks unnecessary breaths into the score, both indicative ofher emotional state. although there is no time signature given in this recitative section, the measures are composed in / , but there is some freedom in being able to express the text. this recitative is an example ofhow heggie uses the orchestra and harmonic structure to underpin the character’s emotions. the tonality ofthe introduction is clouded by the f harmony that omits both third and fifth ofthe chord, while the diatonic white zfrederica von stade, deadman walking, heggie/menally, erato - : . note collection in the vocal line avoids committing to a tonal centre. aside from the intro ductory f chord, ivirs. de rocher delivers her first sentence in silence. this is followed by an accompaniment oftwo measures with the same motivic dyads ofmm. and , only they are played by flute and oboe, or clarinet when they are heard between mm. and . heggie alternates this ambiguous f harmony (the chords become sustained) with the quasi-a minor harmony every two measures. in the measures with the oscillating dissonant dyads the melodic line is parlando, and these are the more painful, shameful moments recounting joseph’s life. when the chords are sustained, the melodic line is more arioso-like and joseph’s mother sings a more passionate plea ofdefense for her son. another example ofemotional distress is heard in mm. - (ex. . ). here bass clarinets and bassoons are first to accompany the voice. their timbre, plaintive support, the - suspensions, or at times the flat ninth in the seventh-chords, are indicative ofher emotional state. the oboes, horns, and strings enter as thoughts ofjoseph’s crime fill her mind, and during the last two measures, the a minor motive ofthe oscillating dyads returns, played by both bassoon and violas (see ex. . ) mm. a more prolonged arioso begins at measure (section ib), and continues at m. into ic (see ex. . ). lb and ic unfold as a continuous, through-composed, binary ab or two-part form. the arioso begins following a double bar line and a clear indication ofa new tempo ofquarter-note= , as well as a / time signature. this change is also an emotional change as the oscillating motive from the previous bars is accelerated from quarter note value to eighth note value. the dynamic also is pianissimo. joseph’s mother is clearly pleading more intensely for her son. harmonically, the a section (tb) ofthe arioso (mm. - ) in an a minor/e minor pbrygian combination. the pitch centres, rather than presenting — \\ £ £ n ) u i u i u i r\) n ) - c — ri) p \\ a. ii ) c’ u ’ - z . c . i- c — g cd cd cl ) cd cd c - < c d $:. cl ) c cl ) rj cd i - . < cl ) cl ) — e cl ) a : _ . cl ) cd cd < cd cd ‘- • h - . cd cd c cl ) cl ) ‘ • cd cd cd cd • cd i - - - li .) — c r ‘ ‘ cd cd cd cl ) cl ) cl ) cj ) . cd cd o cd cl ) cl ) i - . cd f\ ) i’ i - j i rd — i cd a c cd .‘ cd ii — oc c cd “ cd h cd i e. cn w j i c b r’) ’.) ca ) i- c : cd cd cd cd p . \\ . cd - • cd c cd cd c cd cd . c . i c ’ - c . — rj cd cd . ) - . . c ; . , - — . cd cl ) cd • - cd ) cd ‘— ‘ cd ) - • cd cd c .. . cd -i — i. — . . on cd - j k ) cl ) cl ) . cd ( cd d cd . ‘ - . i cd cd q - cl ) cl ) c c cl ) c cl) cd . . cl ) cl ) n g i . lifts her from her grief. however, this is a bittersweet memory that heggie characterizes by emphasizing a repeated tritone throughout this section in the vocal line between g and d”. the love and tenderness joseph’s mother has for her son are underlined musically not only through the quasi-waltz rhythm and feel, but also through the use ofmajor harmonies (with slight dissonances) in the remainder ofthis section as she is clearly attempting to show the human aspect of her son in this part ofthe deposition. melodically, this section becomes very lyrical. joseph de rocher’s name (see ex. . ), which heggie introduced during sister helen’s drive to angola, is a frequently recurring motive in the opera and is used as melodic material in this lyrical section as mrs. de rocher’s thoughts are on her son. she also refers to him by his shortened name, joe, a form ofpersonal endearment and familiarity (see ex. . mm. - and refer to exs. . mm. - and . mm. - ). helen flr r i jo seph de ro -cher. twe-nly-nine. ex. . act i, scene , mm. - i- w mrs. de rocher does not get to finish because she is interrupted by the outburst from owen hart (baritone). here the music changes from its previous lyric and melodic quality to clashing dissonance, using mrs. de rocher’s motivic material from the oscillating dyads of the opening that is now heard tutti in the orchestra, but played faster, more driven, and in a forte dynamic. heggie adds horns, trumpets, as well as percussion to the tutti strings and winds to achieve this. the music is as pictorial here as the text is graphic which heightens the dramaturgy ofthe scene: “she’s talking about the man who stabbed my daughter. she was just seventeen. he stabbed her over and over and over and over. he stabbed her thirty- seven times in the throat. that was after he raped her. they couldn’t find her senior pin, it was buried so deep in the cuts.” the music changes here from the arioso ofmrs. de rocher, to a very declamatory recitative style written in the upper range for a baritone voice type, and has short phrases that are punctuated with frequent rests. clearly, owen hart’s loss is evi dent and he is also having difficulty in controlling his anger in this outburst. dramatically, a guard also needs to restrain him. section ii (mm. - ) mrs. de rocher’s monologue continues in section ii, which begins at m. following hart’s outburst. it is similar to the first section, in that it also contains a recitative (section ha, mm. - ) and an arioso that can be further subdivided into jib (mm. from the fermata- m. ) and tic (mm.l - ). this section becomes a fervent plea in response to owen hart’s verbal explosion. tonally, section ii continues and concludes in the e minor “free tonality” ofhart’s section. the music is through-composed, but heggie brings back previous motivic material in the orchestral texture that corresponds to her conflicted emotions and passionate expressions. the recitative ofsection ha (mm. - ) is given no key signature and a tempo marking of = to the quarter-note. stage directions indicate that mrs. patrick de rocher is no longer reading from the paper, but is to speak directly from her heart. heggie writes the melodic line very much like it would be spoken, including several rests to show that as a result ofowen hart’s hateful attack she is having difficulty in managing her emotions. the orchestration is very sparse here, only clarinet at first, followed by horns and harp. at the heart ofthis section on the lines “but i ask you to hate the crime and not the criminal,” joe’s mother finds some inner strength to speak the truth and does not diminish her own pain or perspective, drawing us into the center ofher experience and journey. heggie develops this further in the arioso of section ii which can also be analyzed as a two-part form, already noted as section hib (mm. - ) and lic (mm. - ). although there is a key change (e minor) and a time signature change to / at measure , the text and the orchestral motivic material that begins the arioso starts at the fermata atm. (see ex. . , mm. - ). in section hlb, the first section oftext begins with: “we have all suffered enough. haven’t we all suffered enough?” this is a climactic section, which is supported in the orchestra as heggie adds horns, trumpets and trombones to the strings, returning motivic material ofthe impassioned music from the prelude (refer to ex. . ) and the beginning ofthe scene (refer to ex. . ). as well, the vocal tessitura shifts to a higher register as the melodic line is carried to its highest pitches, e — a allowing for more dramatic expression. although the key signature is one sharp (g major/e minor), the tonality is undermined with the vocal line outlining d major — a minor — e minor chords. at m. , with the e minor dominant chord inclusive ofa sharp ninth, the tonality of e minor becomes clearer. ,j l ri ) c ) i- w u i s f - . . ‘ . i’) i’ ) i- w c) i— c cd ) c d — cd v i c) c) ‘ — d so = • cd ‘ u — ’ c, j cd - cd cd ) - . ci d c) cd — ‘ c ,j c) i- . - cd cd c d g q cd cd c - < c — cd cd i _ — cd ° — m cd - - t c) - cd - c i cd . - cd cd ( n - - c i c i’ ) (i ) x i a -j a - yl k y i i t k v: v v id ] -e ) ) i- w “when the government kills human beings, it sends a signal that such criminals are no better than vermin. the family ofthe condemned are often treated like vermin, too.” unable to continue vocally, a four measure instrumental interlude using fragments ofmotivic material of mrs. de rocher’s impassioned music allows the orchestra to express feelings that she cannot (ex. . , mm. - ). this interlude parallels hart’s outburst in its interruption ofher arioso in its own intensity and pleading, and uses motivic material from the prelude and opening ofthis scene. only once joseph’s mother has regained her control does the orchestra recapitulate material from the introduction at the opening ofthis scene at m. (compare ex. . ). the music returns to the f major ofthe opening introduction, although the voice continues a new melodic line. the vocal line again takes on attributes ofjoseph’s “name” motive (refer to ex. . ) and heggie extends its range to &, as joseph’s mother’s plea becomes more impas sioned and she returns to calling him by the shortened form ofhis name (joe). her scene ends in a dual tonality ofe minor set against f# diminished chords. clearly, skirting the tonality of f major from the beginning, the ending with its dual tonal centers is indicative of the deterioration in mrs. patrick de rocher’s sense ofhope for her son. in this scene, mrs. patrick de rocher appears as a very vulnerable woman in deep pain, but one who still has the strength to face her adversaries. despite her failures, mcnally and heggie present her with honesty. she is shown as a woman whose inner resolve surfaces as she endeavors to bargain for her son’s life. sister helen prejean, the death ofthe innocents, (new york: vintage books, random house, inc., ), , . rd — i [‘ ( n i - ensemble, act i, scene (mm. - act i, scene , takes place in the parking lot outside the courthouse, and is powerful for its dramaturgy and impact on the character of mrs. de rocher. in this scene, sister helen is confronted for her lack ofempathy for the parents ofthe murdered teens. additionally, the parents express some oftheir own pain at the loss oftheir children, and their guilt because of how they might have failed them. mcnally and heggie are very sensitive to the feelings and griefofthe mothers kitty hart and jade boucher, as the listener is invited to hear aspects of their pain. their statement begins with “you don’t know what it’s like to bear a child, to fail your child. . .“ this text is written into a melodic figure and main motive that pervades the scene, and after the mothers have sung a short duet, the ensemble grows as the fathers also join in. to each, sister helen offers a sincere, “i’m sorry.” mrs. de rocher also enters the scene musically, and mcnally and heggie allow us to see deeper into her grief. she begins with the same text, “you don’t know what it’s like to fail your child,” but then she continues, “watch him slip from your hands. and think he’ll never know how much i love him. . . i can’t forgive myself. you don’t know how i love my boy. you don’t know.” there is a raw vulnerability in her expression, but her feelings are presented with clarity and honesty. the scene reveals that the suffering is the same for each parent, whether a parent ofthe murdered teens, or parent ofthe killer. musically, a highlight ofthis scene is how heggie supports the voices in baroque type ofgestures. at first he uses string accompaniment with a legato line in the recitative sections, whichjust support the singers. however, in the tutti vocal ensemble, the orchestra imitates the short rhythmic motives ofthe voices. sometimes this is played tutti as an ensemble, and at other times it is passed between the instruments, like individual voices in imitation ofthe singers they are supporting. act ii. scene : the visiting room (mm. - ) i have limited the detailed discussion ofthis scene from the beginning at m. through to the end ofm. , which concludes joseph’s mother’s time with her son. the remainder ofthe scene shows aspects of sister helen’s ownjourney that follows a short dialogue she has with mrs. de rocher, ending with a short duet section between them. these will be commented on, but not analyzed in detail as my main focus in this scene is mrs. patrick de rocher’s relationship with her son. the scene consists oftwo parts: a long ensemble sung mostly in recitative-like style with several characters, including joseph’s family who have come for their final visit, sister helen, and guards; and second, an “aria” proper, sung by mrs. de rocher as she expresses her feelings toward her son. the scene is important for showing the human side of joseph, his love for his mother, and his caring for his brothers. it is also an important scene for joseph’s mother as it also exemplifies her relationship with her son. to ensure that this is clearly expressed, in the first part mcnally engages the characters in dialogue that heggie sets by imitating natural speech rhythms and inflections. for the second part, heggie writes music for joseph’s mother that is marked as an aria, one ofonly three so marked in the opera.’ in his use ofthe term “aria,” heggie states that it’s “a moment where time stands still to me, and there’s either a meditation or some thing very specific... [musically], it is a piece that stands on its own outside ofthe texture and the drama.” in this aria, she is given time to reveal positive images ofher son, which the first music labeled as an aria is sister helen’s “this journey,” in act i scene, . the second aria is joseph’s in act i, scene , during the first meeting with sister helen, as he dreams ofhis past encounters with women. teet, “a stylistic analysis ofjake heggie’s opera; deadman walking,” d.a. diss., . at the same time show the love she has for him. this aria will be analyzed in detail below, but the dramatic situation is also important for understanding why heggie chose to use the aria form and not the arioso style ofwriting in which so much ofthe opera is composed. dramatically, the scene opens with the family waiting for joseph’s arrival. when he arrives, his concern turns to his mother’s welfare, enquiring whether his brothers have been taking care ofher. she reassures him that the boys have been painting and helping to fix up things around the house. an emotional moment occurs as the younger brother reveals how much joseph will be missed by the family after his death. sister helen offers to buy the boys a coke in order to allow some privacy between mother and son. joseph tries to ask forgive ness from his mother, but afraid of where that might take her emotionally, she diverts his questions. she tells him about the cookies she made but was forbidden to give to him, and then asks sister helen to take a picture ofher family. as the warden arrives and announces that their time is up, joseph tries one more time to be honest with his mother, but she inter rupts with, “no, son! no. no.” these words are followed by the aria, “don’t say a word,” where she recalls happy memories and tells her son that she will always remember him as a happy, carefree boy. the aria etches the son, her “little joey,” into her memory, not the convict joseph de rocher, convict number . musically, the ensemble at the opening ofthis scene, featuring joseph’s family, sister helen, and mrs. de rocher, has polite, conversational dialogue with multiple interactions among as many as four characters as they are visiting, although each has individual lines and are not heard simultaneously. thus the music is composed in a parlando recitative style to allow for this interaction. only joseph and his mother have short arioso interjections and sing in duet together, during which two guards offer their own commentary as the scene continues to unfold. the orchestral accompaniment in this opening ensemble is in a soft dynamic, and is scored for strings and winds, which support the recitative feel with their sustained chords, and an often bare texture. heggie is careful not to cover the voices with a heavy orchestral texture. during the emotional moment described above (mm. - ) when the voices are silent, heggie enlists tutti orchestra inclusive ofhorns, trumpets, trombones, flutes, percussion and timpani, with more passionate music, similar to the prelude ofact i. the plaintive sound ofthe oboe is also heard prominently in this section, emphasiz ing the underlying sadness. the aria “don’t say a word” (mm. - ) follows after the warden announces that their last visit is over. avoiding a deep discussion with her son, in this first section ofthe aria she wishes to only look at joseph, smiling as she begins to remember her little boy. the aria is through-composed in di’, but with a lowered seventh and a lowered third degree that give it a blues quality throughout, both in the vocal melodic line and in the orchestra. heggie’s directions ask forpianissimo dynamic and a “bluesy rocking tempo” at ca. =quarter note, which in itself is not much faster than a relaxed heartbeat. the opening of the aria (ex. . , mm. - ) is scored for first and second violins, cellos, who are asked to play con sordino, as well as flutes and clarinet. the first violins play an ascending and descending melody, while the second violins play sustained halfnotes that similarly alternate between ascending and descending. this melodic figure in the strings, together with the slow tempo marking, present a pictorial image of a mother rocking and cradling a young son close to her heart while singing a lullaby to reassure him. this musical image supports very simple text. further, heggie keeps the blues aspect in this opening by alternating the flute and clarinet in a bluesy countermelody (lowered c flat and f flat), recalling motivic material c) iii o o• i-. cd cd ocd cd — cd cd cd i-. ‘i o cd n “c cl ) . “c i the texture changes at mm. - (ex. . ) as joseph’s mother reminisces about him swimming and splashing around in the water like a little porpoise, his funny antics, and the happy boy he was. heggie adds the harp to the orchestration, and there is a time signa ture change from / time to / and / before returning to / again, lingering on the word repetition of “remember,” repeated up a minor second as if to keep the memory alive a little longer. at m. , this short vocal motive is supported by an e” and a d chord, both major in tonality, clearly indicative ofhappy memories. the feeling oftwo beats to the bar speeds up the tempo naturally as heggie keeps the note value the same, and the addition ofthe harp played in arpeggiated chords adds a visual picture to the sung text ofjoseph’s mother remi niscences ofhis play in the water. the change in time signature is both to accommodate the text and also to express a happier, more carefree time ofher boy that was good, her “little joey.” heggie creates symmetry in these short ten measures with the two groups offive measures that correspond to the memories joseph’s mother is reminiscing about, each group closing with “i remember.” at m. , the orchestral texture returns to the opening bluesy feel and the key of db with its lowered seventh and third degree. the second violins pick up the motive from the first violins and the violas play the motive ofthe second violins. this change is indicative ofan emotional change, a more poignant memory elicited by the violas taking on the legato sustained rocking motion. knowing she would lose control ofher emotions, she cannot bring herself to tell joe that she loves him to his face but simply expresses it by returning to the memory ofrocking her little boy, and a tune similar to that of the opening (see ex. . ). c, ) . i- .- — . b b c) cd b— i. f ., rj ) i — • ) “c — cd v cd a — c i) c ) c d c) c) cd ;_ . i— s .— , — ‘-. cd cz , c b- i• o cd o cd cd - - ) ) • cd (f b + /) c c) cd \\ cs ) ) u , c — . . cd ci - .. cd — cd - • cl ) — . cr o cd cd - l) cd cl ) cl ) _ cl ) • cd c - - - c - cd cd c - cd • cd . ) _ • cd ‘+ - . , cd cd _ - i- .. cd cd . cd cd c) = cl ) - c) — z - . c - cd cd - “ cl ) cd j .i < e c) s cd cd s _ _ v cl ) cd — c/ ) — • — cd • cd ) — cl ) ‘ c d v . - i— cd c) c) - - - u — • cd c - cd - - c) - o cq cd o cl ) cd ‘- cd cd c - - ‘ c - c) • cd cd c - c () - cd cl ) cl ) cd cd rj ) cd cd cd cd ’ cd c - c . cl ) cd cd c) . cd o c . cd - ) . - . o sd cd cd d cd o cl ) • . • cl ) -+ - q ii l cd - u c ‘ • cd — o cl ) - (i ) — c) cd cl ) o cd c - cl ) cd cl ) cd cd cd c d < cd cd — cd c) o cl ) cd c - — . cd c - c cl ) cd c f rj - c) cd ‘ cd cd /) cd _ • — • () cl ) c) c) - — )) - cd cl ) c - ‘ cd cd cd c - - - u cd ‘ - - c . cl ) - • - - • c l) n < < ,.* • ) c ] i— . ‘i , i- . cd i ; r cd :- cd cd i- f ‘ cd - cd c cd - cd cd c, ‘ - cd ‘ cd cd - - cd cl ) cd cd - :i i < cd : . o c) cd cd _ c ) cd b cd o cd - - n = • li .) ,- .. cl ) cl ) ) cd c - cd cd i - . qg . — . . . cl ) cl ) cl ) cd i - cd - __ i•) cl ) c i) d cl ) cd cl ) cl ) cl ) • ci ) cd cd _ h -. . )— cd cd cd cl ) - c l)• cl ) cd cd cd—‘ ii cd i > •.cd i cl ) g cd -+ - q • cl ) cl ) s si i ca ) i- fl ’ ) good to the family and to joseph, noting that she could never repay her. as a gesture, she offers the cookies she baked for joe, but was not allowed to give him, because they could have been laced with poison. sister helen graciously accepts them and then both sing together, mrs. de rocher seeking reassurance by asking whether sister helen sees the good in her son and stating simply that she loves her son “more than she could ever show or know to say to him,” and sister helen reassuring mrs. de rocher that she loves joe as “the lord loves all his children.” after encouraging joseph’s mother and after she has left, in the remaining section ofthis scene, sister helen expresses her discouragement in her own journey; however, the scene ends with hope as she and joseph will walk the final distance together. heggie’s musical portrait ofmrs. de rocher includes the vocal styles ofrecitative, arioso and aria. her character is developed through her spoken text, individualistic type of phrasing, and specific expressive breath markings as indicated in act i. additionally, heggie’s use ofdissonance and the repetition ofmotivic material are critical for underpin ning the emotions that her character experiences, because it helps to underscore her thoughts and feelings as they change while she is singing. the aria is not high brow, eloquent, or pompous. written with a simple bluesy feel, it is in a style that she is familiar and comforta ble with, evoking an image ofthe type ofperson she is. in mrs. patrick de rocher, mother ofconvicted murderer joseph dc rocher, librettist terrence mcnally and composer jake heggie have created yet another character of a mother designated for a mezzo-soprano voice type who is a prominent character in the opera. aside from sister helen and joseph, she is the only other character to be given an aria. her scenes are dramatically powerful in the message they communicate, and her role is critical for identifying some ofthe human element in her son, joseph. like the other mothers examined previously, we see vulnerability in her characterization, yet despite her grief and sense of shame, she finds the strength to speak for and relate the good in her son. there is honesty and realism, but also compassion and sensitivity in how herjourney is expressed in both libretto and music. this twentieth-century musical setting ofthe sensibilities of an american mother in the context ofour contemporary society shows that the problems and feelings experienced by the character of a mother have not changed that much from the nineteenth century, and thus gain some unsuspected universal and timeless quality. through his music heggie demonstrates that “modernist” music, although lacking the previous conventions, manages to address these problems through different means, thus enriching the vocabulary by which mothers’ voices are heard. chapter conclusions the topic ofthis dissertation has been an examination of“the mother” as an operatic character, which has not yet been widely discussed in academic scholarship. my focus has been on understanding why mothers are rarely present in opera plots. related to this, when mothers do appear as characters, i have also explored what seems to be a stereotyped connection between the character ofthe mother and the mezzo-soprano voice type, to which mine belongs, in this way hoping to shed light on aspects ofthe interpretation ofthese type of roles in my own performances. the investigation of influences that affected the development ofopera plots with their conventions, as well as the impact ofthe historically based predilections for particular types ofvoices, revealed some interesting findings. in my research i discovered that the aesthetics ofthe singing voice influenced the stereotyping of operatic characters, as each vocal range was equated with the personification of certain character types. the aesthetic ofthe soprano voice, developed in the baroque period, became the preferred ideal as the affective nature of vocal sound became important. therefore, based on aural perception, the operatic roles designated for the young heroine type ofcharacters were identified with female soprano voices. similarly, the soprano voice ofthe castrati, whose vocal aesthetic was equated with nobility and heroism, also helped form the ideal ofthe “soprano voice type.” this idealized soprano voice pushed women with lower ranged voices further into the background, and into secondary roles, as they were aesthetically not suited for the young heroine types of roles. thus, lower ranged female voices in the seventeenth century were relegated to representing characters of old age, such as mothers or nurses, in this way affect- ing the stereotyping ofarchetypal characters. additionally, these older women roles could also be seen as comic and were designated for unaltered male tenor voices. a prime example is arnalta, the nurse in monteverdi’s and busenello’s l ‘incoronazione di poppea ( ). further, the aesthetic ofthe lower-ranged women’s voices was found to be suitable for heroic male roles. these “breeches roles” became an avenue whereby these women could establish a career equal to that ofthe soprano heroines. examination ofthe aesthetic ofthe mezzo-soprano voice type revealed that this designation began to appear in the middle ofthe eighteenth century as composers began to extend the upper ranges in their compositions. towards the end ofthe eighteenth century when the mezzo-soprano designation became more prominent, this voice type was consi dered for major roles. at first, they replaced the castrati who most often sang the heroic male roles. later, as the nineteenth century unfolded, the mezzo-soprano voice types also became principal female characters. as part ofmy investigation i examined individual opera plots from each main period and opera genre in order to discern the treatment ofthe “mother” as an operatic character. i found that mothers were not present as primary characters or even “bit” characters, especially in the seventeenth century, because, physically and aurally, they did not fit the aesthetic required to be principal characters. this can be substantiated by the fact that ofthe forty-five seventeenth-century opera librettos researched here, only fourteen included mothers or nurses, and a number ofthe nurses were cast as tenors. therefore, mothers were partly obscured by the conventions that developed in character types during the seventeenth century. this situation was not remedied until the nineteenth century, when the mezzo soprano voice type became more established. further findings in the evolution ofplot paradigms revealed that as opera seria became the favored genre ofopera, notable changes occurred that affected woman characters and, by default, mothers. in the opera seria plots, metastasio reduced the number ofcharac ters to a norm of six and removed the comic scenes. this reduced the type of servant roles, where nurses would often appear, further silencing a maternal voice. moreover, opera seria was maintained and controlled by the tastes ofcourt cultures throughout europe and as far as russia, and the favored subjects were linked to the jockeying for position and power ofthe kings. thus, metastasio articulated an eighteenth century ideal ofthe “heroic soprano voice” sung by castrati. the impact ofhis influence can be seen in the popularity ofhis twenty- seven libretti, which were given more than a thousand settings during this period. as noted in chapter two, on reading metastasio’s twenty-seven opera libretti, only one offour mothers mentioned is seen in a maternal role. dircea, in the opera demofoonte ( ), is a mother and a wife, but suppresses her motherhood as well as her marriage in order to survive. how ever, while her child is mentioned, dircea’s character is a young female, love interest type. therefore, together with the reduction of servant roles and the scarcity ofmother roles, the opera seria genre negatively impacted the role ofmother as an operatic character. toward the latter part ofthe eighteenth century, when opera buffa became popular, a maternal influence reappeared in opera plots as servants were reinstated into plots, and, along with them, nurses and confidantes. by the end ofthe century as women became more visible in society and better educated, a different heroine emerged in what martha feldman has coined as “sentimental opera.” sentimental opera was inclusive ofthe stories about women’s lives and coincided with the ethos of societal values that took root during the late eighteenth century, which began to encourage and promote women in their roles as wives and mothers. however, this did not result in a significant increase ofroles for mothers in opera based on my tabulations in appendix a. in nineteenth century opera plot development, the cultural constraints with their gender politics are still evident in plots. a woman’s role in life is firmly entrenched by societal expectations, with her place being in the home, bearing and rearing children. daughters are placed under the authority oftheir fathers in opera. fathers predominate as important characters of interest, especially in nineteenth-century italian opera, and daughters are left to their own devices because ofthe lack ofmaternal supervision. mothers do not appear alongside their husbands as a family unit in opera, nor are they seen as characters of interest in opera plots. it was the nurse or servant, when present, that took the place of a birth mother in opera. yet, as already noted, servants do not have a lot ofauthority in opera, and seldom play major roles. however, as the nineteenth century progressed, a paradigm shift occurred as a greater range ofsubjects were explored, allowing for more realism (verismo), naturalism in character depiction, and also a greater variety ofemotions. through a more natural depiction, charac ters of interest, which included women, were often based on real people drawn from history or contemporary times and were also closely linked to those found in literature and art. additionally, concurrent with a shift in societal values that afforded women an education and a greater involvement in society, their stories became subjects of interest. women became the focus ofopera plots and the lead female characters, mostly as young love partners, keep ing the soprano voice in focus, except that now unlike in the eighteenth century, the voice type corresponded in a realistic fashion to the actual gender and social position ofthe character. coinciding with what we may call the “emancipation ofthe female voice,” “mothers” also became a character of interest and were included more often as operatic characters. again, i refer the reader to appendix a for an overview ofnineteenth-century operas and the increase in the number of“mother” figures that appear. the total number ofoperas tallied during this century that included mothers was twenty-seven. ofthis number, eighteen were designated for the mezzo-soprano voice type and nine were designated for soprano. notably, not all ofthese mothers are major characters. while not all operas show mothers in their maternal role, there is a significant growth in the portrayal of a mother as a character choice when compared to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, which totaled seven. the appendix also shows that these operas were composed during the latter part ofthe century. moreover, as opera continued into the twentieth century, i would argue that the feminist movement beginning to grow in europe and america at the end ofthe nineteenth century fostered a climate amenable to a more frequent inclusion of mothers as characters of interest. again, appendix a lists thirty-one operas from the twentieth century that include mothers, with twenty-one designated for mezzo-soprano and ten for soprano. it was surprising for me to discover the number ofmother roles that were designated for the soprano voice type in nineteenth and twentieth-century operas. while thirty-nine operas were designated for mezzo-soprano, another nineteen were for the soprano voice type. i was not able to investigate further in order to determine solid reasons for this. thus, it was not fair to conclude that the role ofmother is a stereotyped character specific to the mezzo- soprano voice type. although it appears that it could be, since more mothers are listed as mezzo-sopranos, the number of sopranos listed as mothers seems significant enough to encourage further research. the total number ofoperas surveyed, including the forty-seven seventeenth-century operas, the twenty-seven metastasian libretti that were fashioned by many composers, and the sixty-six operas surveyed in the new grove book ofoperas, do not total the whole canon ofopera plots, but it is possible to see a shift occurring that begins to accept mothers as operatic characters more often. it is fair to conclude that as opera is reflective of its times, subject matter and character types likewise reflect the respective societal tastes and prefe rences, and the transformations that occurred within opera were linked to similar changes in culture. the investigation ofeach ofthe three operas further supports a shift in the treatment ofmothers as operatic characters. meyerbeer’s opera le prophète is significant in that the role offidès as mother is the main female protagonist in the opera, chosen in favor of a soprano heroine who would normally be the love interest ofthe tenor lead. moreover, it brought into opera a strong maternal character, seen in her nurturing role in this opera. similarly, as it was the first opera to designate this leading role for mezzo-soprano, it launched this voice type into its own as a leading lady equal to that of a soprano. it was also meyerbeer’s preferred choice ofvoice type for this role, in its suitability ofcolor and nuance. similarly, janáek’s opera jenzfa and the role ofkostelnika are significant in that the opera intersects with the popularity of verismo opera at the end ofthe nineteenth century, which brought these types of subjects to life. furthermore, kostelnika is important in that she is a stepmother. her character parallels the nineteenth century fairy tale view ofstep mothers as seen in the folktale movement ofthe grimm brothers and also a similar move ment that began in bohemia in the ’s with the stories of k.j. erben, boena nèmcová, and others.’ in this way she is reflective ofthe culture she is a part of and similarly reflects that culture back onto itself. jake heggie’s opera dead man walking is a contemporary opera ( ) whose context has american elements in it, but is universal in its themes. mrs. patrick de rocher typifies aspects ofthe ’s culture, and as heggie states, “is likely somebody you could meet in your neighborhood.” similarly, as a contemporary, living, and influential com poser, his concerns are important in shaping this view ofmothers as characters in opera. like meyerbeer, heggie shows a preference for the mezzo-soprano voice type in the role of mother. he “loves the color, the timbre, and the range ofthe lyric mezzo,”... and feels it is well suited for djctjon.’ moreover, he articulates something important when considering composer’s and librettist’s choices of subject matter as well as voice type when he states, “an artist’s work is always connected to their personal journey. i don’t think you can separate [them]. ifyou are an honest artist, and what you write resonates as true — it’s because you are writing from truth. from what you know. i’ve been shaped by those experiences as a person. . . so of course that extends to me as an artist, too.” his twentieth-century musical setting ofthe sensibilities ofan american mother in the context ofthe contemporary society shows that the problems and feelings that the character of a mother undergoes have not changed that much from the nineteenth century, and thus the concept of“motherhood” gains some unsuspected universal and timeless quality. john tyrrell, czech opera, . see appendix b. taken from an email interview conducted between december and january . (used with permission from the composer). ‘see appendix b. see appendix b. from these three operas then, it can be concluded that each composer had an aural ideal in mind when designating voice type for the role ofmother. additionally, each mother is a leading and influential character in the plot she is part of, critical to realizing the opera’s themes. there is a recurring theme prevalent in each ofthe operas, which is the sacrificial love ofeach mother for her child. fidès abandons her livelihood and gives up the comforts ofher home to search out her son. kostelnika fiercely protects her daughter when she commits a heinous crime in order to save her daughter from a fate similar to hers. and mrs. patrick de rocher finds strength beyond her own limitations to bargain for her son’s life. the sacrificial love ofmothers for their children is thus a timeless attribute that runs concur rently within each contemporary society. while this may not erase the stereotypes associated with “mothers” as operatic characters, it does open a window for realistic treatment. fur thermore, from observing these three mothers from three composers in different periods of time, a psychological stereotype ofthe mother emerges, as one caught in the conflict between her love for her child and her own values and her own life. this research provides a frame ofreference for the study and performance ofthese roles. each opera’s context is critical in understanding how each mother is reflected in both drama and music, and is essential in forming a firm basis from which to begin dramatic characterization. additionally, the musical analysis reveals the composers’ views, and how they each breathe life into the character in their respective styles. further, the musical analy sis is important in order to clearly distinguish the language distinctive to each character, their inner psychology, as well as the type ofvocalization required. thus, this research has been a valuable tool in learning these roles, and can also be a helpful guide to any singer wishing to learn and successfully perform these roles. bibliography abbate, carolyn. “music’s voices.” in unsung voices: opera and musical narrative in the nineteenth century. princeton, n.j.: princeton university press, . ,“opera; or the envoicing ofwomen.” in musicology and difference. edited by ruth a. solie, - . berkeley, los angeles, london: university of california press, . alpern engel, barbara. “peasant morality and premarital sexual relations in late nine teenth century russia,” journal ofsocial history vol. , no. 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(accessed august , , and november , . “opera preview: ‘dead man walking’ confronts the issue ofcapital punishment,” (june , ): http://www.post-gazette.comlpgl / .stm (accessed december , ) through sister helen prejean’ s website: www.prejean.org. kettle, martin. the guardian, the jake heggie: official website, (accessed august , and november , ). lépine, monique, and kate fillion, “maclean’s interview: monique lépine,” (rogers: october , ): http://www.macleans.ca/canadajnationallarticle.jsp?content= _ _ &pa (accessed december , ). interview given prior to release ofher book aftermath, published by penguin, november, . letellier, robert. “the thematic nexus ofreligion, power, politics and love in the operas of giacomo meyerbeer.” © by robert letellier. http://www.meyerbeer.comlnexus.htm. (accessed march , ). pbs documentary. “and then one night, the making ofdead man walking.” ( ): http://www.pbs.org/kqedjonenight/creativeprocess/players/heggietran.html (accessed august , ). prejean, sister helen. “official website.” www. prejean.org. ( ). (accessed december , ). appendices appendix a operas with characters that are “mothers” taken from the new grove book ofoperas, edited by stanley sadie. london: macmillan publishers, . mezzo sopranos (mezzo)/contraltos: th century monteverdi ( ) ritorno d‘ulisse in patria, ii— ericlea mezzo (penelope’s old nurse) th century handel ( ) giulio cesare in egitto — cornelia contralto (sesto’s mother) th century gounod ( ) romeo et juliette — gertrude mezzo (juliet’s nurse) humperdinck ( ) hansel und gretel — gertrud (mother) mezzo witch (often mother and witch are cast as mezzo the same person) marschner, heinrich a. hans heilig — the queen ofthe soprano ( ) gnomes (hans’ mother); gertrude (mother of anna; bride of contralto hans) mascagni, piero ( ) cavalleria rusticana — lucia contralto (turiddu’s mother) massenet ( ) cendrillon — madame de la haltière mezzo (step-mother) musorgsky ( ) boris godunov - xenia’s former wet nurse low mezzo musorgsky ( ) fair at sorochintsi, the — khivrya mezzo (cherevik’s wife who is step-mother of parasya, cherevik’s daughter) meyerbeer ( ) prophète, le — fidès mezzo (jean de leyde’s mother) offenbach ( ) contes d’hoffmann, les — a ghost mezzo (antonia’s mother) ponchielli ( ) gioconda, la — la cieca contralto (gioconda’s mother) rimsky-korsakov ( ) snow maiden, the — vesna-krasna mezzo (mother to the snow maiden) rimsky-korsakov ( ) christmas eve — solokha mezzo (mother ofvakula and witch) rossini ( ) cenerentola, la (leaves out step-mother) rossini ( ) guillaume tell — hedwige mezzo (tell’s wife and jeremy’s mother) smetana ( ) bartered bride, the — háta mezzo (mother ofvaek) tchaikovsky ( ) eugene onegin — larina mezzo (landowner and mother to tatyana and olga) filipyevna (an old nursemaid) mezzo tchaikovsky ( ) queen ofspades, the — countess mezzo (grandmother to liza) verdi ( ) trovatore, ii— azucena mezzo (mamico’s mother) wagner ( ) fliegende hollander, der — mary contralto senta’s nurse) th century britten ( ) albert herring — mrs. herring mezzo (albert’s mother) britten ( ) death in venice — a polish mother (choreographed) charpentier ( ) louise — her mother contralto debussy ( ) pelléas et mélisande — genevieve contralto (mother ofpelléas and golaud) ginastera ( ) bomarzo — diana orsini mezzo (grandmother to the duke orsini) henze, hans w. ( ) bassarids, the — agave mezzo (mother ofpentheus, king of thebes) janácek ( ) jenufa — kostelnika soprano/mezzo (stepmother ofjenufa) grandmother buryjovká contralto janácek ( ) kát’a kabanová — kabanicha contralto (tichon’ s mother; also foster child varvara in the household) menotti ( ) consul, the — mother/grandmother mezzo (john’s mother and grandmother ofhis baby) moore, douglas ( ) ballad ofbaby doe, the — mezzo mama mecourt (mother ofbaby doe) poulenc ( ) dialogues des carmélites madame de croissy, old prioress alto mother marie ofthe incarnation mezzo mother jeanne ofthe child jesus contralto mother gerald mezzo puccini ( ) suor angelica — the abbess mezzo ravel ( ) enfant et les sortileges (mother) mezzo schreker ( ) ferne klang, der — graumann’s wife mezzo (mother of grete) strauss ( ) salome — herodias mezzo (salome’s mother) strauss ( ) elektra — klytenmastra mezzo (mother to elektra and chrysothemis) strauss ( ) frau ohne schatten, die — the nurse dramatic mezzo (guardian ofthe empress keikobad’s daughter strauss ( ) arabella — adelaide mezzo (mother to arabella and zdenka) stravinsky ( ) oedipus rex — jocaste mezzo (mother of oedipus; incestuous relationship) stravinsky ( ) rake ‘s progress, the — mother goose mezzo (brothel owner); zimmermann, bernd soldaten, die — wesener’s old mother contralto ( ) stolzius’s mother contralto countess de la roche - mother mezzo (mother to young count) sopranos th century gluck ( ) iphigénie en aulide — clitemnestre soprano (mother ofiphigenie) handel ( ) rodelinda — rodelinda soprano mother of flavio) mozart ( ) nozze di figaro, le — marcellina soprano (housekeeper, figaro’s mother) mozart ( ) zauberfiote, die — the queen of coloratura soprano the night (pamina’s mother) rameau ( ) hippolyte etaricie — phèdre soprano (step-mother ofhippolyte) th century bellini ( ) norma — norma soprano (mother to two children) donizetti ( ) lucrezia borgia — soprano (mother ofgennaro) gounod ( ) faust — marthe soprano (guardian ofmarguerite) smetana ( ) bartered bride, the — ludmilla soprano (mother ofmaenka verdi ( ) lombardi allaprima crociata, i— viclinda soprano (mother of griselda) verdi ( ) ernani — giovanna soprano (nurse of elvira) verdi ( ) ballo in maschera, un — amelia soprano (mother ofunnamed son) verdi ( ) falstaff— mrs. alice ford soprano (mother ofnannetta wagner ( ) meistersinger von nurnberg, die - soprano magdalene (eva’s nurse) th century berg ( ) wozzeck—marie soprano (mother ofun-named son) britten ( ) turn ofthe screw, the — governess soprano (governess ofmiles and flora) menotti ( ) consul, the — magda sorel soprano (mother ofdying baby) menotti ( ) amahi and the night visitors — soprano (mother ofamahi) poulenc ( ) dialogues des carmélites madame lidoine, the new prioress soprano puccini ( ) madame butterfly — cio cio san soprano (mother of dolore, ‘trouble’) puccini ( ) suor angelica soprano (mother ofunnamed son) puccini ( ) gianni schicci — nella soprano (mother of gherardino) strauss ( ) intermezzo — christine soprano (mother of franzl) tippet ( ) king priam — hecuba dramatic soprano (mother ofhector and paris) silent role berlioz ( ) les troyens — andromache silent role (mother to hector) appendix b email interview with jake heggie c.h. in her book american opera, elise kirk discusses some of the earmarks that shaped american opera. these include among others, melodrama, movies, subjects taken from american literature/history. what is “american” about american opera to you? j.h. first and foremost that it is written in the vernacular ofthis country — “american” english, and with freedom to draw upon the diverse influences ofour musical heritage. we’re quite a salad bowl ofcultures and ideas in the usa. i think american opera reflects and draws upon that. c.h. also, in an interview with robert faires ( ), you referred to dmw as “so american and so timely.” in what ways do you consider dmw an american opera? (other than the obvious subject matter) might it be some of the musical elements? jr. yes, first the story and the characters in the story. here we are in the vt century still debating the death penalty and still torn apart over everything surrounding it. every one of the characters in dmw is likely somebody you could meet in your neighborhood. it was the drama, the story and the characters combined that detennined my use ofthe diverse musical elements that create the musical universe ofthe opera. and i do believe it “sounds” very american, with the jump from a classical tradition to gospel, jazz, blues, rock, pop, musical theater, etc. c.h. i have also read that you consider your music to be “first and foremost ameri can.” (carolyn redman thesis) can you comment on that? what does that mean? j.h. unashamedly influenced by the extraordinary gamut of music in this country that i grew up with, and a proud exponent of setting “american” english. i also look for universal stories and texts that have an american context. you know the old saying “write what you know. . .“ and that proves to work best for me, as well. c.h. can you comment about your musical compositional style and how if affects your composition of opera? (what were some ofyour influences ifyou haven’t given them above). for example, you write very lyrically for the voice. j.h. to me, that’s what the voice does best — lyrical long lines — and i am tremendously influenced by singers and what they do. they are a great inspiration, and i love the voice. i am a theater composer, so when writing a song or an opera, i’m always thinking ofhow best to serve the drama. everything i do is in the interest ofthat drama, including the musical world ofthe opera and how the characters emerge in that musical world. i’m not academic in terms ofanalyzing my own work or trying to categorize my writing. i simply write what i hear and feel is true in the face ofthe drama. some ofmy favorite composers, who have influenced me greatly, are: britten, gershwin, bernstein, sondheim, adams, mozart, verdi, puccini, poulenc, debussy, ravel, mahier, and ofcourse folk music. c.h. are there specific composers who have influenced you? j.h. see above. c.h. dmw was a collaborative work between you and terence mcnally. i under stand that it was his idea to write an opera on dmw (book) and it obviously resonated with you also. how much influence did you have over the decision about voices types for the characters? can you comment about that? - especially sister helen and mrs. patrick dc rocher? did you have the specific singers in mind first, (susan graham and frederica von stade) with the idea ofwriting a part for them or was it organic? (the roles just simply had to be mezzos!) did you change any of mcnally’s texts or repeat sections of text to fit your melody? j.h. we worked very closely on every part ofthe opera, including the voice types. we didn’t have a sister helen in mind when we started — and we did consider a soprano. but it just felt wrong to me in the end. helen is a very grounded, earthy, real person ... and the lyric mezzo voice was perfect for that because ofthe range from low to dramatic high. i also love mezzo voices because you can get every word throughout the range. when terrence started writing the libretto, he asked me to give him an example of a retired mezzo who would be an ideal helen and i told him janet baker. very shortly after we started writing, we thought of susan graham and that was perfect. just perfect. flicka had been on board from the begin ning, and we did ask her ifshe wanted to be helen, but she said she really wanted to be joe’s mother. wanted to explore that experience ofmotherhood ... and boy did she make a great choice or what? ... so, they were both on board very early on. we searched far and wide for the right joseph de rocher and listened to about baritones. i knew it was a lyric baritone part immediately. as for the text. terrence told me right offthe bat that he’s a playwright and he would write a play and hope to set up situations and find language that would inspire music. ifthe words weren’t working, he gave me permission to change things, rewrite, edit, etc and then check in with him ... and i did that. i would let the music start and then change things based on where the music was taking me. i have pretty good instincts on that front ... and terrence was with me all the way. c.h. dmw is a gold mine for the character of “mother,” and also for mezzos! what is it about the mezzo voice type (as compared to soprano), that influenced your choice in writing the ‘mother roles’ for mezzo (kitty hart excepted). is she written as soprano merely to balance the score and give jade and herself the duet in the ensemble? or is part ofyour voice type casting based on the general stereotype we are used to in opera? j.h. jade definitely was a soprano to balance that quartet ofparents. i wanted them to be sop, mezzo, ten., baritone. as for the mezzo voice, see above. i love the color, the timbre, and the range ofthe lyric mezzo — it’s my favorite voice type. also for diction. the best. and mezzos happen to be really great people, too, i’ve found. many ofmy close friends are mezzos! c.h. i read that recently, a dramatic soprano was cast as sister helen in place of a mezzo. did that change anything for you? j.h. no, absolutely not. christine brewer actually sang a section ofdmw (the duet with sister rose from act two) and she was great as sister helen. then they cast margaret jane wray in cincinnati and she was tremendous. c.h. in a previous email, you mentioned that the character of mother (and daughter) was a big theme in your life! can you briefly elaborate on that? j.h. i grew up in a household ofwomen. my father died when i was so young, and my sisters were older. so it was all about the women in my house. that dynamic ofmother and daughter, or ofparent and child in general, is a big, big theme in my work. it resonates with me deeply. c.h. can you discuss how you go about developing the characters in dmw in the music you created for them? the psychology? (especially mrs. patrick de rocher). j.h. that’s a tough question, because it’s just something i do instinctively. it’s a very organic process. i fmd the musical world — or sound world — ofthe opera based on the story, the characters, how they talk, what’s happening to them, etc ... and then, musically, the characters start to emerge from that universe. all ofthat takes a lot oftime. i have to live with all of it for a long time in my head and heart, and then it just starts speaking. c.h. this may be a difficult question. you have experienced a number ofvery unfor tunate and significant losses in your life - your dad’s suicide at age , the death ofyour wife, johanna harris, your sister, and others. has this impacted you as a composer, and in how you create/empathize with characters? (i ask this because i think there is some thing “real” about each of the characters, that comes out through the music) j.h. of course. i think that’s pretty obvious. an artist’s work is always connected to their personal journey. i don’t think you can separate. if you are an honest artist and what you write resonates as true — it’s because you are writing from truth. from what you know. i’ve been shaped by those experiences as a person ... so ofcourse that extends to me as an artist, too. c.h. can you tell me about your relationship with your mom? you have mentioned in previous interviews that life was very difficult for her as a single mom in the ’s. can you comment on that? what was it like for her coping with children, a job etc., as you experienced it? has this impacted your characterization of mrs. de rocher? jh. you can only imagine how tough it must have been for her. she was also dealing with the fact that my dad had committed suicide, which was a huge stigma back then. mental illness was something unclean in many people’s minds (still is) ... and i think she suffered tremendously as an outcast in that way. mrs. de rocher is definitely outcast and suffers from events that were pushed upon her, but she also suffers because ofher choices. part ofher suffering is that she feels somehow responsible for the situation her family is in ... her choices have impacted the future ofher kids: she chose those men to be the father ofher children, she chose to stay in that area and not get away, she chose to focus on certain things and not on others, and she wasn’t probably available to her children much ofthe time — emotionally or physically. i think this is a very real situation. my recent opera — three decembers — deals with the single parent, too. in a very different way, because nobody is murdered and there’s no criminal activity. but, she is not emotional ly or physically available to her children ... and it has a tremendous impact on their lives. so you see there’s a theme going on here c.h. mrs. patrick dc rocher. why the anonymity? why is she identified only through a husband and not by her given name? both mothers of the composite “joseph” are mentioned in the book (gladys sonnier and elizabeth lee). what was your and possibly terrence mcnally’s rationale (if you know), in this? (i have to admit that it bothered me at the beginning when first starting to learn the role!) j.h. that was terrence’s choice. i think it speaks ofthe time the piece takes place (the s in the south). remember that up through the s, there were many places a woman couldn’t even get a credit card by herself. her husband had to do that. she was given a place in society only through her husband. and this was the poor south, in the s and s .... so i think perhaps that had something to do with terrence’s choice. c.h. in your interview with sean teet, you mentioned that you have motives for joseph de rocher and also sister helen. (it wasn’t clear, but i’m assuming one was the use of her name also?) did you have specific motives for the characters outlined before you started writing their music? what about joseph’s mother? in her act i scene, i hear a lot ofwhat i think is joe’s motive in the orchestra, and i would also identify some of this music as appearing in the prelude ms. - , especially the” haven’t we” motive. i’m kind of thinking that her music in this scene is influenced a lot by joe’s motive and its mutations. (most notably in the orchestration). j.h. oy vey. this is the kind of stuff i leave up to others. this all happens very organical ly for me. joe has a couple ofthemes associated with him: the / meter and also his name “joseph de rocher” ... helen has “he will gather us around” and also the three-note theme in “this journey” ... those snippets and tunes show up everywhere. all ofthe parents have the “you don’t know” theme going on (from the sextet) because they are all parents. mrs. de rocher has a few other things going on, too. c.h. the act ii piece, “don’t say a word,” is specifically called an “aria.” can you tell me your rationale behind that choice, particularly as there are only a couple of other instances where you have done that in the opera? j.h. felt right. c.h. in learning the act i scene and act ii aria, i’m finding that you have a very “parlando” style ofwriting. the melody often finds similar inflection to regular speech. has that been influenced at all by the musical theatre style, (gershwin, sondheim, for example)? i’m not suggesting that it’s composed in a popular style, just that is has a feeling of natural speech. what made you decide what was recitative-like, more lyrical “speech” (arioso), or aria? j.h. yes. tremendously influenced by musical theater. it is extremely important to me that the words be set so they can be understood. i absolutely hate supertitles in english, and if a singer is worth their salt, and ifthe words have been set well, the audience should be able to understand the words. as for arioso, it’s just how i write. a composer has to make a choice on how to set material in between “numbers” or ensembles ... in the classical era they used straight recit. . . . afterward it became more arioso to support a continuous flow ofmusic without interruption. in musicals, they just talk between numbers. i like the arioso option. c.h. i have one final question about the key structure. is this based on the vocal range of the singer - voice type or because that’s the key the texts are best suited to? do you have an outline of the key structure for the opera set out when you first started composing the opera? to me, the f mim of “he will gather us around,” is the “home” key of the opera, the ‘redemption’ key ifyou will, and characters sing in relation to that key according to where they are in their journey. (for example, that’s why joe speech-sings his last lines on c (dominant of f which “leads home.”) does that sound too trite? (i’m also thinking that a specific key invites a specific colour palette, which, like in lieder for example, doesn’t always convey the poetry when the lied is transposed). i have theories of course about joe’s mother (which you don’t have to tell me about), but not everyone would agree with me on the importance of the “key” idea. j.h. i do all ofthis by instinct and what feels right to me. i do not have a big overall key structure in mind when i start. i listen to what i hear and then i write it down. that’s about it! pandemic virtuosity vijay rajput, md, facp, sfhm ek yatra, anupreksha aur karuna ki [a journey of  care and compassion] chair, department of medical education, professor, medical education, nsu, florida corresponding author: dr vijay rajput department of medical education, dr. kiran c. patel college of allopathic medicine, nova southeastern university, florida, usa email: vrajput @ nova.edu cite this article as: rajput v. ek yatra, anupreksha aur karuna ki [a journey of care and compassion]. rhime.  ; : ­ . received:  ­apr­   accepted:  ­apr­   published online:  ­apr­ www.rhime.in            figure  : the face of the  healthcare worker  before  the covid­   pandemic this artwork was created as a  tribute  to all healthcare workers on  frontlines  everywhere  in  the  world.  for  your  selfless  helping  of  patients  and  the  community  of  global  villages  during  the  pandemic,  i  offer  my  gratitude  and  respect. "if i can stop one heart from breaking, i shall not live in vain: if i can ease one life the aching, or cool one pain, or help one fainting robin unto his nest again, i shall not live in vain.” by emily dickenson; not in vain  from one hundred and one famous poems: with a prose supplement ­ an  anthology. cook rj (editor). chicago: the cable company,  . figure  : the face of the  healthcare worker  after  the covid­   pandemic www.rhime.in            microsoft word - mit and jewish economists discussion paper econstor make your publications visible. a service of zbw leibniz-informationszentrum wirtschaft leibniz information centre for economics weintraub, e. roy working paper mit's openness to jewish economists chope working paper, no. - provided in cooperation with: center for the history of political economy at duke university suggested citation: weintraub, e. roy ( ) : mit's openness to jewish economists, chope working paper, no. - , duke university, center for the history of political economy (chope), durham, nc this version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/ / standard-nutzungsbedingungen: die dokumente auf econstor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen zwecken und zum privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. sie dürfen die dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. sofern die verfasser die dokumente unter open-content-lizenzen (insbesondere cc-lizenzen) zur verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten lizenz gewährten nutzungsrechte. terms of use: documents in econstor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. you are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. if the documents have been made available under an open content licence (especially creative commons licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. www.econstor.eu mit’s openness to jewish economists by e. roy weintraub chope working paper no. - june mit’s openness to jewish economists e. roy weintraub duke university june , page of abstract mit emerged from “nowhere” in the s to its place as one of the three or four most important sites for economic research by the mid- s. a conference held at duke university in april examined how this occurred. in this paper the author argues that the immediate postwar period saw a collapse – in some places slower, in some places faster – of the barriers to the hiring of jewish faculty in american colleges and universities. and more than any other elite private or public university, particularly ivy league universities, mit welcomed jewish economists. jel classification: a , b , b keywords: mit, jewish faculty, anti-semitism, samuelson page of this paper will appear, in an edited form, in the supplementary issue to volume of the history of political economy, and in the duke university press hardcover book titled mit and the transformation of american economics. please do not quote from, cite, or reproduce this version without the written permission of the author, and volume’s editor, e. roy weintraub (erw@duke.edu). mit’s openness to jewish economists e. roy weintraub mit emerged from “nowhere” in the s to its place as one of the three or four most important sites for economic research by the mid- s. other papers in this volume provide a variety of narratives of how this occurred. here i point out that the immediate postwar period saw a collapse – in some places slower, in some places faster – of the barriers to the hiring of jewish faculty in american colleges and universities. and more than any other elite private or public university, particularly ivy league universities, mit welcomed jewish economists. another narrative through , of the first nobel laureates in economics ( %) were jewish, as were % of the john bates clark medal winners. one might suppose that historians of economics had interrogated this startling fact. feminist historians of economics have long written about the underrepresentation of women economists. earlier versions of this paper were presented in at berlin’s humboldt university and duke university, and in at hes/aea in san diego. in addition to the hope conferees, particularly roger backhouse, the author received very helpful comments from lorraine daston, paul davidson, till düppe, david hollinger, evelyn forget, tiago mata, robert and bobbie solow, and glen weyl. there is no substantial article or monograph length discussion of anti-semitism and the economics profession. for the most part this necessitates reliance not only on secondary sources beyond those familiar to historians of economics, but also sketchy primary sources. a more detailed study than this one would examine a number of different us economics faculties and their histories, and the histories of their institutions with respect to the anti-semitism issue. thus the present discussion, although it will in passing contrast the mit experience with that of other economics departments, is by no means systematic in scope. page of afro-american historians of economics have written freely and effectively about the underrepresentation of afro-american economists. one might reasonably expect, by symmetry, that historians would be as interested in the overrepresentation of a particular identifiable group. this however has not occurred. the difficulty is real and reflects a strange sensibility. the first economist to write about these matters was thorstein veblen ( ) in a paper called “the intellectual pre-eminence jews in modern europe” in the political science quarterly. veblen sought to explain what he regarded as the overrepresentation of “the chosen people” in the sciences and in fields of scholarship and intellectual inquiry. his own argument was that habits of scholarship and learning within the community set the stage for young jews, breaking free of the ties of their established diaspora communities, and living among the gentiles, to bring a skeptical and inquiring mindset to the intellectual problems on which they worked, and that mindset was particularly suited to the kinds of scientific explanations that the modern age seemed to need. since veblen, th century discussion of the place of jews in the learned professions has proceeded without any contributions from historians of economics. in contrast, intellectual historians, like the preeminent david hollinger, have examined questions about the role of jews, and anti-semitism, in the academic community in the united states. hollinger’s discussions about the anti-semitism in the pre-world war ii period and the secularization of the universities from the war onward, which permitted the rapid influx of jewish scholars after world war ii, are well known. intellectual historians, and historians of the university, have seen fit to raise these questions and to seek both data and insight. social scientists, writing in primarily jewish publications, have written about the role of jews in the american universities. the works by seymour lipset ( ) and lewis feuer ( ) are typical. these studies are apparently unknown to historians of economics. historians of physics like daniel kevles ( [ ]) have for many years written about the place of jews in their own histories of scientific communities. if one examines the work of economists and historians of economics, i am aware of exactly one article written by a sometime historian of economics, mark perlman, that addresses this subject, and that article appeared not in an economics journal or a history of economics journal but in the journal judaism. titled “jews and contributions to economics: a bicentennial review”, perlman’s ( ) article was surely a study both from the personal and the historical dimension as his father, wisconsin’s selig perlman, was an extremely important figure in the history of the american economics profession. perlman takes up a number of issues including the anti-semitism that characterized the american economics community through world war ii. he has tales of this kind of prejudice as representing the exclusionary nature of the economics profession. often he recounts anecdotes told by the subjects of the exclusion themselves. roger backhouse, in this volume, deconstructs the famous story of how paul samuelson, a newly appointed harvard instructor with a assistant professor offer from mit, was not encouraged about his chances to secure a similar position at harvard in the next year or two (backhouse ). harvard’s departing chairman burbank’s dislike page of of jews was well known – he also disliked mathematical economics and keynesian economics , a samuelson trifecta. or consider a personal story. my father sidney weintraub, who had been teaching at st. johns university (then) in brooklyn, was recruited in late both by indiana university and the university of pennsylvania. at that time penn had half of one jew, simon kuznets, on its tenured economics faculty (his appointment was shared with statistics). as my father was given the permanent appointment at pennsylvania in fall after one year as a visiting professor, kuznets was already negotiating with the johns hopkins university to join its faculty. it was in this period that irving kravis, a student of kuznets’, was considered for a tenured appointment to the economics department anticipating kuznets’ departure. the department had gone from one half to one and a half tenured jews with my father, but adding another was seen as moving too quickly by some, even though kravis’ appointment was finally approved . this episode appears, like many other episodes, as a curiosity when it surfaces in one or another account. but there has been no systematic collection of such accounts, no systematic examination of the exclusionary habits of the economics profession through the end of the interwar period. the mathematics community has not been shy in welcoming historians of mathematics who explore these topics (reingold ). why have historians of economics walked away from such matters? one would have expected this to be well known and taught in almost all histories of economics and lectures in history of economics courses. it of course has not been so treated. anti-semitism and the universities in the s before the second world war, jews were hardly to be found on the faculties of american colleges and universities. in a comprehensive study of jewish academics in the united states, which appeared in in the american jewish yearbook, seymour martin lipset and everett carl ladd, jr. wrote: overt anti-jewish prejudice within academia seemingly was at a high point in the s and s, when large numbers of the children of immigrants began to enter college. this pressure led many schools to impose quotas on the admission of jews to both undergraduate and professional schools. a. lawrence lowell, as president of harvard, and nicholas murray butler, then president of columbia, openly defended jewish quotas. and as late as ernest m. robert solow pointed out that this meant that samuelson’s, and his, future at harvard was dim. (personal communication, october ) kuznets as is well known left johns hopkins for harvard very quickly because the johns hopkins president, a notorious anti-semite, did not want kuznets on his faculty. there were a few jewish faculty members in other departments of the wharton school at that time, one of whom was joseph rose of the transportation department. page of hopkins, then president of dartmouth, justified the use of a [jewish] quota at his institution on the grounds that ‘dartmouth is a christian college founded for the christianization of its students.’ (lipset and ladd, - ) quotas for jewish students emerged in the s as applications of jews to ivy league schools exploded. immigrant children competed for access to the elite schools. the college board examination, and high school transcript, had been the tools by which applications were accepted or rejected. thus the schools changed the rules. as is well known (karabel ), harvard, yale, and princeton began using “a good character” and “leadership ability” as admissions requirements. how to assess these attributes? interview the student applicants and determine just how jewish they looked and sounded. german jews good, sephardim good, ashkenazi not so good. nothing needed to be written down in explanation of the rejection to the applicant, although as karabel found the admissions records from that period revealed exactly what was happening. these restrictions carried over even more intensely to faculty appointments. ludwig lewisohn reported in his memoirs how he was prevented from teaching english; edward sapir was told by his graduate-school professors that as a jew he could not expect an appointment and would have to go to canada. lionel trilling recalled in an article in commentary that he was the first to be appointed to the english department in columbia; the harvard law school did not appoint another jew after felix frankfurter until … the city college of new york became one of the first schools to open its doors to jews, but even ccny was charged with discrimination at the beginning of the s.” (lipset and ladd, - ). even accounting for the historical connection of many colleges and universities, particularly the elite schools, to religious denominations, the low number of jewish faculty is startling. in his article on the social history of jewish academics in the u.s., lewis s. feuer ( , ) pointed out that “by the mid-twenties there were still probably less than jews among the college and university professors in the liberal arts and science faculties in the united states.” he went on to quote from an article that had appeared in a yale undergraduate publication: with very few exceptions, the jewish university professor in america is non-existent. of course, every major american university will point out that it has one or two jewish professors. for instance, yale, princeton, chicago university, the university of wisconsin, johns hopkins, michigan university, and the universities of texas and georgia each have one: harvard has ; berkeley ; page of columbia ; st. louis, ; new york university, none; college of the city of new york, and so forth’ (s. m. melamed volume , number the reflex december , page ). feuer’s article is a long and detailed examination of interwar anti-semitism. he argued ( - ) that even in new york city, home to the largest concentration of jews in the u.s.: as late as april, , the institution which had the largest jewish student body in the world had not a single jewish professor. that institution was not the city college of new york which had in monumental sentimentality been called the internal “proletarian harvard.” rather it was the down- town washington square college of new york university, where % of the seven thousand students were jews, % more than the city college. if all the departments were included in the enumeration, there were estimated to be more than fifteen thousand jews at the downtown n.y.u. – the world’s largest undergraduate body of jews. yet in the entire college, the writer for the menorah journal could find only jewish teachers of whom were assistants not destined for promotion. the one exception owed his job to his chairman who with remarkable tactical skill had managed to prevent a meeting between the instructor and the chancellor. hiring economics faculty required vigilance about “jewishness”. chicago was not immune to such practices. in a letter (february , : university of chicago economics department archive, box , folder ) from harvard’s allyn young to chicago’s chairman, l. g. marshall, he recommended a man who was had been first in his harvard class, who was “tops in erudition and cleverness”, and who wrote a brilliant ph.d thesis. he was said to be “loyal and a good and well-liked teacher of undergraduates”. but “now you will ask, what’s wrong? his name is a. w. marget and he is one of the chosen people. more than that he looks it … you might do worse than take him on a year’s trial.” marget went to minnesota. for the most important economics faculty in new york, matters were no different. eli ginzberg recalled that in the mid- s, the columbia economics department “decided to add a theorist and the choice narrowed down to jacob viner or john m. clark, both at the time of the university of chicago. [though clark was hired it was claimed on his merits]… one [cannot] discount the university’s ambivalence about jews (viner was a jew)” (ginsberg , ). yet after around , columbia began to change, if only slowly at the beginning of that decade. the economics department hired joseph dorfman in . it replaced r. a. seligman in with leo wolman, who was an official with the amalgamated clothing workers’ union and the nber. it also had graduate students in the late s like moses abramowitz and students of hotelling like milton friedman and kenneth arrow. columbia was not unique: “jewish page of professors on university campuses in all subjects were estimated in as under .” (feuer, from footnote by shapiro, , ) and then the european émigrés arrived. jewish Émigré scholars albert einstein and john von neumann were more pulled than pushed to the united states by huge salaries and no teaching offered them by the institute for advanced studies in princeton in the early s. in the period from hitler’s accession to the german chancellorship in and the first wave of restrictions on jews, through the passage of the nuremburg laws in which deprived jews of citizenship, and ending with the kristallnacht pogrom of november , the stream of jewish scholars seeking to emigrate increased continuously. adding to the flow was the anschluss in austria in march of and the resulting elimination of jews from public life and viennese educational institutions. the story of the effect of the émigrés on american science is well-known. the later role of physicists like fermi, ulam, szilard, teller et. al. on the manhattan project made the refugee story vivid: “between and , more than a hundred of these [émigrés] joined the ranks of american physicists” (weiner , - ). certainly the fact that physics was an international discipline, like mathematics, meant that the refugees were familiar with many american physicists before they arrived. unlike economics, the natural and mathematical sciences were not shaped by national boundaries. one could more comfortably welcome those whose work was similar to one’s own. there was more acceptance in the s of hiring émigré jews in the science and technology fields than there was in the social sciences and humanities. the story of the émigré economists was first addressed in the austrian case by earlene craver and axel leijonhufvud ( ) and harold hagemann and claus-dieter krohn ( ) for german-speaking economist more generally, as well as by fred scherer ( ), although stories of particular individuals in biographies and memoirs (e.g. modigliani, menger, morgenstern) comprise a distinct genre. following the lead of england, where robbins and beveridge were actively seeking to bring refugee scholars to universities, in the u.s. such efforts were loosely coordinated. of special importance in this rescue operation was the rockefeller foundation which had, in economics, been supporting a number of centers in europe doing research on business cycles. its close connection with these more “scientific” economists, bringing them to the u.s. on travelling fellowships for instance, provided the foundation’s officers with good intelligence on the deteriorating situation in germany and austria and other countries for especially jewish scholars. it also accounts for the greater than usual mathematical training of many of the émigré economists (marschak, koopmans, wald, menger, morgenstern, tintner, fellner, etc.). since some of the victims of the nazi purges had worked under fellowships and grants from the rockefeller foundation, a certain moral pressure for action was inescapable. joseph schumpeter of harvard made an appeal on behalf of jacob marschak, the ‘most brilliant’ scholar on his list of displaced economics professors, but he added that ‘all of them have on the one hand had strong claims to human sympathy page of and would on the other be very useful acquisitions to any university.’ (lamberti , ; letter from schumpeter to rockefeller foundation dated april , ) these efforts led, over the s, to the movement of some jewish scholars into irregular and short term positions in schools that had been closed to jewish faculty for decades. for instance, at harvard the astronomer harlow shapley (father of the game theorist lloyd shapley) worked tirelessly to gather names on petitions to the harvard administration, and corporation, to provide refugee scholars with some kind, any kind, of appointment to permit them to establish their scholarly careers in the united states, and thus after a few years to be able to gain regular academic positions at harvard or elsewhere. by the fall of , harvard had appointed émigré professors to permanent faculty positions and in other regular faculty positions. shapley was successful in convincing the administration to allow jobless refugee scholars, who were in transit or close to the age of retirement, the use of the university’s facilities without faculty status. the harvard corporation agreed to their appointment as ‘research associates’ on the condition that their stipends would come from outside funds. shapley raised the money through appeals to the wealthy petschek and warberg families and other jews.” (lamberti , ) thus over the s, more and more jewish refugees were assisted in relocating their scholarly activities to the u.s. the test for the success of the programs of the rockefeller foundation and emergency committee was the progress made by their grantees in obtaining tenured professorships… between and , the [separate and separately run] emergency committee gave grants to colleges and universities, which subsidized in part the faculty salaries of exiled scholars, of whom came from germany and from austria. (lamberti , ) an unintended consequence of these assistance programs for jewish scholars fleeing nazi rule was the softening of objections to having american born jews on the faculties of those u.s. colleges and universities that had been so clearly anti-semitic up through wwii. as faculties were more open to jews, jewish undergraduates began to see that academic careers, closed to them earlier, were possible in the u.s.. paul samuelson, robert solow, milton friedman, martin bronfenbrenner, arthur bloomfield, lawrence klein, sidney weintraub, kenneth arrow, and others who had entered graduate school before had many more opportunities than did those of the preceding generation. in alvin johnson, president of the new school and director of the emergency committee overoptimistically reported “that his ‘extensive communication by word and by letter with american scholars’ had convinced him that ‘academic anti-semitism is decidedly on the decline.’ there was ‘hardly a single respectable university that has not welcomed to its faculty jewish émigré scholars.’” (lamberti , ) a ‘fourth generation’ of jewish scholarship and science in the united states, rising with the advent of the second world war, grew to flourish during the years of page of post-war crises. the conflict with the soviet union – political, ideological, and military – required the aid of scientists ranging from physics to political science and from mathematics to sociology and on a scale that the united states had never known; ‘experts’ in foreign languages and areas hitherto deemed too recondite for americans, were summoned to conduct an ideological debate in several continents. the barriers against jews in the university world were dismantled almost completely. (feuer , ) these changes were well-recognized both at the time, and later. although the period appears to be one of continuous progress to a more open, less discriminatory, environment for faculty hiring, it certainly was not so in fact. liberal arts college faculties did not rush to recruit jews and catholics. discriminatory barriers to hiring women and afro-americans were to persist for many decades, and in some measure persist today. even though jews and catholics saw more openness in the universities, their success was not to be any beacon of hope for women or afro-americans. mit’s unique openness to jewish economics faculty paul samuelson, in an interview with mit’s “soundings” program, recalled how the economic program took shape after his arrival in : ralph freeman, rhodes scholar and canadian world war i artillery officer in the british army, had absolute powers then as head. by courtesy he deferred to our professional votes on new appointments and one by one we added stars to our team: robert bishop, e. cary brown, charles kindleberger, morris adelman, max millikan, walter rostow, paul rosenstein-rodan, robert solow, evsey domar, franco modigliani and other early tenured acquisitions, as if led by an invisible hand. statistician harold freeman [who was jewish] in the background guided our recruitment judgments. if one takes into account the fact that samuelson was not encouraged to remain at harvard, his account of mit’s hiring is startling. adelman, milliken, rostow, rosenstein-rodan, solow, domar, and modigliani were all, like him, jewish. freeman’s department was able to recruit so well, and so quickly, not only because of samuelson’s growing renown (he was the first clark medalist, in ) but because the department and university were remarkably open to the hiring of jewish faculty at a time when such hiring was just beginning to be possible at ivy league universities. with respect to other schools, as a comparison points to mit, consider the university of wisconsin. this progressive liberal bastion was, as noted above, the home institution of selig perlman. in mark perlman’s article there was a discussion of his father’s struggles as the only jew in that department. he briefly alludes to the so called “milton friedman affair” in - . in leonard silk’s book, the economists ( ) he writes “an ugly note of anti-semitism crept into the controversy. selig perlman, a distinguished labor historian, was the only jew on the wisconsin faculty and page of some members of the department felt that one was enough. further, friedman was “from new york” “from the east” “from chicago” and was thus regarded as kind of an interloper…” ( - ) robert lampman, who edited the book economists at wisconsin, reports with respect to this that friedman wrote to him “on december , , to share his reflections on his wisconsin year… ‘i did not at the time regard anti-semitism as the major factor involved in the affair and i do not now…however, a minor subtheme was indeed anti-semitism….’” ( ) in fact it was not until that martin bronfenbrenner and eugene rotwein were hired into the economics department. as two jewish ph.ds from chicago, they made perlman less of an outlier. in contrast to the university of wisconsin, the university of michigan appeared to have no similar issues appointing jews. this was, in some respects, related to the fact that the chair of its department of economics from to was isaiah leo sharfman, who came to the united states in from the ukraine and became a citizen with his father’s naturalization in . he had gone to boston latin school and took an undergraduate degree and a law degree from harvard. arriving at the university of michigan in he remained there until retirement. with such an obvious, and apparently well loved, jewish presence at the university of michigan’s department, there appeared to be no serious issues of recruiting jewish faculty in the s. with harold levinson and wolfgang stolper arriving in the late s and lawrence klein arriving in , the department bore no resemblance to ivy league departments. lest this judgment appear overstated, consider yale university. eugene v. rostow ( , ) wrote in an undergraduate publication there that …the bold fact remains, in spite of all official disclaimers, that there’s not one jew on the faculty of yale college, and only a few, of great repute, scattered through the scientific graduate and professional schools. the younger men on the faculty recognize the situation, and confess themselves powerless. apparently, nothing can be done, and even the most liberal dare not be sanguine. yale college is closed to the jewish teacher, the graduate school only recently and hesitantly opened. an historian (oren , - ) recently noted that the most insular of all the yale faculties was that of yale college proper. as of , neither a jew nor a known catholic had ever achieved a full professorship in the college. not until after the end of the second world war would a jew be granted tenure. jewish students were occasionally warned by their professors not to waste their time in graduate school, since academic careers were not open to them. page of as mentioned earlier, the university of pennsylvania did not hire a jew into a full time position in economics until . dartmouth hired its first jewish economics professor, daniel marx, in and its second, martin segal, in . as late as they remained the two jews among the twenty-one economics teachers there . why mit was different several papers in this volume have stressed the particular nature of the institute in identifying the difference between the mit economics department and say the harvard and yale economics departments. the fact that mit was an institute of technology, training (in the s) engineers, architects, and scientists exclusively, had real consequences. as some other papers in this volume pointed out, the mission and identity of the school shaped the instruction that was provided to students studying economics. those papers did not though explore the nature of the differences between this kind of science and engineering faculty and faculties in liberal arts institutions. engineers and scientists are socialized differently from philosophers, literary scholars, and historians. this difference has been the subject of endless discussion and, in the american context, was a central theme in the education of henry adams. the role of humanities faculty in the elite american universities, the ivy league (harvard, yale, princeton, dartmouth, brown, cornell, columbian, and pennsylvania), the little ivies (williams, wesleyan, and amherst) and the seven sisters (radcliffe, mount holyoke, vassar, smith, pembroke, barnard, and wellesley) was to educate the children of the american upper and upper middle (professional) class. they were implicitly charged to educate the elite for leadership, not the masses for employment. teaching their students the best works of the “western tradition”, familiarizing them with a traditional education to uphold their unique place in american life, required (they believed) that they represent those traditions themselves. the schools “knew” that there was no possibility that an immigrant jew whose parents had fled the pale of settlement could have an ear for the poetry of emily dickenson, a thrill in the novels of james fenimore cooper, or a pride in the biographies of washington and jefferson. what did the ashkenazy know of teddy roosevelt’s rough riders? calling attention to such matters in public, as c.p. snow did in england in his rede lectures, almost always agitates “humanists”. nevertheless, the universalist notions that pervade the sciences, the idea that there is one physics community, one mathematics community, one electrical engineering community, etc. does not transfer to the field of history: the presuppositions that shape the intellectual life of a historian in japan are not those that shape the intellectual boundaries of the civil war historian in the united states, even as cohomology theorists in japan and in the united states are similarly trained and socialized. i thank tom velk who provided the documentation for this statement about , his first year on the dartmouth economics faculty: http://www.e- yearbook.com/yearbooks/dartmouth_college_aegis_yearbook/ /page_ .html page of it was long recognized that the occasional presence of jewish faculty in a university’s professional schools did not bear on their absence in that same university’s liberal arts college. yale had jewish faculty in its medical school while it did not in its college of liberal arts before the late s. this was true for most other ivy league institutions as well. great professional schools (and many science departments) were not in the business of passing on the dominant culture of american elites to the students they trained. when columbia worried whether lionel trilling could possibly teach shakespeare given that shakespeare was not part of his cultural heritage, no such issue was raised in the appointment of isidor isaac rabi to the columbia physics department. replicating the elites, the implicit mission of the humanities faculties of the ivy league colleges like harvard, yale, princeton, and dartmouth, was not the mission of the harvard, yale, and dartmouth schools of medicine. the johns hopkins president might rail against having simon kuznets on his economics faculty, but he was not about to purge jews from his own school of medicine. at mit, where the science and engineering faculty defined the institution, and shaped the instructional mission of the economics department, the issue of jewish faculty and their lack of “culture” could not arise because there was in fact no college of arts and sciences. explaining mit’s rise to prominence in economics is thus a matter of balancing a number of factors, some internal to the evolving intellectual norms of the community of economists, some connected to the evolving nature of mit as a university, and some connected to the larger institutions and concerns of postwar america. people matter too. any account of mit’s growing importance in the s that fails to discuss the brilliance and energy of paul samuelson and robert solow would be an impoverished one indeed. but if to write history is to engage with the local and contingent contexts of the subject examined, any history of mit’s emergence among economics departments that left out any mention of its unique openness to hiring jewish faculty in the first postwar decade would be likewise impoverished. page of references brazer, m. c. ( ). the economics department of the university of michigan: a centennial retrospective. economics and the world around it. s. h. hymans. ann arbor, university of michigan press: - . craver, e. and a. leijonhufvud ( ). "economics in america: the continental influence." history of political economy ( ): - . feuer, l. s. ( ). "the stages in the social history of jewish professor in american colleges and universities." american jewish history ( ): - . ginzberg, e. ( ). "economics at columbia: recollections of the early s." the american economist ( ): - . hagemann, h. and c.-d. krohn, eds. ( ). biographisches handbuch der deutschsprachigen wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen emigration nach (biographic handbook on the emigration of german-speaking economists after ). two volumes. munich, k. g. saur. heertje, a. "memories of wolfgang stolper." iss forum - the newsletter of the international joseph a. schumpeter society (august ). hollinger, d. a. ( ). "how wide the circle of the 'we'? american intellectuals and the problem of the ethnos since world war ii." the american historical review ( ): - . hollinger, d. a. ( ). science as a weapon in kulturkämpfe in the united states during and after world war ii. science, jews, and secular culture: studies in mid-twentieth century american intellectual history. d. a. hollinger. princeton, nj, princeton university press. hollinger, d. a. ( ). science, jews, and secular culture: studies in mid- twentieth century american intellectual history. princeton, nj, princeton university press. hollinger, d. a. ( ). "rich, powerful, and smart: jewish overrepresentation should be explained instead of avoided or mystified." the jewish quarterly review, new series ( ): - . hollinger, d. a. ( ). why are jews preeminent in science and scholarship? the veblen thesis reconsidered. cosmopolitanism and solidarity: studies in ethnoracial, religious, adn professional affiliation in the united states. d. a. hollinger. madison, wi, university of wisconsin press: - . kaiser, d., ed. ( ). becoming mit: moments of decision. cambridge, ma, mit press. kapuria-foreman, v. and m. perlman ( ). "an economic historian's economist: remembering simon kuznets." the economic journal ( ): - . karabel, j. ( ). the chosen. new york, houghton mifflin. kevles, d. j. ( [ ]). the physicists: the history of a scientific community in modern america. cambridge, ma, harvard university press. lamberti, m. ( ). "the reception of refugee scholars from nazi germany in america: philantrhropy and social change in higher education." jewish social studies: history, culture, society ( ): - . page of lampman, r. j., ed. ( ). economists at wisconsin: - . madison wi, board of regents of the university of wisconsin system. lyman, s. m. ( ). "a haven for homeless intellects: the new school and its exile faculties." international journal of politics, culture, and society ( ): - . lipset, s. m. and j. everett carll ladd ( ). "jewish academics in the united states: their achievments, culture, and politics." american jewish yearbook: - . oren, d. a. ( ). joining the club: a history of jews and yale, nd edition. new haven, cn, yale university press. perlman, m. ( ). jews and contributions to economics: a review article. the character of economic thought, economic characters, and economic institutions. m. perlman. ann arbor, mi, university of michigan press: - . reingold, n. ( ). refugee mathematicians in the united states of america, - : reception and reaction. a century of mathematics in america, part . p. duren, r. a. askey and u. c. merzbach. providence, ri, american mathematical society. : - . rider, r. e. ( ). "alarm and opportunity: emigration of mathematicians and physicists to britain and the united states, - ." historical studies in the physical sciences ( ): - . rostow, e. v. ( ). “the jew’s position”. harkness hoot. , nov. : - . scherer, f. m. ( ). "the emigration of german-speaking economists after ." journal of economic literature ( ): - . shapiro, j. j. ( ). “jewish culture: transplanted and indigenous”. the american jew: a reappraisal. o. i. janowsky. philadelphia, synnott, m. g. ( ). the half-opened door: discrimination and admissions at harvard, yale, and princeton, - . westport, cn, greenwood press. weiner, c. ( ). a new site for the seminar: refugees and american physics in the thirties. the intellectual migration: europe and america, - . d. fleming and b. bailyn. cambridge ma, belnap press of harvard university press. weyl, e. g. ( ). introduction: simon kuznets, cautious empiricist of the eastern european jewish diaspora. jewish economies volume ii: development and migration in america and beyond - simon kuznets. e. g. weyl and s. lo. new brunswick and london, transactions publishers: xv - lvii. wilson, e. b. “letters to paul samuelson: october , and october , ”. paul a. samuelson papers, correspondence series, “w” file, rubenstein manuscript and special collections library, duke university. ebr gran luke-acts bibliography: ■ walsh, r., “paul and the early church in film,” in bible in motion (ed. r. burnette-bletsch; hbr ; berlin ) – . rhonda burnette-bletsch see also / canon; / luke-acts; / manuscripts, biblical; / paul of tarsus; / scripture, scrip- tures luke-acts i. introduction ii. new testament iii. christianity iv. literature v. visual arts vi. music vii. film i. introduction the similarities between their opening prefaces, general style and theological outlook, have con- vinced most readers that luke’s gospel and the acts of the apostles were written by the same person. in the following articles, they will be treated as two parts of the same work. helen k. bond ii. new testament . the unity of luke-acts. the gospel of luke (gluke) is the third book in the nt and the acts of the apostles is the fifth book. although separated by the gospel of john, there is general consensus since the nd century, that both works were com- posed by the same author. it was not before the th century, however, that scholars have sought to read luke and acts as one unified work. this ap- proach was initiated by h. j. cadbury in his the making of luke-acts ( ), who also inaugurated the now-common reference “luke-acts” (“lukanisches doppelwerk” in german). the concept of a “double work” or a “twofold narrative” (k. löning) has now become an unquestioned prerequisite for any intro- ductory exegetical knowledge of the lukan corpus. it is perhaps here that we find the most striking change in the modern perception of these two books. however, the unity of luke-acts can be defined on different levels (e.g., authorship, genre, narra- tive, theology, etc.), some of which will be discussed below (cf. spencer; verheyden). for this entry we will adopt the dominant view that luke and acts are written by the same author (cf. parsons/pervo) and are likely one literary work. . author. both luke and acts are anonymous works. however, church tradition is unanimous in the view that luke, the traveling companion of paul mentioned by paul himself in phlm as well as in pseudo-pauline letters (col : ; tim : ), is the author of both writings. the characterization as “luke, the physician” in colossians has provoked the discussion, whether the author of luke and acts was indeed a “physician” (a view, commonly held in the ancient church, but also in critical scholar- ship, e.g., by adolf von harnack and some others). the view that the author of luke and acts was a companion of paul is based on the use of the first person plural (the so-called “we-passages”) in the latter half of acts. these passages could imply that the author was a member of paul’s missionary team. although there is nothing in the nt that explicitly connects the luke of paul’s letters to the author of luke-acts, every early christian writer who broaches this topic agrees that they are the same individual (cf. irenaeus, haer. . . ; eusebius, hist. eccl. . . ; jerome, vir. ill. ). the quality of the greek prose indicates that the author was educated in greek literature, though there is a debate as to the extent of his knowledge. his preface (luke : – ) indicates that he was not an original eyewitness to the life and events of je- sus, but that he later became part of the christian community. . structure and contents. luke-acts is divided into two books. luke’s gospel opens with a preface ( : – ), which is immediately followed by the paral- lel birth narratives of jesus and john the baptist ( : – : ) and a single, emblematic episode re- counting one of jesus’ childhood events ( : – ). luke frames jesus’ career by recalling his baptism by john and his temptation in the desert ( : – : ). after this jesus begins his ministry in galilee ( : – : ), where he proclaims his ministry programme ( : – ), calls his disciples ( : – ; : – ), preaches to the crowds gathered on a plain ( : – ), performs miracles ( : – ; : – ), and is transformed on the mountaintop ( : – ). the second half of jesus’ ministry begins at : with his resolution to go to jerusalem. this journey to jerusalem provides the opportunity for jesus to teach his followers the nature and characteristics of discipleship. luke : – : is primarily con- cerned with the kingdom of god and who its mem- bers might be. this is followed by a summary of the journey’s narrative ( : – : ), which highlights the main themes of jesus’ ministry. from : onwards the narrative takes place at jerusalem and its surrounding environs. this section begins with jesus’ entry into jerusalem ( : – ) and the incident at the temple ( : – ) and continues with jesus’ teaching in the tem- ple courts ( : – : ). the narrative takes a down- ward turn when judas agrees to betray jesus ( : – ). the last supper, peter’s denials, jesus’ arrest in the garden, trial, and crucifixion continue this anti- climax, which culminates with jesus’ death and burial. gluke, however, does not end on this nega- tive note, but closes with a dramatic reversal: jesus’ encyclopedia of the bible and its reception vol. © walter de gruyter, berlin/boston, authenticated | mgb n@virginia.edu download date | / / : pm luke-acts movement in the way that it uses acts to support its distinctive teaching on a “second blessing” or second experience of the holy spirit, which is dis- tinct from and takes place after conversion, is avail- able to every believer, is often manifested in tongues, and empowers those so “baptized in the spirit” for effective witness to their faith (acts : ; : – ). as leading pentecostal biblical scholar rob- ert menzies maintains, “the pentecostal bestowal of the spirit recorded in acts has given definition to the movement” (menzies/menzies: ). given the global rise of pentecostalism, this example of the influence of acts may perhaps be considered the most important evidence of its wirkungsgeschichte or effective history in the modern world. bibliography: ■ anonymous, a justification of the mad crew (london ). ■ barrett, c. k., a critical and exegetical com- mentary on the acts of the apostles, vol. (london ). ■ bovon, f., luke the theologian: fifty-five years of research ( – ) (waco, tex. ). ■ calvin, j., commentary upon the acts of the apostles (edinburgh ; latin and french original – ). ■ conzelmann, h., the theology of st. luke (london ); trans. of id., die mitte der zeit: studien zur theologie des lukas (bht ; tübingen [ ]). ■ coppe, a., second fiery flying roule (london ). ■ dibe- lius, m., studies in the acts of the apostles (london ; ger- man original ). ■ engels, f., the peasant war in ger- many (london ; german original ). ■ finger, r. h., of widows and meals: communal meals in the book of acts (grand rapids, mich. ). ■ gasque, w. w., a history of the interpretation of the acts of the apostles (peabody, mass. ). ■ graesser, e., forschungen zur apostelgeschichte (wunt . ; tübingen ). ■ grotius, h., annotationes in acta apostolorum (paris ). ■ haenchen, e., the acts of the apostles: a commentary (oxford ); trans. of id., die apostelgeschichte (göttingen ). [esp. – , – ] ■ hayes, j. h./j. roloff, “acts of the apostles, book of the,” dbibli (ed. j. h. hayes; nashville, tenn. ) – . ■ hor- nik, h. j./m. c. parsons, the acts of the apostles through the centuries (wiley blackwell bible commentaries; hoboken, n.j. ). ■ horton, h., the tübingen school: a historical and theological investigation of the school of f. c. baur (oxford ). ■ kautsky, k., foundations of christianity: a study in christian origins (london ; german original ). ■ lightfoot, j., a commentary upon the acts of the apostles: chroni- call and criticall (london ). ■ menzies, w./r. p. men- zies, spirit and power: foundations of pentecostal experience (grand rapids, mich. ). ■ perry, j., “gentiles and ho- mosexuals: a brief history of an analogy,” jre ( ) – . ■ pervo, r., dating acts: between the evangelists and the apologists (santa rosa, calif. ). ■ troeltsch, e., the social teaching of the christian churches (london ; german original ). ■ williams, c. s. c., the acts of the apostles (bntc; london [ ]). andrew gregory iv. literature . luke. readers have long admired the literary artistry of the gospel according to luke, and their prolific imitations and retellings reflect this admira- tion as well as this gospel’s major influence on christian calendars and worship. in one of the earli- est christian epic poems, written early in the th century ce, the historiae evangelicae – a composition devoted mostly to matthew – the spanish priest ju- vencus still makes ample room ( . – , – ) for the narrator and characters to retell the entirety of luke’s nativity and childhood ( : – : ) in epic hexameter. several decades later, prudentius similarly re- casts the lukan nativity (apotheosis – ) and ge- nealogy (apotheosis – ) in epic form. this span- iard is also deeply indebted to the lukan parable of the rich man and lazarus as his christian basis guiding an involved poetic tour of the afterlife (ha- martigenia – ). around the same time, in his seminal conversionary autobiography, the confes- sions, augustine repeatedly fashions himself a lu- kan prodigal (luke : – ) who flees from and returns to himself and his parental faith (conf. . ; . . . ; . ; . ). the th-century heliand (songs – , ) drama- tizes the lukan birth narratives amidst a heroic, old saxon landscape of chieftains (rulers), horse-servants (shepherds), hill-forts (cities and towns), and a sin- gular shrine (the jerusalem temple). in a blend of exposition and hagiography, the th century golden legend of jacob of voragine expands on lu- kan passages which correspond to holy days: the nativity ( ), the circumcision ( ), the presentation at the temple ( ), the annunciation ( ), and the birth of john the baptist ( ). robert grosseteste’s chivalric th century depiction of mary as a castle of love (château d’amour) not only builds upon luke’s introspective marian character (luke : , ), but also the unique mention of a castellum in vulgate luke : . the lukan interpretations of voragine and grosseteste both exert a major influ- ence on the content of the ca. metrical bible and universal history of , lines of rhyming couplets known as the cursor mundi (especially books – ). the lukan passage that figures largest in the frame and content of dante’s divine comedy was al- most certainly the rich man and lazarus (luke : – ), the scriptural locus classicus of afterlife be- atitude and punishment. yet in his treatise on mon- archy (esp. . ), dante focuses chiefly on the logion of the “two swords” (luke : ) so as to rebut con- temporary theocratic interpretations. langland’s piers plowman plays the role of the wandering sheep and son of luke , while those who refuse to join the pilgrimage take their excuses from the disrespectful guests of luke : – . langland’s jesus bears a striking resemblance to the good samaritan (luke : – ), a typological like- ness perhaps borrowed from augustine. some decades later, chaucer in his canterbury tales borrows a different lukan frame ( : – ) for his anti-semitic yet satirical prioress’s tale about a widow’s boy whose devoted praise of mary in latin tongue continues flowing long after his throat is cut encyclopedia of the bible and its reception vol. © walter de gruyter, berlin/boston, authenticated | mgb n@virginia.edu download date | / / : pm luke-acts by jews. chaucer’s “summoner’s tale” may even conflate the rich man and lazarus into a single character, an avaricious friar who quotes this very passage for ultimately selfish ends. starting in the th century, middle english dramas start to stage many of luke’s distinctive scenes, often adding dialogues and apocryphal cast members, all the while expanding the stories with emotion, worship, and sometimes even humor. the four best known cycles (york, n-town, chester, and towneley) all recount the annunciation, visitation, adoration of the shepherds, presentation of jesus, boy jesus among the doctors, emmaus pilgrims, and the ascension. the nativity is directly re- counted in all but the towneley cycle, where it appears implicitly in the two markedly different shepherd plays of the wakefield master. luke’s dis- tinctive trial before herod ( : – ) and dialogue with the crucified criminals ( : – ) only appear in the york and n-town cycles, but not in those of chester and towneley. ms digby’s standalone con- version-tale about the magdalene fuses many tradi- tions, including those from the canonical gospels. digby notably conflates the tale of the anonymous penitent (luke : – ) with the brief mention of the magdalene’s exorcism (luke : ; added in later mss of mark : ), making it into a vivid, cosmic scene of conversion in which the seven demons de- part, together with the “bad angyll,” into “hell wyth thondyr” (cf. luke : ). the n-town cycle, despite its prior conflation of lazarus’ sister mary with the magdalene (play ), similarly amplifies her exorcism while locating this event in the middle of the last supper (play ). the morality play wis- dom, also included in ms digby , takes cues from this tradition to narrate the exorcism of seven de- mons from anima, the (feminine) human soul. another morality play, the th century every- man, relies on luke’s prodigal son both for its over- all structure of an exitus-reditus journey, as well as certain details (e.g., penance as the investment of new garments). in the th century, prodigal son plays begin to flourish, warning against the reckless extremes of childhood rebellion and adding new characters (e.g., a rebellious daughter or a devoted mother) along with other improvisations. these plays are usually thought to commence with ravi- sius textor’s juvenis pater et uxor, and certainly in- clude wever’s lusty juventus, ingeland’s disobedient child, the anonymous nice wanton, among many others. their popularity accounts for why the prodi- gal son appears more in shakespeare than any other new testament parable as well as this dramatist’s artistic freedom to invert roles (e.g., cordelia wel- coming back her father as the exile in king lear). ben jonson shares shakespeare’s proclivity for the prodigal, allegorizing it anew in the figure of aso- tus (latin for “debauched” ) in cynthia’s revels, and also in the staple of news. we should also note that the parable of the rich man and lazarus figures prominently in shakespeare’s henry iv, part i and part ii, as well as henry v, in which the immoral, fat, yet good-humored falstaff is repeatedly character- ized as a blessed lazarus, while bardolph plays the damned dives. luke’s distinctive stories and parables resound not only in drama, but also poetry and prose as well, from the reformation to the modern day, often re- flecting contemporaneous political issues, ideologi- cal currents, and theological debates. pre-reforma- tion poetry and hymns on the nativity tend to focus on mary, her lullabies to or dialogues with the in- fant christ, or else her intertextual role as the bride and rose of the song of songs. the jesuit robert southwell’s late th century poems picture with stark and even religiously combative tones the an- nunciation, the nativity, the childhood of christ, and even the prodigal son. the early th century anglican donne sees the immaculate conception as unnecessary, even while describing mary’s womb as an unopened prison (maintaining her virginity in partu and post partum) in his poems on the annunci- ation and nativity. the anglican francis quarles still shows a reverent curiosity for the relationship of the madonna and child in his poem on the in- fancy of our savior, and some of his other poems are devoted to the lukan parables of the lost sheep and prodigal. luke’s (and the catholic) mary is absent from the poems of george herbert, who focuses his “christmas” instead on his poetic persona as a pil- grim seeking the christ child. he gives far more de- votion to the “marie magdalene” with whom he deeply identifies as a penitent sinner. the puritan- turned-catholic richard chashaw identifies in- tensely with several models of penitence in luke, including mary the mother of jesus, mary magda- lene, and even lazarus (of the parable). in his feast-day poem “upon the circumcision,” the puritan john milton notably positions this rit- ual as the start of christ’s life-long, redemptive pas- sion. his epic paradise lost and paradise regained owes at least some of its foundational angelology to luke’s nativity, and some of its mythological framework to luke’s unique references to the fall of satan ( : ) and the promise of paradise ( : ). among nt texts, the temptation certainly consti- tutes milton’s main source, and milton follows luke’s order instead of matthew’s. even milton’s hymn “on the morning of christ’s nativity” high- lights the epic role of christus victor. the theme of cosmic victory also characterizes the nativity hymns of the th century, most notably the highly popu- lar english hymns “joy to the world” by isaac watts and “hark the herald angels sing” by charles wes- ley. for other popular hymnists, such as john new- ton or william cowper, of all lukan passages it is the prodigal son that most defines the poet’s life and aspirations. encyclopedia of the bible and its reception vol. © walter de gruyter, berlin/boston, authenticated | mgb n@virginia.edu download date | / / : pm luke-acts but not all lukan interpretations were so epic, nor so orthodox. alexander pope, for example, in his rape of the lock (canto i), parodies the annuncia- tion by having ariel (a guardian spirit ) predict to belinda (the sleeping protagonist ) an impending ca- tastrophe (of cosmetic proportion). in his “everlast- ing gospel,” written in the early th century, wil- liam blake opines that mary magdalene – as a once- possessed harlot – would have made a fitting mother for a jesus who wanted to take on the sins of the world. in the ghost of abel, blake even turns milton’s epic reference to the fall of satan (luke : ) into a repeatable, existential occurrence. the scottish novelist james hogg has the characters of the private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner engage in an extended intra-calvinist debate with frequent reference to lukan texts and themes. prodigal characters can serve moral and/or satir- ical ends for th century authors such as words- worth, byron, thackeray, dickens, george eliot, kipling, ruskin, and gidé. even so, the writings of yeats, chesterton, t. s. eliot, c. s. lewis, and w. h. auden show that, while modern improvisations on lukan episodes (such as the nativity) can be more shocking and raw than those of their predecessors, they are not for that reason necessarily less devo- tional. even the diminutive protagonist of john irving’s recent a prayer for owen meany replays the nativity in a way that seems simultaneously unor- thodox yet awe-inspiring. . acts. while not found explicitly in literature nearly as much as its gospel counterpart, the acts of the apostles has enjoyed a rich literary afterlife, sometimes more indirectly than directly so, i.e., in references more intertextual than textual. for ex- ample, acts only briefly mentions the presence of mary in the post-resurrection apostolic assembly ( : ), a gathering often understood as continuing on to the birth of the church at pentecost. though infrequently visible on its own, this narrative detail did enhance the composite picture of mary as the mother of the church, of the soul, and of humanity more generally – all highly common literary tropes. the angelic deliverance from prison in acts : – stands as yet another example. in later literature, this scene implicitly provides background for the narrative staging of the passion and resurrection of jesus, including the harrowing of hell, as a cosmic prison break. john donne’s depiction of the nativ- ity in his holy sonnets is illustrative of this subtle, yet important intertextuality. though the lukan narrative remains at the forefront, the prison break of acts – especially its detail about the prison doors remaining closed – may account for his comfortable description of mary’s womb as a prison and his con- current belief in mary’s virginity in partu and post partum. the retellings of the most famous stories in acts can vary from implicit to explicit. chief among these stories is the account of the conversion of paul (acts : – ), along with its retellings in the same book ( : – ; : – ). the th-century digby play, the conversion of st. paul, draws explicitly and thoroughly on acts, even while expanding and dramatizing its narrative. whether in literary clas- sics or pietistic folk literature, non-fictional autobi- ographies and biographies often cast the main char- acter in the role of a saul turned paul. for example, augustine of hippo, in his famous confessions, pic- tures himself as a rebel similarly converted by di- vine initiative and grace. izaak walton’s life of dr. john donne finds a saul character lurking even in donne’s mere youthful neglect of christianity, only to have donne later transformed into a paul who preached “salvation to his brethren.” in victorian and modern autobiographies, the journey of paul to damascus sometimes morphs into a journey from atheism to belief, as in c. s. lewis’ surprised by joy, or from slave-trading to abolitionism, as in the hymns and stories of john newton (especially his authentic narrative), or from protestantism to ca- tholicism, as in john henry newman’s apologia pro vita sua. similar autobiographical echoes of paul’s con- version appear in the works of jean-jacques rous- seau, wordsworth, francis thompson, william cowper, james hogg, edmund gosse, g. m. hop- kins, t. s. eliot, and margaret avison, among many others. fictional retellings of the conversion of paul are likewise notable for their number, creativity and cultural impact. in such a list we may include dan- iel defoe’s robinson crusoe and dickens’ christmas carol. flannery o’connor offers one of the closest retellings in wise blood, whose main character (ha- zel motes) relives many aspects of paul’s conversion (persecution/murder, asceticism, blindness) as he transforms from an atheistic, pseudo-religious char- latan into a persecuted penitent. the pentecost narrative also echoes widely in the history of drama, prose, and poetry. the early th century chester mystery cycle includes a pen- tecost play entitled “the fishemongers playe,” probably staged on whitsunday. the play borrows not only the calendrical setting, but also the day’s liturgical elements, such as the veni, creator spiritus and the apostles’ creed. god the father, an angel, and various apostles all play expanded voice parts to explain and expand the pentecost narrative as a public, liturgical event to commemorate the birth of the church. allegorical and fictional retellings often stage important events, especially the start of epic journeys, on the day of pentecost. such is piers in piers plowman (b-text, book ), who is prepared for his journey through the descent of the spirit on pentecost. malory’s le morte d’arthur uses pentecost as the backdrop for numerous events of conse- quence: the unsuccessful attempts to remove excali- bur from the rock ( . ), feasts and tournaments ( . ; encyclopedia of the bible and its reception vol. © walter de gruyter, berlin/boston, authenticated | mgb n@virginia.edu download date | / / : pm luke-acts . ; . ), and the start of the quest for the holy grail ( . ). the formation of the fellowship in tolkien’s rings trilogy also echoes pentecost as the start of an epic journey with religious overtones. occasionally pentecost recurs in real-life journeys (such as fran- cis bacon’s new atlantis) or later missionary reports as the miraculous capacity to read or speak previ- ously unknown foreign languages. at other times pentecost furnishes a conceit of literary inspiration, as in john donne’s praise of sir philip sidney’s translation of the psalms. in hawthorne’s scarlet let- ter, pentecost similarly explains the minister dim- mesdale’s inspired oratory (as something distinct from educational or mystical qualifications) and provides the setting (fifty days after easter) for an election day sermon. some poets, such as shake- speare, mention pentecost mainly to recount a springtime of public festivities and weddings. for george herbert, robert herrick, and t. s. eliot, pentecost describes a personal, aspirational, and/or liturgical religious experience, a trope taken up and broadly expanded in pentecostal devotional narra- tives of the last century. pentecost poems also abound, most notably charles wesley’s hymn, “o for a thousand tongues to sing,” which not only recounts pentecost, but also an evangelistic reading of the sermons and miracles of acts. less influential but still highly notable is the ascension, told in a slightly different fashion in luke, but often blended into a single textual event in literary reception. early plays (the york play of the tailors and the wakefield ascension of the lord), recalling contemporaneous artistic depictions of the scene, emphasize mary’s role and emotions over her son’s departure. another stream of interpretation, reflected notably in piers plowman and much later in robert lowell’s “after the surprising conversions,” equates the ascension with doom and judgment. the continuities between the resurrection and as- cension occupy the efforts of other authors, such as that of the epic versified biblical retelling cursor mundi (ca. ), which elaborately describes the as- cension as the pinnacle of the resurrection. in authors from the renaissance forward (donne, vaughan, milton, blake, james joyce, dylan thomas), the stress often rests on the ascension as a glorious reflection and joyful pledge of humanity’s apotheosis, whether in this world or the next. dylan thomas’ poem itself echoes in science-fiction por- trayals of humanity’s ascent into space, such as those of james blish in his cities in flight tetralogy. while certain episodes stand out for their ex- pansive literary influence, the diverse scenes and turns of phrase in acts have played their own roles throughout literary history, and each author has his or her own emphases. the language of visions and dreams in acts : (par. joel : ) allows washington irving to invoke the dream-inducing landscape of “the legend of sleepy hallow.” the etymology of barnabas (acts : , “son of encour- agement”) appears in the th or th century drama nice wanton in reference to a son who com- forts his foolish mother. the story of ananias and saphira (acts : – ) expands in the late medieval cursor mundi (lines – ) into a story of divine judgment on apathy and evidence of a stricter stan- dard laid upon the earliest church. the same epi- sode furnishes ben jonson (the alchemist) with a name for his puritan anabaptist character (“ana- nias”) who foolishly and failingly attempts to coun- terfeit dutch currency. the healing power of peter’s shadow in acts : supplies the catholic convert richard crashaw (“umbra s. petri”) with evidence of the authority of apostolic succession. the story of simon magus (acts : – ) plays a role similar to that of ananias and saphira – as a cautionary tale. for dante in inferno , this episode stood at the heart of his critique of simony and his depiction of nicholas iii as an antipope whose values stood op- posite to those of the avowed poverty (acts : , also quoted in paradiso ) and righteous appointments (acts : – ) of peter as the first pope. following dante’s lead, authors such as bunyan and milton (the tenure of kings and magistrates) issue similar warnings about simony as greed. for james joyce (dubliners, a portrait of the artist as a young man), the priesthood’s secret knowledge and magical power is the essence of the temptation of simony. more recent authors occasionally invert the magus into a positive magical figure or inspira- tion. sir john suckling and c. s. lewis take up the stoning of stephen (acts : – ) for devotional and intertextual purposes. the “baptized ethio- pian” (acts : – ) is the name and subject of a poem of richard crashaw that plays up themes of color and conversion. peter’s threefold vision in acts echoes in lancelot’s threefold one in le morte d’arthur, and also in tennyson’s becket in ref- erence to a banquet held by king henry. that god is “no respecter of persons” (acts : ) underlines the divine dignity of every person in emerson’s transcendentalist vision (“spiritual laws”) and in john stuart mill’s treatise on the subjection of women. in his treatises considerations touching the likeliest means to remove hirelings out of the church and on christian doctrine, milton finds in the commission- ing of barnabas for antioch (acts : – ) a model of ecclesiastical and financial arrangements. for emily dickenson (“of paul and silas it is said”), the imprisonment and liberation of paul and silas (acts : – ) underscores vain aspirations of mortals for security. the areopagus setting and speech of paul (acts : – ) supplies milton with a conceit for his own areopagitica, a defense of the unlicensed publication of his pamphlet on divorce. the speech’s reference to an “unknown god” (acts : ) echoes in shelley’s promotion of greek inde- encyclopedia of the bible and its reception vol. © walter de gruyter, berlin/boston, authenticated | mgb n@virginia.edu download date | / / : pm luke-acts pendence in hellas and in ruskin’s critique of in- dustralism in sesame and lilies, which contrasts hu- man-built altars with mountains as divinely-made ones. in a somewhat similar way, steinbeck explores the harsh sovereignty of the land for california homesteaders in his novel to a god unknown rud- yard kipling (“gallio’s song”) finds in the story of gallio’s dismissal of paul’s case (acts : – ) an inspired account of civic duty and the separation of church and state. shakespeare may recall paul’s shipwreck (acts : – : ) in his depiction of a providential shipwreck in the tempest. in his de- scription of plymouth plantation, william bradford recounts this episode for a decidedly different pur- pose, to contrast the mercy shown paul by the mile- tians with the harsh welcome shown the puritans by the indians. charles wesley (“he shook off the beast”) found in the miraculous snakebite episode (acts : – ) a reference to the divine protection of methodists and the venomous insults of their de- tractors. acts furnishes a strangely open conclusion to acts, with paul’s house arrest and preaching to convert others. in a similar way, let newman’s cal- lista summarize for us the literary reception of acts. in pauline and augustinian fashion, the eponymous heroine picks up the bible and reads acts in prison. in this way she is finally converted to christianity. bibliography: ■ atwan, r./l. wieder (eds.), chapters into verse (new york [= ]). ■ dyas, d./e. hughes, the bible in western culture: the student’s guide (london ). ■ fulghum jr., w. b., a dictionary of biblical allusions in eng- lish literature (new york ). ■ jeffrey, d. l. (ed.), a dic- tionary of biblical tradition in english literature (grand rapids, mich. ). mark bilby v. visual arts narratives from the gospel of luke and the acts of the apostles have inspired a vast amount of works of art. beside the fact that luke-acts make up over a quarter of the new testament, the works are highly descriptive, providing the visual arts with a wealth of invaluable narrative details. the infancy gospel in particular provides a great quantity of unique and evocative accounts, which were both very popular among the public and inspiring and useful for artists from the very early beginnings of christian art onwards. the in- fancy includes episodes such as the annunciation, the visitation, and the nativity and adoration. the annunciation ( : – ), the announcement of jesus’ birth to the virgin, has been rendered by numerous artists. artistic visualisations of the scene vary from a simple conversation between mary and the angel to a more extensive image including de- tails from the gospel, showing the virgin’s gestures of astonishment and acceptance. sources also in- clude apocryphal writings, such as the protoevange- lium of james, leading to images showing the virgin spinning, referring to her upbringing in the temple, or reading a book, which might refer to the proph- ecy by isaiah ( : ). often a flower, sometimes held by the angel and referring to spring as the season in which the conception took place, is depicted in the scene. a lily also symbolizes mary’s virginity. the conception itself is visualized by a dove or even a little child flying down from heaven towards the virgin. the merode altar piece ( – , new york, metropolitan museum of art, the cloisters) shows the virgin humbly sitting on the floor and reading a book while the angel kneels in front of her. a vase with a lily is placed on the table. through the window a little boy, carrying a cross on his back, dives down towards the virgin. the visitation ( : – ) is likewise easily recog- nizable, showing two pregnant women – elisabeth, mother of john the baptist, and mary, mother of jesus – speaking or kissing each other in greeting. from the gothic era onwards, the fact that elisa- beth is older than mary starts to be reflected in her portrait, for instance in the sculptural rendering of the event at the west portal of the cathedral of notre-dame in reims (ca. – ). in the north rhine altar piece ( , utrecht, catharijnecon- vent) the children in the women’s wombs are visi- ble. they look at each other and leap for joy, antici- pating the relationship they will have in later life. the visitation has been less popular in contempo- rary art, although bill viola created a video work on this subject in , inspired by jacopo pontormo’s painted visitation ( – ). the nativity and the adoration of the shep- herds ( : – ) might be one of the most beloved narratives in the infancy sequence. in the course of the centuries, the story has been embellished with a great number of apocryphal details. starting as a simple scene showing mary lying on a bed, accom- panied by joseph, while the christ child lies in the manger mentioned by luke or in a symbolic sar- cophagus, as for instance on one of the gilded copper plates of the verdun altarpiece by nicholas of verdun ( , klosterneuburg, klosterneuburg monastery), the scene quickly transformed in art into a lively gathering. not only the shepherds come to adore the child, but also the magi and the star they observed – elements only described by matthew – are often added to the scene. origen fur- nished the iconography of the birth of christ with an ox and an ass. in his hom. luc. . – , he refers to the words of isaiah ( : ): “the ox knows its owner, and the donkey its master’s crib, but israel does not know, my people do not understand” con- necting them to the nativity. additionally, two midwives, derived from the protoevangelium of james and its latin version by pseudo matthew, liven up the depiction and now and then isaiah enters the scene to visit joseph and comfort him by referring to his prophecy, symbolized by the scroll in his encyclopedia of the bible and its reception vol. © walter de gruyter, berlin/boston, authenticated | mgb n@virginia.edu download date | / / : pm i volunteer tutors and adolescent at-risk english language learners (ells): the nature of interactions amoung volunteer tutors and at-risk ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions. a dissertation submitted to the temple university graduate board in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy by sarah r. edwards moore december temple university examining committee members: barbara wasik, phd, dissertation chair, college of education wanda brooks, edd, literacy education, college of education annemarie hindman, phd, literacy and learners, college of education catherine schifter, phd, instructional learning technology, college of education elvis wagner, phd, tesol, college of education ii by sarah r. edwards moore all rights reserved iii abstract this qualitative case study examined how volunteer tutors are interacting with at- risk adolescent ell students in one-on-one tutoring sessions. this study also investigated how volunteer tutors are supporting vocabulary acquisition within tutoring sessions with adolescent ells. as a non-participant observer, i used ethnographic methods, including observations, interviews, and document analysis to understand how three tutors were interacting in sessions and how they were supporting vocabulary acquisition over seven weeks. the following questions guided the research: how do volunteer tutors interact in one-on-one tutoring sessions with at-risk adolescent ells? how are volunteer tutors supporting vocabulary acquisition for adolescent ells in one- on-one tutoring sessions? data were analyzed to determine how volunteer tutors were interacting in sessions and supporting vocabulary. six themes emerged to explain how tutors were interacting in sessions and three ‘a-priori’ themes explained how tutors were supporting vocabulary acquisition. the results of this study are used to inform schools who institute volunteer tutoring programs for at-risk populations, researchers interested in vocabulary acquisition and adolescent ells, and faculty or staff members who work with at-risk populations. furthermore, recommendations for future research are discussed for the field of education. iv acknowledgements there are numerous people that need to be thanked and acknowledged for their support during my dissertation and educational journey. dr. wasik, thank you for devoting so much time and effort into helping me through the dissertation process. i will be forever grateful for your feedback and friendship. dr. brooks, thank you for helping me to discover the depth and breadth of qualitative research. your wonderful feedback and encouragement gave me direction and hope. dr. hindman, thank you for helping me think about things in a deeper way. dr. schifter, thank you for your support of my dissertation and your wiliness to ask questions that made my work stronger. dr. wagner, thank you for your wiliness to be on my committee and for your important advice about research and life. thank you also to the charter school site where i was able to conduct my research. i felt welcomed and supported throughout the process. i am especially thankful for the three tutors that allowed me to observe their tutoring sessions. each one of the tutors taught me so much about what it means to be a selfless educator. thank you to my friends and support networks at temple that really helped me move forward in a myriad of ways. the writing center became a second home and i am indebted to tutors like deidre and rachel who become such an important part of helping me tell my story in a clear way. mary vesey and gwen miller were always willing to help me get things to the right people and places. my office mates, lori and perri, who always had a kind word and a belief in my abilities, thank you. furthermore, people like ashley, erin, lindsey, brad, dave, and bradley who supported me by giving specific feedback and advice. v i am especially grateful to my friends and family who supported me along the way. kierstin and raymond, you were always interested in my work, encouraging, and proud of me which just adds to being the best sister and brother i could ask for. ashley ann brenner, your constant feedback, encouragement, and humor was a source of light. rucheeta gholkar kulkarni, those calls and emails from california were a gift and motivation. to my husband, alexander christopher moore, your love and support was so important throughout the dissertation process. everyday you believe in my work and in my abilities. thank you for being the love of my life. this dissertation is dedicated to my mom and dad. you have always been my biggest fans and my strongest advocates. you both define for me what it means to be selfless and strong. thank you for my life. vi table of contents page abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..iii acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………..iv list of tables……………………………………………………………………………...xiii chapter . introduction….…………………………………………………………………….. background……………………………………………………………………….. statement of problem……………………………………………………………... purpose of study………………………………………………………………….. research questions……………………………………………………………….. definitions……………………………………….................................................... delimitations/limitations…………………………………….............................. theoretical base……………………………………............................................. . literature review............………………………………………………………. vocabulary learning……………………………………………………………. word learning…………………………………………………………... vocabulary development……………………………………………….. instruction……………………………………………………………….. vocabulary and reading comprehension………………………………. academic vocabulary…………………………….................................... english language learners………………………................................................ ell background in the united states public school system………….. vii ell second language (l ) acquisition………………………………... vocabulary development and vocabulary instruction with ells............ academic language and ells………………………………………….. ells and reading development………………....................................... ells in content areas…………………………………………………... ells instructional practices…………………………………………….. tutoring…………………………………………………………………………. meta-analysis of tutoring programs……………………......................... volunteer tutoring programs with word learning components………. characteristics of effective tutoring programs………………………… characteristics of effective tutoring programs………………………… tutoring interventions with middle and high school students…............ theoretical homebase…………………………………………………………... stages of zpd…………………………………………………………… instructional model……………………………………………………… context of zpd………………………………………………………….. teacher/researcher collaborative tool………………………………… zpd in tutoring ………………………………………………………… zpd in vocabulary development……………………………………….. zpd with ells………………………………………………………….. zpd in an vocabulary intervention with ells…………………………. . methodology……………………………………………….................................... qualitative research and case design study…………………………................ viii role of researcher and positionality……………………………………………. positionality …………………………………………………………….. reflections………………………………………………………………………. my growth as a researcher……………………………………………... site and population……………………………………………………………… purposeful sampling…………………………………………………………….. data collection………………………………………………………….............. audio observations……………………………………………………... interviews……………………………………………………………….. documents……………………………………………………………... reflections………………………………………................................... data analysis……………………………………………....................... coding………………………………………………………………….. research steps…………………………………………………………. ensuring the trustworthiness of the findings…………………………………. data saturation…………………………………………………………. triangulation……………………………………………….................... rich, thick description…………………………………....................... ethical issues…………………………………………………………………... delimitations and limitations of this study……………………………............ summary……………………………………………………………………….. . description of the case………………………………………………............. introduction…………………………………………………………………….. ix description of the tutors………………………………………………………. pete……………………………………………………………………... molly…………………………………………………………................ hannah…………………………………………………………………. charter school environment……………………………………….................... tutoring settings……………………………………………………………….. cyber school…………………………………………………………… high school content seminar class…………………………………… high school resource room class……………………………………. high school esl level and classes………………………………. . research findings………………………………………………………............ question …………………………………………………................................ tutors as models……………………………………………………………….. molly…………………………………………………………………… hannah…………………………………………………………………. pete……………………………………………………………………... tutors as encouragers…………………………………………………………….......... molly ………………………………………………………………....... hannah ………………………………………………………………… pete……………………………………………………………………... tutors as partners………………………………………………………………………. molly…………………………………………………………………… hannah ………………………………………………………………… x pete……………………………………………………........................... tutors as strategists……………………………………………………………………. molly…………………………………………………………................ hannah…………………………………………………………………. pete……………………………………………………………………... tutors as facilitators…………………………………………………………………… molly…………………………………………………………………… hannah…………………………………………………………………. pete……………………………………………………………………... tutors as translators…………………………………………………………………… molly…………………………………………………………………… hannah ………………………………………………………………… pete……………………………………………………………………... question …………………………………………………................................ tutors supported vocabulary indirectly………………………………………. tutors support of vocabulary…………………………………………. type of words taught…………………………………………………………. the instructional methods and techniques tutors are using………………….. . discussion, recommendations, and conclusions…………………… question …………………………………….................................................... tutors as models……………………………………………………………….. tutors as encouragers……………………………………………….................. tutors as partners………………………………………………………………. xi tutors as strategists……………………………………………………………. tutors as facilitators…………………………………………………………… tutors as translators…………………………………………………………… question ……………………………………………………………................ connections to the literature…………………………………………............... tutoring connections…………………………………………………………... theoretical framework………………………………………………………… recommendations for practice ………………………………………………... implementation………………………………………………………… design………………………………………………………………….. monitor………………………………………………………………… recommendations for future research………………………………………... conclusions…………………………………………………………………….. references………………………………………………………………………………… appendices a. audio permission form……………………………………………………………. b. consent for parents………………………………………………………………... c. assent form…………………………………………………………………………… d. consent form teachers…………………………………………………………… e. tutor interview protocol……………………………………………………….. f. teacher interview protocol…………………………………………………….. g. words introduced by tutors…………………………………………………… h. memo example………………………………………………………………................ xii i. tutor reflection log……………………………………………………………….. j. initial open codes…………………………………………………………………….. k. emerging themes q …………………………………………………………………. xiii list of tables table page . interview schedule for participants………………………………………………………….. . how words were introduced………………………………………………………………... . words taught in responsive/non-responsive context …………………………………… chapter introduction background this case study investigated the experiences of adolescent english language learners (ells) in volunteer tutoring sessions. the research examined how volunteer tutors interacted in one-on-one sessions with adolescent ells. the research also examined how tutors supporting vocabulary acquisition within sessions. through observations, interviews, and document analysis, this study describes and analyzes the one-on-one tutoring experiences of three tutors. the study’s findings contribute to filling a gap in english language learner research on adolescent students and vocabulary acquisition. furthermore, it adds to research on volunteer tutors’ work in adolescent settings. moreover, this study’s findings will inform faculty members, researchers, and curriculum designers as they plan future vocabulary interventions that support the work of volunteer tutors with secondary ells. in the following sections, literature on vocabulary acquisition, ells, and volunteer tutoring is reviewed followed by an explanation of how this study is the first to examine how volunteer tutors are supporting the vocabulary acquisition of adolescent ells through one-on- one tutoring. questions driving this research will be discussed in addition to defining key terms necessary for a clear understanding of my research goals. after outlining the study’s limitations, i highlight its significance, mainly to illuminate how volunteer tutors and at-risk secondary ells are interacting in one-on-one sessions. finally, i explain the rationale for using vygotsky’s social learning theory of learning and the zone of proximal development (zpd) as the study’s theoretical framework, arguing that one-on-one interactions between a capable adult and a student result in student progress and development. statement of the problem the population of ells in the us is increasing dramatically. in grades k- , ell enrollment increased by % in the s and it is estimated that by the year , % of the united states school population will speak english as a second language (esl) (usdoe & nichd, ). in , the number of school aged children with immigrant parents was . million and by , it is projected that . million school aged children will have immigrant parents (passel & cohn, ). the increase in school enrollment of ells is concentrated in urban locations where ell secondary students make up % of the student population (berube, ). the study is geared towards at-risk secondary ell students. an at-risk secondary ell is defined as a student who has one of the following academic struggles: ) low scores on standardized testing for reading ) evidence of struggling in their content area classes or ) poor attendance or behavior. the definition of an at-risk ell secondary learner is influenced by how the national center for educational statistics (nces) defines an at-risk learner. the indicators for an at-risk learner, according to nces are: the student tends to be from a lower socio- economic status, a single parent home, receives below average grades in school, has older siblings who left high school before completion, and is around negative peer pressure. with the increasing ell school population, more research should focus on how instruction can support the academic success of at-risk adolescent ell students because these students struggle to stay in high school and pass standardized tests. first, this struggle in high school will be discussed and then standardized tests. specifically, the dropout rates of adolescent ells are increasing. the united states department of education reported in - that nearly half the states graduated less than % of students with a limited proficiency in english. pennsylvania, the site of my study, has an ell graduation rate of % compared with vermont and south dakota that have the highest graduation rate, at %. arizona has the lowest graduation rate, at %. in light of this report, it is not surprising that ells accounted for the highest population of high school drop outs in united states public schools (u.s. census bureau, ). the u.s. census bureau ( ) reported that the highest percentage ( %) of ell students who drop out of high school are hispanic students. the national center for education statistics ( ) noted that % of hispanic identified high school drop outs reported having difficulty speaking english, compared to % who reported speaking english well. august ( ) further concluded after conducting an extensive literacy review on secondary ells that “[s]uccessful completion of high school is associated with the ability to speak english” (p. ). standardized tests scores between ells and first language learners (l ) differ dramatically and may determine how an at-risk secondary ell student is given less opportunity to prepare for college or have success in their high school environment. on national state assessments, ells scored to percentage points below l learners. (abedi & dietal, ; government accountability office, ). when an ell student receives a low standardized test score, they usually are put in a lower academic track which hurts their future chances of graduation or being accepted to college. valdes ( , , ) has reported on how academic tracking affects the levels of success for ell students. he has found that the ell students who performed poorly on assessments were not being admitted to college prep courses. currently, % of secondary ells are part of an inclusion model in u.s. public schools (naep, ). this means that most secondary ells are tracked, according to their standardized test scores, into content area classes (e.g. science, math, history) with l speakers; and all instruction, including the textbooks, is given in english. research that has been conducted on high school content area teachers experiences with ells in u.s. public high schools has reported that the content area teachers feel that their workload intensifies when ells are enrolled in content area classes (griffin, buenda, crosland, & doumbia, ) and that they feel inadequately trained professionally to work with ells (verplaetse, ). in the inclusion model, research has found that ells are not being given adequate support (reeves, &sct, ) and are not achieving academic success at the level of l speakers (nces, ). the inclusion model is when students with special needs, including ells, are placed in classrooms with the general population of students. three factors, discussed below, are linked to the lack of support being given to secondary ells; lack of resources, lack of teacher training, and limited vocabulary development of ell students. the first factor is a lack of resources. with school district budget cuts and teachers having a myriad of responsibilities, ell students are oftentimes lost in the shuffle (smith, & yoon, ). teachers forget to make accommodations for their ell students or do not have the time to do so (youngs, ). some of the resources that ell students are not able to access include the teacher’s time for one-on-one instruction and accommodations during assessments. in other cases, ell students would benefit from seeing classroom information being presented in visually friendly ways, such as illustrations or graphs, but teachers might tend to present new information through one modality in order to save lesson planning time. the second factor is that teachers have not been trained extensively or continuously on how to support ells. currently, the state of pennsylvania requires accredited certification programs to include at least an introductory course that pre-service teachers must take on how to help ells. one course may seem limited, but prior to , pre-service teachers were not required to take any coursework related to working with ells. in fact, the national center for educational statistics reported in that only . % of teachers in the united states had received or more hours of training to work with ells. if an educator does receive professional development training on supporting ells, they tend to happen in isolation, maybe once or twice over the school year and only last for a few hours (keller-allen, ). this lack of consistent or extensive training invariably has repercussions on the chances of success for ells in content area classrooms. if a teacher has not received enough training, their student’s chance for academic success suffers. the third factor is that the vocabulary of ells is usually underdeveloped compared with l speakers, which makes understanding the content in classes more difficult (nces, ). this vocabulary gap is especially significant in secondary settings where students, ell or l speakers, are asked to grapple with textbooks that include academic vocabulary that is not typically used in everyday conversation (scarcella, , ). for many ells, the task to decipher the academic vocabulary becomes overwhelming (olson & land, ). the ell students spend the majority of their time decoding the words in the text instead of concentrating on comprehending the larger context of the course. states address these roadblocks to academic success in different ways. for instance, in pennsylvania every school district or charter school has to have a written plan for educating ells to improve both their english and academic standing in the content areas (pennsylvania department of education (pde), ). a school district or charter school in pennsylvania identifies a student as ell based on a language assessment test. the criteria for identifying ells vary from state to state and once identified, the ell student may receive title iii services that are affiliated with federal funding (pde, ). many of the interventions that are currently taking place in the u.s. to support at-risk learners, including adolescent ells, involve the work of support staff, such as volunteer tutors, because schools are trying to find ways to give at-risk learners one-on-one attention when the content area teacher is not able to. for example, in , the clinton administration allocated . billion dollars toward the america reads challenge act. most of the allocated funds went toward putting million volunteer tutors in elementary schools to help at-risk students with literacy. as a result, a lot of research was done on the effectiveness of volunteer tutors in elementary school settings (elbaum, vaughn, hughes, & moody, ; shanahan, ; wasik, ). more research needs to be done on how federally funded programs, such as volunteer tutoring, is supporting at-risk secondary ells. currently, the largest federally funded program in the united states is title i. title i money is largely used by schools to help at-risk students and in alone, . billion dollars supported title i services. recently, the government has noticed the negative impact that a decline in federal funding and high standards has had on at-risk students. as a result, intervention programs that support struggling school districts and help at- risk students have been established. one of the programs that has been funded by title i is reading rockets. reading rockets provides reading resources for a variety of audiences via the web and educational programming. it is widely used and geared toward early reading initiatives although it does provide some help regarding ell strategies. hardly any research has been conducted on how federally funded interventions are supporting at-risk ell adolescent students. the only studies conducted to my knowledge have been a series of meta-analyses that provide an overview of some interventions, but do not offer substantive insights regarding a group of participants within one particular volunteer tutoring structure (august & hakuta, ; snow, burns, & griffin, ). purpose of the study the purpose of this case study was to explore and describe the interactions between volunteer tutors and at-risk adolescent ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions. specifically, how are volunteer tutors supporting vocabulary acquisition? vygotsky’s social learning theory and the zone of proximal development (zpd) was used as the theoretical lens that helped to yield a better understanding of how the observed interactions either increased learning outcomes or hindered learning. qualitative data was collected in the form of audio observations, interviews, and document analysis. tutoring sessions were observed and field notes were taken. volunteer tutors were interviewed two times during the case study (pre and post observations). volunteer tutors were also interviewed informally after observations took place as necessary. document analysis included; tutoring materials, content area texts, and reflection logs that the tutor filled out after each tutoring session. as stated previously, there is a lack of research exploring the interactions volunteer tutors have in one-on-one tutoring sessions with at-risk adolescent ells. additionally, the study noted how volunteer tutors supported ell vocabulary acquisition in tutoring sessions which no study, to my knowledge, has specifically looked at. this study was necessary because it tells a story about how support staff affect a struggling population of students. currently, research suggests that volunteer tutoring interventions are currently in place to help at-risk learners, including adolescent ells, but this study helped to explain what interactions are happening between volunteer tutors and at-risk adolescent ells within those interventions. additionally, this study supports future interventions focused on adolescent ells, volunteer tutors, and vocabulary acquisition. the case study adds to conversations about how vygotsky’s zpd is present in one- on-one tutoring sessions. research questions the study is guided by the following research questions: ) how do volunteer tutors interact in one-on-one tutoring sessions with at-risk adolescent ells? ) how are volunteer tutors supporting vocabulary acquisition for adolescent ells in one- on-one tutoring sessions? definitions academic vocabulary: the way that the academic vocabulary was defined in the study was as general academic vocabulary. general academic vocabulary refers to the broad all-purpose terms that appear across content areas but may vary in meaning depending on the discipline. they are words that would be considered tier two words by beck and mckeown ( ). tier two words (e.g. fraction) require instruction; they are not typically in a student’s everyday vocabulary like tier one (e.g. part) words. tier two words are normally found across a variety of texts, but they are not extremely specialized words which are reserved for a tier three (e.g. oncology) distinction. coxhead ( ) referred to tier two words found in academic text as academic words that occur frequently and uniformly across a wide range of academic material. coxhead created an academic word list (awl) that is made up of word families that encapsulate % of the words in content area texts. hiebert and lubliner ( ) also have a general academic vocabulary list similar to coxhead but the words are aligned with language arts standards and are used in reading instruction in the k- grades. the coxhead list of general academic vocabulary words was designed using college based academic texts. for my study, the understanding of academic vocabulary and how words are tiered helped with the analysis of documents such as academic texts and also helped analyze what types of words the tutors were helping ell students acquire in tutoring sessions. volunteer tutoring: the way that volunteer tutoring was defined for the study is similar to how ritter, barnett, denny, & albin ( ) defined volunteer tutoring for a review that was conducted on volunteer tutoring programs in elementary and middle schools. volunteer tutoring was defined as academically-focused instruction delivered by nonprofessionally trained adults which includes college students but not teachers. the volunteer tutors may have received a small stipend for their service. the volunteer tutors in the study received minimal training, meaning that they were only trained on general teaching practices in their college coursework prior to working with at-risk high school and middle school students. at-risk secondary ell learner: at-risk ell learners are defined in the study as learners who are currently enrolled in a title one school that uses an inclusion model. the at-risk ell learners are identified as having either one of the factors identified by nces, and/or: low standardized test scores, low content area class grades, or difficulty understanding academic text in their content area courses. tutoring session: a tutoring session was a one-on-one interaction between the volunteer tutor and an at-risk ell secondary ell learner. the session was a scheduled tutoring session and lasted from to minutes. there was three tutors working with secondary ell students that were observed during tutoring sessions. the same tutors worked with the same group of students over the course of the study. content area classroom: a high school class that is teaching core content to students (english, science, social studies, and math). the content area class was taught by a certified content area high school teacher. the class was taught in english and the academic text in the class was in english. academic success: the following factors define academic success: proficient or advanced proficient standardized test scores, high academic standing in all subject areas, and college prep (cp) or advanced placement (ap) classes. drop-out crisis: high drop-out rates are a current crisis in united states public high schools. every day, high school kids drop out of school and most of these high school students belong to the following demographic groups. they go to schools that are typically considered underperforming, they have poor attendance, behavior, reading ability, and course performance grades. ell learners account for the highest percentage of students that are dropping out of high school in united states public high schools. social learning theory: vygotsky’s ( ) theory of learning. vygotsky argued that learning results from the social interactions and the environments that humans are exposed to. zone of proximal development (zpd): the zpd term was introduced by vygotsky and is rooted in the social learning theory. it is the idea that learning will occur in a one-on-one setting between a capable adult and student because learning results from social interaction. the adult helps the student progress through their zpd by introducing new information and allowing the student to interact with the new information in a variety of meaningful contexts. eventually, the student has learned the new information and is able to use it in order to interact with their world. delimitations and limitations of this study limitations of this study’s design affected its generalizability. first, the sample size was small and all of the tutors in the sample were from the same volunteer tutoring program. moreover, the case study was conducted in one school district in the mid-atlantic region at one school site. these features further constrain the study’s generalizability as the tutoring sessions may not be representative of other tutoring programs, school sites, or participants. nevertheless, the study’s intensive investigation and depth of inquiry with each tutoring session observation yielded a richer and more nuanced portrait than a study using a larger sample would have. this study is still important to the field because it tried to understand a particular phenomenon, in this sense, though not broadly generalizable, the study’s findings provided insight into similar events and experiences. another foreseen limitation of the study was the timeframe of data collection. due to the structure of the tutoring program being observed, the school calendar, and the ells availability to be tutored, observations needed to be conducted over a seven week time period. if observations could have been conducted over a longer period of time, it might have allowed for a longitudinal discussion of the data where sessions could have been looked at over time. nevertheless, observing tutoring sessions within a limited time frame provided sufficient data to answer the research questions. theoretical base the concepts that lev vygotsky uncovered through his research on cognitive development have been and continue to be immensely useful to literary researchers whose focus is on how pedagogy affects literacy development. i believe that using vygotsky as a theoretical home base to study how volunteer tutors are supporting adolescent ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions was beneficial in helping me explain how the findings of the study related to the ways students learn in a social context. i argue that secondary ells need to progress through their zone of proximal development (zpd), explained in detail below, in order to develop academically. blanc ( ) covers the historical and theoretical basis of vygotskian theory, the belief that social interaction has a dramatic impact on cognitive development. grounded in the vygotsky theory of psychology, mental activity is uniquely human and results from social learning, the interioralization of social signs, and the internalization of culture and of social relationships. vygotsky believed that learning is mediated by “tools” and the biggest tool was language, specifically word meaning. words were tools to mediate the acquisition of “concepts,” which ranged in degree from the “everyday” or “spontaneous” to the more formal “scientific” concepts of schooling. in essence, biology and social development are not isolated from one another. according to blanc’s ( ) synthesis of vygotsky’s psychology theory, “the higher the neural activity of human beings is not, as it was once considered, simply ‘superior nervous activity’ but superior nervous activity that has internalized social meanings derived from the cultural activity of human beings and meditated by signs” (p. ). vygotsky believed that learning is mediated by the social interactions of students and by more knowledgeable peers. i analyzed if the tutors in my study follow vygotsky’s theory of learning. by observing one-on- one tutoring sessions, i was able to see if the tutors are using the “tools” of language to interact with students in their acquisition of “scientific” concepts, academic vocabulary and of their general education. blanc ( ) noted that vygotsky considered school the best laboratory of human psychology. the best place to see the mental development that results from social learning. blanc ( ) writes, “[w]ithin the context of an active, systematic interaction between the child and the pedagogue in school, children are provided, in an organized way with the psychological tools that will determine the reorganization of their mental functions” (p. ). vygotsky believed that school pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to development unlike psychologists like piaget who emphasized that development tows learning. vygotsky did not deny biological development happens, but believed that biological development is shaped by human activity. for piaget developing concepts through social exchange came after biological developments. for vygotsky, concept formation was less about if the child had developed biologically and more about the cultural setting the child develops the concepts in. two vygotskian ideas are still used in school pedagogy that promotes learning processes through social interaction – children being active agents and the importance of play. blanc ( ) writes, “vygotsky’s most important contribution was to acknowledge children as active agents in the educational process” (p. ). children are able to learn so much more when they are given a voice in the process of concept formation and are able to interact with learning concepts in an interactive way. one interactive way that vygotsky felt mediated learning was play. through social play children were able to transact with each other and mediate each other’s learning. playing with their representation of the world helps them learn to understand meanings of the world. blanc ( ) says vygotsky “considered play to be the principal activity for the interiorization and appropriation of reality during the first years” (p. ). the vygotskian idea that the learning process leads the development process results in zpd. the zpd, according to vygotsky ( ) is the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving, and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. simply stated, the zpd is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. it is the space in which teacher and learner could engage in dyadic interactions which promoted advancing degrees of concept development. the zpd was vygotsky’s way of saying that teaching has an important role in learning, as the learner can do more with assistance that she can do independently. blanc ( ) explained that learning takes place in the zpd when “a difficult goal is offered; the child receives orientation from an adult; he reaches that goal and another one is offered; he tackles it and solves it independently, if possible, or with the help of an adult” (p. ). i believe that the zpd interactions tutors had with students explained how at-risk secondary ells learned in the observed tutoring sessions. chapter literature review as a foundation for the present research, four complementary bodies of literature will be reviewed: (a) vocabulary learning; (b) ells; (c) tutoring; and (d) vygotsky’s zpd. a mix of theoretical scholarship and research will be reviewed in order to demonstrate a knowledge of the field and also make the argument that there is a gap in the current research on vocabulary interventions that support adolescent ell learners. this study is the first study looking at volunteer tutors, adolescent language learners, and vocabulary acquisition. vocabulary learning will be reviewed first and it will give a broad overview of the research on word learning, vocabulary development, and vocabulary instruction. the studies on word learning looked at in section one were conducted with students learning vocabulary in their first language (l ) second, relevant literature on ell learners will be explored including general background information, second language acquisition, vocabulary development, reading development, lessons learned from research, and ells in the content areas. the studies on vocabulary development in this section were conducted with students learning words in their second language (l ). it is important to note that because there has been such little research conducted on at-risk ell adolescents and tutoring interventions geared toward vocabulary, some of the tutoring studies and intervention literature that will be discussed in this review were conducted with younger at-risk ell learners. then, literature on volunteer tutoring interventions will be reviewed using relevant interventions that have worked with both adolescent students and younger learners. finally, research that has been influenced by vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (zpd) will be discussed and studies that have used aspects of the zpd will be reviewed. the literature review will make an argument that advocates for conducting a qualitative case study that looks at how volunteer tutors are interacting with at-risk adolescent ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions with a specific focus on what the tutors are doing to help at-risk adolescent ells with vocabulary acquisition. vocabulary learning word learning in order to understand how volunteer tutors are helping at-risk adolescent ells with vocabulary acquisition, word learning must be understood. there are two main methods of word learning present in the literature. the first is that words are learned directly. for example, a teacher will explicitly teach one word to her students each day as part of instruction. the second is that words are learned through context. for example, a student would learn a word because it was used in their daily environment or presented in a text they would be reading. word learning that follows a “context only” approach aligns with the incidental word learning hypothesis. the incidental word learning hypothesis means that a student will learn words just by reading many books or by being in an environment where they are able to hear new words without being directly instructed. jenkins, matlock, and slocum ( ) support the incidental word learning hypothesis as a rational and persuasive way to learn vocabulary. several other researchers have argued that students have problems learning target words through “context only” instruction (van daalen- kapteijns, schouten-van parreren, & de glopper, ). the argument is that students need more explicit instruction from adults in order to teach the meanings of words before giving students another context that contains the word. just giving the word in context does not clarify the meaning of the unknown word (beck, mckeown, & mccaslin, ; schatz & baldwin, ) and students are limited in their ability to intentionally derive the meaning from the context (mckeown, ; shefelbine, ; van daalen-kapteijns & elshout-mohr, ). an argument can be made based on the above research that students learn vocabulary words best by blending direct instruction with context instruction. studies that have been done that blend direct word learning with context word learning had much higher effects than studies that used a “context only” approach. for example, the meta-analysis of marmolejo ( ) reported that “context only” studies had either small or non-significant results for poor readers (d=. ). marmolejo’s ( ) findings support that word learning needs to happen before the students see the words in context. if an adult introduces new words to children and presents them multiple times in a relevant context, the student will be more likely to understand the word. this explicit instruction involves strategies like teachers having students participate and students being asked to connect words to things they know through semantic mapping. by observing if volunteer tutors are working with adolescent ells on vocabulary acquisition, i was able to analyze what approach they were using to support word learning. researchers define knowing a word in different ways, which will be discussed below. one researcher could say that recognizing the definition of a word means the students know the word. another researcher might say that the student would have to produce the definition of the word in order to know it. ouellette ( ) says that in order to understand that a student knows a word, the depth and quality of the word learning needs to be measured. vygotsky’s ( ) social interaction theory believes that a student would only know a word after they had learned it in a social context with a more capable adult or peer and then internalized it through the zone of proximal development (zpd). beck and mckeown ( ) say that to learn a word, a child will need a number of exposures to the word in a variety of context. my study was able to decipher what word strategies volunteer tutors were or were not using that the researchers above have noted work. the process that a student goes through in order to know a word has been discussed extensively in the literature. nagy and scott ( ) suggested that word learning occurs in an incremental process. according to this theory, the meaning of a word develops from no knowledge to complete knowledge in stages (schwanenflugel, stahl, & mcfalls, ). beck and mckeown ( ) agree that knowing a word is not a one and done process but that word knowledge develops over a continuum. the continuum beck, mckeown, and omanson ( ) developed is: (a) no knowledge; (b) general sense; (c) narrow, context-bound knowledge; (d) generalized receptive knowledge; and (e) rich, decontextualized knowledge of a word’s meaning and its relation to other words. calfee and drum ( ) and dale ( ) developed similar conclusions regarding levels of word knowledge. the incremental process of word knowledge is thought to develop as the word’s meaning becomes gradually more refined with each exposure to the new word (landauer & dumais, ). in order to incrementally develop knowledge of a word, students benefit from having certain word association skills. calfee and drum ( ) found that a student was more likely to know a word if they were able to associate it with a range of experiences, access it readily, be able to articulate the understanding of the word, and recognize synonyms, metaphors, and analogies that employ the word. nagy and scott ( ) have noted that metacognitive knowledge is a key factor in word learning. there are only a few studies that demonstrate the connection between using a metacognitive approach to vocabulary instruction. dole, sloan, and trathen ( ) did one of the few studies where high school students were taught to use metacognitive skills to monitor comprehension and clarify unknown words in a text, resulting in significant gains in vocabulary and reading comprehension. additionally, graves ( , , ) distinguished a number of word learning tasks required for a student to develop vocabulary. one is that a learner must learn to read words that are in their oral vocabulary. a second word learning task is for students to be able to read a word that is not in their oral vocabulary or their reading vocabulary, but they have an available concept in their vocabulary that is associated with the word (ex. synonym). the third learning task is for students to read words for which they do not even have an available concept. the last two tasks are the word learning tasks directly involved in my study because they are aligned with the definition of academic vocabulary. that is, words that are necessary to navigate academic text but rarely used in everyday conversation. the literature offers several insights into the skills required to know a word and what it means to know a word, but does not provide as much information on specific ways educators are incorporating vocabulary acquisition into their lessons. for example, graves distinguished the word learning tasks required to develop vocabulary but did not offer specific information on how educators were employing word learning tasks within their daily instruction. similarly, beck, mckeown, mccaslin, and burkes, ( ) distinguished three levels of word knowledge: unknown, acquainted, and established. how vocabulary acquisition was being approached in one-on-one instruction was not explicitly explored, or suggestions for specific pedagogical interventions that would help teachers know how to move students from one level to another. more recent studies have been done on word learning best practices (biemiller & bodte, ; coyne, mccoach, & kapp, ; kamil, ; silverman & hines, ; stahl, ; stahl & kapins, ) but the research on how to help adolescent students attain unknown words or read words for which they do not have an available concept is sparse and the research on how to help ells in adolescent settings with word learning is even sparser (august & hakuta, ; snow, griffin, & burns, ). more research needs to be conducted on how, or if educators, such as volunteer tutors, are helping at- risk ells learn words. especially words that are unknown, not being used in the everyday conversations of ells, but is frequently being used in academic settings where the ell learner is expected to succeed. vocabulary development vocabulary development differs from word learning. word learning, as discussed above, is the process of getting to know words in isolation and vocabulary development is how a student develops a lexicon of words that enable them to interact with people, texts, and the world. it has been argued that vocabulary develops over time with many repeated exposures to a word in a meaningful context (clark, ; dorso & shore, , paribakht & wesche, ) which includes the interactions students are having with others, like more knowledgeable adults and peers. in order for a student to develop their vocabulary, many things need to happen. they have to know about sound structures, multiple meanings, phonology, and morphology. students have to be able to understand how words are used in sentences and how they are used in conversation. this type of depth determines whether a student will be able to distinguish a word from other words and understand words in novel contexts or when they are represented in different forms. vocabulary also develops based on the environment children are in and what vocabulary they need to communicate. when children enter school, they enter a world of academic english that requires a broad mastery of decontextualized language forms and conventions (cummins, , ; rumberger & scarcella, ). students will learn this type of language, for the most part, from teachers and textbooks (fillmore & snow, ). prior to entering the school environment, the vocabulary they acquired would have been primarily from their caretaker. research has shown that there is a gap between an at-risk student’s vocabulary development and a not-at-risk student’s vocabulary development (hart & risley, ). a not- at-risk student is defined as a student who has developmentally appropriate reading and vocabulary levels. this vocabulary gap between at-risk students and not-at risk students affects reading comprehension and academic success. many not-at-risk students enter school knowing thousands of more words than their peers who are at-risk for language and learning difficulties (hart & risley, ). children with an impoverished vocabulary cannot rely on learning new words through reading and read less than their achieving peers which means they are encountering fewer words (stanovich, ). children with impoverished vocabularies also suffer because they have less developed metacognition skills for word learning, which means they are less likely to use words around an unknown word as clues because the ratio of known to unknown words is too high (carver, ; stroller & grabe, ). biemiller and slonim ( ) reported that a vocabulary gap continues to grow as a child moves through the primary grades. by second grade they estimated a child with a large vocabulary knows , more root word meanings than children with delays in vocabulary development. by high school, the gap has become more like a gaping hole that students who were previously at-risk for language and learning difficulties fall into which means they drop out. this is where the argument for a study that looks at how volunteer tutors are supporting vocabulary acquisition with adolescent ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions makes sense. educators need to do find a way to support struggling students who want to have academic success but are currently unable to decipher the academic text in front of them. furthermore, as stated previously, many teachers are overwhelmed with other responsibilities to give adolescent ells one-on-one support. research that focuses on what school support staff, such as volunteer tutors, are doing to support ells will provide important information that will fuel future interventions dedicated to closing the vocabulary gap. finally, research has shown positive correlations between high levels of participation in rich oral and reading experiences and high levels of vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension. (greene & lynch-brown, ; robbins & ehri, ; stahl, richek, & vandevier, ). the reality is that many at-risk adolescent ell students are not being given the chance to participate in building their vocabulary and therefore are being left behind academically. beck, mckeown, and kucan ( ) report that having a large vocabulary repertoire is related to becoming an educated person because vocabulary knowledge is strongly related to reading comprehension and school achievement. furthermore, a central idea to conducting a study on vocabulary acquisition is the knowledge that vocabulary development is central to reading. research has affirmed that the major work of early reading is recognizing and pronouncing words (ehri, ). my study was necessary because it may help to strengthen the methodologies of future tutoring interventions geared toward at-risk adolescent ell learner’s academic success and vocabulary acquisition. if future volunteer tutoring interventions focus on working with secondary ells on vocabulary acquisition, it might help increase academic text comprehension which would increase course performance in content area classrooms and lead to greater overall academic success. greater academic success for at-risk adolescent ells means less high school drop outs and potentially more college bound high school graduates. instruction several vocabulary instructional strategies have been discussed in the literature. similar to the two ways of word learning, direct and through context, ambruster, lehr, and osbourne ( ) reported two ways in which children learn vocabulary, through direct and indirect vocabulary instruction. direct instruction involves explicit teaching of vocabulary words and definitions and indirect vocabulary instruction pertains to learning words primarily through exposure – having conversations with others, reading independently, or being read to (beck et. al ; cunningham & stanovich, ; nagy, herman, & anderson, ). currently, many researchers have done work that advocates for teachers to use a mix of both explicit and indirect teaching methods (national reading panel, ) but the current research has not measured what method of vocabulary instruction volunteer tutors are using, if any, in one-on-one tutoring sessions with at-risk secondary ells. one of the ways i coded the data collected, detailed further in the methods section, indicated whether the tutors were using explicit or indirect teaching methods when teaching vocabulary. coding and studying the type of word learning instruction that occurred in sessions may help future researchers design vocabulary interventions that directly train tutors to use a particular method based on the findings of my study. three objectives should be met when teachers are giving vocabulary instruction according to baumann, kame’emui, and ash ( ). the objectives include teaching students how to learn words independently, teaching students the specific meanings of words, and helping students to appreciate words and use them with satisfaction. the first objective, teaching students how to learn words independently, involves exposing the students to a word’s rich text, giving them independent reading time, and allowing them to have a choice in what vocabulary they would like to learn (fisher et al. ). the second objective, teaching students the meanings of specific words, involves teaching synonyms or definitions using mnemonic devices, giving students partial knowledge of words, or pre-teaching vocabulary prior to seeing it in context. the last instructional objective, having students use and develop an appreciation of words, involves teachers getting the students to use vocabulary in fun and interactive ways. for example, the teacher could promote word use in the classroom or promote the use of classroom vocabulary words outside of school such as with beck and mckeown’s ( ) “word wizard”. for ell students, a combination of direct instruction and multiple opportunities to process words in different contexts may have led to vocabulary acquisition gains in the sessions. when the principles of rich vocabulary instruction were used, ells may have also made gains in reading comprehension. several studies involving young readers found that many teachers are incorporating little, if any, explicit vocabulary instruction into the curriculum (neuman & dwyer, ; roser & juel, ; scott, jamieson-noel, & asselin, ; watts, ) and even though less is known about middle and high school classrooms, it is likely that little attention is being given to vocabulary instruction with so many other curriculum and literacy demands being placed on content-area teachers. what researchers have found is that in the interventions that have been done with adolescent learners, the focus tends to be on whether students have a word level reading knowledge without paying attention to really developing language (deshler, palinscar, biancarosa, & nair, ). in order to develop language at any level, students benefit from being taught a fewer number of vocabulary words in a much deeper way. a teacher should help students understand a word’s elements, related words, and have the students see the words in rich context (graves, , ; stahl & nagy, ). the assumption being that vocabulary will increase when teachers directly teach words, ask for student engagement, and show the words in multiple contexts. since teachers do not have time, the hope is support staff, such as volunteer tutors, are using some of the one-on-one time they have with at-risk adolescent ells to help the students develop vocabulary that will give them more academic success and my qualitative study was able to analyze what is, or is not, happening with regard to vocabulary acquisition in the tutoring sessions. the case study was also able to analyze the type of words, if any, that were being worked on in tutoring sessions. knowing the type of words that at-risk adolescent ells are being taught in tutoring sessions matters because it impacts how they are able to then engage in their content area classrooms. the words that students learn should be general purpose academic words (e.g. analyze) (beck, mckeown, & kucan, ; graves, , ; stahl & nagy, ) and not low frequency, exotic words (e.g. burrowed) that are sometimes selected by teachers or targeted by textbooks for instruction (hiebert, ). because no teacher can expect to teach students the thousands of words associated with academic success, teachers must teach students word learning strategies so that students have some cognitive tools in order to learn words independently. some of the cognitive tools that have been taught to students with positive results include using context clues (fukkink & de glopper, ; swanborn & de glopper, ), and using morphological awareness skills (baughmann et al., , baughmann, et al., ; keiffer & lessaux, ; nagy, berninger, & abbot, ). in all of the above studies, general strategies are offered in order to develop vocabulary but none of the studies focused on how or if volunteer tutors help at-risk adolescent ells acquire vocabulary in one-on-one settings. my study was able to add to the literature because it describes how tutors are specifically interacting with at-risk ells, what types of words were being taught or not taught, and what vocabulary instructional strategies were being used by tutors. measuring this type of interaction adds to the field of vocabulary development because it provides more data about vocabulary instruction and development based on a short term case study looking at the interactions between volunteer tutors and at-risk secondary ells. before conducting a qualitative case study examining vocabulary development outside of the classroom space, it was important to know what type of vocabulary instruction was currently happening inside classrooms and if the vocabulary instruction that is being implemented is effective. scott, et al. ( ) conducted hours of observation during days of instruction in middle school classrooms in three school districts in canada. the data revealed that only % of school time was devoted to developing vocabulary knowledge and only . % of time was spent developing vocabulary in the academic subject areas (math, science, art, and social studies) other than language arts. most of the instruction time that was spent involved mentioning and assigning vocabulary versus directly teaching it. these findings are concerning, especially for students who depend on school in order to become proficient in academic english. even if more time were being spent on vocabulary instruction, it is the quality of instruction that matters. a teacher can spend a significant amount of time teaching vocabulary, but if they are not using effective practices, students will not develop the academic vocabulary they need to be successful. blachowicz and fisher ( ) identified four main principles to guide appropriate vocabulary instruction. the first principle is that students should personalize word knowledge which is based on past research that indicates when students are able to choose the words they want to learn or the ways that would like to learn them, vocabulary develops more effectively (dole, et al.,, ; fisher & danielsen, ; haggard, ). the second principle is that students should be immersed in words. this involves a teacher that commits to interweaving the vocabulary words that they are teaching into many components and subjects throughout the day. the third principle is that students need to be able to build on multiple sources of information in order to learn words that they are repeatedly exposed too. many exposures, over time, create connections for students and help them connect vocabulary words to other words and concepts. the fourth principle is that students should be active participants in their word learning. the students should be encouraged to connect new words to things they know, manipulate words, and discuss new vocabulary words. the current study coded all observational data, when it was vocabulary-focused, and according to what main principles of vocabulary instruction were being followed. it was also noted if no vocabulary-focused interactions occurred. in addition to having guiding principles of how tutors might be assisting in student vocabulary development, there are several instructional approaches that have been found to be effective in word learning across the pre-k to high school spectrum that the tutors might be using such as: (a) key word (levin, levin, glassman, & nordwall, ); (b) repeated multiple readings (senechal, ); (c) rich context (mckeown, beck, omanson, & pople, ); (d) computer-based (heise, papelweis, & tanner, ); (e) pre-instruction (brett, rothlein, & hurley, ); and (f) restructuring the task (malone & mclaughlin, ; scott & nagy, ). in the key word strategy, students are taught a key word by first thinking of other connecting words that they knew that were associated with the key word. in the repeated multiple reading strategy, target words are represented repeatedly using a variety of different text and by repeatedly reading the different text, students receive multiple exposures to the target vocabulary. the rich context strategy used by beck et al., ( ) helps students understand target vocabulary because they are able to engage with novel words in a variety of ways. computer based instruction enables students to learn vocabulary by engaging the students in learning the definitions of new words in order to practice putting them into sentences and playing games that involve the new words. finally, pre-instruction has been found effective because it gives students the background knowledge they need of the novel words in order to practice using them and recognizing them. the above research findings further prove that student’s vocabulary knowledge benefits from explicit instruction and seeing new words in multiple contexts. as stated previously, giving context to students is very important for word learning and students will benefit if they are taught that words have multiple meanings (beck et al., ). stahl and fairbanks ( ) found that reading comprehension in students improved if the vocabulary instruction was based on both providing definitions and context. one activity stahl ( ) recommends in order to show students that words are related to one another is to have the students participate in semantic mapping. semantic mapping involves creating visual word families and then having a class discussion about how the word families are similar. while the above instructional practices have been found to be effective, the researchers did not specifically test the practices with an at-risk ell population. my study provided information about what particular instructional practices are being used within the one-on-one tutoring sessions. vocabulary and reading comprehension the relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension is thought to be reciprocal. knowing more words facilitates greater comprehension and if a person reads more, he/she will learn more words (freebody & anderson, ; stanovich, ). in short, the more vocabulary a person knows, the more he/she will be able to comprehend what he/she is reading. one argument is that increasing adolescent literacy rates requires the development of empirically based approaches that will promote students’ reading comprehension (biancarosa & snow, ; moore, bean, birdyshaw, & rycik, ). so, observing how tutors focus on vocabulary acquisition makes sense considering that having a limited vocabulary knowledge is a potential source of reading comprehension difficulties among struggling older readers, regardless of being ell or ns (bailey, ; biancarosa & snow, ; chall & jacobs, ; fillmore, ; national institute of child health and human development [nichd], ; rand reading study group, ; stahl & nagy, ; valdes, ). several important studies have been done on the relationship between reading and vocabulary that have found a positive relationship (davis, ; just & carpenter, ; whipple, ). an inference can be made based on the above research findings that students’ reading comprehension may have increased when tutors supported vocabulary acquisition in the study. anderson and freebody ( ) suggest three hypotheses that may help to explain the positive relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. the first is the instrumentalist hypothesis, which suggest that the words a person knows directly enables them to comprehend text. the other two hypotheses, general aptitude and general knowledge, suggest that vocabulary and reading comprehension is related to a third factor, intelligence or world knowledge. the instrumentalist hypothesis is the hypothesis that most strongly suggests that there is a direct relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. the national institute of child health and human development (nichd, ), a subgroup of the nrp, demonstrated a causal relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension that furthered the instrumental hypothesis correlation. the nichd found that there was a consistent and robust relationship between learning vocabulary in specific text and comprehension measures derived from the same texts. the nichd report returned vocabulary knowledge to a place of prominence in reading curriculum. the idea that knowing vocabulary in a given text will help to support comprehension of that text supports my decision to look specifically at how volunteer tutors are helping at-risk secondary ells with vocabulary acquisition. i was able to make inferences about students increased reading comprehension of material brought to a tutoring session if the tutors went over vocabulary words embedded in the text. knowing vocabulary words aids in comprehending a reading text, but it is not the only higher processing skill required. some of these higher level processes include making inferences, accessing prior knowledge, resolving structural and semantic ambiguities while reading, and it also involves integrating both linguistic and cognitive skills (alexander & jetton, ; kintsch, ; mcnamara, kintsch, songer, & kintsch, ). it can be argued that each of the tasks required for comprehension draws on vocabulary knowledge. once a student has decoded words successfully, they must grasp the word’s meaning in order to comprehend clauses, propositions, and paragraphs. if a person knows more vocabulary, they will spend less time decoding and more time connecting with the ideas the text is trying to present. if a student wants to become a fluent reader, they will need to have a strong background in vocabulary. academic vocabulary academic vocabulary can pose particular challenges for at-risk secondary ells because it tends to be complex and abstract. academic vocabulary is a component of academic english which is used in academic settings, academic texts, and is crucial for academic success (corson, ; cunningham & moore, ; nation & kyongho, ; scarcella, ). academic vocabulary is not found in the everyday working vocabulary of at-risk secondary ells. according to beck, mckeown, and kucan’s ( ) tiers of word knowledge, academic vocabulary would fall under either a tier two or tier three classification. academic vocabulary could be tier two because they are high frequency words that are used across disciplines and have some overlap with general (not discipline specific) academic vocabulary words. academic vocabulary meet a tier three classification because tier three words tend to be quite specialized and have low frequency. tier one words are not academic vocabulary because tier one words tend to need no instruction and are everyday words. in order for students in high school and middle school to be able to comprehend texts and ideas in their content classes, they need to be able to comprehend and possess an academic vocabulary. coxhead ( ) developed a new academic word list (awl) based on college texts that covered multiple content areas that was influenced by a previous general service list (gsl) described by west ( ) that contains , of the most frequently used word families in english. the new awl is much smaller, containing word families and it accounts for approximately % of the total words in academic text, and close to . words per page (coxhead & nation, ). the words on the awl represent general, or cross disciplinary, academic words. i argue that knowing these general academic vocabulary words may help ells in their middle and high school classes and also prepare them more for post high school academic work. the study reported what type of words the tutors were introducing and if any of the words were considered academic vocabulary. academic vocabulary is primarily found in academic texts (corson, ). this means that without explicit instruction and exposure to academic vocabulary, at-risk secondary ells struggle in content area classrooms. an ell student may have strong basic conversational vocabulary (bics) but are lacking access to the more cognitively challenging “language of schooling” (calp). when at-risk secondary ells do not receive the vocabulary resources needed to understand the academic text, comprehending the text becomes challenging. apart from reading comprehension, academic vocabulary knowledge will help ell students gain access to codes of power and privilege. the ability to communicate powerfully and fluently through academic vocabulary is one way that society separates and segregates members outside of the mainstream. the ability to understand academic vocabulary and use words well will help ell students develop a communication tool that will help them gain more access to opportunities (purves, ). academic vocabulary needs to be taught in a context-specific manner with students. students need to learn a word’s meaning, parts, synonyms, antonyms, and the word needs to be presented to the students multiple times in a variety of contexts. my case study will provide data on what type of words, if any, volunteer tutors are helping at-risk ells to acquire and what instructional method is being used. by exposing the interactions in volunteer tutoring sessions, future interventions focused on helping at-risk secondary ells attain academic vocabulary can utilize and incorporate the findings. in sum, the literature suggests five key practices that are likely to build student vocabulary skills and it suggests that a student is able to have greater reading comprehension with a greater vocabulary knowledge. the vocabulary practices include having students learn vocabulary words through social interaction and through meaningful contexts (harris, graham, & adkins, , vygotsky, ). secondly, students need explicit vocabulary instruction. thirdly, students need to hear and use vocabulary words frequently in order to know a word. fourthly, the vocabulary knowledge of students increases if they are taught strategies for inferring the meanings of new words. some of the strategies include teaching students about context clues, morphological awareness, cognate knowledge, and using aides like dictionaries or glossaries (garcia & nagy, ; jimenez, garcia, & pearson, ; nation, ). lastly, the type of vocabulary words that a student learns matters. students need to be instructed on vocabulary words that will increase their chances of academic success. english language learners (ells) the following section in the literature review will provide information on ells in united states classrooms. a more extensive background of ell learners will be shared first followed by a discussion of the research that has examined how ells acquire a second language (l ). then the research on ells and their development of reading, vocabulary, academic vocabulary, and experience in secondary content areas will be reviewed. finally, the lessons learned from the research on how to teach ells vocabulary will be focused on. ell background in united states public schools there were more than million children between the ages of five and that spoke a language other than english in their home in (u.s. department of education, ) and this number has increased. in schools, these students, typically referred to as ell students, make up % of all school age children and % of national public school enrollments (u.s. department of education, ). this is much different than in , when ell school enrollment was only at % (fix & passel, ). most of the ells in the u.s. speak spanish as their primary language ( %) and the second largest language group is vietnamese ( . %) (kindler, ). the study involved a sample of spanish speaking ell students. with the increasing ell population, more research has focused on ell students and one discouraging finding reports ells are at a high risk of academic failure (ruiz-de-velasco, fix, & clewell, ) even though under the civil rights act of and the equal educational opportunities act of , public schools are mandated to provide both academic and fiscal resources to help ells overcome language barriers and gain english fluency. in , the dropout rate for latino/latina youth was . %, which is more than twice the national average (national center for educational statistics, ; pew hispanic center, ), and in a recent assessment of national educational progress (naep), a large majority of ells scored below basic in almost all categories of achievement at every grade tested - th, th, and th (national center for educational statistics, ). thomas and collier ( ) conducted a five year study looking at school programs being offered to the over , ell students in the u.s and found that most of the programs failed to bring ell students to average levels of achievement on standardized reading tests. more research on specific interventions that work for ell students is needed because school policy mandates that ell students are supported academically. public schools have been tasked by article iii of no child left behind (nclb) to prepare ell students to meet the same challenging academic standards that all children are expected to meet (nclb, ), but if the schools are not aware of how to adequately accomplish these tasks, ells fall through the cracks and the schools fail as well. the cause of academic failure or stress for the ell population is multidimensional. firstly, institutional practices like academic tracking (callahan, ) cause many ell students to be placed in lower level classrooms where, at best, basic information is shared. ells who are put on a lower level track miss out on interacting with native speakers (ns) in higher track classes and they are not exposed to college preparatory work. secondly, an at-risk ell students’ level of first language (l ) literacy (august & shanahan, ) development can limit their academic achievement in their second language (l ). if an ell students’ l is not developed prior to entering the public school system, it can be much more challenging for the ell student to develop literacy skills in their l (snow, burns, & griffin, ). thirdly, socio-economic status is linked to an ell achievement gap (ses; capps et al., ; cosentino de cohen, deterding, & clewell, ). ell learners are more likely to come from low income homes and attend schools that have a high concentration of poverty which may account for how their academic literacy is being, or not being, developed in schools based on what is known about the link between reading development and socio economic status (ses) (brooks-gunn, duncun, & britto, ; sirin, ). lastly, a lack of teacher training and professional development on working with at-risk ell students is a contributing factor to the current achievement gap. a national teacher survey found that even though % of teachers reported having ells in their classrooms, only . % reported that they had received only hours of ell specific training over a three year span (national center for educational statistics, ). even though in recent years more teacher preparatory programs are instituting mandatory ell coursework, much more needs to be done in order to ensure ell students are not struggling in elementary school, falling through the cracks in middle school, and then dropping out in high school. finally, it is important to discuss how resources for esl programs and ell students are being funded in the education system because it could be argued that funding is directly related to academic success. a recent literature review done by jimenez-castellanos and topper ( ) revealed that the funding ell students are receiving is understudied and does not account for the complex and diverse needs of the ell population. of the empirical studies reviewed, only focused specifically on ells. typically, the costing out methods for ells are limited to standardized test scores and the general student population. funding allocation does not currently factor in that there are many different needs that each ell student has and there is no method for determining if the funding, based on test scores and general population, is adequate for all the ells in a school classroom, building, or district (gandara & rumberger, ; multi cultural education training and advocacy (meta), ). in short, the funding being allocated for ell students falls under the same funding being given to all students which leaves no room for additional resources or intervention possibilities. the review also found that overall states are not allocating sufficient funds to educate the general k- population. an argument can be made based on the above findings that research needs to focus on conducting low cost interventions for ell students because schools would not be able to sustain an intervention that strained its already stretched budget. my study focused on assessing how volunteer tutors helped adolescent at-risk ell learners in a low cost tutoring program which adds to the discussion on how low cost programs like volunteer tutoring can be replicated in effective ways. ell second language (l ) acquisition it is important to understand how ells typically acquire a second language because the processes could be observed during the case study or help explain data. for instance, student participants might be using the same l processes to acquire vocabulary in the intervention. the term l acquisition includes the learning of a second language in natural settings as well as classroom settings. it encompasses learning an l in both oral and written forms. for the purposes of this literature review, the term is being used broadly to refer to anyone who is learning a second language that has a basic command of one (or more) language(s) already. the following review of l acquisition will look specifically at how students are learning a second language in a “l -majority” context, meaning that the students are surrounded by the l in the society in which they live or the school that they attend. first, it is important to discuss the four groups of researchers that have provided most of the insight into l learning and acquisition because each of the four fields has different interests and methodologies that are worth considering in the proposed study on l vocabulary acquisition within one- on- one tutoring sessions. the four groups of l researchers were studied according to an extensive review by dixon, tarbox, najdowski, wilkie, and granpeesheh ( ) on language acquisition. the four groups are: foreign language educators, child language researchers, sociocultural researchers, and psycholinguistics. dixon et al. reviewed empirical studies that represented each of the four groups mentioned above. the empirical studies looked at l acquisition in different ways and it was evident that each of the fields has added important insight into how individuals acquire a second language. foreign language educators want to enhance the effectiveness of l instructional techniques and therefore tend to study l learning in mainly adolescent or adult classroom settings. the two models that have been studied widely by foreign language educators are the input-interaction-output (iio) model and the socio-educational model. in the iio model, learners receive input to understand the rules of a language and then try out their understanding through speech or writing (output). the student’s interaction involves receiving feedback as to whether their output was understandable (alcon, ; gass & mackey, ). the socio-educational model proposed by gardner ( , ) focuses on how integrated the learner is in the learning environment, their attitude toward learning, and their motivation. the findings of both of the above methods have found significant effects in l acquisition when ell learners felt that they were more integrated in their learning environment or received an iio model of instruction. studies done by foreign language educators tend to use correlational or small scale quasi- experimental methods. child language researchers have studied how language is acquired naturally, the role of language input, developmental errors, and verbal interactions between adults and other children (bavin, ) in their first language. the work that child language researchers have done on l acquisition has influenced theories in l acquisition and l practices and often focuses on the interactions between an adult and child that promote language development (cote, ; pan, rowe, singer, & snow, ; quiroz, snow, & zhao, ). for instance, the idea that l acquisition follows a developmental process and that the development of l language skills influence the development of l acquisition can be connected to the field of child language research. child language research studies use descriptive, longitudinal studies with young leaners in naturalistic settings. social and cultural researchers argue that l acquisition cannot be understood unless the specific social interactions that learners are engaging in are examined. the sociocultural researchers emphasize the importance of the learning environment and believe that language acquisition is a result of vygotsky’s ( ) developmental theory. vygotsky emphasized that learners will reach new levels of development if they receive instruction from others who have already mastered the task (lantolf & thorne, ). the interventions done by social and cultural researchers are usually qualitative in nature and done with any age group in order to understand that social and cultural forces at work in an l environment. psycholinguists examine the mental processes involved in l acquisition, typically using quantitative methods and controlled experiments. they have been really interested in the component skills that build l competencies and what cognitive skills can transfer from l to l . psycholinguists have looked at how internal processes explain l acquisition by observing external linguistic behaviors or experimental task performance. current research done by psycholinguists might be answering questions about, how do l and l acquisition interact with each other. the model that is used a lot to explain language acquisition in the field in the connectionist model meaning that the more input the student receives regarding a certain rule of language will lead to a stronger connection and more predictable outcome (ellis, , ; seidenberg, macdonald, & haskell, ). in my study i functioned as a social and cultural researcher by examining the interactions between volunteer tutors and at-risk ell adolescent learners in one-on-one tutoring sessions. my research sought to understand what factors influence the academic language acquisition of ells during tutoring through qualitative data. additionally, other aspects of l acquisition research presented itself within the collected data. some interactions between the tutors and the learners may have followed an iio method (foreign language educators) during each session. the tutors might have also created an environment designed to motivate at-risk ell students and promoted a positive learning experience (socio-educational model). tutors may have interacted with learners based on an understanding they have about how l acquisition influences l acquisition and how the interactions between adults and children matter to l acquisition (child language educators). finally, tutors might have tended to give a lot of input to the learners that resulted in strengthening the connections learners had to concepts and vocabulary that was worked on in sessions (psycho-linguistics). in addition to the four groups that have studied language acquisition, other programs have had positive effects on ell l acquisition. one program, bilingual education, has been supported by several studies. in one study done by garcia & barlett ( ), a secondary school used a bilingual model combining l content instruction with intensive l content instruction for the entire school which was made up of all l spanish speakers. results showed a highly successful outcome measured by graduation rates and passing rates on state graduation exams. the study did not conduct any specific assessment measures that may have helped show how the bilingual model affected certain aspects of reading development. another program that has had significant results in supporting l acquisition is the sheltered instruction observation protocol (siop) model (echevarria, short, & powers, ; mcintyre, kyle, chen, munoz, & beldon, ). the siop model is based on sociocultural principles and includes building background knowledge, comprehensible input, practice or application, and review or assessment (mcintyre et al., ). the siop model is predominately used in interventions in a whole class setting and the principles are applied to the entire curriculum. my study offered additional insight into what model is currently being used by volunteer tutors and what instructional model might work best with at-risk adolescent ells in a one-on-one tutoring session. the coded observations in my study were related, at times, to aspects of bilingual education or the siop model. vocabulary development and instruction with ells research suggests that ells are more likely to have an underdeveloped english vocabulary (august, carlo, dressler, & snow, ) regardless of whether they are from a middle income or lower income background (umbel, pearson, fernandez, & oller, ). the fastest growing populations of ell learners have migrated to the u.s. before kindergarten or are u.s born children of immigrants (capps et al., ). scarcella ( ) found that this particular population of ell learners will enroll in u.s schools by kindergarten and have mastered basic english by middle school, but will lack the academic english necessary to comprehend academic texts. there have been several studies done with elementary and middle school ell learners that demonstrates the fact that their vocabulary levels are well below average (manis, lindsey, & bailey, ; mclaughlin & tilstone, ; proctor, carlo, august, & snow, ; swanson, saez, & gerber, ). additionally, the differences in vocabulary knowledge and reading outcomes between native speakers and ell learners have been shown to widen over time (kieffer, ; nakamoto, lindsey, & manis, ). as stated in the vocabulary section, in order to know a word, a student must know many things – the literal meaning, connotation, syntactic constructions, morphological options, and semantic associations (nagy & scott ). when a student knows the above mentioned various aspects of a word, they are thought to have depth of word knowledge, which is just as important as knowing many words (breadth of word knowledge). ell students have been shown to have a lack of word knowledge depth, even for words that occur frequently (verhallen & schoonen, ). one study done by august et al. ( ) compared ell th grade students with ns th graders and found that the ell students had a limited breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge when all the students were given the picture peabody vocabulary test revised (ppvt-r). this finding confirmed research done by umbel et al. ( ) that there is a large gap in the breadth of vocabulary between ells and ns students and that gap does not diminish over time. in short, the research has found that ell students know fewer words than ns students and they know less about the meanings of words (august & shanahan, ). it is concerning to consider that ell learners, a growing population, often have fewer opportunities to learn than their ns peers within the same school (gandara, rumberger, maxwell-jolly, & callahan., ; hakuta, ; snow et al., ) and tend to then have reading comprehension difficulties, especially after the primary grades (august & shanahan, ). the current study is designed look at how volunteer tutors, selected to help struggling populations, are in fact supporting at-risk adolescent ells. are the tutors helping the at-risk ells succeed academically and if so, how? we know that at-risk ells tend to have reading comprehension problems but we do not know what tutors are currently doing to support the vocabulary acquisition of at-risk ells. research needs to be conducted on how, or if, interventions designed to help close the achievement gap, such as one-on-one tutoring, are providing instruction to at-risk adolescent ells that supports their academic success. by high school, many teachers might expect that their job is to teach the content of a subject and that vocabulary learning is incidental if the student engages with the text. what might not be considered by teachers is that for ell students, knowing fewer words and meanings of words makes incidental vocabulary learning while reading much more challenging compared with their ns peers. the ell students are not able to use the context to figure out unknown words because many of the words in context are also unknown. because an ell student lacks complete command of english, they are less likely than ns to use linguistic cues to figure out word meanings (stroller & grabe, ). carver ( ) found that reading a text in which just % of the words are unfamiliar can block comprehension and novel word learning. it can be inferred that the percentage of unknown words in the academic text many secondary ell students are asked to navigate is much higher than %. in order to help ell students learn more novel words, huckin, haynes, and coady ( ) suggest that vocabulary instruction should be taught directly first and then ell students should be provided with opportunities to encounter incidentally the novel words that were just taught in authentic and motivating text. research has also found that ell students benefit from being taught strategies for inferring the meaning of newly encountered words. some of these strategies include context clues, morphological awareness, cognate knowledge, and using aids like glossaries or dictionaries (garcia & nagy, ; jimenez, garcia, & pearson, ; nation ). there are unique challenges that students face who are learning vocabulary in a second language (l ). firstly, there is limited instructional time (august, et al., ). typically, ell students in english as a second language (esl) classes are given direct vocabulary instruction through easily accessible words and simple sentences (guerrero, ). while this type of exposure may be useful, it is not giving ell students the academic vocabulary they need to be successful in mainstream courses. secondly, the abstract words being taught to ells are not always supported by graphics or pictures (anderson & roit, ). thirdly, some teachers tend to overestimate the ell student’s knowledge of written english vocabulary based on their conversational english (beck et al., ; scarcella, ) when in fact, developing a mastery of academic english could take several more years than mastering conversational english (cummins, ; hakuta, butler, & witt, ). lastly, the semantic knowledge of ells is often less developed than their ns peer group (bialystok, luk, & kwan, ; biemiller, ; droop & verhoeven, ; geva & siegal, ). the above challenges result in severe language gaps for ell students who did not learn many, if any, vocabulary words in their second language (l ) from caretakers, and rely on the bulk of vocabulary learning to happen within the school environment. currently, teachers are not being given the proper training to support ell students in high school classrooms or do not have resources and time to invest in rich, vocabulary instruction. as a result, adolescent ells are being left behind in not just high school, but in their life possibilities. despite the challenges, there is growing evidence that many of the same vocabulary learning techniques used with native speakers (ns) are also effective with ells (shanahan & beck, ). for instance, it has also been found that reading aloud from appropriate texts benefits l vocabulary development (coady, ; houk, ; stahl, richek, & vandevier, ). the learning techniques that are used with ns speakers need to be supplemented for ells with visual aids and increased practice with new words in a variety of context (august et al., ). even with the above findings that talk about how best practices can support ns and ells, the majority of empirical studies done on vocabulary interventions have been done with monolingual english speakers and most of the studies are done in elementary school settings. for instance, in vocabulary intervention studies reviewed by the national reading panel (nrp) in , were conducted with students in elementary schools. most of the studies that the nrp reviewed looked at one specific aspect of vocabulary learning or used one word learning strategy, were short term, and the intervention was administered in small groups. there were no studies looked at by the nrp that were focused on ell students. since the nrp report came out, a handful of studies have been published that looked at a more comprehensive approach to vocabulary instruction (beck & mckeown, ; lubliner & smetana, ; nelson & stage, ) which vary with the age studied or target populations. while these studies represent the promise of using comprehensive approaches for vocabulary instruction and offer examples of how challenging it is to develop vocabulary, they do not target ell learners in secondary schools or look at how volunteer tutors are interacting with at-risk ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions. it is concerning that there is a lack of vocabulary research looking at ell populations. as stated above, the nrp did not review any studies on ells or at-risk populations and calderon, hertz-lazarowitz, & slavin ( ) reported that few vocabulary intervention studies have been done with ell students. in a review done by shanahan & beck ( ), only three vocabulary intervention studies were identified between and that were conducted with language minority learners. two of the three studies were done with younger learners. in one study modeled after beck and mekeown’s rich vocabulary approach, calderon et al. ( ) found significant effect sizes for spanish speaking el students in grade three. the study conducted by calderon et al. ( ) included several aspects of instruction that were reported by wasik ( ) as effective practices for reading tutors which will be discussed later on in the literature review. calderon’s intervention followed a curriculum, provided professional development, and followed an instructional routine. the teachers were trained to teach words directly, in context, and present the words in stories. it is evident by the studies mentioned above that the little research that has been done on vocabulary instruction with younger ells has found significant results. even though there has been no studies done that look specifically at ell secondary students, vocabulary acquisition, and volunteer tutoring, a handful of studies have evaluated classroom vocabulary instruction of linguistically diverse students beyond the primary grades. carlo et al. ( ) used a week comprehensive vocabulary program with fifth grade ell students that showed significant gains in vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. the program was conducted in an after school environment by the researcher. lesaux, kieffer, faller, and kelley ( ) evaluated the effectiveness of an implemented academic vocabulary program with sixth graders ( ell) that had significant results on the meanings of words taught, morpheme awareness, and word meaning presented in expository text. the research was carried out in a whole group setting with the teacher as the instructor of the intervention. in each of the above studies, the interventions were very structured and followed a created curriculum that included several aspects of reading development. with the current lack of funding in many schools and pressures on teachers to meet common core standards, teach in full inclusion classrooms, and prepare students for standardized assessments, more studies need to look at how support staff, such as volunteer tutors, are supporting secondary at-risk ells. are the volunteer tutors, recruited to help at-risk learners succeed, helping struggling ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions? it is important to research the interactions that are currently taking place in one-one- one tutoring sessions in order for future tutoring interventions to benefit the success of at-risk secondary ells. academic language and ells in the field of second language acquisition, there has been influential work done on what constitutes academic language. one influential definition of academic language came from jim cummins’s ( ) work on the difference between cognitive academic language proficiency (calp) from basic interpersonal conversational skills (bics). cummins said that ell students tend to achieve a bics level of l acquisition much sooner than they are able to achieve a calp understanding of an l because a bics level requires a knowledge of everyday conversational skills and a calp understanding of the l involves being able to read, write, and comprehend academic level text. having different definitions of the levels of l an ell student could attain shifted how teachers and researchers understood how language worked. the first understanding being that there are different types of language (e.g. language for specialized fields and everyday language). the second understanding was that acquiring different types of language is developmental, bics is acquired first and calp is developed later and acquiring calp usually means a student will need more formal instruction because it is more cognitively demanding. some contemporary scholars have rejected that there are stark differences between “academic” and “conversational” language but these same scholars agree that there is a language of schooling that is distinct from the language outside of school and that this language of schooling requires formal instruction and does indeed present challenges for ell students who are still developing their l (bunch, , schleppegrell, ; valdes, ). some scholars promote the idea that academic language does not only involve having english proficiency but it also involves having a mastery of content knowledge and learning strategies that promote continued learning (krashen & brown, ). research that has been done on how social interaction promotes literacy and language shares the premise that the language a student is able to produce will rely on the understanding they have of discourse, rules of interaction, and the genres or registers that mediate the language (barton, ; dyson & genishi, ; heath, ). my study referred to academic language as a language of schooling that is cognitively demanding and requires formal instruction by the tutors in order for the students to eventually develop the language. the tutors may institute learning strategies (e.g. morphological awareness, cognate awareness) that krashen & brown ( ) advocated for if they teach the ell student word learning strategies that will help them to learn words after the intervention has been completed. conducting a study that looked at how tutors and learners are interacting in one-on-one tutoring sessions with a focus on vocabulary acquisition inevitably looked at if the tutor was helping the ell acquire academic language through social interaction. the qualitative observations that focused on vocabulary acquisition were coded according to whether the word learning interactions focused on the ell acquiring academic vocabulary or basic vocabulary and the methods that the tutors use to teach vocabulary were noted. ells and reading development the relationship between reading comprehension and vocabulary was covered in the first section of this literature review. this section of the review will look specifically at research comparing the reading development of ell students to ns. ell students are likely to move through similar phases of english reading development compared with ns peers, though perhaps at a different speed and they will have different strengths and weaknesses (august & shanahan, ; garcia, ; grabe, ). for example, lesaux, koda, siegel, & shanahan ( ) did a literature review on ell learners and concluded that when reading in a second language, ell learners tend to read words accurately in the primary grades but struggle to reach adequate levels of reading comprehension in later grades. garcia ( ) reviewed research as to why older ell students are struggling with reading comprehension and found that although second language reading comprehension requires many of the same cognitive strategies and processes as first language reading comprehension (i.e. graphophonic, lexical, semantic, syntactic, background, and textual knowledge), ell learners encounter more unfamiliar words and topics than their ns peers which cause them to fall behind in their reading comprehension after the primary grades. this may be a result of ell learners not being part of the majority and therefore they are unable to connect new words to the context surrounding them. although the studies done on ells reading comprehension above the primary grades are lacking, two studies done with upper elementary spanish speaking students provide insight to the struggles faced by ell students past the primary grades compared to their ns peers. nakamoto et al., ( ) measured national standardized reading comprehension test scores of a group of spanish ell students from to th grade and found that after second grade, the ell students reading comprehension scores dropped far below their ns peers and remained lower. the other study done by mancilla-martinez and lesaux ( ) followed a group of low income spanish ell learners from pre-school to fifth grade and found that by th grade the students had fallen significantly behind their ns peers, reaching only a nd grade reading level by th grade. it can be inferred from the above two studies that by the secondary grades ell students are significantly further behind their peers in their ability to comprehend academic text. as stated in the previous section, vocabulary has been found to be tied to a student’s ability to comprehend what they read. the field needs to pay attention to this and more studies need to be done on interventions that will help adolescent ell learners have higher rates of reading comprehension past the primary grades. considering vocabulary has been found to affect reading comprehension positively, it made sense to see how a tutor is helping an at-risk ell adolescent learner with vocabulary acquisition in the tutoring sessions that were observed. many studies that have looked at ell students in the primary grades have found that reading comprehension rates have been positively affected when interventions were geared toward developing oral language, vocabulary, and morphological awareness. no study has observed volunteer tutors interactions with adolescent at-risk ells to see what skills the tutors were helping their students develop and if those skills were affecting academic outcomes, including reading comprehension. ell oral language interventions have been associated with helping students develop greater word reading abilities (carlisle, beeman, davis, & spharim, ; gottardo, ; hedrick & cunningham, ; juel et al., ; lindsey, manis, & bailey,, ; proctor, carlo, august, & snow, ). ell vocabulary knowledge interventions are linked to greater ell reading comprehension (droop & verhoeven, ; whitely, smith, & connors, ; proctor, carlo, august & snow, ). morphological awareness interventions for ells, designed to help students understand the structure of words as combinations of meaningful units called morphemes, can be linked to helping develop reading comprehension based on the findings of the rand reading study group ( ). rand ( ) found that developing morphological awareness in ell students could help them decode complex words and that the ability to decode morphologically complex words may lead to more word learning which will increase the breadth of vocabulary an ell student knows. my study may help to add to the current discussion on reading comprehension best practices because the collected data will be able to see what reading comprehension best practices the tutors are developing, if any, with the learners. ells in the content areas while studies on secondary ells and vocabulary acquisition are limited, there have been some studies done on the experiences of ells in content area classes that further make the case that at-risk ells are struggling academically and need to be supported in order to succeed. schleppegrell & achugar ( ) did a linguistic analysis of several history textbooks and demonstrated that reading the textbooks and writing about them could be particularly difficult for ell learners. they recommend that teachers would need to explicitly teach grammatical features of textbooks to students. short ( ) researched interactions in sheltered social studies classes to see how four teachers balanced content, vocabulary, and task based instruction. she found it to be problematic for ell students that the teachers concentrated on content and task based instruction far more than language. she recommended that teaching should include explicit instruction in the four uses of language, vocabulary acquisition, grammar, and mechanics. two studies conducted with ell middle school students in their content area classes demonstrate the power of focusing on academic language in an intervention. bunch, abram, lotan, and valdes ( ) conducted an academic language intervention as part of a long term university school project. bunch et al.’s ( ) intervention created a curriculum focused on having ell students use more academic language in the classroom and in their writing. the goal of the study was to help ell students be able to participate in classes with their native speaking peers and it had successful outcomes. it is important to note that the ell students in bunch et al.’s study were encouraged to use academic language in an interactive way. another study that was done by zwier ( ) focused on helping ell middle school students learn history academic language in a functional way. components of the intervention included zwier creating word walls, chants, and motions for the target academic vocabulary he was teaching in the class. the evidence provided by zwier that the intervention had positive outcomes included showing how the students used the academic language that they had encountered in class in their final essays. the above studies positive effects support ongoing research in observing how learning concepts such as academic language is affected by social interactions. my study was able to observe and discuss what learning concepts, if any, the tutors were able to help at-risk secondary ells attain through social interaction. ell instructional practices there are several instructional practices that have been used in past interventions with ns that have been found to be effective with ells. the strategies include providing definitions and context about a new word’s meaning, actively involving students in learning the target words, providing multiple exposures of each word, and teaching word analysis (beck & mckeown, ; beck, mckeown, & kucan , beck, mckeown, & omanson, ; stahl & fairbanks, ). while it is difficult to know exactly what strategies the tutors will use in their interactions with at-risk secondary ells, it is important to be aware of some key strategies, discussed below, that others have used when working with ell learners. ell students will benefit from an intervention that takes advantage of their first language, especially if the first language shares cognates with english. carlo et al. ( ) had successful outcomes with spanish speaking th graders when the students were taught to figure out vocabulary by using cognate knowledge from their l . in another study done by dressler ( ) on the influence of cognate awareness, it was suggested that spanish speaking ells who are orally proficient in spanish will benefit just as much by cognate awareness instruction as ells who are literate in spanish as well. in jimenez ( ) and jimenez and gamez ( ) the authors talked about a short term intervention that was done with middle school spanish speaking students. they were taught how to handle unknown vocabulary by recognizing spanish cognates in english, by using background knowledge, and by asking questions. the data that was collected in the study, transcripts of each session, were analyzed and it was reported that students developed more awareness of cognates and a more positive attitude of reading. many english words that are cognates of spanish words are high frequency spanish words and low frequency english words and provides students with the english labels for words they know in spanish, therefore helping them develop a richer understanding of what beck, mckeown, and kucan ( ) label tier words. one way teachers can assist students in recognizing cognates is during reading (field et al., ; szpara & ahmad, ). ell students also need to know the labels for the many words ns already know. beck et al., ( ) label these words tier one words. tier one words are basic words that do not typically require instruction in school for ns but ell students do require instruction of tier one words. instructing ells on tier one words might be as simple as saying and showing the word and then pointing to a picture that represents the word. instruction of tier one words might be more involved if the tier one word has multiple meanings. the case study observed how tutors helped at-risk ells with vocabulary acquisition and knowing the definitions of “tiers” was helpful. when the data was collected and analyzed, the above explanations helped the researcher decide what tier the words were on that the tutor was helping the ell student learn. reviewing and reinforcing vocabulary words is another strategy that particularly benefits ells. one way to review and reinforce vocabulary is through read alouds. the strategies used to help ell students strengthen vocabulary during read alouds will vary depending on the student’s familiarity with the words. for example, tier three words defined by beck et al. ( ) are words students are unlikely to know and will often need pre-teaching and reinforcement during reading. reinforcement can also involve having student’s complete self-directed activities in order to practice newly acquired vocabulary. activities include having students take home word lists and tapes of the words (carlo et al., ). review and reinforcement were looked for in the observed data. for instance, if a tutor was helping an ell learn a word, how many times was the word reviewed or reinforced? was there any relationship between the amount of times a word was reinforced or reviewed in relation to if it was learned by the student? tutoring as discussed previously, ells are not being supported in adolescent classroom settings by teachers due to a lack of resources including training and time constraints. hence, looking at volunteer tutoring as a feasible alternative is necessary. most of the research that has been done on the effects of volunteer tutoring programs has been done in elementary schools and is connected to the america reads challenge set forth by the clinton administration in . the america reads challenge pushed for the creation of volunteer tutoring programs that would support a young student’s literacy development. volunteer tutoring is traditionally conducted by an adult who is not getting paid or may be receiving a small stipend. this review will examine research done on volunteer tutoring and tutoring programs in general in order to see what effect tutoring has on children’s vocabulary acquisition. it is important to note that several tutoring studies include vocabulary measures and interventions as one component of an overall reading focused tutoring program instead of concentrating specifically on vocabulary tutoring. this section will first look at a series of meta-analyses that have been conducted on tutoring programs. second, specific volunteer tutoring studies that incorporate word learning components will be discussed. next, some challenges within volunteer tutoring programs will be presented. then, characteristics of volunteer tutoring programs that achieve more significant results will be laid out. finally, the limited research that has been conducted on middle and high school volunteer tutoring programs will be discussed. meta-analyses of tutoring programs overall, tutoring programs have had a significant effect on student achievement in elementary schools. cohen, kulik, and kulik ( ) conducted a meta-analysis of studies on tutoring programs and found that overall the programs raised achievement levels for students. the majority of studies analyzed elementary students and all of the studies had to have quantifiable results to be included in the analysis. cohen et al. ( ) found six features to be associated with higher effect sizes, more than . or at least equal to . , included having a shorter duration of the tutoring program and if the pre-test and post-test measures were locally designed (researcher created) instead of a global (standardized) measure. wasik and slavin ( ) went further than cohen because they looked specifically at five volunteer tutoring programs versus tutoring programs in general. wasik and slavin ( ) reviewed five reading volunteer tutoring programs for grades k- and found all of the programs reported positive effects on reading. more effective programs in the review were associated with the scope, sequence, and duration of the tutoring session. wasik ( ) reviewed volunteer tutoring programs for grades k- that were part of the america reads challenge and found that all of the programs reported being effective in helping kids read, but only five had quantifiable measures. wasik found that more successful programs had a coordinator, training for tutors, and a specific structure that included word analysis, and had students be active participants in learning. shanahan ( ) conducted a landmark research synthesis of tutoring programs from - and found that tutoring programs have a positive impact on student achievement. some meta-analyses, discussed below, focused on specific features of tutoring programs. a more specific review of the context of the tutoring session was done in a review by elbaum et al. ( ) looked at tutoring programs and found that the most effective programs involved one on one instruction that was explicit. slavin ( ) made an important comparison between the effect tutoring can have based on who the tutor is in a review of , k- tutoring programs that were at least weeks in length. slavin found that although tutoring programs run by certified teachers tended to be more effective, tutoring programs run by volunteers or paraprofessionals were more cost effective. ritter et al. ( ) provided the most recent meta- analysis on volunteer tutoring programs for elementary and middle school students. the review included studies of tutoring programs for grades k- . out of the studies, of the studies were associated with word learning and all but two of the studies had positive effects. a limitation of ritter et al.’s study was that it did not review any tutoring programs that targeted high school learners which could be a result of there not being any studies to analyze that met the meta- analysis criteria. another limitation was that ritter et al. did not include any studies that targeted ell learners specifically. in fact, none of the meta-analyses targeting or talked about the impact tutoring had on ell students specifically and only a few reviewed studies done with high school learners. in order to achieve a greater understanding of the impact of tutoring, more studies need to research how tutoring effects specific age groups and learners that have not been as represented in the research. volunteer tutoring programs with word learning components several studies on volunteer tutoring and elementary students have shown positive effects on vocabulary acquisition and will be discussed below. jung, molfese, and langer ( ) conducted a study on a tutoring program that focused on language comprehension and decoding. tutors were told to focus on before, during, and after reading strategies in each session. the post test revealed that tutored students increased their ability to decode. lee, morrow-howell, johnson-reid, and mccrary ( ) conducted a study on the experience corps tutoring program, an americorps program, for elementary struggling readers. the study was done over a two year period with students in urban classrooms. the students were given pre and post- test measures to judge their standardized reading development and the tutored students outperformed students who had not received tutoring. a peabody picture vocabulary test (ppvt) was given as a measure of receptive vocabulary and the post test revealed no significant effects. lee et al. ( ) said this may be a result of the ppvt being a measuring vocabulary terms that were not the direct target words taught in the study. two specific studies stand out as valuable because they had a structured word learning component in each tutoring session and a specific structure. the first study was done by moorehart and karabruick ( ) on a tutoring program in michigan that took place in six elementary schools. each tutoring session had a ten minute structured word study. tutors would introduce - new words to the tutee in a word bank. the tutor and tutee would discuss the word’s definitions, put the words on flash cards, and look for them in context. in subsequent sessions the words would be reviewed and once the student identified the words six times on their own the word was put on the word powering. when a student got words on their powering, they were able to select a book to take home. tutor folders included a list of target words and a tracker where tutors would record words the student had learned. a standardized post-test revealed that the students had increased their overall reading abilities by one grade level. in the second study of note, juel ( ) conducted a study of a volunteer tutoring program run by minimally trained college students to elementary students. each tutor engaged tutees in seven tutoring activities (e.g. reading literature, writing, letter-sound instruction, word families, and high frequency words) that were associated with high frequency words, letter-sound relationships, word families, and reading build up books. juel found that the tutoring session was most effective in dyads that scaffolded instruction and used controlled vocabulary materials. the tutor would give just enough information for the student to get the vocabulary word and then the tutor would provide clues or prompts in order for the student to attain the words. the iowa test of basic skills was given to the students in the juel ( ) study and they outperformed students that had not been given the tutoring intervention. three studies measured vocabulary learning specifically and found positive outcomes due to the volunteer tutoring sessions. fredrick ( ) designed a volunteer tutoring study around the explicit teaching of words. in each elementary tutoring session a specific word learning part would explicitly teach students letter names, letter-sound relationships, and how to figure out word meanings. pre-test and post-test measures included having students read words in isolation, identify letter sounds, name, and rapidly name letters. the most significant finding of the study was that children could read more words as a result of the tutoring sessions. the post- test outcomes also revealed that students showed marked improvement in their letter sound relationships and ability to recognize sounds in isolation. second, vadesy, jenkins, and pool ( ) did a study of first graders in a tutoring program compared with first graders who were not enrolled in tutoring. they modeled the tutoring structure from invernizzi’s, juel’s, and rosemary’s study ( ) and it included four components: new book reading, vocabulary work, writing, and familiar book reading. one of the measures the students were tested on was the woodcock-johnson exam and it revealed that of the students identified more than % of the words compared with only two of the in the control group. lastly, baker, gersten, and keating ( ) studied the effects of the start making a reader today (smart) volunteer tutoring program for k- . tutors were minimally trained and required to read tutoring handbooks that suggested the importance of word learning. the handbook said that if children knew letter- sound relationships and words, their reading would benefit. the students were given several word learning measures including the dolch test, woodcock johnson, expressive one word vocabulary test, and rapid naming test. the students improved on their letter sound relationships and word reading. challenges within tutoring programs even though the majority of effects of tutoring programs are positive, in some cases, tutoring does not work for students. cunningham and allington ( ) found that tutoring did not support academic gains when students were taken away from class time and class content. shanahan and barr ( ) found that tutoring was not effective if the teacher who the students had for the majority of the day was not meeting high expectations. velltino et al. ( ) found that if a student did not have phonologically processing skills or a developed working memory prior to receive tutoring sessions, the sessions did not benefit the child. a child’s developmental level matters to the benefits they receive from tutoring. morris, et al. ( ) found that even though all students in a specific program did progress, it was at different levels and the pacing of a tutoring session needs to be considered. in two other tutoring intervention studies, tutoring was not beneficial for very low achieving readers (mathes & fuchs, ; shanahan ). other factors that could affect outcomes of a tutoring intervention program include the socioeconomic status (ses) of the school(s) involved in the intervention, length of intervention, and the experience level of the tutors. a low ses population was used in a study done by cobb ( ) with children in grades - from two schools. the study revealed significant differences for students receiving tutoring in grade , but there was no significant differences found in grades two or three. one of the limitations that was discussed in cobb’s ( ) early intervention tutoring intervention was the potential impact that ses had on the study’s outcomes. cobb discussed how growing up in poverty poses barriers to literacy success in tutoring interventions that are being conducted with either untrained volunteers or first time volunteers. cobb recommends that a tutoring intervention done in a lower ses school should include in- depth training for the tutors on how to teach children from diverse backgrounds and cultures. cobb also cited the length of the intervention and the experience of the tutors as a possible reason for low or no effect sizes. the intervention lasted one year and often consisted of brief sessions that were not consecutive and the tutors reported in some of their reflections that they felt inadequate based on their lack of previous experience and understanding of the critical issues of the impact of poverty in school settings. while some researchers say that a tutoring intervention will benefit academic success if it lasted for more than a year (goldenburg, ; hiebert, ), others have pointed out that positive effects can be found in short term interventions lasting for more than weeks and not longer than weeks (cohen, kulik, & kulik, ). the challenges presented above are important to be aware of because they explain some of the findings in my current study. characteristics of effective tutoring programs there are certain characteristics that have been associated with higher effects in elementary tutoring interventions. ehri, dreyer, flugman, and gross ( ) and elbaum et al. ( ) found that one-on-one dyads yield higher results. in a similar finding, shanahan ( ) found that one-on-one teachers or paid professionals produce more substantial tutoring gains than any other dyadic combination, including tutoring by parents, peers, or volunteers. morrow and walker ( ) advocated for tutoring sessions to have structure, trained tutors, adequate supplies, and support from the school in order to be effective. wasik ( ) said that when tutors are given consistent feedback, students benefit academically. worthy et al. ( ) did a study on two tutoring programs and recommended that programs screen their tutors, have a low tutor to coordinator ratio at the school, and provide explicit training. in short, a successful reading tutoring program needs to reflect intensity, structure, coordination between implementers, extensive training before and during intervention, and careful monitoring of the tutoring sessions during the intervention (wasik, ; moss, swartz, obeidallah, stewart, & greene, ). the current data on what helps to make tutoring programs successful were useful in how the observational data in my study was coded and discussed. in contrast to needing extensive training, minimal training has been found effective in some tutoring interventions. for example, the smart program intervention discussed earlier, the volunteer tutors who were minimally trained had a significant impact on reading achievement. the training was simple, lasting one to two hours prior to the intervention beginning. in the training, tutors received minutes of training on reading strategies they could use with the kids and the rest of the training was devoted to logistics. tutors were encouraged to increase student interest by reading, asking questions, and making the session fun. they were then free to start working with the students and had no additional training during the intervention. the researchers said that even though they did not know exactly what was happening in each session, the overall goal for each tutor was to try to help their students improve in reading. the researchers argue that it may in fact be the positive experience with a caring adult that speaks to the positive results more than structured reading activities. an argument could be made that perhaps the relationship leads tutored students to invest more in their academic interactions and their interactions with their classroom teacher then affects overall academic results. there have been a few other studies conducted that advocate for more structured training of tutors (shanahan, ; wasik, ) in order to have the students attain significant reading gains. juel ( ) suggested that long term training of tutors by graduate reading educators does impact progress. invernizzi, rosemary, juel, & richards ( ) had positive tutoring effects when the tutors were directed and supervised by graduates in reading education. tutoring interventions with middle and high school students with the high school dropout rate increasing, it is important to conduct preventive interventions with student populations who are at risk of not only failing in school, but continuing to have difficulties as a result of school failure. dynarski and gleason ( ) reviewed programs that reduced the rate of high school drop outs and identified that the successful programs that helped to reduce the dropout rate were done with middle school students and younger students. the programs that were successful focused on specific students and had targeted goals. even with the above findings and other researchers like mcelrain and caplan ( ) reporting that schools see great promise in tutoring programs for middle school students, there has been little research that tutoring programs work beyond the early grades and even less support that they work with minimally trained volunteers. there is almost no research available on the effectiveness of tutoring programs with high school students. this is concerning considering that joftus and maddox-dolan ( ) reported that in the u.s., roughly six million secondary students read below grade level and , students drop out of high school every day. the secondary years provide the last chance for many students to succeed in their demanding courses (biancarosa & snow, ; joftus, ). even if a child does graduate, inadequate reading skills can become a key impediment to success in post- secondary education (american diploma project, ). students who struggle with reading often lack the prerequisites that would allow them to take more academically challenging coursework that would expose them to wider reading and more challenging vocabulary (an, ). students who read at lower levels have difficulty understanding complex narratives and expository text, such as their science or math books, in high school (barton, heidema, & jordan, ). student’s performance using challenging text is the strongest indicator of whether they are prepared to succeed in college and the workplace (act, inc., ). clearly, these findings make the case for observing a volunteer tutoring interventions to see if it is helping ell at- risk high school students meet the demands of complex text. as stated above, little research has been done on the effectiveness of tutoring programs but due to accountability standards set by legislation like no child left behind (nclb), programs that are focused on reading instruction for middle and high schools are being more widely implemented (deshler et al., ). only a few reviews have been done on the effectiveness of the middle and high school reading programs that are being implemented (deshler et al., ; slavin et al., ) and none of the programs that have been reviewed were tried specifically with ell students in a volunteer tutoring environment focusing on academic vocabulary acquisition. the programs reviewed by slavin et al. ( ) were found to be moderately effective since they used cooperative learning techniques; the students were able to work in small groups to master reading skills. slavin et al. did not review any high school programs that were effective in building ell academic vocabulary through volunteer tutoring because there were not studies to look at. it would benefit ells if more studies looked at how tutoring sessions are currently being structured for ell learners and what factors contribute to their academic success. this review discussed what is known about the effect of volunteer tutoring among elementary children and vocabulary acquisition. overall, volunteer tutoring raises elementary student achievement on measures of literacy and vocabulary learning. tutoring programs that are one- on- one, explicit, structured, and include a word learning component tend to have higher effects. some tutoring programs do not work based on developmental and contextual factors. tutors need to be aware of their student’s backgrounds, receive training, and be provided with adequate feedback to help their students develop literacy skills. theoretical homebase as stated earlier, my study is grounded in a vygotskian home base with regard to educational theory. toward that aim, moll’s ( ) edited volume of vygotskian research provides the basis for developing a theoretical orientation grounded in vygotsky’s theory of learning and the zone of proximal development (zpd). it’s important to note that although the zpd has become a popular concept, vygotsky himself only gave it a nominal amount of attention in his writing. many other vygotskian theorists have extended his work, and this has enabled some broader applications of the zpd to developmental theory which will be discussed below. first, several aspects and applications of vygotsky’s zpd will be discussed including its stages, instructional model, context importance, and relevance as a teacher-researcher collaborative tool. the zpd discussion will be followed by a discussion of how the zpd was instituted in a few key studies related to tutoring, vocabulary acquisition, and ell learning. stages of zpd drawing on earlier work (tharp & gallimore, ), gallimore and tharp ( ) share an abbreviated four stage model of progression through the zpd that they developed. the first stage is where the performance is assisted by more capable others. a child has limited understanding at this stage and the teacher offers directions and modeling. stage two is where performance is assisted by the self and the children carry out a task without assistance from others. they might use self-directed speech in stage two. stage three is where the performance is developed, automatized, and fossilized. assistance from adult or self is no longer needed in stage three. stage four is where deautomatization of performance leads to a recursion of the zpd. the child might have to relearn a concept if it becomes deautomatized. for example, a teacher introduces the word “infer” to a child. the child does not have prior knowledge of the word and the teacher models the word through examples and definitions (stage one). the child begins to use the word infer during the school day reading without being prompted by the teacher. before using the word, the child might repeat the definition of infer to himself (stage two). the child regularly uses the word in class discussions and in their writing automatically (stage three). the child goes on summer vacation, forgets the meaning of the word infer, and has to relearn the word in the fall (stage four). in stage four, the word became deautomatized and vygotsky would say that the child never learned the word’s concept, rather he formed an understanding of the word as a pseudo-concept. the goal of the zpd is for the child to eventually learn the word’s concept and not become deautomatized. instructional model there are several ways the zpd has been used as an instructional model which will be discussed below. hedgegaard ( ) discusses how the zpd can be applied as a basis for instruction. her arguments are illustrated through an experimental teaching project that took place in a danish elementary school for students in third through fifth grade. hedgegaard based her project on an underlying assumption of vygotsky’s zpd, the idea that “psychological development and instruction are socially embedded” ( , p. ). the zpd instructional model used by hedgegaard ( ) had instructors teach scientific concepts to children so that the concepts would eventually become everyday knowledge for the child. scientific concepts were selected for the project if they were “considered important by curriculum planners” (hedgegaard, , p. ) and if the teachers could relate them to everyday concepts in order to provide the children with new skills and the possibility of eventually using the scientific concepts as everyday concepts. for instance, teaching the evolution of a polar bear was considered an important scientific concept and students were challenged to relate this concept with what they already knew about evolution. the design of hedgegaard’s ( ) study on zpd instruction followed six primary principles that included: ( ) taking the child into consideration; ( ) relating instruction to the child’s life; ( ) relating content to bigger themes being taught; ( ) motivation and interest in content must be developed by children; ( ) developing children’s capacity for modeling; and ( ) integrating knowledge with performance in other subjects. the study resulted in qualitative changes in children’s ability to solve problems connected with the evolution of animals. the teaching experiment advocates for the use of the zpd as a tool for class instruction and “differed from traditional instruction in that children were constantly and deliberately forced to act” (hedgegaard, , p. ). context of zpd like vygotsky, tudge ( ) emphasized the importance of context in the zpd. context is defined as the environment where the zpd instruction happens, such as school. the context is also determined by the level of capability of the adult or more capable peer. development within the zpd will only occur if the interaction the child has is with a person who is more capable. based on this argument, vygotsky ( ) asserted that children with disabilities should be mainstreamed with “normal” children in schools in order for their development to benefit from the social interaction. if children with disabilities are placed in an environment with less capable peers, they will regress. tudge argues that it is essential to examine the social environments and type of instruction all children are receiving, regardless of whether they are “handicapped” in any way. he says “development, far from being teleological or unidirectional, must be viewed as context-dependent” (tudge, , p. ). teacher/researcher collaborative tool mcnamee ( ) offers an entire chapter in moll ( ) on how she applied the zpd within an inner city setting in order to promote literacy development. she developed a zpd with the teachers and community center involved in the study in order to promote the literacy development of the children in head start programs and day care centers. the community center that mcnamee worked with wanted her to help them make changes that they could eventually carry out on their own. she said that this stipulation “was a beautiful articulation of what vygotsky had in mind for change in the zpd” (mcnamee, , p. ). the center wanted help, but wanted to become more independent in leading and controlling their interactions. mcnamee positioned herself as the “expert” in the study. the teachers and community center were positioned as the students or less capable peers. the zpd was built between the teachers, community center, and mcnamee through collaborative planning, constant written feedback given by mcnamee, and modeled instruction of teaching practices through paired teaching experiences. mcnamee ( ) writes, “the zpd is a concept that explains how thinking that is initially carried out among people in groups becomes reorganized, with individuals taking over more control and direction of their own thinking” (p. ). zpd in tutoring the cohen et al. ( ) piece is an extensive study on tutoring. the meta-analysis independently evaluates school tutoring program and found tutoring to effectively improve students’ academic success and attitudes about schooling. some aspects of the meta- analysis are of particular relevance to my study, including: the effects the tutoring had on academics, the guidelines used when selecting studies to analyze, the variables that described each study, and how the study measured effects. additionally, the cohen study is relevant to my study on volunteer tutoring because it is related to vygotskian ideas which will be discussed below. cohen et al. ( ) is related to vygotskian ideas because the meta- analysis on tutoring demonstrates how social interactions matters to learning. the meta-analysis found that students’ academic performance improved and their attitude toward a particular concept was more positive as a result of interacting with a more capable peer or teacher. the analysis found that the more successful tutoring sessions were structured and that they paid attention to giving students information that was novel but not so challenging that the student would shut down. the tutoring sessions that had the most significant results were based on an individualized teaching method between humans vs. a computerized program or programmed instruction. in out of the achievement studies in the meta- analysis, tutoring was the favored method of instruction over conventional instruction when examination scores were judged. in short, cohen et al. ( ) provides evidence in support of the vygotskian belief that social interaction develops learning. zpd in vocabulary development any research study in the area of vocabulary must be firmly grounded in a particular conception of how to teach ells vocabulary using vygotskian principles. harris et al. ( ) lay out a developmental perspective of vocabulary and vocabulary strategies for elementary- aged children but argue that the principles they introduce “enhance vocabulary development for all children” (p. ). harris et al. ( ) argued that the current isolated methods for teaching vocabulary are not aligned with how vocabulary develops incrementally through context. they say, “the current methods are unethical to years of research on early word learning” (harris et al., , p. ). the authors present an instructional model of vocabulary teaching that reflects how vocabulary is developed, as well as the ideal environment for instruction. below, i will discuss the developmental perspective described by harris et al. ( ) as it is related to vygotsky. the six principles harris et al. ( ) suggest teachers should be using in their classrooms, and the environment they feel is ideal for vocabulary learning will be discussed. connections between the author’s model of vocabulary development, my vygotskian theoretical home base, and the present study will be addressed. harris et al. ( ) represent an argument that word learning happens when vocabulary is taught through social interactions which relates directly to vygotsky’s theory of learning. harris et al. ( ) write research points us in the direction of natural interactions as the source of vocabulary learning…as children engage in play with literacy tools, the likelihood the vocabulary will ‘stick’ is heightened when children’s engagement and motivation for learning new words is high. embedding new words in activities that children want to do recreate the conditions by which vocabulary learning takes place (p ). harris et al. ( ) is essentially saying teachers should be instructing vocabulary through a child’s zpd. a teacher needs to present words to children, have them engage with the words independently in active ways, and eventually the child will learn the word. three main stages comprise the continuum of the vocabulary development model as described by harris et al. ( ). first, children find the sounds and words in language. before vocabulary can be learned, a child needs to be able to segment and store sounds that make up words. the process of segmentation and sound differentiation typically happens when the child is an infant. the child uses a variety of cues, provided through social context, and is able to recognize different stresses of sounds and frequently used words. the authors note that knowing the sounds will help children build their vocabulary and reading skills later. eventually “[s]ensitivity to common stress patterns (will) help children to pronounce unfamiliar words in the text correctly” (harris et al., , p. ). the second stage of vocabulary learning is demonstrated when the child begins to both recognize sound patterns and know that sound patterns have meaning, they turn into words. for instance, words like mommy and daddy are known to the child and stored by the child even if the child cannot yet say the words themselves. learning the meanings of words is a lengthy process and the child needs exposure to words in varied context in order to discern a word’s range of application and eventually be able to use it herself. during the second phase, “embedding words in sentences is crucial to illustrate word meaning and at the same time (it) influences the learning of grammar” (harris, et al., , p. ). the third phase of vocabulary development is about knowing that many word types are needed for vocabulary, grammar, and narrative. harris et al. ( ) state that, “while verbs and spatial-relational terms are more difficult than concrete nouns for children to acquire, they are necessary if children are to comprehend and produce complex sentences” (p. ). parts of speech can be presented to children in sentences and in real world context. when children have an understanding of word parts, they will be able to combine vocabulary into sentences and narratives. vygotsky would agree that while there are stages of development, progression through stages of development, vocabulary or otherwise, occur in a gradual manner and are dependent on a child’s context. rarely does an ability that is entirely absent at one stage make a sudden appearance and social context plays the central role in cognitive growth. with the understanding that learning precedes development, someone could be operating at different stages in different contexts. in each of the stages harris et al. ( ) presented, social context is a key factor to development. the cues that a child needs in stage one in order to be able to segment and store sounds are provided by their social context. in stage two, a child will only be able to know that sound patterns turn into words and words have meaning if they are in a social environment where words are presented in various contexts and embedded in sentences by caregivers. the third stage, knowing that many word types are needed for vocabulary, grammar, and narrative, will happen if children are presented with parts of speech in sentences and in real world context by others. in addition to the three phases of vocabulary development, harris et al. ( ) delineated six principles of teaching that need to happen in order for children to learn words. the principles are related closely to hedgegaard’s ( ) double move instruction principles which further prove the argument that vocabulary instruction will benefit from zpd instruction. the first principle is that frequency matters. children will learn the words that they hear the most. the second principle is that instructors need to make instruction interesting. children will learn words for things and events that interest them. thirdly, the instruction should be responsive context rather than passive context. the children should be engaged in the conversation and respond to the word learning through negotiated conversations. the fourth principle is that the instruction should focus on meaning and the kids should be learning the words through meaningful context. fifth, clarity is necessary in word learning instruction. children need clear information about word meaning. finally, the sixth principle is that the instructor needs to remember that word-learning and grammatical developments are reciprocal processes. harris et al. ( ) states, “children learn vocabulary through grammar and grammar through vocabulary” (p. ). as mentioned earlier, hedgegaard’s ( ) double move instruction principles reflect harris et al. ( ) principles because they too involve giving clear information, independent practice, motivating the child, and giving the child control of learning, the above principles, aligned with zpd instruction, serve as a guide to how researchers can hold word learning to a high standard and help children develop vocabulary. the tharp and gallimore ( ) model of zpd progression also complements the idea that vocabulary will be developed gradually through principles of good teaching vs. a child simply arriving at the knowledge of a word without assistance. gallimore and tharp ( ) write, “[t]he development of any performance capacity in the individual represents a changing relationship between self-regulation and social regulation. gradually, overtime, a child requires less performance assistance, as the capacity for self-regulation increases” (p. ). this theory of teaching, assisting learners so that they will eventually be able to self-regulate, complements harris et al.’s ( ) suggested pedagogical principals for teaching vocabulary. a child will learn vocabulary words if practitioners are mindful that how they are teaching children is just as important as what the child learns. harris et al. ( ) writes, “[a]dults who take turns, share periods of joint focus, and express positive affect when interacting…provide children with the scaffolding needed to facilitate language and cognitive growth” (p. ). the goal of the zpd stages of progression is for a learning concept to eventually become automatized by the child much like the goal of learning vocabulary is that the child really knows the word. harris et al. ( ) concludes, “[t]o claim that children really know a word, we must show that they have not only acquired a minimal grasp of the word but can also transfer the word to new context, and retain the word and its meaning overtime” (p. ). drawing from cognitive theory, harris et al. ( ) explains the role of the environment in helping children develop vocabulary. specifically, harris’s ideas about the use of play to learn vocabulary are vygotskian. harris et al. ( ) argues, “[c]onversations that take place between adults and children in the context of a playful activity, and that build on children’s interest offer children new lexical concepts that are more likely to be retained that unbidden verbal explanations” (p. ). vygotsky, as discussed in the moll ( ) piece, believed that play is an essential part of both language development and a child’s understanding of the external world. during play, information is transmitted and vocabulary is internalized through language. in a playful context, a child observes, listens to speech, and practices through imitation as caregivers guide, correct, and provide challenge. through child- centered play, the child takes on different roles and tries out different language uses in order to go from external regulation to internal regulation. a child becomes more competent and regulates their own learning processes through play. harris et al. ( ) makes the same argument about how vocabulary learning takes place. harris et al. ( ) says that vocabulary learning happens in the course of natural interactions and children should be allowed “to explore the meaning of words via playful interaction” (p. ). a playful context could be “storybook reading, conversation between parents or teachers and children, guided play with adults, or free play between children or children and adults” (p. harris et al., , p. ). as for the notion of the zpd in vocabulary instruction, there are nuances to it worth considering. for vygotsky, words are a meditational means, so he would be more concerned with the ways in which learning new words enables new forms of culturally valued activity. so he might think of vocabulary as an important aspect of, for example, apprenticeship into a disciplinary community (i.e. knowing the names of different muscles for a physical therapist). i doubt that vygotsky would agree with a view of vocabulary development that views a child’s vocabulary as a stable, measurable construct that is not keyed to unique contexts. however, as a pedagogical tool, vygotsky saw the zpd as evidence in support of how to teach learning concepts through the value of play, experimentation, and “insightful imitation” as meditational tools for learners. therefore, it supports approaches to vocabulary instruction that seek multiple applications of new words across meaningful and varied contexts, that argue for cohesive, unified curricular units, and that implicitly refute the notions of “fast mapping” that (mis)guided much of our theoretical understanding of how kids learn new words for several decades. in those respects, the zpd is definitely a helpful way to think about what good instruction looks like no matter what the goal of that instruction might be. zpd with ells as my study examines english language learners (ells) it is important to have an understanding of how the zpd works with ell populations. august and shanahan ( ) compiled an edited volume of scholarship about how ells develop their reading and writing skills based on a report conducted by the national literacy panel on language- minority children and youth. critical topics about ells are covered including demographics, development of literacy, and beneficial instructional contexts. the main principles of the critical topics and how the critical topics are related to vygotsky will be discussed. in her review, august ( ) found that most teachers whom have three or more ell students in their classrooms are certified teachers, but they have no training in working with ell students. this finding mirrors what tudge ( ) explained about the important of context in the zpd. a student will progress through their zpd only if the adult that is supporting them is capable. with a lack of teacher training, ell students are regressing. in terms of services, august cited a study done by the development associates ( ) about the percentage and types of services ell students receive. the development associates ( ) found that “… % of ell students receive no services, % receive some special language services, and % receive extensive services” (p. ). some services were defined as instruction that supports the regular instruction they are receiving in mainstream classrooms. extensive services are defined as having an ell student spend a substantial portion of their day in english as a second language (esl) class and have at least one subject area taught with a specially designed curriculum and approach. lesaux et al. ( ) discuss the development of literacy in ell learners. they base their discussion on an extensive review of studies done on ell learners. a key finding from the studies reveal that development of a student’s l can influence and facilitate development of their l which reflects vygotsky’s language argument that l acquisition is related to l acquisition. other findings revealed that ell learners have a lack of oral language proficiency (receptive and expressive), have a short term memory of the content and need to develop a working memory of content, and that building long term memory with sight word vocabulary is important for word reading and text comprehension . the review found “that reading readiness, including measures of phonological skills, predicted aspects of language- minority students later reading development regardless of whether the measures were in the student’s first or second language” (lesaux et al., , p. ) . another relevant finding was that word reading and spelling is highly correlated with reading development. lesaux et al. ( ) report that ell students with a large repository of high frequency and academic relevant words are better able to process written text compared with students without a repertoire. these studies were criticized because they did not look at older ell students, did not address text level skills, and were not clear on the instructional content that worked for ells. these critiques call for studies that include older ell students and samples of both ell students and native english speakers that have similar academic ability. lesaux et al. ( ) suggest more studies should be done on older ell learners involving text level skills and recommend a multifactorial approach could help disentangle the learners, text, context, and instructional factors. august et al. ( ) reviewed research on instructional techniques related to literacy and language. findings from effective classrooms and schools found that schools that have positive student outcomes for ells promoted the active involvement of students, scaffolded instruction, and used collaborative/cooperative learning. the findings, i would argue, represent that effective ell support in classrooms and schools involve vygotskian principles. the students were encouraged to be active agents, teachers presented information through assistance first, and learning resulted from human interaction. august et al. ( ) discussed a review done by the national research panel, which looked at studies on teaching vocabulary skills to native speakers where reading comprehension improved in the majority of studies. only three experimental studies were found on vocabulary and ell learners and all three yielded positive effects. august et al. ( ) conclude, “…that although these results are insufficient to prove that the same instructional routines found to benefit native speakers are equally effective with english-language learners, they in no way contradict the idea” (p. ). the review reported that bilingual education was found to have a positive effect on english reading outcomes and knowing how to read in the first language (l ) benefited an ell acquiring reading skills in their second language (l ) which aligns with vygotsky’s argument that l development greatly influences development in l . instructional techniques that worked included using picture cues, identifying and clarifying differences, consolidating text knowledge through summary, and providing extra practice reading words, sentences and stories. teaching students learning strategies, such as how to organize their thoughts and scaffolding instruction was effective. the instructional techniques known to work for adolescent ells are related to hedgegaard’s ( ) zpd double move instruction. as explained earlier, zpd double move instruction is when a teacher gives a child multiple examples, and connections to make the concept more concrete. the child learns the concepts because they are able to explore concepts in active ways with the teacher’s help and eventually on their own through practice. the instructional techniques above worked because ell students were given support from teachers through double move like instruction. august et al. ( ) recommend that experimental or quasi experimental designs should be used to further research on instructional techniques that specifically work for ells. my case study design looking at how volunteer tutors are interacting with at-risk adolescent ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions will further research on using the zpd as an instructional tool. zpd in a vocabulary intervention for ell students lesaux et al. ( ) evaluated the implementation and effectiveness of an academic vocabulary program. this empirical work was important to discuss because it deals with vocabulary learning, an ell adolescent population, and the principles that guided the study mirror my own theoretical home base. the study evaluated was the academic language instruction for all students program (alias), which was designed for use in mainstream middle school classrooms that had a high proportion of ell students. alias consisted of two week units and each day cycle included a variety of whole group, small group, and independent activities designed to promote deep processing through opportunities for listening, speaking, reading, and writing with words. the primary goal for this particular study of sixth grade students ( ell and native english) and their teachers, from seven middle schools in an urban school district in the u.s., was to generate new insights related to vocabulary instruction by evaluating the effects of a program that was designed to bolster students vocabulary and reading comprehension skills. first, the study’s methodology and findings will be discussed. connections will then be made between the study’s theoretical underpinnings and my own vygotskian theoretical lens. finally, the limitations of the study will be discussed with regards to my own study. the lesaux et al. ( ) team viewed vocabulary development similarly to the study conducted by harris et al. ( ). lesaux et al. ( ) say the components of “effective (reading) comprehension necessarily draws on vocabulary knowledge; once words are decoded accurately, the reader must grasp the word meanings to comprehend clauses, prepositions, and paragraphs” (p. ). similarly, the vocabulary stages described by harris et al. ( ) argue that students first are able to accurately decode words, understand word meanings, and only then will the child be able to start to identify word types and grammatical structures. both studies also emphasized the context in which students learn vocabulary words which further points to using the vygotsky theory of learning to study vocabulary acquisition. the study’s vocabulary frames were that “knowledge of a word…is thought to develop incrementally over time with students gaining additional info about a word with each meaningful, contextualized encounter with it” (lesaux et al., , p. ). the alias program gave students frequent exposure to words, created the units around student interest, was interactive, focused on meaning, provided clear information, and went beyond the word by attaching it to reading, writing, and discussion. all of the alias lesson components mirror the six principles harris et al. ( ) lay out as instructional principles of word learning which are vygotskian by nature. the guiding principles of the lesaux et al. ( ) framework mirror a vygotskian framework by using the aspects of a zpd within each tutoring session. the researchers wanted to balance direct teaching with teaching word learning strategies to equip the students with the cognitive skills they would need to learn the words independently. in essence, the study had teachers go through the four stages of the zpd developed by tharp and gallimore ( ). the teacher would directly teach the word and offer word learning strategies (stage one). the children would then complete activities where they would recognize target words, write sentences with words in them, and practice using target words independently in activities like crossword puzzles (stage two). the words are then used in different context by students such as mock interviews and debates where using the words become more automatized (stage three). specific words were retaught to the students based on student assessments (stage four). just like the zpd should allow students to be active agents in the learning process, each alias lesson was designed “to promote active processing of target word meanings” (lesaux et al., , p. ). lesaux et al. ( ) demonstrate vygotskian principles within the intervention model. firstly, the intervention model was aligned with how vygotsky understood the zpd as a construct that applied to a dyad of learner and expert. it was a representation of the developmental potential within the learner that could be unlocked through the facilitation of an “expert mentor” who has already internalized the cultural and practical knowledge that is valued insofar as it reflects shared cultural goals. each day cycle in the intervention model included activities facilitated by an “expert mentor” that provided deep processing through opportunities for students to listen, speak, read, and write with words. secondly, each teacher involved within the study also took part in a zpd progression as part of their training that was similar to how mcnamee ( ) applied the zpd to promote literacy development. each teacher met with a program specialist once a month in order to progress along a zpd for developing intervention implementation. the meetings followed an organic discussion based format designed to be supportive and based on teacher’s implementation needs. the program specialist helped the intervention teacher develop their skills in a social context. lastly, the target words used in the intervention were selected much like hedgegaard ( ) selected target words in her study using vygotsky’s zpd principle. words were selected by hedgegaard ( ) if they were considered important to the curriculum and if they could be connected to everyday concepts that the kids knew. words were selected by lesaux et al. ( ) if they represented words worth teaching and knowing across academic disciplines. the words appeared in both text and were on the academic word list (awl; coxhead ) but occurred more rarely in oral conversation and narrative texts. vygotsky, as discussed in moll ( ), called these type of words the “scientific” concepts of schooling the lesaux et al. ( ) shared the view of vocabulary development argued for in this proposal that word learning is developed incrementally overtime with each meaningful, contextualized encounter a student has with the word. they used pedagogical principles similar to ones advocated by harris et al ( ) that promote active processing and collaborative learning. ell students learned academic vocabulary in the study as a result of being able to move through the stages of their zpd. chapter methods this chapter describes the research approach i have adopted to investigate volunteer tutoring and its effects on adolescent ells’ vocabulary acquisition. first, i provide the rationale for utilizing qualitative research and a case study design as a form of qualitative inquiry. next, i explain my role as a researcher, positionality, and its impact on the way i conducted the study. then, i depict the study’s site and participants, including how tutors and ell students will be selected. the procedures i used to collect and analyze the data are subsequently detailed. finally, i delineate the various strategies i employed to address bias and attend to ethical concerns that may arise while conducting this study. qualitative research and a case study design i chose a qualitative approach for this study for several compelling reasons. specifically, a qualitative approach is warranted when the nature of research requires exploration (stake, ). qualitative research questions often begin with how or what, so the researcher can gain and in depth understanding of what is going on relative to the topic (patton, ; seidman, ). for the current study i explored one-on-one tutoring interactions with at-risk adolescent ell students by asking the following how questions: (a) how do volunteer tutors interact in one- on-one tutoring sessions with at-risk adolescent ells? and (b) how are volunteer tutors supporting vocabulary acquisition with adolescent ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions?. second, a qualitative study allows the researcher to explore a phenomena, such as feelings or thought processes that are difficult to extract or learn about through conventional research methods (strauss & corbin, ). for the present study, i explored the participant’s perceptions and lived experiences (jones, torres, & arminio, ) of supporting adolescent ell students in one-on-one tutoring sessions. third, qualitative research methods are the best approach when studying phenomena in their natural settings (denzin & lincoln, ), and when striving to understand social processes in context (esterberg, ). the current study observed one-on-one tutoring sessions with adolescent ells in order to understand the context. fourth, qualitative methods emphasize the researcher’s role as active participant in the study (creswell, ). for the present study, i, the researcher, was the key instrument in data collection, and the interpreter of data findings (stake, ). qualitative research methods used in this study included: purposeful sampling, semi-structured interviews, and systematic and concurrent data collection and analysis procedures. moreover, the constant comparative method (glaser & strauss, ) was used to analyze data and discover how tutors were interacting in one-on-one tutoring sessions with adolescent ells. qualitative case study research served as the main methodology for this study. there are many well-known case study researchers, the most prominent of whom include robert k. yin, robert e. stake, and sharon b. merriam, all of whom have written extensively about case study research, and have suggested techniques for organizing and conducting such research successfully. for the purposes of this dissertation research, i relied primarily on definitions offered by modern case study methodologist merriam ( ), stake ( ), and yin ( ). stake ( ) described case study methodology as a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher explores in depth a program, event, activity, or process of one or more individuals. cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time. for this study, the phenomenon under investigation is one-on-one tutoring. the case for the current study were three volunteer tutors supporting at-risk adolescent ells from an urban charter school in the mid-atlantic region. case study researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time. for this study, i collected data through observations and interviews, tutoring reflection logs, and reviewed documents that were used in the tutoring sessions. after the data were collected, it was coded for emergent themes. another component of case studies is the unit of analysis, defined as the area of focus of the study (merriam, ; yin, ). for this study, this unit of analysis was the tutors in the study because they are the major entity being studied. for the first question, the tutor’s interactions were observed and for the second research question vocabulary interactions were focused on. i chose to use a case study design because i wanted to look through the lens of three individual tutors that were working in the same school setting during the same time period. yin ( ) defines a case study as an up-close, in depth, and detailed examination of a subject of study (the case), as well as its related contextual conditions. my case, or subject of study, was volunteer tutoring with an at-risk population. the definition of case study research according to hartley ( ) is that it “consists of a detailed investigation, often with data collected over a period of time, of phenomena, within their context,” with the aim being “to provide an analysis of the context and processes which illuminate the theoretical issues being studied” (p. ). furthermore, a case study, as defined by thomas ( ), is an analysis of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, or systems that are studied in a holistic way using one or more methods. choosing to look at one tutoring project, in one school site, gave me a chance to collect multiple forms of data that helped to paint a more comprehensive picture of the interactions i observed. additionally, a qualitative case study approach was appropriate because it enabled me to observe the tutoring sessions in a less obtrusive way. i observed the tutoring sessions in a natural school setting rather than manipulating behaviors or conducting an intervention. although the study attempted to capture the tutoring sessions “as they naturally occurred,” it was understood that the presence of the researcher was still felt. another rationale for this case study design involves how it will contribute to the body of qualitative research that examines how at-risk secondary ells are being supported in united states classrooms. scholarly research has generally overlooked focusing on what support staff, like volunteer tutors, are doing to support at-risk secondary ells (august & hakuta, ; snow, griffin & burns, ). this will be the first case study that examines at-risk adolescent ells tutoring and vocabulary acquisition experiences through the lens of volunteer tutoring sessions. moreover, my study is particularly relevant because at this time volunteer tutors are being placed in middle and high schools by school districts or charter schools to help at-risk students and it would be helpful to know how they are supporting at-risk ell learners. it will also be helpful to understand how vocabulary is being introduced to at-risk populations by tutors in one-on-one tutoring sessions considering what we know about how important it is for students to understand academic vocabulary in order to comprehend content area text (coxhead, ; purves, ). common criticisms of the case study as a form of inquiry include that a case study lacks methodological rigor and generalizable findings (yin, ). there are a number of ways i included methodological rigor in my study. first, i asked questions throughout the study such as: ) do the data collection methods maximize the chance to collect a full range of information that will answer my research questions?; ) what checks are in place to ensure that the discourse patterns and information i am gathering is being accurately interpreted?; and ) do the data collection methods produce appropriate information?. second, i wanted to make sure that the information that i gathered was transparent and explicit. this involved checking with my dissertation committee in order to make sure that i was presenting information simply and clearly. third, i addressed methodological rigor by systematically coding my data. i created codes that stood for types of interactions that i was either looking for in each tutoring session, such as vocabulary transactions, or for interactions that started to become recognizable across tutoring sessions. for example, a systematic code was created for things like tutors connecting to tutees lives or for instances when the tutor used the student’s first language in a session. systematically coding the data gave me a chance to look for reoccurring patterns within and across tutoring interactions and it set up parameters that allowed me to look at the data in a more consistent way. i applied the codes and was able to carefully scrutinize the data as a result. finally, i attempted to make sure i was collecting data in a consistent way throughout the study. for instance, each tutor was observed during the same days, timeframes, and in the same tutoring environments. the same interview format, reflection form, and guidelines were also used for each tutor and every tutor filled out a reflection form after each session. moreover, i neither generalize my findings nor claim my study’s sample to be representative of all volunteer tutors or secondary at-risk ells. role of the researcher and positionality in this section, i will first discuss my previous experiences and how they are tied to my interest in conducting the study. next, i will list how my qualifications position me as a researcher in positive and negative ways. then, i will discuss my role as a researcher and how i attempted to act during the study. finally, i will give my final reflections on conducting the qualitative case study in relation to my positionality. my interest in the work of volunteer tutors in classrooms started eight years ago. in , i worked as a project manager for city year greater philadelphia, primarily managing service in high school classrooms. city year is an ameri-corps national service program for young people, - , who contribute hours of educational service in under resourced schools. service consists of keeping track of students attendance, behavior, and providing tutoring to students. city year corps members work with at-risk students in order to help alleviate the drop- out crisis in the united states and they are considered volunteers because they receive a stipend, not a salary for their work . as part of city year, i became aware of the achievement gaps at-risk students were experiencing in high schools, and that volunteer tutoring, provided by the city year corps members, was an integral part of the school systems intervention plan to help struggling students. in particular, i observed how volunteer tutors can influence a student’s academic experience in a myriad of ways. through my informal observations of tutoring sessions and conversations with the city year volunteer tutors about their experiences, i gained an informed, yet incomplete, understanding of the impact tutors were having. overall, my experiences with city year confirmed the need to look more closely at the impact volunteer tutors are having with at-risk secondary students. after city year, i started a graduate program at temple university. as part of my coursework, i took the required credits necessary to earn a program specialist certificate in teaching ells. my interest in researching at-risk secondary ells in this study came from that certification experience. as part of the coursework, i was required to observe and teach several different ell students. what i began to notice with the at-risk adolescent ells who i worked with or observed was that they were either getting no support or very little support from the school environment in order to succeed academically. the ell learners were especially struggling to comprehend content-area class texts and would become frustrated when they did not know the meaning of several words that they were required to understand. this is because many content area teachers in middle or high schools do not have the time or resources to support at-risk adolescent ells and researchers would benefit from looking at how support staff, such as volunteer tutors, can support them. thus, i want to specifically understand how volunteer tutors are helping ells with vocabulary acquisition because i know from my ell program specialist work that at-risk adolescent ells struggle with vocabulary acquisition that enables comprehension of content area academic texts. the data collected in the study that focuses on vocabulary acquisition may provide new information on how vocabulary learning is being valued or devalued in one-on-one adolescent settings. this information may help to influence how future volunteer tutoring programs and vocabulary interventions for ells are designed and implemented. positionality there are several aspects of my background that influenced my positionality in the study. my english as a second language (esl) program specialist certification coursework provided theory and several practicum experiences where i worked directly with ell students in individual and small group settings. in this sense, i believe my esl certification advantageously positioned me to understand the inner workings of a tutoring session. for instance, i have experience with creating tutoring lesson plans that included direct, indirect, and task based learning. my esl program specialist certification has also enabled me to work with ell learners internationally. from my experiences helping ell students in china, peru, and ethiopia, i am positioned advantageously because i know what it is like to be a learner of a language in another culture. in addition, my certification experiences allowed me to empathize with the challenges and successes tutors face when working with ells. for example, i am familiar with how frustrating it can be for tutors to not be able to communicate a concept effectively and how rewarding it can be when a student is able to connect with a concept. additionally, my work in the field and in graduate school has prepared me to design meaningful interview questions, included in this dissertation, that are relevant to my research questions. while my experiences as a full-time educator, former city year project manager, reading specialist, esl program specialist, and graduate student all influenced my positionality in the case study, my experiences as an educator, project manager, and reading specialist were particularly influential. i have four years of experience as a full-time educator in k- settings. as a full-time educator, i have extensive experience planning and implementing lessons, managing classroom behavior, and creating classroom environments. as a result, i am able to describe what i saw in the observations or heard in the interviews through the lens of an experienced educator. being a city year project manager helped expose me to the power of volunteer tutoring, but it may have also biased my ability to look at the volunteer tutors in the study independently without having pre-conceived notions of what tutoring is based on my work with city year. in , i received my reading specialist certification. as a reading specialist, i am interested in what specific literacy-based instructional practices support reading comprehension in at-risk populations. as a result, i am emphasizing how the tutors in the study are helping at-risk adolescent ells acquire vocabulary. if i instead was a mathematician, i may have designed my second research question around how the tutors were providing math instruction. in short, i recognize that my qualifications positioned me in positive ways but may also pre-dispose me to bias, regarding practices and focus which will represent one of this study’s limitations. my actions during the study reflected the role of a non-participant observer. as a non- participant observer i wanted to enter a social system and observe events, activities, and interactions with an aim of gaining a direct understanding of a phenomenon in its natural context (liu & maitlis, ). for this reason, i chose to audiotape sessions and take field notes in an area that attempted to separate the tutors and tutees from me. this involved choosing a seating location that was not directly beside the tutors/tutees and putting materials in a chair that was between the tutees/tutors in order to create a boundary. moreover, i did not interact directly with the tutors or learners during the sessions. i know that it was impossible for the tutor or tutee to be unaware of my presence, but i am hoping that they were able to interact within the session like they would have acted if i were not present. by creating physical boundaries, not talking during sessions, and choosing an audio recorder that was small and required pushing a silent button to begin recording, i tried to limit the effect of my presence. the tutors were also informed that my presence was strictly to observe and that i was not there to judge their performance in tutoring sessions. i believe that positioning myself in this way allowed the tutors and tutees to act more candid manner during their tutoring sessions and speak more frankly in the semi-structured and formal interviews. reflections this section describes my final reflections on engaging in this qualitative case study research project. i discuss the methodological decisions that yielded intended outcomes as well as those that produced unexpected or undesirable results. additionally, i trace my growth as a researcher from participating in this research. overall, i think the most successful aspect of the study was being able to observe the volunteer tutors in an unrestricted environment. the school site, tutoring coordinator, and teachers i worked with in the study allowed me full access to the classrooms and tutoring sessions. this enabled me to really become a part of the research site which allowed the tutors and students to become comfortable with my presence. i feel that this level of familiarity enabled the tutors and students to conduct their one-on-one sessions as they would have if i was not there which added to the findings authenticity. additionally, another successful element of the study was collecting different forms of data. being able to use my observation notes, field notes, interviews, and the reflection logs that tutors filled out after each session really made a difference in how i was able to tell the story of the tutoring interactions. with multiple forms of data collection, i was able to provide evidence in the findings section that came from many different avenues. although i am satisfied with many elements of this study, i regret that i contributed to the body of literature that overlooks the impact of gender, specific subject content, and student perceptions of the tutoring experiences. in retrospect, i would have taken the impact of the tutor’s gender on their interactions and examined how specific subject areas affected the tutoring interactions. during the course of the study, i noticed that the tutoring interactions tended to be different based on what subject was being presented. i also noticed that some of the tutor’s interactions may have been associated with how they identified with their own gender and the students gender. since the above mentioned elements were not the focus of my study, i did not explore them extensively but feel that by exploring gender roles and specific subject interactions more context could have been provided to the study’s findings. i would have also incorporated a way for students to give input into how they felt the tutoring session impacted their learning and how they felt the tutor interacted with them. another modification i would have made if i were conducting a similar study in the future would be to ask the tutors to talk more about their sessions directly after they happened. in the present study, tutors would briefly be able to debrief with me in-between sessions and used their tutoring reflection logs as a debrief tool. i feel that if tutors would have been given more of a chance to debrief directly after the session, they would have been able to articulate more specifically how they felt they interacted in the sessions with the students and how it affected the outcome of the sessions. my growth as a researcher in conducting this study, i learned not only about the phenomenon which i was examining but also about myself as a researcher. i struggled at times with my role as a non- participant observer. it was hard as an educator to observe moments in the tutoring sessions when the tutor was struggling to figure out how to convey information to their students not to jump in and try to help. it was also difficult to not give the tutors feedback at the end of the session or suggestions. at the beginning of the study the esl teacher would look at me expectantly, assuming i was there to observe and also give feedback. once i explained to her that my role was solely to observe the interactions as they happened with interfering or giving feedback she understood why i was not getting involved. i kept on reminding myself that if i interfered with the sessions or gave feedback to the tutors after, i would be altering what type of interactions i was trying to capture. additionally, it was hard to not engage with the tutors during pre interviews or in informal interviews about vocabulary instruction. for the second research question, it was important to be able to understand how the tutors were helping the students acquire vocabulary without influencing the tutor’s instructional methods in sessions. if i would have asked tutors a lot about their instructional choices in regards to vocabulary or perceptions about vocabulary, it may have influenced how they approached vocabulary in their tutoring sessions. for this reason, i did not ask the tutors directly about vocabulary until the post interviews. another growth point as a researcher was realizing how difficult it is just to coordinate the logistics and approvals for the study. it is one thing to know what you want to study but actually having to find a site to conduct the study and get all the approvals you need is in itself its own journey. after months of meetings with different school sites and organizations that had tutoring programs, completing the institutional review board process, and making sure all of the consent forms were signed i developed a new appreciation for what a researcher has to go through in order to conduct a study. there are so many people that have to give you the green light to move forward in the research process and you also have to know a lot of people in order to move your research ahead. for instance, i needed to have one of my colleagues help me translate one of the consent letters into spanish in order for the consent letters to be given out in time for the study to begin. another thing i learned was about how hard it is to decide how to dissect the data in a study. it would have been easy to look at so many different avenues that were happening in the tutoring sessions and i found that i had to really make sure i kept my research questions by me at all times. i would actually write them both at the top of my observation notes prior to every session i observed. it was also a learning experience working with open and a-priori codes. once an open code would emerge, the journey of applying it to the data would take a lot of time and thoughtfulness. it was my first time a-priori coding for the question on vocabulary acquisition and i found that the parameters of placing data within the prior codes worked well at certain points but there were many other things that were happening with vocabulary acquisition outside of the prior codes. for this reason, i would have to keep additional data notes that did not fit as neatly within the prior coding boundaries. for example, one of the instructional techniques that tutors were using a lot to teach vocabulary involved creating or showing a visual reference which was not something that i was originally looking for. through reflection on this study, another insight i have had concerns my identity as a researcher. as my career as a practitioner-researcher evolves, i aspire to remain in conversation with both practitioners and researchers. the disconnect between research and practice became visible to me through this study. in the literature, the idealized portrait of a tutoring program does not match up with tutoring programs that are happening at school sites that have a lack of funding, time, and resources. furthermore, the ways in which the literature recommend that vocabulary should be instructed is not being translated to the practitioners in the field that are trying to support at-risk students who wrestle with academic text. site and population this section describes the study’s site and population. after describing the site, i will outline the selection criteria for at-risk ell secondary students and tutors who will participate in the tutoring sessions. i also explain the rationale for my site selection. the site for this study was an urban charter school, located in the state of pennsylvania. pennsylvania public schools currently serve , ells that speak different languages. spanish is the most frequently spoken l among the ell population. every school district and charter school is required under title , chapter , section . of the curriculum regulations to provide a program for every student who is ell. in order to comply, school districts must provide ell students with a planned program of instruction that is appropriate to student’s development and instructional level. the charter school campus that was selected used the service of volunteer tutors as part of their documented program of support to help ells. i chose this site because currently, % of the school’s population is comprised of ell students and they were instituting a one-on-one volunteer tutoring program for seven weeks in order to help their ell population. the charter school campus included a middle school, high school, and cyber school. purposeful sampling purposeful sampling was used for the study. the logic and power of using purposeful sampling according to patton ( ) “lies in selecting information rich cases for study in depth. information rich cases are those from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of research, thus the term purposeful sampling” (p. ) the purposeful sample for this case study included three volunteer tutors and at-risk secondary ells who identify themselves as hispanic. all of the tutors applied to and were selected for the volunteer tutoring program prior to the study. in addition to this small group of tutors and ell students in the study, the sample includes two faculty members in the building who work directly with the ell students who were tutored and who provided direction and guidance to the tutors who were observed. one of the faculty members is english as a second language (esl) teacher in the building and her room was used for tutoring sessions with high school ell students. the other faculty member is an english teacher in the building who teaches some of the esl students in a mainstream class setting and would provide material and direction for the tutors to use in some of their sessions with his students. i also included the esl site coordinator at the school. she coordinated the tutoring program and coordinates the services at the school campus for all ell students. tutors volunteer tutors were recruited for the volunteer tutoring program through flyers, informational sessions, and internet marketing. the three tutors in the study were selected from a larger pool of applicants. there were five tutors that were working at the charter school. the three tutors were selected because there tutoring schedule fit with my ability to conduct observations. applicants most often applied and were screened by the esl coordinator at the school prior to being accepted. there were applicants that applied for the volunteer tutoring program. the esl coordinator selected the volunteer tutors based on if they were in the field of education and had up to date clearances. the coordinator was also more willing to accept applicants that would be open to helping students with literacy and math skills. tutors were accepted more enthusiastically if they had a second language background, preferably in spanish. the three tutors that i observed in the tutoring program were their last semester of coursework at a local university before they would begin their student teaching. all three of the tutors were majoring in early childhood education. two of the tutors had a background working with ell learners and were also identified as ell learners when they were attending elementary school. all of the tutors had second language backgrounds and one of the tutors had a basic knowledge of spanish. each of the tutors backgrounds are explained more fully in the next chapter. students the ell students were selected by the esl coordinator to participate in the tutoring program. the coordinator selected students that were part of the cyber school or high school on the campus. the ages of the students ranged from to years old. there were a total of students involved in the tutoring project. out of the students involved, were female and were male. each of the students had at least one session with the volunteer tutors and some had two or more sessions with the tutors. all of the students involved in the study identified themselves as hispanic. all ell students were considered at- risk by the definition provided in chapter . each ell student that was tutored throughout the study has taken a language assessment test that ranks the ells language ability according to six levels. the esl coordinator at the school gives the students a world class design and instructional assessment (wida) and also has them complete a writing sample. the participants who worked with tutors at the cyber school were at a level “five” or “six”. a level “five” or “six”, according to the wida assessment, are able to navigate the cyber school curriculum and carry on more in-depth conversations with the tutor. they need support understanding academic english. the students who were tutored at the high school in this study were identified as level “two” or “three”. a level “two” or “three” ell learner, according to the wida assessment, has a basic understanding of conversational english but needs support with reading and more cognitively challenging forms english. a level “two” or “three” ell learner was able to have simple conversations with the tutor, and was enrolled in content area classes. the students at the cyber school were higher level ells because they had to be able to navigate the cyber school curriculum independently. before students could be admitted to the cyber school, they had to take an additional language test to demonstrate their ability to comprehend english in print. data collection this section details the data collection methods this case study employed as well as the rationale undergirding these choices. observations, interviews, and document analysis constituted the studies’ primary sources of evidence. i explain how this data collection approach deepened my understanding of how volunteer tutors are interacting with at-risk ells in tutoring sessions and how tutors are helping tutees with vocabulary acquisition. green, camilli, and elmore ( ), echoing yin ( ), stated that carefully conducted case study benefits from having multiple sources of evidence, which ensure that the study is as robust as possible. in a case study, it is important to converge sources of data, also known as triangulation, as a means to ensure comprehensive results that reflect the participants’ understandings as accurately as possible. yin ( ) and stake ( ) concur that triangulation is crucial to performing a case study reliably. the additional sources of data, allow case study researchers to create a story that allows the phenomena to be looked at in a comprehensive way. based on the scope of this research, which focused on looking at the social context of one-on- one tutoring, i selected observations as the primary data collection vehicle, and then thickened the data with interviews, tutor reflection logs, and document analysis. audio observations as a non-participant observer, i observed tutoring sessions and audio-taped each session without participating. each volunteer tutor was observed working with the same groups of at-risk secondary ell students throughout the study. the three volunteer tutors were observed separately on the same days each week and they would be observed during their regularly scheduled tutoring blocks. each session varied in length depending on the student’s needs and the time that the tutor had available. the environment of each session is explained in detail in the next chapter. each of the volunteer tutors worked one-on-one with students during their tutoring session time frames and throughout the seven weeks. as a result, each tutor would see many of the same students for multiple sessions. in this way, the case study included three volunteer tutors being observed in a consistent schedule over seven weeks. all tutoring sessions were audio taped at the school site and the observations were coded by the researcher. during each observation, i also took field notes in an attempt to capture the interaction of each tutoring session. my method for taking field notes aligned with burgess’s ( ) idea that field notes are created when observing a culture, setting, or social situation that help the researcher remember and record the behavior, activities, events, and other features of the setting being observed. field notes are meant to help the researcher produce meaning and understanding of the phenomenon being studied. to answer my first research question, i would take field notes about the interactions in general. i would record moments in the interactions that i wanted to remember and that were connected to the open codes i was formulating. for my second research question, particular detail was paid to any reference the tutor or ell student made to vocabulary acquisition. observational notes were taken to about how vocabulary instruction was being approached and what tutors and students do as they learn new words. for instance, notes were taken on the type of vocabulary words focused on and whether the tutor initiated the vocabulary instruction or the student initiated the vocabulary learning. notes were taken on the types of interactions that were occurring between the tutor and tutee. for example, if the interaction was more tutors guided, input-output, student driven, notes were taken to capture the session. notes were also taken to capture what the audio-tape could not such as environmental factors and non-verbal cues. the notes that were taken, along with the audio taped sessions, provided the data that enabled me to look for patterns and establish codes. interviews interviews were conducted with the tutors, faculty, and the esl coordinator at the school site. i used the semi-structured interview approach (merriam, ) and a uniform set of open ended questions (esterberg, ). esterberg ( ) refers to in-depth interviews as semi- structured, describing the process as less rigid than structured interviews, and allowing for a freer exchange between the interviewer and interviewee. open-ended questions, according to esterberg ( ), allowed for a pattern of general and specific questions which made the interview more conversational. each tutor was interviewed once before the study began and once after the study concluded using a semi- structured interview format. two faculty members and the esl coordinator were interviewed once at the end of the study using a semi-structured interview format as well. all of the semi-structured interviews were transcribed. the semi- structured interview schedule is included in table . the semi-structured interviews provided information that helped to get a better understanding of the background of the tutors, faculty, and esl coordinator. for instance, the data gained from the semi-structured interviews helped explain how tutors thought about planning for their sessions, how the school supported ell learners, and what perceptions different people involved in the study had about the tutoring sessions and vocabulary instruction. the aim of the semi-structured interviews with the faculty and administration was to elicit information about how at-risk secondary ells are being supported in the school site and in content-area classrooms. the interviews with the faculty and administration also included questions about how the faculty and esl coordinator interacted with the volunteer tutors involved in the study. the semi-structured interview questions for the two faculty members and esl coordinator are included in the appendix e and f. table : semi-structured interview schedule semi structured interviewee date of interview duration pete pre: / / post: / / minutes minutes hannah pre: / / post: / / minutes minutes molly pre: / / post: / / minutes minutes esl teacher / / minutes mainstream teacher / / minutes informal interviews took place during the study with the volunteer tutors. informal interviews are aligned with participant observation and it is when the researcher talks to participants without any structured interview questions (cohen & crabtree, ). informal interviews gave me a chance to add in some insight and perspectives from the tutor about a session. the informal interviews would usually happen right after a session or when the tutor had a break. such interviews focused on understanding the tutor’s actions in the tutoring sessions and their interpretations of the tutoring sessions. the informal interviews gave me the opportunity to check in with the tutor about aspects of the sessions i just observed. the informal interviews usually occurred in between sessions with students and lasted for only a few moments. responses from the informal interviews were added directly into the field notes for the particular session that the informal interview had occurred after. some examples of general questions i would ask during my informal interviews included: how did you think that session went? and would you have done anything differently?. information gained from interviews will help to explain certain interactions in the observed tutoring sessions. merriam ( ) argues, “[t]here are multiple constructions and interpretations of reality that are in flux and that change over time. qualitative researchers are interested in understanding what those interpretations are at a particular point in time and in a particular context” (pp. - ). conducting regular informal and the semi-structured interviews throughout the study provided an understanding of participant’s interpretations of tutoring at different points in time throughout the seven weeks of observations. esl coordinator / / minutes table , continued documents although interviews and observation constituted the majority of this study’s data, i also reviewed several types of documents. documents that were collected included tutoring notebooks, materials, plans, or notes the tutors made prior, during, or after their tutoring sessions. for example, i collected one of the tutor’s notebooks that they used as a tool of instruction during every session and i collected three samples of reading documents the high school ell students were asked to comprehend. documents that were reviewed included the students’ content area calculus binders, esl national geographic workbook, and a social studies worksheet one student was asked to complete by his social studies teacher. web designed lessons were reviewed at the cyber school and the formatting of lectures, tests, and study guides. this analysis helped me understand how the tutors thought about planning their tutoring sessions or interacting in the sessions. it also helped me understand the academic vocabulary that students are encountering in their content area classrooms. finally, i examined the general schedules of the students at the high school and cyber school, the student handbook at the school to gain a sense of the daily routines and expectations of the students. i also examined the application materials each tutor had to fill out in order to work at the school which helped me understand what clearances and experiences they had. reflections i collected tutor reflections about each tutoring session. every tutor was asked to fill out a tutoring reflection sheet after each session. a copy of the tutoring reflection sheet is included in the appendix. the reflection sheet, included in appendix i, provided data about the tutor’s perspectives on each session and was used to help further explain certain findings. the reflection sheet allowed me to investigate the participant’s understandings of what happened in the tutoring session, including what they felt went well and what was challenging. data analysis this study used the constant comparative method for the data analysis of my observations for research question one. glaser’s and strauss’s ( ) methodology involves a continuous and systematic process of data collection and analysis. glaser and strauss ( ) contend that “the constant comparative method is concerned with generating and possibly suggesting (but not provisionally testing) many categories, properties, and hypotheses about general problems” (p. ). this procedure generates theories that are closely linked to data and will help me investigate how the learning interactions were associated with vygotsky’s social learning theory and concept of zpd. throughout the entire data collection process, i recorded three notebooks of field notes and memos, which helped me identify emerging patterns and themes which then guided further data collection. i would memo after each day of data collection, using my field notes and emerging codes to help guide my memo process. according to bailey ( ), writing memos is writing notes to oneself regarding the coding and reflecting on the data. the memos could serve to operationalize definitions, pose questions, pose hypothesis about the data. an example of a memo is included in appendix h. this inductive method of audio recording the observations, taking field notes, and writing memos “facilitates the generation of theories of process, sequence, and change pertaining to organizations, positions, and social interaction” (glaser & strauss, , p. ), furthermore this method served as a useful approach to understanding the tutoring session interactions throughout the study. this investigation followed a recursive rather than linear process (strauss & corbin, ) because it was important to look back and across interactions in order to make overall connections. i would listen to the audio tapes, reread my field notes and the memos in order to make overall connections to my research questions and coding process which is explained below. coding the nine transcribed semi-structured interviews, pages of typed field notes, audio- taped sessions, informal interviews, and documents i collected provided a comprehensive portrait of the tutoring sessions and needed to be coded. i applied different coding processes to each of my research questions. below, i will describe the coding process that happened with the first research question and then the second research question. after the coding processes are described, i will briefly introduce the emerging themes that resulted from the coding process. the first research question followed the data analysis and open coding procedures suggested by creswell ( ) and esterberg ( ). specifically, esterberg ( ) suggests “getting intimate with data”, and says that the main objective of immersing yourself in the transcripts is too “load up your memory” with the collected data (p. ). esterberg ( ) suggested that open coding is a process where “you work intensively with your data, line by line, identifying themes and categories that seem of interest” (p. ). furthermore, creswell ( ) mandated the traditional approach in the social sciences that allows the codes to emerge during the data analysis (p. ).i went through all of my data and coded it according to what seemed to stand out in relation to the question i was trying to answer. i began my open coding process by going through all of the collected data and looked for patterns. i started by coding my audio recordings and field notes. i then coded the interviews tutor reflections, and documents. there were open codes that i initially used to go through my audio-recordings, field notes, interviews, and tutor reflections in order to answer my first research question about how the tutors were interacting in each session. the open codes included things like when the tutor gave positive reinforcement, strategies, or checked for understanding. each of the open codes that i initially used to answer my first research question are defined and included in appendix j. to answer the second research question, i used ‘a-priori’ coding. a-priori coding is when the researcher establishes codes prior to the study based on a previous researcher’s codebook or theories (crabtree & miller, ). my a-priori codes came from previous researcher’s theories on vocabulary instruction, discussed in my literature review. applying the a-priori codes gave me a chance to discuss the research based vocabulary instruction that the tutors were or were not using in the sessions. the a-priori codes were established based on vocabulary instruction research from harris ( ) and blachowicz & fischer ( ). harris ( ) introduced six principles of vocabulary instruction and three of the principles; frequency matters, responsive context is used vs. passive context, and clarity is necessary were turned into a- priori code questions that were applied to the data. blachowicz & fischer ( ) identified four main principles for appropriate vocabulary instruction and all four of the principals, personalized word, immersion in words, building on multiple sources of info, and active participants, became a-priori code questions that were applied to the data. for example, one of the a-priori codes was: does the tutor use a responsive or passive context when they teach a vocabulary word? a list of all the a-priori codes is listed in next chapter. once the data from this research was examined thoroughly through the open coding and a-priori coding process, i reviewed the codes for emerging themes in the data. this research study followed creswell’s ( ) six steps during the data analysis process. the steps are being presented in linear order, but it is important to note that creswell described “an interactive practice” to analysis. that is, there is a recursive element to following these steps, the process is not linear order of analysis. step : organize and prepare the data for analysis (creswell, , p. ). during this step, i reviewed the audio tapes from observations and interviews and transferred into word document transcripts. i reviewed the observational notes and memos and transferred into word documents. i also reviewed and organized the tutoring reflections and documents from the observations. step : read through the data (creswell, , p. ). i reflected on the overall meaning of the data to get a general sense of the information and ideas that were being presented by the participants and the session. step : begin detailed analysis with the coding process (creswell, , p. ). i followed creswell’s procedure of organizing the material into segments. i did this by taking the text data and segmenting sentences into categories. i then labeled those categories with terms that came from open or a- priori code language. step : use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories for these for analysis. (creswell, , p. ). i used this process to generate codes for the descriptions, which led to generalizing a small number of categories or themes. then, i analyzed the themes that emerged gathered examples from the various cases that depicted each theme. step : advance how the description of the themes will be represented in the qualitative narrative (creswell, , p. ). for this step, i wove emergent themes into narrative passages, so that the findings emerged logically from the data. step : interpret the meaning of the data (creswell, , p. ), creswell recognizes that a researcher’s own background play just as important part to the meaning making process as a researcher’s fidelity to a theoretical lens. during my own interpretation process, my work in educational and tutoring settings influenced my understandings of the session’s interactions. additionally, to convey the sessions accurately, i focused on specifically what happened with the tutoring sessions and what the tutor’s reflected on after the session had completed. the themes that emerged from this study came directly from my awareness of the healthy tension between my own biases and the data. research steps the research conducted for this study followed a uniform protocol to ensure that the observations, interviews, document analysis, and tutor reflections yielded data consistent with the study’s goals: . participants were invited to the study by the researcher and were informed of the risks involved. . pre-interviews (semi-structured) were conducted with the tutors. . observations were conducted and audio-taped over a seven week period. each tutor was observed on the same days and times throughout the study. . tutors were required to fill out a reflection sheet after each session was completed. . after each of the tutoring session observational days, a memo was created in order reflect on the observational sessions in regards to the data and research questions. . interviews (semi-structured) were conducted with two faculty members at the school who had students involved in the tutoring sessions and the esl coordinator who organizes services for the ell students at the school, including the volunteer tutoring service. . follow up interviews (semi-structured) were conducted with each of the tutors. . the data was reviewed by the researcher. . the researcher coded the data for emergent themes. ensuring the trustworthiness of the findings throughout the study, i employed a variety of procedures to minimize researcher bias and safeguard the study’s credibility. this was important because as a qualitative researcher i am taking an active role in the collection and interpretation of other’s meaning making and to be credible, i have to ensure the trustworthiness of the findings. to ensure trustworthiness, i employed strategies by renowned qualitative researchers. the procedures that will be discussed below include reflexivity, member checks, data saturation, triangulation, and rich, thick description. each procedure will be defined and then i will explain how each procedure was carried out in my study. reflexivity i am defining practicing reflexivity as the process of examining oneself as a researcher and the research relationship in order to see how my own “conceptual baggage” affects my research. merriam ( ) suggest reflexivity is “engaging critical self-reflection by the researcher regarding assumptions, biases, and the relationship to the study which may affect investigation” (p. ). i practiced reflexivity in my interview process by thinking about why i selected and worded questions in certain ways. for example, the first question i asked the tutors and teachers was in relation to their educational background and experiences. in reflecting on this, i realize that i might have positioned that question first because i thought it was important to know their background in order to understand the context of how they answered every other question. this led me to realize that i believe your background experiences in education may affect what a person will do as a practitioner. i also thought about the relationship i had to the people i interviewed for the study and how that relationship dynamic affected their responses to my questions. being reflective throughout the process also meant that after every set of field notes throughout the seven weeks of tutoring, a memo would be written in order for me to reflect on the research itself and my reactions to it. practicing reflexivity helped to cultivate a constant awareness of how my own experiences with or beliefs about tutoring, education, and ells were potentially causing bias in the study. member checks a member check, also known as informant feedback or respondent validation, is a technique used by researchers to increase the accuracy and credibility of data (creswell, ). merriam ( ) defines it as “taking data and interpretations back to the people from whom the data were derived, and verifying its plausibility (p. ). thus, throughout my data collection and analysis procedures, i consulted the tutors and faculty participants in order to clarify ambiguities and to double check my interpretations, so that my findings represented the perspectives of the study’s participants rather than the researcher’s (merriam, ). during interviews with participants, i would summarize or restate what the respondent had said in order for the respondent to determine accuracy. i would also cross check interpretations i had made in my field notes about sessions with the tutors in order to gain a more accurate picture of the session interaction. in the interviews with faculty and the esl administrator, i would restate the answer they had given to each question in order to make sure that they were able to verify their answer. data saturation in this study, the rule of saturation (glaser & strauss, ) is being followed when thinking about the sample size and the length of the study. the rule is that the sample size can be considered saturated when the collection of new data does not shed any further light on the issue under investigation. this case study is using a small sample because it enabled each tutor to be observed at least times over the course of the study. a larger study in a shorter time frame would not allow for multiple observations of tutoring sessions considering that i am the only researcher collecting data. this study aligns with the idea that a small study, with “modest claims” might achieve saturation quicker than a study that is aiming to describe a process that spans disciplines (charmaz, ). the credibility of data saturation in regards to the length of my study needs to be considered. merriam ( ) explains that although no specific guidelines can dictate what constitutes an adequate length of time or number of observations, “the data and emerging findings must feel saturated” (p. ). observation data collection lasted for seven weeks. in order to reach a point of “saturation” in my study, each tutor was observed multiple times every week on the same days and times. each tutor was observed conducting at least one-on-one sessions over the seven weeks. moreover, conducting interviews pre- and post-observations extended and deepened my engagement in the data collection process. additionally, each tutor’s individual reflection after every session provided a more extensive understanding of what each tutor though happened in each of their one-on-one interactions. triangulation triangulation, defined as using multiple forms of data to confirm emerging findings (merriam, , prasad, ; stake, ; yin, ), assisted me in precisely depicting and interpreting the study’s findings. merriam ( ) asserts that in qualitative research, “it is important to understand the perspectives of those involved, uncover the complexity of human behavior in context, and present a holistic interpretation of what is happening” (p. ). stake ( ) cautioned qualitative researchers against narrow thinking, and instead suggested that researchers learn to understand their research as their participants are understanding instead of imposing their own assumptions. in qualitative research, these protocols come under the name of, “triangulation” (stake, , p. ). i utilized numerous data collection methods, such as observations, interviews, and document analysis throughout this study. thus, i was able to check what a tutor said in an interview against my observations of how the tutor interacted in the session. i was also able to check observational triangulations and interview data along-side the tutors materials and reflections about sessions. these procedures promoted the study’s credibility because they provided reasons behind why a tutor might have made a certain choice in a session or they confirmed that an interaction or form of vocabulary instruction was a pattern. an additional triangulation strategy i used involved requesting the same information from different participants. this triangulation strategy enabled me to make comparisons between and across the tutoring sessions conducted by the three tutors. rich, thick description rich, thick description involves describing a phenomenon in enough detail so a researcher can begin to evaluate the extent to which the conclusions drawn are transferable to other times, settings, situations, and people (lincoln & guba, ). merriam ( ) encourages, “providing enough rich, thick description to contextualize the study, such that readers will be able to determine the extent to which their situation matches the research context (p. ). overall, this study offers thick, rich description of how volunteer tutoring sessions are being conducted with at-risk ell learners, including what volunteer tutors are doing or not doing in each session to promote vocabulary acquisition in one urban charter school campus. in order to offer rich, thick description i observed each session as well as having each session audio-taped. i would record notes that were related to the setting of the sessions and interactions between the tutor and student that provided more detail to the reader in order for them to be able to have a detailed picture of what was happening in the sessions. for example, instead of writing a thin description such as, “the tutor brought their notebook” i would write a thick description: “the tutor brought their spiral bound notebook to the session, opened it up between themselves and the student and recorded the students name at the top of the notebook page and what the student was working on.” providing detailed descriptions will allow readers, especially educators affiliated with volunteer tutoring, to determine whether this case study’s sample and context sufficiently resembles their own and thus decide whether this study’s findings can be applied to their individual situations. ethical issues there were undeniably ethical issues that i needed to respond to prior to, during and after the case studies’ completion. kvale ( ) contends that rather than being part of a distinct phase of the research process, ethical issues emerge throughout the investigation. kvale highlights ethical matters that a researcher should consider in the seven stages of the research process: thematizing, designing, interview situation, transcription, analysis, verification and reporting. in undertaking this study, i will employ several strategies to respond to these issues so as to conduct research in an ethical manner. three of the strategies i used are described below. the first strategy i employed was making sure the design of my study was ethical. prior to conducting the study, i gained approval from the institutional review board at temple university. i informed the participants of the study’s purpose. in addition, i required all participants to sign and informed consent form before i conducted any interviews or observations. to protect the participants from avoidable harm, i explained that they could withdraw from the study at any point or decline to answer any questions i pose in an interview. further, i explained to the volunteer tutors that their responses would not affect any performance reviews. the consent form template is included in appendix a, b, and c. the second strategy i employed was reporting the data in a way that protected participants. this study uses pseudonyms to protect the identity of the participants and school site. i made extensive efforts to protect the participants’ confidentiality by storing all of my field notes, interview transcripts, and other data in a locked filing cabinet and on a password protected computer. the third strategy i used was during the interviews and observations. it concerned my relationship with the participants. merriam ( ) argues that ethical dilemmas arising in the data collection and dissemination often concern the relationship between the researcher and participant. during the interviews, i would restate information that the tutor or faculty member had said to make sure that the information was verified by the participant being interviewed and not being interpreted by me. during the observations, i wrote down notes about what was happening and made sure that i questioned the tutors directly after the session if i needed to make verify certain interactions or make sure that i was not interpreting the session differently. delimitations and limitations of this study there are limitations and delimitations to this study. although the study was conducted with three different tutors who worked with at-risk ell adolescents, the study focused on data collected from the tutors, teachers who had students directly involved, and the esl coordinator. insight was not gained from other teachers in the building, students, parents, or the principal. a larger sample could have given additional insight into the overall building profile, or tutoring interactions, by adding information according to different understandings and experiences. the scope of this study is limited to research in one school site and therefore, results should not be applied to similar contexts. the school participating in this dissertation research included three tutors, two teachers, one esl coordinator, and the ell students that were involved in the sessions. the data collected focused on a very specific population within the school and there were no comparisons made to the general population. in other words, the results would have been different if the study would have focused on observing tutoring sessions across the entire school population. the students that participated in the study were also grouped into one category, at-risk ell adolescent students. the results would have been different if the study had separated the at-risk ells into categories according to gender, level of english proficiency, or specific age groups. an additional limitation to this study proved to be the interview and reflection data collection process. since information obtained during the interviews and tutor reflection sheets largely depended on what the tutor or interviewee was willing to share, the nature of their information was limited to his or her own lived experiences. patton ( ) stated that perceptual data are in the eye of the beholder. however, this study’s triangulation of data helped verify results, and helped to support the accuracy mined out of the data collection process. there are delimitations. that is, how the study was narrowed in scope (creswell, ). having conducted case study research in only one school site could be viewed as a delimitation. although perspectives could be gained about how the tutors are interacting with adolescent ell student in one-on-one sessions in the school, it is important to remember that one urban charter school could vary greatly from another urban charter school. for this reason, speculation that this study’s results would be similar to another school should be discouraged. nevertheless, the study’s intensive investigation and depth of inquiry with each tutoring session observation will yield a richer and more nuanced portrait than a study using a larger sample would. this proposed study is still important to the field because it is trying to understand a particular phenomenon; in this sense, though not broadly generalizable, the study’s findings will provide insight into similar events and experiences. another delimitation of the study was the timeframe of data collection. due to the structure of the tutoring program being observed, the school calendar, and the ells’ availability to be tutored, observations needed to be conducted over a seven week time period. if observations could have been conducted over a longer period of time, it would have allowed for a longitudinal discussion of the data where sessions could have been looked at overtime. nevertheless, being able to observe each tutor at least times in the seven weeks, collecting reflection sheets from the tutor after each session, reviewing documents that were used in the sessions, conducting interviews with the tutors, two teachers, and one esl coordinator within a limited time frame provided sufficient data to answer the research questions. summary chapter outlined the methodology for this study, and the ways in which these decisions anchored the research design and process of analysis. the rationale for using a qualitative case study design methodology was discussed. this chapter also provided the rationale for the methodological decisions for this study. the methodology and methods helped to illuminate the participants, site, and context involved in the study. the chapter concluded with a discussion of the strategies that were used to ensure the trustworthiness of findings. chapter presents a further description of the case. chapter represents the results of the study. chapter discusses the findings, draws conclusions based on an examination of study results and review of literature in the field, discusses the implications of the study for practice, and makes recommendations for further research. chapter description of the case introduction this chapter describes the charter school environment, the settings where the tutoring took place, and each tutor’s characteristics. first, a brief biographical sketch of each of the tutors will be offered to illustrate their background experiences related to education and tutoring. second, the charter school environment will be described. finally, the three settings of the tutoring sessions will be described. it is important to give a description of the case because my first research question focuses on the nature of interactions between volunteer tutors and at risk ells. the nature of interactions that this study describes are connected to the tutor’s background experiences, charter school site, and tutoring environment. this connection will become evident in the results section of the paper. description of the tutors the three tutors shared similarities and differences. each of the tutors is completing the same educational preparation program at a local university and they had all completed field work placement hours in at-risk environments. additionally, each of the three tutors attended elementary and high school in the suburbs of a large metropolitan area. the three tutors differed in gender, ethnic background, tutoring experiences, and academic strengths. the nature of these differences will be explained below in each of their profiles. pete pete is a twenty-one year old male student in his senior year at an urban university. pete is enrolled in the early childhood education program. he used to be enrolled in the secondary education program, but switched because he thought he could have more of an impact with younger students as a male role model. he went to school in the suburbs of a large city, was tutored as a child, and has extensive tutoring experiences with siblings and other family members. some of his tutoring work up to this point has been with ells and he has worked with a variety of age levels. he is a korean-american and is the oldest child in his family. his academic strengths are in english and math, up to algebra . pete wanted to be a part of the tutoring project at the school because it gave him a chance to work in a high school environment and he had time in his schedule. he felt like it is really important for a tutor to be personable and patient. pete said that he wanted to give his students a reason to be in the session and tries to connect what they are working on to the larger world. (pre- interview, - - ) molly molly is twenty-two year old female student in her senior year at an urban university. molly is enrolled in the early childhood education program. she went to school in the suburbs of a large city. her tutoring experience aligns with her job as a nanny where she works an average of three hours a day on math and science with three boys at various age levels. her work with ells comes from a recent field experience she had at a bilingual school where % of the students identified as hispanic. molly has four years of high school spanish and used her language background in her work in the practicum experience. molly is irish-american and is the younger of two siblings. her academic strengths are in math, science, and reading. molly wanted to be a part of the tutoring project to gain more experience working with ell learners in a one-on-one secondary environment. she believed that a tutor needed to teach in a variety of different ways and that they need to be patient. (pre- interview, - - ) hannah hannah is a twenty-one year old female student in her senior year at an urban university. hannah is enrolled in the early childhood education program. she went to school in the suburbs of a large city and was labeled as an ell learner until middle school. she is russian- american, was adopted as a child, and is the youngest of four children. this was hannah’s first tutoring experience and her background with working with ells extends to her field experience where she works with young ell asian and hispanic learners in an urban pre-school environment. her academic strengths are in english and history. hannah wanted to be a part of the tutoring experience in order to work in a one-on-one environment with adolescent ells. she feels that she is good at being patient in a session and she tries to let her students know that they can persevere and get the work done. hannah feels that she is able to emphasize with her students because she was also an ell.(pre- interview, - - ) charter school environment the charter school campus consists of a middle, high school, cyber school, and college. there are students and % of the students are identified as ells and % of the school population identifies as hispanic. there are four esl teachers on the campus and one esl coordinator. every summer there is a training institute held for new teachers that introduce them to the culture and policies of the school. during this institute, the esl coordinator presents a two hour workshop to new staff and answers questions about ells in a one hour time block. during the school year, the esl coordinator holds regular meetings with the esl teachers in the high school building on the charter school campus and invites content area teachers in order to help the ell students succeed in both ell classes and mainstream classes. there are several support systems in place for ell students at the school. there is an active home and school partnership that will check in with families if a student is absent or if the family needs important information translated. the esl coordinator conducts an extensive placement process for new ell students entering the charter school before building their individual schedule. the coordinator first finds out from the student what their language, education, and background is. the coordinator then gives the students the world class instructional design and assessment (wida) placement test and asks them to submit a writing sample. tutoring settings cyber school the cyber school is located in a separate building on the campus and there are middle and high school students enrolled in the cyber school program. each student at the cyber school follows their own prescribed curriculum and our each given a computer to use to access their schoolwork. it is called a cyber school because the coursework is on-line as well as the classes. students still report to the cyber school during the school day in order to work on their on-line course work at the cyber school site. the students receive a weekly agenda of lessons and work they need to complete. at times, students are required to log into live lessons given by an on-line instructor or they need to complete an assessment in a given time frame. teachers provide written and oral feedback to students. the written feedback is in the form of typed notes that are placed right beside the work they have completed in the cyber school curriculum and the oral feedback is given to students at meetings the students have with their instructors once a week. the lessons students partake in before practicing and demonstrating knowledge are given on-line where teaching examples and explanations are provided. hannah and pete worked in the cyber school setting in the mornings. the tutoring sessions would take place, for the most part, in a separate room from the main cyber school classroom area. hannah and pete would work in the same room at a conference table. the sessions began at : a.m and the principal of the school or another staff member would either bring students to the sessions or announce that the tutors were available and students would come over to the tutoring room. the length of each session would vary depending on the student’s needs and the time that the tutor had available. usually, each of the tutors had two or three sessions in the morning. the students were encouraged, not required, to participate in the tutoring sessions by the faculty and staff at the cyber school. most of the sessions at the cyber school focused on helping the students complete or understand math concepts and a few sessions focused on reading, writing, or history. each tutoring session was a one-on-one interaction between the tutor and the student. high school content seminar class the high school is separated from the cyber school building. the high school follows a nine period bell schedule and each student receives and individual schedule. the high school follows an inclusive curriculum for ell students meaning that the students will receive esl classes if they are identified as a level one or two. the rest of their schedule will be with the general population and they take regular content level classes. once and ell student is identified as a level three or higher, all of their classes are scheduled with the general population. the esl teachers at the school teach english classes for students that are level one and two learners. the esl teachers will also have a built in resource period for level one and two ell learners so that the learners can get support on the work they are receiving in the general curriculum. hannah and pete also had a session in the high school for one class period after they would finish at the cyber school. the sessions would take place in an ell teacher’s classroom during her prep. the ell teacher would be in the room while the sessions were occurring. ell students would come from their content area seminar class to work one-on-one with hannah and pete. hannah would sit at one set of desks on one side of the room and pete would sit at a set of desks on the other side. the content area teacher sent the same students to work with pete and hannah throughout the seven weeks. the sessions would last for minutes and were english/reading focused. each of the sessions were one-on-one interactions between the tutor and student. if one of the students was absent, hannah or pete would allow the other person to still have a one-on-one interaction and would work on something else. the esl teacher who was in her room during the sessions would at times join the session for a bit. usually this happened if the tutor asked the teacher for support or if the student asked the teacher for support. the teacher would also interject if she felt that the work provided by the content teacher needed to be clarified. high school resource room class molly would work in a resource room pull in environment for her first session. a resource room is where ell students have the chance to work on their content area assignments or catch up on their esl classwork. the content area assignments usually focused on work the students were finishing in their math, science, or social studies classes. sometimes they would use the resource period to work on assignments for their esl course or activities associated with thinking about college. the time period for the resource room class was minutes. molly would usually have one to two sessions during this time frame. each tutoring session was a one- on-one interaction between the tutor and student. the esl teacher who ran the resource room class would direct molly to certain students at the beginning of the class and she would tell molly what the work goals should be. if the teacher was not sure of the work the students needed to do, she would have molly circulate and ask students what they needed support with. there was a lot of code switching in the classroom between english and spanish. code switching is when the students would talk in spanish and then switch to talking in english. high school esl level one and two classes for molly’s second pull in class, she worked with the same teacher. the content was language focused and included literature, vocabulary, and grammar exercises. the esl teacher would start every class with a grammar or vocabulary focused warm up and then they would complete three or four activities related to reading, writing, or researching. the students were encouraged to speak in english throughout the class. the tutoring session would be a one-on-one interaction between the tutor and student. the teacher would brief molly on the agenda of the day and she would direct molly to one student she wanted her to work with during the activities. the classroom management was more challenging in this classroom and molly would work to help her student to stay on task. she would usually be able to have one session in this class period. there was a lot of code switching between english and spanish in the class. chapter research findings there were two research questions proposed in this study: ) how do volunteer tutors interact in one-on-one tutoring sessions with at-risk adolescent ells? ) how are volunteer tutors supporting vocabulary acquisition with adolescent ells in one-on- one tutoring sessions? the research findings that this chapter reports are based on analysis of the following data sources: observations, semi-structured interviews, tutor reflection logs, and the field notes of the researchers taken during observations. question : how do volunteer tutors interact in one-on-one tutoring sessions with at-risk secondary ells? six themes were created based upon my data analysis for question one. below each theme will be listed and defined briefly. each theme will be presented with evidence from the data that answers each research question. a comprehensive list and explanation of all the themes is included in appendix k. while the themes are reported as being discrete there are some cases where more than one theme was demonstrated in an interaction. for instance, a tutor could demonstrate modeling within a session at one point and later on in the session the tutor could demonstrate being an encourager. further, participants’ interactions in observations or responses in interviews and on reflection sheets at times addressed more than one theme. in those cases, the data is described where it fits most logically. below each theme will be further discussed and evidence to support the findings will be presented. the order that themes are being presented in represents the order that each theme was analyzed using the coded data for the first question. there was no other particular method of choosing when each theme was discussed because it is important that each theme is considered of equal relevance when considering how the tutors were interacting with students in sessions. the purpose of the study was to explore how tutors were interacting in sessions vs. to find out what interaction methods they used the most or the least and so it the nature of data collection and the organization of the findings is meant to introduce each theme separately and in no particular order. the themes are discussed for the second question according to how the literature was discussed in chapter . the themes that addressed the first research question will be introduced. then, the themes that related to the second research question will be detailed. all of the themes will be examined through the lens of each individual tutor. . tutors as models – the tutors first showed the students how to do something in the session or the tutors would show the students how to think about something before they would ask the students to independently practice a skill. . tutors as encouragers –the tutors praised students and encourage the students in session interactions. . tutors as partners –the tutors negotiated, shared authority, and collaborated with tutors, teachers, and other students in the sessions. . tutors as strategists –the tutors gave the students strategies on how to organize content and approach learning in the sessions. they would provide strategies that could be used as tools in order to work through a learning concept. . tutors as facilitators –tutors checked for understanding in the sessions and then facilitated how each session would go based on what they saw each student needed. . tutors as translators –tutors used the students’ first language and broke down english words or concepts in the sessions. tutors as models. the tutors interacted with students using modeling in one-on-one sessions. modeling is being defined as the tutors first showing the students how to do something in the session or the tutors would show the students how to think about something before they would ask the students to independently practice a skill. modeling was identified by all of the tutors in their final interviews as a tool they all recognized they used in sessions. molly referred to modeling when she talked about helping one student understand the concept of intercepts in math. she said, “i explained to her how to find the y-intercept and modeled with a simple example and she suddenly completely understood and was able to complete the rest of the worksheet with ease” (post interview, - - ). pete referred to modeling when he talked about how he ran each session. he said, “i would model in each one-on-one interaction and part of modeling was bringing my pen and notebook to each session” (post-interview, - - ). hannah attributes her modeling to knowing the material. she said, “if i really knew the concept we were working on, i was able to model more confidently and my students would be able to do the work independently when it was time” ( post-interview, - - ). although modeling was used in many ways, there is one key way that each of the tutors demonstrated modeling throughout their sessions; they would model for students how to go about answering questions in order to demonstrate comprehension in reading and math on multiple choice assessments. below, examples of how each tutor modeled answering comprehension questions in sessions are shared. molly several of the students molly worked with would come to her tutoring sessions in hopes of preparing for an exam they had coming up. throughout these sessions, molly would choose to model for how to find an answer or navigate an exam. for example, during a session where molly was helping a student with prepping for the sat exam, molly modeled for the student how to go through each answer choice to pick an answer. molly would look at the passage and then look back at the answer. during this process, she would explain to the student what she was doing in order to decide what answer she would go with (observation, - - ). the field notes taken during this session reflect how the modeling interaction affected the session: the student that molly is working with today seems really nervous and unsure about taking the sat exam this week. the student looked at the sat prep book and her eyes got really big she started to talk in spanish in exasperation. molly noticed this and chose to sit down with the sat prep book and start gently guiding the student how to think about answering a question. the student watched molly model how she would read through each answer choice in order to pick out the one she thought was the best answer. the student’s shoulders relaxed and she started to ask questions and seemed relax enough in order to interact with the text instead of feeling daunted by it. (field notes, - - ) in the reflection log that molly filled out at the end of the session, she referred to how modeling how to navigate the reading passages seemed to support the session. molly wrote, “this session was challenging to the student and a little frustrating. the student is nervous for the test, especially if it is all in english. when i would model reading the passages and explain them, the student understood a lot better” (reflection log, - - ). hannah like molly, hannah would have several students come to her sessions in order to work with content that was helping them get prepared for taking an upcoming standardized test. the students would typically bring a reading passage that had comprehension questions attached to it and would ask hannah to help them figure out how to complete the questions associated with the reading. during these sessions, hannah would use modeling in order to demonstrate for the student how to read a text in order to find information. below is an example of how her method of modeling would happen in a session. hannah was helping a student understand an article about the man who invented hoover vacuums. the article was in interview format and the student told hannah that he needed to answer the questions that were at the end of the article. hannah made a decision to model how to accomplish the task. she first modeled reading over the questions and then went back to the beginning of the article and read it out loud after asking the student if he wanted to listen to her read or read the article on his own. when reading the article, hannah would stop to enunciate, track, and think aloud about how what she was reading might fit into one of the questions being asked at the end of the reading. hannah modeled how to read for information on two of the questions and then asked the student to use the strategy in order to answer the remaining three questions. the student practiced what hannah had just modeled and she would reiterate any modeling techniques that the student did not remember as they worked to complete the article (observation, - - ). the field notes taken in this session further explain how hannah’s modeling was a part of the tutoring interaction: hannah is working with a lower-level ell learner at the high school for the second time. he has brought an article about hoover vacuums to the session with questions and told hannah that his teacher told him to read and answer the questions for the article. hannah looks at the article and says, “oh my gosh” as she explores the dense text presented. it looks like she is trying to figure out how to move the session forward even though she feels like the material is too hard for her student. hannah decides to use modeling in the interaction. she takes the article into her hands and positions it between her and the student. hannah then begins reading all the questions out loud before she goes back to the beginning of the article, asks the student if they want to read or listen to her read, and then begins reading. during the reading, she models how to stop, enunciate, and thinks aloud about how the questions could be answered by what she is reading. (field notes, - - ) in her reflection log hannah felt that the session went well due to the modeling method she used. hannah writes, “the session went better than my first session which makes me super happy because i did not think he got much out of the first session we had together. today, we did a different method where i would model reading to him and summarizing before having him try it” (reflection log, - - ). pete unlike molly and hannah, pete would model how to answer math comprehension questions rather than reading comprehension questions for students. many of pete’s sessions involved working with students at the cyber school on a variety of math skills. students would come to a session with pete and need help working through an end of a lesson assessment. the assessments would typically have a math problem and four possible answer choices from which the student would pick the best answer choice. below is an example of how pete chose to model how to work through a math question in order to answer assessment questions. pete was working with a student at the cyber school on a lesson assessment based on geometric angles. the computer lesson would present a question and four possible answer choices. the student started out guessing what answer may be right. pete chose to model working out the problem in his notebook first in order to avoid a guessing game and instead modeled the process of finding the answer in his notebook first and then went back to the computer screen to see if it matched with any choices. after a few questions were modeled in this way the student started to write the problem down first, work it out, and then see if their answer matched any of the computer screen options (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: pete is having a repeat session with a student at the cyber school. the student is trying to hurry through and finish a math assessment. the student looks at the first problem and the first four answer choices and just takes a guess. pete’s eyes get big and he immediately has the student stop looking at the screen and instead has him focus on observing another process of answering a question. pete models this process, writing down the problem in a notebook first and then working it out before going back to the computer screen to see if any of the options work. the student seems a bit frustrated at the time that pete is taking to model but he changes his tune when pete’s process yields a right answer. the student begins problem number three by writing down the problem on the notebook. (field notes, - - ) in pete’s reflection log of the session, he said “this was the second time i have worked with this student and he rushes through problems and has a hard time staying on task. i wanted him to stay on task and explain the concepts behind each procedure of his math problem” (reflection log, - - ). even though pete did not call it modeling, it is apparent based on the actions pete took during the session that he used a modeling technique to help the student think more about the procedures of math and not rush to answer problems on the assessment. there are differences in how the tutors would model. molly was working with a higher level ell student and she chose to model how to dissect the questions but did not concentrate on modeling how to read the text. hannah, who was working with a lower level ell, chose to model how to read the text, questions, and how to find the answers using the text. it appears that the tutors decided their level of modeling based upon the level of language proficiency the student’s had. pete’s modeling demonstrated for student’s how they could check to make sure the answer they were going to pick for the math question was right. he was not modeling how to figure out what the question was or what it was asking like hannah and molly. pete was modeling how to find the right answer by creating a problem based on the question being asked which required the student having background knowledge. by modeling, the tutors were providing a cognitive support to help students learn which has been cited as an effective teaching practice (rosenshine, ). having background knowledge was an embedded requirement in all of the tutor’s modeling techniques. hannah modeled how you had to use the background of a text to answer a question. molly modeled how you had to have a background understanding of how questions were worded in order to be able to pick the right answers. pete modeled how you could figure out the right answer to a math multiple choice question if you were able to create a problem out of the question being asked which required background knowledge. in this way, all of the tutors were using different modeling techniques but they were also demonstrating the importance of having background knowledge. by modeling how background knowledge is used to answer comprehension questions the tutors were demonstrating one of the aspects of the siop model (mcintyre et al., ) which was discussed in chapter as a method used to teach ells. the positive connection between how having background knowledge increases academic performance and reading comprehension has been documented in the reviewed literature (anderson & freebody, ; green & lynch-brown, ) and the tutors were modeling in their interactions how background knowledge supports learning outcomes. tutors as encouragers. the tutors interacted as encouragers in their one-on-one sessions. encouraging is being defined as praising students and encouraging the students in session interactions to complete work or feel better about their abilities. all tutors would encourage their students in sessions. two of the tutors, hannah and pete consciously talked about how giving encouragement was important. hannah really thought about being positive and encouraging is her sessions. she said in her pre interview, “well, the first thing i think my ell students will benefit from knowing is to try and never give up. i really want to give my students a lot of time and support with what we are talking about” (pre-interview, - - ). even before she started tutoring students, hannah wanted to support and cheer on her student’s success. in her post interview she stated, “the tutor needs to have set the high expectation in a session. the tutor needs to be able to get across the message to the student that they can do their work, think about the future, and that they can get their current assignment done” (post-interview, - - ). pete made a similar statement about high expectations in his post interview. he said, “setting high expectations for me are telling the student that whatever they are working on, they can get done and get through it” (post-interview, - - ). even though there is evidence showing how she would cheer her students on as they were working together, molly did not directly talk about how she was trying to encourage students in a session. there was one key type of session where tutors demonstrated being encouragers for their students: challenging sessions. a challenging session is being defined as a session where students struggled with the english content, did not have the background knowledge needed in order to complete a task, or when they needed to complete more work than time allowed. the tutors would find ways to encourage their students to forge ahead when they might otherwise have become frustrated. an example of how each tutor acted as an encourager in a challenging session will be shown below. molly for molly, being an encourager in a session was evident especially when the student either struggled with a concept or could not understand something due to the student’s language level. when the student would demonstrate signs of being frustrated, molly would emphasize and encourage. in one session, molly was placed with the lowest level ell in a class that needed help understanding how to set up problems in order to complete an algebraic equation. the student began to get frustrated when she could not explain in english or understand the english molly was using to explain the concept. in order to encourage the student to keep going in the session, molly began praising the student’s understanding of concepts even if the student was demonstrating their understanding using spanish. molly encouraged the student to communicate in any way she knew how and the student stayed in the session and was able to demonstrate the ability to line up variables in a math equation by the end of the session (observation, - - ). the field notes show this interaction: molly is working with a student on completing an algebra worksheet on equations. the student did not want to come to the session and the teacher told molly that this is the lowest level ell student, explaining that she is still learning the alphabet. molly looks at the students’ work and starts to help her by showing her how to write an equation as she talks in english. the student seems to start to get overwhelmed in the session, she takes a deep breath and molly sees this and chooses to encourage the student in the session by even starting to use some spanish she knows in order to make the student more comfortable. molly also attempts to understand what the student is trying to say, even if they were talking in spanish. (field notes, - - ) in the reflection log of the session, molly talked about how the student progressed during the session but did not mention encouraging her to continue trying. molly said, “the student needed a lot more assistance at the beginning of the session and by the end of the session, she knew how to write each problem over top of each other” (reflection log, - - ). molly was aware that the student made progress during the session and it is evident from the data that this progress was related to how molly chose to be an encourager for her student and believe she could make progress. hannah hannah, unlike molly, consciously viewed herself as an encourager and made it a point to become a cheerleader in her sessions when students seemed frustrated or made self- deprecating comments. she also chose to be an encourager in order to build up a student’s self- confidence. in one session, hannah was working with a student who needed to make up a lot of work at the cyber school. the student was daunted by the amount of work they needed to do and the student was also making comments about being lazy, not reading the right way, and how she gets bad grades (observation, - - ). the field notes further explain this interaction: hannah is working with a student on trying to make up missed work. the student plops down her computer and says that she is lazy and doesn’t know how she will get caught up. hannah does not acknowledge the student’s self-deprecating remark. hannah chooses to tell the student that she is on the right track trying to get the work done and that hopefully, they can make it through everything. throughout the session, the student makes comments about reading to fast, getting f’s, and not being able to write answers properly. repeatedly, hannah cheers the student on; telling her that it is okay if she reads fast, that she can do the work, and write responses. as a result, the student sits up a little straighter and they begin writing out the answers on an assessment and get through three lessons, receiving an % on the assessment when she said she usually gets a . (field notes, - - ) hannah continued cheering former students even in her reflection log. she wrote, “i think my student felt very accomplished and happy about catching up! she’s a very bright student; she just needs to find time to complete her work. she did a really good job” (reflection noters, - - ). because hannah chose to act as a cheerleader, her student benefited. pete while molly and hannah demonstrated being a cheerleader and offered encouragement throughout their sessions, pete would concentrate on acting as an encourager specifically during the independent practice part of many of his math sessions. for example, in one math focused session, pete was working with a student on how to rationalize binomial radical expressions. the student was working with pete for over an hour and was starting to try to apply the concept on her own. when she did not get the right answer on the first problem, pete had to encourage her to do more problems by letting her know how close she had gotten to the right answer. the student was encouraged and decided to try one more (observation, - - ). the field notes show this interaction further: pete’s student just had a “bing” moment where she connected how the numbers cancel out when she is rationalizing binomial expressions. pete has been tutoring her on this concept for the past hour. the student is confident enough to try her own problem. she gets the wrong answer and seems frustrated enough to quit. pete, seeing this, goes back to her work and shows her all of the parts she got right in the problem by circling them and telling her, you got this. the student is encouraged enough to do one more practice problem and she gets it right, puts both hands in the air, and says, yes! (field notes, - - ) pete wrote in his reflection log, “i thought this session went well. i was encouraged that my student didn’t give up on her work. she was persistent and persevered.” as a goal for future sessions with the student, pete said, “i would like to help her develop more confidence that she can do math” (reflection log, - - ). pete encouraged the student in the session to push through and she did. he was her cheerleader and then she was able to cheer for herself. all of the tutors encouraged their students to move forward. they affirmed their belief in the student’s abilities and thus created a positive tutoring experience. in terms of the literature, the tutors were demonstrating the socio-educational model of learning (gardner , ) which means that they created an environment that motivated their ell students and provided a positive learning experience because they encouraged students. the fact that all of the tutors continued to encourage their students when things became frustrating is important. it demonstrates that they all had the ability to remain positive in a frustrating moment which helped their students have a positive experience at the end of the session. tutors as partners. the tutors interacted as partners in their sessions. partnership was defined when tutors negotiated, shared authority, and collaborated with students, teachers, and other students in the sessions. it was evident in pre- and post- interviews with tutors that establishing a partnership with not only students, but other stakeholders was important. molly reflected, “i would ask the teacher for support in order to figure out how to help the students who were having difficulty understanding english” (post-interview, - - ). pete commented in his pre interview, “i think i would want everyone on the same page; teachers, tutors, and students. i think it would be good if we could decide where we want the students to be together” (pre-interview, - - ). in his post interview, pete explained, “a benefit of tutoring was helping students connect the dots” (post-interview, - - ). in her pre-interview hannah commented, “i wouldn’t want my students to think that they were looking up to me. i would want them to look at me as someone who was trying to help them out. i would also have an attitude that we can work through what they bring to the session together. i would seek support”(pre- interview, - - ). in her post interview, hannah said, “i liked being able to learn with the students and it was nice having pete to ask questions about material i was unfamiliar with” (post-interview, - - ). the tutors chose to build a partnership with students, teachers, and each other. one key way that all of the tutors demonstrated building a partnership with others was by sharing authority and collaborating. the tutors would ask other tutors or a teacher for help. they would also ask the students to help explain a concept to them or let the students know that they were learning the material right along with the student. below is an example from each tutor on how they demonstrated establishing a partnership in the tutoring session in order to help the students. molly molly chose to collaborate with her students and share authority in several of her sessions. molly was conducting many other one-on-one sessions within the context of a pull-in environment where the teacher was present and other students. the pull-in environment, as discussed in the previous chapter, was a classroom space that molly became a part of. she would conduct one-on-one tutoring sessions within the larger context of a resource room and esl class that was supported by an esl teacher. sometimes, the students that were present in the class would also be working on the same material that molly was working in a one-on-one session. below is an example that demonstrates how molly partnered with other people in the room as she was conducting a session. molly was working with a student on calculus terms, specifically how to find the range, domain, and radiant. the student told molly that she had a quiz on the concepts in the next class and molly tried to help the student even though she had not worked with the calculus terms for a long time. molly asked the student to see her binder, told her she has not worked with calculus since th grade, and then resorted to asking another student in the class to explain the concepts in order to help molly understand how to help the student. molly was eventually able to help her student complete a few problems but told the student that she should check with her teacher on whether the problems are right (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: a student molly has worked with before comes right over at the beginning of the class period to have a one-on-one session. the student asks molly to help her figure out her calculus homework. molly is not fazed by having to work on calculus. she told me earlier that she was always good at math and the teacher tends to send over all the kids that need help on math to her. today, however molly looks at the work involving radiant and she realizes that she does not remember how to do the problems. she tells the student that she has not used this type of math since th grade. at this point, molly chooses to function more as a partner in the session. she has the student get their math binder out and then she has the student walk her through how the teacher explained the concepts. molly then calls over another student who has the same course to collaborate on the worksheet. at the end of the session, molly was to help her student understand more things about her math work as a result of being willing to collaborate. even though molly wasn’t % confident about the material, her student left one step ahead because molly refreshed her understanding by partnering with others. (field notes, - - ) in her reflection log, molly wrote, “this was challenging because it was hard for me to remember a lot of the math work the student was doing. we were able to work through a lot of the work together and figure out how to solve the problems. (reflection log, - - ) although molly did not explicitly say that she “partnered” with the student, she demonstrated through her actions in the session and in her reflection log that the reason she was able to help the student move forward was because she worked together with the student. she also did not mention asking another student for support but the decision to do so in the session enabled her and the student to work together. hannah unlike molly, hannah conducted the majority of her one-on-one tutoring sessions in a pull-out environment. the pull-out environment, as explained in the previous chapter, was a separate room within the cyber school or high school where the tutors would meet one-on-one with their students. hannah and pete would work in the same room with their students and the students would come to the tutoring room from their larger class. hannah used the proximity to pete in several of her math focused sessions as an opportunity to collaborate in order to help her students. below is an example of how hannah would ask pete for support in a session. hannah was working with a student she had worked with in a previous session. the student told hannah he needed help understanding angles and hannah asked pete for support. pete gave hannah support in the form of a notebook resource page that he created about angles. hannah used the notes as a tool to move her student through the session. at one point in the session, she again asked pete for a quick definition of an adjacent angle in order to make sure that she was not leading the student in the wrong direction (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: hannah is working with a student on angles today. she has worked with him before and they share a comfortable greeting. when the student explains what he needs to learn, hannah does not hesitate. she looks over at pete, who is working with another student on a math concept and asks him how she can help the student understand angles. without hesitating, pete hands hannah his notebook, turned to a page where he has drafted out a definition of each angle and an example. the angle resource becomes the centerpiece of the session and hannah uses it as a base. she also continues to use pete as a collaborator in the session, asking him to help her define “adjacent” in a way the student would understand. (field notes, - - ) hannah wrote in her reflection log, “i thought the session went really well. we worked on math, specifically finding the area of rectangles and learning about adjacent and interior/exterior angles” (reflection log, - - ). although hannah did not specifically reflect on collaborating with pete during the session, she reflected that the session went well. it is obvious from the observation and field notes that the student was able to understand angles based on the resources provided by pete that hannah sought out. pete whereas molly tended to partner with the teacher or other students and hannah would collaborate directly with pete, pete tended to collaborate and share authority directly with his students in sessions. below is an example of how pete would partner. pete was working on factoring with a student in a session. pete choose to start the session by asking questions and offered options of how they could work together to solve the problems. the student and pete discussed which option would work best to solve the problem. once they agreed on the method they went to work to get the answer, the session progresses (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: pete is working with a student he has worked with previously. the student comfortably takes a seat beside pete and begins explaining how he needs help on long division and multiplying factors. pete nods as the student demonstrates the concepts he understands and doesn’t. because the student is able to articulate his needs and understandings, pete chooses to offer the student a few different options they could use for solving the problems instead of simply deciding on a method for the student. together, pete and the student decide what method to use and begin working through the first problem. (field notes, - - ) in his reflection log, pete wrote, “i taught the student a tree method and a factoring method of multiplication. through these short lessons, my student was more confident with his math skills which enabled him to complete his coursework more efficiently. we had positive outlooks in the session because we were productive” (reflection log, - - ). pete does not mention directly in his reflection log that he chose to collaborate or partner with his student. he noticed that the session had a positive outcome and used the word “we” in conjunction with productivity. the partnership transaction pete encouraged at the beginning of the session obviously allowed for both the student and pete to be productive in the session. the ability to be a partner instead of being an authority figure in sessions may have helped the tutors develop stronger relationship with their students and teachers within the building. one of the esl teachers that observed many of the tutoring interactions said: the tutors that work with the ells were friendly and respectful and they gently guided the students through the content. they were really receptive to the students and therefore earned the students respect. it is really important for the urban ells that the tutors develop rapport, respect with the students. it is really important that the student did not view the tutor as another authority figure. (interview, - - ) the tutors established the ability to develop partnerships within their sessions and this enabled them to make learning more about having a social interaction which aligns with vygotsky’s ( ) social learning theory. the social learning theory says that a person learns if they are taught by a more capable adult in an environment of social interaction. the tutors established this type of environment through partnerships which allowed learning to happen. tutors as strategists. the tutors interacted as strategists in their sessions meaning they gave the students strategies on how to organize content and approach learning in the sessions. they would provide strategies that could be used as tools in order to work through a learning concept. each tutor would draw from their own learning experiences in order to give the students strategies in sessions. some of the strategies that the tutors used were not always aligned with how the students approached their work. for instance, the tutor’s would copy down math problems on their notebooks to work them out and many of the students were used to doing mental math in order to solve problems. in one of the examples shown below, hannah used learning strategies that worked for her as an ell which did not have the same success with the ell she was working with in a session. all three of the tutors were able to articulate their own learning experiences prior to conducting tutoring sessions but only two of the tutors recognized verbally in post-interview questions how their own learning experiences helped them come up with strategies for their students. in her pre-interview, hannah said, “i came to the u.s. from russia and was in full esl support until middle school and i have learned fast that the school district i grew up in was a good one” (pre-interview, - - ). this demonstrates hannah’s awareness of her own background and she recognizes this further in her final interview as it relates to giving students strategies. she said, “i used strategies that i had learned through all my years in school. for instance, i would use the five paragraph essay. i guess that in the sessions i knew i was comfortable that i knew the materials the kids brought or that i could learn it with them. i would always think that i could tutor for my students, probably because i learned it before”(post- interview, - - ). in pete’s pre-interview, he said, “i grew up in the suburbs and have been tutoring ell students for a while. i also had tutors growing up so i know how tutoring works from a student’s perspective” (pre-interview, - - ). pete was aware of how his own learning background would end up influencing how he tutored students. this was even more evident in his final interview. pete said, “i was knowledgeable of the content and understanding of students. i tried to bring a lot of conceptual knowledge to the sessions. i was trying to build a foundation and because of this, i had to strengthen my own skills and their skills” (post- interview, - - ). the other tutor, molly, would use her own learning experiences to come up with strategies in sessions but was not reflective about it after sessions. she said in her pre-interview, “i went to school in the suburbs and currently tutor three boys that i nanny on science and math for about hours every day” (pre-interview, - - ). molly was aware of her learning background but did not reflect on how the learning experiences she had developed helped her give strategies during a tutoring session. as will be evidenced below, the strategies that molly demonstrated for her students were unintentional. molly would inadvertently, unknowingly demonstrate a strategy in her sessions through the way she interacted with the material and the student would observe and learn from how she would organize and work with learning material in order to move forward. the ability for molly to be able to give strategies unintentionally could have been a result of the fact that the tutor’s never had a session planned. they responded to what the students brought in and did not have any beforehand preparation which made them rely on their own background knowledge of concepts and ability to remember strategies that they used themselves as learners. molly as stated above, molly would indirectly provide strategies to her students in sessions just by the way she would interact with the material. she was being a strategist because she was not trying to model a technique for her student. she was trying to strategize how to tackle the assignment that presented itself in the session and reverted to using learning methods that she herself had learned to apply to reading work. below is an example from one session where molly gave her student several reading strategies unintentionally. there is some overlap in the interaction where it might seem like molly is modeling versus providing strategies. based on the definitions provided earlier in the chapter, molly is being a strategist because she is providing tools to her student in the session (tracking, scanning text, graphic organizer) versus modeling for them how to think about information. molly was working with a student in order to help them complete a social studies assignment. the student told molly that he needed to read a passage and answer the questions. molly helped the student through what she did vs. what she said in the session. in order to complete the worksheet, molly first demonstrated the importance of reading the passage and she kept her place in the reading by tracking. she then used the page number next to the question to help her locate the information for the first question (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: molly was working with a student she has tutored before. the first time she worked with him, he needed to complete a lot of work in his english workbook because his teacher was going to be grading it the next day. he was in a similar predicament during this session which leads me to think that he might wait until the last minute to get things done. he told molly that he had to complete the social studies assignment by the next class period and that he had no idea how to do it. molly took the social studies worksheet into her hands and looked it over along with the questions that went with it. the student watched molly as she scanned the assignment first and then began to read question one out loud as she tracked under each word of the question. she then flipped the paper back to the text, skimmed the text with her eyes and finger and underlined the information that she thinks will help them answer question one. the student must have paid attention to the process molly went through in order to find the information needed for question because after they discussed the answer, he started using the same strategies to work on question two. later on in the session, when the student seemed frustrated with the text complexity, molly created a graphic organizer that the student ended up using in order to complete their work. (field notes, - - ) in her reflection log, molly said, “the session was a little challenging because the worksheet was pretty difficult (reflection log, - - ). she does not mention any of the strategies she demonstrated in the session such as tracking or creating the graphic organizer even though these are all strategies that happened in the session. it is clear that she came into the session and demonstrated tracking, reading for information, and organizing reading content into a graphic organizer. even though she did not identify any of the strategies as helping her to move the student ahead in the session, she consistently used them. hannah hannah, as referenced in the beginning of this section, demonstrated giving student’s strategies from her own learning experiences purposefully. due to the fact that hannah was identified as an ell learner in elementary school, some of the strategies she gave the ell students were based on her own experience as an ell. it is important to note that hannah would sometimes give an ell student a strategy that worked for her and then find out that she would have to change the strategy or disregard it based on the ell learner she was working with. below is an example of how hannah would demonstrate being a strategist in sessions. hannah was working with a lower level ell learner at the high school. the student had brought a reading passage to the session and told hannah that he needed to be able to read the passage and answer some questions at the end of the passage. the student told hannah he couldn’t read well and hannah told him that she understood because she was an ell and suggested that he reads slower. the student struggled through a few sentences in the reading passage. hannah stopped him and told him that when she was an ell, she would stop and look up any words she did not know in the dictionary and then proceeded to get a dictionary from the classroom and started to help the student look things up. the student continued to struggle with looking things up in the dictionary and hannah realized that they did not have much time left in the session. she abandoned the dictionary strategy and the method of having him read aloud. instead, she began reading aloud to the student, stopping to ask him questions and break things down. the session ended without the student completing the assignment (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: today is hannah’s first session with a lower level ell learner at the high school. he has brought reading materials with him from a seminar class that is working to get him prepared to take a standardized tests in english. the student is very open with hannah, telling her that his english is not good and that he has trouble reading. she empathizes with him and attempts to connect by telling him that she was an ell student. hannah decides to use strategies from her background as an ell learner to try and help the student. she tells him to read the passage slower and has him use a dictionary to look up any word he does not know. the student continues to struggle and quietly starts to look down at his paper like he is years old and his mom is trying to make him eat his peas and he doesn’t want to. hannah sees this quiet frustration and decides to change up the strategies she is using. in the remaining time within the session hannah chooses to read the passage to the student and then stops to break down the reading and discuss it with him. this new strategy seems to work better for the student. (field notes, - - ) in her reflection log of the session, hannah said, “it was difficult because my student had a hard time understanding so we repeated a lot of the reading and tried different methods where he might understand best. it went okay; i’m not sure how much he got out of it. i felt like i couldn’t help enough and wish i could have done more” (reflection log, - - ). hannah obviously recognizes that she tried to use different strategies in the session and also realized that in this case, the strategies that worked for her as an ell did not help the student in her session progress. the strategy that she did decide to use, a read aloud of the material, has been associated positively with ell reading comprehension success (coady, ; houk, ; stahl, richek, & vandevier, ) and has also been associated with helping students to develop greater vocabulary development (beck, mckeown, & kucan, ). pete pete, in contrast with hannah, had a lot of success right away in his tutoring sessions using strategies from his own learning experiences. he would have a conversation with students about how he would approach material if he was the student and many of the strategies he provided helped his students’ progress. below is an example of pete being a strategist in a writing focused sessions. pete was working with a student at the cyber school who is a higher level ell student who continued to need support when writing in english. pete decided to provide strategies to the student as if he was writing the piece. pete told the student that if he was writing the response he would reread the sentence, see if he needed to add any pauses, and brainstorm thoughts out loud. further along in the session, pete told the student what he likes to do before he writes a new sentence in the paragraph. he said that he likes to read the sentence before just to make sure the new sentence makes sense. the student began to start implementing the strategies pete had introduced and finished the written responses by the end of class (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: today pete was working with a learner on their social studies response journals at the cyber school. the student was talkative and demonstrated a large english oral vocabulary. as pete started helping the student with their written assignment and he started giving strategies in relation to what he noticed the paper currently lacked commas and connectedness. pete gave the student strategies that he prefaced by telling the student that they are strategies that he himself uses. (field notes, - - ) pete wrote in his reflection log, “he had difficulties writing explanations. he seemed unsure most of the time when he was writing his responses. when writing, the student didn’t use contractions to indicate possession. he also had a tendency to write run on sentences and rely on spell check. by the end of the session, the student was more specific by using labels and improving diction. i liked that the student never gave up and responded to my assistance positively” (reflection log, - - ). pete chose to use strategies that had worked for him in his learning experience to help his student progress in the session and in this case, the strategies he chose to share worked. tutors as facilitators. the tutors acted as facilitators in their tutoring sessions. facilitation is being defined as the ability to organize the structure of a session in order to meet an academic goal. at times, this goal was decided based upon work that the student needed to complete. for instance, a student at the cyber school or high school would come to a session and need to complete a project or a lesson that they were behind in. the tutor would then look over the work that needed to be completed and set a goal with the student on what was manageable to get done in one tutoring session. in other cases, the tutor would decide that the student they were working with needed to know something fundamental before they could work on the assignment they brought to the session and then this would become the goal. below, three examples will be shown. two examples with demonstrate how two of the tutors, hannah and pete, would act as facilitators by choosing not to follow the original agenda of the session in order to help their students gain access to a fundamental skill. the third example will show how molly’s facilitation in a session enabled the original learning goal to be met. in all of the examples, the facilitation choices that each tutor made would help the students move forward academically. the tutors would not talk about being a facilitator directly but each of them made mention of how it was important for them to organize a session and have a structure in mind. pete said in his pre-interview, “i think you need to greet a person, have a structure in mind you want to use with students. it is important to be patient, consistent, and understanding of situations too. if a student doesn’t understand the subject, it is important that you are cautious on how you approach that gap”(pre-interview, - - ). it is obvious from pete’s comments that he recognized that being a tutor for him was about being able to structure or organizes a session. it was also about being able to recognize when a student was struggling with in a session and being able to approach the session accordingly. in hannah’s pre-interview, she also talked about wanting to make sure she understood what her students needed and then organize the session accordingly. she said, “i really want to see the students basic knowledge in the session and i don’t want to make assumptions. i want to give my students ways to apply what they are learning”(pre-interview, - - ). molly paid attention to how having an agenda and being able to follow it proved to being an effective session. she said in her final interview, “a tutoring session tended to be most effective if a student brought specific work they needed to do or if the teacher assigned them specific work and i was able to guide them through it” (post-interview, - - ). the students almost always brought specific work to the session and if they did not bring specific work to the session the tutor would go through all of the student’s subjects with the student to see if they needed support. the tutoring sessions did not function as homework help. the students that came to the sessions tended to be behind in their coursework so the sessions provided them with a chance to work on actual classwork in a one-on-one environment. the esl coordinator said, “i want tutors to be able to fill the gaps. to be content based tutoring specialist that are able to pull apart assignments” (interview, - - ). the above comments are important to pay attention to because it mirrors the examples that will be shown below. two of the tutors discussed that it was important for them to find out where the student was at during the session first without trying to just do the work that was presented and both of the tutors facilitated many of their sessions according to this premise. molly was different in her style. while she did demonstrate facilitation skills in her sessions, her facilitation was about getting through the work that the student brought to the session and less about seeing what fundamentals they were lacking. molly in molly’s sessions, facilitation was sometimes used to keep her student on task when the classroom environment had become chaotic or disruptive. below is an example of when molly would become a facilitator in order to help keep her student on task. molly is working with a student in the same room where an esl class is meeting. the teacher has prepped molly before the class started on the learning objectives that she wanted molly to work on with the student during the tutoring session. the objectives are aligned with what the entire class is working on. the classroom environment is loud and several students are not focused on the learning objectives. molly facilitates continued learning for her student by reading the directions for each task out loud and checking each section as the student moves through the task. she does not call attention to the classroom environment and uses oral directions and conversation to keep session progressing (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: molly is working with a student on reading comprehension questions for a biographical story the entire class is reading about emily dickenson. the class is not focused on academic content today and there are a series of conversations happening in spanish as the teacher attempts to give directives and manage the room in english and spanish. molly is not showing that she is affected by the disruptive room. she instead becomes much more verbal in her directives to the student she is working with. molly continues to facilitate learning by moving the student through each section of the written tasks, answering the students questions, and checking for understanding. (field notes, - - ) in her reflection log of the session molly writes, “the session went well. the student completed her work efficiently and was able to understand how emily dickinson lived her life. she was shocked that someone could stay in her house her whole life” (reflection log, - - ). molly did not mention having to facilitate a learning environment in this session but she does mention the challenge of working in a pull in environment in her final interview. she said, “some of the kids in the class were a little out of control and i think the teacher focused on being their friend sometimes and it was hard for her to get control of the class. this made me realize how important it is to show the students from the beginning that you are in charge and expect respect from them.” this reflection helps explain her facilitation skills in the example that was shared. molly demonstrated through her directives and ability to keep the session moving even with a potential distracting classroom atmosphere. for molly, once an expectation was set in a session that certain work needed to be completed, facilitating the completion of the work regardless of distractions was really important. hannah hannah would facilitate a session based upon what the student needed to get done but also what skill hannah thought it was important enough to stop the session for in order to go over. below is an example of how hannah facilitated a session in order to teach a fundamental concept. below is an example of how hannah facilitated a session in order to teach a fundamental concept. hannah was working with a middle school student at the cyber school on a math lesson that involved picking the right angle. in order to understand what angle to pick, the student had to have the background knowledge of the properties of angles. hannah noticed that the student needed to have more background information on angles in order to answer the questions so she decided to more the session in another direction. hannah moved away from the computer lesson and conducted a mini-lesson with the student about the properties of angles (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: hannah is working with a student today on math concepts at the cyber school. the student needs to pick the correct angle choice from a list of four angles when prompted by a description of angle properties. the goal of the session is to complete all the questions. after the first couple questions, hannah ask the student if they understand the properties of angles or if they are just guessing. the student admits to making guesses and not knowing the properties. hannah decides to change the direction of the session. she has the student leave the computer lesson and works with the student instead on understanding the properties of angles. at the end of the session, the student had not completed the computer session but was able to demonstrate a greater knowledge of angles and base angles based on the review session hannah had decided to facilitate. (field notes, - - ) in the reflection log of the session, hannah said: we worked on math, specifically learning about adjacent and interior/exterior angles. i created alternative problems for both sections for him to ensure he knew what he was learning. i felt really confident that he understood it, and i think he felt happy as well and was confident to move on (reflection log, - - ). hannah demonstrates from the example above that her ability to stop a session in order to facilitate the learning of fundamental concepts helped her student feel confident about the math skill. pete like hannah, pete would facilitate the agenda of a session based less on what the student brought to the session to complete and more on the background knowledge the student demonstrated as the session progressed. in several sessions, pete would realize the student needed work on a fundamental skill and would choose to stop the session in order to tackle the fundamental skill before continuing with the planned agenda. the planned agenda for instance would be that the student wanted to get the work done for one of their math lessons at the beginning of the session but as the session progressed, pete would realize that they were missing a fundamental skill. pete would choose to not worry about the student completely finishing the math lesson and shift the focus of the session to making sure they understood a skill that they needed to eventually be able to complete the math lesson. below is an example of pete’s facilitation skills within a lesson. pete is working with a student at the cyber school on multiple binominals and rationalizing radical functions and expressions. the student has brought their laptop and told pete that they are trying to complete one of their lessons. pete begins working with the student on the lesson and then stops the lesson when he discovers that the student is having trouble with the algebraic foil method. pete asks the student if they understand the foil method and the student tells him that they don’t. pete decides to facilitate the rest of the session using a new agenda that is based on teaching the student the foil method (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: pete is working with a new student today on rationalizing binomial expressions. the student slumps in their seat and seems unsure about how to interact with pete or the material. pete realizes her hesitation and begins asking her questions in regards to what she knows and doesn’t know. as a result, pete gleans that she does not know how to use the foil method and he decides to facilitate the session in a new direction aligned with helping her understand the process of foil. as a result, the student made progress on obtaining some fundamental math concepts by the end of session. (field notes, - - ) in his reflection log, pete recognizes that his influence made a difference in the session. he writes, “i found the student to be unsure when answering questions, especially about fundamentals, such as mental math. nevertheless, i was content with the fact that she was persistent and persevered. i think she was overwhelmed at first, but eventually saw that i was picky about fundamentals because math builds on them” (reflection log, - - ). the student might have been content if pete would have just had them struggle through the work they brought. pete did not do that and the student followed his facilitation choices to work on fundamentals first. by facilitating sessions around teaching fundamentals, the tutors were demonstrating giving explicit instruction of mechanics which was recommended by short ( ) as a good way to teach ells in the content areas. molly’s facilitation choices to move some of her sessions forward in a disruptive environment could be related to what some of the tutor’s might have experienced in cobb’s ( ) study which listed low ses as a potential impact of the study’s outcomes. in molly’s case, she was still able to move the student forward in the session despite the disruptive environment that could have been related to the school’s low ses standing. tutors as translators. this section of the narrative will describe how the tutors interacted with the adolescent first and second language acquisition of ells in one-on-one sessions. tutors became translators when they used the students’ first language and broke down english words or concepts in the sessions. the tutors would function as translators in two important ways. first, two tutors would use the students first language or visuals to help students connect to english content in the session. hannah and molly chose to use what limited spanish they knew to help direct students within their sessions and make the students more comfortable with english concepts. molly and hannah recognized the benefit of embracing the student’s first language, even in a limited way, in their final interviews. molly said, “i have little experience with spanish, not a lot, but speaking in spanglish felt silly to me and i thought they might make fun of me, but it was actually helpful to them. the students were actually excited when i would say something in spanish because they felt they were teaching them as i was teaching them” (post-interview, - - ). hannah said, “i found that when i used simpler language or anytime i was able to throw spanish into my session, even though i really don’t know hardly any at all, even using a little bit helped. sometimes i would use a broader spanish term to define something or be able to use words that were similar in spanish; general words in spanish that would help them connect with english concepts” (post-interview, - - ). second, all of the tutors would function as translators based on how they would rephrase, simplify, and break down content in the sessions. in regards to simplifying material for students, each of the tutors mentioned this either in there pre or post interviews. pete said in his post interview, “with my higher level ells in the cyber school, i didn’t really have to rephrase my language that much, but with my lower level ell students at the high school, i used a lot of rephrasing” (post-interview, - - ). hannah said in her post-interview, “i would use a lot of different strategies with my lower level ells at the high school. i would rephrase, read to them, and after reading i would summarize what was read back to them. if i felt the ell was not giving enough of a summary, i would ask them a simpler question” (post-interview, - - ). molly said in her post interview, “it was very different working with ell students and i enjoyed it a lot. it made it easier to communicate with them when i would over-exaggerate my speech and talk with my hands a lot. i focused mainly on reading the directions to them and telling them in my words” (post-interview, - - ). below, examples of how the tutors were translators in their sessions will be shared. first, examples of how hannah and molly would use spanish in sessions will be discussed and then an example of how each of the tutors would translate content in a session by breaking it down, simplifying, or rephrasing with be shared. molly molly would translate content and connect with some of her students by using their first language, spanish. this type of spanish to english translation would tend to happen towards the beginning of a session when molly was helping her students with gaining access to new material. below is an example of how molly would use spanish in order for her students to connect with english concepts. molly is working with a student on calculus concepts. this is the first time molly has met with the student and the student has brought a computer translator to the session in order to help her and molly communicate. the student and molly work through the session using the translation device and molly also decides to translate some of the english terms into spanish as well. by the end of the session, the student leaves with a greater understanding of calculus terms (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: today molly is working with a student on math concepts. the student is timid about communicating with molly in the session and has brought her computer translator to the session. molly begins working with the student and maybe because the student acknowledged their struggle with understanding, molly uses translation strategies in the session. she lets the student use spanish when they need to and molly uses the spanish term “mas” to explain something in math was bigger and then uses the word “menos” to indicate that subtraction was necessary later in the session. in both cases when molly used the spanish word to help the student connect with the english content, the student connected immediately with the concept and also seemed to open up to molly. once they saw that molly was able to use spanish to help them, they started being more open minded to understanding english. (field notes, - - ) in her reflection log of the session molly writes, “the student struggled with her english, but had a lot of understanding with math concepts. the computer translator helped us a lot with communication, especially with math terms.” molly does not mention her own influence in the session with helping the student move forward by using spanish terms even though it is evident that this helped the session progress. she does make reference to how being able to interact with the translation tool in the session made a difference. molly would use the translation computer program as an additional strategy to help her student understand and english concept. molly would also use the translation strategies of breaking things down, simplifying, or rephrasing english content in order for her ell students to connect to concepts in a session. below is an example of how molly demonstrated translation through simplification. molly is helping a student complete a project about animals for their esl class. the student is unsure about how to do the assignment and tells molly that she does not understand the english directions. molly chooses to use translation strategies in the session. she reads the directions to the student, breaks them down into simple conversational phrases and then uses a pencil to draw out a picture that explains the directions she just gave orally. the student moves forward with the project by the end of the session (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: molly is working with a student today that she has worked with before. the student likes be really social in the class and enjoys talking in spanish during the sessions and using english terms that she knows. today she is working with molly on an animal project that she is going to have to present in english to her class at the end of the week. the student tells molly that she does not understand the english directions in the assignment and molly begins using translation strategies. she reads the english directions, rewords them into simpler language, and draws a picture of what the directions are saying to do. as a result, the student decides on an animal to do her presentation on and finds two facts and a picture that she can share with the class about her animal. (field notes, - - ) molly wrote in her reflection log, “the session went well, the student completed a lot of work she did not do on the animal presentation.” although molly does not mention using any translation strategies in her reflection log, it is obvious that her ability to break down english directions for her student helped the student progress in the session. hannah like molly, hannah would use spanish terms when she was working with some of her students at the high school. the students she would work with at the high school were lower level ell students and would usually bring content associated with reading comprehension to the session. below is an example of how she would help the student translate the english content by navigating it with a spanish term. hannah is working with a student for the second time at the high school. the student has brought a reading passage and questions that she has to answer in english. hannah begins to help the student navigate through the text heavy passage and hannah thought it was important to stop and see if the student understood the english term, bigger. hannah translated the english term by using the spanish word for bigger, grande. as a result of this splash of spanish in the session, the student was able to connect more with the text and understand what a comprehension question was asking for (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: hannah is working with a student today for the second time at the high school. the student has brought a keystone practice test to the session and the student actually thought that it was a real test that she had to take so she was frustrated immediately. once hannah reassured her that it was only a practice test, the session continued but the student was having trouble understanding what the assignment was about or how she was supposed to answer the questions. hannah got a positive reaction from the student when she used the spanish word, grande, in order to explain the english concept of bigger. it is the only time in the session that the student smiled and seemed to engage more with the information she brought to the session. (field notes, - - ) in the reflection log of the session hannah commented on the challenge of the session and how she tried to use different strategies. she does not specifically mention using the student’s first language as a strategy but as evidenced above, translation in the session happened and seemed to make a difference in the student’s attitude towards the material. hannah said, “i think the session was challenging for my student because she knows such limited amounts of english. i was having a hard time trying to think of strategies to get her to understand what was being read and what she had to do for the teacher” (reflection log, - - ). in some of her other sessions, hannah would demonstrate translation strategies in how she would break down the material for her students. below is an example of how hannah would translate by breaking down an english concept for her student. hannah is working with a student on understanding a social studies lesson. the social studies lesson deals with german history and hannah decides to help the student understand some of the english content through a variety of translation strategies. hannah uses hand gestures to explain the content of the story and provides the student with a synonym and an antonym of a comprehension question. at the end of the session, the student had completed all the questions associated with the passage (observation, - - ). the field notes explain further: today hannah is working with a student on their social studies content. the student told hannah that she needs to complete the comprehension questions associated with the passage and that she didn’t really understand some of the reading passage. hannah starts the session by reading the passage out loud to the student and then she decides to translate what she is reading by using hand gestures. it almost feels like hannah is conducting a reader’s theatre. she is acting out the story with the gestures she is using; making the english words come to life. when the student and hannah begin working on the questions that go along with the passage, hannah does not just read the question as it is stated. she reads the question, simplifies it by putting it into easier language or attaching the concept to a synonym or antonym. by the end of the session, the student has completed all of the questions associated with the reading passage and she left the session smiling. (field notes, - - ) in the reflection log of the session, hannah recognized how she used different strategies that helped translate the english content. she writes, “the session went quick but went well. my student came to the session with a specific unit that she needed help with. all she needed was better clarifications and rephrasing of some of the english to understand the questions or passages. she left happy and i was happy to have helped” (reflection log, - - ). it is obvious from the above example how hannah became a translator within the session by being able to clarify, break down, and rephrases english concepts. pete as stated previously, pete did not use spanish to help his students understand concepts in english. he did translate english content in the session by simplifying it for his students. below is an example of how pete would use translation strategies. pete is helping a student today on her math coursework. the work involved radicals and exponents. the student has a hard time understanding the english terms exponents, bases and powers, and multiplying positive and negative numbers. the student also needed support understanding the relationship between radicals and exponents. pete used a variety of translation strategies to support the session. he introduced each concept by drawing it on his notebook and then uses the drawing to support what he was explaining orally. at the end of the session, the student was able to demonstrate their understanding of the math concepts by completing problems on their own (observation notes, - - ). the field notes explain further: pete is just starting a session with a student about radicals and exponents. at first, the student is unresponsive to pete’s prompts but then her face lights up when she understands something so pete proceeds with the session using her facial expressions as a way to gauge if she understands or needs more instruction on a concept. pete realizes that the student is having trouble with some of the english terminology/content. he begins translating some of the english concepts by drawing visuals on his notebook. he draws the visual and explains that he is drawing out the meaning of the math concept. towards the end of the session, the student was able to solve problems on her own and draw out the pictures that explained the concepts. (field notes, - - ) in his reflection log, pete said: i was overwhelmed at the beginning of the session because i realized that the student did not have a very strong foundational knowledge of english math concepts and their relation to each other. the idea i emphasized most was the relationship between radicals and exponents. i also had to explain the terms related to exponents, bases and powers, as well as multiplying positive and negative numbers. at the end of the session, i think we both felt accomplished. i was proud of my student for being persistent and willing to learn (reflection log, - - ). pete took the time to translate several english math concepts in the session in order for his student to have success. he broke down concepts and showed their relationships and meanings through guided visuals. in chapter , the benefits of bilingual education was discussed using a study conducted by o’garcia and barlett ( ). two of the tutors demonstrated through their translation interactions that it benefited their students when they would use words from the students l to help them connect to concepts in their l . furthermore, the translation abilities that all of the tutors demonstrated, either by using the students l or breaking concepts down, aligns with a vygotskian concept set forth by lantolf & thorne ( ) that new levels of development will be reached if students are taught by other’s who have mastered the task. all of the tutors identified as english being their l and because of this mastery of the language, they were able to become translators for their students. in the findings presented above, themes were discussed that explained how tutors interacted in one-on-one sessions with their ell adolescent students. findings for the second research question will be presented below and they are based on how each of the three tutors helped their students develop vocabulary in each session. question # : how are volunteer tutors supporting vocabulary acquisition with secondary ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions? there were three themes that were identified as a result of “a- priori” coding the data. “a- priori” coding, as identified in the methods section, resulted from vocabulary learning trends that were present in chapter . below is a brief description and definition of each theme. . tutors supported vocabulary acquisition indirectly –the tutors helped students acquire vocabulary words throughout a session but did not explicitly plan a vocabulary teaching time. . tutors supported the vocabulary acquisition of general academic words –the type of words that the tutors helped the students acquire were usually academic vocabulary words that helped the student understand a concept or how to complete a task. . tutors used instructional techniques to support vocabulary acquisition –tutors would help students understand vocabulary concepts by breaking down the vocabulary word into a simple definition, finding specific definitions, using a responsive context, personalizing word learning, or visuals. tutors supported vocabulary indirectly. this section of the narrative will describe how the tutors supported student’s vocabulary acquisition by looking at way instruction happened in the sessions. in the literature review, vocabulary instruction was discussed mainly in terms of direct instruction or indirect instruction. direct instruction involves explicit teaching of vocabulary words/definitions. for instance, words are taught from a designated vocabulary list or words are picked out of a reading passage and taught to the student before the student reads the passage. indirect instruction is learning words through exposure, conversations, reading independently, or being read to (beck, ; cunningham & stanovich, ; nagy, herman, & anderson, ). it was found in the literature review that direct instruction is really important to eventual acquisition (beck, mckeown, & mccaslin, ; schatz & baldwin, ). incidental or indirect instruction is important as well but did not yield the same results as studies where direct instruction was used as well as indirect instruction (marmolejo, ; ouellette, ). this particular study attempted to explore how volunteer tutors were supporting vocabulary acquisition in their tutoring sessions. where the tutors setting a time aside in their sessions to cover vocabulary? did the tutors extensively go over vocabulary words or did they give minimal definitions and only cover words that happened as a result of the context of the session? the tutors were observed in their everyday tutoring sessions with students and were not given specific training or goals to accomplish with the students from the tutoring coordinator. the tutors were told to work with the materials the students brought to the sessions. in effect, the tutors were able to decide their own structure, goals, and agenda for the session based on the materials the students brought. the tutors were also not asked in either their pre interview or during informal interviews during the course of the study to talk about vocabulary perceptions or instructional methods. this was a choice made by the researcher in an effort to not influence any choices the tutor’s were making in regards to vocabulary acquisition during the course of the study. tutors support of vocabulary throughout the course of the study tutoring sessions were observed. each tutor was observed conducting at least sessions. at the completion of the study molly had been observed times, hannah times, and pete was observed times. out of the total number of sessions, indirect vocabulary instruction happened times and not once did the tutors ever teach the vocabulary explicitly. meaning that the tutors did not set aside a particular time in their session to go over words directly or bring in vocabulary materials that they thought the students would benefit from knowing. the tutors would support vocabulary learning within the session if a word came up in the context of material that was being covered in the session. below, the ways in which vocabulary was taught indirectly will be discussed. a complete list of the vocabulary words that were introduced by the tutors will be included in appendix g. during several tutoring sessions, vocabulary was supported as a result of the tutor and student engaging with written reading material. specifically, there were times over the course of the tutoring sessions that tutors would define a vocabulary word for a student because it was in the written context of material brought to the session. the tutor would be helping the student work through material the student had brought to the session and during the course of working with the material, vocabulary words would be defined because they came up in the natural context of the session. for instance, molly was working with a student on a social studies worksheet during a session where the student had to complete questions associated with a reading passage about india. during the course of reading the passage with the student, molly stopped three times in order to address vocabulary. she gave the student quick oral definitions of the words trade route and motives. the quick definition was given based on molly’s own background knowledge. for the words spices, molly gave a synonym of the word and used hand gestures to model putting spices on food in order to help her student get the definition. in all the above examples, the vocabulary instruction lasted for - seconds and then the session continued and the words were not covered again (observation notes, - - ). all of the above examples are additional reasons why the vocabulary instruction the tutors gave was implicit and not explicit. similarly, hannah was working with a student on their history lesson and stopped during the reading passage three times to introduce the words discrimination, rigorous, and banned. all of the words were quickly defined by hannah using her own background knowledge of the words. she would say the word out loud once and then give a one sentence definition from her own vocabulary lexicon. for instance, she would say, “discrimination –that means that a person is being treated unfairly.” hannah spent - seconds defining the words orally for the student. she did not ask the student to use the words in another context and the words were not reviewed again. when the student and hannah moved onto the question part of the lesson, hannah defined the words since and then by giving the student a synonym/antonym of the words. hannah chose to define these words for the student in reference to how knowing what they meant would help the student answer the questions correctly. the student was not asked to repeat the definition of the words or use them (observation notes, - - ). additionally, pete was working with a student on an informational reading passage designed to get the student ready to take the keystone exam. pete stopped the reading to define the words patent, progress, and sophisticated. for progress and sophisticated, pete shared quick oral definitions that lasted - seconds that came from his own background and for the word patent; he first checked with a teacher that was close by to make sure he had the definition correct and then defined it by telling the student a story about someone that had a patent on new shoes. the example he gave for the word patent took - seconds and he asked the student if they understood what the word meant. the student responded, yes, and pete continued with the session. the words that pete introduced were not reviewed at any point in the session (observation notes, - - ). one hundred and eleven times a math concept was defined that was needed to understand the context of the lesson as it progressed. for instance, a student came to a session with pete and brought their math lesson with them to work on. during the lesson, pete defined the word fractions, turbulence, and difference for the student by showing the student visuals of both concepts on his notebook. each visual demonstration would take - seconds and pete would ask the student if they were following his explanation orally. the student was not asked to immediately demonstrate an understanding of the concepts but the student demonstrated their understanding of each of the concepts in the problems they had to complete in the independent practice part of the session (observation notes, - - ). in a session devoted to helping a student with calculus, molly used the terms sign, cosign, aptitude, and vertical shift throughout the session that involved completing a worksheet. she would use the term and then quickly ask the student to define it in order to check and see if the student understood the concept. if a student demonstrated they knew the definition of the term, molly would then use it freely in her explanations. if a student was unclear about a definition, molly would explain it further by talking about what it was orally as well as showing it in action on the worksheet. each explanation took about seconds and then molly would continue with the session. in the independent practice part of the session, the student would demonstrate their knowledge of the terms molly went over with her prompting them. she would ask them to show her how to set up a problem using sign, cosign, aptitude, and vertical shift ( - - ). in one of hannah’s sessions, a student was working on math coursework associated with angles. hannah defined the word interior, exterior, and corresponding angle as the content came up in the session. she would compare and contrast the different angles for the student using visuals. she spent - minutes comparing and contrasting the angles. the terms were used orally and she did not write down the terms beside the angles that served as the terms definitions. hannah then spent - minutes having the student think about using tricks associated with the words themselves to remember the vocabulary. she told them to use the little word “in” in interior to remember it was an inside angle. she told them to think about the word exit when thinking about exterior to remember the angles were outside. at the end of the session the student was able to demonstrate in their independent practice that they had an understanding of the angles. the student was not asked to use the terms orally (observation notes, - - ). sometimes a vocabulary word would be introduced by a tutor because it was a word they were using in conversation. this happened times during the course of observations. for instance, pete was talking with a student about the upcoming winter season and they began talking about hunting. as a result, the student learned what deviation and spread means when it comes to hunting. pete did not realize that the students did not know what the terms meant. the student asked pete what the words meant and then pete stopped to define each word while making pretend deer antlers in order to demonstrate each word. the talk lasted to minutes and the student did not use the terms (observation notes, - - ). in another conversation, pete was using the word vague in a session to talk about how the student did not want to make their writing vague. the student did not know what it meant so pete defined it by giving a synonym to the student. pete told the student that vague meant “unclear” and the student demonstrated that they understood now by shaking their head. later on in the session pete would use the word vague and unclear together in order to reiterate the definition he gave the student. the student was able to demonstrate his understanding of the word by changing his writing to be more specific whenever pete would tell him it was vague (observation notes, - - ). the words introduced as part of conversation are included in table . in all the examples shared above, the tutors would help the students acquire vocabulary as it resulted in the context of the session. each of the tutors made references to teaching vocabulary in their post interviews. pete said, “it was important to point out words in context” (post-interview, - - ). hannah said, “for me, vocabulary gives a deeper meaning to whatever you are learning about”(post-interview, - - ). hannah’s comment connects to research done by chall and jacobs ( ) ( ) about how knowing more words helps students understand the overall text and the deeper meaning of that text. molly talked about how she would approach vocabulary if the students asked about a word. she said, “when a student would stop and ask me what a word meant, i would give synonyms and talk with my hands a lot to act out what i was explaining” (post interview, - - ). two of tutors did make references in their post interview comments to teaching vocabulary differently, in a more direct approach. hannah said, “in the beginning of the tutoring sessions, i would use the dictionary with students to look up words but there was such limited time that i would just define the word quickly. looking back, it was a lot more important to give the students the dictionary strategy consistently”(post-interview, - - ). pete said, “having a thesaurus would have been helpful, using real world examples, translations, pictures, and teaching students more about context clues” (post-interview, - - ). in appendix g, a list of the words that were taught to the students, how they were taught, and the kinds of words that were taught is provided. type of words taught this section of the narrative describes what types of words that the tutors would choose to define in each session based on the concept being covered or the context of the session. in the literature review, the importance of introducing academic vocabulary to ell students was discussed. academic vocabulary was defined as being a component of academic english which is used in academic settings, academic text, and is crucial for academic success (corson, ; cunningham & moore, ; nation & kyongho, ; scarcella, ). the idea presented in the literature review was that many ells have an understanding of basic english vocabulary but need support with general academic terms found in many mainstream textbooks (beck, mckeown, kucan, ; graves, , ; stahl & nagy, ). this study wanted to see what types of words were being introduced by the tutors. during every session, the vocabulary words that tutors helped students acquire were recorded as well as the context of the word and how the tutor helped the student understand the word. the vocabulary words were then coded into three categories. the first category was coded as words that were introduced from written context, meaning the words that were introduced directly from written material the student brought to the session. the second category was coded as signal words that were introduced to help students understand an academic concept. the third category was coded as conversational terms the tutors would introduce as part of their conversational pattern with students. it was found once the words were put into categories that many of the words the tutors chose to define words that were general purpose academic words and sometimes they would define low frequency exotic words. many of the tutors would also define words that would be considered tier one (everyday) words (beck, ) if the word was needed to help understand a larger concept. the word list in appendix g show the different categories of words that the tutors introduced throughout their sessions. the words will be in the order in which they were observed. beside each word is what category the word was coded in as well as if it was a general academic word, low-frequency exotic, or tier one everyday word. there were ten words that were introduced by the tutors multiple times. the words that were repeated across sessions by the same or different tutors were percent, and, sum, tone, synonym, expression, whole, prism, units, product. all of the above words that were repeated by the tutors within or across sessions are in the category of signal words. most of the repeated words are also associated to math. pete made reference to signal words in his final interview. he said, “in math there were a lot of signal words. i would explain the signal words and write them out in numerical form. at the high school, the signal words that might help them on the standardized test were in context”(post-interview, - - ). in another comment, pete specifically talked about helping one of his students through a session once he defined the word percent. he said: i was working with a student on absolute value and distance problems and he had a hard time converting fractions. i broke down the word percent and that really helped him. i opened up the vocabulary terms of math and then would ask why am i converting this fraction and i went through it step by step. i might not use the words but i would use a demo. for example, i would show the terms part and whole. knowing the vocabulary helps, you don’t have to have it but it helps to know it in order to get math concepts, it provides greater access to the fundamentals (post-interview, - - ). the words that pete chose to introduce are aligned with the definition of general academic vocabulary. the tutors never mentioned having an understanding of basic versus academic words, yet the majority of words that they chose to define where general academic words. as stated previously, tutors were not instructed specifically on what type of words to help their students acquire so the words that were covered in the session resulted from the tutor or student initiative. the finding that most of the words that were introduced were academic unintentionally supported one of the challenges that faced ell students at the school site. a mainstream teacher at the school site said, “the biggest challenge facing adolescent ells is developing academic vocabulary as they are still working on the day to day vocabulary of english.” similarly, an esl teacher at the school site commented. “it would be awesome if the tutors could incorporate vocab or use the vocab we were using in class. the ell students basic vocabulary is really high but their academic vocabulary is not” (interview, - - ). these suggestions or preferences for vocabulary acquisition were never shared with the tutors and the tutors did not ask for support on how to teach vocabulary. the instructional method and technique tutors were using to teach vocabulary. this section of the narrative describes how the tutors were supporting vocabulary acquisition through instructional methods that were reviewed in the literature. several successful strategies for teaching vocabulary was discussed in the literature review including teaching students the specific meanings of words (fisher et al., ), using a responsive context with the students when helping them with vocabulary acquisition (harris, ), helping students recognize and pronounce words (ehri, ), and personalizing word knowledge (blachowicz & fisher, ) by letting students pick out vocabulary they wanted defined. in this study, i wanted to explore the techniques the tutors were using in their sessions to teach vocabulary. the techniques that came out of the literature review and that are listed above were used as a-priori codes during data collection. during observations when a vocabulary word was introduced, the technique the tutor used to introduce the word was also recorded. below, each of the techniques will be discussed in relation to what was found as a result of the data analysis. it was found that the tutors taught the specific meanings of four words in the study. the four words are included in table . this type of specific definition acquisition usually involved a tutor using a tool, like a dictionary, in order to define a word. for example, pete was helping a student work on a math lesson and one of the multiple choice questions the student had to answer used the term overstated. the student asked what the term meant and pete decided that instead of defining the term for the student to direct the student to look up the word independently. the student looked up overstated using google and then the session proceeded. on occasions tutors would define the word according to their own background knowledge but not specifically look up the word in through a dictionary or other word source. for example, hannah was helping a student with a reading passage and she stopped to define the word device. hannah told the student that a device was something that a person could use in order to help them accomplish a task. the passage was about household cleaning devices. hannah asked the student if they understood what the word device meant and the student verbally said yes. the student was not asked to use the word device or demonstrate their understanding later in the session (observation notes, - - ). tutors may have chosen words from the context that were usually academic in nature and also easier for them to define considering that they rarely used a dictionary in order to define the word. the second technique that was coded regarded whether or not the tutor used a responsive context to teach vocabulary. in out of instances tutors would introduce a word and the student would have to either respond orally that they understood what the word meant or they would have to demonstrate an understanding of the word in their independent practice. for example, molly is working with a student on a math lesson. molly introduces the words horizontal, vertical, and reflection. molly explains each of the terms in relation to the chart the student has brought to complete in the session. after molly explains each term while referencing the chart, she has the student demonstrate their understanding of each of the terms in relation to the chart and questions that are being asked. the student has to demonstrate they have an understanding of horizontal and vertical multiple times because they have to plot points for multiple questions (observation notes, - - ). table includes the words that required a responsive context. there were occasions when a vocabulary word was introduced and the tutor did not ask the student to respond in any way. for example, pete was explaining literary concepts to a student in a session before they partook in a read aloud. in his explanation he defined summarize, narrative, character, conflict, settings. pete did not ask the student if they understood what each of the elements were before, during, or after his explanation and the student did not offer comment or questions about the terms. after pete was done defining the terms, they commenced with reading the chapter of a goosebumps series book (observation notes, - - ). the words that were introduced without student response and with student response are included in table . the third technique that was coded regarded if the tutor helped the students pronounce or recognize the vocabulary words. the pronunciation of certain vocabulary words happened intentionally six times and was a result of the student asking the tutor directly to help them pronounce or spell a word. for instance, hannah was working with a student on a math focused session and the student asked hannah to pronounce the word, prism. hannah defined the word for the student and then she showed them a picture that defined the word. the student did not practice pronouncing the word on their own (observation notes, - - ). tutors did pronounce every word they introduced to the students by way of saying the word out loud but it was not asked for specifically by the students and the tutors did not tell orally declare that they were going to first pronounce the word and then define it. the tutors never asked the students to pronounce the words that they introduced. the words that were pronounced are included in table . there was not a lot of evidence that tutors helped students to recognize certain words. at points, the tutors would tell the students that at a word was important and that they should remember it. for instance, pete introduced the word units to a student in a math session and then would make reference and bring up the word continuously in every session he had with the student whenever the student would finish a problem because they would need to label the problem in units. pete was attempting to help the student put the vocabulary word into his lexicon in order to remember a fundamental math process (observation notes, - - ). the tutors never cold called on the student about recognizing a word. for example, they would never day to a student, “what is that word?” if a word they had defined for a student came up in context. some of the student’s recognition of words would be tested because they would have to show they understood a word in order to answer a question or complete a problem in their independent practice. the fourth technique that was coded was if the tutor personalized word knowledge for students. this was when the student asked the tutor about a word that they wanted defined and the tutor defined the word. there were times when the tutors personalized a word for students because the student asked for the definition. for instance, molly explained the word study to a student after they asked about it. molly told them that study meant what the student would do before taking a test. she gestured opening up a book and pretending she was studying it. the student showed molly that she understood what the word meant by saying, “ahhh, yeah, i got it. i have to study for a test i have th period” (observation notes, - - ). hannah personalized the word cord for one of her students after he asked to have the word defined by using the classroom environment. they were reading a passage to help the student prepare for the keystone exam and the student asked hannah what the word cord meant. she stopped the reading and defined the term by taking the student over to a cord that was plugged into the wall and pointed to the cord, labeling it for the student. the student’s eyes got big and he told hannah, “ahhh, okay, cord” (observation notes, - - ). the tutors in the examples above did not have to check for understanding with the students about the words they helped personalize for the students. maybe it was because the students asked about the words, but they would also verbally let the tutor know if they understood the word without prompting. the words that were personalized are included in table . in addition to the above mentioned techniques, the tutors used drawings repeatedly when defining concepts. in the literature review, it was discussed that students need words to be presented in a variety of contexts (beck & mckeown, , ) and it was found that the tutors would often present written or spoken words in the context of a visual. the tutors would use visuals or create their own drawings of words times out of the words that they helped students acquire throughout the study. for example, pete was teaching his student the word coarse in relation to how one of the character’s in a reading passage was being described. in order to help the student understand the word, pete drew a picture of a man with a coarse beard. the student immediately showed recognition of the word in relation to the drawing and humorously felt his own non-existent whiskers (observation notes, - - ). in another example, hannah was helping one of her students with a geography lesson and the student needed to understand russia in definition and location. hannah defined it as being a country and then used the visual map in the room to show the student exactly where russia was at. the student then had to demonstrate that knowledge later on in how they answered questions related to the lesson (observation notes, - - ). molly used pictures that were present as part of a workbook lesson about different jobs that people have to help a student understand the terms assistant principal and librarian. later on in the session, the student had to match the terms with the pictures in order to demonstrate understanding (observation notes, - - ). the words that were introduced using visuals are included in table . in their post interviews, two tutors were aware of how they used drawings as a technique. molly said, “sometimes drawings would help them (ex. brick- i drew a house and then bricks on the side to show what brick meant)” (post-interview, - - ). hannah said: a lot of times in order to motivate the students, i would say, let’s look at the picture. this is good for ells but even if the student was not an ell, i would still probably use the picture. this was a really good technique, especially if the language is too complicated. pictures help them get math too. pictures can be a type of vocabulary (post-interview, - - ). pete did not directly talk about using pictures but demonstrated the technique in several sessions. he did mention that he would always try to break things down and show examples to his students. in several sessions the way pete would show an example or break things down was by showing a visual example of a term on his notebook. this chapter discussed the findings of the research in relation to the first research question and the second research question. below are tables and that provide further information about the words that were introduced by tutors and how they were introduced. in the next chapter, implications of the findings and recommendations for future research will be discussed. table : how words were introduced words introduced through conversation words that were personalized words that were shown using visuals/drawings words that were defined using a dictionary or on- line tool words that were pronounced . hunting . deviation . plug it in . vague . phd . coefficient . exponent . conceptually . spread . abraham lincoln . summarize . narrative . character . conflict . settings . whole . study . cord . phd . death penalty . thinking . flipping . engine .rival . shy . statistician . dawn . vacuum . cord . librarian . assistant principal . gun . study . square roots . sushi roll . shape . starting point . boundary . sign .cosign .brackets . range . graph . negative angle . reflection . flipping . giggle . brink . foil method . ruins . sediment . sizemigram . rbi . ream . hoodlums . predominately . adjacent . prism . dawn . course . renee . wrist . tore . motor . engine . descending . ascending . like terms . trinomial . coefficient . whole . parts . ratio . amplitude . horizontal . reflection . vertical . corresponding angles . adjacent . sign . cosign . amplitude . vertical shift . eraser . stanza . exterior . cubic yards . cube . course . narrative . hanging box . middle school . hunting . trapezoid . square angles . square angles . russia . turbulence . fractions table , continued table : words in responsive context vs. not responsive context words that tutors asked students to respond or engage with either orally or in independent practice words that tutors introduced but did not ask for a student response or check for understanding . horizontal . vertical . reflection . absolute value . device . vacuum . cord . expression . trade routes . discrimination . banned . engineer . range . graph . constant . ratio . ruins . tone . percent . amplitude . rival . confiscate . sign . cosign . aptitude . surface area . russia . vegetation . lcd . resolve . overstated . multiply . distribute . study . shape . boundary . starting point . brackets . negative angle . like terms . numerical expression . contraction . product . phd . least common multiple . meaning . divisible . and . units . sum . product . quotient . add . number form . units . gathering . tinkering . librarian . assistant principal . gun . gesture . death penalty . variable . product . hundredth . and . spices . conceptually . exponent . square roots . rigorous . since . then . on . an . plug it in . character . diversity . summarize . narrative . extraordinary . rbi . highest exponent . positive . foil . whole . character . conflict . setting . sushi roll . stymied . obtuse . engineer . specialize . patent . progress . sophisticated . reflection . flipping . giggle . brink . directly . civil . beijing . coefficient . area . synonym . negative . sediment . quotation marks . theme . thesis . main headings . events . text organization . wrist . tore . motor . engine . mood . counselor . descending . ascending . like terms . trinomial . co-efficient . stanza . poem . fit in . parts . transitive property . therefore table , continued . ratio . whole . horizontal . reflection . vertical . radiant . predominately . constant . military . corresponding angle . adjacent . summarize . narrative . conflict . settings . vague . interesting . vertical shift . shy . eraser . stanza . won . winning . this . that . statistician . renee . rheam . interior . exterior . prism . cubic yards . cube . listing factors . dawn . course . narrative . sucking the poison out of a baby . hanging box . pause . after . upon . withdrew . because . differs . after table , continued . comma . again . hoodlums . dexterous . criticize . perception . trust . middle/elementary school . hunting . deviation . spread . greenhouse effect . strategy . abraham lincoln . rectangle . trapezoid . square angles .vapor . regala . thousandth . present progressive . may . able to . success . idioms . turbulence . earthquake . difference . absolute value . more . sizemigram table , continued chapter discussion, recommendations, and conclusions this qualitative case study has explored how volunteer tutors interact in one-on-one sessions with adolescent ells. it has also determined the extant and strategies volunteer tutors used in sessions to support vocabulary acquisition. by examining the tutoring interactions and vocabulary acquisition in sessions, this study’s findings have implications for practice and theory. in this chapter, first i summarize the answers to the research questions. findings are then related to the literature revealing how this study builds on and informs both. moreover, i make recommendations for volunteer tutoring programs and one-on-one work with adolescent ells. finally, i propose directions for future research before drawing conclusions from this study’s findings. question : how do volunteer tutors interact in one-on-one tutoring sessions with at-risk adolescent ells? the answer to this question is that tutors were able to interact in each session as independent agents. being and independent agent meant that the tutors were able to decide their own methods, strategies, and agenda of sessions. the esl teacher who observed the tutors in sessions commented, “the tutors were not afraid to jump right in”(interview, - - ). they were not monitored or told to follow a specific agenda and this allowed for their interactions to rely on their own motivation, background knowledge, and temperament. each tutor was able to interact with their students in a one-on-one session and throughout the course of the study it was found that the tutors demonstrated consistent ways of interacting. so, although the tutors were not trained to conduct their sessions in the same ways or interact with students according to certain guidelines, they all tended to follow the same patterns of interacting. this could have been a result of the tutors having a strong basic academic background and that they had been exposed to three years of theory and practice in an urban college education program which provided them with skills that they translated in their sessions. it may have also been a result of the tutors working with the same population of students in the same environments. all of the tutors worked with their students in a one-on-one session which gave them the chance to help their students learn through social interaction. because the student’s in the session were adolescents, the tutors might have interacted in ways that gave the students more responsibility for deciding the content of the session and outcome. the tutors had autonomy in their sessions so they might have gave their students more autonomy. for the tutors, the focus of their interactions was not about helping the students get a better grade; it was about helping their students understand fundamental academics and ways of learning. in this way, the tutoring interaction was less about getting a grade and more about learning skills. the tutors interacted as helpers versus dictators. the nature of the interactions mirrored vygotsky’s ( ) social learning theory which is that learning results from social interactions and the environments that humans are exposed to. within each tutoring interaction, there was also evidence that the tutors did in fact move their students through a zpd progression towards learning. the zpd, as discussed in chapter , is a vygotskian ( ) principle which suggests that the adult helps a student progress through their zpd by introducing new information and allowing the student to interact with new information in a variety of meaningful contexts. eventually, the student learns the new information and is able to interact with the world. the six themes that defined the nature of the social interactions which happened between tutors and students were either direct or indirect. this means that sometimes the tutors were aware of their interactions and at other times, they acted according to one of the themes without reflecting on it later in an interview or their tutoring reflection log. the tutors were models, encouragers, partners, strategists, facilitators, and translators. all of the themes were presented as findings in chapter and below each of the themes will be discussed. tutors as models. each of the tutors would model for students and they were all aware of modeling. maybe their awareness of modeling came from the fact that all of the tutors were enrolled in their third year of a pre-service educational program that discussed modeling as a pedagogical tool of good teaching. the modeling interaction seemed to also be a natural part of the zpd interaction the tutors and student were able to have in one-on-one sessions. to progress along the zpd a more capable adult offers a goal, the child receives orientation, reaches the goal, is offered another one, and then tackles that independently or with the help of the adult (blanc, ). in this case, the orientation that the tutors gave to their students consistently involved modeling. the fact that they all modeled how to answer multiple choice questions is interesting considering the high stakes testing culture that teachers and students face in public schools. many of the materials that the students would bring to a session would be in a test taking format. math problems and reading passages had multiple choice questions with them and the students would be asked to write written responses in a brief constructed response format. one mainstream teacher at the school who sent students regularly to tutoring from his sophomore seminar class talked about the material. he said “the sophomore seminar class is designed to assess student’s needs in regard to their keystone performance. we use acuity on line assessment to build individualized work to help students with the types of questions with which they struggle most”(interview, - - ). the tutors were modeling in their sessions how to choose the best answers when given different choices; they were modeling how to take test well. the tutors were not told to help their students learn how to take test well. the tutors were told to help students with the material they brought to a session. additionally, the ability of tutors modeling how to answer multiple choice questions did not come from training they received to become a tutor. this understanding of how to model test taking strategies came from their own experience taking test in their own educational journey. the tutoring coordinator commented: the seminar class that we pulled high school ells from for tutoring was geared toward helping our students with the state assessments and that class happens all year. we know that the test is an artificial barrier to entry into different academic worlds and opportunities but we also know we need to give our students these skills. we can’t ignore that they need to know how to take a test. the mainstream teacher that we worked with to get students is the head of the english department. the seminar teachers get overwhelmed and tutors gave a chance for individualized instruction (interview, - - ). the fact that the sessions reflected modeling in regards to helping ell learners learn how to take test can be connected to literature that found ells currently score to % points below l learners on standardized tests (abedi & dietal, ; government accountability office, ). in the current culture of standardized testing, the school site was trying to prepare their ell learners to perform better on the test and this translated into the everyday course material they were interacting with in their content classes. tutors as encouragers. the tutors encouraged their students during difficult sessions and as a result, the student progressed academically. two of the tutors, hannah and pete, recognized that part of their role was to be an encourager. molly did not explicitly say that she encouraged her students during difficult sessions but demonstrated it in her interactions. pete chose to encourage students when they took a risk and tried something on their own. he encouraged in the part of learning when the student is attempting to take a concept and internalize it for themselves. pete recognized that when a student decides to try something on their own, they need an encourager. hannah and molly waited until the student demonstrated signs of frustration before they would become a cheerleader. in a one-on-one interaction, the tutor was able to cheer on and encourage their student more specifically. the tutors would personalize the encouragement for their students and this made a positive difference in how the students progressed in their academics and academic attitude. the esl coordinator at the school felt that giving encouragement to the ell students was one of the most important ways the tutors could interact. she said, “i think that the tutors need to understand that the students might not have an appetite for what they are taught. the tutor might have to help the child buy into education every day” (interview, - - ). when a tutor became an encourager for their students, it also shifted the relationship the tutors had with their students to a new level of caring. the encouragement that was shown in session’s mirrors the socio-educational model of supporting ell’s that was discussed in the literature by gardner ( , ). as encouragers, the tutors were practicing the socio- educational model by creating an environment designed to motivate their ell students and promoting a positive learning environment. tutors as partners. the fact that each of the tutors built partnerships within their sessions is an important finding. hannah, at times, did not have enough background knowledge or recall to teach a skill and she knew this. instead of leading a student in the wrong direction, she partnered with a fellow tutor to make sure she was able to give her student the right information. hannah commented, “working together provided a meaningful learning experience for the student in the sense that if i did not know something they would teach me and vice versa. i also had pete to help me explain something if i had trouble which was a great resource” (post-interview, - , ). molly would partner with teachers or other students to make sure she was able to get her students the right information. pete chose to partner directly with his students in order to give them more autonomy. partnering became a way of communicating to the students that the academic experience does not have to be a self-propelled journey. by partnering, the tutors were providing a message to their students that learning comes from social interaction. another study that was discussed in the literature demonstrated how collaboration leads to forms of zpd progression (mcnamee, ). the tutors demonstrated how they themselves could learn new concepts and ways of teaching as a result of asking a more capable person within a session. sometimes this person was a fellow tutor, teacher, another student, or the student that was in the session. the partnership that tutors formed in their sessions also speaks to how they aimed to share authority and responsibility for learning in their sessions. the esl teacher that observed the students in sessions noticed this partnership interaction. she said, “the tutors that work with the ells are friendly and respectful and they gently guide the students through the content. they were really receptive to the students and therefore earned the students respect”(interview, - - ). partnering versus dictating helped the adolescent ells feel more comfortable and therefore they opened up more to the tutor and the content. tutors as strategists. the finding that tutors interacted as strategists in the sessions is tied to the learning experiences they each brought to the sessions because none of the tutors received training or strategies from the tutoring site itself. thus, all of the strategies the tutors gave students resulted from their own academic expertise and learning experiences. the tutors strategized based on what they knew. hannah was and ell learner as a child, so she used strategies from this experience. molly’s strategies came from years of practice being a learner. molly knew how to break down a math problem and a reading passage because she had been doing it for years in educational settings that taught her to be learner. she gave her student’s these strategies without even realizing it because being a learner was second nature. pete gave strategies for organizing work for his students and this came from his own background in school having to write papers and set up math problems. pete reflected, “i have also had experiences where i tutored korean immigrants and siblings where i have had to complete similar tasks using effective strategies” (post-interview, - - ). a big reason the tutors were able to provide strategies to their students may have been a result of their own educational background. an esl teacher that observed some of the tutoring sessions said, “i was really impressed with the tutors. they brought a lot of strong academic knowledge into the building and into their sessions” (interview, - - ). the tutors had received a suburban education at different high performing public schools in pennsylvania. two of the tutors had experience with either being identified as an ell or tested for the ell program. each of the tutors was in their third year of an urban education program that was preparing them as pre-service teachers. all three of the tutors also had experience helping other learners prior to becoming a tutor at the school site. their previous work with learners influenced the strategies they were able to give students in their sessions and they were able to give these strategies because the tutoring coordinator trusted them to use their own devices in order to reach the students. i think the tutoring coordinator assumed that a variety of strategies were being given to the students. she said in an interview, “the tutor needs to be an educator and understand that not every child is created equal. they have to try different things with different children”(interview, - - ). even though she did not tell the tutors to use different strategies, she believed that they should be using strategies in sessions and they were. tutors as facilitators. the tutors demonstrated the capability to facilitate a session. molly did not allow the outside environment to interfere with her sessions. pete and hannah were not afraid to take charge in a session and move it in a direction away from the original material if they noticed that the student needed a fundamental skill. the tutors were facilitators and advocates. each tutor wanted their student to get stronger academically and became an advocate for their students through the facilitation choices they made. an esl teacher who observed the tutors in some of their sessions said, “the tutors were able to recognize challenges and problems and then adapt.” the ability of the tutors to facilitate within the session could also be a result of their background experiences. molly and pete had previous experiences facilitating tutoring sessions for different ages as well as being part of work environments that required facilitation. all three of the tutors were required as part of their coursework in education to plan and facilitate learning activities in different field experiences and practicums. tutors as translators. two of the tutors had limited spanish background and would use simple spanish phrases in their sessions to help communicate an academic term to their students or to direct them to complete a task. in every session where molly and hannah chose to use spanish terms, students demonstrated more attention and understanding. molly and hannah were demonstrating traits of bi-lingual education when they used spanish in their session to help translate concepts which was found in the literature to be an effective practice for ells (o’garcia & barlett, ). the esl teacher noticed this about the tutor’s interactions and commented, “it is great to know the language for quick issues. even if you can explain the directions in spanish it just helps so much”(interview, - - ). additionally, all of the tutors functioned as oral translators for their students. they would simplify directions, questions, and reading passages for their students. by being willing and able to break down concepts and simplify, the tutors could help their students understand how to work with a concept. they were able to make the learning experience more like an understandable conversation. the student could talk to the tutor and ask a question, something they could not do in a written context or in a larger class. a mainstream teacher at the school said: ell students need support in their spoken english so that they feel comfortable speaking up and advocating for themselves. they also need to be provided with one-on-one time with adults in their school day to facilitate a level of comfort needed for them to be able to reach out with a question when they struggle in class (interview, - - ). when tutors provided translation in their sessions, they provided a chance for the ells to connect to the material and with the tutor more. the esl coordinator said, “nothing beats a one- on-one tutoring session. in a one-on-one students’ have a chance to bear their souls more. they will be able to tell the tutor that they really don’t get something or confide that they don’t understand what the teacher is saying and they are not going to do this in a bigger group” (interview, - - ). the ability for tutors to act as translators in their sessions provided their students with a message of caring. they were telling their students through the acts of translation that they understood that reading, writing, and speaking in a second language was challenging. translating in a session built a bridge for their students between either their st and nd language or it built bridges between written and spoken english. question : how do volunteer tutors support at-risk ell students’ vocabulary acquisition in one-on-one sessions? vocabulary acquisition was not a top priority for the tutors in their sessions. vocabulary was supported in a session if it was needed to understand another academic concept. it was never the focus of a session and the tutors never spent a long time working on helping their students understand words. the tutors supported student’s vocabulary acquisition indirectly in their tutoring sessions. this means that the tutors did not directly look for specific ways or time to teach vocabulary words to their students. they would define certain words in the context of material the student had brought to the session to work with. they were in fact using a “context only” approach to help student’s acquire vocabulary (jenkins, matlock, & slocum, ). the indirect form of vocabulary learning could have been tied to a number of factors. the tutors could have felt that they did not have the time to plan for a specific vocabulary learning segment in their tutoring sessions. they might have also not been aware of a general word list that would have been appropriate to introduce to their students during sessions. the tutors did not meet consistently with the same students in every session so they might not have felt that it would have worked trying to have a structured vocabulary learning time built into the sessions because they did not know what their session was going to consist of until their student arrived. the tutors could have also believed strongly that teaching vocabulary in context was the best way to learn new words. the tutors would introduce different types of words to students; mainly the words they introduced were tier two, general academic words that came directly from the written material that the students brought to the sessions to work with. tier two, general academic words were words that require instruction; they are not typically in a student’s every day vocabulary (beck & mckeown, ). the tutors would also introduce words to students in the oral conversations they would have with them about the academic content or life outside of school. the students would tend to ask the tutors for the definitions of words that the tutors would use in conversations during the sessions. the tutors would choose to define words for students that they thought the student either needed for comprehension or it was a word that the student would need to know for the long term in their academic career. many of the words that the tutor would define within the context of written material would eventually help the students comprehend the text which supports a positive relationship between reading and vocabulary cited in several important studies (davis, ; just & carpenter; , whipple, ). the types of words that the tutors would define for students were coded as signal words in the study. signal words, discussed in chapter , were words that helped to unlock an academic concept. for example, one signal word that the tutors defined for students was the word and in relation to what it meant within a math word problem. signal words were also the only words that the tutors would repeatedly define within or across sessions. two instructional techniques, visuals and responsive context, were used frequently by tutors to help define words in sessions. the tutors would have the student respond in different ways that they understood the definition of a word. mostly, the responsive context would be an oral recognition from the student that they understood the word or the student would have to demonstrate an understanding when they would have to work out a problem themselves or answer a question independently. this instructional technique demonstrates an aspect of the social learning theory; students were active agents in the learning process (blanc, ). it was discussed in the literature that ells benefit from being given visual aids that support vocabulary learning in august et al., and the tutors demonstrated this in many of their sessions when a vocabulary word was discussed in context. this finding also contrasts the findings in the study by anderson and roit ( ) where it was found that vocabulary words were being taught without graphics and pictures. less consistent techniques that the tutors demonstrated were teaching specific meanings of words, personalizing word knowledge, and having students pronounce or recognize words. the students felt comfortable enough in sessions to ask the tutors for certain definitions of words and they would also ask the tutors to pronounce a few words. the tutors rarely initiated a student personalizing word knowledge. for instance, a tutor rarely asked a student, “what words in this passage do you want defined? or, are there any vocabulary words you want to work on knowing?” tutors would also not concentrate on recognizing or pronouncing vocabulary words for students unless a student asked them to pronounce a word. the research says that at-risk students do not know as many words as non-at-risk students and have not been taught meta-cognitive skills for word learning (stroller & grabe, ). this was apparent in my study. the students never demonstrated in an observable way their ability to figure out things like context clues, they did demonstrate the ability to point out the word they did not know and ask the tutor for support to pronounce that particular word. the tutors rarely had students complete any word learning tasks such as reading the words aloud or associating the words (synonyms) which according to graves ( , , ) is required to help a student develop vocabulary. on the rare occasions when tutors would have students engage in a word learning tasks it was to look up the meaning of a word through and on-line or in class dictionary. vygotsky ( ) believes a student will know a word if they learn it in a social context with more capable adults and then internalize it through the zpd. the tutors did introduce words to their students in a social context but they did not have the students internalize the words. the students were not asked to use the words themselves or apply the words to different context unless the word was part of the larger concept that was being covered in the session. connections to the literature tutoring connections in shanahan ( ), higher effect sizes were found in studies where tutors were paid professionals or teachers. although the three tutors in the study were not certified teachers or paid professionals it made a difference that all three were attending an urban university enrolled in a college of education. this afforded them the experience of already having several classes about how to teach as well as having in school experiences with a variety of students. the tutors were able to guide their students through several academic concepts and help the students attain understanding because the tutors had a strong academic background and also had a growing background of teaching techniques, experience, and theory. the literature said that tutoring sessions benefit from structure, trained tutors, adequate supplies, and support from the school (morrow & walker, ). what the tutoring program had was consistency vs. a strict structure. the tutors were not trained by the school but they were expected to show up on certain days and on certain times every week. the school trusted their skills based on the fact that they were being trained in a pre-service teaching program by the local university. the tutors were also trusted to their own devices by the school based on the fact that they had all of their teaching clearances needed. there were no supplies given to the three tutors. they were told to come to tutoring prepared by wearing professional dress and having a notebook and pencil with them. they were instructed to help the students with what the students brought to the session. they had the trust and support of the teachers and administration based on the fact that the esl program coordinator brought the tutors into the building and organized their interactions with the staff, teachers, and students. the tutors were able to gain access to their tutoring spaces easily because they had been given picture identification cards. tutors were also provided with maps of the school campus and directions on where to report to, park, and end their day at a quick pre tutoring orientation. in the literature review, it said that tutors benefit from consistent feedback (wasik, ). the tutors received feedback from the students that they tutored about whether or not the session they had helped the student. the tutors were also told by the esl teacher that they worked in the room for some sessions that they were really helping and supporting the students. no specific feedback was given to the tutors by anyone in the building and as a non-participant observer, my role was not to provide feedback because i wanted to observe the interactions as they happened without constructing outcomes in any way. if i would have provided feedback to the tutors after their sessions, it might have made them change their instructional choices which would have changed the data. if anything, two tutors, hannah and pete, relied on each other within sessions to see if they were approaching a concept in the right way. molly would ask the esl teacher for feedback or if she was approaching the content correctly before teaching it because molly conducted her tutoring sessions in the esl teacher’s room. the tutors would also debrief with each other between sessions in order to navigate how to approach certain situations. in several cases, the tutors used their own background knowledge, their ability to wrestle with the text, and then gauged if their students were getting concepts by eliciting feedback from them. the literature also said that tutoring programs benefited from screened tutors, low tutor to coordinator ratio, and explicit training (worthy et al., ). the tutors in the worthy et al., ( ) study were screened according to their educational background and areas of academic strength. tutors were screened in this study by having to present their clearances, were part of a pre service teacher education program, and knew that there was no pay involved in the tutoring project. the esl program director coordinated the tutoring project, setting up schedules for tutors, and letting them know where and who they were working with. there were five tutors working with the coordinator and i observed three of the tutors so there was a low tutor to coordinator ratio. the reason the tutoring project was happening in the building was because the coordinator wanted to give ell student’s additional support, especially in the weeks leading up to the keystone exam. the tutors were not explicitly trained but the coordinator trusted that they could provide adequate instructional support based on their current enrollment in a pre- service teacher education program. tutors in the study did not seem to think that they needed formal training and felt their own background knowledge and experiences with former tutoring and educational training at their university prepared them to be tutors in the charter school. pete commented: i felt prepared for the tutoring sessions by writing detailed lesson plans and essays about how standards applied to lessons. this, along with courses constantly drilling the standards has made me almost always think of the standards whenever i teach. i can usually identify which standards i should focus on when working with a student to individualize the lesson to the student’s area of need (post-interview, - - ). hannah reflected that: overall, preparedness is really about the mindset you go into tutoring with. going into it and just making it a goal to try and help out the student as much as possible will take over any nervousness you might have. asking for help is never a bad thing. (post- interview - - ). they did discuss how they would have liked to have more communication with the teachers and staff in the tutoring sessions that were not a pull in environment with the teacher in the room. they thought more communication on exactly how the student was taught the concepts and a further explanation of what the student was supposed to accomplish would have helped them be able to support the students even more. the literature said that tutoring in low socio economic status (ses) schools should include in depth training for tutors on how to teach children from diverse backgrounds and cultures (cobb, ). there was no in-depth training given at the school. the tutors were given a brief background on the makeup of the school from the coordinator. each of the three tutors had been exposed and taken classes on how to teach students from diverse backgrounds based on the coursework and fieldwork requirements of their pre service program. because of this, the tutors came into the tutoring project with an awareness of students in low ses backgrounds that come from diverse backgrounds. the three tutors in the study also used the lens of their own backgrounds in education and with language learning in order to approach their sessions. tutors did feel like the diverse backgrounds of their learners affected the student’s motivation and success in sessions. the literature review pointed out how the length of a tutoring intervention matters. goldenburg ( ) said that tutoring programs that lasted as least a year were successful and cohen, kulik and kulik ( ) found that shorter programs lasting from - weeks were the most successful. this study was weeks in length and the short term allowed for tutors/tutees to build relationships, tutees tended to come to tutoring more during the short term because they wanted to take advantage and knew the tutors were not going to be there forever. the students also knew what days and times the tutors would be in and some of the students would plan for a session and plan their work around knowing this. tutoring happened with the three tutors on mondays and fridays. two of the tutors, hannah and pete, were in the cyber school location helping students from : a.m. until : a.m. the two tutors would then move over to the high school campus were they would work with students in a one on one setting for a minute class period. the students in the one on one setting in the high school environment would receive work from their mainstream teacher. the third tutor, molly, would come in on monday and friday afternoons and she would run two pull in sessions during minute class periods with the esl teacher present. the first session would be devoted to helping students in a resource room setting with work from their mainstream classes. the second session would involve helping a student with their esl content work agenda set by the esl teacher in the room. towards the end of the tutoring project a few factors inhibited attendance to the cyber school tutoring. less students started showing up for tutoring based on other things going on at the school such as field trips, holidays, teacher meetings that caused low attendance. the tutors had to recruit students to come to their sessions towards the end. maybe a longer term, more structured tutoring program would yield higher academic results but maybe it would also become a source of negativity for the students who “had to” attend. a shorter term intervention that had an open door policy for students to get help with a variety of subjects that they were already working on might help students benefit with certain academic concepts. a shorter intervention was also conducive to the volunteer tutor’s schedule. they were able to help for the seven week time frame at the end of their semester from school and were able to complete the project prior to the holidays. if the intervention would have been longer, more intense or required more intense workloads etc., tutors might not have wanted to complete the project nor had time to commit. in the literature, it was found that tutoring was not as beneficial to low achieving readers and students with low ses by velltino et al., ( ). there was a connection here between this finding and the current study. in the cyber school setting, the students had a higher level of reading ability and a higher english level so they were able to connect to more of the concepts and information tutors were presenting. in the high school sessions with lower level ells, tutors tended to struggle more and so did students within the sessions. tutors struggled with how to simplify concepts and had to really be able to break down skills, readings, and back things up because the students at the high school struggled more with english. they had to allow the tutoring session to go at a much slower pace. at the cyber school this same thing happened, not with low achieving readers, but if math basic skills had not been mastered. everyone at the charter school campus is receiving free and reduced lunch so they are in a lower ses bracket. if lower ses is associated with not having mastered as many basic skills, maybe it makes a case for tutoring not being as beneficial because the students are so far behind in the basics that it makes it really hard for a tutor to catch the student up. i would also say that if lower ses is associated with lower motivation to learn within a tutoring session, it might account for the tutoring sessions being less effective. theoretical framework social interaction mattered in order for the student to gain access to the material they brought to the session. the tutors demonstrated through the nature of interactions several components of hedgegaard’s ( ) principles of zpd double move instruction. the principles that the tutors demonstrated included giving their students multiple examples, providing connections, and the tutor had the student practice concepts on their own. student demonstrated that they reached goals in sessions with tutors based on their independent practice within the session. understanding was achieved in the moment of the tutoring session, but it was hard to judge if the student reached a point of self-regulation discussed in the literature by blanc ( ). observations were only done for seven weeks and the tutoring interactions were observed in moment but the learning gains were not observed longitudinally. in the moment, learning gains were observed but more research would need to be done to see if the student retained information for the long term. the tutoring sessions can be thought about in terms of when a person needs there car jumped. in the moment a person is getting their car jumped, someone explains to them where to put the cables and they put them in the right spots in the moment they are being guided but might not be able to do that again if they needed there car jumped the next day did not have someone there to refresh their memory or reteach. zpd progression is reached with repeated exposure to the material and if the student was afforded opportunities to practice the content in a variety of context. if the study was longitudinal and if tutors worked with the same students consistently, more conclusions could be drawn about whether or not students were able to reach a point of self-regulation with certain academic concepts as a result of tutoring. in terms of the instruction using the zpd, it was found that a child moves along their zpd if the adult is capable (tudge, ). the tutors had a strong academic background in the concepts that the tutee needed support which moved the tutee along the zpd. it is important to note that even if a tutor had a strong academic background they still had to be able to refresh their memory on what certain skills were and also had to be able to figure out how to best teach those skills to the student in a designated tutoring session. so i would say the idea of being capable meant the tutor was capable in their academic skills and their ability to disseminate and break down information in an understandable way. tutors that did not feel capable in the content had a harder time helping the tutee but if the tutor practiced partnership, it provided the tutor with a chance to navigate another resource (more knowledgeable person, website, or tool) so that they could learn the concept quickly and become more capable and then move the student along. in rare sessions, a tutor attempted to find information in order to make them capable educators of the materials and they were still unsure. in these cases, the tutor would tell the student that they were not sure of exactly how to do something but they would teach them what they thought it looked like. the tutor would also say they would need to check with the teacher or the tutor would see if another tutor would be able to support learning. in these sessions, the tutor could not help the student progress along their zpd as effectively which supports tudge’s ( ) claim that the adult in an interaction needs to be capable. cohen’s findings in his landmark tutoring meta-analysis mirror my own study in terms of the social learning theory. my study also demonstrated that because of social interaction, tutoring sessions were more successful if the tutors paid attention to giving students information that was novel but not so challenging that the student would shut down. this was based on the tutor’s ability to translate information in their sessions and also how they would make facilitation choices in their sessions that helped move their student’s forward. the tutors in my study demonstrated this through the nature of their interactions with students. the tutoring results showed more significant results in the cohen ( ) study if the session involved human vs. computerized instruction that was given in an individual way. my study offers an important comparison to cohen’s finding in the work that two of the tutors did. hannah and pete had several sessions each week with ell students enrolled in the cyber school program on the campus and were able to offer human instruction with the material vs. the computerized program. this made a big difference in how much the students progressed on the concepts being taught to them from the computerized learning modules. the tutors were able to take the concepts off the screen and add a conversation to the learning. recommendations for practice this study investigated how volunteer tutors were interacting with adolescent ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions and how they were supporting vocabulary acquisition. with a clearer understanding of how tutors are interacting with adolescent ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions and how they are supporting vocabulary acquisition, researchers and tutoring coordinators can design and implement more effective volunteer tutoring programs. the study also provides policy makers and educators with a greater understanding of the impact that volunteer tutors are having on an at-risk population. to that end, this section outlines key recommendations that may inform researchers, tutoring coordinators, and policy makers decision making process about how to, implement, design, and monitor volunteer tutoring programs that are working with adolescent ell students. implementation the study looked at three volunteer tutors that were part of an unstructured tutoring program. the tutors did not receive any prior training and were considered qualified because they were in a teacher preparation program at an urban university. the tutors demonstrated in interactions with their students that they brought academic background knowledge to their tutoring as well as an understanding that being encouraging was important. the tutors also demonstrated facilitation skills and the ability to form a partnership. all of these interactions took place without support, feedback, or training. these findings support the recommendation that if a tutoring program is going to include minimal training and support, the tutors need to be pre-screened for their ability to wrestle with academic concepts at an adolescent level. they should also be able to demonstrate that they have knowledge and experience working as a tutor previously or be able to demonstrate that they are aware of how to use some teaching strategies within a session. the tutors should be able to function independently as well. they need to be able to demonstrate that they are willing to be flexible, work with many different students, and be able to demonstrate patience when a thing like the schedule of the school day is different, etc. for instance, sometimes the tutors would have to switch rooms, get locked out of their tutoring room, or come in and find out that they would only have a few students to tutor because of a school trip or another event. additionally, the tutors need demonstrate responsibility. in this study, each of the tutors showed up on time for every session they were scheduled for and were able to navigate their sessions without much direction from anyone but the student. this study’s findings support the recommendation that tutors would benefit from more embedded systems of communication with teachers and the tutoring coordinator at the site. two of the tutors, pete and hannah, made reference to this in an informal interview. they said, “with more communication with teachers, the tutors might have spent less time in the sessions trying to figure out the goal of the assignment and more time embedded in instruction” ( - - ). the tutors also struggled at timed with how to communicate with the lower-level ell students. if the tutors would have been provided with training similar to the training given at the beginning of the year to teachers about how to support ell students, they might have been able to spend less time trying to find a strategy that worked and more time working a strategy that they had been trained on. the tutors were seldom told that they had been doing a good job by the tutoring coordinator or the teachers at the school. they were thanked for their service but were never given the opportunity to debrief regularly with someone at the site about how their sessions were going. while the tutors did debrief at times with each other, being able to debrief with another point of contact at the school might have given them additional perspectives on their sessions and additional ways of approaching students in their tutoring experiences. the findings of the study support a recommendation that tutoring programs geared towards helping ell adolescents needs to include more of an emphasis on vocabulary learning. the tutors in this study helped their students attain vocabulary only as it appeared in context and for the most part, did not provide specific definitions of the words. the tutors did not normally have the students use the words that were introduced to them in a session and did not go over any vocabulary words that they introduced at the end of a session. tutors would benefit students if they were given training on how to teach vocabulary directly in a session and if they were provided with a list of key academic words that they students will most likely see across academic text they encounter. even if tutors were given simple suggestions to help with vocabulary acquisition such as have the students repeat the word that is introduced and have them write it down in a vocabulary book, go over words you introduced at the end of a session, ask students to bring in some vocabulary words they want to learn, have a pocket dictionary with you and look up words for specific definitions of words to give students. the study found that tutors used visuals to help students acquire vocabulary. future tutoring programs would benefit from having their tutors use visuals to support vocabulary acquisition. design the findings of this study support implementing tutoring interactions that are one-on-one in nature for ell adolescent learners. it would be beneficial if tutors in a similar program were able to be given a consistent space in which to conduct their tutoring sessions. two of the tutors, hannah and pete, conducted their tutoring sessions in the same space and this proved to be beneficial. although their interactions with students was one-on-one, they were able to ask each other questions about content if needed which helped their one-on-one interactions be more successful. having a couple of tutors in one room also made the tutors more accountable for their actions in a session and gave the tutors a chance to have someone to debrief with in between sessions. molly’s interactions also benefited from being in a consistent space because the students in the room molly worked in got used to having her there and were more open to coming to her for one-on-one sessions because she was part of their environment. with that said, at times it was challenging for molly to conduct a one-on-one session within the classroom because the other students were being off-task. if a tutoring program wanted tutors to conduct one-on-one sessions in a pull in environment, the tutor would need to have strong facilitation skills, like molly, in order to keep the session moving forward or the tutor would need to be placed in a more structured classroom environment. the tutors were asked to only bring a notebook to the sessions and something to write with. this enabled the students to feel like they were able to come to tutoring and work on things they needed accomplished vs. coming to tutoring to receive additional work if the tutors would have been given more structured materials to work with. the tutors also did not have to prep or plan for their tutoring sessions which might have proved taxing considering each of the tutors were full-time students and two of them also had jobs outside of their coursework. if the tutoring program would have required a lot of prep or planning time for the tutors, they might not have been as willing to volunteer. maybe the reason the tutors were able to be a part of the program is because they were required to show up and do the best they could with the knowledge and expertise they already had. maybe the reason that the students consistently showed up for the sessions is because they knew that the session would not waste their time. they could get help on materials they had to turn in in order to receive a grade from their teacher. the adolescents in this study might not have been as interested in a tutoring session that helped them get better at their english by doing additional work. this finding supports a tutoring program for adolescents that meet them where they are at in regards to material. monitor as part of the study, all of the tutors were asked to fill out a reflection log after each of their sessions. the reflection log asked them to describe what was covered in the session and how the session went. this proved to be a useful tool when it came to comparing my observation notes and interview notes to the reflection log. using some type of reflection tool would be useful for tutors in a similar study. it gave them a chance to debrief each tutoring session and it provided for written feedback in the tutor’s perspective. another recommendation that the study afforded was in regards to students involved in the session. the students in the study were not asked to give feedback in regards to their tutoring experiences and their progress was judged by their actions within sessions as well as the tutoring reflection logs. it would benefit future researchers to implement some type of feedback system that enabled the students to give direct feedback on their tutoring session experiences. this would enable researchers to understand the interactions that were happening in each session specifically from the student’s viewpoint. recommendations for future research there are several recommendations that could be made for future research. the first is that it would benefit the field if a longitudinal study could be conducted on a tutoring program that was helping lower level adolescent ell learners. this study was a seven week short term study and the levels of english language proficiency that the students had varied. in the sessions where tutors were working with students who had lower level language proficiency, there was a lot more frustration on the student’s part and encouragement that the tutors needed to give. i think if a longer study could be done that looked at a group of tutors working with the same lower level ell students, the interactions that the tutors would have in the sessions could tell a story for esl practitioners and content area teachers about the struggle and successes more in depth. in the study, the tutors would work with some of the same students multiple times and although this interaction was not looked at specifically, i think that a future study would benefit from looking at the same tutor working with a few of the same students over a period of time in order to see how repeat interactions affect motivation, comfort, and outcomes of sessions. it would also afford the opportunity to see if students reached a point of self-regulation in some of the learning concepts that were covered repeatedly over time. another area that could be researched in the future is the motivations and understandings of adolescents in a tutoring session. it was interesting to see how the students who came into the tutoring sessions would at times have their own agendas and understandings of learning. several times a student would explain why they needed to do something or why they did not have certain skills. the students were very articulate in knowing exactly what either got them on the right path or what experience got them off track academically. i think it would be beneficial to be able to conduct a study that asked at-risk adolescents about these experiences and see if there were any trends that could be discussed or used to benefit future practice. the study did not look at how tutors interacted with specific subjects when working with students but the interaction overall. i think it would be beneficial to look at how tutors interact in different or similar ways in tutoring sessions depending on the subject that is being covered. for instance, do they help students with academic vocabulary more in a math related lesson or in writing focused sessions? looking at different subject interactions may provide for important comparisons between what subjects adolescent ells struggle with more. future research on how vocabulary is being acquired in tutoring sessions could be conducted in a variety of ways. it would be interesting to conduct a study that asked the tutors about their perceptions on vocabulary learning and how they were taught vocabulary and then see if any of these perceptions or vocabulary teaching strategies was being reinforced in tutoring sessions. secondly, research could also look at why tutors are picking certain words to define in the tutoring sessions. it would be interesting to see why tutors thought certain words were more important than others to define. thirdly, vocabulary acquisition could be explored from the student’s perspective. the students could provide feedback about what english words they thought were important to know for school and how the ways they felt they learned vocabulary best. future research would also benefit by comparing this study to a study that was conducted with tutors that were trained on how to conduct a tutoring session and that were given suggestions on how to teach vocabulary. it would be important to see how the tutors would interact with the students in a more structured tutoring program where they might receive more direction and feedback. would the sessions be as successful? would tutors feel like they had to plan more and did not have the time to contribute? would students appreciate the additional structure to a session or feel like they were attending another class vs. a tutoring session where they could get help on things that were already on their to-do list? based on the positive sessions that occurred when tutors used even simple spanish, a recommendation is being made that more practitioners and tutors should use small amounts of and ell student’s first language in their instruction. more research should be done on a tutoring program that trains the tutors on using first language directives with their ell students in order to help the student understand academic text in english. with so many esl teachers and tutors having only a limited knowledge of their ell student’s first language, providing training on directional vocabulary might make a big difference in the relationship and learning outcomes they are able to achieve with their ells. more volunteer tutoring programs also need to be provided to the adolescent ell population. this could be easily accomplished as part of the regular pre-service teacher coursework that is currently required in several states. pre-service teachers are required to complete several hours of practicum and field experience hours in educational settings. why couldn’t part of this field experience requirement include a tutoring practicum with an at-risk adolescent population? it would give the pre-service teachers valuable experience and help the ell students’ progress. conclusions this research portrayed the interactions of three tutors in one-on-one sessions with adolescent ell students. it additionally looked at how the tutors were supporting vocabulary acquisition in the sessions. all of the tutors in the study interacted as models, encouragers, strategists, partners, facilitators, and translators for their students. their interactions were consistent and resulted from all of the tutors having strong academic background knowledge and the motivation to move their students in the right direction during each session. the tutors interacted as educators in each session and advocates. they were not interacting as the student’s friends or people who did not care about the student’s academic future. because the tutor’s motivation was to get their student’s to progress academically, they made choices in the sessions to keep their students on task, ask questions in order to increase their own understandings of materials, and the entire tutor’s pushed their students to practice the skills that were being taught independently. they provided the social interaction that helped the students connect to written text. this study additionally looked at how tutors were supporting vocabulary acquisition in their sessions. the tutors supported vocabulary indirectly, introduced mainly general academic words, and used certain techniques that were supported by the literature on vocabulary learning. for the most part, they introduced words out of written context and defined the words using their own background knowledge vs. a source like a dictionary. the tutors did not spend much time introducing vocabulary terms to their students and did not go back and review any vocabulary words that were introduced. the findings on vocabulary underlie the need for tutors to be trained on how to introduce vocabulary words directly as well as indirectly. they would also benefit from being taught vocabulary teaching techniques and from being given a list of general academic words that the students would most likely need to know. the study also provided an important contribution to the effect of vygotsky’s ( ) social learning theory, specifically the zpd, as it happened in the one-on-one tutoring session. the tutors in the study had strong academic background knowledge and because of their academic capabilities and knowledge of teaching techniques, they were able to help their students’ progress. the interaction between tutor and 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( ). inside reading : the academic word list in context. oxford: oxford up. appendix a: audio permission form project title: volunteer tutors and at-risk secondary ell learners: the nature of interactions among volunteer tutors and at-risk secondary ells in one-on-one tutoring sessions investigator’s name: sarah edwards primary investigator: dr. barbara wasik department: college of education/literacy and learners. subject: _______________________________ date: ____________________________ i give permission to audiotape me. this audiotape will be used only for the following purposes: education audiotapes will be transcribed only for the purposes of research conducted through temple university. research the audiotape will be used as part of a research project at temple university. i have already given written consent for my participation in this research project. at no time will my name be used. description: when will i be audiotaped? i agree to be audiotaped during the time period: from _____ to _____________. how long will the tapes be used? i give my permission for these tapes to be used: from ____________ to _________________. *the data collected for the purposes of this research study, including any and all audiotapes will be stored for three ( ) years after the completion of the study. what if i change my mind? i understand that i can withdraw my permission at any time. upon my request, the audiotape (s) will no longer be used. other i understand that i will not be paid for being audio taped or for the use of the audiotapes. for further information if i want further information about the audiotape(s), or if i have questions or concerns at any time, i can contact: investigator’s name: sarah edwards primary investigator’s name: barbara wasik/advisor’s name: dr. barbara wasik department: college of education/literacies and learners institution: temple university street address: cecil b. moore avenue city: philadelphia state: pennsylvania zip code: investigator: ( ) - primary investigator: ( )- - this form will be placed in my records and a copy will be kept by the person(s) named above. a copy will be given to me. please print subject’s name: date: address: phone: subject’s signature: ______________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________ witness signature date appendix b: consent for parents project title: an exploration of the interactions volunteer tutors are having with secondary ells in one-one-one tutoring sessions investigator: sarah edwards (contact: - - ) affiliation: temple university, college of education/literacies and learners primary investigator/advisor: dr. barbara wasik (contact: - - ) dear parent or guardian, my name is sarah edwards and i am currently a doctoral student at temple university, pursuing my ph.d. in language arts education. my dissertation study is looking to describe the interactions that volunteer tutors are having with secondary english language learners in one- on-one tutoring sessions. my advisor, dr. barbara wasik and i would very much like the opportunity to include your child as a participant in the study based on the fact that they are currently being tutored. students who participate would be video recorded during their regular tutoring sessions and would fill out a reflection after each tutoring session with the support of the volunteer tutor. the observations will not disrupt the tutoring session. the reflections that your child completes will not be shared with anyone else but the researcher (me). it is my hope that participation in this study would be a very enjoyable experience for your child. it is intended to be an opportunity to observe what your child is learning in tutoring sessions. my interest in this study is too find out what your child is learning in their tutoring sessions in order to help inform tutoring interventions that can help other students learn through one-on-one tutoring as well. there are no foreseeable risks to participating in the study. all materials containing information about the study will be maintained for three years in a secure location. your child’s participation is completely voluntary and he/she may end participation in the study at any time for any reason without penalty or prejudice. the choice to participate or not will not impact your child’s grades or status at school. if you have any questions regarding any aspect of this study, please feel free to contact me via telephone ( ) - or email: tuc @temple.edu or my study advisor dr. barbara wasik via telephone ( ) - . thank you in advance for your cooperation. your contribution to this project will provide invaluable data needed to help better understand how tutors are supporting students achieve academic success. ______________________________________________________________________________ i _______________________________, have read and understand the above consent form in its entirety and voluntarily agree to have my child participate in the study. i further understand that no monetary compensation is associated with my child’s participation in this study. i assert that i am over the age of eighteen ( ). “i understand that if i wish further information regarding my rights as a research subject, i may contact richard thorn, program manager and coordinator at office of the vice president for research of temple university by phoning ( ) - .” signing your name below indicates that you have read and understand the contents of this consent form and that you agree to have your child take part in this study. mailto:tuc @temple.edu ______________________________________________________________________________ child’s name parent or legal guardian’s name (please print) parent or guardian’s signature date ______________________________________________________________________________ investigator’s signature appendix c: assent form project title: an exploration of the interactions volunteer tutors are having with secondary ells in one-one-one tutoring sessions investigator: sarah edwards (contact: - - ) affiliation: temple university, college of education/literacies and learners primary investigator/advisor: dr. barbara wasik (contact: - - ) dear participant, my name is sarah edwards and i am currently a doctoral student at temple university, pursuing my ph.d. in language arts education. my dissertation study is looking to describe the interactions that volunteer tutors are having with secondary english language learners in one- on-one tutoring sessions. my advisor, dr. barbara wasik and i would very much like the chance to include you as a participant in the study based on the fact that you are learning english as a second language and are working with a tutor in your high school. students who participate would be video recorded during their regular tutoring sessions and would fill out a reflection after each tutoring session with the support of the volunteer tutor. the observations will not disrupt the tutoring session. the reflections that you complete will not be shared with anyone else but the researcher (me). it is my hope that participation in this study would be a very enjoyable experience for you. it is intended to be an opportunity to observe what you are learning in tutoring sessions. my interest in this study is too find out what you are learning in your tutoring sessions in order to help inform tutoring interventions that can help you and other students learn through one-on-one tutoring. there are no foreseeable risks to participating in the study. all materials containing information about the study will be maintained for three years in a secure location. your participation is completely voluntary and you may end participation in the study at any time for any reason without penalty or prejudice. the choice to participate or not will not impact you’re your grades or status at school. if you have any questions regarding any aspect of this study, please feel free to contact me via telephone ( ) - or email: tuc @temple.edu or my study advisor dr. barbara wasik via telephone ( ) - . thank you in advance for your cooperation. your contribution to this project will provide invaluable data needed to help better understand how tutors are supporting students achieve academic success. ______________________________________________________________________________ i _______________________________, have read and understand the above consent form in its entirety and voluntarily agree to participate in the study. i further understand that no monetary compensation is associated with my participation in this study. i assert that my parent understands the study and has signed a consent form. “i understand that if i wish further information regarding my rights as a research subject, i may contact richard thorn, program manager and coordinator at office of the vice president for research of temple university by phoning ( ) - .” signing your name below indicates that you have read and understand the contents of this consent form and that you agree to have your child take part in this study. mailto:tuc @temple.edu ______________________________________________________________________________ student’s name date ______________________________________________________________________________ investigator’s signature date appendix d: consent form teachers project title: an exploration of the interactions volunteer tutors are having with secondary ells in one-one-one tutoring sessions investigator: sarah edwards (contact: - - ) affiliation: temple university, college of education/literacies and learners primary investigator/advisor: dr. barbara wasik (contact: - - ) dear parent or guardian, my name is sarah edwards and i am currently a doctoral student at temple university, pursuing my ph.d. in language arts education. my dissertation study is looking to describe the interactions that volunteer tutors are having with secondary english language learners in one- on-one tutoring sessions. my advisor, dr. barbara wasik and i would very much like the opportunity to include you as a participant in the study based on your status as a teacher or administrator of a child who met the above criteria. adults who participate would be interviews by the researcher (me) one time and the interview would last roughly minutes. your name will never be used as part of the study. there are no foreseeable risks to participating in the study. all materials containing information you provide for the purposes of this study will be maintained for three years in a secure location. your participation is completely voluntary and you may end participation in the study at any time for any reason without penalty or prejudice. if you have any questions regarding any aspect of this study, please feel free to contact me via telephone ( ) - or email: tuc @temple.edu or my study advisor dr. mailto:tuc @temple.edu barbara wasik via telephone ( ) - . thank you in advance for your cooperation. your contribution to this project will provide invaluable data needed to help better understand how tutors are supporting students achieve academic success. ______________________________________________________________________________ i _______________________________, have read and understand the above consent form in its entirety and voluntarily agree to participate in the study. i further understand that no monetary compensation is associated with my child’s participation in this study. i assert that i am over the age of eighteen ( ). “i understand that if i wish further information regarding my rights as a research subject, i may contact richard thorn, program manager and coordinator at office of the vice president for research of temple university by phoning ( ) - .” signing your name below indicates that you have read and understand the contents of this consent form and that you agree to take part in this study. ______________________________________________________________________________ teacher’s name teacher’s signature date investigator’s signature appendix e: tutor interview protocol as you know, this study is about how tutors are interacting in one-on-one tutoring sessions with secondary ells. to begin, i’d like you to tell me a little bit about yourself, your own educational background, and why you decided to become a volunteer tutor. tell me about a typical day as part of the volunteer tutoring program? how were you trained to work with students? did you receive any particular training to working with ell students? how do you plan for each tutoring session? what part of the tutoring session do you feel is the most important part? why? how do you keep track of what the tutee learns? how do you try to build a relationship with your tutee? do you consider yourself a good tutor? why or why not? do you seek support or feedback from anyone else about the tutoring sessions you are conducting? what factors make the tutoring session hard or easy? what do you think are the most important things an ell student needs to accomplish in order to be successful in high school? what do you think are the most important things an ell student needs to accomplish in order to be a successful reader in the english language? what is time in the tutoring session mainly spent on? appendix f: teacher interview protocol tell me a little bit about your teaching background and your current work in the school. what are you responsible for in the school outside of your teaching responsibilities in the school (committees, meetings, etc.)? what is your current teaching schedule? how many students do you have in each class? how do you plan for a typical week? what are the main materials that students use and you use to access information? what type(s) of teaching methods would you say you use the most in your class? how many ell students do you have in your classes? how do you support ells in your classroom? have you taken any coursework or attended trainings on how to support ells? how do you teach vocabulary to your students? do you teach vocabulary any differently for ells? how involved are you with the volunteer tutoring program at the school and the work they do with ell learners? are you in communication with the esl coordinator in the building? how? what, do you feel, are the best accommodations you can provide for ells? how do you grade? do you accommodate for ells in your grading procedures? appendix g- words introduced by tutor . numerical expression, signal word, general academic . contraction, signal word, general academic . product, signal word, general academic . phd, low frequency exotic, academic . least common multiple, signal word, general academic . meaning, written context, everyday . divisible, signal word, general academic . brick, written context, everyday . and, written context, everyday; general academic-repeat . units, signal word, general academic . sum, signal word, general academic . product, signal word, general academic . quotient, signal word, general academic . add, signal word, general academic- repeat . number form, signal word, general academic . absolute value, signal word, general academic . device, written context, general academic . gathering, written context, general academic . vacuum, written context, general academic . cord, written context, general academic . tinkering, written context, general academic . librarian, written context, general academic . assistant principal, written context, general academic . gun, written context, everday . gesture, written context, general academic . death penalty ,written context, general academic . variable, signal word, general academic . multiply, signal word, general academic . distribute, signal word, general academic . product, signal word, general academic . hundredth vs. hundreds signal word, general academic . trade routes,written context, general academic . motives, signal word, general academic . spices,written context, general academic . study, written context, general academic . conceptually, signal word, general academic . exponent, signal word, general academic . square units, signal word, general academic . discrimination,written context, general academic . banned, written context, general academic . rigorous,written context, general academic . since, signal word, general academic . then, signal word, general academic . on/an, signal word, general academic . plug it in (phrase), conversation . character, signal word, general academic . diversity, written context . sushi roll,written context, low frequency . stymied, written context, general academic . obtuse, signal word, general academic . engineer,written context, general academic . specialize, signal word, general academic . patent, written context, general academic . progress, written context, general acdemic . sophisticated, written context, academic . shape, signal word, general academic . starting point,signal word, general academic . boundary, signal word, general academic . sign, signal word, general academic . cosign, signal word, general academic . brackets, signal word, general academic . range, signal word, general academic . graph, signal word, general academic . negative angle, signal word, general academic . reflection, signal word, general academic . flipping,written context,everyday, general academic . giggle,written context, everday, general academic . brink,written context, general academic . directly, signal word, general academic . extraordinary,written context, general academic . civil, written context, general academic . beijing, written context, low frequency . constant, signal word, general academic . coefficient, signal word, general academic . like terms, signal word, general academic . ratio-repeat . area, signal word, general academic . synonym-repeat . foil, signal word, general academic . sediment, written context, general academic . ruins,written context, general academic . quotation marks . tone- repeat . theme, signal word, general academic . thesis, signal word, general academic . main headings, signal word, general academic . events, signal word, general academic . text organization, signal word, general academic . rbi,written context, low frequency . wrist,written context, general academic . tore,written context, general academic . motor vs. engine,written context, general academic . mood, signal word, general academic . counselor, written context, general academic . highest exponent, signal word, general academic . positive, signal word, general academic . negative, signal word, general academic . descending, signal word, general academic . ascending, signal word, general academic . like terms, signal word, general academic . trinomial, signal word, general academic . co-efficient, signal word, general academic . stanza vs. poem, signal word, general academic . fit in, written context, general academic . percent- repeat . whole-repeat .parts, signal word, general academic .transitive property, signal word, general academic . therefore, signal word, general academic .ratio, signal word, general academic .amplitude, signal word, general academic .horizontal, signal word, general academic .reflection, signal word, general academic .vertical, signal word, general academic .radiant, signal word, general academic .predominately, signal word, general academic .constant, signal word, general academic .military,written context, general academic .rival,written context, general academic .confiscate,written context, general academic .corresponding angles, signal word, general academic .adjacent, signal word, general academic .summarize, signal word, general academic .narrative, signal word, general academic .character, signal word, general academic .conflict, signal word, general academic .settings, signal word, general academic .vague, signal word, general academic .interesting, written context, general academic .sign, signal word, general academic .cosign, signal word, general academic .alptitude signal word, general academic .vertical shift, signal word, general academic .shy,written context, general academic .eraser,written context, general academic .stanza, signal word, general academic .won vs. winning,written context, general academic . this vs. that,written context, general academic .statistician,written context, general academic .renee, signal word, low frequency .lowest common denominator . ream,written context, general academic . interior signal word, general academic .exterior signal word, general academic .corresponding angles, signal word, general academic . prism-repeat .cubic yards, signal word, general academic .cube, signal word, general academic .surface area, signal word, general academic .listing factors, signal word, general academic .dawn,written context, general academic . course, signal word, general academic .narrative, signal word, general academic . sucking the poison out of a baby,written context, low frequency . hanging box, signal word, general academic .pause, signal word, general academic .after, signal word, general academic .upon, signal word, general academic .withdrew, signal word, general academic .because, signal word, general academic .differs, signal word, general academic .after, signal word, general academic .comma, signal word, general academic .again, signal word, general academic .hoodlums,written context, low frequency .dexterious,written context, general academic .criticize signal word, general academic .perception, signal word, general academic .trust,written context, general academic .middle/elementary school,written context, general academic .hunting,conversation, everyday .deviation, signal word, general academic .spread, signal word, general academic .greenhouse effect,written context, general academic .strategy, signal word, general academic . abraham lincoln,written context, low frequency . rectangle vs. trapezoid, signal word, general academic .squaring angles, signal word, general academic .vapor, written context, general academic .regala,written context, general academic .thousandth signal word, general academic .russia,written context, low frequency .present progressive,signal word, general academic . may signal word, general academic .able too signal word, general academic .success signal word, general academic .idioms signal word, general academic .turbulance,written context, general academic .fractions signal word, general academic .difference signal word, general academic .percent signal word, general academic . absolute value signal word, general academic . more, signal word, general academic . vegetarian,written context, low frequency .sizeimigraph,written context, general academic .earthquake,written context, general academic .rictor scale,written context, low frequency .behind the scenes,written context, low frequency .movie producer,written context, low frequency . dictator,written context, general academic . area, signal word, general academic . resolve, signal word, general academic . conflict, signal word, general academic . lcd,written context, general academic - - repeat words appendix h: memo example memo (december , ) hannah and pete were having a conversation about the project. interesting because hannah thinks she see the biggest gap in ell students from a motivational/family environment standpoint and pete said that he can really tell whether and ell student is the oldest child. both of them are using their own experiences as a lens into their student’s interactions. does what distinguishes them as people and helped them succeed as students or how they are programmed motivationally affect how they interact or choose to understand the student they are working with in a session? it was also interesting to talk about how they structure their session based on what is important for them. pete says that the concept behind the skill is important to him so he always asks why, tell me how even though he knows some of his students don’t want to answer that or don’t know how too, it is important to him so he will keep asking. hannah- sometimes it is important to her to just help students get there work done so they can get caught up vs. making sure they have a conceptual understanding. maybe assumptions drive a tutor- i should look through the data and see if my current codes reflect this. they make assumptions as to what the teacher wants, students need to do, skill level the student should be at, vocabulary they know or don’t know. tutors test those assumptions depending on the topic and also use whatever their assumption is to gauge an expectation. the tutor thinks/assumes the student is ________________ so they _____________________ as a result. today i am seeing a lot of environmental factors affecting tutoring. students are absent, don’t need help or can’t get into programs at the cyberschool sessions. vocab acquisition: pete does a big gamut of vocab acquisition if you consider him introducing a math concept as vocabulary. he never tells the student that he is going to teach them a math vocabulary term but he does teach them the concept which in way is the vocabulary term in action. appendix i: tutoring reflection log tutoring reflection tutor:__________________________________ date:__________________________________ student tutored________________________________ ell level (if known)______________________________ . goals of the session?/ agenda?/ objectives? . how did the session go? what did you work on? take me through the agenda of the session and what happened in each part. . how did the session go? positives, challenges, what was learned? how did you feel about it? how do you think the learner felt? . goals for your next session with the learner? appendix j: initial open codes positive reinforcement: the tutor motivated the student to continue working in the session or coached the student in a positive way (the tutor told the student that they could do something. the tutor would give a variety of praise to their students. praise that encouraged, reassured, and affirmed that they had gotten something right. the praise could be very specific or general. the tutor would provide affirmation to the student during the session that they were on the right track. strategy given: the tutors would share strategies with the students. the strategies could be things that the tutor was taught when they were in school or general strategies that they felt would help the learning with a subject or concept. acknowledgement of learning: students would verbally acknowledge that they had learned something as a result of the tutoring session. it was an aha moment that both the tutor and tutee recognized. sometimes, less skilled tutors would also have this moment with a more skilled tutor when the more skilled tutor taught. vocabulary in context (tutor directed): vocabulary that the tutor chose to cover within the context of the session. the vocabulary came from the material that the student had brought to the session to work with the tutor would stop and concentrate on a vocabulary word with the student because they thought it was important to know. the tutor might also stop and ask the students if they knew a word in the context of what they were learning. vocabulary (student directed): students would ask the tutors what the meaning, pronunciation, and spelling of words were. the words could be in the material of the session or part of the language the tutor was using. vocabulary (of instruction): the words were not explained as vocabulary words. they presented as vocabulary words in the context of the material. they were key words that students needed to understand in order to be able to do the overall concept. they were words that gave clues about what the material was asking for. they were also words that the tutor would naturally use in order to explain a concept that ended up becoming vocabulary in the session because the student would need to be able to comprehend the words the tutor was using. vocabulary and grammar as reciprocal process: examples in the interactions of where vocabulary and grammar shared the same learning space. vocabulary in conversation/environment: words that are learned by the tutee/tutor as a result of conversation/session outside of academics lack of access: instances where the tutor demonstrated having access to information that the students they are tutoring do not have access to (webster’s, sat. act) modeling: tutors model a strategy vs. just sharing or giving it to the students. the students model something that the tutor has done or said in the session. student openness: the student is honest and open with the tutors and they have a wiliness to learn or be in the session. the student has an awareness of what they know and don’t know. the student could show empathy to the tutor when the tutor is trying to figure something out. the student might offer excuses about their gaps or demonstrate autonomy. they are willing to ask and answer questions in a session. tutor quick learn: the tutor would have to get familiar with the material. they would have to connect the information to background knowledge they had already received in their own schooling or they would have to learn it in the moment, or reteach themselves as quickly as possible. it was also when the tutor was trying to get a sense of what the student knows or doesn’t know. tutor roles (mediator, enabler, guide): the tutor would serve as the learning mediator in the pull in class meaning that because they were working with a particular student, that student’s work got done in spite of classroom management issues happening in the rest of the class ( examples). the tutor would serve as an enabler for some students who would not have done the work or been able to do the work without the tutor’s support. ( examples). the tutor would guide the students but still expect the student to make most of the connections. student directing: the student would ask about content, life, and says what they get and don’t get in the session. the student could have their own agenda. the student sometimes conducted their own check for understanding. environment: how the environment of the tutoring session affected the interaction. tutor comfort level: how the tutor knew the material and was able to manipulate it and produce other examples for the students. teacher influence: the teacher in the room was interjecting or giving directions to the tutor. the teacher would model language. breakdown of words, instruction: the tutor would break things into simpler english and help the students reword things. the tutor would share background knowledge, break down concepts, or give students different ways of thinking about things. the tutor would clarify things and have to be able to know how to break things down. the tutor would give think time or use visuals. input/output: examples of a give and take of conversation in the session and when the tutor would have a banter- i do, you do. the tutor would make the tutee an active agent in the learning, an active participant. the tutor and tutee would try to negotiate what was trying to be explained by the concept or themselves. structure: the structure decided by tutor and tutees. the tutor approach to the session. the routine that a tutor follows in a session. what a tutor doesn’t do in relation to what a possible best practice says to do. tutor gives choice: the tutor asks student what they want to do in a session or the student asks to do something and the tutor gives the green light. temperament: with what temperament the tutor and sometimes tutee would bring to the sessions. their temperament might be humorous, laid back, even, flexible, or patient. patience was when the tutor stuck with the session and tried to have the student not rush. the tutor might also show persistence, meaning they keep the session moving and the student could be persistent as well. back it up: the tutor had to back up a concept for the student in order for the student to get the larger idea. the tutor recognizes when they have to do this and it is usually done when sessions become more challenging. the tutor shows the student what they got wrong, right. session as challenge: the tutor might not know how to adjust or doesn’t want to adjust for language barriers. the student is frustrated in the session and the interaction that occurs as a result of this frustration on part of the tutor and student. repeat session interaction: the connections and demeanors of both tutors and tutees during repeat sessions. the directness of the tutors/tutees in repeat sessions because they know each other. materials: the materials that are brought or used in the session by the tutors and tutees. the materials include things given by mainstream teacher, esl teacher, cyber school curriculum, tutor notebooks and student notebooks, and the opinions tutors and tutees had of certain materials. materials could be seen as frustrating or interesting. need for future: the future connection between content and what they may need to know in future educational environments. empathy: the tutor would tell tutee that it was okay if they didn’t know how to do something or if they felt that they were bad at a particular skill or entire subject. the tutor would also show empathy by adjusting the session if the student seemed frustrated. personal connections: when the tutor or tutee attempted to connect personally in the session. the tutor or tutee might share something from their personal life. the tutor might tell a story or use a real world example for student to get a concept. check for understanding (specific response): the tutor would have the students demonstrate the newly learned knowledge they were gaining in the session by asking them questions about the content, stopping them throughout the session to cold call them about concepts to see if they understood, and had them demonstrate the knowledge they had just acquired by working independently and showing they had taken in the information and were able to process it independently. check for understanding (general check in, yes or no): the tutor would ask if the student got something and then when the student said yes, they would move on without asking for explanation. language: of suggestion (what, if…i think you could write) of direction (do this) of togetherness, social interaction (“you tell me, we could, let’s get this work done) of tutor (phrases the tutors use all the time, tone, type of talking) think alouds: the tutor or student would talk through a problem or concept out loud as they would work in session. they were letting the thoughts that were going on in their minds be verbalized. humbleness: the tutor would ask for help in order to understand a concept before they taught it too their student. they would say that they were not sure about things, admit they got things wrong, and were open to a variety of tutoring sessions, students, and subject areas. the tutor would also tell the student that the student was smarter than them and that the student did all the work, the tutor was just there. assumption: the tutors assume that their students know something and this influences interaction. the tutors sometimes test their assumptions with students and will back it up if their assumption is proven wrong. the student could also assume the student knows something. resource shared: the tutor gives student a resource or the tutor directs the student towards a resource if they don’t know. the tutor shows the student something in the world impact of spanish being used: result of tutor choosing to let student use spanish or if the tutor is able to use spanish a bit, especially as a directional word in the session. student’s connection to tutors: the students showing that they are comfortable with the tutors and used to them. their attitude to the tutors in positive/negative ways and how that impacts the session. motivation: motivation of the session or lack of motivation. the factors that are motivating the tutor and the factors that are motivating the student and what happens as a result. an example would be motivated to just complete the work vs. understand the concept. student strategy: how a student approaches learning academics, think alouds, ideas of fairness. appendix k: emerging themes for research q tutors as models: tutors model a technique or strategy vs. just sharing or giving an answer to the students. modeling is also being defined as when the tutor demonstrates thinking aloud through a concept. they would model their thought process for the students meaning that they would allow the thoughts that were going on in their mind to be verbalized. tutors as encouragers: the tutor motivated the student to continue working in the session or coached the student in a positive way. the tutor told that student that they could do something that the student felt they could not do. the tutor would give a variety of praise to their students. the praise would encourage, reassure, or affirm that the student had done something right. the praise could be specific or general. the tutor would provide affirmation to the student during the session that they were on the right track. it was when the tutor acknowledged that the student had learned something or the tutor cheered the student on within the session by telling them how the concept they were learning would come back in the future. tutors as strategist: the tutors would share learning strategies with the students. the strategies could be things that the tutor used themselves that helped them organize their thoughts or a particular learning concept. the strategies could also be related to general learning strategies that the tutor felt would help the learner understand a concept they were working on ( examples). the tutor would also come up with strategies about how to teach a concept at the beginning of the session or get familiar with the material quickly. the tutor would also use strategies to figure out what the student did or did not know. tutor as partner: there are several ways the tutor demonstrated interacting as a partner with students vs. as an authority figure. firstly, the tutor was humble. the tutor would ask for help in order to understand a concept before they taught it to their student. the tutor would say they were not sure about things, admit they got things wrong, and were open to a variety of tutoring sessions, students, and subject areas. the tutor would also tell the student was smarter than them and that the student did all the work and the tutor was supporting them. secondly, the tutor would use a language of togetherness or suggestion in the session. they would use phrases such as “we” and “let’s” or “i think you could” to demonstrate a partnership vs. a dictatorship. thirdly, the tutor demonstrated a partnership in the empathy they showed students. the tutor would tell the tutee that it was okay if they didn’t know how to do something or felt that they were bad at a particular subject. the tutor would empathize through action and adjust the session if they saw the tutee struggling to understand. fourthly, a partnership was established through personal connections. tutors would share something or ask something personal. the tutors connect material to the real world or tell a story to the students in order to help them connect to an idea. fifthly, the tutor’s temperament reflected an established partnership with the students that was not managing the students behavior or giving the students a grade. sixth, there were also examples of a give/take conversation. the tutor would make the tutee an active agent in the learning. the tutor/tutee would try to negotiate what was trying to be explained by the concept or themselves. the effect of this tutor as partner role resulted in more openness by the students. the student was honest and open with the tutors and they had a wiliness to learn or be in the session. the student would tell the tutor openly what they knew or didn’t know. the student showed the tutor empathy and was willing to ask and answer questions in a session. the student would also ask the tutor about content, life, and say what they got or didn’t get in the session. tutor as facilitator: the tutor would facilitate the session in a variety of ways. first, the tutor would give choice to the students. the tutor would ask the students what they wanted to do in a session or the student would ask to do something and the tutor would give the green light. second, the tutor would recognize when they had to back up a concept for the student in order for the student to get the larger idea. the tutor would usually back up concepts in more challenging sessions and show the student what they got wrong/right. third, the tutor would facilitate the structure and approach that the session would take. fourth, the tutor would facilitate within the session by checking for understanding. the tutor would have the students demonstrate the newly learned knowledge they were gaining by asking them questions about the content, stopping them throughout the session to cold call them about concepts to see if they understood, and had them demonstrate the knowledge they had just acquired by having the students work independently to show that they had taken in the information and were able to process it. the tutor would also conduct general check ins with students. they would ask if the student got something right, wait for a yes or no, and if the answer was yes, they would move on without asking the student for an explanation. lastly, in repeat session, the tutor would facilitate in a more direct way with the language they used and how they structured the session. tutor as translator: the tutor would either translate words english words into spanish or use spanish words to help the students translate a term or a direction in the session. the tutor would break things down into simpler english and help the students reword things. the tutor would share background knowledge, break down concepts, or give students different ways of thinking about things. the tutor would clarify things, use visuals, to translate concepts. journal of leisun r a m h , v i , no. , pp. - copyght national r r c m r t i a and park association the structure of recreation behavior thomas a. more usda forest service james r. averill department of psychology university of massachusetts we present a meta-theoretical analysis of recreation concepts as an argument about organizing and explaining recreation behavior. recreation activities are behavioral constructions that people build from both prototypic subsystems (those present in virtually all instances of the activity) and design subsystems (optional subsystems that adapt the activity to serve multiple goals). to explain the organizational structure of the behavior, we advocate a systems analysis that focuses on functions, mechanisms, and capacities, examined from biological, psychological and social perspectives. the resulting nine-cell matrix enables us to categorize common concepts in recreation research such as benefits, flow, and constraints in a way that is consistent with aristotle's fourfold model of causation. a comprehensive explanation of an activity requires information about each of the matrix's cells, so that most of the commonly used concepts in recreation and leisure research provide complimentary rather than compet- ing explanations. keywords: recreation behavior, exphnalion, function, mechanism, capacity, h e - fits, cmtmints. introduction over the past years, explanations of recreation behavior have grown increasingly sophisticated, and technical literatures have developed on many subtopics within leisure research. yet this increased specialization also con- tributes to fragmentation-analysis at the expense of synthesis. for example, csikszentmihalyi's ( ) concept of flow has been widely accepted as an explanation of recreation behavior and has led to numerous studies (e.g., jones, hollenhorst, perra & selin, ). analyzing activities in terms of benefits, motivations, and participant goals is similarly accepted, begging questions about the relationship between flow and benefit: is flow simply one category of benefit? does one concept subsume the other? are they competing or complementary explanations of recreation behavior? how do both these theories relate to a physiologically based theory like berelyne's address correspondence to: thomas a. more, usda forest service, p.o. box , burlington, vt ; ernail: trnore@fs.fed.us. author note: we thank john daigle, chad pierskella, and walter kuentzel for their com- ments on previous drafts. structure of recreation behavior ( ) arousal theory? the fragmentation is compounded by our tendency to borrow theories from other disciplines to examine specific aspects of ac- tivities (flow, cognitive dissonance, role theory, arousal and identity theory are perennial favorites) (searle ); when confronting a recreation re- search problem we have an often bewildering array of concepts and ap- proaches from which to choose. what would be needed to construct a more holistic, comprehensive, and better-integrated explanation of any particu- lar recreation activity? what kinds of information would be required? while the analytic mode has enhanced technical development and specialization, we also must think synthetically, raising questions about broad (or meta) interrelationships between areas of analysis. understanding these meta- interrelationships can identify shortcomings in our knowledge of particular activities and promote systematic theory development, and may occasionally prevent us from talking at cross-purposes. aristotle, in book two of the physics, argued that a comprehensive ex- planation of something requires knowledge of four different kinds of causes: material, efficient, formal, and final (robinson, ). knowledge of one kind of cause does not substitute for another; each is necessary. phrased differently, comprehensive explanation of a recreation activity requires sev- eral different kinds of information. in this paper, we develop these ideas further using modern systems theory rather than the aristotelian terminol- ogy. by arguing that all recreation activities are actually systems of behavior best understood in the context of a goaldirected systems analysis, we con- struct an integrative framework for the analysis of recreation behavior that we term recreation systems theory. our focus is on the structure of recre- ation activities-the way the behavior itself is organized and the factors that account for recurrent participation patterns within a person's life. as such, our meta-theoretical analysis is primarily psychological although we also ex- plore biological and socio-cultural influences on individual behavior. addi- tionally, our focus is on structure rather than experience (which we believe partially derives from structure); we defer the discussion of experience to a later paper. we close with some reservations about systems theory and a discussion of the implications of recreation systems theory for further re- search. recreation activities as behavioral systems the most neglected part of recreation research may be the actual com- position of an activity. when studying a particular activity we tend to examine correlates: who does it? how often? what outcomes are produced? et cetera, without giving much thought to what "it" is. our initial premise, therefore, is that recreation activities are actuaily behavioral constructions- organizations of more elemental actions, thoughts, and feelings-that par- ticipants create for themselves around goals of varying specificity. put simply, we build recreation activities from smaller bits of behavior, and we may build more and averlll them differently on different occasions. such constructions are not random, however, but follow systems principles, so we refer to the paradigm we ad- vocate as recreation systems theory, a specific case of the more general behavioral systems theory (averill, ; averill & more, ; averill, stanat & more, ). it may seem odd to speak of behavior as a system; after all, a system is an assemblage of parts (subsystems) designed to fulfill some function within a larger system (suprasystem or inclusive unit). but behavior can be treated similarly: small actions have meaning because they serve a purpose or pur- poses within a larger system. consider tying up a boat after a day's sailing. numerous small actions of the fingers, hands, and arms are-required; these actions are not random but are organized toward the god of tying the knot. . and the knot is just one component of the docking subsystem-the organ- ized set of behaviors necessary to dock the boat. this subsystem combines with others (casting off, tacking, planning, etc.) to create the actual activity of sailing. and the day's sailing has meaning only as part of a larger system- the conyext of the pekon's life as a whole. two types of subsystems comprise an activity: prototypic and design. p r o totypic subsystems occur in virtually all instances of the activity and help define it. in sailing, these might include casting off, unfurling sails, tacking, and docking-the behaviors that are essential to almost all instances of sail- ing. by contrast, on a given sailing occasion, one might or might not eat lunch, might or might not swim from the boat, race, sunbathe, conclude a business deal, or host a birthday party. these design subsystems are optional, enabling the participant to design the activity to serve multiple goals. put differently, prototypic subsystems are relatively invariant, while design s u b systems enable us to construct the activity in different ways at different times so that it can be adapted to the ongoing events of our lives. an initial im- portant point is that the analysis of any activity must focus on its prototypic subsystems; including optional design subsystems can confound an analysis because they vary across people. when a particular design subsystem recurs in a large proportion of the population (e.g. sailing to entertain business clients), it constitutes a market segment and requires separate analysis. how- ever, for accurate research, we must focus on prototypic subsystems so that we can directly compare results of studies conducted at different times and in different regions.- four additional points about the structure of recreation activities war- rant explanation. first, the elements or subsystems that comprise a recreation activity are systematically ordered; one could not reasonably expect to shuffle the subsystems and have a coherent activity emerge. for example, you cannot dock before casting off; in bridge, dealing precedes bidding. second, recreation activities valy in complexity. a simple recreation sys- tem ( e x . , sunbathing) contains fewer elements and subsystems than a corn- - " plex system (e.g., te hnical rock climbing). third, recreation activities vary in degree of structure (i.e., the degree to which their prototpic subsystems are invariantly organized) and, hence, structure of recreation behavior in the degree to which they can be altered by personal choice. for example, an aerobics class might be highly structured while a family camping trip might be relatively unstructured; that is, participants can more freely design some activities than others-including or excluding specific design subsys- tems. fourth, the subsystems that constitute an activity are organized hierar- chically. ?fing a knot combines with other subsys terns at the same level (stow- ing gear, holding the boat steady) to yield the higher level docking subsys- tem. docking combines with other subsystems to yield the day's sailing, and so on. when a lower order action (tying a knot) is accomplished to complete a higher order action (docking), the higher order action can be termed a "motive" for the lower order action. such organization continues, with in- dividual activities forming patterns within a person's life, in service of attain- ing broad higher order goals such as health and happiness. as we ascend the hierarchy, the goals grow increasingly broad and the contribution of specific actions is less certain. in sailing, we do not argue about the motive for tying a knot because its role in the docking subsystem is clear-there is no uncertainty about what we are doing or why so no explanation is required. however, the contribution of a day's sailing to broad goals as health, virtue, or self-actualization is much less clear so it provokes much greater debate. the point to emphasize is that the form of the explanation of the day's sailing should be the same as that of tying the knot. many people may not be fully conscious of broad, long-term goals such as health (in the sense of optimal functioning), virtue, or self-actualization (see kuentzel's ( ) criticism of rational actor theories in recreation), but these goals ultimately drive rec- reation behavior. five systems concepts from both systems biology and general systems theory, we can abstract three key characteristics shared by all systems: functions, mechanisms, and capacities (averill, ). all systems have a function or set of functions that they fulfill within a larger system. systems without functions are vestigial and can be ignored.' mechanisms are the internal workings-the substructures and processes within a system-that enable the functions to be fulfilled. ca- pacities are system limits assessed independently of both function and mech- anism. these three concepts can describe any complex system. for example, a computer may serve multiple functions such as word processing, scheduling activities, and computing payroll. mechanisms include software and hard- ware, gates, chips, and programs-the inner workings that allow it to fulfill its functions. speed and memory are capacities. 'early theorists often argued that both play and aesthetics were fonns of behavior that lack& explicit functions (see berelyne, ). such claims are no longer widely advancrd-naturnl selection is too economical to allow large categories of functionless behavior. < (i . . .-..-. .;l.,; ..:; ..--;.;>; -. ; ; -- . . , . . - .. . .. . .: . . .. . . " .. . - ..-...,-._-_....i:~i; -.-. ;:; :..:.: l.- : a,..-....- :~.::s'-< ....&. i;ll:jjz< . . - - - -- . - . '. - - . . . i .-.- i . .. . more and averill i mucture of recreation behavior .: . i ' behavior can be similarly described, so, for any particular recreation activity the key questions to ask are: ( ) what function or purpose does it serve within the broader context of a person's life as a whole (the suprasystem in systems terms)-what does sailing do for those who participate? ( ) what mechanisms enable the behavior (activity)-how does it operate? ( ) what capacities (time, skill, intelligence, endurance, etc.) must a person have to pa^rticipate? it also is useful to distinguish three analytic modes: biological, psycho- logical, and social. all behavior represents some amalgam of these factors. for example, jogging may be primarily a biologically based activity, but it certainly has social and psychological dimensions. in other words, when we ask what functions an activity serves, it helps to inquire separately about biological, social, and psychological functions; we behave as a member of a species, a member of a culture, and as an idiosyncratic individual with a unique history and pattern of learning. biological factors are those under genetic control. social factors reflect social rules, norms, and resources as embodied in symbols and other cultural artifacts. psychological factors in- clude cognitive schemas, plans, or scripts laid down in memory. if we afray the three systems variables against the three analytic modes, the resulting cross-classification indicates the important factors in analyzing recreation activities (table )-these are the factors that account for the recurring patterns of recreation behavior in a person's life. the factors are actually semi-independent ways of looking at the same thing; your choice depends on your needs and interests. for example, with a computer, a busi- ness executive would be interested in functions (payroll, scheduling), an engineer would be interested in mechanisms (gates, chips), and a salesper- son in capacities (speed, memory). in recreation, a policy analyst or decision- maker would be interested in functions, a site manager would be concerned with mechanisms, while an activist might want to know about capacities (con- straints). this perspective enables us to classify the recreation literature. as we shall argue, theories emphasizing benefits (e.g., driver, brown & peter- son, ) or motivations (e.g., tinsley & tinsley, ) are primarily func- tionalist theories; flow (csikszentmihalyi, ) or arousal (berelyne, ) theories yield mechanistic explanations, while constraints (e.g., jackson & scott, ) concern people's capacities to participate in recreation. thus, rather than competing as explanations of recreation behavior, these theories are windows on different facets of the same phenomenon and all are nec- . - - essary for comprehensive explanation. the functions of recreation activities if any stn~ctural variable takes precedence, it is function. we could an- alyze any system (an automobile, for example) in terms of its mechanisms (sparkplugs, coolants, etc.), but recreation activities, like automobiles, are important because of what they do. consequently, we begin by asking: what function(s) does recreation behavior (or activity participation) serve within the context of a person's life as a whole? this perspective is similar to rec- reation benefits (e.g., driver et al., ), motivations (e.g., tinsley & tinsley, ), or multiple satisfactions (e.g., decker, brown, & gutierrez, ; hau- toluma & brown, ' ). we prefer the term function for three reasons (see more, ): ( ) we prefer to avoid the value judgment implied by the term benefit; function implies a more analytic understanding; ( ) motivations as typically understood in the recreation research literature are closely linked to personality traits, which we believe are better treated as capacities; ( ) function keeps our conception consis tent with the terminology of sys terns theory and biology. nevertheless, these conceptions are close; all seek to identify the purposes that recreation activities serve in people's lives. the question they ask is uwhy?", and in a systems context "whyn can only be understood by examining the effects the system produces on the broader suprasystem. thus, we must begin with an analysis of the effects of recreation participation within the context of a person's life as a whole. since functionalist explanations address phenomena in terms of their consequences for the rest of the system (abraharnson, ). we must be explicit about the hierarchical organization of recreation behavior. above, we illustrated how a small action-tying a knot-acquired importance be- cause it fulfilled a function within a larger system-docking the boat. so, too, the functions of a day's sailing must be understood in terms of the changes produced in other, larger systems. in psychology, the highest (most inclusive) is the self, the importance of which has been amply documented in leisure research (scott & godbey ; shamir ; shaw, kleiber & caldwell ). typically the self is presented as a single, psychological con- cept (as in self-image, self identity. et cetera). however, we see the self not as a uniform entity but as a tri-faceted organization of biological, social, and psychological components corresponding to the analytic modes in table . each aspect of the self is comprised of behavioral subsystems which interact to yield an organization that is both hierarchical 'and heterarchical (figure ) pa-.-a --..- t n . . - table i o~ruccumr ractms that determine behawiar at the biozogica& so&& and psychological h e h of analysis structud variable analytic mode functions mechanisms capacities biological "instincts" organ systems temperament social institutions organizations ethos (e.g., power, status, .- . psychological life st c ~ p o (long-mnge 'faculties" (e.g., memory, tnih/capacities motives) perception) more and averill strucx'ure of recreation behavior the biological self modern homo sapiens and their behavior are the product of several mil- lion years of hominid evolution. most personality theories assume we have a human nature simpiy as a member of a biological species: we are considered an aggressive species, a social species, a species that rears its young to ma- turity. though actual behavior is modified by social and psychological factors, such instincts form its biological substrate. the biological self represents the incorporation of species concerns within the individual. from a species perspective, the greatest good is species survival, accomplished by the maturation of healthy adults capable of con- tributing to the gene pool. the corresponding concern within the individual is long-term health, where health is defined broadly as the optimal function- ing.of the various biological systems. the major biological systems of behav- ior ("instinctsn like attachment, sex, and aggression) contribute more or less directly to species survival. leisure activities vary in their level of biological involvement: some-jogging, aerobics-have an obvious biological basis, but many others have biologicaliy based components that must be incorporated into a comprehensive explanation. for example, activities that center on dating-going to parties, movies-all may have a biological foundation in the attachment/mating behavioral subsystem. the same is true with nurtur- ance and aggression. a comprehensive explanation of an activity cannot ig- nore its biological substrates. at the lowest level, elementary responses contributing to survival are typically experienced as pleasurable-the sweet taste of ripe fruit or'the plea- sure of sexual activity. thus, the "pleasures" are intimately related to our biological functioning and form a basic part of the happiness or satisfaction associated with many recreation activities, including aesthetics (averill, stanat & more, ). qualities like the smell of a wildflower, pure air, or the coldness and clarity of a mountain stream can, when accumulated, be significant determinants of the quality of outdoor recreation experiences (cf. mendee, catton, marlow, & brockman, ; peterson, ' ). these biolog- ically based pleasures form one cornerstone of the intrinsic rewards associ- ated with recreation and leisure and provide a link between the organiza- tional structure of the behavior and the nature of the associated experience. there is no definitive list of biological systems of behavior. over the years, many theorists have proposed lists of instincts, needs and drives that are presumably central to human survival. while the number of systems rec- ognized depends upon factors like the complexity level at which one enters the hierarchy, the criteria used, and the purposes of the classification, most theorists agree that mating (sex), aggression (power and dominance), harm avoidance (flight to safety), attachment to others (including both nurturance and distress at loss), exploration (curiosity), and foraging (search for food and drink) are among the major biological systems of behavior (averill, stanat, & more, ). recreation research has explored some of these sys- tems more thoroughly than, others, but all are likely to play a role in ex- plaining particular activities. the social self just as the biological self incorporates species concerns, the social self represents the (imperfect) incorporation of societal goals and cultural val- ues, particularly moral values, within the individual. from a functionalist perspective, societies, like species, strive for preservation. they define be- haviors vital to their survival as virtuous and condemn as vices those that are detrimental. the well-socialized individual has internalized the culture's goals and values as a set of moral precepts that are at the heart of the social self. consequently, many classical philosophers equated a good life with a virtuous one, and moral values (which are largely culturally determined) are to the social self what health is to the biological self. within the individual, the social self is an amalgam of both social struc- tural influences (race., gender, class, etc.) and cultural factors. social s w c - turd influences are patterned interrelationships between individual and or- ganizational statuses, while cultural factors are historically determined belieh about what is, what should be, and how things should be done (schooler, ). both social structures and culture are major determinants of individ- ual behavior, so much so that many social theorists (e.g., parsons, merton, schooler) separate them and might well have included a fourth, cultural hierarchy in the present paper. while we believe such separation to be le- gitimate, we present them as unified here both for the sake of expedience and to vreserve a "social self" that corresponds directly to the biological and i psychological selves. developed societies are articulated into various social systems-adaptive patterns that contribute more or less directly to the survival of the society. our values are organized around these systems; that is, through socialization we come to understand what constitutes proper behavior in a variety of social systems and settings. table lists one potential categorization of social sys- tems and their related functions. it is worth noting how much leisure re- t a b u e x a m p h of social systems with related functionsa system function education socialization economic production/distribution of goods and services medical healthcare political production of collectively binding decisions legal maintenance of, and adherence to decisions scientific production of new knowledge religious articulation of meanings and values military protection/conquest 'the list is not exhaustive, and many functions overlap, e.g., military spending has economic consequences. search has concentrated on the relationship between recreation and the economic system (e.g., d u e d e n o , ; fix & loomis, ), the familial system (e.g., baldwin, ellis, & baldwin, ; freysinger, ), and, to a lesser extent, the medical system (e.g., godbey ; paffenbarger, hyde, & i dow, ; ulrich, ). relationships between recreation and other social systems may prove to be fruitful areas for investigation. for example, parks may play a significant role in the religious or educational life of a community. each social system is comprised of organizations-both formal (banks, clubs) and informal (family, friends). these combinations of social roles r e p resent the environment through which the social self moves; they are the internalized representations of social structures. still lower is the multiplicity of social roles occupied by the individual, while at the lowest level are typi- fications-routinized social responses performed nearly automatically, e-g., shaking hands upon greeting. organizationally, the social self parallels the biological self. as noted, classical philosophers often argued that the highest social goal (within the individual) is to live a good (virtuous) life. and many serious leisure pursuits (stebbins, , ) contribute to this goal directly, particularly those con- cerned with participation in civic or communal organizations. however, vir- tuous behavior is possible throughout the hierarchy and in a variety of ac- tivities and settings: helping a friend or picking up litter are examples of virtuous ace that provide pleasure. doing good for the sake of doing good is pleasurable and recreation activities offer numerous opportunities to ex- ercise this enjoyment. like the biological "pleasures," acts of virtue whether small (helping a friend) or large (a long-term commitment to volunteering) represent another of the emotional cornerstones upon which the recreation experience is built. the psychological self the psychological self is a set of propositions or concepts about who we are as individuals and how we relate to the world. to many theorists in psychology's humanist tradition (e.g., rogers, maslow, jung), actualization of the psychological self (i-e., preservation and enhancement of a sense of self) is a major, if not the major, motivation behind most human behavior. as a goal, self-actualization is comparable to health and virtue in the biolog- ical and social systems, so that elementary behaviors that enhance a person's sense of self also will be experienced as pleasurable. the psychological systems supporting the self can be divided into long- term plans or scripts that specify goals within broad domains of a person's life. a person's motives, emotions, attitudes, and beliefs are organized around these plans o r scripts and are supported, in turn, by specific actions that occur at the lowest level of the hierarchy. part of a person's selfconcept might be that he/she is a sailor. he or she may have long-term goals related to sailing: owning a larger boat, winning a particular race, or retiring near a major lake. the experience of individual sailing occasions will be impacted more and averill by these plans: is it your first time?, h regular activity, or "old hat." each individual experience will be one of a series of experiences, and its emotional quality may be at least partially determined by where it lies in the series. finally, any sailing experience will be composed of numerous specific actions related to sailing-the actual behaviors of sailing. these specific actions de- rive meaning from the plans, scripts, and emotions that lie above them in the hierarchy, but they also provide important inputs upwards in the system. so, if the person's hand grow arthritic, making it more difficult to perform a specific action, he or she may have to change long-term plans as they relate to sailing. in a systems context, processing goes both up and down the hi- erarchy. in sum, a functional analysis of a recreation activity examines the effects of participation on the biological, social, and psychological selves. generally, we believe that theories of recreation benefits (e.g., driver & bruns, ) or motivations (tinsley & tinsley, ) are within the functionalist tmdi- tion. while current versions of such theories may be problematic (see more, ), they represent one kind of knowledge necessary for comprehensive explanation. enabling mechanisms while a functional analysis concerns the origins and purposes of rec- reation behavior, a mechanistic analysis explores the internal workings that fi~lfill those functions; the central question is how rather than why. in the sailing example, a functional analysis tells us why we tie the knot, it does not tell us how the knot is tied. as with functions, enabling mechanisms can be analyzed from biological, social, and psychological perspectives. biologit(~l enahling mechanism biologically, enabling mechanisms are best represented by organ systems and the various physiological structures they comprise. recreation activities obviously differ in the extent to which they involve the different organ sys- tems: swimming uses the muscular, cardiovascular, and pulmonary systems extensively, while picnicking or dining out involves the digestive system. in- volven~ent also can vary in intensity: jogging may involve some organ systems intensely, while watching television may maintain most systems at low acti- vation. over the years, physiological explanations of recreation behavior have been popular, ranging from eye-pupillary measures of aesthetic responses (wenger & videbeck, ) to the effects of natural environments on patient recovery (ulrich, ), to the influence of outdoor adventure tasks on the neurocndrocine system (bunting, tolson, kuhn, suarez, & williams, ). particularly important physiological mechanisms in recreation include, among other things, pleasure centers in the brain, specialized circuitry in the left frontal lobes (which appear to be involved in positive emotional structure of recreation behavior experiences) ,and endorphins and other naturally occurring opoids (averill & more, ). perhaps the most comprehensive physiological explanation of recreation is berelyne's ( , ) arousal theory. in this theory, arousal (in the form of 'arousal jags") is a major motivational factor in exploratory and play behavior, as well as in forms of adult recreation behavior as diverse as riding roller coasters and attending performances of tragic drama (ber- elyne, ). arousal also has been linked to theories of laughter, humor, and aesthetics (berelyne, , ) and used to explain emotional reac- tions to such diverse environments as suburban parks (hull & harvey, ) and wilderness areas (scherl, ). technically berelyne's theory represents the interaction of a major physiological enabling mechanism (arousal) with elements of psychological mechanisms (novelty, complexity, etc.); mecha- nisms interact at all levels and are separable only in theory. physiological research is undoubtedly important in explaining recrea- tion behavior, but brings with it all the temptations of reductionism-the belief that truth is to be found at this level where we can make exact mea- surements in millimeters and milliliters. unfortunately, such thinking is often illusory. to borrow daniel robinson's ( ) example, if we ask why some- one got angry, and repeated observations show that their blood temperature increased lo, we might conclude that they got angry because their "blood boiled." yet such a conclusion would clearly be false, despite systematic and reliable measurement. the reason they got angry might have much more to do with someone else cheating at cards, making a cutting remark, etc.-the "blood boiling" is an effect, not a cause. clearly, there are instances where physiological processes can be causal factors in recreation, as when a' chem ical imbalance creates depression, but we need to place this research in per- spective: it is important and necessary, but comprehensive explanation re- quires more than just physiology. social enabling mechanism social enabling mechanisms are the organizations and related individ- uals that support specific recreation activities. these organizations provide the inner workings of the various social systems described above. they can be either formal (businesses, agencies, institutions) or informal (groups of friends, family). for example, a social analysis of hunting mechanisms would identify the nature of hunting opportunities, the rules and regulations of the providing organizations, the clubs, stores and cafes, and gasoline stations that significantly enable a person's participation. it also would be necessary to know about support or opposition from family, friends, and coworkers- a person's social network of interested others. the most significant social mechanisms are the small groups that form around the family, neighborhood, and workplace (murray, ). ample ev- idence attests that recreation is profoundly social; it often occurs in just these small groups of family, fiends, and co-workers, and many activities actually depend on group participation. even such solitary activities as trapping may more and averill depend on maintaining a supportive social network (glass, more, siemer, brown, batchelder, & distefano, ). the catch, at least according to mur- ray ( ), is that to fulfill functions (and, therefore, to lead to long-term happiness) these small groups must afford their members challenges that are meaningful, require effort, and for which group members can feel re- sponsible for their own successes or failures (murray, )-traits typically associated with intrinsically rewarding recreation activities (iso ahola, ). murray argues that social policy should promote and nurture such groups, which suggests that recreation managers should preserve a range of oppor- tunities of varying challenges; providing too much assistance or comfort in the name of enhancing satisfaction risks robbing activities of their intrinsic rewards-people need to "earnw their enjoyment. . psychological enabling mechanisms psychological enabling mechanisms comprise what early psychology texts used to call "faculties": memory, attention, perception, judgment, the will, and imagination (e.g., william james' principles of psychology ( , )). today we discuss these faculties at a more molecular level: for ex- ample, berelyne ( ) divided attention into issues of novelty, stimulus com- plexity, amount of surprising; any of the major faculties can be broken down similarly. ultimately, psychological enabling mechanisms serve the psychological self, the most inclusive unit of the psychological hierarchy. three of the most important are setting realistic but challenging goals, a belief in one's ability to attain the goal, and adequate feedback about progress toward attaining the goal. goals must be realistic and attainable. people who lack confidence sel- dom undertake challenging activities, so that belief in personal control over outcomes and the degree of perceived choice in one's l i e are positively related to happiness (e.g., abbey & andrews, ; deci & ryan, ). leisure counseling can assist people in setting attainable goals. feedback, the other goal-related mechanism, is essential to positive emo- tion (carver & scheier, ). most intrinsically rewarding recreation activ- ities are patterned around long-term scripts, not random samplings of plea- sure or individual occasions of satisfactions. any individual experience is part of a series and the quality of that experience-an extremely important form of feedback to the person-is as much determined by where it stands within the series as by the kinds of setting attributes ordinarily studied by recreation research. "is it still fun?" is a crucial question asked by participants. when an activity is no longer pleasurable, the person may progress to a new level of specialization as in fishing (bryan, ' ) or hunting (jackson et al., ; more, ). scott and shafer ( ) provide an excellent analysis of the mechanisms involved in specialization. they suggest that specialization in- volves focusing behavior such that an individual participates in an activity at the expense of other activities, the acquisition of associated skills and knowl- edge, and commitment such that the activity becomes a central life interest. these processes are instigated by 'career contingencies"-interpersonal or structural events that affect the trajectory of a person's leisure career through facilitation or constraint (stebbins ). thus career contingencies can lead some people toward increased specialization, while others will follow a more casual trajectory, perhaps becoming committed to particular groups or lo- cations. feedback is essential throughout this process. as a mechanism, feedback invites evaluation: comparing where one is with where one feels one ought to be. in psychology, such judgments are known as gap, congruence, or discrepancy theories (michalos, , ; parducci, ; w~lls, ). such theories have been applied extensively in leisure research to understanding the quality of individual experiences. thus, the satisfaction derived from camping is considered a function of the degree of congruence between aspiration and the reality of the experience (bultena & klessig, ), while the quality of a wilderness experience de- rives from the relationship between a penon's expectations and the per- ceived reality of the experience (peterson, ' ). flow is one of the most significant current theories involving gap mech- anisms (csikszentmihalyi, ). flow is a characteristic of experience, so we will not treat it here, but experiencing flow depends on the gap between challenges and skill-structural characteristics. if this gap is too large, bore- dom or anxiety results (csikszentmihalyi, ). finally, importance/per- formance analysis (e.g., havitr, twynam & delorenzo, ; richardson, ), which identifies gaps in the performance of specific attributes relative to preferred performance levels, and normative theories of encounters (e.g., heywood, ) also have their intellectual foundation in gap theory. other psychological mechanisms could be discussed (e.g., berelyne's, , analysis of orienting responses, novelty, and exploratory responses). but the key point should be clear: mechanistic analyses are concerned with how recreation activities work-their processes and substructures-and yield a different explanation from a functional analysis that asks why. the capacity for recreation activities capacity is the third focus for a systems analysis of recreation behavior; the fundamental question here is: "what's possible? (i.e., what are the sys- tem's limitations?)" contemporary recreation research has tended to ap- proach this as a question of constraint; research on constraints has grown so rapidly in recent years that it has become a distinctive sub-field of leisure research (jackson, ). in fact, some theorists believe that constraints research has shaped the very way we conceive participation (samdahl & jekubovich, ; raymore, ). perhaps the dominant model of constraint is that proposed by crawford, jackson, & godbey ( ). this model suggests that people negotiate three types of barriers to participate in an activity: structural barriers (time, money, etc.) intervene between preference and participation, interpersonal barriers more and a . r i l l (e,g., lack of companions) involve social interaction, and intra~ersonal bar- and body ever be significantly narrowed (except, perhaps someday, ,, include psychologica~ states or individual attributes- recent research through genetic engineering). (p. ) has questioned this model on various point. , however- for e x m ~ l e , samdahl if harris is correct, in some recreation activities sex creates major and ~ ~ k ~ b ~ ~ i ~ h ( ) argue that people are more active in shaping and in (we reserve the term 'lgendern for socio-cultural dif- adapting their participation than the model implies, that pfior research find- ferences)* sometimes we resolve sex differences with separate competitions. ings about c o n s u a i n ~ may have been an artifact of the research methods# in other activities it is possible to neutralize sex differences through rule and hat the cons wain^ model still fails to e~plain participation (i.e.* it modifications* as with differential tees in golf that enable and men strives to explain why people do not participate rather than they do). play togethel and, most probably for the m t majority of recreation ac- we mke a slightly different tack, arguing that people differ in their tivities-going to the movies, playing bridge, camping-biologically-bajed pacities to participate in activities. there are, in fact, a mriad of individual sex differences have no effect on capacity whaaoever, the point is that we differences bemeen people that influence recreation behavior. we are short need think through these differences in capacity for explanatory purposes or mil, female or male, well-coordinated or clumsy, wealthy or poor* etc. (and without due judgment+ our biological capacities change kfi age, clearly, these differences are important in explaining recreation behavior. through matuntion, then through aging. for example, young we b a t they represent people's capacities. with function, a focus can be injured by being p ~ h e d beyond their biological capacity, while ar- on capacity rather than on constraint keeps our teminolof ' consistent with an injury) may diminish an older penon's =-paciq for an activity, theory, ~t also enables us to discuss the effeco of potential changes nece*ritating a change in long-term plans and perhap even in selfsoncept in capacity, such those h a t might come from aerobic exercise or aging often, goals within the functional systems may concern building or main- (in the biolo@cal sytem), education or a change in income (in the taining biological capacity; aerobic exercise is an example. ttem), or counseling (in the psychological ~ystem). the elements of 'on- temporary c o n s ~ i n ~ theo -y are present, but slightly refocused. '' with s o c i ~ ~ z t ~ r a z capacities functions and mechanisms, capacities need to be examined biolo@cal. socioiultural, and psychological penpecfves. however, since re- s"cio-cultural fapacifies reflect a society's ethos (noms, &aracter) and of fie constmints literamre are available k g . , jackso* & scott lgg ) on individual behavior. for example, societies can be cornpet- our discussion is illustrative rather than comprehensive* or status conscious or egalitarian, coilectivist or individu- alistic# et ==tera, and these characterizations are reflected in meir popula- 'on'. individual ~ there are a host of socio-cultural differences bemeen biological gzfiacitie~ pe plcin amilable leisure, class status, income and education, srage ~ i ~ l ~ ~ i ~ ~ l capacities include species attributes (at the population level) in life etc. gender, with its trained incapacities, expectations of and related temperamenhl characteristics at the individual level (suength' emotionalih/ and fie like, is a central factor (hendenon & ~ l l ~ ~ , energy level, sociability, etc.) to the extent that these are under genetic 'on- ) as is race with its accompanying prejudices (phillip, ). ~ ~ d i v i d ~ ~ ~ trol. ~h~~~ me actually a host of biological differences bemeen people that differences in s " c i w i u l t ~ d factors can create differences in the capad ty may (or may not) play an important role in recreation behavior- an obvious " participate in different recreational activities. their obvious innuence ha example is that we are born female or male. according to harris made them h e most studied of the capaciv facton. m~~ are . centimeten ( . inches) taller than women on average psu.hobgica~ capacities have lighter bones and . . . weigh less for their height are about two- thirds to threquartem as strong as men, depending on the group of psychologicall~ individual differences are manifested in traits that can testedd. ~h~ biggest differences are ~ n c e n m ~ ~ ~ in the be 'onsidered measures of our psychologicai capacities to attain specific and shoulders. there is no mystery, therefore, about men outperform a long history in recreation research (ewg., m ~ ~ , shackelford, in e i a n d d f i e l d athletic contests. in archerg, for example* the woman*s & )~ the link between personality traits and recreation behavior hand bow record for distance is percent leu the male record in 'om- not been thoroughljc human tmig are of three kinds: trails of pound bow the gap is percent in javelin hurling* it is per- abi it of temperament (or disposition), and mils of motivation, traiu cent, ~ d d to these differences a percent gap in various kinds of 'prints and of intelligence.' speed, artistic ability, endurance, agilig, and intermediate and long distance races. as mentioned earlier, lhere is a per- cent gap in the same for lmkneter dashes, but larger, about l perccnr. for intermediate distances. while athletic mining prognms and psy- 'it ' impormt note that intelligence is both genetically and environmenr.lly chological incentives improve women's track-and-field performance* there is jut as there is lome biological basis for culture. ?he extent of biologiul inrnolnmenr is little prospect that the gap that now exists in sports based on ~uscu ar strength "bject of debate, and is well beyond he xopc of papr- more and averiu gracefulness. we know of no specific studies that link these traits to recrea- tion behavior (doubtless there are some), but the relationships seem obvious. intelligence may be a key factor in the enjoyment of complex games like chess, or in solving mathematical or linguistic puzzles; agility and graceful- ness can influence success with activities like dancing or figure skating; man- ual dexterity or fine motor coordination may be needed for activities like needlework or playing the piano. when someone excels at a particular ac- tivity we tend to say he or she has a gift or talent for i t such talents often reflect underlying differences in ability traits that affect the capacity to pur- sue particular recreational goals. traits of temperament and motivation have received more attention in leisure research than have ability traits. traits of temperament are based on the notion that we can describe people meaningfully with words like confi- dent, shy, aggressive, energetic, and sympathetic. traits of motivation include needs for achievement, power, autonomy, and affiliation. current research (digman, ; mccrae & costa, ) suggests that most traits of temper- ament and motivation can be subsumed under five broad dimensions: intro- version-extroversion, neuroticism (or negative sectivity), openness to ex- perience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, each of which can be related to recreation participation. introversion and extroversion represent capaci- ties for different kinds of experience, and may influence people's responses to particular recreation settings or sites. for example, both introverts and extroverts attend parties and other social functions, but introverts do so at a considerably greater cost in contrast, introverts have a greater capacity for solitude and many prefer activities and/or sites that provide it.' likewise, the degree to which a person is open to new experiences is a capacity that is important in recreation preferences; some people prefer the familiar while others are more adventurous. many personality factors that have been studied in recreation research can be linked to the "big five* dimensions. thus, achievement is a compo- nent of conscientiousness, while affiliation is associated with extroversion. we suggest that these traits are better treated as capacities for different kinds of experiences rather than as needs, and that such capacities are manifested in both patterns of participation and in preferences for various site/activity . . . . attributes. in sum, people differ in their capacities to participate in specific leisure activities and such individual differences are significant factors in explaining leisure behavior. this slightly different focus helps avoid at least one of the problems samdahl and jekubovich ( ) raise about constraints: the prob- lem that they fail to explain participation directly, having the capacity to play chess does not necessarily imply that someone will choose to play chess. 'note the subtle value judgments involved: we often try to "cure" introverts without acknowl- edging that introversion may have strengths of irs own. could emily dickenson have written her poems had she been extraverted and gregarious? structure of recreation behavior to understand that choice, we need information on function(s) and mech- anism(~). it is clear, however, that having the capacity to play chess is an essential element of that choice. conclusion in this paper we presented a meta-theoretical analysis of leisure concepts in the form of a systems analysis of recreation behavior. our primary concern was to analyze how the different concepts-benefits, arousal, constraints, and the like-fit together. these concepts represent different types of knowledge and all are necessary for a comprehensive explanation of leisure behavior. with any phenomenon, the great questions remain: what? why? how? and what's needed? to answer the 'whatn question, we focused on how an ac- tivity was constructed using both prototypic and design subsystems. the con- struction (or structure) of individual recreation activities deserves closer scru- tiny in recreation research, and we believe it is basic to any attempt at comprehensive explanation. it is what aristotle might have equated with the material cause-the 'stuff' of which the activity is made. the three remaining questions-why? how? and what's possible?-we equated with function, mechanism, and capacity, respectively. functions are discerned by examining the effects of recreation. from a systems perspective, they are equivalent to aristotle's final causes and are represented in the literature by the concepts of benefits, motivations, and satisfactions. mecha- nisms are concerned w i t h how the system operates (aristotle's efficient cause) and are represented in the literature by concepts like arousal, nor- mative theories, social network analysis, and various gap theories. capacities refer to the "what's needed?" question. in systems terms they represent the system's operating limitations in a way that is equivalent to aristotle's formal cause. while they are most closely represented by the concept of constraints, we believe this slight refocusing offers a difterent form of insight that avoids some of the intellectual difficulties that occur with current conceptions of constraint table synthesizes some familiar leisure research traditions within this framework, but is by no means exhaustive. we also examined each concept-function, mechanism, and capacity- from a biological, social, and psychological perspective. we suggest that the resulting scelled matrix provides a good gauge to assess our knowledge of any particular recreation or leisure activity. if we could somehow partition our knowledge of a particular activity across these cells, we believe it would identify clearly the strengths and weaknesses in current research knowledge about it. two important caveats must be noted. first, the analysis as we have pre- sented it is primarily suited to western cultures in that it is focused on the individual. we argue that the long-term goals that actuate most recreation behavior are health in the biological mode, the desire for a virtuous life in the social mode, and the enhancement of a sense of self (self-actualization) in the psychological mode. each of these broad goals concerns individual more and averill table a synthesis of s o m lcirun research raditimu undar o h a t w n system theory framortta systems category analytic mode function mechanism capacity b i l g health/well-being, plych~phy~io ogic.l genetically based individd instincts. survival/ research, a r o d dit'ferences (e.g., evolutionary theories, temperment, height, aesthetics, intrinsic etc), sex differences, rewards, benefits, aging motivation, satisfaction social social structure, social network, class analysis, gender, life culture, economic, organizations, course, consmints family and group small groups, benefits, family, roles socialization. volunteerism psychological self-actualinlion, self- place attachment. p e w n d i t p traits (e.~.. identity memory and introversion) attention, cognitive schemes, scrip& and plans, feedback, goal setting and attainment, specialization, -gapw theories, kow . 'these categories are not mutually exclusive and may overlap. welfare. in collectivist cultures such as japan, by contrast, individuals are expected to subordinate their own welfare to that of the group. such an emphasis clearly would lead to differences in the functional hierarchy we propose. a second, and perhaps more serious, concern lies in the questions that have been raised about systems analysis in general, and functional analysis in particular. while systems thinking pervades many fields, it has been e s pecially controversial in sociology. by the mid- ' century, american soci- ology was dominated by the systems analyses of talcott parsons, so much so that a reaction was probably inevitable (abrahamson, ). as walter kuentzel (university of vermont, personal communication, january, ) puts it: .. parsons' structural functionalism. has endured intense scrutiny and criticism . . over the yean and. hold, much less c u m n q with sociologisu these d a ~ . s t r u c t u ~ ~ of recreation behavior what are some of the recent alternatives? there are still the neo-marxist hold- overs who leveled the most brutal criticisms of parsons. but, more so today are the theories of modernity, which describe contemporary behavior with words like fragmentation, anxiety, uncertainty, and ambivalence. these theories chal- lenge the myth that individuals can easily know and assess what is in their best interests and then act accordingly to achieve some degree of self-actualization or individual progress. instead, individuals are more frequently confronted with confusing signals, uncertain options and outcomes, risk and its accompanying anxiety, and a general ambivalence about what to do next and what the future holds. we agree, in part, with kuentzel. we noted above that people may not be fully conscious of such broad goals as health, virtue, or self-actualization, and this lack of full understanding creates the uncertainty, anxiety, and am- bivalence kuentzel mentions. it is often difficult to decide between activi- ties-should you go bowling? play cards?, or just nap? but, once that choice has been made, a variety of behaviors--our prototypic and design subsys- tems-must be undertaken, participation will have various effects (conse- quences, outcomes), and the individual will have various strengths/talents she/he will bring to the activity, etc. in short, while the decision of which functions to pursue may be difficult, once that decision has been made, a systems analysis may be both appropriate and revealing. more generally, sys- tems analysis, while it no longer has the dominance it had in the mid- th century, remains a significant tradition within sociology, and even parsons has enjoyed a minor revival (jary & jary, ). functionalist analyses of society also have been criticized as being a static and inherently conservative view perhaps because of their emphasis on the stability of social structure rather than on change. indeed, a basic (and flawed) assumption of structural functionalism is that if a social structure or practice exists, then it must serve a function,. and that function must be important to the maintenance of society. yet societies, social structures, and cultures clearly evolve. sometimes social structures force cultural progress, as when the u.s. supreme court declared segregated schools to be illegal in a reluctant culture. at other times, culture leads social structure as when popular resistance to the vietnam war led to changing structures. thus, while functionalism can yield important insights and serve as a framework for the general analysis of the social dimensions of recreation behavior, it also can yield illogical results if adhered to in an extreme form. moderation is crucial for successful systems analysis. in sum, we believe that recreation systems theory with its differentia- tion of functions, mechanisms and capacities offers useful guidelines for the systematic analysis of any recreation activity. the initial step in such an anal- ysis is to identify the prototypic subsystems that constitute the central "core" of the activity. the identification of functions should focus on this core. if enough people add a particular design subsystem, it will constitute a "market segment." such market segments must be analyzed separately, however, to avoid confounding errors. in bowling, for example, prototypic subsystems might include setting up (unpacking gear, putting on shoes, etc.), the phys- more and averill ical actions of rolling the ball down the alley and scoring. during bowling, some, but not all, participants consume alcohol-a design subsystem. alco- hol taken in moderate amounts can increase sociability and decrease per- formance. consequently, it is desirable to separate these effects from a con- sideration of the prototypic functions of bowling. second, we need to identify the mechanisms that support an activity, and those mechanisms must be linked subsequently to the functions. the current generation of functional research (e.g., benefits, motivations, satis- factions) has been criticized as being too "black boxyn (more, ). that is, we ask people about the benefits they hope to obtain, but we seldom link those benefits with their supporting mechanisms. the next generation of research must reveal the underlying processes-we must show how the ben- efits of hiking, for example, are produced by putting one foot in front of another on a specific trail. that is, we must understand the processes by which benefits are created. lastly, we should consider the capacities required by particular activities. these are not absolute, of course-people have a range of abilities that they bring to an activity. yet even so simple an activity as picnicking may require some level of organizational skills. a carehl analysis of capacity also must include an analysis of traditional constraints to ensure barrier-free access, etc. in the final analysis, we believe that recreation systems theory offers a logical way to think through the analysis of any particular leisure activity. and, when it has been thought through, we believe that such analyses, care- fully done, can significantly enhance senice delivery by keeping our atten- i tion focused on the core structure of the activity with its attendant functions, mechanisms and required capacities. i references abbey, a, & andrews, f. 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( ). view through a window may influence recovery from surgery. science, , - . wenger, w., & videbeck. r . - - --i). eye pupillary measurement of aesthetic response to forest scenes. journal of h u m f i - r ~ n ~ h . . jn principles in social psychology. p~chdo&az bulktin, 'practice story exchanges' and their creative invitation to informal learning | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /ijavet. corpus id: 'practice story exchanges' and their creative invitation to informal learning @article{willis practicese, title={'practice story exchanges' and their creative invitation to informal learning}, author={p. willis}, journal={int. j. adult vocat. educ. technol.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	p. willis 	published 	sociology, computer science 	int. j. adult vocat. educ. technol. this is a study of how members of a collaborative group interested in promoting convivial civilisation in human society took up exchanging practice stories-stories of doing something or seeing something done as examples of convivial backyard civilisation-in order tacitly to create an informal learning environment where practices of such a convivial backyard civilisation could seem normal, desirable and do-able. practice story exchanges were an attempt to 'tell the truth but tell it slant' as… expand view via publisher igi-global.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all topics from this paper 	the australian 	emily howell citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency adult education and sustainable learning outcome of rural widows of central northern nigeria 	lantana m. usman 	sociology, computer science 	int. j. adult vocat. educ. technol. 	 	 save alert research feed teaching computers to adults: the case study of the state institutes of further education in cyprus 	y. karagiorgi, maria gravani 	psychology, computer science 	int. j. digit. lit. digit. competence 	 	 save alert research feed facilitating learning with adult students in the transcultural classroom 	g. thomas 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed transformative learning and technology in adult and vocational education 	victor c. x. wang, p. cranton 	psychology, computer science 	int. j. inf. commun. technol. educ. 	 	 save alert research feed e-leadership in the new century 	victor c. x. wang 	sociology, computer science 	int. j. adult vocat. educ. technol. 	 	 save alert research feed the pathway to nevada's future: a case of statewide technology integration and professional development 	p. schrader, neal strudler, loretta asay, terra graves, shawn pennell, s. stewart 	engineering 	 	 save alert research feed literacy level and vocational training for substance-using hispanic adults 	m. wood, d. fisher, g. reynolds, yesenia guzman, w. pedersen 	psychology, computer science 	int. j. adult vocat. educ. technol. 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency inviting learning: an exhibition of risk and enrichment in adult education practice. 	p. willis 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed getting a feel for the work: mythopoetic pedagogy for adult educators through phenomenological evocation 	p. willis 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed how stories make sense of personal experiences: motives that shape autobiographical narratives 	r. baumeister, l. newman 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed watching with two eyes: the place of the mythopoetic in curriculum inquiry 	p. holland, noreen b. garman 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed knowing the self through fantasy: toward a mytho-poetic view of transformative learning 	j. dirkx 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed the call of stories: teaching and the moral imagination 	r. coles 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed teaching defiance: stories and strategies for activist educators 	m. newman 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed non-formal education: flexible schooling or participatory education? 	a. rogers 	medicine 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the standpoint of storyteller 	a. frank 	sociology, medicine 	qualitative health research 	 	 save alert research feed e-learning in india: segmenting students of a business school based on their perception 	d. chawla, himanshu joshi 	psychology, computer science 	int. j. adult vocat. educ. technol. 	 	 save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue f i c t i o n s of t h e s e l f : s t u d i e s " i n f e m a l e m o d e r n i s m j e a n r h y s , g e r t r u d e s t e i n and d j u n a b a r n e s b y r o b y n g r o v e s b . a . , a d e l a i d e , m . a . , t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , a t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d e g r e e of doctor of p h i l o s o p h y i n t h e f a c u l t y of g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s ( p r o g r a m i n c o m p a r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e ) we a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d t h e u n i v e r s i t y of b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a f e b r u a r y ( c ^ r o b y n g r o v e s , in presenting t h i s thesis in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the university of b r i t i s h columbia, i agree that the library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available for reference and study. i further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department of by his representatives. i t i s understood that copying or publication of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission. program i r i ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ a v t ! x^/y^e ~ the university of b r i t i s h columbia wesbrook place vancouver, canada v t w date abstract this thesis considers elements of autobiography and autobiographical f i c t i o n in the writings of three female modernists: jean rhys, gertrude stein and djuna barnes. in chapter , after drawing d i s t i n c t i o n s between male and female autobiographical writing, i discuss key male autobiographical f i c t i o n s of the modernist period by d.h. lawrence, marcel proust and james joyce, and t h e i r debt to the nineteenth century l i t e r a r y forms of the bildungsroman and the kunstlerroman. i r e l a t e these texts to key european writers, andre gide and colette, and to works by women based on two separate female modernist aesthetics: f i r s t , the school of " l y r i c a l transcendence"—dorothy richardson, katherine mansfield and v i r g i n i a w o o l f — i n whose works the s e l f as l i t e r a r y subject dissolves into a renunciatory "female impressionism;" the second group—rhys, stein and barnes--who as late-modernists, o f f e r r a d i c a l l y " o b j e c t i f i e d " s e l f - p o r t r a i t s i n f i c t i o n which act as c r i t i q u e s and revisions of both male and female modernist f i c t i o n of e a r l i e r decades. in chapter , i discuss jean rhys' o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n of female self-consciousness through her analysis of a l i e n a t i o n i n two d i f f e r e n t settings: the caribbean and the c i t i e s of europe. as an outsider in both situations, rhys presents an unorthodox counter-vision. in her f i c t i o n s of the 's, she deliberately revises e a r l i e r modernist representations, i i i b y b o t h m a l e a n d f e m a l e w r i t e r s , o f f e m a l e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . i n t h e p r o c e s s , s h e o f f e r s a s i m u l t a n e o u s c r i t i q u e o f b o t h s o c i a l a n d l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s . i n c h a p t e r , i c o n s i d e r g e r t r u d e s t e i n ' s c a r e e r - l o n g e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h t h e r e n d e r i n g o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n a v a r i e t y o f l i t e r a r y f o r m s , n o t i n g h e r g r o w i n g c o n c e r n t h r o u g h o u t t h e ' s a n d ' s w i t h t h e r o l e o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y i n w r i t i n g . i n a c l o s e r e a d i n g o f t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f a l i c e b . t o k l a s , i e x a m i n e s t e i n ' s p a r o d y a n d " d e c o n s t r u c t i o n " o f t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l f o r m a n d t h e m o d e r n i s t c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s e l f b a s e d o n m e m o r y , a s s o c i a t i o n a n d d e s i r e . h e r w i t t y a t t a c k o n t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f n a r r a t i v e p r o d u c e s a n e w k i n d o f f i c t i o n a l s e l f - p o r t r a i t u r e , d r a w i n g h e a v i l y o n t h e v i s u a l a r t s t o c r e a t e n e w p r o s e f o r m s a s w e l l a s t o d i s m a n t l e o l d o n e s . c h a p t e r f o c u s s e s o n d j u n a b a r n e s ' m e t a p h o r i c a l :.. r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e s e l f i n p r o s e f i c t i o n , w h i c h r e - i n t e r p r e t t h e m o d e r n i s t n o t i o n o f t h e s e l f , b y m e a n s o f a n a n d r o g y n o u s f i c t i o n a l p o e t i c s . i n h e r a m e r i c a n a n d e u r o p e a n f i c t i o n s s h e e x t e n d s t h e n o t i o n o f t h e w o r k o f a r t a s a f o r m a l , s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l a n d s e l f - c o n t a i n e d " w o r l d " b y s u b v e r t i n g i t w i t h t h e u s e o f a l a t e - m o d e r n , " h i g h c a m p " i m a g e r y t o c r e a t e n e w t y p e s o f n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e . t h e s e w o m e n ' s m a j o r w o r k s , a p p e a r i n g i n t h e ' s , mark a s e c o n d w a v e o f m o d e r n i s m , w h i c h r e v i s e s a n d i n c e r t a i n w a y s s u b v e r t s t h e f i r s t . h e n c e , t h e s e a r e s t u d i e s i n " l a t e m o d e r n i s m " a n d i n my c o n c l u s i o n i w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e i v distinguishing features of t h i s t r a n s i t i o n a l period, the 's, and the questions i t provokes about the idea of periodization i n general. table of contents page chapter one: autobiography: self creation f i c t i o n a l autobiography the novel as p o r t r a i t of the male a r t i s t the a r t i s t as woman female autobiography female autobiographical f i c t i o n the female a e s t h e t i c i s t s chapter two: p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t in exile the caribbean expatriation autobiographical f i c t i o n character vignette voyage in the dark wide sargasso sea europe good morning, midnight chapter three: self p o r t r a i t and cubist a r t i f i c e .. exile or expatriate autobiography: cubist self creation conclusion endnote v i chapter four: djuna barnes: the patterned self .... origins expatriation nightwood the divided self the designing self: the self as design conclusion footnotes bibliography chapter one this thesis deals generally with women's autobiographical f i c t i o n i n the modernist period and s p e c i f i c a l l y with the autobiographical novels of three female expatriates l i v i n g in paris in the 's and 's. i w i l l treat modernism as the d i s t i n c t s t y l i s t i c phase in l i t e r a t u r e , art and music which dominated england, europe and america between and . modernism i s a collective} name for a number of movements—impressionism and i t s aftermath, expressionism, cubism, futurism, symbolism and imagism, vorticism, dadaism and surrealism—whose common aim was to subvert the romanticism and realism of the nineteenth century and to propel the twentieth century into the abstract."*" autobiography: self creation i wish to begin my study with the autobiographical impulse i t s e l f , and changing interpretations of i t . three major areas for t h e o r e t i c a l consideration emerge. f i r s t , what i s the r e l a t i o n s h i p of autobiography to f i c t i o n ? is i t possible to formulate strategies for turning autobiography into f i c t i o n ? secondly, can we d i s t i n g u i s h s p e c i f i c a l l y female strategies for t h i s process? how i s writing sexually d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ? f i n a l l y , what distinguishes modernist s e l f - p o r t r a i t u r e i n f i c t i o n ? did styles and methods of l i t e r a r y self-representation a l t e r with the waves of modernism? forms of autobiography have altered throughout history in accordance with changing concepts of the s e l f it i s the self-conscious l i t e r a r y form, o f f e r i n g insight into the modes of consciousness of other men as well as oneself. despite a certain w i l f u l b l u r r i n g of the d i v i s i o n s between l i t e r a r y forms.in the twentieth century, i t remains true that autobiographies are texts i n which authors make themselves the subjects of t h e i r own works. since the mid-eighteenth century, when david hume looked "into himself and discovered "only perceptions, no discernible separate s e l f , " and "identity, capable of unifying disparate perceptions..."merely a q u a l i t y which we a t t r i b u t e to them," attempts at self-representation in the arts have undergone r a d i c a l s h i f t s . contemporary c r i t i c a l theory o f f e r s one possibly unifying perspective on these s h i f t s i n i t s claim that both the psychological s e l f and the l i t e r a r y subject which embodies i t are human constructions: they are f i c t i v e . in the nineteenth century, nietzsche, echoing hume's conclusion and extending i t in his provocative c r i t i q u e of the s e l f as subject in the w i l l to power, said: "the 'subject' i s not something g i v e n . . . i t i s something added and invented and projected behind what there i s . " nietzsche's b e l i e f that the psychological s e l f i s not a given that exists before we invent or project i t forms the basis for contemporary c r i t i c a l views of autobiographical, and other, writing. the western t r a d i t i o n of the " s e l f , " deconstructionists conclude, i s a constructed t r a d i t i o n . i t i s not self-generating or s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g . it i s constructed from pre-existing and continuously changing sets of ideas and assumptions which saturate the language we must use to "think ourselves into being." these c r i t i c s , nietzsche included, do not wish to undermine the notion of an individuated s e l f ; they simply remind us that "the central fact about s u b j e c t i v i t y i s that i t s previous formulations have the status of a f i c t i o n , " in the history of an i n d i v i d u a l l i f e . the idea that a writer can create a s e l f as he creates a text--out of a l l previous systems of creation, most e s p e c i a l l y language--is brought up to date by paul de man in r e l a t i o n to autobiographical l i t e r a t u r e : we assume that l i f e produces the autobiography as an act produces consequences, but can we not suggest with equal j u s t i c e , that the autobiographical project may i t s e l f produce and determine the l i f e and that whatever the writer does i s in fact governed by the technical demands of s e l f - p o r t r a i t u r e and thus determined, in a l l i t s respects, by the resources of the medium. the writer creates his image or idea of himself, and the imaginary construction of his l i f e based on i t , in and through his text. i do not mean to d i s c r e d i t the factual component in autobiographical writing; to underestimate the power of " l i v e d experience" in a writer's work can i n h i b i t an informed reading of the text. before one i s able to consider those q u a l i t i e s which have been, as nietzsche put i t , "added and invented and projected," one must be well aware of "what there i s " in the foreground to begin with; and i t i s with the l i v e s of the women whose autobiographical f i c t i o n i explore, that i w i l l always begin. a f i c t i o n a l autobiography i s a narrative in which the subject, that i s the author and his l i f e , i s given the status of f i c t i o n , and acts as a s t a r t i n g point for narrative. examples are d.h. lawrence's sons and lovers and james joyce's g p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t as a young man. in such works, the a r t i s t i c representation of "facts," the process of selecting, ordering and transmuting i f not t r a n s l a t i n g them, has necessarily altered them in r a d i c a l , imaginative ways. f i l t e r e d through the writer's memory and an awareness of the autobiographical t r a d i t i o n in l i t e r a t u r e , they have ceased to be only the facts of a l i f e . as northrop frye has put i t , "autobiography transforms empirical facts into a r t i f a c t s : i t i s definable as a form of prose f i c t i o n . " on the other hand, as john sturrock points out, "the untruths i t t e l l s may be as r i c h , or r i c h e r in s i g n i f i c a n c e , than the truths."^^ one way of looking at autobiographical writing, then, sees a " f i c t i v e " s e l f producing an imaginatively constructed l i f e ; l o g i c a l l y such works must draw on the conventions of both autobiography and f i c t i o n . nevertheless, in the modernist period metaphor reigned over metonymy. modernist f i c t i o n , with i t s clear ancestry in symbolist poetry, i s always e s s e n t i a l l y metaphorical writing, however r i c h l y a proust or lawrence w i l l use metonymic d e t a i l . both writers c l e a r l y valued "authenticity" of d e t a i l , but not an authenticity based s o l e l y on resemblance. david lodge has said that "the central assertion of the modern novel [is that] nothing i s simply one thing....an assertion for which metaphor i s the natural means of expression." "'- even the s e l f - p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t cannot be seen simply as "one thing," one s e l f . to describe various kinds of s e l f - p o r t r a i t s by a r t i s t s i n f i c t i o n , i w i l l use james olney's term "metaphors of the s e l f , " to describe what he has c a l l e d " s i g n i f i c a n t complexes c h a r a c t e r i s t i c both of a l i f e and a work." i believe that i t i s possible to i d e n t i f y and evaluate imaginative configurations which l i n k the i . biographical and the textual s e l f . if language represents being in autobiographical f i c t i o n , as i t must, the s e l f expresses and represents i t s e l f further by "the metaphors i t creates and projects, and we know i t by these metaphors ....[the a r t i s t ] in....perceiving formal patterns.... transforms a myriad passing sensations into the single apprehensible and meaningful a r t i f a c t . " the f i n a l pattern to emerge i n the case of autobiographical novels, i s narrative pattern, based on metaphor, rather than chronological and metonymic pattern as i t would appear i n s t r i c t autobiography. the s e l f i s revealed in the pattern of metaphor, and in the objects perceived and seized upon to make up the metaphors. "we become, in our creative act, a l l the objects we behold, and more importantly, the order of these objects." (emphasis added). therefore i t i s t h e i r narrative or textual arrangements with which i s h a l l be concerned, rather than with the changing epistemology of of the subject. this thesis w i l l focus on the idea of a depersonalized o b j e c t i f i e d sense of i d e n t i t y as the key to "metaphors of the s e l f . " i w i l l examine the metaphorical s e l f - p o r t r a i t s in narrative by a number of male and more e s p e c i a l l y female writers i n the period between and . f i c t i o n a l autobiography i have said that a l l autobiographical writing i s , to some degree, f i c t i v e or imaginative. self-representation i s already a form of s e l f - f i c t i o n a l i z a t i o n . but when a writer s i t s down s p e c i f i c a l l y to write f i c t i o n , and at the same time to use his l i f e as the basis for the metaphors he creates, then new strategies for transforming fact into f i c t i o n must be devised. one assumes that t h i s impulse to combine the two originates with a desire to understand one's l i f e as a story, to explore the kinds of explanations provided by the imaginative process of s t o r y - t e l l i n g and to order events in a way that only art allows. this implies an ambiguous reading of the work, one which draws on both genres—the novel and autobiography. philippe lejeune would see i n t e r e s t i n g tensions created in the writer's "contract de lecture" with the reader s p e c i f i c a l l y for the autobiographical novel; between the "pacte autobiographique" on the one hand and the novelist i c pact'on the other. lejeune distinguishes between "pure f i c t i o n s , " that i s autobiographical novels based on a n o v e l i s t i c pact and " f i c t i v e f i c t i o n s " in which there there i s a f i c t i o n a l attempt to introduce another perspective on one's own autobiography by creating a character in a novel." the novel as p o r t r a i t of the male a r t i s t "as we, or mother dana, weave and unweave our bodies," stephen said, "from day to day, t h e i r molecules shuttled to and f r o , so does the a r t i s t weave and unweave his image....in the intense instant of imagination... that which i was i s that which i am and that which in p o s s i b i l i t y i may come to be. so in the future, the s i s t e r of the past, i may see myself as i s i t here now but by the r e f l e c t i o n from that which then i s h a l l be." in the f i r s t twenty-five years of t h i s century, c e r t a i n autobiographical f i c t i o n s by men, narratives generated i n discernible ways by the a r t i s t s ' l i v e s , became v i r t u a l paradigms of modern f i c t i o n . i think here of joyce's p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t as a young man and ulysses, of lawrence's sons and lovers and women in love and proust's ^ a l a recherche de temps perdu. so paradigmatic have they become, that we often overlook the fact that they are personal s t o r i e s . these writers sought to o b j e c t i f y a e s t h e t i c a l l y , through images, f i c t i o n a l c o r r e l a t i v e s and narrative structures, t h e i r r e a l experience of the world and s p e c i f i c a l l y , i n a number of them, t h e i r development as a r t i s t s . their experiments with f i c t i o n a l strategies for the narration of l i v e d experience took place against a background of philosophical unrest. the sense of s e l f i n history and in time was being r a d i c a l l y revised. this was r e f l e c t e d in the writings of t.e. hulme, william james and henri bergson. out of these works emerged a b e l i e f that d i s c o n t i n u i t y w a s t h e o n l y c o n s t a n t i n s c i e n c e , h i s t o r y a n d a r t . t h e s e l f h a d b e c o m e a s h i f t i n g c o n c e p t , q u i t e a l o n g w a y f r o m t h e d o m i n a t i n g n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y i d e a o f s e l f a n d w o r l d a s r e a l i s t i c a l l y p r e s e n t a b l e i n f i c t i o n . r e l a t i v i s m a n d a r t i f i c e b e c o m e t h e n e w r u l e s , a n d t h e s e l f c o u l d b e e x p l o r e d i n r a d i c a l n e w w a y s i n f i c t i o n . i n a n i r o n i c , m u l t i p l e - p e r s p e c t i v e s e l f - p o r t r a i t , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l i s t i s f r e e t o w o r k w i t h q u i t e p e r s o n a l s e t s o f t e x t u a l c o n v e n t i o n s w i t h w h i c h t o o b j e c t i f y a e s t h e t i c a l l y h i s s e n s e o f s e l f , h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d h i s w o r l d , t o c r e a t e a " f i g u r a t i v e " v e r s i o n o f h i m s e l f , t h e " s u m o f n a r r a t o r , p r o t a g o n i s t a n d o t h e r f i c t i o n a l a r t i f a c t s . " i n i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s , t h e n , t h e n a r r a t i v e i s d e - c e n t r e d . t h e f i g u r a t i v e s e l f we s e e i n t h e n a r r a t i v e c a n n o t a l w a y s b e t a k e n a s t h e " t r u e " i d e n t i t y o f t h e a u t h o r . " a v e r b a l a r t i f a c t i s a n d i s n o t c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h i t s a u t h o r ; a s a s y n b o l i t i s b o t h a d y n a m i c e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e s e l f a n d a s h a b b y s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e r i c h n e s s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c i n g l i f e . " t h i s " f i g u r a t i v e " v e r s i o n o f t h e s e l f i s m o d e r n i s m ' s d i s r u p t i v e a n s w e r t o w h a t o n e c r i t i c d e s c r i b e d a s n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e a l i s m ' s " e m p l o y m e n t o f t h e s e l f a s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y " i n t h e t e x t . p a r a d o x i c a l l y , i n a n u m b e r o f m o d e r n i s m ' s k e y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e s w r i t t e n b y m e n , t h e " f i g u r a t i v e " s e l f i s b a s e d o n t w o n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y f o r m s . o n e i s t h e b i l d u n g s r o m a n , t h e s t o r y o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s e d u c a t i o n i n l i f e , a s e x e m p l i f i e d b y f l a u b e r t ' s a n d b a l z a c ' s young men from the provincies t r a v e l l i n g to the centres of culture. the other i s the kunstlerroman, the p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t novel, i n which the true s e l f of the protagonist emerges from the education process as an a r t i s t . the quest for selfhood i s dominant i n both forms. frequently that s e l f i s in c o n f l i c t with society, church or current morality. an opposition between art and l i f e i s implied. lawrence, proust and joyce are primarily concerned, in sons and lovers, a l a recherche du temps perdu and p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t as a' young man, with t e l l i n g us the story of how they became a r t i s t s . in these texts, the psychological s e l f becomes not only the l i t e r a r y subject, but the subject as a r t i s t and creator of such transformations, those yeats would c a l l , " a r t i f i c e r s of the great moments." notions of the s e l f may be s h i f t i n g , and c e r t a i n l y those altered notions are absorbed into these self-consciously aesthetic texts. but, curiously, these writers premise t h e i r self-representations on the fixed concept of the unchanging power and supremacy of the a r t i s t figure to command whatever material his period y i e l d s . certainly, i n sons and lovers, d.h. lawrence i s very concerned with the representativeness of his l i f e . "it's the tragedy of thousands of young men i n england," he wrote to edward garnett. in the novel, he s i m p l i f i e s the facts of h i s own l i f e . he reduces his actual family, invents some situations and leaves out others, including, curiously, many of his most avid i n t e l l e c t u a l concerns in youth. he . writes of his protagonist, paul morel, in the t h i r d person, to single out, with attempted o b j e c t i v i t y , the s i g n i f i c a n t , the representative events of his l i f e in s o c i a l and ideologica terms. but the point of his autobiographical format i s to "uncover his uniqueness." of course that uniqueness i s representative i n a way, too, of a l l emerging a r t i s t s in a l i e n a t i n g s o c i a l climates. paul morel's unique "emotional nexus" i s , as roy pascal notes, his alone, and the novel's f i n a l scene makes clear that we are being shown a "process of s e l f - c r e a t i o n in which the i n d i v i d u a l emerges quite d i s t i n c t from the forces which go into his making." proust's a l a recherche du temps perdu i s also a s e l f - c r e a t i v e work, one which the a r t i s t regards as redemptive i t has subsumed him, t r a n s l a t i n g the t r a n s i t o r y d e t a i l s of his l i f e into an "eternal" work of a r t . proust's whole career was an attempt to f i n d a style and a structure adequate to the treatment of his own growth and development as a writer, from his early piece, jean santeuil ( ) to his death in . alors, moins eclatante san doute que c e l l e qui m'avait f a i t apercevoir que l'oeuvre d'art e t a i t le seul moyen de retrouver le temps perdu, une nouvelle lumiere se f i t en moi. et je compris que tous ces materiaux de l'oeuvre l i t t e r a i r e , c ' e t a i t ma vie passee; je compris q u ' i l s etaient venus a moi, dans les p l a i s i r s f r i v o l e s , dans l a paresse, dans l a tendresse, dans le douleur, emmagasines par moi, sans que je de^inasse plus leur destination, leur survivance meme, que l a graine mettant en reserve tous les aliments qui nourriront l a plante. comme l a graine, je pourrais mourir quand l a plante se s e r a i t developpee, et je me trouvais avoir vecu pour e l l e sans le savoir sans que ma vie me parut devoir entrer jamais en contact avec ces l i v r e s que j'aurais voulu e c r i r e et pour lesquels, quand je me mettais autrefois a ma table, je ne trouvais pas de sujet. a i n s i toute ma vie jusqu'a ce jour aurait pu et n 'aurait pas pu etre resumee sous ce t i t r e : une vocation. marcel i s free to die once his text has been completed. he i s i n a sense, then, born into the text. proust's marcel i s a f i c t i o n a l version of himself. joyce, i n stephen hero, began with quite a detailed and l i t e r a l p o r t r a i t of : himself in an almost nineteenth century r e a l i s t i c s t y l e . in subsequent drafts he became, l i k e proust, more and more concerned with f i c t i o n a l i z i n g these d e t a i l s into consciously aesthetic designs. this process of moving away from the l i t e r a l p a r a l l e l s on a thematic l e v e l , stephen's own breaking away from the past in order to free himself to be an a r t i s t . the ultimate emergence of his e s s e n t i a l s e l f as an a r t i s t depends on the very creative process that w i l l "forge" i t . this "forging" involves the creation of a new and f i c t i o n a l i z e d s e l f as an a r t i s t . joyce c l e a r l y believed that by writing about his growth as an a r t i s t , he would become one. in order to focus on the idea that the freer stephen i s of his past, the freer he i s to express himself as an a r t i s t , joyce structures stephen's l i b e r a t i o n around his s h i f t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p with language. he flees the language of moribund anglo-irish culture and the dogma of the romanc catholic church ^ the language of authority, in favour of the rhetoric of a r t , where words are free to take on new meanings which only he as an a r t i s t can impose: i w i l l not serve that in which i no longer believe whether i t c a l l i t s e l f my home, my fatherland or my church: and i w i l l try to express myself i n some mode of l i f e or art as f r e e l y as i can and as wholly as i can, using for my defence and the only arms i allow myself to use — s i l e n c e , e x i l e and cunning. just as marcel i s ready to die as his text i s about to be born, p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t concludes as stephen dedalus ' career i s about to begin. in depicting stephen, joyce draws not only his own character and experience, s e l e c t i v e l y and economically arranged, but also on other a r t i s t heroes both in l i f e and a r t . in doing so he constructs an archetypal image of the a r t i s t figure -- the symbolic daedalus — and in the process " c a r e f u l l y removed any t r a i t s of his own character which c o n f l i c t e d with the stereotype." this i n t e r - t e x t u a l i t y reminds us that these three male writers, in t h e i r self-representations as a r t i s t s , continue to base t h e i r p o r t r a i t s on e s s e n t i a l l y romantic notions of the a r t i s t , as either the soaring metaphysical creator, transcending l i f e i n a r t , or the s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i n g a r t i s t who "extinguishes" himself into his text. either way, the t r a d i t i o n a l rhetoric of the a r t i s t and his vocation i s preserved. a writer who did a l l that he could to disrupt that t r a d i t i o n a l , rhetoric in his f i c t i o n a l s e l f - p o r t r a i t u r e was andre gide. in t h i s respect, i suggest, gide acts as a l i n k i n g figure between the modern and the post-modern in autobiographical f i c t i o n . the three women writers at the heart of t h i s t h e s i s , rhys, stein and barnes are also l i n k i n g figures and t r a n s i t i o n a l writers in a similar sense. gide was the most self-conscious of writers, acutely aware of writing against the r e a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n . in his n o v e l i s t i c writings he was always care f u l to make the reader aware that he was presenting the f i c t i o n a l world not as r e a l i t y but as an authorial construct, a f i c t i o n of the s e l f . he was acutely aware of the problems of autobiography and the novel. gide was writing his "confessions" (si le grain ne meurt...) at the same time that he was embroiled in the theory and practice of the novel. the f u l l text of t h i s " o f f i c i a l " autobiography was published in , the same year as his f i c t i o n a l s e l f - p o r t r a i t , les faux monnayeurs, but the autobiography had been finished e a r l i e r . gide had written that he required of autobiographical writing that i t must "presente comme successifs des etats de simultaneite . . confuse." here he i s r e f f e r i n g to the kind of c e n t r i f u g a l i t y and m u l t i p l i c i t y of the s e l f which he discerned and imitated in montaigne, baudelaire and dostoevsky. gide chose the novel as the genre best suited to "succession." autobiography he saw as l i m i t e d , as a prisoner of the " r e a l " where truthfulness i s equated with veracity and i t s correspondence to "what r e a l l y happened." it i s a d i f f e r e n t kind of truthfulness he has in mind when he describes in h i s journal the novelist's prime purpose as being to express his s e l f , therefore making him "le seul garant de l a v e r i t e q u i l revele, le seul juge.""^ we are reminded again in the male autobiographical f i c t i o n t r a d i t i o n of the a r t i s t seeing himself as a god-like creator, yeats' " a r t i f i c e r of the great moments," even when he i s showing us h i s methodology as gide does. any such n o v e l i s t i c p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t can only be complete for gide i f succession and simultaneity are i t s s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s . the "authentic" and "subjective" novelist gide wishes to be, wrestling with the problem of s e l f - c r e a t i o n through language, uses every one of his characters to represent some gidean impulse, and never more completely than i n les faux monnayeurs. the character of edouard i s the most s t r i k i n g r e f l e x i v e device of t h i s novel. he i s a gide-like figure engaged, and sometimes non-engaged in writing a novel c a l l e d les faux monnayeurs. edouard i s more than gide's representative, however. he i s the genuine incarnation of the a r t i s t i c consciousness. even his inadequacies and shortcomings as a writer are part of gide's d e f i n i t i o n of the a r t i s t which i s one of the bookls central concerns. neither edouard the writer, nor gide the writer, portrays himself i n his novel; each creates himself as he creates his work. identity i s protean, a matter of "successions." s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n for gide must be dynamic. but there i s a vast range of other characters and other stories than edouard's, though many of them overlap, to make up one large, v i t a l i s t i c p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t in f i c t i o n . gide believed that the s e l f was too " r i c h " to express i t s e l f t o t a l l y as one person; i t must grow into a f i c t i o n a l world. therefore gide, the author, appears not only as edouard, but also as boris, the l i t t l e boy who i s b u l l i e d into suicide. at a s t r u c t u r a l l e v e l , the author i s recognizable both as the occasionally omniscient narrator, and as the s t o r y - t e l l i n g "je" whose voice can deceptively blur into a character's voice and disappear for a moment or a chapter. behind a l l of these manifestations of the author, the f i r s t person narration serves to remind us that the story i t s e l f i s very much the product of a s t o r y - t e l l i n g . .. consciousness. but gide also believed that " l a creation de nouveaux personnages ne devient un besoin naturel que chez ceux qu'une imperieuse complexite interieure tourmente et que leur propre s " geste n'epuise pas." gide infuses himself into the host of characters in les faux monnayeurs, male and female, homosexual and heterosexual, c h i l d and adult, the object of desire and the one who desires. they are enclosed by his consciousness while appearing, i n a pastiche of nineteenth century realism, to l i v e . this technique of having his characters impersonate his myriad q u a l i t i e s , thoughts and ideas, culminates i n a point of complete depersonalization in the novel. in projecting himself so thoroughly into his characters, catharsis and s e l f - c r e a t i o n are possible for gide, whose aesthetic i s e s s e n t i a l l y negative otherwise. he compares t h i s goal of his to the accomplishment of dostoevsky, "tout e p a r p i l l e dan ses heros, sans, serassembler pourtant jamais dans un seul." in t h i s , gide made sophisticated advances on the more t r a d i t i o n a l " p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t " of early- modernism as created by joyce, lawrence and proust. nevertheless, the lineage of the male romantic god-like a r t i s t figure in f u l l control of his f i c t i o n a l world and f i c t i o n a l s e l f , i s d i s c e r n i b l e i n gide's 's n o v e l i s t i c s e l f - p o r t r a i t u r e , however much the author enjoys p l a y f u l i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y with his heritage.. this, i would argue, i s a male t r a d i t i o n . women writers from the same period have, on the whole, stories other than "how i became an a r t i s t " to t e l l us. the a r t i s t as woman before going on to discuss these s t o r i e s , i t i s necessary to consider ways in which gender informs a writer's work. early in the history of feminist l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , female c r i t i c s made strong e f f o r t s to prove that there were no d i s c e r n i b l e differences between male and female writing, and based t h e i r claim for sexual equality on t h i s premise. this c r i t i c i s m focused largely on male writing, on pinpointing female stereotypes and general inadequacies in the a r t i s t i c representation of women by men. a subsequent s h i f t i n focus has seen a new concentration on texts written by women themselves. the q u a l i t y of female experience i t s e l f , rather than male views of i t , now comes under scrutiny. c r i t i c s now discuss the d i s t i n c t i v e features of a female text and the lineage of women writers; they consider the i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y of women's writing within a semi-autonomous t r a d i t i o n . this allows for discussion of the differences between women writers as well as of t h e i r common q u a l i t i e s , as they are d i f f e r e n t from male writers. if the t r a d i t i o n of male writing i s the dominant t r a d i t i o n i n english l i t e r a t u r e , then a study of women's writing must see i t as a reactive t r a d i t i o n , one which operates at almost every l e v e l within the context of male l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , language and conventions. therefore i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g and important to see the kinds of deliberate appropriations, revisions and subversions of male texts undertaken by women writers. as cora kaplan puts., i t , "the analysis of female talent grappling with a male t r a d i t i o n translates sexual difference into l i t e r a r y differences of genre, structure, voice and p l o t . " we analyse the ways in which women writers revise and subvert p r e v a i l i n g themes and styles with a range of approaches: psychoanalytic, deconstructive, h i s t o r i c a l , formalist, generic and b i o l o g i c a l . different n a t i o n a l i t i e s of female c r i t i c s have handled the nature of sexual difference i n writing within these categories in d i f f e r e n t ways. french feminist c r i t i c i s m has based i t s e l f on.the b i o l o g i c a l notion of "ecriture feminine," the i n s c r i p t i o n of the female body and womanhood in the language of the text. english feminists have, on the whole, been more t r a d i t i o n a l in t h e i r c r i t i c a l approach, choosing to concentrate s p e c i f i c a l l y on textual i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y using marxist and psychoanalytic approaches. american feminist c r i t i c s have also focussed on textual analysis but with the emphasis on language and expression. in each of these c r i t i c a l approaches the emphasis i s on the woman writer and the female text. elaine showalter has c a l l e d t h i s "gynocriticism" as opposed to the e a r l i e r "feminist c r i t i q u e " of male art which represented- women. within d i f f e r i n g national approaches, c r i t i c s have considered four models of difference, as to exactly what makes the woman writer and her text d i f f e r e n t from her male counterparts. f i r s t , the b i o l o g i c a l difference i s seen by some to inform a woman's text. talk of p h a l l i c and ovarian theories of a r t i s t i c production, metaphors of l i t e r a r y paternity and maternity, the body functions as sources of imagery at a primal l e v e l , may a l l be considered crude and p r e s c r i p t i v e , but become more viable when mediated, as they must be by l i n g u i s t i c , s o c i a l and l i t e r a r y structures. the second model, then, concerns these l i n g u i s t i c and textual theories of women's writing, which ask the basic question of whether men and women use language d i f f e r e n t l y . does gender i n fact determine styles of speaking, reading and writing? we have already noted that the l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n i n english i s predominantly masculine in discourse. when women speak or write, they are doing so in reaction to masculine norms and t h e i r implied'ideologies. women write as outsiders. the english c r i t i c mary jacobus has suggested that women's writing which works within the "male" discourse, necessarily works "ceasely to deconstruct i t : to write what cannot be written." "the problem," she goes on, "has not been that language has been i n s u f f i c i e n t to express women's consciousness, but that p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r a l norms have forced women into a position where they must use s t y l i s t i c camouflage, euphemism, obliqueness and circumlocution." a t h i r d model of sexual difference, the psychoanalytic, locates difference i n the author's psyche in r e l a t i n g gender to the creative process. a theory of the female psyche sees the s e l f as shaped by the body, and by the development of language as well as by s o c i a l and sexual t r a i n i n g . a major stumbling block i s the freudian model which needs constant updating to make i t comprehensible in g y n o c r i t i c a l terms. with i t s central concerns of penis envy, the castration complex and the oedipal phase, women's relationship to language, fantasy and culture seem to be explained away. jacques lacan has extended castration to a t o t a l metaphor for female l i t e r a r y and l i n g u i s t i c disadvantage. lacan theorizes that the a c q u i s i t i o n of language and the entry into i t s symbolic order occur at the oedipal phase, in which the c h i l d accepts his/her gender i d e n t i t y . this stage requires an acceptance of the phallus as a p r i v i l e g e d s i g n i f i c a t i o n and consequent female displacement, p a r t i c u l a r l y in l i n g u i s t i c terms as cora kaplan explains: the phallus as a s i g n i f i e r has a central c r u c i a l p o s i t i o n in language, for i f language embodies the p a t r i a r c h a l law of culture, i t s basic meanings refer to the recurring process by which sexual difference and s u b j e c t i v i t y are acquired . . . . t h u s t h e l i t t l e . g i r l s ' a c c e s s t o t h e s y m b o l i c , t h a t i s , t o l a n g u a g e and i t s l a w , i s a l w a y s n e g a t i v e and o r m e d i a t e d by i n t r o d u c i n g a s u b j e c t i v e r e l a t i o n t o a t h i r d t e r m , f o r i t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h l a c k . the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c m o d e l d e f i n e s t h e woman a r t i s t b a s i c a l l y a s d i s p l a c e d , d i s i n h e r i t e d and e x c l u d e d . t h e r e f o r e t h e " d i f f e r e n c e " i n women's w r i t i n g i s n e g a t i v e i n i t s t r o u b l e d r e l a t i o n s h i p t o f e m a l e i d e n t i t y . the woman w r i t e r e x p e r i e n c e s h e r own g e n d e r a s p a i n f u l and a s a d e b i l i t a t i n g o b s t a c l e o r i n a d e q u a c y . r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n f e m i n i s t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w h i c h do n o t f o c u s on r e v i s i n g f r e u d have b e e n somewhat more e n c o u r a g i n g . nancy c h o d o r o w ' s the r e p r o d u c t i o n o f m o t h e r i n g : p s y c h o a n a l y s i s and t h e s o c i o l o g y o f gender ( ) e m p h a s i z e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f g e n d e r i d e n t i t i e s and f o c u s e s p o s i t i v e l y on t h e p r e - o e d i p a l p r o c e s s o f p s y c h o - s e x u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . f i n a l l y , a c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s o f s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e d i s c e r n s a f e m a l e c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l c u l t u r e , a k i n d o f c u l t u r a l c o l o n y . a t t e m p t s t o l o c a t e p r e c i s e l y t h e c u l t u r a l l o c u s o f f e m a l e l i t e r a r y i d e n t i t y must d e s c r i b e t h e f o r c e s t h a t i n t e r s e c t w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l w r i t e r ' s c u l t u r a l f i e l d . s u c h an a p p r o a c h r a i s e s i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f p e r i d d i z a t i o n so p r e v a l e n t i n l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s . i f l i t e r a r y p e r i o d i z a t i o n - - t h e s t u d y o f s u p p o s e d l y s e l f - c o n t a i n e d e r a s - - t h e r e n a i s s a n c e , t h e modern p e r i o d , t h e p o s t - m o d e r n , a r e b a s e d on m e n ' s w r i t i n g , t h e n women's w r i t i n g must h a v e b e e n subsumed o r f o r c i b l y a s s i m i l a t e d . was t h e r e n a i s s a n c e a r e n a i s s a n c e f o r women? were male a n d f e m a l e w r i t e r s i n t h e m o d e r n i s t p e r i o d , m o d e r n i s t s i n t h e s a m e s e n s e ? a s a c r i t i c w h o i s i n t e r e s t e d i n e x p l o r i n g a t r a d i t i o n o f women w r i t e r s a n d a f e m a l e c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u u m w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l c u l t u r e , e l a i n e s h o w a l t e r i n a l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e i r own a r g u e s f o r a f e m a l e s u b - c u l t u r e , e m e r g i n g i n l i t e r a t u r e a s a n " i m a g i n a t i v e c o n t i n u u m , t h e r e c u r r e n c e o f c e r t a i n p a t t e r n s , t h e m e s , p r o b l e m s a n d i m a g e s f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . . . . a l i t e r a r y s u b c u l t u r e . . . . u n i f i e d b y v a l u e s , c o n v e n t i o n s , e x p e r i e n c e s a n d b e h a v i o u r s i m p i n g i n g o n e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . " t h i s i s a c o h e r e n t a p p r o a c h t o w o m e n ' s w r i t i n g , a n d o n e w h i c h a s s i m i l a t e s m a n y o f t h e p o i n t s r a i s e d b y o t h e r n a r r o w e r c r i t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s . i t a v o i d s s l i p p e r y a n d n e b u l o u s n o t i o n s l i k e " f e m a l e s e n s i b i l i t y " a n d " f e m a l e i m a g i n a t i o n " w h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t f u n d a m e n t a l l y , w o m e n ' s l i f e e x p e r i e n c e i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f m e n , a n d i t m u s t i n f l u e n c e t h e i r w r i t i n g a n d a p p e a r i n t h e i r t e x t s i n d i s c e r n i b l e w a y s . s h o w a l t e r c o n c l u d e s t h a t " a s p e c i a l f e m a l e s e l f - a w a r e n e s s e m e r g e s t h r o u g h l i t e r a t u r e i n e v e r y p e r i o d . w h i l e i t i s e f f e c t i v e i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , s h o w a l t e r ' s s c h e m a d o e s , h o w e v e r , p r o v i d e t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n o f w o m e n ' s l i t e r a t u r e i s a s e a m l e s s w h o l e . i t d o e s n o t a l l o w f o r t h e k i n d o f c u l t u r a l p l u r a l i s m o f o u t l o o k we r e c o g n i z e t o d a y a s r e l e v a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n w o m e n w r i t e r s ; d i f f e r e n c e s o f r a c e , c l a s s , w e a l t h , g e o g r a p h y a n d s e x u a l p r e f e r e n c e w i l l m a t t e r e v e r y b i t a s much to the a r t i s t as gender. showalter's focus i s on the "ways in which the self-awareness of the woman writer has translated i t s e l f into a l i t e r a r y form in a s p e c i f i c place and time span." i propose i n t h i s thesis to extend t h i s idea considerably to consider women writers who may occupy positions and record experience of even more problematical subcultures than that of "woman writer;" i think here of the e x i l e , the demi-mondaine or the lesbian. female autobiography the i history of female autobiography indicates that women have most often approached the issue of s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n evasively, i f not obliquely. only in s p i r i t u a l confessions have-they been prepared to take centre stage l i k e t h e i r male counterparts. this has been the case up to and including some s u r p r i s i n g l y recent autobiographies by l i l l i a n hellman, golda meir and emma goldman for example. as documented by p a t r i c i a meyer spacks i n her a r t i c l e "women's stories: women's selves," the overwhelming tendency has been for women to define, themselves i n terms of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with others; and to use those r e l a t i o n s as methods of, and metaphors f o r , s e l f - r e v e l a t i o n . spacks comments on the remarkably "hidden," ego-less q u a l i t y of autobiographies by even quite prepossessing women l i k e goldman and meir who make much more accurate records of "the times" than "the l i f e . " this, seems to be one recurring difference between male and female autobiographies. there are c e r t a i n formal differences in women's autobiography as well, as documented by e s t e l l e jelinek. she sees women using discontinuous forms—often fragmentary but self-contained units of discourse, and t h e i r approach as fundamentally personal rather than professional and h i s t o r i c a l . even with successful women's accounts of t h e i r l i v e s , t h i s leads to an emphasis away from t h e i r work to focus on family and personal r e l a t i o n s . this contrasts with the prototypical male autobiography as outlined by mary mason. it usually involves "a dramatic presentation of unfolding s e l f discovery where characters and events are l i t t l e more than aspects of the author's evolving consciousness." in other words, men and women distance themselves from t h e i r material i n very d i f f e r e n t ways. in male texts, the s e l f i s prominent. the woman writer, on the other hand, reveals herself obliquely, through r e l a t i o n or i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with some other. self-consciousness i n women's autobiographical writing emerges, then, only in t h i s kind of context, which involves s i f t i n g and sorting through l i v e d experience for explanation and understanding rather than in any desire to impose dramatic ordering structures upon i t . in a more p o s i t i v e l i g h t , t h i s kind of speculation connects with updated psychological concepts of the female i d e n t i t y as processive and thus a very d i f f e r e n t personality structure from the. male. nancy chodorow's psychoanalytic theory sees t h i s female i d e n t i t y "process" as leading the female a r t i s t to defy much more r e a d i l y , for example, conventional generic boundaries and t r a d i t i o n a l characterization. a second theory relevant here to the nature of women's self-representation sees female i d e n t i t y which presents "the hero [as] her author's daughter," a b a s i c a l l y maternal metaphor of female authorship, which c l a r i f i e s the woman writer's d i s t i n c t i v e engagement with her characters and which indicates an analagous r e l a t i o n s h i p between narrator, author and reader, and the representation of memory. chodorow sees that throughout women's l i v e s , the s e l f i s defined, as jelinek observed, through s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; issues of fusion and the merger of the s e l f with others are s i g n i f i c a n t . the female personality i s then r a t i o n a l , f l u i d l y defined and c y c l i c a l as well as progressive rather than simply passive or evasive when compared with male autobiographical models. twentieth century women writers have often communicated a consciousness of t h e i r i d e n t i t y through paradoxes of sameness and d i f f e r e n c e — f r o m other women, e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r mothers, and here i think p a r t i c u l a r l y of the french writer, colette; from men; and from s o c i a l injunctions for what women should be, including those inscribed in the l i t e r a r y canon. this a l t e r n a t i v e formulation of female i d e n t i t y as processive stresses f l u i d and f l e x i b l e aspects of women's primary i d e n t i t i e s . one r e f l e c t i o n of t h i s f l u i d i t y i s that women's writing does not conform to the generic prescriptions of the male canon. as e s t e l l e jelinek t y p i f i e s , recent scholars have concluded that autobiographies by women tend to be less l i n e a r , u n i f i e d and chronological than men's autobiographies. women's novels are often c a l l e d autobiographical and t h e i r autobiographies, n o v e l i s t i c . mary mccarthy's memories of a catholic girlhood and maxine hong kingston's the woman warrior: memoirs of a girlhood among ghosts are examples of t h i s generic crossover w r i t i n g . ^ because of the continual crossing of s e l f and other, women's writing may blur the public and private and defy completion. thus we have writers l i k e dorothy richardson, colette and anals nin whose l i v e s , l e t t e r s , journals and f i c t i o n become almost co-terminous. female autobiographical f i c t i o n does i t follow, then, that female autobiographical f i c t i o n w i l l r e f l e c t these differences i n characterization, distance from material and angle of observation? f i c t i o n a l autobiography involves a p a r t i c u l a r kind of s e l f - c r e a t i o n , we have said, one in which the writer may in a sense, "invent" himself i n the f i c t i o n a l i z i n g process. the a r t i s t fashions an image for himself i n his art work. as one of djuna barnes' characters puts i t : "one's l i f e i s never so much one's own as when one invents i t . " " * " one aspect of the dilemma women face, when they come to write f i c t i o n a l versions of some aspects of t h e i r l i v e s , i s that p a t r i a r c h a l society has t r a d i t i o n a l l y regarded women as already e x i s t i n g works of art themselves. john berger, the art c r i t i c , r e f l e c t e d on t h i s phenomenon in more general representational terms i n ways of seeing: men act and women appear. men look at women. women watch themselves being looked at. this determines not only most r e l a t i o n s between men and women but also the r e l a t i o n of women to themselves. the surveyor of woman in herself i s male; the surveyed female. thus : she turns herself into an object--and most p a r t i c u l a r l y an object of v i s i o n ; a sight.... her own sense of being in herself i s supplanted by being appreciated as herself by another. in george e l i o t ' s middlemarch, w i l l ladislaw comforts dorothea brooke when she despairs over her a b i l i t y to- become a poet: "you are a poem." in e l i o t ' s works as a whole, as g i l b e r t and gubar r i g h t l y observe, a number of women characters deform t h e i r c r e a t i v i t y "in t h e i r e f f o r t s to reconstruct t h e i r own images;" dorothea brooke c e r t a i n l y among them. in the process, they become less autonomous individuals than "character(s) i n search of an author of v, * » a page in search of a pen." as w i l l ladislaw's metaphor indicates, female sexuality i s often i d e n t i f i e d with t e x t u a l i t y . there i s a discernible element of fear of the female body's power to a r t i c u l a t e i t s e l f . it i s far less f e a r f u l to think of the author/ creator as male and of the art object/creation as female. the c r i t i c susan gubar takes as a text which emblematizes the female sense of s e l f as text and a r t i f a c t , isak dinesen's short story, "the blank page."^ b r i e f l y the story t e l l s of an order of carmelite nuns in a remote community of portugal who grow f l a x to make fine l i n e n . the linen i s used by royal households for b r i d a l bed-sheets when princesses marry. after each wedding night the sheet i s displayed to a t t e s t t h e b r i d e ' s v i r g i n i t y . t h e n t h e n u n s r e c l a i m i t , r e m o v e t h e c e n t r a l s t a i n e d a r e a o f t h e s h e e t , w h i c h t h e y t h e n f r a m e a n d h a n g i n a l o n g g a l l e r y , a l o n g w i t h name p l a t e s i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p r i n c e s s . y o u n g w o m e n m a k e p i l g r i m a g e s t o t h e c o n v e n t t o s e e t h e s e " f a d e d m a r k i n g s , " f o r " e a c h s e p a r a t e c a n v a s w i t h i t s c o r o n e t e d name p l a t e h a s a s t o r y t o t e l l , a n d e a c h h a s b e e n s e t u p i n l o y a l t y t o t h e s t o r y , " t h e m o s t f a s c i n a t i n g c a n v a s o f a l l h o w e v e r , i s t h e p u r e ' w h i t e , b l a n k s h e e t a f t e r w h i c h d i n e s e n n a m e s h e r s t o r y . t h e a r t o b j e c t s . i n " t h e b l a n k p a g e " h a v e l i t e r a l l y b e e n c r e a t e d b y t h e b o d i e s o f t h e r o y a l w o m e n , o u t o f t h e i r p r i v a t e l i v e s a n d t h e i r o t h e r w i s e m u t e e x i s t e n c e s . t h e " d e c o r a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e " w h i c h c o m p e l s s o m a n y women t o t u r n t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t s , h a s h e r e o b l i t e r a t e d a n y d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n l i f e a n d a r t . t h i s p o i n t s a g a i n t o t h e w o r k o f w r i t e r s l i k e c o l e t t e a n d a n a ' i s n i n w h o s e f o r m s o f e x p r e s s i o n a r e a l w a y s h i g h l y p e r s o n a l — t h e d i a r y , t h e l e t t e r , a n d a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l f i c t i o n — a n d w h o c l e a r l y r e g a r d e d t h e i r l i v e s a s a r t f o r m s a n d t h e i r a r t a s l i f e f o r m s . w h e n women d o c o m e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s i n f i c t i o n a l f o r m s , t h e y h a v e r a r e l y d o n e s o i n t h e f o r m o f a k i i n s t l e r r o m a n o r a r t i s t n o v e l . t h e r e a r e v e r y f e w f e m a l e e q u i v a l e n t s i n m o d e r n i s m o f p o r t r a i t o f t h e a r t i s t a s a y o u n g m a n , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a l i s t i c a u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s h e n r y h a n d e l r i c h a r d s o n a n d m i l e s f r a n k l i n , t h e a m e r i c a n w i l l a c a t h e r a n d t h e f r e n c h w r i t e r , c o l e t t e , h a v e a l l w r i t t e n n o v e l s w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e t h i s i d e a . i t h a s m o r e o f t e n b e e n t h e c a s e , a s s h a r o n s p e n c e r p o i n t s o u t , t h a t women " h a v e t u r n e d a w a y f r o m t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n f i c t i o n o f women l i k e t h e m s e l v e s , women w h o s e d e s i r e f o r s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n i s s o s t r o n g a n d s o c o n s i s t e n t t h a t t h e y d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s a s a r t i s t s . " i h a v e a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o d i r e c t a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l f o r m s , t h e p o s s i b l i t y t h a t w o m e n ' s a t t i t u d e s t o s e l f - d r a m a t i z a t i o n a n d s e l f - r e v e l a t i o n may b e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t t o t h o s e o f m a l e w r i t e r s . we h a v e s e e n , t o o , t h a t t h e woman w r i t e r may a l r e a d y s e e h e r s e l f a s a n a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t i n a m a l e t e x t , s o u n d e r m i n i n g h e r a u t h o r i t y t o c r e a t e h e r o w n . s o c i a l s t e r e o t y p e s w o u l d h a v e h e r a s s e l f - l e s s r a t h e r t h a n a s s e l f - e x p r e s s i v e . i d o n o t w i s h t o f a l l i n t o t h e t r a p , h o w e v e r , o f c r e a t i n g a n y f a l s e d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n m a l e a n d f e m a l e w r i t e r s . i am m o r e c o n c e r n e d t o e x p l o r e a r a n g e o f l i t e r a r y s t r a t e g i e s f o r s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n f i c t i o n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d b y b o t h men a n d women i n e n g l a n d a n d o n t h e c o n t i n e n t . my f o c u s w i l l b e n e v e r t h e l e s s o n t h r e e w o m e n : j e a n r h y s , g e r t r u d e s t e i n a n d d j u n a b a r n e s , f o r t w o r e a s o n s . p r i m a r i l y , i b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t i n g w o r k d o n e i n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l f i c t i o n b y t h e s e t h r e e i n t h e ' s a n d . ' s h a s y e t t o b e p r o p e r l y e v a l u a t e d . b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e w o m e n , a n d b e c a u s e m o d e r n i s m w a s d o m i n a t e d b y m a l e l u m i n a r i e s , t h e i r w o r k s e e m s t o h a v e e l u d e d t h e c r i t i c a l s c r u t i n y d e v o t e d t o w o r k s e s t a b l i s h e d a s t h e m o d e r n i s t c a n o n , h o w e v e r u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , b y t h e l i k e s o f e d m u n d w i l s o n i n h i s p i o n e e r i n g s t u d y , a x e l ' s c a s t l e . b u t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r r e a s o n , a s i d e f r o m t h e i r b e i n g w o m e n , f o r t h e i r o m i s s i o n from the canon, and t h i s i s my second reason for taking them up. as i plan to show, rhys, stein and barnes were writing autobiographical f i c t i o n s that were quite d i f f e r e n t from those being written by either men or women i n modernism's f i r s t phase. the reasons for t h i s i have already alluded to: that each of them was writing from within a sub-culture at an even greater remove from mainstream, masculine, establishment modernism than that of the "woman writer." rhys l i v e d the h a l f - l i f e of the impoverished fringe a r t i s t , gertrude stein wrote from a p o s i t i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l and imaginative androgyny and barnes as a lesbian. a l l three l i v e d , during t h e i r most productive years, as writers and expatriates distanced from t h e i r native cultures and points of o r i g i n . from time to time each of them f e l t more an e x i l e than an expatriate. these factors w i l l have influenced what they wrote every b i t as much as t h e i r womanhood. the female a e s t h e t i c i s t s to assess properly the work of rhys, stein and barnes, and the d i f f e r e n t kinds of f i c t i o n a l s e l f - p o r t r a i t s they were to o f f e r , l e t us f i r s t consider the woman who are usually discussed by c r i t i c s as "female modernists." one strand of female modernism—and many take i t to be the only one because of the significance of the writers i h v o l v e d — e l a i n e showalter has r i g h t l y grouped under the t i t l e — f e m a l e a e s t h e t i c i s t s : they key figures here are dorothy richardson, katherine mansfield and v i r g i n i a woolf. what i s the status of the female s e l f as a r t i s t , or simply as person i n t h e i r works? their f i c t i o n , showalter argues "created a deliberate .female aesthetic, which transformed the feminine code of s e l f - s a c r i f i c e into an a n n i h i l a t i o n of the narrative s e l f . . . . t h e i r version of modernism was a determined response to the material culture of male edwardian novelists l i k e arnold bennett and h.g. wells, but, l i k e d.h. lawrence, the female a e s t h e t i c i s t s saw the world as mystically and t o t a l l y polarized by sex. for them, female s e n s i b i l i t y took on a sacred q u a l i t y , and i t s exercise became a holy, exhausting and ultimately self-destructive r i t e . " (emphasis added) in t h e i r works women are rendered as inevitable victims because of t h e i r agonizing perceptiveness and s e l f doubt. this aesthetic v i s i o n i s at once impersonal and renunciatory: either way, self-denying. dorothy richardson, i t i s true, attempted a version of the " p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t " novel i n her thirteen-volume sequence, pilgrimage, whose f i r s t volume, pointed roofs, appeared in . despite the c l a r i t y of her intention, to write a f i c t i o n a l study of the female a r t i s t ' s consciousness, i believe that she i s undermined by unclear and self-defeating ideas: f i r s t that women l i v e on a d i f f e r e n t plane of r e a l i t y from men; and secondly, that "shapelessness" i s woman's natural form of expression; "pattern," that i s , any adequate sense of narrative of other design i s suffocatingly masculine. consequently the s e l f as represented in her work i s frequently paralyzed by "feminine impressionism," and constantly r i s k s "ego death from the state of pure s e n s i b i l i t y . " this makes her s e l f p o r t r a i t as oblique and as "hidden" as any of the d i r e c t l y autobiographical women's writings discussed e a r l i e r . we f i n d t h i s to be the case as well in works by the other two "female a e s t h e t i c i s t s " as designated by showalter. katherine mansfield, who at one stage pledged herself to recreating i n f i c t i o n the d i s t i l l e d essence of her new zealand childhood, displays in her short s t o r i e s a s i m i l a r f a i l u r e of nerve when i t comes to representing her adult a r t i s t s e l f in f i c t i o n . she sees women as either myth- makers, dealing in essence and yearning for unity of s e l f through a kind of d i s s o l v i n g into nature, or as crippled observers of l i f e ' s incidental b r u t a l i t i e s ; frequently both. when one of the female characters approaches any new, transforming knowledge of herself, however, or any state approaching transcendence, she i s cut down. beneath the dreamy aesthetic surface of domestic transfigurations which p r i n c i p a l l y occupy these characters, there i s a c e r t a i n sense of b i t t e r i n e v i t a b i l i t y and the same tendency as richardson's text showed for the authorial s e l f to disappear into the work. v i r g i n i a woolf i s perhaps the quintessential case of the woman a r t i s t writing herself out of existence i n her work. this formula i s an echo of joyce's at the end of p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t as a young man, where he talks about the a r t i s t " r e f i n i n g " himself out of existence i n his text; in joyce's case, however, t h i s i s b l a t a n t l y untrue. l i l y b r i s c o e i n t o t h e l i g h t h o u s e , i s , i t i s t r u e , a f u n c t i o n i n g a r t i s t . s h e d o e s n o t , we a r e l e d t o b e l i e v e p a i n t v e r y w e l l , h o w e v e r , a n d s h e y e a r n s n o t s i m p l y t o c a p t u r e m r s . r a m s a y o n c a n v a s , b u t t o be_ m r s . r a m s a y w h o , l i k e m r s . d a l l o w a y b e f o r e h e r , u s e s a l l h e r c r e a t i v e p o w e r s t o t r a n s f o r m d o m e s t i c i t y i n t o a r t — m e a l s , g e s t u r e s a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s o f f l o w e r s a n d p e o p l e . w h a t o f t h e " s e l f " i n t h e s e w o r k s ? c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n w o o l f ' s n o v e l s o p e r a t e s a t a l e v e l o f " m u l t i - p e r s o n a l s u b j e c t i v i t y " a s t h e c r i t i c j a m e s n a r e m o r e p u t s i t . t h e t e x t e m b o d i e s n o t o n e p e r s o n ' s e m o t i o n a l l i f e , b u t a t o t a l i t y o f t h e f e e l i n g s o f d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r s . i t i s a c o m p o s i t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i n w h i c h t h e c h a r a c t e r s y e a r n f o r t h e d i s s o l v i n g , i f n o t e x t i n c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y ; t o b e — a s o n e o f t o t h e l i g h t h o u s e ' s m o s t f a m o u s i m a g e s h a s i t — " s h r u n k , w i t h a s e n s e o f s o l e m n i t y , t o b e i n g o n e s e l f , a w e d g e - s h a p e d c o r e o f d a r k n e s s , s o m e t h i n g i n v i s i b l e t o o t h e r s . . . . t h e s e l f w i s h e s p a s s i o n a t e l y t o d i s s o l v e i n t o t h e " a n d r o g y n o u s m i n d , " t h e c o m m u n i t y o f f e e l i n g s , n a t u r e , o r a n y o n e o f n u m b e r s o f w a t e r i m a g e s w o o l f s u m m o n s t o e m b o d y t h i s s t a t e . a t i t s m o s t e x t r e m e , i n t h e w a v e s , t h e o n l y c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e v o i c e ( t h e s i x c h a r a c t e r s a r e a l m o s t i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e e m a n a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a t e d s e l v e s ) a c t u a l l y b e l o n g s t o t h e w a v e s . j a m e s n a r e m o r e h a s c a l l e d t h e w o r l d o f v i r g i n i a w o o l f ' s f i c t i o n " a w o r l d w i t h o u t a s e l f . " i t i s n o t e n t i r e l y t r u e t o s a y t h a t s h e i s n o t d i s c e r n i b l e i n h e r t e x t s ; b u t h e r p r e s e n c e i s h a u n t i n g , rather than c o n t r o l l i n g or focusing, as the "central consciousness" i n a novel by henry james would be. v i r g i n i a woolf's e s s e n t i a l s e l f , as embodied in her set of works, can only be defined n e g a t i v e l y — a s that shared dark realm which she believes we a l l have in common, and to which she admits her characters only in moments of hypnotic revelation. hers i s an art based not only on the delicate recording of sensations and states of mind, but more fundamentally, on the tenuousnessof the recording s e l f , of i d e n t i t y and existence. despite the great beauties and accomplishments of works by the "female a e s t h e t i c i s t s " , they unfortunately reinforce a number of c r i p p l i n g l i t e r a r y stereotypes for women: a mystical p a s s i v i t y , agonized perceptiveness leading to s u i c i d a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y and f l i g h t from the harsh material world. i t becomes clear why these women, at l e a s t , did not write themselves into t h e i r texts as a r t i s t figures in f u l l control of t h e i r l i v e s and t h e i r a r t . one woman who did was the french writer, colette. she stands.vin r e l a t i o n to the female a e s t h e t i c i s t s of the english t r a d i t i o n much as gide, in my e a r l i e r comments, did to joyce and lawrence. she was c e n t r a l l y concerned with the idea of self-representation i n f i c t i o n , but unlike woolf, richardson and mansfield, expressed the power and pleasure of female consciousness with great confidence. like gide, she addressed e a r l i e r eras i n french l i t e r a t u r e , while ' u. simulataneously taking the novel, and the autobiographical novel in p a r t i c u l a r , onto new ground, beyond modernism. it would be d i f f i c u l t and even undesirable to s l o t colette neatly into a continuum of women writers such as showalter's, not so much because of the french writer's subject matter, making her an exemplar of feminine s e n s i b i l i t y and perception, but because she wrote when she did, and at such a successful and independent tangent to mainstream l i t e r a r y culture in france. she l i v e d and wrote on the boundaries of s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c r e s p e c t a b i l i t y ; yet a time when the best-known of women writers in england portrayed themselves only in the most oblique fashion, colette placed her own search for i d e n t i t y , the m u l t i p l i c i t y of ways t h i s might be captured in f i c t i o n , her sexuality and her profession as a writer, firmly at the centre of a l l she wrote. la vagabonde of i s the study of a woman's discovery and affirmation of h e r s e l f , largely through an awakened sense of v o c a t i o n — w r i t i n g and stage performance—which provides her with an autonomy which love can only compromise or destroy. throughout the novel are images of s e l f - r e v e l a t i o n and self-representation, notably the mirror. when renee, the protagonist, at the end of a t h e a t r i c a l performance i s l e f t alone to face the dressing room mirror, ...je vais me trouver seule avec moi-meme, en face de cette c o n s e i l l e r e maquillee qui me regarde, de 'autre cote de l a glace....j'ai devant moi, de 'autre cote du m i r r o i r , dans l a mysterieuse chambre des r e f l e t s , 'image 'd'une femme de l e t t r e s qui a mal tournee.' f o r r e n e e a s a w r i t e r , t h a t s a m e "femme d e l e t t r e s , " t h e w r i t i n g o n t h e p a g e c a n a l s o a c t a s a m i r r o r . . . . e c r i r e , c ' e s t s e f a c i l e ! . . . l a n c e r a t r a v e r s d e s p a g e s b l a n c h e s l ' e c r i t u r e r a p i d e , i r e g a l e q u ' i l c o m p a r e a mon v i s a g e m o b i l e , s u r m e n e p a r l ' e x c e s d ' e x p r e s s i o n . j ' e n e s p e r e u n s o u l a g e m e n t , c e t t e s o r t e d e s i l e n c e i n t e r i e u r q u i s u i t u n c r i , u n a v e u . . . t h e s e i m a g i s t i c r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e h e r o i n e r e m i n d u s o f l a c a n ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e " m i r r o r s t a g e " i n t h e p r o c e s s o f s e l f d i s c o v e r y a n d t h e " i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e l f t h r o u g h t h e o t h e r n e s s o f t h e i m a g e . " f o r l a c a n , t h e r e f l e c t i o n i s t h e p a r a d o x i c a l s e l f / o t h e r a l i e n a t e d a t t h e m o m e n t o f i n c e p t i o n . i n t h e l a s t p a g e s o f l a v a g a b o n d e , w h e n r e n e e n e r e e d e c i d e s t h a t s h e w i l l r e f u s e t o s e e t h e w o r l d a n d h e r s e l f a s r e f l e c t i o n s i n h e r l o v e r ' s e y e s , s h e f o c u s s e s o n a n e p h e m e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f o b j e c t s , i n c l u d i n g a c h e v a l m i r r o r o n h e r w r i t i n g t a b l e . l a c a n w o u l d w e l l u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r i m o r d i a l r e l a t i o n c o l e t t e s e t s u p a t t h i s m o m e n t b e t w e e n t h e m i r r o r , t h e p o s s e s s i o n s w h i c h o b j e c t i f y t h e s e l f , t h e w o m a n w r i t e r h e r s e l f , a n d t h e l e t t e r s h e c o m p a r e s r e j e c t i n g h e r l o v e r a n d r e s t o r i n g h e r s e l f t o h e r s e l f . l a c a n w o u l d d e s c r i b e t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s a s o n e b a s e d o n l a n g u a g e r e s t o r i n g t h e " i " i t s f u n c t i o n as" s u b j e c t , h e r e a n a u t o n o m o u s f e m a l e s u b j e c t , t h e " w o m a n w r i t e r . " l a n a i s s a n c e d u j o u r i s c o l e t t e ' s m o s t c o m p l e t e a n d y e t m o s t e l u s i v e s e l f - p o r t r a i t , a n e n i g m a t i c m i x t u r e o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d f i c t i o n . a r o u n d a f i c t i o n a l l o v e s t o r y a r e a r r a n g e d c o u n t l e s s a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s o f h e r r e a l l i f e i n t h e s o u t h o f f r a n c e i n t h e ' s . a t t h e c e n t r e o f the novel i s "colette," a successful and professional writer in her middle years. despite the d e l i c a t e l y manipulated elements of "tabulation" in the text, i t i s nevertheless primarily an exercise in s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n , as la vagabonde had been seventeen years e a r l i e r . the novel's epigram i s imaginez-vous, a* me l i r e , que je f a i s mon p o r t r a i t ? patience: c'est seulement mon module. the text i s a " s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l f i c t i o n , " autobiographical in tone and content but not in form. in t h i s novel colette acknowledges that she defines herself more and more in l i f e by remembering and imitating her mother. for t h i s woman writer then, the creation of the s e l f and the creation of the text merge in images of motherhood and creation, a r t i s t and text. letters from the mother, sido, to the daughter, colette, reminding her of her o r i g i n s and her legacy, frequently are the text, and they are r e a l l e t t e r s . as colette shares them with us, we are to understand that she i s showing us what she has become as the r e s u l t of sido's nurturing and s e n s i b i l i t y . helene cixous has spoken of the woman writer's need l i t e r a l l y to "write herself," and t h i s i s what colette i s doing h e r e . ^ in the character of colette who i s also the daughter of the r e a l sido, she i s inventing a f i g u r a t i v e textual s e l f , a l i v i n g f i c t i o n , and a projection of the r e a l s e l f i n writing, simultaneously a metaphor of the s e l f and an actual s e l f - p o r t r a i t . thus, as her epigram indicated, she can use herself as a model, a metaphor for an exploration of female i d e n t i t y . this she does with a number of r e f l e x i v e forms t r a d i t i o n a l l y regarded as feminine: l e t t e r s , journals, the e p i s t o l a r y novel and the inner dialogue. she put these conventions to work for her in quite u n t r a d i t i o n a l ways, however, using them for her characters' self-expression rather than the repression, the s i l e n c i n g and the s e l f - abnegating of women characters in the hands of the english female a e s t h e t i c i s t s . and t h i s i s the l i n k i wish to draw between colette and the women i go on to discuss—rhys, stein and barnes. just as gide has shown with his hybrid forms in l i t e r a r y self-representation where the autobiographical novel w i l l go a f t e r modernism, a f t e r the t r a d i t i o n a l " p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t , " so colette shows where female self-representation i n f i c t i o n can go a f t e r female aestheticism. rhys, stein and barnes are examples in the english t r a d i t i o n of the woman writer, more common i n the 's than the 's, who i s newly empowered to go beyond the search for the "woman's sentence," to remake the language and structures of f i c t i o n so that i t might more adequately r e f l e c t t h e i r female experience, i f not that of a l l women, "while r e v i s i n g conventions so that female a r t i s t s might, as stein put i t , 'reject' what was oppressive in t r a d i t i o n , [both female and male traditions] 'rejoice' in what was possible for the future, and 'rejuvenate' what was stale in the present." rhys, stein and barnes are such newly empowered women of the 's writing in ways that could not receive mainstream recognition, because they were r e j e c t i n g the touchstones of modernism as i t flourished in the ' 's as inappropriate to t h e i r i d i o s y n c r a t i c needs. they rejected e s p e c i a l l y the precious and d e f e a t i s t works of the female a e s t h e t i c i s t s of the e a r l i e r decade. what did they do instead? jean rhys, in her urban european novels, takes up the female victim, but uses her j as the basis for a damning c r i t i q u e of the s o c i a l and sexual forces that made her a victim. she o f f e r s a kafka-like expose from the female perspective of expatriate l i f e and of the bourgeois infrastructure beneath bohemian appearances. as an outsider, an expatriate from the caribbean, both to europe and and to the l i t e r a r y and moneyed e l i t e s of the day, she i s able to present a counter-vision: f i r s t , to the male modernist mainstream, whose p o r t r a i t s of female consciousness she obviously considered misconceived and misrepresentative; and secondly, to the female a e s t h e t i c i s t t r a d i t i o n , which genuinely embraced female s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i o n as a f i c t i o n a l structure. one sees in her works, l i k e those of the t h i r t i e s ' male writers, the grim d e t a i l of survival on the fringes of the s o c i a l order, providing a c y n i c a l response to the female " l y r i c a l transcendence" writers l i k e mansfield and woolf. a l l was not f l u i d and b e a u t i f u l , she said. much was ugly, uncontrollable and unignorable. she was concerned always with the horror behind the beauty, in a way in which the female aesthetics would not, or could not be. she i s a r a d i c a l and unique voice in the modernist t r a d i t i o n , pointing the way with her "ahead of i t s time" psycho-social s t y l e , to nathalie sarraute, marguerite duras, renata adler and other contemporary post-modern writers. gertrude stein frequently declared herself one of the founders of the modern. during her l i f e - l o n g experiments with prose, she established new rules for the rendering of consciousness and the representation of s e l f . she sought to eliminate the psyche, the memory and the past and future tenses from a r t . she declared narrative meaningless, while continuing to turn fact into f i c t i o n . in her autobiography of she set about to w i l f u l l y "deconstruct" (her term) the form, providing herself with a cubist s e l f - p o r t r a i t , a multi-faceted, imaginative, unreliable record of her own "continuous present." in the process she reinterpreted the conventions of autobiography, turning herself into a work of art and her l i f e into a f i c t i o n . underlying her s e l f - p o r t r a i t however, i s a f i e r c e l y androgynous consciousness, one which sought, paradoxically, the kind of ego-dominated a r t i s t i c control of a proust, joyce or lawrence. in recording the d e t a i l s of her l i f e as a lesbian, she was forced to "do i t a l l with mirrors," or s h i f t i n g cubist planes; such information was not for public consumption in . therefore i t must become a cerebral joke. metaphors must be found. the central comic metaphor i s of course that her autobiography masquerades as that of her lover, a l i c e b. toklas. nevertheless, the s e l f - p r o t e c t i v e exercise suited her a r t i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s well. she wrote the only kind of autobiography she believed i s possible to write, and i n so doing, transformed the genre. in her late-modernist masterpiece, nightwood, djuna barnes journeys metaphorically into the dark spaces of the female mind, s p e c i f i c a l l y , the lesbian mind. she i s concerned with the expressive p o s s i b i l i t i e s of poetic language as i t s i g n i f i e s for a woman at odds with her world. this woman i s , l i k e rhys's protagonists, marginalized by poverty. like . stein, she i s a member of a sexual sub-culture which has no o f f i c i a l l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . the narrative of the s e l f which she creates out of these l i f e circumstances explores with layers of r i c h night-world imagery, the s p i r i t u a l and aesthetic i d e a l of androgyny, and the f i n a l irrelevance of gender. p o r t r a i t chapter two of the a r t i s t in e x i l e when jean rhys came to write an autobiography acknowledged as such, her main problem, according to her f r i e n d and editor, diana a t h i l l , was that most of her l i f e had been "used up" in her novels. "they were not autobiographical i n every detail...but autobiographical they were, and t h i s therapeutic function was the purging of unhappiness....once something had been written out, she said, i t was done with and one should s t a r t again at the i „ beginning. a solution to her problem was to adapt, as an autobiographical form, the style with which she had begun her writing c a r e e r — t h e vignette. in smile please: an unfinished autobiography, she attempts to "catch the past here and there, at points where i t happened to c r y s t a l l i s e l i n k i n g them i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c a l l y to form a kind of "fragmentary continuation," an i n s t i n c t i v e whole. as rhys commented herself i n an interview with the c r i t i c thomas staley on her methods as an a r t i s t , the autobiographical impulse in her writing was strong. "i always s t a r t with something i f e e l or something that happened and then i n the middle i t becomes something else. i add and subtract." her f i r s t concern as a writer, a t h i l l confirms, was to get experience down as accurately as possible. but "i l i k e shape very much," she said. so an i n s t i n c t i v e leaning towards the truth i n what she chose to write about was tempered by a highly developed sense of form. " . . . . i f the novel was going to work, then i t would soon s t a r t to have i t s own shape." in her novels neither textual d e t a i l nor the often i n t r i c a t e arrangement of them took her very far from the experience of them. this i s not to diminish rhys's formal achievement in writing out of her l i f e ' s experience. nor i s i t , on the other hand, to accept the views of c r i t i c s who have included her i n a very l i m i t i n g category of f i c t i o n w r i t e r s — t h a t of the pathologically narrow autobiographical voice, compounded in i t s narrowness, i n these c r i t i c s ' eyes, by being female as well. rhys does far more with her autobiographically based material than confess. in her acute re-reading of good morning, midnight, judith kegan gardiner describes rhys as a "novelist of a l i e n a t i o n , " a female kafka; her a l i e n a t i o n , however, according to gardiner, i s s o c i a l l y determined—the s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l r e s u l t of s o c i a l polarizations of the period in which she wrote about sex, c l a s s , morality and race. rhys's female protagonists are alienated from themselves-- and from society and others for the very s p e c i f i c reasons that they are female, sexually active and above a l l poor. kegan gardiner sees these women at the further disadvantage of being "misdefined by a language and l i t e r a r y heritage that belong primarily to propertied men." in other words, i f the rhys woman i s a "chronic victim," she i s a v i c t i m of the state of european society after world war one, and of the p o l a r i z a t i o n s within i t which worked to oppress women and the poor. this oppression was reinforced in gardiner's view, by bourgeois and male domination of language and the' l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . i believe that rhys was f u l l y aware of t h i s and that her f i c t i o n s are indictments. this feminist reading of rhys considers the most . , r a d i c a l l y o r i g i n a l aspects of her "autobiographical f i c t i o n s " as a r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e of the hypocrisies and imbalances of sex, money and morality as they determine l i v e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y women's l i v e s . unlike the female a e s t h e t i c i s t s woolf and mansfield, rhys never occupied the f i n a n c i a l , class or c u l t u r a l p o s i t i o n to "transcend" the l i m i t a t i o n s of ordinary l i f e . the "bourgeois p o l a r i z a t i o n s " which gardiner accurately i d e n t i f i e s can induce i n t h e i r victims a passive despair which i s i r o n i c a l l y compliant to the status quo. but t h i s too can be seen as an indictment of the paralyzing e f f e c t s of poverty and depression. there i s another element at work in rhys'o f i c t i o n which suggests the comparison with kafka made e a r l i e r ; i t i s a quality of e x i s t e n t i a l despair that i s not e n t i r e l y s o c i a l l y determined and only p a r t l y the r e s u l t of s o c i a l defeat, a l i e n a t i o n and e x i l e of various kinds. this underlying and unremitting bleakness bears l i t t l e r e l a t i o n to the disengaged ironies t y p i c a l of the male modernist writers. in every novel of rhys' her female characters reach e x i s t e n t i a l impasse when t h e i r l i v e s collapse into long-anticipated disorder and f u t i l i t y . at t h i s point, there i s no question either of redemption by l y r i c a l transcendence as woolf o r .mansfield would have i t . the caribbean if the major focus of rhys' f i c t i o n i s what i t i s l i k e to be a woman in europe in the period between the wars, then the s e n s i b i l i t y with which she perceived and recorded t h i s was formed i n an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t place and time. the caribbean, where she spent her f i r s t sixteen years, had l e f t i t s mark. her f i r s t sense of what i t i s to be a woman was formed here. in an already oppressively closed white minority culture, women in dominica in the f i r s t twenty years of the century were expected to l i v e the l i v e s of v i c t o r i a n hot-house flowers. they were to be passive and domestic, possessed and provided f o r . reminiscent of the women of another slave-based c o l o n i a l c u l t u r e — t h e old south of the united states—well-bred dominican women were bored, ornamental and u n s k i l l e d at anything but g e n t i l i t y . although they formed an intensely sheltered and p r i v i l e g e d group, these women were in c e r t a i n respects as much victims of t h e i r circumstances as the native slave population. authority in t h i s c o l o n i a l culture rested firmly in the hands of english male conservative forces. their power managed to contain i n both groups--women and n a t i v e s — a p o t e n t i a l l y r e b e l l i o u s , sensual "female" element, kept largely in check by the force of english convention, even in the t r o p i c s , and sheer economic dominance. these two elements of her native c u l t u r e — c o n v e n t i o n and money as determinants of power—rhys recognized early in her l i f e , and went on to despise and expose them in her f i c t i o n . as in much v i c t o r i a n f i c t i o n , however, the power structures endure; s e l f awareness merely cripples her women, who for a variety of disabling reasons, continue to be complicit victims who give every impression of allowing t h e i r oppressors to determine t h e i r well-being. the idea of power, what determines i t and how i t i s used, c l e a r l y seized jean rhys early in l i f e . her f i r s t exposure to formalized power was i n the ambivalent race r e l a t i o n s she saw around her as a c h i l d in dominica. she remembers being uneasy with her automatic authority over black servants, and at the same time mesmerized by t h e i r arrogance and sensuality, t h e i r subtle ways of avoiding submission while appearing to g do as they were t o l d . the l i f e force seemed to invest them with mystery and danger, though they l i v e d as servants and underdogs. rhys appreciated t h e i r i n s t i n c t s for s k i r t i n g humiliation, and as a fellow-outsider to the power structure, at least by temperament, she i d e n t i f i e d with t h i s s t r a i n in her native culture, and appears to have been s i g n i f i c a n t l y formed by i t . several of her women characters in f i c t i o n a l caribbean settings are struck and frightened by that source of demonic energy for the natives—obeah—which provided them with an authentic source of power and a separate white- defying code connecting them with the l i v i n g dead, curses, potions to a f f e c t love or death and nocturnal soucriants. despite the sympathy the white rhys woman, l i k e her creator, f e e l s for the b l a c k s — o f t e n a longing to be black and to renounce the structures of an inauthentic r u l i n g c l a s s , the natives w i l l not have her. so the rhys woman i s at a t h i r d remove from the polarized elements in the culture she was born to. so rhys took from her caribbean childhood as l i f e concerns the nature of power, the experience of the underdog and a loathing for the self-perpetuating strategies of the middle c l a s s — p r i n c i p a l l y the english middle c l a s s — w h i c h maintained these structures for power. it i s not surprising then that she both saw and sought out the underdog wherever she went. in paris, which she saw as a kind of s p i r i t u a l home, her f i c t i o n led her i n s t i n c t i v e l y toward a long l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n i n france which originated i n the "demi-monde"--the shadowy periphery of the respectable world, one of kept women, the criminal fringe, starving a r t i s t s and students, hangers-on and strays. in english one of the few clear examples of t h i s kind of writing i s george orwell's down and out in paris and london and though his submersion i n t h i s world of hunger and doss-houses i s undeniably authentic, i t i s also an i n t e l l e c t u a l experiment; t h i s i s not his natural or inevitable milieu. '"' it i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that in her perception of r e a l i t y rhys might have more in common with late modernist male writers l i k e orwell, huxley and graham greene than with her female peers, woolf and mansfield. like no other english writer, rhys takes up the french t r a d i t i o n , in both her style and content, of drawing a psychological p o r t a i t of t h i s underworld from within i t . there are traces of colette, flaubert and de maupassant in her s t y l e , but the psychological veracity with which she speaks l i n k s her more profoundly with francois v i l l o n and . his descendants, the symbolist poets—baudelaire, rimbaud and verlaine. rhys' l i n k to t h i s t r a d i t i o n i s undoubtedly the french poet, novelist and c r i t i c . francis carco, whose novel of the french criminal underworld, perversite, ford madox ford arranged for her to translate into english in - . despite the fact that the book l a t e r appeared with ford credited as the t r a n s l a t o r , his biographer v e r i f i e s that the t r a n s l a t i o n was rhys' work."'""'" carco had written at length on v i l l o n and the symbolists, and t h e i r preoccupation with the morally outcast i s evident in his novel. many of rhys' concerns are there, too. it was a very appropriate novel for her to translate, and no doubt influenced and confirmed the world view she took to her ear short stories and novels. carco's novel i s the sordid f i n a act in the l i f e of an aging french p r o s t i t u t e , irma, her thuggish pimp boyfriend, bebert,and her simpleton brother, emile. bebert tyrannizes the other two into submission by s i n c i d e n t a l acts of b r u t a l i t y , usually at emile's expense. the woman becomes addicted to the mistreatment, continues to hand over a l l her money to her increasingly absent lover and i s powerless to intervene when bebert s a d i s t i c a l l y wounds emile in a knife attack. eebert's f i n a l v i c t o r y comes when emile k i l l s his s i s t e r , perhaps a c c i d e n t a l l y , with the gun he had intended to use to murder his tormentor. pehaps he intended to end his s i s t e r ' s degradation. perversite f i n e l y explores the sadomasochistic elements of love which were often to preoccupy jean rhys and her characters. "is love no more the wish to torment another?" one of carco's characters asks. carco's work l i n k s rhys, as well, with another major french t r a d i t i o n — e x i s t e n t i a l i s m . carco focuses in his work, as did v i l l o n before him, on his characters' primitive preoccupation with survival in the p r e s e n t — a room, food, warmth, s e x — o r the l i t t l e of these available to a s o c i a l l y displaced person. both carco and rhys would t e l l us that economics determine r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . those without money l i v e from moment to moment. in t h i s , one i s reminded of l a t e r french writers of the e x i s t e n t i a l school—camus in l'etranger and more p r e c i s e l y , i n connection with rhys, marguerite duras, who in le ravissement de lol v. stein, has her female protagonist survive with a drugged resignation reminiscent of the rhys woman. there i s always in rhys, however, at least early in the novels before her women characters are f i n a l l y defeated, a redemptive trace of her other major french influence, colette, who also created highly polished selective mosaics based on l i f e . colette and rhys the most sordid of rooms and the worst despair, can be redeemed momentarily, and transformed by the aesthetic perception of o b j e c t s — a s i l k dress hanging behind a door, the way l i g h t f a l l s on a table, a vase of cheap flowers, a glimpse of tree or street. they share a saving grace for o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n of the s e l f when i t i s in danger of being extinguished. expatriation the perspective which rhys took with her to england was a caribbean one. but her west indian childhood and adolescence had not equipped her for adulthood in europe. she was unsuited for survival there in very s p e c i f i c ways. she had been raised e s s e n t i a l l y as a v i c t o r i a n woman. when she found herself alone i n england at without any of the t r a d i t i o n a l supports for women--family, money or s k i l l , she quickly slipped into a declasse existence. despite the years of hand to mouth l i v i n g which followed, the legacy of "unpreparedness" in her background did provide her, when she began to write, with an exotic perceptual slant. i t reminds us of the angle of orwell's v i s i o n of england a f t e r his a l i e n a t i n g c o l o n i a l experience. for rhys t h i s slanted v i s i o n often provided, in her writing, a point of departure or rupture in her observation of the apparently seamless status quo,in england e s p e c i a l l y . rhys' f i c t i o n i s i m p l i c i t l y subversive i n that i t involves a perception of human a f f a i r s and attitudes to l i f e that i s at odds with urban european society, i t s unwritten laws, s o c i a l hierarchies and moral codes. it i s i n content.rather than form that rhys writes at a tangent to her male and female modernist l i t e r a r y counterparts. her connections to the s o c i a l c r i t i c i s m novels o f t h e ' s a r e m u c h s t r o n g e r . i t i s a p i t y t h a t h e r l i t e r a r y r e p u t a t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n l o s t b e t w e e n t h e g e n e r a t i o n s . i n h e r m o s t p o w e r f u l a n d ; a c c o m p l i s h e d n o v e l , w i d e s a r g a s s o s e a , w h i c h i s s e t a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n t h e w e s t i n d i e s , s h e r e t u r n s t o t h e s e t t i n g o f h e r c h i l d h o o d a n d t h e f o r c e s w h i c h f o r m e d h e r s e n s i b i l i t y , t o c o n f r o n t w i t h m a t u r i t y t h e " t e r r i f i e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s " o n e c r i t i c a s c r i b e d t o t h e c u l t u r e t h e r e . i t i s t h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h u n d e r l i e s b o t h h e r p o w e r a s a n o v e l i s t a n d h e r d i f f e r e n c e f r o m o t h e r men a n d women w r i t i n g a t t h e s a m e t i m e . i n t h i s l a s t w o r k , s h e s u c c e e d s i n i n t e g r a t i n g a l l o f h e r f i c t i o n a l c a u s e s a n d i n p r o v i d i n g t h e m o s t r a d i c a l , t h o r o u g h a n d u n i v e r s a l o f a l l h e r c r i t i q u e s o f h u m a n a f f a i r s . a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l f i c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r t h e c e n t r a l c r e a t i o n o f r h y s ' f i c t i o n i s , t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s a d i s t i l l e d s e l f - p o r t r a i t i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n i s t s t y l e . ^ t h e r h y s h e r o i n e e x i s t s i n p a r i s , l o n d o n o r v i e n n a a l o n e e x c e p t w h e n s u p p o r t e d b y l o v e r s , u t t e r l y a t t h e m e r c y o f men a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s f o r p a t r o n a g e . s h e m o v e s f r o m ; h o t e l t o h o t e l r o o m , l o v e r t o l o v e r , w i t h d i m i n i s h i n g r e s o u r c e s , t h e s e l f a l i t t l e f u r t h e r e x t i n g u i s h e d w i t h e a c h s h i f t . s h e w o r k s a s a c h o r u s g i r l , m a n n e q u i n , g u i d e a n d e n g l i s h t e a c h e r f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s u n t i l h e r u n s u i t a b i l i t y i s e x p o s e d . h e r m i n i m a l e x i s t e n c e i s r e d u c e d t o m a n , m o n e y , drink and sleep, the simple aesthetics of a room or a new dress. these women in rhys' novels "share a central nervous system." there i s r e a l l y only one woman. she i s the single urban woman who has nothing and f i t s nowhere. she does not f i g h t for s u r v i v a l , but simply to keep herself together. the most she hopes for i s stalemate. she i s e s s e n t i a l l y dispossessed and consistently denied. she i s an e x i l e several times over as an impoverished foreigner, aging and apparently t a l e n t l e s s . "the society i s closed: the i s o l a t i o n of the expatriate, the woman, the outsider, i s complete; she exists i n a void." she i s a sexual creature and her only currency i s her looks. her l i f e prospects depend on money and sex and both diminish as she ages. both desert the rhys woman when she needs them most, leaving her vulnerable and unarmed. as one c r i t i c has observed, [she is] slowly driven out of [her] wits by the harshness and unnaturalness of the world...and men who are ' s p o i l e r s ' . . . i n an unequal war." such men are portrayed as bourgeois p h i l i s t i n e s , and the rhys heroine i s constantly coming up against them in her love a f f a i r s . relationships between these characters in her novels are c h i l l i n g sexual and f i n a n c i a l transactions, each one costing the heroine more of her innocence and sanity. she i s often reduced to trading a moment of warmth or sex for dinner, a room or p a t h e t i c a l l y needed cash. essential to rhys' powerful s o c i a l c r i t i q u e i s t h i s expose of the connections between sex and money: i t underlies a l l her p o r t r a i t s of emotional e x p l o i t a t i o n . power i n society rhys sees as e s s e n t i a l l y masculine. society she sees as set up to conceal and f a c i l i t a t e the m u l t i p l i c i t y of subtle ways in which money enslaves. her novels are studies i n subjection--either the manipulation of innocence or p a s s i v i t y , the controlled witholding of love or money (or both), and the subjugation of victims of sexual obsession. the rhys woman i s however, no simple victim. she understands her enemies too well. "victims are necessary," says marya i n quartet "so that the strong may exercise t h e i r w i l l and become more strong." rhys does not often t e l l us that the strong ever discover that cruelty i s inherent in p r i v i l e g e . respectability, from which the rhys heroine i s excluded, she both despises and craves. she wants to rebel against i t and i s at the same time helpless in the face of i t . the psychological state that t h i s inevitably produces o s c i l l a t e s between rage and despair. she i s free of these only when she i s resigned to hopelessness, and f e e l s that she has nothing further to lose. at other times she drinks or sleeps to escape consciousness. she i s a victim of t i m e — o f age and fading looks, and of e x i l e whever she goes. but she i s a strangely complicit victim. there i s a perversity in her compliant p a s s i v i t y , which almost puts her i n league with her oppressors to ruin her. sometimes the rhys woman almost courts our disgust in her apparent willingness to be mutilated; i t i s as though the author wishes to make clear i n t h i s , that sympathy for the underdog can be cheap, a f a c i l e reader response. rhys i s interested in e l i c i t i n g a far more r a d i c a l awareness in her reader than that. and t h i s i s where her stature as a writer of a l i e n a t i o n draws close to kafka. "to be wretched to the very roots of existence and yet to be coolheaded, watching the wretchedness, i s the fate of these women." every tortuous d e t a i l of t h e i r suffering—hunger, abandonment, sordidness and nightmare i s drawn with a c h i l l i n g precision and lack of sentimentality. lovers are interchangeable in t h e i r inadequacy and casual b r u t a l i t y ; a l l of the rooms are the same shabby prison. the woman i s always haunted by her past, often a dead c h i l d and a f a i l e d marriage. when times are good, the woman i s dressed in a fur coat, many times pawned and recovered, the l a s t trace of a temporary former affluence. the woman i s an e x i l e from l i f e , at a loose end i n europe, broke, aging and alone. this i s the underdog rhys created out of her experience. vignette although childhood and adolescence i n dominica did not equip jean rhys for womanhood i n europe, i t provided her with the r e b e l l i o u s force needed to "expatriate" h e r s e l f , and to try to focus her l i f e in europe once she was there. from her e a r l i e s t vignettes i n the left bank, however, i t i s clear that she was unable to avoid using the west indies as a f i c t i o n a l counterpoint to her new landscape. one of these fragments, "trio," describes a moment of homesickness in a montparnasse cafe-, as her dominican narrator glimpses three a n t i l l e s natives at another table. they inadvertently break free of the restaurant code of behaviour with t h e i r "noise" and "gusto," t h e i r pleasure and innocent unconcern in eating and t a l k i n g . the moment turns into one of exotic license-taking when one of them, a young g i r l , b e a u t i f u l l y naked beneath a red dress, begins to dance alone and excited in the restaurant. it i s t h i s moment of l i b e r t y and sensuality which forces the rhys narrator to recognize her "compatriots" on foreign s o i l . another vignette, "mixing cocktails," records the progress of a day in a young g i r l ' s melancholy and dreamy dominican childhood. it i s set in the mountains, a refuge from the heat. the c h i l d peers down at the v a l l e y s , the jungle and the .sea through a telescope set on the verandah. she passionately resents any interruption to her day-dreaming and her observation of t h i s "wild place, dominica, savage and l o s t : " ^ so soon does one learn the b i t t e r lesson that humanity i s never content just to d i f f e r from you and l e t i t go at that. never. they must i n t e r f e r e , a c t i v e l y and grimly between your thoughts and yourself with the passionate wish to l e v e l up everything and everybody. (p. ) this w i l l provide almost a paradigm for female consciousness in the l a t e r rhys f i c t i o n , as i t struggles to survive with i t s own gentle, a l i e n equilibrium in d i f f e r e n t climates from i t s own. she does, even as a c h i l d however, mix a good cocktail--her one successful s o c i a l gesture, at the end of a hot and languid west indian day. it i s "something i can do" (p. ). "again the a n t i l l e s , " the t h i r d of the caribbean vignettes in the left bank, t e l l s of a public argument b e t w e e n a b l a c k n e w s p a p e r e d i t o r i n d o m i n i c a a n d a w h i t e p l a n t a t i o n o w n e r . t h e i r f e u d i s c o n d u c t e d i n l e t t e r s t o t h e n e w s p a p e r , a n d i s u l t i m a t e l y t o d o w i t h " t h e c o n d u c t o f a n e n g l i s h g e n t l e m a n " a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e w o r k s o f s h a k e s p e a r e a n d c h a u c e r a n d t h e n t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e w e s t i n d i e s . a t o n e s t a g e t h e w o r d s " t h e i g n o r a n t o f a n o t h e r r a c e a n d c o l o u r " a r e d i s c r e e t l y s u b s t i t u t e d b y t h e e d i t o r f o r " d a m n n i g g e r s " ( p p . - ) . t h e s t o r y i s o f c o u r s e a b o u t t h e p o w e r o f t h e e n g l i s h i n d o m i n i c a w i t h t h e f u l l w e i g h t o f l i t e r a t u r e b e h i n d i t . w h a t t h e s e t h r e e f r a g m e n t s — j u v e n i l i a r e a l l y — s h o w u s a b o u t j e a n r h y s ' e a r l y e x p a t r i a t e w r i t i n g c a n b e s u m m e d u p a s f o l l o w s : a t a r e m o v e f r o m d o m i n i c a s h e o f t e n u n e x p e c t e d l y r e m e m b e r s a n d m i s s e s i n a c o m p l e x w a y t h e b l a c k s p i r i t i n t h e w e s t i n d i e s , t h o u g h t e c h n i c a l l y s h e w a s p a r t o f a c l a s s t h a t e x e r c i s e d p o w e r o v e r i t a n d d e f i n e d i t s e l f a g a i n s t i t . t h e s e m o m e n t s l e a v e h e r e x p o s e d a n d v u l n e r a b l e i n a c h i l l i n g w h i t e c u l t u r e . " m i x i n g c o c k t a i l s " t e l l s u s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a f e m a l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n i s o l a t i o n , e v e n o n h o m e g r o u n d . t h e m a t u r e w r i t e r , w h o w i l l l a t e r f o c u s m o s t c l e a r l y o n t h o s e t h i n g s i n p e o p l e w h i c h s e p a r a t e a n d d r i v e a p a r t , w a s f o r m e d i n p e c u l i a r , h i g h l y - c h a r g e d s e c l u s i o n , o b s e s s e d w i t h t h e b e a u t i f u l b u t e q u a l l y t r e a c h e r o u s d o m i n i c a n l a n d s c a p e . j u d i t h t h u r m a n i n a a r t i c l e c o m m e n t s t h a t t h e r e i s i n r h y s ' f i c t i o n " a y e a r n i n g . . . f o r a l o s t w a r m t h , f o r a p l a c e w h e r e e v e r y t h i n g i s b r i g h t n e s s o r d a r k . " t h e p o l a r i t i e s o f t h e p l a c e — " b r i g h t " a n d " d a r k , " s e n s u a l a n d r e p r e s s i v e , . a. t a n t a l i z i n g and claustrophobic, sent rhys to england, but these p o l a r i t i e s remained with her. voyage i n the dark in her novel voyage in the dark, rhys deals with her t r a n s i t i o n from one world to another, the caribbean to europe; the book's central image i s the l i t e r a l voyage from one to the other and the two-way voyage of memory between them. in a hauntingly autobiographical narrative, rhys places her heroine, anna morgan, a young woman of indeterminate s o c i a l background, in england in . she leads a makeshift existence as chorus g i r l in down-at-heel touring companies. she has been orphaned and brought to england two years e a r l i e r by her step-mother. she i s picked up on the pier at southsea by walter j e f f r i e s , a moneyed older man, who l a t e r meets and seduces her in london. he looks a f t e r her when she i s i l l and reduced, and she f a l l s in love with him. after a year, walter t i r e s of the a f f a i r and ends i t with a cheque. abandoned, anna.breaks down and begins to d r i f t , accepting money for sex from various men and f i n a l l y becoming pregnant. uncertain of the father, she begs walter for money to pay for an abortion. the novel ends with anna's near death as the r e s u l t of the operation, and her b i t t e r sense that another, more informed beginning i s now possible. louis james i n his essay, "the caribbean i n a cold place," observes that rhys' characters are r a r e l y at rest in the physical present wherever i t i s . "the immediate exists as part of the remembered past, the past as part of the present." in t h i s novel she uses e x i l e and memory in very s p e c i f i c ways to interpret the present place and time-- that i s , pre-world war i london. memory images of dominica and anna's childhood there, operate l i k e photographs or cinematic s t i l l s interspersed among london scenes, undercutting and counter-pointing them. details of the west indies are sharp and sensuous, accumulating meaning and resonance throughout the text. they have the e f f e c t rupturing the power of the present over anna. rhys has her narrative design rest on the impossible p o l a r i t y in anna's mind of these two worlds, and of the states of mind each requires. in the c o n f l i c t which follows one place serves only to disrupt and d i s t o r t the other. the novel begins with the break with the e a r l i e r world and time in anna's l i f e and the a l i e n a t i o n that such a r a d i c a l s h i f t produces: i t was as i f a curtain had f a l l e n , hiding everything i had ever known; it was almost l i k e being born again. the colors were d i f f e r e n t , the smells d i f f e r e n t , the feelings things gave you right down inside yourself was d i f f e r e n t . not just the difference between heat, cold; l i g h t , darkness; purple, grey. but a difference in the way i was frightened and the way i was happy. from the f i r s t there i s a r a d i c a l perceptual difference in her appreciation of the two countries. dominica i s in her mind, i n high focus, in bright sun-light. "...the sea was m i l l i o n s of spangles...purple as tyre" (pp. - ). she can s t i l l smell the place--"...niggers and woodsmoke and s a l t f i s h c a k e s f r i e d i n l a r d . . . f r a g i p a n n i a n d l i m e j u i c e . . . c i n n a m o n . . . c l o v e s . . . a n d i n c e n s e " ( p . ) . e n g l a n d i s p a l e a n d m e a n b y c o m p a r i s o n : - - t h i s i s l o n d o n — h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f w h i t e p e o p l e w h i t e p e o p l e r u s h i n g a l o n g a n d t h e d a r k h o u s e s a l l a l i k e f r o w n i n g d o w n o n e a f t e r t h e o t h e r a l l a l i k e a l l s t u c k t o g e t h e r — t h e s t r e e t s l i k e s m o o t h s h u t i n r a v i n e s a n d t h e d a r k h o u s e s f r o w n d o w n — o h i ' m n o t g o i n g t o l i k e t h i s p l a c e , ( p . ) m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t , e v e n t h a n t h e b r u t a l c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n t h e t w o p l a c e s i s a n n a ' s c o m p l e t e i n a b i l i t y t o i n t e g r a t e t h e m i n a n y w a y , t o c o n t a i n t h e m b o t h i n h e r e x p e r i e n c e . " s o m e t i m e s i t w a s a s i f i w e r e b a c k t h e r e a n d a s i f e n g l a n d w e r e a d r e a m . a t o t h e r t i m e s e n g l a n d w a s t h e r e a l t h i n g a n d o u t t h e r e w a s t h e d r e a m , b u t i c o u l d n e v e r f i t t h e m t o g e t h e r " ( p . ) . a t t h e m e r c y o f t h e s e t w o i r r e c o n c i l a b l e f o r c e s , a n d d e e p l y a l i e n a t e d f r o m h e r p r e s e n t e n v i r o n m e n t , a n n a f a l l s i n t o h e r f i r s t l o v e a f f a i r w i t h a n u t t e r l y c o n v e n t i o n a l s p e c i m e n f r o m t h e a l i e n c u l t u r e — w a l t e r j e f f r i e s . a n n a i n h e r y o u t h a n d i n e x p e r i e n c e i s s i m p l y g r a t e f u l f o r t h e s u b s t a n c e h i s r e s p e c t a b i l i t y a n d c o n c e r n s e e m s t o o f f e r . s h e e x p e r i e n c e s o n l y m o m e n t a r y c o n f u s i o n w h e n h e b e g i n s d i s c r e e t l y , t o p a y h e r f o r s l e e p i n g w i t h h i m . s h e a c c e p t s i t a s a k i n d n e s s o r t h e s t y l e h e r e . i t i s p r i n c i p a l l y a b o u t t h e s u b t l e p o w e r s o f m o n e y t h a t s h e l e a r n s a s t h e l o v e a f f a i r p r o g r e s s e s . f o r o n e t h i n g s h e g e t s u s e d t o a c c e p t i n g i t , c o m e s t o d e p e n d o n i t , a n d s e e s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h a t s e x a n d m o n e y a r e i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d . s h e b e g i n s t o l e a r n t o o a b o u t t h e i n e x o r a b l e s o c i a l l a w s o f w e a l t h a n d p o v e r t y : " t h e p o o r d o t h i s a n d t h e r i c h d o t h a t , t h e w o r l d i s s o - a n d - s o a n d n o t h i n g c a n c h a n g e i t . f o r e v e r a n d f o r e v e r t u r n i n g a n d n o t h i n g , n o t h i n g c a n c h a n g e i t " ( p . ) . o n e o f a n n a ' s h a r d - n o s e d c h o r u s g i r l f r i e n d s p u t s i t m o r e c y n i c a l l y : . . . h a v e y o u e v e r t h o u g h t t h a t a g i r l ' s c l o t h e s c o s t m o r e t h a n t h e g i r l i n s i d e t h e m ? . . . y o u c a n g e t a v e r y n i c e g i r l f o r f i v e p o u n d s , a v e r y n i c e g i r l i n d e e d ; y o u c a n e v e n g e t a v e r y n i c e g i r l f o r n o t h i n g i f y o u k n o w h o w t o g o a b o u t i t . b u t y o u c a n ' t g e t a v e r y n i c e c o s t u m e f o r h e r f o r f i v e p o u n d s . . . . p e o p l e a r e m u c h c h e a p e r t h a n t h i n g s . " ( p . ) t h i s b i t t e r n e s s a b o u t m o n e y a n d t h e p o w e r t h a t i t g i v e s m e n o v e r women i s o n e o f t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t e n g l a n d t e a c h e s a n n a . s h e d o e s n o t l e a r n i t p r o p e r l y u n t i l w a l t e r j e f f r i e s w i t h d r a w s f i r s t l o v e a n d t h e n m o n e y , l e a v i n g h e r w i t h o u t e i t h e r , a n d l e a v i n g t h e m i n e x t r i c a b l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h o n e a n o t h e r i n h e r m i n d . t h e r e i s o n e p o w e r f u l e p i s o d e i n t h e n o v e l w h e r e t h e f u l l p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t o f a n n a ' s v i o l a t i o n i s m a d e c l e a r . i t d r a w s o n p r i m a l i m a g e s a n d m e m o r i e s i n a n n a ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i n w h i c h m a l e n e s s , t e r r o r a n d t h e u n k n o w n m e r g e , s u d d e n l y t o r u p t u r e a n d t e a r r e a l i t y f o r h e r . a s s h e s t a n d s i n h e r h o t e l r o o m r e a d i n g t h e l e t t e r f r o m w a l t e r ' s c o u s i n d e l e g a t e d t o t e l l h e r t h a t t h e l o v e a f f a i r i s o v e r , a m o m e n t o f c h i l d h o o d t e r r o r i n s e r t s i t s e l f i n t o h e r m i n d . on h e r d o m i n i c a n v e r a n d a h , s h e r e m e m b e r s a s a c h i l d a p p r o a c h i n g h e r s l e e p i n g a n d t r u s t e d u n c l e . . . . u n c l e b o m o v e d a n d s i g h e d a n d : l o n g y e l l o w t u s k s l i k e f a n g s c a m e o u t o f h i s m o u t h a n d p r o t r u d e d d o w n i n t o h i s c h i n - - y o u d o n ' t s c r e a m w h e n y o u a r e f r i g h t e n e d b e c a u s e y o u c a n ' t — a f t e r a l o n g t i m e h e s i g h e d a n d o p e n e d h i s e y e s a n d c l i c k e d h i s t e e t h b a c k i n t o p l a c e a n d said what on earth do you want c h i l d — i thought, 'but what's the matter with me? that was years and years ago, ages and ages go. twelve years ago or something l i k e that. what's t h i s l e t t e r got to do with false teeth?' (p. ) what has happened in both cases i s that anna's psychic equilibrium has been suddenly shattered in an ugly and unexpected piece of male behaviour h o r r i f y i n g in i t s i n t e n s i t y for her. dismissal by walter feeds into a strong current of despair already present in anna's character. she associates t h i s new pain with a l i f e l o n g knowledge that i t would happen to her again and again. the moment when t h i s i s confirmed threatens to consume her. "there's fear, of course, with everybody. but now i t had grown gigantic; i t f i l l e d me and i t f i l l e d the whole world" (p. ). this state and a f i n a l scene with walter involving money induce a kind of trance i n anna, of long periods of drugged sleeping and sensory d i s l o c a t i o n . she f l o a t s back into chorus g i r l c i r c l e s and with new knowledge and less f e e l i n g , and makes love with stray men for money. in her dream state of simultaneous withdrawal and compliance with the world, anna's second v i o l e n t confrontation with r e s p e c t a b i l i t y comes, t h i s time with a woman, ethel matthews. she i s a rather worn and scheming middle-aged woman with s o c i a l aspirations. at f i r s t she enters anna's l i f e as a potential protector, comforting her when she i s i l l . soon, however, she puts a f i n a n c i a l proposition to h e r — a share in a "swedish massage" business, masquerading as an o f f e r of somewhere to l i v e . anna succumbs to another a l l i a n c e where she i s f i n a n c i a l l y and emotionally exploited, in t h i s case by ethel matthews' neurotic fears, f i n a n c i a l swindling and a h y s t e r i c a l concern for appearances should her shabby p r o s t i t u t i o n be revealed. anna's ultimate reaction to her treatment by the other woman i s to behave badly, to drink, to bring home random men and f i n a l l y to break up a l l the cozy furniture in her room before leaving. with ethel matthews, rhys has reminded us that hypocrisy and cruelty are not r e s t r i c t e d to male members of the respectable classes; members of either sex can be vain and greedy. in f a c t , rhys' p o r t r a i t s of women tend to be more grotesque than those of male equivalents. in t h i s novel, ethel's viciousness i s magnified by a knowing q u a l i t y , a self-awareness, which walter j e f f r i e s does not have. neither of her apparent protectors i s of any use to anna when her "voyage" reaches i t s psychic destination; she becomes pregnant by one of the men she has allowed to pick her up, and with whom she has haphazardly s l e p t . she panics and collapses into surreal dream voyages into the past. i dreamt that i was on a ship. from the deck you could see small i s l a n d s - - d o l l s of i s l a n d s — a n d the ship was s a i l i n g in a d o l l ' s sea, transparent as glass. somebody said in my ear, 'that's your i s l a n d that you t a l k such a l o t about. ' anna's two worlds merge in nightmare as she looks at her island to f i n d english trees, "their leaves t r a i l i n g in the water." op. ) she t r i e s to make her way up the sloping deck to grasp one of the english branches to the shore, but h e r " f l y i n g s t r i d e s " w e r e n o m a t c h f o r t h e e x p a n d i n g d e c k . a t t h a t m o e m n t s o m e o n e f a l l s o v e r b o a r d " a n d t h e r e w a s a s a i l o r c a r r y i n g a c h i l d ' s c o f f i n " ( p . ) . . . . t h e a b o r t i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s f o r m s a p a r t i c u l a r l y g r o t e s q u e a n d n i g h t m a r i s h c l i m a x t o t h e n o v e l a n d t o a n n a ' s j o u r n e y i n g . s h e h a s a r r i v e d a t t h e w o r s t t h a t c a n h a p p e n t o h e r . t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r e g n a n c y i n v o l v e d t h e k i l l i n g o f t h e f o e t u s , w i t h a t w o t o t h r e e w e e k d e l a y b e f o r e t h e d e a d b a b y i s e x p e l l e d a f t e r a p e r i o d o f l a b o u r . t h e i n t e r i m i s a w a i t i n g f o r d e a t h , a n d i n l a b o u r , a n n a c o m e s c l o s e t o i t h e r s e l f . o n e o f t h e n o v e l ' s m o s t s t r i k i n g c a r i b b e a n i m a g e s i n v a d e s h e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n h a l l u c i n a t i o n , i n l a b o u r . a g a i n s h e i s a c h i l d i n d o m i n i c a l o o k i n g a t o n e o f t h e i r b l a c k s e r v a n t s d r e s s e d f o r t h e m a s q u e r a d e i n a h i d e o u s m a s k . t h e s e r v a n t a p p r o a c h e s t h e c h i l d a n d s h e s u d d e n l y " p u t o u t h e r t o n g u e a t me t h r o u g h t h e s l i t i n h e r m a s k . . . . a n d t h e s l o b b e r i n g t o n g u e o f a n i d i o t w i l l s t i c k o u t — a m a s k f a t h e r s a i d w i t h a n i d i o t b e h i n d i t i ) b e l i e v e t h e w h o l e d a m n e d b u s i n e s s i s l i k e t h a t — " ( p . ) . a t t h i s o u t e r e d g e o f p a i n , e n d u r a n c e , a n d a b a n d o n m e n t , h u m a n i t y t a k e s o n t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e e v i l m a s k w i t h i t s t e r r i f y i n g t o n g u e , i t s a p p e r t u r e s d a n g e r o u s s l i t s t h r o u g h w h i c h v i o l e n c e c a n e s c a p e w i t h o u t w a r n i n g . i n m e m o r y , s h e i s s w a l l o w e d u p b y t h e n a t i v e s ' h y s t e r i c a l p a r a d e , f a l l s a n d f i n d s t h a t s h e i s f a l l i n g f r o m a h o r s e o n a d o m i n i c a n m o u n t a i n p a t h . t h e r e a r e n o s t i r r u p s o n t h e h o r s e t o h e l p h e r , a n d w h i l e t h e w i l d m u s i c a n d d a n c i n g g o o n a b o u t h e r , t h e h o r s e t u r n s i n t o a r o c k i n g horse and as she approaches consciousness, she finds herself in t e r r i f y i n g shadows where as a c h i l d she knew that the old d i s f i g u r e d woman with yaws waited for her. as she delivers her dead c h i l d , a supercilious english doctor reassures her: "she'll be a l l r i g h t , " he said. "ready to s t a r t a l l over again in no time, i've no doubt.... you g i r l s are too naive to l i v e , aren't you?" (p. ) what sets t h i s novel apart from rhys' other f i c t i o n i s the elegiac incorporation of the caribbean into an otherwise european "getting of wisdom" study. a l l of the force of memory in voyage in the dark i s located in dominica. a l l of the novel's potent imagery comes from here, to become wild and surreal i n an english context. as well t h i s imagery inspires an inevitable c r i t i q u e of a corrupt urban society where r e s p e c t a b i l i t y creates tyrants, both seen here through the d i s t o r t i n g lens of the natural world. the novel marks too the establishment of an important f i c t i o n a l pattern of rhys': that of collapsing p o l a r i t i e s . childhood memories of dominica should comfort anna; instead they t e r r i f y , a l i e n a t i n g her from the past as well as the present while making t h i s present more unbearable. power and fear are the same in both plsaces, and anna's f i n a l awareness of t h i s has made her a creature of duality for the f i r s t time. because her topography i s fundamentally that of the alienated consciousness rather than geographical place and r e a l time, rhys turns the england/dominica dichotomy in anna's l i f e into a d i a l e c t i c ; what i s t e r r i f y i n g in both worlds meets in her subconscious and work together in f r u i t f u l opposition. within t h i s f e a r f u l d i a l e c t i c of past/present, childhood/ adulthood, male/female, black/white, nature/city, home/exile, there i s greatest fear when the absolutes collapse into one another and the protagonist i s consumed by j u s t i f i e d paranoia. wide sargasso sea '.i' the novel wide sargasso sea, published i n , brought jean rhys fame for the f i r s t time. it appeared a f t e r a t h i r t y year absence from p r i n t , and an accidental resurrection. it i s her most polished and successful work. in i t she abandons the focus of europe from her middle period, and returns to the west indies. it i s i n a r t i s t i c terms an attempt at c i r c u l a r i t y — a rereading of the past on the basis of new knowledge and of t h i r t y years' d i f f i c u l t existence in europe which had taught her that a l i e n a t i o n i s not always to do with place. the novel i s a b r i l l i a n t f i c t i o n a l prologue to charlotte bronte's jane eyre. it c l e v e r l y takes many of bronte's d e t a i l s and works backwards from them, reconstructing t h e i r o r i g i n s i n the past, setting them i n edward rochester's mysterious caribbean interlude p r i o r to his return to england with his mad wife and his meeting with jane eyre. rhys' protagonist i s "the mad woman i n the a t t i c " i n bronte's novel, c a l l e d bertha there, but given her f u l l family name— antoinette cosway i n rhys' book. i t t e l l s of her childhood, her ruined family, and of her marriage to edward rochester, the englishman who had come to the colony to make money. the f i r s t section of the novel i s t o l d i n antoinette's voice. the second section c l e v e r l y switches to rochester's voice to describe the i n t e n s i t y of his unexpected seduction a f t e r marriage, by the exotic creature he had married for money, and by the landscape she exposed him to. the novel's v i o l e n t f i n a l section and climax i s f i l t e r e d through the now maddened consciousness of antoinette, in e x i l e i n england where she i s to die. the h i s t o r i c a l background to rhys' novel, about which she i s very accurate, i s quite t e l l i n g . kenneth ramchand in the west indian novel and i t s background spoke of a " t e r r i f i e d consciousness" which informed that minority group, the white west indians. both jean.rhys and antoinette cosway were the o f f s p r i n g of t h i s caribbean minority, i t s history and consciousness. in one h i s t o r i a n said of t h i s group--"the english of these islands are melting away." the emanicipation of the slaves in dominica i n had f u l l y revealed the s p i r i t u a l and economic f a i l u r e s of the plantation class there. many were ruined. rhys' novel i s set i n t h i s class and in the period immediately a f t e r emancipation, when the process of "decolonization" was at i t s most uncontrolled and v i o l e n t ; t h i s sudden release of native force put under d i r e c t attack the t e r r i f i e d presence of white c o l o n i a l s i n a b e a u t i f u l but a l i e n landscape which they had attempted to usurp. in obviously cast grave doubts too on the status of those tenuous l i n k s between the races under plantation c u l t u r e : the long-serving negro family servants; in rhys' novel t h i s figure i s simultaneously the children's nurse and the dangerous "obeah" woman, an occult power figure. if the consciousness of the white c o l o n i a l s had been " t e r r i f i e d " of the caribbean before t h i s time, then t h i s element was profoundly magnified when the natives began to r i o t and burn down t h e i r houses, revealing for the f i r s t time the horror and violence which had been the underside to an apparently gracious c o l o n i a l culture. p h y l l i s shaffley, another caribbean writer and contemporary of rhys', describes dominica i n these terms: "beauty and disease, beauty and sickness, beauty and horror; that was the i s l a n d . " i t i s my suggestion that what rhys returns t o j i n her only "caribbean" novel i s t h i s " t e r r i f i e d consciousness" of the alienated white in a dangerous place. beauty and i t s underside, horror, sickness and disease provide the key to the e a r l i e s t a l i e n a t i o n rhys saw and experienced. i t provided a paradigm too for what she saw l a t e r i n her l i f e i n european c i t i e s and in human behaviour everywhere. acquired i n her youth i t inspired the c r i t i q u e her f i c t i o n l e v e l l e d against the bourgeois culture of appearance which f a l s e l y t r i e d to deny or to l e v e l out these p o l a r i t i e s in human nature. rhys' more general conclusions about the state of human nature and the world then have been grounded in a time and place where r e l a t i o n s between human beings could actually be categorised according to race and the master/slave balance of power. given t h i s primitive p o l a r i t y , i t i s not altogether surprising that rhys sees much apparently c i v i l i z e d human behaviour in these terms; her characters are generally capable of no more than a troubled blend of polarized reactions to one another a l t e r n a t i n g a t t r a c t i o n and repulsion, sympathy and hatred. in wide sargasso sea, rhys f i n a l l y faces and reveals that the " s p e c i f i c " t e r r i f i e d consciousness of the h i s t o r i c a l l y marooned white west indian, i s in f a c t a universal heritage. it i s the consciousness with which a l l her characters have had to l i v e , of the horror behind the beauty. antoinette cosway describes the garden around her family home as she remembers i t in childhood: our garden was large and b e a u t i f u l as that garden in the b i b l e — t h e tree of l i f e grew there. but i t had gone wild. the paths were overgrown and a smell of dead flowers mixed with the fresh l i v i n g smell. underneath the tree ferns, t a l l as forest tree ferns, the l i g h t was green. orchids flourished out of reach or for some reason not to be touched. one was snaky looking, another l i k e an octopus with long thin brown tentacles bare of leaves hanging from a twisted root. twice a year the octopus orchid flowered—then not an inch of tentacle showed. it was a b e l l - shaped mass of white, mauve, deep-purples, wonderful to see. the scent was very sweet and strong. i never went near it. the forces i n c o n f l i c t in wide sargasso sea—reason and the unknowable, male and female, the c i v i l i z e d world and the t r o p i c s , make up two mutually exclusive worlds; in the marriage of edward rochester and antoinette cosway they meet head on, and the f a m i l i a r paradigm of master/slave and beauty/horror emerge. rochester arrives in the west indies as a "colonizer" ready to take what he can and to use up what i s best i n the place. instead, he finds himself seduced by the pleasures of the place, a n t i t h e t i c a l in i t s sensuousness to england. f i n a l l y , however, he i s not able to y i e l d to i t completely the caution, s e l f interest and reason of his t r a i n i n g ; his expectation of betrayal by "the foreign" f u l f i l l s i t s e l f . he leaves with more than he came, the temptations of the place exorcized. in t h i s war of worlds the imagery of the landscape—and for t h i s rhys used dominica, though i t i s not named—provides a powerful subtext. from the f i r s t the s p i r i t , even the look of t h i s place confuses and disquiets rochester. when he marries a woman who i s deeply at ease with i t , who goes so far as to c a l l i t her place, he quickly i d e n t i f i e s woman with landscape, making of the island a natural, psychological and sexual t e r r a i n . it i s a lush and fragrant jungle, with w a t e r f a l l s , emerald pools, mysterious forests, and flowers that look both f r a g i l e and deadly. on the way to the estate where they w i l l honeymoon, rochester i s disturbed and d i s t r u s t f u l of t h i s "....wild place. not only wild but menacing. the h i l l s would close in on you....'what an extreme green', was a l l i could say.... everything i s too much, i f e l t as i rode wearily after her. too much blue, too much purple, too much green. the flowers too red, the mountains too high, the h i l l s to near" (pp. - ). at t h i s stage of his "marriage" to woman and place, his thoughts are s t i l l predominantly m a t e r i a l — o f the mercantile world and the dowry he has to c o l l e c t . ...dear father. the t h i r t y pounds have been paid to me without question or conditions, no provision made for her (that must be seen to.) i have a modest competence now. ...i have sold my soul, or you have sold i t , and after a l l i s i t such a bad bargain? the g i r l i t thought to be b e a u t i f u l , she i s b e a u t i f u l . and yet... (p. ) at granbois, the estate where antoinette had spent holidays as a c h i l d , rochester i s quickly intoxicated, f i r s t by the freshness of the a i r and the abundant flowers, and as he stays longer, he succumbs to i t s "disturbing secret l i v e l i n e s s . " "i'd f i n d myself thinking...i want what i t hides" (p. ). he succumbs as well to his exotic wife, as though his senses had been drugged. he forgets caution and curses himself for his former weakness. only when he senses danger does he f a l l back on what i s worst in his englishness; then he becomes imperious when he i s challenged by the servants, or antoinette, or changing perceptions of the place. then "...they are mistaken, melodramatic, unreal" (p. ). when he receives daniel cosway's l e t t e r t e l l i n g him of his wife's family history of madness, and of the p o s s i b i l i t y that she has sexually betrayed him with a negro r e l a t i v e he r e c o i l s into his europeanness, his a l i e n a t i o n vindicated. at the nadir of his withdrawal from his wife and the place, he becomes l o s t in a h o s t i l e jungle f o r e s t . he i s mistaken by a screaming c h i l d for one of the l i v i n g dead and becomes himself, in a state of profound disturbance,, obsessed with the idea of death in l i f e , and how at least for him, t h i s island seems to embody that idea. the trees were threatening and the shadows of the trees menaced me. that green menace. i had f e l t i t evers ince i saw t h i s place. there was nothing i knew, nothing to comfort me. (p. ) when his mind clears and his reason i s restored the matter becomes much simpler; the place had simply turned out to be a "false heaveny" a place which he had f i n a l l y f a i l e d to usurp, or as he sees at other moments, into which he had f a i l e d to gain admission. "sane...i hated the place...i hated i t s beauty and i t s magic and the secret i would never know...i hated the mountains and the h i l l s — f o r what i had l o s t before i found i t (p. ). so he abandons the island, and takes with him to her english abandoment, his west indian wife. he has succeeded in usurping her. if rochester in rhys' novel i s one world, then antoinette i s the other. rochester was right when he met her, to say that she was o_f the place; she understood i t and respected i t . speaking of his fear of i t , she says that such a reaction i s i r r e l e v a n t . "it i s not for you not for me. it has nothing to do with either of. that i s why you are a f r a i d of i t , because i t i s something e l s e . i found that out long ago when i was a c h i l d " (p. ). in f a c t , i t i s as a c h i l d , that antoinette has f i r s t defined herself against the english. when she observes her english step-father, mr. mason, display minimal understanding of the west indies and e s p e c i a l l y of the natives "...they are c h i l d r e n — t h e y wouldn't hurt a fly"--she knows that he i s a f o o l , however kind. as creoles, antoinette and her mother are at a remove from both the blacks and the english. antoinette takes her cue from her mother "...so without a doubt not english, but no white nigger e i t h e r : (p. ) ...she grows up excluded from both groups, but e s p e c i a l l y despised by the blacks as "tainted" whites—"old time white people nothing but white nigger now, and black nigger better than white nigger," they t e l l her as they burn down the mason house once they have been set free. so antoinette has grouwn up susceptible to the incredible beauties of her birthplace and at the same time, aware of and susceptible to the h o s t i l e forces at work in i t . when she f a l l s i n love with rochester she wants to share the best of the place with him; in return she requires that he unconditionally enter t h i s world of her. for a time, aided by wine and summer nights, she wins him. but the cost to her i s high. when he turns on her, fearing betrayal, her sense of security in her place i s most damaged: do you know what you've done to me?....i loved t h i s place and you have made i t into a place i hate. i used to think that i f everything else went out of my l i f e i would s t i l l have t h i s , and now you have s p o i l t i t . i t ' s just somewhere else where i have been unhappy, (p. ) while i t i s true that the englishman in rochester, quite d i r e c t l y i n a sense, ruined antoinette cosway by what he was incapable of doing and f e e l i n g , and by his need to destroy what frightened him, antoinette, l i k e a l l rhys' heroines, contributed s i g n i f i c a n t l y to her own downfall. her consciousness had been formed in the midst of profound c u l t u r a l a l i e n a t i o n . her childhood was a neglected, decaying, v i c t o r i a n a f f a i r . the psycho-historical context of t h i s childhood was steeped in violence, upheaval, and tragedy, i n s p i r i n g in her some dreams of safety and substance. she i s , when rochester meets her, a creature of fear, who needs from him dramatic affirmation of her world, grim and dying though i t i s . as one c r i t i c describes i t "in both myth and r e a l i t y the whites of the i s l a n d f e e l as though, they are i n the heart of eden after the f a l l , " t h e i r existence requiring confirmation. antoinette's psychic legacy from her class and family i s unstable, unfocused and f u l l of fear and passion. details of her l i f e cannot help but r e f l e c t the complex and malignant psycho-sexual r e l a t i o n s between the races on the i s l a n d . when her mother goes mad, her guardians are blacks who sexually abuse her; the former mistress i s sexually subject to her servants. when rochester seduces a native servant g i r l to free himself from antoinette's sexual hold on him, he too f a l l s into t h i s disturbing legacy of slavery. rhys' almost incantatory descriptions of the landscape which takes over rochester's mind and senses, she c a r e f u l l y invests with the dual powers of beauty and horror. behind the lush seductiveness and apparent f r a g i l i t y , i s the p o t e n t i a l l y malignant and t e r r i f y i n g natural world, r e f l e c t i n g i n a kind of s p i r i t u a l correspondence, the behaviour of the characters. rochester c e r t a i n l y sees his west indian wife as a creature of place, in these d u a l i s t i c terms: as both compellingly beautiful and as f a t a l l y diseased. though she d e n i e s t h a t p l a c e h a s a n y e f f e c t o n t h e i r b e h a v i o u r , r h y s m a k e s c l e a r t h a t i t d o e s , a l t h o u g h i n q u i t e o p p o s i t e w a y s . i n r o c h e s t e r , t h e p l a c e h a s a r o u s e d p r e v i o u s l y c l o s e t e d i n s t i n c t a n d a n e r o t i c s e n s i t i v i t y . i n a n t o i n e t t e i s e x p o s e d a d e s p e r a t e n e e d t o d r a w e d w a r d i n t o h e r e x o t i c p r i v a t e w o r l d , o n e w h i c h o p e r a t e s a c c o r d i n g t o n a t u r a l r h y t h m s a n d t h e h a r m o n y o f t h e s e n s e s . i n t h e n o v e l t h e m o o n i s h e r o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e . i t i s o f c o u r s e a w o r l d b e y o n d r o c h e s t e r ' s c o m p r e h e n s i o n . h e r n e e d o f h i m s i m p l y a d d s t o h i s f e a r . " i t w a s n o t a s a f e game t o p l a y . l i f e , d e a t h c a m e v e r y c l o s e i n t h e d a r k n e s s " ( p . ) r e c u r r e n t r h y s t h e m e s a r e h e r e : t h e d e s p e r a t e p o w e r s t r u g g l e , i n t h e s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n t o i n e t t e a n d r o c h e s t e r , o f f e m a l e p a s s i o n a n d m a l e f e a r ; t h e u r g e n c y a n d o b s e s s i o n o f t h e woman m e t b y h e s i t a t i o n a n d w i t h d r a w a l i n t h e m a n . t h i s s t a t e o f t h i n g s f i n a l l y r e t u r n s t h e h e r o i n e t o t h a t s t a t e d f d e s p a i r a n d i s o l a t i o n w h i c h i s j e a n r h y s ' p r i n c i p a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r o n c e h e r a n g r y s o c i a l a n d s e x u a l c r i t i q u e s h a v e e x h a u s t e d t h e m s e l v e s . r o c h e s t e r t a k e s h i s w i f e i n t o a c o l d e x i l e i n e n g l a n d . s h e b e c o m e s m a d d e n e d b y d e s p a i r i n t h e a t t i c o f h i s c o u n t r y h o u s e . a n t o i n e t t e c o s w a y ' s s t o r y — e x i l e a n d m a d n e s s - l e a v e s r o o m f o r o n l y o n e f i n a l g e s t u r e o f r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e f o r c e s w h i c h h a v e a l l b u t e x t i n g u i s h e d h e r . i n a s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i n g b u t t r a n s c e n d e n t m o m e n t , a n t o i n e t t e s u m m o n s u p a l l o f t h e f i r e a n d r a d i a n c e o f h e r c a r i b b e a n p a s t , a n d b u r n s d o w n h e r e n g l i s h p r i s o n , r o c h e s t e r ' s h o u s e , a s t h e d o m i n i c a n n a t i v e s had ruined the houses of t h e i r masters once they had been set free. the cost i s her l i f e . europe in my readings of voyage in the dark and wide sargasso sea i have attempted to suggest ways in which the " t e r r i f i e d " west indian consciousness threaded through rhys' otherwise pastoral childhood, and informed the f i c t i o n which had, as i t s base, memories of the caribbean. she translated t h i s impulse into a c r i t i q u e of s o c i a l and i n d i v i d u a l behaviour based on sex, money and power. the universe rhys envisions, in these works i s a malevolent one, and never more so than when her characters ignore these fundamentally i r r e c o n c i l a b l e d i s t i n c t i o n s , and imagine that connections between t h e i r private worlds are possible. in three novels written in europe between and , jean rhys provides a d i f f e r e n t focus and a far more ambivalent setting for despair. these are urban pieces, and while memory plays a s i g n i f i c a n t role in characters' l i v e s , there i s not the attempt to piece together the past and present as wholly as voyage in the dark and wide sargasso sea attempted. quartet ( ), published in the united states as postures, after leaving mr. mackenzie ( ) and good morning, midnight ( ) take, as t h e i r form and subject matter, the precarious f r e e - f l o a t i n g existence of the vagrant expatriate between the wars. a c r i t i q u e of that condition i s implied as surely as that informed by her caribbean experience, but the consciousness underlying her c r i t i q u e here i s that of impoverished e x i l e , rootless and e x i s t i n g e n t i r e l y in the present tense. t y p i c a l l y , marya z e l l i ' s l i f e in quartet i s described as "...haphazard. it lacked, as i t were, s o l i d i t y ; i t lacked the necessary fixed background. a bedroom, balcony and cabinet de t o i l e t t e i n a cheap montmartre hotel cannot possibly be c a l l e d a s o l i d background." the best description of rhys world at t h i s time i s provided by the australian painter, s t e l l a brown, lover of ford madox ford, i n her memoirs, drawn from l i f e . she records her meeting with jean rhys honestly, i think, despite a certain retrospective emotional antagonism, based on ford's subsequent involvement with the young writer. rhys also records the'meeting, with her own biases, in quartet. but young jean rhys: the g i r l was a r e a l l y t r a g i c person. she had written an unpublishably sordid novel of great sensitiveness and persuasiveness, but her g i f t for prose and her personal attractiveness were not enough to ensure her any reasonable l i f e , for on the other side of the balance were bad health and d e s t i t u t i o n , shattered nerves, an undesirable husband, lack of n a t i o n a l i t y , and a complete absence of any desire for independence. when we met her she possessed nothing but a cardboard suitcase and the astonishing manuscript. she was down to her l a s t three francs and she was sick. [nevertheless] ...she took the l i d o f f the world that she knew, and showed us an underworld of darkness and disorder, where officialdom, the bourgeoisie and the police were the eternal enemies and the f u g i t i v e the only hero. a l l the v i r t u e s , in her view, were summed up in 'being a sport,' which meant being w i l l i n g to take r i s k s and show gallantry and share one's l a s t crust, more a t t r a c t i v e q u a l i t i e s , no doubt, than patience or honesty or f o r t i t u d e . she regarded the law as the instrument of the 'haves' against the 'have nots' and was well acquainted with every rung of that long and dismal ladder by which the respectable c i t i z e n descends towards degradation. (emphasis added) this i s a p o r t r a i t of jean rhys the writer, and i do not i. wish to blur biography and l i t e r a r y output. but i t i s the idea that a p o s i t i o n of utter degradation can f u e l a talent to expose that i concentrate on—r"she took the l i d o f f the world that she knew." this world i s the impoverished a r t i s t i c / c r i m i n a l fringe, in which rhys' three autiobiogra- p h i c a l heroines, marya z e l l i , j u l i a martin and sasha jansen are marooned. each of these novels t e l l s the same story of love and abandonment, expectation and betrayal, and for the heroine, i s o l a t e d and desperate survival at the edge of the s o c i a l order. the three women are chronological developments of the same character, progressively more broken by what happens to her. in each novel, what i s destructive in the world becomes more revealed and more undeniable. despair becomes more profound. good morning, midnight, the culminating work i n t h i s series of three novels, i s rhys' darkest work, and precedes a t h i r t y year silence. s t r u c t u r a l l y , these works are perceptually fragmented, and c e r t a i n l y they deal with s o c i a l and psychic fragmentation; yet they are c a r e f u l l y formed, s t r u c t u r a l l y precise works, r e l e n t l e s s i n t h e i r dual focus: ; that i s to explore the private worlds of t h e i r female protagonists and to confront the bourgeois world in which they w i l l inevitably be victims. these concerns are brought into high focus in precise human terms when rhys portrays with great cynicism, the f a t a l cross-purposes of men's and women's behaviour toward each other. men and women provide the psychological poles rhys wishes to explore, just as london and paris, the two alternating settings in these novels, are both geographical and psychological poles. for rhys, london i s always the centre of crushing r e s p e c t a b i l i t y and paris, the dream landscape where at least some things are possible. marya z e l l i , the e a r l i e s t of these heroines, i s the most innocent as well. she i s a bewildered expatriate, whose marriage to a foreigner has robbed her of her own sense of n a t i o n a l i t y without providing her with a new one. it has cast her o f f into european society but not provided any of the resources needed to keep her there. with her husband in prison and no money, she i s at her most reduced u n t i l she i s "saved" by h.j. and lois heidler (as rhys had been by ford madox ford and s t e l l a brown), two luminaries i n expatriate l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s in paris. when taken up by these two apparent benefactors, marya wrongly believes them to be " i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t s " and therefore natural a l l i e s , f i g h t i n g , l i k e her, by i n s t i n c t , against r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , monotony and "the soul destroying middle." when she f a l l s in love with heidler, and his world i s more f u l l y revealed to her, she quickly sees through the experimental lowlife of the expatriate a r t i s t s i n montparnasse--"the beautiful young men, the dazzlers, the middle westerners, the down and outs, and freaks who would never do anything, the freaks who just possibly might" (p. ). she denounces e s p e c i a l l y the l i t e r a r y hangers-on and poseurs, "imagining they know anything when they know i t s name" (p. ). underneath a bohemian veneer were the same orthodox, class-determined individuals as everywhere else. for them in paris, "even sin was an a f f a i r of p r i n c i p l e and u p l i f t i f you were an american, and of proving conclusively that you belonged to the upper classes, but were nevertheless an anarchist, i f you were english" (p. ). the heidlers above a l l , maintain bohemian appearances, beneath which "they were inscrutable people, invulnerable people," and marya "hadn't a chance against them, naive sinner that she was" (p. ). the apparently agreeable menage a t r o i s into which she i s lured with them i s in fact a power play for the heidlers--h.j. to have a woman he wants, and lois to keep the man—very conventional orthodoxies of the middle-class married. marya i s "safe" with them as long as she plays by the rules of t h e i r l i v e s . f i n a l l y , she cracks under the pressure of t h e i r respectable cannibalizing of her l i f e and of her genuine and p a t h e t i c a l l y dependent love for heidler. when she begins to make trouble for heidler, heidler drops the cosmopolitan facade and begs her to play according to the rules, and not to make his l i f e d i f f i c u l t or disordered. marya gives i n "to have a l i t t l e peace," and subjects herself to a degrading interlude, also conventional, in which she i s set up i n a cheap hotel, where heidler v i s i t s her intermittently for sex in "an atmosphere of departed and ephemeral love [which] hung about the room l i k e stale scent" (p. i l l ) . it i s t h i s subjection that p r e c i p i t a t e s her descent into despair. "i f e e l as i f i had f a l l e n down a p r e c i p i c e " (p. ). now her v i c t i m i z a t i o n becomes h o r r i f y i n g l y clear to her, as does her awareness that she i s powerless to stop i t . her role in the s o c i a l f a b r i c i s becoming clearer to her, too. she remembers being t o l d by a sculptor that "victims are necessary so that the strong may exercise t h e i r w i l l and become more strong" (p. ). when heidler pays her to stay away, f i n a l l y discarding her, "she was quivering and abject in his arms, l i k e some unfortunate dog abasing i t s e l f before i t s master" (p. ). heidler, the "large, invulnerable, p e r f e c t l y respectable" englishman i s forced to r e j e c t marya, the genuine demi-mondaine who f i l l s him with fear and forces him to behave badly. "i have a horror of you. when i think of you i f e e l sick," he says in parting, ...what did you do when the man you loved said a thing l i k e that? you laughed obviously... 'so t h i s i s the cafe fine of rupture* (p. ). there are flaws in t h i s f i r s t novel of rhys'--certain lapses in narrative force, an occasional f a i l u r e to synchronize, a degree of self-indulgence, and a rather unbalanced conclusion—marya's abrupt murder at the hands of her husband, just as things are beginning to unravel. yet the novel has displayed for the f i r s t time rhys' d i s t i n c t i v e s t y l e , a n d t h e m a j o r c o n c e r n s o f a l l h e r l a t e r f i c t i o n . we s e e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , t h a t d i s t u r b i n g t r i c k o f n a r r a t i o n — a n d h e r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e a s a w r i t e r w h o l i n k s t h e m o d e r n w i t h t h e p o s t - m o d e r n — a d e l i b e r a t e c u l t i v a t i o n o f d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o o l , b r i t t l e s u r f a c e o f t h e w o r k , t h e a p p a r e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e , a n d a n u n d e r l y i n g c o m p l i c i t v o i c e . s u b j e c t i v i t y i s a t o n c e b o t h t h e f o r m a n d t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e w o r k , s o t h a t c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e v e a l e d n o t s i m p l y b y w h a t t h e y d o , o r c o n f r o n t — t h i s m a k e s u p r h y s ' s o c i a l c r i t i q u e — b u t a l s o b y t h e s t y l e i n w h i c h t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s r e n d e r e d . i n t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , r h y s i s u n s e n t i m e n t a l , u n d e r s t a t e d a n d i r o n i c , b o t h t e r s e a n d e l e g a n t . t h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n m a k i n g c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t h e e x t r e m e p a s s i v i t y o f h e r c e n t r a l women c h a r a c t e r s a n d i t s l a r g e r i m p l i c a t i o n s . w h a t h a p p e n s t o t h e m i s r e a d i l y u n d e r s t o o d . i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o b e p a r t i s a n w h e n r h y s p o r t r a y s i n a m a t t e r o f f a c t w a y a n d t h e r e f o r e d a m n i n g l y , s o c i a l l y p r e - d e t e r m i n e d b e h a v i o u r , b u t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e d e g r e e o f w i l l i n g n e s s t o s u f f e r , w i t h w h i c h r h y s e n d o w s h e r h e r o i n e s . w h e n t h e y m a n a g e t o e s c a p e d i r e c t a s s a u l t , t h e y s e e m t o d r i f t i n t o d i s a s t e r a n d p a r a l y s i s b y t h e i r o w n m o m e n t u m . b u t a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e i r p a s s i v i t y i s f e a r . i t w a s a v a g u e a n d s h a d o w y f e a r o f s o m e t h i n g c r u e l a n d s t u p i d t h a t h a d c a u g h t h e r a n d w o u l d n e v e r l e t h e r g o . s h e h a d k n o w n t h a t i t w a s t h e r e - - h i d d e n u n d e r t h e m o r e o r l e s s p l e a s a n t s u r f a c e o f t h i n g s . . . . a l w a y s . e v e r s i n c e s h e w a s a c h i l d , ( p . ) marya i s in some sense, a natural victim then, ever at the mercy of anyone who detects i t . despite her v i c t i m status and occasional delusions however, she i s l i k e her creator, clear-eyed and acute in her observation of others, p a r t i c u l a r l y her tormentors. their behaviour i s such that the writer need do no more than transcribe t h e i r words and actions completely unadorned, to damn them. and at t h i s , rhys and her heroines are p a r t i c u l a r l y g i f t e d . this talent tends to add to her heroine's d i f f i c u l t i e s . for her characters, the pain of surviving ugly and brutal behaviour requires a c e r t a i n b l u r r i n g of the f a c t s , a moving from rescue'to rescue i f one i s to continue l i v i n g . only in a kind of dream state can marya accept the unbearable present in unredeemed i s o l a t i o n . the i n t e r i o r monologue within t h i s trance becomes a key figure in rhys' f i c t i o n . it i s at t h i s l e v e l that the complicit authorial voice functions below the surface of the text. these monologues reveal both the character's private world and the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of communicating i t to anyone. as marya f a l l s further and further into despair and disorder, rhys subtly a l t e r s the pattern of images and rhythms used to convey t h i s state of alternating dream/nightmare. in these we see beyond the primitive patterns of dependence that seem to trap her character, into something l a r g e r — a broader human v u l n e r a b i l i t y than pathological p a s s i t i v i t y would imply, and a b r u t a l l y clear sense of who and what i s to blame. as marya's options narrow, her mind becomes less and less stable; she sees herself as a trapped animal. this image of confinement, of l i f e l i v e d at a primitive l e v e l beyond our c o n t r o l , i s to be a key idea in rhys' other f i c t i o n , where powerless characters battle to survive i n a mercilessly deterministic universe. this i s the ground-level at which characters in her novels are oppressed; a l l other c o n f l i c t s between classes, races and the sexes—are echoes of i t . at i t s most extreme, t h i s metaphor of oppression r i v a l s kafka's images of horror, fear and d i s o r i e n t a t i o n . she was t r y i n g to climb out of the blackness up an interminable ladder. she was very small, as small as a f l y , yet so heavy, so weighted down that i t was impossible to hoist herself to the next rung. the weight on her was t e r r i b l e . she was going to f a l l . she was f a l l i n g . the breath l e f t in her body. (p. ) such passages do more than render consciousness. they s t y l i z e i t . this nightmarish q u a l i t y invades the detached surface realism of the novel. marya's only escape from fear at t h i s p i t c h i s to drink, to sleep and to engage in temporary fantasies based on love and money, ordering with absurd precision every minute of her waking existence, which in i t s f u t i l i t y , i s reminiscent too, of kafka. rhys' focus in the novel i s narrow, but i t i s d i s c i p l i n e d to provide shape for an all-encompassing theme: that beneath her c r i t i q u e (that men are spoilers and that bourgeois society mutilates), a l l are victims. if men are b l i n d and s e l f i s h , driven by fear and l u s t , then women are t h e i r accomplices, driven by a desperate and life-denying need for protection. this i s the d i s t i l l e d i n t e r i o r of the novel working in complicity with, (though in apparent opposition to) the detached surface of the work. this narrative tension i s at the heart of the d i a l e c t i c between consciousness and c r i t i q u e which informs a l l of rhys' f i c t i o n . she refines i t further i n after leaving mr. mackenzie ( ), where the b r i t t l e surface becomes a glassy o b j e c t i v i t y . in keeping with t h i s , her heroine i s an even more anonymous e x i l e than marya. j u l i a ' s "career of ups and downs has rubbed most of the hallmarks o f f her, so that i t was not easy to guess at her age, her n a t i o n a l i t y , or the s o c i a l background to which she properly belonged" (p. ). her world i s harsher, her status c l e a r e r . in "organized society" she "had no place and against [it] she had not a dog's chance" (p. ). j u l i a too has impaled herself on her love of a conventional englishman, who, she discovers too l a t e , "was p e r f e c t l y adapted to the s o c i a l system" (p. ). j u l i a i s the force of "the other" in his l i f e ; he i s tempted by the perversity of his a t t r a c t i o n to t h i s demi-mondaine. one of his love l e t t e r s to her had begun, "i would l i k e to put my throat under your feet" (p. ). at a l l other times, however, "he wanted to e s t a b l i s h a sane and normal atmosphere." his conventionality, and i t s underside, "smashed [her] up." j u l i a i s without resources—"too vulnerable ever to make a success of a career of chance" (p. ). she i s not without toughness and endurance, but as before i t i s passive: of course you clung on because you were obstinate. you clung on because people t r i e d to shove you o f f , despised you, and were rude to you. so you clung on. let quite alone, you would have l e t go of your own accord. (p. ). b u t when h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l l o v e r s p u r n s h e r , j u l i a c o n f r o n t s i n h i m a l l t h a t she d e s p i s e s i n " o r g a n i z e d s o c i e t y " and f i n d s h e r s e l f s t i l l c a p a b l e o f r a g e . "if a l l g o o d , r e s p e c t a b l e p e o p l e had one f a c e , i ' d s p i t i n i t . i w i s h t h e y a l l had one f a c e so i c o u l d s p i t i n i t " ( p . ) . the n a r r a t i v e m o n i t o r s j u l i a ' s e x i s t e n c e a s she e n d u r e s d e s p a i r . i t i s a t a f u r t h e r remove f r o m c r i s i s t h a n q u a r t e t ^ - a s t u d y o f a f t e r m a t h , o f " c l i n g i n g o n . " f o r j u l i a t h e game i s t e m p o r a r i l y o v e r . t h i s i s r h y s ' f i r s t e x p a n d e d s t u d y o f f e m a l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n i m p a s s e - - " t h e abandonment o f f a t i g u e " ( p . ) . here random s e x u a l e n c o u n t e r s a r e a s e a r c h f o r any human c o n n e c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n f o r l o v e . j u l i a ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e m i n i m a l , b u t e v e n t h e n she i s d i s a p p o i n t e d . when a l o v e r l e a v e s q u i c k l y b e f o r e she wakes a f t e r a n i g h t t o g e t h e r , s h e l o o k s a t t h e n o t e he l e a v e s . i t i s " a s i f she were r e a d i n g s o m e t h i n g w r i t t e n by a s t r a n g e r t o someone she had n e v e r s e e n " ( p . ) . q u a r t e t d e c l a r e s a l l i t s c h a r a c t e r s v i c t i m s ; a f t e r l e a v i n g m r . m a c k e n z i e f o c u s e s on t h e i n e v i t a b l y a b o r t i v e a t t e m p t s o f t h e s e v i c t i m s t o c o n n e c t w i t h one a n o t h e r . t h e y a r e p r o f o u n d l y i s o l a t e d , l i v i n g a l o n e i n " t h e h o u r b e t w e e n dog a n d w o l f " ( p . ) . good m o r n i n g , m i d n i g h t d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t j e a n rhys h a s c o n c e r n e d h e r s e l f c o n s i s t e n t l y i n f i c t i o n w i t h t h e p r i v a t e r a t h e r t h a n t h e p u b l i c w o r l d , w i t h c o n s c i o u s n e s s r a t h e r t h a n h i s t o r y , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t s e n s e s i n w h i c h good m o r n i n g , m i d n i g h t i s a novel of i t s time. it appeared in . the novel completes the p o r t r a i t of her woman protagonist in decline over four novels. sasha jansen i s the l a s t of these incarnations, with, for the moment, s l i g h t l y more money than the others, but much less c o n t r o l . judith kegan gardiner's reading of his novel sees i t as "goodnight to modernism," the l i t e r a r y mainstream of the day: thomas staley connects i t s central anxieties with "the broad economic decline and the sense of impending disaster that was part of the ' s . " the central character i s "beached," but a l i v e . i stayed there, staring at myself in the glass. what do i want to cry about?...on the contrary, i t ' s when i am quite sane l i k e t h i s , when i have had a couple of extra drinks and am quite sane, that i r e a l i z e how lucky i am. saved, rescued, fished-up half-drowned, out of the deep, dark r i v e r , dry clothes, hair shampooed and set. nobody would know i have ever been in i t . except, of course, that there always remains something. yes, there always remains something ....never mind, here i am, sane and dry, with my place to hide i n . what more do i want...i'm a b i t of an automaton, but sane surely--dry, cold and sane. now i have forgotten about dark streets, dark r i v e r s , the pain, the struggle and the drowning... as the t i t l e taken from a poem by emily dickenson implies, the heroine i s dispossessed: of day, order, l i g h t and love. sunshine was a sweet place. i l i k e d to s t a y - but morn didn't want me—now—- so good-night, day! in dickinson's poem, times of day and night and degrees of l i g h t are spoken of as though they are placed, persons, states of mind. though dispossessed, t h i s i n i t i a l speaker seems to be w i l l i n g herself away from l i g h t and acceptance. there are many l i t e r a r y instances—not least from t h i s period, v i r g i n i a woolf's a room of one's own (and i think in certain senses that t h i s novel of rhys' i s a c y n i c a l reply to woolf)--of a woman's space as a metaphor for the condition of the woman h e r s e l f . in good morning, midnight sasha's room i s given a voice--"quite l i k e old times," the room says. "yes? no?" (p. ) . it has power, and i s a l l of the rooms of her past superimposed on one another. this room i s austere and shabby. there i s a c e l l - l i k e f i n a l i t y , a c l a r i t y about i t s d e t a i l s although no c i t y or quarter i s s p e c i f i e d : there i s two beds, a big one for madame and a smaller one on the opposite side for monsieur. the washbasin i s shut o f f by a curtain. it i s a larger room, the smell of cheap hotels f a i n t , almost imperceptible. the street outside i s narrow, cobble-stoned, going sharply u p h i l l and ending in a f l i g h t of steps. what they c a l l an impasse. (p. ) there i s no description of the building which contains the room. the eye moves from room to street. it i s as though the room i s suspended in a i r , out of ordinary context. the street i t s e l f i s l i k e a d e t a i l from a dream or a children's story--cobble stones turning into s t a i r s r i s i n g up to end i n impasse. we then hear of the temporal impasse in which the heroine i s l i v i n g : i have been here f i v e days. i have decided on a place to eat in at midday, a place to eat in at night, a place to have my drink i n a f t e r dinner. i have arranged by l i t t l e l i f e . (p. ) she presents her entire existence as an i n t e r s t i c e , but within i t the timing of the minutiae of her day has been arranged with geometric p r e c i s i o n . there must be no gaps in which the past might intrude on sanity. we f i n d that the heroine has recently recreated herself, changing her name to sasha to try to improve her luck. we never know what her other name i s . she invents herself and her current condition. she i s a woman in fading middle age, l i v i n g in paris at the expense of a f r i e n d who had come across her in london, broken down and without resources. she l i k e s paris because she has survived i t i n other l i v e s . "paris i s looking very nice tonight....you are looking very nice tonight, my b e a u t i f u l , my d a r l i n g , and oh what a b i t c h you can be! but you didn't k i l l me a f t e r a l l , did you? and they couldn't k i l l me either" (p. ). her " f i l m mind," her consciousness functioning l i k e cinema, constantly draws her back into memories of past loves and other f a i l u r e s in t h i s , the only c i t y where she has ever had any luck. her l i f e within i t s stalemate i s rigorously arranged according to her private survival code based on luck, experience, and association. my l i f e , which seems so simple and monotonous, i s r e a l l y a complicated a f f a i r of cafes where they l i k e me and cafes where they don't, streets that are f r i e n d l y , streets that aren't, rooms where i might be happy, rooms where i never s h a l l be, looking glasses i look nice i n , looking glasses i don't, dresses that w i l l be lucky, dresses that won't, and so on. (p. ) the thing i s to have a programme, not to leave anything to chance—no gaps. (p. ) we understand that the gaps would be quickly f i l l e d up with bloodied images of the past--with defeat i n the present and despair for the future. in t h i s novel, the now f a m i l i a r d i a l e c t i c between the world and the s e l f , at the base of sasha's paranoia and obsession, becomes war, which she cannot even be sure of surviving. in t h i s rhys does not mean to l o c a l i z e her c r i t i q u e of the s o c i a l order to either the male sex or to the bourgeoise. she means us to understand that these people are both predators and prey because they are party to that s o c i a l contract whereby some must always dominate over others. their freedom i s as l i k e l y to be l o s t as anyone else's. her focus i s power and i t s e f f e c t s — a n d t h i s can express i t s e l f in language as well as action: "why don't you drown yourself in the seine?" these phrases run t r i p p i n g l y o f f the tongues of the extremely respectable. they think in terms of a sentimental b a l l a d . and that's what t e r r i f i e s you about them. it i s n ' t t h e i r cruelty, i t i s n ' t even t h e i r shrewdness — i t ' s t h e i r extraordinary naivete. everything in t h e i r whole bloody world i s a c l i c h e . everything i s born out of a c l i c h e , rests on a c l i c h e , survives on a c l i c h e . and they believe in the c l i c h e s - - t h e r e s no hope, (p. ) the c l i c h e i s of course the bourgeois l i f e which sasha both envies and despises; and of course at times i t i s important for her to appear to be l i v i n g t h i s c l i c h e too—whenever she i s an employee for example. "please, please, monsieur et madame, mister, missis and miss, i am t r y i n g so hard to be l i k e you" (p. ). but her ultimate f a i l u r e to do so i s also s t r i k i n g l y captured in language—when language i s appropriated by the moneyed, and the powerful, before whom she f a l l s s i l e n t , only to rage i n t e r n a l l y l a t e r and to imagine, what she might have said i f she could have found her voice. this happens to her when she i s working i n a fashion house in paris. profoundly alienated by the kind of work involved, she c o l l i d e s head on one day, with the new boss--"the r e a l english type...bowler hat, majestic trousers, oh-my-god expression...i know him at once" (p. ) . he at once attacks her for lacking the languages her job requires. her mind free-associates wildly while he lectures and interrogates her. she i s incapable of any but the most elementary or absurd response. she panics, and in her anxiety botches an errand he sends her on; the f a i l u r e i s actually his--he mispronounces the french word for cashier, and she becomes l o s t in the building looking for someone who does not e x i s t . she stumbles through the language trap that she imagines he has set for her—"dozens of small rooms, passages that don't lead anywhere, steps going up and steps going down" (p. ). when she gives up and returns to him he humiliates her for her incompetence. "god knows i'm used to f o o l s , but t h i s complete imbecility....this woman i s the biggest f o o l i've ever met in my l i f e . she seems to be half-witted....just a hopeless, helpless l i t t l e f o o l aren't you?...well, aren't you? "yes, yes, yes, yes. oh yes" (pp. - ). terror silences her. later, alone, when she recovers her composure, she imagines what an e f f e c t i v e response to him might have been: "well, l e t ' s argue t h i s out mr. blank. you, who represent society, have the right to pay me four hundred francs a month. that's my market value, for i am an i n e f f i c i e n t member of society, slow in the uptake, uncertain, s l i g h t l y damaged in the fray, there's no denying i t . so you have the r i g h t to pay me four hundred francs a month, to lodge me in a small, dark room, to clothe me shabbily, to harass me with worry and monotony and u n s a t i s f i e d longings t i l l you get me to the point when i blush at a look, cry at a word. we can't a l l be happy, we can't a l l be r i c h , we can't a l l be lucky....isn't i t so mr. blank? there must be the dark background to show up the bright colours. some must cry so that others may be able to laugh more h e a r t i l y . s a c r i f i c e s are necessary.... let's say that you have t h i s mystical right to cut my legs o f f . but the right to r i d i c u l e me afterwards because i 'am cripple—-no, that i think you haven't got. and that's the right you hold most dearly, i s n ' t i t ? you must be able to despise the people you e x p l o i t . " "did i say a l l this? of course, i didn't. i didn't even think i t (p. ). the power of t h i s incident keeps i t in sasha's mind long a f t e r the event. it enters the narrative as memory-- remembered powerlessness. it i s one of the sharpest outbursts against exploitation anywhere in rhys' f i c t i o n . good morning, midnight i s the only novel of rhys' where there i s a male equivalent in experience and s e n s i b i l i t y to her female protagonist. the young gigolo, rene, i s sasha's double. he too i s of uncertain o r i g i n s , an abscure past, "no papers, no passport... the s l i g h t e s t accident and i'm f i n i s h e d " (p. ), a troubled present and doubtful future; l i k e sasha he l i v e s off the temporary affections of strangers and his looks. given t h e i r q u a l i t i e s in common, they should be a l l i e s . . . even lovers; c e r t a i n l y sasha i s attracted to rene, glimpses again the almost abandoned p o s s i b i l i t y of connection with another. rene wishes to t e l l her everything. but because he too has become a creature of circumstance who invents his l i f e from minute to minute, she can believe nothing that he says. she worries most about t h e i r possible involvement when "they s t a r t believing each other" (p. ). she must d i s t r u s t his opportunism because she recognizes i t so well. she i s convinced that he only approached her in the f i r s t place because of her fur coat, many times pawned, and now worn as a reminder of former well-being. rene imagines that she i s an aging wealthy woman who w i l l pay for a younger man. for once, in the face of t h i s , she i s f e a r l e s s . "he i s out for money and i haven't got any. i am invulnerable" (p. ). at the simplest l e v e l she mistrusts him too because he i s a man, one who can at w i l l switch back into the brutal male stereotype with which she i s so f a m i l i a r ; at these moments he believes that i n t e l l i g e n t women are monstrosities and that sexually reluctant woman should be gang-raped. in her state of psychological impasse, she manages to balance her polar reactions to rene--those of alternating a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n — u n t i l the climax of the novel where the impass i s broken. this f i n a l scene i s rhys' l a s t comment on the r e l a t i o n s between the sexes, and a powerful parting metaphor for the maimed consciousness at war with the world; she i s not to take i s up again, and never in quite t h i s way, for t h i r t y years. the climax involves three people: sasha at a h y s t e r i c a l p i t c h of need and physical desire for rene before he disappears, rene t r y i n g desperately to claim a moment of intimacy from her, and the nameless "commis voyageur," the spectre of a displaced t r a v e l l i n g salesman who l i v e s in the hotel room next to sasha. he has haunted her throughout the novel--a deathshead—"in his b e a u t i f u l dressing-gown, immaculately white, with long, wide, hanging sleeves...he looks l i k e a p r i e s t , the p r i e s t of some obscene, h a l f - understood r e l i g i o n " (p. ). he looks l i k e death waiting for her; he i s at the same time simply an unsavoury character t r y i n g to proposition her. to succumb to him would mark her lowest ebb. it i s rene's l a s t night in paris. he cannot believe that sasha w i l l not take him to her bed. "but why shouldn't we believe each other just for tonight?... something must have happened to make you l i k e t h i s . " "it took years," she thinks. "it was a slow process" (p. ). as they drive towards 'hotel de l"esperance she remembers a l i f e t i m e of mistreatment by men. when her need i s greater than her fear, she embraces him, and begins to make love to him, despite her better judgment. at that moment things s t a r t to go wrong and her c r i p p l i n g self-consciousness returns--"the room springs out at me, laughing, triumphant ...les hommes en cage...exactly" (p. ). she drinks and the room becomes more grotesque. "the damned room grinning at me...qu'est-ce qu'elle fout i c i , l a v i e i l l e ? " (p. ). they struggle. he t r i e s to take her seuxally. intimacy i s f i n a l l y s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d when she fobs him o f f - - t e l l s him not to bother with the sex, simply to take the money and go. while her voice i s clear and deadly, her " f i l m mind" screams renunciation. when he goes, he does not take the money, nor does he come back. rhys then gives us a f i n a l monologue for sasha, as powerful i n reverse as that provided by joyce for his heroine, molly bloom, at the conclusion to ulysses. where f i n a l l y , molly opens herself to her husband as a gesture of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n and regeneration, the rhys heroine i n a gesture of supreme s e l f a n n i h i l a t i o n , opens herself to sexual negation, a new kind of death. "the l a s t performance of what's-her-name and her boys... p o s i t i v e l y the l a s t performance" (p. ). i n her " f i l m mind" she sees rene, the genuine object of desire returning to her. in t h i s v i s i o n she opens the door to him, undresses and l i e s in bed, l i k e molly, trembling with expectation. "i l i e very s t i l l , with my arm over my eyes. as s t i l l as i f i were dead..." (p. ). in rene's place, in f a c t , comes the spectral commis voyageur, in his death-like white dressing gown. it i s to t h i s degraded transient whom she abhors, that she responds with molly's l i f e affirming c r i e s of "yes—yes--yes..." (p. ) . it i s rhys' darkest moment, and the closest that she brings her european heroine to the a n n i h i l a t i o n of s e l f . "i look straight into his eyes and despise another poor d e v i l of a human being for the l a s t time. for the l a s t time..." (p. ). it i s tempting to see t h i s episode as judith kegan gardiner has done, as jean rhys' response to the mythologizing and misrepresentation of female consciousness at the hands of the male modernists. where joyce has portrayed sexual union and the mystically regenerative powers of women in transcendentally charged, l i f e - a f f i r m i n g terms, rhys sees them in the end as the s t u f f of f i n a l nightmare, at least for women, i f honestly portrayed. it i s possible to see good morning, midnight as a potent c r i t i q u e of some of the major myths of modernism. rhys' characters and her f i c t i o n , bear the f u l l weight of impoverished existence. the s t y l e of a l l her works has denied at every turn, too, the disengagement and the irony of mainstream modernism. as a. alvarez in his reappraisal of her work noted "she makes you r e a l i z e that almost every other novel, however apparently anarchic, i s rooted f i n a l l y i n the respectable world." although jean rhys f i r s t appeared i n p r i n t in ford's t r a n s a t l a n t i c review along with pound, hemingway, richardson, stein, barnes and ford himself, her work was not, even at that early stage, t y p i c a l of the review or of her parisian expatriate peers. in many respects, rhys' writing was not p a r t i c u l a r l y "of i t s time." it has often been noted that the novels share a p e c u l i a r l y timeless q u a l i t y — a deliberate and dreamlike exclusion of temporal and geographical e x p l i c i t n e s s . some of her themes l i n k her with woolf, richardson, mansfield, and nin, but her preoccupation with the sordid and the demi-monde gives her more i n common with henry m i l l e r and l a t e r , celine. when rhys f i r s t arrived on the continent, she cannot have been unaware of the experiments of proust, joyce, pound and e l i o t , with l i t e r a r y form—with the i n t e r i o r monologue, "stream of consciousness" and time s h i f t . there were many expatriates in paris in the twenties when rhys was there, as attested by the scores of l i t e r a r y magazines and reviews which emerged, providing an immediate forum for t h i s l i t e r a r y experiment. rhys however, was a rather d i f f e r e n t kind of expatriate from most others. as v.s. naipaul has put i t , she writes "outside the t r a d i t i o n of imperial expatriate writing in which the metropolitan outsider i s thrown into r e l i e f against an a l i e n background. she was an expatriate but her journey had been the other way around, from a background of nothing to an organized world with which her heroines could never come to terms...this journey, t h i s break in l i f e , i s the e s s e n t i a l theme of her f i v e novels." rhys' general reaction to paris' l i t e r a r y expatriate population can be quickly deduced from the searing p o r t r a i t s i n quartet. beneath a t h i n veneer of "bohemianism" she sees the same moneyed, bourgeois hypocrisy that she saw and loathed in the middle class everywhere. ford madox ford, as remarked e a r l i e r , provided the raw material for one of her most damning p o r t r a i t s — h . j . heidler in quartet. in l i f e , however, he was rather more useful, providing for rhys a l i n k with contemporary l i t e r a t u r e . he in fact served as a mentor, and was an i n f l u e n t i a l editor of rhys' work as i t began to appear in p r i n t . she must inevitably have been influenced by his views on f i c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y in matters of form. he undoubtedly conveyed to her the value of an impressionistic s t y l e , which he himself had perfected in the good soldier. this novel's narrator, john dowell, constantly revises and recreates his perception of events as he acquires a deeper understanding of t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e . just as impressionistic painting r e l i e s on the s h i f t i n g play of l i g h t , so in l i t e r a r y impressionism according to ford, narration w i l l s h i f t according to the narrator's angle or distance from the events. ford saw t h i s q u a l i t y already i n the works of flaubert, de.maupassant and henry james. just before the publication of the good solider, ford pointed out the supreme paradox of t h i s kind of writing: that while the novel's effectiveness depended e n t i r e l y on the "impressions" accumulated and dispensed by the writer, nevertheless the writer must be c a r e f u l "to avoid l e t t i n g his personality appear in the course of the book." in impressionism, the author's "whole book, his whole poem i s merely an expression of his personality, which i s the rendering of experience through t h i s d i s t i l l a t i o n of c e r t a i n recorded phenomena that capture the essence of that e x p e r i e n c e . o n a formal l e v e l t h i s may be true, but the kafkaesque c r i t i q u e runs counter to i t . there i s a d i s t i n c t s e l f involved. rhys i s nonetheless, on a purely s t y l i s t i c l e v e l , true to the model, and i t provides an i n t e r e s t i n g key to her autobiographical f i c t i o n s . her novels are at once impersonal, formally controlled and cool, and on the other hand, saturated with the intensely personal and private. impressionist writing at i t s best, according to ford, should be "minimalist". in t h i s mode and central to rhys' sensuous notation of experience, i s the emotional e l l i p s i s , which marks her characters' most subtle s h i f t s . ford advocated and rhys perfected, non-sequential dialogue, stressing the i r o n i c discrepancy between speech and feeling--speech when i t f a i l s to be any kind of objective c o r r e l a t i v e . in e f f e c t , rhys s t y l i s t i c a l l y takes much from her modernist antecedents and denies much of what they have to say. writing outside the moneyed and c u l t u r a l mainstream, rhys was also outside the transcendental element in modernist f i c t i o n , as taken up by the a e s t h e t i c i s t s of either sex. the aesthetic in f i c t i o n resided for her, almost e n t i r e l y in the realm of form; and in t h i s she i s one of the most elegant and purest writers of the twenties and t h i r t i e s . she i s primarily however, a novelist of a l i e n a t i o n . despite a formal element of "timelessness" in her narrative, one of the reasons her f i c t i o n s are so e f f e c t i v e as a l i e n a t i o n studies, i s that they are so exact; the rhys woman embodies a l l outsiders at the mercy of p r i v i l e g e d , s o c i a l ; : configurations in europe between the wars. she focuses p r e c i s e l y on the way language works, both in society in which her victims struggle to survive and in the l i t e r a r y world of the modernists in which she struggles to function as a pure s t y l i s t in the european t r a d i t i o n of flaubert and turgenev, and as an alienated female voice which does not speak to an appropriate audience. as a writer, jean rhys functions outside the disengaged ironies of modernism though using several of i t s key f o r m s — p r i n c i p a l l y the autobiographical novel. in other words i would suggest that a l i e n a t i o n i n rhys' f i c t i o n s functions at two l e v e l s — s o c i a l and e x i s t e n t i a l . she compounds the a l i e n a t i n g facts of her characters' l i v e s by t r e a t i n g them f i n a l l y outside a s o c i a l context, as universal facts of existence; in so doing she seals t h e i r fates and creates a devastatingly complete p o r t r a i t of l i f e l i v e d in despair, where the p o l a r i t i e s which torment her c h a r a c t e r s — o f sex, money, power and race, w i l l never be resolved. to conclude, then, rhys' autobiographical novels of a l i e n a t i o n written from a female expatriate perspective do much to disrupt fixed notions of neat l i t e r a r y chronology— impressionistic f i c t i o n followed by the modernist novel giving way to the post-modern anti-novel. perhaps t h i s i s the reason she i s not often discussed as a s i g n i f i c a n t woman writer of her day, or as "belonging" to a p a r t i c u l a r decade or school, or even n a t i o n a l i t y . the " s e l f " she brought to f i c t i o n was a rootless international creature, haunted by caribbean power structures from another century, a r t i s t i c a l l y influenced more by the french and the russians than the english i n whose language she wrote, and seeing l i t e r a t u r e as a vocation, but one at which she could never earn a l i v i n g l i k e the comfortably o f f and widely respected mrs. woolf. her studies of j u s t i f i e d paranoia, obsession and defeat, exposees of the english bourgeoisie and i t s capacity to maim and tyrannize, portrayed with the precision of a nightmare, would not have won her a popular readership i n the 's. in the 's she was regarded as s t y l i s t i c a l l y out of touch, a georgian s e n s i b i l i t y in the shadow of the politico-documentary style of isherwood, greene and orwell. she was l o s t between the two decades as the antipathetic and uncomprehending reviews she received well indicate. she i s , however, a fascinating and an important t r a n s i t i o n a l writer i n several respects. she was a far more subtle ideologue than the male writers of the t h i r t i e s and at the same time offered far greater s o c i a l awareness than her female contemporaries. her damning s o c i a l c r i t i q u e s were written with such vividness that they take one into the world of universal and inevitable t e r r o r , kafka's world, where one's only response i s the "nausea" of a sartre. an important consideration i s that she i s a woman's kafka, o f f e r i n g expressionistic nightmare canvases which illuminate the grotesque consequence of power, cruelty and masochism based on sex and rendering love and l i f e meaningless. i do not believe that i t i s possible to dismiss rhys s t y l i s t i c a l l y on the grounds that she was a georgian writer trained by ford, e i t h e r . here too, in the area of s t y l e , rhys i s an i n t e r e s t i n g crossover writer. she wrote with the formal purity of turgenev or checkhov, writers she admired. there are strong echoes of colette's l y r i c i s m too. but there were s t r i k i n g l y o r i g i n a l and forward-looking aspects of her s t y l e which confused her c r i t i c s . the formal purity, the cool and exquisite precision of her d e t a i l , editing and narrative structure, create an a i r of surface calm for her f i c t i o n . there i s , at the same time, a c h i l l i n g irony to the play of tensions between t h i s calm elegance and narrative poise, and the psycho-nightmare which collapses a l l r e l i a b l e order beneath i t . there are hints here of the kinds of post-modern s t y l i s t i c pastiches to which we have become used in the works of writers l i k e muriel spark, renata adler, saul bellow and i t a l o calvino. like these contemporary writers, rhys brought a range of l i t e r a r y and perceptual styles-—expressionism, impressionism and r e a l i s m — t o bear on her issue, the psycho-social fragmentation of women between the wars. in a highly self-conscious and controlled way, she made of the autobiographical novel something much more open; she made i t do more, while preserving i t s e s s e n t i a l opaqueness as a personal document. chapter three self portraiture as cubist a r t i f i c e e x i l e or expatriate while jean rhys d r i f t e d towards europe, gertrude stein was a determined expatriate for c u l t u r a l reasons, much as henry james had been in the nineteenth century. in , stein made a premeditated personal decision to move to paris a c u l t u r a l climate that was kind to a r t i s t s . she preceded, by nearly twenty years, the much more self-conscious and t h e a t r i c a l displacement of an entire generation of other young americans who went to paris "to write." always quick to remind that she was an american, stein made i t clear that she did not think of herself as in any way i n e x i l e , that i s , l i v i n g at a disadvantage, or without choices. she was a voluntary expatriate, on good terms with her country, who l i v e d i n paris because i t suited her and provided her with a suitable audience for her writing. america, she had decided early in a l i t e r a r y career almost r e l i g i o u s in i t s d a i l y application, was not a p r a c t i c a l place for her to l i v e and write. in answer to a questionnaire published in the paris l i t e r a r y journal t r a n s i t i o n which asked "why do you l i v e abroad? gertrude stein r e p l i e d that "the united states i s a country the right age to be born in and the wrong age to l i v e in...a r i c h and well-nourished home but not a place to work i n . " malcolm cowley i n his book on the twenties, exile ' s return, supports t h i s verdict on america as a place to leave i f one wants an a r t i s t i c career. admittedly, he describes an america that i s a f u l l decade and a half on from the one stein l e f t in , but one senses that many of the trends he describes so passionately lay behind stein's comment: almost everywhere, in every department of c u l t u r a l l i f e , europe offered the models to imitate in painting, composing, philosophy, folk drinking, the drama, sex, p o l i t i c s , national consciousness—indeed some doubted his country [the u.s.] was even a nation; i t had no t r a d i t i o n s except the f a t a l t r a d i t i o n of the pioneer. as for our contemporary l i t e r a t u r e . . . i t i s indeed one long l i s t of s p i r i t u a l casualties....one can count on one's two hands the american writers who are able to carry on the development and unfolding of t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s . year i n , year out, as every competent man of a f f a i r s c a r r i e s on his business (writers) have lapsed into silence or have involved themselves in barren e c c e n t r i c i t i e s , or have been turned into machines...poets...extinguished... novelists...unable to grow up, remain withered boys of seventeen...everywhere there i s no scope for individualism; ignorance, unculture, or at the best, mediocrity has triumphed....the highest achievements of our m a t e r i a l i s t i c c i v i l i z a t i o n . . . c o u n t as so many symbols of i t s s p i r i t u a l f a i l u r e . gertrude stein did not every speak out as f i e r c e l y as t h i s against her country. she simply decided that i t was no country for writers, and not for her. yet she regarded herself as fundamentally and at a l l times an american. to l i v e in france was a creative decision. she did learn french to a l e v e l of competence, and one of the f i r s t exercises she set herself on a r r i v a l was to translate flaubert's trois contes; but she paid no p a r t i c u l a r attention to either the language or l i t e r a t u r e of france, the country- she v i r t u a l l y adopted u n t i l her death in , leaving i t only to go on occasional holidays. thornton wilder, l e c t u r i n g on stein's work a f t e r her death, makes an i n t e r e s t i n g case for interpreting stein's absence from the country she was so passionately concerned with, and p e r i o d i c a l l y (the making of americans and four in america) wished to interpret for the benefit of other americans. he suggests that perhaps she i s an offshoot of a "reclusive tendency" i n american writing. his chief example i s emily dickinson, a writer who wished to i s o l a t e herself from her natural audience, the better to d i s t i l l what she had to t e l l them. stein was in no normal way r e c l u s i v e , far from i t , hers was an intensely s o c i a l l i f e . but i n some central a r t i s t i c sense, french society did not count for her. it did not intrude on her, shape or i n h i b i t her. she l i v e d in i s o l a t i o n from both american and french culture, her roots and a l l the automatic points of reference her adult consciousness might seek out at home. but america was frequently on her mind. "america i s my country, but paris i s my home town." within her i d i o s y n c r a t i c h i s t o r i c a l and geographical frameworks, america's p o s i t i o n was unique. she saw i t , quite curiously as "the oldest country in the world because by the methods of the c i v i l war and the commercial conception that followed i t , america created the twentieth century." one s e n s e s h e r s t r o n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a m e r i c a ' s p o w e r a s a n i n n o v a t o r . s h e d i d s e e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n g e o g r a p h y a n d c h a r a c t e r . " a f t e r a l l , a n y b o d y i s a s t h e i r l a n d a n d a i r i s . " i f a m e r i c a n i n t e r e s t e d h e r i n t h e a b s t r a c t , s h e w a s e n c h a n t e d b y i t i n a c t u a l i t y w h e n s h e r e v i s i t e d i t f o r t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y t i m e i n a f t e r t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f a l i c e b . t o k l a s h a d b e e n a b e s t s e l l e r t h e r e . w h e n s h e r e t u r n e d t o f r a n c e a f t e r t h e t r i p , s h e w a s q u o t e d i n t h e new y o r k h e r a l d t r i b u n e a s s a y i n g , " i am a l r e a d y h o m e s i c k f o r a m e r i c a — i n e v e r k n e w i t w a s s o b e a u t i f u l . i w a s l i k e a b a c h e l o r who g o e s a l o n g f i n e f o r t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s a n d t h e n d e c i d e s t o g e t m a r r i e d . t h a t i s t h e w a y i f e e l — i m e a n a b o u t a m e r i c a " (may , ) . a s i m i l a r l y e m o t i o n a l c h o r d w a s s t r u c k w h e n s t e i n w a s a s k e d t o s p e a k t o a m e r i c a n s b y r a d i o f r o m a n a r m y c a m p n e a r h e r home i n n e w l y l i b e r a t e d r u r a l f r a n c e a t t h e e n d o f w o r l d w a r i i . s h e b e g a n " i c a n t e l l e v e r y b o d y t h a t n o n e o f y o u k n o w w h a t t h i s n a t i v e l a n d b u s i n e s s i s u n t i l y o u h a v e b e e n c u t o f f f r o m t h a t s a m e n a t i v e l a n d c o m p l e t e l y f o r y e a r s . t h i s n a t i v e l a n d b u s i n e s s g g e t s y o u a l l r i g h t . " i t i s a s t h o u g h w a r r e m i n d e d h e r o f h e r a m e r i c a n n e s s . " g e r t r u d e s t e i n a l w a y s s a i d t h e w a r w a s s o m u c h b e t t e r t h a n j u s t g o i n g t o a m e r i c a . h e r e y o u w e r e w i t h a m e r i c a i n a k i n d o f w a y t h a t i f y o u o n l y w e n t t o a m e r i c a y o u c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y b e . " t h i s w a s u n d e n i a b l y a n e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e . b u t i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , s h e w a s v e r y c l e a r t h a t a m e r i c a w a s n o t t h e p l a c e f o r h e r t o b e . i n f o u r i n a m e r i c a , h e r a n a l y s i s o f t h e a m e r i c a n c h a r a c t e r , she states her basic assumption about american existence: that i t "has no context, no organizing boundaries, lacking a substantial limited environment, americans f i n d themselves f r e e - f l o a t i n g . therefore they are...perpetual pioneers, every building, never completing....all americans have i s „ a x r . she regarded herself primarily as an a r t i s t and only secondly an american. so the appropriate milieu for her work mattered more than her i n s t i n c t i v e allegiance to her country. "i was e s s e n t i a l l y a writer's writer. my audience in france, that was a perfect audience.""'""'" she claimed in paris france, her t r i b u t e to her home town, to need to l i v e there just as other major creators of the new art in the twentieth century needed to be there. in her explanation of t h i s , she provides a v i r t u a l manifesto for l i t e r a r y expatriates. after a l l everybody, that i s everybody who writes i s interested in l i v i n g inside themselves in order to t e l l what i s inside themselves. that i s why writers have to have two countries, the one where they belong and the one in which they l i v e r e a l l y . the second one i s romantic. it i s separate from themselves, i t i s not r e a l , but i t i s r e a l l y there....of course, sometimes people discover t h e i r own country as i f i t were the other...but in general that other country that you need to be free in i s the other country not the country where you r e a l l y belong. but why france? she explains: -"the english victorians were l i k e that about i t a l y , the early nineteenth century americans were l i k e that about spain, the middle nineteenth century americans were l i k e that about england, my generation the end of the nineteenth century american generation was l i k e that about france." in the opening l i n e of her t r i b u t e , she declares that "paris, france i s e x c i t i n g and peaceful." both concepts, of s t a b i l i t y and permanence on the one hand, and the p o s s i b i l i t y of upheaval and r a d i c a l change on the other, seem necessary to stein. dwelling lovingly on what i s enduring and therefore always compelling about france for the foreign a r t i s t and i n t e l l e c t u a l , she elaborates: the reason why a l l of us naturally began to l i v e in france i s because france has s c i e n t i f i c methods, machines and e l e c t r i c i t y but does not r e a l l y believe that these things have anything to do with the r e a l business of l i v i n g . l i f e i s t r a d i t i o n and human nature....and so in the beginning of the twentieth century when a new way had to be found naturally they needed france....french people r e a l l y do not believe that anything i s important except d a i l y l i v i n g and the ground that gives i t to them. tradition...and private l i f e and the s o i l which always produces something, that is•what counts. in a paradoxical sense, however, i t i s exactly t h i s permanence, belonging to another country, another culture, which provided stein with a background of "unreality" which was, she said, "very necessary for anybody having to create the twentieth century." france with i t s contradictory settled/unsettled nature, could free foreign a r t i s t s from t r a d i t i o n and the past. paris was a c i t y were the natives' "acceptance of r e a l i t y i s so great that they could l e t anyone have the emotion of unreality." france was good to foreigners, she reported, accepting them, leaving them alone and providing them with the kind of background they needed. it was e s p e c i a l l y good to americans, who in paris could "look modern without being d i f f e r e n t . " and, of course, the french respected the profession of l e t t e r s , according painters and writers certain p r i v i l e g e s , sensibly aware, stein wrote, that "after a l l the way everything i s remembered i s by writers and painters in the period." this was france's time, according to her. different countries, she declared, were important at d i f f e r e n t times i n h i s t o r y . england had "gloriously created the nineteenth century" but was steadfastly refusing the twentieth, "american knew the twentieth century too well to create i t , " therefore paris, france from to i s "where everybody has to be to be free." her evidence for t h i s in paris france i s , as always, anecdotal—souvenirs based on encounters with and observations of individuals and f a m i l i e s . she o f f e r s no c u l t u r a l analysis. we get narrative scraps and verbal photographs of france's dogs, farms and potted h i s t o r i e s of french cooking. she makes no e f f o r t to r e l a t e her observations and her conclusions. she does not analyse french behaviour. she i s not concerned with how and why things are. as an a r t i s t she records what she sees. she wants above a l l to recreate things being--things as they are at the moment of observation. her t r i b u t e i s addressed more to the people of france and the ways in which they have chosen to l i v e , rather than to the place i t s e l f . she has chosen, however, conversations and events that somehow to her are french, that embody c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e s in french culture and i n the country's permanent sense of i t s e l f . her book evaluates what i s of value there. the text i s not simply a t r i b u t e , a travelogue or an informal memoir. it continues stein's career-long experiment with prose forms. while basing i t s e l f on the personal, the autobiographical, i t i s also a c u l t u r a l , h i s t o r i c a l meditation. fact and f i c t i o n interweave. although there are s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l references, these are recorded as far as possible, in the tense stein invented to describe the nature of events in the twentieth century--the "continuous present: " events then are not selected or linked in the normal ways. they are chosen and arranged as f i c t i o n a l material would be. to consolidate t h i s timeless, aesthetic version of place and existence there, she concentrates far more on the v i s u a l , s p a t i a l and l i n g u i s t i c aspects of i t , rather than the temporal or s t r i c t l y h i s t o r i c a l . most often she provides a v i s u a l or aural metaphor f o r the advantages of being anywhere. one of the things that i have l i k e d a l l these years i s to be surrounded by people who know no english. it has l e f t me more intensely alone with my eyes and my english...as she says eyes to her were more important than e a r s . . . i t has been so often said that the appeal of her work i s to the ear and to the subconscious. actually i t i s her eyes and mind that are active and important and concerned in choosing. place i s always p r i v i l e g e d over time in her writing. in the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas for example, i t i s place and time which i s the central marker in recording experience. the photographs in the book are l a b e l l e d according to place, not year. the experience of a place c l e a r l y has l i t t l e to do with the duration of that experience i n calendar time, e.g. "gertrude stein was born in allegheny, pennsylvania" and "she l e f t i t when she was six months o l d . " in the same s p i r i t , photograph t i t l e s include "gertrude stein in vienna," "gertrude stein at johns hopkins medical- school," and "gertrude stein and a l i c e b. toklas in front of saint mark's, venice." no dates are provided. place i s never simply a s p e c i f i c in stein's writing-- paris, . it i s frequently a powerfully charged abstract, given almost phenomenological s i g n i f i c a n c e , over time. it can be described personally, autobiographically or impersonally, as an abstract background. she speaks of paris almost as a stage set for the theatre of the avant-garde. this dual sense of place/space invests much of stein's writing with a l i b e r a t i n g dimension of timelessness. surrounded by the french culture and language, which she was able to observe and appreciate while never giving herself over to them, stein was free to operate more intensely as an american writing in english. it bothered her a great deal to think that anyone might mistake her for an exotic or foreign "coterie" writer. "there i s for me only one language and that i s english." it suited her i d i o s y n c r a t i c l i t e r a r y purposes very well "to be surrounded by people who have no english. i do not know i f i t would have been possible to have english be so a l l in a l l to me otherwise. no, i l i k e l i v i n g with so very many people and being a l l alone with english and myself." one i s drawn to the idea that the kind of english stein wrote under these circumstances amounted to a kind of foreign language, so often did i t break with the laws of normal usage. one must f i r s t grasp her "alphabet" and "vocabulary" before coming to terms with her o v e r a l l design. i t c e r t a i n l y requires of the readers sympathetic "translation," l i k e any foreign language. in a curious way, stein's highly i d i o s y n c r a t i c expatriation managed to sustain quite refined "abstractions" of both her homes—american and f r a n c e — i n her mind at once without having to compromise one at the expense of another. in a sense she l i v e d in france to function more purely, at least i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , as an american. she was someone who c l e a r l y preferred to be an american abroad, than one at home. she was free from any of the d i s t r a c t i o n s of nationalism, and from having to f i g h t any c u l t u r a l battles she did not wish to take up. she was free too, to l i v e the kind of personal and creative l i f e that may not have been possible in the u.s. p r i o r to . she was one of the very few americans who remained i n europe after the t h i r t i e s when i t was no longer fashionable. her l i f e plan as an expatriate was a very personal one. it i s curious to think about whether she would have done what she did to the english language—that i s to put i t under a microscope and then fracture i t — i f she had l i v e d i n an english speaking country. but i t seems paramount to her that she did not. i l l she needed to work in a kind of language i s o l a t i o n . she c l e a r l y needed and responded to the stimulus of other forms of r a d i c a l art being produced around her. paris met an e s s e n t i a l requirement for c r o s s - f e r t i l i z a t i o n that resulted in some of her r i c h e s t forms, e.g. the word p o r t r a i t in d i r e c t response to early cubism, and the poetic opera under the influence of musicians l i k e v i r g i l thompson. stein did not ever wish to detach herself from her american o r i g i n s and s e n s i b i l i t y to become e n t i r e l y the f r e e - f l o a t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t , however, and many of her readers believe there to be something d i s t i n c t l y american about her a r t . stein would have us believe that her expatriation, l i k e her a r t , was an e n t i r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l matter. one u n i n t e l l e c t u a l aspect of her l i f e intrudes at t h i s point, however, and that i s her lesbianism. lesbianism was far more sympathetically regarded in europe than in america in . stein was much freer in paris to l i v e as a s e l f - declared lesbian i n t e l l e c t u a l . her lesbianism, l i k e jean rhys' poverty, put her in a d i f f e r e n t subculture than that of simple expatriate or woman writer. we should note as well, though, that stein was an independently wealthy expatriate lesbian, so r a d i c a l l y distinguishing herself from rhys. when we read stein's version of autobiographical f i c t i o n we must be aware of t h i s aspect of her private l i f e , which provided a personal and creative s t a r t i n g point. many of the "metaphors of the s e l f " she uses for her cubist s e l f - p o r t r a i t are d i s t o r t i n g mirrors intended to deceive, to entertain, to deflect and to reveal in the only way she genuinely believed p o s s i b l e — a s a confusing and p o t e n t i a l l y contradictory t o t a l i t y . the p o r t r a i t was the objective c o r r e l a t i v e of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t , androgynous mind. stein was multi-faceted, playing the american "card" when i t suited her, just as at other times, she played the lesbian "card" to s u i t . autiobiograhy: cubist self creation soon after i t s publication, a denunciation of gertrude stein's the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas by some of those who saw themselves as the book's victims appear in the i n f l u e n t i a l arts publication, t r a n s i t i o n . among others, matisse, tristan tzara and andre salmon accused her of ignorance of the f a c t s , and in some cases of pathological l y i n g . matisse, at one time a close f r i e n d of stein's, went into more d e t a i l : her book i s composed, l i k e a picture puzzle, of d i f f e r e n t pictures which at f i r s t , by t h e i r very chaos, give an i l l u s i o n of the movement of l i f e . but, i f we attempt to envisage the things she mentions, t h i s i l l u s i o n does not l a s t . in short, i t i s more l i k e a harlequin's costume the d i f f e r e n t pieces of which, having been more or less invented by herself, have been sewn together without taste and without r e l a t i o n to r e a l i t y . many consider these very q u a l i t i e s to be the book's strengths rather than i t s weaknesses. matisse inadvertently chooses one of the central images in the post-impressionist painting of the period to symbolize the book—the harlequin, made famous in many of picasso's canvases of the period; and the image i s an appropriate one. i t reminds us that stein was a key figure i n the avant-garde of both the l i t e r a r y and art worlds in the f i r s t forty years of the centry and i t i s only in t h i s context that her work can properly be assessed. along with writers joyce, pound and e l i o t , painters cezanne, matisse and picasso and musicians schonberg, satie and stravinsky, gertrude stein sensed at the beginning of the twentieth century that t r a d i t i o n a l forms for representing r e a l i t y in art were exhausted. a new mimesis was needed. in order to r e - e s t a b l i s h a r t i s t i c representation on a new set of f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s , these a r t i s t s set about d e l i b e r a t e l y to "deconstruct" as gertrude stein described i t , t r a d i t i o n a l a r t i s t i c structures. this meant a thorough dismantling of both the s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s of a subject and the t r a d i t i o n a l unexamined habits of i t s perception, preparatory to a complete reconstruction of the object. in stein's case, techniques for deconstruction and reconstruction are so c l o s e l y related, however, that they can v i r t u a l l y be simultaneous movements of her mind. she and others were responding to philosophical breakthroughs in the works of henri bergson and william james which had led to the r e a l i z a t i o n that the structures within which a r t i s t s had always worked were in fact received conventions which could be manipulated, r a d i c a l l y altered or ignored. in the v i s u a l arts, picasso challenged the laws of perspective i n his paintings of the f i r s t twenty years of the centry, matisse—the t r a d i t i o n a l use of colour and d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e — c e z a n n e , t h e n a t u r e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l f o r m . t h e s e a r t i s t s m a d e i t c l e a r t h a t a r t n o l o n g e r n e e d b e b o u n d t o a m i m e t i c r e c o r d i n g o f r e a l i t y . s t e i n t o o w a n t e d h e r w o r k t o b e f r e e o f a r t ' s t r a d i t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t h e " r e a l w o r l d " t o h o l d a m i r r o r u p t o i t . s h e w a n t e d h e r l i t e r a r y p i e c e s t o b e c o m p l e t e l y s e l f - d e t e r m i n i n g a n d s e l f - c o n t a i n e d a r t i f a c t s . t h r o u g h o u t h e r c a r e e r , a s a r e s u l t , h e r s t y l e b e c o m e s m o r e a n d m o r e a b s t r a c t . s h e b e g a n w i t h a k i n d o f s c i e n t i f i c n a t u r a l i s m , p r o c e e d e d t o a j a m e s i a n s t y l i z a t i o n o f r e a l i t y , a n d f i n a l l y t o a p o i n t o f f r a g m e n t a t i o n w h e r e h e r w o r d s c e a s e t o c o n v e y c o n v e n t i o n a l m e a n i n g o f a n y k i n d . t h e y b e c o m e , a s o n e c r i t i c h a s c a l l e d t h e m , " p l a s t i c c o u n t e r s t o b e m a n i p u l a t e d p u r e l y i n o b e d i e n c e t o t h e a r t i s t ' s e x p r e s s i v e w i l l , j u s t a s p a i n t e r s m a n i p u l a t e s e m a n t i c l i n e a n d c o l o u r . " s t e i n may h a v e f a i l e d t o m a t c h t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f p a i n t e r s w h o s e a i m s s h e w i s h e d t o p a r a l l e l i n h e r w r i t i n g ; i t may n o t b e p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e " c u b i s t p r o s e " t h a t w o r k s . n e v e r t h e l e s s , s h e h e r s e l f c i t e d m o d e r n w o r k s o f a r t a s a n a l o g u e s f o r h e r o w n v e r b a l e x p e r i m e n t s . i n t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f a l i c e b . t o k l a s f o r e x a m p l e , s h e d i s c u s s e s m a t i s s e ' s e a r l y "femme a u c h a p e a u " a n d " b o n h e u r d e v i v r e . " i t w a s i n t h i s [ l a t t e r ] p i c t u r e t h a t m a t i s s e c l e a r l y r e a l i z e d h i s i n t e n t i o n o f d e f o r m i n g t h e d r a w i n g o f t h e h u m a n b o d y i n o r d e r t o h a r m o n i z e a n d i n t e n s i f y t h e c o l o u r v a l u e s . . . . he u s e d h i s d i s t o r t e d d r a w i n g s a s a d i s s o n a n c e i s u s e d i n m u s i c o r a s v i n e g a r o r l e m o n s a r e u s e d i n c o o k i n g o r e g g s h e l l s i n c o f f e e t o c l a r i f y . by her references to "deforming" and " d i s t o r t i n g ; " stein must have meant "abstracting." in the same s p i r i t she intended to use verbal " d i s t o r t i o n s " of language to " c l a r i f y " i t . the painters, and for that matter, the sculptors (and i n d i f f e r e n t ways, musicians) with whom she associated herself, did not ever have to face the problem of "meaning" as a writer must. their concerns were as always, form, mass, colour, texture and l i n e . nevertheless, stein's work i f i t i s to be properly understood must be considered in r e l a t i o n to the attitudes and practices she purposefully shared with the cubist v i s u a l a r t i s t s . j.m. brinnin highlights t h i s connection i n his study, the third rose: gertrude stein and her world. in most previous associations of poets and painters, and in a l l previous comparisons of t h e i r work, i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s and congruencies had for the most part hinged upon s i m i l a r i t i e s in subject matter and attitude....when the cubists jettisoned subject matter, l i a i s o n s between poetry and painting on the old basis were no longer possible....when the l i t e r a r y content of painting was omitted in favour of f r e e l y conceived mathematical/intuitive exercise of purely p l a s t i c values, gertrude stein also attempted to drop subject matter in order to concentrate f r e e l y on the " p l a s t i c " p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of the language i t s e l f . so, from onwards, stein "buries" narrative beneath an art of the surface, a surface that i s non-mimetic and " p l a s t i c " where words, l e t t e r s and sounds are manipulated as colour, texture and l i n e are refashioned in the canvasses of picasso, braque and juan gris. of course, i t i s understood that the comparison of one art with another i s at best, a metaphor. but in t h i s case i t i s a necessary one. stein applied her p r i n c i p l e s of "composition" f r e e l y to both the v i s u a l and l i t e r a r y a r t s . in fact composition i s her word for culture. in "composition as explanation," a lecture given to the cambridge l i t e r a r y society in may , she put forward her thesis that generations were " a l l a l i k e --nothing changes except what i s seen—that i s the manner of composition. composition i s determined by the manner i n which l i f e i s being conducted at any given moment." how l i t e r a t u r e was being conducted in the f i r s t quarter of the century has been documented by many in t h e i r attempts to "place" the modern. david lodge, in an important essay, "the language of modernist f i c t i o n : metaphor and metonymyy" neatly c o d i f i e s the q u a l i t i e s of "modernist" f i c t i o n as exemplified by three of i t s figureheads in prose—james joyce, gertrude stein and marcel proust. lodge defines modern f i c t i o n ' as "experimental or innovatory in form," " c l e a r l y deviating from other modes of discourse, both l i t e r a r y and non-literary;" i t i s "much concerned with consciousness" and the workings of the subconscious. "external 'objective' events"--the s t u f f of t r a d i t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e — a r e diminished in scope, and when present, are rendered " s e l e c t i v e l y and obliquely," leaving more room for "introspection, analysis [and] r e f l e c t i o n . " the modern novel defies the "beginning-middle-end" structure of t r a d i t i o n a l narrative, plunging us instead into a "flowing stream of experience." a good deal i s asked of the reader. by a process of "inference and association" he i s asked to piece the puzzle of the prose together. other modes of aesthetic ordering of d e t a i l than those of t r a d i t i o n a l narrative construction are given prominence: " a l l u s i o n or imitation of l i t e r a r y models or mythical archetypes or r e p e t i t i o n — w i t h v a r i a t i o n of motifs, images, symbols, a technique often c a l l e d 'rhythm,' ' l e i t m o t i f ' or 'spatial form.'" modern f i c t i o n abandons straight chronology as an ordering p r i n c i p l e and the use of a t r a d i t i o n a l omniscient narrator. instead there i s a new r e l a t i v i s m of perspective and p o t e n t i a l l y , a m u l t i p l i c i t y of viewpoints. the manipulation of time as a f i c t i o n a l construct takes on a new experimental s i g n i f i c a n c e . in english, joyce, stein and v i r g i n i a woolf display nearly a l l of these q u a l i t i e s . stein preceded these l i t e r a r y developments largely of the twenties, by some years. she began to base her writing on practices of t h i s kind as early as , with the making of americans. the contemporary with whom she i s most r e a d i l y comparable i s james joyce, another resident expatriate of paris for whom the place was largely i r r e l e v a n t . their intentions would appear to be s i m i l a r , to overthrow the e x i s t i n g l i t e r a r y canon. they shared the basic view that art should transcend r e a l i t y , that works of art should be autonomous, highly integrated in texture and structure, and that a l l facets of the work should be of equal importance: hence the modernist premise that to understand anything about t h e i r novels, we must know everything about them. this shared intention for l i t e r a t u r e was almost the only- thing they had in common as writers. their sense and use of language was almost diametrically opposed. their handling of time separated them even further; though they both believed that only the present moment has any r e a l h i s t o r i c a l significance and that the past and future are s i g n i f i c a n t only in t h e i r power to interpret the present. joyce's present moment i s an intense, s p e c i f i c and ornately textured one; for stein i t i s possible to abstract the present and to deal with units of time that are discrete and autonomous. stein brought t h i s contrast to bear on her major work, the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas, her " s e l f - p o r t r a i t " which displays a l l of the q u a l i t i e s which david lodge i d e n t i f i e s as "modernist." curiously i t was a best s e l l e r as well, which c e r t a i n l y sets i t apart from work by joyce, e l i o t , pound and woolf, whose popularity was limited to an appreciative c u l t u r a l e l i t e . yet stein's text remains an enigmatic one. while i t demands much of the reader, i t can be read as nothing more than entertaining memoir, one of a great many written about l i f e i n europe in the twenties and t h i r t i e s . there i s no doubt that stein wanted i t to s e l l . she had made l i t t l e or no money from her books, often having printed them at her own expense. nevertheless, i t i s also clear that in i t , she wished to continue her l i f e - l o n g l i t e r a r y experiment. in f a c t , she constructs her s e l f - p o r t r a i t as a modernist novel and as a cubist painting, incorporating the expected architecture of memoir or autobiography into a large, more sophisticated, hybrid design. the autobiography of a l i c e e. toklas i s the only one of her books that many consider readable. she wrote i t against her better judgement, d i s t r u s t i n g profoundly the p r i n c i p l e s and practices of t r a d i t i o n a l memoir and even of the highly complex, transmuted autobiographical f i c t i o n of joyce and proust, in which memory i s invested with enormous resonance as a l i t e r a r y t o o l . just as she had needed to depart r a d i c a l l y from the n a t u r a l i s t i c nineteenth century f i c t i o n with which she had started her career, stein could not imagine writing either an actual or a transmuted autobiography in which acknowledged in any way, what she would have considered the " r e v i s i o n i s t " power of memory to record r e a l i t y accurately or imaginatively. in a peculiar way she wanted to create a new, heightened "realism" which was also modern, and had nothing to do with memory. after great prompting, she wrote her version of a l i t e r a r y memoir in six weeks, and i t appeared i n . i t may not be any kind of v e r i f i a b l e record of the l i f e of gertrude stein, the woman and a r t i s t , but i t i s a t e l l i n g memoir of the r i c h e s t period in french and international c u l t u r a l history, t h i s century: jean cocteau c a l l e d i t "the heroic age of cubism." the book spans the years from stein's a r r i v a l in paris in u n t i l the "present" time of writing— . she allocates a b r i e f preliminary chapter to her childhood and adolescence in the u.s.a. but the book focuses above a l l on the c i r c l e of a r t i s t s , writers and musicians who were known and entertained by stein and her companion, a l i c e toklas. these included many of the luminaries of the day—matisse, picasso, satie, pound and hemingway—all s l y l y revealed in apparently a r t l e s s anecdote and wickedly t e l l i n g incident. the heart of the book, however, i s the a l l i a n c e formed and sustained during that period between gertrude stein and a l i c e toklas. stein's autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas, i w i l l argue was written in the same s p i r i t as ford madox ford's it was the nightingale and ernest hemingway's a moveable feast, two other memoirs documenting paris at t h i s time. a l l share a rather elusive sense of the author as r e l i a b l e voice; there i s i n each case, however, a discernible and dominating ego s e l e c t i n g and arranging d e t a i l . a l l of these are c l e v e r l y wrought f i c t i o n s , and declared so by t h e i r authors, where r e a l i t y and narrative confront one another and interweave constantly. ford's autobiography declares i t s e l f f i c t i o n a l i n i t s preface, and hemingway d i r e c t s his reader towards an appreciation of the " n o v e l i s t i c " techniques he has employed. stein's t i t l e provides her clue for readers as to the true nature of her book. throughout, and much to the horror of some of the r e a l people she portrayed, she treats facts whimsically, selecting some and ignoring others which do not interest her, highlighting some characters when they were in favour with her and diminishing them again when they had faded. she merges some d e t a i l — k a l e i d e s c o p i n g whole years into a single evening—and, to sustain the autobiographical aspect, places herself c e n t r a l l y in most s t o r i e s , whether she was or not. as george wickes points out, "the myth of the modernist movement was more important to her than actual f a c t s . " so, from the beginning, her treatment of people and events was n o v e l i s t i c , and her presence of central narrative importance. but i t must be said that i n c e r t a i n important respects, the book operates outside the commonly accepted laws of the novel genre as well as those of autobiography. there i s no p l o t , for example. true to her p r i n c i p l e s , stein t r i e s to t e l l what happened without t e l l i n g s t o r i e s . characters do not develop; they "inhabit" s h i f t i n g verbal landscapes she provides for them. generally speaking, the book operates between the known forms of memoir and f i c t i o n , o f f e r i n g quite deliberate challenges to both. her elaborate pretensions to o b j e c t i v i t y ( i . e . h i s t o r i c a l record) notwithstanding, i t i s quickly clear to readers that i t i s a d i s t i n c t l y subjective, indeed i d i o s y n c r a t i c work, which i s neither s t r i c t narrative, nor a s t r i c t l y accurate record of her time, but manages a l i t t l e of both. i w i l l argue that the work i s considerably more f i c t i o n a l than i t i s h i s t o r i c a l ; that i t s proper category i s the autobiographical novel. narrative, s t r i c t l y defined, had always "bothered" stein. in "narration," she had defined narrative as "a t e l l i n g of what i s happening in successive moments of i t s happening." one thinks here of gide's idea of "succession" as the only adequate method for capturing experience. stein no longer believed i t possible in the modern world to r e l y on a coherent sequence for events. "moving i s in every d i r e c t i o n " (p. ). to her, s t r i c t narrative was inadequate for dealing with the world as i t now existed. ambivalent about whether to attempt a deviant version of i t , that i s to try to subvert i t from within, or to abandon i t altogether, she decides in the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas for the former, in the guise of something else. using f i c t i o n a l constructs, she bases her text, as boswell did before her, on intimate factual knowledge of her subject, h e r s e l f , and the world as she saw i t . stein's parting reference to robinson crusoe at the end of the autobiography i s her clear concluding indication that her intention has been to blur the d i s t i n c t i o n s between fact and f i c t i o n , art and l i f e . her "autobiographical novel i s so constructed that i t i s frequently d i f f i c u l t for the reader to t e l l exactly where facts stop and invention begins t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what the author intends. her joke i s that a novel i s inevitably an autobiography and vice versa. a l i c e ' s narration of the book i s a f i c t i o n , or in stein's terminology a t r a n s l a t i o n . one of the central jokes of the book i s that the actual authorship i s not made clear u n t i l the l a s t page, where we are also confronted with the same photograph which served as the book's frontspiece to remind us that i t has a l l been a d e l i g h t f u l , c i r c u l a r game. n o t o n l y i s t h e t e x t w i t h o u t a r e l i a b l e n a r r a t o r , a n o t h e r j o k e o n t h e w h o l e i d e a o f s e l f - p o r t r a i t u r e ; t h e r e i s n o c l e a r p r i n c i p a l s u b j e c t s a s s u c h . s t e i n ' s i m i t a t i o n o f a l i c e i s a n a c k n o w l e d g e d t o u r d e f o r c e ; h e r p r o s e i s f r e q u e n t l y i d e n t i c a l i n t o n e a n d v o c a b u l a r y t o t h a t o f a l i c e ' s o w n l a t e r m e m o i r — a n d i t i s t h e o n l y w o r k o f s t e i n ' s e v e r t o s o u n d l i k e t h i s . t h e t e x t i s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , a c o m p o s i t e p o r t r a i t o f b o t h w o m e n — e a c h o f t h e o t h e r , a n d i t i s a s c l o s e a s s t e i n w i l l c o m e t o a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h e r " s e l f . " a s i t e x i s t s a t t h a t t i m e , h e r " s e l f " l i v e s w i t h a n d t h r o u g h t h e a g e n c y o f a l i c e t o k l a s , a n d m u s t b e r e p r e s e n t e d e s s e n t i a l l y a s d o i n g s o . t h e b o o k i s a t r i b u t e , a w o r k o f l o v e , a s w e l l a s a n i n t e l l e c t u a l j o k e a t t h e e x p e n s e o f e s t a b l i s h e d l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s . i t i s a p a r o d y o f b o t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d t h e p o r t r a i t o f t h e a r t i s t n o v e l . o n a s t y l i s t i c l e v e l t h e b o o k m i r r o r s t h i s b l e n d e d p o r t r a i t o f t h e t w o w o m e n . a l i c e ' s d o m e s t i c i t y , h e r l o v e o f g a r d e n s a n d c o o k i n g , h e r w h i m s y m i x e d w i t h a c i d i c p r e c i s i o n - - h a v e a m u c h n e e d e d " t r a n s l a t i o n " e f f e c t o n s t e i n ' s r a t h e r i n t r a c t a b l e t e n d e n c i e s t o r e p e t i t i o n a n d d i g r e s s i o n . o f t e n i n t h e t e x t , i t i s u n c l e a r w h i c h o f t h e t w o i s s p e a k i n g . t h i s i s b o t h d e l i b e r a t e a n d s t e i n h i n t s , u n a v o i d a b l e . t h i s i s h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h y o n e o f t w o b u t w h i c h i t i s : n o o n e c a n k n o w . i n a p a r t i c u l a r p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e n s e , i t i_s a l i c e ' s s t o r y , i n t h a t i t r e c o r d s h e r g r a d u a l a n d t h e n , l i f e l o n g d e d i c a t i o n t o s t e i n , w h o b e c a m e t h e f o c u s o f h e r l i f e . ' therefore any p o r t r a i t of gertrude i s also a p o r t r a i t of a l i c e . as one c r i t i c has noted, i f a l i c e toklas had written the book, we would expect i t to have much the same focus. so i t i s a mediated p o r t r a i t , of each by the other, maintaining to quite a high degree, something of the psychological veracity of both. the supposed autobiography has f u l f i l l e d the t r a d i t i o n a l expectations of the genre-- that i s a degree of s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n . stein preferred to c a l l her text a "translation" rather than narrative or autobiography. in she had agreed to perform an actual t r a n s l a t i n g exercise/ which in fact provided her with a methodology which she could accept for the writing of an "autobiography," something she had always considered a spurious exercise, and only undertook after considerable goading. she was to translate into english, poems by the young french poet, georges hugnet. she got as far as a l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n of the f i r s t l i n e before her ego intervened. she then departed compulsively and imaginatively from the test for good, "and i f i n i s h e d the whole thing not t r a n s l a t i n g but carrying out an idea that was already e x i s t i n g . " and then as a joke i began to write the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas. and at that moment i had made a rather i n t e r e s t i n g discovery. a young french poet had begun to write, and i was asked to translate his poems, and there i made a rather s t a r t l i n g discovery that other people's words were quite d i f f e r e n t from one's own, and that they cannot be the r e s u l t of your i n t e r n a l troubles as a writer. they have a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t sense than when they are your own words... and t h i s brought to me a great deal of illumination of narrative, because most narrative i s based not about your opinions but someone'else s . . . . therefore narrative has a d i f f e r e n t concept than poetry or even exposition, because, you see, the narrative in i t s e l f i s not what i s in somebody else's...and so i did a tour de force with the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas and when i sent the f i r s t half to the agent, they sent back a telegram to see which one of us had written i t ! but s t i l l i had done what i saw, what you do in translations or i n a narrative. i had recreated the point of view of somebody else. therefore the words ran with a certain smoothness. a t r a n s l a t i o n would provide p r e c i s e l y the kind of "disembodied" narrative stein wanted to create. the idea frees her to reconceptualize narrative as thought written by someone e l s e — a s analogous to an act of t r a n s l a t i o n . in the process she i s free to write about herself outside the i n h i b i t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s of the autobiographic genre— of chronology and the idea that i d e n t i t y as i t exists in the text, i s shaped by i t . in s t y l i s t i c terms, too, she adapts t h i s p r i n c i p l e of "translation" to her purposes. in weaving actual events into a modified form of narrative, she provides s t y l i s t i c equivalents of f a c t s — r e p e t i t i o n , for example, which she uses to bolster her notion of the "continuous present" as the only appropriate tense for writing in the twentieth century. , ey t h i s she does not mean "continuous" in any normal sense--rather an absence of that q u a l i t y of continuity which embraces past, present and future. if possible, and she t r i e s , the writer must use words without the associations of the past, in fact without any q u a l i t y w h i c h t i e s w o r d t o e x p e r i e n c e . i t m e a n s a s t r i p p i n g a w a y f r o m l a n g u a g e o f a l l i t s a s s o c i a t i o n a l p o w e r - - b a s e d o n s o c i a l o r e m o t i o n a l o r a r c h e t y p a l c o n n o t a t i o n s . t o f u l l y a c h i e v e t h e " l a n g u a g e o f t h e m o m e n t , " e v e n q u i t e o r d i n a r y s e m a n t i c o r s y n t a c t i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s m u s t b e e l i m i n a t e d . s h e w i s h e s t o r e c r e a t e , n o t d e s c r i b e , t h e p r o c e s s w h e r e b y t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i d e n t i t y o f a n o b j e c t i s a c t u a l l y h a p p e n i n g i n t h e m i n d . i t i s t o b e r e c o r d e d a s i t h a p p e n s — h e r v e r s i o n o f " s t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s " — b e c a u s e p r o c e s s m a t t e r s i n f i n i t e l y m o r e t o s t e i n t h a n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a f t e r t h e e v e n t , w h i c h a t a n y r a t e , s h e d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r t o b e , i f i t i s t r u t h f u l , p o s s i b l e : i f o u n d o u t t h a t i n t h e e s s e n c e o f n a r r a t i v e i s t h i s p r o b l e m o f t i m e . y o u h a v e a s a p e r s o n w r i t i n g , a n d a l l t h e r e a l l y g r e a t n a r r a t i v e h a s i t , y o u h a v e t o d e n u d e y o u r s e l f o f t i m e s o t h a t w r i t i n g t i m e d o e s n o t e x i s t . i d i d i t u n c o n s c i o u s l y i n t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f a l i c e b . t o k l a s . . . . t h e r e s h o u l d n o t b e a s e n s e o f t i m e , b u t a n e x i s t e n c e s u s p e n d e d i n t i m e . s t e i n ' s e m p h a s i s may d e f i n e h e r a s a m o d e r n i s t , b u t h e r p r a c t i c e s e t s h e r c l e a r l y a p a r t f r o m o t h e r m a j o r w r i t e r s o f t h e p e r i o d w o r k i n g i n " t i m e c o m p o s i t i o n " — j o y c e w i t h h i s e p i p h a n i e s a n d p r o u s t ' s " i m p r e s s i o n s b i e n h e u r e u s e s . " r a t h e r t h a n t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e r e a d e r t h r o u g h t i m e i n m y t h a n d s y m b o l , s t e i n w a n t s i n s t e a d t o s e a l o f f t i m e - - t o s e p a r a t e t h e p r e s e n t f r o m t h e p a s t a s c o m p l e t e l y a s p o s s i b l e . s h e d i s t r u s t s t h e s u p p o s e d p o w e r o f m e m o r y t o t h r o w u p i m a g e s o f n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , s h e i s f r e e t o p e r f e c t t h e "continuous present." she has a range of devices for t r y i n g to sustain i t in her prose. on a s y n t a c t i c a l l e v e l , her time connectives are simple, but l a t e r a l rather than chronological, e.g. "from time to time" and "later or once," t y p i c a l of non-specific time. she consistently forces the reader back to the present, to begin again. this is.hammered home by a persistent use of the present p a r t i c i p l e — a g a i n non-specific, action that i s on-going. her tone of the faux naif reminds the reader of a c h i l d who can only operate i n the present tense—innocent of a l l but immediate sensations and perceptions. in r e a l i t y , there can never be less than two "present tenses" i n t h i s rather disingenuous writing s t r a t e g y — t h a t of time recorded, which i s h i s t o r i c a l time, no matter how many present p a r t i c i p l e s there are and how "immediate" i t s rendering, and the time of actual writing. so her challenge i s to stop things from getting "fixed" permanently in either time or language, which would l i m i t and ultimately n u l l i f y them. bergson's notion of " l a duree" was always an important one for stein. she said that the subject of a painting was only t r u l y a l i v e i f i t s "movement would propel i t out of the prison of i t s frame." if the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas i s more f i c t i o n than personal or h i s t o r i c a l record, i t i s so without the usual s t r u c t u r a l aids of narrator, plot and chronology. what does the narrative consist of? the book's architecture i s e s s e n t i a l l y that of the memoir. the chapter t i t l e s at l e a s t , r e l y on chronology and they are in order. chapter one concentrates on a l i c e ' s l i f e before she came to paris. i t i s very short. chapter two documents her dramatic a r r i v a l i n paris, i t s drama centering on her meeting with stein and the subsequent r e d i r e c t i o n of her l i f e . stein c e r t a i n l y edits her account of t h i s meeting with f l a i r , and a sense of history, i f not too close an observation of the f a c t s : this was the year . gertrude stein was just seeing through the press three lives.... picasso had just f i n i s h e d his p o r t r a i t of her...and he had just begun his strange complicated picture of three women, matisse had just finished his bonheur de v i v r e . . . . i t was the moment max jacob has since c a l l e d theiheroic age of cubism. and at t h i s moment, with these luminaries arranged in a v e r i t a b l e c o n s t e l l a t i o n , a l i c e a r r i v e s , and proceeds to t e l l us "what i saw when i came." this i s a r e f r a i n throughout—echoing stein's conviction that a l l that can be t o l d i s what i s seen. the rest i s up to the reader. to the innocent eye, as a l i c e ' s apparently was, what there was to see was overwhelming—avant-garde art shows that took paris by storm, picasso's squalid studio, and the stein's home at rue de fleurus, combined salon and studded private g a l l e r y . "the pictures were so strange that one quite i n s t i n c t i v e l y looked at anything rather than at them just at f i r s t " (p. ) . she meets the major a r t i s t i c figures of the period. p i c a s s o — t h e hero of the book i f stein i s the heroine — i s described f i r s t of a l l in terms of his voracious eyes "which had the strange faculty of opening wide and drinking i n what they wished to see" (p. ). his status at the centre of the c o n s t e l l a t i o n i s c l e a r . "he had the i s o l a t i o n and movement of the head of a b u l l fighter at the head of t h e i r procession" (p. ). at one stage matisse i s reported to have said, "mademoiselle gertrude, the world i s a theatre for you..." and chapter two i s ample evidence of her talent for stage management. at the end of the chapter we come to the true subject matter of the autobiography. and now i w i l l t e l l you how two americans happened to be in the heart of an art movement of which the outside world knew nothing. (p. ) modern art was generated here, and gertrude stein wants to make i t clear to us that she was one of the people with whom i t began. picasso, she t e l l s us, began i t in his painting, and she i n her writing: ...the story of melanctha the negress, the second story of three lives which was the f i r s t d e f i n i t e step away from the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century in l i t e r a t u r e , (p. ) chapter three documents gertrude stein i n paris from - , her f i r s t art purchases t i e d to her f i r s t writing in europe, her l i f e with her brother, leo stein, picasso and his love l i f e and the stein salon with i t s endless v i s i t o r s ; paris in w i n t e r — i t a l y in summer. up to and the close of chapter f i v e , "it was an endless variety. and everybody came and no one made any difference" (p. ). after the war had begun, c u l t u r a l l i f e was eclipsed i n some fundamental way, however, and "the old l i f e was over" (p. ). chapter six d e t a i l s paris and f r a n c e d u r i n g w a r t i m e , d e s c r i b i n g s t e i n ' s a n d t o k l a s ' v o l u n t e e r w o r k . a s a b o u t m o s t t h i n g s , s t e i n t o o k a h i g h l y - p e r s o n a l i z e d a n d s o m e w h a t a p o l i t i c a l l i n e o n t h e w a r . t h e w a r , s h e c l a i m e d , m a d e e v e r y o n e " n o t o n l y c o n t e m p o r a r y i n a c t , n o r o n l y c o n t e m p o r a r y i n t h o u g h t b u t c o n t e m p o r a r y i n s e l f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . " t h e e x c i t e m e n t o f t h i s c o u p l e d w i t h a s t r e a k o f h e r e t o f o r e l a t e n t a m e r i c a n n e s s , c o u l d e x p l a i n h e r t o n e w h e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e w a r ' s e n d w i t h a n a l l i e d p a r a d e d o w n t h e c h a m p s e l y s e e s , " . . . a n d p e a c e w a s u p o n u s " ( p . ) . i n c h a p t e r s e v e n , " a f t e r t h e w a r - , " t h e c o n s t a n t s e e i n g o f p e o p l e c o n t i n u e s ; t h e y i n c l u d e t h e t w e n t i e s s t a r s i n p a r i s — e z r a p o u n d , e r n e s t h e m i n g w a y , j o y c e , s y l v i a b e a c h , s h e r w o o d a n d e r s o n , f . s c o t t f i t z g e r a l d a n d r o b e r t m c a l m o n . t . s . e l i o t v i s i t e d o n c e . p i c a s s o c a m e a n d w e n t . i n , s t e i n r e c o r d s a g a i n " t h e b e g i n n i n g o f m o d e r n w r i t i n g ' ! w h e n r o b e r t m c a l m o n p u b l i s h e d a c o n t a c t e d i t i o n o f t h e m a k i n g o f a m e r i c a n s . a s c i r c l e s o f y o u n g men f a d e i n i n t e r e s t w i t h t h e d e c a d e , s u m m e r s a t b i l i g n i n i n r u r a l n o r t h e a s t e r n f r a n c e b e c o m e t h e c e n t r e o f s t e i n ' s a n d t o k l a s ' l i v e s . s e l e c t d e v o t e e s t h e y r e c e i v e t h e r e , b u t f o r s t e i n , t h e l i g h t o f p a r i s i n t h e . t w e n t i e s , d o m i n a t e d b y t h o s e t w o g e n i u s e s , p a b l o p i c a s s o a n d g e r t r u d e s t e i n , w h o b e t w e e n t h e m , h a d d i s c o v e r e d t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , h a d d i m m e d . t h i s w a s o n e r e a s o n f o r c o n s i d e r i n g p o s s i b l e g l o r y i n e n g l a n d a n d t h e u . s . a . r a t h e r t h a n j u s t i n h e r a d o p t e d h o m e l a n d i n t h e a n x i o u s y e a r s b e f o r e w o r l d w a r i i . we l e a v e t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y w i t h s t e i n r a t h e r m o u r n f u l l y c a s t i n g a b o u t for picasso's successor, as the centre, the generator, of what i s newest in the present. more than half the book deals with the pre-war years and seeks to place stein in context in the turbulent creative history of that period. she s k i l l f u l l y weaves the international and the domestic—daily notes on painters l i v e s and the history of modern a r t , to show both the surface a r t i f i c e and the domestic substructure of a r t i s t i c production. this i s also r e f l e c t e d in the story she wanted to t e l l of the success of the stein/toklas menage behind the stein genius, and t h i s i t does. so the book i s apparently ordered according to time and event. but within t h i s framework the basic narrative units are the anecdote and the remark, the conversation and the encounter. this i s where the text ceases to be memoir and becomes invention. she begins with a fake narrator and pretended o b j e c t i v i t y , and we are meant to see a l l that happens i n t h i s comedic l i g h t . the existence of a r e a l a l i c e toklas serves as a constant reminder that the planes of r e a l i t y may s h i f t at w i l l . once t h i s i s understood one gains a sense of the text as "humorous c u b i s t i c a r t i f i c e . " " ^ in his chapter on "the cubist novel" i n from rococo to cubism, wylie sypher discusses the cubist experiment in a r t , based on the assumption that r e a l i t y i s a series of "continual transformations where f i c t i o n impinges on f a c t , where art intersects with l i f e . " in t h i s study his exemplary novelist i s andre gide: much of gide's " f i c t i o n " i s a factual record seen from a certain angle and thus transformed. as suggested in les caves du vatican " f i c t i o n i s a history that might have taken place, and history i f a f i c t i o n that has taken place. this i s very much the s p i r i t in which stein wrote her "autobiography." in , gide had made an early attempt to overlay a f i c t i o n a l dimension onto autobiography with his les cahiers d'andre walter. both stein and gide, i t can be said, were c e n t r a l l y concerned with the cubist problem of "the distance of art from a c t u a l i t y . " as in cubist paintings of objects where the r e l a t i o n s between the painted object and the r e a l object are ambivalent, so the r e l a t i o n s , for these writers, between plot and autobiography are "unresolved and reciprocating." les faux-monnayeurs i s gide's inquiry into "the innumerable t r a n s i t i o n s between the object and the conception of the object." gide's a r t , sypher concludes, was the successful practice of "counter- f e i t , " which i s a "camouflage" of the "document (the journal)" and a representation of the document at some uncertain l e v e l of f i c t i o n . " (emphasis added) and so i t i s with stein's autobiography, whose facts are "camouflaged" and transformed by f i c t i o n a l handling. the book, then, i s an "invented memoir." stein had already denounced memory and association as f i c t i o n a l constructs and possible aids in her "camouflage" process. despite t h i s , however, and perhaps because i t i s impossible to avoid, the book i s organized, a l b e i t e r r a t i c a l l y , on an associational matrix. one of the main means of connecting events, and simultaneously of breaking up conventional time u n i t s , i s by a process of sustained interweaving--of digression, afterthought, future projection, c i r c l e and return to the i n i t i a l statement. by these means stein plays with chronology rather than submitting to i t ; thus, in her fashion, she transcends i t . in the description of a l i c e ' s f i r s t soiree, for example, within a few hundred words, there are more than half a dozen references to times other than that of the party. the mixture of tenses and times i s remarkable and apparently a r t l e s s : the room was soon very f u l l and who were they a l l . groups of hungarian painters and writers, i t happened that some had once been brought and the word had spread from his throughout a l l hungary; any v i l l a g e where there was a young man who had ambitions heard of rue de fleurus and then he l i v e d but to get there and a great many did get there. they were always there. (pp. - ).... i did not know what i t was a l l about. but gradually i knew and l a t e r on i w i l l t e l l the story of the pictures, t h e i r painters and t h e i r followers and what t h i s conversation meant, (p. )....and now the evening was drawing to a close. everybody was leaving and everybody was s t i l l taking... (p. ) it i s r e c o l l e c t i o n , but the s h i f t i n g tenses and the disembodied associations do contribute to a sense of s i m u l t a n e i t y — o f past with present, both then and now. above a l l , the evening i s created in the text as physical/ s p a t i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n — a multi-dimensional one with the s t r i c t focus on what was seen and the subsidiary category of what was heard. space i s frequently what gertrude stein, as a l i v e to the v i s u a l as to the verbal or written, substitutes for time. her "continuous present" i s defined i n lectures i n america as "having to do with a sense of movement i n time included in a given space." in the autobiography, the "space of time" of an event or a conversation replaces chronological progression in narrative — l e a d i n g to a multiple v i s i o n of events and people and of given moments in the narrative, with the emphasis on t h e i r shape.^ this mirrors in prose the work of cubist painters l i k e picasso (at that time), braque and gris, and s p e c i f i c a l l y challenges the idea that narrative must " f i x " what i t describes. her w i l l e d digressions force narrative to begin again and again, so foregoing any claim to naturalism or permanence. the f i r s t soiree i s t y p i c a l and representative of the way information i s given in the book--anecdotal configurations, and of i t s use of players, speech, time and narrative information. it i s a s p a t i a l formula, not a temporal one. "facts" are included for our information, but they are not connected in the usual ways. logic i s abandoned. there i s no causal connection provided between one fact and another nor between events. (this i s stein's version of modernism's relativism.) a l l of the elements of the chatty memoir are t h e r e — g o s s i p , memories and opinions, fashion notes, contentious remarks and value judgements. but the lack of causal connection between any of these puts stein's prose into quite another category than memoir. o b j e c t i v i t y and truth are, she believes, impossible to render. she substitutes m u l t i p l i c i t y , accurately recorded. the "continuous present" i s a kind of s t r u c t u r a l metaphor for the ambiguity inherent in any fact or event and for the necessarily compromised attempts of any genre be i t biography, autobiography, diary or s o c i a l memoir to record things as they were. stein enjoys the f u l l p o t e n t i a l of the ambiguity, rather than t r y i n g to deny i t as many a t r a d i t i o n a l writer has done. she exploits and manipulates i t , playing with i t to the point of s e l f parody, because f i n a l l y i t i s her own "continuous present" that she i s recording, not a l i c e ' s , because that i s unknowable. as an extension of her replacement of the temporal with the s p a t i a l , so further undermining memoir and creating, in e f f e c t , f i c t i o n , stein has c a r e f u l l y selected i l l u s t r a t i o n s for the book, which the c r i t i c , paul alkon i n a fascinating a r t i c l e , has said make up a separate, complementary "visual r h e t o r i c . " the photographs she chose provide images for the text. their arrangement, alkon claims, serves to further reverse and blur t r a d i t i o n a l time structure, based on clear d i s t i n c t i o n s between past, present and future. they are v i s u a l clues for what the reader w i l l f i n d in the text, though they are never c l e a r l y attached to or explained by the text. true to her p r i n c i p l e s , stein provides no context for them, and no explanation of t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e . we are l e f t to assume that a photograph of picasso and fernande o l i v i e r , his mistress early in the book, i s included merely to give i t i t s c u l t u r a l bearings, as i f to say "these are the kinds of people i know." s i m i l a r l y , the the photograph of a sturdy young gertrude stein peering into a microscope at john hopkins medical school i s there to convince us that she has had a s o l i d i n t e l l e c t u a l background despite what the american c r i t i c s said about her in p r i n t throughout the twenties. the most s t r i k i n g and well-known of the i l l u s t r a t i o n s i s the man ray photograph which serves as the book's f r o n t i s p i e c e . it i s intended to be emblematic of the whole text. it shows the heavy form of gertrude stein writing at her renaissance desk, with a l i c e toklas illuminated from behind i n an open doorway leading into a room where stein i s working, and shedding l i g h t on i t . one of the c e n t r a l games stein plays with text and reader i s revealed i n the i l l u s t r a t i o n s . the book acknowledges at the outset that photographs are as much works of art as paintings. she nevertheless draws an i n t e r e s t i n g d i s t i n c t i o n between photographs and paintings, which r e f l e c t s on the d i s t i n c t i o n sometimes disguised, in her work, between factual representation and invention. paintings she declares a r t , while photographs seem to show things as they are. alkon goes on to note in connection with t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , that in successive i l l u s t r a t i o n s , there i s "...a gradual—but not complete displacement of photographs of r e a l i t y by photographs of paintings and at the end, the photographs of a manuscript page. photographs of r e a l i t y give way to photographs of works of a r t . but as t h i s happens the d i s t i n c t i o n between art and r e a l i t y collapses, because whatever can be photographed must be , „ r e a l . " stein uses the i l l u s t r a t i o n for other purposes as well. sometimes they act as a corrective for the text. i l l u s t r a t i o n s of rooms f u l l of paintings but empty of people w i l l face pages f u l l of v i s i t o r s and p a r t i e s . photographs of p a r t i c u l a r paintings remind us that she c i t e s these paintings e.g. matisse's "femme au chapeau" and "bonheur de vivre" as analogues for her own work. one of her key ideas in writing i s that i t i s only possible to write what i s seen; that makes the issue of viewpoint or angle v i s i o n important in the i l l u s t r a t i o n s , which often provide metaphors the text does not. stein's stated aim was to present the inside from the outside, and t h i s the i l l u s t r a t i o n s also do. they also highlight her favoured idea of simultaneity with camera angles showing stein for example , from both inside and outside rooms; or i n another case providing a d i f f e r e n t but nevertheless e s s e n t i a l version of stein, not in the f l e s h , but in picasso's p o r t r a i t of her on the wall of one of the rooms photographed. thus v i s u a l metaphors are provided for the idea that the text i s asking us to consider the subject, (gertrude stein) through the eyes of an assumed other. "the s e l f in t h i s case i s presented as another. stein i s very concerned with the metamorphosis of r e a l i t y into a r t . of the crowded s o c i a l blur a f t e r the war, she has " a l i c e " describe i t thus: "i cannot remember who came i n and out, whether they were r e a l or whether they w e r e s c u l p t u r e d b u t t h e r e w e r e a g r e a t m a n y " ( p . ) . t h e b o o k ' s f i n a l i l l u s t r a t i o n s b l e n d t h e r e a l a n d t h e s c u l p t u r e d , p h o t o g r a p h s a n d p a i n t i n g s . t h i s m a r k s a p r o g r e s s i o n w h i c h " m i r r o r s " a f i n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , w i t h i n t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y , o f b o t h g e r t r u d e a n d a l i c e i n t o w o r k s o f a r t . " w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e r e a l o r w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e s c u l p t u r e d b e c o m e s h a r d e r t o t e l l a n d m a t t e r s l e s s . " a l k o n n o t e s i n c o n c l u s i o n a l i t e r a r y d e c l a r a t i o n b y s t e i n i n t h e j u n e i s s u e o f t r a n s i t i o n u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g s — " t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e w o r d " a n d " a p r o c l a m a t i o n , " c o n s i s t i n g o f t w e l v e a r t i c l e s p r i n t e d i n c a p i t a l s . n u m b e r s f o u r a n d t e n p o t e n t i a l l y s u m u p , h e b e l i e v e s , w h a t s t e i n a c h i e v e s i n t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f a l i c e b . t o k l a s : ( ) n a r r a t i v e i s not m e r e a n e c d o t e , b u t t h e p r o j e c t i o n of a m e t a m o r p h o s i s of r e a l i t y . . . ( ) t i m e i s a t y r a n n y to b e a b o l i s h e d s t e i n h a s p o w e r f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d t h e v e r b a l a n d v i s u a l i n h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h y i n a r a d i c a l a t t e m p t t o c h a l l e n g e t h e p o w e r o f t i m e o v e r t h e g e n r e . s h e p r o p o s e s a d r a m a t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t " r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s e l f " t h a n t h e g e n r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y m a k e s a v a i l a b l e , o n e w h i c h c o u l d a d m i t a f i c t i o n a l i z i n g o f t i m e , a " s p a t i a l i z i n g " o f l i f e a n d t h e " p a i n t i n g " o f a n i d e n t i t y . s o , i f t h i s t e x t i s t h e n b y d e s i g n , m o r e a r t i f a c t t h a n a u t o b i o g r a p h y h o w r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l l y t r u e c a n i t b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e ? r o y p a s c a l i n a p i o n e e r w o r k , d e s i g n a n d t r u t h i n a u t o b i o g r a p h y , p u t f o r w a r d t h e i d e a t h a t t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l c o n s c i e n c e h a d a n " o b l i g a t i o n t o o n e s e l f , t o o n e ' s o w n t r u t h . " t h e " t r u t h " o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y , h e s a i d , " l i e s i n t h e b u i l d i n g u p o f a p e r s o n a l i t y t h r o u g h t h e i m a g e s i t m a k e s o f i t s e l f , t h a t e m b o d y i t s m o d e o f a b s o r b i n g a n d r e a c t i n g t o t h e o u t e r w o r l d " ( p . ) . p e r h a p s t h e k e y w o r d h e r e , i f we t r y t o r e l a t e t h e s e i d e a s t o s t e i n ' s f i c t i o n a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d w h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s , i s m o d e — t h e s t y l e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a n d i n d e e d o f p e r c e p t i o n . p e r h a p s , a s t h e s w i s s c r i t i c j e a n s t a r o b i n s k i h a s c o m m e n t e d , s t y l e c a n b e t a k e n a s a n i n d i c a t o r o f a k i n d o f t r u t h : . . . a a u t o r e f e ' r e n c e e x p l i c i t e d e l a n a r r a t i o n e l l e - m e m e , l e s t y l e a j o u t e l a v a l e u r a u t o r e f e r e n t i e l l e i m p l i c i t e d ' u n mode s i n g u l i e r d e ' e l o c u t i o n . t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l w r i t e r ' s s t y l e a c t s a s a n " i n d i c e " - - a c l u e t o h i s s e n s e o f h i m s e l f i n h i s t i m e a n d h o w h e w o u l d l i k e t o b e s e e n . b y i m p l i c a t i o n t h e n i t i s r e l a t i v e , a s o n e ' s s e n s e o f s e l f c h a n g e s w i t h c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d a w r i t e r t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t j u s t l y b e c h a r g e d , a s s t e i n s o v e h e m e n t l y w a s , w i t h " m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , " w h e n a l l s h e e v e r i n t e n d e d w i t h h e r t e x t a n d a n a s s o r t m e n t o f p l a y e r s , w a s a n i m a g i n a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h e r s e l f , o f a t l e a s t o f h e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d h o w i t p e r c e i v e d t h e w o r l d . i n h e r c a s e , " m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " w a s h i g h l y c o n s c i o u s a n d o n e o f t h e e n e r g i s i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e t e x t . s h e d e l i b e r a t e l y u s e s t h e r e a d e r ' s e x p e c t a t i o n o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y t o p r o v i d e a s l i g h t l y i n g e n u o u s c o n s t r u c t f o r t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s e l f t h a t c a n n e v e r b e , s h e b e l i e v e s , " t r u e " i n a n y a b s o l u t e s e n s e , b u t t r u e a s p h o t o g r a p h s a n d p a i n t i n g s a r e " t r u e " at the time of painting, according to the desire of the a r t i s t , l i g h t , arrangement and audience. she s t y l i z e s realism to display the process whereby art emerges from l i f e . she turns the s e l f into a r t i f a c t , p r e c i s e l y as she uses the d e t a i l of the domestic, personal l i v e s of the a r t i s t s to enrich and o f f s e t a sense of the complexity with which t h e i r art emerged, incorporating and in collaboration with, t h e i r d a i l y l i v e s . thornton wilder in his introduction to four in america describes stein's tendency, i n the accuracy of her record of the movements of her consciousness, to include ...the i r r u p t i o n of d a i l y life....she may suddenly introduce [into her text] some phrase she has just heard over the garden wall. this resembles a practice that her friends the post-impressionist painters occasionally resorted to. they pasted a subway t i c k e t to the surface of t h e i r painting. the r e a l i t y of a work of art i s one r e a l i t y ; the r e a l i t y of a "thing" i s another r e a l i t y ; the juxtaposition of the two kinds of r e a l i t y gives a' bracing shock....it refreshes in the writer the sense that the writer i s a l l alone, alone with his thoughts and his struggle and even with his g r e l a t i o n to the outside world that l i e s about him. it may not be "truth" with any moral connotation or sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to events, which stein records, but she does display an almost exhaustive desire for accuracy of a s c i e n t i f i c kind, when i t comes to recording the fluctuations of her own consciousness. this makes her an autobiographical writer, in the same sense that montaigne i s an autobiographical writer. stein's attempt i s , as one of her leading c r i t i c s , richard bridgman has put i t , never less than to "represent her consciousness in i t s actual state of existence" so providing us with "an outpouring of verbal responses to her experience mixed with fantasies generated by the primary experiences and with words stimulated by the appearance or sound of other words already on the page or s t i l l in her head." as for existence i n the external world, stein holds f a s t to the idea that writers can only write what they see, but an accurate record of what they think and perceive i s possible, i f i t i s treated in the same way as v i s u a l subject matter, whose existence can be photographed or painted. she divests authorial consciousness of the god-like power to control through narration (joyce, flaubert, james). consciousness as stein perceives i t can f i n a l l y express nothing but i t s own continuous flow of thought, f e e l i n g and the i d i o s y n c r a t i c perceptions of objects and people; (which places her much closer to beckett and the writers of the nouveau roman) and i t i s the perception of these things as process which we are given instead of narrative based on t h e i r o b j e c t i v e l y accepted existence. (one i s reminded here of nancy chodorow's theory of female i d e n t i t y as processive.) perceived objects and people, stein says, can only exist in consciousness and she w i l l not allow memory and convention to force consciousness into any palatable, a r t i f i c i a l patterns other than those emerging from i t s own i n t e r n a l structure. in recording what bergson and william james might c a l l "the immediate data of consciousness," stein never ignores the i m p l i c i t l i m i t a t i o n s of language i n ever coming close to describing the human consciousness. laugage can only play at the idea. she requires simply of language that i t be as a l i v e to i t s challenges as the best paintings are a l i v e , — "moving out of t h e i r frames." the idea of writing autobiography in any s t r i c t sense of the word would seem to go against a l l of stein's l i t e r a r y p r i n c i p l e s . (but then so would f i c t i o n / n a r r a t i v e as a fixed l i t e r a r y mode.) throughout her career, she managed v i g i l a n t l y to avoid the issue of memory, which dominated the f i c t i o n a l masterpieces of her day, and would d i r e c t her necessarily, i f she undertook anything l i k e a conventional memoir. t.s. e l i o t , james joyce, marcel proust and ezra pound were, compared to her, obsessed with the past and with the a r t i s t i c forms of the past. stein was firmly a member of the paris-based european avant-garde, and was perhaps apart from gide, the most successful writer to take up i t s revolutionary implications for a l l of the a r t s . as a part of her platform as a polemical writer, she distrusted above a l l memory as a creative agency and t r i e d to eliminate a l l time-based associations whenever possible. "the minute your memory functions while you are doing anything i t may be very popular but actually i t i s d u l l . " notions of i d e n t i t y are f a l s e when they are based on repeated behavioural t r a i t s or l o c a l i z e d habits. identity "destroys creation," as does memory. both o f f e r f a l s e and misleading strategies, she suggests, for "demystifying" the e s s e n t i a l strangeness and unknowableness of others. memory and i d e n t i t y as t r a d i t i o n a l l y conceived, succeed only in t r a n s l a t i n g what i s e s s e n t i a l about others into more f a m i l i a r terms by stressing the patterns in t h e i r l i v e s and in overlaying and substituting the past for the present. to f u l l y l i v e or write i n the present, the idea of i d e n t i t y based on memory must be broken down. but then how i s anything the least b i t autobiographical to be written? i t must deal with the past and i t must presumably operate on some notion of i d e n t i t y that does not change from minute to minute, even i f stein's aim i s not to v e r i f y but to record. stein's r e l a t i o n to autobiography (and f i c t i o n ? ) i s f i n a l l y p a r a l l e l to what she says of the r e l a t i o n of a genuis to time. he or she must "accept i t and deny i t by creating i t . " in her exploration of the formal dilemmas of the genre, t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what she does with autobiography —accept i t , as a construct at l e a s t , deny i t , by substituting f i c t i o n a l i z e d or at least modified information transmuted by her consciousness for factual account, and in the process, create i t , at least her v i s i o n of i t , which, a f t e r a l l , represents herself very well indeed. but the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas i s not just a representation of s e l f . it i s also a s t i l l l i f e p o r t r a i t of "a l i f e , " that i s a shared l i f e , a separate complete e n t i t y whose other half was a l i c e toklas, as indicated by t h e i r shared "authorship." this l i f e was described p r e c i s e l y as stein described a l l discrete o b j e c t s — i t s component parts — d a i l y events, conversations, meals, etc. it i s a "memoir" of the world of modern art and of paris which she and many others had declared to be at the centre of that world. it i s a memoir too, of picasso, or at least of almost t h i r t y years of his l i f e . he i s always the hero of the piece; even when absent he i s the spoken and unspoken example of the success of the modern a r t i s t , and of a genius at work in interpreting the world for others to follow behind in a kind or procession. it i s a memoir and a t r i b u t e to france and i t s capacity to endure, as one of the central players i n the theatre of the world war i. stein's i s c e r t a i n l y the most important memoir of any modernist, p r i n c i p a l l y because i t i s a l i v e with l i t e r a r y invention. in i t she has created a most viable myth of paris as the seat of modern art in the twentieth century. the style of the book, where i t i s arguable that i t s "truth" resides, has been whimsical, digressive, r e p e t i t i v e and highly s t y l i z e d . it i s self-declared and self-conscious a r t i f i c e , while in the process recording a dynamic and e c l e c t i c s e l f , functioning almost metaphorically as that s e l f functions. while i t i s a memoir that does j u s t i c e to the time i t addresses, the book i s at the same time, a f i c t i o n a l and quite personal construct of that time, and of the s e l f seen at i t s centre. c o n c l u s i o n p e r h a p s f o r t h e v e r y r e a s o n t h a t s o many h a d r e a d the a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f a l i c e b . t o k l a s a s a c o n v e n t i o n a l memoir o f g e r t r u d e s t e i n , she f o u n d h e r s e l f u n a b l e t o l e t d r o p t h e r o l e a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l w r i t i n g i n h e r o e u v r e . she was u n t i l h e r d e a t h v e r y c o n c e r n e d , i n i r o n i c a l l y q u i t e t r a d i t i o n a l w a y s , t o r e n d e r h e r own c o n s c i o u s n e s s e f f e c t i v e l y on t h e p a g e — n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n " f i c t i o n a l " f o r m a s she h a d done i n the a u t o b i o g r a p h y , b u t t o e x a m i n e i n o t h e r ways a s w e l l , t h e c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f t r a n s f o r m i n g r e a l i t y i n t o a r t — w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e d a t a o f h e r own l i f e . her a i m i n w r i t i n g b e t w e e n and h e r d e a t h i n she e x p r e s s e d w e l l i n e v e r y b o d y ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y : " t h e r e s h o u l d n o t be a s e n s e o f t i m e , b u t an e x i s t e n c e s u s p e n d e d i n t i m e . " i n h e r f i n a l works she was i f a n y t h i n g more c o n c e r n e d w i t h what s h e c a l l e d t h a t " l a s t t o u c h o f b e i n g " t h a t o n l y p e r s o n a l r e c o r d c a n p r o v i d e . and she c e r t a i n l y c o u l d n o t r e s t w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t the a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f a l i c e b . t o k l a s , s u c c e s s o r n o , was t o be h e r " l a s t t o u c h o f b e i n g . " i t w a s , t o h e r , i n a u t h e n t i c i n t o o many w a y s . she h a d h a d t o c o m p r o m i s e t o o many o f h e r a r t i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s t o w r i t e i t . she f e l t u n d e n i a b l e j o y a t r e c o g n i t i o n and a c c e p t a n c e , b u t h o r r o r a t " c o m m e r c i a l " s u c c e s s w h i c h s h e h a d a l w a y s l o u d l y d e n o u n c e d . m o s t o f a l l s h e was i n deep c o n f u s i o n a b o u t i s s u e s o f i d e n t i t y , r e c e n t l y r e a w a k e n e d f o r h e r b y h e r f i r s t t r i p b a c k t o a m e r i c a i n t h i r t y y e a r s . i t c u l m i n a t e d i n a c o m b i n e d w r i t e r ' s b l o c k and i d e n t i t y c r i s i s w h i c h p a r a l y s e d h e r . when she b r o k e through i t , her next project was one which she used to probe her way back to clear-headedness about matters of i d e n t i t y . the geographical history of america or the relation of human nature to the human mind was a book of geographical and l i t e r a r y meditations drawn from her recent american t r i p . she was determined to d i s t i n g u i s h in the book between what she c a l l e d human nature and the higher human mind, in her quest to grasp and c l a r i f y her own i d e n t i t y as a writer and to better understand the writer's r e l a t i o n to his audience. stein's audience had recently delighted her by praising her on a huge scale for the f i r s t time, and simultaneously, had disappointed her profoundly by embracing that p a r t i c u l a r book, whose o r i g i n s were something of a "commercial joke." she had mentioned f i r s t in a lecture to an american audience the difference between writing for "god" and writing for "mammon." writing for "god" both requires and i s a function of the higher mind; " i t must be d i r e c t , the r e l a t i o n between the thing done and the doer must be d i r e c t . " writing for "mammon" which may be defined as "'success'... [or] a pleasure [the writer] has from hearing what he himself has done, mammon may be his way of explaining, mammon may be a laziness that needs nothing but going on, i n short mammon may be anything that i s done i n d i r e c t l y . " in other words, i t i s writing in f u l l awareness of an u audience. such an awareness can only i n v i t e concessions and undermine c r e a t i v i t y . stein i s very anxious in these meditations to get beyond the idea of i d e n t i t y as i t seems to be inevitably bound in t r a d i t i o n a l works to an audience and memory. the notion of i d e n t i t y , l i k e autobiography, she finds weak and f a l s e l y reassuring when i t i s the product of human nature. she prefers the p o s s i b i l i t y of transcendence for .the writer, a purer state from which to create. she never managed to resolve t h i s issue i n t h e o r e t i c a l terms, but believed herself nevertheless to be writing from t h i s transcendent height in a l l her l a t e r work. this realignment of her d i r e c t i o n necessitated denouncing her e a r l i e r work, in p a r t i c u l a r the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas which she now saw as an i n f e r i o r work written "for mammon." a l l subsequent expressions of her i d e n t i t y were to be works of the higher mind. there were to be no compromises. as a corrective gesture, she began a new autobiography in march . everybody's autobiography was to be the a l l inclusive autobiography. in i t she dropped the authorial pose of writing as a l i c e toklas supposedly would have. while she wanted the book to have the same successful blend of famous names and l o c a l colour as the e a r l i e r book, t h i s one was to be written in stein's f a m i l i a r authentic s t y l e ; as before, i t was conversational, energetic, warm, r e p e t i t i v e and somewhat unstoppable. most of the events recorded i n i t were quite recent, to do with her american tour and return to europe. it s t i l l managed to display an amusing number of errors i n memory just as the e a r l i e r book's c r i t i c s had accused her of there. it was published by random house in . it did not succeed as the f i r s t memoir had. though n e i t h e r c r e a t e s n o r t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r e m b r a c e d i t , s t e i n w a s m o r e t h a n p l e a s e d w i t h i t a s a n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l p i e c e e n t i r e l y i n k e e p i n g w i t h h e r l i t e r a r y p r i n c i p l e s . b y c o n t r a s t t h e f i r s t a u t o b i o g r a p h y . . . w a s a d e s c r i p t i o n a n d a c r e a t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a v i n g h a p p e n e d w a s i n a w a y h a p p e n i n g n o t a g a i n b u t a s i t h a d b e e n w h i c h i s h i s t o r y w h i c h i s n e w s p a p e r w h i c h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n b u t i t i s n o t a s i m p l e n a r r a t i v e o f w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g . . . . a n d n o w i n t h i s b o o k i h a v e d o n e i t i f i h a v e d o n e i t . i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e e a r l i e r b o o k h a d d e a l t i n t o o f a c t u a l a m a n n e r ( t h o u g h s h e d o e s c a l l i t a " c r e a t i o n " ) w i t h w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d , a n d n o t w i t h w h a t i s ; h a p p e n i n g . e v e r y b o d y ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y o p e r a t e s m o r e c o n s i s t e n t l y w i t h i n s t e i n ' s " c o n t i n u o u s p r e s e n t . " s h e b e l i e v e d h e r s e l f t o b e w i t h t h i s w o r k , o n e s t e p c l o s e r t o a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l a c t w i t h h e r a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s , w h i c h s o o f t e n s e e m t o b e a t o d d s w i t h i t . i n h e r n e x t w o r k , a d i a r y , s h e t a k e s u p t h a t m o s t a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l o f f o r m s , t h e j o u r n a l , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . s h e p r o c e e d s t o s a b o t a g e i t b y r e f u s i n g t o l o c a t e i t s e n t r i e s i n t i m e . e n t r y h e a d i n g s a r e f o r e x a m p l e , " t o d a y , " " t h e d a y b e f o r e , " a n d " t h e d a y a f t e r , " i n a n e f f o r t t o k e e p t h e m f i r m l y i n t h e " c o n t i n u o u s p r e s e n t . " t h i s d i d p r e s e n t p r o b l e m s . " s h o u l d a d i a r y b e w r i t t e n o n t h e m o r n i n g o f t h e d a y d e s c r i b e d o r b e f o r e ? " s h e w r o t e . l i k e a l l w r i t i n g , h o w e v e r , " a d i a r y s h o u l d s i m p l y b e . " a n d w h a t s h o u l d i t b e ? " a d i a r y s h o u l d b e i n s t a n t l y i n r e c o r d i n g a t e l e g r a m . a l s o i n r e c o r d i n g a v i s i t a l s o i n r e c o r d i n g a c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s o i n r e c o r d i n g e m b r o i d e r y a l s o i n r e c o r d i n g h a v i n g w i s h e d to buy a basket. that i s i t . " to be true to i t s purpose then, a diary should record everything " i n s t a n t l y ; " an impossible task of course, unless i t also f i c t i o n a l i z e s or d i s t i l s , because events follow t h e i r own natural chronology. wars i have seen i s a further attempt to abstract event, to take i t out of time and into the "continuous present" of the higher mind, by reconceptualizing temporal or h i s t o r i c a l fact into a study of i t s timeless essence. in t h i s case i t i s war. in an e a r l i e r work i t had been paris, france. both studies play havoc with time. paradoxically, stein wants to locate both works i n terms of the twentieth century, but by that one can assume that she merely means "the present"; the twentieth century here i s an abstraction, a background tableau appropriate to her action. she i s concerned with time--"now in " but only as i t located the present i s o l a t e d moment, not as i t forms part of any time continuum or causal r e l a t i o n in h i s t o r y . she does not discuss the wars she has seen in any r e l a t i o n to history at a l l . she presents instead a meditation on the e s s e n t i a l nature of war and c i t e s examples—the american c i v i l war, the spanish american war and the two world wars t h i s century. obviously she has not "seen" the e a r l i e r two; she r e f l e c t s on war as narrative, as s t o r i e s t o l d to c h i l d r e n . "war i s more l i k e a novel than i t i s l i k e r e a l l i f e and that i s i t s eternal f a s c i n a t i o n . i t i s a thing based on r e a l i t y but invented, i t i s a dream made r e a l , a l l the things that make a novel but not r e a l l y l i f e . " she i s s t i l l very interested in the ways we transform actual experience by invention, into f i c t i o n , in an attempt to capture and translate the essence of the experience, making i t transmissable to other times. while f u l l y aware of t h i s inevitable " f i c t i o n a l i z i n g aspect" in her writing, stein must s t i l l face the old problems of memory and s e l e c t i o n . "i do not know whether to put in things i do not remember as well as the things i do remember." "how much s h a l l i make up?" she asks. her conclusions to both meditations—paris france and wars i have seen—are a contradictory blend of the timeless and the temporal. throughout she has discussed the timeless q u a l i t i e s of these phenomena—country and war. in a strange attempt (explicable only by her very odd concepts of history when she did think of i t ) to combine these two essences in some way, these two central experiences of her l i f e , she comes up with the conclusion that i f france was the necessary background to the twentieth century, then war was the agency for pushing the world into the twentieth century. end note the writer, who i s concerned to transform the workings of consciousness into a r t i f a c t , must face the inevitable problems of rendering the s e l f on the page. these are p r i n c i p a l l y to do with form. in gertrude stein's case, to incarnate herself in language according to her own l i t e r a r y p r i n c i p l e s , required the creation of new l i t e r a r y forms— the autobiographical novel, the non-sequential journal, the n o n - h i s t o r i c a l meditation on time and place. in these works, she wants to describe l i f e as far as i t i s possible to do so, i n the "continuous present"—as i t i s being l i v e d . she wants to eliminate confessions or psychological revelation from her rendering of i d e n t i t y . she therefore "depersonalizes" her autobiographies, f i r s t by using a transferred narrator in the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas and by including a l l of mankind i n everybody's autobiography. certainly, in the former, stein exists i n the text as a t h i r d person whose l i f e i s being recorded from the outside, however intimately; as shirley neuman has neatly put i t , "the t h i r d person i s a f i c t i o n a l person." by making f i c t i o n out of autobiography as she does i n t h i s book, she sidesteps a number of issues which would compromise her otherwise impersonal stand as a writer: truth, the subconscious, the emotions. the l i b e r t i e s she takes here, arranging the data of her l i f e as an experimental novel, allow her to play o f f the inevitable r e l a t i v i t y of truth in a memoir against the inevitably a r t i f i c i a l l o g i c of f i c t i o n . stein wrote in autobiographical forms the better to record the processes of a l i f e and the a c t i v i t i e s of a consciousness, s p e c i f i c a l l y the consciousness of an a r t i s t going about the process of writing. her works as the r e s u l t , are highly self-conscious and s e l f - r e f l e x i v e in that one of t h e i r p r i n c i p a l subjects i s always the process of t h e i r being written. one i s reminded repeatedly of montaigne's attempt to record as much as he could grasp of himself at the moment of observation. a l l that can be t o l d , stein says, i s what i s seen. roy pascal has said that autobiographical t r u t h — t h e e f f e c t i v e rendering of consciousness—is determined by the accumulation of images a personality makes of i t s e l f to embody the s e l f and i t s mode of seeing and reacting. each of stein's autobiographical " f i c t i o n s " i s one of these images or "pieces" of an i d e n t i t y , each invented.by h e r s e l f ; together they form, as matisse perceived, a whole "picture puzzle" or a l i t e r a r y "harlequin's costume." we have said that gertrude stein belonged to several s o c i a l sub-cultures beyond that of woman writer; she was an american expatriate, independently wealthy and a lesbian. each of 'these played a role in her most serious contribution to the l i t e r a t u r e of the period, and that i s her challenge to gender as a s i g n i f i c a n t category in human experience. stein declared that her subject would be human nature and the functioning of the human mind. her stance was e s s e n t i a l l y philosophical; she had been a student of santayana and v william james and was the f r i e n d of a l f r e d north whitehead. she was interested in character, and her r a d i c a l b e l i e f was that character was not at a l l determined by gender. "i think nothing about men and women because i t has nothing to do with anything. anybody who i s an american can know anything about t h i s thing." she shared a b e l i e f with v i r g i n i a woolf that the human m i n d w a s w i t h o u t g e n d e r . b o t h women b e l i e v e d t h a t i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a p e r i o d o f c o n f u s i o n , m a s c u l i n i t y h a d g o t t e n o u t o f h a n d . t h e y b o t h s a w a n d r o g y n y a s a p o w e r f u l c r e a t i v e f o r c e , a n d i t w a s a s a n a n d r o g y n o u s w r i t e r t h a t s t e i n s a w h e r s e l f m a k i n g a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o m o d e r n i s m t h a t o t h e r women w r i t e r s c o u l d n o t m a k e . s h e d i s m i s s e d h . d . ' s c o m m i t m e n t t o m y t h ( h e l e n o f e g y p t ) a n d w o o l f ' s t o r e a l i s m a n d p l o t . b y a v o i d i n g t h e s e l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s , a s s h e f e l t s h e m u s t , s t e i n a l s o a v o i d e d p r e s e n t i n g t h e s e x e s a s t h e y c o n v e n t i o n a l l y e x p e r i e n c e t h e m s e l v e s . s h e p r e f e r r e d t o s e e t h e m a n d r e c o r d t h e m f r o m a g e n d e r - f r e e p e r s p e c t i v e . s h e d e a l t w i t h h u m a n t y p e s r a t h e r t h a n g e n d e r s . t h i s s h e s a w a s n e c e s s a r y i f s h e , a s a n i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a n d r o g y n o u s w o m a n , w a s t o c o n v e y h e r e x p e r i e n c e a s a h u m a n b e i n g . i f h e r l i t e r a r y v o i c e w a s a u t h e n t i c a l l y t o r e p r e s e n t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e — t h a t o f a w o m a n , a l e s b i a n a n d a j e w — t h e n lane c o u l d n o t a f f o r d t o f a l l b a c k o n t h e l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s . s t e i n ' s f o c u s a s a n a r t i s t w a s c o n s e q u e n t l y v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m h e r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s ' . t h e c o n f i d e n c e t o a c t a s a l i t e r a r y f r e e - a g e n t t h a t h e r a n d r o g y n y a l l o w e d h e r , m a y w e l a c c o u n t f o r t h e c o n f u s i o n o f c r i t i c s i n h e r d a y , a n d f o r h e r l a s t i n g i m p a c t o n s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s o f w r i t e r s . chapter four djuna barnes: the patterned self origins "i wish every man were beyond the reach of his own biography. "it w i l l take him, as i t w i l l the others, a l l his l i f e to unravel the tangle of his upbringing." "you can bury your past as deep as you l i k e , but carrion w i l l out!" djuna barnes began her career as a poet, j o u r n a l i s t , i l l u s t r a t o r and short story writer. in her f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n of s t o r i e s , poems, one act plays and sketches, a book, american content was high. so was the raw material of her early l i f e . many of these pieces are set i n her birth-place, cornwa -on-hudson, new york, or i t s symbolic equivalent, with characters l i v i n g i n peculiar, highly charged i s o l a t i o n , doing immense amounts of damage to one another as her family had. many of her l a t e r concerns are here i n embryo, as she "writes out" her o r i g i n s . in a style which curiously anticipates that of harold pinter's plays in the second half of the century, barnes i s already in urgently concerned with what she perceived to be the f a i l u r e of language to embody experience or to connect people. communication between her characters i s often no more than s u r r e a l l y c i v i l i z e d chat, hardly masking primitive connections and an ever present p o s s i b i l i t y of violence. "three from the earth," an early one act play in t h i s c o l l e c t i o n , has three young men v i s i t an aging actress to t e l l her of the death of t h e i r father, who i t seems, had at one time been her lover. what at f i r s t appears to be a case of "the lady" entertaining "the peasants" i s quickly stripped away by vicious word play to expose a s i t u a t i o n of old and v i o l e n t l y sexual complicity in another generation. the suddenness of the reversal from c i v i l i z e d to p r i m i t i v e , and the crazy dialogue which s k i r t s i t , are highly reminiscent of pinter's the homecoming, where sex underlies every comment and i s capable of pushing any s i t u a t i o n over into physical violence. themes of mingling decay and desire pervade the l i v e s of her i s o l a t e d characters. often simple-minded men try to claim with passion women who are "beyond desire" by v i r t u e of what they know of l i f e . helena in "to the dogs" responds to her would-be lover with "death from you, w i l l begin where my cradle started rocking." she, l i k e many other female characters in these early pieces, i s concerned instead only with the preservation and arrangement of the "beauty of object." one i s reminded here of both colette and jean rhys and t h e i r reliance on moments of " o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n " and perceived beauty to redeem a p a l l i n g s i t u a t i o n s . "i want the b e a u t i f u l thing to be, how can l o g i c have anything to do with i t , or probable sequence." in barnes', early f i c t i o n , some of these women devote themselves obsessively to decor and decoration, others become hard and b e a i t u f u l in death as the jewels they had worn i n l i f e . s t i l l others are empty rooms waiting to be occupied. "indian summer" t e l l s of a p l a i n woman, a "clean room...exposed by the catching back a heavy and melancholy curtains" who i s transformed late in l i f e into a "salon" f u l l of exotic objects. "one by one the old and awkward things went, leaving in t h e i r wake venetian glass and bowls of onyx, s i l k s , cushions and perfume." presently she entertains a lover there for the f i r s t time and takes him "as she would have taken a piece of cake at a tea party. on the whole, the pieces are chekhovian with a dostolievskian undertow, a play of tensions reminiscent of jean rhys' strategies for dealing with the breakdown of beauty into horror. many, in t h e i r focus on death and the grotesque joke i t makes of l i f e , prepare the way for nightwood, her l a t e r masterpiece. one early character when asked by another for guidance, responds with a flood of defeated loquacity much as matthew o'connor w i l l respond to nora's despair in the l a t e r work. i'm incapable...mystified. death would be a release, but i t wouldn't s e t t l e anything.... how do i know but that everything i have thought, and said, and done, has not been f a l s e , a l i t t l e abyss from which i s h a l l crawl laughing at the e v i l of my own limitation. the tone of these pieces i s very much one of "what are we doing here? are we a l l mad or merely overwrought?""'" a l l of these themes are incorporated and made large in barnes' f i r s t novel, ryder, published in . over f i f t y disconnected chapters she parodies with picaresque flamboyance, her own strange but humble o r i g i n s , well disguised beneath elaborate and accomplished l i t e r a r y pastiches of the king james bible, chaucer, sterne, f i e l d i n g and of course, more recently james joyce, who had made her a g i f t of the proofs of ulysses which bears more than a passing r e l a t i o n to t h i s text. the book concerns an eccentric r u r a l p a t r i a r c h , wendall ryder, his r e l a t i o n s with his two "wives," his eight children and his mother who a l l share a house in the country. society i s hounding wendall for his i d i o s y n c r a t i c l i f e s t y l e and in p a r t i c u l a r for refusing to send his children to school, saying that he can teach them better himself. when he manages to f i g h t o f f the school board, he i s persecuted for l i v i n g with two women. as the novel closes, he must face the fact that he cannot decide between them. but the work i s far more a s t y l i s t i c tour de force, pushing the genre of the novel to i t s l i m i t s , than i t i s a successful narrative. i t i s only when the shattered units of poetry, prose, i l l u s t r a t i o n , and dramatic monologue are considered whole as a fable or parable, that the work succeeds, and in t h i s i t reminds us of many post-modern pastiches indebted to joyce, where the idea of authorial s i n c e r i t y has become meaningless, to be replaced by layers of s t y l e , e x i s t i n g in p l a y f u l cohabitation and producing only composite meaning. but there i s a serious matter i n ryder as w e l l . it can be read, for example, as a tragi-comic study of the eternal l o t of women. however, the central character, wendall ryder, chief perpetrator of t h e i r suffering, claims some of our sympathy as well by l i v i n g in a much closer and more creative a l l i a n c e with nature than conventional human beings, and receiving the support of his author for i t . in a grotesque and comic fashion, wendall i s a kind of cosmic man fending o f f women, children and authorities while passionately wishing t h i s his farm animals would communicate with him, so preoccupied i s he with exactly what the presumed difference between man and animal i s . his concern with the nature of "the beast" introduces us, however, to some highly serious and poetic r e f l e c t i o n on the notion of a dream-time pre-history, when the r a t i o n a l and the b e s t i a l elements in man were i n perfect balance: in the beginning was the jungle, with thick flowers and thick leaves, and the roots of things: went down into a heavy tiger-pawed earth, and on the branches sat the puma, duke of the morning, and through blood red l i l l i e s went the wild cat, and the slender hoofed deer, and wild cows, whose teats had never served man, and the bellowings and trumpetings and the roarings and screechlings, went forth in one sound that was a band of strength against the unknown quantity that was, one day to be the slayer. there time rotted on the stem of night and day, and the water ripened on the branches of the ocean; there with the weight of unseen swift f l y i n g , making t e r r i b l e his feathers, came the nightbird through the thick gloves, and clove them as o i l i s cloven and records not the break, and stood and pecked s o f t l y and s w i f t l y at the earth that trembled under no f o o t f a l l of man and pecking, went his way with l i t t l e speckled feathers dwindling into the dark. this i s to be the primeval time and landscape to which barnes returns again and again with a painterly eye. ryder i s one of a series of large, experimental modernist works to appear i n the twenties. in i t s e b u l l i e n t a r t i f i c e , i t s breaking up of the t r a d i t i o n a l novel's surfaces and i t s p l a y f u l manhandling of space, time and language, i t follows on s t y l i s t i c a l l y not only from ulysses, but also from e l i o t wasteland and pound's imagist poetry. as with these key modernists texts, barnes' readers too are put to the t e s t . a l o t i s expected of them, with the text's frequent leaps, without bridges, from simple speech and narrative at one moment, to e c c e n t r i c a l l y elaborate, baroque syntactic flourishes and streams of consciousness r i d d l e d with word play. at f i r s t glance the text appears to be studded with archaisms, but of course her taking up of abandoned forms, as george steiner said of e l i o t , was the height of modernism her s t y l i s t i c chaos has been d e l i c a t e l y planned, as she broadly parodies not only her father, her young s e l f in j u l i e ryder, who "becomes what she had read," but also the church, marriage, sex and l i t e r a t u r e . i t i s in f a c t , a harlequin s u i t of l i t e r a r y styles and tones of voice sewn together with remarkable seamlessness and bravado. it marks an i n t e r e s t i n g stage of "writing out one's l i f e " in two senses, one personal and the other professional, operating as she was in a context of international modernism in the 's joyce, e l i o t , pound and proust were setting the standards in harlequin costumes. expatriation if barnes' f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n and her f i r s t novel were imaginatively set in america, a c o l l e c t i o n of stories which appeared in after nine years abroad was d i s t i n c t l y european i n texture. collected under the t i t l e a night among the horses, these f i c t i o n s r i c h l y and strangely combine old and new worlds. ^ she had always been inspired by the european masters—chekhov, strindberg and dostoevsky as well as joyce and the i r i s h playwright, j.m. synge. setting i s always important for barnes; in these pieces, america i s s t i l l v i s i b l e , but i t i s an america heavily populated with immigrants—many russians and a strong european jewish mix of heavily ethnic names. almost a l l of the s i g n i f i c a n t characters are from somewhere else, and those who are not are alienated in t h e i r own lands. in addition, the cast includes many people on t r a i n s between european c i t i e s , the permanently " l o s t generation" of paris cafe residents, children of nature a d r i f t in c i t i e s , and disengaged men and women f i g h t i n g for supremacy over one another in the face of rootlessness and despair on an international stage. however, barnes i s interested i n t h e i r expatriated condition more than t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l or geographical circumstances, and t h i s i s psychic rather than determined by l o c a l e . she found i t a natural symbol, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the 's, both for her own lesbianism and, on a larger scale, for man's e s s e n t i a l angst. at i t s best, though, she points out that t h i s "middle condition" of belonging nowhere i n p a r t i c u l a r can be b e n e f i c i a l , even l i b e r a t i n g . this is* the sort of freedom to which both gertrude stein and v i r g i n i a woolf referred, in t h e i r very d i f f e r e n t ways, when they talked about the power of s p i r i t u a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l androgyny. in her opening story, " a l l e r et retour," barnes' c e n t r a l character, madame von bartmann has been liberated in t h i s way. she i s one of barnes' strong, wise women who l i v e s "in the stream of time," with a "manner at once c a r e f u l and absent," looking about her on her travels with an even gaze at whores, s a i l o r s , churches and incidental b r u t a l i t i e s , "neither pleased nor displeased." she i s a woman of "vigorous understanding" who i s capable, when required, of an "excellently arranged encounter with estangement." in t h i s case i t i s with her now grown daughter, whom she has not seen for seven years. unaware that the c h i l d has an u t t e r l y d i f f e r e n t temperament, and that i t i s in any case, too late for her words to have any e f f e c t , she returns to o f f e r counsel on the basis of what l i f e and t r a v e l have taught her; that l i f e i s -'f i l t h y . . . f r i g h t f u l " but that in i t , there i s everything..."murder, pain, beauty, disease and death." in the face of t h i s she advises, "you must know everything, and then begin." detached by t r a v e l , she has learned not to judge. "i do not want you to turn your nose up at any whore i n the street; pray and wallow and cease, but without prejudice." passion she warns, serves only to "season the horror." i r o n i c a l l y , the g i r l has already signed herself over to a passionless l i f e by agreeing to marry a s t e r i l e young clerk who w i l l c e r t a i n l y try to r c u r t a i l any l a t e r desire to put her mother's advice to use. hence the irony of the t i t l e — a l l e r et r e t o u r — a round t r i p to where madame began, allowing time out for t h i s perhaps unnecessary detour. this has been a gentle l i t t l e story about the condition of the expatriate. but when t h i s same condition i s part of a general d i s i n t e g r a t i o n process, and i s death-bound, i t becomes nothing less than the "halt position of the damned." for characters i n t h i s position "the ground i s not low enough...it i s suffering without a consummation...alien to l i f e . . . l o s t i n s t i l l water...darkness closing in...the interminable d i s c i p l i n e of learning to stand everything." here actual e x p a t r i a t i o n — t h e abandoning of o r i g i n s , u . s u r r e a l l y exaggerated contact between people without context, l i v e s l i v e d without any of the i n t e g r i t y of simple isolation—produces figures who are estranged even from themselves, t h e i r attempts to locate order, to f i n d love, to transcend themselves, fumbling and abortive. in stories of t h i s kind, the world barnes presents i s t r u l y one of r a d i c a l l y displaced persons. in these pieces, expatriation l i n e s up within a range of overwhelmingly negative forces which predetermine men's l i v e s : estrangement, sex, disease, godlessness and f i n a l l y death. they provide a s c r i p t , a narrative with which the characters can only comply. l i f e i s c y c l i c a l ; men are as powerless as insects; p a s s i v i t y i s the p r i n c i p a l means of s u r v i v a l . in the meantime, "the r e a l the proper i d e a — i s design, a thing should have a design; torment should have some meaning." art, barnes says, i s the r e a l middle ground, where a c e r t a i n amount of dispassionate observation i s possible, even i f the pattern we observe i s t r a g i c and i r r e v e r s i b l e . it i s t h i s detached patterning of experience that barnes' recurring images and concerns appear: sex, power and death, nature at war with c i v i l i z a t i o n and the idea of l i v i n g "beyond the end." women of indeterminate sexuality are always her central characters, regardless of t h e i r age, class or n a t i o n a l i t y ; where they are not c e n t r a l , they are s t i l l the determining forces in men's l i v e s ; i t i s never the other way around. sexual combat i s always a central theme. women adapt men to t h e i r needs, and r a r e l y allow them to intrude on t h e i r often autonomous w i l l s . in the two stories with male protagonists, "the rabbit" and "a night among the horses," the women manipulate male destiny and become in the process synonymous with death. these stories are primarly about l e v e l s of knowledge; in each case the man has possessed knowledge of the natural world, and the woman has t r i e d to goad or torture him into a s o c i a l sense that can only corrupt him. in the f i r s t of these s t o r i e s , a l i t t l e armenian t a i l o r i s advised by friends and neighbours to go to new york to become "educated," "a man of the world." too gentle even to protest e f f e c t i v e l y , he leaves for the big c i t y , which alienates him profoundly, i t s a c t i v i t i e s exemplified for him by the butcher shop across from h i s own, " i t s colours..a very harvest of death." but i t takes the woman with whom he i s involved to i n i t i a t e him into t h i s "harvest." she requires of him, to take him at a l l seriously, a nameless "heroic" deed, which he i n t u i t s can only have to do with death. he k i l l s a c r e a t u r e — a rabbit with his bare hands. after the deed, he begins to walk. he "did not seem to know where he was, he had forgotten her. he was shaking, his head straight up, his heart wringing wet." "a night among the horses" i s barnes' most complete statement of t h i s theme. strongly influenced by strindberg's miss j u l i e , i t t e l l s of a young hostler tormented by his landowning mistress who desires him and torments him "with her objects of 'culture'." when she humiliates him in public, he flees into the night, and i t i s here that we f i r s t see him in the story, c l e a r l y v i s i b l e in the darkness and as s t i l l as a piece of sculpture, barnes' powerful image for those l o s t between classes, countries or cultures: toward dusk, in the summer of the year, a man in evening dress, carrying a top hat and a cane, crept on hands and knees through the underbush bordering the pastures of the buckler estate. his wrists hurt him from holding his weight and he sat down. sticky ground vines a l l about him; they climbed the trees, the posts of the fence, they were everywhere. he peered through the t r i c k y tangled branches and saw, standing against the darkness, a grove of white b i r t h shimmering l i k e teeth in a skull...the man struggled for breath, the a i r was heavy and hot, as though he were nested in a p i t of astonishment....if he married her...what would she leave of him?... absolutely nothing, not even his horse....he wouldn't f i t i n anywhere...he'd be neither what he was nor what he had been; he'd be a thing, half-standing, l i k e those figures under the roofs of h i s t o r i c buildings, the halt position of the damned. (emphasis added) he, in t h i s p o s i t i o n , trampled to death by his horses. this condition of loss and damnation taken to i t s extreme leads to l i f e l i v e d "beyond the end," that i s , a f t e r an awareness of the fact that i t i s l i f e that i s inchoate; pre-determined and r e l e n t l e s s l y punishing rather than death. this barnes explores in two of the c o l l e c t i o n ' s most i n t r i g u i n g s t o r i e s . both o f f e r human representations of death. for katrina s i l v e r s t a f f in "the doctors" i t i s the t r a v e l l i n g bible salesman she takes up just before k i l l i n g herself: "some people drink poison, some take the knife, others drown. i take you." in a paradoxical inversion, her embrace of death can be seen as a quest for " l i f e " because she chooses i t as embodying meaning. the death figure in "spillway" i s j u l i e anspacher, a woman with a terminal i l l n e s s who has l i v e d on borrowed time for f i v e years. she returns home to her husband from the sanatorium with the c h i l d she has had by one of the other patients there, who has since died. the c h i l d too has the disease. j u l i e f e e l s that her r e a l disease i s that she i s without conscience, so she returns, hoping that her husband w i l l inspire some g u i l t , some f e e l i n g in her which i t might then be possible to expiate. "there just i s n ' t the r i g h t kind of misery in the world for me to s u f f e r , nor the r i g h t kind of p i t y for you to f e e l ; there i s n ' t a word in the world to heal me; penance cannot undo me." her condition i s "a thing beyond the end of everything." instead of healing or changing the design of her l i f e in any way, i t inspires her husband's suicide. she survives, paradoxically; her knowledge of her imminent mortality i s her strength, and i t k i l l s her husband before i t w i l l k i l l her. the female characters in these stories are f i n a l l y enigmatic and unfathomable, as i s the detached t h i r d person narrator. one thinks again of androgyny as a creature of force. these opaque characters exist not only between countries and classes but also on some middle ground between the sexes, and i t gives them tremendous strength which they frequently misuse. this barnes woman appears in two of the stories as an older woman, recently arrived from america, l i s t e n i n g to a younger woman's story in a paris cafe. she i s simply an auditor. this curious p a s s i v i t y inspires a similar sense i n the reader, before these parables of a pre-determined universe. the characters in t h e i r extremity and androgyny have a peculiar and perfect autonomy and are as repelled as t h e i r creator by a disruptive and p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l need for love. passion, in fact any act of kindness, serves only to "season the horror." not only are characters dissociated from t h e i r pasts, but they are permanently i s o l a t e d i n the present by the unremitting ironies of t h e i r d e s t i n i e s . it i s a key element i n t h e i r condition as expatriates from ordinary l i f e , that they can accept nothing that i_s ordinary, or "daily" from existence. in reaction to i t , some die, others move on. the non-committal narrator i s shocking in her remoteness from these characters. in t h i s there i s a most e f f e c t i v e correspondence between matter and manner—between l i f e and design. barnes uses these stor i e s to d i s t i l and to pattern the images thrown up by expatriate l i f e in europe in the 's. from the f i r s t , she f e l t compelled to extricate from these experiences a s a t i s f a c t o r y image for herself, one that would embody her and her state of mind, that of an expatriated and often impoverished american, bi-sexual woman. in the process she provides a v i s u a l and verbal equivalent for the knowing, detached observer of tragedies in her short s t o r i e s , the kind of observer she would wish to be—the s i l e n t woman whose "middle condition" has freed her from engagement. in her e a r l i e s t published j o u r n a l i s t i c sketch of paris, "vagaries malicieuses" she finds such an image for herself: that of the paris church: notre dame somehow leaves you comparatively untouched, you may not remember her for fear of intruding.... she i s a lonely creature by preference. she i s not disturbed by those devotees who f a l l into two classes; those going toward and those coming from f a i t h . she i s i n the centre condition, where there i s no going and no coming. perhaps t h i s i s why, for me, there was something more possible i n the church of saint germain des pres, the oldest church i n paris. it i s a place for those who have "only a l i t t l e while to stay" - - i t too i s aloof, but i t has the aloofness of a woman loved by one dog and many men. and here one takes one's tears, leaving them unshed, to count the thin candles that r i s e above the feet of the v i r g i n l i k e flowers on fire. nightwood nightwood can be thought of as a female modernist autobiographical f i c t i o n in the same sense that joyce's p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t as a young man and ulysses, lawrence's sons and lovers and women in love, and proust's a* l a recherche du temps perdu are considered male modernist autobiographical f i c t i o n s . in each of these texts there i s some writing out of the author's l i f e and o r i g i n s , some manipulation of the tension between an autobiographical and a f i c t i v e pact with the reader. these male writers chose to represent themselves in t h e i r works through an a r t i s t figure, a synthesizing consciousness whose perspective we as readers come to r e l y on in interpreting the events of the text. joyce's stephen dedalus, lawrence's paul morel and rupert b i r k i n and proust's marcel function as a r t i s t s or transmuting consciousnesses within the text, and serve to indicate the ways in which the f i c t i o n a l work i s a construction of the authorial consciousness. as i have noted e a r l i e r , female modernist writers do not usually provide an equivalent intermediary or a r t i s t figure i n t h e i r works. there i s none i n nightwood, perhaps the most accomplished novel by a woman in the period. i t i s not self-effacement or p a s s i v i t y on barnes' part that she does not provide such a f i g u r e . i w i l l argue that her a r t i s t i c intentions are simply quite d i f f e r e n t from those of her male counterparts. she i s concerned with presenting a de-centred narrative in order to portray as accurately as possible a world where meaning and perspective are profoundly f l u i d and r e l a t i v i s t i c . therefore no image of i t can be fixed, and no character or voice empowered to f i x i t . narrative coherence i s provided by the patterns of poetic connection the reader i s asked to make from these images. the design of the novel then i s e s s e n t i a l l y f i g u r a t i v e . the author i s represented in her text only in oblique a e s t h e t i c a l l y " o b j e c t i f i e d " form--as object, design or a r t i f a c t — t h e product of creation, rather than in the figure of a creator within the narrative. i argue that i f nightwood i s a " f i c t i o n of the s e l f , " i t i s not confession; nor i s i t t h i n l y v e i l e d autobiography. like the work of her contemporary, jean rhys, i t incorporates many d e t a i l s of her l i f e and times, but i t i s an aesthetic construct, a f i c t i o n of the s e l f — o n e version of a segment of l i f e in the form of many images of herself and others. like rhys, barnes' intention, apart from the s t r i c t l y aesthetic, i s to transcend those l i f e d e t a i l s by transmuting them out of the realm of the s t r i c t l y f a c t u a l : : in other words, to write an escape from the s e l f . like gertrude stein, barnes attempts to represent authentically a s e l f that i s part of a sexual sub-culture which had no o f f i c i a l l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n ; she too must do a certain amount of i t with mirrors i f she i s not to give herself away. barnes' biographer i s , i think, j u s t i f i e d when he says that i t i s "a fundamental error to claim as frank does that nightwood lacks a narrative structure in the ordinary sense and cannot be reduced to any sequence of action for purposes of explanation.... there i s a simple main story...and i t i s , moreover, a story which repeats rather c l o s e l y a series of events which r e a l l y did occur. that story i s the profound and impossible love of a woman who contemplates for a woman who rages and destroys." he documents the fact that the chronology of nightwood i s v e r i f i a b l y that of the djuna barnes/thelma wood love a f f a i r as evidenced by barnes ' l e t t e r s . he goes on to ask as the r e s u l t of a l l t h i s "verifying"--how many facts does a l i f e story require? what i s a fact and what i s a l i f e story? there i s an answer to his question given in nightwood: "the more facts we have about a person the less we know." f i e l d maintains, however, that i t i s important to know about the well- documented love a f f a i r between barnes and wood in order to understand the important connection between the love and the "highly s t y l i z e d " r e l a t i o n s h i p i n the novel. "the one came out of the other," but l i k e the p o r t r a i t of dr. o'connor based on the r e a l dan mahoney, barnes has "sea- changed" inchoate experience into patterned a r t . the tone of doom, however, seems to have c a r r i e d over from r e a l l i f e events quite i n t a c t . i would draw attention to the " s t y l i z a t i o n " of r e l a t i o n s h i p s — t h e techniques for t h e i r representation, rather than struggle, as f i e l d has done, to i d e n t i f y whether textual data are "true." art gives, i t i s true, undeniable power over r e a l people and events. barnes seems to see i t as capable of perpetuating a kind of "bloodless murder." there i_s a l i f e story underlying barnes' imaginative work. it i s unmistakeable. but the work of art serves as an ornate mask for i t — s e r v i n g to disguise i t , and only obliquely to represent i t . as a f i c t i o n , nightwood provides a poetic narrative for a group of expatriates l i v i n g in paris between the wars. it explores the impact of one of them--robin vote—on the others —nora flood, f e l i x volkbein, matthew o'connor and jenny petherbridge, whose l i v e s she moves through as though in a trance. the novel begins at an e a r l i e r time in history in b e r l i n with studies of f e l i x ' s parents, and ends at nora's f a m i l i a l home in upstate new york. the "present" in the novel i s taken to be paris, , though we are made quickly aware at the novel's opening that "truth i s a h i s t o r i c a l . " the plot involves the marriage of f e l i x volkbein to robin vote, the b i r t h of t h e i r c h i l d guido, and robin's abandoning of both of them; her subsequent meeting with nora flood i n america, t h e i r return to europe, and ten year love a f f a i r in paris; jenny petherbridge's "stealing" of robin from nora, robin's acquiescence and f i n a l l y her f l i g h t to america with jenny. the novel concludes with robin's return to nora at a l a t e r time, in america. the divided self in t h i s narrative the " s e l f " i s represented as a mosaic of images and metaphorical utterances. the aesthetic surface and patterning of these elements are given prominence over t h e i r i n t r i n s i c q u a l i t i e s . but at the simplest narrative l e v e l , the s e l f i s seen as f a t a l l y d i v i d e d — t h e s e l f and i t s double, the s e l f and the other, the alienated s e l f and love as a primeval search for n a r c i s s i s t i c complementarity. that man i s a divided creature matthew o'connor t e l l s us early in the novel--"born damned and innocent from the s t a r t . " the doctor should know, because he himself, i s a creature of tragi-comic c o n t r a d i c t i o n s — man/woman, doctor/abortionist, seer/fool. his ferocious monologuing style i s d u a l i s t i c too; he appears to be saying a great deal, and as a poet he does, but in the end he acknowledges that language i s f u t i l e . i t i s not that he knows l i t t l e of the world. it i s rather the reverse problem. he functions as a one-man greek chorus in the text reminding characters that i t i s pointless to look to man or god for completion or transcendence. his advice--to hang on by the l a s t remaining muscle—"the heart" (n. p. ). called a "defrocked p r i e s t of words" by one c r i t i c , he f a l l s back on language as his only recourse, and he i s aware as the modernist writer barnes must have been, that i t i s degraded s p i r i t u a l and creative currency: modernist discourse as self-consuming a r t i f a c t . o'connor i s tiresias/cassandra; no-one hears or believes his predictions or counsel. they cannot, as long as they hope to be completed by another and thereby redeemed. nora needs to believe that her love for robin can save them both. f e l i x thinks that i f he can unite himself with history he w i l l legitimize himself as a wandering jew in the twentieth century. only union with the unknown "other" can invest the unbearableness of d a i l y l i f e with s i g n i f i c a n c e , as death transfigures l i f e . it i s of course one of the novel's great paradoxes that most of the characters approach transcendence through w i l l f u l degradation rather than a c a l l to god. catholicism, barnes seems to suggest by the force and beauty of her imagery for the church, might have been expected to provide, where sexual love cannot, some bridge between the despairing i n d i v i d u a l and a higher order. she concludes, however, that the gap between man and god i s too great, too grotesquely comic; a l l that man can do i n the face of i t i s to j o i n matthew o'connor, a yearning, sinning catholic, in his b l i n d appeal to his maker. "pain increases in d i r e c t proportion to consciousness," however. there are echoes of t h i s gap between divine order and human degradation throughout the book. it i s the same gap that separates the i n t e n s i t y of characters' psychological horror at events from any capacity to express or confront i t d i r e c t l y . there are few violent revelations or dramatic confrontations in the novel. instead, there are strained, frozen encounters and endless "introspective monologues," s p i l l i n g over into desperate speech to a t h i r d person in the form of confession. there i s the f a i l u r e to properly a r t i c u l a t e s u f f e r i n g in word or action, a sense of incurable disease, from which no release or resolution i s ever possible. the quest for an " i d e n t i t y " in the face of inevitable d u a l i t y i s one of the central concerns of the book. barnes renders t h i s psychic predicament in a number of f i g u r a t i v e oppositions reminiscent of jean rhys' l i t e r a r y structures, beginning with the r a t i o n a l world of the day and i t s i r r a t i o n a l and considerably more powerful and dangerous reverse, the night world. in contrast to the world of daylight, control and order, the night i s a jungle and the forces man faces there, in dream for example, are b e s t i a l and p r i m i t i v e . as alan williamson points out, barnes i s much concerned with eden--not the c h r i s t i a n version, though she c e r t a i n l y adheres to the idea of the f a l l . he suggests that her myth i s rather in the "hermetic t r a d i t i o n according to which man was created in the union of conscious mind and animal matter, as a single hermaphroditic being, whose fragmentation into separate sexes occurred at the time of the f a l l . " adam was "an i d e a l l y u n i f i e d e n t i t y , " or as barnes puts in nightwood, exists at "the moment of the beast turning human" (n. p. ). i t i s the moment which haunts her narrative and much of i t s imagery, as the moment when the unconscious (the passionate animal v i t a l i t y ) acquired r a t i o n a l consciousness, the moment of fragmentation into male and female, leaving androgyny as a l o s t i d e a l , a v i s i o n of wholeness. barnes, in the images of her characters' yearning, repeatedly strains back to t h i s moment which she describes i n jungian terms as "a mirage of an eternal wedding cast on the r a c i a l memory" (n. p. ). in the post edenic world, she t e l l s us, the hermetic adam l i v e s on only in i d i o t s , the insane, the defeated victims of the night and i n creatures l i k e robin vote, who lack "human q u a l i t i e s . " knowledge of t h i s loss i s the universal malady of which barnes writes. robin vote is_ the character in the novel who i s "the beast turning human." she compels the attention of a l l of the other characters by her power to suggest in her provocative and sensual silence, images which they desire and which they are convinced w i l l complete them as both men and women. with her ruthless talent for self-, preservation, she i s able to survive as a timeless, aesthetic object, created by them. as long as she i s p e r f e c t l y self-contained and has no memory of the beds she leaves, she can survive both as a creature of r e a l time, the night, and as an embodiment of the ancient moment when the beast turns human. her attention, f e l i x r e f l e c t s , seems perpetually absorbed by something "not yet in h i s t o r y . " (n. p. ). her essence then, i s pre-time just as i t i s pre-moral. she l i s t e n s to "the echo of some force i n the blood that had no known setting" (n. p. ). intimacy with her i s simply an acknowledgement of t h i s f a c t . when she i s pregnant, she i s c a t a l e p t i c a l l y calm, newly aware of some " l o s t land" in herself (n. p. ). she wanders through the countryside, and to other c i t i e s , and f i n a l l y into churches. she prays monstrous prayers based on no judgement, no morality. she gives b i r t h , crying out in affirmation and despair " l i k e a c h i l d who has walked into the commencement of a horror" (n. p. ). such i s l i f e in barnes' terms. robin's d u a l i t y i s extreme—often hovering, the somnambule, between l i f e and death, day and night. but versions of t h i s same d i v i s i o n are true of a l l the characters; they d i f f e r only in degree. even nora flood, whose equilibrium i s the most detached, bases her poise on alternating states of savagery and refinement. this i s the chord then that the u t t e r l y savage robin s t r i k e s in her with her love. this i s p r e c i s e l y what nora needs to love. it i s at her p e r i l that she does so and she i s destroyed by i t . in her need to possess and claim such a creature, i t i s not d i f f i c u l t to see nora's need for self-possession, for control of her own sub-conscious, her " n i g h t - s e l f " . in her anguish at losing robin, she c r i e s out to o'connor much as one of her l i t e r a r y ancestors, catherine ernshaw had c r i e d out to nelly dean, "she i s myself. what am i to do?" (n. p. ) of course, robin can only sustain her existence and sanity i f she remains impervious to such claims from others. "she managed in that sleep to keep whole" (n. p. ). nora, who v i r t u a l l y "slaps" robin awake into consciousness, becomes a kind of madonna figure for her—both loving her and f i l l i n g her with g u i l t , while o f f e r i n g the only chance for her redemption. when robin i s broken at the end of the novel, and at the moment of turning back from human into beast, she comes to nora to o f f e r herself up at her feet. f e l i x too takes up the powerful imagery that robin invokes and embodies. he expects i t to complete him and to transform his destiny. he recognizes the ancient q u a l i t y in her and mistakes i t for n o b i l i t y with which he can a l i g n himself. so while he senses danger in her involvement with the p a s t — she i s "an infected c a r r i e r of the p a s t " — i t i s s t i l l for him overwhelmingly "as i f t h i s g i r l were the converging halves of a broken fate, setting face, i n sleep, toward i t s e l f in time, as an image and i t s r e f l e c t i o n in a lake seem parted only by the h e s i t a t i o n in the hour" (n. p. ). so robin s i l e n t l y throws up images to each of the characters in which they see t h e i r needs mirrored; she evokes in each t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r version of the "eternal wedding" between time and the timeless, animal and human, grace and s i n , man and woman. in the face of her they are a l l "human hunger pressing i t s breast to the prey" (n. p. ). for a l l t h i s , robin i s , as joseph frank r i g h t l y states, a "figure" rather than a character, "since character implies humanity and she has not yet attained to the l e v e l of the human." we meet her as a somnambule at the moment before she i s awakened. for a l l that we ever know of her past l i f e and o r i g i n s , she could be being born at t h i s moment—an image coming out of nowhere, about to be taken up by those who discover her, as a metaphor by an a r t i s t . she symbolizes that "state of existence which i s before rather than beyond, good and evil...she i s both innocent and depraved." she glides through l i f e as though i t were a dream, a "formless meditation." to awaken would be to admit consciousness and an awareness of moral value. she i s both supremely e g o t i s t i c a l and without secure i d e n t i t y . "she knows she i s innocent because she can't do anything in r e l a t i o n to anyone but herself" (n. p. ). the doctor t e l l s f e l i x , robin's abandoned husband, that robin had written from america saying "remember me." "probably," he remarks, "because she has d i f f i c u l t y remembering herself" (n. p. ). she i s the s e l f out of time, amoral and therefore innocent of a l l but elemental creaturely vanity --the momentary vanity of a figure captured i n a painting. the doctor describes her as "outside the human type,...a wild thing caught i n a woman's skin, monstrously alone, monstrously vain." as one c r i t i c astutely puts i t , robin i s best r e a l i z e d as the f i c t i o n a l counterpart of a r e a l person. both f e l i x and nora "love" robin. love then seems to be the obvious means for t h e i r self-completion. barnes i s interested, as her l a t e r play, the antiphon indicates, with the antiphonal.nature of love as a f i n a l attempt to make whole. this idea sees love as that between two halves of the same i d e n t i t y as man's main hope for transcendence of his debased p o s i t i o n : ...as the high plucked banks of the v i o l a rend out the unplucked strings below there i s the antiphon. i've seen loves so eat each other's mouth t i l l that the common clamour, co-intwined wrung out the hidden singing in the tongue its chaste, economy-—there i s the adoration so the day, day f i t for dying i n , is the plucked accord. (emphasis added) in that play barnes' pessimism has the antiphonal r e l a t i o n s h i p between mother and daughter end in mutual destruction. in nightwood, robin wants from nora, despite herself, a love that w i l l break through her c a t a l e p t i c trance, to make something of her, to make her capable of antiphonal love. in i t s doomed nature, however, nora can only o f f e r a kind of s a c r i f i c a l love, as a parent for a c h i l d who w i l l c e r t a i n l y leave, o'connor t e l l s her—"you should have had a thousand children and robin... should have been a l l of them" (n. p. ). love might have succeeded where language f a i l s in giving the characters something to enact; but love for barnes most often seals characters o f f more t e r r i b l y than before. most frequently she deals with versions of love which are not at a l l l i k e l y to free the lovers i . e . incestuous, f a m i l i a l or homosexual love. some are l i k e l y to dismiss such a stand, but i think i t reasonable to see i t as important and universal a version of love i n extremis, as one might f i n d in an expressionistic painting of similar subjects. barnes' suggestion i s that for characters hungering for edenic completion, the most perfect and appropriate love should involve a mirror image of the s e l f found on the same basis of i d e n t i t y , i n blood or sex. early i n her writing career, barnes expressed t h i s idea in an elegiac poem to a dead l o v e r — " s i x songs of khalidine." it i s not gentleness but mad despair that sets us k i s s i n g mouths, oh khalidine your mouth and mine...and one sweet mouth unseen we c a l l our soul... (emphasis added) nightwood o f f e r s another version of t h i s key to barnes representation of herself in a r t : "a man i s another person-- a woman i s yourself caught as you turn in panic; on her mouth you kiss your own. if she i s taken you cry that you have been robber of yourself. god laughs at me, but his laughter i s my love" (no. p. ). homosexual or incestuous love i s barnes ' most perfect image for recovery of the l o s t s e l f . man i s always the other. but neither f e l i x nor nora i s capable of s e l f - transforming love, even i f robin were capable of adequate response, because they are f a t a l l y flawed by d i v i s i o n s within t h e i r own characters. nora flood, the observer, who l i k e matthew o'connor watches the night rather than be one of i t s victims, i s as much a victim of her own contradictory attitudes as of circumstance. she was "by temperament an early c h r i s t i a n ' she believed the word; t h i s meant that she robbed herself for everyone...wandering people the world over found her p r o f i t a b l e in that she could be sold for a price forever, for she c a r r i e d her betrayal money in her own pocket" (n. p. ). her american salon i s a parody of the parisian salon for the c u l t u r a l l y e l e c t ; i t i s populated by paupers and s o c i a l outcasts. she i s described not as a woman of the world, but in images of the american west. these and references to her puritan temperament base her seemingly naive s p i r i t u a l attitude on the h i s t o r i c a l innocence of the american people and t h e i r b e l i e f in the inherent goodness in man, and in the p o s s i b i l i t y of change, along with, i n joseph frank's words, "an indiscriminate approbation of a l l forms of e t h i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l unconventionality." godless as she f e e l s herself to be, i t i s simple c h r i s t i a n p i t y that draws her to robin. she expects both to win her and to save her by enveloping her in an unjudging love based on goodness. but the i n e v i t a b l i t y at work here has nothing to do with c h r i s t i a n j u s t i c e . in barnes' world, she has "given herself away" in the ferocious externalizing of her love, and she has therefore brought about her own r u i n . nora's reaction on meeting robin at the circus runs p a r a l l e l to that of the lioness who "recognizes" a fellow wild creature temporarily tamed. "being neither animal nor human, robin evokes p i t y from both species. nora too responds i n t u i t i v e l y to robin, taking her hand and leading her away from t h i s tragic "recognition" scene which i s c l e a r l y d i s t r e s s i n g her. robin i s v i r t u a l l y a mute character in the novel, yet at t h i s meeting she i s compelled by another primitive recognition to ask nora to set up a home for her, "aware, without conscious knowledge, that she belonged to nora, and that i f nora did not make i t permanent by her own strength, she would forget" (n. p. ). and t h i s nora manages to do for a time. in the process nora i s able to ease "the tension i n robin between the animal and the human forces which are tearing her apart." in the end, however, unconditional love and acceptance f a i l to "give robin permission to l i v e , " as f e l i x puts i t (n. p. ). love has broken down her elemental vanity and threatened her trance-like equilibrium, so she must leave i t . as a wild creature, p a r t i a l l y tamed, she i s t e r r i f i e d of leaving her protected state. she c l i n g s to nora desperately during t h e i r protracted estrangement, tortured by a newly awakened sense that she may be required to make moral and emotional choices a f t e r a l l . in the process, nora i s , as o'connor puts i t , "dismantled" h e r s e l f . her c a r e f u l l y balanced equilibrium i s shattered. "love has f a l l e n o f f her wall, ! he continues. "a r e l i g i o u s woman...without the joy and safety of the catholic faith...take that safety from a woman and love gets loose and into the rafters...out looking for what she's a f r a i d to f i n d — r o b i n . there goes the mother of mischief, running about t r y i n g to get the world home" (n. p. ). like a displaced and g r i e f - s t r i c k e n madonna, t r y i n g to administer comfort to robin, to the world, when she i s the abandoned creature. as she and robin f a l l apart, nora's p u r i t a n i c a l l y repressed subconscious r i s e s up against her in dreams, which o f f e r valuable imagistic keys to her psyche i n v i s i b l e at any other time, images of the tormented sexual s e l f . —- asleep she dreams of her grandmother, of the old woman's fading possessions, of her past, of sex, of her childhood house and of the instruments of barnes' own c r a f t — " a plume and an inkwell--the ink faded into the q u i l l " (n. p. ). when robin enters the dream nora t r i e s to bring her upstairs to her grandmother's room, a place which i s "taboo." a submerged, incestuous, f a m i l i a l s e l f - l o v e becomes hopelessly merged with the fading love for yet another version of h e r s e l f — h e r female lover. in her dream the grandmother appears in a variety of costumes—one of them a man's. she looks at nora with a "leer of love," c a l l i n g her "my l i t t l e sweetheart!" (n. p. ). nora's own lesbianism seems to originate here i n t h i s former version of herself, with waves of an incestuous suggestion s t i l l f e l t i n adult l i f e , when she loves robin in her boy's clothes. one cannot help but remember nora's words on entering doctor o'connor's room late at night to f i n d him s i t t i n g up in bed wearing a woman's nightdress and a crooked wig. "god, children know something they can't t e l l ; they l i k e red riding hood and the wolf in bed!" (n. p. ). the only element missing from her r e f l e c t i o n here i s the grandmother. in the adult nora, i s i t the covertly lesbian and devouring grandmother who appears i n dream to undermine her younger version of herself? it i s only through sub-conscious playing out that nora comes to see, at the very edge of sanity, what she has been doing. "i struggled with her [robin] ...as with the c o i l s of my own most obvious heart. i thought i loved her for her own sake, and i found i t was for my own" (n. p. ). one aspect of lesbian influence during t h i s period i s discussed by susan gubar in her a r t i c l e : "blessings i n disguise" cross-dressing as re-dressing for female modernists." this she discusses as a p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n t i a l style among women, e s p e c i a l l y women a r t i s t s l i v i n g i n europe between the wars. she sees i t as an alienated expression of selfhood, but at the same time, a confident expression of love for other women, and by extension, the female s e l f . robin vote i s a reasonably discreet cross-dresser by comparison with matthew o'connor, the novel's most tortured homosexual. he has none of robin's power over people, yet he i s frequently consulted as an authority on the nightworld. he i s the p r i n c i p a l voicer of i t s images. in f a c t , the novel could well be o'connor's imagined story. most of the narrative consists of his commentary on the events and t h e i r cosmic implications. as t.s. e l i o t says of t i r e s i a s in the waste land, what he sees i s the substance of the piece. like t i r e s i a s , he seems to have experienced i t a l l , which gives him the r i g h t to act as confessor to the novel's night creatures. for t h i s reason nora comes to him with her question, "watchman, what of the night?" at f i r s t he appears to be outside the s u f f e r i n g his discourse explores, while at the same time f u l l y aware of the p r a c t i c a l f u t i l i t y of his knowledge. but we become quickly aware that he i s helpless, and even more hopeless, than the other characters, t a l k i n g because there i s nothing else that can be done. " . . . t e l l i n g my s t o r i e s to people l i k e you to take the mortal agony out of t h e i r guts...i talk too much because i have been made so miserable by what you're keeping hushed" (p. ). we learn that he i s c e n t r a l l y concerned with his own mortal agony and that t h i s i s what makes him such an authority. he occasionally becomes h y s t e r i c a l with the e f f o r t . in an outburst to nora, who i n her obsession i s not l i s t e n i n g — he c r i e s "do you think there i s no lament in t h i s world but your own?...a broken heart have you! i have f a l l i n g arches, f l y i n g dandruff, a f l o a t i n g kidney, shattered nerves and a broken heart!...am i going forward screaming that i t hurts, that my mind goes back, or holding my guts as i f they were a c o i l of knives?" (n. p. ). in fact he occupies the middle position which barnes elsewhere c a l l s "the halt p o s i t i o n of the damned." he i s god of the night who would be c h r i s t , or at very l e a s t , dante, in his mortally compromised p o s i t i o n , he i s capable of both profound detachment, and deep complicity with the universal misery of ours. the designing s e l f : the self as design there i s in the p o r t r a i t s of nora and ' connor, the two "registering consciousnesses" of the novel, a fascination with disorder and depravity under the oppression of the c h r i s t i a n e t h i c , as though perversity and c h r i s t i a n i t y were the only two natural poles for human behaviour. nevertheless, barnes narrative i s not i t s e l f subject to the same laws as her characters' l i v e s . she assigns t r a g i c value to t h e i r experiences and then proceeds to i n s i s t on pattern in t h e i r desperate struggles with i n e v i t a b i l i t y and d i s s o l u t i o n . experience may be grotesquely random, but in the a r t i s t i c processes of t r y i n g to gather the fragments, one guards oneself against r u i n . there i s design in these degraded d u a l i t i e s , which provides the novel with the q u a l i t i e s of an a r t i s t i c parable. but while the characters f a i l , and, f i n a l l y the author f a l l s s i l e n t , matter has been d i s t i l l e d . transformed, and therefore in some sense redeemed: we were created that the earth might be made sensible of her inhuman taste; and love that the body might be so dear that even the earth should roar with i t . (n. p. ) just as the loved object can be transformed and "made sensible" by the investment of imagery and value, so i t i s possible that the experience of l i v i n g can be redeemed in l i k e manner in works of a r t . the o v e r a l l design of the novel has been described by andrew f i e l d as that of a "verbal art deco construct." it also draws on other v i s u a l arts s t y l e s — s u r r e a l i s m , expressionism, rococo and the grotesque, a l l i n f l u e n t i a l styles in representation in the 's and 's when barnes was t r a v e l l i n g around europe, and to which, she as a painter and i l l u s t r a t o r must have responded. barnes' test i s verbally, and through i t s " s p a t i a l i z e d " images, v i s u a l l y ornate. she frequently substitutes pattern and texture for t r a d i t i o n a l n o v e l i s t i c constructs, which makes her use of ornament far more subversive and compelling than her fin-de- s i e c l e "beauty i n barbarity" heritage alone would imply. « f (her early i l l u s t r a t i o n s were very much i n the yellow book beardsley s t y l e , though i n the twenties, with ryder, she moves curiously closer to blake.) of these v i s u a l arts s t y l e s , i t i s the grotesque that most thoroughly and i n t r i c a t e l y i n f i l t r a t e s the text. ruskin had defined the grotesque in connection with roman grotto painting as "a series of symbols thrown together with a bold and fearless connection of truths which i t would have taken a long time to express i n any verbal way." i t i s easy to interpret i n the work of barnes, a "painterly" writer, the same sense of "silences...encrustations...humour...and at base ...horror before l i f e " which the grotesque t r a d i t i o n in art embodied.^ the grotesque, according to wolfgang kayser, i s the primary a r t i s t i c expression of "estrangement... a l i e n a t i o n , the absurd [and] the incomprehensible."^''' in i t the laws of nature are suspended, the inanimate comes to l i f e and l i f e i s at the mercy of unseen forces. its f i f t e e n t h and sixteenth century o r i g i n s stressed above a l l a c e r t a i n ornamental s t y l e , one i n t e r e s t i n g aspect of which, in r e l a t i o n to barnes, i s the blending of animal, plant and human forms. the world of these grotesque designs i s meant to form "the dark and s i n i s t e r background of a brigher, r a t i o n a l l y organized world...a world where...the laws of s t a t i c s , symmetry and proportion are no longer v a l i d . the sixteenth century synonym for the grotesque i s 'the dreams of the painters ' [sogni dei p i t t o r i ] involving the d i s s o l u t i o n of r e a l i t y and the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the observer i n a d i f f e r e n t kind of existence." it i s not very far at a l l , i t seems to me, from t h i s description of an a r t i s t i c archetype, to i t s very s p e c i f i c application in barnes' creation of such a dreamlike, s i n i s t e r night world f u l l of attenuated creatures. it was montaigne, the ancestor of a l l imaginative attempts at self-representation, who transferred the term from fine arts to l i t e r a t u r e . speaking of his own essays, he c a l l e d them "monstrous bodies, pieced together of the most diverse members, without d i s t i n c t form, in which order and proportion are l e f t to chance." the twentieth century preoccupation with the grotesque can be seen in works as diverse as wedekind's erdgeist (earth s p i r i t ) , which deals with the beast or primitive force [urgestalt] as the r e a l s e l f , to the works of the i t a l i a n playwrights who formed the "teatro del grottesco" ( - ) ; most famous of them was pirandello, whose personal creed, p a r a l l e l i n g that of his contemporary, djuna barnes, could be stated as: the absolute conviction that everything i s vain and hollow, and that man i s only a puppet in the hand of fate. man's pains and pleasures as well as his deeds are unsubstantial dreams in a world of ominous darkness that i s ruled by b l i n d f o r t u n e . " b o t h o f t h e s e s e t s o f a r t i s t s - - w e d e k i n d a n d t h e g e r m a n e x p r e s s i o n i s t d r a m a t i s t s , a n d t h e i t a l i a n t h e a t r e o f t h e g r o t e s q u e w e r e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h b a r n e s ' w o r k i n t h e ' s , a n d t h e r e a r e u n d e n i a b l e s i m i l a r i t i e s i n w o r l d v i e w a n d a p p r o a c h . we s h o u l d n o t b e , w i t h a n y o f t h e s e w r i t e r s , o v e r l y d i s t r a c t e d b y t h e " f a n t a s t i c " e l e m e n t o f t h e g r o t e s q u e o r l o s e s i g h t o f i t s p r i m a r y p u r p o s e i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . t h o m a s m a n n r e m i n d s u s t h a t " t h e g r o t e s q u e i s t h a t w h i c h i s e x t r e m e l y t r u e a n d e x c e s s i v e l y r e a l , n o t t h a t w h i c h i s a r b i t r a r y , f a l s e , i r r e a l a n d a b s u r d . " i f t h i s i s t h e c o r e , a s i a r g u e , t h e r a d i c a l p u r p o s e o f b a r n e s ' t e x t , i t i s i m p o r t a n t f i r s t t o c o n s i d e r t h e w i l f u l l y n o n - n a t u r a l i s t i c m e t h o d s f o r i t s e m b o d i m e n t : t h e a r t i f i c e o f t h e n o v e l , i n w h i c h , i f i t i s t o s u c c e e d , t h e " f o r m a l " v a l u e o f t h e t e x t m u s t b e s h o w n " t o b e a n a c c u r a t e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i n n e r v a l u e , i n s u c h a w a y t h a t d u a l i t y o f f o r m a n d c o n t e n t c e a s e s t o e x i s t . o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l m e a n s o f d i s s o l v i n g t h i s d u a l i t y i s b y o b j e c t i f y i n g t h e s u b j e c t i v e i n n e w w a y s . a n d t h i s i s w h a t , i p r o p o s e , b a r n e s i n t e n d e d w i t h t h e i m a g e s i n h e r t e x t . t h e y w e r e t o e m b o d y a w o r l d , a s t a t e o f m i n d , a v e r s i o n o f h e r s e l f i n a e s t h e t i c f o r m s t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n o v e l d i d n o t a l l o w . t h i s o p e r a t e s i n t w o w a y s : f i r s t — o n t h e l a r g e r l e v e l o f t h e f o r m s o f w h i c h t h e n a r r a t i v e w o r l d o f n i g h t w o o d i s c o m p o s e d — o r d e r i n g f r a m e s / t a b l e a u x , e s s e n t i a l l y a s j o s e p h f r a n k c o n c l u d e s , s p a t i a l u n i t s o f p e r c e p t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n t e m p o r a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l o n e s ; i n a s e c o n d s e n s e , a n d o n e w h i c h o p e r a t e s more i n t r i c a t e l y and t h o r o u g h l y — l i k e coloured threads running through the t e x t — c h a r a c t e r , relations and states of consciousness too are o b j e c t i f i e d into aesthetic forms as objects, images or arrangements, as metaphorical or poetic constructs. this produces a remarkable sense of design in the work, uniting v i s u a l and thematic components into an elaborate and highly ordered collage or tapestry of s e n s i b i l i t y . these poetic ordering techniques do not simply "embellish or f l e s h out narrative," as the c r i t i c louis kannenstine notes. they achieve a far more r a d i c a l intention: to "reformulate narrative design." ^ (emphasis added) it i s more than a matter of suffering made tolerable by a r t ; the narrative i s freed from the t r a d i t i o n a l r e s t r i c t i o n s of sequence and c a u s a l i t y as the p r i n c i p a l means of encoding aesthetic meaning. here, meaning i s given form in image; and patterns of meaning are based e n t i r e l y on the novel's metaphorical patterning. such patterns "objectify, the subjective...worldify the imminent" as ortega gasset puts i t . there i s a new approach to character i m p l i c i t in such an ordering process. characters may embody c e r t a i n ideas or forces, but r e f e r e n t i a l d e t a i l about them based in r e a l i t y , i s i r r e l e v a n t to barnes' purpose, and i s therefore not provided. they become figures of a mythic perspective rather than an h i s t o r i c a l or psychological one. barnes' o b j e c t i f y i n g process, focusing as i t does on catalogues of objects, streams of description based on patterns of association of clothing, rooms and furniture, works to subvert any " n a t u r a l i s t i c " reader involvement with the text, characters or "human" s i t u a t i o n s . by eliminating a r e a l i s t i c surface, we are l e f t to face the text passively, as her characters must confront the f a n t a s t i c tableaux that surround them—frozen emblems of a world in extremis with the "freakish contours of a dream." in t h i s dream world transient d e t a i l becomes transmuted as though under sudden spotlight, into pure metaphor whose l i t e r a l or narrative reference ceases to matter. this realm of pure metaphor i s a verbal world whose order i s symbolic, and whose frames of action are frozen into emblematic tableaux as highly charged, and i n t r i c a t e l y coded as any painting where design and purpose are one. as i s only appropriate to such a design, there i s a s t a t i c q u a l i t y to the action within these frames. language serves to illuminate, i n t r a g i c idiom, timeless frames in which i t i s understood that change, for any character, i s impossible. there i s necessarily a gap between language and action. introspective monologue and confession take the place of enacted confrontation or resolution i n the novel. instead of resolution, barnes o f f e r s ceaselessly revised perspectives, "substituting one i d e n t i t y among differences for another i n an i n f i n i t e process of emergent meaning"--a c l a s s i c iirtodernist achievement in the joycean s t y l e . t.s. e l i o t recognized t h i s metaphorical design in barnes' novel when he wrote in his introduction to i t s f i r s t e d i t i o n that i t would "appeal primarily to readers of poetry." he quickly q u a l i f i e s t h i s by saying "i do not mean that miss barnes style i s "poetic prose." but i do mean that most contemporary novels are not r e a l l y 'written:'" he then focuses on what he c a l l s the compelling "pattern" of the book. "the book i s not simply a c o l l e c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l p o r t r a i t s ; the characters are a l l knotted together, as people are i n r e a l l i f e , by what one may c a l l chance and destiny, rather than by deliberate choice of each other's company: i t i s the whole pattern that they form, rather than any i n d i v i d u a l constituent, that i s the focus of i n t e r e s t " (emphasis added.) while agreeing e n t i r e l y with his remarks about the sense of design in the novel, i disagree with e l i o t in his c conclusion that barnes' style i s not poetic. i t is_ poetic prose, and moreover, the world of nightwood could only have been created by a poet. i agree with ralph freedman in his study of the l y r i c a l novel which places barnes along with joyce and woolf at the apex of the "novel as poem." in the works of these writers, "the world i s transformed into the s o l i l o q u i s t ' s images (including those of the author) from which character and action are made to emerge." what d i f f e r e n t i a t e s l y r i c a l from n o n - l y r i c a l writing freedman says, i s "a d i f f e r e n t concept of o b j e c t i v i t y . . . independent designs in which awareness of men's experiences i s merged with i t s objects. rather than finding i t s gestalt in the imitation of an action, the l y r i c a l novel absorbs action altogether and refashions i t as a pattern of imagery." this i s p r e c i s e l y barnes' narrative strategy in nightwood. her "principles of composition" are based on "the i n t r i c a t e cross-reference of image and symbol." a l a t e r remark by e l i o t i s relevant in t h i s regard. "it seems to me that a l l of us, so far as we attach ourselves to created objects and surrender our w i l l s to temporal ends, are eaten by the same worm" (emphasis added). the compulsion to "attach ourselves to created objects" i s a universal malady which serves as the basis for barnes poetic designs. it i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s almost b i b l i c a l sense of a man's material existence and of his inevitable mortality on which barnes constructs her novel. to better e s t a b l i s h t h i s sense of metaphorical structure, i w i l l examine a number of the novel's key tableaux. its opening frame, for example, c l e a r l y places the action, at the outset, in h i s t o r i c a l time. it i s quickly injected with a sense of timeless metaphorical resonance, however, from history to fable i n two pages. i t i s "early in " when f e l i x volkbein's imagined mother—a f a m i l i a r androgynous barnes female type--a "viennese woman of great strength and m i l i t a r y beauty" surrounded by the heavy hapsburg decor of her time and s t a t u s — " a canopied bed of a r i c h spectacular crimson" beneath a feather coverlet enveloped i n s a t i n , on which "in massive and tarnished gold threads stood the volkbein arms, i s engaged in an act of central concern in a l l barnes f i c t i o n — t h a t of giving b i r t h (n. p. ). b i r t h and death are always i n close proximity in barnes writing, and the decor of characters' l i v e s serves merely to furnish the interim spaces. here the tarnished crest i s no guard against the mortal r i s k of t r y i n g to perpetuate the l i n e . barnes never f a i l s to remind us of what curses women—here--the grotesque contortion required to produce l i f e — " t h e genuflexion of the hunted body makes from muscular contraction, going down before the impending and inaccessible, as before a great heat" (n. p. ). the woman's husband had died some months p r e v i o u s l y — c h i l d l e s s , and "impaled" on his wife the c h r i s t i a n hedvig, himself an i t a l i a n jew who had done a l l he could to "be one with her" and f a i l e d . this too i s a barnes paradigm for human r e l a t i o n s , and points to other unsatisfactory a l l i a n c e s we well--with god for example. hedwig's m i l i t a r i n e s s reminds us of the fact that the novel i s being written in the 's when elements of german expressionism, nietzschean v i t a l i s m and p o l i t i c a l fascism were taking m i l i t a r y shape i n europe. this woman too had some of the heroic q u a l i t i e s of shakespeare's cross-dressing heroines, reminding us of the lesbian i n t e l l i g e n t s i a which was at the centre of barnes' s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e i n paris a f t e r world war i. "the feather in her hat had been knife clean and quivering as i f in an heraldic wind; she had been a woman held up to nature, precise, deep-bosomed and gay....she personified massive chic" (n. p. ) the metaphorical house of f e l i x ' s imagined parents i s the f i r s t stage setting of the novel. it was a "fantastic museum" of the encounters that took place t h e r e — w i t h i t s rococo h a l l s , "giddy with plush, whorled designs in gold... roman fragments, white and dis-associated" (n. p. ). as a salon i t could not but overwhelm with i t s shields, birds and massive pianos. beneath the huge bulk of the furniture and the gleaming surfaces, there i s a strong suggestion of violence, blood and uncontrollable force, barely contained. there i s underfoot a "thick dragon's blood p i l e of rugs from madrid" (n. p. ). in the room were "two rambling desks in r i c h and bloody wood." both feature in ornamental design reminiscent of f i f t e e n t h and sixteenth century i t a l i a n grotesque, animal figures, hammered out of s i l v e r to form "a l i o n , a bear, a ram, a dove, and in t h e i r midst a flaming torch" (n. p. ). in t h i s intensely coded decor, there is. a profoundly disturbing and d e s t a b i l i z i n g m juxtaposition of images, of on the one hand immovable substance and the power of history, and on the other, of blood,fire and lurking animality below the surface. as i f we were ourselves spectators in t h i s f a n t a s t i c room, our attention i s drawn toward a painting of the dead husband's mother. there i s in i t s description, the usual barnes high focus on clothing as possessing a great deal of disembodied information about the wearer. the reader's gaze i s directed from the subject of the p o r t r a i t ' s sumptuous visage and "overt mouth," to "pearled sleeves" and " s t i f f lace" framing a "conical and braided head." below i t , "the deep accumulation of dress f e l l about in groined shadows; the t r a i n , rambling through a v i s t a of primitive trees, was carpet thick" (n. p. ). here barnes uses the power of clothing to mask, with almost elizabethan formality, and at the same time to suggest powerfully, both sex and i d e n t i t y . the dress i s described as an "accumulation," an accretion of meaning added to the wearer i n layers; the t r a i n rambles almost independently of the wearer, through what appears to be an e a r l i e r , or possibly the same timeless version, of the nightwood i n which a l l of the novel's l a t e r characters w i l l be l o s t . the power of his opening t a b l e a u — t h i s "fantastic museum"--is i n no way diminished by the annoucement at i t s end, that i t i s a fake, " f i c t i o n a l . " the woman's painting was purchased by f e l i x as an a l i b i to help account for o r i g i n s unknown. we are i n the realm of personal f i c t i o n , decorated with the objects f e l i x volkbein has chosen, l a t e r , a f t e r adult r e f l e c t i o n , to represent him. this i s the room he might have, would l i k e to have, been born i n . this i s the kind of old european scenario he would have chosen to appear i n . it helps to explain and o b j e c t i f y his condition, and the mystery of his l i f e , which he experiences as a kind of immaculate conception, making a more poignant comedy than ever of his l o t as the twentieth century wandering jew. after t h i s associative excursion into "history" we return to the "present" of narrative time— . f e l i x i s a dandy i n paris, stuck in the f i n - d e - s i e c l e s t y l e , looking for "anyone who looked as i f he might be 'someone'" who w i l l perhaps remind him of the actors in the stage setting of his b i r t h , and back through i t into history, with which he craves union (n. p. ). i have dwelt for so long on t h i s opening scene of the novel, to e s t a b l i s h an immediate example of barnes' densely imagistic ordering process. i do not want simply to catalogue images. every l i n e of the book would have to be considered, so intense and crafted i s the writing in i t s poetry. barnes i s doing more than presenting us with a byzantine wall of superb images—though she does simultaneously do that. she i s establishing t h i s reliance on pattern, juxtaposition and cross-reference of image and symbol to give us a l l of the e s s e n t i a l narrative information of the text. we receive i t , as we would receive, passively and having to translate for ourselv'es, the meaning of a painting. it i s at once d i s t i l l e d — t h e images are frozen and c l e a r — a n d expanding out into timeless resonance, through texturing and layering, choreographing,nuance and counterpoint. f e l i x himself i s constantly searching for images or tableaux that w i l l both d i s t r a c t him from his obsession with the past, and l i k e the paintings of his "ancestors," provide him with further v i s i b l e "objective c o r r e l a t i v e s " for his existence. the diversion that barnes provides for him—the o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n of a l l diversionary a c t i v i t y in the decadent c a p i t a l s of europe between the w a r s — i s the c i r c u s , the night theatre of b e r l i n . this makes up the novel's second major tableau. f e l i x had since childhood been caught up with the pageantry of the c i r c u s . the version he encounters as an adult does not feature the kings and queens he had imagined as a c h i l d , but wonderful fakes, the circus n o b i l i t y of f a l s e princesses, l y i n g kings and pretend duchesses, wonderful t i t l e s for "gaudy cheap cuts from the beast l i f e " — d e c o r a t i n g themselves with an a r i s t o c r a t i c overlay barely concealing t h e i r reeking, animal v i t a l i t y . their t i t l e s were only meant to "dazzle boys" and to make l i f e mysterious (n. p. ). these people take t h e i r props and sets with them, moving between sham salons a l l over europe. i t i s t h e i r shameless, flaunting falseness which wins f e l i x ' s heart, and he "became for a l i t t l e while a part of t h e i r splendid and reeking f a l s i f i c a t i o n " (p. ). thus i s encapsulated one of barnes' favourite d u a l i t i e s — the splendid pageant, the b r i g h t l y coloured, the v i t a l , the ornamental and the ephemeral miraculous show—and i t s underside—the rank, the degraded, the decay beneath the i l l u s i o n . in the c i r c u s , sex and animal v i t a l i t y merge—the warm smell "stronger than the beasts" (n. p. ). this world provides a natural scenario for f e l i x ; in i t he finds "a sense of peace which formerly he had experienced only i n museums" (n. p. ). his existence has found, for a time, a perfect set of o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n s — a n d he cleaves to them with "humble hysteria" and a profound sense of recognition. the decaying brocades and laces" he remembers from his imagined past, the "old and documented splendour" (n. p. ) . his love for his world where the beast roams free i s that of "the love of the l i o n for i t s tamer--that sweat- tarnished spangled enigma that, i n bringing the beast to heel, had somehow turned toward him a face l i k e his own... [it] had...picked the precise fury from his brain" (n. p. ) . f e l i x loves, too, the "emotional s p i r a l of the c i r c u s " - - f a m i l i a r yet unknowable (n. p. ) . i t provides him with a s c r i p t . he detects that the cast, the audience and above a l l , the action in the centre r i n g , re-enact a primeval drama from the r a c i a l unconscious, a p o t e n t i a l l y comic, monstrous replaying of the t r a g i c material of ancient amphitheatres. the performers are rendered larger than l i f e , more than themselves, in t h e i r performance. the androgynous a e r i a l i s t , frau mann the duchess of broadback, i s "preserved"--defined forever by her performance. as she survives by s k i l l in the a l i e n element of the a i r , she becomes a kind of performing bi-sexual a r t i f a c t . she seemed to have a skin that was the pattern of her costume; a bodice of lozenges, red and yellow, low in the back and r u f f l e d over and under the arms, faded with the reek of her three-day c o n t r o l , red t i g h t s , laced boots... they ran through her as the design runs through hard holiday candies, and the bulge in the groin where she took the bar...was so s o l i d , s p e c i a l i z e d and as polished as oak. the s t u f f of the t i g h t s was no longer a covering, i t was herself ; the span of the t i g h t l y stitched crotch was so much her own f l e s h that she was as unsexed as a d o l l . the needle that made one the property of the c h i l d made the other the property of no man. (n. p. ) (emphasis added) it i s not d i f f i c u l t to read t h i s as a feminist inspired version of the o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n of womanhood v i a costume and performance. the irony comes only at the end, that the costume and the t r i c k s unsex as they provide i d e n t i t y . the woman who i s intent upon denying gravity, cannot be possessed. the description of the a e r i a l i s t provides valuable clues as to the kind of representation barnes i s interested i n . the pattern of her costume, i t s colours and markings, form a design which seems to "run through her" to the core, indistinguishable from h e r s e l f . they do not form an a r t i f i c i a l covering—the skin and the coloured pattern are one. she i s a performing work of a r t , sexless as a marionette, but d e f i a n t l y the "property of no man," because she i s h a l f - man. she i s what angela carter in her recent novel nights at the circus, might have c a l l e d her f l y i n g , harlequined heroine, an "acrobat of desire." we hear too, from matthew o'connor on his entrance in the narrative, of another version of the artifact/performer --nikka, the bear-fighting negro, "tattooed from head to heel with a l l the ameublement of depravity! garlanded with rosebuds and hackwork of the devil...over his belly...an angel from chartres; on each buttock...a quotation from the book of magic... across his knees...'i' on one and on the other 'can'...across his chest, beneath a caravel in f u l l s a i l , two clasped hands, the wrist bones f r e t t e d with point lace. on each bosom an arrow speared heart." there i s ornament on l i t e r a l l y every part of his body with words s p i l l i n g down his armpits and his legs covered in vinework and rambling roses. even his private parts were guarded by tattooed words of warning. "why a l l t h i s barbarity?" ' connor asked him. "he loved beauty ahd would have i t about him," we hear (n. p. ). this circus world i s one where the currency for meaning i s s t r i c t l y v i s u a l , and where there i s an extravagant, almost a vulgar excess of s i g n i f i c a n c e ; a parody of the text i t s e l f ? is the tattooed wrestler, the harlequined a e r i a l i s t , the creative a r t i s t "embodying" himself in his a r t i s t r y ? it i s i n t h i s world of performing metaphors that the novel's central love a f f a i r i s i n i t i a t e d , and i t too follows d i s t i n c t patterns of o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n . at the lovers' emblematic meeting, nora has taken a front row seat above the timeless arena of the circus r i n g . she i s aware of the primeval charge beneath the t r a d i t i o n a l smears of colour in clown face and costume; i t i s both ancient and s e x u a l — barely containing animality in man or beast. as she looked, the clowns"were r o l l i n g over the sawdust, as i f they were i n the b e l l y of a great mother whale where there was yet room to play" (n. p. ). (emphasis added) this i s the excessively illuminated comic r i n g in the c e n t r e — t h e play of s i g n i f i c a t i o n — b e y o n d i t darkness, s i l e n c e , and i n e v i t a b i l i t y . the creatures are tense, the horses trembling on hind legs before the trainer's whip. the l i o n s — t h e i r t a i l s heavy and dragging as they are l e t out of t h e i r cages, make "the a i r seem f u l l of withheld strength" (n. p. ). as nora takes t h i s i n , her attention i s caught by the g i r l s i t t i n g next to her, whose hands are shaking as she l i g h t s a c i g a r e t t e . this moment .of one woman turning to face the o t h e r — t h e longed-for second s e l f — i s f i n e l y choreographed as the seeming climax for which the animals tension has provided the momentum. "she looked at her suddenly because the animals going around and around the r i n g , a l l but climbed over at t h i s point" (n. p. ). the animals' eyes sought out the g i r l l i k e searchlights. nora had turned just in time to see one powerful lioness in her cage come over to a point exactly opposite the g i r l ; , "she turned her furious great head with i t s yellow eyes a f i r e and went down, her paws thrust through the bars and, as she regarded the g i r l , as i f a r i v e r were f a l l i n g behind impassible heat, her eyes flowed tears that never reached the surface. at that the g i r l rose...up" (n. p. - ). nora rescues her from t h i s primitive "recognition" scene and leads her away. from that time on "they were so 'haunted' of each other that separation was impossible." the circus i s a potent f i g u r a t i v e construct in barnes' novel. often the action seems to take place i n just such an unnaturally illuminated arena as t h i s , with characters spotlighted as they speak, or "perform" for one another. lesser versions of t h i s arena are the rooms the characters occupy, p a r t i c u l a r l y when, l i k e the one that opened the novel, they seem to "generate" the character, in a sense. we f i r s t see robin vote, for example, unconscious or asleep, in her hotel room. o'connor i s brought in when she cannot be roused. when f i r s t seen, she i s placed, beautiful and l i f e l e s s , i n v i r t u a l l y a douanier rousseau canvas. the room seems to speak of her o r i g i n s ; i t i s a jungle room with red carpets, "a confusion of potted plants, exotic palms and cut flowers, f a i n t l y over-sung by the notes of unseen birds." her head i s turned away from the spectator and "threatened consciousness" (n. p. ). she i s dressed in f l a n n e l trousers and her legs are frozen in the position of the dance. her hands frame her face. this i s what i s seen. next we are t o l d what she evokes, as one studies her, looking for information to make sense of her. what i s received i s primarily a perfume that her body seems to exhale, of earth-flesh, fungi...captured dampness...yet... dry, over cast with the odour of o i l of amber, which i s an inner malady of the sea, making her seem as i f she had invaded a sleep incautious and e n t i r e . her f l e s h was the texture of plant l i f e , and beneath i t one sensed a frame, broad, porous and sleepworn, as i f sleep were a decay f i s h i n g her beneath the v i s i b l e surface. about her head there was an effulgence as of phosphorous glowing about the circumference of a body of water—as i f her l i f e lay through her in ungainly deteriorations. (n. pp. - ) (emphasis added) in her prostrate, almost annihilated state, she evokes e f f o r t l e s s l y , as a figure in a painting or an image in a poem evokes--ancient l i f e - - s m e l l s - - p l a n t s - - l i g h t in water --decayj when f e l i x looks into her eyes because of t h e i r s t a r t l i n g colour, he sees "the long unqualified range in the i r i s of wild beasts who have not tamed the focus down to meet the human eye" (n. pp. - ). this tableau of what seems to be the essence of t h i s woman's existence, reminds us of one of the key messages of the whole n o v e l — t h a t "the woman who presents herself to the spectator as a picture forever arranged i s , for the contemplative mind, the chiefest danger" (n. p. ). the central metaphor for robin's existence resonates out of the room and into the mythic landscape which i t suggests: sometimes one meets a woman who i s beast turning human. such a person's every movement w i l l reduce to an image of a forgotten experience; a mirage of an eternal wedding cast on the r a c i a l memory; as insupportable joy as would be the v i s i o n of an eland coming down an a i s l e of trees, chapleted with orange blossoms and b r i d a l v e i l , a hoof raised in the economy of fear, stepping in the trepidation of f l e s h that w i l l become myth; as the unicord i s neither man nor beast deprived, but human hunger pressing i t s breast to i t s prey....such a woman i s the infected c a r r i e r of the past...she i s eaten death returning... (m. pp. - ) (emphasis added) the room contains i n i t s ornamental imagery a l l of these signs of "the way back" (n. p. ). when nora and robin l i v e together in paris in an apartment on the rue du cherche-midi, they decorate i t s i n t e r i o r to provide material v e r i f i c a t i o n of t h e i r a l l i a n c e , aesthetic o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n of t h e i r love. once more, rooms are metaphorical designs for experience: in the passage of t h e i r l i v e s together every object in the garden, every item in the house, every word they spoke, attested to t h e i r mutual love, the combining of t h e i r humours.... there were circus chairs, wooden horses from a ring of an old merry go round. venetian chandeliers from the flea f a i r , stage drops from munich, cherubim from vienna, e c c l e s i a s t i c a l hangings from rome, a spinet from england, and a miscellaneous c o l l e c t i o n of music boxes from many countries. (n. p. ) such was the "museum" of t h e i r l i f e together. when they begin to f a l l apart i t i s t h i s very "personality of the house" which torments nora—"the punishment of those who c o l l e c t t h e i r l i v e s together" (n. p. ). she fears that i f she disarranges anything, robin may become confused and "lose the scent of home" (n. p. ). once t h i s l e v e l of s u f f e r i n g enters, love i t s e l f i s open to re-interpretation and r e - o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n . if i t had existed previously in t h e i r shared c o l l e c t i o n of objects, i t must now take new form, as i t comes to e x i s t only in nora's desperate imagination, "love becomes the deposit of the heart analogous in a l l degrees to the 'findings' in a tomb" (n. p. ). love tokens and death tokens are to merge. as robin had reminded f e l i x of amber preserved through time in nora's heart she i s the " f o s s i l . . . t h e i n t a g l i o , the engraved design of her own i d e n t i t y — k e p t a l i v e by nora's blood." as amber or f o s s i l , "robin was now beyond timely changes, except in the blood that animated her" (n. p. ). without the animating blood, that i s , without nora, who has become the necessary supplier of objects tying her to time, she w i l l be out of time altogether. in nora's haunted imagination i s the "fixed walking image of robin" in the night, as though in sleep, nightmare or death. as nora battles to sleep herself, she f a l l s back into the "tide of dreams...taking the body of robin down with her into i t , as the ground things take the corpses, with minute persistence, down into the earth, leaving a pattern of i t on the grass, as i f they stitched as they descended" (n. p. ). (emphasis added) love has become death, with only the pattern of the transformation l e f t v i s i b nora receives a l l of these images of her experience with great and p a i n f u l accuracy. because she i s not an a r t i s t , she i s helpless before them. hers i s a s e n s i b i l i t y which absorbs and r e f l e c t s , l i k e a piece of polished metal — a gunbarrel, whose v i s i o n i s seen as a weapon of destruction; but she merely r e f l e c t s ; she does not judge. she i s hyper-responsive, the eyes and ears at least of the woman writer, recording and receiving play-opera-music with the force of a weapon trained upon them. her consciousness reproduces them "in a smaller but more intense o r c h e s t r a t i o n " — t h e poetic image (n. p. ). she i s an agonized viewer of experience, a translator not a creator. in pain she receives, then translates and d i s t i l s . her sense of herself and any vanity i s absent; "the world and i t s history were to nora l i k e a ship in a b o t t l e ; she herself was outside, and u n i d e n t i f i e d , endlessly embroiled in a preoccupation without a problem" (n. p. ). robin i s an abandoned figure in a douanier rousseau nora's "image" i s that of a klimt design, c a r e f u l l y a chamber music s e n s i b i l i t y . wherever she was met, at the opera, at a play, s i t t i n g alone and apart, the programme face down on her knee, one would discover in her eyes, large, protruding and c l e a r , that mirrorless look of polished metals which report not so much the object as the movement of the object. as the surface of a gun's b a r r e l , r e f l e c t i n g a scene, w i l l add to the image the portent of i t s construction, so her eyes contracted and f o r t i f i e d the play before her in her own unconscious terms. one senses in the way she held her head that her ears were recording wagner or s c a r l a t t i , chopin, palestrina, or the l i g h t e r songs of the viennese school, in smaller but more intense orchestration (n. ). if nora i s not an a r t i s t and therefore not djuna barnes, how then i s the authorial s e l f represented in the text? if there i s a character whose utterance and whose patterns of o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n most c l o s e l y resemble the authorial consciousness in nightwood, i t i s matthew o'connor, as we are reminded by alan singer. certainly t h e i r views of the world coincide. among the things expected of him in the text i s the d i f f i c u l t task of "explaining" robin vote to a l l the other characters. he f a i l s to do t h i s , and more importantly, i n the process f a i l s to be a voice or synthesizer for barnes, because of the fundamental break with t r a d i t i o n a l characterization that barnes makes. o'connor i s no more a " r e a l i s t i c " or psychologically probable character than any of the others. the more he says (the t r a d i t i o n a l means of "rounding out" a character), the more if canvas, masking we become aware t h a t b o t h he and b a r n e s a r e o f f e r i n g no more t h a n weary and s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a r t i s t i c i l l u s i o n s . when n o r a and f e l i x a s k h i m a n g u i s h e d q u e s t i o n s , he c a n o n l y r e s p o n d o b l i q u e l y by p r o v i d i n g f u r t h e r and o f t e n t a n g e n t i a l m e t a p h o r s f o r t h e i r s i t u a t i o n s . b e c a u s e he h a s no a n s w e r s , b e c a u s e he i s i n t h e same p r e d i c a m e n t , he must be e v a s i v e . h i s r e s p o n s e s , b e c a u s e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l l y f i g u r a t i v e ( r a t h e r t h a n r e f e r e n t i a l ) d e s i g n o f t h e b o o k , must t h e r e f o r e p r i m a r i l y a d d r e s s t h e r e a d e r , who i s m a k i n g p o e t i c o r a s s o c i a t i v e c o n n e c t i o n s where t h e c h a r a c t e r s c a n n o t . when n o r a s a y s t o h i m i n d e s p e r a t i o n : "what am i t o d o ? " when she i s u n a b l e t o d e c i d e whom she h a s l o v e d m o r e — r o b i n o r h e r s e l f — h e r e s p o n d s w i t h "make b i r d s n e s t s w i t h y o u r t e e t h " (n. p . ) . we a r e t o t h i n k o f a l l t h e o t h e r b i r d s i n t h e n o v e l . by t h e p o e t r y he p r o v i d e s i n s t e a d o f any k i n d o f s o l u t i o n , o r e v e n a d i r e c t r e p l y , he p a r a d o x i c a l l y a n d q u i t e p o w e r f u l l y r e v i s e s t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e q u e s t i o n p u t . b a r n e s p r o v i d e s , t h r o u g h o ' c o n n o r ' s f a i l u r e t o e x p l a i n a n d h i s c o n n e c t e d m e t a p h o r i c a l e v a s i o n s , a l e v e l o f p u r e l y i m a g i s t i c c o h e r e n c e i n t h e n o v e l , w h i c h s u p p o r t s t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e i s d e l i b e r a t e l y t o be no a r t i s t f i g u r e i n t h e t e x t , b e c a u s e b a r n e s s i m p l y d o e s n o t i n t e r p r e t t h e r o l e s o f a u t h o r a n d c h a r a c t e r i n any way. by i n v e s t i n g o b j e c t s w i t h t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c h a r a c t e r s , and by a r r a n g i n g c h a r a c t e r s and s i t u a t i o n s a s v i s u a l l y i m a g i n e d f a t h e r t h a n a s p o s s e s s i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l a u t h e n t i c i t y , she makes t h e image i t s e l f the container of meaning i n the t e s t . and i t i s not a f i x e d image. because there i s no-one p a r t i c u l a r l y to control or synthesize them, the reader i s l e f t with a de-centred narrative, where images are constantly being revised, t h e i r meanings subtly altered with every accretion, and producing a l e v e l of meaning and a perspective that are profoundly f l u i d and r e l a t i v i s t i c . we have noted the i n f e r i o r i t y of the text, the absence of dramatic confrontation or event. i suggest that i t i s a metaphor which supplants action as the energising force in the text. this makes i t a very d i f f e r e n t kind of " s e l f - c r e a t i n g " narrative than other modernist texts. i do not mean to imply, as alan singer accuses many c r i t i c s of doing, that the poetic image in barnes' hands contains the "mirage" of metaphysical truth. nor do i mean to invoke "poetic prose" as being of transcendant value because of the "irreducible q u a l i t y " of poetry. both approaches make of poetry a f a l s e god. i do not claim that nightwood i s a novel of supreme value because of the metaphysical truth or i r r e d u s c i b l e q u a l i t y of i t s poetic writing. i claim instead that one of i t s remarkable aspects, and a major contribution to modernism by barnes, i s that through her manipulation of s t r i c t l y poetic design and strategies for revelation, she i s able to l i b e r a t e the text from a number of narrative conventions for coherence, and i n the process create a self-contained and independent a r t i f a c t . she i s very concerned not to be v i s i b l e i n the text i n order to, i n singer's words " n u l l i f y the i n t e r n a l (dramatic) and external (authorial) levels i n the novel." if nightwood i s to be seen as' a structure of construction of the authorial s e l f , i t i s remarkable for the divestment of the a r t i s t ' s ego. that s e l f i s a r t i c u l a t e d not in the omnipresent sense of the author's presence, but in o b j e c t i f i e d form in every utterance, by every character in each frame of the book, in the form of densely textured, but u t t e r l y coherent sets of r e l a t i o n s between character, event and image. conclusion a limited and t r a d i t i o n a l reading of lesbian f i c t i o n i n english sees nightwood as one more novel of damnation written by a suffering outcast. i prefer a more p o s i t i v e view of barnes' contribution as a female, late modernist writer. i t i s possible to take as one important set of d i s t i n c t i o n s between modernist writers, the ways in which they used the idea of gender. male modernists, l i k e t h e i r female counterparts, were frequently very concerned with ideas of sexual representation: lawrence in his "male and female worlds" i n the rainbow and women in love and e s p e c i a l l y in short stories l i k e "the fox;" e l i o t ' s wasteland i n which sexual disorder i s at the heart of the unreal c i t y ; and i n joyce's ulysses, the key episode i s "nighttown," a walpurgisnacht of comically grotesque, sexual inversions. these male writers play with the idea of sexual chaos, inversion and misrule, but s t r i c t l y within a conventional appearance-reality dichotomy, which f i n a l l y r e s u l t s , in each case, in a restoration of h i e r a r c h i c a l s o c i a l order, t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r a l paradigms and patterns of male/female d i s t i n c t i o n s . these f i c t i o n s of the s e l f , when they take sexual form, are very conservative. feminist f i c t i o n s of the sexual s e l f from the same period are far more imaginatively r a d i c a l . and t h i s i s the essence of barnes' contribution to late modernist f i c t i o n . barnes' o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n of the s e l f was based on an androgynous v i s i o n . well beyond e l i o t ' s "objective c o r r e l a t i v e , " are the metaphors barnes used to embody and communicate a view of the s e l f and world which put her outside t r a d i t i o n . this metaphorical rendering of s e l f was far more than just an imagistic ordering process, as joyce perfected i t . her metaphors had to do more than disrupt t r a d i t i o n a l narrative forms; they had to communicate an expression of inner values and versions of the s e l f which the t r a d i t i o n a l novel and t r a d i t i o n a l society did not know how to accommodate. scenes of sexual inversion and sexual transformations of a l l kinds p r o l i f e r a t e i n her novel. disembodied elements of male and female behaviour and perspectives s h i f t constantly within and between characters and scenes as they search for.balance, epitomized in the androgynous i d e a l . whereas joyce's "nighttown" i s one episode of apocalyptic sexual confusion in an e s s e n t i a l l y daylight world, harmoniously resolved when leopold/ulysses f i n a l l y goes home to his molly/penelope who says "yes" to him, sexual disorder and the night are barnes whole world. in t h i s night world of permanent misrule, there can be no fixed or single s e l f for author or characters. androgyny for barnes i s a gender-free r e a l i t y which may inhabit many selves. this accounts for the absence of the author in the novel as character or a r t i s t figure; for barnes there can be no leopold bloom or stephen dedalus. she i s writing i n the dangerous a i r outside the r e a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n , or even the disrupted r e a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n of modernism in i t s f i r s t wave. in nightwood, psychological authenticity matters l i t t l e ; objects convey as much meaning as people. barnes o f f e r s us in nightwood a set of imagistic r e f l e c t i o n s on gender, which share c e r t a i n common q u a l i t i e s with another late modern fable of androgyny, v i r g i n i a woolf*s orlando. where nightwood i s a greek tragedy however, orlando i s an enchanting and e n t i r e l y p o s i t i v e f a i r y tale which skates through time, sex and i d e n t i t y , e f f o r t l e s s l y creating, in i t s central character, the kind of r i c h l y dressed and magical " t h i r d sexed being" behind gender and myth, happy and free, that barnes can only dream about in her 's european despair. both orlando and nightwood display the r a d i c a l , imaginative freedom of "androgynous" works, wildly and fluidly.choreagraphing the ancient play of male and female within and between characters, rather than r e l y i n g on the t r a d i t i o n a l sexual and imaginative patterns of a s o c i a l order which, to woolf and barnes, seemed both f a l l e n and misguided. the novels were both written in t h e t h i r t i e s . woolf had moved away from her early modernist works l i k e night and day and the voyage out towards a more fragmented, o b j e c t i f i e d style i n to the lighthouse, the waves and between the acts. one of the most p o s i t i v e developments for woolf in her mature phase was, i believe, a movement away from the sense of a s e l f extinguished in her early f i c t i o n , to the marvellously free, androgynous s e l f - p o r t r a i t in orlando. despite barnes t r a g i c v i s i o n of her s e l f and her world, she was permitted a measure of freedom, at least s t y l i s t i c a l l y , in breaking away from l i t e r a r y and s o c i a l norms. she takes metaphor further than the male twenties' writers in putting i t to more r a d i c a l use, to capture the androgynous i d e a l of a pure, o b j e c t i f i e d and gender-free s e l f and the c y n i c a l , compromised versions of the alienated s e l f when the idea i s l o s t . these are p o s i t i v e a r t i s t i c contributions. with consummate a r t i s t r y s t i l l , but on the negative plane, she r e f l e c t s , as a late-modernist, the dying b e l i e f i n the t h i r t i e s that language was a powerful and redeeming force i n i t s e l f . in the mouths of her characters, i t i s degraded currency, with a decade of extravagant t a l k and waste behind i t . in barnes' t h i r t i e s ' world, both language and people are self-consuming a r t i f a c t s . conclusion i have suggested in t h i s thesis that one reason for the c r i t i c a l neglect of rhys, stein and barnes i s that t h e i r best work appeared in the 's, a period that i s generally regarded i n twentieth-century l i t e r a r y chronology as a "lapse period" for f i c t i o n . the poetry of the period, p a r t i c u l a r l y that of the "auden generation" has gathered more respect. there are two points i would l i k e to make, one that runs counter to the idea of the 's as a "lapse" period, and the other which addresses the idea that the three women writers under consideration must inevitably suffer by comparison with the acknolwedged "great writers" of canonical modernism, generally accepted as covering the period from - . i believe that i t i s f a c i l e and unhelpful to draw a r t i f i c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s between l i t e r a r y periods, to say that modernism ended i n or . culture, including l i t e r a r y culture, i s a continuum, not a series of stops and s t a r t s . it i s tempting to "periodize," to declare a group of a r t i s t s a "school" because they were*, contemporaries, and to declare for the sake of i n t e l l e c t u a l neatness, some writers and events "important" simply to f a c i l i t a t e the making of patterns and theories. there have c e r t a i n l y been stages i n modernism, but what i s to prevent post-modernism being seen as a culminating point or apotheosis of modernism, rather than any kind of reversal? i f , as i argue, we look at twentieth century writing as a continuum, proper value must be attached to i t s t r a n s i t i o n periods, periods of marked h i s t o r i c a l change when l i t e r a t u r e of course r e f l e c t e d that change in new concerns and evolving s t y l e s . rhys, stein and barnes are, i suggest, writers of such a t r a n s i t i o n period, whose works both revise the touchstones of pure modernism and point to l a t e r developments beyond i t . they are "later modernists," along with the v i r g i n i a woolf of orlando and between the acts, christopher isherwood, ivy compton-burnett, george orwell, graham greene, evelyn waugh, andre gide and i t a l o svevo. the f i c t i o n s of t h i s period c e r t a i n l y indicate a changed state of mind in response to a changed world. stephen spender,speaking for his generation, describes his attempt to "turn the reader's and the writer's attention outwards from himself to the world." there i s , in the late modernist f i c t i o n , a l e v e l of engagement with the world for which the metaphysical self-absorption of the 's had no room. at one extreme i s christopher isherwood's f i c t i o n a l "reportage," docu-fiction designed to capture the immense build-up of s o c i a l tension and m i l i t a r y pressure i n that decade; but at another point on the spectrum of t h i r t i e s writing, that same l e v e l of engagement, of seeing the world as a mirror of self-concern, rather than the reverse of ten years' e a r l i e r , can be seen i n a text l i k e woolf's between the acts. after the world slump of , the unworldliness of t h e - e a r l i e r decade no longer seemed appropriate as an a r t i s t i c s t y l e . a more p o l i t i c a l and documentary slant incorporated i d e a s f r o m p s y c h o l o g y a n d s o c i o l o g y i n t o a s t y l e w h i c h m i x e d m o d e r n i s t n o r m s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d o s e s o f r e a l i s m a n d s u r r e a l i s m , t o p r e s e n t a v i s i o n o f a d i s t u r b e d a n d d i s o r d e r e d w o r l d . t h i s w a s a p e r i o d o f s e r i o u s p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l t r a n s i t i o n a n d e u r o p e a n f i c t i o n c a p t u r e d t h e u n c e r t a i n t y o f d i r e c t i o n a n d t h e s t a t e o f t e n s e i r r e s o l u t i o n i n t h e w o r l d ' s a f f a i r s . c h r i s t o p h e r i s h e r w o o d s p o k e o f t h e " f a n t a s t i c r e a l i t i e s o f t h e e v e r y d a y w o r l d , " a n d i t w a s t h e n o v e l i s t ' s p r o b l e m i n t h e ' s a s t o h o w t o a d d r e s s t h e m . t h e ' s o b s e s s i o n w i t h " c o n s c i o u s n e s s , " t r a n s c e n d e n c e a n d t u r n i n g i n w a r d , h a d l e d t o a d i s p l a c e d p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d . n o v e l s o f t h e ' s m a d e a v a r i e t y o f a t t e m p t s t o b r e a k o u t o f t h i s i m p a s s e . e v e n a " h i g h m o d e r n i s t " o f t h e ' s l i k e v i r g i n i a w o o l f , a l o n g w i t h m a r x i s t w r i t e r s l i k e e d w a r d u p w a r d , s o u g h t t o e n g a g e w i t h t h e s o c i a l r e a l i t y o f t h e t i m e s . t h e r e w a s a m o u n t i n g s e n s e o f d e p e r s o n a l i z e d c o n t r o l : i i n t h e ' s . t h e r i s e o f t o t a l i t a r i a n r e g i m e s a n d t h e r a p i d d e v e l o p m e n t o f s c i e n c e , t e c h n o l o g y a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s y s t e m s a l l p o s e d a m a s s i v e t h r e a t t o i n d i v i d u a l s . o n e c r i t i c , a l a n w i l d e , h a s s a i d t h a t w r i t e r s o f f i c t i o n i n t h e ' s u n d e r t o o k , o f n e c e s s i t y , " t o r e m a k e t h e f u n c t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e a n d l i t e r a t u r e , " s e e i n g i t n o l o n g e r i n t h e s y m b o l i s t t r a d i t i o n " a s a m e a n s o f d e c l a r i n g a n d e v o k i n g s o m e f i n a l a n d u l t i m a t e ' t r u t h , ' b u t a s a w a y o f r e l e a s i n g t h e ' s e l f ' a n d o f t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e p h e n o m e n a l w o r l d o n c e m o r e t h e s c e n e o f p u r p o s e f u l a c t i o n . " t h i s d e s i r e t o move beyond the consciousness-obsessed " s e l f " of the 's a r t i s t , inevitably led to changes in self-representation. a sense of engagement with the world, with things as they r e a l l y are, led to "a curious tension between s i t u a t i n g and at the same time voiding the p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i t y of the s e l f , " an "equivocal treatment of the s e l f " which attempts to "exploit and minimize the facts and also the subjective resonance of the author's private l i f e . " autobiography provides a "surface" i n these works. style i s less a e s t h e t i c a l l y r a d i c a l , perhaps giving in to exhaustion, and replaced by a need to come to terms with the world and the s e l f in i t . i said in my introduction that works of high modernism by male writers were frequently autobiographical f i c t i o n s , where a mask of impersonality f a i l e d to conceal an a r t i s t figure or designing consciousness within the text, which r e f l e c t e d an e l i t i s t , self-generated and conservative sense of order. in the 's, an element of authorial s e l f - r e f l e x i v e n e s s that prefigures post-modern works by writers l i k e capote, adler, butor, robbe-grillet, eeckett, sarraute and handke emerges. the massive threat to . i individuals by m i l i t a r i s m and technology leading up to world war ii was r e f l e c t e d in l i t e r a r y styles of representation as a kind of "dehumanization," leading to a r a d i c a l l y revised version of the authorial s e l f , and characterization generally. fragmentation, neurosis and an atmosphere of threat, fear and violence had to be accepted a n d a s s i m i l a t e d ; t h i s , i n t h e f a c e o f m o d e r n i s m ' s l o n g - s t a n d i n g f a i t h t h a t , i n t h e h a n d s o f a g o o d w r i t e r , t h e e s s e n t i a l u n i t y a n d t r u t h o f t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l " i n t a c t n e s s " o f c h a r a c t e r , w o u l d b e r e v e a l e d . a l a n w i l d e c a l l e d t h i s a p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h " d e p t h " a s i t i s l i n k e d , i n t e r m s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l v e r a c i t y , w i t h t r u t h . now i n t h e ' s we m o v e f r o m " d e p t h " t o a d i s t r u s t f u l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h " s u r f a c e . " t h i s a c c o r d s p r e c i s e l y w i t h my t e r m " o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n " a s d e s c r i b i n g ' s s t y l e s o f f i c t i o n a l s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h i s t h e s i s . " d e h u m a n i z a t i o n " i s a n o t h e r w a y t o d e s c r i b e i t , a n d i t m a r k s a s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t i n s e n s i b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e ' s a n d ' s . w i t h t h i s n e w c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n l i n g u i s t i c s u r f a c e c o m e s " a r e l i n q u i s h i n g o f c o m p l e x i t y i n f a v o u r o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s e m b o d i e d i n m e t a p h o r s t h a t a r e h a r d , b r i g h t , i n o r g a n i c f a c e t s o f c h a r a c t e r , " v e r y m u c h t h e o b j e c t i f i e d " m e t a p h o r s o f t h e s e l f " i h a v e d e s c r i b e d . ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) i t b e c o m e s c l e a r t h a t p o s t - m o d e r n i s m , i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e s t r a t e g i e s a n d p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o f m o d e r n i s m , e m e r g e d i n a n e v o l u t i o n a r y w a y i n t h i s p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n . m o d e r n i s m w a s , t h e n , s u b v e r t e d b y a n u m b e r o f w r i t e r s i n t h e ' s w h o s h a r e d a s t a t e o f m i n d w h i c h c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e d a y o f f o r s t e r ' s " r o u n d " c h a r a c t e r , a n d t h e a r t i s t f i g u r e a s a m e a n s o f s e l f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , w a s o v e r ; t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y w a s g " a m e r e l o c u s f o r e x p e r i e n c e . " i f ' s w r i t i n g o f t e n a d o p t e d a n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l " s u r f a c e , " a s t y l i s t i c o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e l f i n t h e world, and at the same time engaged with that world and things as they r e a l l y are, then how do jean rhys, gertrude stein and djuna barnes resolve t h i s apparent contradiction i n t h e i r late-modernist f i c t i o n s ? do they remain hold-overs from pure modernism? or are they precursors of post- modernism? in what senses were they late-modernists and therefore s i g n i f i c a n t " t r a n s i t i o n a l " writers as i have defined that term? each of them was representative of her time in that she absorbed what she wanted to use from 's modernism and added important variations of her own, that did, i n each case, prefigure l a t e r writing developments. i want to focus on what i consider to be the p r i n c i p a l factor which connects the three writers, and that i s that in the 's t h e i r autobiographical f i c t i o n s revealed an i d e o l o g i c a l element which acted not only to revise modernism, but to/subvert i t . this subversive element was both s t y l i s t i c and substantive. its focus was gender, the representation of the sexual s e l f in an o b j e c t i f y i n g , metaphorical way. in t h e i r diverse works, they represented in an engaged way, t h e i r world and themselves as mirrored in i t , as sexual, class and geographical e x i l e s . their strategies were d i f f e r e n t but the i d e o l o g i c a l focus i s common to a l l three. for the male modernist, gender was most often the ultimate r e a l i t y , while for his female counterpart, an ultimate r e a l i t y exists only i f one journeys beyond gender. the r a d i c a l revisions of modernism undertaken by these three women involved, at an i d e o l o g i c a l l e v e l , a questioning, a subverting, even a repudiation of the conservative, h i e r a r c h i c a l views of t h e i r male predecessors. though the i d e o l o g i c a l impulse has a sexual base, many of i t s implications are s o c i a l . they question, with t h e i r styles of sexual representation, the e t h i c a l l y orthodox and the fixed s o c i a l order of the male aesthetic which had dominated in the 's. as sandra g i l b e r t concludes in her a r t i c l e , "costumes of the mind," i t i s not surprising that a male modernist should have wanted the consolation of orthodoxy... for i t i s , a f t e r a l l , only those who are oppressed or repressed by history and society who want to shatter the established paradigms of dominance and submission associated with hierarchies of gender and restore the primordial chaos of... genderlessness. such p o l i t i c a l devotees of the 'third sex' wish to say 'i am not that fixed s e l f you have restrained in these net t i g h t garments. i am a l l selves and no selves. ' the i d e o l o g i c a l element which l i n k s three such d i f f e r e n t writers as rhys, stein and barnes centres on the idea that, in t h e i r diverse autobiographical f i c t i o n s , they look beyond gender for ideas and metaphors of the s e l f , for author, character and even reader. in "the process whereby the s e l f creates i t s e l f in the experience of creating a r t , to read...portraits of women entangled in f a m i l i a l and e r o t i c bonds, we must j o i n the narrator in reconstructing the other women by whom; we know ourselves.""'""'" each of them, in her f i c t i o n a l representation of s e l f and world, explored the assumed conformity between gender a s c r i p t i o n and a l l other aspects of personality. in jean rhys' autobiographical novels, she o f f e r s a decidedly anti-romantic treatment of heterosexuality. her "gender i d e n t i t y " seems to have been one of the few secure aspects of her existence, but in her dispassionate recordings of her protagonists e f f o r t s to keep a l i v e through another day, she makes a profound challenge to t r a d i t i o n a l , and s p e c i f i c a l l y modernist, representations of the sexes. in formal and s t y l i s t i c terms however, she was in most respects a high modernist, mistress of the impressionistic georgian vignette and the polished surface; she had perfected the i n t e r i o r monologue, stream of consciousness and cinematic time s h i f t s . but t h i s was the "surface" of her work, and i t i s p r e c i s e l y the play of tensions between surface and depth i n her novels which takes her beyond modernism. s t y l i s t i c a l l y , hers i s an elegant, a e s t h e t i c a l l y cool and dispassionate voice. it was her disturbing narrative t r i c k , however, to c u l t i v a t e , d e l i b e r a t e l y , a sense of distance between the cool, i r o n i c surface of the text, whose voice i s poised and controlled, and i t s underlying voice, which i s that of the alienated female consciousness, mute with horror, yet possessing a b r u t a l l y clear sense of who and what i s to blame. this s t y l i s t i c gap, between surface calm and psycho- nightmare beneath, reminds us of the l e i t - m o t i f of many of her novels: the horror beneath apparent beauty. and i t i s b a s i c a l l y content rather than form which puts rhys at odds with her modernist forbears, male and female. i f , in the beauty/horror dichotomy, we'.were to substitute convention/the status quo for the apparent surface r e a l i t y and the primitive nightmare existence of the victim of tyrannical and predetermined s o c i a l and sexual forces for the horror, we can see the subversive s o c i a l implications of her work. if we were to go further and substitute male for apparent r e a l i t y and female for horror, at least i n terms of experience, we can see the subversive sexual implications of her work. the existence and survival of her impoverished and declassee female protagonists in geographical e x i l e on the c r i m i n a l , a r t i s t i c fringe of respectable society, act as indictiments of both the bourgeoisie and the bohemians. as an outsider to both, the rhys woman exposes them as equally conventional, h i e r a r c h i c a l and h y p o c r i t i c a l . her p o s i t i o n of e x i l e gives her an oddly p r i v i l e g e d angle of v i s i o n oh them. because she wishes to subvert and expose them, she makes the. dramatic moments in her texts moments of rupture, when the horror smashes through the surface calm. because t h i s a r t i f i c i a l calm i s so frequently maintained by the men in her books, at great cost to women who are generally l i v i n g the horror, she provides a : r a d i c a l counter-vision to the mainstream modernists representation of the sexes and the patterns of order implied. she saw i n male modernist f i c t i o n s a f a l s e mythologizing and misrepresentation of female conscious- ness, a f a l s e sense of "resolution" in sexual union and a misplaced sense of restored order, when for example, at the end of ulysses, molly f i n a l l y gives i n . rhys intended a great deal more.innher rendering of the dispossessed female consciousness than the t r a d i t i o n a l modernist examination of the gap between speech and f e e l i n g . in her works, she passionately denies the c u l t u r a l truisms for appropriate sexual emotions and behaviour as the male modernists have r e f l e c t e d them, and never more c l e a r l y than in her l a s t novel of the 's, good morning, midnight, described accurately by one c r i t i c as "good night to modernism." i the novel i s a quintessential work of late-modernism, embodying the sense of impending disaster of the 's; the protagonist's whole existence i s recorded as an i n t e r s t i c e . her t o t a l concern i s with s u r v i v a l . she i s at war with the world even as the world becomes increasingly the landscape of her alienated mind. freedom, and the power of uncontrollable outside forces to crush i t , are central concerns. the characters, c i t i z e n s of europe, are e x i l e s of uncertain i d e n t i t y — " n o paper, no passport... the s l i g h t e s t accident and i'm f i n i s h e d . " the book ends with a sex scene which reads l i k e a grotesque parody of joyce's at the end of ulysses, and thus returns us to the i d e o l o g i c a l component of rhys' writing which f u e l l e d her damning c r i t i q u e of c l a s s , sexual and s o c i a l power structures. her character, sasha jansen, allows herself to be sexually taken by a spectral death's-head f i g u r e , the "commis voyageur" in. the sordid boarding house rather than the man she cares f o r , because she i s despairing and exhausted and because she f i n a l l y admits that, to the outside world at least, she and the ugly and s o l i t a r y t r a v e l l i n g salesman are equals. when she says "yes" to him, i t i s the s t u f f of ultimate nightmare for author and character. this i s rhys:! e x p l i c i t commentary on joyce's conclusion to ulysses, a t r a d i t i o n a l l y l i f e affirming scene, which i s , she says, f a l s e to the core. this episode of pure s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i o n marks the onset of a year silence for rhys. jean rhys had attacked the power structures of conventional society as they immobilized and misrepresented women. she did so from what feminists would c a l l "a secure gender base," however, gertrude stein offered a very d i f f e r e n t challenge to gender and i t s representation in a r t . her challenge was a psychological one. her r e f u s a l in narrative to '•' "psychologize" characters or to ascribe motives, combined with her powerful b e l i e f i n androgyny as an ideal i n t e l l e c t u a l and a r t i s t i c p o s i t i o n from which to write, meant that she refused to consider her own or her characters' a l i e n a t i o n from the gender conventions of t h e i r culture. alienation was not a concept she bothered with. like rhys, stein was an expatriate, but one who was a central figure in her adopted culture, largely due to her independent wealth. like rhys' poverty, stein's lesbianism may have put her into a less than p r i v i l e g e d sub-culture, but by adopting the persona of the wealthy, independent androgyne, she refused to be marginalized. she was able to create a powerful sense of herself in the present on terms which suited her. as her s e l f - p o r t r a i t embodied her a r t i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s , we see her f o r c i b l y eliminating the psyche, the memory, past and present from her rendering of her own existence and consciousness. she turns herself from a three-dimensional being with a l l these q u a l i t i e s into a f l a t , one dimensional work of v i s u a l a r t , a p o r t r a i t made up of r e f l e c t i n g cubist planes. this exercise i s very much in keeping with a move from "depth" to "surface" s t y l i s t i c representation t y p i c a l of late modernist novels i n the view of c r i t i c , alan wilde. nevertheless there were some rather murky depths to stein's deceptive s e l f - p o r t r a i t . she claimed, as an i n t e l l e c t u a l and.as an a r t i s t , to be genderless, while l i v i n g as a lesbian and frequently acting l i k e the grand old man of modernism, and i n the process as an a r t i s t figure. it i s paradoxical that as a profound disbeliever in poetry and metaphor, she had to use them in her autobiography; she was forced to encode/inscribe herself i n the metaphors she chose to reveal only selected glimpses of her actual l i f e . .her challenge to gender representation in l i t e r a t u r e i s subversive and successful p r e c i s e l y because she considers i t i r r e l e v a n t . human nature and the.workings of the human mind are her declared subjects. character and c r e a t i v i t y , she believed, have nothing to do with gender. this philosophical b e l i e f required her to ignore a great number of l i t e r a r y conventions that would have bound her to modernism and made her a l e s s i n f l u e n t i a l w r i t e r . because she p o r t r a y e d h e r s e l f and others from a gender-free p e r s p e c t i v e , she made i t c l e a r t h a t she was d e a l i n g with human types i n a n o n - p s y c h o l o g i c a l , n o n - r e a l i s t i c and non-mythical manner. her b e l i e f t h a t consciousness i s f i n a l l y a b l e to express nothing but i t s own continuous flow o f thought r e p r e s e n t s a r t i s t i c anarchy a f t e r the sense of a c o n t r o l l e d r e a l i t y which the w r i t e r s of the 's attempted and v a l u e d . l i k e rhys, s t e i n was i n the 's, a w r i t e r i n t r a n s i t i o n . the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas i s , i n c e r t a i n s t y l i s t i c r e s p e c t s , a p e r f e c t modernist t e x t . but i n a d d i t i o n to i t s s u b v e r s i v e q u a l i t i e s as a s e l f - p o r t r a i t beyond gender, t h e r e are other aspects of the work which p o i n t beyond the p e r i o d . as a modernist, she had c o n t i n u e d to " s t y l i z e " r e a l i t y , but by she had taken t h i s s t y l i z e d r e a l i t y to the p o i n t of fragmentation, where words cease to convey c o n v e n t i o n a l meaning of any k i n d . " d e c o n s t r u c t i o n , " her p r i n c i p l e of composition s i n c e , which i n v o l v e d i g n o r i n g , manipulating or a l t e r i n g r e c e i v e d conventions, she now a p p l i e s to 's modernism, as w e l l as to the i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c p e r i o d b e f o r e i t . the p a r t i c u l a r brand of l i t e r a r y minimalism she develops a t t h i s stage l i n k s her with much l a t e r developments i n t w e n t i e t h century w r i t i n g , n o t a b l y with beckett and sarraute and o t h e r w r i t e r s of the french nouveau roman, and with the e n t i r e body of post-modern, s e l f - r e f l e x i v e american f i c t i o n . a purely s t y l i s t i c reading of djuna barnes c l a s s i c , nightwood, sees her as the prose poet of modernism, combining the strengths of e l i o t and joyce. however, her challenge to modernism, those q u a l i t i e s that.made her a late-modernist and an important t r a n s i t i o n a l writer, were not i n matters of form, but' l i k e rhys, in content. like stein, she offered an androgynous challenge to the p r e v a i l i n g modernist sense of o r d e r — s e x u a l , s o c i a l and l i t e r a r y . the c i v i l i z i n g power of art in her works, including, one senses her own mastery of metaphor, f a i l s to conceal the primitive and i t s v i o l e n t threat to apparent order. her masterpiece i s set e n t i r e l y in t h i s primitive nightworld, where the beauties of i n t r i c a t e surface design and the metaphorical i n s c r i p t i o n s of meaning s i g n i f y modernism exhausted, and the human s p i r i t approaching collapse into war, s i m i l a r l y exhausted. like both rhys and stein, barnes was an e x i l e from conventional society several times over. the product of a alienated and sexually eccentric family, barnes was another displaced american in paris in the 's and 's. frequently impoverished l i k e rhys, she too was a c u l t u r a l fringe dweller, rather than a central figure l i k e stein. but she shared with stein the desire, as a lesbian i n t e l l e c t u a l , to display, in her f i c t i o n , how i r r e l e v a n t conventions about gender are. her motives were d i f f e r e n t from stein's however; where stein saw herself above gender, barnes saw i t as an i r r e l e v a n t consideration in the face of the abyss of human desire generally. her transvestites. simply embody the worst of the male and female l o t . like rhys and stein, barnes refused to i n t e r n a l i z e or r e f l e c t , in her work, the p a t r i a r c h a l view of her s e l f and her p o s i t i o n as a sexual or s o c i a l being. the human position , e s p e c i a l l y as i t faces the gun once more in the 's i s her concern. its metaphorical landscape i s the "night wood," just as the characters, regardless of t h e i r sex, are metaphors of human desire. and a l l of these are metaphorical representations of djuna barnes' sense of herself and her world. like i t s close contemporary, rhys' good morning, midnight, nightwood i s also a farewell to modernism in several important respects. it begins as a f i c t i o n a l s e l f - p o r t r a i t of a s p i r i t facing extinction,showing the conventions of sexual desire as just one more torture, and pure being, beyond gender and time, an i d e a l that f e l l with eden. the novel i s , as well, a b r i l l i a n t metaphorical p o r t r a i t of europe, wasted by the corruption and indulgence of the 's, doomed and s l i d i n g hopelessly towards war and r u i h . f i n a l l y and most compellingly, the book also marks the f a l l of what was r i c h and powerful in the language of the modernist masters, into the degraded, i r r e l e v a n t chatter of her characters. djuna barnes, l i k e jean rhys, also f e l l s i l e n t a f t e r t h i s novel, for many years. the multiple and metaphorical s e l f - p o r t r a i t s in f i c t i o n by jean rhys, gertrude stein and djuna barnes indicate a much larger r e - d e f i n i t i o n of s u b j e c t i v i t y in f i c t i o n a l forms i n the 's. their decentred narratives allow the author to move i n and out of the personal, breaking with mimetic disclosure as the p r i n c i p l e concern of autobiographical writing. so begins what roland barthes has c a l l e d a "conscious deconstructing of the s e l f , an a l e r t r e j e c t i o n of wholeness or transcendence, showing that the psychoanalytic function of self-representation has given way in the modern period to a consciously philosophical and deconstructive one." the three women who have been the subjects of t h i s thesis were part of t h i s deconstructive process in the i d e o l o g i c a l l y subversive expression of t h e i r r e f u s a l to be a r t i s t figures i n t h e i r texts, or to be the extinguished selves of e a r l i e r female aestheticism. instead, they metaphorized, in f i c t i o n , the r e a l ingredients of t h e i r l i v e s , lesbianism or poverty and e x i l e , so exposing the falsehoods of the "unified, whole s p i r i t u a l s e l f " which was the male modernist i d e a l . footnotes chapter one malcolm bradbury and james mcfarlane ed., modernism (harmondsworth: penguin books, ) - . david hume, a. treatise of human nature ( - ; rpt. london j.m. dent & sons ltd., ) quoted in p a t r i c i a meyer spacks, imagining a s e l f : autobiography and the novel in eighteenth century england (cambridge, mass: harvard univ. press, ) . f. nietzsche, the w i l l to power, trans. walter kaufman & r.j. hollingdale, ed. walter kaufmann (new york: vintage, ) . c r i t i c s who o f f e r deconstructionist readings of the f i c t i v e s e l f include j. mehlman, a structural study of autobiography: proust, l e i r i s , sartre, levi-strauss (ithaca: cornell univ. press, ). paul jay, being in the text (ithaca: cornel univ. press, ). jay . jay . paul de man, "autobiography as a de-facement," modern language notes, ( ): - ". o d.h. lawrence, sons and lovers (new york: random house, ); james joyce, p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t as a young man (new york: viking press, ). northrop frye, anatomy of c r i t i c i s m : four essays (princeton: princeton univ. press, ) - . john sturrock, "the new model autobiographer," new l i t e r a r y history, , no. ( ): . david lodge, "the language of modernist f i c t i o n : metaphor and metonymy," bradbury and mcfarlane, modernism - . james olney, metaphors of the s e l f : the meaning of autobiography (princeton: princeton univ. press, ). j a m e s o l n e y , e d . , a u t o b i o g r a p h y : e s s a y s t h e o r e t i c a l a n d c r i t i c a l ( p r i n c e t o n : p r i n c e t o n u n i v . p r e s s , ) . o l n e y , a u t o b i o g r a p h y , p h i l i p p e l e j e u n e , " a u t o b i o g r a p h y i n t h e r d . p e r s o n , new l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , , n o . ( ) : . l e j e u n e j a m e s j o y c e , u l y s s e s q u o t e d j a y j a m e s j o y c e , p o r t r a i t o f t h e a r t i s t a s a y o u n g m a n (new y o r k : v i k i n g p r e s s , ) ; u l y s s e s ( l o n d o n : b o d l e y h e a d , ) ; d . h . l a w r e n c e , s o n s a n d l o v e r s (new y o r k : r a n d o m h o u s e , ) ; women i n l o v e (new y o r k : v i k i n g p r e s s , ) ; m a r c e l p r o u s t , ax l a r e c h e r c h e d u t e m p s p e r d u ( p a r i s : g a l l i m a r d , ) ; r e m e m b r a n c e o f t h i n g s p a s t , t r a n s . c . k . s c o t t m o n c r i e f f & t e r e n c e k i l m a r t i n (new y o r k : r a n d o m h o u s e , ) ; t i m e r e g a i n e d , t r a n s . a n d r e a s m a y o r ( l o n d o n : c h a t t o & w i n d u s , ) . t . e . h u l m e , s p e c u l a t i o n s ; e s s a y s o n h u m a n i s m a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f a r t , e d . h e r b e r t r e a d ( l o n d o n t r u b n e r & c o . p h i l o s o p h y , e k . s k r u p s k e l i e s s a y s i n p h i , l t d . , ) ; w i l l i a m j a m e s , e d . f r e d e r i c k h . b u r k h a r d t , f r e d s ( c a m b r i d g e , m a s s . : h a r v a r d u n l o s o p h y , e d . f r e d e r i c k h . b u r k h b o w e r s , i g n a s p r e s s , ) ; o n t h e " i m m e d k . s k r u p s k e l i s ( c a m b r i d g e , m a s h e n r i b e r g s o n , t i m e a n d f r e e w i a t e d a t a o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , " a u t h o r i z e d t r a n s k . p a u l t r e n c h s s a y s i n s o n b o w e r s , i g n a s i v . p r e s s , ) ; a r d t , f r e d s o n s . : h a r v a r d u n i v . i l l : a n e s s a y r . l . p o g s o n (new y o r k : m a c m i l l a n , ) a v r o m f l e i s h m a n , f i g u r e s o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y : t h e l a n g u a g e o f s e l f - w r i t i n g i n v i c t o r i a n a n d m o d e r n e n g l a n d ( c a l i f o r n i a : u n i v . o f c a l i f o r n i a p r e s s , ) . f l e i s h m a n . j . m . b e r n s t e i n , t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e n o v e l : l u k a c s , m a r x i s m a n d t h e d i a l e c t i c s o f f o r m ( b r i g h t o n : t h e h a r v e s t e r p r e s s , ) . w . b . y e a t s , " a n i m a h o m i n i s , " e s s a y s ( l o n d o n : m a c m i l l a n , ) . r o y p a s c a l , d e s i g n a n d t r u t h i n . a u t o b i o g r a p h y ( c a m b r i d g e , m a s s . : h a r v a r d u n i v . p r e s s , ) . pascal . pascal . jay . x marcel proust, a l a recherche du temps perdu (paris: galimard, editions de l a pleiade, ) . james joyce, stephen hero, ed. theodore spence (norfolk, conn.: new directions, ). , , „ jay . jay, p. . for further discussion of the role of the language in stephen's developing consciousness see helene cixoux, the exile of james joyce, trans. s a l l y a.j. p u r c e l l (new york: david lewis, ); dorothy van ghent, the english novel: form and function (new york: holt, rinehart & winston, ) - . joyce, p o r t r a i t - . maurice beebe, ivory towers and sacred founts: the a r t i s t as hero in f i c t i o n from goethe to joyce (new york: new york univ. press, ) . / andre gide, l e t t e r to franq:ois paul albert, january, , quoted wolfgang holdheim, theory and practice of the novel: a study of andre gide (geneva: l i b r a i r e druz, ) . holdheim / andre gide, journal, february, , holdeim . holdheim / andre gide, l e t t e r to charles dubos, autumn, , holdheim . cora kaplan, "language and gender," (unpublished paper, university of sussex, ), quoted elizabeth abel, ed., writing and sexual difference (chicago: univ. of chicago press, ) . elaine showalter, "feminist c r i t i c i s m in the wilderness," abel, - . elaine marks and isabelle de courtivron ed., new french feminisms (cambridge, mass.: harvard univ. press, ) . elaine showalter, a literature of their own: b r i t i s h women novelists from bronte to lessing (princeton: princeton univ. press, ) . ^ showalter, "feminist c r i t i c i s m in the wilderness," abel - . showalter, a literature of their own . mary jacobus ed., women writing about women (new york: barnes and noble, ) . jacques lacan, les quatre concepts fondamentaux .de l a psychanalyse (paris: s e u i l , ). „ , n kaplan . nancy chodorow, the reproduction of mothering: psychoanalysis and the sociology of gender (berkeley: univ. of c a l i f o r n i a press, ). showalter, a literature of their own . showalter, a literature of their own . showalter, a literature of their own . mary mason, "the other voice: autobiographies of women writers," in olney, autobiography - . mason . l i l l i a n hellman, an unfinished woman: a memoir, (new york: bantam, ); gold meir, my l i f e , (new york: putnam, ); emma goldman, living my l i f e , vols. (new york: a l f r e d a. knopf, ). for a discussion of l i l l i a n hellman's memoirs see marcus k. bilson and sidonie a. smith, " l i l l i a n hellman and the strategy of the 'other,'" in e s t e l l e jelinek ed., women's autobiography: essays in c r i t i c i s m (bloomington: indiana univ. press, ) - . ^ p a t r i c i a meyer spacks, "selves in hiding," i n jelinek jelinek, introduction . mason . judith kegan gardiner, "oh female identity and writing by women," in abel - . colette, sido, (paris: ferenczi, ). ^° mary mccarthy, memories of a catholic girldhood, (new york: harcourt brace, ); maxine hong kingston, the woman warrior: memoirs of a girlhood among ghosts, (new york: knopt, ) . ^ djuna barnes, nightwood in selected works of djuna barnes (london: faber & faber, ) . john berger, ways of seeing (london: b.b.c. & penguin books, ) - . george e l i o t , middlemarch (harmondsworth: penguin ; books, ) . susan gubar, "'the blank page' and female c r e a t i v i t y , " in abel, writing and sexual difference . gubar . ^ susan gubar, "'the blank page' and the issues of female c r e a t i v i t y , " in abel - . w i l l a cather, the song of the lark (boston & new york: houghton m i f f l i n , ); colette, la vagabon'de (paris: g. gres & cre., ); miles franklin, my b r i l l i a n t career (sydney: angus & robertson, ); henry handel richardson, the getting of wisdom (london: heinemann, ). there i s also a c r i t i c a l work by linda huf, whose t i t l e i s p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t as a young woman: the writer as heroine in american literature (new york: frederick ungar publishing co., ). writers considered by huf are ruth h a l l , elizabeth stuart phelps, kate chopin, w i l l a cather, carson mccullers and sulvia plath. ^ sharon spencer, "feminism and the woman writer," women's studies, , no. ( ). edmund wilson, axel's castle: a study in the imaginative literature of - (new york: charles scribner's sons, ). dorothy richardson, pilgrimage, vols. (london: j.m. dent & the cresset press; new york: a l f r e d a. knopf, ); katherine mansfield, thirty-four short stories, selected and with an introduction by elizabeth bowen (london & glasgow: c o l l i n s , ); v i r g i n i a woolf, the voyage out (london:' the hogarth press, ); to the lighthouse (new york: harcourt, brace & world, ); mrs. dalloway, (london: the hogarth press, ); the waves (new york: harcourt, brace & world inc., ). showalter, a literature of their own - . richardson, pointed roofs (pilgramage v o l . ), introduction by j.d. beresford (london: duckworth, ). g i l l i a n hanscombe, the art of l i f e : dorothy richardson and the development of feminist consciousness (london & boston: peter owen, ) - . showalter in a literature of their own, c i t e s the short story " b l i s s " in which the heroine's self-generated feelings of exultation are immediately followed by the discovery of her husband's adultery. james naremore, the world without a self (new haven & london: yale univ. press, ) . woolf, to the lighthouse . naremore . colette, la vagabonde (paris: g. gres & cre, ) colette, la vagabonde , . colette, la vagabonde . jacques lacan, le moi dans l a theorie de freud et dans l a technique de l a psychanalysis - (paris: s e u i l , ). elaine showalter, "feminist c r i t i c i s m " in abel . q o colette, la naissance du jour (paris: flammarion, ) . colette, la naissance du jour, frontispiece. q c nancy k. m i l l e r , "the anamnesis of a female 'i' in the margins of s e l f - p o r t r a y a l " in colette: the woman, the writer, ed. e r i c a mendelson eisinger and mari ward mccarty (univ. park & london: penn. state univ. press, ) . helene cixous, "le rire de l a meduse," l'arc ( ), . m i l l e r . gertrude stein, composition as explanation (london: hogarth press, ) . renata adler, speedboat (new york: random house, ); pitch dark (new york: knopf, ); marguerite duras l'amant (paris: editions de minuit, ); la douleur (pari p.o.l., ); nathalie. sarraute, les f r u i t s d'or (paris: gallimard, ); entre l a vie et l a mort (paris: gallimard ) . chapter two ^ jean rhys, "temps perdi," art and l i t e r a t u r e , (spring , ) . diana a t h i l l , foreward to jean rhys, smile please: an unfinished autobiography (london: deutsch, ) . a t h i l l . a t h i l l . judith kegan gardiner, "good morning, midnight; good night modernism""boundary ( ): - . kegan gardiner . see also p h y l l i s shand a l l f r e y , the orchid house (london: virago press, ; st. published london: constable, ). kenneth ramchand, the west indian novel and i t s background (new york: barnes & noble) - , explores the implications of t h i s uneasy master/slave r e l a t i o n s h i p . jean rhys, wide sargasso sea (london: deutsch, ) - i n which antoinette resorts to native "obeah" to try to win rochester back. george orwell, down and out in paris and london (new york: harcourt & brace, ). francis carco, perversity, trans. ford madox ford (chicago: pascal c o v i c i , ). reported in arthur mizener, the saddest story: a biography of ford madox ford (new york: world publishing co., ) as being the work in r e a l i t y , of jean rhys. carco . ' albert camus, l'etranger (paris: gallimard, ; p r t . ); marguerite duras, le ravissment de lol v. stein (paris: gallimard, ). - m a l c o l m b r a d b u r y , t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t o f m o d e r n e n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e ( o x f o r d : o x f o r d u n i v . p r e s s , ) . ; r r a y m o n d w i l l i a m s , c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y : - ( l o n d o n : m a c m i l l a n , ) . r a m c h a n d . j u d i t h t h u r m a n , " t h e m i s t r e s s a n d t h e m a s k : j e a n r h y s ' f i c t i o n , " m s . , j a n . : - . t h u r m a n . v . s . n a i p a u l , " w i t h o u t a d o g ' s c h a n c e , " n e w y o r k r e v i e w o f b o o k s ( m a y ) ; . h o w a r d m o s s , " g o i n g t o p i e c e s , " new y o r k e r , d e c . , : - j e a n r h y s , q u a r t e t ( l o n d o n : d e u t s c h , ) . m o s s . j e a n r h y s , t h e l e f t b a n k a n d o t h e r s t o r i e s ( f r e e p o r t : n e w y o r k : b o o k s f o r l i b r a r i e s , p r e s s , : r e p r i n t o f e d . ) . . _ " t r i o , " l e f t b a n k . " m i x i n g c o c k t a i l s , " l e f t b a n k . " a g a i n t h e a n t i l l e s , " l e f t b a n k . t h u r m a n . j e a n r h y s , v o y a g e i n t h e d a r k (new y o r k : w . w . n o r t o n ) . l o u i s j a m e s , j e a n r h y s : c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s o f c a r i b b e a n w r i t e r s ( l o n d o n : l o n g m a n , ) . r h y s , v o y a g e i n t h e d a r k . a l l o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s n o v e l w i l l b e i n c l u d e d p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n t h e t e x t . selma vaz diaz, an acress, advertised to see i f anyone knew whether jean rhys, who had been for some time livincr in seclusion, was a l i v e or dead. she wanted the rights to good morning, midnight (harmondsworth: penguin books, ), to perform i t as a radio play. rhys herself answered the advertisement. the radio play was, i n f a c t , performed and was responsible for a renewal of interest in rhys' work, and for rhys herself, the momentum to write wide sargasso sea, her most widely acclaimed novel. these events were documented in francis wyndham and diana melly ed. jean rhys letters: - , (london: deutsch, ). ramchand . james anthony froude, the english in the west indies ( ) as quoted in ramchand . shaffley, the orchid house, introduction. rhys, wide sargasso sea . a l l other references to t h i s novel w i l l be included p a r e n t e t i c a l l y in the text. ramchand . rhys, quartet . t s t e l l a bowen, drawn from l i f e (london: c o l l i n s , ) bowen . rhys, quartet . a l l other references to t h i s novel w i l l appear parenthetically in the text. (^ jean rhys, after leaving mr. mackenzie (london: deutsch, ). a l l other references to t h i s novel w i l l appear parenthetically in the text. thomas f. staley, jean rhys: a c r i t i c a l study (london: macmillan, ) - . rhys, good morning, midnight . a l l other references to t h i s novel w i l l appear parenthetically in the text. emily dickinson, "good morning, midnight," quoted in kegan gardiner . « kegan gardiner . v i r g i n i a woolf, a room of one's own (new york: harcourt, brace & world, ). a. alvarez, "the best living english novelist," new york times book review, march: - . naipaul . ford madox ford, the good soldier (london: the bodley head, ). ford madox ford, joseph conrad, a personal remembrance (boston: l i t t l e , brown & co., ). ford, joseph conrad . ' chapter three james mellow, charmed c i r c l e : gertrude stein and company (new york: praeger publishers, ) . malcolm cowley, exile's return (new york: viking press, ). cowley . thornton wilder's introduction to gertrude stein, four in america (new haven: yale univ. press, ) - . stein,paris france . gertrude stein, the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas in selected works of gertrude stein ed. carl van vechten (new york: vintage books, ) . gertrude stein, the geographical history of america or the relation of human nature to the human mind (new york: random house, ) . q stein, autobiography . g gertrude stein, wars i have seen, (new york: random house, ) . stein, paris france , . stein, paris france . stein, paris france . stein, paris france . stein, paris france . stein, paris france - stein, paris france . stein, paris france . stein, paris france , stein, paris france . stein, paris france - , . see s. neuman, gertrude stein: autobiography and the problem of narration ( v i c t o r i a : english literature studies; univ. of v i c t o r i a , ) for a discussion of stein's incorporation of s p e c i f i c a l l y narrative elements into an otherwise documentary format. stein, autobiography , - . stein, autobiography . stein, autobiography . stein, autobiography . stein, autobiography - . "testimony against gertrude stein," t r a n s i t i o n , pamphlet , supplement to v o l . , july . for a study of the harlequin as a figure in the dramatic and v i s u a l arts see robert f. storey, p i e r r o t : a c r i t i c a l history of a mask (princeton: princeton univ. press, ) . j.m. brinnin, the third rose: gertrude stein and her world (boston: l i t t l e , brown, ) . for a selection of stein's works which indicate the stages of her career see carl van vechten ed. selected writings of gertrude stein (new york: random house ) . it includes the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas, tender buttons, four saints in three acts and "the winner loses." michael j. hoffman, gertrude stein (boston: twayne, ) . stein, the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas, in selected writings of gertrude stein . hoffman . brinnin . hoffman . richard bridgman, gertrude stein in pieces (new york: something else press, ). david lodge, "the language of modernist f i c t i o n : metaphor and metonymy," i n modernism ad. malcolm bradbury and james macfarlane (harmondsworth: penguin books, ) - , lodge . gertrude stein, the making of americans (new york: something else press, ). see stein, the autobiography where t h i s remark i s attributed to max jacob. ford madox ford, it was the nightingale (philadelphia: j.b. lippincott, ); ernest hemminway, a moveable feast (new york: bantam, by arrangement with charles scribner's sons, ). most of the s i g n i f i c a n t stein family a c t i v i t i e s gertrude claimed for herself, including the decision to buy c e r t a i n canvases for which leo was in fact responsible. george wickes, americans in paris (garden city, n.y.: doubleday & co., ) . james mellow, charmed c i r c l e : gertrude stein and company (new york: praeger publishers, ) - . gertrude stein, stanzas in meditation and other poems. preface by donald sutherland. (new haven: yale univ. press, ) - . mellow . "a transatlantic interview, ," in a primer for the gradual understanding of gertrude stein ed. robert b a r t l e t t haas (los angeles: black sparrow press, ) . s.c. neuman, gertrude stein: autobiography and the problem of narration ( v i c t o r i a : english l i t e r a r y studies; univ. of v i c t o r i a press, ) - . neuman . bergson time and free w i l l . gertrude stein, everybody's autobiography (new york: random house, ) . stein, the autobiography, in selected writings of gertrude stein . a l l other references to t h i s novel w i l l be from t h i s e d i t i o n and w i l l be included parenthetically in the text. mellow . stein, the making of americans, f i r s t published by robert mcalmon's contact press, paris . .wickes . ^ wylie sypher, from rococo to cubism (new york: random house, ). sypher , ' . sypher . sypher . gertrude stein, lectures in america . ^ stein, lectures in america . paul alkon, "visual rhetoric in the autobiography of a l i c e b. toklas," c r i t i c a l inquiry, ( ): - . alkon . alkon . alkon . gertrude stein, "proclamation," t r a n s i t i o n , - june . p a s c a l , d e s i g n a n d t r u t h i n a u t o b i o g r a p h y . j e a n s t a r o b i n s k i , l a r e l a t i o n c r i t i q u e ( p a r i s : g a l l i m a r d ) . g e r t r u d e s t e i n , f o u r i n a m e r i c a . i n t r o d u c t i o n b y t h o r n t o n w i l d e r , (new h a v e n : y a l e u n i v . p r e s s , ) . n m . m o n t a i g n e , l e s e s s a i s d e m i c h e l d e m o n t a i g n e , e d . p i e r r e v i l l e y ( p a r i s : p r e s s e s u n i v e r s i t a i r e s d e f r a n c e , ) . b r i d g m a n x v . g e r t r u d e s t e i n , w h a t a r e m a s t e r p i e c e s . f o r e w a r d b y r o b e r t b a r t l e t t h a a s ( l o s a n g e l e s : c o n f e r e n c e p r e s s , ) . s t e i n , m a s t e r p i e c e s . n e u m a n . t g e r t r u d e s t e i n , t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l h i s t o r y o f a m e r i c a o r t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e h u m a n n a t u r e t o t h e human m i n d . (new y o r k : r a n d o m h o u s e , ) . " £ . g e r t r u d e s t e i n , l e c t u r e s i n a m e r i c a (new y o r k : s o m e t h i n g e l s e p r e s s , ) . s t e i n , l e c t u r e s i n a m e r i c a . g e r t r u d e s t e i n , e v e r y b o d y ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y (new y o r k : r a n d o m h o u s e , ) . s t e i n , e v e r y b o d y ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y . g e r t r u d e s t e i n , a d i a r y (new y o r k : r a n d o m h o u s e , ) . q "i s t e i n , a d i a r y . s t e i n , a d i a r y . s t e i n , a d i a r y . g e r t r u d e s t e i n , w a r s i h a v e s e e n (new y o r k : r a n d o m h o u s e , ) . stein, wars i have seen . stein, wars i have seen . neuman . q o stein, the geographical history of america . h.d. helen i n egypt (new york: harcourt brace, ) c h a p t e r f o u r d j u n a b a r n e s , l a d i e s a l m a n a c k p r i n t e r f o r t h e a u t h o r a n d s o l d b y e d w a r d w. t i t u s ( p a r i s : ) ; f a c s i m i l e e d i t i o n p u b l i s h e d n e w y o r k : h a r p e r & r o w , . d j u n a b a r n e s , n i g h t w o o d ( l o n d o n : f a b e r & f a b e r , ; n e w y o r k : h a r c o u r t , b r u c e & c o . , ; new y o r k : new d i r e c t i o n s t h e new c l a s s i c s n o . , ; r e - i s s u e d i n s e l e c t e d w o r k s o f d j u n a b a r n e s (new y o r k : f a r r a r , s t r a u s a n d g i r o u x , ; l o n d o n f a b e r & f a b e r , ) . a l l r e f e r e n c e s i n t h e t e x t w i l l b e f r o m t h i s e d i t i o n . d j u n a b a r n e s , t h e a n t i p h o n : a p l a y ( l o n d o n : f a b e r & f a b e r , ; new y o r k : f a r r a r , s t r a u s a n d c u d a h y , ) . a l s o i n s e l e c t e d w o r k s o f d j u n a b a r n e s . d j u n a b a r n e s , " t h e d o v e " i n a b o o k (new y o r k : b o n i & l i v e r i g h t , ) . h a r o l d p i n t e r , t h e h o m e c o m i n g ( l o n d o n : m e t h u e n , ) . b a r n e s , " t o t h e d o g s , " a b o o k . b a r n e s , " t h r e e f r o m t h e e a r t h , " a b o o k - . b a r n e s , " i n d i a n s u m m e r , " a b o o k . b a r n e s , " i n d i a n s u m m e r , " a b o o k . b a r n e s , " o s c a r , " a b o o k . l o u i s f . k a n n e n s t i n e , t h e a r t o f d j u n a b a r n e s (new y o r k : n e w y o r k u n i v . p r e s s , ) - . d j u n a b a r n e s , r y d e r (new y o r k : h o r a c e l i v e r i g h t , ; r e p u b l i s h e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , new y o r k : s t . m a r t i n ' s p r e s s , ) . b a r n e s , r y d e r . i n j o y c e p u b l i s h e d u l y s s e s i n p a r i s , e l i o t p u b l i s h e d t h e w a s t e l a n d i n l o n d o n , a n d p o u n d h a d b e g u n t h e c a n t o s . george steiner, "the c r u e l l e s t months," new yorker, a p r i l : . djuna barnes, a night among the horses, (new york: horace l i v e r i g h t , ). andrew f i e l d , djuna: the l i f e and times of djuna barnes (new york: putnam, ) . suzanne c. ferguson, "djuna barnes short stories: an estrangement of the heart," southern review, jan. : . djuna barnes " a l l e r et retour," selected works of - . barnes, "the doctors," " a l l e r et retour," selected works of . barnes, " a l l e r et retour" . barnes, "the doctors" . barnes, " a l l e r et retour" . :barnes, "a night among the horses," in selected work of . barnes, "spillway," in selected works of , , . f i e l d , djuna ' . james b. scott, djuna barnes (boston: twayne, ) , barnes, "the rabbit," in selected works of ; "a ong the horses," in selt barnes, "the rabbit" night among the horses," in selected works of - barnes, "a night among the horses" . barnes, "a night among the horses" , barnes, "the doctors" . b a r n e s , " s p i l l w a y " . f e r g u s o n . d j u n a b a r n e s , v a g a r i e s m a l i c i e u s e s (new y o r k : f r a n k h a l l m a n , ; o r i g i n a l l y i n t h e d o u b l e r d e a l e r , new o r l e a n s , ) . s e e c h . n o t e . f i e l d . f i e l d . f i e l d d i s c u s s e s t h e r e a l a n d t h e f i c t i o n a l d a n m a h o n e y - . b a r n e s , n i g h t w o o d . f i e l d . b a r n e s , n i g h t w o o d . a l l o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s n o v e l w i l l b e i n c l u d e d p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n t h e t e x t . c h a r l e s b a x t e r , " n i g h t w o o d a n d m o d e r n i s m , " j o u r n a l o f m o d e r n l i t e r a t u r e , ( ) : . i n h i s " n o t e s t o t h e w a s t e l a n d , " t . s . e l i o t e x p l a i n s t h a t " t i r e s i a s , a l t h o u g h a m e r e s p e c t a t o r a n d n o t i n d e e d a ' c h a r a c t e r , i s y e t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p e r s o n a g e i n t h e p o e m , u n i t i n g a l l t h e r e s t . j u s t a s t h e o n e - e y e d m e r c h a n t , s e l l e r o f c u r r a n t s , m e l t s i n t o t h e p h o e n i c i a n s a i l o r , a n d t h e l a t t e r i s n o t w h o l l y d i s t i n c t f r o m f e r d i n a n d p r i n c e o f . n a p l e s , s o a l l t h e women a r e o n e w o m a n , a n d t h e t w o s e x e s m e e t i n t i r e s i a s . w h a t t i r e s i a s s e e s , i n f a c t , i s t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e p o e m ; " c o l l e c t e d p o e m s - ( l o n d o n : f a b e r & f a b e r , ) . c a s s a n d r a , w h e n s h e h a d b e e n l o v e d b y t h e g o d , a p o l l o h a d b e e n g i v e n t h e g i f t o f p r o p h e s y b y h i m . w h e n h e w a s l a t e r o f f e n d e d b y h e r , h e r e n d e r e d h e r g i f t u s e l e s s b y o r d a i n i n g t h a t h e r p r e d i c t i o n s s h o u l d n e v e r b e b e l i e v e d . s e e c m . g a y l e y , t h e c l a s s i c m y t h s i n e n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e a n d a r t (new y o r k : j o h n w i l e y & s o n s , ) . f i e l d . a l a n w i l l i a m s o n , t h e d i v i d e d i m a g e : t h e q u e s t f o r i d e n t i t y i n t h e w o r k s o f d j u n a b a r n e s , " c r i t i q u e : s t u d i e s i n m o d e r n f i c t i o n ( ) : - . w i l l i a m s o n . j o s e p h f r a n k , " s p a t i a l f o r m i n m o d e r n l i t e r a t u r e , " i n t h e w i d e n i n g g y r e : c r i s i s a n d m a s t e r y i n m o d e r n l i t e r a t u r e ( b l o o m i n g t o n a n d l o n d o n : i n d i a n a u n i v . p r e s s , ) . f r a n k . a l a n s i n g e r , " t h e h o r s e who k n e w t o o m u c h : m e t a p h o r a n d t h e n a r r a t i v e o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n n i g h t w o o d , " c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e , n o . , ( ) - . b a r n e s , t h e a n t i p h o n . b a r n e s , " s i x s o n g s o f k h a l i d i n e , " a b o o k . f r a n k . f r a n k . f r a n k . s u s a n g u b a r , " b l e s s i n g s i n d i s g u i s e : c r o s s - d r e s s i n g a s r e - d r e s s i n g f o r f e m a l e m o d e r n i s t s , " m a s s a c h u s e t t s r e v i e w , a u t u m n . t . s . e l i o t , " n o t e s t o t h e w a s t e l a n d . " f i e l d . f i e l d . f i e l d . h w o l f g a n g k a y s e r , t h e g r o t e s q u e i n a r t a n d l i t e r a t u r e ( b l o o m i n g t o n : i n d i a n a u n i v . p r e s s , ) . k a y s e r . k a y s e r . kayser . thomas mann, betrachtungen eines unpolitischen' (reflections of an u n p o l i t i c a l man) in kayser . ^wilhelm worringer, form in gothic (london: putnam & sons, ) . kannenstine - . ^ ortega y gasset, the dehumanization of art and other writings on art and culture, trans. willard a. trask (garden city, n.y.: doubleday, ) . kannenstine . singer . t.s. e l i o t , "introduction" to nightwood in selected works of djuna barnes . e l i o t , "introduction" . ralph freedman, the l y r i c a l novel (princeton: princeton univ. press, ). freedman . freedman - . melvin friedman, stream of consciousness: a study in l i t e r a r y method (new haven: yale univ. press, ) . e l i o t , "introduction" . angela carter, nights at the circus (london: chatto & windus, ). many of these basic ideas and connections have been suggested by alan singer, "the horse who knew too much: metaphor and the narrative of discontinuity in nightwood," contemporary l i t e r a t u r e , no. , ( ): - . singer . s a n d r a g i l b e r t , " c o s t u m e s o f t h e m i n d : t r a n s v e s t i s m a s m e t a p h o r i n m o d e r n l i t e r a t u r e , " i n a b e l , w r i t i n g a n d s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e . g i l b e r t - . v i r g i n i a w o o l f , o r l a n d o ( l o n d o n : h o g a r t h p r e s s , ) v i r g i n i a w o o l f , t h e v o y a g e o u t ( l o n d o n : h o g a r t h p r e s s : ) ; t o t h e l i g h t h o u s e ( l o n d o n : h o g a r t h p r e s s , ) t h e w a v e s ( l o n d o n : h o g a r t h p r e s s , ) ; b e t w e e n t h e a c t s (new y o r k : h a r c o u r t & b r a c e , ) . conclusion for a discussion of late modernism see alan wilde, "surfaces of late modernism," boundary ( ): - . stephen spender, the destructive element: a study of modern writers and b e l i e f s (philadelphia: albert sarfer, ) . christopher isherwood quoted in foreword to edward upward, "the railway accident," new directions in prose and poetry ( ): . wilde - . wilde . see harry levin, "what was modernism?" in burnshaw, v a r i e t i e s of l i t e r a r y experience (new york: knopf, ) wilde . wilde . sandra g i l b e r t , "costumes of the mind," i n abel - g i l b e r t . carolyn burke, "gertrude stein, the cone s i s t e r s and the puzzle of female friendship," in abel . judith kegan gardiner, "good morning, midnight: good night modernism," boundary ( ): - . _ rhys, good morning, midnight . wilde . for a discussion of post-modern autobiographical f i c t i o n see paul jay, being in the text (ithaca: cornell univ. press, ). roland barthes quoted in jay . selected bibliography a. primary sources: autobiographical works bowen, s t e l l a . drawn from l i f e . london: c o l l i n s , . ford, ford madox. it was the nightingale. philadelphia: j.p. lippincott, . . return to yesterday. philadelphia: j.p. lippincott, . gide, andre. journal - . paris: gallimard, . goldman, emma. living my l i f e . vols. new york: a l f r e d • a. knopf, . hellman, l i l l i a n . an unfinished woman: a memoir. new york: bantam, . . pentimento: a book of p o r t r a i t s . new york: new american library, . hemingway, ernest. a moveable feast. new york: bantam, . l e i r i s , , m i c h e l . l 'age d'homme. paris: gallimard, . mccarthy, mary. memories of a catholic girlhood. new york: harcourt brace, . meir, golda. my l i f e . new york: putnam, . montaigne, michel de. les essais de michel de montaigne. ed. pierre v i l l e y . paris: presses u n i v e r s i t a i r e s de france, . orwell, george. down and out in paris and london. new york: harcourt & brace, . rhys, jean. smile please: an unfinished autobiography. london: deutsch, . . letters - . ed. francis wyndham & diana melly. london: deutsch, . toklas, a l i c e . what i s remembered. new york: holt, rinehart & winston, . woolf, v i r g i n i a . a room of one's own. new york: harcourt, brace & world, . • moments of being: unpublished autobiographical writings. ed. jeanne schulkind. new york & london: harcourt, brace & jovanovich, . b. autobiographical f i c t i o n s barnes, djuna. ryder. new york: horace l i v e r i g h t , . published with additional materials: new york: st. martin's press, . . nightwood. london: faber & faber, . new york: harcourt brace & company, . new york: new directions, the new c l a s s i c s no. , . . selected works of djuna barnes. new york: farrar, straus & cudahy, . cather, w i l l a . the song of the lark. boston & new york: houghton m i f f l i n , . colette. la naissance du jour. paris: flammarion, . la vagabonde . paris: g. gres & cre . , . joyce, james. stephen hero. ed:. theodore spence. norfolk, conn.: new directions, . . a p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t as young man. new york: viking press, . . ulysses. london: the bodley head, kingston, maxine hong. the woman warrior: memoirs of a girlhood among ghosts. new york: knopf, . lawrence, d.h. sons and lovers. new york: random house, . . women in love. new york: viking press, . mansfield, katherine. thirty four short stories. selected & introd. elizabeth bowen. london & glasgow: c o l l i n s , . proust, marcel. a l a recherche du temps perdu. paris: gallimard, editions de l a pleiade, . . remembrance of things past. trans. c.k. scott moncrieff & terence kilmartin. new york: random house, . . time regained. trans. andreas mayor. london: chatto windus, . rhys, jean. the left bank and other stories. london: chatto & windus, . r p t . london: deutsch, . . postures. london: chatto & windus, . american t i t l e : quartet. new york: simon & schuster, . r p t . london: deutsch, as quartet• . after leaving mr. mackenzie. london: jonathan cape, . new york: knopf, ; 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" g o o d m o r n i n g , m i d n i g h t : g o o d n i g h t m o d e r n i s m . " b o u n d a r y , n o s . - ( - ) . g a s s , w i l l i a m h . f i c t i o n a n d t h e f i g u r e s o f l i f e . new y o r k : k n o p f , . g a s s e t , o r t e g a , y . t h e d e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f a r t a n d o t h e r w r i t i n g s o n a r t a n d c u l t u r e . t r a n s . w i l l a r d a . t r a s k . g a r d e n c i t y , new y o r k : d o u b l e d a y , . g i l b e r t , s a n d r a a n d g u b a r , s u s a n . t h e m a d w o m a n i n t h e a t t i c : t h e woman w r i t e r a n d t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y i m a g i n a t i o n . new h a v e n : y a l e u n i v . p r e s s , . g o r n i c k , v i v i a n . e s s a y s i n f e m i n i s m . new y o r k : h a r p e r & r o w , . g u b a r , s u s a n . " b l e s s i n g s i n d i s g u i s e : c r o s s - d r e s s i n g a n d r e - d r e s s i n g f o r f e m a l e m o d e r n i s t s . " m a s s a c h u s e t t s r e v i e w , a u t u m n : - . g u n n , j a n e t v a r n e r . a u t o b i o g r a p h y : t o w a r d s a p o e t i c s o f e x p e r i e n c e . p h i l a d e l p h i s : u n i v . o f p e n n s y l v a n i s p r e s s , . h a a s , r o b e r t b . a p r i m e r f o r t h e g r a d u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f g e r t r u d e s t e i n . l o s a n g e l e s : b l a c k s p a r r o w p r e s s , h a n s c o m b e , g i l l i a n . t h e a r t o f l i f e : d o r o t h y r i c h a r d s o n a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f f e m i n i s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s . l o n d o n : p e t e r o w e n , . h a r r i s , b e r t h a . " t h e m o r e p r o f o u n d n a t i o n a l i t y o f t h e i r l e s b i a n i s m : l e s b i a n s o c i e t y i n t h e ' s . " i n a m a z o n e x p e d i t i o n : a l e s b i a n f e m i n i s t a n t h o l o g y . e d . p . b i r k b y , b . h a r r i s , e . n e w t o n , j . o ' w y a t t , j . j o h n s t o n . new y o r k : t i m e s c h a n g e p r e s s , . h a r t , f r a n c i s . " n o t e s f o r a n a n a t o m y o f m o d e r n a u t o b i o g r a p h y . " i n new d i r e c t i o n s i n l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y . e d . r a l p h c o h e n . b a l t i m o r e : j o h n s h o p k i n s u n i v . p r e s s , . h a w k i n s , d e s m o n d . " v i e w s a n d r e v i e w s . " ( r e v i e w o f n i g h t w o o d . ) new e n g l i s h w e e k l y , a p r i l : . h o f f m a n , m i c h a e l j . g e r t r u d e s t e i n . b o s t o n : t w a y n e , . h o l d h e i m , w . w o l f g a n g . t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e o f t h e n o v e l : a s t u d y o f a n d r e g i d e . g e n e v a : l i b r a i r e d r o z , . h o w e , i r v i n g , e d . l i t e r a r y m o d e r n i s m . g r e e n w i c h , c o n n . : f a r r a r , s t r a u s , . h u f , l i n d a . p o r t r a i t o f t h e a r t i s t a s a y o u n g w o m a n : t h e w r i t e r a s h e r o i n e i n a m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . new y o r k : f r e d e r i c k u n g a r p u b l i s h i n g c o . , . h u l m e , t . e . s p e c u l a t i o n s : e s s a y s o n h u m a n i s m a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f a r t . e d . h e r b e r t r e a d . l o n d o n : k . p a u l t r e n c h , t r u b n e r & c o . l t d . , . h u m e , d a v i d . a t r e a t i s e o f human n a t u r e . l o n d o n : - ; r p t . j . m . d e n t & s o n s l t d . , . j a c o b u s , m a r y , e d . woman w r i t i n g a n d w r i t i n g a b o u t w o m e n . l o n d o n : m e t h u e n , . j a m e s , l o u i s . j e a n r h y s : c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s o f c a r i b b e a n w r i t e r s . l o n d o n : l o n g m a n s , . j a m e s , w i l l i a m . e s s a y s i n p h i l o s o p h y . e d . f r e d e r i c k j . b u r k h a r t , f r e d s o n b o w e r s , i g n a s k . , s k r u p s k e l i s . c a m b r i d g e , m a s s . : h a r v a r d u n i v . p r e s s , . j a y , p a u l . b e i n g i n t h e t e x t : s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f r o m w o r d s w o r t h t o b a r t h e s . i t h a c a : c o r n e l l u n i v . p r e s s , . j e l i n e k , e s t e l l e , e d . w o m e n ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y : e s s a y i n c r i t i c i s m . b l o o m i n g t o n : i n d i a n a u n i v . p r e s s , . k a n n e n s t i n e , l o u i s f . t h e a r t o f d j u n a b a r n e s . new y o r k : new y o r k u n i v . p r e s s , . k a y s e r , w o l f g a n g . t h e g r o t e s q u e i n a r t a n d l i t e r a t u r e . t r a n s . u l r i c h w e i s s t e i n . new y o r k : m c g r a w - h i l l , . k a z i n , a l f r e d . " a u t o b i o g r a p h y a s n a r r a t i v e . " m i c h i g a n q u a r t e r l y r e v i e w , , ( ) ; - . k e n n e r , h u g h . t h e p o u n d e r a . b e r k e l e y : u n i v . o f c a l i f o r n i a p r e s s , . l e j e u n e , p h i l i p p e . " a u t o b i o g r a p h y i n t h e t h i r d p e r s o n . " n e w l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y . n o . ( ) : - . ' l e p a c t e a u t o b i o g r a p h i q u e . p a r i s : e d i t i o n s d u s e u i l , . l i f s o n , m a r t h a r . " t h e m y t h o f t h e f a l l : a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y . " g e n r e , ( ) : - . lodge, david. "metaphor and metonymy in modern f i c t i o n . " c r i t i c a l inquiry, spring : - . looklai, wally. "the road to thornfield h a l l . " in new beacon reviews. ed. john la rose. london, . mcconnell-ginet, s a l l y , ruth borker, and nelly furman. women and language in literature and society. new york: schocken, . man, paul de. 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"a bibliography of the writings of jean rhys with a selected l i s t of reviews and other c r i t i c a l writings." world literature written in english, , apr. : - . . "character and themes in the novels of jean rhys." contemporary literature , autumn ; - . mendelson, erica eisinger and mari ward mccarty ed. colette: the woman, the writer. university park & london: pensylvania state univ. press, . messerli, douglas. djuna barnes: a bibliography. new york: david lewis, . m i l e s , r o s a l i n d . t h e f i c t i o n o f s e x : t h e m e s a n d f u n c t i o n s o f s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e m o d e r n n o v e l . l o n d o n : o x f o r d u n i v . p r e s s , . m i s c h , g e o r g . a h i s t o r y o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y i n a n t i q u i t y . t r a n s . e . w . d i c k e s . l o n d o n : r o u t l e d g e & k e g a n p a u l , , v o l . i . m i z e n e r , a r t h u r . t h e s a d d e s t s t o r y : a b i o g r a p h y o f f o r d m a d o x f o r d . new y o r k : w o r l d p u b l i s h i n g c o . , . m o e r s , e l l e n . l i t e r a r y w o m e n . new y o r k : d o u b l e d a y , . m o s s , h o w a r d . " g o i n g t o p i e c e s . " r e v i e w . mew y o r k e r , d e c . : . n a i p a u l , v . c . " w i t h o u t a d o g ' s c h a n c e . " new y o r k r e v i e w o f b o o k s , m a y ; - . n a r e m o r e , j a m e s . t h e w o r l d w i t h o u t a s e l f . new h a v e n a n d l o n d o n : y a l e u n i v . p r e s s , . n e u m a n , s . c . g e r t r u d e s t e i n : a u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f n a r r a t i o n . v i c t o r i a ; e n g l i s h l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s : u n i v . o f v i c t o r i a , . n i e t z s c h e , f r i e d r i c h . t h e w i l l t o p o w e r . t r a n s . w a l t e r k a u f m a n & r . j . h o l l i n g d a l e . e d . w a l t e r k a u f m a n . new y o r k : v i n t a g e , . o l n e y , j a m e s . m e t a p h o r s o f t h e s e l f : t h e m e a n i n g o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y . p r i n c e t o n : p r i n c e t o n u n i v . p r e s s , . . a u t o b i o g r a p h y : e s s a y s t h e o r e t i c a l a n d c r i t i c a l . p r i n c e t o n : p r i n c e t o n u n i v . p r e s s , . p a s c a l , r o y . d e s i g n a n d t r u t h i n a u t o b i o g r a p h y . c a m b r i d g e , m a s s . : h a r v a r d u n i v . p r e s s , . p e a r s o n , c a r o l & p o p e , k a t h l e e n . t h e f e m a l e h e r o i n a m e r i c a n a n d b r i t i s h l i t e r a t u r e . new y o r k & l o n d o n : r . r . b o w k e r c o . , . p i k e , b u r t o n . " t i m e i n a u t o b i o g r a p h y . " c o m p a r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , , f a l l : - . r a m c h a n d , k e n n e t h . a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e s t u d y o f w e s t i n d i a n l i t e r a t u r e . c a r i b b e a n : t h o m a s n e l s o n , . t h e w e s t i n d i a n n o v e l a n d i t s b a c k g r o u n d . c a r i b b e a n : t h o m a s n e l s o n , . renza, louis a. "the veto of the imagination: a theory of autobiography." new l i t e r a r y history , no. autumn :. - . . rose, marilyn. "gertrude stein and cubist narrative." modern f i c t i o n studies, winter - : - . ross, ishbel, the expatriates. new york: thomas y. cromwell & co., . rowbotham, sheila. woman's consciousness, man's world. harmondsworth: penguin books, . rule, jane. lesbian images. new york: doubleday, . ryan, michael. 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"the c r u e l l e s t months." (review of the antiphon) new yorker, apr. .:- , . stewart, grace. a new mythos: the novel of the a r t i s t as heroine - . new york: eden press: monographs i n women's studies, . stimpson, catherine. "the mind, the eody and gertrude stein." c r i t i c a l inquiry, , ( ) - . storey, robert f. p i e r r o t : a c r i t i c a l history of a mask. princeton: princeton univ. press, . sturrock, john. "the new model autobiographer." new l i t e r a r y history, , ( ) . sutton, walter. "the l i t e r a r y image and the reader: a consideration of the theory of spatial form." journal of aesthetics and art c r i t i c i s m , , ( ): - . sypher, wylie. from rococo to cubism. new york: random house, . . loss of the self i n modern literature and art. new york: vintage, . thurman, judith. "the mistress and the mask:"jean rhys' f i c t i o n . " ms., jan. :^ - , . . todd, janet, ed. women and l i t e r a t u r e : gender and l i t e r a r y voice. new york: holmes and meier publishers, inc., . weinbraub, karl j . "autobiography and h i s t o r i c a l conscious- ness." c r i t i c a l inquiry. , ( ): - . . the value of the individual: self and circumstance in autobiography. chicago: univ. of chicago press, . weisstein, u l r i c h . "beast, d o l l and woman: djuna barnes human bestiary." renascence, , ( ) - white, ray lewis. gertrude stein and a l i c e b. toklas: a reference guide. new york: g.k. h a l l & co., . wickes, george. americans in paris. garden c i t y , new york: doubleday, . wilde, alan. "surfaces of late modernism," boundary , . williamson, alan. "the divided image: the quest for identity i n the works of djuna barnes," c r i t i q u e : studies i n modern f i c t i o n . ( )*. - . wilson, edmund. axel's castle: a study in the imaginative literature of - . new york: charles scribner's sons, . worringer, wilhelm. form i n gothic. london: putnam & sons, . yeats, w.b. essays. london: macmillan, . the letters of conrad aiken and malcolm lowry by cynthia conchita sugars b.a., the university of british columbia, a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts i n the faculty of graduate studies (english) we accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard the university of british columbia september q c y n t h i a conchita sugars, i n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e at t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , i a g r e e t h a t t h e library shall m a k e it f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e a n d s t u d y . i f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s m a y b e g r a n t e d b y t h e h e a d o f m y d e p a r t m e n t o r b y his o r h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . it is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n shall n o t b e a l l o w e d w i t h o u t m y w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a m a i n m a l l v a n c o u v e r , c a n a d a v t y d e - ( / ) i i a b s t r a c t the f a s c i n a t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between conrad a i k e n ( - ) and malcolm lowry ( - ) has formed the s u b j e c t of a number of c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s and f i c t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t s . the s t u d y of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s of v a l u e both f o r i t s b i o g r a p h i c a l i n t e r e s t and l i t e r a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terms of the l i t e r a r y > i n f l u e n c e of one w r i t e r upon the o t h e r . through a i k e n and lowry's e n t e r t a i n i n g and e x t r e m e l y a r t i c u l a t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , one has a c c e s s t o what i s p o s s i b l y the most i n t i m a t e view of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a v a i l a b l e t o d a t e . a l t h o u g h a number of t h e s e l e t t e r s have been p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d , o f t e n in i n c o m p l e t e form, in s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a l k e n r ed. joseph k i l l o r i n , and s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of malcolm lowry f eds. harvey b r e i t and m a r g e r i e bonner lowry, t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of the l e t t e r s have remained u n p u b l i s h e d . t h i s volume p r o v i d e s the f i r s t complete c o l l e c t i o n of a i k e n and lowry's c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . i t c o m p r i s e s e i g h t y - n i n e l e t t e r s from the two w r i t e r s , i n c l u d i n g photographs, poems, and drawings which t h e y e n c l o s e d i n t h e i r l e t t e r s , w r i t t e n between , the year when lowry wrote h i s f i r s t l e t t e r of i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a i k e n , and . t h i s c o l l e c t i o n c o n t a i n s the complete t e x t s of a l l l e t t e r s t o g e t h e r w i t h e d i t o r i a l notes and commentary. in a d d i t i o n , i t p r o v i d e s t e x t u a l notes o u t l i n i n g the changes made by each w r i t e r a t the time of c o m p o s i t i o n . these l e t t e r s not o n l y r e v e a l the mutual a d m i r a t i o n of lowry and a i k e n , and a t times t h e i r j e a l o u s y of each o t h e r , but a r e l i t e r a r y works i n t h e i r own r i g h t . i i i table of contents a b s t r a c t . . . i i acknowledgements i v i n t r o d u c t i o n v i e d i t o r i a l note x v i i l i s t of a b b r e v i a t i o n s x x i v p a r t i: - p a r t i i : - p a r t i i i : - appendix i appendix ii works consulted . i v acknowledgements i n i t i a l l y i would l i k e t o thank the c o p y r i g h t h o l d e r s of t h e lowry/aiken l e t t e r s — m r s . p r i s c i l l a woolfan, the c o n s e r v a t o r f o r the e s t a t e of m a r g e r i e lowry, mrs. mary hoover a i k e n , and the h u n t i n g t o n l i b r a r y , san m a r i n o , c a l i f o r n i a - - f o r t h e i r generous p e r m i s s i o n t o r e p r i n t the l e t t e r s c o n t a i n e d i n the p r e s e n t c o l l e c t i o n . i a l s o g r a t e f u l l y acknowledge the f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t r e c e i v e d from the u n i v e r s i t y of b r i t i s h columbia graduate f e l l o w s h i p which was g r a n t e d t o me f o r the two y e a r s of my m.a. program. s p e c i a l thanks i s extended t o my s u p e r v i s o r , dr. s h e r r i l l grace, who has encouraged and s u p p o r t e d me on the p r o j e c t f o r t h e p a s t two y e a r s , and some time b e f o r e t h a t on my p r e v i o u s work on lowry. i a l s o acknowledge the f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t r e c e i v e d from dr. grace's u.b.c. h u m a n i t i e s and s o c i a l s c i e n c e s r e s e a r c h grant which e n a b l e d me t o v i s i t the h u n t i n g t o n l i b r a r y i n j u l y . in a d d i t i o n , i w i s h t o thank the two o t h e r members of my committee, dr. w i l l i a m new and dr. h e r b e r t r o s e n g a r t e n , f o r t a k i n g the time t o c o n s u l t w i t h me on the t h e s i s and p r o v i d e me w i t h t h e i r s u g g e s t i o n s . i am p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l t o the many l i b r a r i a n s i n the ubc s p e c i a l c o l l e c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y anne y a n d l e , and the ubc i n t e r - l i b r a r y loan o f f i c e , f o r t h e i r u n t i r i n g h e l p w i t h t h e p r o j e c t . i am a l s o g r a t e f u l t o the s t a f f of t h e h u n t i n g t o n l i b r a r y and the a s s o c i a t e c u r a t o r of l i t e r a r y m a n u s c r i p t s t h e r e , ms. sara hodson, f o r t h e i r h e l p when i was t h e r e i n the summer of , and t h e i r p a t i e n t and prompt r e s p o n s e s t o my many r e q u e s t s and q u e r i e s by m a i l . gordon bowker has a l s o been a g r e a t h e l p , a n s w e r i n g my " s e a r c h i n g q u e s t i o n s " about lowry's cambridge y e a r s . i must a l s o thank spectrum s o c i e t y and the v a r i o u s people a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t , e s p e c i a l l y e r n i e b a a t z , f o r the generous use of t h e i r computer, w i t h o u t which i c o u l d never have s u r v i v e d the o r d e a l of t y p i n g the m a n u s c r i p t , and f o r u n c o m p l a i n i n g l y s t e p p i n g around me and the many pages of lowry/aiken l e t t e r s s c a t t e r e d on t h e f l o o r of t h e i r s t a f f o f f i c e . and f i n a l l y , but most of a l l , i thank p a t r i c k mcdonagh f o r h i s k i n d n e s s , h e l p , and encouragement, who w i t h me has endured, f o r the p a s t y e a r , a s e e m i n g l y n e v e r - e n d i n g voyage. i t e l l you t h i s young man so t h a t your o u t l o o k may perhaps be broadened. i who have seen s n o r i n g v o l c a n o e s and d i s m a l i s l a n d s shawled in snow. . . . malcolm lowry " i n cape cod with conrad a i k e n " (douglas day, malcolm lowry, p. ) v i i n t r o d u c t i o n conrad a i k e n was twenty y e a r s lowry's s e n i o r ; o l d enough, i t is o f t e n s a i d , t o have been lowry's f a t h e r . a i k e n had p u b l i s h e d more than twenty n o v e l s and books of p o e t r y b e f o r e the p u b l i c a t i o n of lowry's f i r s t n o v e l ; he was s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p e r i e n c e d , t h e n , t o have been lowry's l i t e r a r y t e a c h e r and a d v i s o r . a i k e n was a l s o a "man of the w o r l d , " a h a r d - d r i n k i n g , womanizing, s u i c i d a l man who was so i m p r e s s i v e l y and e x c i t i n g l y a p a r t from the "wesleyan hush" of lowry's boyhood home as t o have had a marked i n f l u e n c e on the "young e n g l i s h m a n ' s " a t t i t u d e toward h i m s e l f and the w o r l d . in a l l of t h e s e g u i s e s , a i k e n w i l l i n g l y became something of an i d o l t o h i s young d i s c i p l e . yet i t was not l o n g b e f o r e w o r s h i p d e v e l o p e d i n t o r i v a l r y . while a d m i r i n g h i s mentor from a f a r , lowry perhaps a l s o s e c r e t l y c o v e t e d f o r h i m s e l f the more d e s i r a b l e r o l e s : f a t h e r , l i t e r a r y master, t r a g i c h e r o . in the summer of a p l a y c a l l e d goodnight d i s g r a c e , by m i c h a e l m e r c e r , opened a t the shakespeare p l u s f e s t i v a l i n nanaimo, b r i t i s h columbia. t h i s p l a y had as i t s s u b j e c t what had f o r some time been a t o p i c of much d i s c u s s i o n and s p e c u l a t i o n among s p e c i f i c l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s : the r e l a t i o n s h i p between conrad a i k e n and malcolm lowry. in t h i s p l a y we see the e x p e r i e n c e d and p r o l i f i c , though r e l a t i v e l y u n s u c c e s s f u l , a i k e n b e i n g g r a d u a l l y absorbed and usurped by the p u p i l whom he g e n e r o u s l y t u t o r s and g u i d e s toward l i t e r a r y s u c c e s s . of c o u r s e , t h i s i s o n l y one, among many, s i d e s t o the s t o r y . in f a c t , goodnight d i s g r a c e was by no means the f i r s t t r e a t m e n t v i i of the aiken/lowry r e l a t i o n s h i p . some y e a r s e a r l i e r i n , a i k e n had h i m s e l f i n c o r p o r a t e d much of h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h lowry i n t o h i s f i c t i o n a l i z e d a u t o b i o g r a p h y ushant. l i k e w i s e lowry, as he p o i n t s out i n l e t t e r o£ t h i s c o l l e c t i o n , had i n c o r p o r a t e d much of a i k e n i n t o h i s d e p i c t i o n of the c o n s u l i n under the v o l c a n o . b i o g r a p h i c a l v e r s i o n s of the r e l a t i o n s h i p a l s o e x i s t : from t h o s e of douglas day, m u r i e l bradbrook, r i c h a r d hauer c o s t a , and a i k e n ' s second w i f e , c l a r i s s a l o r e n z , t o a c c o u n t s w r i t t e n by the a u t h o r s t h e m s e l v e s . lowry's l e t t e r t o seymour lawrence i n the a i k e n i s s u e of wake f o c u s e s p r i m a r i l y on h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a i k e n . s i m i l a r l y , a i k e n f r e q u e n t l y commented on h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h lowry b o t h i n p r i n t and i n numerous i n t e r v i e w s . most of t h e s e a c c o u n t s , however, a r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y and perhaps n e c e s s a r i l y b i a s e d . each f o c u s e s on a p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t of the r e l a t i o n s h i p : the f a t h e r / s o n p a i r i n g , the t e a c h e r / p u p i l i n t e r a c t i o n , the v i c t i m / v i c t o r s t r u g g l e , e t c . the p r e s e n t c o l l e c t i o n of lowry and a i k e n ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e p r o v i d e s one of the most complete p i c t u r e s of t h i s much d i s c u s s e d r e l a t i o n s h i p . while s e l e c t items i n the c o l l e c t i o n have been p r i n t e d e i t h e r p a r t i a l l y or w h o l l y i n the s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of malcolm lowry and s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n , t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of t h e s e l e t t e r s have remained u n p u b l i s h e d . t h i s complete c o l l e c t i o n p r o v i d e s what i s perhaps the most i n t i m a t e v e r s i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p a v a i l a b l e thus f a r . here the s t o r y i s t o l d , both o v e r t l y and u n c o n s c i o u s l y , by the p a r t i c i p a n t s themselves w i t h i n the v e r y r e l a t i o n s h i p i t s e l f . i t i s n o t , t h e n , a s t o r y t o l d a f t e r the f a c t , b u t , i n the c o n t e x t of t h e i r v i i i l e t t e r s , an e v o l v i n g one, b e g i n n i n g i n when lowry wrote h i s f i r s t l e t t e r of i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a i k e n , and e n d i n g , a t l e a s t where the l e t t e r s are concerned, w i t h lowry's ambiguous f a r e w e l l t e l e g r a m i n . the r e s u l t i n g p i c t u r e i s v e r y much a m u l t i f a c e t e d one. i t r e v e a l s , i n f a c t , t h a t no one of the p r e v i o u s a c c o u n t s was wrong, so much as l i m i t e d . i t r e v e a l s a l s o t h a t a i k e n and lowry's r e l a t i o n s h i p c o n t a i n e d a l l of the elements mentioned e a r l i e r — f a t h e r / s o n , t e a c h e r / p u p i l , v i c t i m / v i c t o r — a n d many more b e s i d e s . , these and o t h e r a s p e c t s of the r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t i n the l e t t e r s . i f , as p a u l t i e s s e n s t a t e s , lowry " t e a s e d i n t o e x i s t e n c e " h i s f i c t i o n a l f a t h e r / s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a i k e n ( ) , the r e l a t i o n s h i p , as t h e s e l e t t e r s r e v e a l , p e r s i s t e d . from as e a r l y as ( l e t t e r ) , b e f o r e a c t u a l l y h a v i n g met a i k e n , lowry spoke, of h i s " f i l i a l a f f e c t i o n " f o r t h e man " o l d enough t o be t h i s ] f a t h e r " ; l a t e r , i n , i n one o f h i s many " p l e a s f o r h e l p , " lowry a d d r e s s e d a d e s p e r a t e l e t t e r t o a i k e n w i t h "a mi padre" ( l e t t e r ) . lowry's t r u e f a t h e r , on the o t h e r hand, i s d e s i g n a t e d e i t h e r "the b e w i l d e r e d p a r e n t " ( l e t t e r ) o r , more r e g u l a r l y i n l a t e r l e t t e r s , "the o.m." ( o l d man). i n i t i a l l y assuming the r o l e of s u b s t i t u t e f a t h e r , i n a i k e n became lowry's g u a r d i a n i n l o c o p a r e n t i s . in t h i s c a p a c i t y he c o n t r o l l e d lowry's f i n a n c e s , p r o v i d e d him w i t h a home d u r i n g s c h o o l v a c a t i o n s , and a c t e d as an i n t e r m e d i a r y , as e v i d e n c e d i n l e t t e r , between lowry and "the o l d man." in time lowry began t o "usurp the s u c c e s s i o n " of a i k e n ' s own son (ushant ). he was, a f t e r a l l , the i d e a l c h i l d - s u b s t i t u t e f o r such a man as a i k e n , s h a r i n g w i t h h i s mentor not o n l y an e s s e n t i a l l y t r a g i c view of l i f e , but a l s o a l o v e of words and l i t e r a t u r e , and, above a l l , a y e a r n i n g t o w r i t e . not s u r p r i s i n g l y , a i k e n g r a d u a l l y came t o assume the p a t e r n a l r o l e more f u l l y . in l e t t e r he s c o l d s lowry f o r r e t u r n i n g home l a t e , i n q u i r e s about h i s p r o g r e s s i n u n i v e r s i t y i n l e t t e r , and f i n a l l y a t t e m p t s , i n , t o " r e s c u e " him from h i s p l i g h t i n vancouver and readopt him. the p r o d i g a l son, however, was not beyond r e p r o a c h from h i s s e l f - e l e c t e d f a t h e r - s u b s t i t u t e . in the e a r l y 's, a g a i n f a c e d w i t h the p o s s i b i l i t y of h a v i n g t o t a k e lowry i n t o h i s home, a i k e n reminded lowry of p a s t i n f r i n g e m e n t s and warned him a g a i n s t any f u t u r e misdemeanors ( l e t t e r ) : . . . i hope y o u ' l l g i v e me your word b e f o r e coming t h a t you're r e a l l y g o i n g t o . . . behave w e l l . . . . no s e c r e t d r i n k i n g s round the c o r n e r , eh? no d i s g r a c l n g s of us w i t h our f r i e n d s , no s c e n e s : and above a l l no c o n t i n u o u s argument as t o the amount of d r i n k a l l o w e d : i'm t o be the boss about t h a t , or i t ' s no go. lowry's response t o t h e s e c h a s t i s e m e n t s was r e l a t i v e l y sober and s i n c e r e ( i f t h e r e was one t h i n g t h a t a i k e n had which lowry's f a t h e r d i d n o t , i t was h i s son's r e s p e c t ) ; h i s degree of r e p e n t a n c e was another m a t t e r . whether or not lowry would have heeded a i k e n ' s r e p e a t e d warnings we s h a l l never know. the time had f i n a l l y come f o r the c h i l d t o break away from the " b e n e v o l e n t eye" of t h e f a t h e r and b u i l d a l i f e of h i s own. with m a r g e r i e bonner, t h i s i s what lowry s e t out t o do i n d o l l a r t o n . a i k e n ' s r o l e as t e a c h e r i s perhaps more r e l e v a n t t o t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e on lowry and v i c e v e r s a . from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g , and t h r o u g h o u t the l e t t e r s , lowry x p r a i s e s and quotes from a i k e n ' s works, sometimes r e p r o d u c i n g e n t i r e poems from memory. a i k e n ' s c l a i m t h a t lowry knew blue voyage b e t t e r than he h i m s e l f d i d ("malcolm lowry" ) i s w e l l s u b s t a n t i a t e d by lowry's f r e q u e n t a l l u s i o n s i n the l e t t e r s t o t h a t and o t h e r s of a i k e n ' s works. as l a t e as ( l e t t e r ) lowry c o u l d s t i l l remember and quote passages from b l u e voyage. yet w h i l e lowry may have been the i n i t i a t o r of t h i s l i t e r a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p , a i k e n was a w i l l i n g and a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t . he a c c e p t e d the r o l e o f l i t e r a r y mentor w h o l e h e a r t e d l y and took i t upon h i m s e l f t o mould h i s p u p i l i n t o a s u c c e s s f u l w r i t e r . i n a j u l y l e t t e r t o h i s c h i l d r e n ( k i l l o r i n ), b e f o r e lowry's a r r i v a l i n m a s s a c h u s e t t s , a i k e n w r i t e s of t h e "young e n g l i s h m a n " who i s coming " t o be t a u g h t how t o w r i t e n o v e l s . " l a t e r , i n the u n i t e d s t a t e s and i n e n g l a n d , he h e l p e d lowry w i t h h i s p o e t r y and f i r s t n o v e l , " s h a d i n g , a n n o t a t i n g , and c o n n o t a t i n g the d i s b u r s e m e n t s " of u l t r a m a r i n e ( l e t t e r ) t o such an e x t e n t t h a t lowry was e v e n t u a l l y t o c a l l the book a mere " s p e c t r e of [ a i k e n ' s ] d i s c a r d e d i d e a s " ( l e t t e r ) . the t e a c h e r / p u p i l r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e n , e x i s t e d from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g . in f a c t , i t may have been the s u c c e s s of the e x p e r i e n c e w i t h lowry t h a t gave a i k e n the i d e a , some y e a r s l a t e r i n , t o b e g i n h i s summer s c h o o l i n w r i t i n g . however, i f a i k e n perhaps imposed h i s i d e a s and l i t e r a r y t a s t e s too s t r o n g l y onto lowry's e a r l y w r i t i n g s , lowry e a g e r l y absorbed what i n f o r m a t i o n and guidance he c o u l d from h i s master. in f a c t , lowry was not above p a s s i n g o f f a i k e n ' s words as h i s own; h i s i n t e n d e d i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o u l t r a m a r i n e of the "bone x i dream" from a i k e n ' s great c i r c l e i s o n l y the most extreme example ( l e t t e r ) . in l e t t e r , lowry a c t u a l l y l i s t s t h i n g s i n u l t r a m a r i n e which a i k e n , presumably because he had thought them up f i r s t , may "hook out" i f he "wants them [ h i m s e l f ] . " a poem, " i n cape cod with conrad a i k e n , " o s t e n s i b l y w r i t t e n by lowry and p u b l i s h e d i n the march f e s t i v a l t h e a t r e programme, i s based upon a dream which a i k e n h i m s e l f had had i n cape cod ( k i l l o r i n ) and which a i k e n had a l s o " p a r t i a l l y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a poem" (ushant ). lowry used p h r a s e s from a i k e n ' s l e t t e r s f o r s i m i l a r p u r p o s e s . a i k e n ' s " i n d o o r marxmanshlp" pun ( l e t t e r ) , f o r i n s t a n c e , appears l a t e r b o t h i n lowry's poem, "where d i d that one go to ' e r b e r t , " and in under the v o l c a n o ( ) . s i m i l a r l y , the p r o t o t y p e of "oedipuss," the c o n s u l ' s c a t i n under the v o l c a n o ( ) , i s a i k e n ' s c a t , a p p e a r i n g by name i n l e t t e r . moreover, a i k e n h i m s e l f has noted, b o t h i n ushant and e l s e w h e r e , a d d i t i o n a l passages i n under the v o l c a n o which were l i k e w i s e i n s p i r e d by h i m s e l f . the l i s t goes on. not u n t i l much l a t e r , though, was a i k e n e x c e s s i v e l y b o t h e r e d by t h e s e c o n s c i o u s a t t e m p t s a t p l a g i a r i s m . some time a f t e r the "bone dream" e p i s o d e , i n m e x i c o , he was s t i l l g i v i n g lowry p o e t r y e x e r c i s e s t o complete ( l e t t e r ) , and w e l l i n t o the 's lowry c o n t i n u e d t o send h i s r o u g h l y hewn poems t o h i s master f o r c r i t i c i s m and c o r r e c t i o n : " i know you w i l l t e l l me i f i am f o o l i n g m y s e l f " ( l e t t e r ) . nor d i d a i k e n h e s i t a t e t o g i v e an honest o p i n i o n : " i l i k e the poems m o d e r a t e - l i k e . . . . freedom comes a f t e r mastery not b e f o r e " ( l e t t e r ) . the l i t e r a r y " r e l a t i o n s h i p , " t h e n , grew i n t o what c o u l d be x i i more a p t l y c a l l e d a " l i t e r a r y s y m b i o s i s , " w i t h the p a r t i c i p a n t s e i t h e r w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r , as t h e y d i d w i t h u l t r a m a r i n e and a t l e a s t one poem, "those cokes t o n e w c a s t l e b l u e s , " i n the f e b r u a r y f e s t i v a l theatre review, or i n s t e a d , w o r k i n g s e p a r a t e l y , but c o n t i n u a l l y i n c o r p o r a t i n g the t h o u g h t s and p e r s o n a l i t y of the o t h e r i n t o ever new l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n s . as f a t h e r and t e a c h e r , a i k e n s t o o d i n a p o s i t i o n of s u p e r i o r i t y t o lowry; as " s y m b i o t i c s a i l m a k e r s " (ushant ), a l e s s o f t e n noted s i d e of the r e l a t i o n s h i p , the two were a t l e a s t e q u a l s . what i s perhaps more o f t e n f o r g o t t e n i s t h a t , d e s p i t e t h e i r age d i f f e r e n c e , he and lowry were a l s o f r i e n d s . from t h e i r f i r s t meeting i n cape cod, the r e c k l e s s and f u n - l o v i n g lowry no doubt p r o v i d e d a i k e n w i t h an i d e a l c o n f i d a n t e and d r i n k i n g companion a t a time when a i k e n h i m s e l f was e x p e r i e n c i n g a r a t h e r u n s e t t l e d p e r i o d of h i s l i f e a f t e r h i s break-up w i t h h i s f i r s t w i f e , j e s s i e macdonald, and s e p a r a t i o n from h i s c h i l d r e n . c l a r i s s a l o r e n z ' s ( a i k e n ' s second w i f e ) t a l e s of a i k e n ' s and lowry's a n t i c s i n rye p r o v i d e some c l u e s t o t h i s s i d e of t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p ; the r e f e r e n c e s i n the l e t t e r s t o s i m i l a r e p i s o d e s - d r i n k i n g and e a t i n g sausage r o l l s i n the s h i p i n n , l e a v i n g " s u r r e p t i t i o u s vomit under the p i a n o , " engaging i n "communistic t a l k under the banana t r e e s , " e t c . - - p r o v i d e more. f u r t h e r m o r e , l i k e a i k e n , lowry c o u l d c e r t a i n l y be a s t i m u l a t i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i s t and c o r r e s p o n d e n t ; i n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e y d e f i n i t e l y were, as a i k e n has s a i d , " a s t o n i s h i n g l y en r a p p o r t " ("malcolm lowry" ). yet perhaps what a i k e n t h r i v e d on most d u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s x i i i was the i n t e n s e a d m i r a t i o n t h a t lowry had f o r h i s work. in f a c t , w i t h time the t e a c h e r / p u p i l r e l a t i o n s h i p underwent a r e v e r s a l . a i k e n began t o send lowry c o p i e s of h i s newly p u b l i s h e d books i n o r d e r t o once a g a i n hear the guaranteed and now much needed p r a i s e from h i s o l d p u p i l : b l e s s you male. . . f o r a l l the g l o w i n g words and numbers and p h i n e p h l a t t e r i n g phrases about my l i t t l e dead s o n n e t s . . . . i rushed t o r e - r e a d the ones you l i k e d . . . i t ' s always such fun t o read one's own t h i n g s t h r o u g h somebody e l s e ' s eyes. . . a k i n d of t w i c e r e f l e c t e d n a r c i s s i s m . ( l e t t e r ) b e f o r e l o n g the t e a c h e r was a c t u a l l y r e q u e s t i n g h i s p u p i l ' s a d v i c e . in , a i k e n asked lowry t o suggest some poems he might i n c l u d e i n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y american p o e t r y ( l e t t e r ) , and i n , wanted a d v i c e about the s e l e c t i o n f o r h i s c o l l e c t e d poems: " i v a l u e your judgement more h i g h l y than any o t h e r " ( l e t t e r ). in both c a s e s lowry suggested h i s o l d f a v o u r i t e s , t h e ones he had o f t e n quoted i n h i s e a r l y l e t t e r s t o a i k e n , s e l e c t i o n s from the house of dust, p r i a p u s and t h e p o o l , and even the "goya" poem from b l u e voyage. with the p u b l i c a t i o n and immediate s u c c e s s of under the v o l c a n o f however, the l i t e r a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p between the two became somewhat s t r a i n e d . w h i l e lowry was s t i l l t h i n k i n g of h i m s e l f as a i k e n ' s " o l d — & n e w - - p u p i l " ( l e t t e r ) , a i k e n f e a r e d t h a t the p u p i l might have f i n a l l y s u r p a s s e d the m a s t e r . a l t h o u g h lowry had, as e a r l y as , i n t e n d e d under the v o l c a n o t o be "a g e s t u r e on the p a r t of a g r a t e f u l p u p i l t o h i s m a s t e r " ( l e t t e r ) , and had even t h o u g h t of d e d i c a t i n g the n o v e l t o a i k e n ( l e t t e r ), a i k e n a p p e a r s t o have t a k e n the unexpected s u c c e s s of h i s f o r m e r l y drunken and u n r u l y protege w i t h some b i t t e r n e s s . x i v i n u n p u b l i s h e d l e t t e r s to john davenport and ed b u r r a i n the h u n t i n g t o n a i k e n c o l l e c t i o n , not t o mention a p u b l i s h e d l e t t e r i n the tls some y e a r s a f t e r lowry's d e a t h , a i k e n c o m p l a i n s b i t t e r l y about the many " l i f t i n g s " of h i s own i d e a s i n under the v o l c a n o , d e s p i t e the f a c t t h a t lowry h i m s e l f had acknowledged t h e s e " t h e f t s " seven y e a r s b e f o r e the p u b l i c a t i o n of the n o v e l i n l e t t e r : i t i s the f i r s t book of mine t h a t i s not i n one way or a n o t h e r p a r a s i t i c on your work. ( t h i s time i t i s p a r a s i t i c however on some of your w i s e c r a c k s i n mexico. • • • i f you remember a t the time you s a i d you d i d n ' t mind about t h i s . . . . a i k e n , however, d i d mind. a l t h o u g h he made no mention of h i s f e e l i n g s t o lowry, he undertook "a s t a r f i s h t u r n of h i s own" w i t h h i s p s e u d o - a u t o b i o g r a p h y ushant ( , ). t h i s time i t was he who i n c o r p o r a t e d lowry's words i n t o a work of f i c t i o n . lowry remained, perhaps v o l u n t a r i l y , unaware of a i k e n ' s dilemma. a i k e n appears t o have w r i t t e n ushant p a r t l y i n an attempt t o come t o terms w i t h h i s mixed f e e l i n g s f o r lowry. h i s p a t e r n a l and b r o t h e r l y a f f e c t i o n had f o r some time been a t war w i t h an i n e v i t a b l e and s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g p e r c e p t i o n of l i t e r a r y r i v a l r y between t h e two. in h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y , he p r e s e n t s both a s p e c t s of the r e l a t i o n s h i p , i f a d m i t t e d l y w i t h e x c e s s i v e and o v e r l y d r a m a t i c emphasis on the l a t t e r . y e t , i n l e t t e r , b e f o r e s e n d i n g the book t o lowry, a i k e n d i d a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n i t s purpose: " i p r a y when you read i t you w i l l c o n t i n u a l l y s a y t o y o u r s e l f , t h i s guy l o v e s me, or he wouldn't be so b l o o d y c a n d i d about me." lowry, however, responded w i t h the p r e d i c t a b l e e x c e s s e s of p r a i s e and absence of c r i t i c a l i n s i g h t : xv "a g r e a t book, i n many ways, t e c h n i c a l l y , a m a r v e l . . . . t h e r e a r e wonders of p r o s e , p r o f o u n d p e r c e p t i o n s and a p p e r c e p t i o n s and c o m p l e x i t i e s e x p r e s s e d i n m i r a c u l o u s l i m p i d i t y . " ( l e t t e r ) while he complimented a i k e n ' s w r i t i n g s t y l e , lowry made no attempt t o comment on the book's c o n t e n t . what ushant c a l l e d f o r from lowry was a t l e a s t an acknowledgement t h a t he u n d e r s t o o d the import of hambo's r o l e i n the book. b e t t e r y e t , lowry might have defended h i s p a s t b e h a v i o r and r e l a t e d t o a i k e n h i s own v e r s i o n of the s t o r y of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . perhaps i n t h i s r e g a r d lowry s t i l l remained a i k e n ' s p u p i l , i n c a p a b l e of c o n f r o n t i n g , l e t a l o n e c r i t i c i z i n g , h i s t e a c h e r . the p u b l i c a t i o n of ushant i s supposed by many t o have r e s u l t e d i n a " l a s t i n g break" between a i k e n and lowry. in t r u t h , t h e y had p r o b a b l y begun t o d r i f t a p a r t some y e a r s e a r l i e r . t h i s i s not s u r p r i s i n g , c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e y had not seen each o t h e r f o r some f i f t e e n y e a r s . in the meantime t h e y had both r e m a r r i e d , moved t o o p p o s i t e ends of the c o n t i n e n t , and adopted l i f e s t y l e s t h a t were r a t h e r more s e t t l e d than t h e i r e a r l i e r c a r e f r e e and drunken r a m b l i n g s i n cape cod, rye, and cuernavaca. in f a c t , i n t h e i r l a t e r correspondence one o f t e n f i n d s b o t h w r i t e r s h e a r k e n i n g back t o the e a r l i e r p e r i o d of t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p : the " w o n d e r f u l summer" of i n cape cod, the escapades i n rye and i t s s h i p i n n , the t r i p to s p a i n i n , and t h e i r r e u n i o n i n cuernavaca, a i k e n ' s "wedding p l a c e . " in e f f e c t , some time i n the l a t e 's t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p had s i m p l y stopped p r o g r e s s i n g . yet t h e i r r e u n i o n i n c o u l d and s h o u l d have stopped the a t r o p h y i n g p r o c e s s . a i k e n was o v e r j o y e d a t the news of the lowrys' a r r i v a l i n new y o r k — " h a l l i l e u h " x v i b e g i n s h i s a n s w e r i n g t e l e g r a m ( l e t t e r )--and w i t h some d i f f i c u l t y and l i t t l e n o t i c e made the j o u r n e y from b r e w s t e r . u n f o r t u n a t e l y o l d b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s r e s u r f a c e d , and lowry d i d not have the c o u r t e s y t o undertake the r e u n i o n s o b e r . while a i k e n may have a c c e p t e d such b e h a v i o r from h i s son or p u p i l i n the p a s t , lowry was now no l o n g e r e i t h e r ; the p r o d i g a l son was t h i s t i m e , and f i n a l l y , r e f u s e d the f a t h e r ' s b l e s s i n g . x v i i e d i t o r i a l note the two major s o u r c e l i b r a r i e s f o r the aiken/lowry l e t t e r s a r e the u n i v e r s i t y of b r i t i s h columbia l i b r a r y i n vancouver, which houses t h e malcolm lowry m a n u s c r i p t c o l l e c t i o n , and the h u n t i n g t o n l i b r a r y i n san m a r i n o , c o n t a i n i n g the conrad a i k e n m a n u s c r i p t c o l l e c t i o n . w h i l e a d d i t i o n a l l i b r a r i e s and i n d i v i d u a l s have been c o n t a c t e d , none of t h e s e brought t o l i g h t any l e t t e r s t h a t were not c o n t a i n e d i n one of t h e s e two c o l l e c t i o n s . as i s u s u a l l y the case i n such c o l l e c t i o n s of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , l e t t e r s a r e m i s s i n g . t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of the e a r l y s t a g e s of lowry and a i k e n ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . s e c t i o n i , s p a n n i n g t h e y e a r s - , c o n t a i n s o n l y l e t t e r s from lowry; no doubt lowry was too much on the move a t t h i s time of h i s l i f e t o have saved many of h i s p o s s e s s i o n s , l e t a l o n e h i s l e t t e r s . s e c t i o n s i i and i i i r e v e a l a more b a l a n c e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between the two, p a r t i c u l a r l y s e c t i o n i i ( - ) which c o n s i s t s of an a l m o s t week by week back and f o r t h c o r r e s p o n d e n c e over the c o u r s e of a few months. l e t t e r s from lowry t h a t appear t o e x i s t as d r a f t s o n l y ( a l t h o u g h even t h i s i s d e b a t a b l e s i n c e lowry's l e t t e r s were o f t e n s e n t i n f a i r l y rough form) a r e i d e n t i f i e d as such i n a t e x t u a l note a t the end of the l e t t e r . in a l l c a s e s i have a t t e m p t e d t o t r a n s c r i b e the l e t t e r s as f a i t h f u l l y as p o s s i b l e from the h a n d w r i t t e n and typed o r i g i n a l s , or p h o t o c o p i e s of t h e s e i t e m s , l o c a t e d i n one of the two s o u r c e l i b r a r i e s . i have i n d i c a t e d the provenance of the l e t t e r s i n the h e a d i n g a t the t o p of each, p r o v i d i n g a d e s c r i p t i o n of the x v i i i o r i g i n a l , i t s l o c a t i o n , the e x i s t e n c e of any p h o t o c o p i e s of t h a t o r i g i n a l i n the a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e l i b r a r y , and, i f a p p l i c a b l e , the p u b l i c a t i o n r e f e r e n c e . i have been unable t o l o c a t e the o r i g i n a l s , or p h o t o c o p i e s of t h e s e , f o r seven of the l e t t e r s from a i k e n ( l e t t e r s , , , , , , and ) . these items a r e p r i n t e d i n joseph k i l l o r i n ' s s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n ( ) ; however, s i n c e the l o c a t i o n g i v e n f o r t h e s e items i n t h a t volume i s i n a c c u r a t e , i have had t o r e l y s o l e l y on k i l l o r i n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n s f o r the t e x t s of t h e s e l e t t e r s . i n a l l o t h e r c a s e s , the t r a n s c r i p t i o n i s my own, even where the i t e m has been p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d . t h i s proved t o be n e c e s s a r y s i n c e , i n many c a s e s , the a i k e n l e t t e r s i n s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n a r e p r i n t e d i n i n c o m p l e t e form, w h i l e items i n s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of m a l c o l m lowry ( ) a r e o f t e n r i d d l e d w i t h unacknowledged d e l e t i o n s , a l t e r a t i o n s , and t r a n s c r i p t i o n a l e r r o r s . the prime t e n e t of my e d i t o r i a l p r a c t i c e has been as c l o s e an adherence t o the o r i g i n a l t e x t of the l e t t e r s as p o s s i b l e . i have t h e r e f o r e chosen t o r e p r o d u c e a l l e r r o r s or i d i o s y n c r a s i e s i n s p e l l i n g , p u n c t u a t i o n , c a p i t a l i z a t i o n , e t c . for example, i have r e p r o d u c e d lowry's u n p r e d i c t a b l e and o f t e n f a u l t y use of c o l o n s and s e m i c o l o n s , h i s f r e q u e n t use of ampersands, h i s f a i l u r e t o u n d e r l i n e book t i t l e s , h i s a l t e r n a t e use of d o u b l e and s i n g l e q u o t a t i o n marks, and v a r i o u s s p e l l i n g i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s and e r r o r s . in a i k e n ' s c a s e , i have r e t a i n e d h i s i n c o n s i s t e n t c a p i t a l i z a t i o n s , h i s u n u s u a l and o f t e n c r e a t i v e s p e l l i n g s , and even h i s t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r s (where t h e y do not i n t e r f e r e w i t h . the sense of the word or s e n t e n c e ) . x i x only i n c a s e s where p u n c t u a t i o n or s p e l l i n g e r r o r s (the l a t t e r a r e u s u a l l y t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r s ) i n t e r f e r e w i t h the meaning have i a l t e r e d the t e x t . where such c o n f l i c t s occur i have always p l a c e d my i n s e r t i o n or a l t e r a t i o n w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s and shown the change i n a t e x t u a l note appended t o the end of each l e t t e r and keyed by page and l i n e number. i have t r i e d t o keep such e d i t o r i a l t a m p e r i n g t o a minimum; however, i n some c a s e s a s p e l l i n g or t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r c o u l d r e n d e r a word u n i n t e l l i g i b l e and i n t h e s e c a s e s i thought i t n e c e s s a r y t o s t e p i n . in such c a s e s the o r i g i n a l i s r e p r o d u c e d i n a t e x t u a l n o t e . words i n the t e x t of the l e t t e r s t h a t were p a r t i a l l y i l l e g i b l e i have t r a n s c r i b e d as b e s t i c o u l d and p l a c e d w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s preceded by a q u e s t i o n mark; l u c k i l y t h i s o n l y o c c u r s t w i c e , and o n l y i n lowry's l e t t e r s . there i s one case where i have made an a l t e r a t i o n f o r my own c o n v e n i e n c e : i n l e t t e r s , , and i have changed lowry's square b r a c k e t s t o round ones so as t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n w i t h my own e d i t o r i a l i n s e r t i o n s . these a r e the o n l y i n s t a n c e s where lowry uses square b r a c k e t s and i d i d not t h i n k the a l t e r a t i o n was a c r u c i a l one. however, once a g a i n the change i s acknowledged i n a t e x t u a l n o t e . moreover, a l l d e l e t i o n s , i n s e r t i o n s and o t h e r a l t e r a t i o n s made by the a u t h o r s t h e m s e l v e s a r e shown i n t e x t u a l n o t e s . the d e l e t i o n s , where l e g i b l e , a r e shown e n c l o s e d w i t h i n diamond b r a c k e t s < >, the i n s e r t i o n s w i t h i n wavy b r a c k e t s { }. in some c a s e s the a l t e r a t i o n s may appear r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t , y e t t o a v o i d a p u r e l y s u b j e c t i v e c h o i c e of my own, i have d e c i d e d t o r e p r e s e n t a l l of t h e s e . the o n l y e x c e p t i o n s a r e the l e t t e r s which e x i s t as t y p e s c r i p t s o n l y ( t h e s e are d e s i g n a t e d as such i n the heading a t the t o p of each l e t t e r ) . in t h e s e cases i do not d u p l i c a t e c o r r e c t i o n s of t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r s t h a t were made on the t y p e w r i t e r a t the time the l e t t e r was b e i n g t y p e d . • these i c o n s i d e r e d t o be m e r e l y s l i p s of the f i n g e r which the t y p i s t caught i m m e d i a t e l y as they o c c u r r e d . moreover, lowry's w i f e o f t e n typed h i s l e t t e r s f o r him, so t h e s e s o r t s of e r r o r s cannot even be c o n s i d e r e d lowry's own. i do, however, show a l l a l t e r a t i o n s made by hand i n the t y p e s c r i p t s , even i f t h e s e a r e m e r e l y c o r r e c t i o n s of t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r s . in a d d i t i o n , a l t e r a t i o n s done on the t y p e w r i t e r of a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r s ( e g . , d e l e t i o n s of words, e t c . ) are r e p r o d u c e d i n a t e x t u a l note and t h e r e d e s i g n a t e d as h a v i n g been done on the t y p e w r i t e r . f u r t h e r m o r e , e n t i r e l i n e s or paragraphs w r i t t e n by hand i n a t y p e d l e t t e r ( o r v i c e v e r s a ) a r e i d e n t i f i e d as such i n a t e x t u a l n o t e . however, s i n c e a l l s i g n a t u r e s a r e h a n d w r i t t e n , t h e y have not been noted or d e s i g n a t e d i n any p a r t i c u l a r way. because t h e r e came t o be such a w e a l t h of t e x t u a l n o t e s , i chose not t o key them w i t h s u p e r s c r i p t numbers i n the t e x t of the l e t t e r s ; i n s t e a d t h e y f o l l o w the e x p l a n a t o r y n o t e s a t the end of each l e t t e r and a r e keyed by page and l i n e number ( b e g i n n i n g a t t h e s a l u t a t i o n ) . a l l s u p e r s c r i p t numbers r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o e x p l a n a t o r y n o t e s appended t o t h e end of each l e t t e r . the o n l y e x c e p t i o n s a r e notes t h a t r e f e r the r e a d e r t o p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n s i n x x i appendix i . my c o n c e r n here was t h a t t h e r e a d e r not i n t e r e s t e d i n the t e x t u a l notes might miss the d i r e c t i o n t o the r e p r o d u c t i o n were t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n o n l y p r o v i d e d i n a t e x t u a l n o t e ; i have t h e r e f o r e i n c l u d e d these i n both the e x p l a n a t o r y and t e x t u a l n o t e s . i have not p r o v i d e d e x p l a n a t o r y notes f o r well-known p l a c e s or personages ( k a f k a , m e l v i l l e , h a r t crane e t c . ) , nor have i f u l l y noted a l l r e l e v a n t p o i n t s of b i o g r a p h i c a l i n t e r e s t when t h e s e a r e c o v e r e d i n the i n t r o d u c t o r y p i e c e s a t the b e g i n n i n g of the t h r e e s e c t i o n s . r e p r o d u c i n g the o v e r a l l shape of each l e t t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y the s p a c i n g and i n d e n t a t i o n , proved a more d i f f i c u l t m a t t e r . a g a i n , i have t r i e d t o r e f l e c t t h i s as b e s t i c o u l d , a l t h o u g h i n many c a s e s i t was d i f f i c u l t t o t e l l what the a u t h o r had h i m s e l f i n t e n d e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n m a n u s c r i p t o r i g i n a l s . in many of the e a r l y l e t t e r s from lowry, f o r i n s t a n c e , he " i n d e n t s " h i s p a r a g r a p h s from the r i g h t r a t h e r t h a n t h e l e f t - h a n d s i d e . s i n c e i t was i m p o s s i b l e f o r me t o reproduce t h e s e i n my typed t r a n s c r i p t i o n , i have i n d e n t e d them f i v e spaces from the l e f t - hand m a r g i n . a l l o t h e r paragraphs a r e l i k e w i s e i n d e n t e d f i v e spaces u n l e s s the a u t h o r had a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m a t , as a i k e n o f t e n d i d when he i n d e n t e d paragraphs from t h e end of the s a l u t a t i o n . the i n d e n t a t i o n of a l l s a l u t a t i o n s and c l o s i n g s i have t r i e d t o r e f l e c t as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e . in c a s e s where a l e t t e r ' s shape or l a y o u t p r e s e n t e d p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s , i have i n c l u d e d a photocopy of the o r i g i n a l i n appendix i , and d i r e c t e d the r e a d e r t o the r e p r o d u c t i o n i n b o t h the e x p l a n a t o r y and t e x t u a l n o t e s . lowry's q u o t a t i o n s from a i k e n ' s (and o t h e r s ' ) x x i i works, i f i n d e n t e d i n the o r i g i n a l , a r e i n d e n t e d t e n spaces and s i n g l e - s p a c e d . passages w r i t t e n i n the margins i have i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the t e x t of the l e t t e r s where a p p r o p r i a t e ( u s u a l l y t h e y have been keyed t o a s p e c i f i c p l a c e by the a u t h o r ) and i d e n t i f i e d i n a t e x t u a l n o t e . the o n l y e x c e p t i o n i s l e t t e r where the' m a r g i n a l i a a r e d i r e c t comments on the l i n e s of p o e t r y which t h e y b o r d e r . in some cases i have i n t r o d u c e d dashes w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s on e i t h e r s i d e of the i n s e r t i o n so t h a t t h e s e passages c o u l d be more c l e a r l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the t e x t of the l e t t e r . i have double-spaced the t e x t s of the l e t t e r s w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of the address and i n d e n t e d p a s s a g e s ; t h e s e i have s i n g l e - s p a c e d f o r the r e a d e r ' s c o n v e n i e n c e t o s e t them o f f from the main body of the l e t t e r . in o t h e r ways i have a t t e m p t e d t o r e f l e c t the a u t h o r ' s s p a c i n g ; hence, where l i n e s a r e d o u b l e - spaced i n the o r i g i n a l , i s k i p f o u r spaces i n my t e x t ( e x c e p t when a d o u b l e space i s used m e r e l y t o s e p a r a t e p a r a g r a p h s ) . the o n l y p l a c e where i have s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r e d the format of t h e l e t t e r s i s i n the a d d r e s s and date of each. w h i l e i have a l w a y s r e t a i n e d the o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g of t h e s e , i have not always r e p r o d u c e d t h e i r l a y - o u t . a i k e n and lowry were t h e m s e l v e s i n c o n s i s t e n t i n t h i s , a l t h o u g h u s u a l l y the a d d r e s s appears i n the t o p r i g h t - h a n d c o r n e r of the l e t t e r s where i have chosen t o put i t . because many r e a d e r s w i l l be c o n s u l t i n g the l e t t e r s a c c o r d i n g t o the a d d r e s s from which t h e y were w r i t t e n or the d a t e of c o m p o s i t i o n , i thought i t b e s t t o s t a n d a r d i z e the l o c a t i o n of t h e s e f o r q u i c k and easy r e f e r e n c e . s i m i l a r l y , i n o r d e r t h a t the x x i i i t v o be c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , i have always s e p a r a t e d the address and the date by a double space. a g a i n , though, the d a t e i t s e l f , and i t s "wording," i s always t h a t of the a u t h o r . when no date or a d d r e s s i s w r i t t e n by the a u t h o r , i i n c l u d e my own w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s . these are u s u a l l y based upon i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e w i t h i n the l e t t e r s and, where a v a i l a b l e , postmarks. where l e t t e r h e a d paper i s used, i r e p r o d u c e i t s a d d r e s s w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s ( u n l e s s the a d d r e s s i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r the time the l e t t e r was w r i t t e n ) and note i t i n a t e x t u a l n o t e . because t h e y a r e o f t e n u n r e l i a b l e and m i s l e a d i n g , i have not d u p l i c a t e d l i b r a r i a n s ' or o t h e r p e o p l e s ' i n s c r i p t i o n s on the l e t t e r s r e g a r d i n g t h e s e m a t t e r s , e x c e p t f o r conrad a i k e n ' s and, i n some c a s e s , m a r g e r i e lowry's, which a r e then r e p r o d u c e d i n a t e x t u a l note o n l y . while d i f f e r e n t p h i l o s o p h i e s r e g a r d i n g e d i t o r i a l p r a c t i c e render i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r an e d i t o r t o p l e a s e a l l of h i s / h e r r e a d e r s , i hope t h a t t h i s volume w i l l s a t i s f y the m a j o r i t y . in any c a s e , i would r a t h e r be accused of b e i n g t o o m e t i c u l o u s t h a n not s u f f i c i e n t l y s o . while i have t r i e d t o c o n s i d e r the " r e a d a b i l i t y " of the l e t t e r s p r i n t e d h e r e , my p r i m a r y aim has been t o r e p r o d u c e the o r i g i n a l t e x t s as f a i t h f u l l y as p o s s i b l e . list of abbreviations and symbols following is a l i s t of abbreviations and symbols used in this volume: ms manuscript original ts typescript original mspc photocopied manuscript tspc photocopied typescript h huntington library ubc university of british columbia t i l l e g . ] i l l e g i b l e [typo.] typographical error < > deletion << >> deletion within a deletion { } insertion {{ }} insertion within an insertion [ ] editorial interpolation or alteration t? doubtful reading - — i too have heard the sea sound i n s t r a n g e w a t e r s — s h - s h - s h l i k e the hush i n a conch s h e l l . . . . march l e t t e r from lowry t o a i k e n - some time i n or , lowry found i n h i s p o s s e s s i o n a copy of conrad a i k e n ' s f i r s t n o v e l , b l u e voyage, and t h e r e began h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the american w r i t e r . at the t i m e , lowry was c o n c e n t r a t i n g on w r i t i n g the cambridge p r e v i o u s e x a m i n a t i o n s , a n e c e s s a r y p r e l u d e t o g a i n i n g e n t r a n c e t o the u n i v e r s i t y . in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r the exams, he s t a y e d a t w o o d v i l l e road i n b l a c k h e a t h , london, a t the "cramming s c h o o l " of the ex-leys master, j e r r y k e l l e t t (bradbrook, " l i t e r a r y f r i e n d s " ) . i t i s from t h i s a d d r e s s t h a t lowry wrote h i s f i r s t l e t t e r t o a i k e n a t h i s home in rye, t o which he r e c e i v e d no r e p l y ; unbeknownst t o lowry, a i k e n was a t the time h o l d i n g a temporary p o s i t i o n as t u t o r of e n g l i s h a t harvard u n i v e r s i t y . lowry wrote a n o t h e r l e t t e r a week or two l a t e r on march , t h i s time a s k i n g a i k e n t o be h i s t u t o r . lowry's f a t h e r had agreed to a l l o w h i s son t o spend the summer w i t h a i k e n o n l y on the c o n d i t i o n t h a t he f i r s t g a i n e n t r a n c e t o cambridge u n i v e r s i t y . by the time of t h i s second l e t t e r t o a i k e n , lowry had been a c c e p t e d by s t . c a t h a r i n e ' s c o l l e g e and, as p r e v i o u s l y agreed upon, h i s f a t h e r was now w i l l i n g t o a p p o i n t a i k e n a g u a r d i a n or t u t o r of h i s son f o r the d u r a t i o n of the summer. a i k e n , who was both i n need of money and impressed by lowry's knowledge of h i s w r i t i n g s , agreed t o the arrangement, t e l l i n g lowry t h a t i f he were s t i l l i n t e r e s t e d he would have t o make the j o u r n e y a c r o s s the a t l a n t i c t o cambridge, m a s s a c h u s e t t s (cbc i n t e r v i e w ). w i t h i n a month lowry had a c q u i r e d passage as a s t e e r a g e passenger aboard a cargo s h i p and t r a v e l l e d t o boston v i a the west i n d i e s t o spend the summer w i t h a i k e n . by o c t o b e r , lowry had e n t e r e d cambridge w i t h the i n t e n t i o n of t a k i n g an e n g l i s h t r i p o s . in august of the f o l l o w i n g year a i k e n h i m s e l f r e t u r n e d t o "jeake's house" i n rye w i t h h i s second w i f e , c l a r i s s a l o r e n z , and i t was a t t h i s time t h a t a r t h u r . lowry put him i n l o c o p a r e n t i s of h i s son. for the next t h r e e y e a r s , lowry was t o spend a l l of h i s v a c a t i o n s , w i t h i n t e r m i t t e n t v i s i t s t o h i s p a r e n t s i n c h e s h i r e and a t r i p t o norway i n the summer of , w i t h the a i k e n s i n rye. these v a c a t i o n s i n c l u d e d a l e n g t h y break i n the summer from j u l y t o o c t o b e r , w i t h a month o f f a t both c h r i s t m a s and e a s t e r . i t i s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , from september t o the summer of , t h a t lowry and a i k e n ' s f r i e n d s h i p and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s r i c h e s t . together t h e y d i s c u s s e d t h e i r mutual a c q u a i n t a n c e s i n rye and cambridge, the l i t e r a r y i s s u e s of the t i m e , and t h e i r own w r i t i n g s . i t was a l s o a t t h i s time t h a t t h e y both c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e cambridge l i t e r a r y magazine, e x p e r i m e n t , and t o g e t h e r composed a poem f o r the f e s t i v a l t h e a t r e review p r o t e s t i n g the c e n s o r s h i p of l i t e r a t u r e , "those cokes t o n e w c a s t l e b l u e s . " by june , lowry had g r a d u a t e d w i t h a t h i r d c l a s s honours degree i n e n g l i s h . a f t e r a b r i e f v i s i t t o the a i k e n s , he moved t o london where he was t o l i v e f o r the n e x t y e a r , s p e n d i n g most of h i s time d r i n k i n g i n london's f i t z r o v i a a r e a and t r y i n g t o p u b l i s h h i s f i r s t n o v e l , u l t r a m a r i n e . he was s t i l l , as he had been s i n c e , d i s c u s s i n g the p r o g r e s s of u l t r a m a r i n e w i t h a i k e n , f e e l i n g i t t o be "a s p e c t r e of [ a i k e n ' s ] own d i s c a r d e d i d e a s " ( l e t t e r , p. ) . in the s p r i n g of , a few months b e f o r e u l t r a m a r i n e was p u b l i s h e d , he t r a v e l l e d t o granada w i t h the a i k e n s and t h e i r a r t i s t f r i e n d , ed b u r r a , and i t was here t h a t he met jan g a b r i a l whom he m a r r i e d i n p a r i s i n j a n u a r y . the next e x i s t i n g l e t t e r t o a i k e n i s w r i t t e n from cuernavaca i n , a l t h o u g h lowry had seen a i k e n i n the i n t e r i m s i n c e l e a v i n g england i n . jan had l e f t f o r new york a few months a f t e r t h e i r wedding, and lowry f o l l o w e d her t h e r e i n the f a l l . i t was i n august t h a t a i k e n p a i d a spontaneous v i s i t t o lowry i n new york, as d e s c r i b e d by lowry i n h i s l e t t e r t o seymour lawrence which appeared i n the conrad a i k e n i s s u e of wake ( - ). in the f a l l of t h a t y e a r , lowry and j a n moved t o los a n g e l e s and t h e n t o a c a p u l c o , s e t t l i n g i n cuernavaca some time i n december. in the meantime, a i k e n had moved t o boston where he met mary augusta hoover, an a r t i s t , w i t h whom he was l i v i n g i n the w i n t e r of . the f o l l o w i n g may, he v i s i t e d the lowrys i n cuernavaca w i t h ed b u r r a and h i s s o o n - t o - b e - w i f e , mary hoover, w i t h the i n t e n t i o n of o b t a i n i n g a " q u i c k " d i v o r c e from c l a r i s s a l o r e n z ; h i s n o v e l , a heart f o r the gods of m e x i c o , i s a f i c t i o n a l a c c o u n t of t h i s t r i p . in the c o u r s e of t h i s v i s i t , lowry once a g a i n assumed the r o l e of a s o r t of p u p i l under a i k e n ' s t u t e l a g e , composing s o n n e t s i n c h a r l i e ' s bar f o r a i k e n ' s p e r u s a l ( l e t t e r , p. ) . on j u l y t h , t e n days b e f o r e l e a v i n g t o r e t u r n t o e n g l a n d , conrad and mary were m a r r i e d i n cuernavaca. the lowrys' m a r r i a g e , however, was d e t e r i o r a t i n g , and i n december , jan l e f t lowry and r e t u r n e d t o los a n g e l e s . as the l a s t two l e t t e r s of t h i s s e c t i o n r e v e a l , lowry sank i n t o a s t a t e of a l c o h o l i c d e s p a i r , somehow got i n t r o u b l e w i t h the mexican p o l i c e , and ended up s p e n d i n g c h r i s t m a s and new year's / i n j a i l i n oaxaca. i t was not u n t i l j u l y t h a t he, t o o , t r a v e l l e d t o los a n g e l e s , no doubt i n the hopes of a t t e m p t i n g a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h j a n . : from lowry t o aiken mspc ubc; b r e i t [ e a r l y ] i have l i v e d o n l y n i n e t e e n y e a r s and a l l of them more or l e s s b a d l y . and y e t t h e o t h e r day, when i s a t i n a l y o n s (one of t h o s e grubby l i t t l e p l a c e s which poor demarest l o v e d , and the g r u b b i e r the b e t t e r , and so do i ) i became s u d d e n l y and b e a u t i f u l l y a l i v e . i read . . . i l a y i n the warm sweet g r a s s on a b l u e may morning, my c h i n i n a d a n d e l i o n , my hands i n c l o v e r , and drowsed t h e r e l i k e a bee . . . b l u e days b e h i n d me s t r e t c h e d l i k e a c h a i n of deep b l u e p o o l s of magic, e n c h a n t e d , s i l e n t , t i m e l e s s . . . days b e f o r e me murmured of b l u e sea mornings, noons of g o l d , green e v e n i n g s s t r e a k e d w i t h l i l a c . . . i s a t o p p o s i t e the bureau-de-change. the g r e a t g r e y t e a urn p e r s p i r e d . but as i r e a d , i became c o n s c i o u s o n l y of a b l u r of f a c e s : i l e t the t e a t h a t had m y s t e r i o u s l y appeared grow clammy and m i l k s t a r r e d , the h a l f v e a l and ham p i e remain i n i t s c r i n k l y paper; v a g u e l y , as though she had been s p e a k i n g upon a n o t h e r c o n t i n e n t , i heard t h e g i r l o p p o s i t e me o r d e r some more dundee cake. my p i p e went o u t . — i l a y by the hot w h i t e sand-dunes . s m a l l y e l l o w f l o w e r s , s a p l e s s and squat and s p i n y , s t a r e d a t the s k y . and s i l e n t l y t h e r e above us, day a f t e r day, beyond our dreams and knowledge, p r e s e n c e s swept, and over us streamed t h e i r shadows, s w i f t and b l u e , or d a r k . . . i p a i d the b i l l and vent o u t . i c r o s s e d the s t r a n d and walked down v i l l i e r s s t r e e t t o the embankment. i l o o k e d up a t the sea g u l l s , h i g h i n s u n l i g h t . the s u n l i g h t r o a r e d above me l i k e a v a s t i n v i s i b l e s e a . the crowd of f a c e s wavered and broke and f l o w e d . sometime when you come t o london, conrad a i k e n , w i l s t hog i t over the way somewhere w i t h me?- you w i l l f o r g i v e my p r e s u m p t i o n , i t h i n k , i n a s k i n g you t h i s . i am i n f a c t h a r d l y c o n s c i o u s m y s e l f of my own p r e s u m p t i o n . i t seems q u i t e f a t e d t h a t i s h o u l d w r i t e t h i s l e t t e r j u s t l i k e t h i s on t h i s warm b r i g h t day w h i l e o u t s i d e a man s h o u t s rag-a-bone, rag-a-bone. my l e t t e r may not even i n t e r e s t you; i t may not be your i n t e n t i o n ever t o come t o london even t o c h i v y up your p u b l i s h e r s . while on the s u b j e c t of p u b l i s h e r s i might as w e l l s a y t h a t i f i n d a d i f f i c u l t y b o r d e r i n g upon i m p o s s i b i l i t y i n g e t t i n g your nocturne of remembered s p r i n g . have you got a s p a r e copy of t h i s i n r y e t h a t you c o u l d s e l l me? i f you have, i t would be a good excuse f o r you t o w r i t e t o t e l l me so. you c o u l d a l s o t e l l me whether, i f you a r e coming t o london any t i m e , you would have any time t o see me. c h a r i n g x i s o n l y a q u a r t e r of an hour away from h e r e . but perhaps t h i s l e t t e r has i n f u r i a t e d you so much t h a t you have not r e a d thus f a r . t e - t h r u m t e - t h r u m ; t e - t h r u m t e - t h r u m ; malcolm lowry. e x p l a n a t o r y notes "lyons": e n g l i s h tea-room. see a i k e n ' s blue voyage (london: g e r a l d howe, ): " i remember t h a t you r e f u s e d t o have t e a w i t h me, a t a lyons or a.b.c. because t h e y were 'such grubby l i t t l e p l a c e s ' . . . but as f o r me, i l i k e them; and the g r u b b i e r the b e t t e r " ( ) . w i l l i a m demarest i s the p r o t a g o n i s t of blue voyage; the surname i s o f french' o r i g i n meaning "of the e a s t e r n s e a . " see a i k e n ' s " p a l i m p s e s t : a d e c e i t f u l p o r t r a i t , " c o t e r i e (autumn ): . lowry has quoted c o r r e c t l y from the poem ( s t a r t i n g from " i l a y i n the warm sweet g r a s s " ) e x c e p t f o r h a v i n g d e l e t e d the hyphen i n " b l u e - s e a . " the poem i s r e p r i n t e d as p a r t iv, s e c t i o n s i i i and v of a i k e n ' s the house of dust: a symphony ( b o s t o n : four seas, ). cf. l e t t e r , p. , i n which lowry mentions h i s r e a d i n g of " o l d c o t e r i e s . " *• " p a l i m p s e s t : a d e c e i t f u l p o r t r a i t , " . ° see a i k e n ' s "movements from a symphony: sudden death," c o t e r i e (dec. ): "smiled f o r a moment a t s e a - g u l l s h i g h i n s u n l i g h t " ( ) . r e p r i n t e d as p a r t i i , s e c t i o n x of the house of dust. see a i k e n ' s "movements from a symphony: 'overtones,'" c o t e r i e (dec. ): " s u n l i g h t above him / roars l i k e a v a s t i n v i s i b l e s e a " ( ) and "the crowd of f a c e s wavers and b r e a k s and f l o w s " ( ) . r e p r i n t e d as p a r t i i , s e c t i o n v i i of the house of dust. see b l u e voyage: " ' w i l s t hog i t w i t h me over the way?'" ( ) . the american e d i t i o n - - ( n e w york: s c r i b n e r ' s , )-- c o n t a i n s a v a r i a n t s p e l l i n g : " ' w i l l s ' t ' " ( ) . c f . a l s o a i k e n ' s "the orange moth," b r i n g ! b r i n g ! and other s t o r i e s (new york: b o n i & l i v e r i g h t , ): "'where a r e we g o i n g t o hog i t , t o n i g h t ? ' " ( ) . b conrad a i k e n , nocturne of remembered s p r i n g and other poems ( b o s t o n : four seas, ). in a i k e n bought "jeake's house" i n rye, sussex. at the time of t h i s l e t t e r , however, he was l i v i n g i n cambridge, m a s s a c h u s e t t s where he was a c t i n g as a t u t o r of e n g l i s h a t harvard u n i v e r s i t y . lowry has m i s t a k e n l y assumed t h a t a i k e n i s s t i l l l i v i n g i n e n g l a n d . "te-thrum t e - t h r u m " : r e f r a i n r u n n i n g t h r o u g h a i k e n ' s b l u e voyage meant t o suggest the sound of a s h i p ' s engine ( , , , , ). t e x t u a l .notes the crowd of f a c e s wavered\ the crowd {of f a c e s } wavered my l e t t e r may not even i n t e r e s t you;\ <it> <--this> {my} l e t t e r <of mine> may not even i n t e r e s t you; < p o s s i b l y i t may s t r i k e you as [ i l l e g . ] > . [the words "<--this> {my} l e t t e r <of mine>" o r i g i n a l l y appeared a t the end of the c l a u s e b e f o r e the s e m i c o l o n ; the t r a n s f e r was i n d i c a t e d by lowry w i t h an arrow] i m p o s s i b i l i t y i n g e t t i n g \ i m p o s s i b i l i t y <to get> { i n g e t t i n g } w r i t e t o t e l l me s o . \ w r i t e <and> {to} t e l l me so. t e l l me whether, i f you a r e coming t o london any t i m e , you would\ t e l l me {whether,} i f you a r e coming t o london <soon> {any t i m e } , <if> you would away from h e r e . \ away from <me> h e r e . : from lowry t o aiken ms h; mspc ubc; b r e i t tuesday n i g h t . [ march ] s i r . (which i s a c o l d but r e s p e c t f u l exordium) i t has been s a i d by no l e s s a personage t h a n chamon l a l l once g e n e r a l e d i t o r of a q u a r t e r l y of which you were an american e d i t o r t h a t - - s o r r y i'm wrong. i t has been s a i d by no l e s s a personage than r u s s e l l g r e e n (and i don't s a y t h a t i t i s an o r i g i n a l a p h o r i s m because one of h i s o t h e r s ' s e n t i m e n t a l i t y i s a name g i v e n to the emotions of o t h e r s ' i s sheer oscar w i l d e ) t h a t the o n l y c r i t e r i o n of l o v e i s the degree of i m p a t i e n c e w i t h which you w a i t f o r the postman. w e l l , i am a boy and you ( r e s p e c t f u l l y a g a i n ) a r e a man o l d enough t o be my f a t h e r , and so i may not t a l k of l o v e i n the way t h a t r u s s e l l green i n t e n d e d , but a l l the same, i may here s u b s t i t u t e l o v e f o r - - s h a l l we s a y - - f i l i a l a f f e c t i o n and, t o a p p l y the a p h o r i s m , s i n c e i wrote t o you, my a t t i t u d e towards postmen has c o m p l e t e l y changed. once t h e y were m e r e l y b o u r g e o i s i e b e e t l e s c a r r y i n g t h e i r l o a d s . now t h e y a r e d i v i n e but h o p e l e s s messengers. the m i r r o r o p p o s i t e the f o o t of my bed r e f l e c t s the window s e t between two m y s t e r i o u s green c u r t a i n s , t o the r i g h t of the head of my bed and t h i s window--i c h e a t m y s e l f t h a t t h i s i t i s good f o r my h e a l t h — i keep open a l l n i g h t . in t h e m i r r o r i can a l s o see the road b e h i n d me when i t i s l i g h t . e a r l y y e s t e r d a y morning, i t must have been about dawn, when i imagined t h a t i c o u l d a c t u a l l y see i n the m i r r o r , i saw a long and never ending p r o c e s s i o n of postmen l a b o u r i n g along t h i s road. the l e t t e r s were d e l i v e r e d and among a great p i l e f o r other people was one f o r me from you. i cannot now remember what you s a i d . you were pleased t h a t i ended o f f my l e t t e r to you with t e - thrum te-thrum: te-thrum te-thrum: but i can't remember a n y t h i n g e l s e except your handwriting. of course i t was, as i r e a l i s e d b i t t e r l y when i woke up, merely a r o s e - f e s t o o n e d i l l u s i o n . you had no i n t e n t i o n of w r i t i n g m e . [ — j c a n ' t express myself p r o p e r l y here s o r r y [ - - ] b u t i'm wandering o f f the p o i n t . the p o i n t i s t h i s . i suppose there are few t h i n g s you would hate more than to be i n v e s t e d with any academic a u t h o r i t y . well, t h i s i s h a l l say. next october i am going to cambridge f o r three or four years to - t r y and get an e n g l i s h t r i p o s and a d e g r e e . u n t i l october i am more or l e s s of a f r e e lance and a p e r p e t u a l source of a n x i e t y to a bewildered parent. the bewildered parent i n q u e s t i o n would be w i l l i n g to pay you or guineas a week (i should say s i x . p e r s o n a l l y , but t a c i t l y ) i f you would t o l e r a t e me f o r any p e r i o d you l i k e to name between now and then as a member of your household. let me hasten to say t h a t i would e f f a c e myself and not get i n the way of your i n s p i r a t i o n when i t comes t o d d l i n g along, that my a p p e t i t e i s f l e x i b l e . a n d u s u a l l y e n t i r e l y s a t i s f i e d by cheese, t h a t although i can't p l a y c h e s s and know l i t t l e of the i n t r i c a c i e s of g l a d i o l i — i too have heard the sea sound i n s t r a n g e w a t e r s — s h - s h - s h l i k e the hush i n a conch s h e l l , t and i can w i e l d a f a i r t e n n i s r a c k e t . a l l i want t o know i s why i c a t c h my b r e a t h i n a s o r t of agony when i r e a d ; the l a z y sea-waves crumble a l o n g the beach with a w h i r r i n g sound l i k e wind i n b e l l s he l i e s o u t s t r e t c h e d on the y e l l o w wind-worn sands reaching h i s l a z y hands among the g o l d e n g r a i n s and s e a - w h i t e s h e l l s . . . s and i want to be i n rye a t t w i l i g h t and l e a n m y s e l f by the w a l l of the a n c i e n t t o w n — m y s e l f , l i k e a n c i e n t w a l l and d u s t and s k y , and the p u r p l e dusk, grown o l d , grown o l d i n h e a r t . remember when i w r i t e l i k e t h i s , remember t h a t i am not a s c h o o l b o y w r i t i n g a g u s h i n g l e t t e r t o j e f f r e y f a r n o l or somebody. (remember too t h a t you must r e s p e c t me a l i t t l e f o r h a v i n g such an i n t e n s e a d m i r a t i o n f o r your p o e t r y . i know you a r e a g r e a t man i n america and t h a t you have your own s c h o o l of f o l l o w e r s , but t o me--in the d i s m a l c i r c l e i n which i move nobody had ever heard of you, my most i n t e l l e c t u a l moments, such as t h e y a r e , b e i n g spent e n t i r e l y a l o n e , i t was as though i had d i s c o v e r e d you and i l i k e t o p r e s e r v e t h i s a b s u r d i d e a i n my c h i l d i s h mind and g i v e m y s e l f a g r e a t d e a l of unearned c r e d i t f o r h a v i n g done s o . ) w e l l , t o c o n t i n u e i won't weary you by e u l o g i s i n g what you know y o u r s e l f t o be good (good i s q u i t e s t u p e n d o u s l y the wrong word but i don't want t o appear t o gush, you understand.) i know a l m o s t b e f o r e you r e p l y - - i f you do r e p l y - - t h a t you a r e e i t h e r away or t h a t you would not have the s l i g h t e s t i n t e n t i o n of a c t i n g f o r the s h o r t e s t p e r i o d of time as my g u a r d i a n and/or t u t o r , but a t any r a t e do you mind r e a d i n g t h i s l e t t e r s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y because you must have been p r e t t y much the same as me i n h e a r t when you were a k i d ? and i do want t o l e a r n from you and t o read your e a r l i e s t and most i n a c c e s s i b l e works and perhaps even your c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the d i a l . - i go back home (here i s my a d d r e s s — i n g l e w o o d , c a l d y , c h e s h i r e ) next monday. nobody reads a t home: the o n l y paper we t a k e i s the b r i t i s h weekly; t h e r e a r e few books i n the house more e x c i t i n g t h a t r e l i g i o n s and r e l i g i o n by james hope m o u l t o n - ( a l t h o u g h a c a r e f u l s e a r c h e r might f i n d i n a somewhat i n a c c e s s i b l e r e g i o n donne, c h a t t e r t o n , the s m e l l of l e b a n o n , crabbe's i n e b r i e t y and b l u e voyage) and a l t h o u g h i have had a c e r t a i n amount of y o u t h f u l s u c c e s s as a w r i t e r of s l o w and s l i p p e r y b l u e s b i t i s as much as my l i f e i s worth t o p l a y a n y t h i n g i n the h o u s e — t h a t doesn't worry me so much--but when t h e y see me w r i t i n g a n y t h i n g s e r i o u s t h e y don't e x a c t l y d i s c o u r a g e me but t e l l me t h a t i t s h o u l d be s u b o r d i n a t e t o my r e a l work. what my r e a l work i s , heaven o n l y knows, as the o n l y o t h e r department t h a t i have had any s u c c e s s i n , i s i n w r i t i n g s e r i o u s l y and t h a t s u c c e s s r a r e l y meant a c c e p t a n c e but q u i t e o f t e n s i n c e r e encouragement from people whose o p i n i o n c o u l d h a r d l y be t a k e n t o be humble. but i don't want t o worry you w i t h a n y t h i n g i've w r i t t e n and indeed a f t e r r e a d i n g t h i s r a c k e t y i n c o h e r e n c e you would p r o b a b l y be e x t r e m e l y a v e r s e t o b e i n g w o r r i e d i n t h a t way. look here you don't hate me a l r e a d y do you? (hate i s too d i g n i f i e d a word.) now i_f you a r e i n london any time between when you r e c e i v e t h i s l e t t e r and sunday ( i n c l u s ) c o u l d you l e t me know, because you see we have put t h i n g s on somewhat of a b u s i n e s s f o o t i n g ? • i c o u l d meet you anywhere i n london. and a n y t i m e . between now and montag. i f not w r i t e t o my a d d r e s s i n the d i s m a l swamp. k l i o k i l o - . ' * c m . lowry. explanatory notes russell green (b. ) succeeded chaman divan l a l l (b. ) as editor of the london l i t t l e magazine c o t e r i e f a quarterly: art. prose, and poetrv. chaman l a l l acted as editor from - , russell green from vinter - , and l a t e r , - , when the journal was continued under the t i t l e nev coterie. conrad aiken vas an american editor of coterie from december -winter and "appeared to be the agent between the journal and i t s sizeable number of regular american contributors'* ( t o l l e r s , b r i t i s h l i t e r a r y magazines ). a l l three editors included t h e i r own work in the journal. both aphorisms are exact quotations from russell green's "aphorisms," coterie (autumn ): - . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . * see aiken's "cabaret," coterie (dec. ): "and dance once more in a rose-festooned i l l u s i o n " ( ). this poem vas reprinted as part i i i , section ix of the house of dust. * lovry vas accepted at st. catharine's college, cambridge in march and entered the college in october. in june he received a t h i r d - c l a s s honours degree. triposes are the examinations taken for the honours degree. " chess games figure prominently in blue voyage. see blue voyage: "the sound of the sea came s o f t l y here, muted, l i k e the hush heard i n a conch-shell: sh-sh-sh" ( ) and "...the softened sh. sh. of the sea" ( ). * aiken, "movements from a symphony: 'overtones,'" . lovry has omitted the period a f t e r " b e l l s , " otherwise the passage i s quoted c o r r e c t l y . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . * see aiken's "seven twilights," priapus and the pool and other poems (nev york: boni & l i v e r i g h t , ): nov by the v a i l of the l i t t l e tovn i lean myself, l i k e ancient v a i l and dust and sky. and the purple dusk, grovn old, grovn old in heart. ( ) x o john j e f f r e y farnol ( - ), english n o v e l i s t ; author of the broad highvav ( ) and the amateur gentleman ( ) amongst others. in fact, russell lovry, malcolm's brother, claims that i t vas he. vho f i r s t introduced malcolm to aiken's blue voyage (bradbrook, malcolm lovrv: his art and earlv l i f e x i i i ) . a i k e n was a c o n t r i b u t i n g e d i t o r of the d i a l from - ( a l t h o u g h h i s name does not appear on the masthead i n ) ( j o o s t , years of t r a n s i t i o n : the d i a l - ). james hope moulton ( - ), c l a s s i c a l s c h o l a r educated a t the leys s c h o o l and k i n g ' s c o l l e g e , cambridge; a u t h o r of r e l i g i o n s and r e l i g i o n : a study of the s c i e n c e of r e l i g i o n . pure and a p p l i e d (london: c h a r l e s h. k e l l y , ). h i s f a t h e r , rev. w i l l i a m f i d d i a n m o u l t o n , was a t one time head master of the leys s c h o o l , cambridge which lowry (and h i s b r o t h e r s ) a t t e n d e d from -easter . the s m e l l of lebanon: twenty-four s y r i a n f o l k - s o n g s , c o l l . s.h. stephan, t r a n s . e. powys mathers ( [ l e i p z i g ] : t a l y b o n t d y f f r y n m e r i o n e t h , ) [ s e l e c t i o n r e p r i n t e d from modern p a l e s t i n i a n p a r a l l e l s t o the song of songs, ]. lowry had by t h i s t i m e , w i t h ronald h i l l , p u b l i s h e d two songs: three l i t t l e dog-gone m i c e : j u s t the l a t e s t c h a r l e s t o n f o x - t r o t ever (london: worton david l t d . , ) and i've s a i d good-bve t o shanghai (london: b. feldman & co., ) . " k l i o k l i o " : a r e c u r r i n g r e f r a i n i n a i k e n ' s blue voyage used t o s u g g e s t the c r i e s of s e a g u l l s ( , , , , , ) . t e x t u a l notes date [the envelope i s postmarked march ] . once g e n e r a l e d i t o r \ once { g e n e r a l } e d i t o r . ( r e s p e c t f u l l y a g a i n ) \ ( r e s p e c t f u l l y { a g a i n } ) . - window s e t between two m y s t e r i o u s green c u r t a i n s , t o the r i g h t of the head of my bed\ [the words " s e t between two m y s t e r i o u s green c u r t a i n s , " o r i g i n a l l y appeared a f t e r the word "bed"; the t r a n s f e r was i n d i c a t e d by lowry w i t h an arrow] . - m i r r o r , i saw a l o n g and never e n d i n g p r o c e s s i o n \ m i r r o r , {i saw} a l o n g {and never ending} p r o c e s s i o n . l a b o u r i n g \ labour<ed>{ing} . - g r e a t p i l e f o r o t h e r p e o p l e was\ g r e a t p i l e { f o r o t h e r people} was . - of w r i t i n g me.[--]can't e x p r e s s m y s e l f p r o p e r l y here s o r r y ! — ] \ of w r i t i n g me. <you d i d n ' t l i k e the way i asked i f you would have time ever t o see me i n london when you might have time but h a r d l y time enough t o t r o u b l e about h a v i n g a l u n c h on someone you'd never seen. i perhaps d i d n ' t make i t c l e a r enough t h a t i'd go anywhere w i t h i n my r e a c h from p i m l i c o t o the i s l e of dogs i f o n l y t h e r e was h a l f a chance of s e e i n g you. and then i t i s p o s s i b l e i s h o u l d have s e n t a p o s t a l o r d e r i n a n t i c i p a t i o n f o r nocturne of remembered s p r i n g because even i f you hadn't got i t i t a k e i t even though you would have found i t a n u i s e a n c e ( s p e l l i n g mine) you would have s e n t the p o s t a l o r d e r back which would have meant a t l e a s t a c a u t i o u s l e t t e r of some s o r t on i t . > { [ — i c a n ' t e x p r e s s m y s e l f p r o p e r l y here s o r r y ! — ] } . b u t \ <sorry> {but} . i s h a l l s a y \ i < w i l l > { s h a l l } say . l e t me\ l e t < [ i l l e g . ] > me . (remember t o o t h a t \ (remember {too} t h a t . i know you a r e \ i know <that> you a r e . p r e s e r v e t h i s a b s u r d i d e a \ p r e s e r v e t h i s < c h i l d i s h absur> a b s u r d i d e a . - f o r h a v i n g done s o . \ f o r <having done> <{doing}> { h a v i n g done} so. . t o be\ <is> {to be} . - b e f o r e you r e p l y - - i f you do r e p l y — t h a t you a r e \ b e f o r e you r e p l y { — i f you do r e p l y - - } t h a t you a r e . - w r i t i n g a n y t h i n g { s e r i o u s } t h e y s e r i o u s t h e y \ w r i t i n g a n y t h i n g : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d [inglewood, c a l d y ] [ m a r c h / a p r i l ] comments about the poems: i have i n c l u d e d o n l y the poems which i thought would a i d you i n g e t t i n g a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of what type of person i am. that does not mean t h a t i'm a r a v i n g r a d i c a l or some m a l a d j u s t e d f o o l t r y i n g t o c o m p l a i n about my f o r t u n e s . as a matter of f a c t , i am q u i t e c a r e f r e e and easy t o get a l o n g w i t h . i have o n l y one word t o s a y i n defense f o r my work and m y s e l f ; we're both young and c o u l d s t a n d a g o o d l y amount of p o l i s h i n g . mr. a i k e n , i p l e a d w i t h you t o g i v e me a f r a n k c r i t i c i s m and a word of a d v i c e . i need i t b a d l y i n the r i g h t way. and t h a t i s : do you t h i n k i have any i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e of my own or am i u n c o n c i o u s l y i m i t a t i n g someone's work. i have been t o l d by some t h a t i have a tendency t o r e l y upon whitman. i t h i n k n o t . i f e e l t h a t my work i s g o i n g t o be and i s d i f f e r e n t b o t h i n t e x t and s p i r i t . but do i show i t . p l e a s e g i v e me your f r a n k e s t o p i n i o n . in my p r e l u d e t o the i r o n and s t e e l s e r i e s , i have p l a c e d m y s e l f b e s i d e s whitman and sandburg as a s i n g e r . i f e e l t h a t i have a r i g h t t o . i d i d not i n t e n d the eyes of m o r t a l man t o read a word of the i r o n and s t e e l group u n t i l i had e s t a b l i s h e d m y s e l f as a s i n g e r comparable t o b o t h . perhaps the day w i l l never come, i f i t d i d n ' t i i n t e n d e d t o d e s t r o y e v e r y word, because i , o n l y a n i n e t e e n year o l d y o u n g s t e r , would be c a l l e d a f o o l f o r a t t e m p t i n g t o even t h i n k m y s e l f a man comparable i n s t a n d i n g t o whitman and sandburg. as you r e a d the p r e l u d e p l e a s e remember t h a t i haved l i v e d everyword and t h a t a l l i need i s a b e t t e r medium of e x p r e s s i o n f o r c l e a r e r t h o u g h t s and words. i hope t h a t i w i l l r e c e i v e e i t h e r your honest encouragement or your f r a n k e s t d i s c o u r a g e m e n t . p l e a s e excuse poor t y p i n g . [poems e n c l o s e d w i t h l e t t e r ] spiderweb the moment hangs from heaven l i k e a webbed b r i d g e t o t h a t i n v i s i b l e w h e r e i n n e c e s s i t y ' s d i m e n s i o n s sometimes win harbors of a i r , from which the s t o r m has ebbed. but we a r e s p i d e r s . and w i t h w a i t i n g eyes we see s a i l by, beyond o l d r e a c h and hope, doomed wings of a d i s t a n c e , s m a l l as p e r i s c o p e , w h i l e d i n i n g on a d i e t of dead f l i e s : the b l a c k and g o l d , the g r o s s and g u l l i b l e , we a r e t h o s e s p i d e r s who of t h e m s e l v e s have spun nets of sad time t o sway a g a i n s t the s u n - broken by s e c r e t s time can never t e l l . a l c o h o l i c i d i e d so many t i m e s when drunk that sober i became l i k e water where a s h i p was sunk that never knew i t s name. old b a r n a c l e s upon my s i d e s ringed round w i t h p i t c h and t o s s were g i v e n me by mermaid b r i d e s , immaculate as moss. here now, w i t h n e i t h e r k i n nor q u e s t , i am so f u l l of sea that whales may make of me a n e s t and go t o s l e e p i n me. (those a n g e l s of the upper a i r who s i p of the d i v i n e may f i n d a haven h o l i e r but l e s s goodbye than mine.) dark p a t h by no s p e c i f i c d a r t of g o l d , no s i n g l e s i n g i n g have i found t h i s p a t h . i t t r a v e l s , dark and c o l d , through dead v o l c a n o e s underground. here f l i c k e r y e t the s u l p h u r o u s c h a r r e d ends of f i r e s l o n g s i n c e i knew. long s i n c e , i t h i n k , and t h i n k i n g t h u s , i g n i t e , d a e m o n i c a l l y ; anew. y e t , b u r n i n g , b u r n i n g , b u r n i n g l o r d , know how t h i s p a t h must l i k e w i s e come through m u l t i t u d i n o u s d i s c o r d the a w f u l and the l o n g way home. sonnet t h i s r u i n now, where m o o n l i g h t walks a l o n e u n c o v e r i n g the cobweb and the r o s e , i have been here b e f o r e ; l o v e d each dim s t o n e ; i f t h e r e were shadows i was one of t h o s e . there l i s t e n i n g , as i n a s h e l l , i heard through some i n v i s i b l e , u n l e t t e r e d whole one t r u e , i f not a t a l l e t e r n a l , word wrung from the w e i r d m u t a t i o n s of the s o u l ; p a l a c e or h o v e l , r u i n w i l l a t l a s t make peace of what i s waste; t a k e f o r a time the hungry f u t u r e and the b l o o d y p a s t i n t o her n i g h t . only the moon w i l l c l i m b up broken s t a i r s t o towerd might have been and r e s t a l i t t l e , l i k e some poor, b l i n d queen. c h e e r y a i n ' t t h e y ? s p i r i t took the s p i d e r , don' know why- l o v e . e x p l a n a t o r y notes t h i s was presumably an e a r l y c o l l e c t i o n lowry had made of h i s poems. no d r a f t of the s e r i e s i s e x t a n t . t e x t u a l notes [ h a n d w r i t t e n note a t top of page r e a d s : " o r i g i n a l from male apropos m a t e r i a l s e n t t o c.a. [[conrad a i k e n ] ] a t cambridge mass"] . p l e a s e excuse poor t y p i n g . \ [ h a n d w r i t t e n by lowry a t bottom of page] e n c l o s u r e [ poems; ts h] : from lowry t o aiken ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d [st c a t h a r i n e ' s c o l l . camb.] [october ] my dear conrad many thanks f o r your l e t t e r ; and a l s o f o r s h a d i n g , a n n o t a t i n g , and c o n n o t a t i n g the d i s b u r s e m e n t s ; m y s e l f have had q u i t e a s m o o t h l y s m i l i n g s o r t of l e t t e r from the o l d man, which presages w e l l f o r the f u t u r e . . . i've moved i n t o new rooms (but the same a d d r e s s ) and s p e n t y e s t e r d a y d e c o r a t i n g them, and drank a b o t t l e of w h i s k e y i n the p r o c e s s . h a l f my books seem t o have been s t o l e n , b l a s t somebody's eyes. but t o make i t worse i c a n ' t remember p r e c i s e l y what i d i d have. my s i r thomas browne's gone, anyway, i'm s u r e of t h a t : and a thomas heywood, i n the mermaid e d i t i o n , or d i d i l e n d t h a t t o somebody?: and ' d u b l i n e r s , ' - - w h y d u b l i n e r s ? — — 'experiment' i s o u t . i ' l l send you one as soon as i can l a y hands on a copy. everybody t h i n k s the f i r s t p r e l u d e ' s s w e l l — b u t most everybody i s m y s t i f i e d by the t h i r d . * who i s t h i s p e r s o n who must be d i s e m b o w e l l e d , and shown i n the m a r k t p l a t z ? . but i dare say t h e y ' l l f i n d o u t , soon enough. there's a l a r g e p o s t e r of 'experiment,' w i t h your name i n l a r g e l e t t e r s , and a l l the l i t t l e s u c k e r s i n s m a l l l e t t e r s . damp from the womb! i p l a y e d hockey f o r cambridge town a g a i n s t f e n s t a n t o n l a s t s a t u r d a y . i've d e c i d e d on hockey as a g a i n s t r u g g e r , because t h e i r team s e c r e t a r y c a l l e d round ( a c t u a l l y ! ) and s a i d t h a t i was wanted r because i h i t the b a l l f i r m l y and h a r d , and was r e a l l y q u i t e a p e r s o n . i'm p l a y i n g a g a i n s t p e t e r b o r o u g h to-morrow, and t r i n i t y h a l l c o l l e g e on s a t u r d a y , and my own c o l l e g e the week a f t e r next sometime which r e a l l y s h o u l d be damned good f u n . i t p l e a s e s me immensely p l a y i n g a g a i n s t my own c o l l e g e . yet a t s c h o o l i s h o u l d have hated t o p l a y a g a i n s t my own house. . . s t i l l st caths i s d i f f e r e n t . i t l o o k s l i k e a b a r r a c k s g e n e r a l l y . the d i n i n g room l o o k s l i k e a mortuary. the c o l l e g e t h a t god f o r g o t ! or a moloch which, sometimes, r a i s e s i t s stone hand t o s t r i k e — -- n e a r l y a l l the o t h e r c o l l e g e s have something c l o i s t r a l and c a n t e r b u r y i a n about them, or have produced a marlowe or a m i l t o n . i'm h a v i n g d i n n e r t o - n i g h t , i n pembroke i n grays' o l d room. and both crashaw & c h r i s t o p h e r smart l i v e d i n the same b l o c k ! . . c a n t e r b u r y c a t h e d r a l . c h r i s t , t h a t p l a c e has ceased t o be a f a c t : i f e e l i t , d a r k l y , i n my b l o o d ; i n the v e r y plasm of my b l o o d , as one might say: transmuted--by some k i n s h i p w i t h the i n s e n t i e n t as w e l l as the l i v i n g — i n t o the m a t r i x of my l i f e . the norman tower. the dark e n t r y . the b a p i s t r y garden. t r i n i t y c h a p e l , where l i e the c a n o n i z e d bones of st w i l f r e d and st odo! st odo! . . or am i a t c r e c y , t h e n , w i t h the b l a c k p r i n c e ? i walk g r a v e l y b e s i d e him. my sword i s i n i t s l e a t h e r n s c a b b a r d . my l e a t h e r n s h i e l d i s embossed w i t h the l i l i e s of f r a n c e , the f l o w e r s - d e - l u c e . the s u r c o a t i s of q u i l t e d c o t t o n , f a c e d w i t h v e l v e t , and embroidered w i t h emblems i n s i l k and g o l d . . . w e l l , my boy, i s h a l l w r i t e you a l o n g l e t t e r , d i c t a t e d to my t y p i s t . remember what i've s a i d to you about d r i n k and women. i don't want you to get mixed up i n a n y - e r - d r i n k i n g bouts. i never d i d , and look what i am to-day. there's no need to t a l k about t h a t other l i t t l e matter, s e l f - a b u s e , of course not. i know you don't know a n y t h i n g about t h a t . you won't even be tempted. none of your b r o t h e r s have been tempted. none of the lowry-lbwries of inglewood-inglewood have ever drunk, or been tempted i n any way whatsoever. and money—please give me a c a r e f u l account of e v e r y t h i n g you spend--i t h i n k you spend too much money on s h o o t i n g , and r e p a i r i n g your g u n - as ever malcolm i have a gramophone, with r e c o r d s . you don't mind w a i t i n g a l i t t l e while f o r your 'blue voyage.'? . . i ' d l i k e a game of ping-pong with you, my god! and a v i s i t to mr neeves. b or a walk through gods a c r e . e x p l a n a t o r y notes l o v r y had been s e n d i n g c h a p t e r s of h i s n o v e l , u l t r a m a r i n e r t o a i k e n f o r c o r r e c t i o n s . u l t r a m a r i n e vas p u b l i s h e d i n june by j o n a t h a n cape. the m a n u s c r i p t o f u l t r a m a r i n e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e h u n t i n g t o n l i b r a r y ( a l k ] i s i n s c r i b e d by a i k e n : "june [ ] : p.m. dear m a l c o l m — i v i n d my v a t c h f o r y o u — b u t you s h o u l d be v l n d i n g my v a t c h f o r me. — c i . " " o l d man": l o v r y and a i k e n ' s name f o r lowry's f a t h e r , a r t h u r . l o v r y . a c c o r d i n g t o m u r i e l bradbrook, i t i s "the r e g u l a r term o f a s h i p ' s c r e v f o r t h e m a s t e r " (malcolm l o v r y ) . in the n a t i o n a l f i l m board documentary on l o v r y , v o l c a n o : an inquiry into t h e , $$ and, p e a t h of. mfllcolm hpwry, r u s s e l l l o v r y a l s o r e f e r s t o t h e i r f a t h e r as the " o l d man." s experiment,, a cambridge l i t e r a r y magazine, begun i n under the e d i t o r s h i p of w i l l i a m empson. the e d i t o r s from t o , j a c o b b r o n o v s k i and hugh sykes, changed t h e e d i t o r i a l p o l i c y and d e c i d e d t h a t t h e magazine " c o u l d r e p r e s e n t non- cambridge v r i t e r s " ( s a v y e r , b r i t i s h l i t e r a r y magazines ); hence t h e i n c l u s i o n o f a i k e n ' s poems, no doubt v i a l o v r y , i n the october i s s u e . * conrad a i k e n , "three p r e l u d e s , " e x p e r i m e n t (oct. ): - . these were l a t e r p u b l i s h e d as p r e l u d e s " i , " "x," and "xxxv" i n a i k e n ' s p r e l u d e s f o r memnon (nev york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). see "xxxv," p r e l u d e s f o r memnon: "god t a k e h i s b o v e l s o u t , and break h i s bones, / and shov him i n the market as he i s . . ." ( ) . " m i l t o n r e s i d e d i n c h r i s t ' s c o l l e g e from - ; m a r l o v e i n corpus c h r i s t ! from - ; thomas gray i n p e t e r h o u s e from - and - ; r i c h a r d crashav i n pembroke from - and p e t e r h o u s e - (he became a f e l l o v o f p e t e r h o u s e i n ); and c h r i s t o p h e r smart vas a f e l l o v o f pembroke i n . s a i n t w i l f r i d , b i s h o p o f york, and s a i n t odo of c a n t e r b u r y , abbot of b a t t l e v e r e b o t h a t one time supposed t o be b u r i e d i n c a n t e r b u r y c a t h e d r a l . in the r e l i c l i s t a t c a n t e r b u r y c a t h e d r a l i s mentioned "a t o o t h of t h e ven. odo abb. of b a t t l e " ( p a r k e r , the c a t h o l i c e n c y c l o p e d i a : ). * tom neeves vas t h e ovner o f t h e s h i p i n n , rye vhere l o v r y and a i k e n v o u l d d r i n k t o g e t h e r . see a l s o lowry's l e t t e r t o tom neeves e n c l o s e d i n l e t t e r , p. . * "god's a c r e " : a cemetery. c f . a i k e n ' s poem, "god's a c r e , " p r l a n u s and the p o o l (nev york: b o n i & l i v e r i g h t , ) - . textual notes address [lowry has used a st. catharine's letterhead card; i have quoted the letterhead as the heading for the l e t t e r ] . marktplatz?.\ <market> marktplatz?. . i played hockey\ <i have a ga> i played hockey . i\ <myself> { } . in my blood; in the very plasm\ in my blood; <into> in the very plasm . of quilted cotton,\ of <cotton> quilted cotton, . you\ <[illeg.]> you . - you don't mind [. . . .] gods acre.\ [written at top of f i r s t page] : from lowry t o aiken ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d b a t e m a n s t r e e t cambridge. [december ] my v e r y dear o l d conrad: i am a h e l l of a god-awful c o r r e s p o n d e n t as you know, but c h r i s t m a s i s coming, and donner and b l i t z e n a r e h a v i n g t h e i r manes combed, and anyway i owe you one. i am w o r k i n g hard h e r e , m o s t l y on the n o v e l . c h a r l o t t e h a l d a n e (the w i f e of j.b.s.) has o f f e r e d me her body i f i f i n i s h the r e v i s i o n of i t t h i s term. t h i s i s a l l r i g h t but i t o l d her t h a t i would masturbate a f t e r f i n i s h i n g each c h a p t e r i n t h a t case w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t i would run out of semen b e f o r e l a moment c r i t i q u e . i t h i n k t h i s i s v e r y funny. she i s v e r y p r e t t y . i don't t h i n k i have ever seen anybody so p r e t t y . i read the f i r s t c h a p t e r , r e v i s e d and i n t e n s i f i e d and p o l i s h e d ; and she was a b i t drunk and f e l l down on her knees and wept; so i d i d n ' t have the h e a r t t o t e l l her t h a t i f t h e r e was a n y t h i n g good about i t i t had been c o p i e d from you. c h r i s t what a b r e e z e ! everybody i n cambridge now says c h r i s t what a b r e e z e ; and one i s not j e e r e d a t f o r an u n c r i t i c a l remark i f one says such and such a t h i n g i s the 'bees knees' because i t e l l them you say i t . everybody thought your poems were m a r v e l l o u s , and t h i n k s you a r e a g r e a t man which you a r e , and a g e n t l e man because you s a y c h r i s t what a b r e e z e , and bees knees. i drank a l o t of w h i s k e y w i t h c h a r l o t t e haldane l a s t n i g h t who i s a don's w i f e and was n e a r l y s i c k i n t o her mouth when i was k i s s i n g h e r . she says she l o v e s me. t h i s i s r a t h e r awkward, but v e r y g r a t i f y i n g . she has j u s t p u b l i s h e d a n o v e l , c h a t t o and windus, on monyzygotic t w i n s . i t i s good and i have r e v i e w e d i t f a v o u r a b l y i n an oxford paper r e v o l t . i t i s not o v e r f l o w i n g w i t h s e n s i b i l i t y : and the a r c h i t e c h t o n i c s a r e a l l away t o h e l l : i t i s n o t h i n g v e r y much, you u n d e r s t a n d , o n l y v e r y e x c i t i n g and q u i t e a m u s i n g l y bawdy. i t i s f u l l of b l o o d y a w f u l cock, however, even worse t h a n u l t r a m a r i n e i n t h a t r e s p e c t i f you can b e l i e v e i t . i t s a m a t e u r i s h , but e x c i t i n g . she i s a f i r s t - r a t e b i o l o g i s t and she wants t o meet you. t h i s i s not a v e r y good l e t t e r . i t i s s o r t of e a r l y p o r t r a i t of the a r t i s t b u s i n e s s , w i t h o u t c o h e s i o n , however, and a s p r i n k l i n g of bad hemingway. never mind. there i s a dons' w i f e i n t r i n i t y who has gonorrhea. three of my f r i e n d s have gonorrhea and i go w i t h them t o addenbrooks h o s p i t a l and see them i r r i g a t e d . as f o r me, i w i s h i had gonorrhea, because t h a t would mean i'd had a good fuck which i haven't f o r the h e l l of a t i m e . i'm a l l i n h i b i t e d i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n , and have l o s t my jumbly g i r l , and am h a v i n g a bad time w i t h m a s t u r b a t i o n . i t h i n k i am g l a d i have l o s t my jumbly g i r l . thank god i won't have t o buy her h o r r i d l i t t l e s i s t e r a c h r i s t m a s p r e s e n t ! i t ' s damned good your h a v i n g a r a d i o : but i l i k e a gramophone b e t t e r sometimes, you get such a w f u l programmes from lo, & o c c a s i o n a l y even k o n i g w u s t e r h a u s e n * l e t s you down. i know a man who makes the n o i s e s i n b r o a d c a s t p l a y s from the b.b.c & we went down t o london b r i e f l y on one o c c a s i o n and i saw how i t was done. i a l s o know a man c a l l e d r e d g r a v e , who reads p o e t r y t h e r e . he read the h o l l o w men l a s t week, and we a l l want him t o b r o a d c a s t you and he wants t o and i s g o i n g t o i f he can and i have l e n t him my p r i a p u s and the p o o l because you c a n ' t buy i t i n e n g l a n d . the man who makes the n o i s e s i s a homosexual, but q u i t e d e c e n t , and i know him because we are t a k i n g p a r t i n a f i l m c a l l e d bank h o l i d a y , a s o r t of 'last moment' b u s i n e s s , next march. s t r a n g e ! i have been e l e c t e d the e d i t o r of cambridge p o e t r y — p u b l i s h e d by the hogarth p r e s s e v e r y year i n hogarth l i v i l n l g p oets s e r i e s . god--god knows why. not o n l y my p o e t i c f a c u l t y but a l s o my c a p a c i t y f o r p l a g i a r i s m has gone west. but t h i s seems t o be an honour. in f a c t i t was the o n l y a m b i t i o n i had l e f t up h e r e . i must be the f i r s t e d i t o r who doesn't know the d i f f e r e n c e between a t r o c h e e and a spondee: and h a r d l y between a sonnet and a c h a n t - r o y a l . however. my o t h e r a m b i t i o n i s t o s t o p m a s t u r b a t i n g . which i s j u s t b l o o d y i m p o s s i b l e . i f t h e r e were a book on t h a t t h e r e would be some sense i n making me e d i t o r ! i l o v e e v e r y t h i n g , from soap d i s h e s t o medicine b o t t l e s . t h i s i s damned a w f u l , and a l l - p o i s o n i n g : as you remarked 'the most a l l p o i s o n i n g of a l l i l l n e s s e s . but we r e t u r n t o our v o m i t . ' . . yet ah remain, n l g g a h , and ahs so mighty dat de t o r n a d o e s and de h u r r i c a n e s dey j u s t f o l l o w me aroun' l i k e l i t t l e pet dogs, yeah, j u s t l i k e l i t t l e p e t s dogs, an ah s p i t s l i g h t n i n g an ah b r e a t h e s thunder and ah'm the doom of i s r a e l . . . and ah'm the champion w i r e p u l l e r i n tennessee-- i'd j u s t l o v e a copy of john d e a t h , x o conrad, i t was sweet of you t o suggest i t . and i ' l l buy a s e l e c t e d poems o f f you-- and by god i haven't got that copy of blue voyage yet, curse me and curse me. well, i ' l l see you soon, and we'll break the bloody buskins of the town, and drown in the white winds of the r e a l day. better to f a l l with icarus than thrive with smith. malcolm. e x p l a n a t o r y notes u l t r a m a r i n e . c h a r l o t t e (franken) haldane ( - ), a u t h o r ; m a r r i e d t o the b r i t i s h b i o c h e m i s t and g e n e t i c i s t , john burdon sanderson haldane ( - ). c h a r l o t t e haldane h o s t e d a l i t e r a r y c i r c l e a t her "roebuck house" i n cambridge i n t o which lowry was i n t r o d u c e d by john davenport i n . among the a r t i s t s t o g a t h e r t h e r e were w i l l i a m erapson, m i c h a e l redgrave, hugh sykes d a v i e s , m a r t i n case, and k a t h l e e n r a i n e . her n o v e l , i br i n g not .. peace--(london: c h a t t o & windus, ) — p o r t r a y s lowry as "james. dowd." c f . a i k e n ' s great c i r c l e (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ): " ' c h r i s t , what a b r e e z e " ( , ), and " ' i t was the c a t ' s pajamas. i t was the bee's knees'" ( ). * lowry i s r e f e r r i n g t o haldane's n o v e l b r o t h e r t o b e r t (london: c h a t t o & windus, ); a c c o r d i n g t o haldane, t h i s n o v e l was i n s p i r e d by johannes lange's crime as d e s t i n y : a study of c r i m i n a l twins which she t r a n s l a t e d i n ( t r u t h w i l l out ) . i have been unable t o l o c a t e lowry's r e v i e w . s "konigs wusterhausen": l o c a t i o n of d e u t s c h l a n d s e n d e r , a l o n g wave, a r t s and e d u c a t i o n , r a d i o s t a t i o n i n germany. s s i r m i c h a e l scudamore redgrave ( - ). b r i t i s h s t a g e and f i l m a c t o r , educated a t c l i f t o n c o l l e g e and magdalene c o l l e g e , cambridge. redgrave was one of the members of c h a r l o t t e haldane's l i t e r a r y s e t and a j o i n t e d i t o r ( w i t h john davenport and hugh sykes) of cambridge p o e t r y , , hogarth l i v i n g p o e t s (london: hogarth p r e s s , ), i n which was p u b l i s h e d lowry's poem, "for n o r d a h l g r i e g s h i p ' s f i r e m a n . " i n h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y , in my mind's eye, redgrave speaks of r e a d i n g e l i o t ' s "the w a s t e l a n d " over the b.b.c., but not "the h o l l o w men" ( ) . a c c o r d i n g t o m u r i e l bradbrook, the o n l y person o t h e r t h a n conrad a i k e n t o r e c e i v e an o f f i c i a l r e v i e w copy of under the volcano was m i c h a e l redgrave, "'the a c t o r , an o l d and good c o l l e g e f r i e n d of mine [ l o w r y ' s ] ' " ( ) . the f i l m bank h o l i d a y (or three on a weekend i n the u.s.a.) was d i r e c t e d by s i r c a r o l reed ( - ) and produced by edward b l a c k i n . the s t o r y was w r i t t e n by hans w i l h e l m and rodney a c k l a n d . i t would seem t h a t the f i l m took l o n g e r t o produce t h a n lowry had e x p e c t e d and he stopped " t a k i n g p a r t " i n i t , f o r h i s name does not appear amongst the c a s t . the f r i e n d whom lowry mentions h e r e , however, c o u l d v e r y w e l l be h i s f r i e n d from the leys s c h o o l and cambridge, m i c h a e l rennie ( - ) who p l a y e d the p a r t of the guardsman i n bank h o l i d a y . e see n. above. the proposed i s s u e of cambridge p o e t r y t o be e d i t e d by lowry was never p u b l i s h e d . ° see b l u e voyage; " t h i s i s what i t i s t o be i n l o v e . u n m i t i g a t e d s u f f e r i n g . the most a l l - p o i s o n i n g of a l l i l l n e s s e s . and n e v e r t h e l e s s , i t ' s the c h i e f motive o f a l l a r t — v e r e t u r n t o our v o m i t " ( ) . see a l s o u l t r a m a r i n e ; " — l e t them r e t u r n t o t h e i r own v o m i t — " ( ) . -° conrad a i k e n , john deth: a m e t a p h y s i c a l legend, and other poems (new york: s c r l b n e r ' s , ). " conrad a i k e n , s e l e c t e d poems (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). x a frank s m i t h i s a c h a r a c t e r i n b l u e voyage. see lowry's u n p u b l i s h e d l e t t e r t o n o r d a h l g r i e g o f september i n t h e u.b.c. s p e c i a l c o l l e c t i o n s : "was i t not b e t t e r t o f a l l w i t h i c a r u s t h a n t h r i v e w i t h s m i t h ? " c f . a l s o b l u e voyage: " b e t t e r be l i k e smith and g a t h e r my rosebuds v h i l e i may . . ." ( ) . t e x t u a l notes . r u n out of semen\ r u n out of <shot> {semen} . l a \ <the> ( l a . } . anybody\ <anything> anybody . p o l i s h e d ; \ p o l i s h e d < l i k e an a p p l e > ; . v e p t ; so i d i d n * t \ wept; <my good god> so i d i d n ' t . i f one\ i f <you> (one) . w i t h c h a r l o t t e haldane l a s t n i g h t \ w i t h c h a r l o t t e haldane <who i s > l a s t n i g h t . - r e v i e w e d i t f a v o u r a b l y i n an o x f o r d paper r e v o l t . \ r e v i e w e d i t ( f a v o u r a b l y i n an o x f o r d paper r e v o l t \ . . - i t i s s o r t \ i t i s <a> s o r t . i n t r l n i t y \ i n <ca> t r i n i t y . your h a v i n g a r a d i o : \ your h a v i n g <gone> a r a d i o : . & o c c a s i o n a l y \ & <some> o c c a s i o n a l y . who makes\ who < l e t s > makes . ve a l l \ <i> ve a l l . i have been e l e c t e d t h e e d i t o r \ i have been <offered> ( e l e c t e d ) the e d i t o r < s h i p > . not o n l y my p o e t i c f a c u l t y \ < [ i l l e g . ] > not <even [ i l l e g . ] > o n l y my p o e t i c f a c u l t y . - i had l e f t up h e r e . \ i had { l e f t } up h e r e . . a book\ <on> {a} book . as you remarked 'the most\ as you remarked <of> 'the most . aroun'x <about> {aroun'} . s e l e c t e d poems\ <s>{s}elected poems : from lowry to aiken ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d globe h o t e l h i l l s road--camb. wednesday [ march ] w e l l , buddy, you know what a damned a w f u l c o r r e s p o n d e n t i am by now which i s a l l the f a u l t of my g o d - c o m p l e x — i s i t ? - - a n y w a y here i am a g a i n 'as l a r g e as l i f e and t w i c e as u n n a t u r a l ' , a l i t t l e b i t t i g h t , or a t any r a t e a p l e a s a n t j i n g l e , which i s i n f o r m i n g my c o n s c i o u s n e s s of how p l e a s a n t i t w i l l be t o g e t down t o rye a g a i n and see you: t h a t i s not t o say t h a t my c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n t h i s r e g a r d i s any the l e s s i n t e n s e when i am c o l d l y and d e s p a i r i n g l y s o b e r . i don't know so much about the c o n t i n u e d d e s p a i r , i n many r e s p e c t s i t ' s j u s t so much b l o o d y nonsense, but i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s my l a c k of i n d i f f e r e n c e towards l i f e b e i n g d i v i d e d by t h i s p e r s i s t e n t , lxx/. , x i s deep r o o t e d i n an honest enough t r a n s m i s s i o n . r o y a l l snow, who would w i s h t o be r o y a l l snow? or mr_§_ untermeyer, the f i r s t ? or any of the i g n o b l e army of unmartyrs who a r e i n c a p a b l e of o b j e c t i f y i n g t h e i r own m i s e r y . the i n f l u e n c e t h a t keeps me away from st c a t h a r i n e s r e a l l y r e v e a l s t o me how l i t t l e t o m y s e l f death ever l e a v e s me. at a l l e v e n t s the f o r c e of t h i s r e v u l s i o n has kept me away now f o r a whole term from my own c o l l e g e ; i hate t o c o n n e c t the p l a c e w i t h a n y t h i n g but the b u t t e r y * who you can buy s h e r r y or t o g i v e a g l i m p s e of the c u r i o s i t y t h a t has been on the p o i n t of moving me. now however i am a s k i n g m y s e l f i f i s h a l l s t a y away f o r ever from the fear of t h i s muddle about motives. an i n t r i c a t e t a n g l e ! . . anyway, to h e l l with i t . are we no g r e a t e r than the noise we make along l i f e ' s b l i n d atomic p i l g r i m a g e whereon by c r a s s chance b i l l e t e d we go because our b r a i n s and bones and c a r t i l a g e w i l l have i t so? . . one m i l d , two b i t t e r s , one g i n . de kuyper's o l d square f a c e . * our f a t h e r which a r t i n e a r t h our mother which a r t i n t u r d . . . as m a r t i n c a s e remarked thursday. . . . well, f o r c h r i s t sake, away with a l l t h i s melancholy. to day has dawned l i k e the f i r s t day, the b l e s s e d day of days, when god saw t h a t i t was good-- --i have been down the road as f a r as the v a r s i t y express motors l t d to buy a t i c k e t , march th, no x , r e f no , from cambridge to london, pick up a t drummer s t , run. time : , f o r a d u l t s a t /-, no c h i l d r e n a t nothing, r e t u r n i n g date n o t h i n g and time a l s o nothing or l e s s than nothing, which w i l l land me i n regent s t . whence i s h a l l get d i r e c t l y as i can to rye. i don't know what time i s h a l l a r r i v e at rye, so don't bother j e r r y to get me any supper, but i f you c o u l d leave me a couple of h a r d - b o i l e d h e n - f r u i t i n a cupboard somewhere t h a t would be--the bees knees i was going to say-- -- yes, t h i s l a t e s t cambridge sausage was as c l e v e r a piece of work as ever you saw i n a b l e e d i n g l i f e t i m e , a monster of more than c a l c u l a t i o n , as you would say, which has l e f t me q u i t e e x h a u s t e d . how i s t h e a u s t r i a n g i r l ? i b e l i e v e you showed me her photograph on one o c c a s i o n and i t seemed t o me t h e n t h a t she was d e f i n i t e l y one of the guards. am i r i g h t ? . . a k i n d of f r a u f l e t c h e r c h e n . or i s she f r a u l e i n ? anyway we s h a l l see what we s h a l l see what we s h a l l see-- the p r e l u d e s (which i d i d not a c k n o w l e d g e ) — w e l l ! j u s t - e r - w e l l ! i f you won't j e e r a t me f o r an u n c r i t i c a l remark, as cummings might have s a i d , t h e y are among t h e huge f r a g i l i t i e s b e f o r e which comment i s d i s g u s t i n g . darks edge remains my f a v o u r i t e among them. which i d i d not acknowledge? and a f t e r a l l why s h o u l d i ? . . . i s t h i s mr_ demarest? not w i l l i a m demarest? not w i l l i a m demarest of yonkers? . . y e t , even s o , whats' h i s a d d r e s s ? b e s i d e s i wanted to w a i t developments which took the form of o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s — o t h e r w i s e the book would be a book of p r e l u d e s p u b l i s h e d by the hogarth p r e s s , your o l d f r i e n d s , & no more, which would be a f a r b e t t e r book anyway than t h e p o s t u l a t e d a n t h o l o g y , but s c a r c e l y a c c o r d i n g to the academic p o i n t s of the compass. a c t u a l l y the c o n t r i b u t i o n s have been so g r i m , e i t h e r of the : '--the wind was soughing i n the b o u g h s — ' type or the when d e a t h came the c r i t i c d e a t h came when i n t o when d e the a t roo h m t y p e - - and i n the l a t t e r case b e i n g w i t h o u t any p o e t r y s e p a r a b l e and u n i d e n t i f i a b l e w i t h the s o - c a l l e d s t r a n g e n e s s t o j u s t i f y i t s e x i s t e n c e on paper a t a l l t h a t the p r o j e c t has been postponed and w i t h i t i n e v i t a b l y our f o u l crime a g a i n s t t r u t h t r a - l a . . . meantime, "the dead man spoke t o me & begged a penny' (which was not among the ones you s e n t me but which i l e a r n t by h e a r t some time ago,) i s i n c r e a s i n g l y seeming t o me t o be one of the g r e a t e s t poems ever w r i t t e n . 'poor d e v i l why he wants t o c l o s e h i s eyes he wants a c h a r i t y t o c l o s e h i s eyes and f o l l o w s me w i t h o u t s t r e t c h e d palm, from w o r l d t o w o r l d , and house t o house & s t r e e t t o s t r e e t under the s t r e e t lamps & a l o n g dark a l l e y s & s i t s b e s i d e me i n my room, & s l e e p s u p r i g h t w i t h eyes wide open by my bed . . . & . . . & a l l the w h i l e h o l d s , i n t h a t v o i d of an u n f o c u s s e d s t a r e , my own poor f o o t s t e p s , s a y i n g , i have r e a d time i n the r o c k & i n the human h e a r t space i n the b l o o d s t r e a m , & t h o s e l e s s e r works w r i t t e n by r o s e & w i n d f l o w e r on the summer, sung by water & snow, d e c i p h e r e d by the eye t r a n s l a t e d by the s l a v e s of memory, & a l l t h a t you be you & i be i or a l l t h a t , by i m a g i n a t i o n a p i n g god, the supreme poet of d e s p a i r , i may be you, you me, b e f o r e our time knowing the rank i n t o l e r a b l e t a s t e of d e a t h & w a l k i n g dead on the s t i l l l i v i n g e a r t h - - i always t h i n k of you b e i n g damned a n g r y w i t h me f o r coming back l a t e from h a s t i n g s [? a s e n t v ] malcolm e x p l a n a t o r y notes lxx d i v i d e d by . ( " t h i s p e r s i s t e n t "). y i e l d s a r e c u r r i n g d e c i m a l : . . r o y a l l henderson snow, american c r i t i c who r e v i e w e d a i k e n ' s p r i a p u s and the p o o l i n "agonized a d o r a t i o n , " new r e p u b l i c june : . "mrs untermeyer, the f i r s t ? " : jean s t a r r ( - ), american poet and f i r s t w i f e of the american w r i t e r and e d i t o r , l o u i s untermeyer ( - ). l o u i s untermeyer was the a u t h o r of a number of c r i t i c a l r e v i e w s of a i k e n ' s p o e t r y and e d i t o r of s e v e r a l a n t h o l o g i e s of american and b r i t i s h p o e t r y t h a t i n c l u d e d a i k e n ' s work. see a i k e n ' s "the i v o r y tower: l o u i s untermeyer as c r i t i c , " new r e p u b l i c may : - , and untermeyer's r e p l y i n the same i s s u e , - . " b u t t e r y " : in the c o l l e g e s of o x f o r d and cambridge t h i s i s the p l a c e where a l e , b r e a d , b u t t e r , e t c . a r e k e p t . the " r e s i d e n c e " of members of the c o l l e g e i s r e c o r d e d by the appearance of t h e i r names i n the b u t t e r y - b o o k s . john de kuyper & sons i s a d i s t i l l i n g company, founded i n , makers of square face g i n and v a r i o u s l i q u e u r s . c f . u l t r a m a r i n e : " '. . . have a s l i c e of o l d s q u a r e f a c e ' " ( ) and " ' o l d s q u a r e f a c e , p l e a s e ' " ( ). m a r t i n case was a s t u d e n t of b i o c h e m i s t r y a t cambridge and an a s s i s t a n t of j.b.s. haldane. a c c o r d i n g t o m u r i e l bradbrook, he and lowry met a t the haldane's r e s i d e n c e d u r i n g one of c h a r l o t t e haldane's l i t e r a r y s o i r l e s a f t e r which t h e y became f r i e n d s and d r i n k i n g companions ( ) . c h a r l o t t e haldane's n o v e l , b r o t h e r t o b e r t (see l e t t e r , n. , p. ) , i s d e d i c a t e d t o m a r t i n case. the passage quoted by lowry seems t o be an echo of a i k e n ' s poem, "changing mind," from john deth and other poems: my f a t h e r which a r t i n e a r t h from whom i got my b i r t h , what i s i t t h a t i i n h e r i t ? my mother which a r t i n tomb who c a r r i e d s t me i n t h y womb, what i s i t t h a t i i n h e r i t ? ( ) n " j e r r y " : nickname of a i k e n ' s second w i f e , c l a r i s s a m. l o r e n z ( - ), t o whom a i k e n d e d i c a t e d b l u e voyage. lowry thought the d e d i c a t i o n of blue voyage t o "c.m.l." s i g n i f i c a n t because i t c o i n c i d e d w i t h h i s own i n i t i a l s : c l a r e n c e malcolm lowry. l o r e n z i s the a u t h o r of l o r e l e i two: my l i f e w i t h conrad a i k e n ( a t h e n s : u of g e o r g i a p, ). "bees knees": see l e t t e r , n. , p. . a p p a r e n t l y a i k e n had s e n t lowry some of h i s p r e l u d e s t o be i n c l u d e d i n the next i s s u e of cambridge p o e t r y which lowry was e d i t i n g . the l a s t l i n e of p r e l u d e " x x x i i i " r e a d s : "at the d a r k ' s edge how g r e a t the d a r k n e s s i s " ( p r e l u d e s f o r memnon ) . w i l l i a m demarest i s the p r o t a g o n i s t of a i k e n ' s b l u e voyage. see blue voyage: " ' i s t h i s mr. demarest?'" ( .) and " s a i n t w i l l i a m of yonkers" ( ). leonard and v i r g i n i a woolf a t the hogarth p r e s s had p u b l i s h e d a i k e n ' s s e n l i n : a b i o g r a p h y i n . see a i k e n ' s "xlv," p r e l u d e s f o r memnon (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s ) - . the f i r s t l i n e of the poem (as lowry c o r r e c t l y s t a t e s ) r e a d s : "the dead man spoke t o me and begged a penny." lowry has quoted c o r r e c t l y from the poem e x c e p t f o r v a r i o u s a l t e r a t i o n s i n p u n c t u a t i o n : he has o m i t t e d the upper case l e t t e r s a t the b e g i n n i n g of each l i n e , the dash a f t e r "poor d e v i l , " and commas a f t e r "why" ( . ) , "eyes" ( . ) , " s t r e e t " ( . ) , " a l l e y s " ( . ) , "bed" ( . ) , " h e a r t " ( . ) , "eye" ( . ) , "you" ( . ) , " i " ( . ) , " i m a g i n a t i o n " ( . ) , and " d e a t h " ( . ) ; he has a l s o i n s e r t e d commas a f t e r " w o r l d " ( . ) , " s a y i n g " ( . ) , and " t h a t " ( . ) , s e p a r a t e d " s t r e e t l a m p s " i n t o two words, r e p l a c e d "and" by and the f i n a l p e r i o d a f t e r " e a r t h " by a dash. t e x t u a l notes . j i n g l e , which i s i n f o r m i n g \ j i n g l e , {which}, i s i n f o r m i n g . - r o o t e d i n an honest enough t r a n s m i s s i o n . \ r o o t e d i n {an} honest {enough} t r a n s m i s s i o n . of o b j e c t i f y i n g v of <a> o b j e c t i f y i n g [above t h i s l i n e i s w r i t t e n "wednesday."] get d i r e c t l y as i can t o rye.\ get <me « a s b e s t i may t o rye>> > d i r e c t l y as i can t o rye. we s h a l l s e e — the p r e l u d e s ( w h i c h \ we s h a l l see<. . .>{--} <the p r e l u d e s (which i d i d not acknowledge) & a f t e r a l l why s h o u l d i ? <<(>> i s t h i s mr demarest? not w i l l i a m demarest? not w i l l i a m demarest of y o n k e r s , & anyway whats' h i s address <<?)>> ?> the p r e l u d e s (which . . . - . j e e r a t me f o r \ j e e r a t me <for> f o r . o t h e r w i s e the book would be a book of p r e l u d e s \ o t h e r w i s e <there would be j u s t > {the book would be} a book of p r e l u d e s . and i n the l a t t e r case b e i n g w i t h o u t any p o e t r y s e p a r a b l e \ and { i n the l a t t e r case being} w i t h o u t any p o e t r y <which was> s e p a r a b l e . i n c r e a s i n g l y \ (more and more) { i n c r e a s i n g l y } . & s l e e p s \ & sleeps<.> . [? a s e n t v ] \ [ d o u b t f u l r e a d i n g ] : from lowry t o aiken ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d [ s t . c a t h a r i n e ' s c o l l e g e , cambridge] f r i d a y [ a p r i l ] ' - - f o r j e s u s s a k e — ' ' - - f o r j e s u s s a k e - - ' w e l l i've j u s t had a motorcar t u r n over on me a t f i f t y - f i v e and i'm p r e t t y dopey anyhow; and moreover i n s e v e r a l s o r t s of s h i t e --from the ' p a r r o t s p a l t r y pigment' t o 'bombs from the b i s o n ' s bung' and any o t h e r s o r t o f . p i c k l e d noblemen you l i k e t o t h i n k of and i f e e l so t h a t e v e r y time i r e a d a l i n e i break a b l o o d - v e s s e l . but t o be s p e c i f i c and m o s t l y matter of f a c t , & t o answer the o l d man's g u t - l i f t i n g q u e s t i o n s . ( i ) the s u b j e c t i s g e n e r a l e n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , ( i i ) the exam i s on the th. may a l t h o u g h t h i s i s s u b j e c t t o s l i g h t a l t e r a t i o n f o r e and a f t ( i i i ) there i s o n l y one e x a m i n a t i o n but s p r e a d out t h r e e hours morning and a f t e r n o o n f o r t h r e e days or t h r e e days and a h a l f & t h e r e a r e no d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s m e r e l y papers on d i f f e r e n t departments of e n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , f i r s t , an o r i g i n a l e s s a y on a s u b j e c t we don't know y e t , any g i v e n s u b j e c t ; second, a paper on chaucer & l a n g l a n d and/or the l i f e & thought of t h a t p e r i o d - - y o u answer o n l y s i x q u e s t i o n s out of a whole gamut; t h i r d , the e l i z a b e t h a n s --ben jonson & h i s c i r c l e and/or l i f e & thought of t h a t p e r i o d ; f o u r , shakespeare by h i m s e l f , c o n t e x t s , f o l i o s , rhymes, rythms danks & d a r k s , imponderables & i m p a l p a b l e s , the whole of him but w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o antony & c l e o p a t r a & hamlet & measure f o r measure; f i v e - - r e s t o r a t i o n comedy, wycherley & so f o r t h and/or l i f e & thought of t h a t p e r i o d ; s i x — g e n e r a l c r i t i c i s m paper, a r i s t o t l e — p l a t o — m a t t h e w a r n o l d — c o l e r i d g e and a w r i t e r : seven, the p r e r a p h a e l i t e s , even down t o mr p r e r a p h a e l h i m s e l f : e i g h t , the v i c t o r i a n s (and the o r i g . c o n t r i b u t i o n ) . . . t h i s i s not q u i t e s p e c i f i c because t h e r e w i l l be q u e s t i o n s backwards and forwards on the whole range of l i t e r a t u r e which i s i m p o s s i b l e t o f o r e s e e . ( i v ) — h o w w e l l p r e p a r e d i s he i n each s u b j e c t ? . . come on po f e e t ah needs you now—remember when ah was a c h i l e you promised t o be k i n d t o me-- — what a b o u t : — i n r e a l ' o l d man' s t y l e - - --something l i k e t h i s w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n s ? . he has a good and c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the t r e n d of l i t e r a t u r e and of the n a t u r e of the q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n the t r i p o s , he i s a l i t t l e weak on l a n g l a n d and on r e s t o r a t i o n comedy & i have t o l d him t o work t h o s e up d u r i n g the month l e f t t o him, and a l s o t o r e v i s e the ' c r i t i c i s m ' & t o do as much g e n e r a l r e v i s i o n as i s r e a s o n a b l y p o s s i b l e . as f a r as i can judge from the papers of former y e a r s which malcolm h a s — e r — showed me t h e y a r e o f t e n of a type which s u g g e s t s t h a t i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r them the s t u d e n t may w e l l be b l u r r e d as t o the r e a l meaning, the sturm und drang of l i t e r a t u r e , and hate i t ever a f t e r ; moreover the time i s so l i m i t e d , t h a t f o r a n s w e r i n g them one has t o have a mind l i k e a s o r t of machine gun, you have no time t o t h i n k i f you a r e t o answer the n e c e s s a r y number of q u e s t i o n s , and no t i m e , e x c e p t ( w i t h l u c k ) i n the e s s a y t o l e t y o u r s e l f go on something you r e a l l y l o v e ! your answers have t o be staccato and angry, and a brutal concision is demanded of the student. i think success in t h i s strange examination depends a good deal on temperament. malcolm is a slow writer, & an even slower thinker, an abnormally slow thinker, which although not i t s e l f a f a u l t makes him a bad examinee. i have done everything in my power to correct t h i s for his exam but i t is one of those things i have found not only cannot be corrected but ought not to b e — i t might make h i m — t e e - h e e ! — a r t i f i c i a l and false in his reasoning in later l i f e . the thought of f a i l i n g him worries him on your account and he is quite capable of forgetting a l l he ever learnt in a f l a s h . shortly, i think he is the sort of person who can never be tested adequately in the improptu manner demanded by the t r i p o s . i know he w i l l do his best--i don't.think he w i l l f a i l , heavens knows we have worked hard enough! tchtch joke over--but i f he gets in one of his unreasoning panics--say over the preraphaelites--he c e r t a i n l y w i l l - - it is impossible to be more s p e c i f i c than t h i s because the whole thing is one subject & i f you go down badly in one department i t a f f e c t s the whole thing. i think a pass is a l l one can expect for someone as temperamentally involved as malcolm. and even a pass with honours could not add to the value of his degree when he gets i t because he w i l l have to take another subject next year,--only a f t e r that does he become e l i g i b l e for the degree--" experiment has come out, a noble looking paper. the london mercury says a sketch written in a mixture of negro greek american and ( o c c a s i o n a l y e n g l i s h - - t h a t s me--& a fragment from work i n p r o g r e s s a r e the o n l y t h i n g s which l i v e up t o the e d i t o r i a l which i s f u l l of post-war-group g u f f . s heinemann p u b l i s h i t , by the way. they have t a k e n no n o t i c e of my c o r r e c t i o n of the p r o o f s , the dashes a r e a l l t o o l o n g , i t s f u l l of m i s p r i n t s , & the t i t l e i s wrong. i t makes me s i c k t o look a t i t so i won't send i t you t i l l i p l u c k up c o u r a g e . i'm damned s o r r y about p e t e ' s b o o k * - - i t ' s s u r e t o p i c k up though--& anyway i t s ' of h i s t o r i c a l importance or b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r a t h e r as b e i n g the o n l y decent s t u d y of your work; t h a t makes i t of h i s t o r i c a l importance as w e l l f o r f u t u r e b i o g r a p h e r s w i l l always have t o r e f e r t o i t & a l l t h i s time anyway i t w i l l be s e l l i n g s p l e n d i d l y as i g u e s s e . b u r r a must have been a t r i a l f o r t h a t l o n g . l o v e l y ! thank god d o l l y ' s - got a j o b . i was t h i n k i n g l a s t n i g h t of her s a y i n g - - i ' m so e x c i t e d you gnaw, i must always get a l i t t l e b i t atipsy you gnaw mrs cherry mrs cherry oh i'm so e x c i t e d you gnaw. j e s u s b l o o d y c h r i s t i was n e a r l y s i c k when i thought of h e r - - i wonder why she knocked a t my door the l a s t n i g h t a l l the same-- — don't t e l l the o l d man about the motor a c c i d e n t because h e ' l l t h i n k a l l s o r t s of t h i n g s which a r e p r o b a b l y t r u e ; anyway i f t h i n g s get r e a l l y d e s p e r a t e i can always use i t i n t h r e e weeks. there were t h r e e of us i n the c a r , davenport m y s e l f & f o r m a n , & we were a l l p i e e y e d & d e c i d e d t o go t o a f r i c a and j u s t s a t on the a c c e l e r a t o r f o r about t w e n t y m i l e s t i l l the t h i n g j u s t o v e r t u r n e d from sheer v e x a t i o n . none of us were k i l l e d , but p e r s o n a l l y i wish i had been. we got o f f with b r u i s e d h i p s & banged heads. not so hot. i'm s o r r y the o l d man should give you t h i s t r o u b l e of q u e s t i o n s b l a s t him. however. . i should l i k e to d i e s a i d w i l l i e i f my poppa could d i e too-- w o t t h e h e l l my love to j e r r y male don't t e l l him t h a t a l l i know of the l i f e & thought of any p e r i o d i s that people once wore t i g h t s . e x p l a n a t o r y notes q u o t a t i o n from lowry's "punctum i n d i f f e r e n s s k i b e t gaar v i d e r e , " exper intent ( s p r i n g ): . t h i s s t o r y was r e p r i n t e d i n r e v i s e d form as " s e d u c t i o ad absurdum," the b e s t b r i t i s h s h o r t s t o r i e s of . ed. edward o'brien (new york: dodd, mead & co., ) - , and was l a t e r r e w r i t t e n and i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o c h a p t e r iv of u l t r a m a r i n e : see u l t r a m a r i n e , , , . c f . great c i r c l e : ". . . i'm j u s t a g o o d - f o r - n o t h i n g s h i t e " ( ) . see u l t r a m a r i n e : "'and the p a r r o t ' s household pigment s t r e w n a l o n g the deck . . .'" ( ) and "'bombs from the b i s o n ' s bung, eh?'" ( ). presumably lowry's f a t h e r had been q u e s t i o n i n g a i k e n about p a r t i of the upcoming t r i p o s which lowry was t o w r i t e , as he says h e r e , on may . s "danks & d a r k s " : cf. b l u e voyage: "how had i t so managed t o c o m p l i c a t e i t s e l f w i t h e v i l and s e n s u a l i t y and the danks and d a r k s of s e x ? " ( ). see u l t r a m a r i n e : " ' l e f f o o t f o l l o w r i g h t f o o t and r i g h t f o o t f o l l o w l e f ' f o o t : remember, f e e t , when i was a c h i l e y e r promised t o be k i n d t o me!'" ( ) . lowry wrote p a r t i i of the t r i p o s a t the end of h i s t h i r d y e a r , june , and a f t e r t h i s r e c e i v e d h i s b.a. honours degree. a lowry i s r e f e r r i n g t o exper iment ( s p r i n g ) i n which h i s s h o r t s t o r y "punctum i n d i f f e r e n s s k i b e t gaar v i d e r e " i s p u b l i s h e d ( - ). the london mercury xxi . ( a p r i ): c o n t a i n s a r e v i e w of t h i s i s s u e of e x p e r i m e n t . the passage quoted by lowry runs as f o l l o w s : . . . a s k e t c h , which i s c e r t a i n l y not a c a d e m i c a l , w r i t t e n i n a m i x t u r e of american, negro, greek, and o c c a s i o n a l l y e n g l i s h . but w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of t h i s s k e t c h , and an e x t r a o r d i n a r y fragment from mr. james j o y c e ' s work i n p r o g r e s s , the magazine does not appear t o t r a n s c e n d the s p i r i t of academicism . . . . the e r r o r i n the t i t l e mentioned by lowry i s perhaps the "gaar" which i n norwegian s h o u l d be "gar." houston p e t e r s o n , the melody of chaos (new york: longmans, green, & co., ). t h i s was the f i r s t f u l l l e n g t h s t u d y of a i k e n ' s work. "as i gesse": r e c u r r i n g phrase i n chaucer's the c a n t e r b u r y t a l e s . x a- edward john b u r r a ( - ), b r i t i s h p a i n t e r whom a i k e n met i n rye i n , and w i t h whom he remained l i f e l o n g f r i e n d s . i t was w i t h b u r r a t h a t the a i k e n s (and lowry) t r a v e l l e d t o s p a i n i n , and t o cuernavaca i n . two of b u r r a ' s p a i n t i n g s — " b l u e s for ruby m a t r i x " ( ) and "john deth" ( ) - - a r e based on poems by a i k e n . d o r i s ( " d o l l y " ) l e w i s , t h e s t e p - d a u g h t e r of a i k e n ' s f r i e n d i n south yarmouth, c h a r l e s d. v o o r h i s , w i t h whom lowry f e l l i n l o v e i n the summer of (day ). the l a s t l i n e of t h i s paragraph i s perhaps an a l l u s i o n t o the c o n c l u s i o n of b l u e voyage. john davenport ( - ), the c r i t i c and j o u r n a l i s t , met lowry i n cambridge when he was a c t i n g as e d i t o r of cambridge p o e t r y , and i t was he who i n t r o d u c e d lowry i n t o c h a r l o t t e haldane's l i t e r a r y s a l o n . the two became g r e a t d r i n k i n g companions and met s e v e r a l t i m e s d u r i n g the l a t e r y e a r s of lowry's l i f e . with dylan thomas, davenport i s the a u t h o r of the death of the k i n g ' s canary (london: h u t c h i n s o n , ). thomas forman was a cambridge f r i e n d t o whom, w i t h e l i z a b e t h cheyne, lowry d e d i c a t e d u l t r a m a r i n e . a c c o r d i n g t o douglas day, forman had g i v e n the c a r t o lowry who had l a t e r " d i s e m b o w e l l e d i t on a g r e a t tombstone of a r o c k " ( ) ; c f . a l s o a i k e n ' s a p r i l l e t t e r to w a l t e r p i s t o n i n which he mentions lowry's a c c i d e n t ( k i l l o r i n ). [on the v e r s o of the f i r s t two pages a r e t y p e d passages, one w i t h h a n d w r i t t e n a l t e r a t i o n s , from u l t r a m a r i n e ; the t h i r d page i s w r i t t e n on the v e r s o of a march cover of s t . c a t h a r i n e ' s c o l l e g e magazine t e x t u a l notes . t u r n over on me\ t u r n over {on} me . and any o t h e r s o r t \ and {any} o t h e r s o r t . but t o be s p e c i f i c \ {but} <t>{t}o be s p e c i f i c . ( i ) the s u b j e c t \ ( i ) the<re a r e ) s u b j e c t . a l t h o u g h t h i s i s \ a l t h o u g h { t h i s } i s . one e x a m i n a t i o n but spread o u t \ one e x a m i n a t i o n {but} s p r e a d out . t h a t p e r i o d — y o u answer\ t h a t period--<and> you answer . - the e l i z a b e t h a n s - - b e n jonson & h i s c i r c l e \ the e l i z a b e t h a n s - - < s h a k e s p e a r e > <{heywood}> {ben jonson} & h i s c i r c l e . l i f e & thought of t h a t p e r i o d ; \ l i f e & thought {of t h a t p e r i o d } ; . the v i c t o r i a n s (and the o r i g . c o n t r i b u t i o n ) . . .\ the v i c t o r i a n s {(and the o r i g . c o n t r i b u t i o n ) } . ; . [the i n s e r t i o n i s w r i t t e n a t the bottom of the page ] . what about:\ what about<?>{:} . - l i k e t h i s w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n s ? . \ l i k e t h i s { w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n s ? } . . as f a r as i \ <from what> as f a r as i . moreover the t i m e \ moreover <they> the time . - t h a t f o r a n s w e r i n g them one has t o \ t h a t { f o r answering them} one has t o . a mind l i k e a s o r t of machine gun,\ a mind l i k e a (machine gun t o answer them> s o r t of machine gun, . c o r r e c t t h i s f o r h i s exam b u t \ c o r r e c t t h i s { f o r h i s exam} but . - one of those t h i n g s i have found\ one of those t h i n g s <which <<cannot be c o r r e c t e d ) ) not> i have found . cannot be c o r r e c t e d but ought not t o be--\ cannot be c o r r e c t e d but <which> ought not t o be-- . make him--tee-hee --\ make him <as>--tee-hee!-- . f o r g e t t i n g \ < f a i l i n g > f o r g e t t i n g . - u n r e a s o n i n g p a n i c s - - s a y over the p r e r a p h a e l i t e s - - h e c e r t a i n l y w i l l - - \ u n r e a s o n i n g p a n i c s <he c e r t a i n l y w i l l > - - s a y over the p r e r a p h a e l i t e s - - h e c e r t a i n l y w i l l - - . - a l l one can e x p e c t \ a l l <you> one <could> {can} expect . and even a p a s s \ and {even a} pass . - another s u b j e c t next y e a r , - - o n l y a f t e r t h a t does he\ another s u b j e c t next y e a r , < & > — { o n l y } < — t h e n ) { a f t e r t h a t } does he . e n g l i s h — t h a t s me—& a £ragment\ e n g l i s h ! - - t h a t s me — } & a fragment * b i o g r a p h e r s \ < v r i t e r s > b i o g r a p h e r s . - — i wonder why she knocked a t my door the l a s t n i g h t a l l the s a m e — — \ — { } wonder wh<at>{y> she knocked a t {my} door <for> the l a s t n i g h t <though> a l l the s a m e — -- . p i e e y e d \ <plssed> p i e e y e d . j u s t s a t \ j u s t < [ i l l e g . ] > s a t . people once wore t i g h t s . \ p e o p l e {once} wore t i g h t s . : from lowry t o aiken ms h; mspc ubc; b r e i t plympton s t r e e t [ s t . c a t h a r i n e ' s . c o l l e g e , cambridge] [june ] , my dear conrad: i t was v e r y good of you t o w r i t e me about the t r i p e o s as f o r t h a t i c a n ' t t e l l as y e t , but we d i d our best--we. d i d our b e s t . i wrote a f a i r l y good e s s a y on t r u t h & p o e t r y , q u o t i n g y o u r s e l f l i b e r a l l y not t o s a y l i t e r a l l y , and poe and the melody of c h a o s ; i was a l l r i g h t on the c r i t i c i s m paper, and i t h i n k i b l u f f e d my way t h r o u g h on l i t e r a t u r e from t o the p r e s e n t day. - - i knew my keats b e t t e r t h a n i thought i d i d , f o r i n s t a n c e ; & on the whole i have n o t h i n g to c o m p l a i n about from the p a p e r s , (which i ' l l t r y & get t o g e t h e r & send y o u ) , and i f i have f a i l e d , and t h a t s ' on the c a r d s , i was more s t u p i d a t the time than i t h o u g h t . meantime i have been l e a d i n g a d i s o r d e r e d and r a t h e r d e s p a i r i n g e x i s t e n c e , and you can p r o b a b l y guess a t the r e a s o n why i was i n c a p a b l e of r e p l y i n g p r o m p t l y : your t e l e g r a m , however, brought me to my senses and made me f e e l r i g h t l y ashamed of m y s e l f . my d. & r . d . e i s due t o a c o m p l e x i t y of m e l a n c h o l y r e a s o n s none of which a r e e i t h e r p a r t i c u l a r l y complex, m e l a n c h o l y , or r e a s o n a b l e , and i have made up my mind about o n l y one p o i n t i n t h i s b u s i n e s s of l i v i n g which i s t h a t i must, and as soon as p o s s i b l e , i d e n t i f y a f i n e r scene. i must i n o t h e r words g i v e an imaginary scene i d e n t i t y through the immediate sensation of actual experience etc. this, you say, i may have already done in some part, and is becoming with me a desire for retrogression, for escaping from the subtle and sophisticated: that i t is not deep-rooted in honest transmission at a l l and has nothing to do with r e a l l y wanting more experience and to rub off more prejudice, to use more hardship, load myself with finer mountains and strengthen more my reach, that would stopping home among books (even though i should reach homer!) but is nothing more than wanting a l t e r n a t e l y to k i l l liverpool and myself: that i am in truth--aithough occasionaly s t r a i n i n g at p a r t i c l e s of l i g h t in the midst of a great darkness--'a small boy chased by the f u r i e s ' & you can sympathise with me as such. well--if t'were so t'were a grievous f a u l t - - -- s i prefer to think sometimes that i t is because i r e a l l y want to be a man rather than a male, which at present i'm not, and that i want to get from somewhere a frank and fearless w i l l which roughly speaking does not put more mud into the world than there is at present. nonsense. then i must read,--i must read,--i must read! dostoievsky & dante: donne, dryden, davenant and dean inge. . . again, nonsense; but then at the moment i despair of a l l l i t e r a t u r e anyway. if i could read homer--however much he may have roared in the pines, i'm sure i should hate him: donne means damn a l l to me now, herrick is t e r r i b l e , milton i can't read wouldn't' i f i could: a l l restoration comedy & most a l l greek tragedy is a bore. . . tolstoy? my god what a bloody awful old writer he was! well, there is m e l v i l l e & goethe, you say. well, there was the story of hamlet, i said and f e l l into s i l e n c e - - (by the bye experiment was reviewed in the times l i t sup of a week or two back side by side with a review of martin armstrongs' collected,--or are they selected?--unaffected, undetected and well-connected poems, i can't remember whether the review was a favourable one or not, i rather fear not--of my own contribution i t remarked that i t was a kind of prose fugue, with recurring themes, consisting of the rough talk of s a i l o r s or something, ' e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r i v e d ' --i can't remember i t in d e t a i l but i f e l t quite pleased. i haven't sent you a copy of i t because the punctuation, length of dashes & so forth, was a l l wrongly done & i was sure i t would give you a pain in the neck to look at: t h i s is a rather s e l f i s h reason for as a matter of fact the rest of the paper in my opinion is well worth reading so i might send you a copy after a l l ! ) i am delighted to hear that a novel is under way: i t is r e a l l y quite intolerable that i should have been so long sending you the bone dream-- here i t is however. . . it occurs to me also, & with some horror, that i have not paid you the f i owe you. this has not been because i could • not afford to pay i t but simply because i have wasted my substance in riotous l i v i n g - - i have just put i t o f f , & o f f , & there is no doubt whatever but that you could do as well with the four pounds as i could do well without i t , but as i write this i t so happens i have o n l y a f a r t h i n g i n my pocket: moreover i can never t h i n k of the p e c u l i a r circumstances under which the debt, or / of i t , was accrued, without t e r r o r , inchoate f l a s h e s of nightmare--and perhaps t h i s p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n i s due i n a very s m a l l p a r t to the f a c t that to pay the debt means w r i t i n g about the circumstances & t h e r e f o r e remembering them. no, i am not mr. sludge the medium, nor was meant to be . . . but i wish i knew where the h e l l t h a t three pounds was a l l the same; the memory of delores von hempel i s l i k e a miasmic stench from the d o c k s . a pock-marked, e u r a s i a n , memory-- the reason why i have a f a r t h i n g , and not a halfpenny or a penny or a half-crown i n my pocket i s a p e c u l i a r one. the other n i g h t i was walking o u t s i d e a f u l l e r s cafe, the windows looked something l i k e s e l f r i d g e s & not v e r y d i f f e r e n t from any of the other modern b u i l d i n g s e r e c t e d a l l over london or cambridge except perhaps i n s i z e , - - a l l the windows were f i l l e d with c h o c o l a t e s or c h o c o l a t e coloured cakes,--i was i n d e s p a i r , when suddenly i caught s i g h t of myself i n the shop window & saw myself murmuring: can he warm h i s blue hands by h o l d i n g them up to the grand n o r t h e r n l i g h t s ? would not lazarus r a t h e r be i n sumatra than here? would he not r a t h e r l a y him down lengthwise along the l i n e of the e q u a t o r ? . . when a t t h a t moment a s m a l l boy suddenly came up to me, a small & very grimy u r c h i n , & s a i d 'would you l i k e a f a r t h i n g ? ' so i r e p l i e d 'well why not keep i t — i t s ' good luck to have a f a r t h i n g ? besides i haven't got a penny to give you f o r i t . and he s a i d 'no, i don't want i t , i've g i v i n g my good luck to you.' he then ran away. strange! am. i am k i n g e l e p h a n t bag k i n g e l e p h a n t bag from de rose pink mountains. i e n c l o s e you a l e t t e r from one edward o ' b r i e n , a l l the more m y s t e r i o u s because he f a i l e d t o t a k e any n o t i c e of my r e p l y . . . moreover h i s l e t t e r m i s c a r r i e d t o m e - - i t pursued n o x o n h a l f round europe--!, s e n t him h o p e f u l l y my b i o g r a p h y ( i n cameo), as i t appears a t the back of the l e t t e r - - a t the same time g i v i n g away t h a t i was an e n g l i s h w r i t e r , not an american. i f you have any n o t i o n what o'brien means, meant, or i n t e n d s , i f a n y t h i n g , c o u l d you l e t me know some time i f your b r a i n w i l l f u n c t i o n i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n ? . . i never s u b m i t t e d him any s t o r y , & the o n l y s t o r y he can have read from e x p e r i m e n t i s the one about the m i c k e y , a l l of which improves the j o k e . i can assume o n l y t h a t he d i d mean t o p u b l i s h the t h i n g i n the volume, american & have a l r e a d y informed the o l d man on t h i s s c o r e to c o u n t e r a c t -in p a r t the e f f e c t of my ( p o s s i b l e ) f a i l u r e i n the exam which gawd f o r b i d . o'brien e i t h e r i g n o r e d or d i d n ' t r e c e i v e a c o u p l e of r e p l i e s , so i s e n t him a w i r e a s k i n g him i f he c o u l d g i v e me some i n f o r m a t i o n 'as was g o i n g t o p e r u , ' & r e c e i v e d the answer. 'o'brien i n the b a l k a n s — o ' b r i e n , ' which seems t o me funny. s t i l l , i would l i k e your a d v i c e . i t i s a n i c e p o i n t . and i t ' s t h a t s t o r y , you know, i n a l l i t s p r i s t i n e b e a u t y , conrad, f u l l of 'stop i t s - h e - m u t t e r e d . ' t h e y g r o w l e d ' s ' & t h e y howled's & 'there are you b e t t e r now's,' & f a r away, yo h a i , ' s long ago, yo ho. ["bone dream": enclosed with l e t t e r ] . p a i r of wings as you ever saw on a b l e e d i n g sparrow, and a l l of them on t h e i r way to a s t a r , or maybe i t was god i t s e l f . and a f t e r t h a t , a l i t t l e time, i was e a t i n g a s k e l e t o n , beginning with the f e e t and working up the l e g s , and d r y going i t was too, what with no sauce, never a drop of mustard nor w o r c e s t e r s h i r e , and the bones g e t t i n g b i t t e r e r and b i t t e r e r j u s t l i k e s e a - p i e as i crawled up through the p e l v i s and the r i b s - - ' ' ' - - l i k e the s t o r y of the f e l l e r who dreamt he saw the r e s u l t s o f - - s t o p me i f you've heard i t - - ' '--and the spine t a s t i n g l i k e the dead sea, l i k e ashes i n the mouth, & worse as i got towards the s k u l l , and the s k u l l i t s e l f a black mouthful of c h a r c o a l , which i s p i t out. and behemoth h i m s e l f then i saw, of course you know who he. i s , i n the v e r y a c t of b i t i n g the conningtower o f f an i n t e r s t e l l a r submarine, one of those e t h e r - g o i n g c r a f t with one eye, and a l l t h i s was a l i t t l e way o f f to the southwest from a pink s t a r - - i f o r g e t i t s name--that was wearing white drawers on i t l i k e a woman--' (p.t.o.) e x p l a n a t o r y notes houston p e t e r s o n , the melody of chaos; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . a i k e n ' s t e l e g r a m has not been l o c a t e d . "d. & r.d.e": see above: " d i s o r d e r e d and r a t h e r d e s p a i r i n g e x i s t e n c e . " see u l t r a m a r i n e : " . . . nor i s i t enough t o do t h e s e t h i n g s i n o r d e r t o l o a d o n e s e l f w i t h f i n e r mountains, to i d e n t i f y a f i n e r scene . . ." ( ). see u l t r a m a r i n e ( ). s j u l i u s caesar i i i . i i . : " i f i t were s o , i t was a g r i e v o u s f a u l t . " s i r w i l l i a m d'avenant ( - ), d r a m a t i s t ; s a i d t o be the godson of shakespeare; made poet l a u r e a t e i n . w i l l i a m r a l p h inge ( - ), dean of s t . p a u l ' s c a t h e d r a l , london, - ; p h i l o s o p h e r whose "outspoken e s s a y s " were p u b l i s h e d i n two s e r i e s , and . s see the times l i t e r a r y supplement thursday, june : . the r e v i e w of experiment c o n t a i n s the f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e t o lowry: "mr. malcolm lowry c o n t r i b u t e s a s h o r t s t o r y c o n s i s t i n g a l m o s t e n t i r e l y of the rough d i a l o g u e of a group of s a i l o r s p l a y i n g c a r d s ; a k i n d of prose fugue w i t h r e c u r r e n t themes, e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r i v e d . " on the same page i s an u n f a v o u r a b l e r e v i e w of the b r i t i s h p o e t , m a r t i n armstrong's ( - ), c o l l e c t e d poems. armstrong was a f r i e n d of a i k e n ' s who m a r r i e d the l a t t e r ' s f i r s t w i f e , j e s s i e macdonald. p r o b a b l y g r e a t c i r c l e . "bone dream": t h i s was a passage from a i k e n ' s g r e a t c i r c l e which lowry had wanted t o i n c o r p o r a t e i n t o u l t r a m a r i n e ; a i k e n r e f u s e d . the passage, i n lowry's h a n d w r i t i n g , would seem t o have been e n c l o s e d w i t h t h i s l e t t e r ; i t appears i n great c i r c l e ( ) i n a somewhat r e v i s e d form. see the "bone dream" appended t o the end of t h i s l e t t e r . a l l u s i o n t o t.s. e l i o t ' s , "the love song of j . a l f r e d p r u f r o c k " : "no! i am not p r i n c e hamlet, nor was meant t o be." cf. u l t r a m a r i n e : "a miasmic s t e n c h r o s e from the docks" ( ) . " s e l f r i d g e s " : department s t o r e i n london. see m e l v i l l e ' s moby-dick, n o r t o n c r i t i c a l e d i t i o n (new york: n o r t o n , ) . http://iii.ii. x s edward joseph h a r r i n g t o n o'brien ( - ) was born i n the u.s., but r e s i d e d i n england f o r most of h i s l i f e . he i s b e s t known as an e d i t o r and a n t h o l o g i s t , e s p e c i a l l y as an a u t h o r i t y on the s h o r t s t o r y ; from t o he a n n u a l l y e d i t e d the best s h o r t s t o r i e s . lowry's s t o r y , " s e d u c t i o ad absurdum" was p u b l i s h e d i n the best b r i t i s h s h o r t s t o r i e s of (new york: dodd, mead, & co., ) - . a c c o r d i n g to c l a r i s s a l o r e n z , lowry's s t o r y caused the volume t o be banned from b r i t i s h p u b l i c l i b r a r i e s ("misadventure," psalms and songs ). the " e n c l o s e d " l e t t e r from o'brien i s m i s s i n g . g e r a l d forbes noxon ( - ), canadian-born w r i t e r and r a d i o producer who s t u d i e d a t t r i n i t y c o l l e g e , cambridge and became p u b l i s h i n g - e d i t o r of exper intent i n . he and lowry met i n when lowry s u b m i t t e d h i s s t o r y " p o r t swettenham" t o e x p e r i m e n t . lowry i n t r o d u c e d noxon t o a i k e n i n the summer of , and i n noxon and h i s w i f e , b e t t y , s u b l e t jeake's house w h i l e lowry and the a i k e n s t r a v e l l e d i n s p a i n ( t i e s s e n ) . in the two r e g a i n e d c o n t a c t i n canada ( w i t h a i k e n ' s h e l p ) and remained f r i e n d s u n t i l lowry's death i n ; c f . l e t t e r , p. . i t was w i t h g e r a l d and b e t t y noxon t h a t lowry and h i s w i f e s t a y e d i n a f t e r t h e i r d o l l a r t o n shack burned down; c f . l e t t e r , p. , and l e t t e r , p. . " p o r t swettenham," experiment (feb. ): - . r e p r i n t e d i n r e v i s e d form as "on board the west hardaway," s t o r y i i i . (oct. ): - , and l a t e r reworked t o become c h a p t e r v of u l t r a m a r i n e . i e see n. above. [note w r i t t e n by a i k e n i n l e f t - h a n d margin of f i r s t page: "no d a t e : w r i t t e n from st c a t h . . c o l l e g e t o me, a t rye--the plympton s t r e e t i s of c o u r s e m's j o k e - - i t was my_ a d d r e s s i n the o t h e r cambridge. c . a . " ] t e x t u a l notes . - & on the whole\ {&} on the whole . e x p e r i e n c e e t c . \ experience<.> {etc.} . becoming w i t h me a d e s i r e \ becoming { w i t h me} a d e s i r e . - damn a l l t o me now,\ damn a l l t o me {now}, . a week or two back s i d e by s i d e w i t h \ a week or two back <next two> s i d e by s i d e w i t h . - - - o f my own c o n t r i b u t i o n \ - - o f my < [ i l l e g . ] > {own} c o n t r i b u t i o n . - - - i c a n ' t remember i t i n d e t a i l b u t \ - - i c a n ' t remember { i t i n d e t a i l } <anyway> {but} . w r o n g l y done & i \ w r o n g l y done & < [ i l l e g . ] > i . t o l o o k a t : \ t o look a t < i t > : . t h i s i s a r a t h e r s e l f i s h \ t h i s i s {a} r a t h e r s e l f i s h . the r e s t of the paper i n my o p i n i o n i s w e l l w o r t h r e a d i n g \ the r e s t of the paper { i n my o p i n i o n } i s w e l l worth r e a d i n g <in my o p i n i o n ) . i c o u l d do w e l l w i t h o u t i t , but as i w r i t e \ i c o u l d do { w e l l } w i t h o u t i t , but <as i t happ> as i w r i t e . t o pay the debt means\ t o pay the debt <or w r i t e about i> means . a f a r t h i n g , and not a h a l f p e n n y \ a f a r t h i n g , and <a> not a h a l f p e n n y . w a l k i n g o u t s i d e a f u l l e r s cafe',\ w a l k i n g o u t s i d e <the fu> a f u l l e r s c a f e , . a l l over london or cambridge,\ a l l over london {or cambr i d g e } , . so i r e p l i e d \ so i <said> r e p l i e d . i am k i n g e l e p h a n t bag\ i am k i n g e l e p h a n t <b>{b}ag . moreover h i s l e t t e r \ <however> {moreover} <the> { h i s } l e t t e r . - - i s e n t him h o p e f u l l y my b i o g r a p h y \ - - i s e n t him { h o p e f u l l y } my b i o g r a p h y . - i f you have any n o t i o n \ <have> { i f } you {have} any n o t i o n . from e x p e r i m e n t \ from <mine> e x p e r i m e n t . - p u b l i s h the t h i n g i n the volume, american & have a l r e a d y \ p u b l i s h the t h i n g i n <best s h o r t > the volume, american<. but w i l l i get f o r c e d out f o r b e i n g e n g l i s h ? > & have a l r e a d y . * b r i e n \ < [ i l e g . ] > { } ' b r i e n e n c l o s u r e ["bone dream"; mspc ubc. note w r i t t e n by a i k e n on v e r s o : "a fragment of great c i r c l e (or b. voyage? i c a n ' t f i n d i t ) which male proposed to i n c o r p o r a t e i n u l t r a m a r i n e - - i s a i d no! the i n t e r p o l a t i o n a t l e f t i s m a l e ' s i t h i n k . c.a."] . no sauce,\ no <sour> sauce, . - the r i b s - - ' " - - l i k e the s t o r y [. . .] heard i t - - ' '--and the s p i n e [. . .] mouth / \ the ribs<,>{--'} <and the> <{and the} s p i n e t a s t i n g l i k e the dead s e a , l i k e ashes> { ' - - l i k e the s t o r y of the < f e l l > <chap> { { f e l l e r } } <i dreamt about once) who dreamt he saw the r e s u l t s o f - - s t o p me i f you've heard i t - - ' } [ t h i s paragraph i s w r i t t e n i n the l e f t - h a n d margin of the page and i s the " i n t e r p o l a t i o n " mentioned by a i k e n above] {'--and the s p i n e t a s t i n g l i k e the dead s e a , l i k e ashes} i n the mouth, . c h a r c o a l , \ <ashes> { c h a r c o a l } , . - l i k e a woman--'\ l i k e a woman--' <'i knew a chap once who dreamt he saw) (p.t.o.) [the "p.t.o." may have been added l a t e r by a i k e n t o d i r e c t the r e a d e r t o h i s note on the v e r s o ] : from lowry t o aiken ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d [ s t . c a t h a r i n e ' s c o l l e g e , cambridge] [june ] i thought s o c r a t e s might be i n the n o v e l so am s e n d i n g you t h i s . see page of s i x p l a y s . i t ' s not bad, but not r e a l l y good. they're too many p i p e s of pan & fauns & females p l a y i n g l e a d e n f l u t e s : & a r i s t o p h a n e s gets, h i c c u p s . such rugs & j u g s & c a n d l e l i g h t s : which reminds me t h a t i saw the a n t i g o n e & the l y s i s t r a t a e x c e e d i n g l y w e l l done here a t the f e s t i v a l . . . w e l l , as i s a i d b e f o r e , i t s not good, but might suggest something t o you, i t i s a f t e r a l l , s o c r a t e s s p e a k i n g & he says something about a w i n d f l o w e r , t o o . . .* and t a l k i n g about the f e s t i v a l - - w h e n i s cambridge g o i n g t o see you? c o u l d you f o r i n s t a n c e i n v i t e y o u r s e l f on her t h i s week end, say the t h - r d , or a r e you too busy, & r o o t e d ? i t would be s w e l l t o see you though. e x p l a n a t o r y notes conrad a i k e n , great c i r c l e (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). see c l i f f o r d bax, " s o c r a t e s , " s i x p l a v s (london: v i c t o r g o l l a n c z l t d . , ) - . page i s the page on which the t e x t of the p l a y a c t u a l l y b e g i n s . i t i s u n c l e a r whether lowry has s e n t a i k e n a copy of s i x p l a y s or m e r e l y a t r a n s c r i p t i o n of s p e c i f i c passages from bax's p l a y . the f e s t i v a l t h e a t r e , cambridge. * see " s o c r a t e s , " s i x p l a v s : s o c r a t e s : ". . . next went t o a c e l e b r a t e d s c i e n t i s t . he t o l d me e x a c t l y how e v e r y t h i n g i s c o n s t r u c t e d — f r o m a w i n d f l o w e r t o the m i l k y way i t s e l f — a n d proceeded t o a s s u r e me t h a t the n o t i o n of human i m m o r t a l i t y i s a f a i r y - s t o r y f i t o n l y f o r nursemaids." ( ) t e x t u a l notes . i thought s o c r a t e s \ < > i thought s o c r a t e s . - s e n d i n g you t h i s . see page of s i x p l a y s . i t s ' not bad,\ s e n d i n g you t h i s . {see page of s i x p l a y s . } i t s ' not bad, [the i n s e r t i o n i s w r i t t e n a t the t o p r i g h t - h a n d s i d e of the page] : from lowry to aiken ms h; mspc ubc; unpublished hotell parkheimen dr'ammensveien oslo. [summer ] hi there, colonel aiken-- ss fagervik --of which, curiously, very many happy memories--has been l a i d up & i am here waiting a few days for another ship. it is a swell place; but the swellest place in i t , up in the mountains, is c a l l e d frognersaeteren. the language is quite f a n t a s t i c , & driven into myself. i do l i t t l e else but read tauchnitz e d i t i o n s ; and so doing i have discovered one f i r s t rate author, an american, j u l i a n green,* who writes in french, which is translated back again into english. so. my writing has changed--my hair i s going gray--i enclose you a poem about ducks which is in the tauchnitz anthology of english poetry of english & american authors!* take i t to the ship inn with you i f you are in rye, order a half quatern--& i beg of you to drink my health--& have a good laugh! and there's another one by gerald gould, too. once i could play panjo f i n e - - nobody speaks english here, & in the only conversation i have had about literature i was surprised to discover that the most famous english writer here was gibson. as the conversation progressed i noticed that somehow they'd got his c h r i s t i a n name wrong, henry instead of w i l f r i d . i pointed t h i s mistake out, & seeing my chance which i had been waiting for a l l t h i s time, i t o l d , s t u m b l i n g l y , your famous s t o r y about f r o s t & gibson a t the e n g l i s h f a i r . they were a s t o n i s h e d a t the i r r e l e v a n c e of t h i s because, as i l a t e r d i s c o v e r e d , t h e y were t a l k i n g a l l t h i s w h i l e about h e n r i k i b s e n - i s t h a t funny? i t i s p e r f e c t l y f a l s e — i have j u s t made i t up. anyhow, heaps of l o v e . malk [drawing on verso of l e t t e r ! e x p l a n a t o r y notes x lowry s a i l e d to norway aboard the s.s. f a g e r v l k i n the summer of . in f r o g n e r s a e t e r e n there vas a-veil-known r e s t a u r a n t and r e s o r t frequented by a r t i s t s . i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s i s where l o v r y met the norwegian w r i t e r , nordahl g r i e g ( - ). cf. a l s o ultra.ma.rlne ( ). * baron c h r i s t i a n bernhard von t a u c h n i t z ( - ), founder of a p u b l i s h i n g house a t l e i p z i g which i n began i s s u i n g a c o l l e c t i o n of b r i t i s h and american authors. j u l l e n h a r t r l d g e green ( - ), p a r i s - b o r n , american w r i t e r , c h r i s t e n e d " j u l i a n " but chose to keep the french s p e l l i n g of the name. lovry seems to have been q u i t e f a m i l i a r v i t h green's work, e s p e c i a l l y the patk journey ( ) ( f r . leviathan, ) which he owned and which i s mentioned i n h i s dark as the grave wherein mv f r i e n d is l a i d (new york: new american l i b r a r y , ). » the " e n c l o s e d " poem i s m i s s i n g . • g e r a l d gould ( - ), b r i t i s h j o u r n a l i s t , poet, and c r i t i c . w i l f r i d wilson gibson ( - ), b r i t i s h poet and p l a y w r i g h t . " t h i s drawing i s an i m i t a t i o n of the famous p a i n t i n g , "the s h r i e k " ( ; l i t h o g r a p h ) , by the norwegian p a i n t e r edvard munch ( - ). lowry may have viewed munch's p a i n t i n g s while i n o s l o . t e x t u a l notes . gibson.\ <wilfrld> gibson. . i n o t i c e d \ i <[ leg.]> n o t i c e d . - they were t a l k i n g a l l t h i s while about henrik ibsen — \ they were t a l k i n g { a l l t h i s w h i l e ! about henrik i b s e n — http://ultra.ma.rlne : from lowry to aiken ms h; unpublished woodland gardens highgate london n i c c/o john davenport ' [summer/autumn ] my dear conrad: i would have w r i t t e n you before t h i s o n l y i got beaten up i n an ulyssean b r a w l near k l e i n f e l d s ' i n c h a r l o t t e s t r e e t the f i r s t n i g h t of my a r r i v a l , and have been n u r s i n g an i n j u r e d c h i n and a t w i s t e d l i p s i n c e then; not so hot. i can't achieve a v e n i v i d i v i c i look a t a l l i n the l o o k i n g g l a s s , but no doubt i s h a l l get b e t t e r - - -- i s h a l l descend on rye sometime on wednesday, i seem to remember t h e r e ' s a t r a i n gets i n round about , but don't depend on t h a t because i don't know whether i t ' s s t i l l running; i f you're out i ' l l put up a t the ship or the george or the mermaid-- as a matter of f a c t i d i d w r i t e at l e n g t h four days ago, a dead l e t t e r 'that s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , h a l f - l i t e r a r y , h i n t i n g t h i n g which i always achieve,—how d i s g u s t i n g ! ' : and i t o r e i t up. o~i\.y*. gi yo< malcolm e x p l a n a t o r y notes cf. the brawl scene a t the end of the " n i g h t t o w n " e p i s o d e ( c h a p t e r i i ) of joyce's u l y s s e s . a f t e r g r a d u a t i n g from cambridge i n june , lowry j o i n e d the a i k e n s i n rye and from t h e r e moved t o london where he took up w i t h h i s o l d f r i e n d s , john davenport (see a d d r e s s above) and hugh sykes d a v i e s . a c c o r d i n g t o douglas day, k l e i n f e l d was the p u b l i c a n of the f i t z r o y tavern on c h a r l o t t e s t r e e t (malcolm lowry: a b i o g r a p h y ). i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t lowry was u s i n g davenport's a d d r e s s as h i s m a i i n g a d d r e s s , and not a c t u a l l y s t a y i n g w i t h him. " v e n i v i d i v i c i " : " v e n i , v i d i , v i c i , " l a t i n ; " i came, i saw, i conquered." a l l a r e i n n s i n rye. see blue voyage: "the l e t t e r s had been i n h i s v e r y w o r s t v e i n - - t h e s o r t of d i s i n g e n u o u s , h i n t i n g t h i n g , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s and l i t e r a r y , which he always a c h i e v e d (how r e v o l t i n g ) when the o c c a s i o n was e m o t i o n a l l y i m p o r t a n t " ( ). s " l^<* (c[\f<=< ": greek, " s i l e n c e s i l e n c e . " : from lowry t o aiken ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d conrad a i k e n jeakes house rye conrad may i come down and see you today i t i s u r g e n t but i ask w i t h a bowed mind m a l e [london] [ f e b r u a r y ] e x p l a n a t o r y notes lowry was p r o b a b l y hoping t o ask a i k e n ' s a d v i c e r e g a r d i n g the p u l l i n g of o'brien's the best s h o r t s t o r i e s of from l i b r a r i e s because of numerous " o b s c e n i t i e s " i n lowry's c o n t r i b u t i o n , " s e d u c t i o ad absurdum." t e x t u a l notes [ t h i s l e t t e r was p r o b a b l y not s e n t i n t h i s form but i s perhaps a d r a f t f o r a t e l e g r a m . i t i s w r i t t e n a t the bottom of a f e b r u a r y l e t t e r t o lowry from h i s f a t h e r ] : from lowry t o aiken ms h; mspc ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d [london] [ e a r l y ] some more c r a c k s . h i l l i o t i s a man who a d m i t t e d l y l i v e s i n " i n t r o v e r t e d comas" & t h a t i s p a r t of h i s t r o u b l e , however t y p i c a l i t may be: h i s i s a v i c a r i o u s n e s s beyond a statement of v i c a r i o u s n e s s because i t i s u n o b j e c t i f i a b l e , he i s never s u r e t h a t any emotion i s h i s own, & he q u i t e g e n u i n e l y i s "cuckoo", he i s a poet who c a n ' t w r i t e & may never be a b l e t o . and t h i s i s where i must t r y t o f i n d some m i t i g a t i n g f a c t o r i n i t s b e i n g p a r a s i t i c on "blue voyage". f i r s t , i f i n d i t i n u l t r a m a r i n e however much a c e n t o b e i n g w r i t t e n a t a l l , i t has g i v e n me f o r a t i m e , a dominant p r i n c i p l e --& i f b l u e voyage does t h a t f o r / , of i t s p u b l i c , what about the o t h e r ? second, under the r e i g n of bloom & sweeney, a g r e a t e r freedom seems t o be p e r m i t t e d , t h e s e a r e b e i n g absorbed i n t o the r a c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s : blue voyage, a p a r t from i t s b e i n g the b e s t n o n s e c u l a r s t a t e m e n t of the p l i g h t of the c r e a t i v e a r t i s t w i t h the courage t o l i v e i n a modern w o r l d , has become p a r t of my c o n s c i o u s n e s s , & i cannot c o n c e i v e of any o t h e r way i n which u l t r a m a r i n e might be w r i t t e n . i am p r o b a b l y t o blame f o r c e r t a i n s l a v i s h n e s s e s i n chapter i i i , because t h e y ' r e not good enough, (but i c o u l d n ' t do i t i n any o t h e r way),--& a l s o f o r s h e l t e r i n g my p r o t e a n n a t u r e behind a c e r t a i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the waste land. p h i l o s o p h e r s & t i n k l e t o n k l e e t c c o u l d be hooked out i f you want them y o u r s e l f . ( s h a n t i h means a song & a b r o t h e l as w e l l as the peace t h a t p a s s e t h a l l understanding)"* n e v e r t h e l e s s i have s a t & read my b l a s t e d book w i t h i n c r e a s i n g m i s e r y : w i t h a m i s e r y of such i n t e n s i t y t h a t i b e l i e v e m y s e l f sometimes t o be d i s p o s s e s s e d , a s p e c t r e of your own d i s c a r d e d i d e a s , whose o n l y c l a i m t o d i g n i t y e x i s t s i n t h o s e i d e a s . never mind--the book knows i t s got a paper c o v e r , - - f o r g i v e the f o r g o i n g somewhat pompous c r a c k s — someone s a i d "a s e e r & a p a t h f i n d e r " - - w e l l : once more i am a s k i n g you the way-- malcolm e x p l a n a t o r y notes dana h i l l i o t i s the p r o t a g o n i s t of u l t r a m a r i n e . see u l t r a m a r i n e : ". . . a man who b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t o l i v e i n i n v e r t e d , or i n t r o v e r t e d , commas . . ." ( ) . "bloom & sweeney": i . e . , james joyce and t.s. e l i o t . " p h i l o s o p h e r s and t i n k l e t o n k l e " : see u l t r a m a r i n e : " p h i l o s o p h e r s m a i n t a i n t h a t two and two make f o u r . but e v e r y l i t t l e doggie knows more" ( ) ; " . . . the goat b e l l s g o i n g t i n k l e t o n k l e t a n k l e tunk--" ( ) ; " t i n k l e t o n k l e t a n k l e tunk. s p i n k l e s p o n k l e s p a n k l e " ( ) . * " s h a n t i h " : see the l a s t l i n e of t.s. e l i o t ' s the waste land: " s h a n t i h s h a n t i h s h a n t i h " and u l t r a m a r i n e : "she s h a n t i h " ( ) . t e x t u a l notes [note w r i t t e n by a i k e n a t t o p of f i r s t page: " pages m i s s i n g - - c . a . " on the v e r s o of the two e x t a n t pages a r e typed passages from u l t r a m a r i n e . who a d m i t t e d l y l i v e s \ who { a d m i t t e d l y } l i v e s . a v i c a r i o u s n e s s beyond a s t a t e m e n t of v i c a r i o u s n e s s \ a v i c a r i o u s n e s s beyond < v i c a r i > a s t a t e m e n t of v i c a r i o u s n e s s . he q u i t e g e n u i n e l y i s "cuckoo"\ he q u i t e g e n u i n e l y <does t h i n k i n o t h e r p e o p l e s terras> i s "cuckoo" . he i s . a p o e t \ he<'s> {is.} a poet . - i f i n d i t i n u l t r a m a r i n e however much a c e n t o b e i n g w r i t t e n \ i f i n d i t i n <the book> { u l t r a m a r i n e } {however much a cento} b e i n g w r i t t e n . b l u e voyage\ <it> {blue voyage} . the o t h e r ?\ the o t h e r < , > ? . under the r e i g n \ <with> {under} the r e i g n . - these a r e b e i n g a b s o r b e d \ these <have> {are} b e i n g absorbed . a p a r t from i t s b e i n g the b e s t \ a p a r t from { i t s } b e i n g the b e s t . (but i c o u l d n ' t \ (but i < l i k e > c o u l d n ' t . - the waste land. p h i l o s o p h e r s [. . .] y o u r s e l f . ( s h a n t i h \ the waste land. { p h i l o s o p h e r s & t i n k l e t o n k l e e t c c o u l d be hooked out i f you want them y o u r s e l f . } ( s h a n t i h . i have s a t & r e a d \ i {have} s a t & r e a d : from lowry t o aiken ms h; mspc ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d [ c h a r l i e ' s bar] [cuernavaca, mexico] [summer ] work f o r c o n r a d . s t r i c t l y i m p e r s o n a l e x e r c i s e s i n e x c e s s . ( ) p r e l u d e t o mammon. s i r : d r i n k i n g i s a problem w i t h o u t doubt: whether or not we l i k e i t , whether or not the goddamn t h i n g w i l l put you on the s p o t with h e e b i e j e e b i e s hebephrene or gout: or lumbago* w i l l s e t you t a p p i n g out on b r a s s f e r r u l e t o s t o o l , t o r e s t , t o r o t . though r o t t i n g ' s a f i n e pastime f o r a s o t i t seems when we e x c r e t e we s h o u l d not s h o u t ; while even when we r e s t i t ' s more d i s c r e e t that we s h o u l d unambiguously r e s t . what o t h e r s t h i n k i s one torment of d r i n k but t h e s e have dung not dew upon t h e i r f e e t whose d r y c o n c e r n f o r us i s m a n i f e s t in the u b i q u i t y of the parched s o u l ' s s t i n k . - - t h i s was an i a m b i c pentametre t h a t was: gawd knows what t h i s i s but c a l l i t ( ) p r e l u d e t o a n o t h e r d r i n k t h i s t i c k i n g i s the most t e r r i b l e of a l l (oh yeah.) y u hear t h i s sound on s h i p s , you hear i t on t r a i n s i t i s the death-watch b e e t l e a t the r o t t e n t i m b e r of the w o r l d and i t i s d e a t h t o you t o o ; f o r w e l l you know that the h e a r t ' s t i c k i s f a i l i n g a l l the w h i l e always u b i q u i t o u s & s t i l l more s l o w . in the c a n t i n a t h r o b s the r e f r i g e r a t o r and a g a i n s t the s t r e e t the gaunt s t a t i o n hums. what can you say f a i r l y of a f a t man with a bent hand behind him & a c i g a r e t t e i n i t ? yet d e a t h i s i n the room, t h e r e i s d e a t h everywhere: that man c a r r i e s i t though i c a n ' t see h i s f a c e : the upturned s p i t o o n s mean i t , i t i s i n the g l a s s , the g i r l who r e f i l l s i t pours a g l a s s of d e a t h and i f t h e r e ' s d e a t h i n her t h e r e i s i n me. (or, the stag beetles battle to death. on the c a l e n d a r , s e t to the f u t u r e , the two s t a g s s t i l l , we take b a t t l e ourselves to d e a t h : man p a d d l e s h i s c o r a c l e t o the moon seriously.) which, seen a l s o i n l i g h t , i s as d i v i s i b l e as d e a t h . gawd knows what t h a t was & c h r i s t knows what t h i s i s , (though we a r e coming back t o the i a m b i c pentametre,) so suppose we c a l l i t , ( ) p r e l u d e t o a n o t h e r d r i n k . (daughter;— especially when the announcer pronounces his r*s l i k e w's.). -is t h i s an a i r p l a n e r o a r i n g i n my room? what i s i t t h e n , an i n s e c t , god knows what: god p r o b a b l y does know which i s the p o i n t ; or d i d k n o w — l e a v e i t a t t h a t — s o m e s o r t of h o r n e t . a i r p l a n e or a e r o p l a n e or j u s t p l a i n p l a n e , — some h i n t of something more than t h i s i s h e r e . i n s e c t , v i s i o n , or t e r r e s t r i a l v i s i t o r , - - some h i n t of something more than t h i s i s h e r e . some h i n t i s here & what s h o u l d i t be but t h i s ? to watch t h i s g u e s t , t o see what i t does. i t t a x i e s l i k e an avro s k i d d i n g t h r o u g h the f l y i n g f i e l d ' r i s e s l i k e a s o p w i t h , f l i e s i n t o a rage bangs a g a i n s t the l i g h t , s e t t l e s on the p r i n t e d page s o a r s : then f a l l s : then c a n ' t get up when i t r y t o h e l p him h i s hands evade my h e l p — i m y s e l f s e e i n g the o n l y p o s s i b l e e x i t . so god watches us w i t h l i d s which move n o t . but t h i s i s a r e p e t i t i o n of an ' i d e a ' b e f o r e the t e r r i b l e d e l i r i u m of god. here we a r e , the o l d i a m b i c a g a i n , j u s t t o show my o l d conrad i've d i d my l e s s o n s , but god & mezcal h e l p me i c a n ' t t h i n k of a n y t h i n g t o c a l l i t but ( ) p r e l u d e t o a n o t h e r d r i n k . where a r e the f i n e l y drunk? the g r e a t d r u n k a r d ? t h i s imponderable, s m a l l m y s t e r y p e r p l e x e s me a t m i d n i g h t c o n s t a n t l y where i s he gone & t a k i n g whence h i s t a n k a r d ? where a r e a l l gone my f r i e n d s the g r e a t unanchored? they d r i n k no more: t h e y go t o bed a t t h r e e i n a f t e r n o o n y e t dream more e a s i l y — - - ( l i v e r s a t l a s t of l i v e s f o r which t h e y h a n k e r e d ! ) - of e n d l e s s c o r r i d o r s of boots t o l i c k , or a t the end of them a l l the pope's t o e . where a r e your f r i e n d s you f o o l you have but one and t h a t a f r i e n d who a l s o makes you s i c k but much l e s s s i c k t h a n t h e y : & t h i s i know s i n c e i am the l a s t d r u n k a r d . and i d r i n k a l o n e . w e l l : my h o s t i n c u a n t l a vent n u t s . had t o be h e l d down t a k e n t o h o s p i t a l . i t was t r y i n g — f o r him, t o o , i guess,--& i g l a d j a n was s p a r e d the e x p e r i e n c e . ( i t s u d d e n l y o c c u r s t o me how much i l o v e you b o t h . you o l d m e p h i s t o p h e l e s . be happy, you two. i k i n d of f e e l you w i l l . ) come t o c h a r l i e ' s , where i am, soon: o l d a g g i e ' s got the o r r o r s somethink o r f u l . male e x p l a n a t o r y notes see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h i s l e t t e r . as lowry's t u t o r , a i k e n had been i n the h a b i t of g i v i n g h i s s t u d e n t p o e t r y e x e r c i s e s t o c o m p l e t e ; t h i s l e t t e r appears t o have been one of lowry's assignments w h i l e a i k e n was v i s i t i n g him i n mexico i n the summer of . cf'. a i k e n ' s ushant: an e s s a y (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ): ". . . t h a t c l i m a c t i c t a l k between them . . . a t c h a r l i e ' s p l a c e . . . when t h e y had f i n i s h e d w i t h hambo's (lowry's] e x e r c i s e i n s o n n e t - f o r m — ' a i r p l a n e , or a e r o p l a n e , or j u s t p l a i n p l a n e . . •. ' " ( ). c f . a l s o a i k e n ' s comments on these poems i n "the a r t of p o e t r y ix" ( ) . pun on a i k e n ' s p r e l u d e s f o r memnon. in both ushant and a heart f o r the gods of mexico (london: m a r t i n seeker, ), a i k e n w r i t e s of lowry's h a v i n g lumbago when he saw him i n mexico; lowry c l a i m e d he had c o n t r a c t e d i t from h i s swimming p o o l (day ). s a c c o r d i n g t o c l a r i s s a l o r e n z , t h i s l i n e was the one out of t h i s b a t c h of lowry's " v e r y f i n e " poems t h a t a i k e n e s p e c i a l l y l i k e d ( l o r e l e i two ) . c f . a l s o n. above. "avro" and " s o p w i t h " are both makes of a i r p l a n e s . • jan g a b r i a l ( - ), born j a n i n e vanderheim, lowry's f i r s t w i f e whom he m a r r i e d i n j a n u a r y . e "you b o t h " : conrad a i k e n and h i s new w i f e , mary (hoover) a i k e n ( - ), whom he m a r r i e d on j u l y . a i k e n had gone t o mexico t o o b t a i n a d i v o r c e from h i s second w i f e , c l a r i s s a l o r e n z , and t o marry mary hoover. t e x t u a l notes ( l e t t e r h e a d r e a d s : "vaughn-alken, p u b l i s h e r ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e apartado , mexico c i t y , mexico." on each of the t h r e e pages lowry has i n s e r t e d an "a" i n t o the "vaugh{a}n" and b e s i d e "aiken" a pun on an e n g l i s h a u t h o r ' s name as f o l l o w s : " - - i t ' s a m a r v e l l ! " ; " - - a h e r r i c k ! (pardon, j u s t a l i t t l e o n a m a t o p o e i < [ i l l e g . ] > ( c ! } ) " ( i n the o r i g i n a l t h i s i s e n c l o s e d w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s ; here and elsewhere i n t h i s l e t t e r i have changed them t o round b r a c k e t s t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n w i t h my e d i t o r i a l notes and a l t e r a t i o n s ] ; " — a l l donneations p l e a s e t o l o w r y / c h a r l i e s . " note w r i t t e n by a i k e n a t t o p of f i r s t page: "sent t o me by hand from c h a r l i e ' s bar i n cuernavaca, . c.a." see appendix i , p. , f o r photographic r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h i s l e t t e r ] but these\ but th<o>{e}se concern f o r us\ concern f o r <you> {us} (oh yeah.)\ [ t h i s i s enclosed w i t h i n square brackets i n the o r i g i n a l ] death to you too;\ death to you {too}; though i c a n ' t \ though i can<no>{'}t b a t t l e \ <battle> b a t t l e (or, the s t a g b e e t l e s [. . . .] s e r i o u s l y . ) \ [enclosed w i t h i n square brackets i n the o r i g i n a l ] what t h i s i s , (though we [. . .] pentametre,) so suppose\ what t h i s i s , {(}though we are coming back to the iambic pentametre,{)} so suppose [ t h i s phrase i s e n c l o s e d w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s i n the o r i g i n a l ] (daughter; e s p e c i a l l y when the announcer pronounces h i s r ' s l i k e w's.).\ [ i n the o r i g i n a l t h i s phrase appears i n the r i g h t - h a n d margin of the second page and i s e n c l o s e d w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s ] i myself s e e i n g \ <while> i myself see{ing} [. . .] d e l i r i u m of god. here we a r e , \ [. . .] d e l i r i u m of god. <( )> here we are, - - ( l i v e r s a t l a s t [. . .] h a n k e r e d ! ) — \ {--}(livers at l a s t of l i v e s f o r which they hankered{!}){--} my host\ my <friend> {host} t r y i n g - - f o r him, too, i guess,--\ t r y i n g { - - f o r him, too, i guess,--} ( i t suddenly [. . . .] you w i l l . ) \ [enclosed w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s i n the o r i g i n a l ] somethink\ < [ i l l e g . ] > somethink : from lowry t o aiken ms ubc; b r e i t ; day [ h o t e l f r a n c i a ] [apartado p o s t a l num. .] [oaxaca, oax., mex.] [december ) dear o l d b i r d . have now reached c o n d i t i o n of amnesia, breakdown, h e a r t b r e a k , consumption, c h o l e r a , a l c o h o l i c p o i s o n i n g , & god w i l l not l i k e t o know what e l s e i f he has t o which i s damned d o u b t f u l . a l l change h e r e , a l l change h e r e , f o r oakshot, c o c k s h o t , poxshot & fuck the whole b l o o d y l o t ! my o n l y f r i e n d - here a t e r t i a r y who p i n s a medal of the v i r g i n of guadalupe on my c o a t , f o l l o w s me i n the s t r e e t - - ( w h e n i am not i n p r i s o n , and he f o l l o w s me t h e r e too s e v e r a l t i m e s , ) & who t h i n k s i am j e s u s c h r i s t , which, as you know, i am not y e t , though i may be p r o g r e s s i n g towards t h i n k i n g i am m y s e l f . i have been i m p r i s o n e d as a spy i n a dungeon compared w i t h which the chateau d ' i f - - i n a f i l m - - i s a l i t t l e c o t t a g e i n the c o u n t r y o v e r l o o k i n g the s e a . i spend christmas--new years--wedding day t h e r e . a l l ray m a i l i s l a t e . where i t does a r r i v e i t i s a l l c o n t r a d i c t i o n & y o u r s i s c u t up i n t o l i t t l e h o l e s . don't t h i n k i can go on. where i am i t i s d a r k . l o s t . happy new year. malcolm. e x p l a n a t o r y notes lowry i s p r o b a b l y s p e a k i n g of h i s zapotecan f r i e n d , juan fernando marquez, who became the model f o r dr. v i g i l and juan c e r i l l o i n under the volcano and of juan fernando m a r t i n e z i n dark as the grave. cf. lowry's "garden of e t l a , " u n i t e d n a t i o n s world (june ): - . cf. under the volcano ( ) i n which the c o n s u l remembers a beggar p i n n i n g two m e d a l l i o n s d e p i c t i n g the v i r g i n of guadalupe on h i s c o a t - l a p e l . the chateau d ' l f c o n t a i n s the dungeon i n which edmond dantes i s i m p r i s o n e d i n a l e x a n d r e dumas' ( - ) le comte de m o n t e - c h r i s t o ( - ). lowry may be r e f e r r i n g here t o the f i l m v e r s i o n of the n o v e l produced by edward s m a l l f o r u n i t e d a r t i s t s . t h i s would be the a n n i v e r s a r y of lowry's m a r r i a g e t o jan g a b r i a l : j a n u a r y . the verb t e n s e here i s odd; i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t lowry i s i m i t a t i n g , i n e n g l i s h , the s p a n i s h use of the p r e s e n t tense f o r events i n the near f u t u r e . t e x t u a l notes [note w r i t t e n by m a r g e r i e lowry a t t o p of page r e a d s : " t o conrad a i k e n "; i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s l e t t e r was never s e n t t o a i k e n ] address [lowry has used the h o t e l f r a n c i a l e t t e r h e a d which i have quoted as the a d d r e s s f o r the l e t t e r ] . where i t does a r r i v e i t i s \ where i s does { a r r i v e } i t i s : from lowry t o aiken ms ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d [oaxaca, mexico] [ e a r l y ] a mi padre my dear dear f e l l o w : — a t the end of my goddamn l i f e , you a r e the o n l y man i w i s h t o w r i t e t o . — i n my c h u r l i s h way or not so c h u r l i s h ( c h u r c h i s h not r i c h a r d ) r e f . r i c h a r d c h u r c h . r e f . landscapes e t c . r e f . memory. way or as i t o c h u r l s t o me bygosh not a c h u r l i s h way a t a l l : h e l l & a typhoon of s t r u m p e t s : i meant--tucket w i t h i n , & a f l o u r i s h of s t r u m p e t s : & l e t plympton s t r e e t * weep i n the e a s t wind: my l i f e was a m i g n o t o r i o * of g r i e f & an e x c u ( r u c i ) s a d o of h a t e , - - r e w r i t t e n : ' e x c r u c i f i a d o of h a t e . ' - - j o k e o v e r . (note: excusado i s mexican f o r l a v a t o r y . ) & you were a p r o p h e t . i have done you d i r t once & a h a l f t w i c e but never s e r i o u s l y & always i t was w i t h j e a l o u s l y - - & l o v e . p l e a s e b e l i e v e i n my s i n c e r e f r i e n d s h i p & i f i d i e , g i v e me s a n c t u a r y . - - i s how t o w r i t e a v e r s e whether or not you l i k e i t / w h e t h e r or n o t (and p e t r a r c h w i l l not save you from the c u r s e . ) was s h o t , i m p r i s o n e d , r u i n e d , b i t c h e d , t o r t u r e d , c a s t r a t e d (not s u c c e s s f u l l y ) ; - - h e r e . t o l s t o y says t h i s does you good. --at any r a t e , i l e a r n t the meaning of s t o o l p i g e o n . s i m p l y : he s a t on the s t o o l a l l day r e p o r t e d what we s a i d . . . . i f you ask me what i t h i n k he was i t i s t h i s : a s h i t . but i s u g g e s t : put on your rough r e d pad. take the l e v i a t h a n . come & see conrad. n.b. p.s. . and what about a mutual c r a c k a t dad? x°<xcc?k/^- = p° b r e malcolm i see some of mary hoover's (mr's a i k e n ' s ) p i c t u r e s . they seem t o me b r i l l i a n t . and a l l l o v e t o h e r . and you. and jane. & john & joan and r y e & camberbeach - - & the tram e x p l a n a t o r y notes see appendix i , p. f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h i s l e t t e r . r i c h a r d church ( - ), e n g l i s h p o e t , n o v e l i s t , and c r i t i c ; a d v i s o r y e d i t o r f o r j.m. dent & sons from - . he r e v i e w e d the e n g l i s h e d i t i o n of a i k e n ' s the s o l d i e r : a poem i n " r i c h a r d church reviews recent p o e t r y , " john o'london's weekly dec. : . the r e f e r e n c e t o "landscapes e t c . " i s u n c l e a r , a l t h o u g h i t may be an a l l u s i o n t o a i k e n ' s landscape west of eden which was p u b l i s h e d by j.m. dent & sons as p a r t of a new p o e t r y s e r i e s i n . see lowry's "punctum i n d i f f e r e n s s k i b e t gaar v i d e r e " : "tucket w i t h i n , and a f l o u r i s h of t r u m p e t s " ( ) and " s e d u c t i o ad absurdum": "tucket w i t h i n , and a f l o u r i s h of s t r u m p e t s " ( ) . c f . a l s o u l t r a m a r i n e ( ) . plympton s t r e e t was a i k e n ' s address i n cambridge, m a s s a c h u s e t t s when lowry v i s i t e d him t h e r e i n . s " m i n g i t o r i o " : s p a n i s h , " u r i n a l " ; lowry has m i s s p e l l e d the word. lowry i s punning on the s p a n i s h words, "excusado," "washroom" or " t o i l e t , " and " c r u c i f i c a d o , " " c r u c i f i e d " ; " e l c r u c i f i c a d o " can be used t o mean "jesus c h r i s t . " see poem a t end of l e t t e r , p. . e see lowry's poem, " p r e l u d e t o mammon" i n l e t t e r , p. . a i k e n ' s t h i r d w i f e , mary hoover, was an a r t i s t . a i k e n ' s t h r e e c h i l d r e n by h i s f i r s t w i f e , j e s s i e macdonald. g e r a l d noxon t e l l s of t a k i n g the t r a i n w i t h lowry from rye "out p a s t the g o l f c o u r s e t o camber sands t o swim i n the channel waters . . . " ("malcolm lowry: " ). cf. a l s o lowry's august l e t t e r t o noxon i n which he, t o o , remembers the t r i p s t o camber beach ( t i e s s e n ) . t e x t u a l notes [ t h i s l e t t e r may never have been s e n t t o a i k e n . see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n ] . end o f \ end <of> {of} . - not so c h u r l i s h ( c h u r c h i s h not r i c h a r d r e f . r i c h a r d church, r e f . landscapes e t c . r e f . memory.) way or as i t o c h u r l s t o me\ not so c h u r l i s h { ( c h u r c h i s h not r i c h a r d { { r e f . r i c h a r d church, r e f . landscapes e t c . r e f . memory.}})} way or as i t o c h u r l s t o me [ t h e s e i n d e n t e d l i n e s a r e w r i t t e n a t the top r i g h t - h a n d s i d e of the page] . m i g n o t o r i o of g r i e f & an e x c u ( r u c i ) s a d o of h a t e , — \ m i g n o t o r i o {of g r i e f } & an e x c u { ( r u c i ) i s a d o {of h a t e , — } . r e w r i t t e n : ' e x c r u c i f i a d o of h a t e . ' - - j o k e o v e r . \ ( w r i t t e n i n l e f t - h a n d margin] . - joke o v e r . (note: excusado [. . .] l a v a t o r y . ) & you\ joke o v e r . {(note: excusado i s mexican f o r l a v a t o r y . ) } & you [the i n s e r t i o n i s w r i t t e n a t the bottom l e f t - h a n d s i d e of the page and was o r i g i n a l l y e n c l o s e d w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s ] . - was s h o t [ . . . .] come & see conrad\ [ w r i t t e n a t . l e f t - h a n d s i d e of bottom h a l f of page] . and a l l l o v e t o h e r . \ and { a l l } l o v e t o h e r . . & john & j o a n \ ( w r i t t e n i n bottom r i g h t - h a n d c o r n e r of page] - . . . a g a i n , my a n c i e n t d o p p e l g a n g e r , i am, deep down i n my psyche . . . damned l i k e you. a p r i l l e t t e r from lowry t o a i k e n - a f t e r a year of s p o r a d i c d r i n k i n g and w r i t i n g i n los a n g e l e s , w i t h no hope of a r e u n i o n w i t h jan who was by t h i s time s u e i n g f o r d i v o r c e , lowry was " r e s c u e d " i n by m a r g e r i e bonner, the woman who was t o become h i s second w i f e . u n f o r t u n a t e l y , lowry's f a t h e r appears t o have l e a r n e d of h i s son's new r o m a n t i c i n v o l v e m e n t through benjamin p a r k s , a los a n g e l e s lawyer whom he had p l a c e d i n charge of lowry's a f f a i r s . in j u l y , under the o r d e r s of a r t h u r . lowry, p a r k s h u s t l e d lowry t o b r i t i s h columbia on the p r e t e x t of r e n e w i n g h i s v i s a , and had him p l a c e d under the c a r e of two vancouver l a w y e r s , a.b. carey and v i c t o r maclean. lowry, f i n d i n g h i m s e l f unable to r e c r o s s the b o r d e r and r e j o i n m a r g e r i e i n the u n i t e d s t a t e s , e v e n t u a l l y took up r e s i d e n c e i n the home of m a u r i c e carey on west th ave. a f t e r one f a i l e d attempt a t c r o s s i n g the b o r d e r , he asked m a r g e r i e t o j o i n him i n vancouver, which she d i d i n august of t h a t y e a r . i t i s a t t h i s time t h a t lowry wrote what was t o be the f i r s t of many d e s p e r a t e l e t t e r s t o a i k e n p l e a d i n g f o r h e l p i n d e a l i n g w i t h the "old man." with the onset of the war, the a i k e n s had l e f t rye and, on september, s a i l e d t o new york, s e t t l i n g f i r s t i n south d e n n i s , t h e n i n b r e w s t e r , m a s s a c h u s e t t s where i n may t h e y bought an " o l d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y r u i n " c a l l e d " f o r t y - one doors" ( l e t t e r , p. - ). in response t o lowry's r e q u e s t , a i k e n d i d i n t e r c e d e w i t h both p a r k s and lowry's f a t h e r , a s k i n g t h a t lowry be a l l o w e d t o j o i n him i n m a s s a c h u s e t t s where he would a c c e p t f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r him. however, j u s t when s u c c e s s seemed c l o s e a t hand, l o v r y was r e f u s e d e n t r y i n t o the u n i t e d s t a t e s , and h i s p l a n s f o r an immediate r e u n i o n w i t h a i k e n were r u i n e d ( l e t t e r , p. ). in the meantime, because of the b r i t i s h t r e a s u r y ' s r e s t r i c t i o n s , lowry had stopped r e c e i v i n g money from h i s f a t h e r , and as a r e s u l t , m a u r i c e carey had g i v e n him and m a r g e r i e one month to v a c a t e h i s house. i n i t i a l l y t h e y moved i n t o an apartment on west th avenue; t h e n , on august , s e e k i n g s t i l l cheaper accommodation, t h e y r e n t e d a beach shack i n d o l l a r t o n on the n o r t h shore of b u r r a r d i n l e t . by a p r i l t h e y had bought t h e i r own shack i n d o l l a r t o n , and i t was here t h a t t h e y f i n a l l y s e t t l e d down t o the r e w r i t i n g of under the v o l c a n o , a t a s k which was to t a k e the n e x t s i x y e a r s . : from aiken t o lowry k i l l o r i n belmont, mass. oct. my b e l o v e d j u d a s - m a l e - - i t was good t o hear from you, not so good i n a l l r e s p e c t s (but i n some) t o hear your b a g f u l of queer news. but what can i do t o h e l p you--? damn a l l . i'm a b i t knocked- oop m e s e l f , we're broke t o the wide, on borrowed money (and l i t t l e a t t h a t ) and about t o l i v e i n one of j a k e ' s c o t t a g e s , which we g e t f o r n o t h i n g , on the cape. cash, n i l . p r o s p e c t s , dim. nor can i f i n d anyone who would l e n d me more, a t the moment. a l l i can i m m e d i a t e l y s u g g e s t i s t h i s : i t a l k e d of your p l i g h t w i t h my a g e n t , b e r n i c e baumgarten, brandt & b r a n d t , park avenue, n.y., and of your work, and she s a i d t h a t i f you would have your rass--all you can get h o l d o f - - s e n t t o h e r , as per above, she would see what c o u l d be done. i f some p u b l i s h e r - - a n d t h e r e of c o u r s e i'd m y s e l f add my say-so--would t a k e an i n t e r e s t , something might t h e n be done i n the way of g e t t i n g some money t o you, and t h e r e a f t e r a r r a n g i n g t o summon you t o new york as i t were f o r " b u s i n e s s " - - w h i c h would perhaps c a r r y weight w i t h the a u t h o r i t i e s ? anyway, l e t me know quam e e l about t h i s , and b e r n i c e t o o , and w e ' l l go on t r y i n g t o i m p r o v i s e something. what about the old man. would i t be any use my w r i t i n g t o him, and i f so t o what e f f e c t - - v i z . , what l i n e would most p r o f i t a b l y t a k e — i f any--? but anyway, don't be down-hearted--we' maybe t h i n k of a way o u t . or i n . - - o u r s e l v e s , worn out and i l l w i t h ours and the w o r l d ' s t r o u b l e s , but of good h e a r t . a new n o v e l (and a new p u b l i s h e r ) a new book of s o n n e t s and a new d e a l e r f o r mary's p i c t u r e s i n new y o r k — s o we a t any r a t e f e e l t h a t we a r e b u i l d i n q something. . . . e d ' s s p i c t u r e s a r e i n the b r i t i s h p a v i l i o n a t the f a i r - - h e may come over i n january--why not keep your eye on boston? a good p l a c e . a v o i d the array my dear f e l l o v - - n o t h i n g i n i t . as f o r j a n e t c e t , and the new g a l , b l e s s i n g s and c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s . and mary j o i n s me i n s e n d i n g l o v e - - l o t s of i t - — conrad. i f you p r e f e r , have the mss. s e n t f i r s t t o me, and i ' l l c o n f e r w i t h l i n s c o t t about the n e x t s t e p s . j u s t as .you l i k e . have you f i n i s h e d b a l l a s t — ? b e x p l a n a t o r y notes george b. w i l b u r ( - ), h a r v a r d f r i e n d of a i k e n ' s who had a p s y c h i a t r i c p r a c t i c e i n south dennis; e d i t o r of american imago from - . "quam c e l e r r i m e " : l a t i n , "as f a s t as p o s s i b l e . " c o n v e r s a t i o n : or p i l g r i m s ' p r o g r e s s (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). and i n the human heart (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). s ed b u r r a ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . jan g a b r i a l : lowry's f i r s t w i f e ; c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . r o b e r t l i n s c o t t ( - ), f r i e n d o f a i k e n ' s ; e d i t o r a t houghton m i f f l i n i n boston from - and a t random house from - . " i n b a l l a s t t o the white sea" was a n o v e l based upon lowry's v i s i t t o n o r d a h l g r i e g i n norway i n the summer of ; the m a n u s c r i p t of the n o v e l was d e s t r o y e d by f i r e when the lowrys' d o l l a r t o n shack burned down i n june . t e x t u a l notes [no o r i g i n a l i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s l e t t e r ; i have t h e r e f o r e had t o r e l y on joseph k i l l o r i n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n ( )] : from lowry to aiken ms ubc; b r e i t [november ] --mein l i e b e r a l t e r s e n l i n f o r s l i n malcolmn c o f f i n aiken: - s i n c e my l a s t b a g f u l of news the s i t u a t i o n has become so b l o o d y c o m p l i c a d o t h a t i f we do not r e c e i v e some h e l p , and a t t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y , i s h a l l l o s e what remains of my r e a s o n , not t o s a y , l i f e . i t i s a l l , ( l i k e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e ) , such a c o m p l e x i t y of m e l a n c h o l y o p p o s i t e s , t h a t , a l t h o u g h i e x p e c t you t o u n d e r s t a n d i t a l l , i'm not g o i n g to attempt t o e x p l a i n i t : i s h a l l j u s t hang the more s u c c u l e n t l o o k i n g hams of m i s f o r t u n e i n the window hoping t o e n t i c e you i n t o where the whole p i g , t h a t would be c u t down, i s h a n g i n g . when i r e t u r n e d t o los a n g e l e s (from mexico) to j a n , whom i knew was l i v i n g w i t h someone e l s e , t h i s j o u r n e y b e i n g a t the o l d man's r e q u e s t , - - i t r a v e l l e d by the great c i r c l e t o o , the r a i l r o a d b e i n g b u i l t by a b r i t i s h c o n c e s s i o n , p a i d by the k i l o m e t r e so i t n a t u r a l l y went the most roundabout way, but the t r a i n d i d not h u r r y and i t i s r a t h e r f a r t h e r as you know t h a n from new york t o b o s t o n , - - i p r a c t i c a l l y went t o p i e c e s , t h i s b e i n g due p a r t l y t o i l l n e s s , p a r t l y t o j a n , who, w i s h i n g t o r a t i f y her i n f i d e l i t y perhaps had w r i t t e n the o l d man t h a t i was i n c a p a b l e and s h o u l d be c e r t i f i e d incompetent or words t o t h a t e f f e c t , f o r which i n f o r m a t i o n she r e c e i v e d , per o l d man, a l a r g e i s h sum of money t o look a f t e r me, which she pocketed l a t e r , i a f t e r w a r d s d i s c o v e r e d and went p r o m p t l y t o santa b a r b a r a w i t h her b o y f r i e n d , l e a v i n g me, a s o r t of l e a r of the s i e r r a s , d y i n g by the g l a s s i n the brown derby i n h o l l y w o o d : i d o n ' t , of c o u r s e , blame h e r , — b e t t e r o f f i n the brown derby, but no m a t t e r . my income was then put i n t o the hands of an a t t o r n e y named p a r k s , a c r o o k e d but a m i a b l e f e l l o w w i t h hay f e v e r and some k i n d of l e g a l r a p p o r t w i t h the o l d man's london s o l i c i t o r s , who p a i d my b i l l s but gave me no money. a f t e r a year a l o n e , c l o s e t o jan's a f f a i r but s e e i n g her o n l y t w i c e - - i s u f f e r e d h o r r i b l y but was t a k e n out of the brown derby & d e s p a i r by a grand g a l named m a r g e r i e b o n n e r but no sooner had t h i s t o happen than i was t a k e n s u d d e n l y by p a r k s t o canada--i was t a k e n s u d d e n l y t o canada, by p a r k s on the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h i s j a u n t here was s i m p l y i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a v i s a back t o the u.s. here he p l a c e d my money i n the hands of two men whom he s c a r c e l y knew, one of whom, maclean, i b e l i e v e t o be honest enough, but who, b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y away on s e c r e t s e r v i c e , was & i s u n a p p r o a c h a b l e : the o t h e r , a.b. c a r e y * — d o n ' t f o r g e t the a.b oh b e s t b e l o v e d — w h o was & i s s i m p l y a dung c a r t e x c e p t f o r the s t r a w which i s i n h i s f e e t , but a l s o the most u p r i g h t c i t i z e n of vancouver, & a member of the o x f o r d group. for him, no more d a n c i n g on h e l l ' s b r i g h t s a b b a t h g r e e n , the u p r i g h t n e s s h a v i n g d e p a r t e d t o h i s s o u l , which s t i n k s e q u a l l y i f p o s s i b l e . p a r k s then v a n i s h e d . a f t e r two months g o i n g q u i e t l y i n s a n e c a r e of the o x f o r d group, war was a l s o d e c l a r e d . a l l might have been w e l l had not t h i s o x f o r d grouper d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i was i n l o v e w i t h m a r g e r i e whom i hope t o god you meet & l o v e as you do me who had s t u c k by me t h r o u g h t h i c k & t h i n m o s t l y t h i n , s h a r i n g c o n d i t i o n s w i t h me which make g o r k i ' s lower depths l o o k l i k e a d r a w i n g room comedy. when a.b. carey d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i was m a r r i e d , as a m a t t e r of f a c t my i n t e r l o c u t o r y decree had j u s t been g r a n t e d , & proposed t o r e t u r n t o a n o t h e r g i r l , he s a t on my money, abused my c o n f i d e n c e , s a i d t h a t i was c o m m i t t i n g a m o r t a l s i n i n l o v i n g a n o t h e r woman t h a n my w i f e , read my l e t t e r s , & a c t u a l l y i n t e r f e r e d w i t h my m a i l . then war was d e c l a r e d , & here was i l e f t on the wrong s i d e of the b o r d e r . now i had the v i s a , t o get back but a.b. carey would g i v e me no money. so i w i r e d m a r g e r i e f o r enough money t o make the t r i p back t o los a n g e l e s , which she d i d , & was t u r n e d back a t the b o r d e r , a.b carey h a v i n g a l r e a d y presumably i n f o r m e d the a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t i would be unable t o s u p p o r t m y s e l f on the o t h e r s i d e . in t r y i n g t o get out of the hands of t h e s e b a s t a r d o s by which i mean a l s o the e n t i r e o x f o r d group as w e l l by any means and back t o los a n g e l e s , where l i v e d m a r j o r i e , who was and i s t o me l i k e those o l d n i c e a n b a r k s of y o r e , and who d w e l t among the t r e e s t h a t haven't had a headache as l o n g as i have, and from whom i had a l s o borrowed the money f o r the j o u r n e y , and f a i l i n g i n the l a t t e r a t t e m p t because i had no c o n v i n c i n g p r o o f of income t o show a t the b o r d e r - - t h i s p a r t i s v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d , so i ' l l come back t o i t l a t e r - - a . b . carey & p a r k s had guessed a l l t h a t — i now found m y s e l f then i n , the hands of one m a u r i c e (and don't f o r g e t the m a u r i c e , oh b e s t b e l o v e d ) c a r e y , * w i t h whom i , t h a t i s t o s a y we (i s h a l l e x p l a i n l a t e r ) a r e a t p r e s e n t s t a y i n g . at t h i s p o i n t i s h o u l d s t a t e more c l e a r l y t h a t i l e f t m a r j o r i e i n hollywood f u l l y e x p e c t i n g my r e t u r n , t h a t i l i v e d o n l y f o r t h a t r e t u r n , but t h a t a s e r i e s of o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s i won't i n f l i c t upon you f o l l o w i n g on the p r e v i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s i n los angeles owing t o the murderous b i t c h i n e s s of jan about d i v o r c e and c u l m i n a t i n g i n my u n s u c c e s s f u l attempt t o r e t u r n t o m a r j o r i e , f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t jan & she l i v e d i n the same town, and by p a r k s f r u s t r a t i n g me on one s i d e , a.b. carey on the o t h e r , and the f a m i l y s o l i c i t o r s on b o t h , had brought me t o the verge of a r e a l breakdown, one of the k i n d w i t h c a s t i r o n w h i s t l e s w h i s k e r s on i t . there was not o n l y m a r j o r i e , you s e e , but a l l my work, in the u n i t e d s t a t e s in one p a r t p o r t or a n o t h e r . there was the war, t o o , so i d i d n ' t e x p e c t t o f i n i s h a l l the work, but d i d e x p e c t t o see you, and a p p o i n t you, i f you were t o be found, a l i t e r a r y e x e c u t o r , and i had a c c o m p l i s h e d much. no excuse would wash w i t h the f a m i l y , though i had v o l u n t e e r e d t o f i g h t f o r england i n e n g l a n d , & even p o s s e s s e d a r e t u r n t i c k e t v i a the b e r e n g a r i a , which a l t h o u g h l o n g s i n c e broken up as a f i r e t r a p , i s s t i l l a s h i p i f o n l y i n the memory, and a r e t u r n t i c k e t i s s t i l l a r e t u r n t i c k e t even i f l e f t behind i n mexico & t u r n e d i n a t cooks i n the avenida de madera. so, conrad, t o make a s h o r t s t o r y l o n g e r , t u r n e d back and a t the dock's d a r k ' s edge, knowing how c o l d the water was, i w i r e d m a r g e r i e ( w i t h what was l e f t of her f a r e ) t o come i m m e d i a t e l y t o vancouver, a d i s t a n c e r a t h e r f a r t h e r than t h a t from london t o warsaw, as i needed h e r , which she d i d . when she a r r i v e d she found me i n such a s t a t e of d e s p a i r t h a t she wrote back & r e s i g n e d her job a t home t o take c a r e of me. now the s e t up is t h i s . m a u r i c e carey c o l l e c t s the p i t t a n c e l e f t by the o t h e r two who s i t on the m o n e y , — a l l o w i n g me $ a week f o r m y s e l f & m a r j o r i e , i n r e t u r n f o r which we get a bed & one meal a day i f we're l u c k y . and s e c r e c y , from a.b. carey & maclean. there i s f a m i l y of s i x , i n c l u d i n g a l o u d s p e a k e r , a h o w l i n g wind which rages t h r o u g h the house a l l day, t w i n s and a n u r s e , who s l e e p s w i t h the youngest boy, aged . mrs carey, who t h i n k s we a r e m a r r i e d , says t h a t t h i s i s n ' t r i g h t . nor do i . nor would you, t h i n k s o , we t h i n k . i f o r g o t the dog, the c a n a r y , & a hindoo t i m b e r merchant, educated a t corpus c h r i s t i , oxford--you c a n ' t get away from ox£ord--who s l e e p s i n the w o o d p i l e i n the basement h o p i n g , w i t h h i s f i n e o r i e n t a l calm, t h a t one day h e ' l l be p a i d f o r the wood. we a r e , t h e r e f o r e , as you might guess, more or l e s s b e d r i d d e n , not because we a r e more i l l than usual--we have s t o u t i s h h e a r t s too even i f a t r i f l e c r a c k e d — b u t because bed i s the o n l y p l a c e i n vancouver where we have found e i t h e r p l e a s u r e or p r o t e c t i o n , p r o t e c t i o n because once i t i s known by a.b. carey -a.b. f o r d i s a b l e d semen --that margie i s h e r e , she w i l l be d e p o r t e d , s i n c e she i s by now i n canada i l l e g a l l y , t o p a r t s unknown, & o u r s e l v e s s e p a r a t e d . i t i s not t h a t the bed l i n e n i s stamped w i t h the l i n e a m e n t s of l a s t weeks l o v e & the muddy boots of the week b e f o r e , not t h a t t h a t one day the f e a r t h a t the more d e t e s t a b l e of the t w i n s may be f o u n d — t h e r e was something a p p e a l i n g i n i t s upturned f a c e as we l i f t e d i t t e n d e r l y out of the t o i l e t — m y s t e r i o u s l y drowned,--not t h a t the o v e r s e x e d hindoo has an axe d o w n s t a i r s & t h a t we know he i n t e n d s t o use i t nor t h a t the sound of the r a d i o i s l i k e the v o i c e s of the damned h o w l i n g f o r h e l p , or t h a t maurice carey, who i s an e x - s e r g e a n t major w i t h a d i s a b i l i t y , and how, has a h a b i t of d r i l l i n g an i m a g i n a r y p l a t o o n up & down the s t a i r s a t t h r e e o c l o c k in the morning, not t h a t vancouver i s l i k e the p o r t o b e l l o road m a g n i f i e d s e v e r a l thousand t i m e s , - — n o t m i s e r y , oh demarest - -—and i s the most h o p e l e s s of a l l c i t i e s of the l o s t , not a l l the b e l l s and c l a s h e s of the n i g h t , which a p p a l us: i t i s the thought r a t h e r of the a b s o l u t e i n j u s t i c e of a l l t h i s , of the m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , of the h o p e l e s s n e s s of communication, and the thought a l s o t h a t a sentence which i s b e g i n n i n g ( w i t h of c o u r s e the above r e s e r v a t i o n s ) t o be f a i r , may a t any moment be f i n i s h e d w i t h a b l o t : t h a t w i l l stamp our l i v e s o u t . but, from b r a s s bedsteads t o b r a s s t a c k s . for by now you can see by now t h a t we cannot remain here much l o n g e r or god knows what w i l l happen. now, as t o the l i n e , the hook l i n e & s i n k e r , t o use w i t h the o l d man, i f you see f i t t o t a k e one. b e f o r e you take any though, perhaps i t i s b e s t t o know t h a t my r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h m. carey is f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t he has w r i t t e n to my f a t h e r a s k i n g t o be made t r u s t e e f o r my money h e r e , w i t h the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t he would then t u r n i t over t o me f o r a c e r t a i n c u t each month. b e i n g so d e s p e r a t e t o be w i t h margie i agreed t o t h i s as a t the time he seemed s y m p a t h e t i c — t o do him j u s t i c e , he i s s o r t o f , — b u t what w i t h the t w i n s & the hindoo & a l l we a l l have our b l o o d y t r o u b l e s & have to use c e r t a i n methods t o s o l v e them not sometimes the r e a l r i g h t t h i n g , — b u t he has s i n c e proved d i f f i c u l t , f o r i n s t a n c e , he pawned my t y p e w r i t e r one day w i t h o u t my knowledge, which i d i d n ' t e x a c t l y l i k e , t h i s one i s b o r r o w e d , & s h o u l d he get c o n t r o l of the money, we might not get enough to l i v e on, & anyhow t h e r e i s a l w a y s the t e r r i b l e f e a r t h a t margie may be d e p o r t e d : so you must not s a y a n y t h i n g about t h i s t o the f a m i l y because, i f i t i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r you t o h e l p us (& t r y & r e a l i s e t h a t your h e l p i s not j u s t h e l p , o n l y , i must see you & a l s o owe a d u t y t o y o u ) , & we a r e f o r c e d t o remain h e r e , we s h a l l have t o depend on him. margie i s american h e l p l e s s , & u t t e r l y w i t h o u t money, & were she d e p o r t e d i t would be t o h o l l y w o o d , she would have n o t h i n g t o l i v e on, & moreover, she would be, f o r many reasons i n an u n t e n a b l e p o s i t i o n , & a l s o she c o u l d not s t a n d b e i n g w i t h o u t me. anyhow i am v e r y near a mental & nervous c o l l a p s e , though c h e e r f u l n e s s i s always b r e a k i n g i n & i know t h a t i f margie (whom you & mary would adore) & i were s e p a r a t e d , u n l e s s i c o u l d f e e l she were g o i n g t o you, or a f r i e n d of y o u r s , or somewhere where she c o u l d be near a t l e a s t the hope of s e e i n g me a g a i n , or near some encouragement of t h a t hope or assuagement of i t s l o s s , which she would not have i n h o l l y w o o d , she would break up b e c a u s e — b u t why go on? we would both break. as t o j o b s here i would t a k e any one, but i cannot because of my s t a t u s h e r e : nor are t h e y t a k i n g any more r e c r u i t s . i have f r e q u e n t l y wanted t o go t o new york or b o s t o n where i would be i n t o u c h w i t h f r i e n d s of yours and get a j o b but•have been f o i l e d always by p a r k s who would never t r u s t me w i t h the money—& i never seemed t o be a b l e t o e a r n any a t the r i g h t moment—then t h e r e was jan & i was f e e l i n g a b i t knocked oop about t h a t , & so on ad f i n i t u m : and the f a m i l y i d e a , of c o u r s e , always was, a t a d i s t a n c e , h a v i n g the most s i n i s t e r and m o s t l y (but not a l w a y s ) f a n c i f u l i d e a of my g o i n g s on, t h a t i would be h o r s i n g around, " f r e e l a n c i n g " , as t h e y put i t , "not under p r o p e r s u p e r v i s i o n , " - - e t c i t i s queer, when a l l i w i s h i s t o be independent, t h a t i s h o u l d now be p l a c e d f o r c i b l y i n a p o s i t i o n where i t i s v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e , a l t h o u g h a l l t h i s i s q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the p a t t e r n of my f a t h e r ' s g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e . now you c o u l d s u g g e s t t o my f a t h e r , i f the p l a n doesn't work by c a b l e , (a l i t t l e l o n g perhaps) which would be b e t t e r , among o t h e r t h i n g s which may occur t o you, t h a t : . ( ) you would be the t r u s t e e of my income & my g u a r d i a n , but t h a t your p o s i t i o n would be t o t r y & h e l p me. f i n d a p o s i t i o n i n which i can be independent, i n s h o r t you know you can f i n d a j o b f o r me, s u b j e c t of c o u r s e t o the l i m i t a t i o n s of my s t a t u s , & t i m e . ( ) you c e r t a i n l y would be more l i k e l y t o expend i t , t h a t i s my income, i f any, f o r my b e n e f i t than an u t t e r s t r a n g e r , w i t h whom i'm u n s y m p a t h e t i c & who c a r e s n o t h i n g f o r me. ( ) my l e t t e r s u g g e s t s t o you t h a t i am d e s p e r a t e l y unhappy, a b s o l u t e l y a l o n e & w i t h o u t f r i e n d s i n an abominable c l i m a t e , but p a r t i c u l a r l y unhappy because of the u n f a i r n e s s of not o n l y b e i n g r e n d e r e d unable t o f i n i s h a l l my work, but unable t o c o n v i n c e p a r k s or england t h a t i t e x i s t s , or i s i m p o r t a n t , or t h a t the d e f i n i t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g was t h a t i s h o u l d be a l l o w e d t o go back t o a m e r i c a . ( ) they o b j e c t e d t o my g o i n g e a s t on my own hook b e f o r e t o see p u b l i s h e r s because t h e y would not t r u s t me: t h e r e f o r e you must make i t p l a i n t h a t i w i l l be under p r o p e r s u p e r v i s o n : v i z , i n your home & i n your c o n s t a n t c a r e : a l s o t h a t i have got p u b l i s h e r s who a r e i n f l u e n t i a l people who a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n my work. ( ) that i have made e v e r y attempt t o e n l i s t h e r e , a p p a r e n t l y , but have been t u r n e d down e i t h e r because of h e a l t h or s t a t u s , you don't know w h i c h , & now t h e y a r e t a k i n g no more r e c r u i t s . however, i f two b i r d s must be k i l l e d w i t h one s t o n e , your own home i s o n l y a s h o r t j o u r n e y from e a s t e r n canada, & l a t e r , when my work i s i n the r i g h t hands, & t h e y a r e a g a i n t a k i n g r e c r u i t s , i c o u l d have a n o t h e r s h o t from the e a s t . (i may agree w i t h you e v e n t u a l l y , conrad, t h a t t h e r e a r e b e t t e r i n s t i t u t i o n s than the army but i t p r o b a b l y would not be t a c t f u l t o s a y t h i s t o people who may be b e i n g bombed, even as you w r i t e . ) ( ) can you make i t p l a i n t o my f a t h e r t h a t what he has heard of me has been m o s t l y t h r o u g h o t h e r p e o p l e , and t h a t i am a n x i o u s t o s t a t e my c a s e , t h r o u g h you, who know me b e t t e r t h a n anybody. ( ) that i f e e l t h a t my f a t h e r i s b e i n g e x p l o i t e d i n the p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n , which i s i n t o l e r a b l e & h o p e l e s s , but, t h a t as my word i s o b v i o u s l y d i s c r e d i t e d , i f e e l i t u s e l e s s t o make any s t a t e m e n t of my own s i d e of the c a s e , which i s a matter of c o n s t a n t torment t o me, & t h a t you c o u l d a c t as m e d i a t o r between m y s e l f , & you, who know and r e s p e c t b o t h p a r t i e s ( ) that i n j u s t i c e i s b e i n g done t o me, t h a t my p r e s c e n c e i n canada was none of my own s e e k i n g & was n o t , i n the f i r s t p l a c e , n e c e s s a r y , s i n c e my v i s a would have been e x t e n d e d : & t h a t i am v e r y unhappy about the estrangement & i am a p p e a l i n g t o you, d e s p e r a t e l y , to h e l p me p e r s o n a l l y a d j u s t the m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . which goes as between m y s e l f & my mother t o o . ( i n s p i t e of the f a c t t h a t m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l always be as complete as e v e r , of c o u r s e . ) ( ) that above a l l i among s t r a n g e r s who n e i t h e r u n d e r s t a n d me, & i f i am t o go t o the war, you would l i k e me a t l e a s t t o have h i s f r i e n d s h i p . ( ) that i am s t i l l p e r f e c t l y w i l l i n g t o go & e n l i s t i n e n g l a n d , as i s t a t e d t o them when war broke o u t , but s i n c e t h e y w i l l not pay the f a r e o v e r , i c o u l d e a r n i t w i t h you, & anyhow boston i s be the most s e n s i b l e p o r t t o s a i l from i n t h i s hemisphere. ( ) you can say f u r t h e r , t h a t i f t h e y a r e a n x i o u s about dr i nk. t h a t i f t h e r e i s s t i l l a n x i e t y i n t h a t r e g a r d any l o n g e r on t h e i r s i d e from what you can g a t h e r from my l e t t e r i t i s unfounded: but t h a t ' l l you' keep a s t r i c t eye on me i n t h a t r e g a r d . (here's l o o k i n g a t you) . ( ) i f t h e i r i d e a i s t o c u t me o f f w i t h o u t a penny f a i r l y soon, why not g i v e me enough t o l i v e on f o r some months i n boston anyhow, which you would a d m i n i s t e r , so t h a t a t l e a s t i would have a f a i r chance, h a v i n g none i n vancouver. now the f a m i l y as you p r o b a b l y have g a t h e r e d , are not l i k e l y t o t a k e k i n d l y t o the i d e a of my m a r r y i n g a g a i n so soon a f t e r one m a r i t a l d i s a s t a r , (though i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i t s h o u l d be mentioned t h a t i c a n ' t anyhow, h a v i n g o n l y an i n t e r l o c u t o r y d e c r e e i c a n ' t be m a r r i e d f o r a y e a r . ) - - s o b e s i d e s e v e r y t h i n g e l s e we must keep margie a s e c r e t f o r the time b e i n g & you must not mention her i n your l e t t e r . i t might, however, be as w e l l t o s t a t e t h a t w i t h you i would be a t l e a s t thousands of m i l e s away from j a n , of whom you t h o r o u g h l y d i s a p p r o v e d & a g a i n s t whom you had warned me a g a i n and a g a i n , t h a t she had been the s o u r c e of a k i n d of a n t a g o n i s m t h a t had sprung up between us a t one t i m e , - * and t h a t the o n l y t h i n g t h a t ever went wrong w i t h our own r e l a t i o n s h i p was t h a t you knew i was f u n d a m e n t a l l y unhappy w i t h h e r , t h a t i knew t h a t you knew, t h a t i r e s e n t e d t h a t knowledge, and t h e r e f o r e took i t out upon you p r a c t i c a l l y t o the p o i n t of b e t r a y i n g our f r i e n d s h i p , f o r my s e l f - c o n c e i t , which i s the t r u t h as i t happens, because i know now t h a t a l l you r e a l l y d e s i r e d was ray h a p p i n e s s : s o , no j a n . n e v e r t h e l e s s , ray p l a n s f o r the f u t u r e must i n c l u d e m a r g i e , as you can w e l l u n d e r s t a n d ; f o r our d e v o t i o n t o each o t h e r i s the o n l y t h i n g h o l d i n g me t o l i f e & s a n i t y . we are p e r f e c t l y a d j u s t e d t o each o t h e r , & p e r f e c t l y happy: and she i s j u s t the k i n d of a g a l you always wanted me t o have: and you always s a i d i'd be a l l r i g h t i f i had the r i g h t g a l : & i do have the r i g h t g a l , & i'm a l l r i g h t as anybody can be who f e e l s he's j u s t waking from a n i g h t m a r e ; & were i t not f o r t h i s god a w f u l environment of r a i n and f e a r , f o r a l t h o u g h we f e a r no l o n g e r f e a r i t s e l f i s about us, and the war w i t h i t s s m e l l of dead t r u t h , i t s f i r s t c a s u a l t y , i n our n o s t r i l s , we'd both be a l l r i g h t . of c o u r s e e v e n t u a l l y i s h a l l p r o b a b l y have t o j o i n up t o f i g h t f o r the f o r c e s o f - e r - r e a s o n but a t the moment i am more concerned w i t h p r e s e r v i n g my own which i c o n s i d e r no l e s s v a l u a b l e & c e r t a i n l y as remarkable as h i t l e r s . meantime we want t o be t o g e t h e r as l o n g as p o s s i b l e & grab what l i t t l e h a p p i n e s s we can & d e f i n i t e l y be t o g e t h e r u n t i l we can be m a r r i e d b e f o r e i go. t h i s w i l l p r o b a b l y be i m p o s s i b l e i n canada because c o n s c r i p t i o n w i l l come b e f o r e the year i s out but do not s u g g e s t t o the o l d f o l k s t h a t i c o n s i d e r i t a l s o i m p o s s i b l e i n america because of my n a t i o n a l i t y t h e r e b y i m p l y i n g t h a t i might w i s h to change a b l u e p a s s p o r t f o r a brown one upon r e a d i n g t h i s over i f e a r t h a t you w i l l come t o the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i have a l r e a d y l o s t my mind but d e s p i t e c h e e r f u l n e s s always b r e a k i n g i n you can see t h a t we r e a l l y are i n a d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n . i f my s u g g e s t i o n does not seem t o you t o be p r a c t i c a b l e can you t h i n k of a n y t h i n g e l s e t o do & f o r god's sake whatever you do do i t q u i c k b e f o r e we s i n k f o r the l a s t t i m e . i have some o t h e r i d e a s about approach t o the f a m i l y : one, s e r i o u s l y , i f i t c o u l d be a f f o r d e d , by c a b l e , a one, which would s u g g e s t t h a t you had heard i was s t r a n d e d i n vancouver & t h a t canada was t a k i n g no more r e c r u i t s , t h a t you had seen my p u b l i s h e r s who wanted me on the s p o t , and c o u l d i come, because something i m p o r t a n t had d e v e l o p e d f o r me, & t h a t i c o u l d t h e n s t a y w i t h you: or perhaps put a p u b l i s h e r , or b e r n i c e , or l i n s c o t t , or someone w h o l l y i m a g i n a r y , up t o s e n d i n g a c a b l e s a y i n g t h a t i was wanted i n america f o r some work, & c o u l d i t be made p o s s i b l e : or something l i k e t h a t . any of t h e s e t h i n g s might work. as f o r the f i n a n c i a l end of i t , my god, conrad you know as w e l l as i t h a t you a r e f a r more my f a t h e r t h a n my own f a t h e r & t h a t once i was on the s p o t i n boston w i t h you, e v e r y t h i n g c o u l d be e n g i n e e r e d from t h e r e , f i n a n c i a l l y . i t has been done b e f o r e : as f o r o u r s e l v e s , i t would save our l i v e s : as f o r m y s e l f , p e r s o n a l l y , i t would be the p e r f e c t r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , e i t h e r t o a happy d e a t h , or t o a new l i f e : f o r i never f e l t more l i k e w o r k i n g i n s p i t e of a l l t h i s m i s e r y , & never more s u r e of m y s e l f : t h i s would be, i n r e a l i t y , a g r e a t c i r c l e . but t o get back t o m a r g i e . we cannot be m a r r i e d f o r a year so we s h a l l have t o s t e e r c l o s e t o the wind d u r i n g t h a t t i m e , & i do want f o r her sake t o s t a y out of the army l o n g enough t o marry h e r , & i f i s t a y e d i n the s t a t e s t h a t would g i v e me time t o do god knows how much work, & who knows, the b l o o d y war might end? i've v o l u n t e e r e d i n both england & canada & been r e f u s e d i n both p l a c e s & i c a n ' t do more t h a n t h a t . i f england s t i l l wants me, i t h i n k i t o n l y l o g i c a l t h a t i s h o u l d see you b e f o r e i go. but t o a v o i d the p o s s i b l i t y of the d e p o r t a t i o n a n g l e , would i t be t o o much of a t r e s p a s s upon your compassion f o r me t o s u g g e s t , t h a t i f can l a y my hands on a few hundred bucks i , as i t were, send m a r g i e , who can c r o s s the border whereas i a t p r e s e n t c a n n o t , on f i r s t t o you as a s o r t of ambassador of the whole s i t u a t i o n , w h i l e you meantime work l i k e h e l l on the o l d man. i f i can then come on a f t e r w a r d s , e v e r y t h i n g w i l l be m a r v e l l o u s : but i f i t r a g i c a l l y c a n n o t , i c o u l d by t h a t time p o s s i b l y have amassed enough money t o g e t s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r e a s t i n canada, t o be not more t h a n a n i g h t s j o u r n e y from m a r g i e , mary & y o u r s e l f , - - i am presuming of c o u r s e you c o u l d f i n d somewhere f o r margie t o s t a y i n the meanwhile,--& from t h a t p o i n t of v a n t a g e , b e i n g once t h e r e & near. & one might s t a r t a r g u i n g w i t h the o l d man a l l over a g a i n ? i f t h i s i s n ' t too much of a p r e s u m p t i o n on mary & y o u r s e l f . you can p o i n t o u t , i f you l i k e , by the way, q u i t e b l u n t l y , t h a t you f e e l d e f i n i t e l y from my l e t t e r , t h a t now i t has t u r n e d i m p o s s i b l e t o j o i n the army i n canada, t h a t i f i am t h w a r t e d i n my d e s i r e t o see you & f i n i s h my work i n the s t a t e s , the r e s u l t s w i l l be immediate & t r a g i c . w e l l , now f o r the work a n g l e . i have w r i t t e n whit b u r n e t t t o send you a book of poems c a l l e d the l i g h t h o u s e i n v i t e s the s t o r m ; have w r i t t e n ann watkins t o send in b a l l a s t t o b e r n i c e : have w r i t t e n t o los angeles f o r under the volcano & a p l a y : & am s e n d i n g you, by the b e g i n n i n g of the next week, the copy of a t h i n g c a l l e d the l a s t a d d r e s s , the o r i g i n a l of which i am s e n d i n g t o b e r n i c e . as t h i s i s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , about a mans' h y s t e r i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h m e l v i l l e , i t h i n k i t might i n t e r e s t h a r r y m u r r y , & would be g r a t e f u l i f you would pass i t on, i f you too t h i n k so. so, conrad, o l d f e l l o w , p l e a s e h e l p . so d e e p l y do i f e e l t h a t y o u r s i s the o n l y s t a r we can g u i d e our bark on now i sense t h a t my h e a r t had made p r o v i s i o n f o r so t u r n i n g t o you i n the end by i t s f i r s t j o u r n e y y e a r s ago t o boston & the c a p e . you can save two good l i v e s , i t h i n k , & l i v e s worth s a v i n g , & l i v e s you w i l l be g l a d you have saved. now, thank you from the bottom of my h e a r t f o r the s u g g e s t i o n s you have a l r e a d y made: my v e r y b e s t l o v e t o mary, i have seen some of her s p a n i s h p i c t u r e s , man w i t h c o n c e r t i n a e t c , l a t e l y , r e p r o d u c e d , which a r e m a r v e l l o u s , & do you send me news o f you both and news t o o of the voyage t h a t never e n d s . * m a r g i e sends l o v e . malcolm. p.s i s the new n o v e l 'reading a b o o k ' ? * i a m b i c pentametre. f e e t . m y s t e r y b l i z z a r d mastery h a z a r d . a the t h i n g t o know i s how t o w r i t e a v e r s e b whether or not you l i k e i t , whether or n o t , b the goddam t h i n g w i l l put you on t h e s p o t a and p e t r a r c h w i l l not save you from t h e c u r s e . ' ' a you may be c i r c u m a m b i e n t or t e r s e b ? a , f o r b e t t e r or worse b a thousand l i n e s w i t h o u t a s i n g l e b l o t . * c c h r i s t the g r e a t p s a l m i s t cannot save us here b he l i s p e d i n numbers but no numbers came * d c d e l i o t and pound were p r o s i n g a l l the time e. and whitman ( w a l t ) / a l a s , d i d much t h e same. p.s. s i n c e f i n i s h i n g t h i s l e t t e r l a s t n i g h t t h i n g s have become s u d d e n l y even worse and i f something doesn't happen p r e t t y damn q u i c k the s i t u a t i o n w i l l become l i k e t h e p o s t u l a t e d end of k a f k a ' s the c a s t l e , i n which k. was d y i n g , surrounded by the v i l l a g e r s , worn out w i t h the s t r u g g l e , which k a f k a h i m s e l f was too worn out to write, he was too worn out to write. we are staying in bed to t r y and keep warm, though we haven't enough blankets and we've put what's l e f t of our clothes over us we're s t i l l freezing. there i s an i c y r a i n which hasn't stopped for days and the room i s damp, we have both caught severe colds and margie has a bad cough. we a c t u a l l y haven't had enough to eat and now we think maurice, due to his i n j u r i e s from the l a s t war, has r e a l l y gone a l i t t l e crazy. he has t o l d us that we must get out of here on tuesday, which i s the day he c o l l e c t s money for my board from the other carey, and i f that happens we w i l l a c t u a l l y be penniless, in a strange & believe me damned h o s t i l e & ugly country with no place to go and no friends. the s i t u a t i o n i s too complex to explain just why t h i s w i l l be so, but i f maurice turns us out he w i l l have to l i e about me to save himself (one more black eye to the family) and i f i t e l l the t r u t h about him, i t looks even worse that i should have been staying with, and endorsing to the family, a man of his character. i assure you, i simply had no choice in t h i s matter, knowing no one here and having no status nor any money i was forced to trust him and hope for the b e s t — w e l l , i t has turned as you see. i a c t u a l l y fear as for, d i f f e r e n t reasons, i feared a.b. c a r e y — t r u s t i n g to trusting him with my mall so when you reply perhaps you'd better address me at the hotel georgia where i s h a l l not; be staying but where s h a l l make arrangements to receive mail, and better send another l e t t e r here, just in case. another idea: an appeal to davenport, , whose address i don't know, might help. we had an understanding about t h i s . or what about an advance on a novel on t h i s s i t u a t i o n by both of us, or a l l of us, t o be c a l l e d n i g h t j o u r n e y a c r o s s the sea? or can you say t h a t something has t u r n e d up f o r me, t h a t you must see me somehow, & get funds from the o l d man t h a t way: or c o u l d you get him somehow t o f i n a n c e your e x p e d i t i o n h e r e , s i n c e i t i s so s e r i o u s , i mean i t , conrad, i t i s damned s e r i o u s : & f o r once i am not t o blame f o r most of i t . but whatever you do, conrad, f o r god's sake do i t q u i c k l y b e f o r e we s i n k f o r the l a s t time i n t o t h i s more t h a n s e a , t h i s sargasso sea of d e s p a i r . we huddle i n bed l i k e gaboons i n the j u n g l e t o keep warm, no b l a n k e t s or one, and pinchbeck o v e r c o a t s : ve f r e e z e : the i c y r a i n which h a s n ' t stopped f o r days doesn't even b r i n g m a l a n c h o l y any l o n g e r : the room i s damp, muscles c o n t r a c t w i t h r h e u m a t i z , noses r u n , we cough l i k e sheep, i f e a r margie may become r e a l l y i l l . we haven't had enough to e a t , one p l a t e of beans a day, we no l o n g e r dare make t e a because m a u r i c e , (because of a "war" i n j u r y caused by f a l l i n g o f f a s t r e e t c a r ) i s h a v i n g one of h i s ' c r a z y f i t s ' , i n s u l t s m a r g i e , c a l l s us " f i c t i t i o u s p e o p l e , " e t c . now-- a l t h o u g h he i s e n t i r e l y dependent on us--so you see, as w e l l as snow t h e r e i s f o g . i l l e x p l a n a t o r y notes x c f . u l t r a m a r i n e t "mein l i e b e r a l t e freund" ( ) . " s e n l i n , " " f o r s l i n , " and " c o f f i n " r e f e r t o v o r k s by a i k e n : " s e n l i n : a b i o g r a p h y , " the c h a r n e l rose: s e n l i n : a b i o g r a p h y : and other poems ( b o s t o n : four seas, ); the j i g o f f o r s l i n : a symphony ( b o s t o n : four seas, ); and k i n g c o f f i n (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ) ( n o v e l ) . a l l u s i o n t o a i k e n ' s n o v e l of the same t i t l e . c f . undjjr. the v o l c a n o ( - ) f o r a s i m i l a r d i s c u s s i o n about a r a i l r o a d . * m a r g e r i e bonner ( - ), hollywood s i l e n t f i l m a c t r e s s and w r i t e r of m y s t e r y n o v e l s who m a r r i e d lowry on december ; a u t h o r of the l a s t t w i s t of t h e k n i f e ( ) , the shapes that creep ( ) f and horse i n the sky ( ). she had minor a c t i n g r o l e s i n the a n c i e n t highway, pawght;e*g of t o d a y / and rj£hq-. * a.b. carey was a vancouver l a w y e r ; v i c t o r maclean i have not been a b l e t o i d e n t i f y . " see m a u r i c e j . carey's " l i f e with malcolm lovry>" ed. anthony r. k l l g a l l l n . malcolm lowry: the man and h i s work, ed. george woodcock (vancouver: ubc p, ): - . the u.b.c. lowry c o l l e c t i o n c o n t a i n s a complete d r a f t of carey's " r e c o l l e c t i o n " ( - ) . * " b e r e n g a r l a " : s h i p named a f t e r the daughter of t h e p o r t u g u e s e k i n g , sancho i . c f . a l s o k l l g a l l l n ( ) . "avenida de madera": s p a n i s h , "avenue of wood." * " d a r k ' s edge": a l l u s i o n t o a i k e n ' s p r e l u d e " x x x i i i " which lowry has p r e v i o u s l y t i t l e d "darks edge"; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . * pun on t h e n a u t i c a l meaning o f " a . b . " — " a b l e b o d i e d ( s e a m a n ) " — u s e d f r e q u e n t l y by lowry i n u l t r a m a r i n e . x o c f . a i k e n ' s poem "goya" i n b l u e voyage: " t h i s was where goya l i v e d : i n p o r t o b e l l o road" ( - ); r e p r i n t e d i n s e l e c t e d poems (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ) - . c f . l e t t e r , p. . x x w i l l i a m demarest i s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t of b l u e voyage. x a t h i s l e t t e r e x i s t s i n m a n u s c r i p t o n l y . x " c f . b o s w e l l ' s l i f e of johnson, v o l s . (london: o x f o r d up, ) v o l . : ". . . c h e e r f u l n e s s was always b r e a k i n g i n " ( ) . x * cf. aiken's ushant; an essay (nev york: d u e l l , sloan and ^earce, ) where jan f i g u r e s as " n i t a " ( - ). see n. above. x a b e r n i c e baumgarten, aiken's new york agent with brandt & brandt. robert l i n s c o t t ( - ): see l e t t e r , n. , p. . x ? whitney ewing burnett ( - ), r e p o r t e r , author, and e d i t o r , who founded s t o r y magazine i n . he was e d i t o r and c o - e d i t o r of atojty. from - and - , and e d i t o r of t h i s i s my best (elu , ) and the w o r l d ' s b e s t (pu , ). burnett p u b l i s h e d lowry's "on board the west hardaway" i n s t o r y i i i . (oct. ): - and "hotel room i n c h a r t r e s " i n sjfcoiy. iv. (sept. ): - . "the lighthouse i n v i t e s the storm was an e a r l y c o l l e c t i o n of lowry's poems which remains unpublished. the lowry c o l l e c t i o n a t u.b.c. has lowry's " d r a f t copy" of t h i s c o l l e c t i o n { - j. ann watkins was lowry's l i t e r a r y agent while he was i n new york ( - ); b e r n i c e baumgarten was aiken's new york agent (n. above). i x s "in b a l l a s t to the white sea": see l e t t e r , n. , p. . a o under the volcano (new york: r e y n a l & hitchcock, ). the p l a y t h a t lowry mentions here i s probably a d r a m a t i z a t i o n of nordahl g r i e g ' s n o v e l , the ship s a i l s on ( ), which he was working on while i n mexico; see lowry's unpublished l e t t e r of to nordahl g r i e g i n the u.b.c. lowry c o l l e c t i o n [ - ]. a x «the l a s t address" was an e a r l y v e r s i o n of lowry's n o v e l l a , lunar caustic,, eds. e a r l e b i r n e y and margerie lowry (london: jonathan cape, ), based upon h i s experience i n nev york's b e l l e v u e h o s p i t a l i n . " henry alexander murray ( - ), american p s y c h o l o g i s t , educator, and v r i t e r vho vas a f a c u l t y member of harvard u n i v e r s i t y from - when he was named p r o f e s s o r emeritus; he met aiken a t harvard i n . cf. a l s o l e t t e r , p. . a a lowry s a i l e d to boston from england i n the summer of t o v i s i t aiken; see my i n t r o d u c t o r y note, p. - . •«-c£. l e t t e r , n. , p. . « "the voyage that never ends" was lowry's t i t l e f o r h i s proposed novel sequence which he o u t l i n e d i n h i s "work i n p r o g r e s s " statement to a l b e r t e r s k i n e , h i s e d i t o r a t reynal & hitchcock; t h i s statement i s c o n t a i n e d i n the u.b.c. lowry c o l l e c t i o n [ - ]. a a c f . a i k e n ' s ushant ( ) . a i k e n was a t t h i s time w o r k i n g on conversation; or pilgrims' progress which was p u b l i s h e d i n . c f . t h e s i m i l a r l i n e s of p o e t r y i n l e t t e r , p. . *• c f . ben jonson, "lxiv: de shakespeare n o s t r a t i , " timber or d i s c o v e r i e s b e i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s on men and manners (london: j.m. dent, ): " i remember t h e p l a y e r s have o f t e n mentioned i t as an honour t o shakespeare, t h a t i n h i s w r i t i n g (whatsoever he penned) he never b l o t t e d out a l i n e . my answer h a t h been, 'would he had b l o t t e d a thousand,'. . ." ( ) . a » c f . a l e x a n d e r pope's " e p i s t l e t o john a r b u t h n o t , " . : " i l i s p e d i n numbers, f o r t h e numbers came." , john davenport; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes l i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t the m a n u s c r i p t v e r s i o n o f t h i s l e t t e r i n the u.b.c. l i b r a r y i s t h e one a c t u a l l y r e c e i v e d by a i k e n . the b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s l e t t e r , from t h e s a l u t a t i o n t o "& p a r k s had guessed a l l t h a t - - " ( . ) , has been c r o s s e d out by lowry; however, because no r e v i s i o n o f t h e s e passages i s a v a i l a b l e , i have chosen t o i n c l u d e them i n my t e x t . note by m a r g e r i e lowry i n t o p r i g h t - h a n d c o r n e r of f i r s t page r e a d s : "<autumn> march "; t h i s d a t e i s not c o r r e c t ] the r a i l r o a d b e l n g \ the r a i l r o a d <was> (being} went t h e most roundabout way,\ went the most < c l r c u l a r > {roundabout} way, blame h e r , — b e t t e r o f f \ blame h e r , — < i was> b e t t e r o f f but no m a t t e r . \ but <to c o n t i n u e ) {no m a t t e r } . i s u f f e r e d h o r r i b l y but was (. . .) p a r k s t o canada\ i s u f f e r e d < , q u i t e ) <{mildly}> {<mildly> { { h o r r i b l y } } but was t a k e n out o f t h e brown derby & d e s p a i r by a grand g a l named m a r g e r i e bonner but no sooner had t h i s t o happen than i was t a k e n s u d d e n l y by p a r k s t o canada) [ t h i s second i n s e r t i o n i s w r i t t e n i n the r i g h t - h a n d margin] . . - . . . - . - i was t a k e n s u d d e n l y t o canada, by p a r k s \ i was t a k e n {suddenly} t o canada, [by <him) parks} t h i s j a u n t here v a s \ t h i s j a u n t {here} was s e c r e t s e r v i c e , was & i s \ s e c r e t s e r v i c e , {was &} i s i n h i s f e e t , but a l s o the most\ i n h i s f e e t , {but a l s o } t h e most of vancouver,\ o f <the town> vancouver, a l l might have been w e l l i . . .] o x f o r d grouper d i s c o v e r e d \ <por hlm> a l l might h a v e b e e n w e l l had not t h i s <blood.> o x f o r d grouper <heel> d i s c o v e r e d i n l o v e w i t h m a r g e r i e whom i hope\ i n l o v e w i t h <one margerie> <a <<gir'l>> { s w e l l g a l } named m a r g e r i e bonner> <a. grand g a l named> m a r g e r i e <bonner> whom i <had l e f t behi> hope [ a l t h o u g h t h e two "a"'s above have not been i n d i v i d u a l l y d e l e t e d , i t would seem t h a t t h e y were f o r g o t t e n amongst t h e o t h e r d e l e t i o n s , so " i have chosen t o r e p r e s e n t them as such] s t u c k by me t h r o u g h t h i c k & t h i n m o s t l y t h i n , \ s t u c k by me t h r o u g h < a l l my compelicat ons> { t h i c k & t h i n } { m o s t l y t h i n } , which make\ which <made> make comedy. when a.b. c a r e y \ comedy. <she i s a f i l m s t a r , <<late twenties,>> {of} the e a r l y t h r i t i e s , had t o q u i t because of h e a r t t r o u b l e ; <<but>> had/ <<a>> when i met h e r , a s e c r e t a r i a l j o b i n hollywood.> when a.b. garey d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i was m a r r i e d , as a matter of f a c t \ d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i was < i n l o v e w i t h a n o t h e r woman & proposed t o r e t u r n t o her> m a r r i e d , as <ra> {a} m a t t e r of f a c t r e t u r n t o a n o t h e r g i r l , \ r e t u r n t o <her> {another g i r l } , r e a d my l e t t e r s , & a c t u a l l y \ r e a d my l e t t e r , {&} a c t u a l l y i had the v i s a , t o g e t back but a.b. c a r e y \ i had the v i s a , { t o g e t back} but <carey w> a.b. <care> carey no money. so i w i r e d \ no money. < <<so i>> or damned l i t t l e & no a c c o u n t i n g of what he> so i w i r e d t h e t r i p back t o \ t h e t r i p {back} t o . b o r d e r \ <ord> b o r d e r . - the o t h e r s i d e . \ t h e o t h e r s i d e < , v h i c h x .} . - t h e s e b a s t a r d o s by which [. . . as w e l l by any meansy t h e s e b a s t a r d o s { by which i mean a l s o t h e e n t i r e o x f o r d group as w e l l } by any means . t h i s p a r t i s v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d , \ t h i s { p a r t } i s v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d < t h i s p a r t > , ( t h i s d e l e t i o n and i n s e r t i o n has been done i n p e n c i l by m a r g e r i e ! . l a t e r — a . b . c a r e y i . . .j a l l t h a t — \ l a t e r — { a . b . carey & p a r k s had guessed a l l t h a t — } . - i now found m y s e l f t h e n \ i {now} found m y s e l f {then} . ve ( i s h a l l e x p l a i n l a t e r ) a r e \ ve<,> { ( i s h a l l e x p l a i n l a t e r ) } . s t a t e more c l e a r l y t h a t \ s t a t e {more ' c l e a r l y } t h a t . a s e r i e s of o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s i won't\ a s e r i e s of {other} c i r c u m s t a n c e s <which> i won't . t h e f a c t t h a t j a n & she\ the f a c t t h a t <i> <{they}> {jan & she} . - on one s i d e , a.b. carey on t h e o t h e r , and the f a m i l y s o l i e i t o r s \ on one s i d e , <and> a.b. carey on the o t h e r , and <on b o t h s i d e s by> t h e f a m i l y s o l i c i t o r s . - the k i n d w i t h c a s t i r o n w h i s t l e s v h l s k e r s \ t h e k i n d w i t h { c a s t i r o n w h i s t l e s ) w h i s k e r s . - i n one p a r t p o r t or a n o t h e r . \ i n one p a r t {port} or <noth> a n o t h e r . . - f i n i s h a l l the work,\ f i n i s h { a l l } the work, . - a p p o i n t you, i f you were t o be found, a l i t e r a r y e x e c u t o r ^ and i had a c c o m p l i s h e d much.\ a p p o i n t {you}, { i f you were t o be found,} a l i t e r a r y e x e c u t o r / and i had a c c o m p l i s h e d much <work>. . wash v i t h the f a m i l y , \ vash { w i t h t h e f a m i l y } , . - r e t u r n t i c k e t v i a the b e r e n g a r l a , which a l t h o u g h l o n g s i n c e broken up as a f i r e t r a p , i s s t i l l a s h i p i f i n the memory,\ r e t u r n t i c k e t <there, on> { v i a } the b e r e n g a r l a , which a l t h o u g h <since> l o n g s i n c e broken up as a <f> <condemned> f i r e t r a p , i s s t i l l a s h i p i f <only> i n the memory, . in mexico & t u r n e d in a t cooks in t h e a v e n i d a de madera.\ i n mexico<.> {& t u r n e d i n a t cooks i n t h e a v e n i d a de madera.) ( t h i s i n s e r t i o n i s w r i t t e n i n the r i g h t - h a n d margin; d i r e c t l y above i t i s w r i t t e n "p.t.o f o r "] . - so, conrad, t o make a s h o r t s t o r y l o n g e r , \ so, conrad, ( t o make a <long> { { s h o r t } } s t o r y l o n g e r , } . - a t the dock's d a r k ' s edge, knowing how c o l d the water was, i w i r e d m a r g e r i e \ a t the {dock's} d a r k ' s edge, {knowing how c o l d the water was,} i w i r e d m a r g e r i e . - t o vancouver, a d i s t a n c e r a t h e r f a r t h e r t h a n t h a t from london t o warsaw, as i needed h e r , which she d i d . \ t o vancouver, {a d i s t a n c e r a t h e r f a r t h e r t h a n t h a t from london t o warsaw,} as i needed her<.> {,) {which she d i d . } . - i f we're l u c k y . and s e c r e c y , i . •'. .t maclean. there i s \ i f we're l u c k y . {and s e c r e c y , fom a.b. carey & maclean.} there i s • . - i n c l u d i n g a l o u d s p e a k e r , a h o w l i n g wind {. . .} a l l day, t w l n s y i n c l u d i n g a l o u d s p e a k e r , {a h o w l i n g wind which rages t h r o u g h t h e house a l l day,} t w i n s . nor would you, t h i n k s o , \ nor <do we, th> would you, t h i n k s o , . - i f o r g o t t h e dog, the c a n a r y , & a hindoo t i m b e r merchant,\ i f o r g o t the <{hound}> dog, the <{bloated}> c a n a r y , & a hindoo < c r e d i t > t i m b e r merchant, . - corpus c h r i s t i , o x f o r d — y o u c a n ' t get away from o x f o r d — \ corpus c h r i s t i , o x f o r d { — y o u c a n ' t g e t away from o x f o r d — } . - h o p i n g , w i t h h i s f i n e o r i e n t a l ealm,\ h o p i n g , <in h i s > w i t h h i s f i n e o r i e n t a l c a l m , . - p a i d f o r the wood.\ p a i d f o r the wood. < r l c h l y as i d e s e r v e h e l l f i r e , & l i k e i t , t h i s k a f k a < l i k e > s e t up i s r e a l l y g e t t i n g me down.> ( c r o s s e d out i n lower l e f t - h a n d margin} . t h e r e f o r e , as you might guess, more or l e s s \ t h e r e f o r e , {as you might guess,} more or l e s s * - we have s t o u t i s h h e a r t s \ we <must> have s t o u t l s h h e a r t s . because once i t i s known by a.b. c a r e y — \ because <if> {once} i t i s known <that> by <car> a.b. <{oxford group}> c a r e y — . - d e p o r t e d , s i n c e she i s by now i n canada i l l e g a l l y , t o p a r t s unknown,\ d e p o r t e d , { s i n c e she i s {{by now}} i n canada i l l e g a l l y , } t o p a r t s unknown, [ t h i s i n s e r t i o n i s w r i t t e n i n the r i g h t - h a n d margin] . l i n e a m e n t s of l a s t weeks l o v e \ l i n e a m e n t s of <love> l a s t weeks l o v e £ . week b e f o r e , not t h a t t h a t one day\ week b e f o r e , < i t is> not t h a t <we> t h a t one day . f o u n d — t h e r e was\ f o u n d { — } <drowned.> t h e r e was . - t e n d e r l y out of the t o i l e t — m y s t e r i o u s l y drowned,\ t e n d e r l y <out of the> <{from)> < t o i l e t , i t i s not the r a d i o > {out of} <the bottom of> the t o i l e t — m y s t e r i o u s l y drowned, . - --not t h a t the o v e r s e x e d hindoo has an axe ; d o w n s t a i r s & t h a t [. . .] the sound o f \ — < i t i s > not t h a t the {oversexed} hindoo has an axe d o w n s t a i r s {& t h a t we know he i n t e n d s t o use i t } <or> {nor} t h a t the sound of . m a u r i c e carey, who i s \ m a u r i c e c a r e y , <{wh}> who i s . a d i s a b i l i t y , and how, has\ a d i s a b i l i t y , {and how,} has . s e v e r a l thousand t i m e s , — n o t m i s e r y , oh d e m a r e s t — and i s \ s e v e r a l thousand t i m e s , { — n o t <the> m i s e r y , < [ l l l e g . ] > oh demarest--}and i s . - of the l o s t , not a l l the b e l l s and c l a s h e s o f the n i g h t , which a p p a l u s : \ of the l o s t , {not a l l the b e l l s and c l a s h e s of the n i g h t , <not t h i s not that,>} which appal<s> us: . - the thought r a t h e r of t h e \ the thought { r a t h e r } of <{rather}> the . - communication, and the thought a l s o t h a t a s e n t e n c e which i s b e g i n n i n g [. . .] our l i v e s o u t . \ communication <{(even w i t h you)}>, and the thought { a l s o } t h a t {a sentence which} i s b e g i n n i n g ( w i t h of c o u r s e the above r e s e r v a t i o n s ) t o be f a i r , may a t <one> {any} moment be f i n i s h e d w i t h a b l o t : t h a t w i l l <wreck> {stamp} our l i v e s out<,>{.} . - but from b r a s s bedsteads t o b r a s s t a c k s . \ but<, my dear> from b r a s s bedsteads t o b r a s s t a c k s . [ i t i s u n c l e a r whether the two " b r a s s m , s were meant t o be d e l e t e d or n o t , so i have chosen t o l e a v e them i n the t e x t ) . for by now you can see by now\ f o r [by now) you can see by now [ t h i s s e n t e n c e was o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n i n p e n c i l by m a r g e r i e and t h e n t r a c e d over i n pen by malcolm; the "by now" i n s e r t i o n was done by malcolm) . - i agreed t o t h i s as a t the t i m e \ i agreed t o t h i s < [ i l l e g . > {as} a t the time . - c e r t a i n methods t o s o l v e them\ c e r t a i n methods <not> <not som> t o <assuage> { s o l v e } them . - l i k e , t h i s one i s borrowed, &\ l i k e , { t h i s one i s borrowed,} & . c o n t r o l of t h e money, we\ c o n t r o l ' of <lt> {the money}, we * . - h e l p us (& t r y [. . .) t o y o u ) , & we a r e \ h e l p us {& t r y & r e a l i s e t h a t < i s > { { y o u r help}} i s not j u s t h e l p , o n l y , i must see y_oji & a l s o owe a d u t y t o y o u ) } , & we a r e ( t h i s i n s e r t i o n i s w r i t t e n i n the r i g h t - h a n d margin] . - w i t h o u t money, & were she [. . . ] , she would\ w i t h o u t money, & < i f s> were she d e p o r t e d <to los a n g e l e s , w h i > { i t would be to} h o l l y w o o d , she would [ a l t h o u g h lowry n e g l e c t e d t o d e l e t e t h e f i r s t " t o " above, i t i s c l e a r from the l a y o u t and sense o f the s e n t e n c e t h a t he meant t o do so] . - nervous c o l l a p s e , though [. . .] & l\ nervous c o l l a p s e , {though c h e e r f u l n e s s i s always b r e a k i n g in} & i know t h a t i f margie {(whom you & mary would a d o r e ) } & i . f r i e n d of y o u r s , or somewhere\ f r i e n d o f y o u r s , <or> {or} somewhere . s e e i n g me a g a i n , or n e a r \ s e e i n g me a g a i n , {or} near . l o s s , which s h e \ l o s s , <she> which she . - break up b e c a u s e — b u t why go on? we would both b r e a k . \ break up <{& so would i}> because <l know she would> { — { { b u t } } why go on?} <not {now} have i n i t l a v e l e f t <<{to}>> even t o t r y f o r a j o b : i n f a c t , we would both <<go under>> > {we would both} b r e a k { . k o n a p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e e f o f c o n t i n u a l a n x i e t y . > . - i would t a k e any, [. . .] r e c r u i t s . \ i would t a k e (any) <now, c o u l d you w r i t e my f a t h e r & say> one, but i cannot {because of my s t a t u s h e r e } : nor a r e t h e y t a k i n g any more r e c r u i t s . . - r e c r u i t s . i have f r e q u e n t l y [. . . . \ r e c r u i t s . <i have f r e q u e n t l y wanted t o go t o new york or b o s t o n , but have been f o i l e d by p a r k s , who would {not} l e t me g e t h o l d <<where i would be t o u c h w i t h f r i e n d s of y o u r s & g e t a job:>> enough where i would be i n t o u c h w i t h f r i e n d s of y o u r s , & g e t a j o b , but have been f o i l e d always" by p a r k s , who would not t r u s t me w i t h the money, {& never seemed t o a b l e t o e a r n any a t the r i g h t moment} & the f a m i l y i d e a was i would be f r e e l a n c i n g around "not under v p r o p e r s u p e r v i s i o n . " { ( y e s , i t has come t o t h a t . ) } i t i s queer, when a l l i w i s h i s t o be independent, t h a t i s h o u l d be p l a c e d now i n a p o s i t i o n where i t i s i m p o s s i b l e . > i have f r e q u e n t l y ' ( . . . .} t' w i t h f r i e n d s of y o u r s \ w i t h < f r i e n d s > { f r i e n d s } of y o u r s g o i n g s on, t h a t i \ g o i n g s on, <would be> t h a t i by c a b l e , (a l i t t l e l o n g perhaps) w h i c h \ by c a b l e , {(a l i t t l e l o n g perhaps)} which among o t h e r t h i n g s which may o c c u r t o y o u , \ among o t h e r t h i n g s <that may> {which may} o c c u r t o you, your p o s i t i o n would be t o \ your p o s i t i o n (would be) t o my income, i f any, f o r \ my income, { i f any,} f o r b e i n g r e n d e r e d unable t o f i n i s h a l l my work, but u n a b l e \ b e i n g <rendered unable t o f i n i s h my work> <{rendered}> {rendered} unable t o f i n i s h a l l my work, but < l f i we> unable or t h a t t h e d e f i n i t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g \ or <( ) ( i l l e g . j > t h a t the d e f i n i t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g my g o i n g e a s t on my own hook b e f o r e t o s e e \ ray g o i n g {east} on my own hook b e f o r e <to l> t o see p e o p l e who a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n my work.\ people who a r e <{( )}> i n t e r e s t e d i n my work. . . . . - . . . - . - . - . . - because of h e a l t h or s t a t u s , \ because of < h e a l t h of> ( h e a l t h or) s t a t u s , . your own home i s o n l y \ your own home i s <near> o n l y . a g a i n t a k i n g r e c r u i t s , \ a g a i n t a k i n g <more> r e c r u i t s , . - army but i t p r o b a b l y would not be t a c t f u l \ army but i t < i s ( i l l e g . l > p r o b a b l y would <{(€)}> not be t a c t f u l • . t o my f a t h e r t h a t y t o my f a t h e r < v > { t l h a t . s i t u a t i o n , which i s i n t o l e r a b l e & h o p e l e s s , b u t \ s i t u a t i o n , (which i s i n t o l e r a b l e & h o p e l e s s , } but ( t h i s i n s e r t i o n i s w r i t t e n i n the r i g h t - h a n d margin] ^ . t o make any s t a t e m e n t of my own s i d e \ to make any <explan> statement of my own <s i> s i d e r . done to me, t h a t my\ done to me, t h a t <i> my . - u n d e r s t a n d me, & i f i am to go to the war, you would l i k e me a t l e a s t \ u n d e r s t a n d me, <or can) & i f i am to <the> go to the war, you would l i k e me <to> a t l e a s t . - i n e n g l a n d , as i s t a t e d to them when war broke o u t , b u t \ i n e n g l a n d , (as i s t a t e d to them when war broke out,} but ( t h i s i s i n s e r t i o n i n the r i g h t - hand margin j . boston i s be t h e \ boston <would> { i s } be t h e . d l l f l k , t h a t i f t h e r e i s \ drjlnls., t h a t {if} t h e r e i s . from what you\ from what <he> {you} . t h e f a m i l y as you p r o b a b l y have g a t h e r e d , a r e n o t \ the f a m i l y {as you p r o b a b l y have gathered/} a r e not . — s o \ —<so>{so} . s e c r e t f o r the time b e i n g \ s e c r e t f o r the <moment and you> time b e i n g . i would be a t l e a s t t h o u s a n d s \ i would be <thousands> a t l e a s t thousands . sprung up between u s \ sprung {up} between us . you knew i was f u n d a m e n t a l l y unhappy\ you knew <, f i r s t t h a t i would be [ i l l e g . ] unhappy f u n d a m e n t a l l y w i t h h e r , then which> <that> i was f u n d a m e n t a l l y unhappy . - upon you p r a c t i c a l l y t o the p o i n t o f b e t r a y i n g our f r i e n d s h i p , f o r my s e l f - c o n c e i t , y upon you <almost> { p r a c t i c a l l y } t o the p o i n t of <betrayal> b e t r a y i n g <oy> {our} <own> f r i e n d s h i p , f o r <you [ i l l e g . ]> my <own> s e l f - c o n c e i t , . i know now t h a t a l l \ i know now < t h a t l > t h a t a l l . - l i f e & s a n i t y . we a r e \ l i f e & sanity<;>{.} <i do s i n c e r e l y > <i am p e r f e c t l y adj> we a r e . - happy: and she i s \ happy: <the o n l y t h i n g wrong i s [ i l l e g . ] > <she h e l p s me ( m a r v e l l o u s l y } w i t h my work i want t o work as l> and she i s . you always wanted me\ you always <wari> wanted me . the r i g h t g a l : & i do have\ the r i g h t g a l : & i <have the r i > do have . j u s t waking from a n i g h t m a r e ; \ j u s t waking <froma> <{out}> from a n i g h t m a r e ; . - t h i s god a w f u l environment of r a i n and f e a r , f o r a l t h o u g h we f e a r \ t h i s <god> god a w f u l environment <of abysmal n o t h i n g n e s s , i f we c o u l d o n l y be near you> of r a i n and f e a r , <though> { f o r a l t h o u g h ] we f e a r [ w r i t t e n upside-down i n bottom l e f t - h a n d c o r n e r o f page and d e l e t e d : "c/o s g t . major carey. ( i l l e g . ) don't f o r g e t t h e m a u r i . w th avenue. vancouver. b.c. canada.") . dead t r u t h , i t s \ dead t r u t h , <the> i t s . [an e a r l i e r d r a f t of t h i s paragraph r e a d s as f o l l o w s : "the f a m i l y a r e not l i k e l y t o take k i n d l y t o the i d e a of my m a r r y i n g a g a i n so soon a f t e r one m a r i t a l d l s a s t a r , {but i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i t s h o u l d be mentioned t h a t i c a n ' t anyhow, h a v i n g o n l y {{as i s a i d } } an i n t e r l o c u t o r y d e c r e e i c a n ' t be m a r r i e d f o r a year} t h e more e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e p a r k ' s & jan's <law> j e w i s h lawyer o b v i o u s l y c o l l u s e d about t h e whole m a t t e r <inl> <&> r a i l r o a d < l n g > { e d } my p a t h e r b e h i n d my back i n t o p a y i n g <for t h e dam> a l a r g e c a s h s e t t l e m e n t t o j a n — t h e r e had been a v e r b a l agreement between j a n & m y s e l f <that i t c o u l d have been> {to} s e t t l e < d > {the t h i n g } out of c o u r t <&> {with} m e r e l y <the l a w y e r s f e e s payed> a s m a l l sum pay<ed>{able} <a> { t o a lawyer by m y s e l f which of c o u r s e p a r k s wouldn't t r u s t me with} i t was subsequent t o t h i s t h a t p a r k s got me. out of t h e s t a t e s , < — > d e v i l i s h c l e v e r of hira t o o l ) ( i n s e r t e d i n p e n c i l ] } — s o b e s i d e s e v e r y t h i n g e l s e we must keep margie a s e c r e t f o r the moment & you must not mention her i n <my> {your [ i n s e r t e d i n p e n c i l by m a r g e r i e ] } l e t t e r . ( i t would a l s o be as w e l l t o s a y t h a t w i t h you i would be thousand of m i l e s away from j a n , of whom you t h o r o u g h l y d i s a p p r o v e d & a g a i n s t whom you had warned me <i> { a g a i n & a g a i n - - t h a t she had been t h e s o u r c e o f a s o r t of antagonism t h a t s p r a n g up between us a t one time { { t h a t would have}} c o n s t i t u t e d < p r a c t l c a l l y > {{almost}} a b e t r a y a l of <one>{{your})self by me had you not known my m o t i v e s so y e l l — ) so t h a t t h e r e would be no p o s s i b l e chance of my s e e i n g her a g a i n . ) . . . {( [ i n s e r t e d i n p e n c i l ) } f i n a l l y , i want t o s a y t h i s , t h a t my p l a n s f o r t h e f u t u r e must i n c l u d e margie {whom p a r k s v a g u e l y knows & d i s a p p r o v e s o f } : not o n l y <does [ c r o s s e d out i n p e n c i l j > our d e v o t i o n t o each o t h e r i s the o n l y t h i n g h o l d i n g me t o l i f e and s a n i t y {) [ i n s e r t e d i n p e n c i l ] } <& of c o u r s e ( c r o s s e d out i n p e n c i l ) > i t i s p a r t i a l l y because of the t h i n g s she d i d which i may s a y were m o n s t r o s i t i e s t h a t i am i n my p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n f i n a n c i a l l y & p h y s i c a l l y . moreover, i do want t o s a y t h i s , t h a t my work, i f i can g e t h o l d of i t i s i n good shape: t h a t i do s i n c e r l y want t o make m y s e l f u t t e r l y independent of t h e o l d man but t h a t he has put me i n an i m p o s s i b l e p o s i t i o n t o do i t { — [ i n s e r t e d i n p e n c i l ] } : <that> {but ( i n s e r t e d i n p e n c i l by m a r g e r i e ] } s i n c e i c a n ' t be m a r r i e d f o r a year i t i s a b s u r d t o suppose t h a t i s h o u l d remain e n t i r e l y away from m a r g e r i e f o r t h a t t i m e : i& ( i n s e r t e d i n p e n c i l by m a r g e r i e ] } t h a t , i f i have t o e n l i s t , i want t o marry b e f o r e i go, so t h a t she can draw my pay. but t h i s i s { a l l } f o r your p r i v a t e e a r : & as f o r the war, c o n s i d e r i n g the way england has t r e a t e d me, i am now i n a f a r worse p o s i t i o n t h a n anyone under a n a z i r e g i m e — i have t o a c c o u n t & d o u b l e a c c o u n t , even f o r t o o t h p a s t e — " ] . - of c o u r s e [. . . . j l a s t t i m e . \ [ t h e s e paragraphs a r e w r i t t e n i n p e n c i l by m a r g e r i e . a note w r i t t e n by malcolm i n pen a t t h e bottom of t h e page r e a d s : " — < b i t . > c l a r i f y t h i s " ) . of c o u r s e [. . . . ] \ <i hate t o mention t h e war t o you> of c o u r s e [ . . . . ] . - j o i n up t o f i g h t x j o i n up <and> ( t o ) f i g h t . ve can & d e f i n i t e l y be\ ve can & < c e r t a l n l y > { d e f i n i t e l y } be . q u i c k b e f o r e x q u i c k <f> b e f o r e ( p o r t i o n of a l e t t e r from m a u r i c e c a r e y t o a r t h u r . l o v r y (malcolm's f a t h e r ) typed and c r o s s e d out a t t o p o f page: "a b o t t l e o f v e r y cheap h a i r o i l as i t d i d t o p l a n and l a u n c h the b a t t l e of the somme a r e a . s i n c e i have o b t a i n e d mr. carey's f u l l a p p r o v a l as t o my c a p a b i l i t i e s i n c e r t a i n m a t t e r s , i must i n s i s t t h a t i am g i v e n e q u a l c r e d i t as t o my c a p a b i l i t i e s t o d e t e r m i n e the e x t e n t and n a t u r e of h i s needs v l t h o u t the embarrassment of such p e t t y s c e n e s . i t i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t your a p p o i n t e e , c o l o n e l v i c t o r mclean i s now o c c u p i e d i n m i l i t a r y d u t i e s and t h e r e f o r e unable t o c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h me, but i can a s s u r e you t h a t i t i s d e f i n i t e l y my i n t e n t i o n t o a i d malcolm i n h i s e x p r e s s e d d e s i r e t o s e r v e h i s c o u n t r y a t t h i s c r i t i c a l p e r i o d , g i v i n g him the advantage of my own e x p e r i e n c e i n the l a s t war i n o r d e r t h a t h e may be b e t t e r equipped t o t a k e c a r e of h i m s e l f p r o f i c i e n t l y i n t h i s one.") . i have some o t h e r i d e a s aboutx i have some <other> o t h e r i d e a s <of> about . - by c a b l e , a one, v h i c h v o u l d suggestx by c a b l e , a <cable> {one}, v h i c h < , [ i l l e g . ] > would s u g g e s t . - t h a t you had seen my p u b l l s h e r s x t h a t <my p u b l i s h e r s > you had seen my p u b l i s h e r s . - i c o u l d then s t a y v i t h you:\ i c o u l d ( t h e n ) s t a y v i t h you: . - or perhaps put a p u b l i s h e r , [. . .] up t o sendingx or <the> perhaps <get> {put} a p u b l i s h e r , or b e r n i c e , or l i n s c o t t , or someone w h o l l y i m a g i n a r y , <slmply> up t o s e n d i n g . any of t h e s e t h l n g s x any of t h e s e <ruses> t h i n g s . f a r more my f a t h e r x f a r more <£> ray f a t h e r . e n g i n e e r e d from t h e r e , f i n a n c i a l l y . i t has been done b e f o r e : \ e n g i n e e r e d <by y> from there<:>{,} { f i n a c i a l l y . } <you could> { i t has been done b e f o r e } <to both our <<adv>> advantage>: . the p e r f e c t r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , \ the p e r f e c t <adjustment> { r e c o n c i l i a t i o n } , . or t o a new l i f e : \ or {to} a <happy l i f e . > <per> new l i f e : . - t h i s would be, i n r e a l i t y , \ t h i s would < r e a l l y > be, <another> i n r e a l i t y , . - t h a t t i m e , & i do f o r her sake t . . . marry h e r , & i f \ t h a t t i m e , & <i do> i <do want t o s t a y out of t h e army now t h a t > do want { f o r her sake} t o s t a y out o f the army l o n g enough t o marry h e r , <now t h a t > & i f . v o l u n t e e r e d i n b o t h england & canada & been refusedy v o l u n t e e r e d <& been tur> i n both e n g l a n d canada & <i c a n ' t do more tha> been r e f u s e d > . - t o a v o i d the p o s s l b l i t y o f the d e p o r t a t i o n a n g l e , would i t \ t o a v o i d t h e < d e p o r t a t i o n angle> p o s s i b i l i t y of the d e p o r t a t i o n a n g l e , <would i t n o t , i f i c o u l d g e t h o l d <<[illeg:}>> of a hundred d o l l a r s or so> would i t . - t h a t i f can l a y my hands\ t h a t i f <i c o u l d lay> can l a y my hands . l i k e h e l l on the o l d man.\ l i k e h e l l on the <ol> o l d man. . - i f i t r a g i c a l l y c a n n o t , \ i f i { t r a g i c a l l y } c a n n o t , . - i c o u l d by t h a t time (. . .] p o i n t of v a n t a g e , \ i . c o u l d <get as> by t h a t time p o s s i b l y have amassed enough money t o g e t <far e a s t i n canada> s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r e a s t i n canada, t o be <near m a r g i e ; but she a t any r a t e > not more than a n i g h t s j o u r n e y from m a r g i e { , } < — a n d y o u r s e l f , > mary & y o u r s e l f , {--i am presuming of c o u r s e you c o u l d f i n d somewhere f o r margie t o s t a y i n the meanwhile — } & from t h a t p o i n t o f <view> vantage, . - over a g a i n ? i f t h i s {. . .] y o u r s e l f . \ over a g a i n ? { i f t h i s i s n ' t t o o much of a < t e r r i b l e > presumption on mary & y o u r s e l f . } [ t h i s i n s e r t i o n i n r i g h t - h a n d margin] . - by t h e way, q u i t e b l u n t l y , t h a t you f e e l d e f i n i t e l y from my l e t t e r , t h a t now i t has t u r n e d i m p o s s i b l e \ by the way, <that <<i have stated>> you f e e l <<to you>> > q u i t e b l u n t l y , <that i an) < i f i am t h w a r t e d i n my w i s h now to see you & com> t h a t you f e e l d e f i n i t e l y {from my l e t t e r } , t h a t <now the army> (now i t ) has t u r n e d <out> i m p o s s i b l e [ t y p e w r i t t e n a t t o p of t h i s page and c a r b o n - c o p i e d upside-down a t bottom of f o l l o w i n g page: " i am s e n t t o save my f a t h e r , t f i n d my s o n , t o h e a l t h e e t e r n a l h o r r o r o f t h r e e , t o r e s o l v e the immedicable h o r r o r of t h r e e , t o r e s o l v e t h e " ) . - under the volcano & a p l a y : \ under the v o l c a n o {& <the> {{a}} p l a y } : . - b e r n i c e . as t h i s i s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , [. . . m e l v i l l e , \ b e r n i c e . <so by> {as t h i s } <next week sometime i s h o u l d be> i s , <about a man's> among o t h e r t h i n g s , about a mans' h y s t e r i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h m e l v i l l e , <i would be g r a t e f u l i f you would pass i t on t o h a r r y murray, i f you t h i n k i t would be of i n t e r e s t . > . h a r r y murry, & would\ h a r r y murry <too>, & would . so, conrad,\ <well> {so}, conrad, • . p l e a s e h e l p . so d e e p l y f. . . . ) \ p l e a s e h e l p . < <<i know deeply>> {so d e e p l y } <<ln my heart>> <<<that>>> {do i know t h a t } y o u r s i s t h e only>> {do i f e e l t h a t y o u r s i s the o n l y ) h e l p <<i can t u r n to>> i n t h i s c r i s i s , <<i f e e l a l m o s t as though>> {i sense t h a t } my h e a r t had made p r o v i s i o n f o r so t u r n i n g t o you i n the end by i t s f i r s t j o u r n e y t o t h e cape.> so d e e p l y i . . . .) . we can g u i d e our bark on\ <i> {we} can g u i d e <my> {our} bark on . - now i sense t h a t \ now <without foundering> <i f e e l a l m o s t as though, by {so} t u r n i n g t o you <<ln» { a t ) t h e end, t h a t <<my>> my h e a r t had made p r o v i s i o n fo> i sense t h a t . & l i v e s worth s a v i n g , & l i v e s \ & <ones> { l i v e s } worth s a v i n g ^ < l f you make your a p p e a l d e s p e r a t e enough t o t h e o l d man.> & l i v e s . - thank you from the bottom o f my h e a r t f o r \ thank you . <for> {from the bottom of my h e a r t } { f o r } . - a l r e a d y made: my v e r y b e s t \ a l r e a d y made: <a > my v e r y b e s t . t o mary, i have\ t o mary, < [ i l l e g . ) > i have . do you send\ do. you <both> send . 'reading a book?'\ "reading a book<? , >?' . h a z a r d . \ <raazard> {hazard.} . the t h l n g \ < [ i l l e g . ) > the t h i n g . - a , f o r b e t t e r or worse b a thousand l i n e s \ <b>{a} , f o r b e t t e r or <for> worse <axb} a thousand l i n e s . numbers\ <n>{n}umbers . - p.s. s i n c e {. . . . d e s p a i r . \ i t h i s paragraph i s . t y p e w r i t t e n w i t h a l l a l t e r a t i o n s done by lowry i n green i n k ] . l e t t e r l a s t \ l e t t e r l a s t [ t y p o . ] . l i k e the p o s t u l a t e d end\ l i k e the { p o s t u l a t e d } end . - i n which k. was d y i n g , [. . .] w r i t e , he was t o o . worn out t o w r i t e . \ i n which {k. was d y i n g , surrounded by the v i l l a g e r s , worn out w i t h the s t r u g g l e , <but> which k a f k a h i m s e l f was t o o worn out t o w r i t e . } he was t o o worn out t o w r i t e . . - we a r e s t a y i n g i n \ <to t e l l t h e b r u t a l t r u t h , > we a r e s t a y i n g i n . which i s \ w h i c h l s [ t y p o . ] . - a s t r a n g e & [. . .] u g l y c o u n t r y \ a s t r a n g e {& b e l i e v e me damned h o s t i l e & u g l y } c o u n t r y . and i f i t e l l the t r u t h about him,\ and { i f } i t e l l t h e t r u t h about him{,} . s h o u l d have\ shouldhave [ t y p o . ] . no c h o i c e \ n o c h o i c e [ t y p o . ] . i n t h i s m a t t e r , \ i n th<e>{is} m a t t e r , . i t has t u r n e d as you s e e . \ i t has t u r n e d <out f o r the worse) {as you s e e } . . - i a c t u a l l y f e a r as f o r , d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s , i f e a r e d a.b. g a r e y — t r u s t i n g t o t r u s t i n g him\ i a c t u a l l y f e a r {as f o r , d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s , i f e a r e d a.b. c a r e y — t r u s t i n g } t o t r u s t d n g } him . - s t a y i n g but where s h a l l \ s t a y i n g but {where} s h a l l . r e c e i v e m a l l , and b e t t e r send a n o t h e r \ r e c e i v e m a l l <{there}>, and <perhaps> { b e t t e r send} a n o t h e r . - h e l p . we had an u n d e r s t a n d i n g about t h i s . o r \ h e l p . { w e had an u n d e r s t a n d i n g about t h i s . } o r . a l l o f u s , \ a l l o f us, t t y p o . j . - s e a ? o r can you [. . . most of i t . b u t \ s e a ? { o r can you (. . . most o f i t . } b u t . - f o r t h e l a s t time i n t o t h i s more t h a n s e a , t h i s s a r g a s s o sea of d e s p a i r . \ f o r the l a s t time<.) i n t o t h i s < { [ i l l e g . ] } > < s a r g a s s o s > more <{more}> <than> {than} < s a r g a s s o > sea{,} <of d e s p a i r ) t h i s s a r g a s s o sea o f d e s p a i r . . - we huddle t . . . .) on u s — \ ( w r i t t e n i n green ink i n lower h a l f of page] . - i c y r a i n which hasn't stopped f o r days d o e s n ' t even b r i n g m e l a n c h o l y any l o n g e r : \ i c y ond c o n t i n u o u s ) r a i n {which h a s n ' t stopped f o r days} d o e s n ' t even b r i n g m e l a n c h o l y any <longer.) <more) { l o n g e r } : . damp, muscles c o n t r a c t \ damp, <our> muscles c o n t r a c t . - (because of a "war" i n j u r y caused by f a l l i n g o f f a s t r e e t c a r ) i s h a v i n g one of h i s ' c r a z y f i t s ' \ (because of a "war" i n j u r y o ) {caused <probably> by f a l l i n g o f f a s t r e e t c a r {{)}} <when p l a s t e r e d ) ) } i s h a v i n g one of h i s <mad) {'crazy} f i t s ' , . " f i c t i t i o u s p e o p l e , " e t c . n o w \ " f i c t i t i o u s p e o p l e , " e t c . < u s e l e s s , ) n o w . - s o you s e e , as w e l l as snow t h e r e i s f o g . \ ( w r i t t e n i n lower l e f t - h a n d margin] : from aiken to lowry k i l l o r i n south dennis mass. nov my beloved misguided misfortunate chaos-loving male-- as you see from the reverse of t h i s , i started to write the old man and then thought perhaps i'd better write you f i r s t , for even more information. f i r s t l y and most importantly, t h i s : do you know of. the d i f f i c u l t i e s , not to say p r a c t i c a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y , of exporting money from england, and do you know for a fact that the old man could so send i t to you were you to cross into the us? is t h i s possibly the reason why he wants you to stay in canada? anyway, i t ' s necessary for me to know about a l l t h i s , and whether you know and the old man knows. if you don't know, maybe you could find out from the authorities there in vancouver? and then i ' l l l e t f l y at the old man in the most ingenious manner i can. but f i r s t that is e s s e n t i a l . as for the rest, of course i ' l l do everything i can. . . . as for acting once more, in loco parentis,' of course i ' l l do i t i f i t w i l l help you, though our own circumstances are precarious in the extreme, and we don't know where we'll be or what doing two months in advance. we may stay here: but on the other hand, mary now i t appears has chances of doing some society p o r t r a i t s in boston, so we may go up again in jan. . but boston would be a l l right for you, you and margie could find a corner for yourselves and i could as i t were (from ' the m's viewpoint at a l l events) keep a benevolent eye glowing upon you from a distance, i .e., from s dennis or wherever, why not??? i think you could work in boston (your own work, i mean- there are no jobs i fear) and you would know people, so i t might r e a l l y be the best thing. (in this connection, by a l l means send margie in advance i f you think best. but c e r t a i n l y with funds, for our own are n i l , and we could do nothing for her. sad, damnit, but true.) meanwhile, the mss w i l l i hope have arrived, and w i l l i f so perhaps have begun something. i ' l l do my bursting best. be sure to'write to bernice baumgarten, brandt & brandt, park avenue, t e l l i n g her who you are and that i t is at my suggestion you send in b a l l a s t : i t ' s a big o f f i c e , and in the machinery i t might be forgotten that you were the chap i'd spoken to her about. --as for your general saga, jeez, male, i t ' s a horror, i t i s , and i partly understand i t , but not a l l : more l i g h t , more l i g h t , i f you can and w i l l . are you drinking 'eavy- like? are you confused, or is a l l now lucid? us, we're trying to be good, drink less (but s t i l l too much) and are r e a l l y s t r i v i n g towards a better thing. high time too, for i'm far from well, weak in the knees, toothless, and must t h i s winter probably lose the rest of my teeth in exchange for a porcelain mouthtrap, once i've acquired the stamina to undergo i t . no, the new novel is the conversation, a sinfonia domestica, a l i t t l e poem of marital love (?????) in four movements, setting cape cod, a very ordinary -hour quarrel between a normal male and female, about nothing to speak of, and ending in holy bedlock. i'm pleased with i t — i think i t s a multum in parvo, and i f i do say so as should, i believe i t ' s got some, at least, of the c l a s s i c v i r t u e s : form, delicacy, r e s t r a i n t , poetry, perhaps even a l i t t l e wisdom. reading a book maybe w i l l be n e x t - - i f t h i s w i n t e r i f e e l w e l l enough and s e t t l e d enough t o get my f u m b l i n g paws down t o i t . --margie i must say sounds l i k e a b r i c k . we both send you and her our l o v e s , and do count on us, we aim t o do a l l we r e a l l y can. i o n l y wish t o god i a c t u a l l y had some money, f o r t h a t would so s i m p l y and q u i c k l y s o l v e e v e r y t h i n g f o r you. but gosh i f we even p a i d one t e n t h of what we owe--but l e t ' s not go i n t o t h a t . — o u r d e v o t i o n s , o l d f e l l o w , and keep up the c h i n s — conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes lowry's f a t h e r had put a i k e n i n l o c o p a r e n t i s of h i s son many y e a r s e a r l i e r i n rye i n . c o n v e r s a t i o n : or p i l g r i m s ' p r o g r e s s (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). "multum i n p a r v o " : l a t i n , "much i n l i t t l e . " * i . e . , ushant: c f . l e t t e r , p. , and n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes [no o r i g i n a l i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s l e t t e r ; i have t h e r e f o r e had t o r e l y on joseph k i l l o r i n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n ( )] : from aiken t o lowry ts h; k i i l o r i n s o u t h d e n n i s m a s s . d e c a b r a c a d a m . t f h j e e n c l o s e d w i r e c a m e y e s t e r d a y , m a l e — b u t a s y o u w i l l s e e , t h e e n d i s n o t y e t , a n d we m u s t w a i t a n d s e e w h a t c o m e s o f i t . m a y b e n o t h i n g : b u t a t l e a s t m y l e t t e r a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d t h e d e s i r e d m o l l i f y i n g e f f e c t . w h a t y o u r o w n p r e d i c a m e n t - - v i z . , a s t o b e i n g a l l o w e d t o c r o s s t h e b o r d e r - - w i l i a m o u n t t o , i c a n ' t m y s e l f i m a g i n e . i f . t h e m i s i n f a v o u r of t h e w h o l e i d e a , a n d c a s h i s p u t u p f o r y o u , i d o n ' t s e e w h y n o t . i s h o u l d t h i n k , y o u c o u l d w a n g l e s o m e t h i n g ? w o r s t c o m i n g t o w o r s t , t h e r e m i g h t h o w e v e r b e a d v a n t a g e s i n y o u r i d e a o f m o v i n g a t l e a s t t o t h e e a s t e r n e n d o f c a n a d a - - m o n t r e a l ? - - t h e r e t o b e u n d e r m y e y e a s n o w y o u ' r e u n d e r p a r k ' s . . . a n y w a y , i ' l l b e k e e p i n g i n t o u c h , a n d y o u d o t h e s a m e , a n d w e ' l l h o p e f o r t h e b e s t . . . b a l l a s t h a s j u s t c o m e - - i t w i l l i f e a r b e s o m e t i m e b e f o r e i c a n g e t d o w n t o i t , f o r i ' v e g o t s o m e w o r k o n my h a n d s . b a u m g a r t e n r e p o r t s t h a t s h e c o u l d n ' t m a k e h e a d n o r t a i l o f i t , a n d a l a s t h a t a l s o s h e t h o u g h t i t n o t a c o m m e r c i a l p r o s p e c t . m i n d y o u , b & b a r e p r e t t y h a r d b o i l e d a n t i - h i g h b r o w a g e n t s , w h o r e g a r d e v e n me o n l y w i t h t o l e r a n c e b e c a u s e i ' m a f r i e n d o f t h e f a m i l y — s o i w o u l d n ' t a t t a c h t o o m u c h v a l u e t o t h e i r j u d g m e n t . . a s a n o f f h a n d q u i c k o p i n i o n , f r o m j u s t f l i p p i n g i t o v e r , i ' d m y s e l f s a y t h a t i t l o o k s t o o c o n f u s e d l y e l a b o r a t e , t o o c i r c u m a m b u l a t i n g l y m e t a p h y s i c a l a n d e g o - f r e i g h t e d , t o b e e f f e c t i v e . my o w n i n f l u e n c e a g a i n h a s b e e n b a d , a s i n t h e c h a p t e r of u n w r i t t e n , p a r t l y w r i t t e n , l e t t e r s - - e l s e v h e r e t o o . i t h i n k i t s t i m e you c u t y o u r s e l f a d r i f t from a l l t h e s e h e r e g h o s t l y d o p p e l g a n g e r s and p r o j e c t i o n s and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s and l e t l o o s e some o f y o u r n a t u r a l j o y i n s w i f t n e s s and g o o d n e s s and l o v e and s i m p l i c i t y - - p u t y o u r c o m p l e x i t y i n t o r e v e r s e — a n d c e l e b r a t e t h e s u n . some of t h e l a t t e r poems go t h a t way--though y o u r m e t r i c s i s . q u e e r , b l i m e y y e s . here a g a i n i t h i n k t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e complex boys, t h e s e a d o l e s c d n t audens s p e n d e r s w i t h a l l t h e i r p r e t t y l i t t l e d e x t e r i t i e s , t h e i r n e g a t i v e s a f e t y , t h e i r i n d o o r m a r x m a n s h i p , s has been n o t t o o good f o r y o u - - s o m e t h i n g w i t h a l i t t l e more g u s t o i s wanted, g u t s , j u i c e s , b l o o d , l o v e , s u n s e t s and s u n r i s e s , moons, s t a r s , r o s e s , - - f o r god's sake l e t ' s l e t i n t h e whole r o m a n t i c shebang a g a i n , i t ' s h i g h t i m e - - i a g r e e w i t h o l d e d s a b o u t t h i s . (what e v e r became o f v o l c a n o , by t h e way?) ed w r i t e s t h a t he may be coming o v e r t o b o s t o n n e x t month- - i f he can g e t h e r e - - s o maybe w e ' l l a l l be h a v i n g a r e u n i o n . you knew, i s u p p o s e , t h a t j a n e i s i n c a m b r i d g e , w o r k i n g on m e l v i l l e f o r h a r r y m u r r a y ? e v e r y t h i n g comes r o u n d and back, t h e e t e r n a l r e t u r n . and j e r r y i s rumoured t o be engaged, and my n o v e l comes out march , and on t h e whole l i f e i s damned good. i t i s , i a s s u r e y o u . so keep a-comin', o l d f e l l o w , and w e ' l l be s e e i n g y o u . meantime, our l o v e s t o you b o t h -- c o n r a d explanatory notes the "enclosed wire," presumably from lowry's father, is missing; however, the december wire from lowry's father to aiken, quoted by joseph k i l l o r i n , is probably the one spoken of here: "answer 'immediately whether w i l l i n g accept r e s p o n s i b i l i t y management malcolm personally and his a f f a i r s i f allowed join you in accordance his request'" ( k i l l o r i n ). cf. also aiken's december wire to parks ( k i l l o r i n ). i i q m h . i . d m a n / « i . e . lowry's father. "b & b" : brandt & brandt, aiken's new york agents. chapter vii of blue voyage consists of six unsent and unfinished l e t t e r s from demarest to cynthia. s "indoor marxmanship" : lowry later used this phrase in his poem, "where did that one go to, 'erbert?," the vancouver daily province dec. : , and in under the volcano ( ). edward john burra ( - ); see l e t t e r , n. , p. . jane aiken, aiken's oldest daughter with his f i r s t wife, jessie macdonald. a harry murray ( - ); see l e t t e r , n. , p. . "jerry" : aiken's second wife, c l a r i s s a lorenz; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . conversation: or pilgrims' progress. textual notes . t[h]e\ tne [typo.] . opinion,\ opini< >{o}n, . - l e t ' s l e t i n \ <:>{l}et's l e t in . high time\ high<t> time : from lowry to aiken ts h; unpublished [december ] dear o l d conrad: - a thousand thanks! i too r e c e i v e d a c a b l e from the o.m., more or l e s s i d e n t i c a l , v h i c h i s a seven league boot step forward. i t c e r t a i n l y does look as though you're l e t t e r had the necessary m o l l i f y i n g e f f e c t . the end, though, as you say, i s not y e t . if worst come to the worst, or i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r the worst coming to the worst, would i t be too much to ask you to sow the seeds of the idea i n the o.m.'s mind that i t would be a d v i s a b l e f o r me anyhow to proceed east where i c o u l d be under your eye? then, i f i t i s impossible to cross the border at l e a s t a change could be made f o r the b e t t e r without undue d e l a y . but more of t h i s l a t e r when i have more to go on. one snag i s t h a t i f permission went through meantime, i t i s p o s s i b l e i would have to r e t u r n here to c r o s s the border. i think though i f you c o u l d see your way to dropping a note to parks, s a y i n g t h a t you had heard from the o.m., i t might help matters because parks i s so d i l a t o r y and c y n i c a l that he may w e l l h e s i t a t e to do a n y t h i n g at a l l u n t i l i t i s too l a t e . at t h i s p o i n t i want to say that i r e a l i z e t h a t you are busy and simply may not have time to do these t h i n g s , but ask you a l s o to r e a l i z e t h a t s i n c e i am engaged i n the perhaps not very u s e f u l occupation of s a v i n g my own e x i s t a n c e i must ask them! were you to do nothing e l s e at a l l upon my b e h a l f you have s t i l l gone very f a r towards b r i n g i n g matters to a s o l u t i o n f o r me and i cannot adequately express my g r a t i t u d e . a l o u s y corespondent, and i n some ways i n the past not always the most dependable of f r i e n d s , i t g r i e v e s me to t h i n k that you may think i am o n l y w r i t i n g to you because i am i n a jam. but such i s not the case: at heart i am always your f r i e n d : and, jam or no jam, a t such a p e r i o d as t h i s i would f e e l i t of v i t a l importance to see you or to c o n t a c t you and would move heaven and e a r t h to be able to do so. a l l of which m r l i n g s me to the p o i n t that i am about to ask a few more f a v o r s . since i may have o n l y a s h o r t time l e f t , and so do not want to embark upon a new book, i think i t wiser to complete what i have begun, e s p e c i a l l y as i t r e p r e s e n t s s e v e r a l years work, and a l s o as 'in b a l l a s t ' , even i n i t s incomplete and u n s a t i s f a c t o r y v e r s i o n was p r a c t i c a l l y accepted by harpers, 'under the volcano' c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y awaited by ann watkins, 'the l a s t address' by whit burnett. - to r e t u r n to 'in b a l l a s t ' - the copy which you have i s the one which you read three years ago and s a i d then t h a t you l i k e d very much - with the r e s e r v a t i o n s you repeated i n your l a s t l e t t e r and with which i myself agree. working along these l i n e s i had r e w r i t t e n i t but that copy was l o s t i n mexico, so i now wish to r e w r i t e i t a g a i n . since the v e r s i o n which has been l o s t was not open to the c r i t i c i s m you have made of the v e r s i o n you have, perhaps i t would be b e t t e r i f you sent i t on to me without b o t h e r i n g f u r t h e r about i t and i ' l l get down to the job. but i do f e e l that i t i s worth redoing s i n c e i t had much p r a i s e from many people ( i n c l u d i n g - er - y o u r s e l f . ) now about the l a s t address' - i know that that too i s worth doing and doing as n e a r l y p e r f e c t l y as i s p o s s i b l e . since you do not l i k e the one long chapter, have you any c o n s t r u c t i v e suggestions to o f f e r as to what i should do with i t ? and a l s o as to the p a r t s at the beginning and end you d i d not a l t o g e t h e r approve o f . a l l t h i s a p p l i e s very much more to 'the lighthouse' as w e l l . could you not, i n the s h i t e h o u s e , reread the lighthouse? and now about 'under the volcano' - i l e f t t h a t i n los angeles to be typed and sent on to me to f i n i s h here, and f o r f i v e months i've been v a i n l y t r y i n g to convince parks t h a t he must get i t from the t y p i s t and send i t to me - which he b l a n d l y i g n o r e s . if you w r i t e him c o u l d you say that i t i s imperative that i have the manuscript and f i n i s h i t as you have some d e f i n i t e commitments f o r i t ? perhaps t h a t w i l l spur him to some a c t i o n . i f e e l t h a t you would approve of under the volcano: i t takes the same t h i n g s to town which you take i n your g e n e r a l c r i t i c i s m of me and i s the most mature t h i n g i have done. and, f i n a l l y , would you t r y and r e a l i z e the d i f f i c u l t i e s of working, or t r y i n g t o , i n what amounts to a vacuum? however merited your c r i t i c i s m , and however much i agree with i t i cannot, i n the present s i t u a t i o n , apply what i s p u r e l y d e s t r u c t i v e . by which i mean that s i n c e my o b j e c t i s to get something out q u i c k l y i have to make the best of what m a t e r i a l i have so that what i am a s k i n g you i s more 'what can i do without s c r a p p i n g the whole bloody l o t ? , ' assuming, f o r my sake, t h a t i t i s best not to scrap the whole bloody l o t and that some of i t , a t l e a s t , can be p u b l i s h e d ? i v a l u e your o p i n i o n more h i g h l y t h a n anyone's and a l l t h a t you have s a i d w i l l c a r r y i t s own weight and v a l u e . on the o t h e r hand i have always found your o p i n i o n the most f r u c t i f y i n g - f o r i n s t a n c e , a s i m p l e c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h you about p o e t r y produced, f o r b e t t e r or worse, a whole book, the l i g h t h o u s e - and i t i s f o r t h a t r e a s o n i would be g r a t e f u l f o r a n y t h i n g i can a p p l y c o n s t r u c t i v e l y t o the i m p e r f e c t i o n s i s h a l l be s a d d l e d w i t h anyhow, - i n s h o r t f o r a p r e l u d e t o some p l a s t i c s u r g e r y . i r a t h e r g a t h e r from your l e t t e r s t h a t you f e e l t h e r e i s too much of your i n f l u e n c e a l l around, t h a t i s h o u l d be a b l e t o break away from i t by now and paddle my own l i t e r a r y canoe. t h i s may be a l l v e r y w e l l i n i t s way, b u t , i presume, i am s t i l l p e r m i t t e d to ask the o l d maestro, who i s i n v a r i a b l y r i g h t , f o r t e c h n i c a l a d v i c e , even i f i t i s g i v e n i n a 'now t h i s i s what i t h i n k , go and do something q u i t e d i f f e r e n t on your own hook' s p i r i t . t e l l i n g me t o throw away the whole b o i l i n g i s , i s u b m i t , more m o r a l , than t e c h n i c a l a d v i c e . ah, the w h i r l i g i g of t a s t e ! but i s h o u l d t h i n k what i have g o t , worked up i n t o a more a c c e p t a b l e from, would c o n s t i t u t e a p r e t t y good r e s t a r t . i'm not s u r e i agree about the m o o n l i g h t and roses, a l t h o u g h your s u g g e s t i o n s may v e r y w e l l l e a d t o my s h o w e r i n g you a t a l a t e r date w i t h a d i a r r h e a s c r i b e n d i of r o m a n t i c poems - and i might s u g g e s t t h a t even you might f i n d i t a l i t t l e hard t o w r i t e about the p r i m r o s e a t the o l d r i v e r ' s b r i m i f you were l i v i n g i n f e a r of your l i f e a t the bottom of a s t i n k i n g w e l l i n vancouver! then a g a i n , c o n v e r s e l y , you might n o t . and as f o r e d , i don't remember much m o o n l i g h t and r o s e s about h i s work a few y e a r s ago, which i s the p e r i o d you are r e a l l y d e a l i n g w i t h i n my c a s e . i would be i n t e r e s t e d to see h i s l a t e r p i c t u r e s . l i k e y o u r s e l f , though, i f e e l he has always gone h i s own way, uncursed by t r e n d s . h i s t o r y has a l r e a d y made much of what i admired or p r e t e n d e d t o admire d u r i n g the l a s t h a l f decade q u i t e s e n s e l e s s but s i n c e i d i d pursue a more or l e s s m i d d l e c o u r s e i t h i n k t h e r e i s q u i t e a l o t i can r e s t o r e , from the r u i n i n which i f i n d m y s e l f , 'that would be by no means w o r t h l e s s w i t h a s l i g h t l y l e s s a r r o g a n t f a c a d e . so, f o r gawd's s a k e , conrad, i f you can drop a pamphlet on me i n s t e a d of a bomb, do so! i would l i k e t o go on r e c o r d as p r e d i c t i n g , by the way, t h a t your own work, p a s t and p r e s e n t , w i l l r e c e i v e , d u r i n g the next few y e a r s , the more g e n e r a l a c c l a i m i t has l o n g so h i g h l y d e s e r v e d . there i s something wrong w i t h the s t y l e of t h i s l e t t e r : r e a s o n i have l a t e l y t u r n e d j o u r n a l i s t , i n the vancouver d a i l y p r o v i n c e . i h e s i t a t e , however, t o send you any of my s t u f f i n case you t e l l me t h a t i t i s the b e s t i have ever done! w e l l : gawd be w i t h you, and the h a p p i e s t of c h r i s t m a s e s t o mary and you and l o v e from us b o t h . as ever malcolm p.s. p a r k s ' a d d r e s s i s : p.p.s. that t h e r e ' i t l e r , 'e's no k i n g , 'e's no p r e s i d e n t , 'e's j u s t wot you might c a l l one of them t h e r e d i c k t a s t e r s ! e x p l a n a t o r y notes see l e t t e r , n. , p. . c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . edward john b u r r a ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . lowry had seen b u r r a a "few y e a r s " e a r l i e r i n i n cuernavaca. * lowry wrote two a r t i c l e s and one poem f o r the vancouver d a i l y p r o v i n c e : "hollywood and the war," dec. : ; "the r e a l mr. c h i p s , " dec. : ; "where d i d t h a t one go t o , • e r b e r t ? " dec. : [poem]. t e x t u a l notes . - t h a t i t would be a d v i s a b l e f o r me anyhow\ t h a t <anyhow> i t would be a d v i s a b l e f o r me {anyhow} . eye?\ eye<->{?} . meantime,\ meantime{,} . b [ r ] i n g s \ b e i n g s [ t y p o . ] . - the copy\ - the cop<u>{y} . - the v e r s i o n you have,\ the v e r s i o n you have{,} . s h i t e h o u s e , \ s h i t e h o u s e { , } . b e s t n o t \ b e s t , not> . anyhow,- \ anyhow,{-} . more m o r a l , \ more moral{,} . vancouver!\ vancouver<•>{!} . - as ever [. . . .] d i c k t a s t e r s i \ ( h a n d w r i t t e n i n ink . a t end of l e t t e r ] : from aiken t o lowry k i l l o r i n s dennis mass. dec now, my dear undependable c o n f u s e d e x a c t i n g but w e l l - m e a n i n g male, comes the moment f o r p l a i n s p e a k i n g , n i c h t w a h r ? i had y e s t e r d a y a l o n g w i r e from p a r k s , a s k i n g me i f i would undertake f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s u p e r v i s i n g you, and your a f f a i r s - - "malcolm p e r s o n a l l y , and h i s a f f a i r s " — a n d a d d i n g t h a t your t r o u b l e was " i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as t o money," and " c o n t i n u o u s heavy d r i n k i n g u n l e s s c l o s e l y watched." w e l l , i've w i r e d back t h a t i w i l l t a k e t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; but w i t h n a t u r a l m i s g i v i n g s , my dear f e l l o w , which you s h o u l d be the f i r s t t o u n d e r s t a n d . i t ' s no i d l e barroom j e s t , u n d e r t a k i n g a t h i n g l i k e t h i s : i t means we g i v e up our p r i v a c y , independence, q u i e t , e v e r y t h i n g , and w i t h grave r i s k s of a c c o m p l i s h i n g as l i t t l e f o r you as f o r o u r s e l v e s : we have our own work t o do, our own l i v e s t o l i v e , and you s h o u l d t h i n k of t h i s , t h i n k of i t now. i don't want a g a i n t o be a c c u s e d , as i n , of b e i n g i n d i f f e r e n t t o your w e l f a r e , and o n l y p u t t i n g up w i t h you f o r the old man's money. to h e l l w i t h t h a t . so r i g h t here and now i ' l l say t h i s : i don't even know what the m or p a r k s or whoever proposes t o pay me f o r the j o b , and haven't i n q u i r e d , even. i'm d o i n g t h i s , i n s h o r t , (and t h e r e a r e few i'd do i t f o r ) because i've always as you know been damned fond of you and because you've come to me f o r h e l p a t a c r i s i s . so now: i hope y o u ' l l g i v e me your word b e f o r e coming t h a t you're r e a l l y g o i n g t o make a damned f i n e and c o n v i n c i n g e f f o r t t o behave w e l l r and t o be as c o n s i d e r a t e of us as we s h a l l be of you. no s e c r e t d r i n k i n g s round the c o r n e r , eh? no d i s g r a c i n g s of us w i t h our f r i e n d s , no s c e n e s : and above a l l no c o n t i n u o u s argument as t o the amount of d r i n k a l l o w e d : i'm t o be the b o s s , about t h a t , or i t ' s no go. an a m i a b l e b o s s , a l o v i n g b o s s , a good b r o t h e r : t h a t ' s a l l : but l e t ' s have t h a t a g r e e d . mind you, t o o , i n a l l t h i s , t h e r e i s my b e l o v e d mary t o be c o n s i d e r e d . i t means more work and l e s s f u n f o r h e r , i t means worry f o r her as w e l l - - b e a r t h a t i n mind. she a g r e e s w i t h me, j u s t the same, i n t h i n k i n g t h a t t h i s i s something t h a t has t o be done, i n w a n t i n g t o do i t - - i t h i n k she'd be a l i t t l e ashamed of me i f i d i d n ' t t a k e i t on. so t h e r e . now put a l l t h a t t o g e t h e r , p l e a s e , and t h i n k i t o v e r , and i f p a r k s and co. p e r m i t the move, and you y o u r s e l f want t o come, s t i l l , come w i t h good i n t e n t i o n s : c l e a n f i n g e r n a i l s , a pure h e a r t , a c l e a r head, and p r e p a r e d t o be h e l p f u l and t o work. conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes " n i c h t v a h r " : german, " i s n ' t t h a t s o . " i t was i n , a f t e r t h e i r t r i p t o s p a i n and perhaps a f t e r j u s t such an argument, t h a t a i k e n stopped a c t i n g i n l o c o p a r e n t i s of lowry; c f . ushant ( ) . t e x t u a l notes [no o r i g i n a l i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s l e t t e r ; i have t h e r e f o r e had t o r e l y on joseph k i l l o r i n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n ( ) ] ^ : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d [ december ] dear conrad, i have your l e t t e r and p l e a s e l e t me i n s t a n t l y r e i t e r a t e my t h a n k s , b o t h t o you and mary. i t i s v e r y g a l l a n t and s p o r t i n g of you both t o t a k e on what you have. a f t e r r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s , conrad, of your l e t t e r , i f i n d m y s e l f more g r a t e f u l than ever b e f o r e , i f p o s s i b l e , f o r your k i n d n e s s , (and s u b t l e t y ) ; i am g l a d , though, t o be i n a p o s i t i o n t o remove some of your v e r y j u s t i f i a b l e f e a r s . i t h i n k t h a t you i n t e n d e d , t h a t f o r a time a t any r a t e , u n t i l i had f u l l y d i g e s t e d your words i n a l l the a m b i g u o u s l y f u n c t i o n i n g organs of r e s p o n s e , t h a t a s m a l l , p l a n g e n t e t t u b r u t e s h o u l d sound among my hosannas. j u s t as w e l l , because, i t was w h i l e chewing t h i s p a r t of the cud, b i t t e r a t f i r s t , t h a t i was a b l e t o e x t r a c t the more s u b t l e j u i c e s of meaning from your l e t t e r , which i might o t h e r w i s e have m i s s e d . in my sober mood i t was a l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t t o r e a l i z e a t f i r s t t h a t of c o u r s e you p r o b a b l y expected me t o a r r i v e w i t h a g i r a f f e on e i t h e r arm, t o come h o w l i n g and spewing i n t o south dennis and c o l l a p s e i n the c o n g r e g a t i o n a l church. then, l a t e r , t h e one shoe i n the b a t h t u b , the s u r r e p t i t i o u s vomit under the p i a n o , the u k e l e l e and the f r a c t u r e d s k u l l . i t would be, on second t h i n k i n g s , knowing me, v e r y remarkable indeed i f you d i d not wish t o put y o u r s e l f on guard a g a i n s t something of t h i s s o r t . but p l e a s e l e t me s e t your minds i m m e d i a t e l y a t r e s t on t h i s s c o r e ! there w i l l be n o t h i n g of the k i n d , i t i s a genuine s t r i v i n g f o r a b e t t e r t h i n g , and p l e a s e a s s u r e mary of i t . now, f o r the o t h e r problems. i do f e e l , conrad, t h a t , a l t h o u g h you a r e q u i t e r i g h t t o b r i n g your p e r f e c t l y n a t u r e l a p p r e h e n s i o n s on the s u b j e c t out i n t o the open, - on the p r i n c i p l e t h a t p e r m a n e n t l y t o a l l e v i a t e a n x i e t y i t i s f i r s t n e c e s s a r y t o d a r t a few added pangs, - i do f e e l , i am g l a d t o s a y w i t h a l l r e s p e c t , t h a t the whole r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w i l l t u r n out t o be r a t h e r l e s s t i t a n i c than you s u g g e s t . i c o u l d not f e e l r i g h t about coming i f i f e l t i t would r e a l l y r e s u l t i n any s e r i o u s or p r o t r a c t e d s a c r i f i c i n g of b o t h your independences and p r i v a c i e s : but t h a t you were w i l l i n g t o r i s k t h i s however, i n a c c e p t i n g p a r k s s u g g e s t i o n i s something which moves me more than i can say. i do n o t , of c o u r s e , know what p a r k s s a i d , or what you deduced from i t . i imagine something p r e t t y j u i c y . f o r t u n a t e l y , i t doesn't matter v e r y much, as i hope t o c o n v i n c e you when i have the o p p o r t u n i t y of s p e a k i n g t o you p e r s o n a l l y . on the o t h e r hand, you have had no way of knowing f o r c e r t a i n j u s t p r e c i s e l y what the s i t u a t i o n i s , e x c e p t from my own s t a t e m e n t s , which must have seemed t o you f a n t a s t i c as p a r k s seems r e a s o n a b l e . i t means s i m p l y t h a t i have a l l the more t o thank you f o r . now what i had s u g g e s t e d , and thought by your e a r l i e r l e t t e r s you u n d e r s t o o d and agreed w i t h me about, was t h a t you would do me the f a v o u r , s i n c e i was v i r t u a l l y non communicado w i t h the f a m i l y , of c o l l e c t i n g my "income" and t u r n i n g over t o us, l e s s , of c o u r s e , what might be c o m p a t i b l e w i t h your own time and t r o u b l e i n the m a t t e r . t h i s would enable us t o l i v e - q u o t e , unquotes, and quotes - " i n a c o r n e r t o o u r s e l v e s where you c o u l d keep a b e n e v o l e n t eye g l o w i n g on us from a d i s t a n c e ? ? ? " i s u r m i s e , however, t h a t your t e l e g r a m may have i n c l i n e d you t o the b e l i e f t h a t t h e r e i s more t o i t than m e r e l y t h a t . i t i s not an income a t a l l , you may have been or w i l l be t o l d , because i have no money, a f a c t of which i have t o be c o n t i n u a l l y reminded, i t i s a sum of money put a t your d i s p o s a l t o d i s p o s e of f o r me or not a t a l l , as you t h i n k f i t , i t i s something i ought not t o have, t h a t i ought t o be ashamed of t a k i n g , s o m e t h i n g , i n s h o r t , t o my a c c e p t a n c e of w h i c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n time of war, i s a t t a c h e d the maximum amount of h u m i l i a t i o n . on the o t h e r hand, i f you t a k e p a r k ' s p l a c e - as a matter of f a c t i upped and s u g g e s t e d as much t o the o.m. i n a moment of s u d d e n l y conquered p h o b i a - you would g e t an a d d i t i o n a l f e e , and i f p a r k s i s any t o u c h s t o n e , f a r from t h e r e b e i n g any r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a t t a c h e d t o i t , you would get t h i s fee s i m p l y f o r p u t t i n g me as f a r away as p o s s i b l e from you i n some god f o r s a k e n p l a c e where i c o u l d not p o s s i b l y be any n u i s a n c e t o you whatever, where i would be unable e i t h e r t o o b t a i n work or p r o s e c u t e a normal l i f e , and be d r i v e n s l o w l y t o the b r i n k of s u i c i d e , which, as you had c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y put me f i r s t i n the hands of the o x f o r d movement, c o u l d not be p o s s i b l y c o n s t r u e d as your f a u l t , or even a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h you i n the l e a s t , n o r , s i n c e t h e o x f o r d group i s n o t o r i o u s l y p r o h i b i t i o n i s t , a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h a n y t h i n g save the demon rum, which, i n s p i t e of h a v i n g no money a t a l l i was s t i l l o b v i o u s l y a b l e t o o b t a i n and consume i n p a n t a g r u e l i a n q u a n t i t i e s . your independence and p r i v a c y would be u n i m p a i r e d because, i n s p i t e of any p r o v i s o s , you had, a f t e r a l l , the f i n a l power of a t t o r n e y , and i f you chose not t o s a c r i f i c e i t , t h e r e would not be the s l i g h t e s t r e a s o n t o do s o . however, conrad, you are not p a r k s , you a r e my f r i e n d , and i , b e l i e v e i t or n o t , am y o u r s . s u r e l y , t h i s b e i n g s o , i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o h i t upon some compromise, which w i l l not embarrass you or i n t e r f e r e w i t h your work but which w i l l enable us t o be f r e e of t h i s p r e s e n t t y r a n n y , t o be by o u r s e l v e s , and t o work, but n e v e r t h e l e s s near enough t o you t o see you from time t o t i m e , which god knows, as i have p o i n t e d out b e f o r e , would be o n l y what i would want t o do, and which i hope would be what you would want me t o do, were the c i r c u m s t a n c e s n o r m a l , under c o n d i t i o n s i n the w o r l d a t p r e s e n t . i do not want t o d i e o f f s t a g e , l i k e m e r c u t i o ; and you have perhaps reckoned w i t h o u t my p u r e l y f i l i a l f e e l i n g f o r you, which i s a genuine and t r u e one. i would beg e x c u s i o n f o r the monstrous and u n g r a t e f u l a c c u s a t i o n s i made of you i n the p a s t on the grounds t h a t t h e y were a l l i n the g e n e r a l o e d i p e i a n p a t t e r n , but i know you u n d e r s t a n d t h i s a l r e a d y . such t h i n g s w i l l not occur a g a i n , i a s s u r e you. t h i s time a r e c r e a t e d p r i a m has t o d e a l w i t h an oedipus i n h i s p o s t - j o c a s t a p e r i o d , but whose a f f l i c t i o n does not mean t h a t he has l o s t h i s v i s i o n , or hope. now i a l s o see how your l e t t e r , - - a n d i have t o thank you a l s o , f o r t h i s , - - s i n c e i t i s one t h a t i c o u l d s c a r c e l y show anyone who d i d n ' t l o v e me, gave me an 'out' w i t h m a r g i e , ( b e h i n d vhich thought do not think i do not also detect the hand of loving kindness--) vere margie some grasping female - you don't knov after a l l i - whom i had got into trouble, gave me a neat l i t t l e pair of s c i s s o r s to snip off a r e l a t i o n s h i p i might subconsciously wished myself r i d of. margie's reaction as i t should be was simply one of deep gratitude: she asks me to say that of course she would be only too happy to help mary and you in any way she could while and i f we stay with you: she is a good cook, a good t y p i s t , quite capable of taking over any part of the housekeeping which would be the most h e l p f u l . but as for the allowance - what can i say, conrad? what i get w i l l have to do us both, since i can't bring margie out into the open now, with either parks or the o.m. as things stand here, we don't get any of the allowance, bust three d o l l a r s a week that's a l l : i t was t h r e e - f i f t y , sometimes i t s only two. i make a few d o l l a r s writing a r t i c l e s about mr. chips and such beloney (mr. chips happened to be my housemaster by the way) and what is not even the rest of the allowance goes to maurice carey and his whole family l i v e on i t . the rest is being either misused or simply hoarded by carey and co.,s so there's damned l i t t l e l e f t for us. to the best of my knowledge i have about $ a month: whatever parks receives i s outside of that. so i f you receive what is now park's fee, what income i have, even i f i t is very much less than the $ , under the new arrangement should enable us to l i v e q u i e t l y somewhere without in any way sponging on you. i expect the amount w i l l be l e f t up to your own d i s c r e t i o n . if there turns out to be no a d d i t i o n a l fee to what was once my income, and your part of i t has to come out of that, i'm sure something satisfactory to you could be arranged, we don't need much: simply a break. but i t is unfortunately just precisely that kind of a break which i t is well nigh impossible to arrange at a distance. but at this point i do want to say i'm absolutely on the level, on the level about margie, on the level about working, on the level about you, on the level about the situation here, and f i n a l l y on the level about there being no problem about your having nothing to fear from my drinking or irresponsibility (does this letter or have my other letters sounded irresponsible?) i forgot to say that there ought to be quite a bit accumulated here unless these oxford group bastards have grabbed i t or sent i t back to the o.m.: i don't know and they won't t e l l me. we would be only too delighted to get out of this hell-hole immediately, but what to do about my permission to reenter u.s.a? i understand an appeal can be made through blaine (where i was refused on the grounds of not being able to prove income, you remember) but parks hasn't done a damn thing about ray papers that i know of. he hasn't written me at a l l , and he has the proof. the appeal may have to go through washington, presumably, would take time. parks may be arranging for an immigration visa, however which would account for your being asked to take f u l l responsibility. in that case i t is a purely nominal thing and just a legal necessity of some kind, but jesus, i f that's what you took, or whatever you took - it's bloody decent of you - i miss my cue here, w i l l content myself with saying lamely, but meaning i t , t h a t , by shakespeare, i won't l e t you down. at the moment i t would seem t h a t the most s e n s i b l e t h i n g t o do would be t o proceed t o m o n t r e a l , where i would be w i t h i n h a i l i n g d i s t a n c e , f i r s t h a v i n g a s c e r t a i n e d whether, i n the event of my r e c e i v i n g p e r m i s s i o n t o go t o the s t a t e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e to c r o s s a t whatever b o r d e r town i s n e a r e s t t h e r e , w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o come back h e r e , t o b l a i n e . i n any event we s h a l l not be a b l e t o g e t our f e e t upon t e r r a f i r m a u n t i l you assume the power of a t t o r n e y : as t h i n g s s t a n d , t h e b r o t h i s f o u l , t h e cooks c o r r u p t , and i t ' s a l l t o o i n s a n e l y c o m p l i c a t e d . there remains the problem of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , both f o r margie and m y s e l f : the problem of the c a r e y s : the problem of under the v o l c a n o , s t i l l i n los a n g e l e s : the problem of h a t i n g t o cause you t r o u b l e but u n f a i l i n g l y c a u s i n g you more and more; the problem of f e e l i n g t h a t i f my presence i n u.s.a. i s g o i n g t o cause you and mary a l l t h e embarrassment you suggest i t w i l l i ought, as a p o i n t of honour, not t o come a t a l l ; the problem of p e r s i s t i n g j u s t t h e same, and wondering whether i am r i g h t i n f e e l i n g t h a t , i f a l l goes w e l l , i t ought not t o be so t e r r i b l e f o r you: the problem of the war, of p o s s i b l e d e a t h , of m a r r i a g e , and so on - but a t l e a s t we come t o c h r i s t m a s - t h i s c h r i s t m a s eve i t i s snowy - w i t h hope. i n any e v e n t , i do not know how i am a d e q u a t e l y g o i n g t o r e p a y you f o r h a v i n g so t r i u m p h a n t l y h e l p e d us even so f a r , but i do t h i n k t h e r e i s a way and i s h a l l t r y and prove i t . mow, a g a i n , a l l our thanks t o you a g a i n and e q u a l l y t o mary, f o r her s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n i n the m a t t e r , - god b l e s s you both and a v e r y m e r r y c h r i s t m a s t o you; and t o jane." as ever male. p.s. i s e n t a q u e s t i o n t o the r a d i o hour, ' i n f o r m a t i o n p l e a s e , ' the o t h e r day, f o r which i s h o r t l y e x p e c t t o be r e c e i v i n g the e n c y c l o p e d i a b r i t a n n i c a or some s u c h . s i n c e i t i s r a t h e r jane's cup of t e a , you might t r y i t on her over c h r i s t m a s . she may know, but i bet t h e y ' r e damned few people who do. q u e s t i o n : what i s the name of t h e book by an i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y famous american poet and n o v e l i s t , w h i c h , h a v i n g the m i s s i s s i p p i r i v e r as background and a m i s s i s s i p p i r i v e r boat p r e s e r v i n g i t s u n i t y of p l a c e t h r o u g h o u t , has been compared, by an i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y famous american c r i t i c , not e n t i r e l y t o i t s d i s c r e d i t , w i t h the g r e a t e n g l i s h s a t i r e s of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , such as g u l l i v e r ' s t r a v e l s ? answer: the c o n f i d e n c e man. the a u t h o r : herman m e l v i l l e . the c r i t i c : lewis mumford." e x p l a n a t o r y notes " u k e l e l e and the f r a c t u r e d s k u l l " : a c c o r d i n g t o a i k e n , when lowry a r r i v e d i n boston i n he was c a r r y i n g o n l y a broken s u i t c a s e and a u k e l e l e (cbc i n t e r v i e w , ). a i k e n a l s o t e l l s of a w r e s t l i n g match t h a t took p l a c e between lowry, h i m s e l f , and h i s b r o t h e r , r o b e r t , on the f i r s t n i g h t of lowry's a r r i v a l i n cambridge, m a s s a c h u s e t t s . in the c o u r s e of the s t r u g g l e , a i k e n " f e l l r i g h t over backward i n t o the f i r e p l a c e " and f r a c t u r e d h i s s k u l l ("the f a t h e r s u r r o g a t e , " malcolm l o v r y remembered ) . day a l s o r e p o r t s lowry's l e a v i n g b e h i n d of a " p o i n t e d b l a c k p a t e n t l e a t h e r shoe" a t d o l l y l e w i s ' ( l e t t e r , n. , p. ) house i n south yarmouth ( ) ; whether t h i s i s the i n c i d e n t t o which lowry i s here r e f e r r i n g , i am not c e r t a i n . q u o t a t i o n from l e t t e r from a i k e n , p. . p r o b a b l y t h e t e l e g r a m from p a r k s mentioned by a i k e n i n the p r e c e d i n g l e t t e r , p. . see romeo and j u l i e t i l l . i . » see lowry's "the r e a l mr. c h i p s , " vancouver d a i l y p r o v i n c e dec. : ; a c c o r d i n g t o lowry, james h i l t o n ' s mr. c h i p s was based on "the hooley," a master a t the leys s c h o o l , cambridge. ° presumably a.b. carey and v i c t o r maclean. jane a i k e n , a i k e n ' s d a u g h t e r ; c f . l e t t e r , p. . ° lewis mumford ( - ), american w r i t e r and c r i t i c . lowry i s r e f e r r i n g t o mumford's herman m e l v i l l e (new york: h a r c o u r t , brace & co., ), i n which m e l v i l l e ' s the c o n f i d e n c e man i s d e s c r i b e d as "a companion volume t o g u l l i v e r ' s t r a v e l s " ( ) . t e x t u a l notes . i t i s a genuinex i t { i s } a genuine . - s u r e l y , t h i s b e i n g s o , i t w i l l \ s u r e l y { , t h i s b e i n g so,} i t w i l l . - your l e t t e r , — a n d i have t o thank you a l s o , f o r t h i s , — s i n c e \ your l e t t e r , { — a n d i have t o thank you a l s o , f o r t h i s , — } s i n c e . - . w i t h m a r g i e , ( b e h i n d v h i c h (. . .) k i n d n e s s . ) were margiex w i t h m a r g i e , { ( b e h i n d which thought do not t h i n k i do not a l s o d e t e c t the hand of l o v i n g - k i n d n e s s . ) } were m a r g i e [ t h i s i n s e r t i o n w r i t t e n i n l e f t - h a n d margin] - you don't know a f t e r a l l l - \ - you don't know { a f t e r a l l } - t r o u b l e , gave me a n e a t \ t r o u b l e , {gave me} a neat r e l a t i o n s h i p i might s u b c o n s c i o u s l y \ r e l a t i o n s h i p i {might} s u b c o n s c i o u s l y m a r g i e ' s r e a c t i o n as i t s h o u l d be v a s \ m a r g i e ' s r e a c t i o n {as i t s h o u l d be} vas : prom aiken t o lowry ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d s dennis mass dec my dear s t r u g g l i n g m a l e — y o u r s of the th much a p p r e c i a t e d , and e n j o y e d , and r e a d w i t h g r e a t r e l i e f , t o o . okay by us, by me — w e ' l l a l l t r y t o do our b e s t . there's o n l y one t h i n g i want t o add w h i l e i t h i n k of i t - - v i z . , t h a t i f e e l my r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t h e o.m. t o o , you know, o l d f e l l o w , and w i l l l i v e up t o t h a t — a n d f o r t h a t r e a s o n i t h i n k a t the o u t s e t i t would be b e s t i f we a l l l i v e t o g e t h e r , e i t h e r here or i n b o s t o n . p r o b a b l y . anyway, i mention i t . for a p p a r e n t l y the m and p a r k s p r e f e r t h a t s o l u t i o n , and i f so we must pro tern l i v e up t o i t . but t h a t would i n many i f not indeed a l l r e s p e c t s have i t s v i r t u e s and p l e a s u r e s t o o , so wot the h e l l , boys, wot t h e h e l l . the f i n a n c i a l arrangements i don't p r o f e s s t o u n d e r s t a n d , even a f t e r your a n a l y s i s , but i don't doubt t h a t w i l l a l l s t r a i g h t e n o u t . meanwhile, i've w r i t t e n by a i r t o p a r k s , not h a v i n g heard a word from him s i n c e our t o s s i n g of t e l e g r a m s t o and f r o , a s k i n g him t o l e t me know g. g_x what i s g o i n g on: f o r i f we move up t o b o s t o n , as we t h i n k of d o i n g , we s h a l l want t o know p r e t t y damned soon. p e n d i n g word about a l l t h e s e t h i n g s , no p o i n t i n s e n d i n g b a l l a s t t o you, f o r you might be on t h e move a l r e a d y ? and as soon as xmas g u e s t s a r e out of the way, and my a r t i c l e on s o c i o l o g i c a l poets done f o r the a t l a n t i c , i ' l l r e r e a d the l i g h t h o u s e . ( a l s o , i've asked p s t o send me v o l c a n o , s a y i n g i want t o send the whole b l i n k i n g l o t t o a p u b l i s h e r . ) much r e a s s u r e d a l t o g e t h e r about e v e r y t h i n g by your a d m i r a b l e l e t t e r : i guess you're okes, k i d . w e ' l l a l l be showing t h e m — a s bob n i c h o l s * remarked t o me—a b e n g a l - l i g h t of a r e d i v i v u s y e t . up the m o o n l i g h t ! up the e v e r l a s t i n g r o s e l up the s u n s e t ! but not f o r g e t t i n g e i t h e r t h a t b e h i n d our e x q u i s i t e c o n g r e g a t i o n a l church i s a d a r l i n g l i t t l e s h i t - h o u s e , w i t h two compartments--male and female c r e a t e d he them, but the naughty boys and naughty g i r l s have c u t peepholes t h r o u g h the p a r t i t i o n , and w r i t t e n ambiguous l i t t l e s c r a l w s on the w a l l s : and t h i s too we s h a l l c e l e b r a t e , c e r e b r a t e , a s s i m i l a t e and s u b l i m a t e . i n t h e s p r i n g , when we go s u b l i - m a t i n g . . . o w e l l . our l o v e s t o you b o t h conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes "g, c_": "quara c e l e r r i m e , " l a t i n , "as f a s t as p o s s i b l e . " "in b a l l a s t to the white sea"; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . "back to p o e t r y , " a t l a n t i c monthly . (aug. ): - . * "the lighthouse i n v i t e s the storm"; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . s parks. • robert n i c h o l s ( - ), american w r i t e r and landscape a r c h i t e c t . : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d [ j a n u a r y ] dear o l d f e l l o w : many, many thanks f o r e v e r y t h i n g , i n c l u d i n g t h e telegram, - p l e a s e convey t h i s immediate e x p r e s s i o n of my g r a t i t u d e t o mary and jane. now, by god, i t does l o o k as though, as ibsen s a y s , the m i r a c l e o f m i r a c l e s has happened. i cannot t e l l you how a b s o l u t e l y o v e r j o y e d we a r e . yours i s the g e n i u s which brought i t a l l about but t h e r e i s a s p e c i a l b e a u t y about s e e i n g t h e m a c h i n e r y of the whole t h i n g b e g i n t o t u r n o v e r . even p a r k s has, a t l a s t , begun t o c o o p e r a t e ! yes, and how! he has been i n t o u c h w i t h t h e i m m i g r a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s and a l l i have t o do now i s t o s i g n a few l e t t e r s . he a l s o has 'under the v o l c a n o ' ( i n a s t a t e of e r u p t i o n , i imagine, i n i t s p r e s e n t f o r m ) . however, as you would s a y , the end i s not y e t : i t i s i n s i g h t , we a r e a l r e a d y p e e r i n g a t cape cod, c o u n t i n g t h e w i n d m i l l s , (and p r o m i s i n g not t o t i l t a t any) and dreaming quohaugs and s v o r d f i s h . but i t i s now, a t t h i s v e r y moment of a p p a r e n t p e r f e c t i o n i n the o r d e r of t h i n g s t h a t a sad p o s s i b i l i t y - as i h i n t e d i t might b e f o r e - i n t r u d e s i t s e l f . w i t h a l l the papers i n the w o r l d t o swear now t h a t i w i l l not be a p u b l i c charge t h e r e i s o n l y a / chance of g e t t i n g t h r o u g h . e a r l ( e p i s t o m o l o g e r ) r u s s e l l has been t u r n e d down l a t e l y , on a c c o u n t of the war: and o t h e r s . but even i f i do get p e r m i s s i o n i t w i l l be an u n u s u a l b l o o d y m i r a c l e i f i t a r r i v e s f o r two or t h r e e months. there was some m i s t a k e made a t t h e b o r d e r i n the m a t t e r of my v i s a which may f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e m a t t e r s and a l s o the b u s i n e s s of my d i v o r c e . meantime we a r e v i r t u a l l y d y i n g h e r e : i f you have never y o u r s e l f been i n the c l u t c h e s of the o x f o r d group as i have you w i l l t h i n k , (as i b e l i e v e you c o u l d not h e l p t h i n k i n g b e f o r e ! ) t h a t i vas j u s t a c t i n g d r a m a t i c or t a l k i n g t i g h t . i t i s not s o . v e r s e d though you may be i n the moral o b l i q u i t i e s and v a g a r i e s of mankind i do not t h i n k t h a t you can b e g i n t o know a n y t h i n g about h y p o c r i s y u n t i l you have f a l l e n f o u l of one of t h o s e b a s t a r d o s . they have e v e r y t h i n g . w e l l , i f e e l so b r a c e d by the g e n e r a l o u t l o o k t h a t i can a l m o s t f e e l a s o r t of t e n d e r n e s s f o r them f but the f a c t remains t h a t so l o n g as i am under t h e i r a u s p i c e s , i am v i r t u a l l y a p r i s o n e r , and so i s m a r g i e : work, a l s o , c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y s u f f e r s : and the f u t u r e i s d r a w i n g i n l i k e the w i n t e r n i g h t s . i n two months, or t h r e e , - i f p e r m i s s i o n i s d e n i e d , - we s h o u l d s t i l l be h e r e , and r a t h e r worse o f f than b e f o r e , because by t h a t time i t i s l i k e l y t h a t r e a l h e l l w i l l be popping i n europe. my d u t y i n t h i s r e g a r d i s a n o t h e r t h i n g a g a i n , i t i s not y e t c l e a r t o me what form i t w i l l t a k e . i r e f u s e , however, w h i l e the p o s s i b i l i t y of o t h e r , c l e a r e r , c u t i e s - - s t r a n g e t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r — r e m a i n t o me, t o be caught o f f b a l a n c e by t h i s war i f i can p o s s i b l y a v o i d i t : t h a t o t h e r s have been i s t o o bad f o r them: but s i n c e i t seems i am, f o r the time b e i n g , a c r e a t u r e o f l u c k , i am d e t e r m i n e d t o f i n i s h what work i c a n , and t o do my utmost t o g e t the freedom t o do i t , b e f o r e i cease t o be s o . that, i t h i n k , i s a c l e a r enough d u t y t o the o.m., t o y o u r s e l f , and t o m y s e l f . i t i s p a r t , t o o , of my d u t y t o m a r g i e . for t h e r e s t , as w i t h h e r , i can o n l y s t r i v e t o p l a c e her i n as c h e e r f u l and c o n s t r u c t i v e environment as i c a n , f o r g e t t i n g t h e end of f e s t u s ( f a u s t u s t o o ) and t h a t war e x i s t s . margie i s now i n canada l e g a l l y , she has been t o the i m m i g r a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s h e r e , and can remain i n canada i n d e f i n i t e l y so f a r as t h e y a r e c o n c e r n e d , but t h e r e i s the c o n s t a n t danger, so l o n g as ve remain i n vancouver, of a.b. carey and h i s hot g o s p e l groupers f i n d i n g out t h a t she i s h e r e , v h i c h might r e s u l t i n our s e p a r a t i o n and u t t e r l y d e s t r o y e v e r y t h i n g ve a r e t r y i n g t o s i n c e r e l y t o b u i l d up: you may l a u g h and s a y t h i s i s not s o , but b e l i e v e me t h e s e o x f o r d groupers a r e v o r s e t h a n the gestapo, t h e y a r e a l l one's p e r s e c u t i o n complexes r o l l e d i n t o one s t i n k i n g v h o l e . nov, conrad, vhat i am d r i v i n g a t i s t h i s . i n t v o , t h r e e months a n y t h i n g may happen. i f the p e r m i s s i o n i s r e f u s e d , the s p o t ve s h a l l be on v i l l be g r i s l y i n d e e d , and the t r o u b l e you have gone t o a l l f o r n o t h i n g . for not o n l y may by t h a t time c i r c u m s t a n c e s n e c e s s i t a t e my j o i n i n g up i m m e d i a t e l y h e r e , but i s h a l l be as f a r avay from you, my nexus t o r e d i v i v u s and the r e a l v o r l d , f o r hovever s h o r t a p e r i o d , as e v e r . p a r k s , carey and co., f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n d i f f e r e n t , v i l l s t i l l be i n c h a r g e . a c l a u s e i n p a r k ' s l e t t e r s u g g e s t s t h a t my f a m i l y v i s h me t o e n t e r t h r o u g h b l a i n e , but t h a t o b v i o u s l y , i s p a r k s - i n s p i r e d . the o.m. o b v i o u s l y d o e s n ' t g i v e a hoot hov i g e t i n t o the s t a t e s so l o n g as i do so l e g a l l y . nov i have a s c e r t a i n e d t h r o u g h i m m i g r a t i o n here t h a t so l o n g as my a p p l i c a t i o n i s made t h r o u g h b l a i n e , i t doesn't matter t h r o u g h v h i c h p o r t of e n t r y i go. the most r e a s o n a b l e p l a n , t h e r e f o r e , v o u l d be t h a t somehov or o t h e r ve proceed t o m o n t r e a l quam c e l e r r i m e , " or some p l a c e i n canada, near boston and near the b o r d e r , i n v h i c h i c o u l d be under your eye, a t a d i s t a n c e so t o speak, as i am under p a r k ' s now. t h i s , you have p r e v i o u s l y c o n c u r r e d v i t h as a p o s s i b l y good i d e a . once t h e r e i c o u l d a v a i t the nevs from washington and, i f i do not g e t p e r m i s s i o n f i n a l l y , a t l e a s t i am not thousands of m i l e s avay from you, and perhaps ve c o u l d f i g u r e some vay out of s e e i n g each o t h e r b e f o r e the deluge e t c . moreover b e i n g i n t o u c h v i t h you about v o r k and t h i n g s v o u l d not mean t h a t m a t t e r s v o u l d be so a b s o l u t e l y h o p e l e s s even i f i v e r e r e f u s e d . the d i f f i c u l t i e s seem t o be t h e s e . p a r k s , c a r e y and co. v i l l o b j e c t t o my b e i n g i n m o n t r e a l u n l e s s under p r o p e r s u p e r v i s i o n . i f you t h e r e f o r e c o u l d v a n g l e my coming t o m o n t r e a l , i t v o u l d have t o be on the u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r o b a b l y t h a t e i t h e r you v o u l d meet me t h e r e , or t h a t you c o u l d a r r a n g e f o r some f r i e n d s of y o u r s t o be t r u s t e e s f o r me i n m o n t r e a l j u s t as p a r k s d i d here i n vancouver. but v h a t e v e r you s a i d , as soon as i vas i n m o n t r e a l i v o u l d be out of p a r k s and careys c l u t c h e s , n o t , as you j u s t l y may have s u s p e c t e d , t o f e e l f r e e t o go on an i n t e r m i n a b l e bender, but m e r e l y f r e e t o v h a t vork i have t o , and g i v e margie v h a t h a p p i n e s s i can i n v h a t e v e r time may be a l l o t t e d t o us. that i s the t r u t h : and i a s s u r e you a g a i n t h a t i am a b s o l u t e l y r e a d y t o c o o p e r a t e i n e v e r y vay. i c o u l d send you r e c e i p t s f o r e v e r y t h i n g , i f n e c e s s a r y , ve need l i t t l e enough t o l i v e on, and v o u l d concur i n a n y t h i n g you s a i d or a d v i s e d . i a p p r e c i a t e vhat you s a i d about the o.m., and h e r e , s t r a n g e as i t may seem, i too f e e l a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and a l s o f e e l most s t r o n g l y t h a t the o n l y way t o go about d i s c h a r g i n g i t i s the e x a c t one t h a t has been chosen. i t h i n k t h a t n o t h i n g i n the w o r l d would g i v e t h e o.m. and the mater a b i g g e r bang t h a n t o have me have a few books a c c e p t e d i n the s t a t e s i n the coming y e a r and t o f e e l t h a t you had been i n s t r u m e n t a l by your encouragement i n b r i n g i n g i t about a f t e r such a d o w n f a l l - and admit i t lowry, i t was a k i n d of d o w n f a l l - as i have had. and i f i f a i l , what the h e l l , boys, we've done our b e s t . the a t t e m p t may be w o r t h more t h a n one knows. i am not s a y i n g a n y t h i n g about m o n t r e a l t o p a r k s but am l e a v i n g the whole t h i n g up t o you. a c a b l e t o the o.m. would do the t r i c k , i f e e l . i have e i g h t d o l l a r s , saved somewhat f o r l o r n l y , as a g a i n s t m a r g i e ' s j o u r n e y , p r o d u c t of t h e lampoon i send you." i f you t h i n k t h a t a c a b l e i s the t h i n g , i would be o n l y t o o d e l i g h t e d t o f o r w a r d t h e amount. p a r k s , i know, would o n l y f o o l a b o u t , postpone t h i n g s , w r i t e a noncommital l e t t e r , which would go down i n some greek tramp steamer, and we'd a l l be where we were b e f o r e . by the time you have r e c e i v e d t h i s i w i l l a l r e a d y have made a p p l i c a t i o n t o washington. i am w r i t i n g t o o t o s e a t t l e f o r f u r t h e r c o n f i r m a t i o n t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r me t o a w a i t news of t h e s u c c e s s of my a p p e a l t o washington i n m o n t r e a l or wherever. what i am s u g g e s t i n g i s , however, t h a t you o b t a i n p e r m i s s i o n f o r me t o come t o m o n t r e a l anyhow, i f t h e r e i s no i m m i g r a t i o n a l o b j e c t i o n , i m m e d i a t e l y , and, i f t h e r e i s , t o m o n t r e a l i n s t e a d o f boston [ s j h o u l d my a p p e a l be r e f u s e d . t h i s would d i s p e n s e w i t h f a t a l d e l a y l a t e r . but i do b e l i e v e t h i s t o be v e r y i m p o r t a n t . c o u l d you not s u g g e s t t o the p a r k s t h a t be t h e n t h a t , i n the s p r i n g you w i l l be much more busy, but t h a t now you have some time t o put a t my d i s p o s a l , t h a t you might be a b l e t o make a t r i p t o m o n t r e a l , but t h a t , anyhow, you have f r i e n d s t h e r e , and so f o r t h , a l l t h i s , v i t h the a b s o l u t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g from m y s e l f , of c o u r s e t h a t i am a b s o l u t e l y s i n c e r e i n t h i s v h o l e m a t t e r , v h i c h i hope by nov you b e l i e v e . i do f e e l t h a t now we have got so f a r t h a t you w i l l agree t h a t i t might as w e l l be s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n c l u d e d and i s h a l l not f e e l s a f e u n t i l i am under your a e g i s . i cannot a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s my t h a n k s , conrad, t o mary and y o u r s e l f f o r b e i n g so a b s o l u t e l y s w e l l , so u n d e r s t a n d i n g and so s p o r t i n g i n t h i s whole m a t t e r . i know f u l l w e l l what a b l o o d y i n t r u s i o n on your time i'm b e i n g and cannot s a y how much i a p p r e c i a t e your f o r b e a r i n g n e s s and p a t i e n c e . as f o r the f i n a n c i a l (and more s u p e r f i c i a l ) end of i t , f o r , as you s e e , i t was not money so much as u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t was needed i n t h i s c a s e , - i am s u r e t h a t you w i l l f i n d t h a t the o.m. w i l l not be t o o d i f f i c u l t i n the m a t t e r , and i a l s o know he w i l l be v e r y g l a d , f i n a l l y , t h a t you were good enough t o make the agreement w i t h him. p l e a s e g i v e mary our b e s t l o v e , and of c o u r s e t o y o u r s e l f , and jane, s h o u l d she s t i l l be w i t h you. male. e x p l a n a t o r y notes t h i s t e l e g r a m i s m i s s i n g . a b e r t r a n d a r t h u r w i l l i a m r u s s e l l ( - ), b r i t i s h m a t h e m a t i c i a n and p h i l o s o p h e r ; t h i r d e a r l r u s s e l l , grandson t o f i r s t e a r l of b e d f o r d , john f r a n c i s s t a n l e y r u s s e l l . f e l l o w of t r i n i t y c o l l e g e , cambridge u n t i l , i n , he was d i s m i s s e d f o r h i s p a c i f i s t b e l i e f s and o p p o s i t i o n t o w.w.i. » a l l u s i o n t o a i k e n ' s the p i l g r i m a g e of f e s t u s (new york: a l f r e d a. knopf, ). at t h e end of t h e poem, f e s t u s r e a l i z e s t h a t h i s p i l r i m a g e has been a f a i l u r e . "nexus t o r e d i v i v u s " : l a t i n , " l i n k t o r e b i r t h . " c f . l e t t e r from a i k e n , p. : "a b e n g a l - l i g h t of a r e d i v i v u s . " "quam c e l e r r i m e " : l a t i n , "as f a s t as p o s s i b l e . " c lowry's "lampoon" i s m i s s i n g , a l t h o u g h he i s p r o b a b l y r e f e r r i n g t o h i s poem "where d i d t h a t one go t o , ' e r b e r t ? " p u b l i s h e d i n the vancouver d a l l y p r o v i n c e dec. : . t e x t u a l notes . - c u t i e s — s t r a n g e t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r ! — r e m a i n t o me,\ c u t i e s {--stange t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r ! — } remain t o me, . i s now i n \ i s no<t>(w) i n . ( s j h o u l d \ v h o u l d ( t y p o . ) . - the p a r k s t h a t be t h e n t h a t , \ the p<owers>{arks} t h a t be ( t h e n ) t h a t , . - g l a d , f i n a l l y , t h a t you were good enough t o make the agreement w i t h him.\ g l a d , f i n a l l y , t h a t < [ i l l e g . ) > (you were good enough t o make) the agreement w i t h < [ i l l e g . ] > ( h i m } . : from aiken t o lowry k i l l o r i n s dennis mass. jan my dear male-- a s h o r t one t o d a y , time p r e s s e s , snow f a l l s , m i l l i o n s of l e t t e r s w a i t t o be w r i t , but j u s t a l i n e t o wave you on--yours and m's r e c e i v e d and e n j o y e d , a p p r e c i a t e d t o o - - d e e p l y . we've w r i t t e n , or mary has, t o a f r i e n d of h e r s i n washington, j u s t on the chance she might know someone i n the labour dep't and e x p e d i t e or charm your a p p l i c a t i o n — a n o u t s i d e chance, but we thought worth t r y i n g . so now we w a i t . i f a l l blows up, i f you c a n ' t get i n — w e l l , t h e n we must t r y t o t h i n k of something e l s e . maybe the m o n t r e a l i d e a , or some such. but l e t ' s w a i t and s e e . meanwhile, i'm g l a d you see my p o i n t about t o e i n g the l i n e . t h i s now becomes, i t h i n k , a l l the more i m p o r t a n t , f o r i've had my f i r s t l e t t e r from the m, and i'm a f r a i d i must t e l l you t h a t the whole s i t u a t i o n i s v e r y s e r i o u s : he says f l a t l y t h a t u n l e s s i_ can r e p o r t i n due c o u r s e t h a t i f i n d you t r u s t w o r t h y and r e f o r m e d and w o r k i n g — a n d f o r t h i s too he wants you t o l i v e w i t h me a t the o u t s e t — h e ' s made up h i s mind t o c a s t you o f f , and never a g a i n t o come t o your r e s c u e , no matter what happens. so, my dear f e l l o w , i t ' s up t o you. and i t ' s up t o me t o p l a y a b s o l u t e l y f a i r l y w i t h him, t o o , you can see t h a t . no c u t t i n g of c o r n e r s : we must do i t r i g h t . f r a n k l y , the margie t h i n g w o r r i e s me on t h a t s c o r e , as i t ought, i t h i n k , t o worry you. i t p u t s me, a t the o u t s e t , i n the awkward p o s i t i o n of h a v i n g t o c o n c e a l s o m e t h i n g , which i don't dammit, much l i k e . would i t perhaps be b e t t e r i f you were t o w r i t e the m y o u r s e l f t e l l i n g hira about h e r , and a s k i n g whether you might b r i n g her e a s t f o r , as i t were, an o f f i c i a l i n s p e c t i o n by mary and m y s e l f — s u b j e c t of c o u r s e t o my a g r e e i n g then t o the i d e a . i t h i n k t h i s might be w i s e . i'd s u g g e s t you do i t r i g h t away, so t h a t by t h e time you g e t here we might have a c a b l e from him o k a y i n g the n o t i o n : or a t any r a t e l e a v i n g i t t o me. you can t e l l him, i f you l i k e , t h a t you've l u s t now informed me of the s i t u a t i o n , and t h a t i've agreed i n advance t o m's coming a l o n g l a t e r f o r a v i s i t . that would put t h i n g s on a s q u a r e r f o o t i n g ? ? ? ? ? think i t o v e r , anyway? and b e l i e v e me male i don't b r i n g i t a l l up j u s t t o make d i f f i c u l t i e s — g o o d god no. i t ' s s i m p l y t h a t i f e e l we must be h o n e s t . and t h e o t h e r i s n ' t , q u i t e . but i f s t e p s have been t a k e n t o r e g u l a r i z e i t , b e f o r e m a r g i e comes, i s h a n ' t mind so much: i ' l l t h e n be i n a p o s i t i o n t o s a y t h a t you'd t o l d me you'd w r i t t e n , asked my. p e r m i s s i o n , and i'd t a k e n i t upon m y s e l f t o c o n s e n t . see? yeah. a l s o , and t h i s i s s o r t of hard t o s a y , my poor male, but i t h i n k i'd b e t t e r s a y i t n o w — v i z . , you know, p r o l o n g e d d r i n k i n g does r o t one's h o n e s t i e s , k i n d o f - - i f y o u ' l l f o r g i v e my s a y i n g so you'd a l r e a d y become somewhat o b l i q u e when i saw you i n m e x i c o — i g a t h e r from p a r k s you've s i n c e got worse, though of c o u r s e i t a k e i t you're now v e r y much b e t t e r a g a i n : but the p o i n t i s , i s h a l l want t o be shown. i'm g o i n g t o t r u s t you, o f c o u r s e , t h a t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g : but, i warn you f a i r l y , i f you s h o u l d l e t me down i won't l i e t o the old man. l e t ' s have t h a t u n d e r s t o o d , eh? i t p u t s me i n the i n v i d i o u s p o s i t i o n of h a v i n g the f i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g you c u t o f f w i t h o u t a penny, which i s n ' t much fun f o r me, any more than i t i s f o r you: i t g i v e s you a damned heavy r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o me.: don't i g n o r e t h a t , and i f i t comes t o p a s s , remember t h a t i warned you, and t r y now i n advance t o a b s o l v e me, as you must! w e l l , h e l l ' s b e l l s , i d i d n ' t mean t o g e t o f f on a l l t h i s , i t ' s m e r e l y t h a t i t ' s been on my mind. for the r e s t , we l o o k f o r w a r d t o s e e i n g you, and i hope i t ' s soon. mary goes up monday to l o o k a t a house i n c h a r l e s t o w n , which we t h i n k of t a k i n g — s h e r e a l l y needs t o be i n town, so t h a t her p o r t r a i t p a i n t i n g can go f o r w a r d p r o p e r l y . and i f you and m come i t w i l l g i v e us a l l i t h i n k a b e t t e r p l a c e t o l i v e i n , w i t h more scope and freedom. i n c i d e n t a l l y i t ' s e n t i r e l y surrounded by cheap b a r s and dens of v i c e , hard by the navy yard e t c . , so t e m p t a t i o n i s g o i n g t o be your m i d d l e name! s t e e l y o u r s e l f - - o t h e r w i s e , w e ' l l s t a y h e r e . in f a c t , we may have t o anyway. - - w e ' l l s e e . --mary w i l l be a n s w e r i n g m a r g i e ' s good l e t t e r — s h e j o i n s me now however i n s e n d i n g much l o v e t o you b o t h , and b e s t w i s h e s f o r speedy s o l u t i o n s - - sieg h e i l conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes see appendix i i , p. and , f o r m a r g e r i e ' s j a n u a r y and j a n u a r y l e t t e r s t o mary. " s i e g h e i l " : german, " h a i l v i c t o r y " ; , n a z i s a l u t e d u r i n g world war i i . t e x t u a l notes [no o r i g i n a l i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s l e t t e r ; i have t h e r e f o r e had t o r e l y on joseph k i l l o r i n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n ( )] : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d j a n u a r y , my dear conrad i was a t f i r s t so b e w i l d e r e d and h u r t by your l e t t e r t h a t i was a t a l o s s t o r e p l y but s i n c e t h e r e i s , of c o u r s e , a l o g i c a l r e a s o n f o r e v e r y t h i n g you've s a i d , i am no l o n g e r b e w i l d e r e d and h u r t and am t a k i n g the b u l l by the horns and b o l d l y d o i n g s o , a n s w e r i n g your l e t t e r as f u l l y as i can and b e g g i n g you t h e f a v o r of a b s o r b i n g e v e r y word. i have t h o u g h t l o n g and c a r e f u l l y about your s u g g e s t i o n of my w r i t i n g the o.m. t e l l i n g him about m a r g e r i e and a s k i n g whether he would have any o b j e c t i o n t o my b r i n g i n g her e a s t as i t were f o r your o f f i c i a l i n s p e c t i o n . on the f a c e of i t t h e r e would be no r e a s o n a b l e o b j e c t i o n t o t h i s had i o n l y t h e o.m. t o c o n t e n d w i t h . but the f a c t i s t h a t the o.m. would t h e n put t h i s m a t t e r up t o p a r k s who might t h e n make i n q u i r i e s w h i c h would l e a d t o h i s d i s c o v e r y t h a t margie i s i n canada. there i s o f c o u r s e no r e a s o n now, s i n c e her p o s i t i o n i s above board w i t h t h e i m m i g r a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s , why m a r g i e s h o u l d not be i n canada. even were i t d i s c o v e r e d t h a t she were s t a y i n g h e r e , she i s o s t e n s i b l y a t any r a t e p r o p e r l y chaperoned. but t h i s d i s c o v e r y would l e a d t o a r e f e r r i n g of the r a t i f i c a t i o n of m a r g i e ' s t r i p e a s t t o a.b.carey who, as i have t o l d you b e f o r e , i s a man who b e l i e v e s t h a t any p a s s i o n a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a man and a woman i s an e v i l t h i n g and who v o u l d be s u r e , hovever honest our ovn m o t i v e s , t o put a d i s h o n e s t l i g h t upon t h e v h o l e t h i n g . moreover t h e r e v o u l d nov be an excuse f o r i t , and the f a c t t h a t he had a l r e a d y shed such a l i g h t vhen t h e r e vas no. excuse f o r i t and t h a t he drove us t h e r e b y t o the d e c i s i o n ve made, v o u l d have no b e a r i n g on t h e m a t t e r . p a r k s i s t r u s t e d by the o.m., and he cannot v e r y v e i l a d m i t , s i n c e he l a n d e d me here v i t h a.b.carey, t h a t the l a t t e r i s not o n l y a man u t t e r l y u n s u i t a b l e f o r the so c a l l e d d u t y c o n f e r r e d upon him but a p e r v e r t i n t h e b a r g a i n . i m y s e l f v o u l d have no d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e l o n g r u n i n p r [ o ] v i n g t h e s e a l l e g a t i o n s and v o r s e , namely t h a t carey's a f f i l i a t i o n v i t h t h e o x f o r d group d a t e s from h i s c o n t r a c t i o n , due t o v h o r e i n g , or boys, i am not c l e a r v h i c h , of a v e r y s e r i o u s v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e c o n t r a c t e d vhen m a r r i e d and v i t h c h i l d r e n . h i s v i c e s do not i n t e r e s t me, but vhen i am f o r c e d t o submit m a r g i e ' s d e s t i n y t o the f i n a l a r b i t r a t i o n o f a man who i s h i m s e l f d i s h o n e s t and vhom i r e g a r d v i t h contempt (and p i t y ) i t i s a n o t h e r m a t t e r . i cannot do t h i s ; i do not t h i n k , i f you b e l i e v e me, as you must, you v o u l d v a n t or e x p e c t me t o do i t . my ovn s t o c k , as i varned you a t the o u t s e t , and of v h i c h you nov d o u b t l e s s have abundent p r o o f both from the o.m. and p a r k s , i s z e r o . a l t h o u g h , i r o n i c a l l y enough, t h e r e i s p l e n t y of i n a l i e n a b l e p r o o f t h a t p a r k s a l s o has not d e a l t h o n e s t l y v i t h the o.m. u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e o.m., up t o t h e p r e s e n t v i c t i m i z e d by t h e v a r i o u s c o n t e n d i n g f o r c e s , v o u l d have, f o r the sake of h i s ovn amour p r o p r e a t l e a s t , t o p r e t e n d t o o t h e r s i f he d i d not t o - h i m s e l f t h a t he had been d e a l t v i t h f a i r l y . at t h i s p o i n t i ought to say, v h i c h i s important, t h a t my c o n t i n u a l p r o t e s t a t i o n s t h a t those e n t r u s t e d with my a f f a i r s have been d i s h o n e s t with the o.m. even though you may accept them, probably o n l y has the e f f e c t of c o n f i r m i n g you i n your d e t e r m i n a t i o n to be a b s o l u t e l y above board with him: i am i n c l i n e d to t h i n k t h a t you f e e l t h a t i n t h i s vay you are s a v i n g y o u r s e l f i n advance from any p o s s i b l e a l l e g a t i o n s v h i c h i, with my degenerated c h a r a c t e r (or because you have submitted to t i r a d e s i n the past you may expect something of the same s o r t i n the f u t u r e ) might make about you. deeply sympathized with, f e l l o w , but s u r e l y such t h i n g s a r e n ' t so goddawful complicated between us as t h i s . i have grown up you know, s o r t o f , so l e t i t be f u l l y understood i n advance there v i l l be no nonsense of t h i s s o r t , whatever you do or don't. besides i d e e p l y f e e l t h a t what i am s u g g e s t i n g i s the honestest reasonable c o u r s e . u n f o r t u n a t e l y , r i g h t here, there i s a l s o proof, f o r which i f r e e l y admit t h a t i am s u f f e r i n g , t h a t i d i d not d e a l f o r m e r l y , as he might say, s q u a r e l y with parks, but here i have the v e r y h e f t y excuse which you may take or leave, t h a t i n s p i t e of h i s good p o i n t s and i n s p i t e of the f a c t t h a t he g e n u i n e l y b e l i e v e d t h a t d r i n k i n g was my o n l y t r o u b l e and d i d much, although he vent about i t i n the vrong vay, to prevent me from d r i n k i n g , t h a t i never looked upon him as a f r i e n d but simply as a crook vho was to be o u t v i t t e d . i do not overlook h i s m e r i t s as a l a v y e r , and t h i n k i t u n l i k e l y , f o r h i s ovn sake should you have any d e a l i n g s v i t h him t h a t he vould dare to be d i s h o n e s t v i t h you. but fundamentally d i s h o n e s t he i s of v h i c h i a l s o have abundent proof and i vould be on your guard. hence you w i l l s e e , o l d f e l l o v , t h a t our a t t e m p t s t o a c h i e v e the " t r u t h " v o u l d be s u r r o u n d e d on a l l s i d e s by l o u d g r e g a r i o u s l i e s v h i c h ve v o u l d not have t h e a l l o t e d time t o c l e a r avay i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e our p o i n t . i v o u l d s a y f u r t h e r , t h a t the o n l y t r o u b l e i have e n c o u n t e r e d , so f a r as t h e y a r e c o n c e r n e d , vas vhen, p a r t l y i n an e f f o r t t o g e t avay from t h i s o d i o u s n e s s once and f o r a l l i t o l d the t r u t h t o a.b.carey v i t h the b i t t e r r e s u l t s you knov. and i can o n l y s a y i t s e r v e s me r i g h t f o r t r u s t i n g a l i c e n t i o u s s e n t i m e n t a l i s t and a p o l i t i c a l c h e a t . i do not t h i n k i t h e l p s my p o i n t t o condemn t h e o t h e r f e l l o v , i n f a c t h i s v i c e s may be t h e o n l y human p a r t of him, but s i n c e t h e condemnation i s j u s t and a l l t h e s e p e o p l e have done t h e i r damndest t o make me f e e l abased i n my ovn eyes i harp on i t j u s t t o t r y and shov you hov t h o r o u g h l y h y p o c r i t i c a l t h e v h o l e s e t up i s and t o t r y and c o n v i n c e you t h a t b e f o r e ve can do a n y t h i n g a complete break must be made by b o t h of us from i t . i t i s the hour of the k n i f e , t h e major o p e r a t i o n . another t h i n g i s t h a t such a c o u r s e as you s u g g e s t might, even i f s u c c e s s f u l i n the f i n a l a n a l y s i s , r e s u l t i n p l a c i n g m a u r i c e carey i n t h e r e d , v h i c h v o u l d not be e x a c t l y the s p o r t i n g t h i n g t o r i s k f o r a l t h o u g h he has not f a i l e d t o e x t o r t c e r t a i n t h i n g s from us, even p r a c t i c a l l y t o b l a c k m a i l us on t h e b a s i s t h a t b l a c k m a i l i n vancouver, j u s t as i t vas i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n e n g l a n d , i s m e r e l y p a r t of the mechanics of a b u s i n e s s t r a n s a c t i o n , a t l e a s t ve a r e g r a t e f u l t o him f o r our b e i n g t o g e t h e r a t a l l d u r i n g t h e l a s t months, and moreover vhen, v i t h much t r e p i d a t i o n , i t must be a d m i t t e d , but by vay of l a y i n g the g r o u n d w o r k f o r a l a t e r a n d c o m p l e t e h o n e s t y a l l r o u n d , i n f o r m e d h i m t h a t v e v e r e e n d e a v o r i n g t o g e t a v a y f r o m h i m a n d h a d b e e n s t r i v i n g t o d o s o s o l i d l y f o r t h e l a s t m o n t h s , r e a c t e d i n a m a n n e r v h i c h v a s f a r m o r e t h a n s u r p r i s i n g , ( a m a n n e r v h i c h r e m i n d e d o n e o f t h e f a n t a s t i c c h r i s t i a n a c t s v h i c h d o s t o i e v s k y a t t r i b u t e s t o s o m e o f h i s d a r k e s t c h a r a c t e r s ) v h i c h s e e m e d t o u s a l m o s t s u b l i m e ! n o t o n l y d i d h e s e e m g e n u i n e l y p l e a s e d f o r o u r s a k e s t h a t v e v o u l d h a v e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l i v i n g i n a n o r m a l f a s h i o n , b u t s a i d t h a t h e v o u l d v r i t e a " c r a c k i n g l e t t e r " t o y o u a b o u t i t , o f v h i c h v e h a v e h e a r d s o m e q u e e r e x c e r p t s a n d g a t h e r , a l t h o u g h v e h a v e n o t h e a r d d e f i n i t e l y , t h a t h e v a s s o m e t i m e a g o v i t h m u c h c r e a k i n g o f s y n t a x a n d t o r t u r e d r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f t h e p a r a d i g n s o f s u c h c o m p l i c a t e d v e r b s a s t o b e , a n d a l s o b e c a u s e h e a s k e d u s n o l e s s t h a n t h r e e t i m e s h o v t o s p e l l b l a c k g u a r d , v a s a c t u a l l y i m p r o v i n g i t , a n d b y n o v m a y v e i l h a v e p o s t e d i t . we c a n o n l y g u e s s a t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o m p l e t e d m a s t e r v o r k v h i c h y o u h a v e r e c e i v e d , o r v i l l r e c e i v e - v e v e r e h a r d p u t t o i t n o t t o l a u g h , v h i c h v o u l d h a v e h u r t h i s f e e l i n g s , a t v h a t p a r t s v e h e a r d , b u t h e r e a g a i n i s h o u l d b e o n y o u r g u a r d b e c a u s e i t m a y v e i l b e t h e t h e r e a n e r r i n g i s m a d e i n a n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n , a n d v e f e e l u n e a s y , e s p e c i a l l y i f h e h a s s e e n t o r e g a r d y o u a s a s o r t o f " c o n s p i r a t o r " v h i c h v e k n o v t h a t y o u v i l l n o t l i k e . o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , v h a t e v e r i t s a y s , i t s c a r c e l y c a n f a i l t o c o n v i n c e y o u , i f t h e r e a r e a n y f a c t s i n i t a t a l l , t h a t t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g d e f i n i t e l y v r o n g o n t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e c a s e , a n d s i n c e t h i s m a n i s t h e t r u s t e d a p p o i n t e e o f a . b . c a r e y a n d h e n c e o f p a r k s , t h a t u n n e g o t i a b l y p a r a d o x e s e x i s t i n t h e p r e s e n t s e t u p a n d t h a t . i f m a u r i c e c a r e y i s n o t a l l t h a t s h o u l d be d e s i r e d a s a n a m b a s s a d o r o f v e r i t y , t h e n n e i t h e r a r e a . b . c a r e y o r p a r k s . t h a t y o u w i l l n o t v i s h t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s k i n d o f t h i n g g o e s w i t h o u t s a y i n g , a n d i now want t o s a y f l a t l y t h a t t h e a p p e a l t o y o u r s e l f was v e r y l a r g e l y made i n o r d e r t h a t ve c o u l d be d e l i v e r e d o n c e a n d f o r a l l f r o m t h i s n i g h t m a r e o f c o n f u s e d w i l l s a n d d i r e c t i o n s , d i s h o n e s t a n d o t h e r w i s e , i n o u r l o t . i n t h i s r e s p e c t we h a v e a p p e a l e d t o y o u s o t o s p e a k a s t h e t r u t h and i f t h e t r u t h f i n d s i t s e l f t o be on t h e s p o t a l i t t l e i t i s no w o n d e r , b u t i t h i n k t h a t we may h a v e done s o m e t h i n g s o f a r i n t h i s l e t t e r t o remove c e r t a i n s u p e r f i c i a l d o u b t s i n y o u r m i n d a s t o o u r i n t e g r i t y w i t h y o u w h i c h i s _ , w h i c h h a s b e e n , a n d w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be a n d must be f o r a l l o u r s a k e s , c o m p l e t e . now b e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g some o f t h e o t h e r m a t t e r s b r o u g h t up i n y o u r l e t t e r , i w i s h , i f p o s s i b l e , t o a c c o u n t b r i e f l y a n d a s b e s t i may, f o r i m y s e l f am n o t y e t a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e w h o l e p a i n f u l s t o r y , f o r t h e r e a s o n f o r a l l t h i s a n d why a n y a l l e g a t i o n s h a v e b e e n made a t a l l b y p a r k s a n d t h e o.m. o f s u c h a s e r i o u s n a t u r e t h a t t h e y h a v e o b v i o u s l y c a u s e d y o u , i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t i s a i d b e f o r e h a n d t h a t t h e y w o u l d be o f s u c h a n a t u r e , a p p a r e n t l y t o c h a n g e y o u r m i n d r e g a r d i n g h e l p i n g us_. oo y o u remember m i l l e r , t h e l i t t l e c o m m u n i s t i n m e x i c o ? my t r o u b l e s seem t o d a t e f r o m my a s s o c i a t i o n , o f a p u r e l y f r i e n d l y a n d non p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e , w i t h h i m . i w i l l n o t go i n t o d e t a i l b u t i s t r o n g l y s u s p e c t h e r e t h e hand o f b l a c k m a i l t h a t a c e r t a i n p e r s o n o r p e r s o n s h a v e v o l u n t e e r e d i n f o r m a t i o n o f a d e f a m a t o r y c h a r a c t e r t o t h e o.m. w i t h t h e v i e w o f e x t o r t i n g money b a s e d upon my p u r e l y s u p e r f i c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h him and w i t h some of h i s c o n f r e r e s . i n s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t i was not even t h e n of t h e i r p e r s u a s i o n s and o n l y the m i l d e s t k i n d of p i n k and i n s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e a l l e g a t i o n s were m o n s t r o u s l y u n t r u e t h e y v e r e n e v e r t h e l e s s u n d o u b t e d l y made, w i t h whatever m o t i v e , and the f a c t t h a t i had been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e p e o p l e i n any way whatsoever has s e r v e d t o b l a c k e n my name and t o a c t as a w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s f o r i n v e s t i n g me not o n l y w i t h diseases but crime as w e l l . i have heard the most i n c r e d i b l e s t o r i e s about m y s e l f which i know have got back t o t h e o.m. and i n o n l y one of which i s t h e r e a g r a i n o f t r u t h . u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s one was by a l l odds t h e most damaging of a l l . a female t o whom p a r k s had been i n t r o d u c e d and w i t h whose " s e t " i had been c o n s o r t i n g soon a f t e r the i n t e r o g a t o r y s t a t e of a f f a i r s v i t h j a n , had one h e l l of a b r a v l f o r h e r s e l f vhen t i g h t and v i t h her husband i n my room vhere t h e y had come, v h i s k e y b o t t l e i n hand, s e e k i n g me. a l t h o u g h i vas not even t h e r e a t the time and o n l y a r r i v e d l a t e r , vhen the h o t e l c l e r k and i t r i e d t o g e t them o u t , t h e damage had a l r e a d y been done. the female had a p p a r e n t l y got i t i n t o her head t h a t she v a n t e d t o commit s u i c i d e , h y s t e r i a and usquebaugh vas a l l over the p l a c e , she had a b l a c k eye and a c r a c k e d r i b (her husband had c r a c k e d t h i s f o r her t h r e e months p r e v i o u s l y , though) but i vas on the c a r p e t . i t d i d l i t t l e good f o r t h e female some days a f t e r v a r d t o s p r i n g t o my r e s c u e or even the h o t e l s t a f f t o a f f i r m t h a t i t vas not my f a u l t , t h e onus vas e n t i r e l y on me. f o r t u n a t e l y i t vas o n l y a l o c a l i z e d r o v , no p o l i c e , or a n y t h i n g l i k e t h a t , and p a r k s , i t h i n k , t o do him j u s t i c e , v o u l d not have r e p o r t e d t h i s m a t t e r had not ve v i o l e n t l y q u a r r e l e d a t t h i s p o i n t and i c a l l e d him a c r o o k . i n d e s p a i r as t o hov t h i s a f f a i r v o u l d sound i n the wesleyan hush of my f a t h e r ' s house i s e n t a t e l e g r a m t o s t u a r t , t e l l i n g him t h a t p a r k s vas a crook and a s k i n g him s i m p l y f o r enough money t o get me by the n e x t c o u p l e of months and t h e n t o i n f o r m the o.m. t h a t i vas a b s o l u t e l y t h r o u g h v i t h any money from t h a t s o u r c e from t h e n on, v h i c h s h o u l d e n a b l e me t o go t o nev y o r k , — i had not met margie a t t h i s t i m e , — a n d t r y and make a f r e s h s t a r t on my ovn hook. p a r k s i n t e r c e p t e d t h e t e l e g r a m a t the desk and s e n t i t t o my f a t h e r , h a v i n g t o l d them t h a t he v o u l d s i m p l y g e t i t s e n t f o r me. ( t h i s f o r your d e l e c t a t i o n i s a c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e . but v h a t , under the c i r c u m s t a n c e s , c o u l d i do?) i t vas t h e n i got v i n d of the g e n e r a l i d e a t h a t the o.m. had formed from t h e s e r e p o r t s of me, v h i c h vas t o have me d e c l a r e d incompetant and have me s h u t up i n a s a n i t a r i u m vhere i c o u l d be of no f u r t h e r harm t o anybody. tears o f rage might v e i l s t r e a m dovn the o l d countenance a t t h i s , and a l s o a t t h e e f f e c t of v h a t must have been a g h a s t l y r e p o r t of s o m e t h i n g , v h i c h hovever might have happened t o anybody, upon the a u n t s and p r o s t i t u t e s a t home, i t d i d not a l t e r t h e f a c t t h a t from t h a t time on my goose vas cooked. you speak of my o.m. coming t o the r e s c u e , but i n p o i n t of f a c t , a l t h o u g h t h i s i s v h a t the poor o l d f e l l o v thought he vas d o i n g no such coming t o the r e s c u e has t a k e n p l a c e a t a l l , nor vas any r e s c u e needed i n the sense you s u g g e s t , the o n l y p e r s o n vho came t o any r e s c u e vas m a r g i e , y e s , f i n a n c i a l l y t o o , because you must remember i never s a v a f r a c t i o n of the money s e n t out f o r met and indeed the o n l y time i a p p e a l e d t o the o.m. f o r h e l p vas l a t e l y vhen i n d e s p a i r a t c o n v i n c i n g him t h a t both he and i had been caught i n a veb of f a l s e h o o d i v r o t e him an a b s o l u t e l y d e s p a i r i n g l e t t e r i n v h i c h i begged, much as i d i s l i k e t o beg, t o be a b l e t o see you vhom of a l l p e o p l e i f e l t a l o n e a b l e t o t r u s t t o make an a b s o l u t e l y i m p a r t i a l c o l l o c a t i o n of the nevs v i t h r e g a r d t o m y s e l f w i t h o u t , i f e l t , any due f a v o r t o me. i i n c l u d e d the l a t t e r because vhen you d i d not v r i t e met — i i mean you, p e r s o n a l l y , d i d n ' t : not m a r y . i — l a f t e r l e a v i n g mexico i vas l e f t v i t h the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t s o m e t h i n g , i do not knov p r e c i s e l y v h a t , vas r a n k l i n g . with t h i s i n mind i vas not as a s t o n i s h e d as i might o t h e r v i s e have been a t the tone of your r e c e n t l e t t e r s . i v a n t t o a s s u r e you a g a i n nov t h a t i i n t e n d , have i n t e n d e d , i n t e n d i n the f u t u r e , and have done i n r e l a t i o n t o m a r g e r i e t o t e l l you the a b s o l u t e t r u t h and n o t h i n g but the t r u t h . i d e e p l y v a l u e your f r i e n d s h i p and a t such a time as t h i s i v i s h p r o f o u n d l y t h a t i f t h e r e a r e any vorms i n e i t h e r of our bosoms t h e y s h o u l d be removed. there i s not one f a c t t h a t i have v i t t i n g l y d i s t o r t e d t o you. in o r d e r t o make my s t o r y more p l a u s i b l e t o you i v i c h t h a t i c o u l d p a i n t a.b.carey l e s s b l a c k , p a r k s l e s s c y n i c a l , m y s e l f l e s s e x p l o i t e d , t h a n i have done but the f a c t remains t h a t a l t h o u g h i do not v i s h t o make a song about i t i have been more b l o o d i l y misused t h a n any f i v e p e o p l e you can t h i n k o f , i f ve e x c e p t the c z e c h o s l o v a k i a n s and t h e f i n n s , and i f you l o v e me as a f r i e n d as i b e l i e v e and can o n l y c o n c l u d e from v h a t you have done f o r me a l r e a d y t h a t you do, i f e e l t h a t you v i l l do something about i t . as t o d r i n k r o t t i n g one's h o n e s t y , a l a s , t h a t i s t r u e . at one time i f e l t indeed t h a t more than r o t t i n g my h o n e s t y i t vas d e s t r o y i n g my i d e n t i t y as v e i l . many of my t r o u b l e s , but a l s o many of my v i s e s t d e c i s i o n s , a r e due t o i t but i am n o t , as p a r k s has s u g g e s t e d , a l l e r g i c , v h a t e v e r t h a t means, t o i t . i have a t l a s t g o t t e n v i s e t o i t , ceased t o t e l l m y s e l f p o l i t e l i t t l e l i e s about i t , f o r c e d m y s e l f t o r e a l i z e v h a t a l l o w a n c e s a r e made f o r one when t i g h t , and hence hov much one d e c e i v e s one's s e l f , and have a t l a s t put t h i s bogy vhere i t s h o u l d be, as s i m p l y a c o n c o m i t a n t of s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e . in s h o r t , i s t i l l l i k e as much as a l m o s t anyone you can t r u s t t o have a f e v d r i n k s , or even on o c c a s i o n , more t h a n a f e v , but on the o t h e r hand i t i s the f i r s t time i n my l i f e i might a l m o s t s a y i can t a k e a d r i n k i f the o c c a s i o n seems t o demand i t or i can l e a v e i t a l o n e a l t o g e t h e r . i am c a p a b l e of p r o b a b l y more s e l f d i c i p l i n e t h a n you imagine and i t h i n k you v i l l be r e l i e v e d t o hear t h i s and t h a t no e x h o r t a t i o n s a r e any l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y on t h i s s u b j e c t . with v i n e and o t h e r b o o t l e g l i q u o r as cheap as i t i s and v i t h m a u r i c e a l m o s t c o n s t a n t l y b a r r a c h o * i t v o u l d be q u i t e p o s s i b l e f o r me t o keep q u i t e p l a s t e r e d here veek i n and veek out even on the amount of money t h a t i have s h o u l d i v i s h t o do s o , so t e m p t a t i o n c o u l d not p o s s i b l y be any v o r s e i n boston than i t i s h e r e . the bogy may r a i s e i t s head a g a i n but not i f i s a y so v h i l e you a r e the a r b i t r a t o r and even i f i t does b o t h margie and m y s e l f a r e v e i l equipped t o d e a l v i t h i t . p r i n c i p a l l y i have been f o r c e d t o t h i s a t t i t u d e by the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t i t d i d a c t u a l l y r o t one's h o n e s t y and by the d e t e r i o r a t i n g and vaporous e f f e c t i t had b o t h v i t h my vork and i n my r e l a t i o n s h i p v i t h m a r g e r i e who, a b l e t o s t a n d i t and never c o m p l a i n i n g about i t , i s the o n l y p e r s o n who has ever c o n v i n c e d me t h a t i t vas worth w h i l e r e g u l a r i z i n g . but i f d r i n k i n g r o t s the h o n e s t y i t i s a c u r i o u s t h i n g t o s a y i have y e t t o meet t h e t e e t o t a l e r whom i can w h o l l y t r u s t . however. so much t h e n , f o r a l e . you r e f e r t o my ' o b l i q u i t y ' i n mexico and i t h i n k you w i l l agree t h a t i am j u s t i f i a b l y h u r t t h a t you r e f e r and have r e f e r r e d t o t h a t and n o t h i n g e l s e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h your v i s i t . i d i d my v e r y l e v e l b e s t t o accomodate you and t o make you and mary happy w h i l e you were t h e r e . i took you a l l as w e l l as i c o u l d t o my r h e u m a t i c bosom, a more r e a s o n a b l e d i v o r c e l a w y e r was p r o c u r e d t h a t you might have o t h e r w i s e been a b l e t o o b t a i n , and a l t h o u g h you a r e under no o b l i g a t i o n t o me whatsoever about t h i s , i l i k e t o f e e l i p l a y e d my poor p a r t , i n s p i t e of t h e m a n i f e s t r e l i e f i do not blame you i n the l e a s t f o r f e e l i n g when you went, i n s e n d i n g you and mary upon your d e s t i n y . you must remember t h a t i was p r o b a b l y more s e r i o u s l y i l l t h a t you knew, my i l l n e s s h a v i n g s i n c e been d i a g n o s e d as a ( n o n - i n f e c t i o u s ) s o r t of a t r o p h y . a p p r o a c h i n g i n f a n t i l e p a r a l y s i s , which sometimes i s the accompaniment of r h e u m a t i c f e v e r i n them p a r t s . the r e p o r t , t h r o u g h what c h a n n e l s i do not know, got back t o the o.m. t h a t i was s u f f e r i n g from b o t h e p i l e p s y and worse and i was i n c i d e n t a l l y abandoned by jan s t i l l much i n the same c o n d i t i o n , which d i d not add t o my p l e a s u r e s . a l l of which t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t whatever i may have s a i d i r e a l l y f e l t m y s e l f t o be w a l k i n g on t h e edge of a p r e c i p i c e w i t h j a n , may go f a r t o a c c o u n t f o r what o b l i q u i t y the a l c o h o l may not a c c o u n t f o r . r e g a r d i n g the e p i l e p s y and worse: you may s a y t h a t p e o p l e do not do t h e s e t h i n g s , and of c o u r s e i have o n l y p a r k ' s word t h a t t h e y v e r e s a i d , but your ovn r e a c t i o n t o my f a t h e r ' s l e t t e r v o u l d seem t o j u s t i f y t h e e x i s t a n c e of such r e p o r t s . i t vas upon t h e b a s i s of t h e s e l i e s t h a t p a r k s formed h i s f i r s t o p i n i o n of me and i mention t h i s as a t o u c h s t o n e o f the p r o b a b l y a c c u r a c y of most of the r e p o r t s you have r e c e i v e d about me. i need s c a r c e l y s a y t h a t t h e s e t h i n g s a r e r i d i c u l o u s but not t h e b e s t t h i n g s i n t h e v o r l d t o f e e l t h a t someone f a r avay i s c h a r g i n g a g a i n s t you. i must add t h a t so f a r as the company i k e p t i s concerned i have been a f f o r d e d a r i c h l e s s o n by my e x p e r i e n c e s v h i c h i v i l l not f o r g e t i n a h u r r y . the m a j o r i t y of the r e p o r t s t h a t v e n t home a p a r t from t h o s e from some m y s t e r i o u s s o u r c e i n m e x i c o , p r o b a b l y an i n d i v i d u a l by t h e name of mensch vhom i g o t out of a f r i g h t f u l jam a t my ovn expense, have emanated from jan and l a t e r p a r k s . s i n c e p a r k s d i s c r e d i t e d jan's v o r d t o england and j a n , p a r k s ' , and m y s e l f , nov, b o t h of t h e i r v o r d s , and as i am t e l l i n g you the a b s o l u t e u n v a r n i s h e d t r u t h , you can make up your mind f o r y o u r s e l f hov much c r e d a n c e t o g i v e t o v h a t you have h e a r d . i do not e x p e c t you t o make any f i n a l judgement u n t i l ve have the o p p o r t u n i t y of s p e a k i n g t o g e t h e r but i am a s k i n g you a t l e a s t t o suspend judgement upon a c c u s a t i o n s v h i c h i c o u l d not a n s v e r . n e v e r t h e l e s s i can see t h a t p a r k s and the o.m. have q u i t e n a t u r e l l y had t h e i r i n f l u e n c e upon you and i t i s the purpose of t h i s l e t t e r t o g i v e as much l i g h t as i can upon p a s t e v e n t s v h i c h i hope v i l l r e s u l t i n your f e e l i n g l e s s uneasy about m a r g e r i e and m y s e l f s h o u l d ve be a b l e t o come. (another t h i n g i have heard about m y s e l f . that i had g o t i n t o t r o u b l e v i t h the p o l i c e , due t o d r i n k . i never have. e x c e p t once, y e a r s ago, a t c o l l e g e . i t i s a b l o o d y l i e . and i t can be proved.) i see t h e d i f f i c u l t y you a r e p l a c e d i n v i t h r e g a r d t o margie v i t h your c o n s c i e n c e . you may l i k e me but on the o t h e r hand you do not v a n t t o be i n any vay t h e i n s t r u m e n t of a t t a c h i n g me t o somebody vho might prove such a headache t o the o.m. as j a n . the s i t u a t i o n i s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t . my v i s h i s t o s u p p o r t margie by my ovn e f f o r t s as soon as p o s s i b l e and i t has a l v a y s been ray v i s h . i f i t so be t h a t some money c o n t i n u e s t o be f o r t h c o m i n g so much t h e b e t t e r f o r us, but so f a r i s t h e s i t u a t i o n u n l i k e a n y t h i n g v h i c h o c c u r r e d v i t h j a n t h a t m a r g e r i e had e x p r e s s e d h e r s e l f as p e r f e c t l y v i l l i n g and even eager t o s u p p o r t me, u n t i l such time as i got on my f e e t , and had she not g i v e n up her j o b v i t h penny s i n g l e t o n * v o u l d have been a b u n d e n t l y a b l e t o do s o . you do see hovever the p o s i t i o n i n v h i c h b o t h v a r and c i r c u m s t a n c e s have p l a c e d us and i f ve f o r g e t t h e former f o r a moment america i s c l e a r l y enough the s o l u t i o n . on t h e o t h e r hand a l t h o u g h i t h i n k you might have put i t more c h e e r i l y i can see your p o s i t i o n as one h a v i n g the pover t o have me c u t o f f w i t h o u t a penny and do f r e e l y a b s o l v e y o u i n advance s h o u l d you c o n s i d e r t h i s t o be the w i s e s t c o u r s e and s i n c e i know t h a t you would not a d v o c a t e t h i s u n l e s s i l e t you down i v a n t i t t o be u n d e r s t o o d here and nov and h e r e a f t e r t h a t t h i s makes a b s o l u t e l y no d i f f e r e n c e t o my f e e l i n g of f r i e n d s h i p v i t h you. perhaps i t might t u r n out even t o be a good t h i n g and ve v o u l d a l l be h a p p i e r i f ve a r e l i v i n g c o n t i g u o u s l y a t such a time i f the monetary element d i d not c o m p l i c a t e our n a t u r a l g e n e r o s i t i e s towards each o t h e r . but, as i have s a i d b e f o r e and f o r r e a s o n s t o t a l l y u n a l l i e d t o the c o n d i t i o n s of the t r a n s a c t i o n , i have n_g_ i n t e n t i o n o f l e t t i n g you down. another a s p e c t of the s i t u a t i o n has o c c u r r e d t o me. you may f e e l t h a t by h a r b o r i n g m a r g e r i e you a r e r u n n i n g the r i s k of h a v i n g her f a m i l y r i s i n g i n i n d i g n a n t p r o t e s t about i t . margie has had t o t e l l some o f her f r i e n d s t h a t she i s m a r r i e d s i m p l y i n o r d e r t o a v e r t g o s s i p . her mother, however, knows t h a t t h e r e a r e o b s t a c l e s t o our m a r r i a g e and t h a t we have t o w a i t u n t i l such time as t h e y a r e removed. she i s s a t i s f i e d t h a t we a r e s t a y i n g w i t h a m a r r i e d c o u p l e and i s a l s o p l e a s e d w i t h t h e i d e a of her g o i n g t o boston where she would be l i v i n g under the same, but b e t t e r , c o n d i t i o n s , which would be, i f you demand i t , t h e c o n d i t i o n s which she b e l i e v e s e x i s t . here a g a i n the e x t e n u a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s of the war have combined t o persuade her t o waive any o b j e c t i o n t o the a p p a r e n t u n c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y o f our s t a t u s and i ask you most e a r n e s t l y a l s o t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t i n r e g a r d t o my not w r i t i n g the o.m. a t t h i s time t h e s e s e l f - s a m e e x t e n u a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s . i t might be a l l r i g h t but i d a r e not r i s k our p o s s i b l e s e p a r a t i o n . i s u g g e s t t o you as one who i s e n l i g h t e n e d t h a t t h i s r e s p e c t of the c o n v e n t i o n s v i t h r e g a r d t o the o.m. might do more harm t h a n good and i am l o a t h e t o t e l l a s o r t of h a l f l i e as s u g g e s t e d by you, i . e . : t h a t i've j u s t nov i n f o r m e d you of the s i t u a t i o n and t h a t you have agreed i n advance t o m a r g i e ' s coming a l o n g l a t e r f o r a v i s i t . i t i s t r u e t h a t i f i t v o r k e d i t v o u l d put t h i n g s on a s e c u r e r f o o t i n g but i f i t d i d not vork i t v o u l d mean d i s a s t e r and i t h i n k a f t e r you have d i g e s t e d the above you v i l l agree v i t h me t h a t i v o u l d have no c h o i c e but t o d e c l i n e t o go t o america a t a l l , hang on here on some excuse or a n o t h e r as b e s t i c o u l d , j o i n t h e army, and t h e n , u n t i l ve a r e a b l e t o be m a r r i e d d e c r e e margie my common l a v v i f e and s u p p o r t her on $ a month. d i d t h i s promise me any f u t u r e i t might be a v a l u a b l e e x p e r i e n c e but on the v h o l e i t i s a c o u r s e v h i c h you v o u l d not v i s h me t o have t o t a k e . i have t o s a y r i g h t here and nov, p u t t i n g my f o o t dovn as hard as i can v i t h o u t b r i n g i n g dovn a l l t h a [ t ] has been so s k i l l f u l l y e n g i n e e r e d upon our heads t h a t i v o u l d d e f i n i t e l y renounce any p e r s o n a l g a i n t h a t might a c c r u e t o me by g o i n g t o america a l o n e and s t a y h e r e . we can be m a r r i e d next october and even i f i have t o go s h o r t l y a f t e r , a t l e a s t m a r g e r i e v o u l d have the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a v a i t i n g my r e t u r n as my v i f e . i t h i n k t h a t as the c i r u m s t a n c e s o f v a r v i l l c o n t i n u e t o be more e x t e n u a t i n g as time goes on t h a t i f you f e e l t h a t our a c t i o n s j u s t i f y your r a i s i n g your v o i c e on our b e h a l f t h a t perhaps t h e r e v o u l d be not such a grave p a r e n t a l o b j e c t i o n e i t h e r but i f the o.m. knev t h a t ve had l i v e d t o g e t h e r b e f o r e our m a r r i a g e , v h i c h vere i t o be c o m p l e t e l y honest v i t h him i v o u l d have t o admit t h a t ve had, he v o u l d be opposed t o i t . s u r e l y , conrad, you can see t h a t t h i s i s a m a t t e r more of c o n v e n t i o n t h a n of h o n e s t y . i can even go f u r t h e r and s a y t h a t even i f the o.m. s u s p e c t e d t h a t ve had l i v e d t o g e t h e r b e f o r e our m a r r i a g e he v o u l d r a t h e r not knov about i t , put h i s t e l e s c o p e t o h i s b l i n d eye, so t h a t he v o u l d not be f o r c e d by the r i g i d i t y o f h i s wesleyan s p i r i t t o o b j e c t , and t h i s b r i n g s me dovn t o the s u b t l e d i f f e r e n c e betveen h o n e s t y and vhat i t h i n k ibsen c a l l e d the ' d i s e a s e of i n t e g r i t y . ' margie and i have s t r i v e n v i t h a l l our s o u l s t o make our r e l a t i o n s h i p as f i n e a t h i n g and as honest a t h i n g as ve c o u l d under the c i r c u m s t a n c e s and i t seems a p i t y t h a t a l l ve have b u i l t up s h o u l d be smeared by a c o n v e n t i o n v h i c h i n t h i s c a s e , h a v i n g r e g a r d t o the v a r and t h e f a c t t h a t i t v i l l p r o b a b l y l a s t a v e r y l o n g time i n d e e d , v o u l d be a s o r t of s i n i n i t s e l f t o r e s p e c t , and h a v i n g r e g a r d t o t h a t v a r , once more, conrad, have you thought about i t s u f f i c i e n t l y v i t h a l l i t s l i t t l e i m p l i c a t i o n s i n r e g a r d t o us? has i t o c c u r r e d t o you, t o put i t as c r u e l l y as p o s s i b l e , t h a t i t may v e r y v e i l not make any d i f f e r e n c e v h e t h e r the o.m. c u t s me o f f v i t h o u t a penny or n o t ? then t h e r e i s the m a t t e r of vork i n v h i c h margie has become e s s e n t i a l . i n d r a v i n g t o g e t h e r , vork has become a communal t h i n g betveen us. m a r g i e i s nov as much i n t e r e s t e d i n under the v o l c a n o as i am. we v o r k t o g e t h e r on i t day and n i g h t . i f e e l t h a t i t i s the f i r s t r e a l book i've v r i t t e n . the c e r t a i n t y of v a r has l e t l o o s e a h e l l of a l o t of pent up energy and a l l p l a y e d a g a i n s t t h e background of the f a l s e i d e a l i s m s and a b s t r a c t i o n s of peace t h a t ve v a s t e d our time v i t h vhen ve s h o u l d have been t h i n k i n g about l i v i n g , of v h i c h ve a r e b i t t e r l y reminded vhen perhaps t h e r e i s not much time any l o n g e r . a l l t h i s i s making f o r a r e a l drama, something p o s s i b l y f i r s t r a t e , v i t h i n i t s l i m i t s . i'm more t h a n g l a d i never got a chance t o f i n i s h i t v i t h o u t her because ve too seem t o be p l a y i n g our p a r t s v i t h i n t h e drama. i don't see hov t h e h e l l i can f i n i s h the book v i t h o u t her anyhov nov t h a t ve've got s t a r t e d on an a b s o l u t e l y new and i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i n i t v h i c h i s her i d e a . t h i s a g a i n i s an i m p o r t a n t p o i n t : i t i s something about v h i c h you v i l l v a n t t o be shown, i a d m i t , but i c a n ' t shov i t t o you v i t h o u t b e i n g on the s p o t , and i c a n ' t , moreover, hope t o e x p l a i n i t t o the o l d man v i t h o u t g e t t i n g the v h o l e t h i n g h o p e l e s s l y m i s c o n s t r u e d , even v e r e t h e r e t i m e , v h i c h t h e r e may not be. another t h i n g i v o u l d l i k e you t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t i s the o l d man's p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s . he d i d h i s b e s t t o queer s t u a r t ' s " m a r r i a g e , v h i c h t u r n e d out v e i l , because he d i d not make q u i t e t h e r i g h t t a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h . (he vas s p o r t i n g about m i n e but need not have been d r a v n i n t o i t s f a i l u r e , had he o n l y l e t me a l o n e . ) and i am not t h e f i r s t son t o have had s p i e s put on h i s t a i l . - s t u a r t , vhen i n f r a n c e , had the same t h i n g done t o him. what the o.m. needs i s a s s u r a n c e of some s o r t t h a t a l l i s nov as v e i l as i t can be, and though i might v i s h t h a t a s s u r a n c e t o be made anyhov f o r h i s ovn sake i c e r t a i n l y do not v i s h i t f o r my ends; and s i n c e ve have a l r e a d y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t you v i l l not make any a s s u r a n c e u n l e s s you f e e l t h a t the s i t u a t i o n d e s e r v e s i t , you v i l l perhaps see t h a t i am d o u b l y a n x i o u s t h a t you s h o u l d be c o n v i n c e d . i t h i n k t h a t the v i s e r c o u r s e and the j u s t e r v o u l d be as i have s a i d b e f o r e t h a t you suspend judgement upon v h e t h e r you can r a t i f y our r e l a t i o n s h i p as a good t h i n g , i f such r a t i f i c a t i o n i s needed, u n t i l you have the e v i d e n c e of your ovn e y e s . there i s n o t h i n g t o p r e v e n t a t l e a s t my g e t t i n g engaged v i t h o u t my f a t h e r ' s knovledge and my f i r s t m a r r i a g e h a v i n g proved an embarrassment ( t o him t h r o u g h no f a u l t o f my ovn) and a f a i l u r e , he i s not l i k e l y t o l o o k upon any attachment i may form a t the p r e s e n t time w i t h f a v o r u n t i l l you a r e c o n v i n c e d t h a t i t i s o t h e r w i s e . why do you not c o n s i d e r our r e l a t i o n s h i p t o be a n e c e s s a r y e x p e r i m e n t ? i cannot see t h a t my f a t h e r can e x p e c t me e n t i r e l y t o d i s p e n s e w i t h female company. i f margie d i d not e x i s t you would p r o b a b l y s u g g e s t , even i f i kept a p a i r of s c i s s o r s handy as you s a y , t h a t i t a k e upon some female r e l a t i o n s h i p which r e a s o n i t s e l f would not demand you t o t e l l my f a t h e r about and o f which he would not e x p e c t t o know. the p a i r of s c i s s o r s so f a r as you're concerned i s i n your own hands and i have s a i d b e f o r e h a n d t h a t i f you do not approve our r e l a t i o n s h i p e v e n t u a l l y and i f , by the way, any c o n t i n u a t i o n of i t i m p l i e s a l e t t i n g of you down tantamount t o the drunken h o r r o r s you e x p e c t t o cope w i t h , t h e n as i s a y , i t i s a l l r i g h t by me and you a r e s t i l l a l l r i g h t by me and i w i l l j u s t have t o f i g u r e a vay out of our d i f f i c u l t i e s v i t h o u t your a s s i s t a n c e and a p p r o v a l but v i t h , i hope, i n t h a t case your unexpressed b l e s s i n g . p a r k s ' remedy f o r my t r o u b l e s vas the s a y i n g , at n i g h t a l l c a t s a r e g r e y , and i t seems t o me i t v o u l d be a t r a g i c t h i n g and a c o n t r a d i c t o r y one t h a t v h i l e a p a s s i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p v i t h a h a r l o t might be condoned by p a r k s e t a l one v h i c h i s i n i t s e l f a s i m p l e , honest and good t h i n g i s n o t . the r i s k s ve a r e t a k i n g ve t a k e v i t h our eyes open. i had hoped t h a t i n t h i s l e t t e r i had managed t o c l e a r up some of the s u s p i c i o n s v h i c h i f e e l you have come t o h o l d s i n c e r e c e i v i n g t h e l e t t e r s from the o.m. and p a r k s and i hope a l s o t h a t a f t e r you have absorbed e v e r y v o r d o f t h i s l e t t e r t h a t you v i l l be c o n v i n c e d t h a t the o n l y f i r s t s t e p t o v a r d s a s e c u r e r f o o t i n g and f i n a l l y a s e c u r e f o o t i n g i s f o r you t o see and be shovn by y o u r s e l f . o t h e r v i s e i t h i n k i s h o u l d i n e v i t a b l y become t h e v i c t i m of some such j u s t i c e as b e f e l l my f r i e n d w i l l a i m empson vhen h i s f e l l o w s h i p a t cambridge vas t a k e n away, h i m s e l f s e n t down and h i s c a r e e r r u i n e d , because he had been abnormal enough t o have some c o n t r a c e p t i v e s i n h i s room, and normal enough t o i n f o r m t h e dons t h a t t h e y were not ornaments and t h a t he used t h e m . for the r e s t , f o r the hope you e x t e n d about m o n t r e a l s h o u l d the american i d e a blow up, my d e e p e s t thanks and a l s o r e i t e r a t e d t h a n k s f o r e v e r y t h i n g you have both done f o r us. v e r y f i n a l l y i want t o s a y a g a i n t h a t so f a r as we a r e concerned t h e r e w i l l be no d i s h o n e s t n e s s round c o r n e r s , no drunken s a i l o r s smuggled i n from the navy yard a t n i g h t and above a l l no communistic t a l k under the banana t r e e s . my o n l y hope i s t h a t a f t e r a l l our ups and downs our r e l a t i o n s h i p and r e l a t i o n s h i p s as you once p r o p h e s i e d the l a s t time i l e f t rye, c o u l d and would be pure s i e r r a nevada and s o , as chaucer s a i d , go l i t e l book, which i am a f r a i d t h i s has become, go l i t e l myne t r a g e d i e , and bear i n mind t h a t whatever i t may not be w r i t t e n w i t h i t i s w r i t t e n w i t h l o v e as e v e r , w i t h both our loves male p.s. i e n c l o s e an o l d s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y , u n p o s t e d , p . c . i e x p l a n a t o r y notes x not i d e n t i f i e d . "usquebaugh": w h i s k e y ; g a e l i c , "water of l i f e . " c f . lowry's poem b e g i n n i n g "the doom of each, s a i d doctor usquebaugh" i n l e t t e r , p. . s t u a r t lowry ( - ), malcolm's e l d e s t b r o t h e r . " b o r r a c h o " : s p a n i s h , "drunk"; lowry has m i s s p e l l e d the word. b not i d e n t i f i e d . • penny s i n g l e t o n (born m a r i a n a dorothy mcnulty) ( - ), hollywood a c t r e s s who had t h e t i t l e r o l e i n the - " b l o n d i e " f e a t u r e s e r i e s . p r o b a b l y t h e c h a r a c t e r of yvonne, who was changed from the c o n s u l ' s d a u g h t e r , i n the e a r l i e r d r a f t s of under the v o l c a n o , t o h i s w i f e ( c f . day ). • s t u a r t lowry; see n. above. * lowry's m a r r i a g e t o jan g a b r i a l on j a n u a r y . x o i t would seem t h a t a r t h u r o. lowry had h i r e d a d e t e c t i v e t o f o l l o w lowry's movements i n m e x i c o . elements of t h i s s i t u a t i o n a r e p r e s e n t i n under the v o l c a n o . x x w i l l i a m empson ( - ), b r i t i s h c r i t i c and poet who s t u d i e d a t w i n c h e s t e r c o l l e g e , - , and magdalene c o l l e g e , cambridge, ; s t u d e n t of mathematics and e n g l i s h who, under the t u t o r s h i p of i.a. r i c h a r d s , came f i r s t i n the e n g l i s h t r i p o s i n ; e d i t o r of t h e cambridge l i t e r a r y magazine, e x p e r i m e n t , i n ; a u t h o r of seven types of a m b i g u i t y (london: c h a t t o & windus, ). i n h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y , m i c h a e l redgrave a l s o t e l l s of empson b e i n g " s e n t down, or ' r u s t i c a t e d ' " because he had c o n t r a c e p t i v e s i n h i s room ( i n mv mind's eye ) . x a see chaucer's " t r o i l u s and c r i s e y d e , " v. : "go, l i t e l bok, go, l i t e l myn t r a g e d y e . " the " e n c l o s e d " p o s t c a r d ("p.c") i s m i s s i n g . . . t e x t u a l notes my dear conrad \ my dear conrad{ } p a r k s i s t r u s t e d \ <now> p a r k s i s t r u s t e d . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . . - . - . - . - . . . p r ( o l v i n q \ p r i v i n g ( t y p o . ] contempt (and p i t y ) \ contempt ( h a n d pity<,>{)} the t r u t h t o a.b.carey\ the t r u t h <of> ( t o ) a.b.carey s e n t i m e n t a l i s t \ sent<a>{i}mental st s u r p r i s i n g , (a manner [. . .] c h a r a c t e r s ) v h i c h seemed t o us a l m o s t s u b l i m e i \ s u r p r i s i n g , { ( } a manner [. . .] c h a r a c t e r s { ) } v h i c h seemed t o us a l m o s t sublime<.>{!} heard some queer e x c e r p t s \ heard some <almost e q u a l l y { w } s u b l i m e { " } > (queer) e x c e r p t s such c o m p l i c a t e d v e r b s as t o be,\ such c o m p l i c a t e d < p r e d i c a t e s as the> v e r b ( s ) ( a s ) t o be, s p e l l b l a c k g u a r d [. . .] p o s t e d i t . \ s p e l l <the r e p r ( i l l e g . ] > b l a c k g u a r d , vas a c t u a l l y < ( i l l e g . ] > ( i m p r o v i n g i t ) , and by nov may v e i l have <done> ( p o s t e d i t } . as b e s t i may,\ as b e s t i may{,} p a i n f u l s t o r y , \ p a i n f u l s t o r y { , } r e a s o n f o r a l l t h i s and vhy\ r e a s o n <for> a l l t h i s and tvhy> c r a c k e d r i b (. . .] but i v a s \ c r a c k e d r i b <vhich> { ( } h e r husband had c r a c k e d ( t h i s ) f o r her t h r e e months p r e v i o u s l y , (though}{)} <and> ( b u t ) i vas f o r the female some d a y s \ f o r the female <for the female> some days f o r t u n a t e l y i t vas (. . .] and p a r k s , \ ( f o r t u n a t e l y i t vas o n l y a l o c a l i z e d r o v , no p o l i c e , or a n y t h i n g l i k e t h a t , and) p a r k s , nev y o r k , - - i had i . . . ] t i m e , - - \ nev y o r k , { - - } i had i . . .. ] t i m e , {—} c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e . \ c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e < >. c o u l d i d o ? ) \ c o u l d i do?{)> a t t h i s , \ a t t h i s { , } . - something i. . .] i t d i d not a l t e r \ something!,} <{(}>which {however} might have happened t o anybody<{)}>{,} <but i t did> {upon the a u n t s and p r o s t i t u t e s a t home i t d i d } not a l t e r . - needed i n the sense you s u g g e s t , t h e o n l y \ needed { i n t h e sense you suggest,} the o n l y . any r e s c u e \ <the> {any} r e s c u e . d i s l i k e t o bea.\ d i s l i k e t o b_eg_{,} . - d i d not w r i t e met — ii mean you, p e r s o n a l l y d i d n ' t : not mary.[ — j a f t e r \ d i d not w r i t e me[ — h i mean you, p e r s o n a l l y , d i d n ' t : not m a r y . } [ — j a f t e r { t h i s i n s e r t i o n w r i t t e n i n l e f t - h a n d margin] . e x p l o i t e d , \ e x < ( i l l e g . ] > { p l o i } t e d , . a l a s , \ a l a s { , } . d e c e i v e s \ d e c < l e > { e i } v e s . i n t e r c o u r s e . \ i n t e r c o u r s e { . } . e x h o r t a t l o n s \ e x { h o r } t < o r > { a } t i o n s . y e t t o meet t h e t e e t o t a l e r \ y e t t o meet <a> {the} t e e t o t a l e r . t r u s t . however. so much t h e n , \ t r u s t . {however.} so much t h e n , . ' o b l i q u i t y ' \ { • } o b l i q u i t y { ' } . r h e u m a t i c bosom,\ r h e u m a t i c bosom{,} . blame you i n \ blame you <for> i n [ t h i s d e l e t i o n i s made on the t y p e w r i t e r ] . - ( n o n - i n f e c t i o u s ) s o r t of a t r o p h y [. . .] i n them p a r t s . \ { ( } n o n - i n f e c t l o u s { ) } <f>{s}or<m>{t} of f a t r o p h y t { . } a p p r o a c h i n g i n f a n t i l e p a r a l y s i s ! , } which sometimes i s the accompaniment of r h e u m a t i c f e v e r i n th<ose>{em} p a r t s . . p r e c i p i c e \ p r e c i p < a > { i } c e . r i d i c u l o u s \ r < e > { i } d i c u l o u s . - i must add\ i <need s c a r c e l y > {must} add . expense,\ expen<c>{s}e, . t h e i r words,\ t h e i r words{,} . t r u t h , \ t r u t h { , } . m y s e l f \ <mxm}yself . - t o come. (another t h i n g [. . . .] be p r o v e d . ) \ t o . come. {(another t h i n g i have heard about m y s e l f . that i had got i n t o t r o u b l e w i t h the < [ l l l e g . ] > p o l i c e , due t o d r i n k . i never have. {{except once, y e a r s ago, a t c o l l e g e . } } i t i s a b l o o d y l i e . and { { i t } } can be proved.)} [ t h e i n s e r t i o n , "except once, y e a r s ago, a t c o l l e g e . " , i s w r i t t e n i n t h e top r i g h t - h a n d c o r n e r of t h e page] . i f i t so be t h a t some money c o n t i n u e s \ i f <so be> i t {so be} t h a t some m o < ( i l l e g . ] > { n e } y . w i l l i n g and even eager t o s u p p o r t mef u n t i l \ w i l l i n g and {even} eager t o s u p p o r t <&€_>{,} u n t i l . and do f r e e l y a b s o l v e vou i n advancev and {do f r e e l y } ^ a b s o l v e you i n advance » . n a t u r a l g e n e r o s i t i e s \ natur<e>{a}l g e n e r o < u > s i t i e s . - qq. i n t e n t i o n \ <qo_> i n t e n t i o n . p r o t e s t about i t . \ p r o t e s t <for h a r b o r i n g her> {about i t } . . knows\ {k}nows . w a i v e \ <wave> {waive} . t h e s e s e l f - s a m e e x t e n u a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s . \ the{se} {self-same} e x t e n u a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s { . } <of the wor> . d i g e s t e d \ d i g e s t e ( d ) . t h a [ t ] \ t h a s [ t y p o . ) . £hjs_\ , t h l s , . ' d i s e a s e of i n t e g r i t y . ' \ { ' } d i s e a s e of i n t e g r i t y . { ' } . t h a t war, once more,\ t h a t war{,} once more{,} . work i n which m a r g i e \ work<.> { i n which} margie . peace t h a t we wasted our time w i t h \ peace t h a t < [ i l l e g . ] > <one> {we} wasted <one's> {our} time w i t h . of v h i c h ve a r e b i t t e r l y x of v h i c h <one> {ve} <is> {are} b i t t e r l y . - t o queer s t u a r t ' s m a r r i a g e , v h i c h t u r n e d out v e l l , \ t o <botch> {queer} s t u a r t ' s m a r r i a g e , v h i c h t u r n e d out v e i l { , } . (he v a s \ <'>{(}he vas . my o v n ) \ my o < ( i l l e g . ] > { v n } ) . d i s p e n s e \ dispen<c>{s}e . you v o u l d p r o b a b l y s u g g e s t , \ you v o u l d <be f o r c e d to> { p r o b a b l y } suggest{,} . your ovn hands and i \ your ovn hands <as> {and} i . cope v i t h , \ cope v i t h { , } . a p p r o v a l \ approv<l>{al} . s a y i n g , at n i g h t \ s a y i n g , <a>{a}t n i g h t . v h i l e a p a s s i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p \ v h i l e <my> {a p a s s i n g } r e l a t i o n s h i p . i f e e l you have come t o h o l d \ i f e e l you < { i l l e g . ] > {have come to} h o l d . - r e i t e r a t e d t h a n k s \ r e i t e r a t e d t h a n < ( i l l e g . ] > { k s } . p r o p h e s i e d \ p r o p h < ( i l l e g . ] > { e } s i e d . l i t e l book,\ l i t e l book{,} . v i t h both our loves (. . . .] p.c.\ ( h a n d w r i t t e n i n i n k a t end of l e t t e r ] : from aiken t o lowry k i l l o r i n s dennis mass feb my poor o l d b e w i l d e r e d e x p l a n a t o r y p r o t e s t a n t male--! what a d e l u g e of k a f k a - l i k e e l u c i d a t i o n , e x p l a n a t i o n , a n a l y s i s , q u a l i f i c a t i o n , a p o l o g y , r e p r o a c h , e v e r y t h i n g ! e v e r y man h i s ovn laocoon group, complete v i t h the s e r p e n t . but my dear f e l l o v t h e r e vas no need f o r i t , s u r e l y — i t ' s a l l been s e t t l e d , l o n g s i n c e , i t h o u g h t , t h a t you v e r e c o m i n g — y o u don't need t o t e l l me i n advance a n y t h i n g about y o u r s e l f , s i n c e i s h a l l be a - s e e i n g of you v i t h my ovn e y e s , and a - h e a r i n g of you v i t h my ovn e a r s , and k n o v i n g f o r m y s e l f vhat has become of you, and v h a t t r u t h or l i e s c o n s t i t u t e d the nov q u i t e a l a r m i n g l y h y p e r t r o p h i e d legend of the l o v r y v h i c h has been b u i l t up by a l t e r n a t e touches from y o u r s e l f , the m, p a r k s , m a r g e r i e , and not f o r g e t t i n g m a u r i c e carey. seen i n i t s queer t o t a l , i can a s s u r e you, i t d o e s n ' t make s e n s e : i t ' s the goddamndest f a r r a g o of i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s i ever d i d s e e , and as h o l l o v as a cream p u f f . no, l e t ' s l e t go of a l l t h a t , and j u s t s i t t i g h t t i l l you get h e r e . as f o r my s u g g e s t i o n t h a t i t v o u l d be v i s e s t and b e s t and most honest t o t e l l the o m nov something of the margie t h i n g , i s t i l l t h i n k s o ; b u t , i ' l l agree t o v a i v i n g t h a t f o r the time b e i n g , v i t h the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t maybe v e ' l l do i t a l i t t l e l a t e r . so, come a l o n g nov, as soon as you get your v a l k i n g p a p e r s , and t h e n v e ' l l b e g i n t o shape our f u t u r e as ve t h i n k b e s t . whether here or i n b o s t o n . . . . conrad w i l l you thank m. carey f o r h i s l e t t e r , on my b e h a l f - - a n d t e l l him i much a p p r e c i a t e d i t — ? i t was v e r y n i c e o f him. t e x t u a l notes [no o r i g i n a l i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s l e t t e r ; i have t h e r e f o r e had t o r e l y on joseph k i l l o r i n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n ( )j : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d f e b r u a r y , my v e r y dear conrad: i am o v e r j o y e d by your l e t t e r . thank you f o r your t h o u g h t f u l n e s s i n t r y i n g t o make i t p o s s i b l e f o r us to have a nook t o o u r s e l v e s , and, w i t h such s a n t u a r y , i t r u s t we may prove a s t i m u l a t i o n t o work r a t h e r than a h i n d r a n c e . we a r e w o r k i n g n i g h t and day on under the volcano and am s u r e a t l a s t have got something. i t has b l o o d , g u t s , r a p i n e , murder, t e e t h , and, f o r your e n t e r t a i n m e n t , even some m o o n l i g h t and r o s e s . and a c o u p l e of h o r s e s . dick e b e r h a r t was a t cambridge a l i t t l e b e f o r e my t i m e : he was a f r i e n d of j.d.'s i had many s t r a n g e d o p p e l g a n g e r - i k e remote c o n t a c t s w i t h him. he was a s a i l o r , wrote a g o o d i s h f i r s t book of poems, ' b r a v e r y of e a r t h ' . s i n c e , he does, as you say, seem t o have gone mad as a h a t t e r . he i s now d e v o t e d t o a n o t h e r from of what you c a l l 'indoor marxmanship.'* i b e l i e v e he i s a b r i l l i a n t f e l l o w , but he seems t o me t o be tone d e a f , p o e t i c a l l y . once, when accused i n the cambridge review by i.a. ("granada") r i c h a r d s , of " s u c k i n g h i s p o e t i c thumb," he c o n f r o n t e d him p e r s o n a l l y w i t h s a i d thumb, made a rude g e s t u r e , a s k e d , "how do you l i k e t h i s ? " i hope t o hear news soon from washington. p l e a s e t e l l mary i am w r i t i n g her p e r s o n a l l y t o thank her f o r a l l she has done on our b e h a l f . t e l l me something funny. as e v e r , l o v e from us b o t h , male. e x p l a n a t o r y notes see l e t t e r from a i k e n , p. , and lowry's r e s p o n s e , p. . r i c h a r d e b e r h a r t ( - ), american poet who s t u d i e d a t s t . john's c o l l e g e , cambridge, r e c e i v i n g a b.a. i n , and an m.a. i n . he undertook f u r t h e r s t u d y a t harvard u n i v e r s i t y from - . h i s book of poems, a b r a v e r y of e a r t h , was p u b l i s h e d by j o n a t h a n cape i n . john davenport; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . * q u o t a t i o n from l e t t e r from a i k e n , p. ; see a l s o n. , p. . i v o r armstrong r i c h a r d s ( - ), b r i t i s h l i t e r a r y c r i t i c and poet who s t u d i e d a t magdalene c o l l e g e , cambridge, r e c e i v i n g a b.a. i n , m.a. i n , and l i t t . d. i n . author of p r i n c i p l e s of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m (new york: h a r c o u r t , ) and p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m ; a s t u d y qf l i t e r ^ y judgement (new york: h a r c o u r t , ). a c c o r d i n g t o c l a r i s s a l o r e n z , r i c h a r d s was lowry's "former examiner (and hero) a t s a i n t c a t h a r i n e ' s c o l l e g e " ( l o r e l e i two ). lowry and the a i k e n s (conrad and c l a r i s s a l o r e n z ) j o i n e d up w i t h i.a. r i c h a r d s and h i s w i f e when t h e y were v i s i t i n g s p a i n i n ; hence lowry's nickname of r i c h a r d s h e r e : "granada." c f . lorenz, l o r e l e i two ( - ). i have not been a b l e t o l o c a t e the cambridge review a r t i c l e which lowry mentions h e r e . t e x t u a l notes . dick e b e r h a r t \ d i c k eberhar<d>{t} . . r i c h a r d s , \ richards<on>{,} . thumb,\ thum<g>{bl, : from aiken t o lowry ts h; k i l l o r i n s dennis mass feb j u s t a l i n e , or a between the l i n e s , male, t o s i g n a l our c o n t i n u i n g presence h e r e , w i t h f a c e s westward t u r n e d h o p e f u l l y , not t o s a y p r a y e r f u l l y , f o r your w e l l b e i n g s . what news — i f any? i t r u s t t h e n o v e l goes f o r w a r d v e n t r e a t e r r e , and i f the labour board would o n l y come t o b a t and beckon you i n — ! but anyway, l e t me have a c a r d or s o m e t h i n g . here, we go from w i n t e r t o w i n t e r — d a y a f t e r day of snow and f r e e z i n g w i n d s , housebound, s h i v e r i n g , m a r o o n e d — i f i t weren't f o r the c o c k t a i l hour our courages would have g i v e n o u t . no end t o i t . but i suppose r e a l l y a n o t h e r two weeks s h o u l d see the w i n t e r ' s b l o o d y back b l o o d y b r o k e n : i can o n l y s a y i f i t i s n ' t , o u r s w i l l be. i r e - r e a d most of t h e l i g h t h o u s e , and v i t h much i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t , r e s p e c t , and d e l i g h t . i f you c o u l d h a u l out the audenesques, v h i c h a r e o b v i o u s and u s u a l l y d e t a c h a b l e by t h e u n i t , i t h i n k a s m a l l book might be put t o g e t h e r , and good. perhaps f i r s t s e n d i n g some t o p o e t r y . but i'd l i k e t o go over them v i t h you vhen you come. m e a n v h i l e , i've s e n t the v h o l e shebang, b a l l a s t , l i g h t h o u s e and a d d r e s s , up t o bob l i n s c o t t f o r a g e n e r a l r e p o r t and s u g g e s t i o n s . h i s f i r s t b r i e f n o t e , b e f o r e he'd gone f a r , m e r e l y s a y s he f i n d s address " t a i n t e d v i t h g e n i u s " but u n p u b l i s h a b l e , v i s h i n g you'd expended your t a l e n t s on a more u s e f u l theme e t c . , and adds t h a t he's nov r e a d i n g t h e pomes v i t h enjoyment. i ' l l d o u b t l e s s hear more from him q u i t e soon. i thought h i s h a r d b o i l e d p r a c t i c a l eye might be u s e f u l t o us. . . we're making an e f f o r t t o g e t the c h a r l e s t o v n house, and hope perhaps t o have i t by may. t r y i n g t o buy i t on mortgages and t h i n g s — h e a v e n knows v h a t v i l l come of i t . but i t l o o k s t o us a more e c o n o m i c a l measure than f o r e v e r p a y i n g r e n t — v i t h the advantage t h a t a t the end of umpteen y e a r s w e ' l l own t h e house! i t ' s n i c e , i t h i n k y o u ' l l l i k e i t . a second j e a k e . d i d you ever heard from john davenport, by the w a y — i wrote him i n the autumn of your p l i g h t , and urged him t o cough up some c a s h f o r y o u . i hoped he might send you as i t were a xmas p r s e n t . me, i haven't heard from him f o r damned near a y e a r — h e was o f f e n d e d w i t h me i t h i n k because i c o u l d n ' t go t o v i s i t him a t b a t h — i was i l l and t r y i n g t o f i n i s h my n o v e l a t the t i m e , i n no s t a t e t o t r a v e l or v i s i t — a n d f o r some r e a s o n he took umbrage. a p i t y . . . . mary's o f f s h o p p i n g a t hyannis i n a b l i n d i n g b l i z z a r d , w i t h ruth whitman, w h i l e i t y p e a t the window, f a c i n g a w h i t e and w h i r l i n g w o r l d - - i t h i n k i t ' s l a p l a n d , and i'm a w i t c h . our own v a r i o u s a f f a i r s a r e a l l i n a s t a t e of s u s p e n s i o n , and we j u s t s i t and w a i t : w a i t f o r mary t o hear from her a p p l i c a t i o n f o r a guggenheim, w a i t f o r my n o v e l t o come o u t , w a i t f o r t h e book of the month t o make up i t s mind whether t o t a k e i t or recommend i t , w a i t f o r mary's show of w a t e r c o l o u r s i n n y may t h , w a i t t o see i f the summer s c h o o l comes t o a n y t h i n g (we may t r y t o have i t here i n j u l y and august) (and we've had two i n q u i r i e s about it)° w a i t f o r the p u b l i s h e r s t o d e c i d e whether t h e y ' l l l e t mary do d r a w i n g s f o r a sumptuous s p e c i a l e d i t i o n of my s o n n e t s next autumn, w a i t t o see i f the bank w i l l l e n d us enough c a s h t o buy the house w i t h , and i f our o f f e r w i l l be a c c e p t e d by the owner anyway, w a i t f o r the a t l a n t i c t o pay me $ . which t h e y owe me f o r my a r t i c l e on p o e t r y , or e l s e d e c i d e t h e y don't want i t , w a i t f o r the d e n t i s t t o t a k e out t h r e e r o t t e n t e e t h and put i n two l i t t l e p r e h e n s i l e p l a t e s , w a i t f o r madam p e r k i n s t o d e c i d e on the case of lowry v s . u.s.a., w a i t , above a l l , f o r the s p r i n g — i oh, y e s , and w a i t f o r the m e t r o p o l i t a n museum t o make up i t s committee mind as t o whether i t w i l l buy mary's l o v e l y p i c t u r e , the sussex maid. so, a l o t c o u l d happen, but meanwhi[l]e n o t h i n g a t a l l does; and t h a t i s why we e n j o y the c o c k t a i l hour. and nov i must wade out i n t o the snow t o t h e rfd box w i t h f l a k e s c r a s h i n g i n t o my e a r s and get the boston h e r a l d and the m a i l . acnld much l o v e t o you b o t h from the both of us, conrad bob l i n s c o t t ' s l e t t e r has j u s t came, and i t h e r e f o r e n c l o s e i t , f o r i t o c c u r s t o me i t might be g i v e n i n e v i d e n c e , i f need be, t h a t your presence i s r e a l l y d e s i r a b l e f o r b u s i n e s s r e a s o n s i n b o s t o n . n i c h t wahr????? and not so bad t h a t he wants t o have a l o o k s e e a t the new n o v e l i hot d i g g i t y . e x p l a n a t o r y notes under the v o l c a n o . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . "jeake's house," a i k e n ' s home i n rye, england which he bought i n . * c£. lowry's r e q u e s t i n l e t t e r , p. . conversation- * ruth ( b a s h e i n ) whitman ( - ), american poet and t r a n s l a t o r . c o n v e r s a t i o n : or p i l g r i m s ' p r o g r e s s (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). a the a i k e n s f i r s t s t a r t e d t h e i r summer s c h o o l i n w r i t i n g and p a i n t i n g i n a t j e a k e ' s house i n rye. the b r o a d s i d e a d v e r t i s i n g t h e " t h i r d season: " of the s c h o o l i n c l u d e s the f o l l o w i n g n o t e : "owing t o the war/ the t h i r d season o f / j e a k e ' s house sum-/ mer s c h o o l w i l l be/ h e l d i n the v i l l a g e / of south d e n n i s , on/ cape cod. the s i t - / u a t i o n and ameni-/ t i e s c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e / t h o s e o f f e r e d a t rye./ . . . . f i v e or s i x / r e s i d e n t p u p i l s w i l l / be a c c e p t e d . " ( b o n n e l l ). * and i n the human heart (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ); an e d i t i o n w i t h mary a i k e n ' s i l l u s t r a t i o n s was never p u b l i s h e d . x o "back t o p o e t r y , " a t l a n t i c m o n t h l y . (aug. ): - . x x "madam p e r k i n s " : the " s e c r e t a r y of l a b o r " i n washington; see m a r g e r i e lowry's j a n u a r y l e t t e r t o mary a i k e n i n appendix i i , p. . x a t h i s l e t t e r i s m i s s i n g . t e x t u a l notes . of snow\ o<r>{f} snow . u n i t , \ unit<e>, . q o o d a rqood> . . go o v e r \ go {o}ver . your t a l e n t s \ y o u { r ) t a l e n t s . u s e f u l \ use£u{l} . - i was \ i was <both> i l l . some r e a s o n \ so{m}e r e a s o n . so,\ so{,} . meanwhi( le\ meanwhioe ( t y p o . l . a [ n ] d much\ abd much [ t y p o . ] ; from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d f e b r u a r y , dear conrad: the axe has f a l l e n , as i thought i t v o u l d . i am r e f u s e d - and cannot go back t o the s t a t e s . i have been a s s u r e d by the i m m i g r a t i o n here t h a t the r e f u s a l i s a t e c h n i c a l i t y - i n o t h e r vords t h a t i t i s not e t i q u e t t e f o r one department of i m m i g r a t i o n t o o v e r r u l e a n o t h e r . t h i s makes i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r me t o a p p l y b e f o r e september . t h i s i s a.b.carey's and p a r k ' s f a u l t , i t o l d them b o t h t h a t t h i s v o u l d happen and t h e y s t i l l p e r s i s t e d i n s a y i n g i t vas f o r my b e n e f i t . s u r e l y t h i s i s p r o o f t h a t t h e y a r e not a b l e t o handle my a f f a i r s . by september a n y t h i n g may have happened. the s i t z k r i e g become a b l i t z k r i e g , so on and so f o r t h . u n l e s s the v a r has stopped i may not be a b l e t o e n t e r t h e u n i t e d s t a t e s a g a i n . meantime i have vork t o f i n i s h , and nov, vhen e v e r y t h i n g seems l o s t , i t seems a l l t h e more i m p o r t a n t t o f i n i s h i t . dear conrad and mary: malcolm had s t a r t e d t h i s l e t t e r t o you but i am g o i n g t o f i n i s h i t , i v i l l make i t as b r i e f as p o s s i b l e but i t i s a r e a l l y d e s p e r a t e a p p e a l f o r t h e axe has f a l l e n d o u b l y . you a r e the o n l y people ve have i n the v o r l d t o a p p e a l t o or vho can h e l p us and i cannot put i t too s t r o n g l y how u r g e n t our s i t u a t i o n i s . m a u r i c e i s on the most g h a s t l y drunken rampage you can imagine and t h i n g s have become so i n t o l e r a b l e t h a t p h y l l i s says we must l e a v e as soon as p o s s i b l e , she i s a f r a i d of what may happen. l a s t n i g h t m a u r i c e s u d d e n l y went f o r me and knocked me h a l f way a c r o s s the k i t c h e n , then t u r n e d on malcolm, who a l t h o u g h w i l d w i t h f u r y because maurice had s t r u c k me, behaved w i t h the most marvelous s e l f - r e s t r a i n t and o n l y t r i e d t o defend h i m s e l f - you see, he d i d n ' t dare h i t maurice because m a u r i c e has a v e r y bad h e a r t and h i s i n t e s t i n e s , stomach, e t c . , were so b a d l y s h o t t o p i e c e s , he i s such a s i c k man t h a t one good blow might v e r y e a s i l y k i l l him. i can not t e l l you how c r a z y he i s - even when sober he behaves i n such an i r r a t i o n a l manner t h a t he i s dangerous and when drunk he i s a mad man. we have had t o s t a n d a s i d e and see him beat p h y l l i s and h i s t h r e e c h i l d r e n , smash the house up, and f i g h t w i t h anybody who was around and he has gone f o r days w i t h o u t s p e a k i n g t o us except to t h r e a t e n us, but now t h i s - he d i d n ' t h u r t me v e r y much but malcolm has one eye c o m p l e t e l y c l o s e d , a b a d l y c u t mouth and i n j u r e d hand, and maurice i s s t i l l drunk and c r a z y . p h y l l i s f e a r s t h a t he w i l l have another breakdown and be s e n t t o the h o s p i t a l any moment, or t h a t h i s h e a r t w i l l g i v e out i n one of these f r e n z i e s . but i n any c a s e , i f another row l i k e l a s t n i g h t were t o happen, which i t v e r y w e l l may a t any moment d e s p i t e a n y t h i n g we can do, we have no l o c k on our door and he come r a g i n g i n a t a l l h o u r s , and i f he were t o d i e from sheer e x c i t e m e n t or some s l i g h t chance blow from malcolm m e r e l y t r y i n g t o defend h i m s e l f , or even me i f malcolm were not a t home, i need not t e l l you v h a t a c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t v o u l d be. we must g e t out of here and q u i c k l y . here, of c o u r s e , ve have no p l a c e t o go. we do not knov v h a t t o s u g g e s t as ve do not knov v h a t v o u l d be b e s t f o r you or v h a t you v o u l d r a t h e r do but t h i s much ve v i l l say: i f you c o u l d meet us i n m o n t r e a l or quebec or v h a t e v e r p o i n t i n canada i s n e a r e s t f o r you - i f , a f t e r t a l k i n g t o us and s e e i n g us, you a r e not a b s o l u t e l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t ve a r e r i g h t , c o m p l e t e l y honest v i t h you about e v e r y t h i n g , and v i t h malcolm's v o r d (and mine t o o , of c o u r s e ) never t o l e t you dovn, i f you a r e not c o n v i n c e d t h a t ve a r e t r y i n g v i t h a l l our minds and s o u l s t o s i m p l y make a decent l i f e f o r o u r s e l v e s , then you can s i m p l y vash your hands of the v h o l e t h i n g , v r i t e malcolm's f a t h e r v h a t e v e r you t h i n k and abandon us t o our f a t e . malcolm has been the v i c t i m of b i t t e r and t r a g i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s and has been b a d l y t r e a t e d and even a.b.carey has a d m i t t e d t o him t h a t t h e y were wrong. malcolm saw him the o t h e r day and a.b.carey s a i d s o , s a i d t h a t malcolm was a b s o l u t e l y o.k. and t h a t he had been i n the wrong and wound up by s a y i n g t h a t he thought malcolm s h o u l d t r y and h e l p m a u r i c e l my god, what i r o n y ! meantime we have been w o r k i n g l i k e mad on under the v o l c a n o , which malcolm i s c o m p l e t e l y r e - w r i t i n g and v h i c h i s now about h a l f done. i t i s u n l i k e a n y t h i n g he has w r i t t e n b e f o r e and, i t h i n k , w i l l be t r u l y a g r e a t book when i t i s f i n i s h e d - and i t must be f i n i s h e d . malcolm i s a g e n i u s and i f you c o u l d see the work he i s d o i n g now, under c i r c u m s t a n c e s and c o n d i t i o n s t h a t would appear i m p o s s i b l e t o one l e s s d e t e r m i n e d and, y e s , l e s s i n s p i r e d t o w r i t e , you would agree w i t h me. he i s s i c k w i t h d i s a p p o i n t m e n t over the news from a m e r i c a , i c a n ' t t e l l you how he was l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o s p e n d i n g some time w i t h you - he t a l k e d of i t c o n s t a n t l y . b e s i d e s he w i l l not be a b l e t o w r i t e or t y p e f o r a w h i l e because i t was h i s r i g h t hand t h a t was h u r t so t h a t ' s why i am w r i t i n g f o r us. i'm s o r r y i f t h i s l e t t e r seems r a t h e r i n c o h e r e n t but i am w r i t i n g a g a i n s t time so t h a t t h i s w i l l c a t c h the a i r m a i l out t o d a y - a l s o i am a l i t t l e dazed m y s e l f t o d a y , but you s h o u l d g e t t h i s by monday and c o u l d you l e t us know soon - i f we j u s t have some a s s u r a n c e from you we can hang on by our t e e t h and t o e n a i l s somehow f o r a l i t t l e b i t l o n g e r . and now a g a i n , our d e e p e s t , u n d y i n g g r a t i t u d e t o you both f o r a l l you have done f o r us and our a b s o l u t e a s s u r a n c e t h a t a l l we ask i s j u s t enough t o l i v e on and a chance t o work and be t o g e t h e r and t o prove t o you, and malcolm's f a m i l y , t h a t we mean what we say. our l o v e t o you b o t h , m a r g e r i e dear mary: i was w r i t i n g you p e r s o n a l l y t o thank you f o r your sweet h e l p on our b e h a l f when m a u r i c e ' s f i s t f e l l a l o n g w i t h the axe. i have read m a r g i e ' s l e t t e r and a l t h o u g h i t doesn't sound s o r t of l i k e l y you may f e e l , about me, i t i s a l l t r u e so h e l p us. that i s , a l l save t h e g e n i u s s t u f f ; but the new book is. g o i n g w e l l . we a r e a t our w i t ' s end and i can b a r e l y see t o w r i t e or h o l d a pen vhat margie v i l l t r a n s c r i b e , and ask you t o a c c e p t t h i s note i n the meantime as e x p r e s s i o n of my g r a t i t u d e . could not conrad, perhaps, t a k e c a r t e - b l a n c h e under these c i r c u m s t a n c e s ? any e x p e n d i t u r e s v o u l d be f u l l y r e p a i d . i hate t o put him t o any t r o u b l e j u s t vhen h i s book i s coming o u t , but ve a r e r e a l l y h a r m l e s s good f o l k and p l e a s e do not be alarmed by the f a c t t h a t our f a t e i s i n your hands. p l e a s e h e l p us. malcolm e x p l a n a t o r y notes " s i t z k r i e g . . . b l i t z k r i e g " : german, l i t e r a l l y , " s i t t i n g war" and " l i g h t n i n g war." p h y l l i s carey, m a u r i c e carey's w i f e . t e x t u a l notes . - h e l p us. that i s , a l l save the g e n i u s s t u f f ; but the new book is. g o i n g w e l l . we a r e \ h e l p us. {that i s , a l l save the g e n i u s s t u f f ; but the new book i s _ g o i n g w e l l . } we a r e [ t h i s i n s e r t i o n i s h a n d w r i t t e n a t bottom r i g h t of page] . e x p e n d i t u r e s \ < [ i l l e g . ] > { e x p e n d i t u r e s } ; feow lqwrx to a i k e n ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d [ l a t e f e b r u a r y j dear conrad and mary: ( a p o l o g i e s i n advance, mary, f o r t h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s 'waile of a l e t t e r ' v h i c h c o n t a i n s tomch i have no r i g h t t o bore you v i t h - - o n l y i vanted i t t o be t o you both) i am s e n d i n g a n o t h e r note h o t f o o t i n g i t a f t e r you t h r o u g h the c r a s h i n g s n o v f l a k e s i n the hope of s u g g e s t i n g a p o s s i b l e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s o l u t i o n s of our c u r r e n t problems v h i c h i s not too much a t v a r i a n c e v i t h your v a r i o u s p l a n s o u t l i n e d i n your e x c e e d i n g l y velcome, c h e e r y and good l e t t e r v h i c h gladdened our s o u l s . reason f o r t h i s l e g a l p r o s e , t h i s 'rummy' s t y l e , i am d i c t a t i n g the l e t t e r , my hand b e i n g vounded. there i s the same i n f i n i t e m i s e r y here as b e f o r e upon v h i c h ve v i l l not e x p a t i a t e save t h a t my enormous b l a c k eye seems t o be s i m p l y g l a r i n g d e m o n i a c a l l y t h r o u g h the v h i t e v a s h v i t h v h i c h ve have l a v i s h l y p a i n t e d o u r s e l v e s t o you and c o n t i n u e , i n s p i t e of the b l a c k eye, t o p a i n t o u r s e l v e s v i t h t r u t h f u l l y . we a r e not o n l y v r i t i n g under the v o l c a n o , ve a r e l i v i n g smack dovn i n i t . we cannot h e l p k i d d i n g about i t but n e v e r t h e l e s s our p o s i t i o n i s b l o o d y d e s p e r a t e . i've j u s t r e c e i v e d a v e r y c h e e r y l e t t e r from my mother, not c h e e r y because she has g i v e n up a l l hope of c o p i n g v i t h the w o r l d a t a l l and i s now c o u n t i n g on the unseen, but i n w h i c h she says t h a t she has heard t h a t i'm g o i n g t o s t a y w i t h you and t h a t i n any event she i s a n x i o u s t h a t i s h o u l d i n some vay c o n t a c t you because she f e e l s , she cannot knov hov r i g h t l y , hovever i n t e n s e l y she f e e l s , t h a t you v o u l d be a h e l p t o me. from t h i s i deduce t h a t , s i n c e a n y t h i n g t h a t makes the mater happy makes the o.m. happy t o o , t h a t even vere i t o proceed t o m o n t r e a l or e l s e v h e r e t o be under your a u s p i c e s , i t v o u l d be the r e a l r i g h t t h i n g from her p o i n t of v i e v and hence from the o.m.'s. a l l of v h i c h makes me t h i n k hov s i m p l e a l l t h a t c o u l d be i f i c o u l d o n l y e x p l a i n i t t o the o.m. p e r s o n a l l y and not have my e x p l a n a t i o n s s i d e t r a c k e d by the b l a s t e d o x f o r d groupers and l a v y e r s . a l l t h a t b e i n g s o , the o n l y p r a c t i c a l s u g g e s t i o n i can make nov i s t h i s : i f you c o u l d t a k e j u s t a f e v days o f f and come t o m o n t r e a l or v h e r e v e r t o meet us, as ve s a i d i n our l a s t l e t t e r , i f ve do not c o n v i n c e you, t h e n you can s i m p l y q u i t the v h o l e t h i n g and s t i l l have our b l e s s i n g f o r t r y i n g . i f you a r e c o n v i n c e d of our h o n e s t y , v h i c h you must be by nov, t h e n perhaps ve c o u l d do t h i s : go t o some s m a l l t o v n near the b o r d e r , on the gaspe p e n i n s u l a maybe, vhere l i v i n g v o u l d be v e r y cheap and the s u r r o u n d i n g s b e a u t i f u l , and s e t t l e dovn f o r the summer t o v o r k . meantime the o.m. c o u l d be g r a d u a l l y broken i n t o the i d e a t h a t margie vas coming t o v i s i t me. we - i f i t came t o t h a t - v o u l d g l a d l y g i v e you h a l f of v h a t i t h i n k i have - i . e . h a l f $ - or i f v a r has reduced t h a t t o $ , s a y % of i t , v h i c h might h e l p , i n a d d i t i o n , of c o u r s e , t o p a r k s ' f e e v h i c h you v o u l d be g e t t i n g . i hope you v i l l not t h i n k my motive f o r s u g g e s t i n g t h i s i n v i d i o u s : i t i s s i m p l y t h a t i n canada ve c o u l d l i v e on $ a month, ve have f e v e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s than you, and you, on our b e h a l f , more t h a n may seem t o be t a k e n c a r e of by the f e e , a l t h o u g h i v o u l d do my utmost t o make t h e s e as few as p o s s i b l e f o r you. moreover, ve a r e a n x i o u s t o impress you v i t h the f a c t t h a t a l l ve need i s enough t o l i v e on and v o r k . because the v h o l e problem seems t o be a m a t t e r of money vhen i t i s c a n a l i z e d as i t i s t h r o u g h the p r e s e n t s o u r c e s the s o c a l l e d ' i m m o r a l i t y ' seems t o be t h a t i s h o u l d use p a r t of the money f o r m a r g i e . t h i s i s much of an o b l i q u i t y because i n the f i r s t p l a c e i f ve c o u l d get somevhere vhere she c o u l d cook and keep house ve c o u l d both l i v e f o r v h a t i t v o u l d c o s t me t o board or l i v e a t a h o t e l a l o n e . i cannot get my vork done v i t h o u t m a r g i e , i r e a l i z e my f a u l t i s , r o u g h l y s p e a k i n g , t o o much l o q u a c i t y and not enough a c t i o n , and hams i n the v i n d o v , and t h e r e she h e l p s me immeasureably by her c e n s o r s h i p and s u g g e s t i o n s . b e s i d e s v h i c h i f i d i d not have her i'd have t o pay a t y p i s t . a p a r t from the f a c t t h a t i l o v e margie she has become an i n e x t r i c a b l e p a r t of my v o r k . (i do not mean i n the l u d v i g l e v i s o h n sense.) o b j e c t i v e l y s p e a k i n g i t h i n k t h a t such a dependance might not be a good t h i n g i n many c a s e s but i n our case i t d e f i n i t e l y v o r k s and even though one may be v o r k i n g i n the dark and a g a i n s t time t o the f a t e of some k i n d of obscure posthumously second o r d e r g o g o l , n e v e r t h e l e s s vhat vork ve a r e a c c o m p l i s h i n g , f o r b e t t e r or v o r s e , does have j u s t t h a t v e r y q u a l i t y of i n t e n s i t y v h i c h vork i n the dark a g a i n s t time e t c . has g i v e n the gogols and the k a f k a s : ve may not be so good so f a r but i f e e l p a r t s of under the volcano bear t h i s s o r t of comparison and ve have been g i v e n encouragement t h r o u g h t h i s t o f e e l t h a t i f o n l y ve had t h e time and c o u l d s t i c k t o g e t h e r ve c o u l d produce not j u s t one book but a l a r g e body of work stamped a t l a s t w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l i m p r i n t . but how the h e l l t o get a l l t h i s over t o the o.m. i n the l i g h t of my d i s m a l f a i l u r e s i n the p a s t i s i m p l y don't know: and i am f o r c e d t o the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the o n l y t h i n g t o do i s t o prove the p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of the arrangement f i r s t , which i n a l l i t s a s p e c t s , i t s u n c o n v e n t i o n a l c o m p l e x i o n a t the moment r e n d e r s i m p o s s i b l e , and g e t i t over a f t e r w a r d s when i have something c o n c r e t e t o show. meantime s i n c e margie has renounced a l l c l a i m s on me and hence a l l p o s s i b l e c l a i m s e t c on the o.m., margie remains my r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , one w h i c h , i f even much l e s s p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r me t h a n has h i t h e r t o been made, i am c a p a b l e of h o l d i n g . but not o n l y t h i s - i t i s a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r t o me t h a t o n l y t h r o u g h margie can i r e a c h t h e s t a g e of independence from r e s p o n s i b i l i t y e t c . which i s g e n e r a l l y d e s i r e d , t a k i n g w i t h me o n l y j u s t t h a t n e c e s s a r y p a r t of my p s y c h i c t u r m o i l s which a r e , t o put i t b l u n t l y , s a l e a b l e ; and i f under the v o l c a n o i s no anna k a r e n i n a , and was not meant t o b e , a t l e a s t , u n l e s s i am v e r y s a d l y d e c e i v i n g m y s e l f , i t i s " p u b l i s h a b l e a t a p r o f i t . " were i not v e r y w e l l aware of the many m a t t e r s r e l a t i v e t o mary's work and your own u n i t i e s & h e a l t h such as the summer s c h o o l , your book, the impending d e n t a l m i s e r y which we hope w i l l not t u r n out t o o p a i n f u l , e t c . , i might have been a b l e t o s u g g e s t , perhaps w i t h o u t f o r w a r d n e s s , t h a t our lady of the snows, ( i n the not remote m o n t r e a l r e g i o n s which i u n d e r s t a n d a r e v e r y b e a u t i f u l , ) might have h e l d some p o s s i b i l i t y of a t t r a c t i o n f o r y o u r s e l v e s i n summer. as i t i s , r e a l i z i n g t h a t such a t h i n g i s i m p o s s i b l e but a t the same time not a l l o w i n g m y s e l f u t t e r l y t o d e s p a i r of the f a c t of the p o s s i b i l i t y of our not b e i n g a b l e t o see one a n o t h e r once more - and t h i s would be a v e r y r e a l d e s p a i r s h o u l d i g i v e way t o i t , s i n c e what t r u e r f a t h e r have i than you, and as thomas wolfe s a y s , a r e ve not a l l l o o k i n g f o r our f a t h e r s - i can o n l y p l a c e once more our problems b e f o r e you, l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d as t h e y a r e nov by h a v i n g f e v e r s o l u t i o n s , and e n t r e a t you once a g a i n t o t r y and h e l p us, i h a v i n g a l r e a d y g i v e n you my v o r d as an a r t i s t , a man and a f r i e n d not t o l e t you dovn. as your ovn method of d e a l i n g v i t h the o.m. seems t o have been much more s u c c e s s f u l than a n y t h i n g i c o u l d hope t o s u g g e s t i h e s i t a t e t o make any s u g g e s t i o n s but i f e e l t h a t i f a t t h i s p e r i o d you c o u l d g i v e the o.m. t o r e a l i z e hov d e s p e r a t e l y i n e a r n e s t i am about a c c o m p l i s h i n g my vork i n v h a t e v e r time may be a l l o t e d t o me, of hov p r o x i m i t y t o y o u r s e l f , even i f i n m o n t r e a l , v o u l d b e n e f i t me i n t h a t r e g a r d and how a l r e a d y c e r t a i n encouragement has been g i v e n me by, f o r i n s t a n c e , l i n s c o t t , which makes f o r some promise of d e f i n i t e n e s s i n a l l t h i s , t h a t i have c e r t a i n m a t t e r s t o t a l k over w i t h you and c e r t a i n problems - i won't go on, you know a l l the c i r c u m s t a n c e s h e r e , use your own good judgement about what you s a y , but c o u l d you ask f o r c a r t e b l a n c h e t o do what you t h i n k i s b e s t f o r me? s i n c e our s i t u a t i o n i s so u r g e n t , c o u l d you not send a c a b l e ( f o r which you'd be r e i m b u r s e d ) or i f n o t , a l e t t e r by the c l i p p e r , o t h e r w i s e i t may t a k e too l o n g . the l e t t e r from my mother was w r i t t e n j u s t a f t e r c h r i s t m a s and she spoke of o t h e r l e t t e r s she had w r i t t e n me which i never r e c e i v e d . my mother says i n her l e t t e r how much she wants me t o succeed i n my work and now i know t h a t i am r e a l l y on the verge of d o i n g something about i t i f i can o n l y f i n i s h the volcano and r e - w r i t e in b a l l a s t as i see i t now. but, conrad, we cannot s t a y here f o r t h e s i t u a t i o n i s r e a l l y dangerous and growing i n c r e a s i n g l y more s o , a t any moment something may happen which we cannot a v e r t which w i l l d e s t r o y e v e r y t h i n g we have t r i e d so d e s p e r a t e l y and worked so hard t h e s e l a s t months t o b u i l d up. i t would be p a r t i c u l a r l y b i t t e r now, s i n c e the e n c o u r a g i n g l e t t e r from l i n s c o t t (i f e e l c e r t a i n the v o l c a n o w i l l be a b e t t e r bet w i t h him) and your own encouragement about the l i g h t h o u s e - i c a n ' t b e g i n t o t e l l you how much t h a t meant t o me. should you r e c e i v e c a r t e - b l a n c h e from the o.m. i f u l l y r e a l i z e the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n v o l v e d i n d o i n g what i s b e s t f o r me and s t i l l r e t a i n i n g your own i n t e g r i t y and h o n e s t y w i t h the o.m. to t h a t end i can o n l y s a y t h a t i f a f t e r s e e i n g us and t a l k i n g t o us you f e e l t h a t i am t o be t r u s t e d and t h a t i do mean what i s a y , perhaps you'd be j u s t i f i e d i n g i v i n g us a chance i n t h e s e next few months t o prove t o you, and the f a m i l y , t h a t we a r e s i n c e r e i n t r y i n g t o make a new l i f e f o r o u r s e l v e s . t h i s might e n t a i l t e l l i n g a few w h i t e l i e s t o the o.m. but we know i n the l o n g run h e ' l l be g r a t e f u l t o you f o r g i v i n g us t h a t chance and f o r r e s c u i n g us from t h i s h o r r o r here i n vancouver. i f you do not f e e l you can do t h i s we can e f f e c t some s o r t of compromise whereby we c o u l d f i n d someone wherever we were s t a y i n g t o s i m p l y pay our b i l l s - perhaps the bank - and g i v e us an a l l o w a n c e of whatever you t h i n k - a l l not t o exceed an agreed sum. there i v o u l d be under your a e g i s as i am under p a r k s here - v i a an i n t e r m e d i a r y - but v o u l d be f r e e of the b u n g a l i n g h y p o c r a c y i f i b s e n i s h a.b., d o s t o i e v s k i s h m., carey, and p o s s i b l y you c o u l d come up f o r a day or t v o nov and t h e n and see f o r y o u r s e l f v h a t ve a r e d o i n g . i f t h i s von't do, perhaps ve c o u l d f i n d some c o u p l e who would l e t us s t a y v i t h them so t h a t ve v e r e p r o p e r l y chaperoned and vho v o u l d board us as ve a r e here but i n a more decent and vholesome atmosphere. there i s so much work i v a n t t o do i n t h e s e next f e v months i f i can o n l y have the chance t o do i t - f i n i s h the v o l c a n o , r e - v r i t e i n b a l l a s t , r e - v r i t e the l i g h t h o u s e v i t h your s u g g e s t i o n s and the l a s t address v i t h d i t t o , s e v e r a l s h o r t s t o r i e s and a nev n o v e l , n i g h t j o u r n e y a c r o s s the sea,* i n the o f f i n g . and nobody seems t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e s e next f e v months may be a l l i ' l l have t o do my vork i n , or t o be v i t h m a r g i e , f o r i may have t o go t o var i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r ve a r e m a r r i e d , or even b e f o r e , f o r t h a t matter s i n c e i s h a l l be i n canada. i f you o n l y knev v h a t ve v o u l d n ' t g i v e j u s t t o have a chance t o l i v e , t o b r e a t h e , t o have a l i t t l e freedom t o vork and peace of mind as v e i l . not t o mention a hot b a t h nov and t h e n , we g e t one b e t v e e n us, lukewarm, about once e v e r y t h r e e v e e k s . the f i n n s g e t one once a veek, by the vay - and a decent meal, ve haven't had a square meal s i n c e c h r i s t m a s , and even t h a t vas s o r t of t r i a n g u l a r - ve had t o depend upon the t a i l end of i t u n t i l damn n e a r l y the end of j a n u a r y - we've had n_o f r e s h m i l k , b u t t e r , eaas. f r u i t or v e g e t a b l e s i n f i v e months and l i v e on a d i e t of b r e a d , soggy p o t a t o e s and w a t e r y stew. very w e l l , you s a y , go out and e a r n i t , but t h i s i s o n l y p r e c i s e l y what we a r e a s k i n g f o r a chance t o do! the house sounds s w e l l but i am sad i s h a n ' t see i t : perhaps i n september. haven't heard from j.d.* f o r t h r e e y e a r s when he phoned me a t cuernavaca. h i s umbrages a r e i n c i d e n t but soon f o r g o t t e n . thank you v e r y much f o r w r i t i n g hira on my b e h a l f . and, a thousand t h a n k s f o r i n t e r e s t i n g l i n s c o t t : the v o l c a n o might do f o r him. and f o r your remarks about the poems i am l i k e w i s e v e r y g r a t e f u l : i was k i n d of h o p i n g a g a i n s t hope t h e r e would be a few you'd l i k e : p a r t i c u l a r l y one about the harkness l i g h t , and a n o t h e r about crusoe's f o o t p r i n t s or some s u c h . w e l l , i'm immensely beholden t o you f o r a l l you've done f o r me, f o r us, and do hope you w i l l s t i l l be a b l e t o h e l p me w i t h the l i g h t h o u s e . t a l k i n g about l a p l a n d : n o r d a h l g r i e g i s t h e r e on m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , s e n t t h e r e as a punishment f o r d e f e n d i n g r u s s i a i n the a r b e i d e r b l a d e t : • s e r v e him r i g h t , perhaps; but what an e n d i n g t o i n b a l l a s t t o the white sea! w e l l : here goes a n o t h e r d e c l i n e and f a l l of the roman empire- and our v e r y b e s t l o v e and good wishes t o mary and y o u r s e l f , ' p o w e r f u l ' t o h e l o t h e s e q u i l t v l i v e s - y o u r s v e r y west of eden* male & margie e x p l a n a t o r y notes l u d v i g l e v i s o h n ( - ), american e d i t o r , c r i t i c , t r a n s l a t o r , and n o v e l i s t ; h i s n o v e l s a r e o f t e n concerned w i t h m a r i t a l problems caused by c o n f l i c t w i t h t r a d i t i o n or law. author of the broken snare ( ), the case of mr. crump ( ), the i s l a n d w i t h i n ( ), and t h i s p e o p l e ( ); e d i t o r of new p a l e s t i n e and the american z i o n i s t review. c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . c f . k i p l i n g ' s poem "our lady of the snows, " i n which "our lady of the snows" i s a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of canada. * see l e t t e r , p. . john davenport; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . c f . douglas day's malcolm lowrv i n which he t e l l s of lowry phoning davenport from cuernavaca i n l a t e ( ) . ° "the l i g h t h o u s e i n v i t e s the storm": see l e t t e r , n. , p. . for the two poems mentioned here see " q u a r t e r m a s t e r a t the wheel" ( - ; - ] and " x x i i i " ( - ] i n the u.b.c. lowry c o l l e c t i o n . n o r d a h l g r i e g ( - ), norwegian p o e t , n o v e l i s t , and d r a m a t i s t whom lowry met i n . author of the s h i p s a i l s on ( ; s k i b e t oar v i d e r e ). c f . a l s o l e t t e r , n. , p. , and l e t t e r , n. , p. . ° " a r b e i d e r b l a d e t " : paper, founded i n by holtermann knudsen, which was the o f f i c i a l mouthpiece of the norwegian labour p a r t y . i t was s h u t down d u r i n g w.w. i i when the germans o c c u p i e d norway, and was s t a r t e d up a g a i n a f t e r the war. a l l u s i o n t o a i k e n ' s landscape west of eden (london: j.m. dent, ). t e x t u a l notes . - dear conrad and mary: ( a p o l o g i e s [. . . b o t h ) \ dear conrad and mary: { ( a p o l o g i e s i n advance, mary, f o r t h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s 'waile of a l e t t e r ' which c o n t a i n s tomch i have no r i g h t t o bore you w i t h — o n l y i wanted i t t o be t o you both)> . t r u t h f u l l y . \ , t r u t h f u l l y , . . i m r a o r a l i t y ' \ { • } i m m o r a l i t y { • } . somewhere\ <a place> {somewhere} . not enough a c t i o n , \ not enough a c t i o n c , } . t a k i n g w i t h me\ t a k i n g <we> {with} me . s a l e a b l e ; \ s a l { e } a b l e ; . - your own u n i t i e s i. . .] p a i n f u l , e t c . , \ your own u n i t { i e s & h e a l t h } such as the summer s c h o o l , {your book, the impending d e n t a l m i s e r y which we hope w i l l not t u r n out too < [ i l l e g . ] > p a i n f u l , } e t c . , . - lady of the snows, ( i n (. . .] i n summer.\ <l>{l}ady of the <s>{s}nows{,} { ( } i n the not remote m o n t r e a l r e g i o n s which i u n d e r s t a n d a r e v e r y b e a u t i f u l , { ) } might have h e l d some p o s s i b i l i t y of a t t r a c t i o n f o r yourselves<.> { i n summer.} . b e s t f o r me?\ b e s t f o r me<.>{?} . d o s t o i e v s k i s h m., c a r e y , \ d o s t o i e v s k i s h m.{,} carey{,} . i f you o n l y knew\ <my [ i l l e g . ] > <i>{i}f you o n l y ' knew . five months\ / f i v e months> . 'poyekfui'\ 'powerful' ——— < j : from aiken t o lowry k i l l o r i n s dennis feb my dear m a l e s - - j u s t a s w i f t l i n e t o t r y and c a t c h the a i r m a i l — y r s j u s t r e c e i v e d , and a l r e a d y out of d a t e , o l d f e l l o w , f o r i c a b l e d the m l a s t tuesday, the t h , u r g i n g him t o t r a n s f e r you t o m o n t r e a l i m m e d i a t e l y on the ground t h a t i b e l i e v e d vancouver environment most u n s u i t a b l e , and o f f e r i n g t o assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r you on any arrangement he w i s h e d . i've a l s o w r i t t e n t o an o l d f r i e n d of mine a p a i n t e r kenneth forbes - i n t o r o n t o , t o ask i f he'd s o r t of sponsor you i f you came t o t., or recommend someone i f t o m o n t r e a l . so now we w a i t f o r the m*s n e x t move—and i done a l l i c o u l d swelp me. t h i s must go o f f now t o wunst, so c h i n c h i n , c h e e r y ho and a l l our l o v e s - - conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes x kenneth k e i t h forbes ( - ?), canadian p o r t r a i t p a i n t e r and amateur boxer. c f . l e t t e r , p. . t e x t u a l notes [no o r i g i n a l i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s l e t t e r ; i have t h e r e f o r e had t o r e l y on joseph k i l l o r i n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s o f conrad a i k e n ( )] : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d march , --we thank you both from the bottom of our h e a r t s , and want you t o know i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t , whether the o.m.'s r e p l y i s f a v o r a b l e or not we a r e e t e r n a l l y g r a t e f u l t o you b o t h even f o r t r u s t i n g us and h e l p i n g us and t h a t i f ever t h e r e i s a t h o r n i n the hoover-aiken - c l a w s we w i l l go t h r o u g h h e l l and h i g h water t o p u l l i t o u t . s p r i n g comes, s u n l i g h t b e g i n s t o a g a i n 'roar l i k e a v a s t i n v i s i b l e s e a ' - t h i s i s the f i r s t s p r i n g i have r e a l l y been aware of s i n c e i used t o read fragments of t h e house of dust i n o l d c o t e r i e s on hayes common t w e l v e y e a r s ago. meantime, i n t h e m a r i t i m e w o r l d , a l l i s not so good. there a r e few s h i p s i have w r i t t e n about t h a t have not met t h e i r f a t e i n a s t i c k y manner. a r i a d n e n p a n d e l i s and h e r z o g i n c e c i l e i n in b a l l a s t went t o the bottom a few weeks a f t e r i had w r i t t e n about them. a t h e n i a l e a v e s the same p o r t , s i n k s i n the same p l a c e w i t h norse boat t o the r e s c u e , as a r c t u r i a n i n in b a l l a s t ! but t h a t i s n o t h i n g t o what has j u s t happened, by way of c o i n c i d e n c e , t o two s h i p s , r e a l and i m a g i n a r y , i n my f i r s t e a r l y p l a g i a r i s t i c paen t o p u b e r t y , u l t r a m a r i n e . do you remember a german w i r e l e s s o p e r a t o r i n the book? he i s mentioned as coming from a german s h i p , the w o l f s b u r g (which i had seen i n t h e suez c a n a l ) the w o l f s b u r g was t o r p e d o e d a f o r t n i g h t ago by an e n g l i s h submarine, h a l f the crew r e s c u e d . the nawab i n u l t r a m a r i n e was r e a l l y the p y r r h u s (the s h i p i was a c t u a l l y o n ) . * the p y r r h u s was torpedoed by a german submarine o f f the west c o a s t of england the day b e f o r e y e s t e r d a y , a t o t a l l o s s and h a l f the f i r e m e n k i l l e d . s t r a n g e : the acushnet, the r e a l pequod - i n moby, met s i m i l a r f a t e t o pequod, a f t e r he had w r i t t e n the book. n o t h i n g i n i t my dear f e l l o w s , but these here c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s of the subnormal w o r l d w i t h the a b n o r m a l l y s u s p i c i o u s a r e damned queer, i f you l i k e t o t h i n k so. joyce says t h a t n e a r l y a l l the c h a r a c t e r s mentioned i n the f u n e r a l scene i n u l y s s e s , or p e o p l e w i t h the same names, have met a s t r a n g e f a t e . one mentioned, not a c c o u n t e d f o r : lowry. that telemachus i s a s i s t e r s h i p t o the p y r r h u s cannot a p p a r e n t l y have a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h the s u b j e c t ! i have the s t r a n g e f e e l i n g t h a t the d i s a s t e r t o my o l d s h i p , coming on top of e v e r y t h i n g e l s e t h i s l a s t week, was i n t e n d e d , by some queer subaqueous f o r c e majeure, f i n a l l y t o p o l i s h me. o f f . i f so i t c e r t a i n l y d i d not succeed! on the c o n t r a r y perhaps t h a t was j u s t a l l my p a s t l i f e w i t h i t s f a l s e b u l k h e a d s , f i r e m e n , f u n n e l s and w i n d l a s s e s s i n k i n g below the waves! somehow we f o o l e d 'em. m a r g i e , who i s an e x p e r t , has i n v e i g l e d me i n t o r e a d i n g astronomy. (not to be c o n f u s e d w i t h a s t r o l o g y . margie begs me t o i n s i s t , d o u b t l e s s p a i n e d t o t h i n k t h i s s h o u l d be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the o t h e r mumbo jumbos i n my l e t t e r . ) i s t i l l do not know which s t a r s are coming or g o i n g , but the e n c l o s e d poem emerging from the f o l l o w i n g m e t a p h y s i c makes me t h i n k t h a t , w i t h p r a c t i c e , i might d e v e l o p i n t o an e l i z a cook y e t . "that when venus i s n e a r e s t t o the e a r t h she appears as a t h i n c r e s c e n t , a l m o s t i n v i s i b l e , as the d i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s , more of the b r i g h t d i s c becomes v i s i b l e , the i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e tends t o make the p l a n e t appear l e s s b r i g h t , but the change i n phase a c t s i n a c o n t r a r y d i r e c t i o n ; the r e s u l t of the two e f f e c t s i s t h a t the b r i g h t n e s s c o n t i n u e s t o i n c r e a s e f o r about days from the time venus i s a t her n e a r e s t . t h e r e a f t e r the e f f e c t of the i n c r e a s i n g phase i s more than c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d by the g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e . when a t her b r i g h t e s t , venus i s much b r i g h t e r than any s t a r or any o t h e r p l a n e t and can be seen w i t h o u t d i f f i c u l t y by the naked eye i n broad d a y l i g h t . i have on more than one o c c a s i o n seen i t w i t h o u t l o o k i n g f o r i t and w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g a t f i r s t t h a t i was a c t u a l l y l o o k i n g a t venus." here i s something e l s e t o o , which would seem t o be f r u c t i f y i n g , i f a p p l i e d t o mankind. "the l i g h t r e a c h i n g us from venus can be compared w i t h the l i g h t w h i c h we r e c e i v e d i r e c t l y from the sun. in n e i t h e r case i s the l i g h t pure s u n l i g h t . the l i g h t which we r e c e i v e from t h e sun d i r e c t l y has some wave l e n g t h s weakened or m i s s i n g because of a b s o r p t i o n i n the atmosphere of the e a r t h . " or perhaps you have a l r e a d y e x p r e s s e d t h i s somewhere. or thought i t not w o r t h e x p r e s s i n g . i g a t h e r from l i f e t h a t england i s none t o o p o p u l a r i n american q u a r t e r s . i am v e r y sad i s h a l l not be a b l e t o see mary's p i c t u r e s f o r some t i m e . there i s a photograph of former hoover s u b j e c t , "man w i t h c o n c e r t i n a " e l l i o t p a u l , i n time t h i s week, p l a y i n g boogie-woogie i n the t e m p l e . once i c o u l d p l a y boogie-woogie f i n e . . . a l l thanks and l o v e a g a i n to both from b o t h . male & margie p.s. a m y s t e r i o u s photograph of a s a i l i n g s h i p , v e r y much the worse f o r wear, c a l l e d the l a w h i l l has appeared i n our l o c a l d r u g s t o r e . l a w h i l l i s the name of the s h i p i n the l a s t a d d r e s s . the l a w h i l l has a l s o been - er - r e c e n t l y sunk. but what the h e l l boys and g i r l s . hoppla! wir l e b e n ! the v o l c a n o i s r a p i d l y r e a c h i n g i t s l a s t b e l c h . e x p l a n a t o r y notes hoover i s mary a i k e n ' s maiden name. q u o t a t i o n from a i k e n ' s "movements from a symphony: o v e r t o n e s , " c o t e r i e (dec. ): ; c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. , and l e t t e r , n. , p. . the german w i r e l e s s o p e r a t o r , hans p o p p l e r e u t e r , f i r s t appears i n c h a p t e r of u l t r a m a r i n e ; "the w o l f s b u r g " i s mentioned on p. . the p y r r h u s i s the name of the s h i p on which lowry s a i l e d when he went to sea as a deckhand i n . s the pequod i s the name of c a p t a i n ahab's s h i p i n moby d i c k . see lewis mumford's herman m e l v i l l e (new york: h a r c o u r t , brace & co., ): "the crew of the acushnet was an i l l - f a t e d one . . . the s h i p i t s e l f foundered i n the v e r y year he [ m e l v i l l e ] wrote moby d i c k . . ." ( ) . c f . a l s o l e t t e r , n. , p. . see u l y s s e s (london: the b o d l e y head, ): "mr. bloom's g l a n c e t r a v e l l e d down the edge of the paper, s c a n n i n g the d e a t h s . c a l l a n , coleman, dignam, f a w c e t t , lowry . . ." ( ) . i n h i s august l e t t e r t o david markson, lowry a g a i n mentions j o y c e ' s s u p e r s t i t i o n "about the name lowry, which o c c u r s i n h i s f u n e r a l scene. no sooner had he g i v e n them t h e s e names . . . t h a n one a f t e r t h e o t h e r these names a c q u i r e d l i v i n g , or r a t h e r dead, c o u n t e r p a r t s , a l l of v h i c h . . . were found t o have come t o g r o t e s q u e and t r a g i c ends i i never checked up t o see i f a s t a n d - i n c a l l e d l. has a l r e a d y l e t me out . . ." ( b r e i t ). c f . m a r g e r i e bonner's the shapes that creep ( ) f o r a s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t . a the " e n c l o s e d " poem i s m i s s i n g . e l i z a cook ( - ), london-born poet who was a r e g u l a r c o n t r i b u t o r t o the weekly despatch. from - she was,the e d i t o r and p u b l i s h e r of e l i z a cook's j o u r n a l . her b e s t known poem i s "the old arm c h a i r . " i have been unable t o i d e n t i f y the a r t i c l e t o which lowry i s r e f e r r i n g . x lowry i s r e f e r r i n g t o one of mary (hoover) a i k e n ' s p a i n t i n g s of e l l i o t h a r o l d p a u l ( - ), american n o v e l i s t and p a r t - t i m e j a z z p i a n i s t who was founder and c o - e d i t o r w i t h eugene j o l a s of the l i t e r a r y magazine t r a n s i t i o n . an u n s i g n e d a r t i c l e on e l l i o t p a u l , "bach and boogie-woogie," appears i n time march : . cf. a l s o l e t t e r , n. , p. . c f . l e t t e r , p. . "hoppla! wir leben!": t i t l e of a p l a y by e r n s t t o l l e r ( - ) german e x p r e s s i o n i s t d r a m a t i s t ; p u b l i s h e d i n e n g l i s h i n as h o p p l a l such i s l i f e l t e x t u a l notes . - a t h e n i a [. . .] i n in b a l l a s t ! \ a t h e n i a l e a v e s {the} same p o r t , s i n k s i n {the} same p l a c e w i t h norse boat t o the r e s c u e { , } as a r c t u r i a n i n in b a l l a s t < . > { ! } . pyrrhusx p y r r { h } u s . pyrrhusx p y r r { h } u s . one mentioned,\ one mentioned*,} . pyrrhusx p y r r { h } u s . f o r c e majeure, f i n a l l y t o p o l i s h jne_ o f f .\ < f o r c e majeure, f f i n a l l y t o p o l i s h <me, o f f . . "that when venus\ {"}that when venus . or thought i t not w o r t h e x p r e s s i n g . \ [ t h i s s e n t e n c e i s h a n d w r i t t e n i n i n k ] . i g a t h e r from l i f e t h a t \ i g a t h e r {from l i f e } t h a t . i n time t h i s week,\ i n time <with> { t h i s } week, . the volcano i s r a p i d l y r e a c h i n g i t s l a s t b e l c h . \ [ t h i s s e n t e n c e i s h a n d w r i t t e n i n i n k ] : from aiken t o lowry ts h; k i l l o r i n south dennis mass. march my dear d e f r a u d e d l o n g s u f f e r i n g male-- i've d e l a y e d w r i t i n g c h i e f l y because i had hoped by now t o have heard from p a r k s , or some fragment of good news from anywhere--but no, not a word. i d i d n ' t l i k e t o r e p o r t o n l y the m e l a n c h o l y c a b l e from the m w i t h i t s sad d i s m i s s a l of a l l hopes f o r s i x months, nor r a i s e your hopes w i t h r e p o r t of my l e t t e r t o p a r k s t i l l t h e r e was perhaps some chance of a chance. but no. n o t h i n g . the m s i m p l y s a i d t h a t you must s t a y i n vancouver, a t the same a d d r e s s , t i l l s i x months were up, and then r e a p p l y f o r e n t r y a t the same p l a c e as b e f o r e : no p o s s i b l e chance of a removal e a s t . t h i s seemed, and seems, r i d i c u l o u s t o me: but t h e n , of c o u r s e i know n o t h i n g of t h e s e r e g u l a t i o n s . however, on the s t r e n g t h of my f e e l i n g s , i wrote t o p a r k s and asked f o r a complete r e p o r t as t o the r e a s o n s g i v e n , names of persons who gave them, and so on, w i t h a view t o then t r y i n g t o f i n d someone i n washington who might a t l e a s t attempt a r e o p e n i n g of the c a s e . mary's mother, who l i v e s in w., might d i g up someone. but f i r s t , we must know the e x a c t f a c t s , so as not t o mess t h i n g s up or j e o p a r d i z e t h i n g s i n any way. that, i t h i n k , i s i m p o r t a n t . hence my l e t t e r t o p., and i hope i n a day or two w e ' l l hear from him. (meanwhile, we've a l r e a d y w r i t t e n a l s o t o mary's mamma, and s h o u l d be h e a r i n g from her t o o . ) which, a l a s , seems t o be about a l l t h a t can be done. i s a i d t o p t h a t i_ saw no r e a s o n why you s h o u l d not come to m o n t r e a l pro tem, a t l e a s t — and then perhaps r e t u r n t o van f o r the r e e n t r y . i've w r i t t e n t o the m t o the same e f f e c t , and informed him of ray i n t e n t i o n t o t r y t o wangle t h i n g s i n washington, on my own r e s p o n s i b i l i t y — r e p e a t i n g the s t a t e m e n t of my c a b l e t h a t i b e l i e v e d your c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n van most u n s u i t a b l e , t o g e t h e r w i t h r e a s s u r a n c e s about your work, l i n s c o t t , pomes, n o v e l s , and so on. in s h o r t , my dear o l d male, i've done a l l i c o u l d t h i n k o f . and of c o u r s e i f t h e r e proves t o be any chance whatever, or so s m a l l whatsumever, i ' l l go on t r y i n g . but i t l o o k s bad, i a d m i t , and so i suppose you w i l l be wise t o d e c i d e now t h a t you must somehow manage t o s t i c k i t , and above a l l t r y t o get the v o l c a n o done quam c e l . that w i l l or s h o u l d c o m f o r t you t o do, t h a t and whatever you d e c i d e t o do as w e l l — s o m e more p o m e s ? ? ? — a n d more t o the p o i n t , i t w i l l be a h e l p a l l round i f you can get the mss t o me f o r l i n s c o t t w h i l e he i s s t i l l f r e s h l y i n t e r e s t e d . t r y t o do i t , now, and do i t w e l l , t o o - - r e a l l y i t h i n k we might g e t somewhere w i t h i t . for you sound i n good form, and i f i n d m y s e l f b e l i e v i n g from the tone of your r e c e n t l e t t e r s t h a t the work you a r e d o i n g must be good. but above a l l , don't p e r m i t y o u r s e l v e s t o be d e p r e s s e d : no use now i n t h a t : y o u ' l l o n l y r i s k a h u r t t o e v e r y t h i n g . t h i n k , i f i t w i l l h e l p you a t a l l , t h a t we're k e e p i n g our eyes on you, and w a i t i n g t o see you, and w i l l be here f o r you when you come: and how good t h a t w i l l be. not so damned l o n g , e i t h e r . and then we can e x p e c t a t l e a s t s i x months of g e n i a l j u i c e - s w a p p i n g i n b o s t o n , i f we get our house, or h e r e , i f we don't. (we a r e a d v e n t u r i n g f u r t h e r w i t h the h o u s e — t r y i n g t o r a i s e mortgages here and t h e r e , r i s k i n g e v e r y t h i n g — i t seems the o n l y s e n s i b l e t h i n g t o do, we might as w e l l be hung f o r a sheep as f o r a r a b b i t ) . so keep the c h i n up. and g e t on w i t h t h e work. . . . i've j u s t had the s t copy of my new book*--they've made a n i c e j o b of i t , i t h i n k , - - a n d now we w a i t f o r i t s f a t e w i t h f i n g e r s c r o s s e d . i t h i n k i t has a good c h a n c e — n o t t o o highbrow ( i f a t a l l ) , a p e r f e c t l y normal and s i m p l e and good theme, s i m p l e , s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , v i v i d — a n d t e n d e r , i t h i n k — s o t h a t w h i l e i t ' s a good j o b of work, qua form e t c . , i t ' s a l s o perhaps near enough the l . c . d . s t o c a t c h on. good god, i c a n ' t t e l l you how much we p r a y f o r t h a t , nor what a d i f f e r e n c e i t would make t o t h e s e two l i v e s . i f i t s h o u l d s e l l , you never knov, we might even come out t o c a l l on you! so add your p r a y e r s t o ours i f you s t i l l p r a y . . . and now a l l our l o v e s and d e v o t i o n s , on a g r e y day i n m a r c h - conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes p a r k s . "pro tem ': "pro tempore," l a t i n , "as time p e r m i t s . " "quam e e l " : "quam c e l e r r i m e , " l a t i n , "as soon as p o s s i b l e . " * c o n v e r s a t i o n . b " l . c . d . " : " l o w e s t common denominator." t e x t u a l notes . heard from p a r k s , \ heard <word> from p a r k s , [ t h i s d e l e t i o n i s done on the t y p e w r i t e r ] . someonea som{e}one. . j e o p a r d i z e \ jeopard!<n>ze . r e t u r n \ r e t < i > { u } r n . whatsumever,\ whatsume<e>ver, : from lowry to aiken ts h; unpublished [march ] dear old fellow: not melancholy lowry's are we, but overjoyed at the sweetness of your letter, which has mitigated our bitter dissappointment. if a l l blows up, including the world, i shall cherish as long as i live that wise sensitiveness which informed what you said at this bad time. i means more than i can say and more than i have said. we continue also to be unable to express our appreciation of what you and mary have done and are doing on our behalf lately i wrote a pretty good letter to my mater who seems pro to my going to be under your eye, and this, coupled with your letter, may s t i l l do the trick, change the o.m.'s mind. also i wrote the o.m., sanely, sobersidedly, emphasizing the practical importance of going east anyhow. meantime, we work with renewed vigor upon the volcano. elsewhere, also, are volcanoes. am looking forward tremendously to reading the conversation. paris change, mais rien de ma melancholie, s'a bouge. . . x very pretty, but not true, in our case. the ship sails on. love zu haus zu h a u s . male e x p l a n a t o r y notes q u o t a t i o n from b a u d e l a i r e ' s "le cygne," i n "tableaux p a r i s i e n s , " les f l e u r s du mal: " p a r i s change! mais r i e n dans ma me*lancolie/ n'a bouge'!" ( p a r i s changes! but n o t h i n g i n my m e l a n c h o l y has changed!). the s h i p s a i l s on ( ) i s the t i t l e of the e n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n of n o r d a h l g r i e g ' s s k i b e t gar v i d e r e ( ). c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . "zu haus": german, " a t home." t e x t u a l notes . m e l a n c h o l y \ me < [ i l l e g . ) > { a } n c h o l y . p a r i s change, mais r i e n de ma m e l a n c h o l i e , s'a . love zu haus zu haus.\ love<,> <zmz}u haus <z>{z}u haus : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d march , . j u s t a mumbling v o r d s e n d i n g you both the b e s t of our l o v e s and the v e r y b e s t of l u c k w i t h "the c o n v e r s a t i o n ! may i t have as t r i u m p h a n t a voyage as the queen e l i z a b e t h , dodging a l l t o r p e d o e s from submarines of mean r e v i e w e r s on both s i d e s of the a t l a n t i c and coming t o r e s t g l o r i o u s l y i n the p i e r of the b e s t s e l l e r l i s t ! may i t be u n l i k e the queen e l i z a b e t h o n l y i n p a s s i n g u n n o t i c e d (and of c o u r s e i n b e i n g u n f i n i s h e d . t h i s queen e l i z a b e t h a n a l o g y i s g e t t i n g us i n t o t r o u b l e but i t means w e l l ! ) and may i t r e c e i v e a symphony of a c c l a i m from f r i e n d s and enemies a l i k e ! which we know i t w i l l d e s e r v e ! in s h o r t : the very best of luck! (here: o t t f l i e s t o dimaggio, r i p p l a pops to dimaggio, mcmathy f l i e s t o d i m a g g i o , — no r u n s , no h i t s , no e r r o r s . ) male & m a r g i e . e x p l a n a t o r y notes o t t , dimaggio, r i p p l a , and mcmathy a r e names of american b a s e b a l l p l a y e r s . t e x t u a l notes . "the c o n v e r s a t i o n \ {"},<t>(t}he c o n v e r s a t i o n , ! . u n l l k e \ <un>like . - u n n o t i c e d (and of c o u r s e i n b e i n g u n f i n i s h e d . t h i s queen e l i z a b e t h a n a l o g y i s g e t t i n g us i n t o t r o u b l e but i t means w e l l ! ) and may i t \ u n n o t i c e d {(and of c o u r s e i n b e i n g u n f i n i s h e d . t h i s queen e l i z a b e t h a n a l o g y i s g e t t i n g us i n t o t r o u b l e but i t means w e l l ! ) } and may i t [ t h i s i n s e r t i o n i s h a n d w r i t t e n i n the top l e f t - h a n d c o r n e r of page] . - (here: o t t f l i e s t o dimaggio, r i p p l a pops t o dimaggio, mcmathy f l i e s t o dimaggio,-- no r u n s , no h i t s , no e r r o r s . ) \ [ t h e s e l i n e s a r e h a n d w r i t t e n a t the end of the l e t t e r b e f o r e the s i g n a t u r e ] : from lowry t o mary hoover aiken ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d [vancouver] ( march ] p o r t r a i t of a t l a n t i s ! or some new p a t t e r n s f o r one's s p r i n g s u i t i n g ! god b l e s s you. malcolm. t e x t u a l notes [ p o s t c a r d of the "ruinas de m i t l a " i n mexico; a d d r e s s e d t o : "mary hoover a i k e n c/o g. w i l b u r . south dennis m a s s a c h u s e t t s . u.s.a."] date [postmarked march ] . or some new p a t t e r n s \ {or some new} p a t t e r n s : from aiken t o lowry ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d s dennis mass. a p r i l my dear n e g l e c t e d m a l e — t h i s l o n g s i l e n c e i s not due t o i n d i f f e r e n c e , s u l k s , c h a g r i n , s p l e e n , temper, worms, b i l e , or boredom—no, i've been f l a t on my v e r y s o r e back w i t h a k i n d of a fake but a l l - t o o - c o n v i n c i n g pneumonia, and am s t i l l f a r from h a l e . nor can i pause now t o w r i t e any more than the b r i e f e s t n o t e , e i t h e r , f o r we f i n d t h a t poor mary must undergo an immediate o p e r a t i o n f o r f i b r o i d s , and so tomorrow we h a s t e n her t o h o s p i t a l i n b o s t o n , where she w i l l have t o s t a y two weeks. a f t e r t h a t , a month of c o n v a l e s c e n c e . a i n ' t l i f e c u t e and f u l l of c u n n i n g t r i c k s ? i s h a l l s t a y i n town f o r a week, u n t i l e v e r y t h i n g i s g o i n g w e l l , t h e n come back h e r e . my a d d r e s s w i l l be ( t i l l t h e th) commonwealth ave. mary t a k e s i t of c o u r s e v e r y c a l m l y , and s o , by r e f l e c t i o n , do i--but s t i l l ! so don't worry i f we don't w r i t e . the n o v e l i s b e i n g peed on, crapped on, s p a t on, sneezed on, coughed on, e j a c u l a t e d on, d i e d and r o t t e d on, by a l l the c r i t i c s from the n a t i o n up. and b a n g — i f e a r - - g o our hopes. but t h e r e ' s l i f e i n the o l d team y e t . much l o v e t o b o t h conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes c o n v e r s a t i o n . an u n s i g n e d r e v i e w appeared i n the n a t i o n march : . t e x t u a l notes . i've\ i'<b>{v}e . am s t i l l \ am<d> s t i l l . f i n d t h a t \ f i n d t<j>{h}at . o p e r a t i o n \ o p e r a t i { o } n . f i b r o i d s \ f i b r < p > { o } i d s ; from lqwry, fro a t k e n ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d a p r i l , . dear o l d b i r d : - a w f u l s o r r y t o hear of your r e v e r s e s - y o u r s and mary's - so here i s a l e t t e r , & a funny pome out of a n o t h e r e x i s t e n c e , t o cheer you up. i t seems t o me t h a t t h e s e oaves of r e v i e w e r s must have some grudge a g i n you. as though you had wounded some of t h e s e l i t t l e men on t h e i r amour p r o p r e s i n bygone y e a r s . e l s e why i s i t you so o f t e n get s t u p i d r e v i e w s , but what has been u n f a v o r a b l y r e v i e w e d never f a i l s t o g e t mentioned i n the same paper a c o u p l e of y e a r s l a t e r by someone younger as a m a s t e r p i e c e ? which i t proves t o be. anyhow, i t h i n k t h a t you're one of the f i v e l i v i n g g r e a t e s t w r i t e r s and most o t h e r people do t o o , t o whom l i t e r a t u r e i s not merchandise, and t h a t ' s the k i n d of o p i n i o n t h a t m a t t e r s i n the l o n g r u n , though i s e z i t m y s e l f . not a l w a y s , damn i t , t o the p u r s e , though p r o b a b l y , i n the l o n g r u n , t o t h a t t o o . i r e a d a more or l e s s f a v o u r a b l e but somewhat p e t t y r e v i e w i n time. - by the way, might i v e r y humbly and p e n i t e n t l y ask i f i may borrow a copy of the c o n v e r s a t i o n ? we don't have enough money t o buy i t a t the moment; l i b r a r i e s sometimes t a k e months t o get a book from u.s. but i r e a l l y mean borrow. would r e t u r n i t d e f i n i t e l y i n a few weeks ( i f you can b e g i n t o b e l i e v e me i n t h e s e d a y s ) . l a t e r , when have enough money w i l l buy i t . i do not vant t o put you on the s p o t of f e e l i n g e i t h e r a f t e r i have asked t h a t you cannot v e r y w e l l r e f u s e , e t c . (and here may i go on r e c o r d as a p o l o g i s i n g f o r n o t , those y e a r s back, acknowledged the p r e l u d e s and o s i r i s . the i m p e r t i n a n c e of t h i s makes me now want t o go and drown m y s e l f s l o w l y i n the n e a r e s t p o o l . but i t was not m a l i c i o u s n e s s or a n y t h i n g e l s e . i was m e r e l y t i g h t , conrad, j u s t t i g h t . ) i am on the l a s t c h a p t e r of volcano - a s t r a n g e book and i t h i n k i t makes an odd but s p l e n d i d d i n . i t i s the f i r s t book of mine t h a t i s not i n one way or a n o t h e r p a r a s i t i c on your work. ( t h i s time i t i s p a r a s i t i c however on some of your w i s e c r a c k s i n m e x i c o , & upon your p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n s l poor m a l e . ) i f you remember a t the time you s a i d you d i d n ' t mind about t h i s : i n f a c t we both d e c i d e d t h a t i t would be good f u n f o r b o t h of us t o do a book about mexico and see what came of i t . * but a p a r t from the w i s e c r a c k s , the ' c h a r a c t e r ' i s not y o u r s e l f . n e v e r t h e l e s s , i thought i would ask t o be a b s o l v e d i n advance f o r any ' c o i n c i d e n c e s . ' the t r o u b l e i s , you s e e , t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r g e t s - e r - pushed over a r a v i n e . (there i s a horrendous r e a l c o i n c i d e n c e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s f o r the day a f t e r i'd w r i t t e n t h a t scene f o r the f i r s t time i n m e x i c o , a man was s h o t and pushed over a r a v i n e i n e x a c t l y the same way, by name, w i l l i a m e r i c k s o n . my c h a r a c t e r was a t t h a t time named w i l l i a m e r i c k s o n , the same name as the guy i n in b a l l a s t . ) " s t r a n g e p s y c h o l o g i c a l g o i n g s on, h e r e , i a d m i t , but i do want t o come to my own rescue by denying that while making p r e t t y speeches to you with one hand i was a t the same time engaged i n shoving you down the r a v i n e with the other. no, conrad, the t r u t h i s the guy who goes down the r a v i n e , d i s g u i s e d i n dark g l a s s e s and a f a l s e beard, i s p a r t l y myself, p a r t l y the l i t t l e ghost of what was once bad between us, bad about me. there i s a l s o a b i t of margie's f a t h e r , a b i t of the guy who introduced margie and i, and a b i t of you, to account f o r the good p a r t s . and of course the wise c r a c k s the o p i n i o n s (and how r i g h t most of them were!) an i n c i d e n t with my cat" (i made him love c a t s f o r a dramatic reason) i had to make the ghost an amusing f e l l o w a f t e r a l l . but i n a s t a t e of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n with the burden of the mystery g r e a t e r than i have ever reached i j u s t wished to while r e i t e r a t i n g my deep love f o r you - and i want you to know t h a t i mean i t - to ask you s i n c e r e l y to regard any apparent s i m i l a r i t i e s or nuances with the f a t h e r l y t w i n k l e , and f o r the r e s t , with a detached p s y c h o l o g i c a l amusement. i c o u l d h a r d l y w r i t e t h i s l e t t e r were i t not a l l r i g h t with me. a l s o f o r the r e s t , damn i t , there are some s i m i l a r i t i e s i can't h e l p . the c o n f l i c t s of d i v o r c e , c o n f l i c t s of s o u l t o r n between england and america, the s e t t i n g of mexico i t s e l f , a l l these t h i n g s are mine too; my anguishes and such, while a g a i n , ray a n c i e n t doppelganger, i am, deep down i n my psyche - i f you w i l l not be offended a t my s a y i n g so - damned l i k e you. my consciousness has not the i n t e n s i t y of yours and i t has been a long l a b o r i o u s process t e a c h i n g i t to be t r a c t a b l e and work a t a l l , but i'm s u r p r i s e d a t the amount that i s r e a l l y t h e r e , w a i t i n g to be mined. poetry, i b e l i e v e t o o : some g o l d , l e s s t i n than i t h o u g h t . but some of the p r o c e s s e s of m e t a l l u r g y a r e s t a r t l i n g l y and n a t u r a l l y l i k e y o u r s : and t h i s i c a n ' t h e l p , and v o u l d not i f i c o u l d . but what i can and c o u l d do vas t o v r i t e a book v h i c h put dovn my ovn r e f l e c t i o n of the moon i n my ovn r e a l broken b o t t l e . and i t h i n k i have done. t h i s book i s a l s o as i t v e r e a g e s t u r e on the p a r t of a g r a t e f u l p u p i l t o h i s master. i have not v r i t t e n a s i n g l e scene v i t h o u t f i r s t of a l l s u b m i t t i n g i t , as i t v e r e , t o the a i k e n m i c r o s c o p e . that microscope has d e t e c t e d some f a u l t s , v h i c h v i l l s t i l l p r o b a b l y be i n vhen i send you the book, but not so many as u s u a l . and f i n a l l y , as i approach the end, i t was w i t h a sense of t r i u m p h - many t h i n g s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s . i f e e l , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t i t i s the s o r t of book you would want me t o w r i t e , t h a t , i n a sense a l s o , i t i s a c o m p l e t i o n of the b r i d g e which hart crane d i d not f i n i s h . and moreover i t has been w r i t t e n under i t h i n k as h o r r i b l e c o n d i t i o n s as any book t h a t has ever been w r i t t e n , and i do not e x c e p t books w r i t t e n i n p r i s o n , r e f o r m a t o r i e s , c o r k l i n e d rooms, s h i p s or f r o n t l i n e t r e n c h e s . the m i x t u r e of p h y s i c a l d i s c o m f o r t , n o i s e and gnawing a n x i e t y t h a t a t one moment one would have t o s t o p , or t h a t we would be s e p a r a t e d , produced something unique i n a b h o r r e n t c o n d i t i o n s . and out of a l l t h i s e f f o r t , t o g e t h e r w i t h the l e t t e r s we t o s s e d t o and f r o , much, i t seems has bloomed. margie and i have r e a l l y d i s c o v e r e d something so r e a l , t h a t a l t h o u g h we have not l e f t our one a t t i c room a t a l l i n the l a s t months, t h a t we f e e l we can l a u g h a t everybody. and a l t h o u g h you and i haven't g o t t e n anywhere w i t h the o.m., a t l e a s t not y e t , i f e e l much has been r e s o l v e d between us which i s p u r e l y good, i n t h a t grand e f f o r t you made on our b e h a l f , i n ray endeavor t o show you t o o , t h a t a t h e a r t i was a l o y a l and s i n c e r e f r i e n d , w i t h a l l of which the c o m p l e t i o n of the book i n i t s p r e s e n t form, the p a t t e r n of our own l i v e s , has something m y s t e r i o u s l y t o do. excuse t h i s p o r t e n t o u s n e s s , but i f e e l i t t o be s o . margie has a l s o w r i t t e n a d e t e c t i v e n o v e l (she s c r a p p e d an e a r l i e r v e r s i o n the p l o t of which was s n a f f l e d by ben ames w i l l i a m s ) * w h i c h , when c u t a b i t , w i l l be damned good. i t r e a l l y does h o l d your i n t e r e s t and s p e c u l a t i o n t o the v e r y end and, i n my o p i n i o n , i t s h o u l d s e l l . anyhow, i t ' s a d e f i n i t e p r o f e s s i o n a l and good p i e c e of work i n i t s own genre: and e x c e l l e n t l y c o n s t r u c t e d . do you know anybody who might be i n t e r e s t e d ? any by the way, some time ago b e f o r e you i n t e r e s t e d l i n d s c o t t i n i t , i promised whit b u r n e t t , who now has the s t o r y p r e s s amalgamated w i t h l i p p i n c o t t , t o submit the volcano t o h i m . what would you a d v i s e me t o do? anyhow, i s h a l l send you a copy f i r s t b e f o r e i do a n y t h i n g . but you might a d v i s e me meantime as t o the e t h i c s of t h i s m a t t e r . p l e a s e convey our sympathies a g a i n t o mary, t o whom a l e t t e r goes on same p o s t and here's h o p i n g y o u ' l l be on your f e e t a g a i n soon, and t h a t the r e v i e w s w i l l p i c k up. the v e r y l a s t of my book o f f e r s s t u b b o r n r e s i s t a n c e . t r u l y , as someone s a i d , 'our books d e t e s t us.' both our l o v e s male. you s a i d you were s t a y i n g a t commonwealth av. t i l l th. t h i s i s th, so we send i t t o s. dennis. the doom of each, s a i d doctor usquebaugh, q u i t e c l e a r l y b i d s our l o u t i s h bones t o s t a r e . true, d r i n k ' s u n f r u i t f u l on a l a r g e r s c a l e ; i t s music i s an e q u i n o c t i a l g a l e : s t i l l , u n e m b a r r a s s i n g : and, p r o f o u n d e r , o u t v i n d s the range of cupid's organ g r i n d e r . i f worms a r e s a b a t t i c a l i n a d r u n k a r d ' s dream no f o u l e r ' s t h i s than l o v e ' s n o c t u r n a l game, s i n c e dream of l o v e i t i s , l o v e of the p i t for i t s own s a k e , the v i r g i n i t y of the p r e s e n t , whose abyss i s a womb s h a l l not deny a w i n t r y plunge t o n e s c i e n t e c s t a s y , unsheathed e n t r a n c e t o the s p i r i t ' s t a r q u i n , but f e a t h e r l e s s and f r e e from o v e r t d i n , e x t e n d i n g a p l a t t e r e d l u c r e c e w i t h ferment, yet deeper than she, and r i c h w i t h m o i s t c o n s e n t . so w e l l might we i n q u i r e , c o n t e n t t o r o t , what do you o f f e r , l o v e , which d r i n k does not? e x p l a n a t o r y notes u n s i g n e d , "books," time march : . p r e l u d e s f o r memnon (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ); the coming f o r t h by day of o s i r i s jones (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). lowry i s p r o b a b l y r e f e r r i n g t o the p o l i t i c a l debate between the c o n s u l and hugh i n c h a p t e r x of under the v o l c a n o ( - ), i n which the c o n s u l assumes the p o s i t i o n of a i k e n , and hugh t h a t of lowry. * a i k e n d i d w r i t e a n o v e l l o o s e l y based on h i s t r i p t o m e x i c o : a heart f o r the gods of mexico (london: m a r t i n seeker, ). b i . e . , the c o n s u l , g e o f f r e y f i r m i n . a c c o r d i n g t o m a r g e r i e lowry, the c o n s u l was based l a r g e l y upon a i k e n ("fireworks f a c t o r y , malcolm lowrv remembered ). e there i s a l s o a c h a r a c t e r named e r i c k s o n i n lowry's dark as the grave wherein my f r i e n d i s l a i d (new york: new american l i b r a r y , ) who i s based upon n o r d a h l g r i e g . a i k e n r e f e r s t o t h i s i n c i d e n t i n a l e t t e r t o the e d i t o r i n the times l i t e r a r y supplement feb. : . * the l a s t t w i s t of the k n i f e (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). * ben ames w i l l i a m s ( - ), american j o u r n a l i s t and n o v e l i s t who i s the a u t h o r of a number of d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s i n c l u d i n g the s i l v e r f o r e s t ( ), the d r e a d f u l n i g h t ( ), and money musk ( ). i have been unable t o i d e n t i f y the w i l l i a m s book a l l u d e d t o here by lowry. see l e t t e r , n. , p. , and l e t t e r , n. , p. . x see lowry's poem "doctor usquebaugh" i n the u.b.c. lowry c o l l e c t i o n [ - ; - ). i a "usquebaugh": c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes . & a funny pome\ {&} a funny pome . - damn i t , t o the p u r s e , \ damn i t , <though> t o the p u r s e , . m a l i c i o u s n e s s \ < [ i l l e g . ] > { m } a l i c i o u s n e s s ( t h i s time (. . . .] poor m a l c . ) \ { ( } t h i s time i t i s p a r a s i t i c however on some of your w i s e c r a c k s i n mexico, {&} upon your p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n s ! poor male.{)} i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s f o r the day a f t e r i'd w r i t t e n t h a t s c e n e \ i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s { f o r the} <d>{d}ay a f t e r i'd w r i t t e n th<is>{at} scene by name,\ <in> {by} name, d r a m a t i c r e a s o n ) \ d r a m a t i c r e a s o n < [ i l l e g . ) > ) [ t h i s d e l e t i o n i s made on the t y p e w r i t e r ! s i m i l a r i t i e s or nuances\ s i m i l a r i t i e s {or nuances} to mary, t o whom a l e t t e r goes on same p o s t and\ t o mary, {to whom a l e t t e r goes on same post} and both our l o v e s \ [ t h i s i s h a n d w r i t t e n i n i n k ] you s a i d you were [. . . .] s. d e n n i s . \ you s a i d you were s t a y i n g a t commonwealth av. t i l l t h . t h i s { i s } t h , so {we} send i t t o s. dennis. [ t h e s e s e n t e n c e s a r e h a n d w r i t t e n i n ink a t end of l e t t e r ] [poem; ts h] : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d a p r i l , . dear conrad: i hope t h a t by now mary c o n v a l e s c e s h a p p i l y , t h a t a l l i s w e l l w i t h y o u r s e l f t o o , w i t h both y o u r s e l v e s . for o u r s e l v e s , we a r e w e l l and s t i l l h o l d i n g our o a s i s i n the d e s e r t of n i g h t m a r e s . under the v o l c a n o o n l y needs two or t h r e e weeks more p o l i s h i n g and then w i l l be f i n i s h e d . a p a r t from t h a t , e x t r a o r d i n a r y , and p o s s i b l y marvelous news! m a r i e p r o c t o r , the head of the i m m i g r a t i o n board a t s e a t t l e , washington, t h r o u g h whom my a p p l i c a t i o n had t o go t o washington d.c, has w r i t t e n to me t o say t h a t i do not have t o come back t o vancouver i f i go e a s t - i can make my a p p l i c a t i o n anywhere i n canada, o n l y she w i l l f o r w a r d the papers of the case t o whatever p o r t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o me t h i r t y days b e f o r e next september , which w i l l e x p e d i t e my e n t r y . t h i s would seem t o i n d i c a t e , s i n c e p a r k s had t o l d me and the o l d man t h a t my a p p l i c a t i o n had to be made t h r o u g h b l a i n e , - near vancouver - t h a t he has m a n i p u l a t e d a l l t h i s so t h a t i would be kept here f o r h i s own ends. even a.b.carey was amazed a t t h i s and s a i d he thought you and my f a t h e r s h o u l d be i m m e d i a t e l y i n f o r m e d ! what i have done, however, i s t o send the o r i g i n a l of the l e t t e r , by c l i p p e r , t o my f a t h e r , and a copy t o p a r k s , v h i c h g i v e s him the s p o r t i n g chance t o save h i s f a c e by c a b l i n g the o l d man and so g e t t i n g h i s news i n f i r s t , now t h a t he sees he i s on the s p o t . o t h e r w i s e , my f e a r i s t h a t my f a t h e r and he - f o r the sake of p r e s e r v i n g t h e unimpeachableness of a u t h o r i t y - w i l l cook up something l i k e the form master and the u n c l e d i d i n thoraa's s t o r y . . (. both the form master and the boy's u n c l e had i t i n f o r the boy who had come t o the s c h o o l w i t h a 'bad c h a r a c t e r ' . one day the boy asked the u n c l e t o do a sum f o r him. to save h i s f a c e and w i t h much g r u m b l i n g the u n c l e d i d the sum. when the boy got the sum back from the form master i t was c o v e r e d w i t h r e d i n k . 'only a donkey would do i t l i k e t h a t , ' s a i d the form master, and gave him d e t e n t i o n . 'but i o n l y c o p i e d i t from my u n c l e , ' s a i d the boy. 'you're a l i a r , ' s a i d the form master. for t h i s d e t e n t i o n the boy then got a h i d i n g from the u n c l e . •but' he p r o t e s t e d t o the u n c l e , ' i t was your f a u l t f o r not d o i n g i t r i g h t . ' . the form master s a i d : 'only a donkey would do i t the way you d i d i t . ' 'you're a l i a r , ' s a i d the u n c l e and gave him a n o t h e r h i d i n g . l a t e r the u n c l e and the form master were seen t a l k i n g t o g e t h e r . the next day the form master s e n t f o r the boy and s a i d : 'i have had a n o t h e r l o o k a t your sum and i t i s q u i t e r i g h t , o n l y i t i s done an o l d f a s h i o n e d way, a way we don't use nowadays. but you t h o r o u g h l y d e s e r v e t o be kept i n j u s t the same, f o r your i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n . anyway, you d i d not even copy the sum c o r r e c t l y from your u n c l e . ' but the boy had e x a c t l y c o p i e d the sum. l a t e r the u n c l e wrote t o the boy's mother t o say t h a t he s h o u l d not be e x p e c t e d t o r e c e i v e any more h e l p from him s i n c e he c o u l d not even copy t h i n g s down c o r r e c t l y and t h a t t h i s put him i n a f a l s e p o s i t i o n . . .) anyhow, t h e r e i t i s , conrad. there i s n o t h i n g f o r the w o r l d now t o p r e v e n t ray coming e a s t , i f the o l d man w i l l o n l y see eye t o eye on the s u b j e c t . so, i t may be t h a t the o.m. w i l l c a b l e you - p r o b a b l y making a l l s o r t s of u n t e n a b l e p r o v i s o s . i know f u l l w e l l t h a t you c a n ' t and do not e x p e c t you t o do a n y t h i n g about us w h i l e mary i s s i c k and y o u r s e l f seedy and i am a n x i o u s about t h a t f o r your own s a k e , not f o r o u r s . you may t a k e the p h i l o s o p h i c a l v i e w p o i n t about an o p e r a t i o n , but t h e y a r e b e a s t l y t h i n g s n e v e r t h e l e s s and our sympathies a r e d e e p l y w i t h you. i f e e l i n the f a c e of t h i s a h e e l f o r even m e n t i o n i n g our problems. but i suppose i b e t t e r had. i t appears t h a t june i s our approximate d e a d l i n e . the m a u r i c e carey's p l a n t o l e t t h i s house a t t h a t time anyhow and a r e s h u f f l e of some s o r t then i s i n e v i t a b l e . i f we cannot go e a s t by then i t w i l l of c o u r s e be tough on us. n o t h i n g e l s e seems t o have changed, save f o r the b e t t e r . i r e c e i v e d , a week ago, a v e r y k i n d l y l e t t e r from the o.m., i n which he demurred from my g o i n g e a s t p u r e l y on the grounds t h a t i t would c o s t t o o much (presumably f o r me t o go e a s t , come back h e r e , proceed e a s t once more). so i have p r e s e n t e d him w i t h the new e v i d e n c e , and once more one must w a i t . i a s s u r e d him, and i meant what i s a i d , t h a t i wanted t o g i v e him some s a t i s f a c t i o n i n me a t l a s t about my work, t h a t i was n e a r i n g p r o o f of t h i s , but t h a t some c l o s e r c o n t a c t w i t h you was e s s e n t i a l . as f o r margie - i f t h i s were s i m p l y a f r i v i l o u s l o v e a f f a i r , or even j u s t a l o v e a f f a i r - or even i f i t were s o l e l y • l o v e ' - i t h i n k i might h e s i t a t e t o ask you s t i l l to count us ' a l s e i n e r ' w i t h o u t f i r s t o b t a i n i n g r a t i f i c a t i o n from the o.m., e t c . but m a r g i e , a p a r t from a n y t h i n g e l s e , i s now so a b s o l u t e l y i n e x t r i c a b l e from my work t h a t i c a n ' t get a l o n g w i t h o u t her from t h i s p o i n t of view a l o n e , and were i t o be s e p a r a t e d from her i c o u l d not keep the promises about my work i have made both t o the o.m. and t o you! meantime we have w r i t t e n something which i f e e l might compare not u n f a v o u r a b l y w i t h k a f k a ' s 'the t r i a l ' . i t c o s t s no more f o r us both t o l i v e than one a l o n e , we a r e u n c o m p l i c a t e d by e x p e c t i n g any c h i l d r e n , we a r e not even m a r r i e d , y e t , - so what? could you not l e n d me 'the c o n v e r s a t i o n * - b l a s t ye - i f i r e t u r n i t ? i s h a l l buy i t when i can. a l l our v e r y b e s t l o v e s t o you b o t h . malcolm. e x p l a n a t o r y notes ludwig thoma ( - ), german n o v e l i s t , s h o r t s t o r y w r i t e r , d r a m a t i s t , and e s s a y i s t . lowry i s r e f e r r i n g to one of the s t o r i e s i n thoma's l a u s b u b e n o e s c h i c h t e n ( ). " a l s e i n e r " : german, "as one." t e x t u a l notes . o u r s e l v e s , \ <our_,selves, . a p p l i c a t i o n \ a p p l { i } c a t i o n . canada, o n l y she\ canada{,} o n l y <she> . - t h r o u g h b l a i n e , - near vancouver (. . .] h e r e \ t h r o u g h b l a i n e , <here,> - near <vn> vancouver - t h a t he has m a n i p u l a t e d a l l t h i s so t h a t i would be kept here<,> . s a i d \ sai<s>{d} . i n f o r m e d ! \ informed<.>{!} . done, however,\ done{,} however{,} . sake of p r e s e r v i n g \ sake of <the> p r e s e r v i n g . something l i k e \ something <as> { l i k e } . - thoma's s t o r y . . (. b o t h \ thoma's s t o r y . {. (.} both . s a i d the boy.\ s a i d t < [ i l l e g . > { h e } boy. . r i g h t . ' . \ r i g h t { . } ' { . } . s a i d : 'only\ s a i d { : '}<o>{ }nly . master\ maste{r} . p o s i t i o n . . . ) \ p o s i t i o n . . .{)} . from my work t h a t i c a n ' t \ from my work<,> { t h a t } i can' t : from aiken t o lowry ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d s d e n n i s a p r i l [ ] dear o l d m a l e — thanks f o r your l e t t e r and the good news. that would be s w e l l — b u t i h a s t e n t o warn you t h a t i t might be as w e l l not t o o get your hopes t o o h i g h , f o r j u d g i n g from the l a t e s t note from the m i t i s thought i n o f f i c i a l q u a r t e r s t h a t your durance v i l e i s d e s e r v e d , and does you good, and s h o u l d be a p p r e c i a t e d by you as p r a c t i c a l l y s e l f - i m p o s e d : i n s h o r t , the m may not t h i n k i t a d v i s a b l e t o move you anyway. but of c o u r s e he may, and i hope he w i l l ; but i t h i n k perhaps i'd b e t t e r m y s e l f f o r the moment make no move. i f he does d e c i d e t o t o l e t you come e a s t , the arrangements between the m and me a r e more or l e s s s h i p s h a p e , so t h e r e ! ' ] s n o t h i n g much t o worry about on t h a t s c o r e . where would you go? i have a f r i e n d , canadian a r t i s t w i t h e n g l i s h w i f e , kenneth f o r b e s , a l c i n a ave., t o r o n t o , t o whom i've a l r e a d y w r i t t e n about you ( l o n g s i n c e . ) he's a damned good egg, and a s u c c e s s f u l p o r t r a i t p a i n t e r , and h i s w i f e i s a b e a u t y — g r e a t f r i e n d s of l a u r a k n i g h t and h a r o l d . he w r i t e s me t h a t any f r i e n d of mine i s a f r i e n d of h i s , and he'd l i v e up t o h i s word. so t h i s might be kept i n mind. but i t w i l l take time i n any e v e n t , and y o u ' l l keep me au c o u r a n t . u n l e s s of c o u r s e i s u d d e n l y get c a b l e s from the m. meanwhile we're on the v e r y b r i n k of b u y i n g a house h e r e , the one i n town p r o v i n g beyond us. expect t o know and maybe s i g n up next week. a f i n e o l d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y r u i n , which w i l l take a l o t of f i x i n g , but which you and m w i l l l i k e , and i n which t h e r e ' l l be room and t o s p a r e . c l o s e r t o s yarmouth, shops, e t c than t h i s , and n i c e r a l t o g e t h e r . . . mary's o p e [ r ] a t i o n t u r n e d out t o be much l e s s than f e a r e d , she was i n h o s p i t a l o n l y a week, and i s now mending r a p i d l y . what a b l e s s e d b l e s s e d r e l i e f ! she l o o k s i n f a c t b e t t e r t h a n b e f o r e . next week, her show i n n y which we go down t o . hope i t does b e t t e r than the n o v e l . (can't send you a copy, h a v i n g none t o s p a r e . maybe l a t e r ! ) i look f o r w a r d t o y r p o r t r a i t of a i k e n the o l d medusa, and h i s d e a t h i n the b a r r a n c a , w i t h my customary s a n g f r o i d : i t seems a l o g i c a l end! my p o r t r a i t of you i n a heart f o r the gods of mexico ( s h a t upon by g g r e e n e ) was more k i n d l y , i s u s p e c t ! . . . can't do a decent l e t t e r a t the moment, gordon b a s s e t t * i s h e r e , and thanks t o our v a r i o u s i l l n e s s e s and p o v e r t y and the house problem and one t h i n g and a n o t h e r we're behindhand w i t h e v e r y t h i n g . p r o s p e c t s f o r our summer s c h o o l p r e t t y dim, dammit. . . a but i ' l l w r i t e you more a t l e n g t h l a t e r , and meanwhile our l o v e s t o you both as a l w a y s - - conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes kenneth k e i t h f o r b e s : see l e t t e r , n. , p. . (dame) l a u r a (johnson) k n i g h t ( - ) and h a r o l d k n i g h t ( - ), both p a i n t e r s , were london f r i e n d s of a i k e n . c o n v e r s a t i o n . see graham greene, "boy loses g i r l , " s p e c t a t o r j a n . : . gordon b a s s e t t ( - ), harvard f r i e n d of a i k e n t o whom he d e d i c a t e d ushant i n . c f . l e t t e r , p. . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes . hope he w i l l ; \ hope he w i l l { ; } . so t h e r e [ ' j s \ so t h e r e ( s ( t y p o . ] . o p e [ r ] a t i o n \ ope a t i o n [ t y p o . ] : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d may , dear o l d p h a l l e r : thanks a l o t f o r your l e t t e r and i'm v e r y r e l i e v e d mary's o p e r a t i o n t u r n e d out o.k. that's r e a l l y s p l e n d i d news and i wish i had as good t o match i t from t h i s end. i would l o v e t o see your e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y r u i n but i have t o a d m i t , a l a s , t h a t the o n l y r u i n t h a t we a r e l i k e t o see i s a t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y one, and t h a t not i n a m e r i c a . h e l l z a p p o p i n i n europe now and i t doesn't p r o p h e t t h i s prophet (more e x a c t than most) a damn t h i n g t h a t he was a p r o p h e t . c o n s c r i p t i o n may come a t any moment and a t our back we a l m o s t hear time's ' p h i b i a n t a n k s a'changing g e a r , not t o s a y , the f i r s t 'goosestep' of god. . . x meantime - bad news from e n g l a n d , which has t i g h t e n e d up, a l l of a sudden, on the money. we swung a f a s t and l u c k y one on a.b. by g e t t i n g out of m a u r i c e ' s c l u t c h e s i n t o a n o t h e r room f o r $ a month, and we now have $ a week i n a d d i t i o n t o do e v e r y t h i n g e l s e on. but our p e r i l i s i n c r e a s e d t h e r e b y and the o n l y t h i n g t h a t i can s a y i s : t h a t we a r e r i g h t , and t h a t some god of some s o r t of good, ( p r o b a b l y you i n d i s g u i s e ) seems t o be h e l p i n g us t o f i n i s h our work. for the r e s t : s t a r k , s t a r i n g t r a g e d y may f a c e us, and i t i s a good t h i n g i f so t h a t one can face i t c a l m l y and f e a r l e s s l y and s o b e r l y and even w i t h o u t anger, and i can assume o n l y t h a t we a r e a b l e t o do t h i s because we have a l r e a d y b l e d our s o u l s as w h i t e as bone. i am t r y i n g d e s p e r a t e l y t o s e l l some s t u f f t o e s q u i r e i n the hope t h a t t h e n , s t i l l , we may be a b l e t o go e a s t and spend what few months we have l e f t i n p e a c e . j u d g i n g by the muddle-headed v i n d i c t i v e n e s s i r e c e i v e from time t o time from p a r k s , - v i a presumably the o l d man, who has, however, w r i t t e n one p l e a s a n t but r a t h e r c o n f u s e d l e t t e r - one can e x p e c t l i t t l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g from t h a t q u a r t e r . but i s t i l l t h i n k i may g i v e the m some h a p p i n e s s i n me. the v o l c a n o i s on i t s l a s t t y p i n g - r e which i have, by the way, r e c e i v e d an e n t h u s i a s t i c l e t t e r from whit b u r n e t t ( s t o r y p r e s s and l i p i n c o t t , any good?) and what w i t h t h a t , and even b e t t e r , your l e t t e r from l i n s c o t t , we have hopes of s e l l i n g i t . i have not much doubt but t h a t i t i s a good book. i do not see how you can a s s i s t us any f u r t h e r save by l e t t i n g your g e n i u s s t o r m i n t o our s p i r i t s from time t o time i n these s t r a n g e h o u r s , but by h e l p i n g us thus f a r i n our s t r u g g l e as i have s a i d , f a r more has been a c h i e v e d t h a n meets the eye f o r good and good a l o n e between us a l l . a l l the b e s t t o mary from us b o t h . haarlem burns and joe v e n u t i s w i n g s , y o u r s , male. e x p l a n a t o r y notes cf. andrew m a r v e l l ' s ( - ) "to h i s coy m i s t r e s s " : "but a t ray back i always h e a r \ time's winged c h a r i o t h u r r y i n g n e a r ; " ( . - ). no p i e c e s by lowry ever appeared i n e s q u i r e . j guiseppe ("joe") v e n u t i ( - ), american j a z z v i o l i n i s t who l e d the j a z z group "blue f o u r " ( a c k e r l y ). t e x t u a l notes . a p r o p h e t . \ a p<h>{r}ophet. . from t h a t q u a r t e r . \ from < ( i l l e g . ] > { t h a t } q u a r t e r . . may g i v e the m some\ may g i v e <him> {the m} some . - v e n u t i s w i n g s , y o u r s , male.\ v e n u t i s w i n g s , { / } y o u r s , male. (lowry has i n s e r t e d a s l a s h between "swings," and " y o u r s , " t o i n d i c a t e a movement of the second phrase t o a lower l i n e ] : from aiken t o lowry ts h; k i l l o r i n s dermis mass may dear old male: y r s r e c e i v e d , and c o n t e n t s noted w i t h r e l i e f : v i z . , t h a t you've moved i n t o b e t t e r q u a r t e r s , and a r e more independednt and p r o s p e r o u s . good. you don't say how you managed i t - - i t must have t a k e n some d o i n g ? ? ? and of c o u r s e i f you c o u l d manage t o get e a s t t h a t would be s w e l l . and we've b e l e i e v e i t or not a c q u i r e d a roof of our own, t h i s v e r y day a c q u i r e d i t , f i v e m i l e s from h e r e , a t west b r e w s t e r , on the n o r t h s i d e of the cape, h i g h up, and w i t h d i s t a n t view of the s e a , which i s a c o u p l e of m i l e s away: a f i n e wreck of a house, (the o t h e r one was s n a t c h e d away from us by the l o w e s t of c h i c a n e r i e s ) , and a l r e a d y the d e l i g h t of our h e a r t s . rats pop i n and out of a f r e s h deep s t i n k i n g s h i t - s h o t t e n h o l e i n a m a t t r e s s i n the a t t i c , a l l the windows a r e b r o k e n , the f l o o r s bend under the f o o t , the rooms s t i n k , the chimneys a r e f a l l i n g , the r o t t e n bulkhead door i s shored up w i t h seaweed, and the o l d e.c., o u t d o o r s , p r a c t i c a l l y blows you o f f your f e e t : but the whole t h i n g i s g o i n g t o be w o n d e r f u l l y r i c h and b e a u t i f u l when we've s c o u r e d i t and p a i n t e d i t and hung mary's p i c t u r e s on the w a l l s , and t h e r e a r e l o v e l y t r e e s round about, and a p p l e s , and a peach, and g r a p e s , and w i l d c u r r a n t s , and seven a c r e s of p i n e s , and a c r a n b e r r e y bog, twenty f e e t below, which i n s p r i n g becomes a pond. the house s i t s t h e r e among the s p r u c e s as i f i t had been t h e r e a t h o u s a n d y e a r s , u p s t a i r s t h e r e a r e umpteen u n f i n i s h e d c u b i c l e s w h i c h c a n become r u d i m e n t a r y b e d r o o m s , s o we a r e r e a d y f o r t h e r e f u g e e s when t h e y b e g i n c o m i n g — k n i g h t s , x n a s h e s , a i k e n s , a r m s t r o n g s , t h e r o y a l f a m i l y , l o w r i e s , o r w h o e v e r . b e a r us i n m i n d ! we a r e now i n p r o c e s s o f b e s p e a k i n g a w a t e r - s y s t e m , l i g h t i n g , r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d r e p a i r s , b u t hope t o move i n w i t h i n a month. t h e n , p e r h a p s a f r a g m e n t o f a summer s c h o o l — e l m a s t e r s ' d a u g h t e r , p e r h a p s , and a d a y p u p i l o r t w o : w h i l e we s c r a p e w a l l s a n d p a i n t them, d i g t h e s a n d and p l a n t b e a n s , o r s i t i d l y among t h e h o l l y h o c k s r e a d i n g o f t h e s u n s e t o f t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d . l e t us n o t , h o w e v e r , m e n t i o n t h a t : y o u s u r e l y , i f e e l , won't be d r a g g e d i n : n o r n e e d y o u be? i hope t o g o d n o t . i'm s o g l a d b u r n e t t i s k e e n on v o l e . had he s e e n t h e new v e r s i o n , o r was he s p e a k i n g o f t h e o l d ? and i t h o u g h t y o u meant t o s e n d i t t o l i n s c o t t ? b u t o f c o u r s e a s y o u t h i n k b e s t . my own p o o r book i s now d e a d : * i saw t h e p u b l i s h e r s i n n y a n d t h e y were v e r y h a n g d o g a b o u t i t . what b o o t s i t ? o r w r e x a l l , f o r t h a t m a t t e r . i f e e l a b i t f e d up, b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s am g i r d i n g m y s e l f s l o w l y and r h e u m a t i c a l l y f o r a n o t h e r g o , p r o b a b l y t h i s t i m e a t a s o r t o f f i c t i o n a l i z e d h a u g h t y b i o g r a p h y , rooms, s t r e e t s , a n d houses:" i t somehow seems t o be e s s e n t i a l t h a t no y e a r be a l l o w e d t o p a s s w i t h o u t a n o t h e r book s e n t s p i r a l l i n g down t h e d r a i n . j o h n g e t s h i m s e l f m a r r i e d n e x t m o n t h . j a n e i s s o r t o f e n g a g e d t o a v e r y d r a t e e n g l i s h m a n (commonwealth f e l l o w ) whom we d o n ' t l i k e . ed i s s t i l l i n r y e , a n d w i s e c r a c k i n g b i t t e r l y t h r o u g h t h e b o m b f a l l s . o u r s e l v e s , we p i c k o f f t h e w o o d t i c k s , and p o u r a n o t h e r g i n a n d f r e n c h , and c o u n t o u t t h e l a s t d o l l a r s a s t h e y p a s s , b u t a r e a s d e t e r m i n e d as ever t o shape t h i n g s w e l l w h i l e we can, and w i t h l o v e . n e v e r t h e l e s s , i s t i l l b e l i e v e , axe i n hand i s t i l l b e l i e v e ! and we w i l l b u i l d our house f o u r s q u a r e . come and see. l o v e t o you b o t h conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes l a u r a and h a r o l d k n i g h t , see l e t t e r , n. , p. . p a u l ( - ) and margaret (odeh) nash were f r i e n d s of a i k e n i n rye; p a u l nash was a p a i n t e r and a r t c r i t i c f o r the nat i o n and the new statesman ( l o r e n z , l o r e l e i two ) ; a t the o u t b r e a k of the war he o r g a n i z e d the a r t s bureau f o r war s e r v i c e i n o x f o r d and became the o f f i c i a l war a r t i s t t o the a i r m i n i s t r y i n , and t o the m i n i s t r y of i n f o r m a t i o n i n . m a r t i n armstrong, b r i t i s h poet and f r i e n d of a i k e n who m a r r i e d a i k e n ' s f i r s t w i f e , j e s s i e macdonald. cf. l e t t e r , n. , p. . * p r o b a b l y one of the d a u g h t e r s , m a r c i a or m a d e l i n e , of edgar lee m a s t e r s ( - ), american lawyer and p o e t , b e s t known f o r h i s spoon r i v e r a n t h o l o g y ( ). a i k e n wrote many c r i t i c a l r e v i e w s of m a s t e r s ' work. c o n v e r s a t i o n . a i k e n i s punning on the names of two well-known d r u g s t o r e c h a i n s : boots and r e x a l l . c f . ushant: an e s s a y ( ) . a john a i k e n . t e x t u a l notes . m a t t r e s s \ m<e>{a}ttress . c r a n b e r r e y bog,\ c r a n b e r r e y bog{,} . be low,\ below{,} . r h e u m a t i c a l l y \ r h e u m a t { i i c a l l y : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d june , . dear o l d conrad: i haven't w r i t t e n because we've been s l a v i n g away madly a t the end of the v o l c a n o , which p r o t r u d e d some unexpected peaks. i'm a w f u l l y s o r r y the c o n v e r s a t i o n i s dead i n a m e r i c a : but maybe i t i s by no means dead here. e n c l o s e r e v i e w of i t i n l o c a l p a p e r ; i e n c l o s e the mccarthy r e v i e w w i t h i t s i m p l y as an i l l u s t r a t i o n of one of these m a t e r i a l o c c a s i o n s when e s s e n c e s r e c u r or something or o t h e r , f o r i seem t o remember your s a y i n g t h a t mccarthy was one of the few people who spoke up i n england f o r what seems t o me now as w e l l as a t / t h a t work of a s a t a n i c and marvelous g e n i u s : blue v o y a g e . - - ( i am t r y i n g t o get the p r o v i n c e t o l e t me r e v i e w c o n v e r s a t i o n . ) meantime, your l e t t e r made us laugh h e a r t i l y amid the chaos. yes, i t was hard t o change our a d d r e s s , under the noses of the c a r e y s , i n f a c t , p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e , but we d i d i t , w i t h o u t mishap, but do not t h i n k we have any more money f o r t h a t or t h a t i t i s any the l e s s tough. we now l i v e on $ a month, which has t o t a k e c a r e of e v e r y t h i n g r and we a r e f a c e d w i t h l e s s . but we have had one good break. p a r k s has been f i r e d , and my o l d man's t r u s t seems r e s t o r e d i n me and he i s g o i n g t o d e a l w i t h me p e r s o n a l l y . we s h a l l be l u c k y i f we g e t a n y t h i n g under the c i r c u m s t a n c e s under which the o.m. i s p l a c e d and i've t o l d him i t doesn't matter i ' l l make out somehow m y s e l f , but the main t h i n g i s i n my eye t h a t he and the mater s h o u l d get some h a p p i n e s s out of me - perhaps one b r i g h t s p o t on a d i s a s t r o u s h o r i z o n . i f e e l m y s e l f on the way up, d e f i n i t e l y , and t h a t some money w i l l have a c c r u e d from the volcano and e l s e w h e r e even b e f o r e he manages t o send me any funds and t h a t , h e n c e f o r w a r d , i s h a l l be a b l e t o fend on my own. the whole european s i t u a t i o n i s such t h a t i have been t o l d t o abandon america a l t o g e t h e r but i had a l r e a d y done s o , sp t h a t i s no s u r p r i s e . nuy f o noy y h i n k h o e r b r t yhsy er - t h i s i s such a good t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r i'm not g o i n g t o e r a s e i t . - but do not t h i n k however t h a t were we now i n the s t a t e s we would have been a charge on you a t t h i s t i m e : margie c o u l d have got a job and t h e r e a r e s t i l l a few hundred d o l l a r s over and moreover, as i s a y , i am on the way up. up where? whether our e f f o r t s w i l l be t r u n c a t e d by c o n s c r i p t i o n i don't know, but hope n o t . i f we make enough money we w i l l s t i l l go e a s t , i f we can, where we c o u l d be, more or l e s s i n h a i l i n g d i s t a n c e of you a t l e a s t . a l t h o u g h the r e a s o n s f o r p a r k ' s demise a r e l a r g e l y f i n a n c i a l i have r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e f o r my f a t h e r ' s l e t t e r t h a t i have succeeded i n d e m o n s t r a t i n g the f a c t t h a t he was an out and out c r o o k . for h i s own sake the o.m. i s w e l l s h o t of a man who made such a f i n d t h i n g of h i s e x p l o i t a t i o n of human s o u l s , because he m e r e l y e x p l o i t e d the o.m.'s a n x i e t y about me, t r u s t i n g i m p l i c i t l y t h a t i was too f a r gone as an i d i o t and a d r u n k a r d t o ever r e f u t e him i r e c e i v e d a l s o a l e t t e r from jan w h i c h , p a r a d o x i c a l l y enough, p u t s me i n the c l e a r t o o . she t o o , says t h a t p a r k s has shown h i m s e l f t o be a crook t h u s c o r r o b o r a t i n g now, somewhat t o o l a t e , i n o t h e r ways, the t r u t h of my c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the lowry legend. so do not t a k e t o o s e r i o u s l y what you heard from p a r k s [--)and do n o t , worse, t h i n k t h a t i've t u r n e d i n t o a p i o u s t e e t o t a l e r . ! — w h i c h a t one time i thought perhaps you d i d : and remember t o o , t h a t what the o.m. heard about me was from p a r k s t o o . no - i asked your a d v i c e about s e n d i n g under the volcano t o w h i t f i r s t , r a t h e r than t o l i n s c o t t because w h i l e , or b e f o r e , we were t o s s i n g l e t t e r s t o and f r o , and b e f o r e l i n s c o t t ' s l e t t e r a r r i v e d - i had a l r e a d y more or l e s s promised t o send i t t o whit. i do not know q u i t e what t o do: i don't know a n y t h i n g about the new s t o r y p r e s s , but i f e e l t h a t i owe a c e r t a i n l o y a l t y t o whit s i n c e he t r u s t e d me f o r a l o n g t i m e . what would s a y o f f h a n d l i k e ? i f e e l t h a t i f i d i d send i t t o whit f i r s t i am s o r t of l e t t i n g you down. but on the o t h e r hand i f i s e n t i t t o l i n s c o t t f i r s t i am s o r t of b r e a k i n g my promise t o whit. so i'm i n a b i t of a d i t h e r . perhaps you c o u l d make a s u g g e s t i o n . i hope t o have i t completed and ready t o m a i l o f f by the end of t h i s week or the f i r s t of n e x t , so i f you want t o g i v e me any a d v i c e about t h i s , p l e a s e do i t now. i t o l d my mother i would d e d i c a t e the l i g h t h o u s e i n v i t e s the storm t o h e r , s o , i f the v o l e g e t s a c c e p t e d , i am g o i n g t o t r y t o get t h a t p u b l i s h e d a f t e r . * c o u l d you h e l p , do you t h i n k , a b i t here? i would l i k e t o keep t h a t somewhat r a s h promise to the o l d l a d y , i f o n l y because i t would make her f e e l good. i t h i n k i t c o u l d be a good book. with a l l the b e s t l o v e t o you and mary from both of us, malcolm. p.s. i see i have w r i t t e n , i n a n o t h e r , unposted l e t t e r t o you:-- re your bad r e v i e w s : 'once upon a t i m e , conrad, you h u r t the f e e l i n g s of mediocrity so b a d l y she w i l l never f o r g i v e you.' e x p l a n a t o r y notes v i c t o r f e l l o w e s , " a i k e n adopts e f f e c t i v e s t y l e , " the sunday sun magazine, the vancouver sun s a t u r d a y , may : . both t h i s and the "mccarthy r e v i e w " (not i d e n t i f i e d ) are m i s s i n g . see desmond mccarthy's r e v i e w of blue voyage i n the new statesman june : . whit b u r n e t t ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . "the l i g h t h o u s e i n v i t e s the storm" remains u n p u b l i s h e d ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes . - blue voyage.--(i am t r y i n g [. . . ] c o n v e r s a t i o n . ) \ b l u e voyage.{--i am t r y i n g t o get the p r o v i n c e t o l e t me r e v i e w c o n v e r s a t i o n . ) } . somehow m y s e l f , \ somehow.myself, [ t y p o . ] . one b r i g h t s p o t on\ one b r i g h t s p o t <i>{o}n . on the way up. up where?\ on the way up. [up where?} . - what you heard from p a r k s [ — ] a n d do n o t , worse, t h i n k t h a t i've t u r n e d i n t o a p i o u s t e e t o t a l e r . [--jwhich a t one t i m e \ what you heard from p a r k s t--]{and do not {{,}} worse, t h i n k t h a t i've t u r n e d i n t o a p i o u s t e e t o t a l e r . } [ - - ] w h i c h a t one time [ t h i s i n s e r t i o n h a n d w r i t t e n i n ink a t end of l e t t e r b e f o r e the p o s t s c r i p t ] . t o and f r o , \ t o and f<or>{ro}, . - p.s. i see [. . .] f o r g i v e you.'\ [ h a n d w r i t t e n i n ink a t end of l e t t e r ] : from aiken t o lowry ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d s d e n n i s mass june dear m a l e - r e l i e v e d t o hear from you i was, f o r meanwhile i'd had a l e t t e r from the m g i v i n g the news of the cash c r i s i s which n e c e s s i t a t e d the c u t t i n g out of p a r k s and the c u t t i n g down of the e x p o r t of pounds, which i f e a r e d might prove bad f o r you, but hoped might t u r n out a c t u a l l y t o the good. which i t a k e i t , f o r the p r e s e n t anyway, i t does. and t h a t ' s s w e l l . as f o r v o l e , why not i f you've got i t i n d u p l i c a t e send one here f o r bob, but w i t h the s t r i n g s t i e d so t o s p e a k — i . e . , i ' l l t e l l him i t ' s not f o r the time b e i n g " l o o s e " , but might be l a t e r : and i n any event he can a d v i s e about i t and a l s o the pomes, which he s t i l l of c o u r s e has. h i s i d e a was t o c o n s i d e r , i f y o u ' l l r e c a l l , the whole b o l u s t o g e t h e r , w i t h a view to a g e n e r a l n o t i o n of some k i n d . and i t h i n k t h a t c o u l d do no harm. however, be t h a t as you see f i t . • i haven't the h e a r t t o w r i t e more, w i t h the news of france j u s t heard — what a r e the chances i n view of the new a l i e n r e s t r i c t i o n s here of your g e t t i n g i n next sept? our house comes on, but s t i l l needs a l o t , and i f e a r our s m a l l c a s h won't do i t , but t h e r e ' l l be a r o o f a t l e a s t and a c h i c k s a l e , and we've s t a r t e d a v e g e t a b l e p a t c h — i woke up from a dream t h i s morning i n which a negress i n t e r v i e w e r asked somewhat s c e p t i c a l l y of me what p o s s i b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n , i n the w o r l d ' s p r e s e n t dismay, a mere poet c o u l d make? and i s a i d " l o v e " , but then f e l t d e e p l y ashamed, as not knowing t h a t i r e a l l y knew what l o v e was, or whether i n any event i t would do any good: and so woke, and s t i l l wonder. gosh. i mean, gosh. but l o v e , j u s t the s a m e — conrad t e x t u a l notes [on v e r s o i s a h a n d w r i t t e n note from malcolm t o m a r g e r i e ] . p o s s i b l e / possib<o>{ }e : from aiken t o lowry ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d s d e n n i s mass j u l y are you f e l l o w s a l l r i g h t , m a l e ? ? ? ? i hope the s i l e n c e o n l y i m p l i e s z e a l a t d a e d a l i a n l a b o u r s . but i'd a p p r e c i a t e a l i n e . n o t h i n g h e r e : t o o busy s w e a t i n g b l o o d and t e r r o r on mortgages and n a i l s and p l a s t e r , and t r y i n g t o p o t b o i l as w e l l : and t r y i n g not t o hear the d e a d l y sounds from e n g l a n d . dutch boat i n boston r e p o r t s plymouth, pern broke and c a r d i f f a l l i n r u i n s : i f e a r i t may be t r u e . damn. c h r i s t . c h r i s t . damn. c h r i s t . we c a b l e d rye o f f e r i n g a s y l u m — n o t a k e r s as y e t . l o v e t o both conrad ed r e p o r t s rye f u l l of t r o o p s , and " s t r a n g e n o i s e s , o f f " - a l s o the weather v e r y t h u n d e r y . : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d j u l y , . my dear conrad: i f i n i s h e d t h e v o l c a n o and s e n t one copy t o whit b u r n e t t , haven't heard from him y e t . i had your copy a l l r e a d y t o send, but meantime - two days l a t e r , t o be p r e c i s e , by the time i t took me t o t i e up the p a r c e l anyhow, a c o l l o s s a l c e n s o r s h i p descended on the l a n d - magazines banned from the s t a t e s , i n c l u d i n g , a l a s , time, and e v e r y t h i n g and everybody s u s p e c t e d , the dark ages on us. the book i s r e a l l y a n t i - n a z i , as you know, but p e o p l e i n i t have d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n s and s t a t e them f r a n k l y , and i am d u b i o u s about g e t t i n g a n o t h e r copy t h r o u g h the m a i l s . at l e a s t u n t i l such time as i g e t back the more or l e s s c e n s o r - e x c l u d i n g l e t t e r about i t from the l a t e governor g e n e r a l , which i s e n t w i t h whit's copy. t h i s may be u n n e c e s s a r y p e r s e c u t i o n s on my p a r t , but i don't want t o t a k e any chances a t making e x p l a n a t i o n s w i t h u n s y m p a t h e t i c people and b e i n g t i e d up w i t h r e d t a p e . and b e s i d e s , we a r e now l i v i n g on $ per month, which l e a v e s us p r a c t i c a l l y no money f o r a n y t h i n g e x c e p t food and a p l a c e t o l i v e . our o n l y d i v e r s i o n i s g o i n g swimming e v e r y day, f o r t u n a t e l y we a r e w i t h i n w a l k i n g d i s t a n c e of a beach - where we f i n d o u r s e l v e s s u r r o u n d e d more or l e s s by n e g r o e s , c h i n e s e and i n d i a n s , s i n c e we l i v e i n t h a t p a r t of town. s t i l l , i t i s a beach, and we a r e k e e p i n g f i t : ( f o r what?) i am meantime h e l p i n g margie on her d e t e c t i v e s t o r y and we s h a l l have i t f i n i s h e d b e f o r e l o n g . i would t o god i c o u l d see you. i f e e l i c o u l d be a good poet i f i knew what s o r t of d i s c i p l i n e t o s u b j e c t m y s e l f t o . i can read s c a r c e l y any l i v i n g poets save y o u r s e l f and w a l l a c e stevens and the modern dead ones, who f r u c t i f y me, l i k e r i l k e , wrote i n languages i c a n ' t r e a d i l y u n d e r s t a n d . i f i were more, or l e s s , of a poet i suppose t h i s d e s i r e f o r a d e s i g n g o v e r n i n g p o s t u r e of some s o r t wouldn't worry me. i t h i n k even now, poems as good as the spender-auden-rukeyser r u n of the m i l l s u g g e s t themselves t o me and i won't l e t m y s e l f w r i t e them. another t h i n g : once a poem i s w r i t t e n , i hate i t , seem t o l o s e i t d e l i b e r a t e l y , do not want t o send i t anywhere. of c o u r s e you can a d v i s e me a g a i n s t t h i s . but i t h i n k i must r e a l l y want t o be s q u e l c h e d , t o be a posthumous r a t h e r t h a n a l i v i n g p o e t . the keats and c h a t t e r t o n i d e a you once s u g g e s t e d . a ' o r r i d t h o u g h t . w e l l , you can a d v i s e me a g a i n s t t h i s t o o . but g i v e me some a d v i c e , i g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w y o u r s as one h y p n o t i z e d . i had thought t o d e d i c a t e the volcano t o margie and you and mary: but i f you f e e l the mexican scene i s t o o m u t u a l l y a f f e c t i v e or whatever, i ' l l d e d i c a t e a n o t h e r one t o y e z . anyhow, f o r b e t t e r or w o i s e , i t ' s w r i t t e n t o you, or a t y o u . i am more or l e s s persona g r a t a w i t h the o.m. now, p r o b a b l y thanks t o you. . . i much v a l u e t h a t l e t t e r you wrote us. . . did you g e t the r e v i e w i s e n t you on c o n v e r s a t i o n ? . . . margie and i seem t o have d i s c o v e r e d a b e t t e r t h i n g v i a our honeymoon i n chaos. . . yes, conrad, by god, l o v e c e r t a i n l y i s something, i n f a c t , e v e r y t h i n g . . . p l e a s e glow on us w i t h some of i t even i f a t a d i s t a n c e . . . there i s c o n s c r i p t i o n here on august : don't know y e t whether i t a p p l i e s , or s h o u l d , i f i t d o e s n ' t , t o me. and l o v e : t o n s of i t , t o you and mary from us b o t h . male. p.s. - n.b. would you be k i n d enough - i f i t a i n ' t too e x p e n s i v i s h , or maybe send them c o l l e c t - t o send a l o n g the l i g h t h o u s e and l a s t address so t h a t i can i m m e d i a t e l y s t a r t w o r k i n g them over as i have no time t o waste (remembering p o s s i b l e c o n s c r i p t i o n . ) i f you have any s u g g e s t i o n s f o r e i t h e r , do p l e a s e send them. (the same t h i n g a p p l i e s perhaps t o in b a l l a s t as t o the v o l e , f o r the p r e s e n t anyhow??.) e x p l a n a t o r y notes the l a s t t w i s t of the k n i f e : see l e t t e r , n. , p. . under the volcano was f i n a l l y d e d i c a t e d t o m a r g e r i e a l o n e . see l e t t e r , p. . t e x t u a l notes . - c o n s c r i p t i o n . ) i f you have [. . . .] anyhow??.)\ c o n s c r i p t ion.)<.> i f you have any s u g g e s t i o n s f o r e i t h e r , ^o. p l e a s e send the<.>{m.} { < [ i l l e g . l in b a l l a s t > {{(the}} <i suppose> same t h i n g a p p l i e s perhaps t o in b a l l a s t as t o the v o l e , f o r the p r e s e n t anyhow{{??}} <perhaps>.)} : from aiken t o lowry ts ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d s t o n y brook r d west b r e w s t e r mass aug . my dear o l d m a l e — t h i s w i l l be t h r e e l i n e s o n l y , f o r we have have j u s t moved, a r e s t i l l i n w i l d e s t chaos, have no time f o r a n y t h i n g but the e n d l e s s p h y s i c a l s t r u g g l e i n v o l v e d i n j u s t k e e p i n g our heads above the s t r e a m of wreckage and the b i l l o w s of b i l l s . i ' l l make a d e s p e r a t e attempt t o get o f f l a s t address t o y o u — kept i t t o show an a g e n t , who was of c o u r s e alarmed by [ i ] t . the pomes a r e w i t h l i n s c o t t . s h a l l i ask f o r t h e t m ] . y o u ' l l r e c a l l he asked t o keep them and b a l l a s t t i l l he c o u l d a l s o see v o l c a n o . say the word! our house w i l l be b e a u t i f u l — a n d a l r e a d y the r e f u g e e s a r e f o r m i n g i n a l i n e . bob m o r s s and f a m i l y may spend the w i n t e r w i t h u s — ( y o u remember him? ginn & co., queen sq., london. the poor d e v i l has a pulmonary c a n c e r , can l i v e a year or two or f o u r , and i s broke i n t o the b a r g a i n . ) a l s o the noxons have a r r i v e d i n t o r o n t o , and we a w a i t a v i s i t from them. and we have asked rye t o send a c o n t i n g e n t - - t h o u g h no t a k e r s y e t . what we'd a l l l i v e on i don't k n o w — b u t i guess we'd manage—and the house i s c a p a c i o u s enough, god knows. my beans a r e on the t a b l e , my peas were e a t e n l a s t n i g h t , the squashes and tomatos r i p e n , , the s p i n a c h heads, the c o r n t a s s e l s , and t h i s l a n d s c a p e i s an a s t o n i s h m e n t and d e l i g h t — w e l o v e i t i n s h o r t and a r e o n l y unhappy when we l o o k towards e n g l a n d , or l i s t e l n ] t o the w i r e l e s s , which of c o u r s e we can t a v o i d . god damn i t . can you get e a s t — c a n you get in??? gerald's address i s lyndhurst ave., toronto. much love to you both and a few weeks hence i may be a b l e to v r i t e you a proper l e t - l e t - - b u t now, no, i t ' s imposs! a f f . conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes bob morss, american f r i e n d of a i k e n and b r i t i s h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the p u b l i s h i n g f i r m ginn & co. ( b o s t o n , athenaeum p r e s s ) . g e r a l d and b e t t y noxon; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes . by ( i ] t . \ by k t . [ t y p o . ] . r e f u g e e s \ r e f ugee{i=s}s . b a r g a i n . ) \ b a r g a i n . ! ) } . though no t a k e r s \ though no<r> t a k e r s . l i s t e [ n ] \ l i s t e h [ t y p o . ] . o f f . \ [ h a n d w r i t t e n i n i n k ] [note h a n d w r i t t e n by lowry a t bottom of page r e a d s : " i s bob morss robert e l y morss who wrote t h i s swan upon the i c y waters of my h e a r t s g l i d e s ever on?"] : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n p.o. d o l l a r t o n , b.c. sept. , . dear o l d conrad: note new a d d r e s s ! we l i v e i n a shack on the s e a . d o l l a r t o n i s an o l d s h i p b u i l d i n g town, d o l l a r l i n e r s - now dead: s l i p w a y s c o v e r e d w i t h brambles, enormous b l a s t e d oaks i n a f i n e , deep f o r e s t . o u t s i d e the window, a v a s t w h i t e calm where sea i s c o n f u s e d w i t h s k y , and the r o c k i e s . we have a b o a t : and one day, out f o r a row, a whale came up b e s i d e us! i t h i n k i t was herman m e l v i l l e i n d i s g u i s e . anyhow i t i s a w i e r d and w o n d e r f u l p l a c e and we l o v e i t , the more so s i n c e i t i s c o s t i n g us o n l y $ a month r e n t t o l i v e i n i t , and a f t e r o c t o b e r , w i l l c o s t even l e s s , i f we a r e s t i l l h e r e . a m a l t e s e c a t w i t h g o l d e n eyes has adopted us w h i l e she has her k i t t e n s : we c a l l her p i n g because she does not p u r r . we a r e d e l i g h t e d w i t h e v e r y t h i n g and w i t h o u r s e l v e s : f o r we have o u t w i t t e d the c a r e y s , and cooked p a r k ' s goose - he has t u r n e d the r e m a i n i n g money over t o me - and, i n c i d e n t a l l y , made the o.m. and the mater as p l e a s e d as t h e y can be about a n y t h i n g a t t h i s p e r i o d . i haven't y e t t o l d him about m a r g i e , but i t l o o k s as though i s h a l l be a b s o l u t e l y on my own hook. we have enough money t o h o l d out t i l l december: the a u t h o r i t i e s have t o l d me, b e i n g a v i s i t o r , i don't have t o , or r a t h e r c a n ' t , r e g i s t e r . i don't know, a t t h a t r a t e , whether i s h a l l be c a l l e d up a t a l l . maybe the war w i l l soon be o v e r . i suppose i must hope n o t . anyhow here we a r e and a b l o o d y m i r a c l e i c a l l s i t . so t h a t now we have a s p o r t i n g chance. i s t i l l have not heard from whit about the v o l c a n o , but i f he doesn't t a k e i t , i t i s g o i n g t o l i n s c o t t , and i t maybe even now on i t s way. don't know how t o send you a copy y e t . m a r g i e ' s d e t e c t i v e n o v e l - 'the l a s t t w i s t of the k n i f e ' - i s o f f , t o o . i s the bob morse you speak of r o b e r t e l y morse who wrote a poem e n d i n g 'this swan upon the i c y w a t e r s of my h e a r t g l i d e s ever on, i n the d i a l , ? - anyhow, poor d e v i l , i am s o r r y f o r him. thanks f o r g e r a l d ' s a d d r e s s : i wrote him, no answer as y e t . i've t o l d j u l i a n g r e e n t o go and see you: you a r e both from savannah. much of h i s e a r l y work i t h o u g h t , was s u p e r b : but h i t s ] g e n i u s seems t o have r u n s l i g h t l y aground. perhaps you w i l l s e t him a f l o a t a g a i n . we would come e a s t l i k e a s h o t i f we c o u l d a f f o r d i t : but perhaps we s h a l l soon be a b l e t o . we read your a r t i c l e i n the a t l a n t i c and c a r a c o l e d : i have a l o t t o s a y about i t which i'm r e s e r v i n g f o r a n o t h e r l e t t e r . margie r e a l l y thought you'd e x p r e s s e d e v e r y t h i n g she wanted t o s a y but c o u l d n ' t : yo, tambien. i read some new sonnets of y o u r s i n h a r p e r s * which i thought c o n t a i n e d two of about the b e s t poems i'd ever r e a d by anyone, anywhere. yes: p l e a s e do send the l a s t a d d r e s s , auam c e l e r i m e : i p l a n t o r e w r i t e i t , c u t t i n g the d i a l o g u e . great c i r c l e passage - but have no copy, and we want t o s t a r t w o r k i n g f u l l b l a s t a g a i n r i g h t away. god b l e s s and much l o v e t o mary and you from us b o t h . male. e x p l a n a t o r y notes lowry i s r e f e r r i n g to. a poem by r i c h a r d e l y morse e n t i t l e d " t h i s swan" i n the d i a l ( s e p t . ): ; the f i r s t , not the l a s t , l i n e of the poem r e a d s : " t h i s swan, upon the i c y waters of my h e a r t , / s a i l s n i g h t and day;. . . ." in the same i s s u e i s a r e v i e w of b l u e voyage by c h a r l e s k. t r u e b l o o d ( - ). see l e t t e r , n. , p. . "back t o p o e t r y , " a t l a n t i c m o n t h l y . (aug. ): - . * " f i v e sonnets," harper's magazine . , (aug. ): - ; r e p r i n t e d as "xxvi," " x x v i i , " " x x v i i i , " "xxix," and "xxx" i n and i n the human heart (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). s "quam c e l e r r i m e " : l a t i n , "as f a s t as p o s s i b l e . " ; from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n p.o., d o l l a r t o n , b.c., canada. november , . dear o l d conrad: i t h i n k , dream, p o e t r y a l l the time t h e s e d a y s , s t r u g g l i n g w i t h the o n l y form i know, the one you t a u g h t me. with a s o r t of a monad, g u l p e d down i n t o my c o n s c i o u s n e s s l i k e a s t o n e i n my a d o l e s c e n c e , s t i l l s t u c k i n my t h r o a t i wonder i f i can ever a c h i e v e more t h a n a h a l f choked e x p r e s s i o n of m y s e l f and can hang m y s e l f one day on some s o r t of h a l l of fame, however o b s c u r e . we l i v e t h o r e a u - l i k e h e r e , i n the d e s e r t e d v i l l a g e where g r e y panamanian f r e i g h t e r s sometimes v i s i t us. i keep remembering how i used t o go on t o hayes common and r e a d the house of d u s t and p r a y one day i might meet you, which seemed t o be i m p o s s i b l e , because i c o u l d not see how you c o u l d be a l i v e and a t the same time r e a c h such beauty, and a l l the time jane was a t s c h o o l c l o s e by w i t h the k e l l e t t c h i l d , who was indeed my g e o g r a p h i c a l excuse f o r b e i n g on hayes common a t a l l . how i a p p r e c i a t e now the c o l l o s s a l advantage of h a v i n g known you and would t h a t i had been b e t t e r and h o n e s t e r and more c o n s c i o u s when i d i d ! i sometimes t h i n k i am l i k e a man who remembers h a v i n g known b i l l shakespeare i n h i s y o u t h - but what a p i t y , he c o u l d n ' t a p p r e c i a t e a n y t h i n g the f e l l o w s a i d , he was b l i n d and dumb a t the t i m e . our c a t has had k i t t e n s - f o u r of them - f o r which we have found homes f o r two, a l a s and a l a s , a t the bottom of the s e a : now, from what we can hear of her p e c k e r d i l l o e s she i s w e l l on the way t o h a v i n g some more. i have not much of a .way w i t h c a t s , but margie has and i improve. there are k i l l e r - w h a l e s i n the bay - we encountered one w h i l e r o w i n g , thought i t was a p o r p o i s e w i t h a p o i p o i s e - and we have been v i c i o u s l y a t t a c k e d by a g o a t - a symbol? no more t r a g e d i e s . . . yeah. we s t i l l l o o k f o r w a r d w i t h a l l our hopes t o the p r o s p e c t of s e e i n g you a g a i n soon: i m m o b i l i s a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t though. i can never thank you enough f o r l o t s of t h i n g s . how c o u l d we have s u r v i v e d w i t h o u t the hope you gave us. and i know t h a t , thanks to you, whatever the o l d man has t o s u f f e r w i l l be much m i t i g a t e d . . . . i hope mary i s w e l l , g i v e her our v e r y s p e c i a l b e s t and most s p e c i a l l o v e . an a r t i c l e of yours i d i s c o v e r e d i n a y e l l o w e d new r e p u b l i c i n the vancouver l i b r a r y , i n s p i r e d t h i s , i n which t h e r e ought not be more t h a n n i n e t y f o u r p l a g i a r i s m s . ( m a t t e r of f a c t , i don't t h i n k t h e r e a r e any u n l e s s ' d e r r i c k s of the s o u l ' r e c a l l s - w i t h o u t however b e n e f i t i n g by the comparison - 'who watches h e r e , oh m a r i n e r s and s u r g e o n s ' & c o u l d be counted as s u c h . i t i s not n e c e s s a r i l y improved by t h i s d e f i c i e n c y of h a v i n g none & now i see a n o t h e r : 'muted.' b . v ? ) s t h i s w r e s t l i n g , as of seamen w i t h a s t o r m which f l i e s t o l e e w a r d , w h i l e they u n i t e d i n t h a t chaos, t u r n , sea-weary each on h i s bunk, to dream of f i e l d s a t home or shake w i t h v i s i o n s dante never knew, the poet h i m s e l f f e e l s , s t r u g g l i n g w i t h the form of h i s q u i e t work. what d e r r i c k s of the s o u l plunge i n t h a t muted room, a d r i f t , menacing? when t r u a n t h e a r t can hear the s a i l o r s s i n g he'd break h i s pen t o s a i l an e a s t i n g down. and y e t some m a r i n e r ' s ferment i n h i s b l o o d s u s t a i n s him t o subdue or be subdued. in s l e e p a l l n i g h t he g r a p p l e s v i t h a s a i l ! but words beyond the l i f e of s h i p s dream on. meantime n a t u r e poems, mature poems, hate poems, f a t e poems, - a l l , but g r e a t poems - pour out. at the moment i am t o y i n g w i t h t h i s p l e a s i n g r a b e l a i s i a n vhirasy. p e o p l e down from the d i r e c t i o n of the saw m i l l , h e a r i n g s u s p i c i o u s b l o o d c u r d l i n g n o i s e s a t n i g h t from t h i s d i r e c t i o n , come t o i n v e s t i g a t e , ( i t has happened.) w i t h l a n t e r n s , even a ' l i f e b o a t ' . i t ends - never i n a comedian's l i f e have i laughed t i l l t h e n l . . . wherefore the legend grew t h a t t h e r e were g h o s t s somewhere between dead tree and m e r r y i s l a n d , and from our l o v e r e v i v e d an i n d i a n s l a u g h t e r . oh you who something something something l a n d may you t o o be b l e s s e d by such enormous l a u g h t e r as even god and whales might not approve. but i haven't got the b e g i n n i n g y e t : o r , i t might be s a i d , the end e i t h e r . anyhow, conrad, thus one's time i s s p e n t or m i s p e n t , w a i t i n g f o r a man from p o r l o c k , who may never come. i hope n o t . meantime, the v o l e i s a t l i n s c o t t s . i s h o u l d have t a k e n your a d v i c e and s e n t i t him f i r s t . but i was d u t y bound t o send i t t o b u r n e t t , who, i t t u r n e d o u t , d i d n ' t even read i t . can you t e l l me some mags where one might send pomes w i t h hope of s m a l l payments?. p l e a s e w r i t e and t e l l us i f you s t i l l l o v e us as we indeed l o v e you from both male. e x p l a n a t o r y notes c f . a l s o l e t t e r , p. . jane a i k e n and joan k e l l e t t had a p p a r e n t l y been a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l c l o s e t o w o o d v i l l e road, the l o c a t i o n of j e r r y k e l l e t t ' s "cramming s c h o o l " vhere lowry was s t a y i n g i n - . in an u n p u b l i s h e d l e t t e r of august t o h i s c h i l d r e n , a i k e n w r i t e s t h a t lowry "knows a g i r l named joan k e l l e t t a t jane's s c h o o l , and has o f t e n been t h e r e on s a t u r d a y s t o t a k e her out t o t e a . " c f . under the volcano ( - ). * a i k e n wrote many a r t i c l e s f o r the new r e p u b l i c ; the one t o which lowry i s r e f e r r i n g may be a i k e n ' s " g i g a n t i c dreams," new r e p u b l i c june : - . s c f . a i k e n ' s blue voyage: ". . . muted, l i k e the hush h e a r d i n a c o n c h - s h e l l " ( ) and l e t t e r , n. , p. . « see c o l e r i d g e ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o " k u b l a khan" i n which he says t h a t w h i l e w r i t i n g down h i s dream he was " c a l l e d out by a p e r s o n on b u s i n e s s from p o r l o c k " and was a f t e r w a r d s unable t o complete the poem. t e x t u a l notes . monad,\ monad{,} . a d o l e s c e n c e , s t i l l s t u c k i n my t h r o a t i wonder\ a d o l e s c e n c e { , } s t i l l s t u c k <there> { i n my t h r o a t ) i wonder . homes f o r two,\ homes <'f> f o r two, . surgeons' & c o u l d \ s u r g e o n s ' {&} c o u l d . - d e f i c i e n c y of h a v i n g none & now i see a n o t h e r : 'muted.' b.v?)\ d e f i c i e n c y < . > {of h a v i n g none & now i see a n o t h e r : 'muted.' b.v?)} . - a l l , but g r e a t \ - a l l { , } but g r e a t . come t o i n v e s t i g a t e , \ <s>{c}ome t o i n v e s t i g a t e , . b l e s s e d by\ b l e s s e d b{y) : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n p.o., d o l l a r t o n , b.c., canada, november , . dear o l d f e l l o w : down the abyss c r a s h e t h the t a b i d w o r l d . . . have you news - my godl - of john? e d ? may t h e y be s a f e . i have some news from my mater, who sounds p r e t t y mad though her b l o o d t h i r s t y n e s s i s d i r e c t e d a t most e v e r y t h i n g . i have t o a d m i t , s c e p t i c a l though i sometimes be about r e p o r t s of i n d e s c r i b a b l e m o r a l e , t h a t she never sounded i n such good form. god knows how or why, what w i t h t h e h e l l i s h s h e l l a c k i n g they've been g i v i n g l i v e r p o o l but t h i s l e t t e r was w r i t t e n b e f o r e the w o r s t . . . our gardener i s dead, a good egg and i have w r i t t e n t h i s e p i t a p h t o be put on h i s g r a v e . maybe t h e y won't because t h e y ' d have t o b u i l d a g r a n t ' s tomb t o accomodate i t . "would you l i k e t o see our son's poems? then w e ' l l a l l go o f f t o the g r a v e y a r d a f t e r t e a . . ." l i n s c o t t wrote me a v e r y e n c o u r a g i n g l e t t e r about the v o l e . he was f o r i t , o t h e r s were a g i n . i'm not d i s t r e s s e d though - he t h i n k s somebody w i l l t a k e i t e v e n t u a l l y . i'm not c a r i n g . we have enough j u s t t o s c r a p e t h r o u g h f o r a month or two. who c o u l d be l u c k i e r t h a n we? v i r g i n i a s t r o n g * has s e n t i n a c r a c k i n g good r e p o r t on m a r g i e ' s d e t e c t i v e n o v e l , so t h a t ' s f i n e news. but p r i n c i p a l l y i don't c a r e about the v o l e because i'm w r i t i n g p o e t r y a l l the time now. i send you f o u r poems,* and wondered/ i f you l i k e d them, or thought t h e y were s u i t a b l e or whatever, i c o u l d ask you the f a v o u r of s e n d i n g them t o the a t l a n t i c monthly w i t h a b e n i g n word. i hate t o g i v e you t r o u b l e : but as your o l d - and p r e s e n t , more t h a n e v e r , p u p i l i f e e l you would be p l e a s e d i was w r i t i n g p o e t r y , i f i t was good, or even i f i were t r y i n g . i f e e l t h a t t h e y have something, a c e r t a i n s i m p l i c i t y and s t r e n g t h , - a u n i v e r s a l i t y , maybe - t h a t t h e y may have an u n u s u a l d r a m a t i c q u a l i t y . you t o l d me once t o send some poems i had w r i t t e n a l o n g and you w i l l f o r g i v e me i f i have been t a k i n g you a t your word ever s i n c e . i may be f o o l i n g m y s e l f about t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r poems and i f i am i know you w i l l t e l l me s o , but p l e a s e answer me t h i s : may i keep on f i r i n g them a t you u n t i l you t h i n k you see one which might be p u b l i s h e d i n t h a t t h e r e a t l a n t i c f o r i t seems t o me a f i n e and t r a d i t i o n a l p l a c e t o s t a r t ? i c a n ' t t e l l you what a k i c k t h a t would g i v e the o l d c r e a t i v e i n s t i n c t . d i v o r c e papers have not a r r i v e d t i l l now and we a r e g o i n g t o be m a r r i e d by a f i n e c a r r o t - j u i c e s w i g g i n g u n i t a r i a n m i n i s t e r on monday - shades of your a n c e s t o r s - we know you a r e w i s h i n g us l u c k - god b l e s s you, & mary, - l o v e from both - male p.s. i have appended b l o o d y l i t t l e t i t l e s t o the poems, a f t e r the a t l a n t i c custom. i am no w a l l a c e s t e v e n s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y . and, of c o u r s e , gawd w i t h a c a p i t a l h. and good god, why n o t ? e x p l a n a t o r y notes x john davenport; ed b u r r a . a the "enclosed'' e p i t a p h i s m i s s i n g ; however, see lowry's " e p i t a p h on our gardener, dead near l i v e r p o o l " i n t h e u.b.c. lowry c o l l e c t i o n ( - ) . v i r g i n i a swain stong ( - ), american a u t h o r ; w i f e o f the a u t h o r p h i l stong ( - ). in a october l e t t e r from h a r o l d matson t o lowry, matson c o r r e c t s lowry's m i s t a k e n s p e l l i n g o f stong's name and c a l l s v i r g i n i a stong a " w r i t e r and e d i t o r on her own a c c o u n t " (matson p a p e r s ) . i am not s u r e which company stong was a r e a d e r f o r . « these poems a r e m i s s i n g . b c f . l e t t e r , p. , which may have been w r i t t e n a f t e r such a r e q u e s t from a i k e n . " t h e lowrys were m a r r i e d on december . t e x t u a l notes . t h i s l e t t e r \ t h i s l e t { t ) e r . s e n t \ s { ^ } e n t . more t h a n e v e r , \ <n>{m}ore than e v e r , . you, & mary,\ you, {&) mary, . - - u n f o r t u n a t e l y . and, o f c o u r s e (. . . .j why n o t ? \ u n f o r t u n a t e l y . {and, of c o u r s e , gawd w i t h a c a p i t a l h. and good god, why n o t ? ) ; fsoib l.qwrx tq aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n p.o., d o l l a r t o n b.c., dec. , . h i w i l l i a m ! herman! conrad! n a t h a n i e l ! - h e l p ! between the b l a n k v e r s e and the c o r d i t e - here i s a n o t h e r v e r s i o n of pome i s e n t y o u . a l i n e s t o a r e d i f f e r e n t . in t h e v e r s i o n i s e n t you i t l o o k s as though l y c i d a s and not the sea s t a n k so b a d l y i t would make whoever i t was weep. so i have r e w r i t t e n the pome so t h a t i t m e r e l y l o o k s as though i t i s the poem t h a t s t i n k s and not l y c i d a s . h e r e w i t h . i t may be the f u l f i l l m e n t of a l i f e l o n g a m b i t i o n t o haunt a g r a v e y a r d , anyhow. we were m a r r i e d w i t h o u t a h i t c h , which i s a paradox, and v e r y f i n e t o o . god b l e s s you, my dear o l d b i r d , and mary. i much admire the poet j o n e s , v e r y . love from both - male. e x p l a n a t o r y motes w i l l i a m demarest, p r o t a g o n i s t of a i k e n ' s b l u e voyage; herman m e l v i l l e ; n a t h a n i e l havthorne. t h i s poem i s m i s s i n g . lowry i s r e f e r r i n g t o the new england t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t p o e t , jones very ( - ). : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n p.o., d o l l a r t o n , b.c., december , . dear conrad: i w i l l promise not t o send you a n o t h e r pome - save f o r c h r i s t m a s , maybe - but am v e n t u r i n g t o send you t h i s , - wondering i f you had not a l r e a d y s e n t any of the o t h e r pomes t o the a t l a n t i c , i f you would e n c l o s e i t , i f you were g o i n g t o send any, t h a t i s , and p l e a s e do not send any i f you don't t h i n k i t r i g h t , because i t won't h u r t me, i c a n ' t s t o p w r i t i n g them anyhow - and anyway why don't i send them m y s e l f . the l a s t i s r a t h e r e a s i l y answered: nobody seems w i l l i n g t o t a k e them nor agent handle them u n l e s s you a r e a 'name' or the pomes a r e s o l i c i t e d , or good, or something. ' p o e t r y ' may be an e x c e p t i o n but i don't know the a d d r e s s . maybe you c o u l d g i v e me some s u g g e s t i o n s . . . once i n rye you wrote me a l e t t e r m e n t i o n i n g the s t r a n g e n o i s e s my uke made. with t h e a i d of an i n t r o v e r t e d s e n s i b i l i t y i have now t u r n e d t h i s round a b i t . i f a uke why not a g u i t a r or a harp or a v i o l made out of a woman's b r e a s t b o n e or even the h e r i t a g e poets l e a v e b e h i n d f o r l a t e r s i n g e r s ? love from both t o both male p.s. my e x p l a n a t i o n of the poem i s j u s t b a l l s , as u s u a l : pay no a t t e n t i o n . e x p l a n a t o r y notes a. the " e n c l o s e d " poem i s m i s s i n g . t h i s l e t t e r i s m i s s i n g . t e x t u a l notes . love from both t o b o t h \ love from both<,> {to both} . - p.s. my e x p l a n a t i o n {. . .] no a t t e n t i o n . \ ( h a n d w r i t t e n i n ink a t end of l e t t e r } : from aiken to lowry ts ubc; unpublished brewster mass. dec dear old male- forgive silences, i[']ve been rendered incommunicado by poison ivy in both arms, and apart from that too busy to c a l l my soul my own. i like the pomes moderate-like. but i cant send them to atlantic, because i've had one hell of a row with weeks, and to have them sent by me would automtically rule them out. nor am i much better off with anyone else. my name is mud. epitaph is the best, i think—largely because formally more complete—the others are pretty irregular, lines shortening or lengthening w i l l y n i l l y and for no apprent purpose. i could send i t to the new l i t t l e mag called vice versa, i f you l i k e — b u t i t woud mean no cash to speak of. the news of your marriage at last is marvellous—had i not been in such a moil i'd have wired you at once our loves and things—or sent you a singogram! very fine. what about your getting into the u s ? we've been really in a frenzy here—uncle alfred died in november, and there have been endless complications, including a fantastic search for his last ashes, a fruitless journey to new bedfor in an attempt to get him buried, the s p i l l i n g of his hapless ashes on a mahogany table in the offices of the cemetery board, and his return here for a week in brewster. but on friday we went again and returned him to his whaling ancestors, and drank his health in a a bar called the atlantic, so now he rests. i have a r e s i d e n t p u p i l h e r e , john hay, f o r two months, which h e l p s t o pay t h e upkeep on our borrowed house, f u r n t i t u r e , s t o v e s , and f u r n a c e — m a r y runs a s m a l l a r t c l a s s - - m y book of s o n n e t s i s o u t , but nobody knows i t , nobody r e v i e w s i t , nobody buys i t , nobody reads i t — i ' l l send you one f o r xmas. and when i g e t a q u i e t day i ' l l r e a l l y t r y t o w r i t e you a p r o p e r l e t t e r . our l o v e s t o you both conrad i t h i n k i t ' s good t h a t you're w r i t i n g p o e t r y - - b u t do t r y t o keep your numbers and q u a n t i t i e s s t r a i g h t — ! freedom comes a f t e r mastery not b e f o r e — t h e sonnet c o n s i s t s of l i n e s of f i v e - b e a t i a m b i c s , rhymed a b a b c d c d e f e f g g or abbaabbacdecde: i t c a n ' t j u s t be a n y t h i n g e x p l a n a t o r y notes edward augustus weeks ( - ) was the a s s o c i a t e e d i t o r of the a t l a n t i c m o n t h l y from - , and e d i t o r from - . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . a l f r e d c l a g h o r n p o t t e r ( - ), b r o t h e r of a i k e n ' s mother, anna kempton p o t t e r ; l i b r a r i a n of widener l i b r a r y a t h a r v a r d ; c f . ushant ( - ) and l e t t e r , p. . a i k e n s u s p e c t e d h i s u n c l e t o have been the model f o r e l i o t ' s " j . a l f r e d p r u f r o c k " ( k i l l o r i n , s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n ). « not i d e n t i f i e d . b and i n the human h e a r t (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). t e x t u a l notes . i ( ' ] v e \ i ( v e ( t y p o . ) . a b o u t \ a<n>{b}out . - a f t e r m a s t e r y \ < a f t e r t mastery . a n y t h l n q f a <a_qy.>thing! (notes h a n d w r i t t e n i n ink by lowry i n top l e f t - h a n d c o r n e r of l e t t e r : s t a r t l i n g , as ( l i k e ) a dog t h a t t a k e s a f a l s e s t e p . <men have s i l e n c e > death h a t h t h i s s i l e n c e i n common w i t h us home r u n s , (perhaps) but who may f i n d the b a l l ? ) : from lowry to aiken ts h; unpublished d o l l a r t o n p.o., d o l l a r t o n , b.c., december , . - i d i d n ' t send you a pome f o r christmas, my dear o l d p h a l l a , but here's an a p p r o p r i a t e y e a s t s y thought f o r the new year. (not f o r the a t l a n t i c monthly.) byzantium: or where the great l i f e begins (or g e t t i n g a b i t knocked oop nov.) - don't come any of t h a t byzantium s t u f f on me, me s v e l l young t o f f ! j u s t p l a i n stamboul is good enough f e r me and lamps and b i l l . c o n s t a n t i b l o o d y n o p l e • s r i g h t enough - used to be, eh? eh? don't give me t h a t g u f f l i k e t h a t wot you s a i d about the i d e a l - in a b l i n d eye s o c k e t l but a g i r l ' s a g i r l and bobhead t i g e r s here v i l l t r e a t you rough and g i v e you, ' i d e a l ! ' f a r e w e l l , smoke j s r e a l - and u k e l e l e s mourn a u l u l u : and engine stampedes: more f o o l you f o o l vou: and a e r l e l savs: oh whither where away; and sea: each one-eared dog w i l l have i t s dav: and s t a r s wink: venus f i r s t , then mercury. a god enormously b l e s s you both and g i v e you merry christmas. we f i n d l i f e marvellous here, sea and snow - god goes by v i t h white f o o t f a l l - no men with black f o o t f a l l from p o r l o c k * - and a w i l d duck washed up on the shore. male. n.b. h e r e ' s a n o t h e r c a l l e d ' d e s e r t e r ' , a l s o n o t f o r p u b l i c a t i o n . . . . 'dead, i n a r e f r i g e r a t o r v a n a t e m p r e s s . ' t h e n , l y i n g on b a r e b o a r d s , i n a s m a l l room h i s f a t h e r came f r o m c o q u i t l a m t o s e e . ' t h e r e w a s n ' t e v e n a s h e e t o v e r h i m . ' b r o u g h t h i s b o d y down f r o m m e d i c i n e h a t t h a t had b e e n p l a c e d i n c a t e g o r y c. m i l i t a r y p a p e r s i n h i s army g r e a t c o a t - ' s h o u l d have b e e n i n e n g l a n d ? came home f o r c h r i s t m a s ? - and d i d he have t o bum h i s way b a c k home? - thus p a s s , f r o m o l d w e s t m i n s t e r t o newt h e r e i s a t a l e t h a t c l a n g s a n i r o n d o o r s h u t a g a i n s t t h e h e a r t , f r e e z i n g s e n s e : f o r p i t y c a n n o t f o l l o w t o t h e a c c u s i n g r o o t of t h i s t r a g e d y b e y o n d t r a g e d y . i. e x p l a n a t o r y n o t e s c f . l e t t e r , p . . t h i s p o e m v a s p u b l i s h e d i n s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d f o r m a s " b y z a n t i u m " i n s e l e c t e d p o e m s o f m a l c o l m l o v r v . e d . e a r l e b i r n e y ( s a n f r a n c i s c o : c i t y l i g h t s b o o k s , ) ; s e e a l s o t h e u . b . c . l o v r y c o l l e c t i o n - ; - ) . j s e e l e t t e r , n . , p . . d r a f t s o f t h i s p o e m a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e u . b . c . l o v r y c o l l e c t i o n ( - ; - ) . . t e x t u a l n o t e s ' d e s e r t e r ' \ d e s e r t < i o n > { e r ) ' : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n p.o., d o l l a r t o n , b.c., j a n u a r y , . dear conrad - j u s t r e c e i v e d y e s t e r d a y and i n the human heart - f o r which a thousand t h a n k s . i t i s d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d by b o t h . have not had time t o d i g e s t as y e t but can o n l y say so f a r i t was not so much l i k e opening a book on words, but on a l i g h t n i n g , a s u n l i g h t . i t was as though a c o i l e d b r i g h t s o u l sprung out a t us. w i l l e l a b o r a t e l a t e r : what i have seen i s g r e a t , and my f e e l i n g comes j u s t a f t e r an attempt t o do some h e f t y r e a d i n g r i g h t t h r o u g h e n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , shakespeare, jonson, m i l t o n , e t c . i f e e l t h e r e a r e i n your book some of the h i g h e s t t o u c h s t o n e s of e x c e l l e n c e i n a l l l i t e r a t u r e . w i l l w r i t e a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h l a t e r . margie says she's p a r a l y z e d by book - both send thanks t o both and l o v e - male p.s. f e e l a b i t ashamed - as who wouldn't, a f t e r your book? - of m y s e l f , s e n d i n g you my. u n p o l i s h e d mumblings: but i am w o r k i n g v e r y hard a t t r y i n g t o get the mastery you have i n d i c a t e d and which i agree i s so n e c e s s a r y : so f a r am encouraged w i t h r e s u l t s so i may bore you w i t h some more. e x p l a n a t o r y notes and i n the human heart (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). lowry's copy i n the u.b.c. l i b r a r y bears the f o l l o w i n g i n s c r i p t i o n w r i t t e n by a i k e n : for malcolm and m a r g e r i e w i t h much l o v e and b e s t wishes f o r a merry c h r i s t m a s — and many t o come-- from conrad & mary. . : from aiken t o lowry ts ubc; k i l l o r i n b r e v s t e r mass feb b l e s s you male, and b l e s s margie t o o f o r a l l the g l o w i n g words and numbers and phine p h l a t t e r i n g phrases about my l i t t l e dead sonnets--how good of you b o t h , thanks thanks and thanks a g a i n ! - i rushed t o r e - r e a d t h e ones you l i k e d , t o see i f t h e y were ones i_ l i k e d — i t ' s always such fun t o read one's own t h i n g s t h r o u g h somebody e l s e ' s e y e s , don't you t h i n k ? a k i n d of t w i c e r e f l e c t e d n a r c i s s i s m . and agreed i n many c a s e s , a l t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y w i t [ h ] a p r e f e r e n c e f o r o t h e r s — w h i c h i s o n l y n a t u r a l . very c o m f o r t i n g a l t o g e t h e r , f o r such r e v i e w s as t h i s book has had have been p r i v a t e r e v i e w s , l i k e y o u r s , v i z . , i n l e t t e r s — t h e p r e s s r e v i e w s have been few. t h i s c u l m i n a t e d i n an a t t a c k by j a r r e l l i n the n r e p u b l i c two weeks ago, and a r e p l y , a t t a c k i n g j a r r e l l and p o e t - c r i t i c s [ , j by cowley, the week a f t e r . whether h i s generous remarks can r t e j s u c i t a t e the book, a t t h i s l a t e d a t e , i i n c l i n e t o doubt. a l l v e r y s a d . the g a l i l e a n note i hadnt n o t i c e d — i n f a c t i'd have s a i d i f a n y t h i n g t h a t t h a t . i f a t a l l , might be more prominent i n time i n the r o c k than h e r e , where the w e l t a n s c h a u n g * i s more l u c r e t i a n , more p a g a n — b u t then one never knows! and i n t e r e s t i n g anyway. as f o r the p o r t r a i t of the husband and f a t h e r , the k i d s , the c a t s , the k i t c h e n — w e l l , i dunno, t h a t seems t o me not so a d a p t e l d ] t o my purpose, which was a c e l e b r a t i o n of j o y - i n - l o v e , and i n d e f i a n c e of f a t e , z e r o , d e a t h , t i m e , space, t e r r o r , god, and e v e r y t h i n g — n a m e l y , i n d e f i a n c e of knowledge. t h i s i n t u r n c a l l e d f o r the grand manner, s o r t o f — a n d your s u g g e s t e d g e m u t l i c h k e i t would h a r d l y a c c o r d , i t h i n k ? perhaps c o n v e r s a t i o n c o n t a i n s the p o r t r a i t you want. . . how n i c e t o have your p i c t u r e s , and how l o v e l y , may i say, margie i s - - a s everyone here d e l i g h t e d l y a g r e e s . jane was d e l i g h t e d a l s o w i t h the c a t ! . . g e r a l d r e p o r t s you have got your p a s s p o r t s t r a i g h t e n e d o u t — d o you t h i n k of coming e a s t ? and j d's address--the m a l t i n g house, m a r s h f i e l d , chippenham, w i l t s . i haven't heard from him f o r over a y e a r . l o v e t o you both conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes the p r e c e d i n g l e t t e r from the lowrys t o w h i c h a i k e n i s here r e f e r r i n g i s m i s s i n g . a see r a n d a l l j a r r e l l ' s "the r h e t o r i c i a n s , " new r e p u b l i c feb. : - , and malcolm cowley's response i n "poets as r e v i e w e r s , " new r e p u b l i c feb. : - . j a r r e l l ' s r e v i e w vas a t t a c k e d by two o t h e r s i n the new r e p u b l i c march : j.v. h e a l y , "correspondence: the p o e t ' s b l o o d y c o r n e r , " , and wadsworth mulrooney, "correspondence: the p o e t ' s b l o o d y c o r n e r , " - . time in the rock? p r e l u d e s tp pefiinitlpn (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). * "weltanschauung": german, " w o r l d - v i e w " ; a i k e n has m i s s p e l l e d the word. " g e m u t l i c h k e i t " : german, "good-naturedness." * g e r a l d noxon; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . john davenport; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes . o c c a s i o n a l l y w i t [ h ] \ o c c a s i o n a l l y w i t n [ t y p o . ] . p o e t - c r i t i c s ( , ] by cowleyn poet c r i t i c s , by cowley i t y p o . ] . r ( e l s u c i t a t e \ r s u c i t a t e [ t y p o . ] . t h a t , \ itlhat,/ . a d a p t e [ d ] \ adapte [ t y p o . ] . c e l e b r a t i o n of j o y - i n - l o v e , \ c e l ( e ) b r a t i o n of j o y { - } i n ( - ) l o v e , . . p o r t r a i t \ < i l l l e g . ] > p o r t r a i t . s t r a i g h t e n e d \ s t r a i g h t e n e ( d ) . l o v e t o you b o t h \ ( h a n d w r i t t e n ] : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n p.o. d o l l a r t o n , b.c. canada. may , . very q u e r i d o conrad - mary - thanks f o r the news (a wee b i t c o n t r a d i c t o r y , but a l l t u r n e d out f i n e ) and s o r r y t o have g i v e n you a l l the b o t h e r of my b l o o d y mss. anyway. but i do v e r y much a p p r e c i a t e what you d i d f o r me and i want t o say t o you too - what i have j u s t f i n i s h e d s a y i n g t o bob l i n s c o t t - t h a t so f a r as i was concerned the b o t h e r was not wasted. your i n t e r e s t and k i n d n e s s g o t me over a h e l l of a d i f f i c u l t p e r i o d where i might h [ a ] v e l e t down: as t h i n g s s t a n d i have been a b l e t o r e o r g a n i z e my l i f e t o a p o i n t where i am now r e a l l y a b l e t o cope w i t h t h a t , and o t h e r , work. as your p u p i l t h i s makes me f e e l good because i f e e l i am now j u s t i f y i n g your f a i t h i n me: you w a i t . my l i f e was always t h e most d i f f i c u l t p a r t of my work, l a r g e l y because i t was too easy. as f o r the o l d man, god knows what h o r r o r s a r e b r e a k i n g over h i s poor head, but whatever t h e y a r e , he and the mater now f e e l happy about me which i s t o them one major sorrow the l e s s , f o r which i am e t e r n a l l y t h a n k f u l . and the g h a s t l y p s y c h o t i c dance we l e d each o t h e r has come t o an end. and you must t a k e c r e d i t f o r t h i s t o o . as f o r o u r s e l v e s , we d i d not succeed i n coming t o m o n t r e a l , and america is as far off as ever, but the hope engendered vork constructively. stroke after stroke of good fortune has come our vay and ve have nov bought a supershack on the sea - a l l paid for, no rent, no tax, but lovely, surrounded v i t h dogvood and cherry and pines, isolated, and a s v e l l place for vork. it's no forty-one doors but ve love i t just the same and i t s u i t s us f ine. margie has v r i t t e n tvo mystery novels,* one plumb f i r s t rate from any point of viev, and the agents hopes of s e l l i n g i t are sanguine - and i three long short s t o r i e s (including a pouncing horror) vhich have also c a l l e d forth the varmest sangulnities from the hard-boiled. i have been vorking hard at the pomes too, bearing your vords v e i l in mind, and i f e e l i've done something very vorthy here too - about s i x t y nev ones - may i i n f l i c t some on you sometime i f you vould say the vord? the a t l a n t i c has held on to one for nearly three months, having sent a l l the others back, vhich might be a good sign. hovever, apart from one in england, i have met v i t h no material success here yet, not even from poetry. but i don't care because i f e e l i am r e a l l y getting somevhere. in addition - a l l the mss. from linscott arrived on may day! - a l l of them are p e r f e c t l y unreadable as they stand, vhich makes me g r a t e f u l for your patience a l l over again, but as i say i am nov able to cope v i t h them, and i t vas a kind of good omen t h e i r a r r i v i n g vhen they did, just as ve had moved into our nev 'house' vhich i s r e a l l y b e a u t i f u l , by the vay. so - thank you mary and conrad! - and f o r your l e t t e r s . and now, a l l the l u c k i n the w o r l d t o doors and your p r o j e c t . how l u c k y , how l u c k y , and a g a i n l u c k y your p u p i l s a r e , and what a godsent o p p o r t u n i t y t h e y have. i suppose i t ' s i n e v i t a b l e such o p p o r t u n i t i e s s h o u l d be v e r y r a r e but what hope or h e l p a european c r e a t i v e f e l l o w c o u l d get out of cambridge and i t s b l o o d y t r i p o s e s seemed t o me t o depend too much on l u c k and - but i won't g e t g o i n g on the 'system' now. w e l l a l l the v e r y b e s t of l u c k t o you, and your p u p i l s , though t h e y a l r e a d y have i t , b e i n g s u c h . b l e s s i n g s . male & m a r g i e . e x p l a n a t o r y notes f o r t y - o n e doors: the a i k e n s ' home i n b r e w s t e r , m a s s a c h u s e t t s . the l a s t t v i s t of the k n i f e (nev york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ) and the shapes that creep (nev york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). * i have not been a b l e t o i d e n t i f y any l o v r y poems p u b l i s h e d i n england a t t h i s t i m e . t e x t u a l notes . h ( a ) v e \ h ve ( t y p o . ) . v h e r e \ v h e ( ^ } r e . - vhat a godsentx vhat (a) godsent : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n p.o. d o l l a r t o n , b.c, canada, august , . muy q u e r i d o mary and conrad: s a l u d y p e s e t a . how goes the summer s c h o o l ? we a r e s t i l l s i t t i n g i n our c o t t a g e on the sea - which we own, the c o t t a g e t h a t i s , and damn i t , the sea t o o , why not? - u n t i l such time as vancouver aldermen i n v e s t i g a t e the s q u a t t e r ' s problem, which w i l l p r o b a b l y be never s i n c e we're not on c i t y l a n d - t a x f r e e , w i t h g e t t i n g on f i v e hundred d o l l a r s i n the bank which w i l l p r o b a b l y be broke b e f o r e the y e a r i s o u t , though i t has a p r o v i d e n t sound and i t would p r o b a b l y have r o t t e d i f we b u r i e d i t i n the ground, s t r i v i n g f o r what you c a l l a b e t t e r t h i n g , and gawd b l i m e y how we have s t r u v , and w i t h d i f f i d e n t , remote, or o c c a s i o n a l u n i l l u s t r i o u s l y l o c a l s u c c e s s as t o t h i n g s t a k e n and s o l d , but two wows of m y s t e r i e s by margie c a l l e d the l a s t t w i s t of the k n i f e and the shapes t h a t creep t h a t w i l l come out some time and one l o n g s h o r t s t o r y u t t e r l y r e w r i t t e n r e c a s t and d e p l a g i a r i z e d and r e b o r n by me, t h a t l a s t address which i t h i n k might l i v e when i am dead and damned or something and a pome i n the september a t l a n t i c - about the o n l y one of innumerable t o c l i c k anywhere - c a l l e d in memoriam f o r someone, not the gardener t h i s t i m e , p r o b a b l y b u r i e d away somewhere i n t h e d e p t h s , not t o o bad, i hope you t h i n k , c e r t a i n l y i t i s muy c o r r e c t o , o n l y we wrote some music f o r t h a t b e t t e r ( f o r the uke) o n l y i t ' s so d e p r e s s i n g one cannot s i n g i t w i t h o u t t h a t s e l f c o n s c i o u s t e a r drop g l i s t e n i n g i n the eye, and we had a s l i g h t a l t e r c a t i o n w i t h weeks t o o , j u s t t o be i n the f a m i l y , i n f a c t we h e l d up the a t l a n t i c which was more than joshua c o u l d do or the c h i l d r e n of i s r a e l and a c t u a l l y had t o send i t a t e l e g r a m f i n a l l y . for the l a s t two months and f o r the next two we have been and a r e b u s y i n g o u r s e l f e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h t h a t under the v o l c a n o book and in b a l l a s t t o the white sea, which have had t o be t h o r o u g h l y d e l o u s e d and g i v e n two new h a n d l e s and two new b l a d e s , o t h e r w i s e i t s the same o l d c r i c k e t b a t . however we d e c i d e d t h a t a l l the c h a r a c t e r s c o u l d not be e q u a l l y dead and have a l l q u i t e the same look - t h e y had t o be d i s t r i b u t e d i n d i f f e r e n t p o s t u r e s t h r o u g h o u t the morgue anyway - and t h i s has p r e s e n t e d some n i c e problems, most of them n e a t l y s o l v e d , we f e e l . i t h i n k t h e y may both end up f i r s t r a t e , which would be a m i r a c l e , but not i m p o s s i b l e . the c u r r e n t problem (damn i t , can i ever get t h r o u g h a l e t t e r t o you w i t h o u t a s k i n g you a f a v o u r ) i s re houghton m i f f l i n ' s f e l l o w s h i p , the a p p l i c a t i o n b l a n k f o r which l i n s c o t t has s e n t us, t h a t i s , i n t h i s c a s e , me. i have among o t h e r t h i n g s t o send i n l e t t e r s from two r e s p o n s i b l e persons - t h e y may r e f e r e i t h e r t o a p p l i c a n t s c h a r a c t e r or l i t e r a r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n s or b o t h . do you t h i n k as an o l d p u p i l i c o u l d ask you humbly t o send such a b r i e f l e t t e r - t h a t i s , two b r i e f l e t t e r s , one from you and one from mary, b r i e f l y p a s s i n g over the f a c t t h a t i might have n e i t h e r : a d d r e s s them t o houghton m i f f l i n of c o u r s e but p l e a s e send them t o me t o e n c l o s e w i t h the o t h e r t h i n g s because i have not y e t r e c e i v e d p e r m i s s i o n t o e n t e r f o r the f e l l o w s h i p from my a g e n t . i can guarantee the work i n q u e s t i o n d e p l a g i a r i z e d and t h a t i t w i l l be done, even i f i t has t o be f i n i s h e d w i t h a bayonet. and i'd be most g r a t e f u l i f you would do t h i s f o r me. but i must send o f f the l e t t e r s , mss. e t c . from here t o houghton m i f f l i n by september t o a l l o w f o r d e l a y s , c e n s o r s , a c t s of god, e t c . i hope a l l i s v e r y w e l l w i t h you both and w e l l w i t h your f r i e n d s a b r o a d . john? ed?* i haven't heard a mumblin word from l i v e r p o o l - w e l l , j u s t one s l i g h t ambiguous mumble - s i n c e b e f o r e the bad a i r r a i d s t h e r e . no word from anyone e l s e . the w o r l d seems t o have r e e l e d away from one a l t o g e t h e r i n t o a b l o o d s h o t p a l l of h o r r o r and h y p o c r i s y , a chaos w i t h o u t melody.* i f you can s p a r e more words of a d v i c e as w e l l f o r one who wants h o n e s t l y s t i l l t o d i s c i p l i n e h i m s e l f t o be a poet i'd be a w f u l l y g r a t e f u l . i haven't s e n t a n y t h i n g a l o n g y e t because not q u i t e s a t i s f i e d w i t h a n y t h i n g . we remain d i s g u s t i n g l y w e l l and happy: i u n r e c o g n i z a b l y f i t , not a pouch, not an ounce, not a f u n e r a l b l o a t . god b l e s s . male. e x p l a n a t o r y notes " s a l u d y p e s e t a t s ] " : s p a n i s h t o a s t meaning " h e a l t h and money." c f . under the volcano (nev york: r e y n a l & h i t c h c o c k / ) : " s a l u d y p e s e t a s . " "y tiempo para g a s t a r l a s " ( ) and " s a l u d y p e s e t a s " ( ) . " i n memoriam: i n g v a l d b j o r n d a l , " a t l a n t i c m o n t h l y . (oct. ): . edvard weeks; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . * john davenport; edvard b u r r a . s cf. houston p e t e r s o n ' s the melody of chaos; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . ; from aiken t o lowry ts ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d b r e w s t e r mass, aug dear male-- b r i e f l y i n d d e d , f o r the s c h o o l keeps us busy. three l i v e l y problems, and i n a d d i t i o n one g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , c h a r l e s h a m i l t o n , who was of our f i r s t v i n t a g e , rye, --we have no s p a r e t i m e , l i t t l e s p a r e energy. saves the bacon, t o o , as o t h e r w i s e we'd be p e n n i l e s s , worse than p e n n i l e s s — $ i n d e b t . as i t i s , we may be a b l e t o pay o f f some b i l l s , and s t a r t the w i n t e r w i t h an o u t s i d e chance of g e t t i n g t h r o u g h . your own s t a t u s a s t o n i s h e s and m y s t i f i e s me, not t o mention d e i g h t s - - b u t how d i d you do i t , i mean, r i s e from u t t e r b a f f l e d i n d i g e n c e t o manorhood?- e x p l a i n , e l u c i d a t e , expound. and f i v e hundred i n the bank, t o o . gor b l i m e y ! there must be an e x c l u d e d m i d d l e somewhere. did you hear from s t u a r t l e g g - - t o whom i have g i v e n your a d d r e s s , w i t h a view t o h i s a s k i n g you t o do some work f o r f i l l u m s ? sounded s o r t of p r o m i s i n g , i t h o u g h t . margaret legg i s here i n b r e w s t e r , w i t h k i d s , i n a c o t t a g e — b u t of t h a t i w i l l say n o t h i n g i n p r i n t , no. s t u a r t came down f o r a few days and i t was good t o see him: a queer broody c r e a t u r e , but n i c e . i a s s u r e d him you were one of the w o r l d ' s b e s t informed people i n r e movies. marve l l o u s about t h e a t l a n t i c - - t h a t ' s more than i can do, so i f e a r i c a n ' t h e l p you as t o p o t r y - - n o t t h a t i'm not d e l i g h t e d t o see what you a r e d o i n g . as f o r me, i have done n o t h i n g but the b e g i n n i n g of a p o t e n t i a l long-poem,* or s e m i p o t e n t i a l , and a group of c i t y eclogues,, which m i l d l y please me.* a novel i n mind, but no more than notes f o r i t . ed w r i t e s o f t e n and [ b ] r i l l i a n t l y . john and n i n a hope to come here when a l l i s over. jane i s married to angus smart, a pedant, and l i v e s a t saskatoon, saskatchewan—address, wilbur court, th ave. north; sask. paul nash- i s a t oxford, doing war drawings. i haven't p a i d any r e n t on jeake's house f o r a year and a h a l f , and look l i k e l o s i n g i t . i had my twenty t e e t h out i n may and june, and now have du pont f a l s i e s of great beauty and t o l e r a b l e speed. and t h a t i s the news to t h i s moment. your photo i s a f a n t a s y , margie's v e r y p r e t t y . when w i l l you come e a s t , or are you now permanent waves, and what do you l i v e on???? enclosed the p l a u d i t s . as ev conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes x not i d e n t i f i e d . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . s t u a r t legg ( - ), b r i t i s h documentary p r o d u c e r - d i r e c t o r ; educated a t cambridge u n i v e r s i t y ; became chairman b r i t a i n ' s f i l m c e n t r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n . the s o l d i e r : a poem, the p o e t s of the year s e r i e s ( n o r f o l k , conn.: new d i r e c t i o n s , ). brownstone e c l o g u e s and other poems (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). john and nina a i k e n . p a u l nash; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . these a r e m i s s i n g . t e x t u a l notes . [ b ] r i l l i a n t l y . \ n r i l l i a n t l y . [ t y p o . ] - . . . s a y t o y o u r s e l f , t h i s guy l o v e s me, or he wouldn't be so b l o o d y c a n d i d about me. j a n u a r y l e t t e r from a i k e n t o lowry - by , both the a i k e n s and lowrys had s e t t l e d down i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p a r a d i s o s , a i k e n i n h i s " j u n g l e " i n west b r e w s t e r and lowry i n h i s w a t e r f r o n t shack i n d o l l a r t o n . in s p i t e of the war, a l l seems t o have been r e l a t i v e l y calm d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . in the summers the a i k e n s r a n t h e i r summer s c h o o l i n w r i t i n g and p a i n t i n g which t h e y ' d o r i g i n a l l y begun i n rye i n ; lowry, meanwhile, spent much of h i s time w o r k i n g on under the volcano and swimming i n b u r r a r d i n l e t . however, on june , d i s a s t e r s t r u c k . lowry awoke t h a t morning t o f i n d the r o o f of t h e i r shack on f i r e ; w i t h i n no time the e n t i r e b u i l d i n g and most of i t s c o n t e n t s had been d e s t r o y e d . while m a r g e r i e had been a b l e t o save the m a n u s c r i p t of under the v o l c a n o . lowry's o t h e r n o v e l , " i n b a l l a s t t o the white sea," was l o s t . two weeks l a t e r the lowrys t r a v e l l e d t o o a k v i l l e , o n t a r i o t o s t a y w i t h lowry and a i k e n ' s mutual f r i e n d from cambridge, g e r a l d noxon. by december of t h a t y e a r , the lowrys had f o l l o w e d g e r a l d and b e t t y noxon t o n i a g a r a - o n - t h e - l a k e where t h e y r e n t e d a house of t h e i r own. that c h r i s t m a s eve, lowry p r e s e n t e d noxon w i t h a completed d r a f t of under the v o l c a n o . in f e b r u a r y the lowrys r e t u r n e d t o d o l l a r t o n where t h e y began the h e f t y t a s k of r e b u i l d i n g t h e i r shack. that same year a i k e n , t o o , was f o r c e d t o r e t u r n t o h i s o l d p l a c e of r e s i d e n c e . the damage s u f f e r e d by jeake's house i n the war was too s e r i o u s t o l e t the house go any l o n g e r w i t h o u t r e p a i r s . by e a r l y november the a i k e n s had s e t s a i l f o r l i v e r p o o l , d e s t i n e d f o r rye. on november, the h a l f - b u i l t shack p r o v i n g inadequate p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t the w i n t e r c o l d , the lowrys l e f t f o r mexico. there t h e y s e t t l e d i n cuernavaca where t h e y were a b l e t o r e v i s i t lowry's o l d haunts and b e g i n a new n o v e l based on the t r i p , dark as the grave wherein mv f r i e n d i s l a i d . in l a t e december, lowry r e c e i v e d news of jonathan cape's p r o v i s i o n a l a c c e p t a n c e of under t h e v o l c a n o . i t was i n response t o t h i s , i n j a n u a r y , t h a t he wrote h i s now famous l e t t e r t o cape w i t h a c h a p t e r by c h a p t e r defence and e x p l i c a t i o n of the n o v e l ( b r e i t , s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s - ) . in march the lowrys t r a v e l l e d t o a c a p u l c o where t h e y r a n i n t o t r o u b l e w i t h the mexican i m m i g r a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s . they were e v e n t u a l l y d e p o r t e d from the c o u n t r y i n e a r l y may, but not b e f o r e t h e y had r e c e i v e d the news t h a t under the v o l c a n o had been a c c e p t e d both i n the u n i t e d s t a t e s and e n g l a n d . a i k e n meanwhile was e x p e r i e n c i n g f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n rye. d e s p i t e the moderate s u c c e s s i n london of h i s p l a y "fear no more" (based upon h i s s h o r t s t o r y "mr. a r c u l a r i s " ) , and the p u b l i c a t i o n of h i s l o n g poem, the k i d , which he d e d i c a t e d t o lowry, he d e c i d e d t o s e l l jeake's house and r e t u r n t o forty-one doors. yet by the f o l l o w i n g year he was s t i l l w i t h o u t a buyer, and i n june he l e f t a l o n e f o r west b r e w s t e r , l e a v i n g mary b e h i n d t o s e l l j e a k e ' s . d u r i n g t h i s time the lowrys had been p r e p a r i n g f o r the p u b l i c a t i o n of under the v o l c a n o . a l t h o u g h t h e y d i d n ' t have t o be i n new york u n t i l f e b r u a r y , t h e y d e c i d e d t o once a g a i n f l e e the vancouver w i n t e r , l e a v i n g i n november by bus f o r new o r l e a n s , and from t h e r e on december aboard a f r e i g h t e r bound f o r h a i t i . i t was not u n t i l p u b l i c a t i o n day i t s e l f , f e b r u a r y , t h a t the lowrys f i n a l l y a r r i v e d i n new york. by march the lowrys had r e t u r n e d t o d o l l a r t o n , s t o p p i n g on the way t o v i s i t the noxons i n n i a g a r a . in november, however, t h e y were a g a i n on the move, bound t h i s time f o r france v i a the panama c a n a l . in vernon i n e a r l y t h e y were i n t r o d u c e d t o joan b l a c k , w i t h whom t h e y s t a y e d f o r a few months and from whose home lowry was a b l e t o meet c l a r i s s e f r a n c i l l o n and h e l p w i t h the f r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n of under the v o l c a n o . a year l a t e r , i n j a n u a r y , a f t e r t r a v e l l i n g t h r o u g h i t a l y and e n g l a n d , t h e y r e t u r n e d once more t o d o l l a r t o n where lowry worked on dark as the grave and a c o l l e c t i o n of s h o r t s t o r i e s hear us l o r d from heaven thy d w e l l i n g p l a c e . in l a t e the a i k e n s moved t o washington, d.c. where a i k e n was employed as p o e t r y c o n s u l t a n t t o the l i b r a r y of congress. a l t h o u g h t h e y s t a y e d f o r i n t e r m i t t e n t p e r i o d s i n t h e i r f l a t i n new york c i t y , most of t h e i r time u n t i l l a t e was spent i n washington. these y e a r s were p r o f i t a b l e ones f o r a i k e n . in f a c t , t h i s was the f i r s t time he had h e l d a f u l l time p o s i t i o n s i n c e a c t i n g as w r i t e r i n r e s i d e n c e a t h a r v a r d i n . in the l i t e r a r y j o u r n a l wake d e v o t e d an e n t i r e i s s u e t o a i k e n t o which lowry c o n t r i b u t e d a l o n g l e t t e r t o the e d i t o r ( - ). i n october of the same y e a r , a i k e n ' s " h a u g h t y b i o g r a p h y , " ushant, was p u b l i s h e d and f a v o u r a b l y r e c e i v e d . by the f o l l o w i n g o c t o b e r , o x f o r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s had p u b l i s h e d a one-volume e d i t i o n of h i s c o l l e c t e d poems, the s e l e c t i o n f o r which lowry had a d v i s e d a i k e n i n ( l e t t e r , p. - ), and i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n r e c e i v e d the n a t i o n a l book award. in a p r i l , l o v r y , t e m p o r a r i l y a t l e a s t , vas a l s o b l e s s e d w i t h good l u c k . random house had a t t h i s time o f f e r e d him a two- a n d - a - h a l f -year c o n t r a c t , c a l l i n g f o r the c o m p l e t i o n of two n o v e l s and a s h o r t s t o r y i n t h a t time p e r i o d . at f i r s t lowry worked f a s t and d i l i g e n t l y ; however, by j a n u a r y he had r e a l l y o n l y completed hear us l o r d , and random house d e c i d e d t o break the c o n t r a c t . t h i s , combined w i t h the t h r e a t s of e v i c t i o n t h a t had been s t e a d i l y mounting i n i n t e n s i t y f o r the p a s t few y e a r s , c o n v i n c e d t h e l o v r y s t o a g a i n l e a v e d o l l a r t o n . a l t h o u g h t h e y v a g u e l y i n t e n d e d t o r e t u r n , t h i s was t o be t h e i r f i n a l l e a v e - t a k i n g . in august' t h e y . l e f t f o r new york where t h e y s t a y e d w i t h david markson, a graduate s t u d e n t who had w r i t t e n a d i s s e r t a t i o n on under the v o l c a n o and who had v i s i t e d the lowrys i n the summer of . when n o t i f i e d by lowry of h i s a r r i v a l i n new york and of the upcoming p a r t y t h a t was t o be h e l d i n lowry's honour ( l e t t e r ) , a i k e n made the t r i p from west b r e w s t e r . u n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e i r r e u n i o n was not q u i t e the event i t s h o u l d have been. lowry, a l t h o u g h he had v i s i t e d a i k e n some hours e a r l i e r i n h i s " c o l d water f l a t , " was nervous about the upcoming g a t h e r i n g and a r r i v e d a t the p a r t y drunk; he and a i k e n were b a r e l y a b l e t o speak t o one a n o t h e r . some days l a t e r , perhaps i n l i e u of an a p o l o g y , lowry s e n t a i k e n a t e l e g r a m ( l e t t e r ) ; a few weeks l a t e r he boarded a s h i p f o r m i l a n . i t i s h e r e , s a d l y , t h a t t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ends. : from aiken t o lowry ts ubc; k i l l o r i n b r e w s t e r mass. feb our b e s t b e l o v e d male-- f o r g i v e my l o n g s i l e n c e , which has not been i n d i f f e r e n c e , or i n g r a t i t u d e f o r a m a r v e l l o u s l e t t e r , but sheer i m p o s s i b i l i t y s i t t i n g round me l i k e a w a l l : an i m p o s s i n i l i t y b u i l t of many t h i n g s . f a t i g u e , worry, work, a c e d i a , v i s i t o r s , i l l n e s s , ( n o t h i n g s e r i o u s - - b a d c o l d p l u s v e r t i g o ) have j u s t somehow combined t o render l e t t e r - w r i t i n g (even t o my own c h i l d r e n ) , a non pos. i have been t r y i n g t o f i n i s h a new book of pomes, - and t r y i n g t o s e l l them, f o r we have been b r o k e , and i n dec and jan a l o n g a r t i c l e f o r the a t l a n t i c had t o be done, and read f o r , and s a t over me l i k e the b e l l y of a c l o u d , p r e v e n t i n g me from t h i n k i n g f r e e l y or h a p p i l y of a n y t h i n g e l s e . ( j e s u s how i hate w r i t i n g c r i t i c i s m . ) now t h a t t h a t i s done, and the p r o o f s d i s p a t c h e d t o d a y , i can l o o k round me a t the s i n i s t e r w o r l d a g a i n , and b e g i n to imagine or t r y to imagine f u r t h e r d e v i c e s f o r k e e p i n g us out of i n s t a n t b a n k r u p t c y . and a l l happens a t once--the t r u s t e e s f o r j house have clamped down on me f o r not p a y i n g any r e n t t h e s e two y e a r s , and so we must s e l l i t ; words f a i l me as t o t h i s ; d i d you ever put up your h e a r t and s o u l f o r a u c t i o n ? but i r a t i o n a l i z e v e r y n i m b l y about i t ; i t has s e r v e d i t s time and purpose; the b e s t y e a r s i n i t a r e gone; i t w i l l never i t s e l f , or rye, be the same a g a i n . tout de meme, when i t h i n k of i t i f e e l as i f the p i c c a d i l l y t u b e , m i l e s of i t , were being e x t r a c t e d from my i n s i d e s , a whole world swooping through a t u n n e l . and a l l the contents, or most of them, s o l d , too — though we do hope to salvage a few o b j e c t s and get them sent out. sad, sad, sad. and sad. . . rye, they do say, i s s p o i l e d . gone tough, f u l l of rape and v i o l e n c e , even murder; canadian s o l d i e r s k i c k e d to death by midlanders; c h i e f l y because they get a l l the g i r l s . the son of the bryan who runs the ship inn was stabbed to death by h i s swiss wife the other day, and so on and so on. blimey. e d w r i t e s more and more g l o o m i l y , so do the mackechnies. b ed not too w e l l , the spleen a g a i n e m b i t t e r i n g i t s e l f , but h o l d i n g out b r a v e l y j u s t the same and working w e l l . john and h i s w i f e plan to come here post war: j a n e and her husband a t saskatoon, but t r y i n g to get to washington. our summer s c h o o l looks l i k e being torpedoed once again, worse l u c k , and what we s h a l l t u r n our hands t o , god knows: i may a p p l y f o r a south american good neighbour job, a poet e r r a n t i n b r a z i l , e t c . or rampant i n ecuador. houston p e t e r s o n has bought a house three miles from here, which i s g o o d — s o we hope to hang on, i n the hope that he may b r i n g us p e c u n i a r i l y u s e f u l c o n t a c t s with columbia univ and rutgers d i t t o . you and margie were damned n i c e about c o n v e r s a t i o n , and very f l a t t e r i n g l y p e r c e p t i v e . yes, i t a l l comes down to a heavy d e f e a t f o r the poor o l d male animal, a great v i c t o r y f o r the e l a n v i t a l and the more deadly female; a l s o of s o c i e t y over the a r t i s t . is he, you say, r e a l l y i n love with h i s wife? blimey i f i know—-i d guess not, what with t h a t there other g a l from whom he t h i n k s he i s p a r t i n g . wasn't he f o o l i n g h i m s e l f ? i dunno. but i think so. i wish the p u b l i s h e r s had l e f t ray own t i t i e - - t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n - - - i t p o i n t s a l i t t l e more t o the form, as of one c o n t i n u o u s argument on a g i v e n theme, r e a c h i n g i t s i n e v i t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n , but embracing o t h e r oddments en r o u t e . that c o n v e r s a t i o n i s the theme. the d e a d l y female t h i n g w o r k i n g i t s e l f i n t o the s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n , and d r a g g i n g the male t o bed, even p e r s u a d i n g him t h a t he was the one who thought of i t by gosh. h o l y c a t s . as f o r the chorus c h a r a c t e r s , i would have l e f t them out e n t i r e l y , i f i c o u l d - - b u t f e a r e d i must s u p p l y j u s t a scumble of background f o l k , f o r v i s u a l s u p p o r t ; hence the s l i g h t n e s s . they e x i s t o n l y f o r the sake of p l a u s i b i l i t y , f u r n i t u r e , scene. i'm d e l i g h t e d you l i k e d i t , h o w e v e r - - t h a t ' s good. how goes the p o e t r y ? and what e l s e ? and how the merry h e l l do you get money out of e n g l a n d , or i s i t t h a t you f i n a l l y c o l l a r e d the funds i n los ang? i'm d e l i g h t e d t h a t you p r o s p e r , however, whatever the s o u r c e . as f o r me, i've f i n i s h e d the new book of perms, brownstone e c o l o g u e s , an urban s e r i e s , - - t o o soone f o r me t o judge them. they a r e more o b j e c t i v e / r e p o r t o r i a l , t h a n a n y t h i n g p r e v i o u s , i t h i n k , s t r i c t i n form ( p r e t t y - - m o s t l y h e r o i c c o u p l e t or q u a t r a i n , and f o r m a l i n f l a v o u r ) and w i t h j a z z and q u o t i d i a n i n g r e d i e n t s , not t o say humour. what i t a l l adds up t o i s beyond ray own a d d i n g machine, but i k i n d of l i k e 'em. now i'm a t t e m p t i n g a p s e u d o - a u t o b i o g r a p h y , or a t t e m p t i n g i t a g a i n , w i t h a new t i t l e : the l i v e s and adventures of merrymount nipmuk. but no g r e a t p r o g r e s s y e t . . . . mary has been i n boston t h r e e days, d o i n g a p o r t r a i t f o r her s p r i n g show ( a p r i l , i n " ) so i've been camping out i n the w i l d e r n e s s en g a r c o n . c o l d as h e l l , n o r t h wind o f f the bay, but l o v e l y . s h e r r y a t noon, orange blossoms i n the e v e n i n g , c h a b l i s a t d i n n e r , by way of k e e p i n g up the morale! and now i f e e l s u r e i t ' s time f o r the g l a s s of c a l i f o r n i a s h e r y , i n f a c t ; so pop goes the w e a s e l . l o v e t o you both conrad do you ever hear from john dav.? * j e r r y , * t i s s a i d , i s t r y i n g t o p u b l i s h a n o v e l about m e — d e s c r i b e d as hot s t u f f ! ten years w i t h the face on the bar room f l o o r ! * e x p l a n a t o r y notes i brownstone e c l o g u e s and o t h e r poems (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). a "american w r i t e r s come of age," a t l a n t i c m o n t h l y . ( a p r . ): - . j e a k e ' s house: a i k e n ' s house i n rye; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . * edward john b u r r a ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . b m a r g a r e t and robert ( - ) mackechnie, a r t i s t f r i e n d s o f a i k e n i n rye. * john and n i n a a i k e n , a i k e n ' s e l d e s t son and h i s w i f e ; c f . l e t t e r , p. , and l e t t e r , p. . jane a i k e n , a i k e n ' s e l d e s t d a u g h t e r . a see l e t t e r , n. , p. . * see l e t t e r , n. , p. . x o c o n v e r s a t i o n or p i l g r i m s ' p r o g r e s s (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). i i the e n g l i s h e d i t i o n does have a i k e n ' s p r e f e r r e d t i t l e : the c o n v e r s a t i o n o r p i l g r i m s ' p r o g r e s s ; a d o m e s t i c symphony (london: rodney p h i l l i p s & green, ). i a see n. above. u s h a n t ; an e s s a y . x * john davenport; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . =•» " j e r r y " : a i k e n ' s second w i f e , c l a r i s s a l o r e n z . a i k e n may be r e f e r r i n g t o her book, l o r e l e i two: mv l i f e with conrad a i k e n ( a t h e n s : u of g e o r g i a p, ). x « c f . under the v o l c a n o : ". . . t h e u n c o n t r o l l a b l e f a c e on t h e bar-room f l o o r . . ." ( ) . t h i s i s p o s s i b l y a r e f e r e n c e t o t a y l o r holmes' ( - ) song, "the face on the barroom f l o o r , " r e c o r d e d i n ( a c k e r l e y ). . . t e x t u a l notes combined\ combine<e>{d) a n y t h i n g \ a n y { t ) h i n g . - clamped down on me\ clampe{d} down on < [ i l l e g . ] > me . n i m b l y \ nimbl<e>{y} . s o n \ son<e> . s p l e e n \ <sp>{sp}<ele>{lee}n . husband a t s a s k a t o o n , \ husband a t <at> s a s k a t o o n , . e'lanx ^ l a n . s o c i e t y \ s o c i { e } t y . what w i t h t h a t t h e r e \ what with<at> { t h a t } t h e < i r > { r e } . c h a r a c t e r s , \ c h a r a c < j > { t } e r s , . m o s t l y \ most<o>{l}y . a t t e m p t i n g \ attemp{t}in<t>{g} . new t i t l e : \ new t i t l e { : } . s h e r y , i n f a c t ; \ she<e>ry, i n fact<,>{;} . - do you ever hear [. . . .] f l o o r ! \ [ h a n d w r i t t e n a t end of l e t t e r ] ; fkom, a i k e n t o lowry ts ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d {forty-one doors stony brook road brewster, mass.) [ oct ) f o r g i v e me o l d male and one of t h e s e days maybe the w h i r l w i l l s p i n t o a pause and g i v e me a chance t o w r i t e a l e t t e r , i f o n l y a b r i e f one. s c h o o l has run on from summer t o autumn, and goes on t i l l x — g o o d f o r us f i n a n c i a l l y , but w e a r y i n g t o a d e g r e e — j u s t keeps us a l i v e , but l e a v e s us unable t o do much work of our own. so g l a d about m's book, and your own h e a l t h n e w s — what a r e l i e f t o have the p a r a l y s i s m y s t e r y s o l v e d and s a l v e d ! j e a k e ' s house* has had t h e b l a s t of a bomb, i t s windows gone, and t i l e s , and p l a s t e r down, damage so f a r t o p o s s e s s i o n s e t c unknown. wish i c o u l d g e t t h e r e somehow—dream about rye and h a s t i n g s and london. oh me. our l o v e s and more l a t e r conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes the a i k e n s ' summer s c h o o l ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. m a r g e r i e bonner, the l a s t t w i s t of the k n i f e (new york s c r i b n e r ' s , ) . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes address ( a i k e n has used a l e t t e r h e a d p o s t c a r d w i t h the a d d r e s s as quoted] date [the p o s t c a r d i s postmarked oct ] . b r i e f \ b r < e i > ( i e } f . l e a v e s us\ l e a v e { s } us . r e l i e f \ r e l i ( e } f . has had\ ha<d>{s} had . p l a s t e r \ p l a < t s > { s t e } r : from aiken t o lowry ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d b r e w s t e r mass aug dear o l d male: are you s t i l l t h e r e ? y e s i know, as a c o r r e s p o n d e n t i am below z e r o . don't know how i t i s , i j u s t c a n ' t w r i t e l e t t e r s anymore, even when i have the time and the o p p o r t u n i t y and the m o t i v e . when g e r a l d and b e t t y and l [ a ] u r e n c e were here i n f e b r u a r y i swore i'd send you a t l e a s t a f e s t i v e p o s t c a r d t o l e t you know of the f i n e f r e n z i e s h e r e , but d i d i ? no i d i d n ' t . yes, i t was a gay week, w i t h the temperature below, but p l e n t y of g i n i n the house, and much music. and n i c e t o see laurence a g a i n . ( i f we had o n l y known, the bbc was d o i n g a b r o a d c a s t of s e n l i n i n england w h i l e t h e y were h e r e : a r r a n g e d by edward s a c k v i l l e - w e s t : but i d i d n ' t know about i t m y s e l f t i l l two months a f t e r . ) we have no summer s c h o o l t h i s y e a r - - d i d n ' t even t r y , t h i n g s b e i n g what t h e y a r e . but l i b b y brown, one of l a s t y e a r ' s p a r t y , s t i l l s t a y s on, and w i l l t i l l september or o c t o b e r : a n i c e and g i f t e d g a l e x c e p t when she goes s c h i z o i d p e r i o d i c a l l y , and b u s t s t h i n g s up i n f i n e s t y l e , as she d i d l a s t week on the o c c a s i o n of the f i f t y - f o u r t h b i r t h d a y p a r t y . as a r e s u l t , we've s e n t her t o v i s i t a c o u s i n i n new york f o r a few d a y s , h o p i n g i t w i l l calm her down a g a i n . she r e a l l y s u p p o r t s us--$ a month--so we view her impending d e p a r t u r e w i t h mixed f e e l i n g s : w e ' l l be out i n the c o l d a g a i n . p r o s p e c t s not improved e i t h e r by the f a c t t h a t mary has j u s t had a s h o w — b o s t o n , m a y — and so c a n t have a n o t h e r f o r a c o u p l e of y e a r s : and t h i s one a f l o p , c o s t i n g us $ i n expenses. d i s c o u r a g i n g f o r the poor g a l , t o o , she had worked hard and w e l l , and i t was much her b e s t c o l l e c t i o n t o d a t e . there a i n t no j u s t i c e . we l i v e an a l m o s t w h o l l y b u c o l i c e x i s t e n c e , e x c e p t f o r a weekly j a u n t i n the f o r d t o hyannis f o r l u n c h and a movie and the m a r k e t i n g . our hens number f i f t y odd, and t h e r e are a l s o two ducks, known r e s p e c t i v e l y as the dumb c l u c k and the clumb duck. v e g e t a b l e s grow here and t h e r e , and f r u i t : p o t a t o s , c o r n , squash, tomatos, peppers, a s p a r a g u s ; beans t o o , but t h r e e woodchucks i n s u c c e s s i o n have c l e a n e d them out b e f o r e t h e y ever got t o the p o t . l a s t n i g h t f o r the f i r s t time we a t e one of our own b r o i l e r s — o baby. in f a c t , , t h i s i s a f i n e p l a c e , and we sometimes wonder i f w e ' l l ever want t o l i v e anywhere e l s e a g a i n , or f o r l o n g . jeake's house s t i l l s t a n d s , somewhat b a t t e r e d , and the f u r n i t u r e p a r t l y s o l d t o pay the r e n t and p a r t l y s t o r e d — windows and p a r t s of r o o f gone, p a r t i t i o n s blown down, but no g r e a t s t r u c t u r a l i n j u r y so f a r as i know. we may go back and t r y a summer s c h o o l t h e r e , d . v . , — b u t what w i l l rye be p o s t war?? ed wants t o come h e r e : so does john: so does j o a n . we a r e t o r n . and much of c o u r s e w i l l depend on the pocket-book. we're s t i l l p a y i n g o f f the mortgage on t h i s house, $ . w o r t h — t h e f i r s t t w e l v e y e a r s a r e the h a r d e s t . how about the pomes, and o t h e r w o i k s . do you see any p e o p l e ? any j a p s ? our own l i f e i s on the whole t o o s o c i a l , - - o r a t any r a t e too s o c i a l i n s p r i n g and summer; tends t o be too shut i n i n w i n t e r . can't l e a v e the c h i c k e n s . and we had a c a t , oedipuss s i m p l e x , one of the b e s t : but he d i e d y e s t e r d a y of a r s e n i c p o i s o n i n g , poor l a d : and we a r e d e s o l a t e d . a p e r s o n of i n t e g r i t y , and a f i n e h u n t e r . my e c l o g u e s l a s t year were a f l o p — p o o r e s t s a l e , and r e v i e w s , i've had i n f i f t e e n y e a r s . guess we're r u n n i n g a l i t t l e t h i n . i've j u s t f i n i s h e d a l o n g i s h poem-- l i n e s — a f t e r f i v e months i n t e r m i t t e n t m e d i t a t i o n and work, the s o l d i e r — a p r o s y a f f a i r , but i hope t i m e l y . no r e p o r t from the agents as y e t . and i m u l l over a new n o v e l , but g o r d , what a l a b o r a n o v e l i s — i t r e a l l y daunts me. w e l l , f o r g i v e the p r o t r a c t e d s i l e n c e , and t o the e x t e n t of summarizing f o r us a year of your news. and our l o v e s , as always — conrad i hope the p r o s t a t e t h i n g has l o n g s i n c e y i e l d e d t o t r e a t m e n t , and t h a t you're a t a r z a n a g a i n ? ? e x p l a n a t o r y notes g e r a l d and b e t t y noxon; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . laurence g i l l i a m , f r i e n d of the noxons who worked f o r the bbc; noxon mentions t h e i r v i s i t i n a march l e t t e r t o lowry ( t i e s s e n ). " s e n l i n , " an a d a p t a t i o n of a i k e n ' s poem " s e n l i n : a b i o g r a p h y , " was b r o a d c a s t by the bbc on f e b r u a r y . the program was adapted by edward c h a r l e s s a c k v i l i e - w e s t ( - ), n o v e l i s t and s h o r t s t o r y w r i t e r , who worked d u r i n g w.w.ii i n the f e a t u r e s and drama s e c t i o n of the bbc and was e n t r u s t e d w i t h most of the p o e t r y b r o a d c a s t s . not i d e n t i f i e d . s a i k e n had j u s t t u r n e d on august t h . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . "deo v o l e n t e " : l a t i n , "god w i l l i n g . " b ed b u r r a ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . * john and joan a i k e n , a i k e n ' s son and youngest d a u g h t e r . "oedipuss" i s a l s o the name of the c o n s u l ' s c a t i n under the volcano ( ) . brownstone e c l o g u e s and other poems (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). lowry's copy i n the u.b.c. l i b r a r y bears the f o l l o w i n g i n s c r i p t i o n by a i k e n : for the o l d male from the old hulk: c.m.l. from c p . a . : xmas day: "c.m.l." a r e lowry's i n i t i a l s : c l a r e n c e malcolm lowry. the s o l d i e r : a poem. the p o e t s of the year s e r i e s ( n o r f o l k , conn.: new d i r e c t i o n s , ). t e x t u a l notes . l [ a ] u r e n c e \ l s u r e n c e [ t y p o . ] . i d i d n ' t know about i t \ i d i d n ' t {know} about i t . p a r t l y s o l d \ p a r t l y { s o l d } p r o s t a t e \ p r o s { t } a t e : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n , b.c., canada, march , . dear o l d b i r d : thanks v e r y much f o r your l e t t e r , am v e r y proud and f l a t t e r e d t o h e l p i f i can - hope not t o o t a r d y , your l e t t e r of f e b r u a r y took t e n days a r r i v i n g - don't know i f such i d e a s as i have any good but t r o t them out f o r what t h e y ' r e w o r t h , my r e a d e r of most a n t h o l o g i e s i s a q u e s t i n g chap; poor, not knowing much, s t u d e n t and haunter of l i b r a r i e s , who though he may have r e a d t h r o u g h many a n t h o l o g i e s always f e e l s l i k e s t o u t c o r t e z on opening a n o t h e r one, but s t a r e s a t k i l l a r n e y i n s t e a d of p a c i f i c , i s d e l i g h t e d he u n d e r s t a n d s but i n v a r i a b l y d i s a p p o i n t e d , o f t e n f o r the wrong r e a s o n s , but a t bottom f u l l of l o v e p e r s i s t s , by the age of f o r t y when he has read m a r v e l l ' s coy m i s t r e s s and munro's cat f o r the f i v e t h o u s a n d t h time may get a g l i m m e r i n g , and by the time he i s so o l d and shaky he c a n ' t t u r n the pages, may even be l o o k i n g f o r some poem of h i s own i n one, which has been put i n , however, o n l y i n the b e l i e f t h a t he i s dead. which, you may say, he was a l l the t i m e . i am t r y i n g t o be funny and i don't mean your a n t h o l o g i e s . one of my most t r e a s u r e d p o s s e s s i o n s was your r e d companion book f o r the s q u i r e one put out by s e e k e r and i have owned and l o s t and owned a g a i n your o t h e r many t i m e s . however i seem t o see t h i s r e a d e r somewhere, and f e e l the n i c e o l d chap s h o u l d be t r e a t e d s t e r n l y ; though s l i g h t l y humored perhaps i n t h i s one p a r t i c u l a r ; f o r some r e a s o n he i s n ' t over fond of t o o many l o n g poems i n h i s a n t h o l o g i e s . l e t ' s f a c e i t , he reads i n the j a k e s , w h i c h , s i n c e t h e y a r e o u t d o o r s i n a f o r e s t perhaps, seems t o him p o e t i c j u s t i c e ; n o t h i n g w i l l c u r e him of c o n s t i p a t i o n , i t i s t r u e , but he r e a d s s l o w l y and l i k e s t o f i n i s h a poem a t a s i t t i n g . however, down t o t a c k s : - - pages of a i k e n . i t h i n k your second i d e a the b e s t , a s c a t t e r i n g from a l l the poems, but w i t h more form i n the s c a t t e r i n g t h a n t h e r e seems a t p r e s e n t and more poems; a p r o g r e s s i o n , or p a r a b o l a , of them which t a k e n t o g e t h e r would g i v e more e f f e c t of your development as an a r t i s t , even i f i m p e r f e c t l y , or s o m e t h i n g of the e f f e c t d e s i g n e d by the s c r a p p e d " d i v i n e p i l g r i m " i d e a , o n l y w i t h many s h o r t poems i n s t e a d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g and end, of not much more t h a n a page e a c h , a g r a d u a l a s c e n t , t h e n l e a v i n g a s i z e a b l e s t r e t c h o f a r c a t t h e summit f o r you t o landscape or jones i t or even s l i c e - o f - j o h n d e t h i t i n - or o t h e r w i s e go t o town; t h e d e c l i n e of the p a r a b o l a would n't be a wordsworthian d e c l i n e , on the c o n t r a r y , you would end i n a b l a z e of g l o r y , a t t h e same t i m e f i n a l l y a d y i n g f a l l , not n e c e s s a r i l y c h r o n o l o g i c a l , s h a d i n g o f f v i a the t e m p t a t i o n a t the end of the m i d d l e , i n t o , s a y , the f i r s t and l a s t s o n n e t s of and i n the human h e a r t t o a c o n t r a s t of s h o r t e r e c l o g u e s l i k e who shapes a b a l u s t r a d e ? and a n a e s t h e s i a , e n d i n g on a s i m p l e n o t e , l i k e the s o u n d i n g . for t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g i would s u g g e s t a l l s h o r t and something l i k e ( ) from house of dust - t h e e x q u i s i t e passage: " s u n l i g h t r o a r e d above them l i k e a dark i n v i s i b l e s e a " "dark b l u e p o o l s of m a g i c " ( ) the three p a l e b e a u t i f u l p i l g r i m s ( ) rye sunset "here by the w a l l of the a n c i e n t town i l e a n " ( ) the room. ( ) sound of b r e a k i n g . thenceforward the sound of b r e a k i n g would go on g e t t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y l o u d e r , ( r i s i n g t o a c l i m a x , i was g o i n g t o s u g g e s t , a t goya, sandwiched i n between two l o n g e r t h i n g s , i n i t s o r i g i n a l prose form; i never l i k e d i t - - e r — a s w e l l i n v e r s e , but perhaps t h i s would not do) and u s i n g p r e l u d e s (though you might c u l m i n a t e a t a l o n g e r one, c o l d but s h a t t e r i n g , l i k e " a t the d a r k ' s edge how g r e a t the d a r k n e s s i s " ) from both groups as s o r t of b u f f e r s t a t e s between a t t i t u d e s , dark or b i t t e r p r e l u d e s on the upgrade, b r i g h t e n i n g on the down. my p a r a b o l a s h o u l d perhaps have been the o t h e r way up, but never mind[.] i have s a i d n o t h i n g of t e t e l e s t a i or and in the hanging gardens or k i n g b o r b o r i g m i , or one of my f a v o r i t e p a r t s , which i s the v e r y end of p u n c h - as became of r e c e n t y e a r s the whole of jon deth - perhaps the motion too j a u n t y a l t o g e t h e r however, i f c u t i n t o ? ? ? ? ) - - o n e would l i k e t o see the four a p p e a r a n c e s , many p r e l u d e s t h a t w i l l not be i n , and a h e l l of a l o t b e s i d e ; (margie puts i n a s t r o n g l a s t p l e a f o r the morning song from s e n l i n , f e e l i n g something a l s o p o w e r f u l and s c i e n t i f i c beneath t h a t song, and perhaps i t might go w e l l as number i n s t e a d of rye sunset, though the e q u i v a l e n c e seems u n f a i r ) ; but you c a n ' t have e v e r y t h i n g , as the e l e p h a n t s a i d to the woodpecker, and i f e e l you ought t o g i v e p r e v i o u s l y u n a n t h o l o g i s e d poems a chance where p o s s i b l e : the ones you c u t out w i l l go on r i n g i n g a l l r i g h t . i w i s h i had time t o be more d e t a i l e d but i t seems i f i don't get t h i s o f f r i g h t away i hope t h e r e maybe a good i d e a and anyhow i t ' s the b e s t i can i t h i n k some of the e c l o g u e s wr i t t e n . margie sends l o v e as i do i t won't be any good to you anyhow, a t the bottom of t h i s somewhere manage and me w i t h a stomach ache, among the g r e a t e s t t h i n g s you've t o you both - male e x p l a n a t o r y notes t h i s l e t t e r from a i k e n i s m i s s i n g . presumably a i k e n had asked lowry t o suggest some poems he might i n c l u d e i n t w e n t l e t h - c e n t u r v american p o e t r v . ed. and p r e f . conrad a i k e n (new york: modern l i b r a r y , ). " m a r v e l l ' s coy m i s t r e s s " : c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. ; "munro's c a t " : p r o b a b l y hector hugh munro's ( - ) s h o r t s t o r y , "tobermory." modern american p o e t s r s e i . conrad a i k e n (london: m a r t i n s e e k e r , ); a i k e n d i d not i n c l u d e any of h i s own poems i n t h i s a n t h o l o g y . * i t i s not c l e a r t o which " o t h e r " p o e t r y a n t h o l o g y of a i k e n ' s lowry i s r e f e r r i n g . the d i v i n e p i l g r i m was i n f a c t p u b l i s h e d by the u n i v e r s i t y of g e o r g i a p r e s s i n ; i t i s a c o l l e c t i o n o f a i k e n ' s major poems up t o t h a t d a t e , some c o n s i d e r a b l y r e v i s e d , i n c l u d i n g "the c h a r n e l rose," "the j i g of f o r s l i n , " "the house of dust," " s e n l i n : a b i o g r a p h y , " "the p i l g r i m a g e of f e s t u s , " and "changing mind." a r e f e r e n c e s t o a i k e n ' s landscape west of eden. the coming f o r t h bv dav of o s i r i s j o n e s , and john deth. a l l t h e poems mentioned here by t i t l e a r e from a i k e n ' s ^rqwnstffne e c l o g u e s . " lowry quotes t h e s e passages i n l e t t e r , p . and . * p r i n t e d as p a r t iv of p r i a o u s and the p o o l ( ). from a i k e n ' s "seven t w i l i g h t s " i n p r j a p u s a n d t h e p o o l ; lowry q u o t e s t h i s l i n e i n l e t t e r , p . . x x b o t h "the room" and "sound of b r e a k i n g " a r e poems from a i k e n ' s p r i a o u s and the p o o l . "goya" was p u b l i s h e d i n p r o s e form i n b l u e voyage ( - ) , and i n v e r s e form i n s e l e c t e d poems ( - ). c f . l e t t e r n. , p . . t h i s i s the l a s t l i n e from p r e l u d e " x x x i i i " i n a i k e n ' s p r e l u d e s f o r memnon; lowry r e f e r s t o t h i s poem i n l e t t e r , p . x * a l l t h r e e poems a r e from pr&apyig a n d t h e p o o l ; and i n t h e hanging gardens was a l s o p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y and i n a l i m i t e d e d i t i o n by garamond p r e s s i n b a l t i m o r e i n . punch: the immortal l i a r . documents i n h i s h i s t o r y (new york: a l f r e d a. knopf, ). x g from brownsbone e c l o g u e s . - p a r t of " s e n l i n : a b i o g r a p h y . " brovnstone e c l o g u e s . t e x t u a l notes . put i n , however,\ put i n { , } however{,} . - the s q u i r e one put o u t \ the s q u i r e <and> one put out [ h a n d w r i t t e n i n margin of f i r s t page: " + + + + " ] . f i n i s h a poem\ f i n i s h a < [ i l l e g . ] > { p o e } m . p r o g r e s s i o n , or p a r a b o l a , \ p r o g r e s s i o n ! , } or p a r a b o l a { , } . i m p e r f e c t l y , or something\ i m p e r f e c t l y , {or} something . and end,\ and end{,} . would n ' t \ would n<o>{'}t . s i m p l e n o t e , l i k e \ s i m p l e note{,} l i k e . - sound of b r e a k i n g \ < [ i l l e g . ] > { s } o u n d of <b>{b}reaking . - never l i k e d i t - - e r - - a s w e l l \ never l i k e d i t { - - e r — } a s w e l l . - on the down. my p a r a b o l a [. . .] mindt.] i have\ on the down. {my p a r a b o l a s h o u l d perhaps have been the o t h e r way up, but never m i n d l . ] } < [ i l l e g . ]> i have [the i n s e r t i o n i s w r i t t e n i n the l e f t - h a n d margin] . b o r b o r i g m i , \ b o r b o r i < [ i l l e g . ] > { g r a } i , . --one would\ { — o } n e would . u n f a i r ) ; \ u n f a i r ) { ; } : from aiken t o lowry ts h; k i l l o r i n b r e w s t e r mass aug dear male: i t was f i n e t a l k i n g t o you i n the m i d d l e of a dream w a l k i n g , sandwiched between fragments of a nyorker s h o r t s t o r y — b u t so b r i e f , so b r i e f , and i c o u l d n ' t make out more t h a n % of t h i n g s s a i d , e s p e c i a l l y by y o u — y o u r t e l e p h o n e v o i c e my l a d l e a v e s something t o be d e s i r e d . but i t ' s w o n d e r f u l t h a t you're r e l a t i v e l y i n the e a s t , even i f a l a s d r i v e n h i t h e r , b y f i r e . how d i d i t happen. t e l l a l l . did you f a l l a s l e e p smoking, or what. or was i t spontaneous combustion of a hot m a n u s c r i p t ? or d i r t y work by the j a p s ? my c o n s c i e n c e has been bad t h e s e many months, ever s i n c e you so k i n d l y and c a r e f u l l y and s k i l f u l l y a d v i s e d me about the a i k e n poems f o r the a n t h o l o g y : i combined your s u g g e s t i o n s w i t h some of bob l i n s c o t t ' s and a whim or two of my own f o r what i t h i n k i s a p r e t t y good, i f somewhat too l o n g , parade. thanks be t o god the two books are done, p r o o f r e a d and a l l , and come out i hope t h i s autumn. they a r e both g r e a t l y improved i t h i n k — e s p e c i a l l y the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y one, which i s r e a l l y changed i n t o t o and a l m o s t t w i c e the o r i g i n a l s i z e . i have hopes t h a t the two t o g e t h e r w i l l end by s u p p l y i n g us w i t h a c o n s i s t e n t and modest l i v i n g : both have begun t o s e l l i n the l a s t t h r e e y e a r s , each r o y a l t y statement d o u b l i n g the l a s t , u n t i l now t h e y b r i n g us p r e t t y n i g h a thousand a y e a r , and r i s i n g . so i was g l a d when i f i n a l l y persuaded the boys t o l e t me modernize them, as t h e y were both summat d a t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y the mod am one. we can now s e t t l e down t o look c a r e f u l l y the o t h e r way, w h i l e we w a i t and see. . . what o t h e r news? that jane i s h e r e , w h i t e , t h i n , not t o o w e l l , and p r e p a r i n g a s e p a r a t i o n from angus pro tem, s i n new york, w h i l e she and he m e d i t a t e on d i v o r c e : he remains i n washington. sad t o see the s u c c e s s o r s coming a f t e r us w i t h the same sad m i s s t e p s i n t o t r a p s and p i t f a l l s , and s u f f e r i n g , and h a v i n g t o f i n d out f o r themselves the hard way, and o n e s e l f unable t o h e l p i n a durn t h i n g . and j o a n , i n london, w i t h an i n t e r e s t i n g j o b i n the u n i t e d n a t i o n s i n f o r m a t i o n o f f i c e , i s engaged, k i n d o f , t o one ronald brown, t h i r t y i s h , m a r r i e d , and i n the p r o c e s s of g e t t i n g h i m s e l f d i v o r c e d . and j o h n s t i l l a t e molesey, and s t i l l p l a n n i n g t o come here postwar, presumably t o s t a y . meanwhile ed w r i t e s s a r d o n i c s p l e n e t i c h i l a r i o u s l y m i s s p e l l e d and d i v e r t i n g l e t t e r s from rye, w i t h the buzzbombs s p l i t t i n g houses and people round him, and bobby mackechnie i s back i n rye l o o k i n g haggard and o l d , and l a u r a k n i g h t as u s u a l dominates the academy w i t h b i g g e r and b l o u s i e r and b r i g h t e r c o l o u r e d g y p s i e s . jeake's house s t i l l s t a n d s , somewhat b a t t e r e d , and s e r v i n g now as a r e s t home f o r weary f i r e m e n , but i t may cop one any moment of c o u r s e - - s h a l l we ever a g a i n g a t h e r by the r i v e r ? where o l d c l u b f o o t e d b i l l , the c a r - p a r k demon, f e l l i n , i n the b l a c k o u t , and went t o sea? the mermaid i s gone, and the soda b o t t l i n g works, and the m e t h o d i s t church b e h i n d ypres tower, and the g r a v e y a r d behind our s c h o o l next door was u n e a r t h e d by a bomb and d i s t r i b u t e d s e r i a t i m f a r and wide, and the cinema f l a t t e n e d o u t , and the bodega i n h a s t i n g s t o g e t h e r w i t h the p l a z a cinema, my f a v o r i t e bob's w o r t h , dammit--i f e a r many a n o t h e r gap as w e l l . maybe we'd b e t t e r s e l l o u t , maybe i t ' s a l l o v e r , and i f the house does s u r v i v e i suppose we'd get q u i t e a penny f o r i t , dear d e a r . or s h a l l we t r y a n o t h e r p a r t of england e n t i r e l y ? ? a c o t t a g e i n westmoreland, a f l a t i n london? a s o o t y house i n mortuary glasgow? or j u s t s t a y here amongst the mussels and p o i s o n i v o r y ? . . . and what about you?? . . . our manic d e p r e s s i v e a r r i v e s on f r i d a y , and we a w a i t t h a t w i t h some a p p r e h e n s i o n : her husband says she used to throw eggs a t p e o p l e . but i t ' s o n l y f o r t h r e e weeks, a t $ p e r , so we f i g u r e we can s t a n d i t . our s o c i a l l i f e seems t o be odd. a l l e v i a t e d a l i t t l e l a t e l y by two f i n e p a r t i e s w i t h konrad heiden and h i s plump l i t t l e blonde h a u s f r a u m i s t r e s s and george grosz mit f r a u . heiden and grosz a r e enormous fun--heiden v e r y s l y and s u b t l e , grosz a b r i l l i a n t t a l k e r and h u m o u r i s t , and w o n d e r f u l a t k i d d i n g h i m s e l f , and a f i n e d r i n k e r : a l l v e r y gay and good, i n a c o t t a g e o v e r l o o k i n g m i l e s of i n l a n d s a l t w a t e r : we a l l got drunk, and t a l k e d about o y s t e r s and food and german beer and the i d e a of g i v i n g germany to the jews and e x p o r t i n g the germans, and goethe's e l e c t i v e a f f i n i t i e s . and what e l s e ? mary i s d o i n g a n a s t y j o b of h a n d c o l o u r i n g o l d e huntynge p r i n t e s , w h i l e i a w a i t p r o o f s of a new l o n g poem, the s o l d i e r , which new d i r e c t i o n s b r i n g s out t h i s f a l l , and which w i l l p r o b a b l y get me i n t o a g r e a t d e a l of t r o u b l e . and i ponder t h a t t h r e e l e v e l s of r e a l i t y n o v e l which i dreamt of on the voyage back from s p a i n e l e v e n b r i g h t y e a r s a g o . and t h a t my f i n e f e l l o w i s a l l , and i t ' s time f o r a l i t t l e noonday b e e r , the sun b e i n g over the y a r d - arm. our b e s t t o a l l of you, and mary w i l l w r i t e to b e t t y as soon as the end-of-summer r u s h i s over--she has a p o r t r a i t t o do, as w e l l as t h i s t h i n g to f i n i s h , and the egg-thrower to keep a t bay. but t h e n - - . and g i v e us a l i n e y o u r s e l f . conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes x the lowrys' d o l l a r t o n shack burned down on june ; lowry's u n f i n i s h e d n o v e l , " i n b a l l a s t t o the white sea," was d e s t r o y e d i n the f i r e . in e a r l y j u l y , malcolm and m a r g e r i e t r a v e l l e d t o o a k v i l l e , o n t a r i o , and l a t e r t o n i a g a r a - o n - t h e - l a k e , t o s t a y w i t h b e t t y and g e r a l d noxon. t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y american p o e t r y ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . * t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y america p o e t r y , ed. and p r e f . conrad a i k e n (new york: modern l i b r a r y , ) and a comprehensive a n t h o l o g y of american p o e t r y , ed. conrad a i k e n (new york: modern l i b r a r y , ); a i k e n d i d not i n c l u d e any poems of h i s own i n the l a t t e r . s jane a i k e n had been m a r r i e d t o angus smart; see l e t t e r , p. . joan a i k e n , a i k e n ' s youngest d a u g h t e r . n john a i k e n . bobby mackechnie: see l e t t e r , n. , p. ; l a u r a k n i g h t : see l e t t e r , n. , p. . s the mermaid inn, rye. george grosz ( - ), german a r t i s t , known f o r h i s s a t i r i c a l c a r i c a t u r e s and l i t h o g r a p h s , who l e f t germany f o r the u n i t e d s t a t e s w i t h the r i s e of h i t l e r ; konrad heiden i have not been a b l e t o i d e n t i f y . -a- the s o l d i e r : a poem, the p o e t s of the year s e r i e s ( n o r f o l k , conn.: new d i r e c t i o n s , ). ushant; a i k e n r e f e r s t o t h i s dream i n ushant ( ) . x b e t t y noxon; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes . spontaneous\ s p o n { t i a n e o u s . see. .\ see. { .} . f i r e m e n , \ f i r { e } m e n , . end-of-summer\ end{-}of{-}summer . p o r t r a i t \ p o r t r c ^ a i t : from lowry t o aiken - ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d w r i t e d o l l a r t o n p.o d o l l a r t o n b.c. canada [dec ] as from n i a g a r a . — d e a r o l d conrad: thanks immensely f o r the s o l d i e r , which i have read or t i m e s s t r a i g h t t h r o u g h and am about t o read a t h . i was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y s e n s i t i v e t o the honour of r e c e i v i n g i t a t the time t o the e x t e n t t h a t i a l m o s t f e l t i had been rewarded w i t h some c r o s s , of a n o t h e r n a t u r e , of c o u r s e , t o the one one b e a r s . i t h i n k i t c o n t a i n s some of your a b s o l u t e l y f i n e s t & p u r e s t & most r i c h l y p o e t i c & g r e a t e s t work, which i s t o say, the f i n e s t b e i n g done t o - d a y . i t i s of c o u r s e enormously w e l l thought o u t . some of i t s h o u l d be engraved on s t o n e & i doubt not w i l l be, when you w i l l perhaps be t h e r e , or w i l l no l o n g e r c a r e . for the r e s t i do not know: your daemon has l e d you i n t o a s t r a n g e path i n d e e d , & a f t e r a l l , what can you do but obey? m y s e l f my n o n - c o n f o r m i s t sympathy i s somewhat f o r the o u t l a w or d i s s e n t e r but i t would be more than s u p e r f i c i a l & i r r e l e v a n t t o deduce from such music of more t h a n f a c t s a c c e p t e d t h a t yours was not t o o , or was. be t h a t as i t may, i t i s w i t h renewed courage t h a t we s h a l l t r a v e l m i l e s toward our burned house t o r e b u i l d i t (& how i u n d e r s t a n d now your f e e l i n g s now f o r some l o v e d houses--& may god s p a r e j e a k e s ! ) * remembering t h a t , b e f o r e we l e f t , we r a n up tashtego-wise on a l l t h a t remained, the f l a g . . . which reminds me t h a t the canadian b r o a d c a s t i n g company has i n v i t e d me t o do moby dick f o r them, i n i n s t a l l m e n t s . god b l e s s & a happy xmas & s i n c e r e l y thank you, a g a i n c o n r a d - - l o v e from us both t o you & mary male. - - a f r a i d t h a t my w r i t i n g (see over) i s not much b e t t e r than my t e l e p h o n e v o i c e . (what i s a i d over the phone was the p r a y e r tagore l i k e d , meaning: with thy g r a c i o u s n e s s , oh thou t e r r i b l e , f o r e v e r save us!--so no wonder you s a i d w h a t ? ) - - j u s t f i n i s h e d t o - day a f t e r y r s & months r e v i s i o n hours a day approx, s o b e r l y under the v o l c a n o . . . the o l d man d y i n g , n o r d a h l d e a d . in b a l l a s t i s no more. b r o t h e r w i l f r i d i n the r o y a l a r t i l l e r y , r u s s e l l i n the p o l i c e . saved b r o w n s t o n e - - b r i m s t o n e ! - - e l e g i e s from the f i r e , s l i g h t l y s c o r c h e d . - - b u t keep w o r k i n g & keep your pecker up--the b i r d s , as you say, endure. . . love male. from male & margie e x p l a n a t o r y notes see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h i s l e t t e r . n i a g a r a - o n - t h e - l a k e ; the l o v r y s had by t h i s time moved t o a r e n t e d house i n n i a g a r a , c l o s e t o the noxons. the l o v r y s r e t u r n e d t o d o l l a r t o n i n f e b r u a r y . j e a k e ' s house: see l e t t e r , n. , p. . l o v r y d i d b e g i n a r a d i o v e r s i o n of mobv-dlck but i t vas never b r o a d c a s t ; see the u.b.c. l o v r y c o l l e c t i o n ( - ( - ) f o r l o v r y ' s d r a f t s of t h e r a d i o s c r i p t . tashtego i s a c h a r a c t e r i n mobv-dlck. r a b i n d r a n a t h tagore ( - ), i n d i a n p o e t , d r a m a t i s t , n a r r a t i v e v r l t e r , e s s a y i s t , and p h i l o s o p h e r . a i k e n ' s copy of tagore's g i t a n l a l l (song o f f e r i n g s ) , ed. edmund r. b r o v n , i n t r o . w.b. yeats ( b o s t o n : four seas, n.d.) i s c o n t a i n e d i n the h u n t i n g t o n a i k e n c o l l e c t i o n . l o v r y ' s f a t h e r d i e d on f e b r u a r y . ° n o r d a h l g r i e g ( - ) vas k i l l e d on december vhen the bomber i n v h i c h he vas f l y i n g d i d not r e t u r n f r o m an a t t a c k on b e r l i n . c f . a l s o l e t t e r , n. , p. . * l o v r y ' s n o v e l , " i n b a l l a s t t o the white sea," based upon h i s v i s i t t o n o r d a h l g r i e g i n norvay, vas d e s t r o y e d vhen t h e l o v r y s ' shack burned dovn i n june . l o v r y ' s b r o t h e r s : w i l f r i d malbon ( -?) and a r t h u r r u s s e l l ( - ) l o v r y . in p l a y i n g v i t h the t i t l e of a i k e n ' s book, l o v r y has a c t u a l l y g o t t e n the t i t l e v r o n g , f o r i t i s b r o v n s t o n e e c l o g u e s , not " e l e g i e s ' ' ; c f . l e t t e r , p. , vhere l o v r y r e f e r s t o h i s m i s t a k e . t e x t u a l notes ( c h r i s t m a s c a r d ; see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n ) . o u t l a v or d l s s e n t e r \ o u t l a v ( o r d i s s e n t e r ) . - thank you, a g a i n , c o n r a d — \ thank you, ( a g a i n , ) conrad-- . - - - a f r a i d t h a t (. . . .) love m a l c . \ { w r i t t e n on i n s i d e l e f t - h a n d page of c a r d ] . from male & m a r o l e a { w r i t t e n on i n s i d e r i g h t - h a n d page of c a r d ] : from aiken t o lowry ts h; k i l l o r i n b r e w s t e r mass s e p t dear o l d male-- months and more months i've been t h i n k i n g of w r i t i n g you a n i c e l o n g d u l l l e i s u r e l y l e t t e r , w i t h a l l the g o s s p i and j u i c e s i n i t , and now i t seems t o be t h a t i must i n s t e a d f l i n g a few h a s t y s e n t e n c e s a t you over my eastward t u r n i n g s h o u l d e r — f o r away we go t o rye, nov s t or so, - t o spend a d a r k , c o l d , hungry w i n t e r i n jeake's house. seems i f we don't the dear p i l e w i l l be s e i z e d , and t h u s any chance of s e l l i n g or r e n t i n g i t p r e v e n t e d , so the move i s a f o r c e d one, and we most c e r t a i n l y don't proceed w i t h u n r e l u c t a n t t r e a d , and h a r d l y r o s e - crowned. grim, i c a l l s i t . yet i t w i l l have i t s c o m p e n s a t i o n s - mary w i l l have a chance t o p a i n t , and i (d v ) t o w r i t e , w i t h so much l e s s manual, nay c o r p o r e a l , l a b o u r to p e r f o r m e v e r y day and a l l day l o n g ; and t h a t mary i s r i p e f o r a new dvelopment i s v i t a l l y p l a i n from a r e a l l y a s t o n i s h i n g p o r t r a i t she a c h i e v e d t h i s summer, of our cromagnon g a l p a t i e n t ; and as f o r o l d a i k e n , a p l a y , based on a r c u l a r i s , and w r i t by an e n g l i s h l a s s named h a m i l t o n , has been c o n t r a c t e d f o r and w i l l go on t o u r i n the p r o v i n c e s t h i s w i n t e r . i'd l i k e t o be t h e r e t o see i t b e f o r e i t s p r o b a b l y b r i e f c a r e e r comes t o an unapplauded end. a l s o , the s o l d i e r i s coming out i n london,* and the s o n n e t s , so we s h a l l a t l e a s t f e e l t h a t we a r e l i v i n g , even i f numb w i t h the c o l d , hungry as w o l v e s . l i k e t o come?? ed w i l l be t h e r e of c o u r s e , and the m a c k e c k n i e s , and tony m o r e t o n a i s back, and s t i l l managing somehow t o keep t i g h t , and joan i s m a r r i e d and l i v i n g i n ormonde mansions, southampton row, and john s e e k i n g a d i v o r c e even as my f i r s t g r a n d c h i l d i s g e s t a t i n g . l i f e , l i f e , l i f e . g e r a l d wrote me a t g r e a t l e n g t h i n p r a i s e of your book i --why not l e t i t come o u t , my dear f e l l o w ? c u t the u m b i l i c a l c o r d ? i'd l o v e t o see i t . send i t t o b e r n i c e baumgarten, brandt & b r a n d t , park ave., n y c ? ? ? and have you s t a r t e d a new one? i was g r a t e f u l f o r your l e t t e r about my t i n s o l d i e r . - he had a poor p r e s s , on the whole, and a s t u p i d one, i t h o u g h t - - s o few saw t h a t the r e a l theme was the e v o l u t i o n of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w i t h the s o l d i e r as i n c i d e n t a l t o i t , and the s o c r a t i c g n o t h i s e a u t o n - as i t s c o r e . does one have t o p r i n t an e x p l a n a t o r y note w i t h e v e r y book? i hope a t any r a t e t h a t my l i t t l e book f o r the k i d d i e s , a l i t t l e who's zoo of m i l d a n i m a l s , which has j u s t been t a k e n by the c r e a t i v e age p r e s s , won't need such--a c o l l e c t i o n of nonsense v e r s e s , f o r which mary i s d o i n g the d r a w i n g s , n i n e t e e n i m a g i n a r y a n i m i l e s , and v e r y s i l l y i n d e e d , but fun t o do. - as f o r l i f e h e r e , i t has been the u s u a l s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the ever e n c r o a c h i n g w i l d e r n e s s , mowing and then s c y t h i n g and then s i c k l i n g and then mowing a g a i n , and f e e d i n g the hens and capons, and b u r y i n g the o f f a l of f o w l s and s h o o t i n g woodchucks and so f o r t h . u s e f u l as i t t a k e s o f f the t e n pounds i i n v a r i a b l y a t t a c h t o m y s e l f i n the w i n t e r months, and b e s i d e s i damned w e l l e n j o y a r e a l l y f i r s t r a t e sweat. and you--how does the new house go and grow? has the phoenix c l a p p e d i t s wings? a r e the s a d d l e b o a r d s on and t i g h t ? t e l l a l l . and do you know j davenport's a d d r e s s by any remote chance?? with which, w e l l , b l e s s you male, and our l o v e s as always t o margie and your s e l f — conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes x the a i k e n s d i d s a i l from h a l i f a x t o l i v e r p o o l sometime i n november . a « d v " : "deo v o l e n t e , " l a t i n , "god w i l l i n g . " a i k e n ' s s h o r t s t o r y , "mr. a r c u l a r i s , " f i r s t appeared i n among the l o s t p e o p l e (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). diana h a m i l t o n ( - ), a c t r e s s and p l a y w r i g h t , adapted the s t o r y i n t o a p l a y w i t h t h e t i t l e fear no more. i t was produced i n england i n , a f t e r some r e w r i t i n g i n which a i k e n took p a r t . a f t e r w a r d s , i t t o u r e d the p r o v i n c e s and r a n f o r f o u r weeks i n london a t the l y r i c t h e a t r e , hammersmith. a i k e n l a t e r r e w r o t e t h e p l a y and r e s t o r e d i t s o r i g i n a l t i t l e ; i t was p u b l i s h e d as mr. a r c u l a r i s : a p l a y (cambridge: h a r v a r d up, ) ( b o n n e l l , conrad a i k e n : a b i b l i o g r a p h y - ). c f . l e t t e r , p. - . * the s o l d i e r : a poem (london: e d i t i o n s p o e t r y , ) was p u b l i s h e d on october . b the f i r s t e n g l i s h e d i t i o n of and i n the human h e a r t vas p u b l i s h e d i n london by s t a p l e s p r e s s i n . edvard b u r r a ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . not i d e n t i f i e d . * joan and john a i k e n . l o v r y had f o r some time been d i s c u s s i n g t h e p r o g r e s s of under the v o l c a n o v i t h g e r a l d noxon, and i n december , v h i l e i n n i a g a r a , had p r e s e n t e d noxon v i t h a m a n u s c r i p t of t h e n o v e l ; t h i s m a n u s c r i p t i s c o n t a i n e d i n the u n i v e r s i t y of texas l i b r a r y ; a m i c r o f i l m of i t i s i n the u.b.c. l o v r y c o l l e c t i o n [ - ] . " see l e t t e r , n. , p. . the s o l d i e r : a poem. " g n o t h i s e a u t o n " : a n c i e n t greek maxim: "knov t h y s e l f . " c f . ushant ( ) and the e p i g r a p h t o b l u e voyage from j u v e n a l . * a i k e n ' s a l i t t l e who's zoo of m i l d a n i m a l s vas i n f a c t o n l y p u b l i s h e d posthumously by j o n a t h a n cape i n ; the i l l u s t r a t i o n s a r e by john vernon l o r d . . t e x t u a l notes p e r f o r m \ p e [ r } f o r m . v e r s e s , \ verse<e>{s}, . and do you\ a<b>{n}d do you : from aiken t o lowry ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d b r e w s t e r mass oct dear old male-- a p s t o my o t h e r t o beg a boon: v i z . , d u e l l s l o a n & pearce seem t o be g o i n g t o do me the honour of a two volume c o l l e c t e d poems next year, - and i'd be ever so immensely g r a t e f u l t o you f o r a few h e l p f u l h i n t s and s u g g e s t i o n s , and e s p e c i a l l y about the whole q u e s t i o n of what i f any of the e a r l i e r t h i n g s t o i n c l u d e . i s h a l l put the f i v e symphonies t o g e t h e r under the a l w a y s - i n t e n d e d s i n g l e t i t l e , the d i v i n e p i l g r i m , but each w i t h i t s own t i t l e t o o , and w i t h the p r e f a c e s r e s t o r e d t o the c h a r n e l rose, f o r s l i n , and f e s t u s ; and w i t h a few r e v i s i o n s of the rose and f o r s l i n and perhaps a l i t t l e c u t t i n g of the house of dust. but the problem i s , what of the o t h e r e a r l i e r t h i n g s — i f indeed any? i t h i n k of r e v e r s i n g the c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r , b e g i n n i n g w i t h two r e c e n t poems, crepe m y r t l e (an e l e g y f o r f d r ) and m a y f l o w e r , then the s o l d i e r , and so backwards, p r o b a b l y as f a r as john deth i n v o l , and then the symphonies e t c i n v o l . what do you t h i n k of t h i s ? ? ? i v a l u e your judgement more h i g h l y than any o t h e r , and w i l l l i s t e n i n t e n t l y t o whatever you say. much l o v e t o you both conrad no s a i l i n g date as y e t - - b u t i imagine nov s t t o t h . e x p l a n a t o r y notes t h i s two-volume e d i t i o n of a i k e n ' s c o l l e c t e d poems was never p u b l i s h e d ; however, i n o x f o r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s d i d p u b l i s h a one-volume c o l l e c t e d poems. the d i v i n e p i l g r i m was a c t u a l l y p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y by the u n i v e r s i t y of g e o r g i a p r e s s i n . the c o l l e c t e d poems a l s o c o n t a i n s a s e c t i o n , w i t h some d i f f e r e n c e s , e n t i t l e d "the d i v i n e p i l g r i m " ; the " f i v e symphonies" i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e : "the c h a r n e l rose," "the j i g of f o r s l i n , " "the house of dust," " s e n l i n : a b i o g r a p h y , " and "the p i l g r i m a g e of f e s t u s . " the poems i n c o l l e c t e d poems a r e a r r a n g e d i n what i s e s s e n t i a l l y c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r a c c o r d i n g t o when t h e y were wr i t t e n . both "mayflower" and "crepe m y r t l e : f.d.r.: a p r i l , " appeared i n s k y l i g h t one: f i f t e e n poems (new york: o x f o r d up, ). s see l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes . t o my o t h e r \ t<b>{o} my o t h e r . f o r a few\ <g>{f}or a few . under\ und<w>{e}r . any o t h e r , and\ any o t h e r <about t h i s > , and : from lowry t o aiken - ms ubc; ts h; b r e i t ["p.s.": ms h; mspc ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d ] [ d o l l a r t o n ] [ l a t e october ) dear o l d conrad: thanks a w f u l l y f o r y o u r s & have been meaning t o w r i t e a r e a l l y f a t i n f o r m a t i v e & d i v e r t i n g l e t t e r - - i n f a c t , made a l l the notes f o r same, but i want t o get t h i s l e t t e r o f f now so i t w i l l be i n time to w i s h you bon voyage, t h e r e f o r e i must make a s a c r i f i c e of the o t h e r f o r the time b e i n g . yes, the phoenix c l a p p e d i t s wings a l l r i g h t a l l r i g h t , i n f a c t gave such a b l o o d y g r e a t r e s o u n d i n g c l a p t h a t the poor b i r d n e a r l y broke i t s neck and had t o be immolated a l l over a g a i n . as you know we went e a s t a f t e r the f i r e . the grave preceded us however. the i n t e r m i n a b l e g o l d e n b i t t e r s w e e t a w f u l b e a u t i f u l e a s t e r n autumn (which i'd never e x p e r i e n c e d ) r e s t o r e d m a r g i e , [(iwhose c h i l d h o o d was i n m i c h i g a n ) t o some e x t e n t , but me i t a l m o s t s l e w . i t had a worse e f f e c t upon me, i n f a c t , t h a n on henry adams, though the noxon's n i a g a r a - o n - t h e - l a k e i s something t o see: r e a l l y b e a u t i f u l . i was i n s h o c k i n g bad form, & worse company so a l l i n a l l , though i was v e r y d i s s a p p o i n t e d not to see y o u , - - a l b e i t i heard y o u - - i t was perhaps j u s t as w e l l i d i d n ' t . how the noxon's put w i t h me--if t h e y r e a l l y d i d - - i don't know. a c t u a l l y the b u s i n e s s of the f i r e seemed t o d r i v e us both s l i g h t l y cuckoo. i t s t r a u m a t i c r e s u l t a l o n e was s h a t t e r i n g . we had to l i v e t h r o u g h the b l o o d y f i r e a l l over a g a i n e v e r y n i g h t . i would wake to f i n d margie screaming or she would wake to f i n d me y e l l i n g and gnashing my t e e t h , that i s to say, what t e e t h i have l e f t to gnash. apart from these d i v e r s i o n s ( f o r t u n a t e l y the noxon's were sound s l e e p e r s , but when we moved to a house of our own, i t grew much worse) f i r e i t s e l f seemed to f o l l o w us around i n a f a s h i o n nothing s h o r t of d i a b o l i c a l . b e t t y had p a i n t e d a p i c t u r e of a neighbouring house i n o a k v i l l e that margie & i had thought of r e n t i n g f o r the winter because i t vaguely resembled our o l d one and one day when everyone i was out i s a t i n the a t t i c s t u d y i n g t h i s p i c t u r e which i l i k e d very much. my c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the p i c t u r e was somewhat marred by the f a c t that i n my imagination the house kept b u r s t i n g i n t o flame and sure enough, about a week l a t e r , t h a t ' s p r e c i s e l y what the house d i d ; they c o u l d n ' t get the f i r e e n g i n e s through the woods, nothing of the kind had happened for f i f t y years i n that r u r a l route, and there was i t e r r i f i c t o - do, through a l l of which margie & i , f o r once, c a l m l y s l e p t . then when we went down to niagara the house next door to ours, one n i g h t while we over a t the noxons, went up i n a b l a z e : we heard the shouts & b e l l s & saw the awful sun, (e.d. again) — i don't know why so much e m i l y d i c k i n s o n to-day*--& of course thought i t was our house and ran over i n a panic, so much so that margie was not even convinced i t was not our house by the time we had got there & took a l l our manuscripts out i n t o the s t r e e t . and to cap e v e r y t h i n g , when we r e t u r n e d here, i t turned out t h a t the house where someone had been good enough to l e t us s t o r e our bedding & some few t h i n g s we had l e f t a f t e r our f i r e , had i n our absence i t s e l f been burned down, t o t a l l y demolished, and our bedding & s t u f f w i t h i t , the house m y s t e r i o u s l y b u r s t i n g i n t o flame f o r no r e a s o n a t a l l a p p a r e n t l y , one calm m i l d e v e n i n g when the owners weren't even t h e r e . margie & i had i n v e n t e d , i n a h o r r o r s t o r y , a murderer, a b l a c k m a g i c i a n one of whose s p e c i a l t i e s was the s t a r t i n g of f i r e s by means of i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t a l i s m a n s . t h i s f i c t i t i o u s gent's name was p e l l & the m.ss c o n c e r n i n g him i had happened t o r e s c u e from our f i r e . swelp me bob i f the owners of t h i s house don't t o be c a l l e d p e l l t o o , though t h e r e had been no c o n n e c t i o n a t a l l o r i g i n a l l y . and so f o r t h ; a l t o g e t h e r about f i f t y o t h e r odd s e n s e l e s s sad t e r r i f y i n g & c u r i o u s l y r e l a t e d t h i n g s t h a t make me sometimes t h i n k ( t a k i n g i t a l l i n a l l ! ) t h a t maybe i am the chap chosen of god or the d e v i l t o e l u c i d a t e the law of s e r i e s . u n f o r t u n a t e l y i t would seem t o i n v o l v e one i n such r o t t e n bad a r t : or need i t not? at a l l e v e n t s , i have been r e a d i n g kant's c r i t i q u e of pure reason t o see i f t h a t would h e l p . or perhaps bergson's osbert s i t w e l l —& some of james j o y c e ' s e x p e r i e n c e s seem t o t i e up. when we a r r i v e d back here too i t was t o f i n d t h a t someone, s t r a n g e r s & v u l t u r e s , had d i s r e g a r d e d our burned s t a k e s & n o t i c e s and b u i l t smack on h a l f our o l d s i t e , b l o c k i n g our s o u t h e r l y view, a g r e a t t a l l u g l y e r e c t i o n to be f u l l i n the summer of r a c k e t y r i c k e t y c h i l d r e n & h y s t e r i c a l f a t women, who meantime had p u l l e d down the f l a g s we had l e f t - - p e r h a p s too d r a m a t i c a l l y — f l y i n g on our poor o l d r u i n thrown dead mice down our w e l l and s h a t - - e v e n on the w a l l s — a l l over our t o i l e t . t h i s of c o u r s e i s a c r i m e , a c c o r d i n g t o the l o c a l f o l k w a y s , the mores, or whatever, though we had no legal toehold in the matters-one i n c i d e n t a l l y of the prime causes of jungle warfare--pioneer's and squatters rights having been abolished: our few fishermen friends--with ourselves the only permanent i n h a b i t a n t s — a r r i v e d back too late from alaska to prevent i t & our l o c a l manx boat builder only got insulted and nearly beaten up when he t r i e d to put a stop to i t . they had no excuse, knew we were coming back. we could have knocked their house down ourselves & had the support of even most of the summer community but l i k e a fool or not i decided to be c h r i s t l i k e about i t with the r e s u l t that we had them in our hair a l l summer while we were building on what space was l e f t for us, our new neighbours even c a l l i n g us greedy because we made the most of that, u n t i l one day the owner came over and asked why we wouldn't speak to them more often and accused me of putting a curse on them and on their house, that they'd couldn't be happy there, that the youngest c h i l d , for instance, had almost drowned the day before, & so on, and that they'd had one misfortune after another, ever since they'd b u i l t there, to which i replied that while we forgave them a l l r i g h t , they had never had the charity to perceive that there was anything to forgive, moreover i f you b u i l t on top of a guy's soul, you couldn't be sure what would happen, and i f something you didn't l i k e did happen, i t was no use coming round complaining to us and looking as i f they'd swallowed paddy murphy's goat and the horns were s t i c k i n g out of their a r s e . a l l round, quite an e t h i c a l problem. to be frank, i t is ourselves who have had a share of the misfortunes. margie ran a n a i l through her foot the f i r s t day we got the lumber i n - - c e l u l i t i s set i n - - t h e n blood p o i s o n i n g , shortage of d o c t o r s , and f i n a l l y h o s p i t a l and probings, and a h o r r i b l e anxious awful time that was. meanwhile she r e c e i v e d the f i r s t p a r t of her proofs f o r her n o v e l but we are s t i l l w a i t i n g f o r the promised p r o o f r e a d e r s copy of the second p a r t , s c r i b n e r s having h e l d her f i r s t novel now f o r over four years ( i t i s g e t t i n g i n t o the f i f t h - y e a r ) without p u b l i s h i n g i t and although they signed a c o n t r a c t f o r a second n o v e l with a time l i m i t s e t for p u b l i c a t i o n date at t h i s f a l l i t i s a l r e a d y t h i s f a l l and s t i l l margie hasn't had so much as a s m e l l of the p r o o f s of t h i s second n o v e l , which was supposed to be a t the p r i n t e r s l a s t xmas, so i t looks as though a breach of c o n t r a c t looms with what s m a l l comfort that i s f o r the poor author. s c r i b n e r s have proved the worlds most undependable and unscrupulous people to d e a l with and you are c e r t a i n l y w e l l r i d of t h e i r new o u t f i t . granted they dared not behave l i k e t h a t with someone l i k e you, but what the h e l l . i then proceeded to cut o f f the end of my thumb while doing some r i p s a w i n g with an o r d i n a r y saw, which s e t us back with the b u i l d i n g and f o r the l a s t two months i have been i n bed p r a c t i c a l l y unable to move with a toxalmia caused by an o s t e o m y e l i t i s due to an abcessed tooth that became abcessed and had to be removed owing to m a l p r a c t i c e . there i s a shortage of d e n t i s t s - - t h e y w i l l not take new p a t i e n t s , even [ i f ] you are hopping with agony as i was, and on v.j. day too, with the d r u g s t o r e s a l l shut. but on the other hand there i s a p p a r e n t l y a l s o a s u r p l u s of d e n t i s t s : they are t h r e a t e n i n g to open o f f i c e s on the s t r e e t , because of the housing shortage. but i myself have not been a b l e t o f i n d a t r a c e of these d e n t i s t s . meantime t h e r e has been an average of two murders a week h e r e , most of them by or of c h i l d r e n : a pet s l a y e r l i k e w i s e i s a t l a r g e who has d i s e m b o w e l l e d t h i r t e e n g o a t s , s e v e r a l s a i l o r s ' monkeys, t w e l v e pet r a b b i t s , and i s d o u b t l e s s a l s o somewise r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the a p p a r i t i o n of h a l f a c o c k e r s p a n i e l i n a l a n e near west vancouver. on the o t h e r hand a murderer--no r e l a t i v e but e m b a r r a s i n g l y a l s o of the name trumbaugh - -—has s h o t a p o l i c e m a n t h a t was s e v e r a l months ago, but was reminded of i t f o r a t time of w r i t i n g he has j u s t r e c e i v e d a r e p r i e v e & wondered i f t h a t were a good omen. j u s t the same we have b u i l t our house and p a r a d i s e has been r e g a i n e d . i f o r g o t t o s a y t h a t no sooner had p a r a d i s e been r e g a i n e d t h a t we r e c e i v e d the n o t i c e t h a t a new law had gone t h r o u g h and t h a t a l l our l o v e l y f o r e s t was t o be t o r n down and o u r s e l v e s w i t h i t w i t h i n a year and t u r n e d i n t o 'autocamps of the b e t t e r c l a s s . ' t h i s p l a c e d our new h o u s e — which, by the way has the d i s t i n c t i o n of b e i n g the l a s t example of such p i o n e e r a c t i v i t y on vancouver w a t e r f r o n t p r o p e r t y — u n d e r a sentence of d e a t h t h a t was f i n a l l y too much f o r our sense of humour and my temperature went up w i t h i n a q u a r t e r of an hour t o . a sad s t o r y , you say, a l m o s t as p o i g n a n t as the triumph of egg?? - not a b i t of i t . r e p r i e v e f o r the trumbaugh a l s o has come. there w i l l be no autocamps of the b e t t e r c l a s s , and no n e i g h b o u r s e i t h e r , of the worse c l a s s . we may l i v e here f o r t h r e e y e a r s a t l e a s t as we a r e d o i n g w i t h o u t m o l e s t a t i o n or p a y i n g any r e n t a t a l l and then buy the l a n d t o o , t h a t i s the p a r t we want & we are b e i n g g i v e n f i r s t c h o i c e — f o r a r e a s o n a b l e p r i c e . thus does your o l d male, i f s t i l l a c o n s e r v a t i v e - c h r i s t i a n - a n a r c h i s t at heart, at l a s t j o i n the ranks of the p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . i f e e l somewhat l i k e a prometheus who became i n t e r e s t e d i n r e a l e s t a t e & decided to buy up h i s caucasian r a v i n e . at the moment we are l i v i n g i n the house, without i n s i d e w a l l s . i t s ' pouring with r a i n , & i t doesn't l e a k . what triumph. herewith our handiwork--also the p i e r we b u i l t o u r s e l v e s , a l l t h a t was l e f t of our o l d h o u s e - - i t used to come out of our f r o n t door--the v u l t u r e s wedged themselves i n j u s t beyond, hoping to use our p i e r too, not to say our w e l l . ! my novel--the volcano—,seems to have gone smack i n t o the void--no i n t e l l i g e n t comments so f a r , or encouragement. i t h i n k i t i s r e a l l y good, though the lost week e n d may have d e p r i v e d i t of some of i t s i m p a c t — a l a c k - - p r o s a i c j u s t i c e ? - - i f not to be confused with the last week end, by j . sommerfield, " i n which i t a c t u a l l y i s o l d male who goes a l l too r e c o g n i z a b l y down the d r a i n , and p r e t t y f e e b l e too. i was p l a n n i n g to send you the volcano i n some t r e p i d a t i o n but with some p r i d e too but i don't l i k e to saddle you with the o n l y copy i n my p o s s e s s i o n a t present and i don't see how i can get back the o n l y a v a i l a b l e other one before you s a i l . so please take the w i l l f o r the deed f o r the time being. i ' l l l e a r n 'em e v e n t u a l l y , as mr wolfe once s a i d , i f e e l . the o n l y d i f f e r e n c e i n my present s t a t u s s i n c e i wrote the above i s that while we are s t i l l l i v i n g i n the house without i n s i d e w a l l s the roof i s l e a k i n g i n s i x d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s . but now your l e t t e r about the c o l l e c t e d poems has a r r i v e d and i hasten to make some reply in time, though please forgive me i f what i say seems h a s t i l y digested. in b r i e f , these are the ideas vhich immediately occur to me and i hope they are not merely confusing. i think the idea of reversing the chronological order is a very good one, in fact as good as can be,--though i think perhaps the soldier might p r o f i t by being dislocated out of the nev order and being placed, i f not a c t u a l l y among the symphonies somevhere near them in the second volume. what i mean i s , i f the poem does not belong to the symphonies, the soldier does to the notion of the divine pilgrim. houston p e t e r s o n or somebody once put the possibly erroneous idea in my head that you had once thought of including t e t e l e s t a i also under the divine pilgrim heading and even i f this is erroneous and t e t e l e s t a i not a symphony t h i s i s worth thinking of i f you haven't already rejected i t . i a as for the early poems i vould c e r t a i n l y put in every thing that can possibly be of use to the fellow-poet and student of your work, discordants with youth that's now so bravely spending and as many of the actual cats & rats turns & movies as you have space for. the l a t t e r l y c e r t a i n l y stay v i t h me as unique & powerful work, whatever you may think of them. i vould also take the opportunity of exhuming from undeserved limbo such pieces as 'red petals in the dust under a t r e e " , asphalt "tossing our tortured hands to no escape" (though not very early, model?), but very f i n e , and even the "succubus you kissed" lampoon you wrote agin the imagists, which has a h i s t o r i c a l interest, & giving the dates of a l l these. i don't know about a selection from earth triumphant, but i would be inclined to make a s h o r t o n e : - - p o s s i b l y you a r e r i g h t to disown i t , but i m y s e l f cannot f o r g e t the 'unaccustomed wetness i n my t r o u s e r s ' w i t h which i read i t a t your uncle p o t t e r s . the o n l y o t h e r d e p a r t u r e t h a t comes t o me would be t o s t a r t the whole c o l l e c t e d poems w i t h the morning song of s e n l i n and end them w i t h the coming f o r t h by day of o s i r i s j o n e s . i must say i l i k e t h i s n o t i o n per se e x c e e d i n g l y , i f i t would not p l a y too much hob w i t h your r e v e r s e d c h r o n o l o g y . whatever you do, i am v e r y g l a d a c o l l e c t e d poems i s coming out and the v e r y b e s t l u c k w i t h them. i f by the way you have any o l d harpers b a z z a a r s , v i c e v e r s a s , s o u t h e r n reviews or what not you are t h i n k i n g of t h r o w i n g away--no o l d d i a l s , alack?--we would be immensely beholden i f you would wrap a paper around them and shoot them i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n c.o.d or something f o r we a r e a b s o l u t e l y s t u c k here f o r such r e a d i n g m a t t e r , a l l i n t e l l i g e n t american magazines h a v i n g been u n p r o c u r a b l e f o r donkeys y e a r s : on the o t h e r hand i t o c c u r s t o me i t i s p r o b a b l y a poor time t o ask what w i t h you p a c k i n g & a l l : so i f i t ' s too much t r o u b l e , j u s t f o r g e t i t . w e l l , bon voyage, o l d f e l l o w and our v e r y b e s t l o v e t o you both and b e s t wishes f o r mary's s u c c e s s & our v e r y b e s t a g a i n t o her and you and a l s o t o jeakes male. j.l.d's a d d r e s s e - - l a s t i h e a r d — w a s i t h i n k the m a l t i n g house. chippenham, w i l t s . p.s. when i suggested s t a r t i n g with the morning song of senlin i wasn't of course forgetting that the morning song was only part of senlin: a biography. my idea, possibly rather na'ive, was that the poems should s t a r t with senlin r i s i n g in the morning & close with the comment of the grass in the coming forth, which i f e l t would rather b e a u t i f u l l y enclose the pilgrim theme running throughout your work. possibly the idea would be better i f there were just one volume. however, perhaps i t was a good one. i just send t h i s p.s because such things can be i r r i t a t i n g ; almost as irritating--perhaps you s a y — a s when i once referred to brownstone eclogues as brownstone elegies, a stupid mistake that i saw too late & was doubtless due to a state of mind: i was thinking of them as br imstone eclogues, & the correction got off on the wrong f o o t . i am now almost better of the toxalmia & the roof-leaks are mysteriously healing of themselves. at high tide you can dive out of our casement windows into perilous seas f o r l o r n — v e r y useful. jesus, t h i s is a beautiful place. we are thinking of t r a v e l l i n g for six months, however, into the s u n — h a i t i , or a freighter to samoa. do you know any new magazines f r i e n d l y to more or less o r i g i n a l or experimental short s t o r i e s that do not have to s t a r t : 'i was just leaving oliphant & company's o f f i c e s when i saw mike.'? please give my love to the drugstore where the (? mouthesills] were bought, the pirates pushing trucks, mr smith, malvolio, s i l b e r s t e i n , the engineer with long-beaked o i l c a n , the shipboys, & of course the kraken & any pyntors & g i l d e r s who have been to vancouver, likewise the tarred seams, the s i l u r i a n ( i f seen) & don't forget the s e a . best l o v e & s u c c e s s t o mary & y o u r s e l f from us both & a g a i n bon voyage—& t o j e a k e s , john & jane, the s h i p , mermaid s t . & the b u r r a male. e x p l a n a t o r y notes see appendix i, p. , f o r aiken's v a r i a n t t y p e s c r i p t t r a n s c r i p t i o n of t h i s l e t t e r . henry adams ( - ), american h i s t o r i a n , p h i l o s o p h e r and author best known f o r h i s the education of henrv adams ( ). b e t t y and gerald noxon, whom lovry had v i s i t e d i n o n t a r i o i n ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. , and l e t t e r , n. , p. . * i have been unable to i d e n t i f y the e m i l y d i c k i n s o n poem/s to v h i c h lowry i s r e f e r r i n g . b lowry l a t e r i n c o r p o r a t e d these uncanny encounters with f i r e i n t o october f e r r v to g a b r i o l a , ed. margerie lovry (nev york: world, ). • c f . aiken's blue vovaae ( ). i have not been a b l e to i d e n t i f y t h i s r e f e r e n c e . * cf. lovry's "through the panama" i n hear us o lord ( ) f and markson's "malcolm lovry: a reminiscence: d o l l a r t o n " ( ). • the shapes that creep (nev york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). although i n p r e v i o u s l e t t e r s l o v r y suggests t h a t the l a s t t v l s t of the k n i f e vas the f i r j a t d e t e c t i v e novel v r i t t e n by margerie, the shapes that creep vas a c t u a l l y the f i r s t t o be p u b l i s h e d . " the l a s t t v i s t of the k n i f e (nev york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). l x m a r t i n trumbaugh i s the p r o t a g o n i s t i n lovry's e a r l y d r a f t s of dark as the grave. "la mordida," and "through the panama," and vas named a f t e r the j a z z musician f r a n k i e trumbauer (see "through the panama" ( ) ) ; the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s name vas l a t e r changed to s i g b j ^ r n w i l d e r n e s s . " reference to shervood anderson's the tslmftph of the egg; a book of impressions from american l i f e i n t a l e s and poems (nev york: b.w. huebsch, ). i a the appearance of c h a r l e s r. jackson's the l o s t weekend i n , three years before the p u b l i c a t i o n of under the volcano, came as a g r e a t b l o v to l o v r y vho f e l t jackson's novel to be too s i m i l a r to h i s ovn and f e a r e d t h a t he vould be accused of i m i t a t i n g i t ; c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . john sommerfield's n o v e l , the l a s t weekend, vas never p u b l i s h e d ; the p r o t a g o n i s t of the book, david n o r d a l l , i s supposed to have been modelled upon lovry (day - ). x b t h i s s e c t i o n of the l e t t e r vas a p p a r e n t l y v r i t t e n some days a f t e r the f i r s t . see l e t t e r , p. , from a i k e n . x see l e t t e r , n. , p. . x e " t e t e l e s t a i " i s a poem from a i k e n ' s p r i a p u s and the p o o l and i s . i n c l u d e d i n "the d i v i n e p i l g r i m " s e c t i o n of c o l l e c t e d poems. x " d i s c o r d a n t s " was p u b l i s h e d i n turns and movies and other t a l e s i n verse ( b o s t o n : houghton m i f f l i n , ); "youth" appears i n e a r t h triumphant and other t a l e s i n verse (new york: m a c m i l l a n , ). only " d i s c o r d a n t s " i s p r i n t e d i n c o l l e c t e d poems. " b a i n ' s cats and r a t s , " which i s p r i n t e d i n c o l l e c t e d poems, i s the n i n t h poem i n the "turns and movies" s e r i e s from a i k e n ' s turns and movies and other t a l e s i n v e r s e . x see "red p e t a l s , " c a r t o o n s magazine . (dec. ): . see " a s p h a l t , " d i a l . (june ): ; the f i n a l l i n e of t h i s poem r e a d s : "we t o s s our t o r t u r e d hands, t o no escape." i have not been a b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h i s poem. there a r e no s e l e c t i o n s from e a r t h triumphant i n c o l l e c t e d poems. a l f r e d c l a g h o r n p o t t e r : see l e t t e r , n. , p. ; lowry p r o b a b l y met "uncle a l f r e d " when v i s i t i n g a i k e n i n m a s s a c h u s e t t s i n the summer of . s t h i s arrangement was not used; i n s t e a d , the poems were a r r a n g e d i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r a c c o r d i n g t o when t h e y were w r i t t e n . greek, "the whole s e a , the s e a . " see a i k e n ' s blue voyage ( , ). c f . a l s o xenophon's a n a b a s i s i v . v i i . : " ( +\*^<l[ () dfc&a,' ("the s e a l t n e sea,">- john davenport; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . see l e t t e r , p. . on november , the lowrys f l e w t o mexico v i a los angeles and s t a y e d i n cuernavaca; both dark as the grave and the u n p u b l i s h e d "la m o r d i d a " a r e based on t h i s t r i p . t h e i r t r i p by f r e i g h t e r t o h a i t i d i d not t a k e p l a c e u n t i l december . x most of these a r e a l l u s i o n s t o a i k e n ' s blue voyage: " t r u c k s were everywhere, each pushed by a p i r a t e " ( ) ; " e n g i n e e r http://iv.vii. c a r r i e s a long-beaked o i l - c a n " ( ) ; " ' p y n t e r and g i l d e r ' " ( ) ; "'a p y n t e r an' g i l d e r , i am, an' i've been t o vancouver'" ( ) ; smith, m a l v o l i o , and s i l b e r s t e i n a r e c h a r a c t e r s i n blue voyage; the s i l u r i a n i s the s h i p on which demarest f i r s t met c y n t h i a . "the kraken": c f . lowry's l e t t e r to seymour lawrence p u b l i s h e d i n wake : - , and l e t t e r , p. . the s h i p inn, rye; mermaid s t . , the s t r e e t on which jeake's house s t a n d s ; ed b u r r a . t e x t u a l notes [ i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t the ms. v e r s i o n of t h i s l e t t e r i n the u.b.c. l i b r a r y i s a c t u a l l y the one r e c e i v e d by a i k e n ; see appendix i , p. , f o r a i k e n ' s i n c o m p l e t e and v a r i a n t t r a n s c r i p t i o n of t h i s l e t t e r ] [someone has w r i t t e n " [ f a l l ] " a t top of l e t t e r ] dear o l d conrad:\ < [ i l l e g . ] > how do you do.> <dear c> dear o l d conrad: f a t i n f o r m a t i v e & d i v e r t i n g l e t t e r - - \ f a t <and good> { i n f o r m a t i v e & d i v e r t i n g } l e t t e r - but i want t o get t h i s l e t t e r o f f now so i t w i l l be i n t i m e \ but <where a r e t h e y now, i know where t h e y a r e but> i want t o get t h i s l e t t e r o f f <in a hurry> {now} so i t w i l l <wish you bon voyage> be i n time s a c r i f i c e of the o t h e r f o r \ s a c r i f i c e of <my l e t t e r > {the o t h e r } f o r the phoenix c l a p p e d i t s wings a l l r i g h t a l l r i g h t , [ . . . ] broke i t s neck\ the phoenix <has> c l a p p e d i t s wings<, i n f a c t gave such a r e s o u n d i n g clap> a l l r i g h t { a l l r i g h t } , i n f a c t gave such a <resounding> < { [ i l l e g . ] } > {bloody} g r e a t {resounding} c l a p t h a t the <bloody> {poor} b i r d <nearly> { n e a r l y } broke i t s neck . - the i n t e r m i n a b l e g o l d e n \ the <long> { i n t e r m i n a b l e } g o l d e n . b i t t e r s w e e t a w f u l b e a u t i f u l e a s t e r n autumn\ b i t t e r s w e e t { a w f u l b e a u t i f u l e a s t e r n } autumn . - i'd never e x p e r i e n c e d ) \ i'd never <seen> {exper i e n c e d } ) d a t e . . . - . . - . margie, [(iwhose c h i l d h o o d \ margie,<to some extent> [(]whose c h i l d h o o d . me i t almost slew.\ me i t {almost} slew. . upon me, i n f a c t , than\ upon me, {in fact,} than . - though the noxon's\ though <nox> the noxon's . - r e a l l y b e a u t i f u l . i was i n shocking bad form,\' r e a l l y b e a u t i f u l <, & r e a l l y {quite} unique>. i was i n <sadness i s so much p a r t of me t h a t i may not, encumbered <<without>> as [ i l l e g . ] dare hope sadness i s so the [ i l l e g . ] p a r t of me that i am may dare add a l i t t l e hope my g r i e f i s l i k e a<<n o l d i r o n cookstove which-->> {battered o l d cookstove} <<as i remembered that>> > shocking bad form, [the above u n f i n i s h e d poem appears to have been w r i t t e n on the page before lowry began the l e t t e r ] . though i was very d i s a p p o i n t e d \ though i was {very} d i s a p p o i n t e d . - see y o u , - - a l b e i t i heard y o u - - i t was perhaps j u s t \ see y o u , { - - a l b e i t i heard you--} i t was {perhaps} j u s t . seemed to d r i v e \ seemed <to have> to d r i v e . traumatic r e s u l t alone was s h a t t e r i n g . \ traumatic {result} <effect> <{consequences}> <alone w<<as>>{ere}> {alone was} s h a t t e r i n g <{enough--if very i n t e r e s t i n g } > . . the bloody f i r e \ the {bloody} f i r e . f i n d margie screaming\ f i n d <her> {margie} screaming . - wake to f i n d me y e l l i n g and gnashing my t e e t h , \ f i n d <her> {me} y e l l i n g <or [ i l l e g . ] > and gnashing <my> my t e e t h , . t e e t h i have l e f t \ t e e t h i <have> {have} l e f t . these d i v e r s i o n s \ these < l i t t l e domestic> d i v e r s i o n s . our own,\ our < [ i l l e g . ] > own, . - i n a f a s h i o n n o t h i n g s h o r t of d i a b o l i c a l . \ i n a < d i a b o l i c a l f a s h i o n > { f a s h i o n n o t h i n g s h o r t of d i a b o l i c a l } . . - a n e i g h b o u r i n g house\ a { n e i g h b o u r i n g } house . - f o r the w i n t e r [. . .] o l d one and\ f o r the w i n t e r {because i t <rather> {{vaguely}} resembled our o l d one} and . s u r e enough, about a week\ s u r e enough, {about} a week . house d i d ; \ house d i d <do>; . when we went down t o n i a g a r a \ when we <got back> {went <ov> down} t o n i a g a r a . - t o o u r s , one n i g h t w h i l e \ t o o u r s , {one n i g h t } w h i l e . went up i n a b l a z e : \ went up i n <smoke> {a b l a z e } : . - saw the a w f u l sun, {. . .] t o - d a y - - \ saw the <">awful sun<">, {(e.d. a g a i n ) - - i don't know why so much e m i l y dickenson to-day--} . & took a l l our m a n u s c r i p t s \ took a l l <the> {our} m a n u s c r i p t s . and t o cap\ <but t o cap> and t o cap . r e t u r n e d h e r e , i t t u r n e d out t h a t \ r e t u r n e d h e r e , <the house where we'd> { i t t u r n e d out t h a t } . - where someone [. . .] few t h i n g s \ where <we'd> {someone had been good enough t o l e t us} store<d> our bedding < [ i l l e g . ] > & < [ i l l e g . ] > some few t h i n g s . - had i n our absence i t s e l f been burned down,\ had { i n our absence i t s e l f } been < i t s e l f [ i l l e g . ] > <consumed by f i r e > {burned down}, . bedding & s t u f f w i t h i t , \ bedding {& s t u f f } w i t h i t , . - i n t o flame [. . .] e v e n i n g \ i n t o flame <one> f o r no <valid> r e a s o n a t a l l { a p p a r e n t l y , } one calm {mild} e v e n i n g . weren't even t h e r e . \ weren't even <inside> t h e r e . . margie & i \ margie <had invented> & i . the m.ss [. . .] r e s c u e \ the m.ss<,> { c o n c e r n i n g him} i had <rescued> {happened to} <from our f i r e > r e s c u e . - f i f t y o t h e r odd s e n s e l e s s sad t e r r i f y i n g & c u r i o u s l y r e l a t e d \ f i f t y o t h e r odd <things> { s e n s e l e s s sad} <things> { t e r r i f y i n g &} c u r i o u s l y r e l a t e d [ h a n d w r i t t e n by lowry a t top of page: "mem--who gave me my f i r s t d r i n k e t c " ] . - make me sometimes t h i n k [. . .] chosen of god\ make me {sometimes} t h i n k { ( t a k i n g i t a l l i n a l l ! ) } t h a t maybe i am the <person> <{chosen}> {chap} chosen of god . - would h e l p . or perhaps [. . .] t i e up.\ would h e l p . {or perhaps bergson's osbert s i t w e l l - - & some of james j o y c e s e x p e r i e n c e s seem t o t i e up.} . - someone, s t r a n g e r s & v u l t u r e s , had\ someone, {<city> s t r a n g e r s & v u l t u r e s , } had . - our burned s t a k e s & n o t i c e s and\ our {burned} s t a k e s & { n o t i c e s <a>} and . - smack on h a l f [. . .] f u l l \ smack on { h a l f } our {old} s i t e , { b l o c k i n g our s o u t h e r l y view,} a g r e a t t a l l u g l y <thi> e r e c t i o n {to be} f u l l . c h i l d r e n & h y s t e r i c a l f a t women, who\ c h i l d r e n {& h y s t e r i c a l f a t women}, who . - p u l l e d down the f l a g s [. . .] f l y i n g \ p u l l e d down the <{american & canadian & e n g l i s h } > f l a g s we had l e f t - - { p e r h a p s too d r a m a t i c a l l y - - } f l y i n g . the l o c a l f o l k w a y s , \ the { l o c a l } f o l k w a y s , . l e g a l t o e h o l d \ l e g a l <standing> { t o e h o l d } . - --one i n c i d e n t a l l y of the prime causes of j u n g l e w a r f a r e — \ [ t h i s sentence i s w r i t t e n a t the top of the page] . b e i n g a b o l i s h e d : our few f i s h e r m e n f r i e n d s - - w i t h \ b e i n g <{almost}> a b o l i s h e d : < [ i l l e g . ] > {our few} f i s h e r m e n f r i e n d s <hadn t>--with . p r e v e n t i t & o u r \ p r e v e n t i t <happening> & our . - t r i e d t o put [. . . .] t h e i r house down\ t r i e d t o <prevent i t . > {put a s t o p t o i t . they had no excuse, <&> knew we were coming back.} we <had> c o u l d have knocked <it> { t h e i r house} down . but l i k e a f o o l or not i \ but <for some r e a s o n ) { l i k e a f o o l or not} i . on what s p a c e \ on what <was l e f t > space . - new n e i g h b o u r s even [. . .] t h a t , \ new n e i g h b o u r s <having the nerve t o c a l l > {even c a l l i n g } us greedy because {we made} the most <even> of t h a t , . one day the owner came over and a s k e d \ one day the <fat female> owner came over <in hyst> <nearly> <{almost}> <in h y s t e r i c s ) and asked . accused me o f \ accused {me} of . - t h e y ' d c o u l d n ' t [. . . ], and\ t h e y ' d <never> { c o u l d n ' t } be<en> happy { t h e r e } , t h a t <her> {the} youngest c h i l d , { f o r i n s t a n c e , } had a l m o s t drowned the day b e f o r e , {& so on,} and . a n o t h e r , [. . .] t o w h i c h \ a n o t h e r , <and so on,> {ever s i n c e t h e y ' d <been> { { b u i l t } } t h e r e , } t o which . a guy's s o u l , \ a <person's> guy's s o u l , <you had or worse { s t i l l } the s o u l of two p e o p l e , ) . c o u l d n ' t be s u r e \ c o u l d n ' t be < p r e c i s e l y > s u r e . i f something\ i f <you> something . - no use coming\ no use <compla> < { [ i l l e g . ] } > coming . - as i f t h e y ' d swallowed paddy murphy's goat\ as i f <they'd> { < [ i l l e g . ] > they'd} swallowed <a l i v e > {paddy murphy's} goat <hole> . - out of t h e i r \ out of <his> t h e i r . to be f r a n k , \ <however,> to be f r a n k , . have had a share o f \ have had <most> {a share} of . s e t i n - - \ s e t < [ i l l e g . ] > i n - - . h o s p i t a l and p r o b i n g s , and\ h o s p i t a l {and p r o b i n g s } , and . - second p a r t , s c r i b n e r s h a v i n g h e l d \ second p a r t , <they> { s c r i b n e r s } h a v i n g h<ad>{eld} . - f o r over f o u r y e a r s ( i t i s g e t t i n g i n t o the f i f t h y e a r ) \ f o r <nearly f> over f o u r y e a r s ( { i t i s } g e t t i n g i n t o the f i f t h < ) > y e a r ) . t h e y s i g n e d \ t h e y <were not f o r c e d into> <in the n> s i g n e d . - w i t h a time l i m i t s e t f o r p u b l i c a t i o n date a t \ w i t h <the> a time l i m i t < a t i o n > {set} f o r p u b l i c a t i o n d a t e <they have a l > < i t i s a l r e a d y p a s t t h a t date> a t . s t i l l m a r g i e \ s t i l l <they have> margie . looms w i t h v h a t \ looms w i t h <vhat t i l l e g . ] > what . undependable and u n s c r u p u l o u s p e o p l e t o d e a l w i t h \ undependable<,> and u n s c r u p u l o u s < p e o p l e - - t h e i r behavior> <to d e a l with> people t o < [ i l l e g . ] > d e a l w i t h . w i t h someone l i k e y o u \ w i t h {someone l i k e } you, . - w h i l e d o i n g some r i p s a w i n g \ w h i l e d o i n g some <hacksawing wi> r i p s a w i n g . . which s e t us back\ which s e t <me> {us} back . - caused by an o s t e o m y e l i t i s \ caused by an <abcessed t> o s t e o m y e l i t i s . owing t o m a l p r a c t i c e . \ owing t o <a s h o r t a g e of d e n t i s t s and f i n a l l y > m a l p r a c t i c e . . not t a k e new p a t i e n t s , \ not take {new} p a t i e n t s , . hopping w i t h agony\ hopping <in> {with} agony . d r u g s t o r e s a l l s h u t . \ d r u g s t o r e s { a l l } s h u t . . s t r e e t , because\ s t r e e t , <they the> <being u s u a l l > <other accomodat> because . - t h i r t e e n goats [. . .] west vancouver.\ t h i r t e e n g o a t s , <twelve> s e v e r a l { s a i l o r s ' monkeys, twelve} pet r a b b i t s , and i s d o u b t l e s s a l s o {somewise} r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the a p p a r i t i o n of h a l f a c o c k e r s p a n i e l i n a l a n e <by> <in> {near} west vancouver. . - on the o t h e r hand [. . .] omen.\ {<and> {{on the o t h e r hand}} a m u r d e r e r — n o r e l a t i v e but e m b a r r a s i n g l y a l s o of the name trumbaugh--{{has s h o t a policeman}} t h a t was s e v e r a l months ago, but was reminded of i t f o r a t time of w r i t i n g he has j u s t r e c e i v e d a r e p r i e v e & wondered i f t h a t were a good omen.} [ t h i s sentence i s w r i t t e n i n the l e f t - hand margin] . r e c e i v e d the n o t i c e \ r e c e i v e d <a r e p o r t > the n o t i c e . 'autocamps\ <b>autocamps . - t h i s p l a c e d [. . .] w a t e r f r o n t \ t h i s <this> p l a c e d our new house <under a>--which / < b u i l t w i t h our own hands> {by the way} <it> has the <merit of> d i s t i n c t i o n of b e i n g the l a s t <bit> {example} of such p i o n e e r a c t i v i t y on <waterfront> vancouver w a t e r f r o n t . t h a t was f i n a l l y too much\ t h a t was <at l a s t > { f i n a l l y } too much . a l m o s t as p o i g n a n t a s \ a l m o s t as <sad> {poignant} as . - r e p r i e v e f o r mr trumbaugh a l s o has come.\ r e p r i e v e { f o r mr trumbaugh a l s o } has come. . n e i g h b o u r s e i t h e r , of t h e \ n e i g h b o u r s e i t h e r , <at l e a s t of the p r e s e n t c a l i b r e > of the . - m o l e s t a t i o n or p a y i n g \ m o l e s t a t i o n <and then> or p a y i n g . l a n d t o o , t h a t i s t h e \ l a n d t o o , <what pa> { t h a t i s } the . p r i c e . thus does\ p r i c e . <at the moment) thus does [ h a n d w r i t t e n by lowry on the v e r s o of e l e v e n t h page: nocturne of remembered s p r i n g <punch> house of dust c h a r n e l rose f o r s l i n f e s t u s punch] . - i f e e l [. . .] r a v i n e . \ i f e e l <some> (sometimes) somewhat l i k e [. . .] c a u c a s i a n r a v i n e . [ t h i s sentence i s h a n d w r i t t e n a t top of page] . at the moment we a r e \ {at the moment} we are . beyond, h o p i n g \ beyond, <the p i e r > hoping . my n o v e l - - t h e v o l c a n o - - , seems\ my n o v e l { - - t h e v o l c a n o - - } , seems . good, though\ good <in i t s b i z a r r e way>, though . - - a l a c k - - p r o s a i c j u s t i c e ? - - i f n o t \ - - a l a c k - - < p o e t i c > { p r o s a i c } j u s t i c e ? - - < t h o u g h > i f not . - i n which i t a c t u a l l y i s o l d male who goes\ i n which <old> <po o l d malc> <{old}> <plays a r a t h e r more r e c o g n i z a b l e > <goes r a t h e r more r e c o g n i z a b l y down the d r a i n > i t a c t u a l l y i s o l d male {who} goes . - t o o . i was p l a n n i n g t o send you the volcano i n \ t o o . <in s p i t e of> i was p l a n n i n g t o send you the <book> {volcano} i n . - w i t h the o n l y copy i n my p o s s e s s i o n a t p r e s e n t and i don't s e e \ w i t h < [ i l l e g . ] > {the} o n l y copy <& i can't> i n my p o s s e s s i o n {at p r e s e n t } and i don't <the o n l y a v a i l a b l e other> see . - o t h e r one b e f o r e you s a i l . so p l e a s e [. . .] b e i n g . \ o t h e r one <in time> { b e f o r e you s a i l } . <but> {so} p l e a s e t a k e the w i l l f o r the deed { f o r the t ime be i n g } . . - but now your l e t t e r \ but <meantime> {now} your l e t t e r . make some r e p l y \ make {some} r e p l y . though p l e a s e f o r g i v e me\ though < f o r g i v e me i f > <you must> {please} f o r g i v e me . - o r d e r i s a v e r y good one,\ o r d e r i s a <good> v e r y good one, . as good as can be,--\ as good as < [ i l l e g . ' ] > can b e , — . the s o l d i e r might\ the s o l d i e r <would p r o f i > might . - volume. what i mean [. . .] p i l g r i m . \ volume. {what i mean i s , i f <it> {{the poem}} does not b e l o n g t o the symphonies, the s o l d i e r does t o the n o t i o n of the d i v i n e p i l g r i m . } . - t e t e l e s t a i not a symphony t h i s i s \ t e t e l e s t a i <not> not a symphony < i t i s n o n e t h e l e s s ) t h i s i s . e v e r y t h i n g \ e v e r y <bloody> t h i n g . p o s s i b l y be of use t o the f e l l o w - p o e t \ p o s s i b l y <of> be {of} use t o the <student> f e l l o w - p o e t . d i s c o r d a n t s w i t h youth\ d i s c o r d a n t s <and> w i t h <'youth> <disenchantment and> youth . the a c t u a l cats & rats t u r n s \ the a c t u a l {cats & rats} turns . the l a t t e r l y \ th<ey>{e} l a t t e r l y . you may t h i n k \ you may <have come to> t h i n k . even the "succubus\ even the <lampoon> "succubus . - h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t [. . .] t h e s e . \ h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t ( . > { , & g i v i n g the d a t e s of a l l these.} . triumphant, but i \ triumphant, <read a t your uncle p o t t e r s ( i l l e g . ] > but i . d e p a r t u r e t h a t comes\ d e p a r t u r e <i can s u g g e s t ) t h a t comes . s t a r t the whole\ s t a r t the <whole> whole . your r e v e r s e d c h r o n o l o g y . \ your ( r e v e r s e d and> r e v e r s e d c h r o n o l o g y . . i f by the way\ i f <as you prepare t o d e p a r t ) <you> by <should> by the way . a l a c k ? - - w e \ a l a c k ? - - < i > {we} . - and shoot them i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n c.o.d or something f o r \ and <send> {shoot} them i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n {c.o.d or something} f o r . - magazines h a v i n g been u n p r o c u r a b l e f o r \ magazines <are under a ban h e r e ) { h a v i n g been u n p r o c u r a b l e } f o r . i t i s p r o b a b l y a poor time t o ask what w i t h \ i t i s {probably} ( p r o b a b l y ) a poor time t o ask <so i f . i t ' s ) {what} <too much t r o u b l e ) w i t h [ h a n d w r i t t e n by a i k e n a t top of s i x t e e n t h page: "no d a t e : but mention of brownstone e c l o g u e s makes i t or l a t e r . c.a." t h i s and the next page make up the p o s t s c r i p t of t h i s l e t t e r ; ms h; mspc ubc] . when i s u g g e s t e d s t a r t i n g \ when i ( s a i d ) suggest{ed} s t a r t i n g . - r u n n i n g t h r o u g h o u t your work.\ r u n n i n g through{out} ( a l l ) your work. . - as i r r i t a t i n g - - p e r h a p s you s a y — a s when \ as i r r i t a t i n g { - - p e r h a p s you s a y - - } a s when . [? m o u t h e s i l l s ] \ [ d o u b t f u l r e a d i n g ] . - s i l b e r s t e i n , the e n g i n e e r [. . .] of c o u r s e \ s i l b e r s t e i n , {the e n g i n e e r w i t h long-beaked o i l c a n , the s h i p b o y s , } & of c o u r s e . & don't f o r g e t the s e a . \ & {don't f o r g e t } the s e a . : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n , b.c., canada, august , . dear o l d conrad: i hope you and mary a r e by now ensconced i n jeakes house, rye, and t h a t the s e a - p o p p i e s and camber c a s t l e , not t o say tram, and the s h i p s b l i t h e l y s a i l i n g down the meadows a r e s t i l l t h e r e , and t h a t t h a t which was once the p r o v i n c e of the sea i s not now t o o much a p r o v i n c e of the same a g a i n by v i r t u e of b e i n g a n a v e l base. as f o r m y s e l f we a r e s t i l l l i v i n g i n the same p l a c e w i t h r a t h e r more s i d e - w a l l s , and s u f f e r i n g from s u c c e s s s l i g h t l y , the v o l c a n o h a v i n g b e i n g a c c e p t e d i n england and america upon the same day, o u r s e l v e s c u r i o u s l y h a v i n g been i n mexico i t s e l f , i n your wedding p l a c e , a t t h a t t i m e , w h i t h e r we went because of c l i m a t e . but i was not c o n v i n c e d and s a i d so t o o , t h e r e among m a r i g o l d s , w i t h e a s t e r coming: however i t i s a p p a r e n t l y §_o, and i n america a t l e a s t (reynal and h i t c h c o c k ) has even gone t o the p r i n t e r s . i d e l a y e d t e l l i n g you t h i s f o r h i t c h c o c k had no sooner s i g n e d the c o n t r a c t than he dropped dead e t c . and t h e r e were o t h e r d e l a y s . i hope t o god you w i l l l i k e t h i s work by your o l d p u p i l a l i t t l e though, which cape b r i n g s out i n e n g l a n d , and i s h a l l send you as soon as i get any c o p i e s . m a r g i e ' s f i r s t d e t e c t i v e s t o r y came out f i n a l l y a f t e r s c r i b n e r ' s kept i t n e a r l y y e a r s ; i t has s o l d f i v e thousand c o p i e s , and i s s t i l l s e l l i n g . they brought out her second the other day, the last twist of the k n i f e , but without having sent her any p r o o f s and a c c o r d i n g to a l e t t e r r e c e i v e d from a reader (the f i r s t she'd even heard of i t s p u b l i c a t i o n ) minus i t s l a s t chapter: so t h a t there are no e x p l a n a t i o n s of the murder etc.'* s c r i b n e r ' s are r e a l l y the l i m i t . our correspondence i s e q u a l l e d o n l y by joyce's with grant r i c h a r d s . margie has w r i t t e n a damn good s e r i o u s novel e n t i t l e d horse i n the sky which i s with cape: while f l a p p i n g incompetently about and j u s t about d r i v i n g poor margie cockoo with d e l a y s and l i e s and non-answered l e t t e r s s c r i b n e r ' s had meantime t r i e d even to prevent her p u b l i s h i n g t h i s book, s i n c e i t would " i n t e r f e r e " with the 'career' which they had anyway at every p o i n t done t h e i r l e v e l best to b i t c h . she t h r i v e s however, as do i. well, a l l my v e r y best love to you and mary from us both - remember me to the burra and the nashes and a l l " - and j o h n - i see jane's name on the e d i t o r i a l board of time? - and jane - should the grandfather c l o c k s t i l l be there please give him a f r i e n d l y tug of the b o l l o c k s from me - and the s h i p . - from love f i f t e e n to vantage out to back again to love - male. - i have been r e r e r e a d i n g the e c l o g u e s : wonderful. e x p l a n a t o r y notes the lowrys had f l o w n t o mexico on november and s t a y e d i n cuernavaca, conrad and mary a i k e n ' s "wedding p l a c e , " where t h e y were a b l e t o r e n t the house which had been the model f o r jacques l a r u e l l e ' s house i n under the v o l c a n o . i t was from t h i s house t h a t lowry wrote h i s famous defence of the n o v e l t o jonathan cape. c u r t i c e h i t c h c o c k ( - ), p r e s i d e n t and d i r e c t o r of the american p u b l i s h i n g f i r m r e y n a l & h i t c h c o c k from u n t i l h i s d e a t h on may . the shapes that creep (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). * the l a s t t w i s t of the k n i f e was r e i s s u e d by s c r i b n e r ' s i n the same year w i t h the l a s t c h a p t e r i n t a c t . lowry quotes from t h i s f a n l e t t e r i n a september l e t t e r t o maxwell p e r k i n s i n the u.b.c. lowry c o l l e c t i o n [ - ] . grant r i c h a r d s was the p u b l i s h e r t o whom joyce f i r s t s e n t d u b l i n e r s i n . r i c h a r d s a c c e p t e d the book i n f e b r u a r y , r e f u s e d i t i n september , and f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i t i n (ellmann , ). e horse i n the sky was e v e n t u a l l y p u b l i s h e d by s c r i b n e r ' s i n . p a u l and margaret nash; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . e john a i k e n . jane a i k e n ' s name appears on the masthead of time as an e d i t o r i a l r e s e a r c h e r from f e b r u a r y (xlvii. ) t o november ( x l v i i i . ) . the s h i p inn, rye. brownstone e c l o g u e s . t e x t u a l notes . b l i t h e l y \ b l i t h { e } l y . n a v e l \ nav<a>{e}l . more s i d e - w a l l s , \ more <in> s i d e { - } w a l i s , . a p p a r e n t l y so.,\ a p p a r e n t l y <so t , . c a r e e r ' \ {'}career{'} the s h i p . \ the <s>{s}hip. r e r e r e a d i n g \ { r e } r e r e a d i n g : from aiken t o lowry ts h; k i l l o r i n jeake's house rye sussex sept my b e l o v e d o l d male: what w o n d e r f u l j o y f u l news t h a t you've a t l a s t twanged the u m b i l i c a l chord and c a s t your i n f e r n o o f f i n t o the b l u e f o r weal or w o e — a n d t h a t i t i s f o r weal i have never had the t i n i e s t s u r d of a doubt. good, good, good and then good a g a i n , my dear f e l l o w , and o n l y of c o u r s e what you d e s e r v e , t h a t the book s h o u l d be s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t a k e n i n both c o u n t r i e s . i hope you a r e g o i n g t o snd me one? as a matter of f a c t , and as j d has a l r e a d y no doubt t o l d you, we knew of i t s a r r i v a l h e r e , t h r o u g h the o l d g r a p e v i n e , and were a l r e a d y t h e r e f o r w h e t t i n g our g l e e b e f o r e your l e t t e r gave us the news more p e r s o n a l l y and s p e c i f i c a l l y . and now, i c a n ' t w a i t t o see i t , and t o bathe i n your b e a u t i f u l s i n u o u s c h a n g e a b l e - s h o t - s i l k p r o s e . but how good too a l l your news i s - - d o you mean you r e a l l y went t o see o l d miasmal cow'shorn cuernavaca a g a i n ? * your r e f e r n c e i s so o b l i q u e and as i t were p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y e l i d e d t h a t i c a n ' t q u i t e be s u r e i t wasn't m e r e l y an i n t e n t i o n or a dream, or an e l i o t i n e v e l l e i t y . i f t r u e , i f f a c t , how i envy you: both mary and m y s e l f have so o f t e n p i n e d t o see i t a l l a g a i n , but w i t h o u t the p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l m i s e r i e s t h a t t h e n b e s e t us so p e r s i s t e n t l y . ed t o o : i wish you c o u l d see what he. has kept of i t : on our d i n i n g r o o m w a l l , over the r e f r a c t o r y t a b l e , scene of those prodigious a l c o h o l i c pingpong matches, hangs the world's largest pen-and-ink drawing: eight feet by five of purest b e a u t i f u l l e s t dreadfullest mexico: a hooded leering figure in the desert foreground, seated by a f i r e of s t i c k s , on which is a cauldron of dry bones, is about to throw a s t i c k for an emaciated cadaverous bitch, with enormous swollen dugs; the bitch regards the s t i c k - thrower sidelong with an i r o n i c nerts-to-you expression which is quite appalling: at their feet l i e other fragments and shards of bones, and a few (they look, l i k e the crumbled skeleton of an infant) have been gathered into a wooden bowl. but, back turned to this s i n i s t e r pair, who are about to perform their s c e p t i c a l and e v i l communion, a c l a s s i c a l l y serene figure, hooded too, glides away towards the eternal magical hill-town that r i s e s from the eternal barranca and jungle, and the twin-towered cathedral, and the b i t t e r black mountains above i t , and the a f r i t - b l a c k b i t t e r clouds that brew above them. the whole landscape is magically s i n i s t e r and b e a u t i f u l , and altogether i t ' s probably the f i n e s t thing ed has done—we're buying i t on the nickel-a- y e a r - f o r - i f e p r i n c i p l e , as you might imagine. . . . as for these chicks, you see us in the throes of t r y i n g to decide whether to s e l l the house, or rent i t , before going back to brewster, with the contingent question of where, more or less permanently, to l i v e : too d i f f i c u l t and c o s t l y to l i v e t r a n s a t l a n t i c a l l y , in our present earnings-bracket, so what to do? we'd get a good price, but dont know yet whether we can take out th[e] cash. mary's been restoring i t s former beauty, slaving over every inch of scarred and battered paint and woodwork: eight months of l a b o u r : s t a g g e r i n g expenses: a l l the f u r n i t u r e t o be r e p l a c e d p i e c e m e a l , and a t a price! but now a l m o s t done, and l o o k s b y o o t i f u l . b r e w s t e r draws us, howsumever, and i f e e l t h i s time t h a t i somehow don't get my r o o t s down i n t o the e n g l i s h t h i n g , and i f e a r i won't a g a i n . ? ? . . too o l d . i l i k e i t , but don't q u i t e b e l o n g . i've worked--did a queer pome, the k i d , s which i s a s o r t of s p i r i t u a l h i s t o r y of the u s ( o l d b l a c k s t o n e , and anne b r a d s t r e e t , and boone and crevecoeur and thoreau and appleseed and the quaker m a r t y r s and k i t carson and b i l l y the k i d and then m e l v i l l e and w i l l a r d gibbs and the adams b r o t h e r s i n s t a r l i g h t (brooks and henry)) a l l e n d i n g of c o u r s e w i t h e m i l y d i c k i n s o n ? ) ? ? the " k i d " i d e a as the american eponymous h e r o , whther as p i o n e e r of the inward or outward w i l d e r n e s s , and done i n a l o o s e o c t o s y l l a b i c c o u p l e t b a l l a d - l i k e form, g i d d y and s l a n g y i n p a r t s , d o g g e r e l i n o t h e r s . i l i k e i t , and so do john davenport, a l a n hodge, norman cameron, ed, and o t h e r s , but i t was p r o m p t l y t u r n e d down by d u e l l s l o a n & pearce (mjust as the s o l d i e r was) as " r a t i n g below my b e s t work": and not o n l y t h a t , but t h e y i n t i m a t e t h e y don't want me t o p r i n t i t a t a l l b e f o r e t h e y get out my c o l l e c t e d poems next y e a r ! to which i'm r e p l y i n g i n the immortal words of mr e l i o t , t h e y can b u t t e r t h e i r a s s e s and bugger t h e m s e l v e s , and i'm l o o k i n g e l s e w h e r e f o r a p u b l i s h e r , and hope t o f i n d one. . . . a l s o , b e h o l d me a p l a y w r i g h t . no doubt j d t o l d you of i t . one diana h a m i l t o n made a queer bad l i t t l e p l a y out of a r c u l a r i s , which, r e v i s e d by the co. of four a t the l y r i c t h e a t r e , hammersmith, went on t o u r (opening a t cambridge, the a r t s ) , and w h i l e on t o u r t h e y h a v i n g d i s c o v e r e d that i was in england they came to beg me to work on i t . seems poor diana, who had had a cancer operation, and nov was dying of cancer of the brain, and drinking herself s i l l y , was incompetent to do so; so i accepted; and at brighton, b r i s t o l , and c a r d i f f did a t r a v e l l i n g shake-scene, s t i t c h i n g - i n purple patches, r e v i s i n g , re-inventing, and t r y i n g to make sense out of the incredible psychological hash t h e i r combined e f f o r t s had made of i t . more or less in vain. the leading man and diana's producer husband ganged up on me, each for reasons of his ovn; diana d r i f t e d in and out reproachfully, drunk and unhappy; and the time vas too short for proper rehearsal; but the thing vas a shade better vhen i t opened on my birthday -" at the l y r i c , hammersmeef, vhere mary and joan and jane and i attended. fun. taught me a very great deal, from vhich i f i l i v e long enough i hope to p r o f i t . the reviews vere so-so—not too bad, not too good, v i t h a savage and very funny onslaught by old agate. * but though i t had done v e i l in the provinces, i t flopped dismally in tovn, and ceased v i t h scarce a sound at the end of i t s run ten days ago. i think nov i ' l l t r y a play or tvo of me ovni . . . we plan to leave in nov. or d e c , i f ve can manage i t , — f o r n y and brevster. * let me have a l i n e before that? and our loves to you b o t h — conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes lowry l e a r n e d of the a c c e p t a n c e of under t h e v o l c a n o by r e y n a l & h i t c h c o c k in new york and j o n a t h a n cape i n london on the same day. john davenport; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . c f . a i k e n ' s b l u r b on the o r i g i n a l d u s t j a c k e t of t h e r e y n a l & h i t c h c o c k e d i t i o n of under the v o l c a n o ! "here i t i s . . . a changeable s h o t - s i l k sun-shot medium. . . . " * " c u e r n a v a c a , " i n s p a n i s h , means "cow-horn." ° ed b u r r a . c f . mary a i k e n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the same p a i n t i n g i n "the best p a i n t e r of the american scene," edward b u r r a : a p a i n t e r remembered bv h i s f r i e n d s (london: andre d e u t s c h , ) . * john a i k e n w r i t e s of t h e ping-pong games p l a y e d a t j e a k e ' s house "on a r e f e c t o r y t a b l e w i t h c u r v e d edges" ("malcolm l o v r y : some r e m i n i s c e n c e s " ) . a i k e n s o l d jeake's house i n . * the k i d (nev york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ); a i k e n d e d i c a t e d the k i d t o l o v r y as f o l l o w s : " t h i s l i t t l e t r a v e l o g u e / f o r / malcolm lowry/ as from one r o l l i n g b l a c k s t o n e / t o a n o t h e r . " lowry's copy of the k i d i n the u.b.c. l i b r a r y b e a r s the f o l l o w i n g i n s c r i p t i o n by a i k e n : for the a n l m a l c o l m w i t h g r e a t l o v e from conrad c f . ushant ( ) and l e t t e r , n. , p. - . a l a n hodge ( - ), b r i t i s h w r i t e r ; a u t h o r , w i t h r o b e r t g r a v e s , of the long week end ( ) , and the reader q v e r your s h o u l d e r ( ) . hodge m a r r i e d jane a i k e n i n . john norman cameron ( - ), s c o t t i s h - b o r n poet who r e s i d e d i n e n g l a n d . see n. above. " see l e t t e r , n. , p. ; h a m i l t o n d i e d i n . august . x b james evershed agate ( - ), e n g l i s h n o v e l i s t and drama c r i t i c ; e d i t o r of e n g l i s h dramatic c r i t i c s ( ); t h e a t r e c r i t i c f o r a number of j o u r n a l s and newspapers i n c l u d i n g t h e london sunday times from - . the u n s i g n e d r e v i e w o f a i k e n a n d h a m i l t o n ' s p l a y , " p e a r n o m o r e , " a p p e a r i n g i n t h e t i m e s a u g . : , i s p r o b a b l y t h e r e v i e w b y a g a t e h e r e m e n t i o n e d b y a i k e n . x m a i k e n d i d n o t r e t u r n t o b r e w s t e r u n t i l j u n e , l e a v i n g m a r y b e h i n d i n r y e t o s e l l j e a k e ' s h o u s e . t e x t u a l n o t e s . a b o v e i t , a n d t h e a £ r i t - b l a c k \ a b o v e i t , { a n d t h e } a f r i t - b l a c k . q u e s t i o n s q u < r > { e } s t i o n . - w h e r e , m o r e o r l e s s p e r m a n e n t l y , \ w h e r e { , } m o r e o r l e s s p e r m a n e n t l y { , } . t h t e } c a s h . n t h r c a s h . ( t y p o . ) . e v e r y i n c h \ e v e r y i n c < e > { h } . m e l v i l l e n m e l v i l k e } . w i l l a r d \ w i l l a r < s > { d } . h e n r y ) ) \ h e n r y ) { ) } . d i c k i n s o n ? ) ? ? \ d i c k i n s o n ? < ? > { ) } ? ? . " k i d " \ { " } k i d { " } . p e a r c e \ p e a c r e ( a i k e n h a s i n d i c a t e d b y h a n d a r e v e r s a l o f t h e " c " a n d " r " j . p r i n t i t a t a u \ . p r i n t i t a t a l l » . m r e l i o t , \ m > t > { r } e l i o t , . s e e m s \ < s e m m e { s } s > { s e e m s } . t o m a k e \ t o { / } m a k e ( a i k e n h a s i n s e r t e d a s l a s h m a r k t o s e p a r a t e t h e t w o w o r d s ] . - m a d e o f i t . \ m a < o > { d } e o f i t . . s h a d e \ , s h a d e * . o n m y b i r t h d a y a t t h e \ <pn my b i r t h d a y * a t t h { e } . - i t h a d d o n e \ i t h a d d o n t e } : from lowry t o aiken ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d new o r l e a n s . [ dec ] my v e r y dear o l d conrad: i owe you a l e t t e r , i n r e p l y t o your m a r v e l l o u s one--but p l e a s e f o r g i v e my not r e p l y i n g & now i must r e p l y from h a i t i where our a d d r e s s w i l l be: c/o anton kneer agent — s . s . a l c o a co. p o r t - a u - p r i n c e — we s a i l day a f t e r to-morrow, the rd, on a b a u x i t e f r e i g h t e r on which we are the o n l y p a s s e n g e r s , the s.s. donald w r i g h t . margie has a book r e i s s u e d by s c r i b n e r s , of which more l a t e r , i t r i e d t o have a p r o o f copy of the volcano s e n t you, as i don't know where you a r e , nor d. s & p e a r c e ' s a d d r e s s , so i n case you're a t sea t o o , i'm s e n d i n g t h i s c/o new d i r e c t i o n s , t o save time (i hope): we a r e coming t o n. y i n f e b — & i hope t o god i can see you t h e n . i f you hate the v o l c a n o , don't l e t t h a t embarrass you, or f e a r i t w i l l break me's h e a r t ; i t w i l l , of c o u r s e , but d o u b t l e s s t h a t would be a l l t o the good, t o o . a c t u a l l y i submit i t i s p r e t t y good work from your o l d —& new — p u p i l . god b l e s s t o mary & y o u r s e l f . male. the m e r r i e s t of xmases & the h a p p i e s t of new years t o you, mary, & conrad: a l s o l o v e to john & jane-- - from malcolm & . marger i e . e x p l a n a t o r y notes see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h i s l e t t e r . in november the lowrys had t r a v e l l e d by bus from s e a t t l e a c r o s s the u n i t e d s t a t e s a r r i v i n g i n new o r l e a n s on december . from new o r l e a n s the lowrys were t o t r a v e l t o h a i t i aboard the s.s. donald w r i g h t , a r r i v i n g i n p o r t - a u - p r i n c e on new year's eve, and thence t o miami and e v e n t u a l l y t o new york i n time f o r the promotion of under the v o l c a n o . * s c r i b n e r ' s r e i s s u e d m a r g e r i e ' s the l a s t t w i s t of the k n i f e i n w i t h the f i n a l c h a p t e r i n t a c t . a a i k e n ' s p u b l i s h e r s , d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e . the lowrys a r r i v e d i n new york on f e b r u a r y , the p u b l i c a t i o n day of under the v o l c a n o . john and jane a i k e n , a i k e n ' s e l d e s t son and d a u g h t e r . t e x t u a l notes [ c h r i s t m a s c a r d ; see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n . lowry has w r i t t e n on the i n s i d e of the c a r d o n l y ] . we s a i l day a f t e r to-morrow, the r d , \ we s a i l <monday> {day a f t e r to-morrow}, the rd, . your o l d — & n e w - - p u p i l . \ your old{--& n e w - - } p u p i l . : from aiken t o lowry k i l l o r i n jeake ' s house rye, sussex feb my dear o l d male: your book i s m a g n i f i c e n t , m a g n i f i c e n t , m a g n i f i c e n t . i'd have s a i d so much sooner, but i'd been e x p e c t i n g a l e t t e r to accompany i t , and w a i t e d , a l a s i n v a i n , f o r t h a t ; but now, f i r s t comes a wandering jew of a c h r i s t m a s c a r d , which has been everywhere from new o r l e a n s t o b r e w s t e r , b e f o r e f l a p p i n g the a t l a n t i c ; and s c a r c e l y l e s s b a t t e r e d and t r a v e l l e d , a p o s t c a r d from p o r t au p r i n c e i n h a r r y m u r r a y ' s and hart crane's h a i t i ; and as both of them a r e months o l d i t h e r e f o r b e g i n t o d e s p a i r of a l e t t e r , and l a u n c h one m y s e l f . i d i d , however, w r i t e t o your p u b l i s h e r s , and i d i d send them as soon as i c o u l d , a p i t i f u l l y inadequate b l u r b , which i can o n l y hope was not f a r too l a t e and i n any event u s e l e s s : i had then not f i n i s h e d the book, but as book and reynal & h's l e t t e r had t h e m s e l v e s t a k e n s i x weeks t o a r r i v e , i thought a q u i c k c o n t r i b u t i o n might be b e t t e r than none. i s a i d then i n my l e t t e r t o r & h t h a t i had some m i s g i v i n g s about the book qua nove : i t h i n k i s t i l l have, perhaps: though as t o t h a t i s h a l l w a i t t i l l i have read i t a g a i n . but mind you i don't mean t h a t as a m a t e r i a l c o m p l a i n t a t a l l , f o r as a p i e c e of l i t e r a t u r e i t i s a genuine bona f i d e f i r s t c u t o f f the w h i t e whale's hump, godshot, s u n s h o t , b l o o d s h o t , spermshot, and a l t o g e t h e r the most a i k e n - s a t i s f y i n g book i've wallowed i n f o r a g e n e r a t i o n . my god how good t o be a b l e t o r e l i s h the e n g l i s h language a g a i n , t o have i t a l l v a s c u l a r w i t h l i f e and s e n s a t i o n , as q u i v e r i n g l y a l i v e s h a l l we say as a b u t t e r f l y on a d u n g h i l l - - ! i t i s a l l so b e a u t i f u l l y and e a s i v done--the e l i s i o n s and t r a n s i t i o n s and e l l i p s e s and p a r e n t h e s e s and a s i d e s and t i m e - n o t a t i o n s and r e c a p i t u l a t i o n s and m i n a t o r y f i n g e r p o s t s - - h o w i n f i n i t e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y t o a w r i t e r t o see a l l t h a t so i n c o m p a r a b l y w e l l done and u n d e r s t o o d ! and t h a t , o n l y the b e g i n n i n g ; f o r of c o u r s e i n the end i t ' s the r i c h n e s s and p e r c e p t i v e n e s s of your o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t r e a l l y feeds the book and makes i t , the u n s l e e p i n g eye and e a r , whether inward or outward. baby, o baby, o baby, i t ' s m a r v e l l o u s male, and i hug i t t o my bozoom. --of the c h a r a c t e r s , of c o u r s e i t ' s a l l too easy f o r me t o see the m a l e - c o n s t i t u e n t s (and dare i mention now and a g a i n the a i k e n - c o n s t i t u e n t s ) t h a t go t o t h e i r makeup: but the c o n s u l you make w h o l l y r e a l and s u p e r b ; even f o r me, who can see wheel and l e v e r a t work: y e s , the g r e a t g e n i a l drunk t o end a l l d r u n k s , the p o p p e r g e t s t h e b o t l of a l c o h o l i c s ! he w i l l become famous. the o t h e r s , i'm not so s u r e o f ; hugh's c o n s t i t u e n t s are a g a i n f o r me p r i v a t e l y t o o e a s i l y t r a c e a b l e , and he never becomes q u i t e r e a l or w h o l l y seems t o have a f u n c t i o n , - - p e r h a p s a second r e a d i n g w i l l show me wrong. yvonne too remains f o r me a l i t t l e shadowy, and the p s y c h o l o g i c a l reasons f o r i t a l l a shade o b s c u r e : one i s never q u i t e s u r e whether the a l c o h o l i s m induced the i n f i d e l i t i e s , or v e r s e r v l c e r : and t h i s weakens one's sense of the t r a g i c by p r e v e n t i n g one's b e l i e v i n g t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r i l y i n e v i t a b l e - . i t h i n k t o o , good as the scene i s (and by gosh i t i s ) the d e a t h of yvonne i s p o s s i b l y a d r a m a t i c or d r a m a t u r g i c m i s t a k e , b e i n g i t s e l f so much a c l i m a x - - i t tends to double one's image somehow when one comes to the so much more important and (holy great cow) so a b s o l u t e l y superb f i n a l scenes of the consul's b e t r a y a l , s e l f - b e t r a y a l , i n f i d e l i t y - a n d - s u i c i d e - i n - u t e r o , and b l a c k s t o n e - c r u c i f i x i o n - i n d i a n - a b s o r p t i o n - a n d - d e a t h - i n - t h e - b a r r a n c a . my my my what a scene a l l t h i s l a s t i s - - u n f o r g e t t a b l y s p l e n d i d , genius i n every page of i t . but b e t t e r without the horse and yvonne--? yvonne j u s t o f f ? away? l a t e ? l o s t ? on her way? but l e t me read i t a g a i n . --well, the book should, and w i l l , make your n a m e ' i l l u s t r i o u s : up you go to the very top: and we can o n l y hope t h a t i t w i l l make you a fortune too. here, howsumever, i f i n d myself worrying as to whether the rank and v i l e w i l l be p a t i e n t enough f o r your slow unwindings, r i c h d i v a g a t i o n s , d e s c r i p t i v e tempo: maybe they w i l l : t h e i r own l o s s i f not. you w i l l probably, too, run up a g a i n s t ignorant p i g e o n - h o l i n g with lost weekend.* but t h i s s o r t of t h i n g needn't worry you. a l l you need to worry about, now, i s what to do next! though even t h a t , i t h i n k , won't r e a l l y be necessary. , you've been and gone and done i t . we're stuck here, t r y i n g to s e l l poor o l d jeake: i don't l i k e to say i t ; but there i t i s . b e t t e r so! and as soon as i t can be, home to brewster, i hope before summer. we're s i c k with melancholy, and a l l the attendant worries and f r e t s and a n x i e t i e s , and t h i s unhappy people and land weigh upon us too. we'll be here long enough to have a l e t t e r from you--so l e t ' s have i t ? and i n the meantime our very much loves to you both, and h a i l to under the malcano or poppergetsthebotl ! ! ! e x p l a n a t o r y notes under the v o l c a n o . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . a i k e n ' s " b l u r b " was p r i n t e d on the d u s t j a c k e t of the f i r s t reynal & h i t c h c o c k e d i t i o n of under the v o l c a n o . pun on the name of one of the v o l c a n o e s , p o p o c a t e p e t l , i n under the v o l c a n o . s c h a r l e s j a c k s o n , the l o s t weekend (new york: f a r r a r , s t r a u s & cudahy, ); c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . s a i k e n l e f t england i n june , l e a v i n g mary behind t o s e l l jeake's house. t e x t u a l notes (no o r i g i n a l i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s l e t t e r ; i have t h e r e f o r e had t o r e l y on joseph k i l l o r i n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n s e l e c t e d l e t t e r s of conrad a i k e n ( ) ] : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n , b.c., canada, june , . dear o l d conrad: t h i s a i n ' t a l e t t e r e x a c t because i have a g r a f i a and a s o r e eardrum due t o overswimming (the o t h e r i s d o u b t l e s s due t o o v e r w r i t i n g ) but j u s t a s o r t of stop-gap message of c h e e r , and a l s o of enormous and h e a r t f e l t thanks f o r your e n c o u r a g i n g and k i n d l y words and h e l p and your s u p e r m a r v e l l o u s l a s t l e t t e r w h i c h , d e l i v e r e d me by t h e e x c e l l e n t bob l i n s c o t t , has me p u r r i n g y e t . i f e a r me you have l e f t jeakes by now and w i t h o u t s p e a k i n g of how b l o o d y a w f u l t h a t must have been we j u s t send a l l p r a y e r s and good wishes t h a t a l l may be r e b o r n and more t h a n r i g h t once more a t d o o r s , though w i t h the hope t h a t t h e r e i s a f a i n t nd a t l e a s t l e f t open f o r your r e t u r n sometime t o rye. margie has a s e r i o u s and good n o v e l - horse i n the sky - coming out v i a max p e r k i n s , s c r i b n e r s , i n o c t o b e r : p o p p e r g e t s t h e b o t l * h i t the b e s t s e l l e r l i s t and even a book of the m o n t h l y c l u b . and s o , i s h a l l w r i t e when i have the w i t f o r i t ; and meantime god b l e s s and welcome and thanks a g a i n and s i n c e r e l o v e t o both mary and y o u r s e l f from us b o t h . e n c l o s e d some photos of r e c e n t i n t e r e s t i n g p i l g r i m a g e male. [photographs enclosed with l e t t e r ] pious pilgrimages no : strange moonlight at midday or male in quest of conrad's youth in savannah." p.s. one of loveliest cities i have ever seen. male i n savannah: ' can see you, conrad.' 'no, t h e r e you a r e , up t h a t t r e e . ' or b u l l - n e c k e d by the b a p t i s t church 'no, damn i t , you're here t o o ' in a r i v e r s i d e t a v e r n i n savannah. from the negro s e c t i o n next door the juke box i s p l a y i n g open the door r i c h a r d . we are i n the 'whites* d r i n k i n g your h e a l t h i n c l a r e t . (by the b o t t l e & bought r e t a i l on the s p o t . ) s t . male by a (as y e t ) u n s t a i n e d g l a s s window margie d r i n k s your h e a l t h i n same pub. (the juke box i s s t i l l p l a y i n g open the door, r i c h a r d . ) e x p l a n a t o r y notes x see l e t t e r , n. , p. . " doors": the a i k e n s ' house i n b r e w s t e r , m a s s a c h u s s e t t s . m a r g e r i e bonner, horse i n the sky (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). * i . e . , under the v o l c a n o ; a i k e n was the f i r s t t o make t h i s pun i n l e t t e r , p. and . s these photographs were p r o b a b l y t a k e n i n savannah on the lowrys' t r i p by bus from miami to new york. a i k e n was born i n savannah, g e o r g i a and l i v e d t h e r e u n t i l he was e l e v e n y e a r s o l d . t e x t u a l notes . e n c l o s e d [. .'.] p i l g r i m a g e \ [ h a n d w r i t t e n b e f o r e s i g n a t u r e a t end of l e t t e r ] e n c l o s u r e [ photographs w i t h h a n d w r i t t e n comments on back of each by lowry; o r i g i n a l s are i n the h u n t i n g t o n a i k e n c o l l e c t i o n ] : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n , b.c., canada, october , . dear o l d conrad: my god, o l d chap, i thank you d e e p l y f o r the d e d i c a t i o n of the k i d , x and i s i m p l y cannot e x p r e s s hov moved and d e l i g h t e d and touched i am a t the honour: i n f a c t i was h a l f vay t h r o u g h a l e t t e r t h a n k i n g you f o r the book and e x p r e s s i n g our and o t h e r s d e l i g h t a t the poem i t s e l f b e f o r e i sav the d e d i c a t i o n , vhereupon i became so e x c i t e d i had t o go out and chop some vood t o p u l l m y s e l f t o g e t h e r , whereupon a g a i n i conked m y s e l f s h r e w d l y upon the r i g h t f o r e f i n g e r v i t h the axe, a f e a t i n i t s e l f , as a consequence of v h i c h t h i s l e t t e r i s r a t h e r h a r d e r t o w r i t e t h a n the o t h e r . i must say t h a t the k i d was d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d here by the b e s t poets of whom canada can boast - t h a t may not be s a y i n g much, but t h e y can be s i n g u l a r l y mean c r i t i c s - and some l i k e e a r l e b i r n e y and a.j.m. s m i t h a r e r e a l l y good - t h e r e was a c o n c l a v e of them here r e c e n t l y , i f l a u n t e d the western review a t them," the k i d was r e c i t e d , and t h e i r genuine e n t h u s i a s m would r e a l l y have p l e a s e d you. mine too - f o r i was s e t t i n g the k i d t o music on the t a r o p a t c h * w i t h a f i n e hot t w l n g and twang of my ovn when t h e r e came h o l l e r s f o r h e l p from the sea where a,j,m, smith's s i x year o l d k i d had o v e r t u r n e d our b o a t . a f t e r he had been r e s c u e d the accompaniment of such avuncular comments as shut up bawling, what the h e l l do you mean by i n t e r r u p t i n g us, you're not a man u n t i l you've drowned at l e a s t once, the musical kid was resumed but a l a s at a p a r t i c u l a r l y hot twing i f e l l myself out of the window i n t o the sea, whence strange chords now sometimes i s s u e , and the g u i t a r was l o s t f o r e v e r . (i am g e t t i n g another however.) anyhow, i t ' s a wonderful poem and i hope your p u b l i s h e r ' s backsides may have been d u a l l y p i e r c e d and sloane's lineament rubbed i n t o the wound by a f i n e g e n e r a l r e a c t i o n to i t . for my p a r t , i am hard at work on another opus - three i n t e r r e l a t e d novels, dark as the grave wherein my f r i e n d i s l a i d , eridanus, and la mordida; eridanus i s a kind of intermezzo t h a t takes place i n canada between two other p i e c e s l i k e w i s e s e t i n mexico, p a r t of which reads, i am a f r a i d , r a t h e r l i k e the b i z a r r e concantenations and symbol formations of dementia praecox, noted by herr jung - or even denkwurdigkeiten eines nervenkranken. in t h i s i b e l i e v e i am r e a l l y down among the 'catacombs to l i v e , ' with a vengeance, but i f e e l i t w i l l come o f f - i t ends i n triumph, which sounds p r e t t y meaningless unless you know the why and wherefore, but more of i t l a t e r . i t seems to me to break new ground, though that may be nothing to commend i t , even i f t r u e . --the penis m i g h t i e r than the hoe. for the r e s t , p o p p e r g e t s t h e b o t t l i s out i n e n g l a n d , where i t seems to be g e t t i n g somewhat panned, save i n the london observer, where i t has been compared to heironymus b o s c h . ( . . . save f o r a few kind words by m a c a r t h y , the poor t h i n g f e l l dead, and me with i t , here, i t d i d r a t h e r b e t t e r . ) ( j u s t the same, i have j u s t h e a r d , / of the f i r s t e d i t i o n has s o l d out i n days.) on the o t h e r hand i t i s coming f o r t h w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e b l a s t of trumpets i n france w h i t h e r , upon a f r e i g h t e r , margie and i propose t o go b r i e f l y over c h r i s t m a s . m a r g i e ' s f i r s t s e r i o u s n o v e l , horse i n the sky, i s coming out on monday. though t h i s was, i b e l i e v e , the l a s t book to be a c c e p t e d by maxwell p e r k i n s ( w i t h whom i had a f i n e whiskey f e s t i n the r i t z by the w a y ) - she has, a p a r t from t h a t , r e c e i v e d not one mumbling word of encouragement i n r e g a r d t o i t save from m y s e l f and n o x o n , and i n f a c t has r e c e i v e d o n l y s n e e r s , e s p e c i a l l y from e n g l a n d , from people who c o u l d n ' t w r i t e a book one t e n t h as good, which i f i n d v e r y m y s t e r i o u s , f o r u n l e s s i am c o m p l e t e l y cuckoo i t seems t o me a s i n g u l a r l y f i n e and b e a u t i f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d p i e c e of work. i t comes t o you, under s e p a r a t e c o v e r , as from two p u p i l s i n a b s e n t i a but s t i l l s t u d y i n g - and i hope you w i l l approve. only v i s i b l e i n f l u e n c e of a i k e n i s perhaps the l a s t w o r d , though perhaps, t o o , l i k e the c a p t a i n ' s horse i n the charge a c c o u n t , even i f you c a n ' t see i t i t ' s t h e r e j u s t the same. (a phrase about the orange c o l o u r of windows a t n i g h t she a r r i v e d a t i n d e p e n d e n t l y as a consequence of which i c o u l d n ' t persuade her to c u t i t o u t . the h o n e s t y of the s o u r c e of my attempt t o make h e r , however, remains r a t h e r b e a u t i f u l l y i n q u e s t i o n ) our house i s now storm and r a i n p r o o f (though the l i q u o r i s o n l y s e v e n t y - f i v e ) - - w e r i s e a t dawn e v e r y day and swim, and g e n e r a l l y have an even grander l i f e than b e f o r e our f i r e . the v i l l a g e i s d e s e r t e d , t h e r e ' s nobody here but us s c h i z o p h o e n i x , and i o n l y w i s h you c o u l d v i s i t us. i f humanly p o s s i b l e we mean to do j u s t t h a t to you sometime w i t h i n the coming m o n t h s . an eared grebe has j u s t s a i l e d ' p a s t , and we a r e a b l e t o observe the amours of two ravens on a n e i g h b o u r i n g dead p i n e . margie j o i n s me i n a l l the v e r y b e s t l o v e t o y o u r s e l f and mary and here's how and hoping you a r e v e r y happy and l o t s of l u c k , w i t h l o v e and g r a t i t u d e , from male e x p l a n a t o r y notes see l e t t e r , n. , p. . a l f r e d e a r l e b i r n e y ( - ), canadian p o e t , n o v e l i s t , and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , educated a t the u n i v e r s i t y of b r i t i s h columbia ( - ) and the u n i v e r s i t y of toronto ( - ); e d i t o r of canadian forum ( - ) and the canadian p o e t r y magazine ( - ) . b i r n e y and lowry met i n may and remained c l o s e f r i e n d s u n t i l lowry's d e a t h i n . with m a r g e r i e lowry, b i r n e y has completed "malcolm lowry: a b i b l i o g r a p h y p a r t i " i n canad i a n l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ): - , " p a r t i i " i n (summer ): - , and has e d i t e d s e l e c t e d poems of malcolm lowry r the pocket poets s e r i e s (san f r a n c i s c o : c i t y l i g h t s books, ) and lunar c a u s t i c (london: cape, ). a r t h u r james m a r s h a l l smith ( - ), canadian p o e t , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , and a n t h o l o g i s t , educated a t m c g i l l u n i v e r s i t y ( - ) where w i t h f.r. s c o t t he founded the m c g i l l f o r t n i g h t l y review ( - ) . "the k i d " was o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n the western review . ( s p r i n g ): - b e f o r e i t was p u b l i s h e d i n book form by d u e l l , s l o a n and pearce on august . " t a r o p a t c h " : lowry's name f o r h i s u k e l e l e . see gordon bowker's "two notes: the t a r o p a t c h , " the malcolm lowry review / ( f a l l /spring ): , f o r a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n and h i s t o r y of the word. c f . a l s o u l t r a m a r i n e i n which lowry p l a y s on the words " t a r o p a t c h " and " t a r o t pack" ( ) . lowry t o l d a s t o r y somewhat s i m i l a r t o t h i s t o a l purdy i n which a.j.m. smith "jumped out the f r o n t window a t h i g h t i d e f u l l y c l o t h e d , a p p a r e n t l y i n a f i t of e u p h o r i a induced by s a l t water and b o l s g i n " ( s a l l o u m , malcolm lowry: vancouver days, ) . in h i s "work i n p r o g r e s s " p r o p o s a l t o a l b e r t e r s k i n e (u.b.c. c o l l e c t i o n [ - ] ) , lowry e n v i s i o n e d dark as the grave wherein my f r i e n d i s l a i d , " e r i d a n u s , " and "la m o r d i d a " as a t r i l o g y w i t h i n h i s proposed sequence of works "the voyage that never ends" ( c f . grace, voyage ) . t h i s p l a n was, of c o u r s e , never r e a l i z e d , a l t h o u g h dark as the grave was p u b l i s h e d posthumously by douglas day and m a r g e r i e lowry i n . " e r i d a n u s " was e v e n t u a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o october f e r r y t o g a b r i o l a ( ). "la m o r d i d a " remains u n p u b l i s h e d . s " d e n k w u r d i g k e i t e n e i n e s nervenkranken": german, "memoirs of a n e u r o t i c . " under the volcano (london: jonathan cape, ); see l e t t e r , p. andd , from a i k e n f o r the o r i g i n a l " p o p p e r g e t s t h e b o t l " pun. x o see l i o n e l h a l e ' s " d e l i r i u m , " observer s e p t . : : "the prose i s hemingway-plus-lava, w i t h an added p i c t o r i a l sense t h a t can be h o r r i b l y r e m n i s c e n t ( s i c ) of hieronimus bosch, i f t h a t macabre master had i n c l u d e d among h i s d e v i l s t h e demon rum." x x i have been unable t o i d e n t i f y the "macarthy" r e v i e w . the lowrys s a i l e d f o r prance v i a the panama c a n a l aboard the s.s. b r e s t on november , a r r i v i n g i n le havre on december. horse i n t h e skv (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). x * lowry may have met maxwell p e r k i n s w h i l e i n new york i n f e b r u a r y ; p e r k i n s d i e d a few months l a t e r on june . g e r a l d noxon: see l e t t e r , n. , p. . see the l e t t e r s of malcolm lowrv and g e r a l d noxon e d i t e d by p a u l t i e s s e n f o r noxon's comments on m a r g e r i e ' s horse i n the sky. x " the l a s t word of horse i n the skv i s "dungarvon," t h e name of one of the c h a r a c t e r s i n the n o v e l ; a i k e n s i m i l a r l y c o n c l u d e s b l u e voyage w i t h a c h a r a c t e r ' s name: " f a u b i o n . " x c f . horse i n the sky: " . . . p a s t the wabash r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n , i t s orange square of l i g h t b l i n k i n g out v h e r e the t e l e g r a p h o p e r a t o r s a t . . ." ( ) ; i have been unable t o l o c a t e a s i m i l a r passage i n any of a i k e n ' s v r i t i n g s . x " l o v r y d i d not a c t u a l l y see a i k e n a g a i n u n t i l september . t e x t u a l notes . d e n k v u r d i g k e i t e n e i n e s nervenkranken.\ d e n k v l u r d i g k e i t e n e i n e s n e < [ i l l e g . ]>{r}venkranken. . - 'catacombs t o l i v e , ' \ {'}catacombs t o l i v e , { ' } . and w h e r e f o r e , \ an(d) w h e r e f o r e , . - i f t r u e . - - t h e p e n i s \ i f t r u e . { — } t h e p e n i s . g e t t i n g somewhat panned,\ g e t t i n g (somewhat) panned, . heironymusn heironym<o>(u)s . - ( j u s t t h e same, [. t o p o f page] . d a y s . ) \ ( h a n d w r i t t e n a t . e s p e c i a l l y \ e s p e < [ i l l e g . ] > { c i a } l l y . perhaps, too, l i k e \ perhaps!,} too{,} l i k e . seventy-five)--we\ s e v e n t y - f i v e ) < . > { — } <[illeg.]>{w}e . grander\ <d>{g}rander : from lowry t o aiken ms h; u n p u b l i s h e d [ d o l l a r t o n ] [ ] --the m a r g e r i e s and the malcolms d i d so bugger the squawks from the f o o l s who c h i d - - who a l l seem s i n g u l a r l y f u l l of s h i d --we l i k e d the k i d , we l o v e d the k i d . : from lowry t o aiken ms h; mspc ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d c/o joan blacks- la c e r i s a i e vernon, eure f r a n c e . [march ] dear o l d c o n r a d , — i am i n h o s p i t a l h e r e , s l e e p i n g under the c r o s s , and s u r r o u n d e d by nuns, v e r y n i c e t o o , and a p r i e s t (i t h i n k e v e r y time he has come t o g i v e me extreme u n c t i o n ) who says • m y - b r o d d e r - w a s - p e e l o t e - o n - a - p h a r t i n g - p l a n e — b e e n p r e t t y s i c k , but hope t o be out soon, when & i f s h a l l p r o b a b l y go down s o u t h - had a stormy voyage here on a f r e i g h t e r — days & n i g h t s & we h i t a c y c l o n e i n the n. a t l a n t i c & l o s t our s t e e r i n g g e a r ; we had one o t h e r p a s s e n g e r , by n a m e — c h a r o n ; the v o l c a n o i s coming out here but am a t r i f l e exhausted ( f l u , a f t e r m a t h o f , among o t h e r t h i n g s ) t o w r i t e you a l o n g l e t t e r ; so i w i l l c o n t e n t m y s e l f w i t h the p o i n t of my l e t t e r , news i would l i k e t o be f i r s t w i t h , but which you have d o u b t l e s s a l r e a d y h e a r d , from a l l i can g a t h e r the k i d i s g e t t i n g a t r i u m p h a n t r e c e p t i o n i n e n g l a n d ; i have a new statesman & n a t i o n by me, doesn't b e l o n g t o me, so c a n ' t send i t ; so i w i l l q u o t e — n e e d l e s s t o say i'm a b s o l u t e l y t i c k l e d p i n k over t h i s , & o f f e r my, so t o s a y , h e a r t i e s t c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s , i n the m i d s t of my honest j o y i cannot h e l p p u r r i n g — o r i s i t , remembering b.v, the p r e l u d e s , the e c l o g u e s , not t o s a y the r e c e p t i o n g i v e n the k i d by your own p u b l i s h e r , h o w l i n g ? — o v e r i t s c e r t a i n i r o n i c i m p l i c a t i o n s you w i l l be the f i r s t t o a p p r e c i a t e : here goes the rave r e v i e w i n the statesman by george d. p a i n t e r : not l o n g a f t e r the l a n d i n g of the mayflower a t "plymouth" i n a young cambridge (eng) b.a, w i l l i a m b l a c k s t o n e by name, reached america & bought from the i n d i a n s the f u t u r e s i t e of b o s t o n . there the next b a t c h of c o l o n i s t s i n were s u r p r i s e d & annoyed t o f i n d him i n p o s s e s s i o n . the i n n o c e n t b l a c k s t o n e - - t o h i s own c o s t p l a y e d the generous h o s t & asked a d v e n t u r e r s a c r o s s h i s r i v e r . he s o l d them h i s l a n d but when t h e y t r i e d t o t a k e h i s s p i r i t u a l freedom, t o o , moved s o u t h & west & d i e d i n the w i l d e r n e s s . h i s books burned & h i s own book l o s t f o r e v e r f o r he had a l i b r a r y & he was w r i t i n g a book. t h i s h a l f f a b u l o u s f i g u r e has met a t l a s t a poet i n s e a r c h of a myth. mr a i k e n has made of him & h i s s u c c e s s o r s a k i n d of american s c h o l a r gypsy, of e p i c r a t h e r t h a n e l e g a i c s t a t u s , a t r a n s a t l a n t i c c o r i o l a n u s who once i n e v e r y g e n e r a t i o n c r i e s t o the mob, " i b a n i s h you", and c a r r i e s h i s d i v i n e spark t o the e v e r - r e c e d i n g w i l d s . the c h i e f metre of h i s m a g n i f i c e n t poem i s the l o o s e a n a p e s t i c c o u p l e t of the o l d cowboy l y r i c : when i d i e w i l l you bury me where c o y o t e s howl on the lone p r a i r i e . - - p l u c k i n g a s t o n i s h i n g l y l o v e l y twangs from h i s bunkhouse g u i t a r , he t r a c k s the k i d t h r o u g h space & t i m e , over the p r i m e v a l american s c e n e , the watergap c r o s s e d , the c h i n q u a p i n s gone, b r e a s t h i g h l a u r e l , & s t i l l heading on. there i s not t o o much, be r e a s s u r e d , of t h e c h i n q u a p i n s (a " n a t i v e dwarf c h e s t n u t . " ) mr a i k e n uses h i s i n d i a n i s e d v o c a b u l a r y w i t h t a c t & s u c c e s s , as a d e v i c e f o r e x c l u d i n g the white man from h i s v i r g i n l a n d s c a p e . he a d m i t s no human f i g u r e but the k i d h i m s e l f & even he i s seen o n l y i n the branch s t i l l swaying from h i s passage, or by p r a i r i e - d o g c i t i e s swarming i n the sun g o l d e n i n the e v e n i n g , and then not one. and so a l o n e l y b e a u t y i s c r e a t e d , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h mallarme's d e f i n i t i o n "a v i r g i n a l abscence d i s p e r s e d i n s o l i t u d e , " and w i t h something of mallarme's method. the shadowy r e c o r d of the k i d , t r a c e d through f r o n t i e r s - m e n p h y s i c a l & s p i r i t u a l , s t o p s w i t h c a p t a i n a h a b — w i s e l y , f o r the l a s t k i d was d i l l i n g e r , and t h e r e w i l l never be a n o t h e r i n t h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n . having "promised something g r e a t " f o r a m a t t e r of f o r t y y e a r s , mr a i k e n has seen h i s moment come. (how's t h a t , o l d f e l l e r me l a d ? ) h i s own i n t e n s e p l e a s u r e , h i s sense of ( a t l a s t ) ( t h i s 'at l a s t i s what g e t s me too) i n s p i r a t i o n & power, a r e communicated. the k i d i s the k i n d of poem m e l v i l l e might have c r e a t e d i f he had remained i n s i g h t of the magic mountain g r e y l o c k , where he wrote moby d i c k — i f he had not been d e s s i c a t e d by p a l e s t i n e & w r i t t e n c l a r e l ; & i t w i l l l i v e as one of the f i n e s t p i e c e s of i n d i g e n o u s american p o e t r y s i n c e whitman-- t h e r e l i n s p i t e of the ( a t l a s t ) & t h e y e a r s e t c (& the r e v i e w e r s a p p a r e n t b l i s s f u l i g n o r a n c e of what c o n s t i t u t e s a moment f o r mr a i k e n , now i n a m e r i c a , not t o s a y the b l i n d n e s s of b r i t i s h p u b l i s h e r s ) i t i s b e t t e r than a poke i n the eye w i t h a s h a r p s t i c k , & adds a l i t t l e l i g h t t o the day, i f e e l — n a t u r a l l y i have a s p e c i a l a f f e c t i o n f o r & p r i d e i n the k i d because i t i s d e d i c a t e d t o me, t h i s q u i t e a p a r t from how i r a t e i t as a poem, v h i c h i s v e r y h i g h l y - - i t vas v e r y p o p u l a r i n canada t o o , i may say; i hope your p u b l i s h e r s a r e s u i t a b l y c h a s t e n e d . r e v i e v e d v i t h you i s a book c a l l e d unarm (though not costumes by) e r o s ; e i n the p a i n t i n g s s e c t i o n t h e r e i s a s y m p a t h e t i c a r t i c l e on the memorial e x h i b i t i o n a t the tate f o r p a u l nash; & a l s o i n t h i s same number, march , i n the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i f i n d the f o l l o v i n g l e t t e r under the heading s o v i e t a r t i s t s : s i r , — m r m a r t i n m i t c h e l l ' s humourless & p o o r l y reasoned a t t a c k on raymond m o r t i m e r ' s a r t i c l e must not go u n c h a l l e n g e d . a r t , t o v h a t e v e r fundamental c r i t i c i s m i t i s s u b j e c t e d by the c e n t r a l committee of the communist p a r t y , remains the a e s t h e t i c e x p r e s s i o n of a p e r s o n a l a t t i t u d e . whether i t s h o u l d , f o r example, d e a l v i t h man's h e r o i c s t r u g g l e v i t h h i s environment & c o n s e q u e n t l y f l o u r i s h as a p o s i t i v e f o r c e ( t o quote mr m i t c h e l l ' s j a r g o n ) i s the p e r s o n a l a f f a i r of the a r t i s t & no one e l s e , l e a s t of a l l t h a t of a p h i l o s o p h e r or a p o l i t i c i a n . whether a p a r t i c u l a r vork has succeeded i n i t s p a r t i c u l a r aim i s f o r the i n d i v i d u a l c r i t i c t o d e c i d e on the b a s i s of h i s p e r s o n a l a e s t h e t i c . mr m i t c h e l l v i s e l y r e f r a i n s from an a s s a u l t on raymond m o r t i m e r ' s s t r o n g e s t r e d o u b t , namely the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n v e y i n g an i d e o l o g y i n music, & the consequent u t t e r a b s u r d i t y of condemning any music, hovever u n i n t e l l i g i b l e t o o n e s e l f , as not c o n f o r m i n g t o a g i v e n i d e o l o g y . one can sympathise v i t h the commissars & peasants i n t h e i r b e v i l d e r m e n t a t the r e c e n t vork of s h o s t a k o v i t c h & h i s c o p e n i t e n t s v i t h o u t a t a l l l e s s e n i n g the f o r c e of the c o n t e n t i o n t h a t the l a t t e r s h o u l d compose as t h e y p l e a s e . the l o g i c a l outcome of t h i s a r b i t r a r y m e d d l i n g w i t h a e s t h e t i c s t a n d a r d s i n the u.s.s.r i s t h e i r r e d u c t i o n t o the l o w e s t common d e n o m i n a t o r , t h a t of the t o t a l l y u n i n f o r m e d ! i t i s f o r t u n a t e t h a t contemporary c r i t i c i s m of beethoven's l a s t q u a r t e t s was not so conducted: e l s e t h e s e p r o f o u n d e s t of m u s i c a l u t t e r a n c e s c o u l d h a r d l y have s u r v i v e d . t h i s i s s i g n e d — j o h n a i k e n . w e l l — g o d b l e s s o l d f e l l o w , a l l b e s t from m a r g i e & i t o mary & you & a l l a t d o o r s - - h o p e t o be p a s s i n g your way one day not too f a r d i s t a n t l o v e male. e x p l a n a t o r y notes the lowrys were i n t r o d u c e d t o joan b l a c k ( l a t e r joan c h u r c h i l l ) a t her home i n vernon by john davenport, whom t h e y ' d met w i t h i n p a r i s i n december . they s p e n t j a n u a r y and f e b r u a r y , and l a t e r p a r t of j u l y , a t her home, "la c e r i s a i e , " d u r i n g which time lowry was w o r k i n g w i t h the f r e n c h t r a n s l a t o r s of under the v o l c a n o . i n march lowry took a two week "extended r e s t " (day ) i n a h o s p i t a l i n vernon run by the s i s t e r s of c h a r i t y . c f . lowry's "through the panama," hear us oh l o r d from heaven thv d w e l l i n g p l a c e ( p h i l a d e l p h i a : l i p p i n c o t t , ); "through the panama" i s i n f a c t based a l m o s t e n t i r e l y upon the j o u r n a l s lowry kept w h i l e t r a v e l l i n g by f r e i g h t e r t h r o u g h the panama c a n a l on h i s way t o f r a n c e . * r e f e r e n c e s t o a i k e n ' s blue vovage r p r e l u d e s f o r memnonf and brownstone e c l o g u e s . c f . l e t t e r , p. , i n which a i k e n t e l l s of the k i d h a v i n g been t u r n e d down by d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e . see george d. p a i n t e r ' s "new p o e t r y , " new statesman and n a t i o n march : - ; lowry has quoted a c c u r a t e l y from p a i n t e r ' s r e v i e w e x c e p t f o r minor a l t e r a t i o n s i n p u n c t u a t i o n and i n d e n t a t i o n . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . p a i n t e r ' s r e v i e w a l s o i n c l u d e s a r e v i e w of unarm, eros by t e r r e n c e t i l l e r ; lowry i s here p l a y i n g on the t i t l e of t h i s book and t h a t of a i k e n ' s costumes by eros (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ). see p a t r i c k heron, " p a u l nash--a memorial e x h i b i t i o n a t the t a t e , " new statesman and n a t i o n march : . p a u l nash was a f r i e n d of a i k e n i n e n g l a n d ; c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . john a i k e n , " s o v i e t a r t i s t s , " new statesman and n a t i o n . . t h i s john a i k e n i s p r o b a b l y not a i k e n ' s son. " doors": the a i k e n s ' house i n b r e w s t e r , m a s s a c h u s e t t s . . - t e x t u a l notes n i g h t s & we h i t \ n i g h t s & {we} h i t . from a l l i c a n \ from <what> { a l l } i can . doesn't b e l o n g \ <i>doesn't b e l o n g . - --over i t s c e r t a i n i r o n i c i m p l i c a t i o n s \ --over i t s <various> < { t h e i r } > { c e r t a i n } i r o n i c i m p l i c a t i o n s . here goes the r a v e r e v i e w \ here goes the {rave} r e v i e w . - b l a c k s t o n e - - ! . . . . he s o l d \ b l a c k s t o n e — / t o h i s own c o s t p l a y e d the generous host/& asked a d v e n t u r e r s a c r o s s h i s r i v e r . / he s o l d [here and i n t h e n e x t f o u r t e x t u a l n o t e s , lowry has i n d i c a t e d l i n e breaks w i t h s l a s h marks and i n d e n t a t i o n s w i t h "§"] . - w i l d e r n e s s [ . . . . ] t h i s h a l f \ w i l d e r n e s s . / h i s books burned & h i s own book l o s t f o r e v e r / f o r he had a l i b r a r y & he was w r i t i n g a book. j j t h i s h a l f . - american scene, [. . . . there i s \ american s c e n e , / the watergap c r o s s e d , the c h i n q u a p i n s gone,/ b r e a s t h i g h l a u r e l , & s t i l l h e a d i n g on./ there i s . - or by [ . . . . ] and s o \ or by/ p r a i r i e - d o g c i t i e s swarming i n the s u n / g o l d e n i n the e v e n i n g , and t h e n not one./ j £ and so . - i n t h i s c i v i l i s a t i o n . havingx i n t h i s <generation> { c i v i l i s a t i o n . } ^ having . - (how's t h a t , o l d f e l l e r me l a d ? ) \ [lowry has a c t u a l l y p l a c e d t h i s sentence w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s ; t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n w i t h my e d i t o r i a l comments, i have a l t e r e d t h e s e t o round b r a c k e t s ] . - ( a t l a s t ) ( t h i s 'at l a s t ' is what g e t s me t o o ) i n s p i r a t i o n s ( a t l a s t ) { ( t h i s 'at l a s t ' i s what g e t s me t o o ) } i n s p i r a t i o n [ t h i s i n s e r t i o n was o r i g i n a l l y p l a c e d w i t h i n square b r a c k e t s ; as above, i have a l t e r e d them t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n ] . i f he had remained\ i f he had <not> remained . i n canada t o o , i may\ i n canada { t o o } , i may . - a s y m p a t h e t i c a r t i c l e \ a<n> { s y m p a t h e t i c } a r t i c l e . - a e s t h e t i c mr. m i t c h e l l \ a e s t h e t i c / mr. m i t c h e l l [lowry has used a s l a s h mark to i n d i c a t e a new paragraph] . beethoven's\ b e { e } t h o v e n s ["p.t.o" i s w r i t t e n by lowry a t the bottom of the th page] . t h i s i s s i g n e d - - \ <(>this i s s i g n e d - - : from aiken t o lowry - ms ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d [ b r e w s t e r , mass.] (xmas } wonderful t h a t you're b a c k - - i t r a n s l a t e d the g r e a t e r p a r t of your c a r d , but not a l l . what's t h i s about s h i p ' s e n g i n e s , and my d o u b l e ? e l u c i d a t e ! but d e l i g h t e d you l i k e d a r k . (the p l a y , a t p r o v i n c e t o w n l a s t summer, made a s e n s a t i o n , may go on t o n. york, n. o r l e a n s , p a r i s , & madrid!) a l l b e s t t o you b o t h — conrad xmas e x p l a n a t o r y notes see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n of the r e c t o of t h i s c h r i s t m a s c a r d . lowry's c h r i s t m a s c a r d i s m i s s i n g ; however, see l e t t e r , p. , i n which he answers a i k e n ' s q u e s t i o n . "mr. a r c u l a r i s " ; lowry e x p l a i n s i n the next l e t t e r t h a t he had been r e f e r r i n g t o g e r a l d noxon's r a d i o v e r s i o n of the s t o r y ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . t e x t u a l notes [ c h r i s t m a s p o s t c a r d ; see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n of the r e c t o of c a r d w i t h mary a i k e n ' s drawing] : from lowry to aiken ms h; unpublished d o l l a r t o n p.o. d o l l a r t o n b c [ e a r l y ] dear o l d conrad: thank you & mary v e r y much f o r the f e s t i v e (& b e a u t i f u l ) c a r d . i'm s o r r y my words were so i l l e g i b l e — t h e r e weren't n o t h i n g about 'your double', o l d chap—more about 'doubles' i m p l i e d i n your c a r d — h a ha—what i t h i n k you read was ' t r o u b l e ' —may have been—& what you ought to have s a i d i n s t e a d of 'glad to hear you're back' was 'sorry to hear about your back,' which by the way, i broke, i n an a c c i d e n t , f a l l i n g indeed o f f one of my own e r e c t i o n s , i mean c o n s t r u c t i o n s - — i had a v i s i o n i n a c a t h o l i c h o s p i t a l a f t e r t h a t , but i don't t h i n k i mentioned i t , though i might as w e l l have, f o r i remember t h i n k i n g how c l o s e mr a r c u l a r i s was to the a c t u a l t r u t h . when i mentioned 'ship's engines' i meant i c o u l d have used more of the sound of same i n a r c u l a r i s — i was r e f e r r i n g to gerald's r a d i o v e r s i o n , very b e a u t i f u l l y done here otherwise & e x c e l l e n t l y r e c e i v e d . apart from t h a t , i was r e f e r r i n g , by s h i p ' s engines, to some work we are doing a t the moment, of which, i f i t comes o f f , i s i n c e r e l y hope you w i l l be p r o u d — b u t t h i s i s supposed to be a s e c r e t t i l l a c c o m p l i s h e d — s o no more now. for the r e s t , i am d e l i g h t e d a t the success of a r c u l a r i s — e v e n more d e l i g h t e d to hear, even through the post, your k i n d l y and i r o n i c purr a t same, without the memory of which, a p p l i e d to other happenings, i must have found i t d i f f i c u l t t o meet much v h i c h has come. no o t h e r news, save t h a t t h e back i s b e t t e r — v i t h o u t any a f t e r e f f e c t s . we l i v e i n the same o l d shack i n c o n d i t i o n s of f r i g h t e n i n g toughness t h i s v i n t e r - - a f l o o d has r a z e d our n e i g h b o u r ' s houses t o the ground, but o u r s , s e l f b u i l t , s t a n d s s t i l l - - & ve vere never so happy, nor v o r k i n g so h a r d . i svam t i l l mid-december, back and a l l , (nov see v h a t you've done v i t h your example of a c o l d b a t h e v e r y day) — s l i g h t l y n o r t h of us, t h e r e a r e t e m p e r a t u r e s of f i f t y - t h r e e below z e r o . the volcano vas a f l o p i n e n g l a n d , but has become a c l a s s i c i n f r a n c e , where i t i s t h i s month added t o t h e i r q u i d pro quo of the modern l i b r a r y , t r a n s l a t e d by a s w i s s , a m a r t i n i q u a i s e negro, & an a s s y r i a n d y i n g of consumption, w i t h a none t o o sober p r e f a c e by me (among o t h e r s ) a p p a r e n t l y about something e l s e , & i n the company of d i d e r o t & the abbe p r e v o s t . * margie has had bad l u c k i n her work so f a r , w i t h one e x c e p t i o n , but we s i n k or swim t o g e t h e r , or both i n the c u r r e n t one. (or a r e c a r r i e d a l o n g . ) p l e a s e g i v e our v e r y b e s t l o v e t o mary & y o u r s e l f and may, most s i n c e r e l y , god b l e s s you & you b o t h — w i t h l o v e from us both malcolm. p.s. there i s snow t h i s morning f a l l i n g q u i t e h e a v i l y , i n b r i g h t s u n l i g h t , out of an a b s o l u t e l y c o b a l t sky--have you ever seen t h i s ? e x p l a n a t o r y notes x lowry broke h i s back f a l l i n g o f f h i s p i e r i n j u l y . a f t e r the a c c i d e n t , lowry was a d m i t t e d t o s t . p a u l ' s h o s p i t a l i n vancouver where, a c c o r d i n g t o douglas day, he e x p e r i e n c e d a v i o l e n t outbreak of d e l i r i u m tremens accompanied by h a l l u c i n a t i o n s ( ) ; t h i s e x p e r i e n c e became the b a s i s of an u n p u b l i s h e d n o v e l , "the o r d e a l of s i g b j ^ r n w i l d e r n e s s " (u.b.c. lowry c o l l e c t i o n ( - ( - ) ] ) . i n a i k e n ' s s h o r t s t o r y , mr. a r c u l a r i s has an extended v i s i o n , w h i l e d y i n g on a h o s p i t a l o p e r a t i n g t a b l e , of b e i n g on a sea voyage and t r a v e l l i n g by n i g h t to the s t a r s . g e r a l d noxon and andrew a l l a n ' s r a d i o v e r s i o n , "mr. a r c u l a r i s , " was a i r e d on the c.b.c. "stage " program on november . i n and noxon adapted t h r e e o t h e r a i k e n s t o r i e s f o r r a d i o : "a t h i e f i n the house" (based on c o n v e r s a t i o n ) , "the f a l l e n d i s c i p l e , " and "impulse"; t h e s e were a l l produced by a l l a n f o r the c.b.c. ( t i e s s e n ) . * the lowrys had by t h i s time s t a r t e d w o r k i n g on a f i l m s c r i p t of f i t z g e r a l d ' s tender i s the n i g h t , which t h e y e v e n t u a l l y s e n t t o t h e i r f r i e n d , frank t a y l o r , i n h o l l y w o o d ; the f i l m s c r i p t was never used. as i n the s t o r i e s i n hear us o l o r d from heaven thy d w e l l i n g p l a c e , i n t h i s s c r i p t lowry uses the r e f r a i n from " f r e r e j a c q u e s " t o s u g g e s t the sound of a s h i p ' s e n g i n e s (lowry, notes on a s c r e e n p l a y - ). au-dessous du v o l c a n [under the v o l c a n o ] ( p a r i s : le c l u b f r a n c a i s du l i v r e , ) was t r a n s l a t e d by stephen s p r i e l w i t h the c o l l a b o r a t i o n of c l a r i s s e f r a n c i l l o n and lowry. a p r e f a c e by lowry i s i n c l u d e d , as i s a p o s t f a c e by max-pol f o u c h e t . * p o s s i b l y m a r g e r i e ' s the shapes that creep p u b l i s h e d by s c r i b n e r ' s i n . t e x t u a l notes . - f e s t i v e (& b e a u t i f u l ) c a r d . \ f e s t i v e {(& b e a u t i f u l ) } c a r d . . your c a r d - - h a h a — w h a t \ your c a r d — { h a h a — } w h a t . - mr a r c u l a r i s \ <m>{m}r a r c u l a r i s . b e a u t i f u l l y done here o t h e r w i s e &\ b e a u t i f u l l y done here { o t h e r w i s e } & . memory of w h i c h , a p p l i e d t o o t h e r happenings, i must have\ memory of w h i c h , <one must> { a p p l i e d t o o t h e r happenings,} i <would> {must} have . by me (among o t h e r s ) a p p a r e n t l y \ by me {(among o t h e r s ) } a p p a r e n t l y . - c u r r e n t one. (or are c a r r i e d a l o n g . ) \ c u r r e n t one. { ( o r a r e c a r r i e d a l o n g . ) } . god b l e s s you & you b o t h - - \ god b l e s s {you &} you b o t h — . - w i t h l o v e from us b o t h \ with l o v e from {us both} . - p.s. there [. . . t h i s ? \ {p.s. there i s snow t h i s morning f a l l i n g <out> q u i t e h e a v i l y , i n [. . .] t h i s ? } [ h a n d w r i t t e n i n l e f t - h a n d margin of f i r s t page ] ; from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n , b.c. canada, sept. , . dear o l d conrad: have j u s t r e c e i v e d s h o r t s t o r i e s v i t h much thanks and g r e a t p l e a s u r e i n r e r e a d i n g , where not o f t e n r e r e a d — t h o u g h i have not had time t o r e r e a d a l l , l e t me s a y many have f o r me mellowed w i t h age, i f a f f e c t i o n and n o s t a l g i a s evoked have not made me u n c r i t i c a l . t h i s i s t r u e of some s t o r i e s such as s p i d e r s p i d e r , and your o b i t , which i was not so fond of a t the time when i f i r s t r e a d them i n costumes, but i guess i d i d not f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d them. they now seem e x c e l l e n t . s t r a n g e m o o n l i g h t i s b e t t e r t h a n e v e r , i f p o s s i b l e , and of r e l a t i v e l y new ones h u l l o t i b seems t o me a m a r v e l l o u s l i t t l e s t o r y . j e s u s t h a t poor c a t . and f o r a l l one's p e r c e p t i o n ! - and d i d i s a y l i t t l e ? m o r a l l y her f a t e has c o n s i d e r a b l y more meaning than t h a t of anna k a r e n i n a under s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , and her c o n t i n u a n c e i n heaven seems t o me f a r more a s s u r e d than t h a t of t h a t dame. may e n d l e s s dances w i t h moths u n d y i n g i n the e l y s i a n f i e l d s be her l o t ! i remember smith and jones once meeting w i t h your s e v e r e d i s a p p r o v a l so have not r e r e a d but i t l o o k s as i f you have c u t i t . i somewhat miss pure as the d r i v e n snow and the moment, but you c a n ' t have e v e r y t h i n g : t o o bad, t o o bad. (that i s not c r i t i c i s m but f r i e n d l y quote) of the m e r i t s of s e c r e t snow and c i r c u l a r i s * you must have heard more t h a n enough. what i s now the s t a t u s of the play? i am now s c a r i n g myself with the d i s c i p l e - i guess i t i s an e x c e l l e n t volume, i hope you are s a t i s f i e d with the s e l e c t i o n and that i t has much s u c c e s s ! for o u r s e l v e s , am a g r e a t h i t in france, and am i n the e q u i v a l e n t of the modern l i b r a r y thingmetight t h e r e and i n norway. we are f r i g h t e n i n g l y poor a t the moment, but l i f e i n the o l d - or r a t h e r new - shack i s b e t t e r than ever. we are working hugely so f i n a n c e s may improve, with a rush, i n which case hope to see you, i n f a c t w i l l , i f humanly p o s s i b l e . hope you and mary are keeping v e r y w e l l , we a r e , myself never b e t t e r . we had some fan m a i l from a gent i n minnesota named z.l.begin, a lawyer. where? or why bother? or maybe a symbol. for example, i broke my back with the r e s u l t that i am no longer c o n s t i p a t e d and have even s t a r t e d to grow a g a i n . (though you can f o r g i v e me f o r f e e l i n g i was a b i t "knocked oop" a t the time.) send us your news, god b l e s s and best love to you both from us both a f f e c t i o n a t e l y , male e x p l a n a t o r y motes x the s h o r t s t o r i e s of conrad a i k e n (new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , ). lowry's copy of t h i s book i s i n the u.b.c. lowry c o l l e c t i o n . costumes by e r o s (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ); " s p i d e r , s p i d e r " and "your o b i t u a r y , w e l l w r i t t e n " were o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n t h i s volume. "pure as t h e d r i v e n snow" i s p r i n t e d i n among the l o s t p e o p l e (new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , ); "the moment" appears i n costumes bv e r o s . * i . e . , " s i l e n t snow, s e c r e t snow" and " a r c u l a r i s . " ° see l e t t e r , n. , p. . • under v u l k a n e n . t r a n s . p e t e r magnus, f o r e w a r d s i g u r d h o e l ( o s l o : g y l d e n d a l norsk p o r l a g , ). t e x t u a l notes . - r e r e a d i n g , (. . .) l e t me s a y many\ r e r e a d i n g { , } where not o f t e n reread<,>{—}<t>(t)hough ( i ) have not had time t o r e r e a d a l l ( , } l e t me say<,> many . your o b i t , \ <y>(y)our < o > ( ) b i t , . - costumes, (. . . .) s t r a n g e m o o n l i g h t \ costumes{,} but i guess i d i d not ( f u l l y ) u n d e r s t a n d them. (they now seem e x c e l l e n t . ) s t r a n g e m o o n l i g h t . her l o t ! \ her lot<.>{!) . quote) of the m e r i t s \ quote) ( s e c r e t snow and the m e r i t s > of the m e r i t s ( t h i s d e l e t i o n i s done on the t y p e w r i t e r ) . - symbol. for example, i b r o k e \ symbol. (for example,) i broke . a t the t i m e . ) \ a t the t i m e { . } ) ; from mary aiken to l.qwrv - ms ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d - nd_ s t . s .east washington -d.c. li- - [ - nd s t . s.east] (washington, d.c.] [ dec ] -east £d_ s t . * new york c i t y mu- - b e l i e v e i t or n o t ! u n t i l sept ' o n c e - i n - a - v h i l e . when conrad has t h i s i s our c o l d - w a t e r the c h a i r of p o e t r y f l a t a t the l i b r a r y of c o n g r e s s . we're n e a r l y always i n wash, but w i l l be i n n.y.c. f o r xraas merry xmas & l o t s of l o v e from mary & conrad e x p l a n a t o r y notes see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n . the a i k e n s had a f l a t i n new york which t h e y s t a y e d i n whenever t h e y were i n t h e c i t y ( c f . l e t t e r , p. ); a c c o r d i n g t o d a v i d markson, lowry v i s i t e d a i k e n a t t h i s a d d r e s s i n b e f o r e a t t e n d i n g t h e p a r t y a t which t h e y were t o see each o t h e r f o r the l a s t time (malcolm lowrv's v o l c a n o : mvth symbol meaning ). i n a i k e n had been e l e c t e d a f e l l o w i n american l e t t e r s of the l i b r a r y of c o n g r e s s , and from - h e l d the c h a i r of p o e t r y t h e r e w i t h the t i t l e of p o e t r y c o n s u l t a n t . t e x t u a l notes [ c h r i s t m a s p o s t c a r d ; see appendix i , p. , f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n of v e r s o w i t h mary a i k e n ' s l e t t e r ] d a t e (postmarked dec . b e l i e v e i t or n o t f a [ s t i c k e r above t h i s r e a d s : " s i l e n t n i g h t " ! : from aiken to lowry ts ubc; k i l l o r i n poetry room library of congress jan dear old male: your card chided us. we sank lower than ever this year, under an accumulation of dull necessities, and sent almost nary a card anywhere, chiefly because a friend of mary's chose that unpropitious moment to commission her for a design of a t i l e d mantelpiece, heaven help us a l l , and so our xmas artist was otherwise, though gainfully, employed. anyway, i t was good to hear from you, even i f with the accustomed chorus behind you, and over your shoulder, of the whuling elements, which god knows do seem to be active in your niche of the world. how do you survive? and do you never tire? or long, as we do passionately, for something else? washington gets us down like b i l l y - o , despite pleasant interludes. we had fun last may, when a very good local theatre-group, who do plays "in the round" in an adapted cinema—and with astonishing s k i l l — p u t on our arcularis. panned by the local press, who are a lot of movie hacks (the reviewers, i mean) but a huge success with the actors and audiences, and, what's best, very satisfactory to me—we'll get i t to new york or bust. i've just been revising i t for the fortieth time, and adding (out of osiris jones!) a prologue and epilogue, after which, as soon as typed, i t ' s going to burgess meredith, who had heard of i t from hume cronyn,* who almost put i t on with jessica tandy last year--you see how i t i s , almost a l m o s t a l m o s t , always a l m o s t . j u s t as i t a l m o s t got put on a t the c h e r r y lane i n new york two y e a r s ago, and a l m o s t by e x p e r i m e n t a l t h e a t r e the year b e f o r e t h a t . and i s t h i s v e r y moment a g a i n a l m o s t i n g , or t r y i n g t o , w i t h a new group a t the c h e r r y lane (oscar w i l l i a m s and wmcarlos w i l l i a m s among them) who aim t o s p e c i a l i z e i n p o e t i c drayma. i t was damned i n t e r e s t i n g s e e i n g the t h i n g done sans s e t s , and t o see how e f f e c t i v e , how more e f f e c t i v e , language became when put out t h e r e a l l n a k e d l y by s e l f : i n t e r e s t i n g , t o o , t o f i n d w i t h how e x t r e m e l y l i t t l e change t h e p l a y c o u [ l ] d be made t o f i t t h i s s o r t of performance. to r e v i s e a passage, and see i t i m m e d i a t e l y put t o t o the t e s t i n a c t i o n i s one of the most i n s t r u c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s i n r e the w r i t t e n and spoken word i've ever known. you r e a l l y l e a r n something. . . but washington, no. and the l i b r a r y , no. i'm t h i s minute deep i n an i m b r o g l i o w i t h the top b r a s s of the b u r e a u c r a c y , who, i n t h e t o i l s of a m i l l i o n a i r e nonogenarian f e m a l e , who has g i v e n them money, and from whom t h e y hope t o f i l c h more, have p r e t t y e f f e c t i v e l y manacled and gagged the c o n s u l t a n t i n p o e t r y ; but he has a t l a s t , a f t e r many s l e e p l e s s n i g h t s of s w e a t i n g c o n s c i e n c e , d e c i d e d t o speak h i s mind. i d i d t h i s i n the form of a l e t t e r t o the f e l l o w s i n am. l e t t e r s of the l i b . of cong., whose a n n u a l meeting i s h e l d here next month; but as the l e t t e r , b e i n g o f f i c i a l , has t o c l e a r the h i e r a r c h i e s of c o n t r o l d o w n s t a i r s b e f o r e i t ' s a l l o w e d t o go f o r t h , i'm now a w a i t i n g the sound of a m u f f l e d e x p l o s i o n and the dread summons. a l l v e r y s i c k e n i n g . none of them know a n y t h i n g about l i t e r a t u r e , none of them have the l e a s t n o t i o n of a s e n s i t i v e r e g a r d f o r i t or p r i d e i n i t , t h e y r e w r i t e (or t r y t o ) my l e t t e r s i n t o t h e i r gobbledegook choctaw (and i r e w r i t e 'em back a g a i n ) , t h e y e x p e c t me t o d r a f t l e t t e r s f o r the l i b r a r i a n ' s s i g n a t u r e about m a t t e r s which don't c o n c e r n me, and about which i know n o t h i n g , and then r e t u r n them t o me w i t h a memo t o the e f f e c t t h a t i mustn't a d d r e s s the r e c i p i e n t by h i s c h r i s t i a n name, which not even h i s b e s t f r i e n d s would dare t o do, but by something e l s e : t h i s l a s t , an a c t u a l i n s t a n c e , was what f i n a l l y took the s a n g u i n a r y bun, and i'm p r o p o s i n g , a t the m e e t i n g , t h a t t h i s custom a t l e a s t be a b o l i s h e d . but you see what i mean, you see why j*e_ y e a r n f o r o t h e r s c e n e s , o t h e r c l i m e s . new z e a l a n d : we t o y w i t h the i d e a of s e t t l i n g i n new z e a l a n d . i t sounds a l l r i g h t . i t ' s v e r y cheap. i t ' s v e r y f a r . i t has f e r n t r e e s , and s e a , and mountains, and the b e g i n n i n g s of a p o e t r y movement. i t has a y e a r - r o u n d c l i m a t e — y o u can swim or s k i on the same day, and you can hunt down your v e n i s o n , i f t h a t i s what you w(a]nt t o do, any day i n the y e a r . so why not new zealand? the unanswered q u e s t i o n i s , how i s the g i n s u p p l y : we s h a l l l o o k i n t o t h a t . next time we v i s i t our $ a month s l u m l e t i n nyc ( d i d you know? ground f l o o r , w i t h a garden and n i n e t r e e s , e i g h t of them a i l a n t h u s , and a t the back of the b u i l d i n g , i n e a s t d s t r e e t , so t h a t i t i s v e r y q u i e t — a n d o n l y round the c o r n e r from your b e l l e v u e h o s p i t a l ) — next time we go up t h e r e , as we do f o r l o n g weekends, i n our s w i f t l i t t l e a u s t i n , we s h a l l go t o the n z e a l n d c o n s u l and bombard him w i t h q u e s t i o n s . . . meanwhile, we sweat i t o u t , t a k i n g such r e l i e f as we can i n g o i n g the rounds of t h r e e or f o u r good r e s t a u r a n t s and the movies, which a r e many and p r e t t y good. . . but c h i e f l y what i w r i t e t o t e l l you, dear o l d male, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a n k i n g you f o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h a t s u i c i d a l i s s u e of wake, which of c o u r s e i haven't r e a d y e t — y o u r c o n t r i b u t i o n , t h a t i s - - i s , t h a t ushant has m i r a c u l o u s l y , and a l l by i t s e l f , as i n a s o r t of d r e a m l i k e p a r t h e n o g e n e s i s , got i t s e l f w r i t t e n a t l a s t — a i n ' t i t i n c r e d i b l e ? i now l o o k back on the c u r i o u s p r o c e s s w i t h pure a s t o n i s h m e n t : i r e a d a page or two w i t h o u t i n the l e a s t r e c a l l i n g what i t f e l t l i k e t o w r i t e them: i t wasn't me, a t a l l , i n f a c t , t h a t wrote i t , but an i n v i s i b l e company of t i n y v i s i t i n g f i r e m e n . i t w i l l come out next f a l l , d u e l l s l o a n & p e a r c e — l i t t l e , brown & co.,--and f o r once, as cap pearce seems t o be reduced t o a k i n d of s p e e c h l e s s n e s s of e n t h u s i a s m , i dare t o hope we may make a few much needed d o l l a r s , j u s t when, t h i s j o b o v e r , we s h a l l most want them. f r a n k l y , i don't know what t o t h i n k of i t . i t grew, a l l by i t s e l f , i n t o a new shape, i t s own, a s p i r a l u n w i n d i n g of memory i n t o a s p i r a l p r o j e c t i o n of a n a l y s i s : i t has a d e s i g n , and y e t i t would be hard t o s a y what i t i s . i t seems t o me, i f i may be presumptuous, t o a c h i e v e a k i n d of l i v i n g n e s s , as of a l i v i n g presence r i g h t b e s i d e you, t h a t i s perhaps new: or maybe i t ' s a new " o r d e r " . i dunno--i dunno. i t ' s p r e t t y o r f u l e x p l i c i t about many t h i n g s . y o u r s e l f i n c l u d e d , f o r you a r e a f e l l o w named hambo, and one of the heros. i p r a y you won't be o f f e n d e d by any of i t : i pray when you r e a d i t you w i l l c o n t i n u a l l y s a y t o y o u r s e l f , t h i s guy l o v e s me, or he wouldn't be so b l o o d y c a n d i d about me. but a c t u a l l y , e c t u a l l y , i v e n t u r e t o hope t h a t you w i l l not o n l y l i k e the book, but f i n d the t r e a t m e n t of y o u r s e l f b a s i c a l l y and d e e p l y a f f e c t i o n a t e . what tom e l i o t i s g o i n g t o t h i n k i s a n o t h e r t a s s i e of t e a . i c a l l him the t s e t s e , and have a l r e a d y so i n f o r m e d him (no comment from him.) and h i s r e t r e a t t o the church g e t s vhat i t h i n k i t d e s e r v e s . w i l l he be a f o r g i v i n g c h r i s t i a n , a b e n e v o l e n t m a r t y r , and b l e s s me from the c r o s s ? — a s f o r poor dear m a r t i n a r m s t r o n g , vhose h o m o s e x u a l i t y ( a l o n g w i t h t h a t of the e n g l i s h scene a t l a r g e ) g e t s a thorough g o i n g o v e r , w e l l , i hope he never r e a d s i t , t h a t ' s a l l , and have warned the k i d s , i n e n g l a n d , t h a t t h e y had b e t t e r c o n s p i r e t o keep i t out of h i s and j e s s i e ' s hands -*. . . and my own e r o t i c c a r e e r , dear god, dear j e s u s , what a r e people g o i n g t o t h i n k of t h a t - - ? nev z e a l a n d , new z e a l a n d , come autumn—under a f e r n t r e e , f a r from the v e r y v e r y madding crowd. . . . of c o u r s e you know a l l about the noxon b u s t - u p x s — a sad bad b u s i n e s s , v e r y naughty, we f e e l , of b e t t y , t o go and do such and s u c h , and t h e y so n e a r , as i t were, t o p o r t . but god knows i've m y s e l f done e x a c t l y t h a t , and more t h a n once; and i can o n l y s a y i'm s o r r y f o r them a l l , and not t o o s a n g u i n e , i r e g r e t t o s a y , about g's new t i e - u p w i t h o l g a , whose s l i g h t l y i n f a n t i l e c o y n e s s , a l o n g w i t h so buxom a frame, tends t o g e t us down. w e l l , the dear b a s s e t t - thought w e l l of h e r , and i hope he was r i g h t . did you know i n c i d e n t a l l y of t h a t t r a g e d y - - ? for the dear b a s s e t t came down w i t h g e r a l d f o r our v e r y f i r s t veekend a t b r e w s t e r l a s t june, and d i e d i n h i s s l e e p - - i found him so when i went t o c a l l him i n t h e morning. as he would have wished i t - - f i v e m i l e s from h i s f a m i l y l o t i n the c h u r c h y a r d a t south d e n n i s , and a f t e r a s u r f e i t of l o b s t e r s , and a l i f e c o m p l e t e l y w i t h o u t i l l n e s s . a marvelous f e l l o w , and as one of h i s t e a c h e r s wrote me, an i r r e p e r a b l e l o s s . i c a n ' t f a c e boston or cambridge or t h e harvard c l u b w i t h o u t him: even b r e w s t e r now l o o k s a l i t t l e g r a y . a l a s . heave us a l i n e - - our l o v e s conrad p e r t r y room l of c feb p s-- t h o u g h t , b e l o v e d male, t h a t you wou would want t o know of t h e d e a t h , which we l e a r n e d of y e s t e r d a y , of mrs. neeves—tom's w i f e - - a t r y e . i'm s u r e the o l d boy would l o v e i t i f you were t o drop him a l i n e or two. d e v o n s h i r e house, w i n c h e l s e a road, rye, i s the a d d r e s s . a p p a r e n t l y she hadn't been i l l l o n g , but w i t h some r a r e d i s e a s e , and l u c k i l y (so the n e i g h b o r who w r i t e s r e p o r t s ) p r e t t y much w i t h o u t p a i n . poor o l d tom—i wonder how h e ' l l make o u t . she l o o k e d a f t e r him w i t h her whole l i f e - - b u t t h e n , he d i d the same f o r h e r , a complete s y m b i o s i s , one of the most p e r f e c t . j e e s t . g i v e s one t o t h i n k . rye, september , , and i am g o i n g i n t o the s h i p t o c e l e b r a t e the b i r t h of my daughter j o a n , i n j e a k e ' s house, the house which had been bought f o u r months b e f o r e , what time the hawthorn was i n bloom, f o r t h a t v e r y purpose. and t h e r e , of c o u r s e , were o l d tom and the m i s s u s , newly moved from the y p r e s , on the s t e p s , where t h e y used t o r o l l t h e empty b a r r e l s up t h a t b l o o d y l i t t l e r a i l w a y t r a c k , remember? and t h e r e , o n l y a few b r i g h t seconds l a t e r , you and i were t o appear w i t h an eye out f o r sausage r o l l s . w e l l w e l l w e l l and w e l l conrad \ e x p l a n a t o r y notes a i k e n was a t t h i s time s t i l l h o l d i n g the c h a i r of p o e t r y a t the l i b r a r y of congress which he'd r e c e i v e d i n . the p l a y of a i k e n ' s s h o r t s t o r y , "mr. a r c u l a r i s . " a i k e n ' s the coming f o r t h by day of o s i r i s j o n e s . * burgess m e r e d i t h ( - ), american a c t o r , d i r e c t o r , p r o d u c e r , and w r i t e r ; a c t e d i n of mice and men ( ), that c e r t a i n f e e l i n g ( ), the gay adventure ( ), and rocky ( ) amongst many o t h e r s . s hume b l a k e cronyn ( - ), canadian born a c t o r and d i r e c t o r who m a r r i e d the a c t r e s s j e s s i c a tandy i n ; t o g e t h e r t h e y appeared i n the r a d i o s e r i e s "the m a r r i a g e " which was t e l e v i s e d i n . j e s s i c a tandy ( - ), london-born a c t r e s s ; m a r r i e d t o hume cronyn ( n . a b o v e ) . oscar w i l l i a m s ( - ), american poet and e d i t o r ; a u t h o r of the golden darkness ( ), in gossamer grey ( ), the man coming toward you ( ), and s e l e c t e d poems ( ); e d i t o r of new poems ( ). a i k e n was h i m s e l f a f e l l o w from - . see l e t t e r , n. , p. . lowry was a d m i t t e d t o new york's b e l l e v u e h o s p i t a l i n june f o r t r e a t m e n t f o r a l c o h o l i s m ; h i s n o v e l l a lunar c a u s t i c i s based upon t h i s e x p e r i e n c e . the th i s s u e of wake, p u b l i s h e d i n , was e n t i r e l y devoted t o conrad a i k e n ; t h e r e , t o o , a i k e n c a l l s the i s s u e " s u i c i d a l " ("a note" ) . lowry's c o n t r i b u t i o n ( - ) i s a l e t t e r t o seymour lawrence d a t e d november i n which he d i s c u s s e s h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a i k e n . a- an e x c e r p t from ushant appears i n wake : - . lowry a l s o appears as "hambo" i n a i k e n ' s a heart f o r the gods of m e x i c o . a c c o r d i n g t o b o t h c l a r i s s a l o r e n z and john a i k e n , lowry was d e e p l y h u r t by a i k e n ' s p o r t r a y a l of him i n ushant, and the p u b l i c a t i o n of the book caused a l a s t i n g break between the two ( l o r e l e i two ; "malcolm lowry: some r e m i n i s c e n c e s " ); the e v i d e n c e of t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , however, would seem t o suggest o t h e r w i s e . x * j e s s i e (macdonald) a r m s t r o n g , a i k e n ' s f i r s t w i f e and mother of t h e i r t h r e e c h i l d r e n ; she and m a r t i n d o n i s t h o r p e armstrong ( - ), b r i t i s h poet and n o v e l i s t , had m a r r i e d i n a f t e r her d i v o r c e from a i k e n ; c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . g e r a l d and b e t t y (lane) noxon were d i v o r c e d i n ; c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . gordon b a s s e t t ; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . tom neeves was the owner of the the s h i p inn, rye; c f . l e t t e r , p. . e n c l o s e d w i t h l e t t e r i s lowry's l e t t e r t o tom neeves. in h i s l e t t e r t o seymour lawrence i n wake , lowry t e l l s of mrs. neeves* fondness f o r a i k e n ( ) . t e x t u a l notes . - f r i e n d of mary's\ f r i e n d of mar<g>y*s . never t i r e ? \ never tire<d>? . a f t e r w h i c h , \ a f t e r { / } w h i c h , ( a i k e n has i n s e r t e d a s l a s h mark by hand t o i n d i c a t e a s e p a r a t i o n of the two words] . i t i s , a l m o s t \ i t i s { / , } a l m o s t [ a i k e n has i n s e r t e d a s l a s h mark t o i n d i c a t e a s e p a r a t i o n ] . i n t e r e s t i n g , \ i n t e r { e } s t i n g , . the p l a y c o u [ l ] d \ the p l a y coukd [ t y p o . ] . put t o t o \ p u t { / } t o t o [ a i k e n has i n s e r t e d a s l a s h mark t o i n d i c a t e a s e p a r a t i o n ] . but he has\ but <who> {he} has . next mon.th;\ next month<:>{;} . a d d r e s s the r e c i p i e n t by\ a d d r e s s the r e c i p i e n t <as> by . p r o p o s i n g , \ p < t > { r } o p o s i n g , . what you w [ a ] n t \ what you wqnt [ t y p o . ] . - — n e x t time we\ — n e x t {time} we . but a c t u a l l y , \ but a c t < u > { u a } l l y , . not o n l y l i k e t h e book,\ not {only} t l i k e > the book, . c h r i s t i a n , \ c h r i < i > s t i a n , a sad bad b u s i n e s s , \ a s<a>{a}d bad b u s i n e s s , our l o v e s \ [ h a n d w r i t t e n a t end of l e t t e r ] hawthorn\ ha wthorn [ t y p o . ] appear w i t h \ appear<,> w i t h : from lowry t o aiken ms h; mspc ubc; u n p u b l i s h e d [ d o l l a r t o n ] v e r n a l equinox. / e a s t e r monday. ( march/ march ] address i s now d o l l a r t o n a g a i n , & perhaps a l m o s t a s c e n s i o n day by now. my b e l o v e d o l d conrad: your o l d hammbo a i n ' t been f e e l i n g w e l l , i n f a c t has been g o i n g t h r o u g h a h e l l of a passage, but i s back on deck, i n f a c t , come t o t h i n k of i t , never l e f t the deck: margie i s f i n e , work goes w e l l , p u b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s not q u i t e so f i n e , vhat w i t h the o l d f i r m of r e y n a l & h i t c h c o c k s p l i t u p , so t h a t one i s d i v i d e d i n one's l o y a l t i e s & l e g a l i t i e s - - a l l t h i s b e d s i d e r e a d i n g t o you. poor o l d d o l l a r t o n was n e a r l y washed away i n a h u r r i c a n e : but our o l d s e l f - b u i l t second house s t i l l s t a n d s , t o the 'grave d e l i g h t ' of the few r e m a i n i n g f i s h e r m e n ; however we had t o seek r e f u g e h e r e f i n a l l y & don't r e t u r n t i l l a p r i l f o o l ' s day, when the skunk cabbages w i l l be found s i n g i n g among the love's l i e s b l e e d i n g & e v e n i n g s t a r , as you might s a y , not t o mention death camas & the c o n t o r t e d l o u s e w o r t . you were wrong t o say i had no way w i t h c a t s though, as i have a s o r t of f e e l i n g you once d i d on our passage from g i l b r a l t a r , * i n a f r i e n d l y f a s h i o n , or perhaps you were r i g h t , & i m e r e l y i n h e r i t e d your way: a t a l l e v e n t s our c a t t h a t we c o u l d not b r i n g w i t h us would not s t a y w i t h the f i s h e r m a n (though h i s f i r s t owner) w i t h whom we had l e f t him, & i n s t e a d has gone w i l d i n the bush & the f o r e s t , haunts our house, w i l l speak t o noone but o u r s e l v e s by p r o x y , & i s even t e r r o r i z i n g the n e i g h b o u r h o o d — perhaps he i s / l y n x - - s o t h a t not l i k i n g t o t h i n k of t h a t among o t h e r t h i n g s , we s h a l l be g l a d t o get back and b a i l him out of h i s rowan t r e e . meantime i have c o n t r i v e d a l e t t e r t o poor o l d tom neeves,* r e m i n d i n g him of r a b b i t s & bacon & t h i n g s t h a t w i l l be f o r e v e r u n f o r g o t t e n , not f o r g e t t i n g t h e dutch s h i p l i k e a h a y s t a c k , & which perhaps w i l l h e l p t o assuage h i s bereavement: how t r u l y compassionate & good of you t o t h i n k of t h i s , though i t i s of c o u r s e but what one would have e x p e c t e d of you. i c o n g r a t u l a t e you from the bottom of my h e a r t on g e t t i n g ushant done under such c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i . e the l i b r a r y e t c , am l o o k i n g f o r w a r d enormously t o r e a d i n g i t , c e r t a i n i t w i l l be g r e a t (& a l s o h o p i n g t h a t you w i l l have s p a r e d me some of my o b s c e n e s t f a i l i n g s t o use m y s e l f - - n o m a t t e r , i would p r o b a b l y p l a g i a r i s e them anyway e t c . ) i am v e r y proud t o be t h e r e though, b e l i e v e me, however f o u l . i hope you can r e a d my a r t i c l e i n wake, i f i t a p p e a r s , w r i t t e n when the f o u n d a t i o n s were r i s i n g under us, w i t h o u t v o m i t i n g : a l l i wanted t o s a y r e a l l y was t h a t i c o n s i d e r e d you not o n l y one of the t e n or so g r e a t e s t w r i t e r s who ever l i v e d , but one of t h e g r e a t e s t sportsmen. so, i f i don't g e t i t o v e r , i am t e l l i n g you t h a t t h a t was what i wanted t o say. i send you a p i c t u r e of a c a t up a t e l e g r a p h p o l e . i'm a p y n t o r & g i l d e r . i am, & by j e s u s nov i live i n vancouver or don't i ? (at l e a s t i d i d vhen i v r o t e the f i r s t d r a f t of t h i s ) nevermind, ve v i l l a l l meet i n nev z e a l a n d . a l a s , t h a t b l o o d y l i t t l e moving machine. . . q but i n s p i t e of t h a t o l d s m a l l g r a s s be a s s u r e d of ray l o v e & u n d y i n g r e s p e c t from o u r s e l v e s t o y o u r s e l f & mary from your ever devoted o l d f r i e n d - - hambo-hambone! p.s i am j u s t g r i e v e d , p e r i o d , about g e r a l d & b e t t y , vho vere so damned good t o us, & such t r u l y good f r i e n d s , a l b e i t b e t t y d i d not l i k e me, she d i d her b e s t t o t r y , vas s v e l l t o us, & margie l o v e d h e r ; i l o v e d them both i n my vay, & v h i l e i v i s h them e v e r y l u c k i n t h e i r apparent change of h e a r t , i c a n ' t h e l p v i s h i n g them t o g e t h e r a g a i n . my f e e l i n g i s t h e y v e r e & a r e both genuine a r t i s t s , g e n u i n e l y courageous, the b e s t of p e o p l e , but as f o r t h a t good o l d b e t t y she r e a d t o o much of t h a t good o l d tchechov, & vhen you do t h a t on the s h o r e s of lake o n t a r i o , or even of the bass r i v e r , w i t h so many s e a g u l l s around, a n y t h i n g may happen . . . but i l o a t h e l i k e h e l l t o t h i n k what i t may have done t o poor o l d g e r a l d . f o r t u n a t e l y he has p l e n t y of g u t s . but what a r e g u t s , as p o n t i u s p i l a t e might have s a i d ? . . e s p e c i a l l y when you have t o use them as b o o t s t r a p s . p.p.s. l e t the a l m o s t i n g of a r c u l a r i s become, i n new york, a p o s i t i v e i n g - - o r r a t h e r the o n l y k i n d of p o s i t i v e t h a t g i v e s r e l i e f t o man. (there i s a s w e l l s m a l l — & i n f a c t not so s m a l l - - b e g i n n i n g s of a t h e a t r e h e r e - - t h a t i s p a y i n g i t s way--no e x i t , the f l i e s , & the ascent of f (not to mention much ado about nothing), a l l p l a y i n g a t d i f f e r e n t t h e a t r e s , & to crowded houses, & a l s o some m a r v e l l o u s l y b i z a r r e d r a m a t i s t s , i n c l u d i n g perhaps even me; no w r i t e r s to hold a candle to y o u r s e l f or a n y t h i n g , or w i t h i n a m i l l i o n m i l e s , but a t l e a s t one (who i s p o e t i c i s i n g something of my own) p o t e n t i a l l y a h e l l of a l o t b e t t e r than c h r i s t o p h e r fry, -* which i s not s a y i n g much maybe; name of newton, & the son of a holy r o l l e r , & not above r o l l i n g h i m s e l f , from time to t i m e — s o you might, though not f o r t h i s reason, bear our town i n mind with the f i n i s h e d a r c u l a r i s ? not f o r f r e e e i t h e r , f o r you might make some cash, & they would be honoured. t e c h n i c a l standard of p r o d u c t i o n i s extremely high, a c t i n g not so hot, or e r r a t i c , though there are some f i n e a c t r e s s e s : by & l a r g e though, there i s an e x t r a o r d i n a r y f e e l i n g f o r language. which would be good f o r mr a . as a l s o , enthusiasm.) p.p.s. have j u s t r e c e i v e d the news, a f t e r many months of c a r l s e n i n g upon a f l y i n g e n t e r p r i s e with breaking tow-ropes (as a consequence of which i d i d n ' t want to post t h i s l e t t e r i n case i t depressed you) t h a t random house & the modern l i b r a r y people are t a k i n g me i n tow with a l a r g e advance & c o n t r a c t upon the w i n g . (of course one s t i l l keeps one's f i n g e r s c r o s s e d . in the army they c a l l i t c h e s t . 'what about a game of chequers?' 'sure, i don't m i n d . ' ) god b l e s s you. male p.s. but a l a c k we have not found the c a t . p . p.p . s . i e n c l o s e you c a r b o n of l e t t e r a i r m a i l e d to o l d tom. i wrote i t t w i c e i n my own h a n d w r i t i n g : f i n a l l y d e c i d e d he c o u l d n ' t read i t , so typed i t , but was so moved c o u l d n ' t get the grammar s t r a i g h t even t h e n . e x c u s e , t h i s messy l e t t e r : i t was the b l o o d y pen, not t o mention the b l o o d y paper, combined perhaps w i t h a s l i g h t l y b l o o d y mind a t the t i m e . [ l e t t e r to tom neeves enclosed v i t h l e t t e r ] d o l l a r t o n , b r i t i s h columbia, canada. dear mr. neeves: perhaps you don't remember me r i g h t o f f but you w i l l soon. i was a p u p i l of mr. aiken's who l i v e d f o r many years at jeake's house on mermaid s t r e e t i n rye, and we used to come down at s i x o'clock every evening and sometimes about midday - and sometimes myself e a r l i e r s t i l l - and s i t i n the p a r l o u r of your good o l d ship inn and d r i n k the odd h a l f - q u a r t e r n of whiskey and chat, with your s e l f , and your beloved wife, and i want to say t h a t these were some of the happiest times of my l i f e ; and among the most t r e a s u r e d memories, i am sure, of mr. aiken, who had the added advantage of l i v i n g permanently i n rye and so could p a t r o n i z e your never to be f o r g o t t e n h o s t e l r y more o f t e n than i c o u l d , are those of your good s e l v e s and of the ship. in the evening he always f i n i s h e d the s e r i a l i n the d a i l y m i r r o r before he would d r i n k h i s second h a l f q u a r t e r n , whereas i always wanted to d r i n k ray second h a l f q u a r t e r n before he had got to the end of the second paragraph of the d a i l y m i r r o r s e r i a l : but that doesn't matter. nor does i t , t h a t i t was more than twenty years ago. i t i s indeed years s i n c e i have seen mr. aiken, because we have been separated by circumstances of wars and d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , but i have always looked upon him much as a f a t h e r , besides which he i s one of my best f r i e n d s , and so we have never l o s t touch. well, those vere your f r i e n d s and mrs. neeves' f r i e n d s - you remember mr. a i k e n of c o u r s e , but t h a t was me t o o , s i t t i n g i n your p a r l o u r a t the s h i p inn ( o r even s t a n d i n g i n the case of m y s e l f , s u p p o s i n g t h i s t o be p o s s i b l e , i n the o t h e r bar.) mr. a i k e n was of c o u r s e an o l d and good f r i e n d of your w i f e and y o u r s e l f y e a r s b e f o r e i ever met him, he i s a t p r e s e n t the l i b r a r i a n of congress i n the u n i t e d s t a t e s of a m e r i c a , and he has j u s t w r i t t e n t o me i n canada, t e l l i n g me the g r i e v o u s news t h a t mrs. neeves, your dear w i f e , has d i e d , and what i wanted t o say - i f i can s a y i t i n words - was something t o convey to you my v e r y deepest sympathy i n your i r r e p a r a b l e l o s s , a l o s s t h a t w i l l be s h a r e d by a l l i know who were happy enough to know mrs. neeves and y o u r s e l f . mr. a i k e n ' s l e t t e r indeed goes back a l m o s t t h i r t y y e a r s , because he f o n d l y remembers t h a t i t was i n t o the s h i p t h a t he went upon september , , t o c e l e b r a t e the b i r t h of h i s daughter j o a n , a t which time he t e l l s me ( f o r i was o n l y a boy of f i f t e e n a t t h a t t i m e ) t h a t you and mrs. neeves - and so v i v i d i s the memory he r e c a l l s even t h a t the hawthorn was i n bloom - had newly moved from the y p r e s . for m y s e l f , i never can f o r g e t many of your w i f e ' s sweet a c t i o n s of k i n d n e s s t o us and o t h e r s : a p a r t from a n y t h i n g e l s e , i remember the incomparable r a b b i t and bacon, and the way she would prepare t h a t : and many o t h e r happy t h i n g s b e s i d e , of you b o t h , i n c l u d i n g the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h i n g s she s a i d , and the f e e l i n g of b e i n g a t home t h a t one had a t the good o l d s h i p , when i n those days t h e r e might be a dutch schooner you would d e s c r i b e as a " h a y s t a c k " l o a d i n g o u t s i d e i n the r i v e r , and the f e e l i n g of h a p p i n e s s and goodness t o o t h a t was i m p a r t e d from your l i v e s t o t h i s t h e n young w r i t e r . mr. a i k e n v a l u e d both your f r i e n d s h i p s enormously: e q u a l l y , m y s e l f : and as he mourns f o r you, so do i attempt t o commiserate w i t h you i n your g r e a t bereavement, though f o r m y s e l f i cannot b e l i e v e i t t o be a f i n a l l o s s , f o r s u r e l y you w i l l be r e u n i t e d a g a i n - and o u r s e l v e s , may i t be hoped t o o , a l l of us, i n a n o t h e r " s h i p . " god b l e s s you mr. neeves, good l u c k & g r e e t i n g s f o r e a s t e r s i n c e r e l y your o l d f r i e n d & happy customer malcolm lowry e x p l a n a t o r y notes the name of the c h a r a c t e r based on l o v r y i n a i k e n ' s a heart f o r the gods of mexico and ushant. w h i l e eugene reynal had l e f t the f i r m of r e y n a l & h i t c h c o c k f o r h a r c o u r t , b r a c e , t a k i n g the l o v r y a c c o u n t v i t h him, l o v r y ' s o l d e d i t o r a t r e y n a l & h i t c h c o c k , a l b e r t e r s k i n e , had moved t o random house. l o v r y ' s " l o y a l t i e s " v e r e d i v i d e d because h i s agent had s e n t h i s r e c e n t vork t o r o b e r t g i r o u x a t h a r c o u r t , b r a c e , v h i l e l o v r y vanted t o keep e r s k i n e as h i s e d i t o r (day ). the l o v r y s had r e n t e d an apartment i n vancouver f o r t h e v i n t e r (see my f i r s t t e x t u a l n o t e , p. ); h o v e v e r , by the t i m e of m a i l i n g t h i s l e t t e r , t h e y had r e t u r n e d t o d o l l a r t o n . on t h e i r vay t o s p a i n i n the summer o f , and on t h e i r r e t u r n , the a i k e n s and l o v r y had s t o p p e d i n g i l b r a l t a r ( l o r e n z , ); c f . a l s o l e t t e r , n. , p. . tom neeves, t h e ovner o f t h e s h i p i n n , rye; c f . l e t t e r , p. . l o v r y ' s l e t t e r t o tom neeves i s i n c l u d e d v i t h t h i s l e t t e r . i . e . , the l i b r a r y of congress where a i k e n vas v o r k i n g from - . y "a l e t t e r , " wake ( ): - . • see l o v r y ' s l e t t e r i n wake i n v h i c h he t e l l s of a i k e n r e s c u i n g a c a t from a t e l e g r a p h p o l e ( - ) , and b l u e voyage ( ) . • see b l u e voyage: "'a p y n t e r an' g i l d e r , i am, an' i've been t o vancouver'" ( ) . c f . b l u e vovaoe ( , , ) , and under t h e v o l c a n o ( , ). x g e r a l d and b e t t y noxon had d i v o r c e d i n ; see l e t t e r , p. , and l e t t e r , n. , p. . the s t a g e v e r s i o n of a i k e n ' s s t o r y "mr. a r c u l a r i s . " i * "the a s c e n t of p ": p l a y by w.h. auden and c h r i s t o p h e r i s h e r v o o d f i r s t p u b l i s h e d as the a s c e n t of f : a tragedy i n tvo a c t s (london: f a b e r , ; nev york: random house, ). c h r i s t o p h e r f r y ( - ), b r i t i s h p l a y v r i g h t , a c t o r , and d i r e c t o r ; a u t h o r o f the bov v i t h a c a r t ( ) , a phvqnlx, tog- f r e q u e n t ( ) , the dark i s l i g h t enough ( ) ( a l l p l a y s ) ; v r i t e r o f the s c r e e n p l a y s f o r the beggar's opera ( ) and ben hur ( ) ; a v a r d e d the queen's g o l d medal f o r p o e t r y i n . norman newton ( - ), canadian w r i t e r , a c t o r , and composer whom lowry met i n . in the e a r l y 's, he and lowry worked t o g e t h e r on a s t a g e v e r s i o n of n o r d a h l g r i e g ' s the s h i p s a i l s on which was never completed. cf. newton's l e t t e r t o lowry i n the u.b.c. l i b r a r y [ - ] and l e t t e r , n. , p. . newton's memoir of lowry appears i n s h e r y l s a l l o u m ' s malcolm lowrv: vancouver days ( - ). i . e . , " a r c u l a r i s " x in a p r i l random house o f f e r e d lowry a c o n t r a c t which c a l l e d f o r two n o v e l s and a book of s h o r t s t o r i e s w i t h i n the next two-and-a-half y e a r s . lowry was unable t o f u l f i l l the c o n t r a c t , and i n j a n u a r y random house c u t him o f f . cf. b l u e vovaae ( - ) . t e x t u a l notes address [ d e l e t e d a t t o p of l e t t e r : <apt . g i l f o r d s t r e e t vancouver b r i t i s h columbia.>] . v i l l be found s i n g i n g \ w i l l be {found} s i n g i n g . - c a t s though, [. . .] or perhaps\ c a t s though, {as i have a s o r t of f e e l i n g you once d i d on our passage from g i b r a l t a r , i n a f r i e n d l y f a s h i o n , } or perhaps . c o n t r i v e d a l e t t e r to poor\ c o n t r i v e d {a l e t t e r } to poor . of r a b b i t s & bacon\ of < t h > { r } a b b i t s & bacon . i c o n g r a t u l a t e you [. . .] g e t t i n g \ i c o n g r a t u l a t e {you from the bottom of my h e a r t } on g e t t i n g . c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i . e the l i b r a r y e t c , \ c i r c u m s t a n c e s , <am l o o k i n g > i . e the < l > { l } i b r a r y e t c , . p l a g i a r i s e them anyway\ p l a g i a r i s e <it> {them} anyway . t o be t h e r e though,\ t o be t h e r e <,> though, . - w i t h o u t v o m i t i n g : \ w i t h o u t <vomiting> { v o m i t i n g } : . t o s a y r e a l l y was\ t o s a y { r e a l l y } was . t h e y were & a r e \ t h e y {were &} a r e t h a t good o l d b e t t y \ t h a t {good} o l d b e t t y f o r t u n a t e l y \ ["p.t.o" i s w r i t t e n beneath t h i s at bottom of t h i r d page] a s w e l l s m a l l [. . .] b e g i n n i n g s \ a s w e l l {small--& i n f a c t not so small--}beginnings f [. . . ], a l l p l a y i n g \ f {(not to mention much ado about nothing)}, a l l p l a y i n g --so you might, (. . .] bear\ --so you might, {though not f o r t h i s reason,} bear modern l i b r a r y people a r e \ modern l i b r a r y {people} are one s t i l l keeps\ one { s t i l l } keeps p.p .p.s. i enclose [. . . .] even then.\ [ w r i t t e n i n top l e f t - h a n d corner of f i r s t page] excuse t h i s [. . .] at the time.\ [ w r i t t e n i n l e f t - hand margin of f i r s t page] [ l e t t e r from.lowry to tom neeves; ts h; tspc ubc] hawthorn\ hawthorn<e> god b l e s s [. . .] customer.\ [handwritten by lowry a t end of l e t t e r ] : from lowry t o aiken ts h; u n p u b l i s h e d d o l l a r t o n , b.c., canada, sept. , . dear o l d conrad: ushant i s a knock-out - ow, how i t h u r t s ! a g r e a t book, i n many ways, t e c h n i c a l l y , a m a r v e l , i n p l a i n words' a masterwork. that much i can g l e a n though n a t u r a l l y so f a r i've tended t o r e a d i t a b i t i n the manner of the wind t u r n i n g the pages of the book i n the garden, save t h a t the wind, f o r a l l the s k i r t s i t has blown up, i s perhaps not r e a d i n g the book l i k e me w i t h the o b j e c t of f i n d i n g i t s own pants t a k e n down on the next page. t h i s p l u s p r e s s u r e of one's own work and the u s u a l e l e m e n t a l d i f f i c u l t i e s of k e e p i n g a l i v e i n the w i l d e r n e s s have made i t hard t o form a d i s p a s s i o n a t e judgement as y e t . in o t h e r words i a i n ' t r e a l l y had t i m e , and when i make t i m e , i don't r e a d i t d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y . meantime t h e r e a r e wonders of p r o s e , profound p e r c e p t i o n s and a p p e r c e p t i o n s and c o m p l e x i t i e s e x p r e s s e d i n m i r a c u l o u s l i m p i d i t y . the form i s a t r i u m p h , and the end, as hot m u s i c i a n s say, i s out of t h i s w o r l d . no c r i t i c i s m s (though i might - and c e r t a i n l y w i t h i t more e n l i g h t e n e d p r a i s e - have some l a t e r ) save t h a t now and then i f e l t a s l i g h t f a i l u r e of t o n e , e.g., round about the s e c t i o n of u n c l e s ' a s h e s . and he, though i t would c e r t a i n l y have g i v e n him "an unaccustomed wetness i n the t r o u s e r s , " might, have c o m p l a i n e d , as once b e f o r e , of an o c c a s i o n a l u n n e c e s s a r y c o a r s e n e s s . what the h e l l . but i thought you u n f a i r t o b.v. a t one point. in those days, young fellow, dealing with those complicated issues of prose, you were content sometimes not to 'write', but to 'decorate the page*, as tchechov somewhere advises (sounds l i k e bad advice too, but you get what i mean--if anything; as a matter of fact i simply wanted to reassert my p r i s t i n e l o y a l t y to b.v, but became involved in a tangential & largely unfounded speculation i couldn't develop without getting into a fine muddle) one to do. perhaps you have forgotten the technical problems that seem solved at every moment in that book, on every page, in every word, and by the placing of the words. a l l maybe l a r g e l y unconscious,[--]jeez conrad i don't mean that though i mean the rest(--]but i've never read a book that appealed to so many senses at once as that, including some not in the roster. ushant possesses a similar genius in the art of communications; never too much fed into the channel, though you've involved yourself with a l l the temptations of complete freedom. but i'm not writing an appraisal of ushant here so much - there are tremendous things almost wherever you open i t - as a note to set your mind at rest about hamrabo, in case you were worrying, l e s t i be hurt. h'm. our sweating s e l f , but better. and considerably more i n t e l l i g e n t . s t i l l : what a f e a r f u l account he. w i l l have to give of himself at the judgement day! ow, how it hurts! the reference being to the s i n i s t e r i n s c r i p t i o n upon the glass case containing a bepoxed liverpudlian waxwork in the old museum of anatomy in paradise outside which i t also said: man know t h y s e l f ! t h i s , t o make y o u l a u g h . s e r i o u s l y , s o f a r a s i'm c o n c e r n e d , i t seems t o me y o u ' v e been v e r y s p o r t i n g and c h a r i t a b l e t h o u g h n a t u r a l l y one w i s h e s one had a c q u i t t e d o n e s e l f d i f f e r e n t l y i n r e a l l i f e . a l s o i t i s a b i t h i j e o u s ( a s o u r o l d c o o k u s e d t o s a y ) f r o m t h e e x i s t e n t i a l p o i n t o f v i e w , t o t h i n k t h a t a t t h o s e few moments one a c t u a l l y d i d i m a g i n e one was b e i n g t r u l y h e l p f u l - however i n t o l e r a b l e - o r s h a r i n g i n some m u t u a l l y s a c r e d o r s e c r e t - - d o n t t a k e t h i s t o o s e r i o u s l y , o l d man, my h y p o c r i s y i s e x p o s e d o v e r l e a f [ - - i d r a r a a t h a t one was i n f a c t (one f o r g e t s o n l y i n p a r t , i t i s t r u e ) b e i n g e y e d ( a s s t r i n d b e r g m i g h t s a y ) a s a r a b b i t f o r v i v i s e c t i o n . and w o r s e s t i l l , e y e i n g o n e ' s f e l l o w c o n r a d , f o r i'm j u s t a s b a d , no d o u b t , i n f a c t w o r s e . and v h e n i t h i n k what g o b b e t s o f hammbo y o u m i g h t h a v e c h o s e n f o r d i s p l a y i c a n o n l y a f f i r m t h a t i n t h e m a t t e r o f f o r b e a r a n c e c l i v e o f i n d i a has n o t h i n g on you." and o f c o u r s e one i s a l s o h o n o r e d . hope i t i s a l l u s h a n t i h w i t h t h e t s e - t s e . e — a n d i hope the r e a l hammbo may p r o v e a c r e d i t : t h e v o r k - a n d god how much o f i t t h e r e i s - i s g o i n g w e l l . and s o i s o u r l i f e . a n o t h e r book s h o u l d be f i n i s h e d s o o n , and t h e r e a r e t h o u s a n d s o f p a g e s o f d r a f t s o f f u t u r e ones ( i n t h e v a u l t o f a b a n k , t h i s t i m e ) . - we've had a p r e t t y r o u g h t o u g h t i m e t h e l a s t y e a r s , v h a t w i t h most o f o u r a s s e t s f r o z e n i n europe. - - and on o c c a s i o n , t h e t y p e w r i t e r f r o z e n t o o . b u t b a s t a ! - c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s u p o n , and t h e b e s t o f l u c k w i t h u s h a n t . w i t h d e v o t i o n and a l l t h e v e r y b e s t l o v e t o m a r y and y o u r s e l f f r o m us b o t h - i n f a c t f r o m a l l o f u s , mr. a n d m r s . b l a c k s t o n e , - mr. a n d m r s . hammbo, mr. and m r s . l o w r y , n o t f o r g e t n o t f o r g e t t i n g mr. a n d m r s . d e m a r e s t , and from the old male himself. as ever male p.s. i was delighted and moved to get a reply from old tom (after you'd put the deeply good suggestion in my head he'd glad to get a l e t t e r after the misses' death) t.w. neeves new winchelsea dear mr. lowry very pleased to hear from you we hear from mr. aiken at times and from mr. rice and mrs. r i c e they stade we with us two year age we hear from them at times now the old ship was good place! - to l i v e we left t h e i r years age l a s t march mr. aiken was shocking[--]he wrote speaking of course only looked l i k e shocking[--]to us of you he was a nice kind of gentleman - i myself have just come out hospital had bad operation came home weeks ago f e l l i n g better now, blader troble now for about monnths i had a bad times doctor t e l l me your man year to be a l i v e hope for l i t t l e better time coming f e e l more l i k e old time on way wis hing best very pleased to hear from you s i n c e r e l y your old thomas neeves cheero! explanatory notes lowry's copy of ushant in the u.b.c. library bears the following i n s c r i p t i o n by aiken: for our beloved malc-hambo-blackstone with a l l devotion from conrad august — see ushant ( - ); see l e t t e r , p. , from aiken in vhich he t e l l s the story of his uncle alfred's ashes upon which the episode in ushant is based. cf. l e t t e r , p. , from lowry. * blue voyage. s the character based upon lowry in ushant; lowry has inserted an extra "m" into the name throughout this l e t t e r . cf. day's malcolm lowry: a biography in which he t e l l s of the five-year-old lowry being taken to the "syphilis museum in paradise street" by his brother stuart ( ), and michael mercer's goodnight disgrace ( - ). in ultramar ine lowry writes of a similar v i s i t to a syphilis museum: " . . . what a f e a r f u l account he w i l l have to give of himself at the judgement day . . . " ( ). aiken mentions a "paradise street" in ushant ( ), but gives no account of the v i s i t to the museum. cf. george alfred henty's with clive in india, or the beginnings of an empire (london: blackie, ); these tales of b r i t i s h adventurers in india were read in the b r i t i s h school system for generations. s "tsetse": the character in ushant based upon t.s. e l i o t . "ushantih": c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. . hear us lord from heaven thy dwelling place. probably dark as the grave wherein my friend is laid; c f . day ( ). after the death of his mother, evelyn (boden) lowry, on december , lowry had begun to receive sporadic payments from the family estate. "basta": spanish, "enough." "blackstone": lowry is r e f e r r i n g to the myth of william blackstone, the man who l i v e d amongst the indians in the american wilderness, which was of special significance to aiken and which forms the subject of his long poem the kid. the myth of william blackstone is also frequently mentioned in under the volcano. cf. also aiken's i n s c r i p t i o n in ushant in n. above. "demarest": the protagonist of blue voyage. b tom neeves: see l e t t e r , p. , from aiken, and lowry's l e t t e r to neeves enclosed with l e t t e r , p. . x e possibly the american writer jennings rice ( - ) and his wife maria gandia who were friends of aiken and edward burra and who eventually s e t t l e d in florence. textual notes . and he, though\ and he{,} though . "an unaccustomed wetness in the trousers,"\ {"}an unaccustomed wetness in the trousers,{"} . complained, as once before,\ complained{,} as once before{,} . - to 'write',\ to {'}write{'}, . "decorate the page',\ { ' }decorate' the page{'}, . - advises (sounds l i k e [. . .] muddle) one to do.\ advises {(sounds l i k e bad advice too, but you get what i mean--if anything; as a matter {{of fact}} i simply wanted [. . .] muddle)} one to do. [this insertion is handwritten in the left-hand margin] . - unconscious,[--]jeez conrad i don't mean that though i mean the r e s t [ - - ] \ unconscious,{[--]jeez conrad i don't mean that though i mean the rest[--]} [this insertion is handwritten in the right-hand margin] . hammbo,\ ham{m}bo, . - man know thyself !\ man know t h y s e l f u } . used to say) from\ used to say) <to think that those> from [this deletion is made on the typewr i t e r ] . - sacred or secret—don' t take this [ .. . .] overleaf [--]drama\ sacred or secret{--don't take this too seriously, old man, my hypocrisy is exposed over leaf[--]{drama [this insertion is handwritten at the bottom of the page] . hammbo\ ham{m}bo the real hammbo\ the r e a l ham{m}bo rough tough time\ rough <thou> tough time (this deletion is made on the typewriter] mr. and mrs. hammbo,\ mr. and mrs. ham{m}bo, lowry, not forget not forgetting mr. and mrs. demarest,\ lowry, <and> {not forget not forgetting} mr. and mrs. <[illeg.]> {demarest}, as ever\ [handwritten before signature] mr. aiken was shocking[--]he wrote [. . .] shocking[--]to us\ mr. aiken was shocking{[--]he wrote speaking of course, i t only looked l i k e shocking[--]}to us [handwritten in right-hand margin] : from lowry to aiken ts h; unpublished d o l l a r t o n , b.c., canada, j u l y , . *(see below) my beloved o l d conrad: a l l tpo hard the l e t t e r i t would seem i should w r i t e , e s p e c i a l l y as to the q u e s t i o n - the q u e s t i o n a l s o r a i s e d by you p. - i n and of ushant (and t h e r e i n , by you, t r i u m p h a n t l y solved!) as to where, i n god's name, to begin, or "step on;" -- e s p e c i a l l y now, a f t e r f a r too long a s i l e n c e , a s i l e n c e f o r which i have f e l t i n c r e a s i n g l y of l a t e to blame, and t h i s f o r having l e f t you with the ungenerous and n i g g l i n g impression - and what was worse, about the only impression - that i was "hurt", more even than a n y t h i n g e l s e , more even than honoured, by ushant i t s e l f : a l l t h i s i s so f a r from being the case as to be almost funny, or would be, save t h a t , by l e a v i n g you t h a t impression - i f indeed i d i d - and v e n t u r i n g nothing more a r t i c u l a t e l a t e r , i f e e l i may have i n a d v e r t e n t l y wounded you by my apparent i n g r a t i t u d e , or angered and d i s a p p o i n t e d you by my bloody *i had l e f t t h i s l e t t e r to gather a l i t t l e dust before sending i t , f e e l i n g i t s t i l l unworthy: purposing then to send i t i n time f o r your b i r t h d a y (of which, o l d man, very many happy r e t u r n s ) : then, coming a c r o s s some of your o l d l e t t e r s , a l l of them so k i n d , so understanding, & so generous to another (even i n the midst of your own t r o u b l e s ) i f e l t deeply ashamed & that i could not leave you longer without a l i n e . imperceptiveness, not to say s t u p i d i t y : not to say meanness; you could r i g h t l y have thought me g u i l t y of an i n j u s t i c e too, for the book is a great one, and i should have said so - would have said so in extensive d e t a i l but for certain " a u x i l i a r y circumstances" that were responsible for my not being able to give i t my f u l l objective attention t i l l recently. there turns out to be another reason for this too which i hope i ' l l convey as i go along, since i t is a splendidly ushantesque one.--meantime, and for the rest, i feel that i'm largely not g u i l t y of anything save that sort of narcissism - and i submit that i f narcissism i t is at least of the most unselfish kind, in intention, i f not in e f f e c t - that keeps one from writing at a l l rather than say anything not masterly about a masterpiece. - - w e , i've conquered this i n h i b i t i n g f a c t o r , - - t h i s l e t t e r must s t i l l be largely i n a r t i c u l a t e , and s t i l l say l i t t l e that i want to say, but yet is going to go, as better than none. i note that i t seems i haven't taken into account that your silence might likewise have been occasioned by "certain a u x i l i a r y circumstances": i hope in that case not as painful as mine which range a l l the way from false angina and dog bite on margie's side to myself getting caught in a trap (the trap: a half uprooted root[--]symbolical perhaps?) set by boys playing cowboys and indians of a l l things!:--and smashing my right leg and ankle and likewise d i s l o c a t i n g the l a t t e r - this over a year ago, largely spent in a cast, and i've only been able to walk properly again the last month. (what! dead silence in the s t a l l s , you are supposed to laugh; and indeed the whole thing was incredibly funny in one way, looking back on i t , s i n c e margie was b i t t e n by the dog on the way to phone the ambulance f o r me, so t h a t we both a r r i v e d i n h o s p i t a l together, where a good time was had by a l l . ) the worst has been the s l o w l y t i g h t e n i n g net - or noose - of e v i c t i o n around us as b r i t i s h columbia's i n d u s t r i a l boom (perhaps one should say d e r r i c k , f u r t h e r to complicate the image) has lowered upon the l o w e r i e s . with the o i l - r e f i n e r i e s d a i l y g a i n i n g ground down the banks of the i n l e t - at the base of the b i g g e s t one a huge i l l u m i n a t e d c e r i s e hell appears n i g h t l y - they having, i n the i n t e r e s t s of t r u t h , no doubt, omitted a p h a e r e t i c a l l y the p r e f a t o r y s* - on the mountainside where the aspens a l l , a l l - or n e a r l y a l l - are f a l l e n , and the simultaneous p o l u t i o n to a great extent, i t o f t e n seems, of e v e r y t h i n g , a i r , sky, water, people. our o a s i s s t i l l stands, we s t i l l even add to i t , our w e l l g i v e s f o r t h pure mountain water s t i l l , the sea between o i l - s l i c k s i s s t i l l marvellous to swim i n , out of the window, of from a p i e r , near which l i e s our boat,--the mountains are t h e r e , so i s the dogwood b u r s t i n g i n t o bloom ten years a f t e r i t was burned with our f i r s t house, and another shack we a c q u i r e d i n a d d i t i o n to the one we r e b u i l t with our own hands,[--]though i n them days ones own hands r e a l l y were one's own hands--of the b e t t e r l i f e as represented by the "shoulder parade" e t c , as a kind of prepioneer- we remain s l i g h t l y s c e p t i c a l , or perhaps f e e l a b i t wryly j e a l o u s . [ - - ] i n h a b i t e d by a mink and f a m i l y who use o l d d r a f t s of the volcano as a t o i l e t , and the view a t night with the two towering burning o i l wastes - which from time to time emit i n c o n c e r t a s i n g l e great subterranean growling b e l c h , so that one has become almost fond of them - spouting feet into the sky - " r e a l l y beautiful creatures, male," i can almost hear you saying - with the other r e f i n e r y noises of a thousand jew's harps is something to see and hear and smell, by crikey, i f i t is not: but a truce to this drooling about the mountain scenery: the point was - but i imagine you done got i t already. to abandon the place, the house in i t s p e r i l seemed, seems, traitorous but to stay simply i n v i t i n g madness: how both to abandon i t without treason and remain without going cuckoo but at the same time go - and by the way where? - whole yet leaving the door open to come back, and supposing there not to be a door, how to keep one in the heart - how to do a l l this with a sense of adventure while staying, so to say, where you are, or one was, advancing with d i g n i f i e d gait toward some extramundane yet (with a motion as natural as a" transhumance) eminently p r a c t i c a l haven elsewhere that though several thousand miles away s t i l l in a mysterious way was the same place, though as yet unknown - j'y suis, me v o i c i , je reste l a , me v o i l a ! - how to do a l l t h i s sort of thing with no money yet having at the same time more than enough - a l l this has been of the essence of the problem: in b r i e f , brother, had i not suddenly found myself taking good old ushant from i t s hiding place again - between shakespeare and brownstone eclogues but s t i l l a kind of hiding place,--i don't know what i would have done. a l l t h i s , which has been b r u t a l l y aggravated for the l a s t years by the fact that i've been trying to write about this very thing - i mean s p e c i f i c a l l y here, the l i f e , the wonderful wonderful l i f e , the approaching e v i c t i o n , the horrible horrible e v i c t i o n - not f i d d l i n g w h i l e rome b u r n s , more l i k e making a t a p e r e c o r d i n g of one's own e x e c u t i o n - was somewhat t o o d r a m a t i c a l l y borne i n upon me the o t h e r n i g h t vhen i found m y s e l f w h i l e svimming b e i n g s v e p t t v o m i l e s dovnstream and out of c o u r s e by a f i f t e e n f o o t r i p t i d e ( t o combat such has been, of l a t e , a c h i e f amusement) t o be d e p o s i t e d upon a f a r s h o r e , l i k e b y r o n , v i t h t h e p a l s y (but v i t h o u t h a v i n g swum the h e l l e s p o n t e ) i n the p i t c h dark on t h e edge of the w i l d e r n e s s v h e r e , upon e s p y i n g a f r i e n d l y , as i t h o u g h t , f i s h e r m a n ( a l s o , as i t t u r n e d o u t , a b e n e v o l e n t c h a r a c t e r of mine, though he d i d n ' t knov t h a t ) and h a v i n g a s k e d s h i v e r i n g l y f o r the l o a n of a l a n t e r n t o f i n d my vay home and a t o v e l , not t o s a y some varmth from somevhere t o s t a y t h i s l i t t l e p o t t e r ' s t r e m b l i n g hand,* i n s t e a d o f o f f e r i n g any s u c h t h i n g , some dark h a m b o g t r o t t e r y * s u s p e c t i n g , he smote me v i c k e d l y upon the s n o o t . . . there's h a t t y bumpo x o f o r you - b r i n g s you up v i t h a bump. he a l s o hacked me v i c i o u s l y on t h e s h i n s . h i s name vas c l a r e n c e , and i t h i n k i'm b u r i e d under a l i l a c t r e e , t h e vay i've f e l t s i n c e . x x he vas an ex-sea cook t o o : i f o r g o t t o s a y my f i r s t name vas c l a r e n c e . . . x a but a t r u c e t o t h i s . what i'm t r y i n g t o s a y i s t h a t (though i admit t h a t t h e p r e v i o u s p a r a g r a p h doesn't seem any t o o l o g i c a l l y t o l e a d up t o i t ) i t has been a c a s e , both v i t h i n and v i t h o u t , v i t h t h e vork and v i t h one's l i f e , of b e i n g a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y l o s t i n the d a r k , i n v o l v e d v i t h a s u f f e r i n g i f e l t t o be u n i q u e , and v i t h v h i c h i d i d n ' t knov v h a t t o do: l o s t , and t h e n s u d d e n l y , as i f round a p o i n t i n c h a o s , and a t p r e c i s e l y t h e c r i t i c a l moment, s u d d e n l y t o observe the b e n e f i c l e n t l i g h t of ushant i t s e l f , no l e s s , your ushant, s w i n g i n g i t s t r a n s f l u e n t crossbeams ahead, t o g u i d e me. (and t h e r e i n - i n the book t h i s t i m e , i mean, and don't t r y t o unmix t h e s e metaphors - not t o be socked on the s n o o t , not t o r e c e i v e a s t o n e , but an egg, i n f a c t perhaps the cosmic egg i t s e l f , but w i t h o u t the bad s m e l l i a t t r i b u t e t o t h i s c e l e s t i a l f r u i t i n the v o l c a n o . ) . . what i t comes down t o anyway, i t has e n a b l e d me t o make a s e r i e s of v i s e and s w i f t d e c i s i o n s t h a t v o u l d have been o t h e r w i s e , i t h i n k , n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r me. among t h e most i m p o r t a n t of these i s t h a t e n a b l e s me t o say now t h a t we a r e r e t r e a t i n g , but - l i k e t h e r e g i m e n t who b u r i e d the b o d i e s a f t e r c u s t e r ' s l a s t s t a n d , - i n good o r d e r : r e t r e a t i n g but - t h e f i n a n c i a l problem a l s o h a v i n g been s o l v e d q u i t e t r i u m p h a n t l y - l i k e w i s e a d v a n c i n g : - ( j u s t t o keep t h e ushantesque r e c o r d s s t r a i g h t , i s h o u l d have mentioned t h a t t h e o t h e r p e r s o n i have t c o n s i d e r i n our l i t t l e saga of w i t h d r a w a l and r e t u r n , ' * namely m a r g e r i e , i s descended on one s i d e of t h e f a m i l y from t h e c r a f t s and on the o t h e r from the w i n t h r o p s - her g r e a t - g r e a t - i don't know how many g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r s — o n her mother's s i d e b e i n g t h e founder of roxbury, mass, no l e s s , and a n o t h e r one the p r i s c l l l a w i n t h r o p of m i l e s s t a n d i s h fame ( m a r g e r i e ' s s i s t e r i s named p r i s c i l l a ) e t c . e t c . she i s , t h r o u g h b e t s y p a t t e r s o n o f b a l t i m o r e , a l s o r e l a t e d t o napoleon bonaparte ( b e t s y m a r r i e d h i s young b r o t h e r jerome) as i sometimes l i k e t o remind h e r - i ( t ] would be e x t r a o r d i n a r y , or perhaps not so e x t r a o r d i n a r y i f she t u r n e d out t o be a c o l l a t e r a l r e l a t i v e of your own, anyway i l i k to think she i s ) : - ve are advancing upon greece ( f i r s t to syracuse) there to l i v e for a fev years: meantime ve are leaving the house in good hands that v i l l give and take from i t the most good (and won't i hope, f i l l the stove f u l l of bones) and v i t h the understanding that i f ve vant to come back anytime i t ' s s t i l l ours, i f i t ' s s t i l l there: and vho knovs, i t may be, and the o i l r e f i n e r i e s gone. . . but for ushant i f e e l a l l t h i s vould have been a rout though. it is the i d e n t i t y less with hammbo (though there's plenty salutary there, including that vhich "hurts") but v i t h your good s e l f - in your multiple and passionate r e l a t i o n to houses - - that has saved my bacon: you have suffered through t h i s , for me, i t i s i f i can t e l l myself, and t h i s not only takes avay half of the othervise unbearable pain, but acts as a vholesome release. what psychological abyss i might have been heading for othervise v i t h so much l i b i d o invested in t h i s spot of earth i shudder to think. i vould have fetched up l i k e one of the characters in desire under the elms or something. my current vork vould have been a rout too, maybe abandoned. but more of t h i s l a t e r . i knov better vhat to do nov. meantimes, thanks l a r g e l y to yourself, the present is e x c i t i n g , the future f u l l of adventure, and the bleeding i s almost e x h i l a r a t i n g . we are s a i l i n g , d.v. sometime in september by an i t a l i a n freighter bound for naples or genoa.x" because i s h a l l have only a t r a n s i t visa and ve can't be leaving here t i l l the end of august at e a r l i e s t , and ve're stopping off to see margie's mama in los angeles, i s h a l l have only a fev days in nev york, i f that, and can hope o n l y t h a t some m i r a c l e may o c c u r v h e r e b y i t c o i n c i d e s v i t h one o f your v i s i t s t h e r e i f you're not i n nev zealand by t h i s t i m e : x * f o r of c o u r s e i c a n ' t s a y hov much i'd l o v e t o see you: but i f ve c a n ' t see one another i ' l l send you a t e l e g r a m a n y v a y - a t the moment p l a n s a r e s t i l l a b i t u n c e r t a i n ; i have t o hear f u r t h e r from the s h i p p i n g company. for the r e s t , a f t e r the f o r e g o i n g c h a o s , i t seems a b i t redundant - and the paragraph a f t e r t h a t i s p r o b a b l y g o i n g t o be, i s e e , redundant t o o - t o go on t o s a y t h a t i have e x p e r i e n c e d here i n b.c. f o r the f i r s t t i m e , t h e r e v e l a t i o n - v. t o p of x - not t o m e n t i o n , i f so t o speak i n r e v e r s e , and f o r a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n , the r e v e l a t i o n on bottom o f " - no no no, t h e y ' r e a l l t o o near the k n u c k l e , t h e s e pages:- i c a n ' t do any o f i t j u s t i c e : v h i c h i s t o r e p e a t t h a t i have found the v h o l e m a g n i f i c e n t book o f enormous h e l p : j u s t a t t h e time i needed ushant, here vas ushant t o h e l p me: v h a t has been worst f o r me has been t o approach t o " t h i s o t h e r domain of l o v e " bottom of , but v i t h o u t any r i t u a l poem t o be the c e l e b r a t i o n of i t . but maybe even t h a t v i l l come. ( i ' v e done an enormous l o t of v o r k - some o f i t good - i n t h i s p l a c e , i mean d o l l a r t o n - much of i t , you v i l l one day see, q u i t e t e r r i f y i n g i n the l i g h t of ushant i t s e l f , much of i t h a v i n g been v r i t t e n v h i l e you must have been v r i t i n g the o t h e r , but a l o t o f t h i s v o r k has become v e r y u n b a l a n c e d - a g a i n ushant s u p p l i e s t h e r e d r e s s . ) and the passage on : b e g i n n i n g "that l i t t l e l o v e : t h e t r u t h v a s , t h a t the poem had been d's unexpected c o n f e s s i o n e t c "- j e e z e , hov i u n d e r s t a n d t h a t nov. f i n a l l y i ought t o s a y t h a t ushant i s o b v i o u s l y one o f the b e s t books ever v r i t t e n - i f not n e c e s s a r i l y , i n so many words, your "best' book: but i t i s an advance not o n l y on your a c c o u n t , but i t does move l i t e r a t u r e f o r w a r d s u r e l y , w i t h an a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l e j o l t , e v e r y b i t as much as finnegan's wake, though f o r a l m o s t p r e c i s e l y o p p o s i t e r e a s o n s : one; i t s m a r v e l l o u s g e n e r o s i t y , as of a uranium mine, v i t h your s t a k e p l a n t e d t h e r e but as i f i t v e r e l e f t open f o r o t h e r p e o p l e t o vork i t ( — a s a l i b r a r i a n here s a i d t o me 'you have t o have a h i g h c l a s s i n t e l l e c t — l i k e t o w r i t e a book l i k e t h a t , mr l o v r y ' . ) i t i s a l s o a p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l t r i u m p h of t h e f i r s t v a t e r . and t h e t h e s i s : c o l l o s a l . — b u t you have had enough of my i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e s t u f f . "and the vaves of v i l d f l o v e r s , a s k i n g nov t o be remembered. . ." i won't s a y a n y t h i n g about t h a t e i t h e r , v h i c h i f e e l m y s e l f t o have misquoted - i c a n ' t f i n d the page (bad l i g h t ) i f i've buggered i t up i'm s o r r y : i t ' s near the end of a m a r v e l l o u s passage, about . w e l l god b l e s s you, my dear f e l l o v : i've read p r a c t i c a l l y n o t h i n g e l s e f o r n e a r l y the v h o l e p a s t month and a l v a y s v i t h i n c r e a s i n g d e v o t i o n . may g r a c e descend on you and mary v h a t e v e r your d i r e c t i o n . b e s t l o v e from us b o t h . and t o o l d g e r a l d t o o , s h o u l d you be i n t o u c h ( a l s o the b r i d g e , t r i p a r t i t e , once c r o s s e d t r i p a r t l g h t . and a house i n south yarmouth. yes, i remember i t a l l . ) and t a l k i n g of t e l e g r a m s , as perhaps might not a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r have v i r e d : u s h a n t i h . . . u s h a n t i h . . . u s h a n t i h . . god b l e s s you. the o l d male. p.s. d d i d n ' t say "he t h i n k s i'm a b i r d i n a t r e e , " but "he t h i n k s i'm a t r e e v i t h a b i r d i n i t . " hambo vas empathasing more t h a n you remembered. p.p.s. for v h a t i t i s w o r t h , po' h. i n f a c t v a s n ' t p u r s u e d by a c h i n e s e c o o l i e i n k o v l o o n * b u t , as i remember, by an arab havker vho remained on board the s h i p a f t e r he s h o u l d have got o f f a t p o r t s a i d , f o r h i s n e f a r i o u s purpose ( t o g e t h e r a l s o , i f i remember a r i g h t , v i t h a s o v s o v voman vhose b l i n d eye s o c k e t c o u l d be p r o c u r e d f o r a mere song) b r i b i n g the pure young s a i l o r v i t h a v h o l e t r a y of " r e a l g o l d r i n g s s t o l e n o f f the m a i l b o a t , " and even v e n t so f a r as oar es salaam v i t h the s h i p dovn t h e suez c a n a l b e f o r e he vas r i d o f . p.p.p.s. but j u s t t o shov you i haven't e n t i r e l y l o s t my a r t i c u l a c y , perhaps i c o u l d v e n t u r e t o cap - u n l e s s t h i s be d i s c o u r t e o u s or a thought t o o p l e o n a s t i c - the b e l o v e d u n c l e ' s v i t t i c i s m , a l r e a d y c a p p i n g d's ( t o p : and vhat a damn f i n e scene t h i s i s , e s p e c i a l l y i n the cemetery) "and" s a i d t h e u n c l e i n s t a n t l y - " d i d she t a k e i t i n ? " by "or, h a v i n g t a k i n g i t i n , d i d she g e t the p o i n t p r o p e r l y ? " pppps (or vas t h i s perhaps j u s t a n o t h e r case of " v i t h d r a v a l and r e t u r n " ? ) e x p l a n a t o r y motes see ushant; " . . . the p r i m a r y q u e s t i o n as t o where, i n god's name, i n a l l t h a t w e l t e r of m a t e r i a l . . . one was t o make one's f i r s t e n t r y ; or a t e x a c t l y what p o i n t o f the n e b u l a r s p i r a l . . . dare t o s t e p on" ( - ). august . the " s q u a t t e r s " i n d o l l a r t o n had been p e r i o d i c a l l y t h r e a t e n e d v i t h n o t i c e s o f e v i c t i o n over the y e a r s , and i n t h e d i s t r i c t of n o r t h vancouver vas p r e p a r i n g t o d e v e l o p c a t e s park i n t h a t a r e a ; i n the l a s t shacks i n t h e a r e a v e r e d e m o l i s h e d ( s a l l o u m ). c f . l o v r y ' s "the f o r e s t p a t h t o the s p r i n g , " hear us l o r d from heaven thv d v e l l l n a p l a c e ( p h i l a d e l p h i a ; l l p p l n c o t t , ) . s not i d e n t i f i e d . * f r e n c h , " i am h e r e , here i am, i am s t a y i n g h e r e , here i've come"; c f . " j ' y s u i s , j ' y r e s t e , " v o r d s o f marechal mac-mahon ( - ). l o v r y i s p r o b a b l y r e f e r r i n g t o h i s n o v e l , october f e r r y t o sabxi&la.. • c f . ushant: " ' t h e hand of t h e p o t t e r s h a k e s ' " ( ) ; " p o t t e r " vas the maiden name of a i k e n ' s mother and a l s o a i k e n ' s m i d d l e name. • hambo i s the c h a r a c t e r i n ushant based upon l o v r y . n a t t y bumppo ( l o v r y has m i s s p e l l e d i t ) i s a c h a r a c t e r vho f i g u r e s under v a r i o u s pseudonymns i n the " l e a t h e r s t o c k i n g " s e r i e s of n o v e l s by the american v r i t e r james fenimore cooper ( - ). x x in ushant t h e n a r r a t o r , d., t e l l s o f p l a n t i n g l i l a c bushes v i t h someone named c l a r e n c e ( - ); t h e r e i s a s i m i l a r scene i n a i k e n ' s conversation- x a l o v r y vas c h r i s t e n e d " c l a r e n c e malcolm l o v r y . " the name "boden," v h i c h he o f t e n quoted as h i s m i d d l e name, vas a c t u a l l y h i s mother's maiden name. see under t h e v o l c a n o ( ) . images of " v i t h d r a v a l and r e t u r n " abound i n ushant. x s i have not been a b l e t o v e r i f y any o f t h e s e d e t a i l s . x " a i k e n vas v e r y a t t a c h e d , not o n l y t o j e a k e ' s house, but a l s o t o the house i n savannah i n v h i c h he'd been b o r n , and i n he and mary moved t o savannah and i n t o t h e house next door t o t h i s house. if deo v o l e n t e " : l a t i n , "god v i l l i n g . " x * the l o v r y s l e f t d o l l a r t o n f o r the l a s t time on august , t r a v e l l i n g t o nev york v i a los a n g e l e s , and t h e n , i n september, aboard the s.s. giacomo t o i t a l y . c f . l e t t e r , p. , from a i k e n . a o see l e t t e r , p. . see ushant: " . . . vhat n e v e r t h e l e s s became u n a v o i d a b l y c o n s p i c u o u s i n i t vas the b a s i c importance i n i t of l o v e . l o v e l good heavens, hov b l i n d he had been" ( ) . see ushant: "but the r e a l t r u t h vas t h a t t o t o u c h t h a t e a r t h [ i . e . , the e a r t h of a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y ] vas t r e a s o n " ( ) . u s h a n t i " . . . one vas b e g i n n i n g t o a p p r o a c h t h a t o t h e r domain of l o v e v h i c h had had i t s vay v i t h him. . . and t h e v r i t i n g o f the r i t u a l poem v h i c h vas h i s f o r e s e e a b l e c e l e b r a t i o n of i t " ( ) ; e s s e n t i a l l y , a i k e n i s here v r i t i n g about s p i r i t u a l l o v e t r a n s c e n d i n g s e x . t h i s passage jjl on page . g e r a l d noxon; see l e t t e r , n. , p. . e c f . l e t t e r , n. , p. , and l e t t e r , n. , p. . see u a h a n t ( ) and under, t h e v o l c a n o ( ) ; i n u s h a n t a i k e n (d.) i n s i n u a t e s t h a t l o v r y (hambo) s t o l e t h i s anecdote from him f o r use i n under t h e v o l c a n o - see u s h a n t ( ) . t e x t u a l notes date j u l y , . *(see b e l o v ) \ j u l y , . [*(see below)) . s o l v e d ! ) \ s o l v e d { ! } ) . - * i had l e f t t h i s ( . . . ) v i t h o u t a l i n e . \ [ h a n d v r i t t e n a t bottom of f i r s t page and keyed t o d a t e above) . meanness;\ meanness{;} . " a u x i l i a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s " \ { " } a u x i l < l > i a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s " . ushantesque one.--meantime,\ ushant<i>(e}sque one. {--)meantlme, . - - t h a t keeps one\ - t h a t keep{s} one . m a s t e r p i e c e . — w e l l , \ m a s t e r p i e c e . { — } w e l l , . f a c t o r , - - t h i s l e t t e r \ f a c t o r , { — } t h i s l e t t e r . a u x i l i a r y \ a u x i l < l > i a r y . r o o t - - s y m b o l i c a l p e r h a p s ? ) \ r o o t { — s y m b o l i c a l p e r h a p s ? } ) [ i n s e r t i o n v r i t t e n i n l e f t - h a n d margin] . o f a l l t h i n g s ! : — a n d \ o f a l l t h i n g s { i } : { - - } a n d . d e r r i c k , \ d e r r i c k { , } . o m i t t e d a p h a e r e t i c a l l y t h e p r e f a t o r y s - on t h e \ o m i t t e d { a p h a e r e t i c a l l y } t h e p r e f a t o r y s - <om> {on} the . our b o a t , — t h e mountains\ our b o a t , { — } t h e mountains . - h a n d s , { — ) t h o u g h i n (. . .] v r y l y j e a l o u s . ! — i n h a b i t e d \ h a n d s , { ( — ] t h o u g h i n them days ones {{ovn}} hands r e a l l y v e r e one's ovn h a n d s — o f the b e t t e r l i f e as r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e "shoulder p a r a d e " {etc,} as a k i n d of p r e p i o n e e r <i> ve remain s l i g h t l y s c e p t i c a l , or perhaps f e e l a b i t { v r y l y } j e a l o u s . ! — ] } i n h a b i t e d . ( t h i s i n s e r t i o n v r i t t e n i n l e f t - h a n d margin) . by c r i k e y , \ by < c > { c } r k o k e y , . to abandon\ <">{t}o abandon . or one v a s , \ or <von> one v a s , ( t h i s d e l e t i o n i s made on the t y p e v r i t e r ] . - j e r e s t e l a , me v o i l a l -\ j e r e s t e ifat, me v o i l ^ u ) - . t h i s s o r t of t h i n g v i t h \ t h i s { s o r t of t h i n g ) v i t h . h i d i n g p l a c e , — i \ h i d i n g p l a c e , { — } i . d i d n ' t knov £bajfc.)\ d i d n ' t knov ,that») . t h i s . l i t t l e \ <fcms_, l i t t l e . s n o o t . . a s n o o t . { . .} . - your ushant,\ «yourt ushant, . - t o guide i f i . . (and\ t o g u i d e «me». {(/and . an egg,\ an <e>{e}gg, . v o l c a n o . ) . a v o l c a n o . o ) . . . f o r ae.\ (passage o r i g i n a l l y meant t o be i n s e r t e d a t t h i s p o i n t i s d e l e t e d and i l l e g i b l e i n t h e l e f t - hand margin] . r e t r e a t i n g \ r e t ( - w . ] r e a t i n g . saga o f \ s a g < ( i l l e g . ) > { a } of . c r a f t s , \ [passage o r i g i n a l l y meant t o be i n s e r t e d a t t h i s p o i n t i s d e l e t e d and i l l e g i b l e i n the l e f t - hand margin] . founder of roxbury,\ founder of <du>(ro]xbury <{great [ i l l e g . ] i t i s roxbury. ( i had s a i d duxbury.)}>, [ t h i s i n s e r t i o n i s c r o s s e d out i n the l e f t - h a n d margin) . - - i ( t ] v o u l d be\ - i f [ t y p o . ] v o u l d be . hamrabo\ ham(m]bo . - a c t s as a w h o l e s o m e \ a c t s {as} a vholesome . e x h i l a r a t i n g . \ e x h i k i i l l e g . ] > { a } r a t i n g . i ' l l send\ <i > ( i ' l l ] send . for the r e s t , \ { }for t h e r e s t , . a f t e r t h a t \ a f t e r that<t> . has been t o \ h<ar>{as} been t o . you v i l l one day s e e , \ you v i l l {one day) s e e , . b e s t books ever v r i t t e n \ b e s t books ( e v e r w r i t t e n } . - n e c e s s a r i l y , i n so many words, your " b e s t " \ n e c e s s a r i l y { , } i n so many v o r d s { , } .your> " b e s t " . - r e a s o n s : one; i t s (. . .] mr l o v r y . ' ) i t i s \ r e a s o n s : (one; i t s m a r v e l l o u s g e n e r o s i t y , as of a uranium mine, v i t h your s t a k e p l a n t e d { { t h e r e } } , {{but}} as i f { { i t } } v e r e l e f t open f o r <an> o t h e r people { { t o vork i t } } — (as a l i b r a r i a n here s a i d t o me 'you have t o have a h i g h c l a s s i n t e l l e c t — l i k e t o v r i t e a book l i k e t h a t , < ( i l l e g . ) > mr l o v r y ' . ) } i t i s ( t h e i n s e r t i o n i s v r i t t e n i n the l e f t - h a n d margin) . c o l l o s s a l . - - b u t \ c o l l o s s a l . { - - } b u t . s h o u l d you\ s<g>(h}ould you . ( a l s o the b r i d g e , \ ( a l s o t<i>(he} b r i d g e , . god b l e s s you.\ ( h a n d v r i t t e n b e f o r e s i g n a t u r e ) . t o o p l e o n a s t i c -\ t o ( o ) p l e o n a s t i c - . v i t t i c i s m , \ v i t t i c i s m { , } . ( t o p : and\ ( t o p <!>{:} and . i n ? " by "or,\ i n ? " (by) "or, . - pppps (or i . . .] r e t u r n ? ) \ {££££ . (or vas t h i s {{perhaps}} j u s t a n o t h e r case o f " v i t h d r a v a l and r e t u r n " ? ) } ( h a n d v r i t t e n a t end o f l e t t e r ) : from lowry to aiken ts h; unpublished t western union] [new york ny] [saturday; : am] [ sept ] conrad aiken — doors — brewster mass- malcolm needs talcum be walcom care of david markson west street before tuesday if possible when all krakens get together love hambo-- e x p l a n a t o r y notes david markson ( - ), american n o v e l i s t who i n wrote a master's t h e s i s on under the volcano a t columbia u n i v e r s i t y which was l a t e r r e v i s e d and p u b l i s h e d as malcolm lowry's volcano: myth symbol meaning (new york: times books, ). he and lowry corresponded f o r a year u n t i l they f i n a l l y met i n the summer of when markson v i s i t e d the lowrys' i n d o l l a r t o n , and remained good f r i e n d s u n t i l lowry's death i n . the lowrys stayed with. markson i n h i s new york apartment i n before l e a v i n g aboard the s.s. giacomo f o r i t a l y . a reminiscence of lowry by markson appears i n markson's malcolm lowry's volcano ( - ) and i n malcolm lowry: psalms and songs ( - ). cf. l e t t e r , n. , p. . aiken d i d manage to get to new york while lowry was s t i l l there; t h i s was to be t h e i r l a s t meeting. character i n ushant based upon lowry. t e x t u a l notes [telegram] : from aiken to lowry ts h; unpublished malcolm lowry,care david markson= west st= [dennis mass] [sep ] hallileuh can you come up difficult for us to come down but will if necessary please telephone dennis after tonite love= conrad= textual notes [ telegram] : from lowry to aiken ms ubc; ts h; unpublished [new york ny] ( : am] [september ] conrad aiken fone doors brewster mass was on deck at am to see you off wednesday but was offset by hurricane if not off cape haterous am going to encounter monday afternoon your post card received god bless you and loads of love to you and mary malcolm and marjorie e x p l a n a t o r y notes see appendix i, p. , f o r manuscript d r a f t of t h i s l e t t e r . "hurricane edna"; c f . peter c h u r c h i l l ' s memoir i n day's malcolm lovry: a biography ( ) vhere he mentions t h i s h u r r i c a n e and lowry's odd r e a c t i o n to i t . cf. aiken's poem " h a t t e r a s , " a t l a n t i c monthly . (march ): ; r e p r i n t e d i n r e v i s e d form as "hatteras c a l l i n g " i n brovnstone eclogues. t h i s p o s t c a r d from aiken i s m i s s i n g . t e x t u a l notes [telegram; see appendix i, p. , f o r photographic r e p r o d u c t i o n of the s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t manuscript d r a f t of t h i s l e t t e r ] appendix i : l e t t e r : from lowry t o aiken l e t t e r : from lowry t o aiken ( r e d u c t i o n ) l e t t e r : from lowry t o aiken ( c h r i s t m a s c a r d ) l e t t e r : from lowry t o aiken ( a i k e n ' s v a r i a n t t r a n s c r i p t i o n ) l e t t e r : from lowry t o aiken ( c h r i s t m a s c a r d ) l e t t e r : from aiken t o lowry (mary a i k e n ' s d r a w i n g ) l e t t e r : from mary aiken t o lowry ( c h r i s t m a s c a r d ) l e t t e r : from lowry t o aiken (lowry's h a n d w r i t t e n d r a f t w i t h d o o d l e by d a v i d markson i n t h e t o p l e f t - h a n d c o r n e r ) ; fygm lowry t o ftlken ... t u < , v a u g h n - a i k e n \\l \ ^ o * < ^ a i / ' p u b l i s h e r s ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ^ « * » * ^ apartado w ^ f c -f*v cf^^a . /! mexico city* mexico ' c - *w fc^ will ̂ y/waslu oa. ^ k ^ j /^, win stv »«-fpm **** *. b^lssjv^ul fc s\ »tj out, ft lk/vvjk /u/u;̂ /'*. j i m j<w ^ - w w r r c ^ h . ; > .ft* f j ^ e / v k ^ & f » * t k - w f r n-a- fw l-jvh t k t » - v • ^ l " . ljhft'-a '(!.;> fcfr sta. k-^t^*^u istii «**t~ b~u* fylu *rda a l u ^ y i i j ; ^ i u . : b u i c- » f * w k*#a* j£,aj , u ixc t v i v ^ v i k a . f c v / v ^ flu a ^ r s g t v w w witt. ̂ ?'wki» r a. ̂ ^ t * - *~ **• • a ^ t * ' ) j c a i l in k«»- ^cvia "<k. , v a u g h n - a i k e n - ^w;^( r \ v . * p u b l i s h e r s ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e lf>^«»jjr» uu / u k j ^ a apartado m e x i c o city. m e x i c o ® v l * t / v s tev^ok • • ^ • f c f v - x c /̂tt *tjrc**bj * wirk ̂ ; . k a . dv /rc£ wi a kfrm t£a ft*. port's toe . v a u g d n - a i k e n - am^sy^^jn^s £ w i / p u b l i s h e r s ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i a p a r t a o o mexico city. mexico • m i l . " j : from lowry tr. aiken (reduction) ft- l / f q ; f r o m lowry t o atkrw ( a i k * n » « » r m c t m n « n ) dear o l d conrad: thanks awfully f o r yours, and have been meaning to write a r e a l l y f a t and informative and.diverting l e t t e r - i n f a c t , made a l l the notes f o r same, but i want to g -et t h i s l e t t e r o f f now so i t w i l l be i n time to wish you bon voyage, therefore i must make a s a c r i f i c e of the other f o r the.time being. yes, the phoenix clapped i t s wings a l l r i g h t a l l r i g h t , i n f a c t gave such a bloody great resounding clap that the poor b i r d nearly broke i t s heck and had to be immolated a l l over again. as you know we went east a f t e r che f i r e . the grave preceded us however. the interminable golden bittersweet awful b e a u t i f u l eastern autumn (which i'd never experienced) restored margie, whose childhood was i n mich- igan, to. .soinetextent, but me i t almost slew. i t had a worse e f f e c t upon me than on henry adams, though the noxons niagara-on-the-lake i s something to see: r e a l l y i was i n shocking bad form, and worse company so a l l i n a l l , though- was very disappointed not to see you - a l b e i t i heard you - i t was perhaps j u s t as wall i didn't. how the noxons put up with me - i f they r e a l l y d i d - i don't know. actually the business of the f i r e seemed to drive us both s l i g h t l y cuckoo. its traumatic r e s u l t alone was shattering. we had to l i v e through the f i r e a l l over again every night, i would wake to f i n d margie screaming or she would wake to f i n d me y e l l i n g and gnashing my teeth. apart from these diversions (fortunately the noxons are sound sleepers but when we moved to a house of our own i t grew much worse) f i r e i t s e l f seemed to follow us around i n a fashion nothing short of d i a b o l i c a l , betty had painted a picture of a house i n o a k v i l l e , that margie and i had thought of renting,because i t vaguely resembled our o l d one, f o r the winter, and one day when everyone was out i sat i n the a t t i c studying the picture which i l i k e d very much, % concentration on the picture was somewhat marred by the f a c t that i n my imagination the house kept bursting i n t o flame and sure enough, about a week l a t e r , that's p r e c i s e l y what the house d i d j they couldn't get the f i r e engines through the woods, nothing of the kind had happened f o r f i f t y years i n that r u r a l route, and there was a t e r r i f i c to-do, through a l l of which margie and i , f o r once, calmly s l e p t . then when we went to niagara-on-the-jeake the house next door to ours, one night while we were over at the noxons, went up i n a blaze. we heard the shouts and b e l l s and saw the awful sun (e.d. again - i don't know why so much snily dickenson today) and of course thought i t was our house and ran over i n a panic, so much so that margie was not even convinced i t was not out house by the trae vre got there and took a l l our manuscripts out i n t o the s t r e e t . and to cap everything, when we returned here, i t turned out that the house where someone had been good enough to l e t us store our bedding and some few things we had l e f t after our f i r e , had i n our absence i t s e l f been burned down, t o t a l l y demolished, and our bedding and s t u f f with i t , the house mysteriously bursting i n t o flame f o r no reason at a l l apparently one calm m i l d evening when the owners weren't even there. margie and i had invented, i n a horror story, a murderer, a black magician one of whose special- t i e s was the s t a r t i n g of f i r e s by means of incomprehensible talismans. this f i a t i o n a l gent's name was p a l l , and the mss concerning him i had happened to rescue from out f i r e . s'welp me bob i f the owners of t h i s house didn't turn out to be c a l l e d ball too, though there had been no connection at a l l o r i g i n a l l y . and so f o r t h , altogethei about f i f t y odd senseless sad t e r r i f y i n g and curiously related things that make me sometimes think (taking i t a l l i n a l l ! ) that maybe i am the chap chosen of god or the d e v i l to elucidate the law of series, unfortunately i t would seem to involve one i n such rotten bad a r t . at a l l events, i have been reading kant's critique of pure reason to see i f that would help. , . e l l , we returned and began to rejimild our l i t t l e shack, ourselves, i mean, with our own hands and the help of two xishermen. margie ran a four inch spike through her foot the f i r s t day we got the lumber i n - c e l l u l i t i s set i n , bloodpoisoning, shortage of doctors, f i n a l l y h o s p i t a l , and probings and she nearly died, and a hor- r i b l e anxious time that was. meanwhile she received the f i r s t part of her proofs f o r her novel but we are s t i l l waiting f o r the promised copy, of the second part , scribner's,haying heljf her f i r s t novel now f o r four years without publishing i t and although they signed a contract f o r a second navel with a time l i m i t set f o r p u b l i - cation date t h i s f a l l i t i s already t h i s f a l l and s t i l l margie hasn't had so much as a smell of the proofs of her second novel, which.was supposed;to be at the printers last.christmas, so i t looks as though a breach of contract looms with what small comfort that i s f o r the t poor author. scribners have proved the world's most undepen- deble and unscrupulous people to deal with and you are certainly well r i d of t h e i r new o u t f i t . granted they dared not behave l i k e that with someone l i k e you, but what the h e l l . . . . i then proceeded to cut o f f the end of my thumb while doing some rlpsawing with an ordinary saw, which set us back with the b u i l d i n g , what with margie s t i l l hobbling with a cane> and f o r the l a s t two months i have been i n bed p r a c t i c a l l y unable to move with a toxaemia caused by osteomyelitis due, they say, to an abscessed tooth , that became abscessed and had to be removed owing to malpractice. there i s a shortage of dentists - they w i l l not take new patients, even i f you are hopping with agony as i was, and on v.j, day too, with the drugstores a l l shut. but on the other hand there i s apparently a surplus of dentists: they are threatening to open o f f i c e s on the s t r e e t , because of the housing shortage. but i myself have not been able to f i n d a trace of these dentists. meantime there has been an ^verage of two murders a week here, most of them by or of children: a pet slayer likewise i s at large who has disembowelled t h i r t e e n goats, several s a i l o r ' s monkeys, twelve pet rabbits, and i s doubtless also somewise responsible f o r the apparition of half a cocker spaniel i n a lane near west vancouver, just the same we have b u i l t our house and p a radise has been regained. i forgot to say that no sooner had paradise been regained than we received the notice that a new law had gone through and that a l l our l o v e l y forest was to be torn down and ourselves with i t w i t h i n a year and turned i n t o "autocamps of the better class." this placed our new house - which, by the way, has the d i s - t i n c t i o n of being the l a s t example of such pioneer a c t i v i t y on the vancouver water- front property - under a sentence of death that was f i n a l l y too much f o r our sense of humour and my temperature went up within a quarter of an hour to loh, a sad story, you say, almost as poignant as the triumph of the % g ? not a b i t of i t . reprieve has come. there w i l l be no autocamps of the better c l a s s , and no neighbours either, of the worst c l a s s . we may l i v e here f o r three years at l e a s t as we are doing without molestation, and may even have a chance to buy the land, that i s the part we want, at a reasonable p r i c e . thus does your old male, i f s t i l l a conservative-christian- anarchist, at heart, at l a s t j o i n the ranks of the petty bourgeoisie. i f e e l somewhat l i k e a prometheus who became interested i n r e a l estate and decided to buy up his caucasian ravine. at the moment we are l i v i n g i n the house, without any inside w a l l s , i t ' s pouring with r a i n , and i t doesn't leak. what triumph, herewith our handiwork - also the p i e r we" b u i l t ourselves, a l l that was l e f t of our o l d house. my novel, under the volcano, seems to have gone smack i n t o the void - no i n t e l l i - gent comments eo f a r , or encouragement. i think i t i s r e a l l y good, though the lost week end may have deprived i t of some of i t s impact - alack - prosaic justice? - i f not to be confused with the last week end, by j . summerfield, i n which i t actually i s old male who goes a l l too recognizably down the drain, and pretty feeble too. i was planning to send you the volcano with some trepidation but with some pride too but i don't l i k e to saddle you with the oaly copy i n my possession at present and i don't i ... - . see how ^ can get back the only available other one before you s a i l . so please take the w i l l for the deed for the time being. i ' l l learn 'em eventually, as mr. wolfe once said, i f e e l . the only difference i n my present status since ^ wrote the above i s that while we are l i v i n g i n the house without inside walls the roof i s leaking i n six different places. but now your l e t t e r about the collected poems has arrived and i hasten to make some reply i n time, .though please forgive me i f what i say seems hastily digested. in brief, these are the ideas which immediately occur to me and i hope they are not merely confusing. think the idea of reversing the chrono- l o g i c a l order i s a very good one, i n fact as good as can be - though l think perhap: the soldier might p r o f i t by being dislocated out of the new order and being placed, i f not actually among the symphonies, somewhere near them i n the second volume. what i mean i s , i f i t doesn't belong to the symphonies, the soldier does to the notion of the divine pilgrim. houston peterson or somebody once put the possibly erroneous idea i n my head that you had once thought of including tetelestai also under the divine pilgrim heading and even, i f this i s erroneous and tetelestai not a symphony this i s worth thinking of i f you haven't already rejected i t . as for the early peems i would certainly put i n every thing that can possibly be of use to the fellow-poet and student of your work,"discordants with youth that's now so bravely spending" and as many of the actual cats and rats turns and movies as you have space for. the l a t t e r l y certainly stay with me as unique and powerful work, whatever you may think of them. i would also take the opportunity of exhuming from undeserved limbo such pieces as red petals i n the dust under a tree, asphalt "tossing our tortured hands to no escape" (though not very early,l° model?) but very f i n e , and even the "succubus you kissed" lampoon you wrote agin the imagists which has a h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t , and giving the ;dates>;of allathese;lejtdonlbrkhow sbdu't s selection from earth triumphant, but i would be i n c l i n e d to make a short one: possibly you are right to disown i t , but x myself cannot forget the "unaccustomed wetness i n my trousers" with which i read i t at your uncle potters. the only other departure that comes to me would be to s t a r t the whole c o l l e c t e d poems with the morn- i n g song of senlin and end them with the coming forth by day of o s i r i s jones, i must j say i l i k e t h i s notion per se exceedingly, i f i t would not play too much hob with your reversed chronology. whatever you do, i am very glad a collected poems i s coming out and the very best of luck with them. i f by the way you have any old harper's bazaars, vice versas, southern reviews or what not you are thinking of throwing away - no old d i a l s , alack? - we would be im- mensely beholden i f you would wrap a paper around them and shoot them i n this d i r e c t i o i c.o.d, or something f o r we are absolutely stuck here f o r such reading matter, a l l i n - t e l l i g e n t american magazines having been unprocurable f o r donkey's years: on the other hand i t occurs to me i t i s probably a poor time to ask with you packing and a l l : so i f i t ' s too much touble, j u s t foeget i t . well, bon voyage, o l d f e l l o w , and our very best love to you both and best wishes for* mary's success and our very best again to her and you and also to jeakes male ; from lowry t o aiken • " : from aiken to lowry ; from mary aiken t o lowry ; from lowry t o aiken ( m a n u s c r i p t d r a f t ) appendix i i : l e t t e r f r o n margerie bonner t o mary aiken ( j a n u a r y , ) l e t t e r from margerie bonner t o mary aiken ( j a n u a r y , ) from margerie bonner t o mary aiken january , dear mary: f i r s t of all i want to add my thanks and deepest gratitude to malcolm's. i wanted to write and t e l l you how much i appreciate a l l you*ve done and offered to do before this. perhaps i can realize even more keenly than malcolm does just how much your kindness means to us now, for i assure you, were i i n your position, i should be dubious indeed about taking some strange woman into my home - par- t i c u l a r l y one who has apparently deliberately put herself i n a posi- t i o n that for a l l you know i s invidious. please, mary, believe me, i shall do everything i can to see that you never regret i t should things work out as we hope they w i l l . i f e e l that more explanation i s due you as to why we are situated as we are, for surely, to an unbiased observer* i t must seem insane, unwise and unnecessary, but i almost despair of trying to make clear, by l e t t e r , a complexity such as this - i can only trust to your generosity and tolerance u n t i l we can r e a l l y s i t down and talk i t out. under ordinary circumstances we should, of course, never be here as we are, but these were, and are, not ordinary c i r - cumstances and there was no other way out i f malcolm and i were to ever see each other again. i t seems to b o i l down to this: i t was a fight for our very existence. presuming that you know the whole story i n more or less detail, i should add that i thought long and hard before i gave up my position i n hollywood, thereby cutting off my only source of income at the moment, means of retreat, etc., but i considered a l l this of less importance than malcolm. well, a l l this i s as maybe, but i t does mean that i have no sheet anchor else where, no "home". i lived by myself there, had a job with penny singleton - of course i have friends, but none sufficiently immobil- ized for me to return on them for any length of time. i t was a time of c r i s i s , a matter of burning bridges. i was quite aware of the l a t t e r , but i don rt know i f malcolm has managed to convey to you just how much of a fcimeiof c r i s i s i t was for him. anyhow, he des- perately needed me, his work, i f any of i t was to survive, needed me, i came and that was that. i could have gone back within a fortnight and held my job, but, seeing the circumstances, stayed and am glad i did. i am only deeply thankful, f i n a l l y ? that i was able to get here and to stay with him - under any conditions. you may think, from what you have gathered, that he had no right to l e t me stay - to take on the responsibility of my support with his a f f a i r s so apparently hopelessly tangled. in a certain sense you may be right, but i t i s not entirely his f a u l t that he cannot support me by his own efforts at present. he was dumped by h i s trustees i n a place where he couldn't get work, a trap i f i ever saw one, and i t was a case of now or never, too v i t a l l y important to bicker over the normal conventionalities. of course, since i have supported myself for many years, i am quite able and w i l l i n g to continue to do so but cannot take a job i n canada for the same reason that malcolm cannot. i f we can get back to the states i'm sure i can f i n d something to do where ever we are. also, i do help malcolm with his work and save the expense of a typist - which his trustees do not see f i t to allow him. with the war hanging over our heads i t may be that we w i l l only have these few months together and i f we - - have to remain here i n vancouver i t may be only a few more weeks. i f the war continues on into the spring, and i can see no hope at present that i t w i l l net, there i s a very large chance that malcolm w i l l be forced into i t . that i s a fear that i must l i v e with hours a day. how he feels i'm not sure as we seldom discuss i t by mutual consent. i know that many of our descriptions of how we are l i v i n g must have sounded like some intermediate stage i n a record breaking bender but so help me, we have been l i v i n g i n the greatest state of sobriety i have experienced for many years. of course w have had l i t e r a l l y no money to get tight on even i f .we wished to (which i ' l l admit from time to time has seemed l i k e a good idea) but maurice carey has been on a bender which i f i t didn't break any records certainly made a few. we have"had, bottles waved under our hoses pretty consistently and have l a i n shivering i n our room many an icy day and night listening to cheery sounds downstairs around the f i r e place, so i t was not for lack of opportunity that we stayed cold and sober and wondered whether we were being hypocritical. there are occasions oh which i t i s good to get tight, but the only way to meet the severity of these conditions, we decided, was with an equal severity of mind. -and right here i want to say that i can imagine what was i n whatever reports conrad has had from parks. there i s sometimes, when i t suits him, something genuinely well-meaning about the man, but i am sure that at least half of them are that kind of lying which i s a l l the purer for having i t s basis i n remote truth, and a good deal of the rest colored by cynical indifference, under whatever guise of watchfulness and anxiety. i know because i was there exactly what the situation was i n hollywood - i was with malcolm pretty constantly the last months before he l e f t and i know how unfairly he was treated, even from an impartial standpoint at f i r s t , and with what truly masterly misunderstanding and misapplication his a f f a i r s were handled. from a psycplogical standpoint everything that was supposed to be for his good was having the opposite effect and there was nobody who gave a damn what happened to him. and as for that cheerful hypocrite parks - i suppose he i s about an average sort of chap but certainly he was not the one to cope with'malcolm's problems even i f he had sincerely t r i e d - which he did not. as an instance of this, when parks brought malcolm to vancouver and l e f t him here, he said that colonel mclean was a man whom he had known a long time and had had many business dealings with. mclean, not having been primed, or, possibly, just being honest, said later that he had never seen parks before i n his l i f e and knew nothing »f i t u n t i l parks arrived with a letter from some business acquaintance. mclean, i n turn, passed malcolm on to a mere acquaintance of his, this oxford grouper, who i s a nasty old man and a homosexual i n the bargain, with a l l the endearing t r a i t s and tolerance usual to a reformed roue\ with much obvious enjoyment and smacking of lips he recounted his own juicy past and then talked g l i b l y of reforming malcolm for the "sin" of being i n love with me, while being divorced from his wife, who i n the f i r s t place deserted him. between them they made i t neatly impossible for malcolm to have a normal l i f e and spent their time either praying over his soul or blacking every attempt on his part to work, thus driving him to the very thing they piously protested they were trying to stop. then the oxford grouper had the temerity to say they'd l e t him spend a few days i s the d i r t i e s t flophouse i n town without a cent and maybe that would teach him a lessonj - - that a l l this sounds impossible among c i v i l i z e d people, or at least among the c i v i l i z e d people one associates with oneself, malcolm well knows and i know also that he feels that conrad, who i s aware of malcolm's more or less •ex'-wildness, may have said "me— thinks he doth protest too much." but a l l this i s a fact. and a definite fact also i s i t that everything has been done to discourage him and deter him from his work, because carey has evidently been given to understand that i t i s too obs/essed with sex and drink and that'his father doesn*t want that. that his father merely wants him to be successful i n the prosecution of his work seems to me to be demonstrated by the fact that as soon as some 'personal' contact was established with him by conrad he suddenly^began to do everything i n his power to bring about the state, of a f f i e r s which would allow him to f i n i s h i t . meantime, however, i have my own eyes and ears as absolute witnesses of the fact that the only encouragement he got with i t was to "be finished with a l l that stuff" - and i n this regard and also i n the regard of the personal responsibility for his exis- tance i t ought to be said right here -and now that the only person who jias done anything to safoe i t , before he managed to contact you " both again, was himself. i am glad to think that i too have helped. but, to be absolutely honest about the whole matter, by an ironic twist, everything that parks has done seems to have run counter to what i presume was the object of the arrangement - distasteful and ruinous to his i n i t i a t i v e as i t was - i n the f i r s t place. in a l l this you may think i t queer that there i s l i t t l e to be said on the other side. there i s l i t t l e , save perhaps this: parks, of course, was not a friend of malcolm's , i t was a purely business arrangement to him, so, basically, what did he care what happened to malcolm so long as he himself was apparently doing his best? and, at the beginning, parks was disposed to treat him more f a i r l y , but he was never trusted and the very hotel clerks were told to report on his movements and watch him and a l l the saloon keepers told not to serve him. he was continually 'watched' and reported on, which nearly drove him out of his mind. while at the same time parks was establishing contact with his wife which he was unable to establish himself. he therefore deceived parks to begin with simply because he regarded him as an enemy: he found his own way of rebribigg servants, saloon keepers, etc., and when i met him was drinking very heavily indeed on apparently less than nothing. on the other hand, he seems to have made no secret of the fact that he would continue to do what he pleased, so long as he was treated i n the way he was by parks, his argument being that, anyhow, there was nothing to live for. a l l this gradually changed after we met, but the damage had been done, not only to his own integrity so far as parks was concer- ned, but to the integrity of any relationship he formed. parks i n - sisted that malcolm should have no freedom, that he should legislate even on his friends. small wonder that when i met him his acquain- tanceship was composed of crooks and people of every description from the nether regions and small wonder that i too might be con- sidered to belong i n the same category as the dostievsky-like harpies with whom he associated, - and i don't blame him! there was v i r - t u a l l y no hope, a l l this being considered, of his putting over our own relationship on an accepted basis, so long as he lived as he did. this was roughly my argument, and although i never subjected him to exhortations on his iaay of l i v i n g , i t seems that he must have agreed with me, judging by the way he changed and ordered his l i f e t only to - - f i n d that so far as any freedom was concerned i t was a l l to no avail. the more constructively he lived the tougher things were made for him and when i came up here he was v i r t u a l l y on the point of suicide. for the past six months even these oxford groupers have had to ac- knowledge that they had nothing to c r i t i c i z e (outside of his effort to get back to me i n hollywood l a s t september) and have even written parks that he was leading an exemplary l i f e . but s t i l l he i s re- s t r i c t e d to the point of having to give receipts for toothpaste and shoeshines. what kind of existance do they think he i s leading i n this barren and dreary town? the answer i s , of course, that they don't care. i t makes me i l l to think of what he'd be doing i f i weren't here to give him some companionship. asked him i f i could mention what he c a l l s this " s i l l i n e s s " and he says he sees no reason why not. i think i t should be eited just to show what a l l these people have done for him. i t i s because of a l l these things, and i have only mentioned a few of the many, that malcolm f e l t no disloyalty to anyone i n suggesting that we go to montreal where we could l i v e by ourselves witqsome dignity and privacy. i f e e l that even malcolm's father, i f the true facts were sympathetically presented, would realize how essential i t i s that malcolm be given some freedom now i f he. i s to preserve his s e l f respect and pride and what w i l l happen to him i f his application to reenter the states i s turned down and we are lef© here i n the hands of these people i don't know. the kind of fight he has been putting up for the l a s t few months may be a good thing for him up to a point, but i f he i s utterly frustrated and defeated at every turn for too lonff when he i s trying so hard, the result may be a b i t t e r one. i'm not going into the kind of l i f e we're l i v i n g here now, mary, but l e t me t e l l you as woman to woman, i t ' s a nightmare. it's not just boredom - though of course there i s certainly no mental stimulation here and we can't even go to a movie - i t ' s r e a l l y horrible. we have no heat i n our room and there i s usually such pandemonium going on downstairs that even slowly freezing seems the better alternative. of course i t doesn't help malcolm i n his work to have to stamp up and down the floor bundled up l i k e an eskimo, or to type wrapped up i n our one blanket with his fingers blue and s t i f f but he does i t . a l l this may sound l i k e p i l i n g on the agony, but very well, i t i s agony. he's been writing articles for the l o c a l pp.per i n an effort to earn my fare back east but they don't pay much and we had to get his overcoat out (which maurice had pawned) and we have to rent a typewriter (maurice @bmed or sold malcolm's tyep- writer too) so we haven't saved much - only $ . - but i t ' s a start and we hope to have more before permission arrives for malcolm to go to the states. i think i t might be well for malcolm to go to you f i r s t and we have arranged for me to remain here for two weeks i f necessary after he leaves. i t would' cost too much for me to go back to hollywood and doesn't seem practical. but now we come to the serious stumbling block: malcolm thinks there's only a f i f t y - f i f t y chance that he w i l l be allowed to reenter america. when he f i r s t wrote conrad he thought i t was .only a matter of cash but i t now seems that due to the war and his divorce that i t i s not quite so simple. in that event, what are we to do? i know i t i s of paramount importance to malcolm that he see conrad. he talks of i t constantly and i know how much i t i s on his mind. he feels that he has wronged conrad i n some way i n the past, or that he has not s u f f i c i e n t l y acknowledged how right conrad was i n certain matters important to him, that his f i r s t wife poisened something between them from the outset, that t h e r e a r e manv t/hino-s "ha ™ h o h q e - - future together i n such surroundings. well, so much for that. i'm sure i s h a l l l i k e boston, i haven't been there since i was a c h i l d but i have some cousins there, pretty s t i f f necked as i r e c a l l them, who rather cast us off when my sister and myself became actresses i n the movies. i l e f t hollywood i n such a hurry and f l u r r y that i brought no references with me, besides, i r e a l l y l e f t on a two weeks leave of absence and expected to go back to my job, but i'm sure i ' l l have no trouble i n writing back for any i need. i t i s more than kind of you to offer to help me get a job there as i appreciate the d i f f i - culties involved i n hunting for any kind of a position i n a strange c i t y , but that i s a problem that can be solved when we get there. south dennis sounds heavenly to me but i'm sure wherever we are i s h a l l be happy with you. — now about malcolm's trouble over his application; when parks brought him to canada i t was, supposedly, only for the business of ob- taining a visa. this done he was to return to los angeles. as soon as he had the visa he wrote parks, saying that he was ready to return. i wonrt go into their altercations i n d e t a i l , but parks f l a t l y told him he was to stay here with that damned oxford grouper and said i t was too expensive for him to come back. this was s i l l y because he needn't have gone i n the f i r s t place, he could have gotten an extension on his visa right there i n los angeles. anyhow, after many pros and cons malcolm asked me for the money to return, which i sent him. hoping to make the t r i p as cheaply as possible, he started back on the bus and was stopped at the border. he had h i s visa which he believed was a l l that was necessary, but had no papers to prove that he had an income, and the authorities at the border, thinking i suppose, that he wouldn't be traveling on a bus i f he had any money, and he couldn't prove that he had, turned him down. they kept him there for hours while they went through a l l his baggage, letters, etc., cross questioned him minutely and i gather gave him a pretty bad time. the american immigration laws say that i f you are refused at the border for any reason at a l l that you cannot even make application for readmission for one year, so what he has had to do was to apply to have his case reopened on the grounds that they were mistaken i n saying that he would become a public charge since he i s now i n a position to prove that he w i l l not. i t i s a ques- t i o n whether they w i l l see f i t to reopen the case or not and the whole thing had to be referred to our secretary of labor, madam perkins, at washington. who w i l l actually pass on the case we don't know. malcolm feels that the fact of his having been divorced i n the meantime and the fact that they may havr read some of my letters at the border may be held against him and perhaps i t w i l l , i suppose i t a l l depends on who has the f i n a l decision to make and the sort of mood they happen to be i n that day. the letters for his reapplication were a l l made out for him by parks, a l l i n his "very best legal form, and sent here for mal- colm to sign and forward. and f i n a l l y we come to the last problem - how am i to get to you, i w i l l of course come the cheapest way possible, which i s by bus and w i l l cost $ , when i arrived here i had sufficient funds to get me back to hollywood but maurice got that almost immediately on one pre- text and another and there was nothing to do about i t since we were and are completely at his mercy. part of i t was to pay some b i l l s for malcolm, which we found out later maurice hadn't paid at a l l , and the rest he simply held me up for, i cannot borrow any more money from penny, since i sent malcolm a l l i had to get back to los angeles and had to borrow the money from penny for my t r i p here, which needless to say has not been repaid but w i l l be. there are a limited number of - - people from whom i can borrow money and i am trying to locate them and see how much i can get. malcolm i s also trying everybody he can think of or locate so perhaps between us we'll dig i t up. we were trying to write articles for the l o c a l newspaper and earn my fare that way but the pay i s very small, the subjects are very limited, malcolm i s not a journalist and he had a titanic struggle to produce the ones he did. malcolm feels that i f he could get a job reviewing that v/ould be a swifter compromise but that i s impossible i n canada. there i s apparent- l y no literature. he also thought he might be able to s e l l what he" calls* some of the less bloody poe;$jis"to poetry magazine or some such. some of them have already rung quite loud bells i n england "among them wbtt are a l i t t l e less stern than conrad and think himttne young idea." he also thought the last address, i f the dialogue chapter conrad spoke of were rewritten, could be sold,whit burnett having already virtually accepted i t . we are now up to our ears i n the volcano and working like mad to get i t done. we wake up i n the morning talking about i t and go to sleep s t i l l s i t t i n g up i n bed writing. we are right i n the mood and swing of i t , malcolm i s writing with f l y i n g pen and a gleam i n his eye and turning out work that anybody would be proud of and i think i t would be criminal for him to have to stop i n the middle of the book to write some articles which would take weeks of struggle. not that he minds writing them or anything but i t took him four s o l i d weeks to pro- duce two of them, one on hollywood and the war, the other on mr. chips, more time than i t has taken to accomplish , words of ebb and flood of stark narrative, as different as chalk from cheese to anything malcolm has done and i think far better. he might never re-achieve the feeling and enthusiasm and flow that he has now were he to be interrup- ted and i can't l e t that happen since i f e e l that his work i s the most important thing i n his l i f e . especially do i f e e l that to be true nov/, when he may only have a few more months and there i s so much he wants to accomplish. i help a l l i can, which he i s nice enough to say i s a l o t , but which i s r e a l l y very l i t t l e of course. he i s trying to aisrange a contract with the editor of the paper here for a series of articles to be written later, when the book i s finished, but to be paid for i n afvance and which would cover my fare. i f a l l else f a i l s we thought perhaps conrad could come to the rescue i n this manner: we understand that parks has a lump sum which i s drawn against as needed and which w i l l be turned over to conrad on malcolm's a r r i v a l . we thought that from this he might advance us just enough money for my fare, to be paid back later, but definitely paid back, says malcolm, not, as i n days of yore, just chalked on the wall and later confused with the ping-pong score. i f he doesn't f e e l that he can do that we'll just have to stay here u n t i l we can raise or earn the money somehow else, maurice, i n a burst of generosity, or conscience, said that i could stay here for two weeks after malcolm l e f t without paying so that gives us that much leeway, which isn't very much but every l i t t l e helps. in a reaction from his gleam of sublimity the other day maurice has gone on one of his recurrent rampages and i s threatening to throw us both out of the house and bring down a l l sorts of dire dooms on our heads. we think he i s about half crazy due to injuries received i n the l a s t war and he i s an almost unbelievable character who i s capable of doing very nearly anything, phyllis i s wonderful, she has been so good to us that we almost welcome these rampages because when he takes i t out on us he stops beating her - she hasn't had a black eye now for a week. well, i f he's i n a good mood when malcolm leaves h e ' l l probably- l e t me stay for a couple of weeks and we'll just have to hope for that. works c o n s u l t e d a c k e r l e y , c h r i s , and lawrence j . c l i p p e r . a companion t o under the v o l c a n o . vancouver: ubc p, . a i k e n , conrad. among the l o s t p e o p l e . new york: s c r i b n e r ' s , . and i n the human h e a r t . new york: d u e l l , s l o a n and p e a r c e , . 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" wake ( ): - . lunar c a u s t i c . london: jonathan cape, . , and m a r g e r i e bonner lowry. notes on a s c r e e n p l a y f o r f. s c o t t f i t z g e r a l d ' s tender i s the n i g h t . i n t r o d . p a u l t i e s s e n . b l o o m f i e l d h i l l s , m i c h i g a n : b r u c c o l i c l a r k , . october f e r r y t o g a b r i o l a . ed. m a r g e r i e lowry. new york: world, . . "on board the 'west hardaway.'" s t o r y i i i . ( ): - . " p o r t swettenham." experiment ( ): - . "punctum i n d i f f e r e n s s k i b e t gaar v i d e r e . " e x p e r i m e n t ( ): - . "the r e a l mr. c h i p s . " vancouver d a i l y p r o v i n c e dec. : . " s e d u c t i o ad absurdum." the b e s t b r i t i s h s h o r t s t o r i e s of . ed. edward o ' b r i e n . new york: dodd, mead, & co., . - . s e l e c t e d poems. eds. e a r l e b i r n e y and m a r g e r i e lowry. san f r a n c i s c o : c i t y l i g h t s books, . u l t r a m a r i n e . london: jonathan cape, . under the v o l c a n o . new york: reynal and h i t c h c o c k , . "where did that one go to ' e r b e r t ? " vancouver d a i l y p r o v i n c e dec. : . lowry, m a r g e r i e bonner. " h i s mind was j u s t l i k e a f i r e w o r k s f a c t o r y . " bowker, malcolm lowry remembered - . "an i n t e r v i e w with mrs. malcolm lowry." with l a u r a m. deck. malcolm lowry n e w s l e t t e r ( ): - ; ( ): - ; ( ): - . lowry, r u s s e l l . "malcolm--a c l o s e r look." the a r t of malcolm lowry. ed. anne s m i t h . london: v i s i o n p r e s s , . - . "the s o n g w r i t e r goes t o sea." bowker, m a l c o l m lowry remembered - . "malcolm lowry." times l i t e r a r y supplement j a n . : - . markson, d a v i d . "appendix: malcolm lowry: a r e m i n i s c e n c e . " malcolm lowry's v o l c a n o : myth symbol meaning. new york: times books, . - . m a r t i n , j a y . conrad a i k e n : a l i f e of h i s a r t . p r i n c e t o n : p r i n c e t o n up, . m e r c e r , m i c h a e l . "author's comment." shakespeare p l u s s o u v e n i r program . ( j u l y / a u g . ): . goodnight d i s g r a c e . vancouver: t a l o n books, . new, w i l l i a m h. malcolm lowry. canadian w r i t e r s s e r i e s . t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . , comp. malcolm lowry: a reference g u i d e . b o s t o n : g.k. h a l l , . noxon, g e r a l d . "malcolm lowry: ." m a l c o l m lowry: psalms and songs. ed. m a r g e r i e lowry. new york: plume-new american l i b r a r y , . p a r k e r , anselm s. "odo of c a n t e r b u r y . " the c a t h o l i c e n c y c l o p a e d i a : an i n t e r n a t i o n a l work of r e f e r e n c e on the c o n s t i t u t i o n . d o c t r i n e . d i s c i p l i n e , and h i s t o r y of the c a t h o l i c church. eds. c h a r l e s g. herbermann e t a l . v o l s . new york: robert a p p l e t o n , . p e t e r s o n , houston. the melody of chaos. new york: longmans, green and co., . redgrave, m i c h a e l . i n mv mind's eve: an a u t o b i o g r a p h y . london: w e i d e n f e l d & n i c o l s o n , . s a l l o u m , s h e r y l . malcolm lowry: vancouver days. m a d e i r a p a r k , b.c.: harbour, . sawyer, thomas m. "experiment." the modern age: - . v o l . of b r i t i s h l i t e r a r y magazines. ed. a l v i n s u l l i v a n . new york: greenwood p r e s s , . v o l s . - . the s t u d e n t ' s handbook t o the u n i v e r s i t i e s and c o l l e g e s of cambridge. th ed. cambridge: cambridge up, . th ed. cambridge: cambridge up, . th ed. cambridge: cambridge up, . " t e r r i b l e tragedy t h i s morning." savannah e v e n i n g p r e s s feb. : . thomas, h i l d a . "lowry's l e t t e r s . " malcolm lowrv: the man and h i s work• ed. george woodcock. vancouver: ubc p, . - . t i e s s e n , p a u l , ed. the l e t t e r s of malcolm lowry and g e r a l d noxon: - . vancouver: ubc p, . t o l l e r s , v i n c e n t l. " c o t e r i e . " the modern age: - . v o l . of b r i t i s h l i t e r a r y magazines. ed. a l v i n s u l l i v a n . nev york: greenvood p r e s s , . v o l s . - . v o l c a n o : an i n q u i r y i n t o the l i f e and death of malcolm l o v r y . d i r s . donald b r i t t a i n and john kramer. n a t i o n a l f i l m board of canada, . " w i f e , then h i m s e l f . " savannah morning nevs feb. : , . w i l l i s , j.h. j r . w i l l i a m empson. nev york: columbia up, . woolmer, j . hovard, comp. malcolm l o v r y : a b i b l i o g r a p h y . revere, penn.: woolmer/brotherson l t d . , . white paper report report id: application number: hd project director: timothy powell (tipowell@sas.upenn.edu) institution: itasca community college reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / the digital humanities viewed from indian country white paper # “gibagadinamaagoom: an ojibwe digital archive,” neh digital humanities, level one, start-up grant primary investigator: larry p. aitken, tribal historian, leech lake band of ojibwe nation, director of american indian studies, itasca community college co-primary investigator: barbara mcdonald, dean of academic affairs, itasca community college project director and author: timothy b. powell, university of pennsylvania museum of archaeology and anthropology director of native american projects, american philosophical society introduction: “indian country” is the part of north america occupied by sovereign american indian nations (u.s.) and first nations (canada). historically, treaties created reservations and reserves, mostly in remote areas undesirable to non-indian settlers. these areas have long suffered neglected and are in danger of being left behind by the digital revolution. fcc chairman stated in , “in indian country today, our best estimates put the adoption rate [of broadband] in the range of percent.” this severely limited access has also impacted the digital humanities, albeit in ways not often discussed. one of the crises facing the digital humanities, at this early juncture in the field’s history, is a disturbing lack of cultural diversity. we believe that the digital divide cuts both ways—cutting indigenous communities off from a vast amount of knowledge and depriving the digital humanities of the wealth of traditional knowledge in indian country. this white paper, which describes a project entitled “gibagadinamaagoom: an ojibwe digital archive” that was awarded a digital humanities level i start-up (january-december ), focuses on exploring the problem of the “digital divide” as manifested in the ojibwe’s ancestral homelands in northern minnesota. in the ojibwe language, gibagadinamaagoom means ‘to bring to life, to sanction, to give permission.’ the project is devoted to studying how digital technology can bring native american materials housed in museums and archives to life by restoring their connection to the ojibwe oral tradition. the project sanctions the authority of ojibwe wisdom-keepers by consulting with them at every phase of the development of the digital archive and creating protocols to assure that culturally sensitive materials are not displayed on the website (www.gibagadinamaagoom.info). we did not, obviously, choose the name gibagadinamaagoom because it would be easy to google. rather, the name alerts the viewer immediately that they are entering a digital realm of traditional ojibwe culture, where one navigates through the site according to the seven sacred directions of ojibwe cosmology. the success of the project, neh grants and counting, can be attributed to a powerful and committed partnership. “gibagadinamaagoom: an ojibwe digital archive” is a collaboration between four tribal and community colleges: leech lake tribal college, white earth tribal and community college, fond du lac tribal and community college, and itasca community college. the participating museums and archives include the university of pennsylvania museum of archaeology and anthropology, the american philosophical society, and the minnesota historical society. in keeping with a deeply held conviction that the project can benefit both digital humanities scholarship and ojibwe communities, we established two advisory boards. the board of ojibwe permission givers is headed by larry aitken, who holds the titles of director of american indian studies at itasca community college and tribal historian of the leech lake band of the ojibwe nation. jerome mcgann, john stewart bryan university professor at the university of virginia and editor of dante gabriel rossetti: a hypermedia archive, heads the digital humanities board. we are thankful for the extraordinary leadership provided by professors aitken and mcgann, which allowed the project participants to engage in a year long discussion that included a conference of all the partners held at the minnesota historical society in march, , the online humanities scholarship: the shape of things to come conference convened at uva a few weeks later, and the “building bridges between archives and indian communities” conference at the american philosophical society in march, . the partners have been working together for more than ten years to create an ojibwe digital archive that brings together digital audio recordings of indigenous languages, digital images of museum and archival holdings, and videos of ojibwe elders. our hope is that by recounting our frustrations and successes that this white paper will: • expand the community of “digital humanities scholars” to include ojibwe wisdom-keepers, language carriers, and tribal and community college faculty and students; • offer reflections on how powerful, committed partnerships can provide workable solutions to the interrelated problems of access, sustainability, and greater cultural diversity in the digital humanities. • raise important questions concerning the conflict between the virtues of open access vs. the need for restrictions to protect culturally sensitive materials; • provide new models for collaboration in digital humanities projects. at a historical moment when digital technology provides unprecedented access to archival collections worldwide, our primary concern is the risk that digital humanities scholars may overlook native american communities. for far too long, information has flowed in only one direction—out of indigenous communities and into museums and archives, where these cultural materials have been largely unavailable to the communities where this knowledge originated. we hope that the gibagadinamaagoom project provides a model of best practices and practical suggestions about how a two-way flow of information can lead to mutually beneficial relationships. cultural diversity in the digital humanities although the digital humanities is yet a young field, some scholars have pointed out a troubling tendency toward an older, mono-cultural conception of american studies. what might be called the first wave of scholarly archives focuses on writers such as thomas jefferson, benjamin franklin, walt whitman, herman melville, and emily dickenson. it is important to recognize that, unlike the canon wars of the late th century, the exclusion of native american culture is not, in most cases, rooted in ethnocentrism but, more likely, based in fiscal reality. it is far easier and less expensive to digitize print editions of collected works by canonical authors than to digitize the oral tradition of ojibwe bands in the rural great lakes region. fortunately, the staff of the gibagadinamaagoom project has never been deterred by fiscal reality. the problem is not due, however, to a lack of digital materials related to native american cultures. if one looks outside the academy to digital projects housed within museums and archives, abundant materials are readily available. the national museum of the american indian, for example, has digitized images of , objects representing over , years of history and more than , indigenous cultures throughout the americas. the american philosophical society, one of the partners of the gibagadinamaagoom project, is in the process of digitizing more than hours of endangered native american languages, which includes songs, stories, linguistic and ethnographic materials. given the vast quantities of native american materials available, one wonders if the problem is not about access but, instead, a certain narrowness in the way american studies is commonly imagined within the academy. how often, for example, do scholars think of american literary history beginning in , bce? vast amounts of digitized native american materials are not sufficient, therefore, to diversify the digital humanities. for the problem is not lack of access, but a lack of cultural context. much like objects stored in dusty museum repositories, with little white cards attached providing information about the non-native collector, digital reproductions of the artifacts can seem lifeless when reduced to dublin core metadata fields. as the ojibwe wisdom-keepers on the project have taught us, a dewe’igan (drum) will only come to life to tell its story if an ojibwe chi-ayy ya agg (‘wisdom carriers’) are present who speak the language of the drum. we were able to record such a moment on videotape at the penn museum, when larry aitken and david mcdonald came to the penn museum. the museum staff, to their great credit, did not fall off their chairs when larry began to play one of the historic drums in their collection. the story is more interesting, though, when told from prof. aitken’s perspective. he explained that he did not decide to play the drum, but that dewe’igan spoke to him, asking to be brought to life with a traditional song. “the [drum] knows a wisdom keeper and how to talk to them,” larry later recalled. “the wisdom-keeper is startled, surprised by the force nudging them, trying to contact the wisdom-keeper.” moments like this reveal what we may mean by mutually beneficial relationships. this video is now being shown in ojibwe high school and tribal colleges; it has also been presented to digital humanists at the university of virginia and the digital americanists section of the american literature association conference, demonstrating what a valuable resource aadizookewinini (‘storytellers’) can be for expanding and enriching the field. while it is understandable why the digital humanities has focused thus far on archives of written materials, our hope is that the gibagadinamaagoom archive demonstrates that it is not only possible but critically important to expand the digital imaginary to include audio, video, and material culture viewed from the perspective of ojibwe wisdom-carriers. one of the more striking discoveries we have made, first noted by the ojibwe wisdom-keepers, is that digital multimedia may be much better suited to representing the nuances of the oral tradition than print media. unlike the printed page, video allows the audience to hear and see, for example, a storyteller lifting an eyebrow or smiling. humor constitutes an integral part of the ojibwe oral tradition and yet such telling inflections too often go unnoticed in print transcriptions. the interactivity of digital displays also corresponds, imperfectly, to the interactive nature of storytelling, a feature we have worked hard to incorporate into the web design (see “ask the elders”). from an ojibwe perspective, the wind ruffling the lake in the background as an elder speaks or the shifting interplay of light and shadow on his/her face are all part of the story. through such movements, the elders explain, the spiritual world becomes manifest, whispering the story to the wisdom-keeper. “the work we are doing with this digital archive,” larry aitken explained, “is so important one wonders whether they’re worthy to translate wind, fire, rain, earth sounds, bird songs, waves.” digital humanists, it seems safe to say, are not yet qualified to translate what it means to hear a loon calling as larry speaks in the video. these spiritual dimensions, what prof. aitken calls “invisible forces,” are all revealed through the use of digital video on the gibagadinamaagoom website. a concerted effort is also being made by the partners to provide fields in the metadata for information about “spirit helpers,” “ancestral sources of stories,” and “spiritual dimensions of location.” from the perspective of the gibagadinamaagoom partners, ‘cultural diversity’ is not limited simply to race. the success of the project results from a willingness to engage with equal passion spiritual and mundane influences, the views of high school students and elders, multiple bands of the ojibwe nation, rural and urban communities, tribal colleges and research universities, museums and archives, organizations with almost no digital infrastructure and institutions with highly sophisticated it departments. all of these partners are integral to our long-term goal of building a two-way bridge across the digital divide. access in indian country as of this writing, however, the gibagadinamaagoom project has not yet achieved its goal spanning the digital divide. this is due, in large part, to the limited access to broadband in indian country. nevertheless, the partnership continues to work hard to build an on-line digital archive in the hopes that broadband will one day soon be available in the ojibwe communities with whom we work. itasca community college, the host institution of the present neh digital humanities grant, continues to work closely with the blandin foundation to make broadband access more readily available throughout rural, northern minnesota. unlike many other digital humanities projects, we presume, the target audience for the gibagadinamaagoom archive is ojibwe high school students participating in an extramural language preservation program known as the quiz bowl. the quiz bowl is an educational program, administered locally by itasca community college, which brings regional high schools into close contact with ojibwe wisdom-keepers. teams of high school students compete for a state championship by answering questions related to ojibwe history, language, and culture. quantitative analysis reveals that students who participate in the quiz bowl are more likely to stay in high school and to go on to college. the problem is providing new materials for quiz bowl competitions over the course of many years. the gibagadinamaagoom project has been developing educational videos that bring together digital surrogates of materials housed at the american philosophical society and the penn museum with stories told by ojibwe wisdom-keepers about the objects. these digital exhibits are archived on the gibagadinamaagoom website. at the time this white paper was written, however, the high school students still cannot access these materials online and so all materials are disseminated by hand on dvds. one of the most interesting aspects of viewing the digital humanities from the perspective of indian country is the way it complicates the ideal of open access. as the anthropologist faye ginsburg presciently noted in : “indigenous and minority people have faced a kind of faustian dilemma. on the one hand, they are finding new modes for expressing indigenous identity through media and gaining access to film and video to serve their own needs and ends. on the other hand, the spread of communications technology such as home video and satellite downlinks threatens to be a final assault on culture, language, imagery, relationships between generations, and respect for traditional knowledge.” it is a lament often heard in indian country, that digital technology is pulling the younger generation away from traditional forms of knowledge, such as the oral tradition, and distracting young people from the opportunity to engage with elders. the gibagadinamaagoom project seeks to address these concerns by making a concerted effort to create situations in which young ojibwe people, who have grown up with new technologies, work directly with elders to record traditional knowledge in digital form. the native american advisory board to determine if they are suitable for publication on the web then reviews these materials. during the course of the present digital humanities grant, the two advisory boards worked on the interrelated issues of increasing access to a broader audience and protecting culturally sensitive materials. one of the long-term goals of the project has been to provide greater access for our ojibwe partners not only to the website, but to the tools for web design. this concept was piloted by tim powell at the university of pennsylvania with the design of a sister site entitled digital partnerships with indian communities (dpic). situated on the school of arts and sciences servers, dpic was built in a drupal environment, which allows undergraduates at penn to work collaboratively on creating digital exhibits that include explanatory text, digital images of ojibwe artifacts, and videos of ojibwe elders. this controlled experiment in providing access to web design tools proved successful and plans are currently underway to migrate the gibagadinamaagoom site to drupal with the goal of providing similar access to ojibwe faculty, students, and wisdom-keepers. in the coming year, david mcdonald, who teaches multimedia studies at the college, will conduct a pilot program at leech lake tribal college to allow students to build their own digital exhibits. the current neh humanities initiatives with tribal colleges grant will providing funding for the drupal redesign and will thus move the partners one step closer to the long-term goal of turning control of the site over to the ojibwe people. while working assiduously to make all aspects of the digital archive more readily available to our ojibwe partners, the project has also been striving towards a more nuanced understanding of “access.” the native american advisory board, for example, expressed concern that the materials produced by the project be made available to non- natives as well as ojibwe students. the gibagadinamaagoom site was thus presented widely at a range of schools including penn, yale, university of virginia, georgetown, boston college, george mason and friends central school (grades and ). in some cases, however, the board advised not publishing materials to the website, but instead making them accessible in other ways. the american philosophical society, for example, has a drawing of a midewiwin (‘grand medicine society’) scroll that depicts the migration of the midewiwin to otter tail point on the leech lake ojibwe reservation. the map was not digitized because midewiwin materials are considered sacred. a hand drawn copy of the map was presented to elaine fleming, an ojibwe faculty member at leech lake tribal college, who has used it to teach students about sacred sites on the reservation. prof. fleming also used the map to petition the tribe not to develop otter tail point. a copy was also provided to a midewiwin leader at leech lake who is the keeper of sacred scrolls and who is using it in ceremonies not open to those outside the lodge. “access,” therefore, is not defined solely in terms of world wide web, but in keeping with the traditional protocols of the tribe. building digital infrastructure and sustainability “’sustainability,’ jerome mcgann poignantly observed at the “online humanities scholarship: the shape of things to come” conference the university of virginia, “is a dark but potent word in the field of digital humanities.” even the most sophisticated projects at universities with digital humanities centers struggle with the question of how to sustain projects over the long term. for a small project like gibagadinamaagoom, which has a fundamental commitment to one day turning the archive over to the ojibwe people, the interrelated problems of access, sustainability, and digital infrastructure prove formidable. efforts to establish a digital presence in indian country were particularly difficult in the early years, when work on the gibagadinamaagoom website was done in basements by dedicated volunteers, who made up for a lack of web building and programming skills with inspiration gained from ojibwe elders’ stories about overcoming historical obstacles like the removal to reservations and winters of starvation. in , the project received its first neh humanities initiative grant through white earth tribal and community college (dr. nyleta beauregard) with logistical and technical support from itasca community college (dr. barbara mcdonald) and the university of pennsylvania (dr. tim powell). grant funding brought together a professional web designer (greg bear), a highly skilled videographer (david mcdonald), and gifted ojibwe wisdom-keepers who worked at tribal and community colleges (larry aitken, dan jones, and andy favorite). artifacts from the penn museum and stories told by ojibwe elders came together in digital exhibits such as “the treaty of ” and “how to procure apaakozigan (‘indian tobacco’).” and yet, for all of this success, the gibagdinamaagoom digital archive continues to be housed on rented server space with web development limited to the duration of the grant. the current neh digital humanities start-up grant allowed for long-term planning to improve the digital infrastructure of the archive and to develop a model of sustainability. these planning sessions took place at three crucial events: a two-day conference at the minnesota historical society in march of , the “online humanities scholarship: the shape of things to come” conference, hosted by jerome mcgann and sponsored by the mellon foundation at the university of virginia in march of , and the “building bridges between archives and indian communities” conference at the american philosophical society in may, . at the neh sponsored conference, participants discussed the next step in developing metadata for digital objects in the archive and allowing ojibwe partners to participate more fully in the design of the site. after a very productive discussion, the group decided to move from an html format to a drupal environment, which would allow remote access so that students and teachers can create and implement new digital exhibits, thus building a basis for the digital humanities in indian country. we are deeply appreciative of the digital humanities division of neh, since this planning led directly to another neh humanities initiatives with tribal colleges grantthat has already allowed us to implements many of the plans that came out of the meeting. we would like to add a postscript, by way of thanking the digital humanities division. from our perspective, the emphasis by some granting institutions to constantly push the envelope to develop new tools or to build ever more sophisticated digital archives inadvertently worsens the problem of the digital divide. that is to say, building a more complicated digital infrastructure, requiring highly skilled programmers and a significant revenue stream, would only exasperate the problem of supporting and sustaining the archive in indian country. while our site may not be highly sophisticated, we have found that simplicity and reliability provide a more stable foundation for sustainability and we are deeply appreciative of the digital humanities division for its support of a more basic design. it was a great honor for such a small project, devoted to a part of the country with very limited digital resources, to be invited by jerome mcgann to attend the “online humanities scholarship: the shape of things to come” conference, sponsored by the mellon foundation, at the university of virginia in march of . participants, who included many of the most prominent editors of successful digital archives, were galvanized by a looming crisis that threatens the very existence of digital humanities— the profound difficulties of sustaining extremely complicated, scholarly, digital projects. as the editor of the rossetti archive, one of the most sophisticated and successful scholarly archives, dr. mcgann shocked the audience by announcing: “if the archive is judged strictly as a scholarly edition, the jury is still out. one simple and deplorable reason explains why: no one knows how it or projects like it will be or could be sustained…. i am now thinking that, to preserve what i have come to see as the permanent core of its scholarly materials, i shall have print it out.” this ominous insight took on even darker shades when rice university press, which published the conference papers as part of its new digital imprint, suddenly closed down—sadly proving mcgann’s prescience. just two months later, the partners of gibagadinamaagoom came together again at the american philosophical society. there are few places where one feels more comforted about the fear of sustainability than the aps, which has a one hundred million dollar endowment and is built on the assumption that its collections will endure until earth’s final days. what occurred at the “building bridges between archives and indian communities” conference was unprecedented in the society’s + year existence. fourteen native american wisdom-keepers, entrusted by their nations to protect and preserve their cultures, came to review materials originating from their communities in the aps’s collections. these tribal representatives met with attentive and sympathetic archivists from the library of congress, the national museum of the american indian, the national anthropological archives, university of pennsylvania, and the newberry library to confirm a commitment to working in partnership to utilize digital technology to establish closer ties with indigenous communities. in the aftermath of the conference, the aps has agreed to digitize its ojibwe collections and to allow the gibagadinamaagoom partners to access the materials through a password protected portal, thus providing a robust alternative that will most likely endure beyond the life of the website. looking ahead since completing the digital humanities start-up grant, the gibagadinamaagoom project has received an neh humanities initiatives with tribal colleges ( - ), through leech lake tribal college, and is part of the new digital knowledge sharing initiative begun by the american philosophical society with funding from the mellon foundation ( - ). these grants have allowed the partnership to take significant steps forward in terms of building digital infrastructure, creating protocols for cultural sensitivities, and addressing the issue of long-term sustainability. the neh hi grant has been used to lay the foundations for building a digital repository at leech lake tribal college. two external hard drives with three terabytes of memory have been set up at the lltc library, which house more than hours of videotape created by ojibwe elders working with david mcdonald as part of the gibagadinamaagoom project. the grant will pay for elaine fleming, a noted elder and instructor at lltc, to travel to the library of congress, national museum of the american indian and the national anthropological archives this summer, where she will supervise lltc students collecting more digitized materials to add to the archive. the library of congress’s folklife center, for example, recently digitized extremely valuable audiotapes made by the distinguished anthropologist frances densmore in the early part of the th century. these recordings are of ojibwe elders from the leech lake, white earth, and fond du lac reservations. despite this rather rudimentary digital infrastructure consisting of external hard drives located at lltc, we consider this to be an important step in that we have now established a physical presence in ojibwe communities that does not depend upon access to broadband. one of the most encouraging developments to come out of the recently concluded grant cycle is the use of the gibagadinamaagoom project as a model for other partnerships between archives and native communities. the digital knowledge sharing initiative, sponsored by a mellon grant at the american philosophical society, was based in part upon the gibagadinamaagoom archive. the aps will be partnering with four indigenous communities, including leech lake tribal college, to create repositories of digital surrogates of photographs, audio files, and ethnographic materials related to the local community. as part of this project, the gibagadinamaagoom partners are now working closely with remote ojibwe communities in manitoba and ontario to try to replicate the success of our project. other indigenous communities partnering on the aps’s digital knowledge sharing initiative include the eastern band of the cherokee indians in north carolina, the wabanaki confederacy in new england, and the tuscarora nation in upstate new york. finally, to place this analysis in an ojibwe context, one of the moral imperatives for community-based work is to consider how your actions will affect the people seven generations in the future. this perspective proves helpful in that it encourages one to look beyond short-term obstacles like the lack of broadband in indian country and to concentrate on outcomes beyond one’s own lifetime. such traditional codes of conduct are fundamentally important to the partners, and thus we would like to conclude by mentioning that every effort is being made to involve young ojibwe people in all aspects of building the digital archive. part of the neh hi grant funding will allow five students from the makinaa project at leech lake tribal college to go to washington d.c., under the supervision of elaine fleming, to do research and to collect digital reproductions of archival materials to add to a database of material housed at the college. the makinaa students represent the first person in their family to attend college. when one of the students, a skilled bead worker, was asked what it meant to her to see images of beaded bags from the penn museum, she replied that it would allow her to teach her grandchildren an art form that has endured in the ojibwe community for generations—a reflection of being taught to think seven generations into the future. larry aitken, the pi on the current neh digital humanities start-up grant and the tribal historian at leech lake, is working closely on creating exhibits to provide cultural context for digital objects in the archive with his daughters ann and athena aitken, who are studying anthropology at the university of minnesota, duluth and minnesota state university, moorehead. it is our greatest hope that these students, or perhaps their grandchildren, will one day inherit a sustainable digital archive based on the traditional teachings of their people. endnotes http://www.fcc.gov/daily_releases/daily_business/ /db /doc- a .pdf http://www.nmai.si.edu/subpage.cfm?subpage=collections&second=collections, accessed / / . the american philosophical society received a mellon grant ( - ) to digitize more than hours of its endangered native american languages collection. a follow up grant has been awarded to the society to digitize another hours of native american audio material over the course of the next three years, - . “ask the elders” on gibagadinamaagoom digital archive. problems with providing access for high school students participating in the quiz bowl include restrictive filters put in place by school administrators and the limited reach of broadband in rural northern minnesota. to this point, the partnership has resolved this problem by issuing all of the materials in the form of cds, which are distributed by the high school coaches. this “solution,” however, fails to take full advantage of the gibagadinamaagoom digital archive’s interactive features and remains a work in progress. jerome mcgann, “the elephant in the room” applications of a contemporary partnership model for divorce heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - applications of a contemporary partnership model for divorce cynthia starnes* she rose to his requirement, dropped the playthings of her life to take the honorable work of woman and of wife. . introduction for over twenty years, large numbers of women who perform the ''honorable work. . . of wife" have been sacrificed to no-fault's selective partnership model of divorce. some of these women are america's former heroines-homemakers of the ''betty crocker" era. others are younger, wage-earning wives whose marketplace participation has been limited by their primary caretaking responsibilities, often involving children. each group of women has been hard-hit by the no- fault preference for a clean break and the consequent reluctance of courts to order substantial maintenance. efforts to "repair" such caretakers through brief awards of "rehabilitative" maintenance have served primarily to soothe the no-fault conscience while caretakers continue to descend into poverty. this situation has prompted some commentators to counsel abandonment of the partnership model of divorce. the problem, however, is not with partnership law. rather, the problem is with no-fault's selective incorporation of partnership principles. the resulting model speaks to the • professor, detroit college of law. the author first proposed the contemporary partnership model for divorce in a more detailed article entitled cynthia starnes, divorce and the displaced homemaker: a discourse on playing with dolls. partnership buyouts and dissociation under no·fault, u. chi. l. rev. ( ). the complel'e poems of emily dickenson ( ). in this article, i presume that a spouse who performs caretaking chores is female. while some men certainly do assume the role of full-time or primary caretaker, their numbers are small. see infra note and accompanying text .. heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - termination of an ideal marriage, while dangerously ignoring real marriage. partnership law can do much better. indeed, broad use of partnership principles produces a no-fault model that both encourages the ideal in marriage and sensibly addresses the real. under such a contemporary partnership model, divorce is seen as the dissociation of a spouse from a shared enterprise. while dissociation ends the relationship, it does not usually trigger a winding-up of any shared enterprise in which the spouses have invested. if this enterprise continues, a dissociated spouse should receive a buyout of her interest. this buyout right provides a theoretical basis for maintenance. it also provides an easily applied, presumptive method for calculating an appropriate amount of maintenance, thus limiting the broad judicial discretion that now makes , divorce orders unpredictable, invites gender bias, and impedes meaningful negotiations between the parties. section ii of this article will discuss ideals in contemporary marriage. section iii will discuss realities of contemporary marriage. finally, section iv will illustrate the contemporary partnership model by applying it to a paradigmatic marriage: ( ) the traditional marriage, ( ) the hybrid marriage, and ( ) the egalitarian marriage. section iv will discuss two variations involving the caretaker who outpaces her spouse in the market and the childless caretaker. this illustration will demonstrate the efficacy of a contemporary partnership model in addressing both the real and the ideal marriage. ii. ideals in contemporary marriage-are we one flesh? concepts of marriage have changed dramatically in recent decades. no longer is marriage viewed as a blackstonian merging of husband and wife into one flesh-the husband's. and gone is the day when marriage imposed a lifetime duty on a husband to support his wife. today's ideal marriage is an "egalitarian relationship with equal sharing of responsibility for decision making."s during this marriage, spouses function for a discussion of the problems of broad judicial discretion in divorce, see cynthia starnes, divorce and the displaced homemaker, a discourse on playing with dolls, partnership buyouts and dissociation under no·fault, u. chi. l. rev. , - , - ( ). harry d. krause, family law: cases, comments and questions ( d ed. ). see also william blackstone, commentaries (layston press ) ( ) (the husband and wife are one person in law). gregg temple, freedom of contract and intimate relationships, harv. heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - ] partnership model divorce as a partnership, sharing resources, responsibilities, and risks,s a framework that encourages cooperation and caretaking commitments. although such a marriage hardly mirrors blackstone's view, its emphasis on the unit over the individual reflects the biblical image of spouses as "one flesh"s-the unit's. no-fault's partnership model for divorce presumes this ideal marriage. in tune with egalitarian principles, no-fault adopts the partnership concept that any partner can leave the partnership at will, thus dissolving the relationship and triggering liquidation of assets, payment of debts, and distribution of remaining proceeds to the partners. this winding-upll of the partnership concludes the partners' rights and obligations. consistent with these selected partnership rules, no-fault divorce occasions division of marital property, after which marital partners, like commercial partners, leave the partnership free to begin new ventures without any lingering entanglements. if spouses are indeed partners who share equally the advantages and disadvantages of participation in a failed marriage, this simple no-fault scheme makes some sense. unfortunately, most couples fall far short of achieving an ideal j.l. & pub. pol'y , ( ). deborah l. rhode & martha minow, reforming the questions, questions the reforms: feminist perspectives on divorce law, in divorce reform at the crossroads , (stephen d. sugarman & herma hill kay ecis., ) ("the ideal to which marriage aspires [is] that of equal partnerships between spouses who share resources, responsibilities, and risks"). ld. at . genesis : . see unif. frob. code §§ , , u.la. , ( ) (providing that a partnership dissolves upon the at-will departure of a partner); see also unif. partnership acrr §§ , , u.l.a. , ( ) (stating the unalterable right of a partner to dissolve the partnership at any time). see harold g. reuschlein & william a. gregory, the law of agency and partnership ( d ed. ). see unif. partnersidp acrr § , u.l.a. ( ) (distinguishes between a dissolution and a winding up: "on dissolution the partnership is not terminated but continues until the winding up of partnership affairs is completed."); see also unif. parnership acrr § commentary at , cmt. b, u.l.a. ( ) (defming "winding up" as the "process of settling partnership affairs after dissolution"). see alan r. bromberg & larry e. ribstein, bromberg and ribstein on partnersidp § . ( ). see u.m.d.a., prefatory note, a u.l.a. ( ): "the distribution of property upon termination of a marriage should be treated, as nearly as possible, like the distribution of assets incident to the dissolution of a partnership." heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - byu journal of public law [volume marriage. iii. realities of contemporary marriage-who makes the bed and how much does it cost? despite the popular rhetoric of equality, the reality is that contemporary marriage is not ideal marriage-it is still a gender-biased institution. who makes the bed? in most homes, the honest response is that the wife does. indeed, there is evidence that only one husband in twenty makes the bed in which he sleeps.i ''making the bed" is only a euphemism for the many endless responsibilities involved in caretaking-the cooking, the cleanmg, the washing, the shopping, the caring for children or aging parents. for many wives, such caretaking is a full-time job. the bureau of labor statistics reported that in approximately sixteen million women-as against only , men-were not in'the labor force because they were ''keeping house.,, even a wife who works outside the home is likely to undertake a disproportionately large share of caretaking responsibilities. one study indicates that women remain responsible for approximately seventy percent of the housework and working wives spend twice as much time on caretaking tasks as working husbands. is whether she is a full-time or part-time worker, betty crocker remains very much a part of most american marriages. how much does it cost a woman to "make the beds?" the quick, if superficial, response of many men is likely to be: very little or nothing. in the words of anew york legislator: the perception of most men-and the judiciary is mostly male-is that care of the house and children can be done with deborah l. rhode, justice and gender: sex discrimination and the law ( ). bureau of labor statistics, united states dept. of labor, employment and earnings , at tbl. ( ). in , there were . million married women in the united states. id. in that same year, . million women (married or unmarried) stayed out of the labor force because they were "keeping house." an additional . million wanted a job, but did not look for one because of "home responsibility." id. moreover, at least % of wage-earning women report having previously dropped out of the labor force because of family reasons, as compared to one percent of all wage-earning men. rhode, supra note , at . rhode, supra note , at ; see also susan faludi, backlash: the undeclared war against american women, at xiv ( ) (noting that the only major change in the last fifteen years is that now middle class men think they do more around the house). ' heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - ] partnership model divorce one hand tied behind the back. send the kids out to school, put them to bed, and the rest of the time [is] free to play tennis and bridge. actually, primary caretakers pay a high price for their efforts in the home. mincer and polacheck report that women who remain out of the labor market after the birth of their first child suffer a decline in earning capacity of about . % per year. i because of her family responsibilities, the wage- earning caretaker has less time to devote to a career, which often limits her career choice and opportunities for advancement. the bureau of the census confirms that many wage-earning women "choose work that will fit around ... their family responsibilities, a complication and impediment to occupational advancement not faced by most men." not surprisingly, many caretakers are channeled into the secondary job market, where wages are low and opportunities for advancement minimal. the division of labor in the home thus exacts a high toll from women and contributes to the disparity in men's and women's wages. when a caretaker divorces, she loses her male buffer and is thrust into the market economy where she alone faces the cost of her caretaking role. no-fault's partnership model, however, fails to acknowledge her situation, instead assuming the ideal where spouses are equal partners who can begin new lives on an equal footing. herein lies a dangerous reverie of denial-''women aren't caretakers; caretaking doesn't take time; caretaking doesn't disadvantage women; any disadvantage will disappear in the blink of an eye (rehabilitative maintenance)." lynn h. schatran, documenting gender bias in the courts: the task force approach, judicature , ( ) (quoting a new york legislator). jacob mincer & solomon polachek, family investments in human capital: earnings of women, in econo~ncs of the fmfily: marriage, children and human capital , (theodore w. schultz ed., ). women with advanced degrees suffer an even higher rate of depreciation. id. for a discussion of the difficulties faced by a homemaker entering the market after full-time homemaking, see cynthia starnes, divorce and the displaced homemaker: a discourse on playing with dolls. partnership buyouts and dissociation under no-fault, u. chi. l. rev. , - ( ). bureau of the census, united states depr. of commerce, series p- , women in the m,ierican economy ( ). see starnes, supra note , at - (addressing the illusion that rehabilitative maintenance can achieve equity for a caretaker); see also ann l. estin, maintenance. alimony. and the rehabilitation of family care, n.c. l. heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - byu journal of public law [volume no-fault also erroneously supposes that dissolution of the marital partnership necessarily terminates the marital enterprise. in fact, this is hardly ever the case. because a commercial partnership also often continues after a partner leaves, partnership law provides rules for these situations. these rules provide a rich model for divorce. iv. a contemporary partnership model-dissociation and buyout in the common case in which partnership business continues after a partner's dissociation, the revised uniform partnership act (rup a) requires remaining partners to buy out the interest of the dissociated partner. the buyout price reflects the dissociated partner's interest in the continuing partnership. this buyout rule provides a conceptual basis for maintenance. as in a commercial partnership, > a spouse's dissociation terminates the relationship but does not necessarily trigger a winding-up of the marital enterprise. if this enterprise continues, a dissociated spouse should receive a buyout of her interest. but what is a marital enterprise? simply stated, it is the income-generating activity of the marriage. the value of this enterprise is measured by the spouses' enhanced human capital attributable to marital investment. while the marital unit may invest in a spouses' human capital through education or training, more often an investment occurs simply through the expenditure of time and effort in the market, which results in experience and perhaps seniority. whether the marital unit invests in the human capital of one or both spouses, these investments are jointly made in the expectation, express or implied, that they will generate a return that will be jointly enjoyed. although dissociation terminates the parties' marriage, it usually does not terminate this income-generating marital enterprise, which continues to function in the marketplace as rev. ( ) (documenting how maintenance law takes little account of younger caregivers and advocating shifts in the law to rehabilitate family care values). see donald j. weidner, the revised uniform partnership act midstream: major policy decisions, u. tol. l. rev. , ( ). see rev. unif. partnership af.yr § ( ); see also unif. partnersidp af.yr § (a), u.la. ( ) (requiring a buyout of the interest of a departing partner in certain instances). heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - ] partnership model divorce one or both spouses generate income attributable to marital investments. if, for example, the husband works outside the home and the wife works in the home, the marital unit invests exclusively in the human capital of the husband. while the husband and wife both labor for the benefit of the unit, only the husband experiences an enhanced ability to generate income. if the marriage ends, the husband takes this marital enterprise with him and should buyout the wife's interest. a. calculating a buyout the buyout price should be set at the time of divorce in order to afford spouses the emotional and financial plannjng benefits of a clean break. determining this buyout price re- quires two steps: ( ) estimating the value of the marital enter- prise and ( ) fixing a dissociated spouse's share of that value. value lies in the parties' enhanced ability to generate income attributable to marital investment. one might presumptively estimate this value by approximating each party's future earn- ings (by averaging income over a previous period, e.g., three to five years) and then reducing that figure to roughly measure enhancement (by subtracting earnings at marriage). this simple method of estimating value would maximize predictabil- ity and minimize costs for the parties. valuation of the marital enterprise triggers the second step in the buyout calculation-determining the share of that enter- prise due a dissociated spouse. this buyout share should de- pend on marriage duration since the length of the marriage roughly reflects the extent of a spouse's investment and, in the case of a primary caretaker, her opportunity costs. the uni- form probate code (upc) offers a reasonable model for estab- lishing such a sliding-scale buyout share. the upc bases a spouse's elective share of an augmented estate on the length of the marriage as a "first step in the overall plan of implement- ing a partnership or marital-sharing theory of marriage, with a support theory back-up.,, under such a sliding scale model, a spouse who dissociates from a one-year marriage, for example, would receive only three percent of any disparity in enhanced earnings, while a spouse who dissociates after fifteen years of all figures represent net income and are adjusted to current dollars. for a more detailed description of the buyout calculation, see starnes, supra note , at - . uniform prob. code § - cmt., u.la. , ( & supp. ). heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - byu journal of public law [volume marriage would receive fifty percent of any disparity. while this buyout calculation will produce a reasonable buyout price in most cases, it raises a couple of concerns. most obviously, what if estimated income is not realized? predicting future earnings is a necessarily speculative process; a paying spouse may die, become disabled, lose his job, retire, or under- take low-paying, public service employment. investing in the human capital of another person is risky business. the possibil- ity that expected income will not materialize is a risk a spouse assumes both during and after marriage. thus, the buyout price should be modifiable upon a substantial change in the payor's circumstance. one might also question the presumption that enhanced income during marriage results from marital investment. while it is true that investments in human capital may actually occur over the course of a lifetime, any unfairness in discounting most such long-term investments is greatly reduced by inclu- sion of marriage duration in the buyout calculation. the extent of marital investment, as measured by marriage duration, will ordinarily correlate with the amount of enhanced earnings and will define the buyout share. a one-year marriage, for example, see unif. prob. code § - , ul.a. - ( & supp. ). the upc establishes the following sliding scale: if the decedent and spouse the elective-share were married to each other: percentage is: less than yr. supplemental amount only i yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. but less than yr. % of augmented estate yr. or more % of augmented estate the buyout price should not be modifiable, however, upon the remarriage of the dissociated spouse since a buyout is based on investment, rather than need or duty of support. see allan m. parkman, the recognition of human capital as property in divorce settlements, ark. l. rev. , - ( ) (advocating treatment of human capital as marital property only when the investment during marriage is "substantial" and would not have occurred without the support of the spouse). heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - ] partnership model divorce will ordinarily generate limited enhanced earnings and will trigger only a three percent buyout share. thus, the buyout calculation will ordinarily produce a small buyout price when marital investment is small. there will be extraordinary cases, however, where the presumptive method for calculating a buyout price will be inappropriate. consider, for example, the wife who marries a medical student in his last month of train- ing. if this couple soon divorces, the wife might claim a huge buyout based on her husband's enhanced earnings which are largely attributable to his pre-marital investment. but in such an unusual case a husband could very easily rebut the pre- sumption that value should be estimated through simple aver- aging and subtracting. in ordinary cases, however, pre- sumptively attributing enhancement in earnings during mar- riage to marital investment will not unreasonably distort the buyout calculation and will afford the parties a simple, inex- pensive, and predictable method for determining the buyout price. b. three marriages this contemporary partnership model can best be ex- plained through three paradigmatic marriages: ( ) the tradi- tional marriage, ( ) the hybrid marriage, and ( ) the egalitari- an marriage. . the traditional marriage suppose the spouses, either by decision or by default, opt for a traditional marriage in which the husband works outside the home and the wife is a full-time homemaker. in this case, the marital unit has invested exclusively in the husband's hu- man capital. when the parties divorce, the husband may leave the marriage with enhanced earning capacity, resulting from a marital investment in his human capital. he thus takes the marital enterprise with him. when these traditional spouses divorce, the wife should receive a buyout of her interest in the marital enterprise. if these traditional spouses were married fifteen years and during this period the husband's earnings increased from $ , to $ , , the marital enterprise would be presump- tively valued at $ , . because the marriage lasted fifteen heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - byu journal of public law [volume years, the wife's buyout share would be fifty percent. thus, the buyout price would be: fifty percent times $ , , which equals $ , per year. if, however, the spouses were only married five years and the husband's earnings increased from $ , to $ , , the marital enterprise would be valued at $ , , and the wife would receive fifteen percent of that value, or $ , per year. . the hybrid marriage suppose the spouses adopt a more common division of labor in which both parties work outside the home, but the wife is the primary caretaker. because of her multiple responsibili- ties, this wife has fewer hours to devote to her job than does her husband, which may result in income disparity between husband and wife. when this wife dissociates from the mar- riage, she takes with her a part of the marital enterprise, mea- sured by her own enhanced earnings attributable to marital in- vestment. if she takes a smaller portion of the marital enter- prise than her husband takes-le., if her enhanced earnings are less than his-she should receive a buyout. if the parties were married fifteen years and the wife's earnings increased from $ , to $ , and the husband's earnings increased from $ , to $ , , the marital enter- prise would be presumptively valued at $ , ($ , + $ , ). the wife, however, takes only $ , of this value, while the husband takes $ , , producing a disparity of $ , . because the marriage lasted fifteen years, the wife's buyout share would be fifty percent. thus, her buyout price would be fifty percent times $ , (the disparity), which equals $ , per year. if, however, the marriage lasted only five years and the wife's earnings increased from $ , to $ , and the husband's earnings increased from $ , to $ , , the marital enterprise would be presumptively valued at $ , . the wife would take $ , of this value with her, while the husband would take $ , , producing a disparity of $ , . given the five year duration of the marriage, the wife's buyout price would be fifteen percent times $ , , or a total $ , per year. see supra note and accompanying text. heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - ] partnership model divorce . the egalitarian marriage suppose the spouses achieve the ideal-both parties work full-time and each performs exactly fifty percent of household chores and care for any children or other family members. in such an extraordinary relationship, the marital unit makes two equal investments-one in the husband and another in the wife. it might therefore appear that, because the egalitarian marital unit has invested equally in the spouses, each spouse takes one-half of the marital enterprise upon divorce and nei- ther should receive a buyout. if these spouses leave the marriage with disparate en- hanced earnings, however, a buyout may be appropriate despite the egalitarian nature' of the marriage. there are two reasons for this conclusion. first, valuation of a continuing enterprise depends on the return on marital investments rather than the nature of each partner's contribution. if spouses are truly partners, these returns on joint investments are partnership returns, not indi- vidual returns. in the absence of the parties' agreement other- wise, the character or identity of the individual partner's contributions to the unit should not be dispositive of her share in partnership returns. second, limiting buyouts to non-egalitarian marriages would invite an inappropriate debate over the nature and ex- tent of caretaking services. if a husband could show, for exam- ple, that he performed fifty percent of caretaking services rath- er than forty-nine percent, he could avoid paying his wife a buyout. this ludicrous inquiry focuses on the wrong issue. for both conceptual and practical reasons, therefore, the question should not be identity of contribution, but rather the return to the marital unit on joint investments. as these three paradigmatic marriages illustrate, a con- temporary partnership model provides a conceptual basis for maintenance under no-fault, identifies cases where mainte- nance is appropriate, and prescriptively fixes the amount of maintenance, replacing the vagaries of judicial discretion with presumptive bright-line rules. adoption of this contemporary partnership model would work a sea-change in current divorce a prenuptial agreement could fix the parties rights according to the iden- tity or character of the contribution. heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - byu journal of public law [volume law by ordinarily beginning the divorce process with the pre- sumption that a spouse with enhanced earnings owes indefinite maintenance to a caretaker. such a starting point would do much to alter the current financial plunder of caretakers under no-fault. this contemporary partnership model will also usually deny or severely limit maintenance in marriages popularly thought to be inappropriate cases for maintenance, such as the very short marriage and the marriage later in life when income has already peaked. while most marriages may fall within one of the three paradigms just described, there are two variations that warrant . special attention: ( ) the caretaking wife who outpaces her husband, and ( ) the childless caretaker. c. two variations . the tortoise and the hare-the case of the high-achieving caretaker this contemporary partnership model will not always re- quire the higher wage-earner to buyout the other spouse, and one can imagine a scenario in which the opposite result follows. consider a wife who was employed as a sales clerk at the time of the marriage but was promoted to department manager by the time of divorce. suppose that her annual earnings in- creased from $ , to $ , during marriage. suppose further that at the time of their marriage, the husband was a corporate officer who netted $ , annually, but that due to a negative economy, his earnings had only increased to $ , at the time of divorce. because this wife takes a larg- er share of enhanced earnings, she must buyout her higher- earning husband, and while this result may seem counter-intu- itive, it is a fair application of the principle that maintenance is an investment return. the logic that a partner who makes a good investment is entitled to its reward is no less compelling where the lower wage-earner increases earnings more than the higher wage-earner. one could, however, avoid the harsh effect on the lower wage-earner in two ways. one is by establishing a presumption that the spouse with the lower earnings at divorce need not buyout the other spouse's interest. another is by establishing a rule that "catching-up is free," so that only enhanced earnings that exceed the other spouse's earnings at the time of marriage would be subject to buyout. if, for example, the wife's earnings increased during the marriage from $ , to $ , , and heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - ] partnership model dnorce the husband's increased from $ , to $ , , only the wife's excess enhanced earnings of $ , ($ , minus $ , ) would be subject to buyout. . cooking for two-the case of the childless caretaker some commentators have advocated barring maintenance in childless marriages. the justification seems to be that the full-time, childless caretaker was the principal beneficiary of her decision to stay home and has already reaped her reward. this rationale is conceptually troublesome. focusing on the quality and quantity of an individual's contribution entertains a curious post hoc judgment of a division of labor that the spouses, whether expressly or by default, agreed to during the marriage. such monday-morning-quarterbacking is also incon- sistent with the concept of marriage as a partnership of equals who make different but equally valuable contributions to the marital unit. also troublesome is the devaluation of caretaking implicit in the denial of maintenance to childless caretakers. such a devaluation is, of course, not uncommon. the message is that caretaking has little or no value unless it is directed to- ward a child. cooking, cleaning, washing, shopping, entertain- ing of friends and associates, and caring for aging family mem- bers thus have little value. . although it is not often held in high esteem, caretaking is a valuable service that is sometimes necessary. t caretaking for a brief account of the glory days of caretaking as a highly esteemed profession, see starnes, supra note , at - . today, the full-time caretaker may be embarrassed to confess her role. the wage-earning wife may confine herself to the closet, daily marching to the market rhetoric of self-investment while nightly succumbing, in private, to the realities of unmade beds, dirty clothes, a messy house, and a hungry spouse and children. responding to the needs of an infant is one example of on-demand caretaking. not all caretaking services can be purchased, as they often must be provided at random and in small segments of time. moreover, any purchased ser- vices will not duplicate the services of a caretaker who initially knows family members and takes responsibility for providing care as it is needed. clare brown, home prediction. in. use in. a market economy, in. rethinking the fmuly , (barry thorne & marilyn yalom eds., ). ms. brown also notes: the home economy focuses on individual and family well being, and its personalized care and nurturing cannot be given a price tag by comparing the services of the home economy with what a family is willing to pay for occasional substitutes (e.g., child care, meals out, maid service), since the occasional substitute is not comparable to a permanent replacement .... so far the marketplace has not provided a permanent replacement for the heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - byu journal of public law [volume is also "socially necessary" in that it produces value above ne- cessity, thus enhancing the family's life. such socially neces- sary caretaking includes time spent in nurturing non-economic needs for love and self-development, a process that may in- clude entertaining friends and relatives. to deny maintenance to a childless caretaker is to deny the value and the cost of many valuable caretaking functions. most troublesome, however, is the devaluation of women implicit in a denial of maintenance to childless caretakers. a woman's ability to achieve the status of equal marital partner is made to depend on whether she has borne a child to her husband. women who do not perform this function for their husbands are thus afforded second-class rights in the divorce courts. to hinge a woman's worth on her having children is an offensive notion with feudal overtones. its continued viability in the s is shocking. in addition to these conceptual concerns, the denial of maintenance to childless marriages suffers from practical in- consistencies. the category of childless marriages is both over and under inclusive, since it would include a childless caretak- er whose husband forbade her to work as well as the wife who gave up a career in order to relocate repeatedly with her hus- band for the advancement of his career. this category would also include the childless wife who spent her days clipping cou- pons, shopping, cleaning, washing, ironing, entertaining her husband's associates and volunteering her "spare" time to char- itable causes, and who could ill-afford to contract out any care- taking services. there is no justification for denying mainte- nance to these women simply because they have not borne children to their husbands. in addition, if the category of childless marriages is intend- ed to preclude maintenance to caretakers who have been the main beneficiary of their lifestyle, then it is under inclusive, because it would allow maintenance to the wife who hires a live-in nanny, a maid, and perhaps a chauffeur and tutor, and who spends her days at the country club. and what of the wife whose children are in school? is maintenance available to her services provided in the home economy. ·ld. at . ld. at . examples of such socially necessary caretaking might include counseling, tutoring and reading to a child, organizing family outings or vacations, coordinating visits and holiday and birthday correspondence with an extended family, or giving dinner parties. heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - ] partnership model divorce even if she stays home from : to : ? and what of the nonwage-earning wife whose last child left home ten years ago? the category of childless marriages is thus both conceptually troublesome and practically ill-equipped to achieve its goals. v. conclusion n ow is the time for an honest evaluation of the costs of divorce to primary caretakers and for serious efforts to reform the law so that women no longer bear those costs alone. it is to be hoped that this contemporary partnership model will further these efforts and at the same time provide a model that encour- ages ideal marriage in which roles are determined through choice rather than gender. heinonline -- byu j. pub. l. - theoartistry, and a contemporary perspective on composing sacred choral music religions article theoartistry, and a contemporary perspective on composing sacred choral music george corbett school of divinity, university of st andrews, st mary’s college, south street, st andrews, scotland ky ju, uk; gc @st-andrews.ac.uk received: november ; accepted: december ; published: december abstract: this article presents the methodology and research underpinning the theoartistry composers’ scheme, a project based in itia (the institute for theology, imagination and the arts), school of divinity, university of st andrews ( – ). i analyse sir james macmillan’s theology of music, outline some practical and theoretical issues that arose in setting up theologian-composer partnerships, and reflect critically on the six new works of sacred choral music that emerged (these are printed as supplementary materials). the article assesses the implications of such collaboration for future work at the interface between theology and music, and between theology and the arts more generally. keywords: sacred music; choral music; composition; theology; theoartistry; annunciation; hebrew bible; james macmillan; michael symmons roberts; jeremy begbie . introduction in sacred music in secular society, jonathan arnold highlights a strange phenomenon: ‘the seeming paradox that, in today’s so-called secular society, sacred choral music is as powerful, compelling and popular as it has ever been’ (arnold , p. xiv). in particular, the explosion of new media through the internet and digital technology has created a new, much broader audience for ‘the creative art of renaissance polyphony and its successors to the present day’, a genre of sacred music that seems to have ‘an enduring appeal for today’s culture’ (ibid.). arnold suggests, moreover, that sacred choral music is thriving, as well, in anglican worship: while attendance continues to decline in general, he cites the % rise at religious services sung by professional choirs in british cathedrals over the last decade (p. xv). in his entertaining survey o sing unto the lord: a history of english church music, andrew gant concludes on a similarly optimistic note: ‘tallis is not dead, because people are still using his music and doing what he did, in the places where he did it, and for the same reasons’ (gant , p. ). in , pope emeritus benedict xvi acknowledged the tension in catholic worship following the second vatican council between the principle that ‘the treasure of sacred music is to be preserved and fostered with great care’ (sacrosanctum concilium ) and the active participation of all the faithful (ratzinger ). while celebrating ‘the breadth of expressive in the twentieth and early-twenty first centuries, there has been a remarkable flowering of different kinds of christian music both inside and outside the denominational churches. genres of contemporary music as diverse as christian pop, christian hip hip, and praise and worship arguably have an equal right to be referred to as ‘sacred music’. nonetheless, due to the focus of this article, i use ‘sacred music’ or ‘sacred choral music’ to refer, as does arnold, to the predominantly western christian tradition of classical choral music from gregorian chant, through renaissance polyphony to the present. in surveying the situation of sacred choral music at the beginning of the twenty-first century, alan kreider considers, instead, the stark contrast between the omnipresence of music (of all different kinds) and the decline in organised religion: ‘decade by decade attendance at christian worship services continues to fall: a recent authoritative survey of church attendance in england is significantly entitled the tide is running out’. see (kreider ). for a brief introduction that situates ratzinger’s theological aesthetics in relation to the reforms of vatican ii, see (rowland ). religions , , ; doi: . /rel www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /rel http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions religions , , of possibilities of the faith in the liturgical event’, he reaffirmed his conviction that ‘great sacred music is a reality of theological stature and of permanent significance for the faith of the whole of christianity, even if it is by no means necessary that it be performed always and everywhere’ (ibid.). whether in churches, or in secular spaces, sacred choral music continues to be, then, a significant part of many people’s experience of, and theoretical reflection on, christian faith and music today. a foremost contemporary composer of sacred music for both secular performances and for christian worship is sir james macmillan. in , he was appointed as a part-time professor in the institute for theology, imagination and the arts (itia), based in the school of divinity, university of st andrews. as part of a new initiative, theoartistry, macmillan’s appointment provided a stimulus for a research project—‘annunciations: sacred music for the st century’—that sought to contribute to the fostering of sacred choral music in the twenty-first century as well as to interrogate, more broadly, the relationship between theology and music. the project, undertaken between and , had two principal aims. the first was to re-engage composers with the creative inspiration that can come from an encounter with scripture, theology and christian culture. while composers are typically educated in the techne of their craft at conservatoire or university (even though, of course, the nature of that craft is contested), there has been a tendency in these contexts—as macmillan highlights—to treat music as simply ‘abstract’, and to downplay the interrelation between music and the extra-musical. commenting on the theoartistry composers’ scheme, macmillan wrote: it will be interesting to see if the next generation of composers will engage with theology, christianity or the general search for the sacred. there has been a significant development in this kind of intellectual, academic and creative activity in the last twenty years or so. in the world of theology there is an understanding that the arts open a unique window on the divine (macmillan a). for the scheme, six composers were selected (from almost one hundred applicants) to collaborate with theologians in itia and the school of divinity. this led to six new choral settings of ‘annunciations’ in the hebrew bible, six episodes in which god—in different ways—seems to communicate directly to humankind: god speaking to adam and eve (genesis ); jacob wrestling with god (genesis ); the burning bush (exodus ); the calling of samuel ( samuel ); elijah and the ‘sound of sheer silence’ ( kings ); and the song of songs ( : – ). the second aim of the project was to show how an appreciation of the theological engagement, and/or profound spirituality, of composers can influence not only the creation of their music, but that music’s performance and reception. where historically informed performance (hip), arguably the most influential development in classical music performance in the twentieth century, focused almost exclusively on style, theologically informed programming and performance (tipp) seeks to privilege pope emeritus benedict xvi makes the major claim (‘that has recently taken hold of me more and more’) that ‘in no other cultural domain is there a music of greatness equal to that which was born in the domain of the christian faith. from palestrina to bach, to handel, even down to mozart, beethoven and bruckner, western music is something unique, which has no equals in other culture. [ . . . ] this music, for me, is a demonstration of the truth of christianity’ (ratzinger ). macmillan has also been a vocal public advocate for the important place of sacred choral music in roman catholic liturgy, especially during the period leading up to and following pope benedict xvi’s visit to britain in . see, for example, (macmillan ): ‘this is what pope benedict xvi is all about in his “spirit of the liturgy”, there’s an encouragement to regard high points of the church’s musical history such as classic polyphony and earlier, right back to gregorian roots, as a kind of paradigm for catholic music, “the very sound of catholicism” as i have heard gregorian chant described. it can be kept alive in the modern age—a practical consideration, and also an ideological and spiritual consideration’; ferguson ( ) has provided an invaluable, in-depth study that analyses macmillan’s theoretical and compositional approach to sacred music (profoundly influenced by ratzinger, in part mediated by macmillan’s friend and former chaplain, the theologian aiden nichols; see (ibid., pp. – , – )), and situates it within the broader liturgical tensions and with a particular focus on scotland. i founded theoartistry in as a new dimension of the work of itia. theoartistry explores how itia’s research at the interface between theology and the arts might inform directly the making, practice, performance, curatorship and reception of christian art, and transform the role of the arts in theology, church practice, and society at large. i would like to thank especially professor edward foley for inviting me to reflect on this project in this special edition of religions. religions , , of the spiritual content of the music. admittedly, there is a noticeable trend in recordings of sacred choral music to pay attention to a liturgical season, gospel episode, or christian theme; nonetheless, as with classical music as a whole, recordings of sacred music still tend to privilege a particular stylistic period, composer, performer or performance group often at the expense of attention to the spiritual or thematic content of the music. itia and st salvator’s chapel choir developed and researched a programme (and produced a new cd recording) that takes listeners on a musical journey through salvation history, exploring moments in the old and new testaments when god communicates directly to humankind (wilkinson forthcoming). at the heart of the recording are the composers’ six new settings of ‘annunciations’ in the hebrew bible. these are framed by moments of divine communication in the new testament—including the songs of mary, zachariah, the angels, and simeon—as well as settings of the annunciation: the angel gabriel announcing to the virgin mary that she will give birth to the messiah. in addition to this theological theme or journey, the recording also explores macmillan’s ongoing contributions to sacred music, particularly in the british choral tradition. alongside five of his own pieces, the recording includes works by two decisive influences on macmillan (benjamin britten and kenneth leighton), by two significant contemporaries (john tavener and judith bingham), and by the six ‘next generation’ composers mentored by macmillan. this article presents the methodology and some of the research underpinning the theoartistry composers’ scheme. in the first part, i analyse james macmillan’s own theology of music and compositional philosophy; in the second, i outline some practical considerations and theoretical issues that arose in setting up the theologian-composer partnerships and, in the third, i reflect on the collaborations and the six new works of sacred music. in conclusion, i assess some of the implications of such collaborations for future work at the interface between theology and music, and between theology and the arts more generally. it should be evident throughout that the model of theologian-composer collaboration presented could be productively applied to other genres of christian music, as well as to the christian arts as a whole. scores of the six new choral pieces are printed for reference as supplementary materials. . james macmillan: composition as annunciation whether or not the composers on the theoartistry scheme were religious believers, the invitation to work with sir james macmillan was also an invitation to reflect on the nature of artistic inspiration. more specifically, it was an invitation to reflect on, and potentially to be challenged by, macmillan’s powerful claim that the search for the sacred has historically characterised the vocation of the composer: ‘in music’, he writes, ‘there seems to be an umbilical link with the sacred. through the centuries, musicians have proved themselves to be the midwives of faith, bringing their gifts to the historical jonathan arnold explores this issue of performance context at some length: see (arnold , pp. – ). john tavener, whose music has achieved a remarkable popularity, recognises the space for a kind of recording of his music that foregrounds its theological inspiration, with ‘mediations by mother thelka’ accompanying his music. see (tavener , p. xi): ‘the purpose of this book and cd is to try to give a hint of how it might be possible to reinstate the sacred into the world of the imagination. without this happening, i believe that art will continue to slither into a world of abstraction, into being purely self-referential, a sterile and meaningless activity of interest only to the artist and possibly “brother criticus”. all great civilizations, except the present one, have understood this as a matter of course. we live in abnormal times; as andré malraux has said: “either the twenty-first century will not exist at all, or it will be a holy century.” it is up to each one of us to determine what will happen’. see (wilkinson forthcoming). the programme order of the recording, entitled annunciations: sacred music for the st century, is as follows: . james macmillan, ‘ave maria’ ( ); . james macmillan, ‘canticle of zachariah’ ( ); . john tavener, ‘annunciation’ ( ); . kenneth leighton, ‘magnificat and nunc dimittis from the nd service’ ( ); . james macmillan, ‘a new song’ ( ); . anselm mcdonnell, ‘hinneni’ ( ); . dominic de grande, ‘whilst falling asleep, savta told me of jacob’ ( ); . kerensa briggs, ‘exodus iii’ ( ); . seán doherty, ‘god calls samuel’ ( ); . lisa robertson, ‘the silent word sounds’ ( ); . stuart beatch, ‘the annunciation of solomon’ ( ); . james macmillan, ‘and lo, the angel of the lord came upon them’ ( ); . benjamin britten, ‘hymn to the virgin’ ( ); . judith bingham, ‘the annunciation’ ( ); . james macmillan, ‘o radiant dawn’ ( ). i would like to thank the six composers, stuart beatch, kerensa briggs, dominic de grande, seán doherty, anselm mcdonnell, and lisa robertson for agreeing to the inclusion of the scores of their compositions as supplementary materials to this article. religions , , of challenge of inspiring the faithful in worship’ (quoted in (arnold , p. ). for macmillan, music and spiritually are ‘very closely entwined’, and this is the case with all musical works and not just with those that have an explicit theological stimulus: music is the most spiritual of the arts. more than the other arts, i think, music seems to get into the crevices of the human-divine experience. music has the power to look into the abyss as well as to the transcendent heights. it can spark the most severe and conflicting extremes of feeling and it is in these dark and dingy places where the soul is probably closest to its source where it has its relationship with god, that music can spark life that has long lain dormant (macmillan , p. ). macmillan’s conviction about the intrinsic religiosity of music, however, was hard won and emerged in reaction to a prevalent attitude towards music ‘in university environments’ of his generation: namely, that music ‘was complete in itself’ and that ‘anything else was extraneous and irrelevant’ (ibid.). he subsequently considered such a retreat or ‘divorce’ from ‘resonances and connections with life outside music’ as ultimately sterile, a cerebral playing around with notes on the page in ‘train spotterist fashion’, a music which delighted in its own inaccessibility and unpopularity (ibid.). macmillan’s voice as a composer emerged, then, when he allowed—against this prevalent university music culture—the ‘spiritual dimension to emerge’ (ibid., p. ). he came, indeed, to relish the ‘extra-musical or pre-musical’ impetus, and to compare the transformation of these ideas into music as ‘to use a catholic theological term, a transubstantiation of one to the other’ (macmillan and mcgregor , p. ). for macmillan, if one takes the long view (including—in perspective—the blip of some post-war obscurantism), it is not exceptional to be a religious composer but rather the norm: ‘i feel that i’m absolutely rooted in something that has lasted for thousands of years but, even in modernity, in my branch of the arts, if you think about it, all the composers of the past hundred years have been religious one way or another’ (quoted in (arnold , p. )). macmillan references schoenberg (who ‘reconverted to a practising judaism after the holocaust’), stravinsky (orthodox), messiaen (catholic), the ‘profoundly religious’ schnittke, ulstvolskaya, kancheli and arvo pärt (from behind the iron curtain) and even benjamin britten (for his social questioning anglicanism). macmillan emphasises that he is ‘part of a mainstream [ . . . ] i’m not peripheral—people like me, john tavener, jonathan harvey, it’s not peripheral at all. it’s not just plugged into the christian traditions but the very experience of modernism in music’ (ibid., pp. – ). indeed, macmillan highlights that religious conservatism may be, as with the case of stravinsky, an inspiration for musical revolution. macmillan’s understanding of the history of classical music, and of sacred music in particular, is a challenge, then, to the composer in a contemporary cultural climate frequently characterised as secular: it suggests that the most exciting and innovative music has come about in response, or in relation to, theology and the search for the sacred. the theoartistry scheme proposed, therefore, a renewed engagement with scripture, tradition, and theology, in the confidence that such engagement for studies of some of the influences on james macmillan’s identity as a composer, see (ferguson , pp. – ; mcgregor ; wells ). macmillan again emphasises the ‘pre-musical or extra-musical starting point or impetus, its genesis, its inspiration’ in (macmillan and mcgregor , p. ): ‘music is plugged in to something more than the notes on the page or the concept of moving those notes about the page in as successful a way as possible’. it is interesting to note that the composer roxanna panufnik (b. ), a decade on, had a similar reaction to the teaching of musical composition in the academy. see (panufnik , p. ): ‘i left music college swearing never to write another note again, because i wasn’t getting good marks. it was during the mid- s when esoteric and cerebral avant-garde music was still considered the right kind of music to be writing. [ . . . ] i felt very false and that i wasn’t being true to myself in writing that kind of music, so i didn’t’. see also (macmillan and mcgregor , p. ): ‘there’s a sort of idée fixe, i think, running through the development of a lot of musical modernism that points to the sacred’. in the epilogue to his survey of the history of english church music, andrew gant comes to a different conclusion. see (gant , p. ): ‘most leading composers of church music of the last hundred years have not been conventional believers’. it is notable, however, that he gives only two examples: michael tippett and peter maxwell davies. quoted in (arnold , p. ): stravinsky was ‘as conservative [in his religion] as he was revolutionary in his music making’. religions , , of of whatever kind (reverent, reactive, playful, etc.) and by composers of whatever faith or none would be generative, as in the past, of powerful new music, and striking theological expressions or perspectives. the project’s theme of ‘annunciations’ focused on scriptural moments where the divine communicates directly with the human. but the ‘annunciation’ also has resonances, as macmillan emphasises, with the life of the christian and, in a special way, with the vocation of the christian artist. in describing his own compositional process, macmillan draws on scriptural accounts of the interplay between divine and human creativity in the old and new testaments. he reflects on the word ‘inspiration’ itself, as ‘from the latin inspiratio, mean[ing], “in-breathing”, an arousal or infusion of an impulse of illumination that impels a person to speak, act or write under the influence of some creative power’ (macmillan , pp. – ). the old testament model of creativity par excellence, for macmillan, is adam. in genesis, macmillan writes, ‘god presents his limitless love for humanity in the gift of creation and yet, at the same time invites adam, the archetype, to make his own sense of this new world. [ . . . ] humanity’s inner creativity is being inspired to express itself in the face of god’s immeasurable love’ (ibid.). the creation of eve from adam’s rib is, for macmillan, moreover, an image for how composers ‘have always taken fragments of material, consciously or unconsciously, from elsewhere and breathed new life into them, creating new forms, new avenues and structures of expression’ (ibid.). it is mary, the second eve, however, who provides for macmillan the true model for the christian composer: it is not just mary’s fecundity that is inspiring to a creative person. a more powerful and more pertinent metaphor for the religious artist is the balance between, on the one hand, mary’s independent free will and, on the other, her openness to the power of the holy spirit. there is something in the instinct of an artist or a composer, or any creative person, or any christian for that matter, which is inexorably drawn to the idea of mary’s ‘vesselship’—the notion of making oneself as a channel for the divine will (ibid., p. ). macmillan has highlighted that ‘the christian believer is paradigmatically female: receptive to the seed of god’s word. receptive of the potency of god, the believer is waiting to be filled, longing to bear the fruit which will result from his or her union with god, to bring christ to birth in our own life stories’ (ibid., p. ). this is a standard theological reading of the annunciation, of course: aquinas, for example, comments that ‘just as the blessed virgin conceived christ corporeally, so every holy soul conceives him spiritually’. nonetheless, macmillan draws out from this paradigm the very conditions of his own compositional process: mary opens the door to the very heart of god, and in the silence of my own contemplation, in that necessary stillness where all composers know that music mysteriously begins, the following words from our sacred liturgy have lodged themselves in the womb of my soul, trapped in a scarlet room, gestating gently with a tiny pulse: (macmillan , p. ) notes that ‘the engagement between theology and culture, between religion and the arts is now such a faded memory for most people that a whole generation has grown up without an understanding of the true meaning and implication in the word “inspiration”. and when a creative person comes across the definition for the first time, it is a discovery made with undisguised delight—a recognition of a primal truth that has lain hidden for a long time’. see also (quoted in arnold , p. ): ‘i [macmillan] believe it is god’s divine spark which kindles the musical imagination now, as it has always done, and reminds us, in an increasingly de-humanized world, of what it means to be human’. see also (macmillan , p. ): ‘all art is a kind of mirror image or a response to divine creation, to the first gesture of creation by the creator. in many ways, artists have a tiny glimpse into the pathos with which god, at the dawn of creation, looked upon the work of his hand’. as macmillan highlights, his own work adam’s rib ( – ) is ‘simply an acknowledgment of this eternally regenerative process of music as it develops through the ages’ (macmillan , p. ). aquinas, summa theologiae, iiia, q. , a. , arg. : ‘sicut beata virgo corporaliter christum concepit, ita quaelibet sancta anima concipit ipsum spiritualiter, unde apostolus dicit, galat. iv, filioli mei, quos iterum parturio, donec formetur christus in vobis’ [just as the blessed virgin conceived christ in her body, so every pious soul conceives him spiritually. thus the apostle says (galatians : ), “my little children, of whom i am in labour again, until christ is formed in you”]. religions , , of hail mary, full of grace, the lord is with thee blessed art thou among women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, jesus. macmillan’s compositional understanding is, then, profoundly incarnational: ‘mary, who was receptive to god; mary who was filled by god; mary who bore god’s son. mary is a paradigm of our receptivity [ . . . ] a model for all creative people [ . . . ] and an example for all christian believers’ (ibid., p. ). macmillan’s music, springing from his faith, is always a witness to that faith. and that faith by virtue of the incarnation is bodily as well as spiritual: ‘i’ve always been drawn to a theology of music which emphasises [ . . . ] a sense of the physical, the corporeal, rather than a sense of the spirit being in some way divorced or set apart from the corporeal’. through the incarnation, as through music itself, macmillan believes that one can come to intimacy with god: ‘there’s an analogy between music and the mind of god: that in music there is, we see or even feel something of the thinking of god’ (macmillan and mcgregor , p. ). but this is a journey to god through and not away from the body. notably, on reflecting on the first workshop performance of the six new compositions in the theoartistry scheme, macmillan returned again to this incarnation metaphor: it is a huge thing for a composer to hear their work come alive in the hands and voices of interpreters. up until the first rehearsal the composition remains in the inner imagination of the composer. but it comes to life, incarnationally, when conductor and singers (in this case) start to transform it into live musical flesh. the open rehearsal of these new works [ . . . ] was the moment when composer and theologian began to realise where their joint discussions had led (macmillan a). as the annunciation provides a model for his composition of music (and for artistic ‘conception’ itself), so christ incarnate is, for macmillan, the pattern for musical performance—the transformation of the ‘joint discussions’ and ‘inner imagination of the composer’ into ‘live musical flesh’. as the annunciation always points to the incarnate living word through whom christians come to know god, so musical creation, for macmillan, is always fulfilled through the sensual, bodily communication of performance. the ‘annunciation’ may also be, at this performance stage, a model for the reception of music and, more particularly, for how god may encounter the human person through music: ‘being openly receptive to the transforming power of music is analogous to the patient receptivity to the divine that is necessary for religious contemplation’ (macmillan , p. ). indeed, macmillan sees music as see (macmillan and mcgregor , pp. – ): ‘that’s certainly a very catholic way of understanding the theology of the body, the theology of spirituality which is about the here and now, as well as a sense of the other. it’s about the interaction—for us it has to be about—the interaction of the here and now, the mundane, the everyday, the joys and tragedies of ordinary everyday people, and some concept of the beyond or something that we stretch towards, something that we’re not completely fully aware of. and that tension brings about the great hope and potential for human beings to rise to the heights of what humanity is capable of’. in this way, macmillan distances his own theology of music and compositional language from those of his contemporary, john tavener. see (macmillan and mcgregor , p. ): ‘i [macmillan] don’t share his [tavener’s] disparagement of the western canon and indeed modernism, and i think we’re even different kinds of christian thinkers as well. and the way he talks in, i think, rather pessimistic terms about the body, although he, as a product of the s, is clearly someone who has taken full cognisance of hedonistic tendencies, probably more so that i have. but he talks about the body as quite distinct from the spirit and that always strikes me as rather odd, and a negation of full human potential. it seems an uneasy relationship in which to have the corporeal and the spiritual, and one could easily be dropped in relation to the other, and that worries me’. macmillan speaks or writes eloquently about the transformative power of music on many other occasions. see, for example, (macmillan , pp. – ): ‘whether they are religious or not, people can and do speak in religious terms about the life-enhancing, life-changing, life-giving transformative power of music. this quasi-sacramental aspect of the form proves that music has a power and depth to touch something in our deepest secret selves, for music cannot be contained in its abstract parameters. it bleeds out into other aspects of our existences and experiences’. religions , , of not only ‘a striking analogy for god’s relationship with us’ but, more profoundly, as a ‘phenomenon connected to the work of god’: music opens doors to a deepening and broadening of understanding. it invites connections between organised sound and lived experience or suspected possibilities. in the connection is found the revelation, a realisation of something not grasped before. such ‘seeing’ offers revelations about human living and divine relationships that can affect changes in our choices, our activities and our convictions. music allows us to see, like mary, beyond to what lurks in the crevices of the human-divine experience (ibid.). macmillan therefore suggests a model for what he would describe as his ‘ideal listener ’ who ‘has to be not just open minded or open eared [ . . . ] but a hungry listener, a curious listener’ (macmillan and mcgregor , p. ). in remarkably similar terms, maeve louise heaney underlines the ‘annunciation’ as a paradigm for the receptivity of the listener when setting out her own recent theological epistemology of music: specifically, she suggests that: ‘to be open and receptive to christ’s continued presence among us now through art and music is a doorway to a transformed and transforming experience of life and faith; a transforming presence theology needs to both receive from and speak to’ (heaney a, pp. – ). drawing on bernard lonergan’s emphasis on embodied experience of god, heaney presents music as ‘a gift of god to humanity’ that frees the human person from the ‘pragmatic’ to the ‘contemplative’, and opens a space or, in john henry newman’s terms, a ‘disposition’ for the experience of god (ibid.). the encounter with the aesthetic is, in george steiner’s terms, ‘the most “ingressive,” transformative summons available to human experience’ and it is notable that steiner sees in the annunciation the ‘short hand image [ . . . ] of a “terrible beauty” or gravity breaking into the small house of our cautionary being’ (ibid.). for heaney, then, music ‘enters “the small house” of our embodied self in a much more powerful way than any other form of art. it changes us. to not accept its potential at the service of a faith that is always experienced as another entering one’s life, be it in the invitation of a gentle breeze, be it as an interruption or intrusion, would be shortsighted’ (ibid.). the model of mary at the annunciation is an invitation not just for the composer, then, but for the listener who, in receptive response to music, may be open to the communication of the divine. . forming theologian-composer partnerships as part of his openness to extra-musical inspiration, macmillan has not only set scriptural, liturgical, and secular texts, but he has also actively sought out collaborations with other artists and theologians. as he commented on the theoartistry scheme, ‘collaborations between musicians and others can be wonderful things and can push the composer beyond their comfort zone to see the impact of their music outside of purely abstract considerations’ (macmillan a). foremost amongst macmillan’s collaborators is the poet michael symmons roberts. macmillan first set symmons roberts’ collection of poems as raising sparks ( ), considering his poetry as ‘a search for the sacred that needs to ruminate in your mind’, a search which—he felt—his music could ‘enable and enhance’ (macmillan and symmons roberts ). as he commented in an interview with rhiannon harries after over a decade of collaborations, however, he sought a more dialogical creative process: ‘i really wanted to work with him from scratch on a piece so that we could both have some input into the other’s work’ (ibid.). this has led to a series of collaborative ventures, including quickening ( ), parthenogenesis ( ), the birds of rhiannon ( ), chosen ( ), the sacrifice: three interludes ( – ), sun dogs see (macmillan , pp. – ): ‘many of my works begin with an extra-musical starting-point. the pre-musical inspiration is an important factor on the specific nature and character of the music itself. it is important that this connectiveness between the pre-musical and the musical is always palpable and audible in the final creation’. as (macmillan , p. ) notes, raising sparks ‘sprung forth initially from michael’s reading of the eighteenth-century hasidic mystic and theologian menahum nahum’. religions , , of ( ), and clemency ( – ). although their roles as poet-librettist and composer are clearly delineated, it is apparent, then, that macmillan and symmons roberts see themselves as part of the other’s creative process. underpinning the collaboration, moreover, is a shared passion for the theological and human issues at stake: ‘we spend a lot of time talking around our subjects, trying to get to the root of it before we work’ (macmillan and symmons roberts ). as someone who highly values, and has considerable experience of, collaboration, macmillan was a particularly appropriate mentor, then, for the theoartistry composers’ scheme. for the innovative project theology through the arts, jeremy begbie invited macmillan and symmons roberts to collaborate, in addition, with the theologian rowan williams. symmons roberts reflects on this creative process in his poem ‘study for the world’s body’, which concludes: [. . . ] an intimacy takes two people by surprise. it may be, in the world’s eyes they should not be here, but without their risk the house is bare. (symmons roberts ) as symmons roberts suggests, collaboration involves risk, but such risk—such openness to the other—frequently turns out to be generative. this is, he writes, ‘the open-endedness and risk involved in making any worthwhile art, and any worthwhile theology’ (ibid.). begbie’s project, which pioneered the bringing together of theologians and artists in creative collaboration, provided a provisional model for the theoartistry composers’ scheme. four insights proved especially important when constructing these six theologian-composer partnerships: first, the need for practical guidelines; secondly, the recognition of the revelatory power of such collaborations, thirdly, the emphasis on the value of praxis; and, fourthly, the issue of artistic integrity. begbie set up theology through the arts (tta) in in cambridge but, from – , the academic work of tta was undertaken at the institute for theology, imagination and the arts in st andrews. tta’s stated aim was ‘to discover and to demonstrate the ways in which the arts can contribute towards the renewal of christian theology in the contemporary world’ (begbie , p. ). begbie brought together theologians, artists working in different media (poets, composers, sculptors, playwrights), and other interested parties (historians, local clergy, commissioners) to collaborate on new works of christian art. each of the four ‘pod groups’, as begbie called them, were different, see (macmillan , pp. – ): where quickening ( ) celebrates the ‘mysterious fragilities and ambiguous sanctities of human life’, parthenogenesis ( ) confronts head on the moral and theological issues of embryo research and genetic experimentation and manipulation: ‘areas that are uncomfortable, messy and disturbing [ . . . ] theologians need to engage in these areas and be involved in debates pertaining to the nature of human life which are currently raging in our culture’. see, also, (fuller ) for a brief discussion of some of these collaborations including parthenogenesis. (macmillan , p. ) credits symmons roberts, indeed, with helping him to articulate his own theology of music: ‘michael symmons roberts, whose poetry i have set a lot, has used the term “the deep mathematics of creation” about music. this is a term that chimes with me because music does seem to be a kind of calculus, a means of calculating something of our very nature. and because we are made in the image of god, music can be seen as a calculus of the very face of god’. in a revealing bbc radio interview, (macmillan ) comments: ‘when i set poetry [ . . . ] i live with the poem for a long time, a necessarily long time, so that i can fully understand it, and the music can wrap itself around the words in a way that brings about the deeper meaning which is not immediately apparent in first encounter’. the theologians and composers on our scheme were asked to engage with begbie’s research as well as with the reflections of james macmillan, michael symmons roberts and rowan williams on the fruit of their collaboration, parthenogenesis (begbie , pp. – , – ). parthenogenesis focused on an intriguing story, or urban myth, of ‘a young woman in hanover in ’, who was injured by an allied bombing raid, and gave birth nine months later to ‘a child whose genetic profile was identical to hers. she insisted that she had not had intercourse before conceiving’ (begbie , pp. – ). in addition to a methodological model, parthenogenesis (etymologically, ‘virgin-creation’), with its theme of a peculiar ‘dark-annunciation’, provided, of course, a key inspiration for our own theme of ‘annunciations’. although our collaborations explored ‘positive’ annunciations—god communicating directly with humankind and, at the incarnation, becoming man (and of the lived and artistic experiences associated with this)—one cannot but be acutely aware in contemporary western culture of the ‘negative mirror image of the annunciation’ (macmillan , p. ) in the destruction and manipulation of human life at its earliest and most vulnerable stage. religions , , of and the meetings arranged were flexible (some pod groups met more frequently, others less so; some always together, others in smaller and bigger groupings). the freedom of the ‘pod group’ had many advantages, not least that the artistic work could develop organically through meetings. thus macmillan, for example, describes fastening on to a ‘common concept that provided the basis for much discussion and thought, bearing artistic fruit in due course’ (macmillan , p. ). for the theoartistry composers’ scheme, we experimented with a more compact and formal structure for the artistic collaborations, with a time frame of just six months. the key collaboration was between one theologian and one composer; nonetheless, this ‘theologian-composer partnership’ was nourished by the wider research community of itia, the school of divinity, and the music centre, as well as being mentored by macmillan. we established a strict framework for these partnerships: in the first two months, the six theologians researched six ‘old testament’ annunciations, and the six composers were able to select one of the passages which resonated with them; at the first theoartistry workshop, the theologians then shared and discussed their research with the composer. for the next three months, the theologians and composers collaborated through three scheduled one-to-one meetings (via skype) and continued email correspondence, as the compositions started to take shape. in the final month, first drafts of the new compositions were given to st salvator’s chapel choir to rehearse before a second one-day workshop with macmillan, in which the six new choral pieces were performed. we encouraged the theologians and composers involved to be open to the revelatory capacity of the arts, ‘their ability to “open up” and disclose in unique ways [ . . . ] to contribute to theology’ (begbie , p. ). begbie presents the arts, indeed, as ‘vehicles of discovery’, as ‘the materials, not simply the channels, of learning’, citing rowan williams’s insight, which it is worth reproducing once again (ibid., p. , ): [ . . . ] art, whether christian or not, can’t properly begin with a message and then seek for a vehicle. its roots lie, rather, in the single story of metaphor or configuration of sound or shape which requires attention and development from the artist. in the process of that development, we find meanings we had not suspected; but if we try to begin with the meanings, they will shrink to the scale of what we already understand; whereas creative activity opens up what we do not understand and perhaps will not fully understand even when the actual work of creation is done (ibid., pp. – ). this was important in re-approaching the scriptures through the imaginative possibilities of the arts, always being open to how—if one allows one’s artistic imagination to engage sympathetically with the scriptural stories—new meanings and perspectives may emerge. as macmillan put it: ‘at the symposium, we presented the composers with this underlying research. we then encouraged them to engage deeply with their theologian collaborator, to be open to surprises, to what such collaboration might bring to the creative process’ (macmillan a). begbie’s emphasis on praxis was also influential: ‘art is first and foremost not a theory or an “aesthetics”, but something done’ (begbie , pp. – ). by asking those involved to ‘recount the process of collaboration’ and ‘what the group members believed could be learned from their i would like to register here my gratitude to kathryn wehr, then a doctoral student in itia, who provided invaluable administrative assistance to me in co-ordinating these theologian-composer partnerhips. see also (williams , p. ): ‘artistic work is always discovery, not illustration. or, to put it slightly differently, but to connect it with the whole thesis of this essay, artistic work both engages with the real otherness of the environment and itself becomes “other” to the original planning mind as it moves towards its final form. it is not an empty cliché to repeat that the artist genuinely doesn’t know until the work is coming to its expression just what it is going to be’. more controversially, (williams , p. ) goes on to draw an analogy with the process of the composition of the gospels themselves as ‘not a story repeated, not a story invented to make a point, as the more mechanically minded critics might argue, but a set of narratives constantly being retold, and altered in the retelling because of what the very process of telling opens up, shows or makes possible’. religions , , of experiences about the future of theology’, begbie valourises the doing and making of art as contributing to the enterprise of theology itself (ibid.). he writes: the very activity of meeting together—praying, listening, responding, agreeing, disagreeing, exploring blind alleys, arguing at rehearsals, and so on—was not only intrinsic to the final result (‘the play behind the play’, as ben quash put it), but also the means through which a vast amount of the most important theology was actually done (ibid.). although research in biblical studies, the commentary traditions, reception history, liturgy and artistic representation was an important first stage, the participants similarly experienced the collaborative process itself as generative of ideas and theological insights. begbie addresses directly the issue of artistic integrity, recognising that his phrase ‘theology through the arts’ is in itself problematic: ‘to speak of the arts serving theology—i have been told—inevitably means they will be dragooned into some kind of slavery, condemned to being mere carriers of predetermined theological “messages”. even worse, artistic freedom will likely be choked by some inflexible ecclesiastical orthodoxy. either way, the arts don’t get the “room” they need’ (ibid., pp. – ). at a theoretical level, begbie seeks a via media between what he perceives as the ‘double hazard’ of ‘theological instrumentalisation’ (where ‘music is treated as essentially, or no more than, a vehicle, a mere tool at the behest of theology’) and ‘theological aestheticism’ (where an overriding concern with the ‘autonomy of music’ leads people to give music ‘a semi-independent role in relation to theology’, and to attribute to it a ‘veridical access to the divine’) (begbie and guthrie , pp. – ). begbie’s concern with ‘theological aestheticism’ is that music, or the psychological and ‘spiritual’ power of music, may be set against the ‘norms derived from scripture and its testimony to god’s revelation’, such that art becomes ‘an ultimate measure of theological truth’ (ibid.). begbie’s anxiety, in this respect, is not specifically with regard to music but with regard to any of the arts, insofar as an independent ‘theology’ might be derived from them: ‘history is replete with examples of the arts over-determining theology: among the subtler forms, the keenness in much contemporary writing to identify the immense psychological power of music, film, painting or whatever as “spiritual” or “religious”, and then cultivate some strand of “theology” accordingly’ (begbie , p. ). one could argue, of course, that music does have the capacity to disclose the divine while maintaining, from a christian viewpoint, that this cannot contradict the revealed doctrines of faith, a perspective provided, for example, by richard viladesau (viladesau ; viladesau ). but begbie opposes this approach, explicitly rejecting ‘a norm immanent to musical activity’ as well as any ‘foundational metaphysics or ontology elaborated prior to, or apart from, the specific dealings of the christian god with the world’ (begbie and guthrie , pp. – ). begbie affirms, instead, that christian theology must have ‘a distinct orientation as it engages with practices such as music—to the gospel, the dramatic movement of god by which he reconciles us to himself by the spirit through the son, witnessed to and mediated normatively by scripture’ (ibid.; begbie ). whether or not begbie’s via media is in fact an in-between stance is, therefore, open to question. although it is clear that begbie’s approach avoids ‘theological aestheticism’, it is harder to see how it avoids envisioning art as merely carrying ‘predetermined theological “messages”’. furthermore, begbie’s claim that his approach will not ‘suppress but enable a faithful honouring of music’s integrities’ because the christian god, to which music is thus ordered, ‘is dedicated to the flourishing of creation in its own order (the order out of which music is made)’ is, albeit theoretically plausible, problematic from a practical although the introduction is co-written with guthrie, the discussion of instrumentalisation, aestheticism, and orientation seems to expand directly on the passages cited in (begbie ). see, also, (begbie ) and, more recently, (begbie ) for his evolving theology of music. for this reason, (broadhead , pp. – ) characterises begbie’s theoretical method as ‘dialogue through analogy’, and reproduces heidi epstein’s assertion that begbie’s theologising ultimately ‘reduces music to a mere proof-text for biblical doctrine. music thus remains an evangelistic revealer of christian truths’ (ibid., p. ; epstein , pp. – ). religions , , of point of view, unless one works exclusively with christian artists (ibid.). this seems to have been the case with the four pod groups involved in tta: indeed, begbie suggests that it was ‘just because of a joint orientation to the triune god of jesus christ, who is committed to the flourishing of the world in all its manifold particularity and diversity, that they were able to honour the integrity of the arts with which they were dealing, and the integrity of the artists in each group’ (begbie , p. ). for the theoartistry collaborations, however, we did not request that either the theologians or the composers had any faith commitments; at the same time, we maintained that, whatever the individual beliefs of the participants, the compositions could potentially contribute constructively to theology. gavin hopps, the director of itia, presented new ways to envisage the relationship between theology and music, approaches which move beyond begbie’s apparent insistence on pre-emptive christological criteria, on particular musical forms, and on a privileging of cognitive over affective experiences of music. hopps advocated, instead, a recognition of the listener’s role in the co-constitution of music’s significance: one should begin, he affirmed, with particular works of music, as well as particular acts of reception, and consider their theological value in light of their affects or the experiences they elicit, and not simply in terms of their ‘immanent’ meanings. the work of david brown, emeritus professor of itia, similarly seeks to validate less exclusive approaches to the presence of god in music, approaches which are particularly valuable—from a practical point of view—when working with theologians and composers in a more secular environment. as frank burch brown comments, ‘it has become more imperative than ever for theology to expand its scope to consider culture, arts, and specifically music not as somehow illustrational, or as helpful analogies “outside” theology’s intrinsic modes of thought, but, rather, as means of reshaping (and in turn being shaped by) that very thought—if, indeed, “thought” is the best word for what is called for’ (burch brown forthcoming). the theologians and composers on the theoartistry scheme were thus introduced to a rich, and developing dialogue about the contested relationship between theology and music, a dialogue which has been at the heart of itia research culture since the institute’s inception. in the theologian-composer collaborations, the relationship between theology and music was, in one sense, somewhat straightforward insofar as the composers (whether christian or not) were responding to ‘annunciations’ in the old testament. perhaps especially because of this, it was important to stress that a ‘correspondence’, ‘applicationist’, or ‘instrumental’ method was but one way of approaching the task at hand. we were keen, then, that the theologians and composers had the licence to explore these scriptural passages with or without regard to particular doctrinal standpoints. in this respect, again, we were encouraging theologians and artists to exercise the freedom of their theological and artistic imaginations, without insisting on predetermined theological criteria or constraining them by an excessive concern with scriptural or doctrinal ‘orthodoxy’. in his ‘afterword’ to begbie’s theology through the arts project, nicholas wolterstoff registers anxiety about envisaging artistic media as ‘media of disclosure’: there is, he affirms, always ‘the need for critical discernment’: a ‘theological (or other) interpretation wraught in some artistic medium may prove unacceptable in one way or another; rather than being a means of disclosure, it may be a means of distortion if we allow ourselves to be led by it’ (wolterstorff , pp. – ). this is a valid concern, which wolterstoff shares, of course, with begbie; however, an alertness to these dangers need not lead one to restricting the role of theological art to simply communicating a predetermined revelation (as propaganda fidei). we sought to maintain, by contrast, that this is just one (albeit highly important) role of theological art, others being i am grateful to gavin hopps for sharing with me, and with participants on the scheme, forthcoming research. see (hopps forthcoming). david brown has consistently advocated in his work a ‘generous’ understanding of god’s self-revelation in the world through human history and culture. see, most recently, (brown ). see also (brown , , ). in this context, see also (begbie )’s response to david brown’s approach to theology and music, including his ‘misgivings’. see also (burch brown ). this dialogue, of course, contributes to a much wider, international scholarly discussion on the relationship between theology and music. for a descriptive summary of some of these scholarly viewpoints see, for example, (heaney b). religions , , of precisely to provoke and challenge, (as by distortion, play, or irreverence). as burch brown insists, theology ‘must exist in complementary and dialectical reaction not only with praxis but also with those richly aesthetic arts that can bring these relations imaginatively to life’ (burch brown , p. ). a thomist paradigm for engaging non-christian truths may offer an additional way to articulate this more hospitable via media in which theology can be seen to interact with music without constraining music’s autonomy or, indeed, its intrinsic capacity to reveal the divine, while, at the same time, showing how music can be transformed and transfigured by the encounter with theology. gavin d’costa draws a parallel between twenty-first century attitudes to christian engagement with other religions and the three attitudes characteristic of early christian engagements with philosophy: first, a rejection of engagement altogether; secondly, a critical encounter and accommodation; thirdly, an uncritical adoption of philosophy such that it determines christianity rather than being transformed by it’ (ganeri , p. ; d’costa ). d’costa favours the second as the appropriate mode by which theology should engage with other disciplines, and sees in aquinas’ theology a key model. what happens, then, in this encounter with theology? aquinas uses the scriptural image of water and wine: rather than the philosophy (water) diluting theology (wine), philosophical doctrines (water) become, are transformed into, wine. crucially, as martin ganeri highlights, ‘the water of [philosophical] thought still remains the material out of which the theology is made and without it we could not have the resultant theology in the form we have it’ (ibid., p. ). in other words, this wine is new to the cellar of divine wisdom, not replicating what was already there. although i would make the analogy with theology and music tentatively, there is, i think, a sense in which music (the water) can be transformed by its encounter with christianity and come not to serve theology, but to be theology or, more exactly, theoartistry, insofar as it may reveal god and his revelation in a new way through artistry. . six new choral works of sacred music for the st century the composers were given quite strict parameters for their composition: it had to be approximately three minutes in length and performable by a good amateur choir. tom wilkinson discussed with the composers different aspects of sacred music from a choral director’s perspective, including voice-leading, harmony, individual and ensemble rhythm, metre, texture and text. he invited the composers to challenge the choir in these areas, giving examples from the repertoire, but advised against doing so from each angle simultaneously. he also encouraged the composers to experiment, especially as the scheme incorporated a ‘workshop’ to try out compositional ideas, before a final draft of the composition would be submitted for public performance and for the recording. we considered this practical dimension important for the project not least because, in the tradition of sacred music, composers have always had to write with the capability of particular groups of performers in mind. in preparing an old testament ‘annunciation’ for their composer-partner, the theologians may be seen to have taken three different kinds of approaches. the first was to reappraise a familiar scriptural passage through the lens of the artistic imagination, bringing out a new or ‘hidden’ aspect that countered the dominant interpretative paradigm (whether in biblical studies or in the wider cultural imagination). the second was to approach the passage with a specific question or personal interest. the third was to explore the semantic challenges of representing god’s presence or voice through word, music, and silence. in each of the six collaborations, the scriptural passage spoke in a particular way to the theologians and composers; at the same time, the theologians and composers’ own cultural beliefs, individual personalities and research interests offered an enriched understanding of the biblical episode in question. martin ganeri situates his thomist model for comparative theology in relation to the summary of approaches provided by gavin d’costa. in discussing briefly each of the six collaborations, i rely on the draft chapters of the theologians and composers which will be published subsequently in (corbett forthcoming). religions , , of theologian margaret mckerron emphasised that in the biblical commentary tradition, and in the popular cultural imagination, genesis is typically envisaged in terms of the temptation and judgement of adam and eve, and their expulsion by god from the garden of eden. this is even the case when the biblical story is self-consciously parodied or inverted in modern popular culture and advertising, where temptation becomes self-liberation, sin self-fulfilment, and expulsion emancipation. returning to the passage with a focus on how god speaks to adam and eve, mckerron sought a way out of this polarised cultural perception of genesis. she showed that the verses between the eating of the fruit ( . ) and god’s judgement ( . ) are conspicuously under-represented in art. moreover, she highlighted the chiastic structure unifying genesis . and genesis . : the creation of adam (a), the creation of eve (b), the serpent’s dialogue with eve (c); adam and eve’s sin and its revelation to god (x); the judgement of the serpent (c); the judgement of eve (b); the judgement of adam (a). in the first part (ab), we witness god’s provision for man while, in the heart of the episode (x), god poses three questions prior to his three judgements (cba), re-opening the lines of communication and relationship. these questions are: ‘where are you?’ ( . b); ‘who told you that you were naked? have you eaten from the tree of which i commanded you not to eat?’ ( . ). even after adam and eve resist the opportunity to acknowledge their own guilt and seek repentance (instead adam blames eve, eve the serpent) and are judged and expelled, god continues to provide for them in the world outside. mckerron suggested that this provision and promise is a protoevangelium, to be fulfilled in the coming of christ and, ultimately in christ’s passion on the cross. mckerron and composer anselm mcdonnell, therefore, creatively explored jesus as the new adam. in the first part of mcdonnell’s choral setting hinneni ( ), the focus is on the central moment of god’s conversation with adam and eve before their expulsion from eden, with god asking them: ‘where are you? who told you you were naked? have you eaten from the tree of knowledge of good and evil? what have you done?’ in the second half of the composition, it is now man who questions god on the cross: ‘for whom are you naked? what is this you have done, my saviour? hanging cursed from the tree of death, of wrath, of death, for me? what is this you have done, my god’. throughout there is the refrain ‘hinneni’ (here i am), the ongoing presence and provision of god even when man is hiding or seemingly helpless. theologian caleb froehlich similarly sought to challenge a conventional interpretation through re-appraising his old testament ‘annunciation’ through an imaginative, artistic lens. the story of god’s threefold calling of samuel ( samuel ) is typically associated, froehlich suggested, with children and ‘sunday school’: in developing their own relationship with god, samuel seems to offer them a simple model. even biblical scholars, moreover, can characterise the episode as ‘an idyllic childlike exchange’. by contrast, froehlich explored the setting of god’s call, what the episode might reveal about the voice of god (how it is mediated, and how we might miss it), and the ‘psychological and emotional turmoil’ that the young boy, samuel, might have experienced. froehlich emphasised the climax of the story: god’s terrible judgement on the house of eli, samuel’s mentor. the composer seán doherty responded, in particular, to this potential terror of samuel; in discovering that samuel could have been as young as four to eight, he writes: ‘this made the passage more personal to me as i reflected on my godson, my nephew aodhán (the dedicatee of this piece), who was six years old at the time. i thought of what my own reaction would be to a child who was visibly distressed after waking up, which would be comfort them immediately’. doherty then took up the ‘viewpoint of samuel, who is traumatised by this nightmarish prophecy’ which foretells the ‘destruction of the only family he had ever known’, to such an extent ‘that he is afraid to tell eli about it in the morning’. doherty stripped the dialogue to its essentials, drawing on the etymological potency of the three names samuel (meaning ‘god hears/the one who hears god’), eli (meaning ‘my god’) and el (‘god’) to carry implicitly the dialogue of the episode. the only further speech is ‘hinneni’ (‘here i am’) and ‘daber ki shomea abdecha’ (speak, for your servant hears’). as doherty states, ‘the rest of the narrative could unfold in the music itself’. doherty structured his piece in three sections around god’s threefold call to samuel (a), samuel’s call to eli (b), and eli’s call to samuel (c). in the manner of an oratorio, doherty assigned to each protagonist a group of performers: ‘the soprano soloist is the boy samuel; the choir religions , , of with organ is the voice of god; the choir without organ is the voice of eli’. in this way, ‘the musical material of the three-fold call (a) is echoed by eli (c), but now without the organ accompaniment, signifying that the voice of god has now departed, and it is eli, alone, who speaks’. doherty thus renders musically the mediated voice of god that ‘sounds like’ but is not that of eli, the addition of the organ being a self-conscious allusion to ‘the use of the organ as a metaphor for the word of god in seventeenth-century sources’. in her exploration of the ‘song of songs’, theologian kimberley anderson considered how a traditional gendering of the experience of god (the soul as female, god as male) can be difficult for men to inhabit, given the still pervasive cultural norm that sees men ‘as strong and logical’. she drew on her own research interest in contemporary rock music, where gender stereotypes can be both reinforced and creatively challenged as, for example, in beyonce’s album lemonade ( ) and her husband, jay-z’s responding album . ( ). while registering the traditional allegorical glosses of the bridegroom and bride in terms of christ and his church, or god and the human soul, anderson chose to focus primarily on the heterosexual relationship between bridegroom and bride in the song of songs alongside, and as a reconstitution of, adam and eve’s relationship in genesis. she explored the ambiguity of genesis in relation to gender, highlighting adam’s incompleteness: ‘it is not good that the man should be alone’ (genesis . ). even eve’s status as ‘bone of my bones’, as anderson argued, can be interpreted in a superlative sense (as in ‘king of kings’ or, indeed, ‘song of songs’ itself). she also suggested texts from milton’s paradise lost in order to give a voice to the bridegroom, and to explore the vulnerability and sensitivity of maleness within the marriage union. in the first section of his composition, beatch’s threefold repetition of the line ‘who is this?’ underlines the key question of identity. in the second part, beatch adapts milton’s text with its description of eve as ‘in herself complete’. deciding that ‘solomon’s masculinity would be purposefully feminized’, beatch ‘intentionally aimed to portray this masculine voice through stereotypically “feminine” music [ . . . ] the harmonies are lush, the phrases are short and breathless, and even the rhythms are gentle’. furthermore, the female voice ‘is given direct agency at the opening of the piece, since it is the sopranos and altos who first observe and define solomon’s agency’, whereas the literal male voice (the men of the choir) sing alone for only two brief moments. in the final ‘chant-like’ section, the pomp of ‘solomon king’ is avoided, and—instead—the vulnerability and complexity of the young man and woman in the marriage union is evoked. in preparing genesis : – in its immediate context, theologian marian kelsey first addressed the interpretative ambiguity surrounding jacob’s nocturnal wrestling with god. jacob is blessed by god, and given a new name—israel–, and rejoices in having seen ‘god face to face’, but there is also a self-awareness of his proximity to death: ‘and yet my life is preserved’. in the struggle itself, moreover, jacob’s opponent is unidentified, and kelsey emphasised that the term translated as ‘god’ in this passage (the hebrew religions , , of (the men of the choir) sing alone for only two brief moments. in the final ‘chant-like’ section, the pomp of ‘solomon king’ is avoided, and—instead—the vulnerability and complexity of the young man and woman in the marriage union is evoked. in preparing genesis : – in its immediate context, theologian marian kelsey first addressed the interpretative ambiguity surrounding jacob’s nocturnal wrestling with god. jacob is blessed by god, and given a new name—israel–, and rejoices in having seen ‘god face to face’, but there is also a self-awareness of his proximity to death: ‘and yet my life is preserved’. in the struggle itself, moreover, jacob’s opponent is unidentified, and kelsey emphasised that the term translated as ‘god’ in this passage (the hebrew ʾĕlōhȋm) may also refer to angels, leaving the engagement with the divine more open-ended. kelsey then showed how jacob’s encounter with his divine opponent has been appropriated in diverse ways in the history of its reception, from being a model of persistent prayer (set alongside the parable of the unjust judge; luke : – ) to embodying human struggles with ‘spiritual and emotional crises’. composer dominic de grande responded to kelsey’s challenge to find his own personal reinterpretation of jacob’s struggle: i had struggled with many starts and stops (the irony of wrestling with a narrative about wrestling was not lost on me). […] i began to realise that i needed to develop a deeper and more personal relationship with the text, something that i could feel invested in. […] the turning point for me came when i thought about my grandmother who was religious and the way she was full of music and stories. she would improvise bedtime stories and i would often have to wake her for conclusions that seldom ever came. i realised that it wasn’t only about the words working with the music but feeling comfortable with the numinous context that bound them together. it turns out that my own sense of religiosity was found through the memory of my grandmother. de grande explains that his title ‘whilst falling asleep, savta told me of jacob’ evokes this relationship: ‘savta is the hebrew word for grandmother. my own grandmother used to sing and whistle to me when i was a child and she would tell me stories as i fell between sleep and dreams’. this intermingling between ‘whistling’ and ‘singing’ is heard as a novel texture throughout de grande’s composition. to evoke the delicate balance of adult seriousness and childlike simplicity, de grande sets an emily dickenson poem, ‘a little east of jordan’, suggested to him by kelsey: the poem draws out the inherent ambiguity of the biblical text, with the unnamed opponent referred to as an angel until the very last line and word of the poem in which the gymnast ‘found he had worsted god!’. for theologian rebekah dyer, ‘the challenge of presenting the burning bush in music necessitated an entirely new theological method’. dyer started from her own experience as an amateur fire-spinner, an experience which makes palpable the full sensory aspects of fire: heat, light, movement, smell, the ‘sound of a flickering flame’. the burning bush, then, is not just a visual image but a multi-sensory one: prioritising sound, dyer emphasised, meant ‘doing theology with my eyes closed and my ears open’. dyer sought out an ‘embodied way of knowing’, an ‘experiential, rather than intellectual, exploration of fire’, which would correlate with her sense that god, like fire and music, is ‘ungraspable’. composer kerensa briggs responded to the mystery of the consuming fire that does not consume, and to the initial ambiguities surrounding the voice from the fire, and moses’ identity itself: ‘these were factors which i felt were important to express within the piece, and directly influenced the continually flickering quaver writing in the organ part and the recurrence of harmonic ambiguity or bitonality. i wanted to juxtapose tonal harmony against bitonal ambiguity to express the different sections and ideas found within the text’. briggs’ setting for the opening line ‘moses, moses, here i am’ in three upper voices, furthermore, similarly reflects musically ‘the notion of the in terms of theologian-artist collaborations, of particular note is the play wrestling with angels (based on genesis – and corinthians), a collaboration between theologians and riding lights theatre company in that led, in turn, to the collaboration organised by jeremy begbie, till kingdom come, in . see especially (ford ). ) may also refer to angels, leaving the engagement with the divine more open-ended. kelsey then showed how jacob’s encounter with his divine opponent has been appropriated in diverse ways in the history of its reception, from being a model of persistent prayer (set alongside the parable of the unjust judge; luke : – ) to embodying human struggles with ‘spiritual and emotional crises’. composer dominic de grande responded to kelsey’s challenge to find his own personal reinterpretation of jacob’s struggle: i had struggled with many starts and stops (the irony of wrestling with a narrative about wrestling was not lost on me). [ . . . ] i began to realise that i needed to develop a deeper and more personal relationship with the text, something that i could feel invested in. [ . . . ] the turning point for me came when i thought about my grandmother who was religious in terms of theologian-artist collaborations, of particular note is the play wrestling with angels (based on genesis – and corinthians), a collaboration between theologians and riding lights theatre company in that led, in turn, to the collaboration organised by jeremy begbie, till kingdom come, in . see especially (ford ). religions , , of and the way she was full of music and stories. she would improvise bedtime stories and i would often have to wake her for conclusions that seldom ever came. i realised that it wasn’t only about the words working with the music but feeling comfortable with the numinous context that bound them together. it turns out that my own sense of religiosity was found through the memory of my grandmother. de grande explains that his title ‘whilst falling asleep, savta told me of jacob’ evokes this relationship: ‘savta is the hebrew word for grandmother. my own grandmother used to sing and whistle to me when i was a child and she would tell me stories as i fell between sleep and dreams’. this intermingling between ‘whistling’ and ‘singing’ is heard as a novel texture throughout de grande’s composition. to evoke the delicate balance of adult seriousness and childlike simplicity, de grande sets an emily dickenson poem, ‘a little east of jordan’, suggested to him by kelsey: the poem draws out the inherent ambiguity of the biblical text, with the unnamed opponent referred to as an angel until the very last line and word of the poem in which the gymnast ‘found he had worsted god!’. for theologian rebekah dyer, ‘the challenge of presenting the burning bush in music necessitated an entirely new theological method’. dyer started from her own experience as an amateur fire-spinner, an experience which makes palpable the full sensory aspects of fire: heat, light, movement, smell, the ‘sound of a flickering flame’. the burning bush, then, is not just a visual image but a multi-sensory one: prioritising sound, dyer emphasised, meant ‘doing theology with my eyes closed and my ears open’. dyer sought out an ‘embodied way of knowing’, an ‘experiential, rather than intellectual, exploration of fire’, which would correlate with her sense that god, like fire and music, is ‘ungraspable’. composer kerensa briggs responded to the mystery of the consuming fire that does not consume, and to the initial ambiguities surrounding the voice from the fire, and moses’ identity itself: ‘these were factors which i felt were important to express within the piece, and directly influenced the continually flickering quaver writing in the organ part and the recurrence of harmonic ambiguity or bitonality. i wanted to juxtapose tonal harmony against bitonal ambiguity to express the different sections and ideas found within the text’. briggs’ setting for the opening line ‘moses, moses, here i am’ in three upper voices, furthermore, similarly reflects musically ‘the notion of the trinity, the ambiguity of the voice coming from the bush, and a reflection on or response to the quivering flame’. as rebekah dyer drew on her experience as a fire spinner in approaching exodus iii, so theologian mary stevens’s experience within the carmelite order gave a privileged entry point into considering elijah’s encounter with god in kings : – . stevens introduced early on the poetry of st john of the cross, with its contemplation of the paradox of divine presence: the father spoke one word, which was his son, and this word he speaks always in eternal silence, and in silence must it be heard by the soul. [ . . . ] what we need most in order to make progress is to be silent before this great god with our appetite and with our tongue, for the language he hears best is silent love. stevens emphasised that ‘the sound of sheer silence’ is ‘an encounter with god’, an encounter beyond the medium of words. composer lisa robertson picked up this lead in making ‘the sound of sheer silence’ the focal point of her piece: as this follows the three dramatic natural phenomena of ‘the wind, the earthquake and the fire’, it was possible to use these events as a means of intensifying the tension towards the climax point. i felt that the most successful means of achieving this would be to enhance the listener’s musical expectations with four repetitions of musical material. the fourth repetition begins to conform to the listener’s expectations, according to the patterns, but is then suddenly interrupted and, surprisingly, met with lengthy silence. st john of the cross, maxims and counsels, , . religions , , of to create a soundscape ‘inspired by the vastness of the mountains’, robertson adopts a ‘sparse but widely spaced harmonic language [including] large contrasts in the dynamics, texture and range’. to suggest the points where god is not present (‘my god is not in the earthquake’), robertson inserts ‘percussive sounds’; where he is present, she employs another extended technique of ‘whispering sounds’, mimicking the sound of wind (and evoking the breath of god which ‘hovered over the waters’ in the creation story). . conclusions cathedral, chapel and chamber choirs need new works in their repertoire, as well as those of the great masters of the past. the fostering of sacred music therefore includes engaging the next generation of composers with the extraordinary creative power of christianity, of a faith that ‘makes all things new’. at the same time, artistry brings new dimensions, perspectives and insights to theology, whether challenging conventional readings of biblical passages (as with regard to the fall, or the calling of samuel), turning to that tradition with contemporary questions (as in relation to gender or the search for faith in a more secular environment), or meditating on the communication of the divine (through the word, the senses, and silence). theoartistry’s inaugural project seeks to contribute, then, to this long tradition of sacred choral music, with its particular cultural presence in british culture. as kenneth leighton, one of macmillan’s teachers, commented: ‘it is perhaps only in the light of experience that one realises how fundamental and important a part the church music tradition—which is after all the only unbroken musical tradition in this country, stretching right to the middle ages—plays in the musical life of britain as a whole’ (leighton ). theoartistry seeks to do more, however, than helping to foster theologically engaged and fruitful choral music. it seeks to offer a new, open and flexible model for collaborations between theologians and artists that can be adapted in different contexts, with different art forms, and with different styles within those art forms. indeed, macmillan sees music—with its special relationship to spirituality—as a medium which may lead the reintegration of theology and the other arts. as he comments: the discussion, the dialogue, between theology and the arts is not some peripheral thing that some have claimed it has been, but it actually might have been a very central thing in the development of the way that we think of our culture (macmillan b). theoartistry’s second project—the theoartistry poets’ scheme—is a collaboration between itia and stanza (scotland’s international poetry festival), and over fifty poets applied for six places to work, like their composer counterparts, with the school of divinity’s theologians. these poets will be mentored in by macmillan’s long-term collaborator michael symmons roberts. but the hope is that the collaborative experiments of theoartistry will inspire others to set up similar initiatives, and to contribute to a growing dialogue about the creative power of christianity. this reintegration of theology and the arts, as i have intimated, has important implications not just for the creation of new art works, but for their curatorship and programming, their performance and reception. it is vital not just to the future of our culture and our arts but also as a way of encouraging the full appreciation of the art of the past, which due to the secularised impoverishment of so many people today is often misunderstood, misconstrued or ignored altogether. the recognition of the theological and spiritual significance of art is an important starting point. there is a discernible trend (albeit still a minority one) in the curatorship of visual art to recontextualise religious paintings, so far as is possible within the ‘secular frame’ of a museum. in the recording of choral music, there are signs, as i have suggested, that more attention is being given to christian liturgy, themes, and context. by practising and celebrating theologically informed programming and performance (tipp), however, it may be possible to improve dramatically the public appreciation of christian music, both past and present. for believers and non-believers alike, the artistry of the composers will be so much more apparent when the composers’ theological inspiration is more fully understood. but, also, this may religions , , of allow art to create a space for and communicate the divine, which is one of its most ancient and celebrated capacities. supplementary materials: the following are available online at www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /s . conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflicts of interest. references arnold, jonathan. . sacred music in secular society. farnham: ashgate. begbie, jeremy. . theology, music and time. cambridge: cambridge university press. jeremy begbie, ed. . sounding the depths: theology through the arts. london: scm press. begbie, jeremy. . beauty, sentimentality and the arts. in the beauty of god: theology and the arts. edited by daniel treier, mark husbands and roger lundin. downers grove: intervarsity press, pp. – . begbie, jeremy. . openness and specificity: a conversation with david brown on theology and classical music. in theology, aesthetics and culture: responses to the work of david brown. edited by robert macswain and taylor worley. oxford: oxford university press, pp. – . begbie, jeremy. . music, modernity and god: essays in listening. oxford: oxford university press. begbie, jeremy s., and steven r. guthrie. . introduction. in resonant witness: conversations between music and theology. edited by jeremy s. begbie and steven r. guthrie. grand rapids: eerdmans, pp. – . broadhead, bradley k. . an overview and analysis of the present discussion between theology and music. mjtm : – . brown, david. . god and enchantment of place: reclaiming human experience. oxford: oxford university press. brown, david. . god and grace of body: sacrament in ordinary. oxford: oxford university press. brown, david. . god and mystery in words: experience through metaphor and drama. oxford: oxford university press. brown, david. . divine generosity and human creativity: theology through symbol, art and architecture. edited by christopher r. brewer and robert macswain. london: routledge. burch brown, frank. . religious aesthetics: a theological study of making and meaning. princeton: princeton university press. burch brown, frank. forthcoming. preface. in the extravagance of music: an art open to god. edited by david brown and gavin hopps. london: palgrove. george corbett, ed. forthcoming. annunciations: sacred music for the st century. cambridge: open book publishers. d’costa, gavin. . theology in the public square: church, academy and nation. oxford: blackwell. epstein, heidi. . melting the venusberg: a feminist theology of music. new york: continuum. ferguson, michael. . understanding the tensions in liturgical music-making in the roman catholic church in contemporary scotland. ph.d. dissertation, university of edinburgh, edinburgh, uk. ford, david f. . dramatic theology: york, lambeth and cambridge. in sounding the depths: theology through the arts. edited by jeremy begbie. london: scm press, pp. – . fuller, michael. . liturgy, scripture and resonance in the operas of james macmillan. new blackfriars : – . [crossref] ganeri, martin. . tradition with a new identity: thomist engagement with non-christian thought as a model for the new comparative theology in europe. religions : – . [crossref] gant, andrew. . o sing unto the lord: a history of english church music. london: profile books. heaney, maeve louise. a. towards a theological epistemology of music. in music as theology: what music says about the word. eugene: wipf and stock publishers, pp. – . heaney, maeve louise. b. theological aesthetics in contemporary theology. in music as theology: what music says about the word. eugene: wipf and stock publishers, pp. – . hopps, gavin. forthcoming. popular music and spilt religion: a window onto the infinite. in the extravagance of music: an art open to god. edited by david brown and gavin hopps. london: palgrove. kreider, alan. . introduction. in composing music for worship. edited by stephen darlington and alan kreider. norwich: canterbury press, pp. – . www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /s http://dx.doi.org/ . /nbfr. http://dx.doi.org/ . /rel religions , , of leighton, kenneth. . church music today. in kenneth leighton: a bio-bibliography. westport: praeger, pp. – , unpublished lecture given in wakefield cathedral, october . quoted in smith, carolyn j. . kenneth leighton. macmillan, james. . god, theology and music. new blackfriars : – . macmillan, james. . parthenogenesis. in sounding the depths: theology through the arts. edited by jeremy begbie. london: scm press, pp. – . macmillan, james. . interview with susan hitch. poetry and the divine. in conversation with james macmillan. bbc radio . august . available online: http://bobnational.net/record/ (accessed on december ). macmillan, james. . interview with rebecca tavener. in who are these angels: new choral music by james macmillan. directed by alan tavener. glasgow: linn records, ckd , compact disc. macmillan, james. a. a new generation of christian artists. catholic herald, february , p. . macmillan, james. b. interview with david boos. the power of the arts to communicate the divine: theoartistry at st andrews. available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ow sumd_dri (accessed on december ). macmillan, james, and richard mcgregor. . james macmillan: a conversation and commentary. musical times : – . macmillan, james, and michael symmons roberts. . interview with rhiannon harries. how we met: james macmillan and michael symmons roberts. independent, april . available online: http://www.independent.co.uk/extras/sunday-review/regulars/how-we-met-james-macmillan- michael-symmons-roberts- .html (accessed on december ). mcgregor, richard. . ‘a metaphor for the deeper wintriness’: exploring james macmillan’s musical identity. tempo : – . [crossref] panufnik, roxanna. . beyond a mass for westminster. in composing music for worship. edited by stephen darlington and alan kreider. norwich: canterbury press, pp. – . ratzinger, joseph. . that music, for me, is a demonstration of the truth of christianity. translated by matthew sherry. july , available online: http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/articolo/ bdc .html? eng=y (accessed on december ). rowland, tracey. . liturgy since vatican ii. in ratzinger’s faith: the theology of pope benedict xvi. oxford: oxford university press, pp. – . symmons roberts, michael. . study for the world’s body. in sounding the depths: theology through the arts. edited by jeremy begbie. london: scm press, pp. – . tavener, john. . introduction. in ikons: meditations in words and music. london: harpercollins. viladesau, richard. . theological aesthetics: god in imagination, beauty and art. new york and oxford: oxford university press. viladesau, richard. . theology and the arts: encountering god through music, art and rhetoric. mahwah: paulist press. wells, dominic. . james macmillan: retrospective modernist. ph.d. dissertation, university of durham, durham, uk. wilkinson, tom. forthcoming. annunciations: sacred music for the st century. st andrews: sanctiandree, compact disc. upc: . williams, rowan. . making it strange. in sounding the depths: theology through the arts. edited by jeremy begbie. london: scm press, pp. – . wolterstorff, nicholas. . afterword. in sounding the depths: theology through the arts. edited by jeremy begbie. london: scm press, pp. – . © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://bobnational.net/record/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ow sumd_dri http://www.independent.co.uk/extras/sunday-review/regulars/how-we-met-james-macmillan-michael-symmons-roberts- .html http://www.independent.co.uk/extras/sunday-review/regulars/how-we-met-james-macmillan-michael-symmons-roberts- .html http://dx.doi.org/ . /s http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/articolo/ bdc .html?eng=y http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/articolo/ bdc .html?eng=y http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	james macmillan: composition as annunciation 	forming theologian-composer partnerships 	six new choral works of sacred music for the st century 	conclusions 	references microsoft word - finaldissoct .docx frontiers of philosophy and flesh: mapping conceptual metaphor in women’s frontier revival literature, - by tiffany t.e. johnstone m.a., memorial university of newfoundland, hon. b.a., university of toronto, a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy in the faculty of graduate studies (english) the university of british columbia (vancouver) october © tiffany t.e. johnstone, 	
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   abstract in this dissertation, i identify a genre of travel writing that i refer to as frontier revival literature, which i show to be particularly important in negotiating north american ideas of imperialism, nationality, citizenship, gender, and race from - . meaning about cultural identity emerges through motifs of physical movement in frontier revival literature. i focus on how female frontier revival authors appropriate familiar motifs of frontier revival literature to promote women’s rights. frontier revival literature consists of tourist accounts of travel in western canada by canadian and american authors who published in northeastern american cities and who wrote for a largely eastern, urban audience. i show how male frontier revival literature authors use american manifest destiny rhetoric in a western canadian setting to promote ideas of an intercontinental west that, despite seeming to broadly represent north american progress, are highly gendered and racialized. i combine and adapt elements of feminist and conceptual metaphor theory as a way of reading how women writers of the frontier revival debate such ideas through representations of physical movement. i build on a diverse range of feminist theory to examine how images of the travelling female body negotiate and often contest dominant ideological messages about cultural identity in travel literature by men. i develop conceptual metaphor theory in order to identify a network of metaphors that i see as emerging in frontier revival literature. focussing on three different chronological stages of frontier revival literature, i apply my methodology in comparative close readings of the following texts by canadian and american authors: sara jeannette duncan’s a social departure: how orthodocia and i went around the 	
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   world by ourselves ( ) and elizabeth taylor’s “a woman in the mackenzie delta” ( - ); grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot ( ) and agnes deans cameron’s the new north ( ); and mary schäffer’s old indian trails ( ), and agnes laut’s enchanted trails of glacier park ( ). i explore how these six female frontier revival authors challenge the dominant imperialist and masculinist perspectives of their male peers through representations of the female travelling body. 	
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   table of contents abstract ............................................................................................................................................ ii table of contents ........................................................................................................................... iv list of figures ............................................................................................................................... viii list of abbreviations .......................................................................................................................x	
   acknowledgements......................................................................................................................... xi dedication ..................................................................................................................................... xiii introduction. women’s movements: charting the female body across borders and disciplines ............................................................................................................................... . starting out: preliminary thoughts.............................................................................. . “it was then that i wanted my wild free life back again:” schäffer and kipling.......... . crossing paths: border crossing and the frontier revival ......................................... . . interdisciplinarity ............................................................................................. . . cross-border .................................................................................................... . . frontier revival literature ............................................................................ . . manifest destiny ............................................................................................ . crossroads: reading the travelling female body .................................................... . . conceptual metaphor and feminist literary analysis .................................. . . feminist perspectives .................................................................................... . . conceptual metaphor theory ........................................................................ . . the body ....................................................................................................... . . framing .......................................................................................................... . . the travelling body ...................................................................................... 	
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   . . bodies and selves .......................................................................................... . step by step: chapter outlines ................................................................................. . conclusion: where is here? ....................................................................................... . notes to chapter ...................................................................................................... frontiers of philosophy and flesh: staking out a feminist and conceptual metaphor approach to travel literature............................................................................................ . introduction: “horizon[s], and the limit of all endurance” ......................................... . living metaphors: combining feminist and cognitive approaches to embodiment................................................................................................................ . travelling bodies: the need for an interdisciplinary approach to travel ............... . reading the body in motion: metaphors of frontier revival ................................... . “the long way round:” the frontier revival frame ............................................. . “oh for a precedent!:” re-living the frontier frame ............................................... . “so we planned a trip:” close reading ..................................................................... . conclusion: unearthing the frontier revival ............................................................ . notes to chapter ...................................................................................................... making new bodies matter: women writers and the frontier revival ....................... . introduction: “getting as far as you can go” .............................................................. . “our east and our west:” locating cross-border frontier literature ..................... . the frontier revival and the cross-border west .................................................... . setting the stages of frontier literature .................................................................... . . exploration and settlement ............................................................................ . . parkman, turner, and roosevelt ................................................................... . . frederick jackson turner .............................................................................. . . theodore roosevelt ....................................................................................... 	
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   . . male american frontier revival authors in western canada .................... . “oh for a precedent:” women’s cross-border texts .............................................. . examples of the frontier revival frame in texts by male authors ....................... . the frontier revival frame and women’s cross-border adventure texts ........................................................................................................................ . conclusion ............................................................................................................... . notes to chapter .................................................................................................... social departures: retracing the female frontier revival in duncan’s a social departure ( ) and taylor’s “a woman in the mackenzie delta” ( - ) ........... . introduction .............................................................................................................. . duncan ..................................................................................................................... . a social departure .................................................................................................. . taylor ....................................................................................................................... . “a woman in the mackenzie delta” ....................................................................... . conclusion ............................................................................................................... . notes to chapter .................................................................................................... new sensations: grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot ( ) and agnes deans cameron’s the new north ( ) .................................................................................... . introduction .............................................................................................................. . grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot .................................................................... . cameron’s the new north ...................................................................................... . conclusion ............................................................................................................... . notes to chapter .................................................................................................... hunters of peace: mary schäffer’s old indian trails of the canadian rockies ( ) and agnes laut’s enchanted trails of glacier park ( ) ............................................ . introduction .............................................................................................................. 	
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   . schäffer .................................................................................................................... . the horizons of gender in old indian trails ......................................................... . wilderness conservation in old indian trails ........................................................ . laut .......................................................................................................................... . intercontinental movement/change in enchanted trails of glacier park .............. . wilderness conservation in enchanted trails of glacier park .............................. . conclusion ............................................................................................................... . notes to chapter .................................................................................................... conclusion. coming full circle: reflecting on the women of the frontier revival ................................................................................................................................ . the problem of restoring order ............................................................................. . corporeal cartography: mapping my research on the travelling body................. . . movement/change: theorizing the travelling body................................... . . movement: comparative close readings .................................................... . . change: reading the travelling body over time ...................................... . new directions: possibilities for future research ................................................. . as far as you can go: final thoughts .................................................................. . notes to chapter .................................................................................................... bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 	
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   list of figures figure . frame diagram	
   ........................................................................................................ 	
   figure . anon, “you feel with wonder that you are not doing anything very extraordinary at all,” in sara jeannette duncan, a social departure: how orthodocia and i went round the world by ourselves, (london, edinburgh, dublin, and new york: thomas nelson & sons ), .................................................................................................................................................... 	
   figure . e.m. ashe, “i could not keep away from his hoofs,” grace gallatin, a woman tenderfoot, (new york: doubleday, page and co, ), ..................................................... figure . agnes deans cameron, “a magnificent trophy.” agnes deans cameron, the new north: being some account of a woman’s journey through canada to the arctic by agnes deans cameron, , (new york: d. appleton and company, ), ii, frontispiece ........................ figure . agnes deans cameron. “cannibal louise, her little girl, and miss cameron,” agnes deans cameron, the new north: being some account of a woman’s journey through canada to the arctic, , (new york: d. appleton and company, ), ........................ figure . mary schäffer, “nibs and his mistress,” mary schäffer, old indian trails: incidents of camp and trail life, covering two years’ exploration through the rocky mountains of canada, (toronto: william briggs; new york: g.p. putnam’s sons, ). n.pag., frontispiece ........................................................................................................................................................ figure . mary schäffer, “when i saw the last of those four men i knew what was going to happen,” mary schäffer, old indian trails: incidents of camp and trail life, covering two years’ exploration through the rocky mountains of canada, mary schäffer, (toronto: william briggs; new york: g.p. putnam’s sons, ), ..................................................................... figure . mary schäffer, “sampson beaver, his squaw, and little frances louise,” mary schäffer. old indian trails: incidents of camp and trail life, covering two years’ exploration through the rocky mountains of canada, (toronto: william briggs; new york: g.p. putnam’s sons, ), ............................................................................................................................. 	
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   figure . agnes laut, “the last of their kind,” agnes laut, enchanted trails of glacier park, (new york: robert m. mcbride & company, ), (lavergne, tn: kessinger publishing, ), ........................................................................................................................................ figure . agnes laut, “james willard schultz, tail-feathers coming over the hill and eagle child in conference,” agnes laut, enchanted trails of glacier park, (new york: robert m. mcbride & company, ), (lavergne, tn: kessinger publishing, ), ....................... 	
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   list of abbreviations les - locational event structure metaphor ls - locational self metaphor os - objective standpoint metaphor sc - self as container metaphor 	
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   acknowledgements it is a great pleasure to thank my supervisor, sherrill grace, a trailblazer, for her extraordinary mentorship over the last five years. i am grateful to sherrill for her inspiring work on remapping canadian literature, her practical advice in weekly meetings, her scrupulous feedback, as well as for giving me the opportunity to work with her on various projects. sherrill has taught me the value of finding and believing in my own voice, of having opinions and letting them change, of keeping an eye on the smallest of details, and of always looking “onwards.” i would like to offer heartfelt thanks to my committee member barbara dancygier for introducing me to the field of cognitive linguistics and for always encouraging me to broaden my horizons. her truly groundbreaking, hands on, and passionate commitment to guiding me and other young scholars on how to adapt our own interdisciplinary approaches to the field helped me to believe in my project and to enter into a dialogue with other scholars. i am deeply grateful to jean barman for joining my committee in the candidacy stage and for lending a fresh, original, and invaluable perspective on the history of western canada and canadian women’s literature. jean provided me with significant momentum during the dissertation stage. through motivational, astute, and in-depth advice, she encouraged me to focus my writing, while reminding me to always keep an eye on the big picture. this dissertation was partly funded by a grant from the social sciences and humanities council, which gave me the opportunity to pursue my research. i also appreciate the support that i have received from the university of british columbia throughout my degree. i would like to thank the following professors, colleagues, and support staff whose help and feedback has had a direct impact on my doctoral work: patsy badir, mary chapman, cognitive 	
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   linguistics reading group members, sian echard, suzanna egan, carole gerson, green college members and staff, heidi hansson, mark johnson, eva-marie kröller, valerie legge, carol lynn moder, laura moss, ronald rompkey, anka ryall, louise soga, peter stockwell, eve sweetser, linda vecchi, mark vessey, henning howlid wærp, and dominique yupangco. i would like to thank my coeditors of bearing witness: perspectives on war and peace from the arts and humanities ( ), sherrill grace and patrick imbert, as well as the contributors to the volume, and mc-gill-queen’s university press, for an incredible opportunity that i continued to learn from throughout the process of writing my dissertation. for professional assistance over the years, i would like to thank leonora angeles, faith balisch, sarah banting, mike borkent, daniel chartier, the journal of northern studies, jan lermitte, larry mathews, nash mayfield, andrea most, newfoundland and labrador studies, nordlit, katharine patterson, jaclyn rea, magdalene redekop, becki ross, annette staveley, janice stewart, tyson stolte, and my students in wmst a. i am indebted to dear friends, confidantes, and loved ones whose daily motivation has sustained and moved me during the dissertation process. very special thanks go out to laura broadway, petra klupkova, kostadin kushlev, emily polak, anne stewart, and scott wannop. i am especially grateful to my family for being there from the beginning with kindness, generosity, patience, and inspiration. in particular, i thank my parents, bonnie johnstone and frederick johnstone, for their unshakeable guidance and support in life and work. i am also grateful to my sisters zoe johnstone-guha and oona johnstone, my brothers-in-law arnie guha and dirk landgraf, my nephews arun johnstone-guha and anil johnstone-guha, as well as my grandparents and extended family for sharing in this journey. 	
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   dedication i dedicate this thesis to my family for teaching me the value of journeys and of homes, and for their unwavering counsel from afar. i would like to honour the memory of my grandfather job taylor bradbury ( - ) whose strength helped me to navigate the trip west and the different stages of my degree. 	
   	
   introduction. women’s movements: charting the female body across borders and disciplines then i suddenly realized that our own recently brushed up garments were frayed and worn and our buckskin coats had a savage cast, that my three companions looked like indians, and that [rudyard kipling’s wife] gazing at us belonged to another world. it was then that i wanted my wild free life back again, yet step by step i was leaving it behind. -mary schäffer, old indian trails, . . starting out: preliminary thoughts in , mary schäffer, a budding american wilderness artist and travel writer, writes of her prescient encounter with one of the most iconic turn of the century figures of travel writing and empire in north america and the british commonwealth—rudyard kipling. in the above quote, she describes briefly passing a carriage in which she glimpses kipling and his wife as she makes her way back to banff after four months in the wilderness. kipling himself documents this encounter in a letter to his sons, noting schäffer’s uncanny ability to transform from a rugged wilderness traveller to an affluent cosmopolitan woman, clad in an evening gown, when he comes across her again later in the hotel (qtd. in e.j. hart ). this crossing of paths between schäffer and kipling is a fitting example with which to introduce my discussion of how women travel writers at the turn of the twentieth century used images of the travelling body to evoke and often critique north american discourses of imperialism and frontier expansion. their meeting, which clearly had an impact on both parties, points to important intersecting cultural, historical, and literary avenues that i address and explore in the following chapters. in my dissertation, i argue several key points about travel writing. travel writing conveys meaning that can be read on the level of the body itself. this is particularly true of texts that emphasize the cultural significance of physical movement. such meaning often occurs across boundaries of 	
   	
   geography, discipline, and genre and requires a new, interdisciplinary way of analyzing texts. studying representations of the travelling body in turn of the twentieth-century frontier adventure texts by north americans on both sides of the border allows me to identify a corpus of texts, which i refer to as the genre of frontier revival literature. written by canadians and americans, this genre is aimed at an eastern, urban, cross-border audience. frontier revival authors represent the westward travelling body as reliving american frontier values in western canada, a site that they mythologize as the last north american frontier. frontier revival texts by women are particularly rich in meaning as female authors tend to express ambivalence toward the imperialist connotations of the very physical motifs that they adopt. because most types of physical mobility in travel literature are associated with the male body and with aspects of male experience, women travel writers negotiate with dominant cultural ideas by taking on such masculine modes of physical mobility. in this dissertation, i interpret six texts by canadian and american female frontier revival authors that epitomize the way that women writers join and contest popular cross-border debates about empire, gender, and race through motifs of the travelling body. tracking three chronological stages of frontier revival literature, i compare sara jeannette duncan’s a social departure ( ) with elizabeth taylor’s “a woman in the mackenzie delta” ” ( - ), grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot ( ) with agnes deans cameron’s a new north ( ), and mary schäffer’s old indian trails ( ) with agnes laut’s enchanted trails of glacier park ( ). identifying a new genre of texts requires a new way of reading and i propose and apply a new methodology for studying these texts. i combine feminist theory with cognitive linguistic scholarship on conceptual metaphor and frame theory to study the travelling body in frontier revival literature. work on conceptual metaphor shows how language and thought consist of metaphorical mappings between our daily, lived experience in our bodies and abstract concepts. i build on this scholarship by 	
   	
   borrowing a set of conceptual metaphors and showing how they occur in literary texts and how their usage is affected by experiential and discursive factors relating to gender, ethnicity, ideology, and national affiliation. feminist work on travel literature (grace; mills, discourses of difference; pratt; roy; sidonie smith, moving), and body and autobiography theory (butler; lutes; sidonie smith and watson) explores how women inevitably reiterate and negotiate with dominant, gendered cultural norms when representing their lives. i develop such work by showing how this negotiation with dominant cultural ideas can be read and analyzed through a structured set of metaphors that emerge on the level of the body. combining feminist literary theory with conceptual metaphor theory provides a more structured literary close reading than a feminist literary analysis on its own would allow and extends the possibilities of applying conceptual metaphor theory to literary close readings. in this introduction, i establish and apply some of the main ideas that are central to the genre, texts, scholarship, and methodology of my dissertation. i start off with a brief analysis of the above passage by schäffer in order to show how i apply some of the bigger concepts that i am addressing through literary close reading. i then explain my interdisciplinary approach and situate my work in preliminary, broad strokes within overlapping fields of scholarship. i also clarify some of the key terms that i will be using in the dissertation such as frontier revival literature, manifest destiny, cross-border, metaphor, frame, the body, and i provide a brief outline of the main chapters. . “it was then that i wanted my wild free life back again:” schäffer and kipling and then we struck the highway and on it a carriage with [kipling and his wife] in it! oh! the tragedy of the comparison! the woman’s gown was blue. i think her hat contained a white wing. i only saw it all in one awful flash from the corner of my right eye, and i remember distinctly that she had gloves on. then i suddenly realized that our own recently brushed up garments were frayed and worn and our buckskin coats had a savage cast, that 	
   	
   my three companions looked like indians, and that the lady gazing at us belonged to another world. it was then that i wanted my wild free life back again, yet step by step i was leaving it behind. -mary schäffer, old indian trails, . this meeting of american and british travel writers in the canadian rockies exemplifies the international interest in western canada as a mythic last frontier setting at the turn of the twentieth century. their meeting just as schäffer “struck the highway” ( ) associates the popular travel routes in western canada with imperialist ideas about progress and westward expansion in canadian, british, and american travel writing. their brief mutual awareness as they pass along the road implies a shared participation (despite diverging national backgrounds) in mythologizing western canada as a site of imperialist expansion. kipling’s presence in this passage evokes british imperialist rhetoric about such expansion. as an american, schäffer represents the imperialist boom in the united states in the early twentieth century and american interests in travelling northwestward at that time. however, schäffer describes this “flash” encounter as brief, random, and dislocating so as to emphasize the slipperiness of the very ideas of empire that they each partake in. as scholars such as mary louise pratt and edward said have pointed out, travel writing is intimately tied to ideas of empire building. however, it is important to inquire into how travel writing conveys ideas of empire when national borders themselves are in flux. while this may seem like a question more suited to contemporary questions about travel in an era of globalization, it also strongly applies to the fluidity of national borders and identities in north america in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. schäffer’s sense of conflict in this passage epitomizes the increased ambivalence and self-reflexivity of women frontier revival authors toward the very imperialist symbolism that they evoke in the wilderness. 	
   	
   this passage indicates how bodies perform the tightrope walk of imperialist discourse in frontier revival literature by connecting travel to imperialist expansion, while having to negotiate slippery concepts of gender, race, citizenship, borders, and nationhood. schäffer describes this moment as a brief mutual glimpse between herself and the kiplings. she refers to the “the tragedy of the comparison” between her appearance and that of kipling’s wife. the latter is portrayed in a static and confined setting in a carriage and in conventionally feminine attire, while schäffer is described as riding horseback and appearing rugged, masculine, and aboriginal. schäffer’s embarrassment at not living up to conventional standards of femininity suggests at least a partial investment in a shared cultural perspective with which she either cannot or will not comply. she associates these dominant cultural standards with the appearance of urban, affluent, eastern, anglo-saxon heritage and of fixed gender roles, all of which she abandons on the trail. by referring to this encounter with kipling in this corporeal manner, schäffer emphasizes the extent to which their shared identification with ideas of empire occurs more so on the level of the body (through identifiers of race, class, and gender) than according to specific national or geographical affiliations. while kipling himself is an elusive, background figure in this passage, schäffer focusses on his wife as a perplexing physical counterpart to herself. her description of their shared mutual glance, while occupying different “world[s],” suggests that schäffer’s conflicts about her own gender identity force her to be more self-conscious about the fluidities and ambiguities of the travelling body. her perspective as a woman, along with the unruliness of her female body in this passage, means that she cannot take this imperialist perspective for granted, but rather must question it. not being able to physically pass for a white, anglo-saxon traveller, or to fit within recognizable gender roles, means that she cannot merely assume and impose the same kind of cultural authority as her male peers. schäffer’s sudden desire to maintain her alternative appearance and return to the trail in her statement that “[i]t was 	
   	
   then that i wanted my wild free life back again, yet step by step i was leaving it behind” ( ) represents her conflict with the fixed, unquestioning identification with imperialist assumptions about gender and race in the texts of male travel writers. ironically, schäffer describes the return to banff and to the more conventional boundaries of gender and race of which she is reminded by the kiplings as a step backwards, and thus as a kind of cultural regression, as opposed to the restoration of her cultural authority, which readers would expect at the end of her text. schäffer still evokes ideas of progress through images of linear movement, change, and allusions to “freedom.” however, for schäffer, as for the other women discussed in this dissertation, progress is ironically portrayed as a process of escaping the restrictions of their own cultural backgrounds on the trail, as opposed to asserting any sort of national affiliation and returning home. like her female contemporaries, she suggests a more fluid relationship to geographical and national boundaries and an awareness of the performativity of the imperialist role that she assumes as a travel writer. . crossing paths: border crossing and the frontier revival because of the interdisciplinary nature of my work, it is necessary to explain how i situate myself in relation to overlapping fields of research, and to clarify my use of certain terms that are central to the dissertation. before i introduce the interdisciplinarity of my methodology, in which i bridge feminist and conceptual metaphor theory, i briefly address how my work is also interdisciplinary in relation to several overlapping fields such as history, literary scholarship, canadian and american literary studies, fiction and non-fiction, and visual studies. 	
   	
   . . interdisciplinarity i draw on various different fields of scholarship relating to literature, history, and cultural studies in my study of women’s frontier revival literature. i develop historical and literary scholarship by focussing on a particular historical context of authors from both sides of the border who were writing about western canada and publishing in eastern american cities. my historical focus allows me to think outside of the divisions between american and canadian literature by examining how writers on both sides of the border participated in similar types of writing—more specifically how american discourses of westward expansion were adopted by canadian and american authors to appeal to broader ideas of continental expansion that would have been familiar to readers on both sides of the border. i look at texts by canadian writers who published in the american publishing industry and who drew heavily on american rhetoric about westward expansion. i also explore american authors who travelled and sometimes even lived across the border in western canada. i situate my work within canadian literary studies because i am interested primarily in how american discourses were imposed upon canadian settings and how canadian writers were influenced by their engagement with the american publishing industry and their involvement in a cross-border genre. i draw on scholarship relating to both canadian and american travel literature, but i aim to contribute in particular to existing scholarship on canadian women travellers (buchanan et al.; buss; goldman; grace; roy) and canadian literature from a more cross-border perspective (barman, constance; doyle; higham and thacker; mount). thinking outside the more conventional boundaries of canadian and american literature allows me to study how discourses about eastern and western regions in north america often play an equally, if not more, important role in shaping travel writing, than national affiliation. i build on scholarship that focusses on literature in western canada from a cross-border perspective (barman, constance; doyle; georgi- findlay; higham and thacker; jameson and mcmanus; morrison; pagh). i also combine literary 	
   	
   analysis with the study of visual images in my discussion of several photographs and illustrations in the primary texts. because of my focus on the body, it is important to take into account how representations of physical movement occur through both text and visual images. in particular, i incorporate scholarship on photography into my close readings (barthes; lippard; macfarlane; sontag). another interdisciplinary feature of my work is my study of a range of primary texts including journalism (taylor), autobiographical travel guides (cameron; gallatin; laut; schäffer), and a semi-fictionalized, first person travel memoir that resembles a novel (duncan). while these texts are not often viewed in connection to one another, i see them as united in their skillful engagement with the cultural background, metaphors, and ideas of frontier revival literature. there are several contemporary cultural examples both in academic and non-academic spheres of an increased canadian interest in interdisciplinary perspectives on representations of westward travel in north america at the turn of the last century. from october to january , the vancouver art gallery featured a major exhibit called expanding horizons: painting and photography of american and canadian landscape - . this incorporation of art from both sides of the border indicates an increased tendency to examine canadian literature, history, and art as intertwined with that of the united states. representations of the landscape, westward expansion, and travel are crucial to the arts on both sides of the border and this exhibit exemplifies a growing public recognition of the ways that canadian and american representations of the west are intimately connected. in october , vancouver opera staged lillian alling by john murrell and john estacio based on the real story of a female russian immigrant who is said to have trekked from british columbia back to russia in the s. similarly, in , the mina hubbard centennial celebrations in labrador hosted a combination of academic- and community- based events commemorating mina hubbard’s well known travel book, a woman’s way through 	
   	
   unknown labrador. both lillian alling and mina hubbard can be seen as international female travellers (alling travelled from new york to british columbia and supposedly back to siberia and hubbard was canadian, but moved to new york state where she trained as a nurse and later married and lived with american travel writer leonidas hubbard). however, their journeys have also recently been recovered and adopted as vital parts of canadian history. also, new editions of texts by women travellers who wrote about their journeys in western canada, including agnes deans cameron, grace gallatin, and mary schäffer, along with academic studies of women travel writers in canada (buchanan et al; grace; e.j. hart; skidmore), indicate renewed cultural interest in women’s travel in canada at the time. this recent interest opens up many new opportunities to discuss the way women travel writers at the time engage in complex, cross-border debates about ideas of gender, ethnicity, empire, and national identity that were part of canadian literature and culture at the time. . . cross-border it is important to define my use of the term cross-border to situate my work within recent scholarship that approaches canadian literature and history from a transnational or comparative literature perspective. i use the term cross-border to indicate literal border crossing by canadian and american writers who crossed the border either for temporary travel, for work and publishing opportunities, or to live. all of the women i study are cross-border in that the canadian writers travelled, published or lived in the united states and the american writers travelled, and in the case of schäffer, lived in canada. i use this term as well throughout my dissertation to refer to the cross-cultural and literary influences that these writers had on readers and writers on both sides of 	
   	
   the canadian and american border. the term border is of course a slippery one, especially at the end of the nineteenth century when the canadian/american border had only been fully decided upon a half century earlier and there was considerable movement both north and south across this territorial divide. it is beyond the scope of this dissertation to explore more fully the legal ramifications of border crossing at the time as well as cultural attitudes toward the border. however, i use the term cross-border to acknowledge, as do the authors i am studying, the physical and cultural crossing of borders that occurs in their work. while all of these authors blur the boundaries between canadian and american identity in their texts, they remain aware that they engage in acts of literal and symbolic border-crossing and it is with an awareness of ambiguities inherent to their border-crossing that i use the term. recent comparative studies (higham and thacker; morrison) show how canadian and american literary histories are intimately connected and must be studied in relation to one another. as thacker notes, this is particularly important to the study of canadian literature because the collective experience of being adjacent—of being similar and proximal, and yet different and separate from the united states—is a fundamental aspect of canadian culture (thacker ). i build on recent more comparative approaches to canadian literature by showing how a comparative approach to women’s travel literature offers particular insight into cross-border literature at the time. . . frontier revival literature frontier revival literature is another important term that i use frequently in my dissertation because it helps to situate my work within scholarship on turn of the twentieth-century cross-border print culture. i use this term to refer to a specific, and previously unexplored, genre of texts to which the writers that i 	
   	
   study belong. this genre is characterized by first person tourist adventure accounts that were published in the northeastern american fin-de-siècle publishing industry. they were written by and for urban easterners on both sides of the canadian/american border and in the style of east coast journalism. these texts are set in western canada and often employ distinctly american discourses of cultural progress. they describe western canada as a site in which to relive and revive what i see as a somewhat diluted, popularized version of american manifest destiny rhetoric that refers more to the broader north american continental expansion of white, anglo-saxon culture than to previous culturally and historically specific versions of manifest destiny rhetoric. most importantly, frontier revival texts contain recurring motifs of physical movement. my work on frontier revival literature builds on earlier work by canadian literature and print culture scholars on canadian expatriate writers who published in the states (barman, constance; doyle; mount) and american writers who wrote about canada (doyle; johnstone; schmidt). i build on this previous scholarship by showing that turn of the century travel texts by canadians and americans about western canada epitomize a nexus of canadian writers publishing in the united states and americans writing about canada. because of the cross-border nature of this genre, it offers new insights into the ways that americans represented canada at the time and how canadians participated in such representations. important recent work has also been done on turn of the twentieth-century women’s journalism and print culture in canada (barman, constance; doyle; fiamengo; gerson; lang) and the united states (lutes), as well as on canadian women’s involvement in the american publishing industry (barman, constance; doyle; gerson), and on women’s cross-border writing about western regions of north america (georgi-findlay; jameson and mcmanus; pagh). such recent scholarship has shed light on how women on both sides of the border at the time took advantage of new opportunities for women in the north american publishing industry. i expand this work by identifying an actual genre in which women on both sides of the border 	
   	
   participated, in order to allow for the literature of such women to be explored through literary close reading. by identifying a genre that was developed by male authors but in which women participated, i can also explore how women on both sides of the border engaged in dominant cultural discourses in relation to their cross-border male peers and how they refashioned a masculinist discourse to suit their feminist goals. . . manifest destiny it is also important to clarify my use of the term manifest destiny, which i often employ as a kind of short hand for the admittedly complex ideological underpinnings of frontier revival literature. manifest destiny is a loaded term and as with the study of borders, is a whole topic in and of itself that is discussed at great length and with great variation by scholars of literature, history, and social sciences. the term has also entered popular parlance in a way that is somewhat removed from particular historical origins and usages, similar to other pervasive catch phrases such as the american dream. as historians point out, american manifest destiny rhetoric developed in the early nineteenth century as a way of justifying and promoting american territorial expansion as a divinely ordained cultural mission (greenberg; kaplan; nugent). there was a stage of heightened american imperialism at the turn of the twentieth century that saw a resurgence of earlier, nineteenth-century manifest destiny rhetoric about the shared cultural mission of westward expansion (nugent xv). this rhetoric was applied to frontier regions of canada through journalism, travel literature, and popular fiction (bloom; doyle; johnstone “language”), and was particularly useful in literary portraits of western canada (doyle). recent feminist scholarship on american imperialism also demonstrates that nineteenth-century manifest destiny rhetoric was highly racialized and gendered (greenberg; romero; wexler). it is important to 	
   	
   note that my discussion of manifest destiny focusses not on the complex cultural specificity and evolution of this term throughout the nineteenth century, but rather on its popularized reemergence at the turn of the twentieth century in adventure literature about western canada. specifically, i argue that the movement of the travelling body in frontier revival literature is a kind of corporeal short hand for the underpinning ideological assumptions of manifest destiny—namely that american westward expansion is a shared cultural mission imbued with ideas of spiritual duty and redemption. the travelling body in frontier revival literature by men (garland; murray; ralph) represents ideas of cultural progress and expansion in western canada through the white male body; however, this gender bias is not acknowledged or addressed in an in-depth way by male authors. the authors claim to speak on behalf of north americans in general so that manifest destiny refers to north american, rather than just american, progress. however, the journey is so implicitly yet pervasively gendered and racialized in these texts that it becomes clear that such cross-border ideas of progress refer to the expansion of a masculinist, white, anglo-saxon status quo on both sides of the border. female frontier revival authors reveal the biases in frontier revival literature by describing their conflicted female subject positions through images of the female travelling body. i use the term manifest destiny to describe gendered and racialized ideas of divinely ordained american westward expansion that reemerged in popular literature about western canada at the turn of the twentieth century through images of the travelling body. . crossroads: reading the travelling female body it is also necessary to briefly introduce the interdisciplinary methodology that i develop for close readings based on aspects of feminist and conceptual metaphor theory. i also clarify some of the key terms that i use in the dissertation relating to embodiment. 	
   	
   . . conceptual metaphor and feminist literary analysis the main aspect of my methodological interdisciplinarity occurs in the bridging of cognitive linguistics work in conceptual metaphor with feminist theory and women’s literature. this methodology emerges not out of the desire to indulge in theoretical acrobatics, but rather out of the need to find a way of reading that can adequately interpret the rich layers of meaning in these primary texts. as i explain in the following chapters, feminist theory on the body and autobiography that informs my study of women travel writers provides a broader theoretical vocabulary with which to explore how women’s identities reiterate, perform, and talk back to dominant cultural norms (butler; lutes; sidonie smith and watson). work on women’s travel literature—particularly in the field of canadian literature—skillfully identifies the way that women travel writers express ambivalence in their identification with discourses of imperialism due to their conflicting female subject positions (buchanan et al.; buss; goldman; grace; roy). in my dissertation, i attempt to ground these broader theoretical debates in a more structured approach to literary close readings of women’s travel texts. conceptual metaphor theory is an interdisciplinary field that lends itself to developing new forms of literary close reading. work on conceptual metaphor theory (lakoff and johnson; lakoff and turner; semino; stockwell; sweetser) identifies networks of metaphors that stem from bodily experience, which i argue are especially helpful in understanding literary texts about the body. it is important to note that just as my interdisciplinary interest in historical scholarship and in american literature ultimately serves my primary interest in canadian literature, so too does my interdisciplinary interest in conceptual metaphor support my feminist literary perspective. it is beyond the scope of my dissertation to dig further into the kinds of data analysis that characterizes linguistics work. what i do address in my dissertation are the ways that aspects of conceptual metaphor theory can be incorporated within a feminist literary analysis of travel literature. by borrowing aspects of conceptual metaphor theory, i can conduct a more structured close 	
   	
   reading than a feminist literary analysis offers on its own. i hope to contribute to conceptual metaphor work by shedding light on how such metaphors occur in literary texts and in relation to discourses of gender, ethnicity, ideology, and national affiliation. . . feminist perspectives i build on several key ideas in the work of feminist body and autobiography theorists. in bodies that matter, judith butler argues that bodies perform cultural meaning so as to achieve “cultural intelligibility” ( ). the travelling body in frontier revival literature offers a kind of physical template by which to symbolically perform ideas fundamental to manifest destiny. because there is no way of referring to the body that is not mediated by culturally specific discourses (butler ), i argue that it is important to question the ideological biases in genres of literature in which the body is prominently featured. butler also cautions that the nature of performativity is to conceal itself ( ) and this is also an important reminder for scholars of travel literature. i show how female frontier revival authors are more aware of the performativity and underlying cultural biases of travel literature than their male peers. autobiography theorists sidonie smith and julia watson raise important questions about female self- representation, asking “if male representations of woman project her as the self-contented, arrested, and arresting other, what might it mean for the woman artist to take herself . . . as subject?” (sidonie smith and watson, “mapping” ). i show that women frontier revival authors are writing in response to a genre that prioritizes masculinist perspectives on ideas of cultural progress. feminist scholarship on travel literature explores the conflicting ways that women travel writers identify with dominant imperialist discourses (grace; mills, discourses of difference; pratt; roy; sidonie smith, moving). the burgeoning and increasingly prominent field of women’s travel within canada explores these questions 	
   	
   and sees them as central to canadian women’s literature (buchanan; buss; goldman; grace; roy). i seek to contribute to this field by focussing on how the conflicting subject positions of female travellers emerge through the female body. by highlighting their female perspectives on the travelling body, they raise questions about how ideas of progress, while seeming to be broadly representative, actually prioritize the white male body and white, masculinist cultural perspectives. the main contribution that i hope to make to feminist literary theory lies in the structured and detailed way that i read meaning in representations of the travelling body. . . conceptual metaphor theory for this more structured reading of the female travelling body, i borrow certain key methods from cognitive linguistics work on conceptual metaphor theory. conceptual metaphor theory explores how we understand abstract concepts through metaphor and how such metaphors emerge from our daily lived experiences in the body (semino ). conceptual metaphor theorists offer specific metaphors that they show to be prevalent in thought, language, and literature (freeman; lakoff and johnson; lakoff and turner; semino; stockwell; sweetser). in particular, i draw on key metaphors introduced in the work of george lakoff and mark johnson including the influential texts, metaphors we live by and philosophy in the flesh. for instance, in the locational event structure metaphor, key mappings include states are bounded locations, causes are movements, difficulties are impediments to motion, and purposes are destinations (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). i show how metaphors about location are important in travel literature because authors convey ideas of cultural progress according to physical descriptions of their movement. metaphors of containment such as the self as a container and objective standpoint metaphors are also very important because travellers 	
   	
   often describe states of progress according to movement in between, through, or at the edge of bounded locations. my use of these metaphors offers a specific and detailed method of close reading. aside from providing a more grounded and detailed feminist analysis, my approach also contributes to conceptual metaphor theory by exploring how conceptual metaphors occur in literary texts and in the context of specific cultural discourses relating to gender, ethnicity, ideology, and national affiliation. . . the body because i am incorporating these somewhat different theoretical approaches in my work, it is important to clarify my thoughts on the body and on embodiment—words that carry different connotations in feminist and conceptual metaphor circles. as elizabeth hart notes, “[e]mbodiment, in butler’s scenario, is thus something that happens to the body, is an imposition upon the body by culture” (elizabeth hart ), while according to cognitive linguists, “language and discourse are themselves . . . cognitively embodied” (elizabeth hart ). feminist and cognitive linguistic approaches to the body are part of two quite distinct and in some ways opposing disciplines that could be compared or contrasted in many different ways. my particular study of female frontier revival authors falls primarily into the fields of feminist literary analysis and the study of women’s travel literature in canada. my overall interest is in how women negotiate specific discourses of cultural progress through the female body in a way that i show to be more complex and self-reflexive than their male peers. however, as elizabeth hart notes, feminist theorists focus on how abstract ideas affect the body in a way that ignores how bodily experience affects the way meaning is made. like conceptual metaphor theorists, i am interested in the way that experiential knowledge about our bodily experience contributes to shared patterns of language and i adapt conceptual metaphor theory 	
   	
   as the specific methodology with which to apply my literary analysis. i argue that the female travelling body is rich in meaning that can only be fully grasped through the ideological framework of feminist literary analysis and the more specific methodology of conceptual metaphor theory. i explore how the meaning of the travelling body tends to be more rich and self-reflexive in texts by women and i support my reading by locating and analyzing it through the structured network of intersecting conceptual metaphors in descriptions of physical movement in these texts. . . framing i also borrow the concept of framing from cognitive linguists as a way of helping to reconcile feminist and conceptual metaphor perspectives. i build on charles fillmore’s approach to frames as “any system of concepts related in such a way that to understand any one of them you have to understand the whole structure in which it fits” (“frame semantics” ). developing fillmore’s approach to frames, sweetser and fauconnier provide an example of the common frame of “a commercial event,” including the roles of “buyer,” “seller,” and “goods” ( ). in my own work, i envision literary frames as a meeting point between the two intersecting realms of conceptual metaphor and cultural discourse. i interpret frames as general knowledge structures based on motifs of physical movement that on their own do not convey specific conceptual metaphors or specific cultural discourses. when certain conceptual metaphors recur together in specific cultural settings they create knowledge structures that i see as the basis of literary genres. i identify what i refer to as a frontier revival frame in the texts that i study and see this frame as consisting of several physical motifs including: ) a metonymic eastern travelling body; ) a cyclical northwestern journey; ) a struggle in the wilderness (loss and renewal of control); and ) a return home (with a final renewal of control) (see fig . ). in other words, frontier revival 	
   	
   authors use a network of specific conceptual metaphors in a specific historical, cultural, and literary setting so as to create a general frame in the minds of readers. when frontier revival authors draw on basic physical components such as a cyclical journey, they instantly trigger readers’ shared experiential knowledge that underlies conceptual metaphor, as well as a whole set of specific cultural discourses. . . the travelling body when i refer to the travelling body in frontier revival literature i am talking about what i see as the frame concept of the travelling body in the frontier revival frame. when individual travellers describe their physical movements in frontier revival literature, they do so in a way that triggers a set of conceptual metaphors as well as a set of cultural beliefs and ideas about travel. one of the interesting aspects of exploring conceptual metaphors in literature is the way that metaphors occur with variation in literature according to the specific body type of the author and the types of cultural discourses the author draws upon when describing physical movements. in this way, a varied group of authors can trigger, for instance, the travelling body of the frontier revival frame, while using it in different ways with a great diversity of individual perspectives and cultural inflection. female frontier revival authors use the travelling body of the frame in ways that both evoke and also contest aspects of the work of their male peers. i interpret individual bodies as always negotiating frames that include, on the one hand, experientially based conceptual metaphor, and on the other hand, complex cultural discourses. in my work, when i refer to the body, i am usually referring to an archetypal, metonymic representation of bodies that individual travellers represent in their texts—one that exists on the level of frames. the body of the frontier revival frame that i discuss in my work is not the body of cognitive linguistics that usually refers to a more purely experiential realm underlying specific linguistic examples. this is 	
   	
   because i am exploring a frame concept of the body that consists of both a network of conceptual metaphors, as well as a very specific historical and literary context. my discussion of the body is also not the body of feminist theorists that is usually discussed as enacting cultural ideas without any structured or shared meaning emerging on the level of the body itself. my discussion of the body differs from this latter approach because i recognize a structured language emerging from the body that exists in the much larger and undeniable cultural context that is still my main concern as a feminist literary scholar. i interpret the body according to a specific set of conceptual metaphors, while also paying close attention to the performativity of such metaphors in specific cultural settings. i refer to the travelling body as a specific frame concept. the travelling body in the frontier revival frame represents a whole specific set of conceptual metaphors and cultural discourses that connect movement to self-definition. . . bodies and selves i pay attention to the self-reflexivity that emerges when women use experiential metaphors differently than their male peers. i show how they call attention to the metaphoricity and cultural performativity of such metaphors. this tension between the body (as a universal source of abstract knowledge) and the body (as a cultural signifier that limits what they can do) becomes a central point of tension and also agency in these texts. it allows them to access the body as a kind of common language that gives them entry into public, masculine fields of activity. it also allows them to expand cultural attitudes toward the body to show that ideas relating to gender and ethnicity are more fluid and open to interpretation than previously thought. more specifically, when analyzing examples from texts such as the previously quoted passage from mary schäffer’s old indian trails, i show how the author renegotiates dominant discourse through 	
   	
   conceptual metaphor. for instance, schäffer’s comment that “[i]t was then that i wanted my wild free life back again, yet step by step i was leaving it behind” ( ) connects her physical movement in the wilderness to a transformative psychological experience. by describing her “wild free life” as a physical object or location that she wants “back again,” she calls on the locational event structure metaphor to map the location of being in the wilderness onto a state of freedom. she also describes movement away from the location of the wilderness as a change in her state of self through a reduction of freedom. in particular, the image of her forward movement away from this location/state implies ambivalence toward the traditional destination/goal of the change that comes with returning to civilization and restoring the frontier revival traveller’s cultural control. schäffer’s idealization of the freedom of the wilderness evokes the impediments/difficulties of the struggle in the wilderness in frontier revival literature. however, unlike her male peers, schäffer idealizes the struggle and loss of control in the wilderness as a site of rare personal freedom that she sees as more interesting and valuable than reasserting any sort of cultural control. as well, by depicting her forward movement away from the wilderness as a negative form of change, she both evokes and questions the recognizable cyclical motif of frontier revival literature in which the final destination of returning home asserts the goal of restoring cultural progress. schäffer’s idealization of the wilderness as a location/state that she is forced to leave behind in the formulaic return to civilization questions the very ideas of progress that she ostensibly supports by completing the physical cycle and narrative arc of her journey. schäffer’s disconcerting glimpse of herself through the eyes of the kiplings illustrates the fluidity of the subject positions of female travellers who exist uncomfortably between different locations/states on their travels. just as schäffer is unable to live and represent the travelling body with the unquestioning authority of male figures such as kipling, she is neither able nor willing to embody conventional, “static” (sidonie smith and watson, “mapping” ) ideals of femininity as represented by kipling’s 	
   	
   wife. completing the journey and undergoing the struggle in the wilderness, schäffer takes on a familiar heroic role in the mind of the reader; however, this heroism becomes inflected with her own gendered ambivalence toward the very ideas of progress that she performs in the wilderness. . step by step: chapter outlines in chapter , “frontiers of philosophy and flesh: staking out a feminist and conceptual metaphor approach to travel literature,” i offer a detailed explanation of how i use and adapt feminist and conceptual metaphor approaches in my work. i situate my work in relation to feminist and conceptual metaphor scholarship and show how i build upon both of these approaches so as to do a detailed analysis that feminist or cognitive linguistics close readings would not provide on their own. i explain my approach to specific ideas such as embodiment, conceptual metaphor and frame and offer a detailed explanation of the conceptual metaphors that i see as connected in the works that i study. i also draw on specific examples of work by male and female frontier revival authors to show how i apply this approach to literary close readings of frontier revival authors. in chapter , “making new bodies matter: women writers and the frontier revival,” i look at the bigger cultural, historical, and literary picture in order to contextualize the texts that i study. i explain that these six writers were part of a much bigger literary movement on both sides of the border that consisted of authors who published in the northeastern united states and who wrote journalistic adventure literature about western canada with a strong focus on the body for a cross- border audience. i develop my use of the terms frontier revival and cross-border and explore in further detail the ideological concepts of cultural progress that such texts touched upon. i also 	
   	
   explain and justify my particular selection of authors and the way that i have grouped them. i choose six authors—three canadians and three americans—whose work is representative of the main aspects of frontier revival literature and who epitomize popular female responses to dominant discourses of the day. devoting each of the three principal chapters to a comparison between an american and canadian author of a similar time period, i explore how women on both sides of the border engaged with similar textual strategies and show how these strategies changed over time with innovations such as photography and with increased social opportunities for women. i also use examples of male and female frontier revival authors to explain the way that these texts fit into a particular genre and how the texts by women authors depart from those of their male peers. in chapter , “social departures: retracing the female frontier revival in duncan’s a social departure ( ) and taylor’s “a woman in the mackenzie delta” ( - ), i compare canadian sara jeanette duncan’s travel text with that of american elizabeth taylor. writing in the s, these earlier authors epitomize the forefront of female frontier revival literature. they document their innovative journeys into areas of northwestern canada that were just beginning to become accessible to types of tourist travel that were more convenient for women travellers. i discuss duncan in particular as a canadian literary icon and reflect on how she explores the transnational aspects of canadian identity of her time through the disruptive medium of the female body. taylor is an example of a writer who, despite being relatively unheard of in current academic circles, is connected to important literary figures of the day and can shed light on the literary networks behind frontier revival literature. at the vanguard of popular east coast women’s journalism and discourses about the new woman, these texts also emphasize the marriage between the more dominant imperialist motifs of frontier adventure writing and the increased prominence 	
   	
   and visibility of women writers and debates about women’s rights. i discuss how the female travelling body disrupts conventional motifs of the frontier revival frame in these texts. for instance, the authors express a heightened state of novelty and excitement at their personal freedom as opposed to national affiliation on the trail. they also express ambivalence toward conventional destinations/goals in frontier revival literature. chapter is entitled “new sensations: grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot ( ) and agnes deans cameron’s the new north ( ). i discuss these texts as written at the height of frontier revival literature and drawing on increasingly recognizable motifs of female frontier revival literature. both women are much more outspoken in their feminist beliefs and present more unapologetically gendered and defiant personae in their texts. they both present sensationalized images of the female body in ways that explicitly disrupt and challenge gendered and racialized ideas of progress in frontier revival literature. gallatin’s text is notable in the viscerally direct way that she describes herself as guiding the reader through the text and showing women how to gain social mobility through increased physical mobility on the trail. her marriage to canadian ernest seton-thompson and literary collaborations with him, as well as her extensive connections in transnational literary and suffragist circles, make gallatin a compelling literary and historical figure who effectively demonstrates the feminist counter-perspective on male dominated discourse about a cross-border west. cameron is also much more explicit and bold than duncan and taylor in combining a mixture of cross-border imperialist discourse with a promotion of the rights of women and aboriginal people. her use of photography and her foregrounding of the female body in poses that blur categories of gender and ethnicity force the reader to question the ideas of progress that she espouses and to realize that such progress is open to interpretation. 	
   	
   in chapter , “hunters of peace: mary schäffer’s old indian trails ( ) and agnes laut’s enchanted trails of glacier park ( ), i address two later texts by american mary schäffer and canadian agnes laut. i show how these texts develop recognizable motifs in female frontier revival literature such as prioritizing individual physical freedoms, rejecting conventional destinations/goals, and existing between different locations/states. their use of such motifs takes cameron’s concerns about protecting the rights of aboriginal people and the environment to a more explicit level. schäffer, another iconic literary figure, is an example of an american who wrote, travelled in, and ultimately moved to western canada. schäffer foregrounds her female body in certain key passages and describes the struggle to be taken seriously as a female traveller. she also describes various struggles to domesticate the wilderness and to find a sense of female belonging that she cannot seem to find in urban, eastern society. however, while she frames her text according to the female body, she repeatedly connects her struggle for “[p]eace” with what can be seen as a feminist eco-criticism perspective by arguing for the protection of aboriginal people, the natural landscape, and the animals of the surrounding wilderness. similarly, agnes laut makes key references to the female body as a defining factor in how one perceives the wilderness, while focussing more on questions of how to preserve national parks and the cultures of aboriginal populations. while laut’s text is set in montana’s glacier national park, she makes frequent reference to western canada and evokes ideas of a cross-border west that pervade her large body of work. both schäffer and laut make use of photography. laut, who published her text in , even goes so far as to make several allusions to cinema. i explore how anxieties about authenticity and objectivity emerge with the rise of new media and contribute to underlying questions in these texts about who gets to represent or to see/know the west. 	
   	
   . conclusion: where is here? northrop frye’s question of “where is here” ( ) indicates the extent to which interdisciplinarity—the reaching across borders of geography and discipline—is necessary to the study of canadian literature and history. this question reminds us of the importance of articulating “imagined communities” (b. anderson ) in order to make sense of the geographical or national territories in which we find ourselves and of the paradoxically real importance that those abstract definitions carry. this question also reminds us of the nebulous connection between empirical locations (here) and the abstract definitions that allow us to make sense of where we are. part of the circular ambiguity of this question is that frye, in the context of his writing on canadian literature and identity, seems to be pointing to the many different ways that we can imagine or redefine the physical location of canada. because the words where and here are both usually used to refer in more empirical ways to locations in space, frye is hinting, particularly through the form of a question, that there is no way to define a physical location that is not discursive and open to ongoing interpretation. to be anywhere, and particularly to be in canada, frye suggests, is to be involved in an act of constant re-definition, one that is connected to real places and people, but which is also abstract and changeable. the sense of indeterminacy or adjacency connected to canadian identity indicates the importance of examining canadian literature in relation to american cultural influences (thacker ). by identifying and exploring the cross-border genre of frontier revival literature, i hope to show how at the turn of the twentieth century, ideas of western canada were simultaneously prominent in the imaginations of adventure writers on both sides of the borders, and also very much up for debate. frontier revival literature about going west at that time reflects this fixation on canadian identity, as well as on the ambiguity about that very identity, which at that historical 	
   	
   moment was especially affected by transnational literary discourses. the influence of the american publishing industry and of american imperialist discourses about canada as a last north american frontier permeated this genre. for this reason, frontier revival literature sheds light on continuing and longstanding discussions about canadian literature and canadian identity. these questions about how we imagine our physical and geographical locations are also relevant to the overlapping methodologies of conceptual metaphor and feminist theory that i have chosen to apply to my primary texts. conceptual metaphor theory shows how experiential knowledge of the body informs the way that we think about abstract ideas, including those ideas relating to personal and collective identities. my use of this theoretical approach helps me to show how images of travelling bodies in western canada at the turn of the twentieth century call on a structured network of metaphors to convey complex cultural meaning about ideas of identity and progress. as a feminist scholar, thinking about the body in terms of conceptual metaphor also compels me to note how the use of such metaphors reflects dominant cultural norms about the body and can be significantly different according to the gender of travel writers. the question of where is here? also pertains to questions within feminist scholarship about how women authors relate differently to ideas of place that often exclude them on the basis of their gender. virginia woolf’s famous statement from three guineas ( ) that “as a woman, i have no country” ( ) takes on interesting implications in the context of travel literature, especially in the context of a cross-border genre such as frontier revival literature. this is because images of travelling female bodies in such texts evoke dominant discourses about place, while showing how such discourses exclude women. 	
   	
   the function of interdisciplinarity within this dissertation is to decipher meaning in texts that exist between different categories and which have, because of this difficulty of categorization, largely fallen through the literary cracks. finding ways to interpret and analyze these texts requires finding a new vocabulary with which to read them—one that does justice to their complexity. it is this very complexity, i argue, that makes these texts intriguing aspects of canadian literary history because they provide insight into persistent cross-border debates about ideas of identity and progress that informed canadian literature of the time. . notes to chapter 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   all of the quotes from this work are from the later edition edited by e.j. hart that i cite as a hunter of peace in the bibliography. i still generally refer to the text according to the original title: old indian trails. the photographs that i discuss are from the original edition. all of the quotes from cameron’s the new north are from the recent edition edited by david richeson. however, the photographs that i discuss are from the edition. for a good summary of work on conceptual metaphor theory, see elena semino’s metaphor in discourse. for relevant recent work on border studies see findlay’s and coates’ parallel destinies and lape’s west of the border. for scholarship on manifest destiny, see kaplan, murphy, nugent, wexler, and romero.	
   i refer to the “purposes are destinations” (lakoff and johnson, philosophy in the flesh ) mapping in the les metaphor as destinations/goals. 	
   	
   frontiers of philosophy and flesh: staking out a feminist and conceptual metaphor approach to travel literature . introduction: “horizon[s], and the limit of all endurance” in old indian trails ( ), american mary schäffer ( - ) describes her and her friend’s envy toward male explorers who travelled into the rockies. she says that for women travellers, “the horizon seemed restricted, and we seemed to have reached that horizon, and the limit of all endurance” ( ). she describes this frustration as being forced “to sit with folded hands and listen calmly to the stories of the hills we so longed to see, the hills which had lured and beckoned us for years before this long list of men had ever set foot in the country” ( ). schäffer’s casual use of this horizon metaphor in to evoke competing ideas of manifest destiny and women’s rights helps me to retrace a whole legacy of cross-border adventure writing at the turn of the twentieth century. on a broader level, this passage illustrates how complex historical meanings about gender, race, and imperialism emerge through representations of the travelling body and often become more self-reflexive, layered in meaning, and politically subversive in the hands of women writers. what does this passage mean and where does the meaning come from? as cognitive philosopher mark johnson argues, the very concept of a horizon is experientially based because it connotes a limitation of knowledge based on the physical limitations of one’s sight line (“image schemas” ). for instance, johnson suggests that the universal bodily human experience of horizons underlies basic shared understandings of centre and periphery in conceptual metaphors. interested in how conceptual metaphors are lived through the female body, i read passages such as 	
   	
   this observation by schäffer as drawing on shared experiential knowledge to engage with complex cultural debates. schäffer’s idea of expanding the horizon uses this experiential knowledge to trigger a whole set of connotations about north american cultural progress relating to frontier expansion, and she extends these connotations of progress to the promotion of women’s rights. this passage hints at how representations of the female body in such adventure texts by women used american motifs of progress to promote increased opportunities for women on both sides of the border. in schäffer’s text, the horizon refers to the physical expansion of the frontier by explorers, settlers and travellers, the symbolic testing of the boundaries of cultural progress in manifest destiny rhetoric, and the challenge to limitations on women’s experiences. the experiential reference to a horizon provides schäffer the agency with which to access broader concepts of social progress and extend them to women’s rights. how does this meaning shed light on the other texts in my dissertation? in the body of the dissertation, i conduct close comparative readings of six texts: sara jeannette duncan’s a social departure: how orthodocia and i went around the world by ourselves ( ), elizabeth taylor’s “a woman in the mackenzie delta” ( - ), grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot ( ), agnes deans cameron’s the new north ( ), mary schäffer’s old indian trails ( ), and agnes laut’s enchanted trails of glacier park ( ). i argue that in travel literature, the body is rich in meaning and that such meaning is more rich and self-reflexive in texts by women travellers. all of the women whose work i study make complex and persuasive social statements through their physical movements. from duncan’s image of sitting at the front of a speeding train to gallatin’s description of fighting to steady herself as she falls off her horse in the mountains, or schäffer’s desire to broaden women’s horizons, these authors evoke north american ideas of cultural progress and apply such ideas to women’s rights on both 	
   	
   sides of the border. they speak through their bodies in a way that was popular and accessible at the time. in these texts, westward expansion simultaneously symbolizes a whole range of ideas about cultural progress, as well as increased social mobility for women. how does the process of finding and analyzing this meaning contribute to a new way of reading texts? in this chapter, i explain my approach to embodiment and show how i draw on feminist and conceptual metaphor theory to analyze meaning on the level of what i refer to as the travelling body. this meaning occurs through conceptual metaphors that are at once highly experiential and yet shaped by cultural context. feminist scholars of women’s travel literature have shown how women travel writers have appropriated the symbolism of the “individualizing journey” that is usually dominated by men (smith, moving xi). i analyze travel literature through the lens of feminist literary analysis by focussing on the big questions of how biological and cultural elements of gender are renegotiated in art, literature, and our daily lives. however, i also draw on cognitive linguistics work on how meaning is made from and through the body itself on the level of conceptual metaphors and frames. as semino points out in metaphors in discourse, one of the most innovative aspects of conceptual metaphor theory is its “focus on patterns of conventional metaphorical expressions, its emphasis on the embodied nature of many conventional metaphors, and its account of how metaphors can systematically shape our world- views” ( ). i look to conceptual metaphor theory for a more concrete understanding of how meaning emerges on the level of the body itself and for a more systematic vocabulary of metaphors with which to direct my feminist analysis. i explain my approach to embodiment and show how my methodology provides insights that neither feminist theory nor cognitive linguistics can offer on its own. i propose a way of reading meaning on the level of the body that sheds light on modes of thought at a particular time in history, and that allows me to study how 	
   	
   representations of the body evoke specific metaphors across boundaries of geography, high/low art, fiction/non-fiction, canonical/non-canonical texts, and literary/political discourse. i build on feminist theory by providing a rigorous and nuanced methodology with which to analyze how authors live metaphors through representations of the body. i also develop conceptual metaphor theory by showing how metaphors and frames appear through the body in seemingly literal representations of physical movement. bringing a rigorous methodology to a feminist perspective and an ideological lens to conceptual metaphor theory, i provide a way of reading meaning through the body. i use this approach to locate and closely analyze forms of agency in women’s literature that could otherwise go unnoticed. why study frontier adventure literature? my approach is particularly applicable to american frontier discourse about western canada at the end of the nineteenth century. while i go into much more detail about literary and historical context in chapter , i establish my use of terms such as frontier revival literature and cross-border here in order to outline the cultural context and primary field of texts in my dissertation, and to explain why this field calls for such a dramatically new approach to reading. my concept of frontier revival literature refers to a specific set of adventure texts written between and by eastern authors travelling on the western frontier. these texts are peculiarly cross-border in terms of: site of publication; cultural background; setting; and subject matter. frontier revival travellers seek to revive and relive eastern american ideas of manifest destiny in western canadian settings as a response to an increasingly waning american frontier. i explore how this idea of reliving the american frontier in canada appears through recurring physical motifs that consist of conceptual metaphors and a frontier revival frame. the genre of frontier revival literature demonstrates the usefulness of combining feminist and conceptual metaphor theory to analyze texts. the emphasis on travel as a 	
   	
   nation building exercise that is coded through the body in these texts results in a rich layering of conceptual metaphors and cultural meanings that can be best understood through this approach. my time frame— to —allows me to focus on what i see as the beginning, peak, and later developments of frontier revival literature. as i explain further in chapter , this genre developed in the s with the waning of the american frontier and the almost simultaneous opening up of western canada to immigration, travel, and development. i show how the boom in the northeastern american publishing industry coincided with an increase in adventure literature about western canada for a cross-border audience and by cross-border authors. increased opportunities for canadian and american women in literature and journalism at the time also allowed women to imitate and even contest the masculinist discourses of male frontier revival authors. while the peak of frontier revival literature occurred in the first decade of the twentieth century, it had later echoes, which i explore in laut’s text. during the last half of the nineteenth century, literary, historical, and political rhetoric in the northeastern united states was so steeped in language about the body that physical motifs of westward expansion became synonymous with cultural progress. because the eastern travelling body signifies ideas of imperial westward expansion in the late nineteenth century, it is all the more important to develop a way of critically analyzing this symbolism rather than unthinkingly endorsing its underlying assumptions about gender, race, and class. the persistence of this symbolism on both sides of the border in the primary field that i identify as frontier revival literature demonstrates how conceptual metaphors and ideas about the intercontinental expansion of anglo-saxon culture, cross conventional disciplinary and geographical lines. my methodology allows me to reach across these lines and explore gendered and racialized ideas about progress in these ostensibly separate national and literary cultures. most importantly, it lets 	
   	
   me show moments of agency and resistance that without this border-crossing methodology would stay lost in the cracks through which they have fallen. i draw on several examples to demonstrate how i use this methodology to analyze texts. for help in identifying metaphors throughout frontier revival literature, i build on scholarship about conceptual metaphor. as i explain in more detail later in this chapter, conceptual metaphor is the “cognitive mechanism” by which we understand and perceive abstract concepts according to the sensorimotor experience of living in our bodies (lakoff and johnson philosophy ). primary conceptual metaphors such as more is up conceive of subjective abstract ideas (in this case, relating to judgment about quantity) according to experiential knowledge (for more is up, this knowledge would relate to verticality) (philosophy - ). complex conceptual metaphors consist of more basic primary metaphors as well as “forms of cultural knowledge” (philosophy - ). for instance, the locational event structure metaphor, which links knowledge of movement through space with knowledge of actions, causes, changes, states, and purposes (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ), consists of primary metaphors such as: ( ) states are locations (interiors of bounded regions in space); ( ) changes are movements (into or out of bounded regions) (lakoff, “metaphor” - ). in my own close readings, i build on conceptual metaphor theory by identifying what i see as a network of complex conceptual metaphors, which i show to be connected in a unique and sustained way throughout frontier revival literature. i focus primarily on the self-control is bodily control, locational event structure (les) , and locational self (ls) metaphors, as well as the self as container (sc), objective standpoint (os), and generic is specific metaphors, which in combination produce shifting collective states of self as an individual traveller struggles for control by moving in between, through, and at the edge of 	
   	
   bounded locations. in order to understand how these metaphors connect to each other and fit into a wider social context, i identify them within a frame, or general knowledge structure (fillmore, ), and i specifically identify this frame as a frontier revival frame. by identifying the frame in which these metaphors occur, i can read how metaphors live on the level of the body in representations of physical movement that appear to be literal. i turn to work in cultural studies and feminist theory to develop my literary analysis of the cultural relevance of this network of metaphors in frontier revival literature and go into more detail about the literary, cultural, and historical focus of my methodology in chapter . in contrast with cognitive and feminist approaches to literary analysis, my approach to conceptual metaphor provides a more detailed experiential understanding of the metaphors that occur in travel literature, while also indicating a more precise understanding of cultural concepts of self in which these metaphors occur. offering a more thorough understanding of how meaning emerges both through the body and within a cultural context, i seek to understand how representations of the female travelling body disrupt and engage in wider cross-border dialogues about ideas relating to cultural identity and progress at the turn of the twentieth century. . living metaphors: combining feminist and cognitive approaches to embodiment in order to explain my approach to embodiment, it is first necessary to explore contrasting interpretations of embodiment in cognitive linguistics and feminist theory. in their influential work on metaphors including metaphors we live by ( ) and philosophy in the flesh ( ), george lakoff and mark johnson show how we use metaphors in our thoughts, daily language, and literature to understand abstract concepts according to our experiences in our bodies. this idea that the body thus shapes our abstract reasoning conflicts significantly with work on the body 	
   	
   in feminist theory. for instance, in judith butler’s influential bodies that matter ( ), she argues that socially constructed concepts, especially relating to sex and gender, are imposed upon and performed by the body ( ). as cognitive linguist elizabeth hart argues, “[e]mbodiment, in butler’s scenario, is thus something that happens to the body, is an imposition upon the body by culture” (elizabeth hart ), while according to cognitive linguists, “language and discourse are themselves . . . cognitively embodied” (elizabeth hart ). in my own work, i treat these two seemingly opposite philosophies as relevant to each other in that they both see the body as central to an ongoing interaction between biological and cultural forces. lakoff does admit that conceptual metaphors always take place within specific cultural contexts (“metaphor” ) and elizabeth hart goes so far as to locate a sense of agency in what she sees as both “primary cognitive” and “secondary discursive” forms of embodiment (elizabeth hart ). while cognitive linguistics and feminist camps tend to locate themselves on opposite ends of the cognitive/cultural spectrum, they both see the body as at the centre of how meaning is negotiated on a daily basis, and can thus offer valuable lessons to one another. working within an overall context of feminist literary analysis, i subscribe to butler’s reminder that representations of the body can never be removed from specific cultural discourses, specifically those relating to sex and gender ( ), but can, in the process of re-iterating cultural norms, be used to revise abstract concepts ( ). schäffer’s attempt to expand the “horizon” ( ) of possibilities for women is an example of how the female body reenacts ideological concepts of gender. however, neither butler nor other prominent body theorists, offer a specific close-reading methodology for showing how meaning is revised. conceptual metaphor theorists, on the other hand, would recognize that schäffer’s horizon is image schematic and maps the bounded location of a sightline onto the state of restriction in the states are locations metaphor. however, conceptual metaphor theory focusses 	
   	
   more on patterns of metaphors in language and would steer away from analyzing the complexities of cultural and literary meaning relating to gender and imperialism in the passage, and of the way that schäffer conveys such mappings in seemingly straightforward descriptions of physical movement throughout the text. i combine these two approaches by using conceptual metaphor theory to help provide a richer and more detailed feminist analysis of how meaning emerges through representation of the body and, more specifically, how the female body lives and rewrites ideas relating to gender, citizenship, and nationhood. in contrast to conceptual metaphor theorists, i direct my feminist literary analysis toward the way that biological and ideological gender differences affect conceptual metaphors. considering the fact that biological differences between men and women are fundamental to the experience of living in a human body and yet difficult to separate from the cultural construction of sex and gender, it is worth mentioning that these differences, while understandably overlooked in conceptual metaphor theory, may be of interest to scholars in the field. some promising cognitive linguistics scholarship has begun to emerge that explores connections between gender and conceptual metaphor or image schema (ahrens; freeman; spolsky). biological gender differences are important to be aware of because they are likely to lead to the presence of specific metaphors and image schemas. this is compelling not merely from a feminist or gender studies point of view, but also on behalf of a fundamental interest in how meaning is made and revised through representations of bodies. because most literary genres have been dominated by men, commonly recurring conceptual metaphors in literature need to be recognized as often stemming from the male body, or reflecting patriarchal concepts of gender identity. the task of exploring how metaphors relating to travel tend to reflect masculine experiences of physical and social mobility lies outside the parameters of lakoff’s and johnson’s discussion of the purposeful life is 	
   	
   a journey metaphor (philosophy ). i argue that self-controlled physical mobility, as implied in the word journey, is more historically rooted in the male body so that this connection between identity and travel (and between social and physical mobility) mostly stems from and applies to male bodies. the common use of this metaphorical connection reflects the tendency in industrialized, western cultures to prioritize male domains of activity as more indicative of social mobility, as well as economic and political agency. while this metaphor stems from the biological and ideological history of the male body, it often appears, even in lakoff and johnson’s analysis, as gender neutral. analyzing how this metaphor has become culturally gendered as male, while being rooted in universal experiential knowledge, is not the job of linguists and ultimately must occur in the field of literary analysis. i explore how women writers use motifs of travel to access more masculine concepts of social mobility and to create a more self-reflexive understanding of seemingly neutral cultural ideas relating to identity and progress. i am influenced by recent cognitive linguistics analyses of shakespeare’s plays by eve sweetser and ellen spolsky, which explore how conceptual metaphors reflect biological gender difference, while also occurring within complex cultural discourses about gender, race and class. sweetser discusses this tension between cognition and culture as the relationship between “general human cognitive constraints and culture-specific cognitive patterns” ( ). in other words, a cognitive linguistics reading of literary texts can demonstrate how basic universal, experiential knowledge emerges in culturally specific ways. for example, sweetser bases one of her literary analyses on what she identifies as “a vertical hierarchical model of self and society and a ‘container’ model of self and society” that relate to ideas of social status and gender ( ). sweetser’s approach offers clues as to how specific cognitive patterns can enrich a feminist literary close reading. like sweetser, i identify specific models of self that i show to stem from 	
   	
   conceptual metaphors. the importance of travel to cultural questions of national identity and literary questions of individual and collective identity make travel frames such as the frontier revival frame rich in conceptual metaphor. in spolsky’s reading of shakespeare’s the rape of lucrece and cymbeline, she argues that literary themes address specific cognitive problems (such as the historical inability to identify paternity or assure female chastity and monogamy), which are continually represented in changing social contexts (as in the motif of lucrece’s rape) ( ). similarly, i see the formulaic use of physical motifs in frontier revival literature as a way of addressing and negotiating cultural anxieties about particular discourses of national identity and progress. i also propose a concept of lived metaphor in my own approach to literary analysis. so far, the majority of cognitive linguistics literary analysis is about drama, poetry, and fiction. however, because conceptual metaphors pervade our thoughts and daily speech, it follows that they affect how we live and interact in our bodies on a daily basis and can thus permeate various forms of non-fiction. while the study of body language and gesture in daily life falls more in the domain of linguistics than in literary analysis, representations of the body in literary non-fiction provide an unexplored mine of conceptual metaphor. lakoff offers a concept of what does and does not constitute conceptual metaphor that i find somewhat rigid for my own purposes. for instance, he argues that the phrase “a balloon went up” ( ) is not metaphorical because instead of “abstractions or emotions” (“metaphor” ), it describes “concrete physical experience” (“metaphor” ). however, in my approach to conceptual metaphor, i explore how within the context of framing, seemingly straightforward descriptions of physical motion can be invested with meaning. this is especially true of descriptions of the body that occur in formulaic frames as in the case of travel writing. 	
   	
   in fact, i would like to encourage the study of how frames relating to physical movement shift and operate across geographical, discursive, and disciplinary boundaries—an endeavor that i cannot fully pursue in my dissertation. spolsky moves somewhat in this direction by suggesting that specific cognitive problems are worked out through different genres ( ), which could in themselves be seen as frames. for instance, one could see formulaic genres that focus on the body such as gothic novels, or types of spiritual allegories (like dante’s inferno, or bunyan’s pilgrims progress) as using specific frames to address themes stemming from experiential knowledge. in other words, questions about the body—how bodies should act and what kinds of bodies do what kinds of activities—not only underlie, but rather help to constitute and define abstract concepts in our daily lives and in works of literature. as spolsky notes, experiential cognitive knowledge always occurs within specific cultural contexts ( ). i borrow from conceptual metaphor and frame theory to show how representations of bodily movement in literature communicate conceptual metaphors in complex culturally specific settings. we live abstract concepts on a daily basis and non-fiction travel writers often convey this lived meaning through conceptual metaphors and frames. by disrupting the culturally gendered roles of frames, women authors trigger a more self-reflexive understanding of familiar frames and can be seen as helping to shift frames (and the usage of conceptual metaphor) over time—another phenomenon that deserves further detailed study but that is outside the scope of this dissertation. when female bodies act out popular conceptual metaphors that are commonly gendered as male, the reader is likely to stop and reconsider what abstract ideas s/he chooses or is forced to live out on a daily basis. we are prompted to ask ourselves: which bodies get to represent what ideas and why? it is also important to explain how my methodology develops feminist approaches to embodiment. judith butler’s work on the body is influential on my approach because of her 	
   	
   concept of the body as central to how we attain “cultural intelligibility” on a daily basis through an ongoing process of performing and renegotiating abstract concepts ( ). she argues that the necessity of making ourselves socially intelligible to one another requires our bodies to enact familiar discourses on a daily basis ( ). in my discussion of women’s use of conceptual metaphors i offer a richer and more complex feminist analysis of these travel texts than is possible with other modes of feminist close reading or discourse analysis. so far, aside from the work of a few scholars (ahrens; freeman; spolsky; sweetser), little work has been done in cognitive linguistics on the ways that conceptual metaphors occur through the body in order to negotiate concepts of gender, race, and class. my study of frames, and of the cultural and literary background of my texts provides a more contextual and intertextual literary understanding of conceptual metaphor than occurs in such work. i focus on how culturally unexpected representation of the female body in relation to conceptual metaphors is of crucial importance to the ongoing negotiation not only of ideas of gender, but also of wider abstract ideas about the self. feminist autobiography theorists sidonie smith and julia watson explore how women artists write back in response to women’s roles as “objects of the male gaze—that of the artist and that of the patron” (“mapping” ). similar to smith and watson, i see female subjects as having a complex relationship to embodiment because being physically objectified more often in daily language, literature and art leads women to have a heightened reliance on the body as a mode of language, which points to the necessity for cultural literacy about representations of the female body. this awareness of how the representation of women’s bodies is often culturally shaped by men is crucial to a more in depth approach to studying conceptual metaphor in literature. first of all, we should be aware that women authors are historically more likely to speak through the body, and to do so with a variation of intentionality and explicitness. i also agree with smith and 	
   	
   watson’s argument that because women artists are always speaking back to historical representations of women by men (sidonie smith and watson, “mapping” ), there is an interesting meta-textual element to much of women’s art and literature, especially in relation to the body (sidonie smith and watson, “mapping” ). examining the culturally disruptive use of conceptual metaphor by female frontier revival authors helps to explain how women re-negotiate meaning on the level of the female body. i also build on feminist research on travel and the body in nineteenth-century canadian and american literature. building on formative work by women’s travel scholars such as sara mills and mary louise pratt, as well as recent influential studies of women’s travel in the united states (imbarrato; schriber; steadman) and canada (buchanan et al.; grace; laframboise; roy), i explore how the female travelling subject represents multiple and often competing discourses of gender and imperialism. most of these studies approach texts through the lens of feminist and/or post-colonial theory and conduct close readings using methods such as discourse analysis. i explore similar questions about gender and imperialism in these texts, while focussing on how meaning emerges through the body itself. butler reminds us that one of the main conditions of performativity is that it conceals itself so that the discourses that we perform through the body on a daily basis are taken for granted as natural or innate ( ). in a similar vein, recent studies in nineteenth-century american history and literature explore how ideas of the body politic create an illusion of a neutral and universal body politic that masks inequalities of gender, race, and class (sanchez-eppler; sorisio; piepmeier; lutes). as well, studies of female journalists on both sides of the border at the turn of the twentieth century show that sensationalist representations of the female body on behalf of eastern female journalists subvert gender norms and destabilize notions of journalistic objectivity (lutes ; fiamengo ; lang ). this sensationalist focus on the female 	
   	
   body is even more present in women’s travel writing published in the northeastern united states at the turn of the twentieth century. my cross-border study allows me to explore how canadian and american women used conceptual metaphor and the frontier revival frame to subvert masculinist manifest destiny rhetoric and adapt it to women. my use of aspects of cognitive linguistics thus provides a new level of awareness about how representations of the female body define and re-negotiate cultural ideas of the self. this approach offers a richer understanding of the layers of embodiment that scholars such as judith butler, sidonie smith, and julia watson point to. it also offers a deeper understanding of the meta-textual strategies by which women writers speak back to gendered ideas of national progress. it helps me to articulate—and to provide a methodological language for—the agency of re-iteration that butler sees as occurring through the body ( ). this is a distinctive kind of writing back through the body on which women—and women writers—often rely. it is a body language that feminist theorists have identified as the body mediated through discourse, but which cognitive linguists allow us to read on the level of the body itself. like spolsky, i analyze literature based on an “embodied theory of social structure” ( ). experientially, the frontier revival frame consists of a metonymic traveller who undergoes a cyclical journey involving a repeated loss and renewal of control. culturally, it appears in adventure literature, historical and political writing and involves a (symbolically) eastern american traveller who journeys westward to test and represent ideas relating to manifest destiny in western canada. while the formulaic physical motifs in this frame suggest that manifest destiny ideals defined americans or north americans as a whole, they were often culturally limited to the white eastern male body—so much so that they tend to signal a racialized and regionalized idea of cultural progress as the expansion of anglo-saxon culture on both sides of the border. when canadian and american women writers adopt the role of eastern 	
   	
   adventure traveller, they disrupt the cultural expectations around the frontier revival frame and reveal the cultural performativity that mediates experiential metaphors. they show how conceptual metaphors, while helping to make ideas of manifest destiny seem universal, are actually framed according to the eastern white male body. at the same time, they do so thanks to their access to the universality of conceptual metaphor. by showing that female bodies can perform the movements by which male travellers normally represent manifest destiny, these authors at once critique the way such underlying metaphors become gendered and racialized across the border and use such metaphors to extend manifest destiny ideals of progress to women. . travelling bodies: the need for an interdisciplinary approach to travel the large amount of recent international work on travel across disciplines demonstrates the need for a more interdisciplinary methodology for analyzing travel literature. studies of travel literature are increasingly international with journals, conferences, and publications on travel emerging across europe and north america over the last decade in particular. the study of metaphor is a useful tool for understanding modes of thought that cross political, aesthetic, and geographical boundaries. my approach is well suited to the interdisciplinary nature of travel literature. scholarship on travel literature is being done in a wide variety of fields including history, geography, literature, and women’s studies. interestingly, most work on travel literature within the last two decades approaches travel as a lens through which to explore ideas of nationalism, citizenship, and underlying identity politics relating to gender, race, and class. such scholarship asks questions about how ideas of community are created and contested by individual travellers. ironically, the body, despite its central importance to travel writing, becomes the elephant in the room in travel scholarship. also, despite the importance of the body in travel 	
   	
   literature, i have found few approaches to travel writing in the field of cognitive linguistics. cognitive linguistic techniques can help to improve the methodology of travel literature scholarship. drawing on conceptual metaphor theory can increase dialogue between interdisciplinary approaches to travel writing, while also making this dialogue more in-depth and detailed by accessing meaning on the level of the body. the strong interest in travel writing in academia and the public at large is a testament to the value of my combined use of feminist and conceptual metaphor theory, which takes into account how bodies make meaning not only in canonical texts, but also in popular literature and daily life. i aim to use my approach to introduce a cross-border frontier frame and to contribute to increasingly cross-cultural scholarship on the canadian-american border. northrop frye’s famous question “where is here?” ( ) should not be seen as incentive to define canadian literature as a discrete and isolated phenomenon. in fact, part of what defines canadian literature is our complex history of negotiating and crossing borders. as thacker reminds us, “[t]o have a canadian point of view, especially an english-canadian point of view, is to be ‘on the frontier,’ to be above america but part of america, to have to cross frontiers” ( ). scholarship on canadian literature and history increasingly acknowledges that an understanding of cross-border influences between canada and the united states enriches rather than threatens our sense of “here” (frye ). interestingly, such scholarship tends to bring to light literary figures who, because they cannot be easily categorized as canadian or american writers, have gone relatively unnoticed in both canadian and american literary studies. such figures, including the women i am studying in my dissertation, geographically and politically situate themselves in complicated ways in relation to the border and shed light on overlooked aspects of canadian literature. the challenge of how to analyze and contextualize their work requires me to be innovative in finding a 	
   	
   methodology that allows me to cross borders of gender and geography. my approach uncovers what i refer to as cross-border conceptual metaphors that occur in a particularly cross-border setting. it is necessary to clarify what i mean by the term cross-border. my use of this term refers to four different aspects of the texts that i study—namely, the site of publication (which in this case refers to the northeastern united states from to ); the cultural background and/or residency of the authors (half of my authors are originally canadian and the other half were born in the united states, and all of them crossed the border to travel and/or to live); setting (despite being published in the united states, all of the texts are either set in western canada, in both western canada and the united states, or as in the case of laut, in a western american setting that she frequently compares to canada); and subject matter (all of the texts make comparisons between western canada and the united states, conflating the two regions within a loosely american discourse of manifest destiny). i study how conceptual metaphors occur in this cross- border context of frontier revival literature. in fact, the presence of conceptual metaphors in these texts helps me to identify this field, which has evaded categorization, despite increasing scholarly recognition of cross-cultural influences in canadian and american literature at the turn of the twentieth century. conceptual metaphors provide evidence of a lively, border-crossing literary culture in the one place that seems too obvious to look—the travelling body itself. my study of a cross-border genre helps to show how the frontier revival frame and its conceptual metaphors became culturally limited to the white, eastern, male body so as to promote the continental expansion of eastern anglo-saxon culture. without an awareness of how conceptual metaphors appear in complex cross-border contexts, we run the risk of uncritically accepting motifs of westward expansion without an understanding of their ideological context. my analysis of cross- 	
   	
   border women writers allows me to show how such writers subtly appropriate this cross-border imperialism to promote women’s rights by living conceptual metaphor and the frontier revival frame from a distinctly female perspective. before delving into the conceptual metaphors and the frontier revival frame that i identify in these texts, i must also clarify my use of the terms frontier revival literature and the frontier revival frame. as i explain in more detail in chapter , frontier revival literature consists of a particular type of north american adventure text written between and that is cross- border in several different ways. frontier revival authors try to relive american values of cultural progress in the last frontier of western canada. they are cross-border in regards to site of publication; cultural background; setting; and subject matter. i argue that frontier revival literature contains a frontier revival frame that emerges in the late s and early s in works by american authors such as w.h.h. murray and julian ralph. i see the frontier revival frame as containing the general pattern of physical motifs in frontier revival literature. george fillmore defines frames as “any system of concepts related in such a way that to understand any one of them you have to understand the whole structure in which it fits” ( ). sweetser and fauconnier claim that frames can emerge from experiential knowledge and contain specific roles that trigger the frame as a whole ( ). they further argue that “[r]oles include, but are not limited to, human roles such as sara’s mother or president of the united states, each of which could be filled by some individual (perhaps the same individual, janet smith)” ( ). they explain that “[r]oles are created by general social or physical framings of experience; for example, parent or president or student exists against our understanding of family structure, political or corporate hierarchy, or educational institutions” ( ). i conceive of the frontier revival frame as made up primarily of the metonymic role of an eastern traveller, as well as other roles that include the physical activities of 	
   	
   the traveller such as a cyclical westward journey; a series of struggles in the wilderness involving repeated losses and renewals of control on the part of the traveller; and a final return home at the end of the text that corresponds with a restoration of the traveller’s self-control (see fig . ). the definition of frames in cognitive linguistics theory resembles aspects of discourse theory. for instance, in discourse, sara mills argues that in the context of cultural and literary theory, discourse is usually defined “as the general domain of the production and circulation of rule-governed statements” or as “groupings of statements produced within power relations” ( - ). for the purposes of my methodology, i choose to borrow from and combine aspects of frame and discourse theory. just as conceptual metaphors have different levels of embodiment or complexity of embodiment, so too do our broader structures of understanding. in my work, i approach the frontier revival frame as a generic scenario involving a role of traveller and the activities of the traveller. the frame is a kind of skeleton, the bones of which are a complex network of conceptual metaphors. i see the frame as a set of physical roles (including the traveller and his/her activities). while conceptual metaphors are all interconnected and are constantly interacting, i define a frame as a particular pattern of conceptual metaphors that interact in a specific way so that a seemingly literal description of a physical movement or scenario instantly triggers a whole set of metaphors in the mind of the reader. the cultural and literary context of the frame fleshes out the skeleton, influencing its shape, function, and interactions with its surroundings, or in other words, which metaphors appear and how they interact with each other in the frame. i view the frontier revival frame as performative in butler’s sense of the word in that these roles become recognizable and recurring symbols of cultural progress that offer models of “cultural intelligibility” ( ) to readers. true to butler’s concept of performativity as concealing itself ( ), the fact that frames are based partly on universal, physical experience, helps to conceal 	
   	
   their own cultural performativity in that they often seem on the surface to be oddly divorced from culturally and historically specific contexts. authors use the roles of the frontier revival frame to negotiate ideas of cultural progress in terms of gender, class, and race that are often highly removed from the western regions in which these motifs occur. it is hard to locate a sense of agency in women’s travel texts around the turn of the century because of the inability or unwillingness of such authors to explicitly criticize imperialist goals of travel or to identify too explicitly with women’s rights. underneath the seemingly literal and neutral adventure tales of these authors there is a language of metaphors with a whole set of complex cultural connotations, a language that crosses the border. understanding the frontier revival frame—its social context and its underlying metaphors—allows me to show how women authors on both sides of the border problematize and appropriate the imperialist discourse of their male peers through the body itself. . reading the body in motion: metaphors of frontier revival thus the advance of the frontier has meant a steady movement away from the influence of europe, a steady growth of independence on american lines. -frederick jackson turner, the significance of the frontier in american history, . the world likes [the american traveller] and he likes the world, and hence he finds welcome everywhere, and the welcome he gets he thoroughly enjoys. like a snail, he carries his home around with him on his back, and easily adjusts himself to any condition of shine or shade. -w.h.h. murray, daylight land, . lakoff’s and johnson’s work on the purposeful life is a journey (journey) and locational event structure (les) conceptual metaphors offers a useful starting point 	
   	
   to explain my approach. they define conceptual metaphor as the mapping from experiential knowledge of our bodies onto abstract concepts, which occurs in our daily thought and speech (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). primary metaphors are the most basic mappings between the experiential and abstract domains (philosophy ). they identify the purposeful life is a journey as a complex conceptual metaphor, which means that it is “built out of primary metaphors and forms of commonplace knowledge: cultural models, folk theories, or simply knowledge or beliefs that are widely accepted” (philosophy ). they see the journey metaphor as combining primary metaphors such as “purposes are destinations” and “actions are motions” to create the more complex mappings of “a purposeful life is a journey,” “a person living a life is a traveller,” “life goals are destinations,” and “a life plan is an itinerary” (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). not only is this a very common metaphor throughout western literature from augustine’s confessions, to dante’s inferno, and bunyan’s pilgrim’s progress, but it is at the forefront of travel writing, in which the traveller defines his/her identity through the act of travel. this is especially prevalent in north american travel literature because of the importance of frontier expansion to american and canadian history. travel writers portray westward movement as identity-shaping for the individual traveller, as well as for the nation as a whole. in turner’s famous speech about the closing of the american frontier, he maps the motion of frontier expansion onto the action of forging american identity, and he refers to this process as “a steady movement away from the influence of europe, a steady growth of independence on american lines” ( ). throughout his essay, he describes collective american traits of “independence” ( ) as synonymous with a continental movement from east to west. turner addresses the problem of how to define american identity when the frontier closes by emphasizing the metaphorical nature of this model of identity. he makes the frontier symbolic—a site of 	
   	
   “perennial rebirth” ( )—and associates it with a set of experiential patterns of movement that seem to remove it from the actual historical context of american history. cross-border adventure writers of the time, such as w.h.h. murray and julian ralph, write about american identity according to similar patterns of movement that can easily be enacted in a canadian frontier setting. for example, on murray’s journey throughout western canada in daylight land ( ), he describes the prototypical american traveller’s “perennial rebirth” (turner ) on the canadian frontier: “like a snail, he carries his home around with him on his back, and easily adjusts himself to any condition of shine or shade” ( ). in both of these passages from turner and murray, the journey connects travel with self-definition. i develop lakoff’s and johnson’s use of the metaphor in order to find a more detailed way of examining both the experiential and the cultural sides of such examples. for the purpose of my literary analysis of women’s travel writing, there are some problems with the journey metaphor that i attempt to address in my work. this metaphor does not address the wide range of experiential knowledge that lies under the umbrella term of journey. this raises questions about how to use such a metaphor to analyze texts. for instance, why does turner describe the nation-building frontier movement as “steady” ( )? why does he describe the same westward movement as two different movements (away from europe and towards america)? what is the beginning point and the destination? who or what exactly is creating and propelling this movement? and why is the movement away from europe described as linear, whereas the movement toward america is described more ambiguously as “growth” ( )? for the purpose of literary analysis, reading texts with this metaphor is not helpful unless we take into account a broad range of specific mappings between types of movement and abstract ideas relating to journeys. the journey metaphor also makes use of the vague term of life, which 	
   	
   could refer either to the identity of an individual or a collective. not only are there many different ways of referring to identity on a collective and individual level, but feminist scholars also remind us that we live on “multiple stages simultaneously” (sidonie smith, “performativity” ). i build on the journey metaphor to find a more nuanced way of approaching the experiential and cultural contexts in which self-definition occurs in travel literature. the journey metaphor consists of the locational event structure metaphor, which is more helpful in analyzing literary passages. the locational event structure metaphor maps aspects of movement through space onto abstract knowledge of events pertaining to actions, causes, changes, states, and purposes (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). because it combines primary metaphors, it is also a complex conceptual metaphor (philosophy ). because it contains more purely experiential mappings, and unlike the journey metaphor, does not rely on a cultural context or cultural inferences such as “[p]eople are supposed to have purposes in life” (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ), i see this metaphor as more experiential and thus more useful for literary analysis. lakoff and johnson describe the metaphor as follows: states are locations (interiors of bounded regions in space) changes are movements (into or out of bounded regions) causes are forces causation is forced movement (from one location to another) actions are self-propelled movements purposes are destinations means are paths (to destinations) difficulties are impediments to motion freedom of action is the lack of impediments to motion external events are large, moving objects (that exert force) [. . .]. (philosophy in the flesh ) this metaphor helps because it encompasses more specific mappings with which to analyze passages. for instance, in the turner passage, the bounded location of the expanding american 	
   	
   territory on the frontier “line” ( ) maps onto an abstract state of american independence. also, he associates the movement away from europe and onto the frontier line with the change of the american character. this more specific parsing of cognitive mappings allows for a rich literary analysis. for instance, using this metaphor, i can show how turner maps the movement and force of the frontier itself (rather than of specific individuals) onto the cause of change. he thus locates the agency of westward expansion outside of the individual settler, as though expansion were a collective or predetermined event in keeping with the rhetoric of manifest destiny. the frontier becomes a large moving object that maps onto the external event of collective social change. this ironic removal of individual agency in his description of the force/cause of american individualism reflects turner’s somewhat a-historical approach to american history, by which he virtually ignores the displacement of aboriginal people and the role of women in frontier expansion. while the les metaphor facilitates a more detailed analysis, it cannot (and was not meant to) capture the range and depth of literary meaning that i find in travel writing. turner’s vagueness about agency in this passage is echoed by lakoff’s and johnson’s uncertainty about the concept of identity in the journey metaphor. the question of what type of identity turner conceives of can only be answered by closely examining the underlying mappings and broader frames in his writing. i analyze travel literature according to several interconnecting metaphors. i identify the self-control is bodily control metaphor as another way of looking at the general subject self metaphor, in which “a person is divided into a subject and one or more selves” and “each self is conceptualized metaphorically as either a person, an object, or a location” (lakoff and johnson, philosophy in the flesh ). i see the self-control is 	
   	
   bodily control metaphor as including the locational self, self as container, and the objective standpoint metaphors, all of which conceive of the self as a location, and all of which are of central importance to the frontier revival frame. it is important to identify the self-control is bodily control metaphor because it helps to explain how seemingly literal descriptions of physical movement provide meaning about identity in travel literature. i interpret the self-control is bodily control metaphor in the frontier revival frame as consisting mainly of a combination of the locational event structure metaphor and the locational self metaphor. according to lakoff and johnson, the locational self metaphor maps locations onto states of being, whereby normal locations convey self-control, and abnormal locations suggest a lack of self-control (johnson and lakoff, philosophy ). a good example of this is murray’s image of the american traveller who “carries his home around with him on his back” ( ). he conceives of the self as a location (home) and envisions a way of testing and maintaining self-control by remaining in a normal location even when in an abnormal location. this ability to symbolically remain home when away conveys a test of self-control through a test of bodily control. as lakoff and johnson argue, the les metaphor connects knowledge about movement through space to a domain of abstract events that pertains to actions, causes, changes, states, purposes (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). the self-control is bodily control metaphor draws on the les and the ls metaphor to link types of movement in and between locations to the abstract domain of events. the self as container and objective standpoint metaphors also underlie the self-control is bodily control metaphor in the frontier revival frame. lakoff and johnson describe the self as container metaphor as containment mapped onto self-control (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). as well, they define the objective 	
   	
   standpoint metaphor as mapping a lack of containment onto self-control, or more specifically, self-control through perspective whereby “[v]ision from the outside is knowledge from the outside—objective knowledge” (philosophy in the flesh ). i consider both metaphors to be part of the ls metaphor because they map normal locations onto types of self- control. however, they offer opposite concepts of self-control/normal location as either containment or lack of containment. these two metaphors help to convey the tensions of moving in between, through, and at the edges of bounded locations/states in frontier revival literature. these interacting metaphors also touch on several other primary metaphors that map experiential knowledge onto abstract domains relating to the self. common primary metaphors include knowing is seeing, and control is up (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). furthermore, it is important to recognize that the physical movements of the traveller in the frontier revival frame represent collective, albeit often overlapping or ambiguously defined, identities. i was initially compelled to refer to this as the shared states are individual bodies metaphor. for instance, when schäffer discusses expanding the horizons, we instantly connect her own individual experience to collective goals of expanding the frontier, or of expanding social opportunities for women. in the case of murray, his typical american traveller represents a shared state of adaptable american individualism similar to turner’s prototypical american frontier traveller. however, another way of understanding this connection between individual and collective locations/states can be found in the generic is specific metaphor. in more than cool reason, george lakoff and mark turner discuss proverbs such as “blind/blames the ditch” as examples of how specific information triggers more general knowledge through the generic is specific metaphor ( ). they explain that in the generic is specific metaphor, “the source and target have the same generic-level structure. 	
   	
   in other words, generic is specific maps specific-level schemas onto the generic-level schemas they contain” (lakoff and turner ). in the case of frontier revival literature, i see specific descriptions of the individual traveller’s movements as similar to the proverb presented to us by lakoff and turner, particularly when they convey the recurring physical motifs of the frontier revival frame. for that matter, it seems to me that examples such as schäffer’s desire to expand the horizon trigger the generic is specific metaphor for the very reason that they resemble the “general-level information” (lakoff and turner ) of the frontier revival frame about the collective significance of individual physical movements. my approach to analyzing this set of metaphors, which i continue to explore in more depth throughout this chapter, offers an unprecedentedly in-depth understanding of primary mappings, complex metaphors, and abstract ideas of self at work in literature. . “the long way round:” the frontier revival frame the frontier is the line of most rapid and effective americanization. the wilderness masters the colonist. it finds him a european in dress, industries, tools, modes of travel, and thought. it takes him from the railroad car and puts him in the birch canoe. it strips off the garments of civilization and arrays him in the hunting shirt and the moccasin. it puts him in the log cabin of the cherokee and iroquois and runs an indian palisade around him. in short, at the frontier the environment is at first too strong for the man. he must accept the conditions which it furnishes, or perish, and so he fits himself into the indian clearings and follows the indian trails. little by little he transforms the wilderness, but here is a new product that is american. -frederick jackson turner, “the significance of the frontier in american history,” . i was not a goldseeker, but a nature hunter, and i was eager to enter this, the wildest region yet remaining in northern america. i willingly and with joy took the long way round, the hard way through. -hamlin garland, the trail of the goldseekers, . 	
   	
   [we] sit with folded hands and listen calmly to the stories of the hills we so longed to see, the hills which had lured and beckoned us for years before this long list of men had ever set foot in the country. our cups splashed over. then we looked into each other’s eyes and said: “why not? we can starve as well as they; the muskeg will be no softer for us than for them; the ground will be no harder to sleep upon; the waters no deeper to swim or the bath colder if we fall in,”—so—we planned a trip. -mary schäffer, old indian trails, . the challenge of trying to reach a better understanding of self-definition in travel literature requires me to find a way of locating my use of conceptual metaphors in a broader frame. frames, or “system [s] of concepts” that are related to and trigger one another (fillmore ), are important not only in understanding the cultural significance of conceptual metaphors, but also in detecting and analyzing the metaphorical mappings at work. the above quotations from classic texts by turner and murray, along with schäffer’s discussion of expanding women’s “horizon[s]” ( ), provide some of the more obvious instances of conceptual metaphor in these texts because they occur in explicitly figurative language. however, in frontier revival literature and most of daily speech, we speak and live mappings between experiential and abstract domains that may not seem metaphorical in either traditional literary or cognitive linguistic senses of the term. while conceptual metaphor scholars (freeman; johnson; lakoff; sweetser; turner) focus mostly on how metaphors emerge on an explicitly grammatical level, i am more interested in how authors imply conceptual metaphors in literature through framing. frontier revival authors evoke conceptual metaphors through the roles of the revival frame: a metonymic eastern traveller; a cyclical westward journey; a struggle in the wilderness involving a loss and renewal of control; and a restoration of order with a return home (see fig . ). 	
   	
   the passage from turner’s speech, while still obviously metaphorical, offers a succinct example of the kinds of mappings that frequently occur in the frontier revival frame. the self- control is bodily control and generic is specific metaphors emerge in his description of the individual body of a typical american male traveller as gaining bodily/self- control over a new location/state of american progress through a struggle in the wilderness. turner establishes the metonymic status of the traveller by mapping his individual movements onto the shared cultural change toward “americanization” ( ). the combined locational self and locational event structure metaphors depict this “americanization” ( ) as a shared state of idealized change or progress that occurs as the westward movement of the frontier at the edge of a bounded location. the self as container and locational self metaphors emerge in images of the traveller as undergoing a series of physical relocations as he is taken “out” of european “modes of thought” and put “in” “the hunting shirt and moccasin” and indian palisade ( ). according to the self as container and locational self metaphors, the traveller’s relocation signifies an initial loss of bodily/self- control. however, as with murray’s discussion of carrying one’s home on one’s back, the traveller learns how to restore self-control amidst these very shifts in location. the traveller’s act of fitting “himself into the indian clearings” ( ) attributes force/cause and action/motion to the traveller himself, which suggests renewed control. as well, the self as container metaphor implies that he becomes at home in the very frontier location whose foreignness originally takes him “out” ( ) of his familiar sense of self. this shifting between contained spaces reflects the tension between the self as container metaphor and the objective standpoint metaphor—a tension that recurs in frontier revival literature. images of expanding frontier spaces and entering temporarily foreign and threatening locations appear 	
   	
   frequently in frontier revival literature and often reflect this tension between self-control as containment and as lack of containment. this tension shows an ideal of cultural progress based on continual movement/change through the testing of physical and abstract boundaries of bodily/self-control. finally, the traveller’s “transformation of the wilderness” into a “new product that is american” ( ) envisions an ironically cyclical destination/goal in the les metaphor. the very process of testing bodily/self-control allows for a restoration of control that ultimately reasserts the authority of the eastern traveller over the new surroundings. recognizing how some of these basic underlying metaphors work in the frontier frame, along with the cultural context of the frame, which is discussed in chapter , allows for a richer analysis of seemingly literal passages in frontier revival literature. for instance, one of the most common recurring motifs in the frontier revival texts is that of overcoming trials as a necessary rite of passage. in the les metaphor, physical impediments map onto difficulties (lakoff, “metaphor” ). in the context of the frontier revival frame, this mapping also relates to the locational self, self-control is bodily control, and generic is specific metaphors so as to indicate a willing and temporary loss of self-control that ultimately serves a redemptive collective cultural purpose. other primary mappings such as the self as container and objective standpoint metaphors often occur in these trial motifs. for instance, garland’s statement that he “willingly and with joy took the long way round, the hard way through” ( ) could easily be misconstrued as a literal description of his physical journey. there is no explicit reference to a sense of self or any other abstract concept onto which he is mapping these images of arduous physical activity. however, in the context of his introduction, he makes several allusions to being part of a nationalist extension of the american frontier including his statement that the gold rush will be “the last great march of the kind which could 	
   	
   ever come in america, so rapidly were the wild places being settled up” ( ). in particular, the allocation of agency to himself through the words “willfully” ( ) and “with joy” ( ) to describe his hardship attributes force/cause to the traveller amidst his obstacles/difficulties. this concept of controlled loss of control is common in the frontier frame and would have been instantly recognizable to his readers as signaling a redemptive struggle of the individual body in a wilderness location that represents a shared state of cultural progress. his reference to “the long way round, the hard way through” ( ) indicates the arduous cyclical journey of the frontier frame including a struggle in the wilderness. in particular, the words “round” and “through” ( ) both refer to being on the edge or pushing through a state of containment, which evokes a testing of bodily/self-control. a familiarity with the cultural context and the metaphors of the frontier revival frame contributes to a richer understanding of both the basic experiential and wider cultural meaning of physical descriptions in travel writing. . “oh for a precedent!:” re-living the frontier frame to know you are right and then go ahead is a pretty plan, but how to know? [. . . ] what was i to do? oh, for a precedent! -grace gallatin, a woman tenderfoot, . it is important to outline the ways that female frontier revival authors appropriate and subvert the frontier revival frame. to recap some major points: the concept of the journey has specific and diverse sets of cultural connotations in western literature, including the ancient epic (homer), or various forms of spiritual quests (dante; bunyan), which are predominantly associated with masculine heroic traditions. because of this, it is crucial to be aware of how we extend this 	
   	
   metaphor from the male body and apply it to masculine realms of life experience. not recognizing the cultural aspect of the journey runs the risk of assuming that metaphors of travel are more universal or neutral than they actually are. subversive political commentary is often either intentionally or unintentionally present in the work of women writers. for one thing, because women have historically been more physically objectified and have had less cultural control over their own bodies and over representations of their own bodies (sidonie smith and watson, “mapping” ), subversive ideas in women’s literature are more likely to emerge through the female body and also to be coded or veiled. women travel writers often conceal (to varying degrees) political or nationalist affiliations in their texts, a trend that can be seen as stemming from pressures to adhere to gender norms and also from the tendency for women to identify with (and to have more symbolic and actual power within) more regional—or gender—based collectives. as i will discuss in chapter , women writers often embody the roles of the frontier frame in different ways than their male peers. they emphasize the novelty of their personal, physical movements and are more self-reflexive about their experiences; they often imagine their appearance in self-deprecating terms through the eyes of aboriginal people or other travellers. they also often express ambivalence toward more traditional goals of exploration, and foreground the goal of personal freedom. third, they embrace the very loss of bodily/self-control on the trail (that their male peers see as threatening) to focus more on their alienation from their own cultural norms and to renegotiate, rather than reassert, ideas of cultural progress. these broader effects emerge on the level of metaphor in a variety of ways in frontier revival texts by women. in a woman tenderfoot, for example, gallatin repeatedly emphasizes the novelty of her physical freedom in the wilderness. at one point, amidst a cattle round up, she states: “to know you are right and then go ahead is a pretty plan, but how to know?” and 	
   	
   exclaims: “what was i to do? oh, for a precedent!” ( ). in this passage, gallatin maps the desire for self-controlled movement onto that of self-controlled change. her gendered alienation from the cattle round up contributes to a lack of agency in this situation, which occurs in the lack of force/cause in this passage. however, her exclamation of “oh for a precedent!” ( ) indicates that her lack of bodily/self-control in the situation is due to the way such physical activities are culturally gendered. the novelty of her freedom reminds us that these activities, and the cultural rites of passage that they represent, are not neutral but gendered as masculine. a similar ambivalence toward frontier revival motifs appears in elizabeth taylor’s a woman in the mackenzie delta, in which she repeatedly uses words such as “perched” (“northward” ) and “trundled” (“northward” ) to describe her movements as lacking in individual agency. at one point, she exclaims sardonically that despite wanting to stay to observe plant life and sketch, she must hurry because “that boat waited for no woman” (“eskimos” ). as with gallatin, the lack of force/cause in these scenarios implies both a restricted access and critical distance from the movement/change that they participate in on their journey. as well, all of these women writers describe a sense of exhilaration and freedom at the standard loss of control in frontier revival literature. one of the most poignant examples of this occurs at the end of schäffer’s old indian trails. as i mention in my introduction, on her way back from the mountains, schäffer encounters rudyard kipling and his wife, who in comparison to schäffer’s rugged masculine appearance, is dressed in more conventional women’s attire. this meeting prompts schäffer to confess that, “it was then that i wanted my wild free life back again, yet step by step i was leaving it behind” ( ). this return home echoes the cyclical journey in the frontier revival frame. however, schäffer’s regret at the thought of having to return home ironically envisions her movement/change as a form of cultural progress that she ultimately laments. the rejection of this 	
   	
   return to order uses the experiential aspects of the frontier frame against how it has been culturally gendered. . “so we planned a trip:” close reading [we] sit with folded hands and listen calmly to the stories of the hills we so longed to see, the hills which had lured and beckoned us for years before this long list of men had ever set foot in the country. our cups splashed over. then we looked into each other’s eyes and said: “why not? we can starve as well as they; the muskeg will be no softer for us than for them; the ground will be no harder to sleep upon; the waters no deeper to swim or the bath colder if we fall in,”—so—we planned a trip. -mary schäffer, old indian trails, . a close explication of this passage in schäffer’s introduction can help to further demonstrate how i apply my methodology to women’s frontier revival literature. in the first half of this passage, schäffer makes cultural allusions and a contrast between two different modes of self-definition that establish her relationship to the frontier revival frame. first of all, her reference to “the hills which had lured and beckoned us for years” ( ) is, i suggest, an allusion to kipling’s “the explorer,” a poem about being called by a mythical voice to enter a mountain range, which is also quoted in dillon wallace’s well known chronicle of his and fellow american leonidas hubbard’s fatal journey in lure of the labrador wild ( ). this layered cultural allusion, along with schäffer’s reference to cross-border male explorers who ventured into the western canadian rockies, help to situate her work in the context of the frontier revival frame. she begins the passage with the self as container metaphor in the image of her and her female companion being forced to listen with their hands folded to stories of male adventurers, which links her female identity with a repressive isolation to the private sphere. the knowing is seeing 	
   	
   metaphor occurs in their longing “to see” ( ) the hills. this metaphor connects vision with knowledge and an example in everyday speech would be a phrase such as “i see what you mean” (lakoff and johnson, philosophy in the flesh - ). as lakoff and johnson explain, this metaphor corresponds with conflicting ideas of bodily/self-control because in the self as container metaphor, “vision from the inside is knowledge from the inside—subjective knowledge” and in the objective standpoint metaphor, [v]ision from the outside is knowledge from the outside—objective knowledge” (lakoff and johnson, philosophy in the flesh ). in this passage, schäffer associates restricted vision from the outside with restricted knowledge that is not objective enough. this restriction on vision/knowledge connotes their exclusion from the masculine paradigm of outdoor adventure and accompanying ideas of pushing the bounds of cultural progress. it is important to note that this contrast between containment and linear motion evokes the tension between the self as container and the objective standpoint metaphors. schäffer particularly emphasizes this contrast between confinement and linear motion in the image of a “long list of men” who “set foot in the country” ( ). this “long list” ( ) parallels the male authors’ linear movement/change with the extent of their public acknowledgment and participation in public ideas of progress. the contrast between the self as container metaphor and the linear movement/change of the les and the objective standpoint metaphors indicates different ways of achieving bodily/self-control. in one, the location of the individual self maps onto a shared state of identity through containment. in the other, it does so through movement/change and lack of containment. for schäffer, linear forward motion evokes the movement/change of cultural progress, whereas containment evokes a static gendered confinement within such cultural discourse. 	
   	
   however, as is typical in frontier revival literature, schäffer portrays an ideal sense of body/self as pushing its own boundaries and existing somewhere between containment and movement/change. in the second half of the passage, schäffer uses conceptual metaphor to describe a turning point in her own decision to trek into the mountains. first of all, she makes yet another inter-textual allusion, this time to the bible, in her declaration that “our cups splashed over” ( ). in the context of the frontier frame, this biblical allusion to the image of an overflowing cup in psalm : further maps the location of her bodily/self-control onto a shared state of having a pre-ordained cultural mission. by calling on this higher power, she ironically legitimizes the disruption of gender norms as a way of participating in cultural progress. it is not coincidental that she describes this appropriation of a higher power as breaking out of a container. this image of release indicates a testing of the boundaries of the self, not only by attaining the linear movement/change that she associates with male exploration, but also by crossing the threshold from containment to a lack of containment (though a shift between the self as container and the objective standpoint metaphors). the knowing is seeing metaphor further compliments this shift into the objective standpoint metaphor in the image of looking “into each other’s eyes” ( ) and saying “why not?” ( ). schäffer describes the decision to leave as one that is agreed upon in their state of containment. she thereby links these seemingly opposing metaphors of the self as container and the objective standpoint and prioritizes the movement/change between two different locations/states of self as, on its own, an ideal location/state that echoes turner’s “perennial rebirth” ( ). by portraying this turning point as a shared experience between two women, she also emphasizes that her individual testing of bodily/self-control represents a shared pursuit of cultural progress—one that she deliberately extends to women. 	
   	
   schäffer also insists on her own experiential access to the frame despite cultural gender norms. her statement that the way will be “no harder” ( ) and “no deeper” ( ) for her and her friend “if we fall” ( ) indicates the same willing embrace of the loss and renewal of bodily/self- control in the wilderness that writers such as garland see as propelling their culturally redemptive journeys. schäffer’s list of potential hardships that will be equal to that of her male counterparts lays claim to these experiential physical trials as a kind of leveling ground of knowledge. as in the case of gallatin’s example, women need precedents of new kinds of bodily control (through a testing of physical limits) in order to gain access to new kinds of self-control (so as to test the limits of female social mobility). as with gallatin, the ability to physically “go ahead” ( ) through bodily-control represents more abstract improvements in women’s self-control. however, part of accessing this abstract realm through the body means changing our cultural attitudes toward the body itself and finding new female models of physical mobility. gallatin and schäffer remind us that we need to change our cultural understanding of what the body is capable of in order to allow the body to change our cultural understandings. the physical motion of the eastern female travelling body in the frontier revival represents entry into ideas of cultural progress, but also requires precedent setting women who are willing to test their physical and social boundaries. it requires a “pretty plan” (gallatin ) to adjust cultural attitudes toward the body. schäffer’s question of “why not?” ( ) calls attention to the leveling language of the body to in turn make and revise meaning. she breaks out of the confines of gender norms through the very experiential metaphors of the frontier revival frame that have previously been gendered as masculine. her determination and capacity to push herself “harder” ( ) and “deeper” ( ) dismantles the language of the cultural frontier frame from the inside out. 	
   	
   . conclusion: unearthing the frontier revival the subject of women’s travel literature is an increasingly popular field both in academia and in the eyes of the public as a lens through which to examine ideas relating to citizenship and identity. on a local level, one need only look to the vancouver opera about lillian alling to find that women travellers are quickly gaining iconic status in canadian culture as complex stewards of canadian identity—individuals who forged new paths, while questioning the terms of cultural progress. in the current academic age of inter-disciplinary border-crossing, it is all the more important to restore and study the work of women frontier revival authors whose physical travels helped to pioneer such intellectual border-crossing. furthermore, it is crucial to find a methodology that does justice to these women writers by actually demonstrating their engagement in world issues of the day. despite growing interest in women travel writers in canada, it is all too often the case that references to them are tucked away in archives or relegated to side notes in academic survey texts and ostensibly comprehensive historical studies (doyle; mount). it is also common for such authors to be treated as subjects of minor personal or historical curiosity in texts aimed at popular readers (forster; harding). aside from certain fine exceptions (buchanan et al.; grace; roy), work on women travellers in canada sometimes ignores their broader contributions to meaning making and maintains their place off the literary map. for me, reading these texts is like coming across the remnants of what was once a bustling frontier town. they are the unlikely but uncontestable hosts to major literary and cultural ideas of their time. though often literally dilapidated, out of print, and virtually lost to a contemporary audience, everywhere within their pages is evidence of women having 	
   	
   captured and given voice to a historical period of change, movement, and an exchange of people and ideas across the continent and across the border. witty, cosmopolitan, candid, and sometimes scathing, these authors record rapid changes in industry, urban development, westward expansion and migration. they document specific discourses of imperialism and cultural progress behind these historical events, while catering to the expectations of their readers, proving points about what women at the turn of the twentieth century were capable of, and seeking their own iconoclastic goals of freedom and fulfillment on the trail. such complexities, while perhaps contributing to the lack of sustained recognition of these authors, make their work all the more valuable to unearth because they add complex and long lost historical landmarks to contemporary canadian culture—to the question of “where is here” (frye ). rediscovering where and who we are calls for new ways to read. putting these adventure texts back on the literary map raises the question of how to properly analyze texts that contain such a remarkable mixture of border crossing, varying cultural discourses of gender and imperialism, restrictions of audience and publisher, and explicit and unspoken authorial intent. how does one analyze texts that are at once so telling of the cultural currents of their time, and yet which remain so seemingly off the grid? trying to locate the underlying ideas that connect these texts to each other and to their broader cultural contexts means looking for the fundamental iconography with which they speak. it requires a language that is at once leveling and diverse—that of bustling city streets and gold rush trails. it is the language that communicates on billboards, magazines, and newsreels, and which evolves across different forms of discourse and experiences of gender, race, and class—that of the body itself. 	
   	
   my study of cross-border frontier revival literature and the frontier revival frame identifies a specific cultural context and set of conceptual metaphors with which to analyze meaning on the level of the body. i locate a network of conceptual metaphors and connect them within what i identify as the self-control is bodily control and the generic is specific metaphors. the task of thoroughly addressing and outlining the large body of work on frames and conceptual metaphor lies outside the scope of this dissertation. it is however my goal to extend work on conceptual metaphor theory to feminist theory and to travel literature to show what kind of “cultural work” (tompkins xi) conceptual metaphors do in our daily lives through the familiar language of the body. in particular, i view this set of conceptual metaphors and frame roles as allowing women writers to revive opportunities for women at the turn of the twentieth century. i offer a way of uncovering this language, and thereby enriching our overall understanding of the way women authors live and revise discourses of cultural progress through the female body. . notes to chapter 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   for a more detailed discussion of discourses relating to manifest destiny, please refer to chapter . in johnson’s “philosophical significance of image schemas,” he notes, “the very concept of horizon is image schematic. our perceptual fields have focal areas that fade off into a vague horizon of possible experiences that are not currently at the centre of our conscious awareness. hence it comes as no surprise that we have a center-periphery image schema” ( ). image schemas are usually defined as the experiential patterns upon which primary and conceptual metaphors are based (body xix). it is important to note here that johnson does not address the 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   female body in his discussion of the horizon and that most work on image schemas does not take gender into account because image schemas refer to universal, shared experiential knowledge. for the purpose of my work, i focus less on image schemas, and more on the specific cultural and literary context of primary and complex metaphors. i explore how these metaphors take on different meanings when lived through the female body. my reading of this passage by schäffer is meant as a brief example of how i adapt conceptual metaphor theory to support a feminist literary analysis. as i discuss in greater detail throughout this chapter, the pushing of bounded locations throughout frontier adventure literature signifies testing the boundaries of states of self. this occurs through a set of interconnected conceptual metaphors that i identify in frontier revival literature. for a fuller discussion of the genre of frontier revival literature, please refer to chapter . throughout my dissertation, i italicize the most basic, primary metaphors such as good is up. i identify complex metaphors in caps because this is how they are generally represented in scholarship about conceptual metaphor. conceptual metaphor theorists usually place the abstract (target) domain of metaphors before the experiential (source domain). i try as much as possible to refer to metaphors the way that they are normally written by conceptual metaphors scholars. however, when referring in short hand to the source and target domains of metaphors, i place the experiential domain before the target domain and write both in italics. for instance, i refer to the domains of the knowing is seeing metaphor as seeing/knowing. i place the experiential source domain first in this short hand form so as to emphasize to literary scholars who may be unfamiliar with conceptual metaphor theory that conceptual metaphors are based on a mapping from the body onto abstract ideas. 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   i indicate here the abbreviations that i use for some of these metaphors. i only abbreviate the metaphors that i refer to most often. these terms are of course loaded and deserve a more in-depth discussion than is possible within the scope of this chapter. while i focus primarily on how i borrow and adapt terms from cognitive linguistics in chapter , i devote chapter to exploring the particular cultural movements and discourses in which my authors engage, including cross-cultural literary migrations and influences, changes in women’s social roles, as well as ideas relating to manifest destiny, intercontinental expansion, and changing attitudes to gender. my overall focus though remains on how eastern authors from both sides of the border adopted american rhetoric of manifest destiny in frontier revival literature, which became more about the intercontinental expansion of anglo-saxon culture, than it was about american national identity. i explore how motifs of physical movement on the frontier became synonymous with racialized ideas of anglo- saxon cultural expansion. i also see these physical motifs as gendered in that images of frontier expansion in frontier revival literature were primarily associated with men. male authors represented cultural progress in these texts as a masculine domain of pushing the physical and abstract limits of cultural identity. by performing stereotypically masculine physical activities in their texts, female frontier revival authors promoted increased social opportunities for women at the time and also questioned the violence, social inequality, and general biases beneath seemingly neutral images of frontier expansion that pervaded popular culture in north america. for the purpose of my work, i draw primarily on the conceptual metaphors introduced by lakoff and johnson and consequently rely mostly on their approach to embodiment here. despite having familiarized myself with the field of cognitive linguistics and, in particular, conceptual metaphor theory, i choose to primarily draw on and develop lakoff’s and johnson’s terminology 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   in my dissertation for several reasons. their work on conceptual metaphor was pioneering in articulating a new approach to embodiment and providing a vocabulary of metaphors, which not only had far reaching influence to cognitive linguists and conceptual metaphors scholars, but which also had significant influence on scholars of other disciplines. it is the influence and intelligibility of that vocabulary both in and outside of cognitive linguistics that makes their work so useful for me to draw on. however, for further reading on cognitive linguistics approaches to embodiment and literature, please refer to the following authors: gibbs; parrill, tobin and turner; richardson and spolsky; slingerland; sweetser. this is also a notable limitation in feminist work on women’s travel literature. see johnson’s discussion of the horizon (“image schemas” ). i use the term mapping in keeping with its use in the field of cognitive linguistics. it may seem like an odd choice of words to literary scholars and i try to use it sparingly throughout the next few chapters. however, it is a key term in work on conceptual metaphor and i use it for the sake of interdisciplinary clarity and consistency. in “contemporary theory of metaphor,” lakoff’s discussion of the love-as-journey metaphor clearly explains how the term “mapping” is commonly defined and used: “the metaphor involves understanding one domain of experience, love, in terms of a very different domain of experience, journeys. more technically, the metaphor can be understood as a mapping (in the mathematical sense) from a source domain (in this case, journeys) to a target domain (in this case, love). the mapping is tightly structured. there are ontological correspondences, according to which entities in the target domain of love (e.g., the lovers, their common goals, their difficulties, the love relationship, etc.) correspond systematically to entities in the source domain of a journey (the travelers, the vehicle, destinations, etc.)” ( - 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   ). i use the word to indicate the process by which we project knowledge of a source domain onto a target domain. in politics, gender, and conceptual metaphors, contributors explore how female politicians use conceptual metaphor in comparison with their male peers. also, from a more literary perspective, ellen spolsky’s article “women’s work is chastity: lucretia, cymbeline, and cognitive impenetrability,” was very helpful to me in approaching the way that metaphor use in literature reflects cultural anxieties and debates about women’s bodies. image schemas are generally defined as a lower level of purely embodied experience beneath primary and conceptual metaphors. mark johnson defines image schemas as shared patterns of experience (body xix) that help to structure more abstract forms of cognition (body xx). certain common schematic patterns that he mentions are source-path-goal (“image schemas” ) and containment (“image schemas” ). in margaret freeman’s “momentary stays, exploding forces,” she studies how these two contrasting schemas emerge in work by emily dickenson and robert frost. however, while freeman’s comparative study hints at connections between the gender of the authors and their choice of schema, she does not pursue this connection. this may be a debatable point in scholarship on conceptual metaphor and it is one that deserves and requires more attention and research in that field. cognitive linguists such as lakoff and johnson understandably do not focus on the cultural usage of metaphor but rather provide valuable insight into patterns of how metaphors occur in language. she also indicates that one of shakespeare’s skills as a writer is the complexity of his treatment of universal, cognitive human problems. rather than offering a specific model of self and society, 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   he explores the tensions in such models. sweetser shows that his thematic conflict emerges out of basic cognitive tensions such as conflicting views of the self as vertical and as a container. for instance, in renaissance england, the lineages upon which social structures were based were reliant on women’s fertility and monogamy, despite the impossibility of ever fully identifying paternity or assuring female chastity and monogamy (spolsky ). the physical “invisibility” of women’s sexuality thus underlies broader literary themes about sexual loyalty, betrayal, and violation. for instance, one of the most insistent themes in frontier revival literature is the paradox of needing to define the self through both the settlement and the expansion of frontiers, processes, which are at once antithetical and linked. i show how this paradox stems from ideas of self- definition through motion and through containment. anxieties about needing to define american identity through constant expansion of territorial boundaries occur frequently in american literature, particularly travel writing. american authors associate continual movement with an ideal of ongoing progress that defines american manifest destiny. however, on a basic physical level, constant motion is not humanly possible, and this applies as well to the ultimate limits of american territorial expansion. on a more cultural level, american authors suggest that the need for constant cultural upheaval and change is not sustainable and does not allow for the creation of sustainable cultural values. this tension between settling and expanding the frontier is also highly gendered in that women are usually portrayed as figureheads of domesticity and civilization, while male figures usually must break new cultural ground by pushing and thus defining the physical and cultural progress of the culture. i argue that by placing the female body in traditionally masculine modes of physical mobility as opposed to domesticity, female travel writers disrupt the cultural expectations surrounding the mission of american manifest destiny. 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   feminist work on travel literature has been very influential on my work (mills, discourses of difference; sidonie smith, moving), but tends to lack a detailed methodology for analyzing passages of text. i have already explained that lakoff and johnson do not carefully take into account how complex metaphors are based on experiential metaphors, while actually being heavily shaped by gendered cultural contexts. it is important to be aware of two things: ) how metaphors often stem from the male body and are mapped onto male experience and ) how they often reflect masculine concepts of male and female bodies. to cognitive linguists, these cultural distinctions may be unnecessary. however, understanding the way that cultural gender distinctions affect which cognitive metaphors become prevalent and how they are used is crucial to a literary understanding of the layers of meaning in prevalent conceptual metaphors and how our underlying metaphorical structures operate in society. smith and watson discuss “artists’ engagement with the history of seeing women’s bodies” (sidonie smith and watson, “mapping” ). when i refer to the eastern travelling body, i am really referring to what i identify here as the symbolic eastern travelling body. in other words, while frontier revival authors did not all come from or reside in eastern locations, they published on the east coast and wrote primarily for an eastern audience. the travelling body in their texts comes to represent an eastern perspective on ideas relating to western expansion. coded in common male uses of the frontier frame is the idea that eastern travelling men are first class citizens on the frontier followed by eastern female travellers who function as domestic helpmates. 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   tim youngs’ journal studies in travel literature is testament to the growing international scholarly attention to travel. as well, recent international conferences have featured a great deal of work on travel, including two conferences on the arctic that i attended in norway and sweden in . recent publications include book length studies (m. anderson; bauer; berton; birkeland; brickhouse; buchanan et al.; cox; hotz; imbarrato; kazanjian; mcbride; siegal; simpson; roy); anthologies of primary sources (bohls and duncan; fisher; landsdown; mancall); and collections of secondary criticism (dowler et al.; helmers and mazzeo; youngs and hulme). a notable example of a cognitive linguistic reading of travel literature is barbara dancygier’s “blending and narrative viewpoint: jonathan raban’s travels through mental spaces,” language and literature ( ). evidence of the persistent popularity of travel literature on a local scale lies in a recent exhibit at the vancouver art gallery called expanding horizons: painting and photography of american and canadian landscape - and the corresponding book (goldfarb et al.), as well as the recent vancouver opera, lillian alling. i draw particularly on the comparative work of james doyle and nick mount. doyle’s north of america ( ), yankees in canada ( ), and the fin de siècle spirit ( ) provide insight into late nineteenth-century american literature set in canada, along with the involvement of canadian writers at that time in north eastern american literary circles. nick mount’s when canadian literature moved to new york ( ) also offers an in depth study of why and how late nineteenth-century canadian writers left canada to publish in the united states. these and other comparative approaches to canadian and american cultural history, particularly of the west (evans; findlay and coates; higham and thacker, one west two myths i & one west two myths 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   ii) indicate a growing field of comparative work on border crossing in canadian and american literary history. i also draw particularly on work relating to cross-border women writers in the west (barman; pagh; jameson and mcmanus; skidmore). most notably, jean barman’s constance lindsay skinner ( ) offers a kind of feminist counterpart to mount’s book in her study of a famous turn-of-the-century canadian female western author who infiltrated the northeastern american writing community and wrote about canadian settings. see all of the previous examples. higham and thacker are a prime recent example of scholarship that approaches the study of such border crossing in this way. see barman’s biography of constance lindsay skinner for a good example of this. the main time period that i focus on ends loosely around the first world war. however, i am interested in how recurring frontier revival motifs developed and lingered on, particularly in literature that is more focussed on american landscapes or american discourses. the imperialist underpinnings of frontier revival literature were more accessible to american authors and readers whose dreams of expansion had not been eclipsed by the devastation of war as in canada. with attention to how frontier revival literature lingered on in a more american—although still symbolically cross-border—setting, i end my final chapter by looking at laut’s text, enchanted trail of glacier park, which is set in montana. please see chapter for a full explanation of why canadian authors were motivated out of necessity to participate in the more active publishing industry south of the border. i see the complex literary and cultural meanings that are triggered by roles of the frame as more of the realm of discourse theory and turn more so to work of feminist and literary scholars when interpreting the cultural context and relevance of the frame. one interesting overlap between frame and discourse theory is the tensions around the idea of embodying roles. sweetser and 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   fauconnier note that, “[a]s with the idea of representation, the idea of roles carries along with it the idea of multiple possible mappings between a role and its filler” ( ). similarly, feminist theorists describe gender roles as socially constructed and open to ongoing interpretation. in particular, feminist scholarship on women’s travel literature often draws attention to the way that women writers in particular perform various and often conflicting cultural roles (pratt, mills, discourses of difference). in “performativity, autobiographical practice, resistance,” sidonie smith refers to the female autobiographical subject as existing on “multiple stages simultaneously” ( ). i thus use the term frame throughout my methodology because i see the roles of frames as useful concepts in mediating between experientially based conceptual metaphor and more complex cultural discourses relating to ideas such as national identity and gender. as i explain in note , i draw significantly on lakoff’s and johnson’s work primarily because of the interdisciplinary vocabulary that they offer with which to discuss embodiment and conceptual metaphor. in particular, philosophy in the flesh provides a a clear and thorough list of many different conceptual metaphors along with explanations of the metaphors and how they relate to each other. while i add some of my own metaphors and create my own network of how different metaphors interact with each other, i rely on several of the metaphors that they introduce so as to provide a specific vocabulary with which to analyze my texts—a vocabulary that should be recognized by conceptual metaphor theorists and also understood by those outside the discipline. for other important work on conceptual metaphor please see work by the following authors: handl and schmid; lakoff and turner; ortony; semino; stockwell; sweetser; sullivan and sweetser). it is important to note that this journey metaphor was not initially intended by lakoff and johnson to be applied to literary texts. 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   lakoff and johnson do not discuss how some complex metaphors are more experiential than others. it is important to note that states refers to abstract states of being. for a fuller discussion of the les metaphor please see chapter of philosophy in the flesh and also lakoff’s “contemporary theory of metaphor” ( - ). once again, it is important to mention that lakoff and johnson did not explicitly intend their work on conceptual metaphor to be applied to literature. my critique of their work here is meant not to suggest major shortcomings in their theoretical approach, but rather to show the advantages of building on conceptual metaphor theory by developing it in specific ways for the purpose of literary analysis. an example in everyday language would be “step outside yourself” (philosophy in the flesh ). i still sometimes refer to the individual body of the traveller as representing shared states. what i mean by this is that the generic is specific metaphor combines with other metaphors that i discuss throughout this chapter. the bounded locations/states associated with the bounded location of the traveller’s body itself (or the body’s movement in between, through, or at the edge of bounded locations) map onto his/her individual states (for instance, relating to ideas of bravery or redemption), and also to states that are supposed to represent collective groups such as americans, or north-american women. for instance, they show that the specific scenario of this simple proverb offers “generic-level information, which is as follows: —there is a person with an incapacity. 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   —he encounters a situation in which his incapacity in that situation results in a negative consequence. —he blames the situation rather than his own incapacity. —he should have held himself responsible, not the situation” ( ). for another helpful discussion of the generic is specific metaphor, please see sullivan and sweetser’s article, “is generic is specific a metaphor?” in meaning, form, and body. for lakoff’s discussion of the difference between literal and metaphorical language, see his discussion of the phrase “a balloon went up” in “contemporary theory of metaphor” ( ). my in-text citations for gallatin refer to the reprint of the text. however, all illustrations that i refer to are from the original version. it is important to clarify here whether or not i see the frontier revival frames as changing over time because i am essentially claiming that female authors interpret the frame differently than their male peers. as i explain in this chapter, i see this frame as a generic knowledge structure tof conceptual metaphors that recur in a specific cultural context. the lowest level experiential basis of the frame does not change. however, the cultural understanding of the frame changes. for instance, the idea of who can fill the role of traveller—and by extension embody specific ideas of cultural progress changes. a major change that occurs through female interpretations of the frame, is the level of cultural awareness of the frame itself. once readers become aware of their own performative investment in patterns of thinking about westward expansion and physical activities on the frontier, the cultural meaning of the frame changes. its meaning now incorporates ideas of ongoing re-interpretation, and it can no longer function as smoothly as a kind of seamless iteration of cultural identity. 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   this longing to return to the trail is a common motif in frontier revival literature. however it is more prominent in the works of women writers whose unprecedented freedoms in the wilderness contrasted with their daily lives at home much moreso than in the case of the male authors. kipling’s explorer imagines a voice calling him and saying: "something hidden. go and find it. go and look behind the ranges— something lost behind the ranges. lost and waiting for you. go!" ( ). this passage was cited at the beginning of lure of the labrador wild. 	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   making new bodies matter: women writers and the frontier revival . introduction: “getting as far as you can go” in a social departure ( ), sara jeannette duncan begins the account of her world travels with an image of herself perched at the front of the cowcatcher of a c.p.r. train that races at top speed through western canada (see fig . ). “there is a satisfaction,” she reminds readers upon arrival in vancouver, “that is difficult to parallel in getting as far as you can go” ( ). as the accompanying illustration shows, duncan sits perilously at the front of the speeding train, clutching onto her wide-brimmed hat, and looking directly at the reader with mischievous delight. echoing agnes macdonald’s famous inaugural cowcatcher ride in , this image is iconic in canadian literature for several reasons. her statement indicates some of the major themes in the genre that i identify as frontier revival literature. first of all, from a new historicist and canadianist perspective, i see duncan as representing canadian nationalist expansion into the west. as well, drawing on a comparative literature approach, i also suggest that as a white middle class easterner she calls attention to current ideas about manifest destiny individualism, progress, and the imperialist expansion of anglo-saxon culture into a cross-border west. and when viewed through the lens of feminist theory, duncan can be seen as a female adventure tourist because she represents turn-of-the- century concepts of the new woman by pushing the boundaries of gender norms and extending notions of progress and individual freedom to women. most importantly, these ideas emerge through the representation of the body. her comment, like her photograph, demonstrates the way that frontier revival writers such as duncan use images of the travelling body to promote the 	
   	
   cross-border imperialist expansion of white, anglo-saxon culture. cross-border female adventure writers represent the female body in familiar heroic roles so as to promote women’s rights on both sides of the border. a traditional close reading of literary devices cannot adequately explain why duncan is at once so iconic and complex—and why she communicates these levels of meaning with such ease. drawing on conceptual metaphor theory, i argue that this image is iconic because of its beautifully (and deceptively) simple basis in embodied cognition, which allows it to resonate on so many levels with readers both then and now. it is precisely because we hear about and see duncan’s position at the front of the speeding train that we perceive wider connotations of nationalism, westward expansion, and the new woman in her adventure. it is because duncan literally places herself at the forefront of westward expansion, because she physically goes as far as she can go, that we find cultural connotations relating to imperialism and women’s rights in her story. the purpose of this chapter is to introduce the field of frontier revival literature to which duncan and my other five authors belong. in order to contextualize and justify my comparative study of texts by americans grace gallatin ( - ), mary schäffer ( - ), and elizabeth taylor ( - ), and canadians agnes deans cameron ( - ), sara jeannette duncan ( - ), and agnes laut ( - ), a literary and historical context for the genre is useful. i begin with the image of duncan hurtling through space to emphasize how writers in this field used iconic and viscerally charged descriptions of physical movement to promote late nineteenth-century concepts of an intercontinental west. as i explain in this chapter, images of westward expansion and adventure at the time are steeped in ideological rhetoric about american identity—rhetoric that is applied to canada and adopted by canadian writers. nugent explains that the first major imperialist phase of american expansion, which ended in the s, relied 	
   	
   heavily on manifest destiny ideology: “white americans were certain that they had the right and duty to take land” ( ). i show that imperialist ideas in frontier revival literature occur in conceptual metaphors that underlie a frontier revival frame. going west is ideological short hand for north american ideas about cultural progress at the turn of the twentieth century. i divide my discussion into five parts. first of all, i examine the ideas of east and west that underlie expansionist rhetoric in frontier revival literature, and i show how eastern american authors represent the eastern travelling body in western settings as a form of anglo-saxon imperialism that transcends the border itself. second, i describe in detail exactly what kind of frontier i am referring to and what concepts authors are seeking to revive through representations of the eastern travelling body at the end of the nineteenth century. i demonstrate the cross-border context of frontier revival literature and explain how both american and canadian authors used the physical motifs of american frontier mythology in canadian or cross-border settings. third, i outline different stages of frontier literature, from exploration and pioneer narratives to better known writing about the west by historians frances parkman, frederick jackson turner, and theodor roosevelt, and in adventure texts set in cross-border western settings. by cross-border western settings, i mean journeys that conflate western regions of canada and the united states. most of the texts that i include in the field of frontier revival literature are actually set in western canada. however, their authors extend american manifest destiny rhetoric to western canada in the form of a broader, more popularized concept of american progress as the continental westward expansion of anglo-saxon culture. this discussion of stages of frontier literature is important in order to demonstrate how representations of the travelling body develop into a frontier revival frame in the mid-to-late nineteenth century, and how physical motifs represent the intercontinental expansion of anglo-saxon culture in the face of an increasingly diminishing 	
   	
   american frontier. in this chapter, i also explain the historical context of women’s cross-border frontier revival literature and discuss how women authors use representations of the eastern female travelling body to respond to the work of their male peers in subversive ways. examples from cross-border texts by men help me to show the specific roles of the frontier revival frame, which include a white traveller whose body metonymically represents manifest destiny ideals; a cyclical westward journey; a test and renewal of physical and cultural self-control; and a return home. contrasting these examples with ones from women’s frontier revival literature, i explore how women writers adapt this frame to a distinctly female perspective. by focussing on the female travelling body in the frontier revival frame, i argue that these authors promote women’s rights while performing dominant ideas about westward expansion. duncan’s concept of “getting as far as you can go” ( ) emerges out of a long literary history of eastern north american writing about western expansion. by situating herself physically and metaphorically on the vanguard of a new modern era (of continental expansion, north american imperial aspirations on the world stage, increased immigration, industrialization, and suffrage), duncan helps to usher in complex cross-border debates about empire, nationalism, gender, race, and citizenship in north america. as thacker points out in his comparative study of canadian and american frontier mythology, “[t]o have a canadian point of view, especially an english-canadian point of view, is to be ‘on the frontier,’ to be above america but part of america, to have to cross frontiers” (thacker ). canadians were inevitably influenced by dominant american myths of westward expansion. stepping outside the boundaries of canadian and american literature allows us to see how earlier american frontier myths incorporate and influence elements of canadian culture. a fuller discussion of british and canadian imperialist discourses in contrast with american 	
   	
   imperialist discourse at the time lies outside the scope of this dissertation. however, by identifying and contextualizing frontier revival literature, i show how american manifest destiny rhetoric emerges on the level of the body in these texts to represent cross-border ideas of westward expansion. frontier revival literature emerges out of frontier literature on both sides of the border, but reflects the longer and more dominant american ideology of manifest destiny of the s and the late nineteenth century. the frontier revival frame solidifies the symbolism of the metonymic travelling body. written at a time of increased imperialism in both the united states and canada, frontier revival literature codes ideas of progress through the white travelling body to appeal to readers on both sides of the border. the revival in frontier revival literature signifies two different activities—a revival of the lost american frontier, and also of canadian expansion in the newly opened west. frontier revival authors self-consciously use their physical journeys to signify familiar rituals of cultural progress. the booming periodical culture at the turn of the twentieth century opened up the increasingly blatant, and over-exposed symbolism of frontier revival literature to reinterpretation, providing opportunities for women writers to appropriate and revise the normative imperialist discourses of adventure literature. . “our east and our west:” locating cross-border frontier literature in duncan’s description of the canadian pacific railway, she describes westward expansion in canada as both defining the nation and as representing broader processes of north american westward expansion. explaining the c.p.r. to orthodocia, she says, 	
   	
   it was made for the good of canada, it was made for the greed of contractors. it has insured our financial future, it has bankrupted us forever. it is our boon and our bane. it is an iron bond of union between our east and our west—if you will look on the map you will discover that we are chiefly east and west—and it is an important strand connecting a lot of disaffected provinces ( ). while officially referring to canada in this passage, duncan implies a continental east/west division that takes precedence over the american-canadian border. her transition from “our east and our west” to “we are . . . east and west” ( ) emphasizes that her westward journey represents a form of cultural progress through westward expansion. however, one has to wonder, given this cross-border east/west distinction, who exactly duncan refers to with the pronouns “our” and “we.” as an affluent white, english speaking, metropolitan traveller, she calls upon imperialist rhetoric on both sides of the border about the continental spread of white, anglo-saxon culture. the most recognizable imperialist discourse of this nature lies in northeastern american manifest destiny rhetoric. however, it is paralleled in eastern canadian advocates of westward expansion in works such as george grant’s ocean to ocean. duncan’s ambiguity in regards to her audience suggests a broader eastern imperialism that underlies the rhetoric of westward expansion. duncan’s “our” and “we” signifies not simply eastern, western, american or canadian identities, but rather an eastern vision of westward expansion that underlies american and canadian ideas of cultural progress. this eastern imperialism foregrounds the interests of affluent eastern white north americans in exploiting and assimilating the racial diversity of the west. this passage helps to show how authors use the travelling body in late nineteenth century frontier adventure texts to symbolize ideas of collective social progress through familiar physical motifs. furthermore, what is so compelling about the representation of the body in frontier revival texts is that while authors evoke ideas of collective progress through the frontier frame, they 	
   	
   indicate that such progress only applies to particular types of bodies (eastern, white, affluent, metropolitan, and mostly male). in other words, these travelling bodies define collective goals, while subtly limiting the achievement of those goals to a cross-border, eastern elite. writers on both sides of the border use the white eastern travelling body to evoke the corporeal limitations of a broader anglo-saxon imperialism. duncan’s inclusion of her female body in this stereotypically masculine field of writing disturbs the conventionally gendered terms of expansionist discourse. as amy s. greenberg shows in manifest manhood, nineteenth-century manifest destiny rhetoric was distinctly gendered and “debates over manifest destiny also were debates over the meaning of american manhood and womanhood” ( ). she shows how expansionist rhetoric expressed concepts of “martial” and “primitive ” masculinity based on ideals of physical strength, courage, and adventure ( - ), and on concepts of femininity as the “benevolent domestic presence” that helps to civilize the frontier ( ). duncan, who generally adopts an alternative new woman persona that flouts gender conventions (fiamengo ), challenges readers to think about gendered ideas of social progress as open to interpretation. she forces readers to wonder about the tension between the eastern travelling body’s exclusionary representation of collective goals and the actual heterogeneous bodies it claims to represent. she invites us to question whose cultural progress it is anyway—to ask who gets to represent and define collective values and why? duncan’s perspective as an eastern adventure-author writing about a western setting would have been instantly recognizable to north american readers of the day. in the eastern establishment and the western experience ( ), edward white observes that in the late nineteenth century, well-known eastern literary figures including owen wister, frederick remington, and theodore roosevelt romanticize the west as an alternative to the modern industrialized society of the eastern united states ( ). white explores the work of these men as 	
   	
   part of what he sees as the affluent “eastern establishment” including “the boarding school, the ivy-league university, the college club, the metropolitan men’s club, and the social register” ( ). martin green shows that eastern american writers actively project myths of anglo-saxon hemispheric expansion and domination onto western settings ( ). thus, while the work of eastern authors presents an idealized western alternative to eastern industrial america, it ultimately reflects the interests of white, anglo-saxon northeastern american men. famous eastern historians, frances parkman, frederick jackson turner, and theodore roosevelt, all mythologize the travelling body in the west according to distinctly eastern ideas of national progress. these figures are already well known as part of an “eastern establishment” (white ) of writers about the west. however, i argue that the work of writers such as parkman, turner, and roosevelt resonates, not merely because of their shared cultural background in the nineteenth- century american eastern establishment, but also because of the central role that the male body plays in their metaphors of westward expansion. they convey the need to renew manifest destiny values on a diminishing frontier by emphasizing the formulaic nature of the eastern traveller’s physical movements that metonymically reenact wider ideas of cultural progress. importantly, these writers present a very specifically racialized and gendered travelling body. the legacy of parkman, turner, and roosevelt persists in their use of a frontier revival frame, in which a metonymic travelling body undergoes a cyclical westward journey, a loss and renewal of control, and a final reassertion of eastern ideals of cultural progress. these motifs lay the groundwork for frontier revival literature by eastern canadian and american authors. 	
   	
   . the frontier revival and the cross-border west because the hub of the north american publishing industry at the end of the nineteenth century was in the northeastern united states, eastern frontier revival literature emerged in a distinctly cross-border literary climate. in the fin de siècle spirit ( ), james doyle observes that during the last decade of the nineteenth century, the canadian publishing industry suffered from a limited readership, along with high tariff and postage rates that encouraged imported rather than domestic literature ( ). prominent young canadian writers such as walter blackburn harte were lured to the united states during this time due to the size of the american reading public and the many lucrative magazines and new publishing opportunities for young writers, including women (doyle, fin ). as mount explains, the “literary exodus” of the s and s was the biggest out-migration in canadian history ( ), a migration that for writers such as sara jeannette duncan, was “about moving from the margins to the centres of a continental literary culture” ( ). most of these writers moved to northeastern american cities (mount ) and new york was the epicenter of the publishing industry (barman, constance )—especially the booming periodical industry (mount ). in particular, a number of canadian writers including ernest seton-thompson and charles g.d. roberts were successful in writing outdoors literature with anti-modern themes (mount ) and often cross-border settings. considering the popularity of nature and adventure writing in the eastern american publishing industry of the time, and the migration of so many canadian writers to the northeastern united states, it is no coincidence that these writers participated in the frontier revival frame and its physical motifs of an eastern travelling body. imperialist cultural distinctions between the east and west in this frame were easily accessible to both canadian and american writers in the booming publishing centres of the american east. 	
   	
   in fact, because of historical differences in canadian and american westward expansion, american rhetoric about continental expansion preceded and anticipated similar canadian imperialist discourse. popular “linked discourses of hemispheric unity and u.s. imperial destiny” (murphy ) were prevalent in american politics and letters from the beginning of the nineteenth century (murphy - ), and nineteenth-century manifest destiny rhetoric envisioned the continental expansion of “white americans” as a form of inevitable and divinely ordained cultural progress (nugent ). this racialized discourse was particularly popular during the swell in territorial expansion during the s (roth ), when american interests in canadian territory also surged (nugent ). because manifest destiny rhetoric promoted the expansion of white english speaking north americans, it fostered the continental east/west divide to which canadian writers like duncan refer in their work. imperialist discourse about expansion in both countries has tended to share similar rhetoric about creating a white anglo-saxon and christian civilization (katerberg ). morrison argues that myths of frontier expansion did not develop as much in canada because of geographically isolated, and tight knit, eastern settlements ( ); an awareness of the preexisting inhabitants in western canada ( ); geographical barriers to slow a moving frontier ( ); and an emphasis on social order through the r.c.m.p. and the settlement of “small homogenous communities” ( ). as i will show, canadian female frontier revival authors tended to adopt and respond to already established, more dominant american discourses on frontier expansion. harold innis’s alternative canadian frontier myth not only came years after turner’s frontier thesis, but it also envisaged the frontier as a peripheral economic support for the cultural metropolises in europe, eastern canada, and the eastern united states (francis ). as i propose in my discussion of duncan’s iconic image of riding the cowcatcher, the focus on the white eastern travelling body in cross-border adventure literature of the time allowed white eastern 	
   	
   writers on both sides of the border to easily identify with dominant american imperialist rhetoric. motifs of transformative and aggressive physical movement into the west were already long established in the minds of the north american reading public and lent themselves to the reproducible images and formulaic physical motifs of the northeastern american publishing industry. the body in the frontier revival frame did not simply trigger manifest destiny rhetoric, but rather was the very language of manifest destiny rhetoric. because manifest destiny rhetoric centred around the white eastern male body, it was essentially a language of anglo-saxon imperialism that, while originating earlier and more visibly in american culture, was available to canadian writers and applicable to a cross-border west. the political uncertainty and geographical permeability of the western border between canada and the united states in the nineteenth century was conducive to a mythical cross-border west in the works of canadian and american writers. in the first half of the nineteenth century, there were ongoing negotiations about the american and canadian border; in fact, the western border was not finalized until the oregon treaty in (nugent - ). in the later half of the century, american manifest destiny rhetoric about the continental “domination of anglo-saxon american republicanism” in a cross-border west was often aimed at canada, and corresponded with the completion of the canadian pacific railway in the s, the opening of the western canadian frontier, and the swell of american immigration into the canadian west (doyle, north ). as robert thacker notes, the late nineteenth century saw many cross-border influences in american and canadian depictions of the west, notably in the work of american and canadian frontier artists such as frederick remington and paul kane ( - ). american and canadian adventure writers, mostly located in the east, also conflated the western regions of canada and the united states (doyle, north ; mount ). it is interesting to note that the considerable influx 	
   	
   of canadian writers to the northeastern united states corresponds with a spike in american immigration and interest in western canada. i see these two phenomena (the presence of canadian writers in the northeastern united states and american interest in western canada) as intersecting in the physical motifs of frontier revival literature. the metaphors of westward journeys that described american immigration to western canada were being promoted by the eastern american publishing industry, in which canadian writers participated. canadian and american writers portrayed canada as the next logical step in the continental expansion of anglo- saxon culture, and enacted this progress through the white, eastern, male body. . setting the stages of frontier literature . . exploration and settlement the earliest stage of eastern north american literature about western frontier settings that would have precipitated the frontier revival by a hundred years includes exploration literature at the turn of the nineteenth century. beginning in the late eighteenth century, explorers such as alexander mackenzie and alexander henry wrote on behalf of the fur trading companies about their travels in the canadian northwest. they travelled at a time when the boundaries between the united states and british north america were still being decided upon and in many ways their work reveals how the earliest english exploration texts about western parts of the continent were essentially cross-border in nature. thacker points out that the publication of mackenzie’s book in actually motivated u.s. president thomas jefferson to request and organize the cross- continental expedition of lewis and clark in ( - ). because the western canadian- american border was not finalized until , these texts establish the idea of the continental 	
   	
   northwest as an amorphous western region that is available to be exploited by eastern metropolitan interests. as well, these texts establish the idea of the eastern white male body as a symbol of eastern anglo-saxon civilization that straddles canadian, british, and american culture. written in the style of business reports, they do not attach heavy symbolism to the westward journey in the style of later adventure writers. greenfield points out that compared to earlier british explorers such as mackenzie, american explorers beginning with lewis and clark actually expressed national affiliation and conveyed the western frontier journey as a symbolically patriotic enterprise ( - ) and american travellers as “models and embodiments” of the nation ( ). these early exploration texts established the idea of the white eastern travelling body in a cross-border west as symbolic of the progress of anglo-saxon civilization, an idea that became more specifically nationalistic in the early texts of lewis and clark. however, these early exploration texts, written before the waves of westward immigration and manifest destiny rhetoric, focus much less on the body as a recognizable symbol of imperialist expansion than do texts by later authors who wrote about the frontier once westward migration was in full swing. nineteenth-century pioneer texts, particularly those by women, can also be seen as partly influencing frontier revival literature. by using the term pioneer literature, i refer specifically to largely autobiographical, first person accounts on behalf of settlers participating in westward migration and settlement in north america during the nineteenth century. after exploration literature, pioneer literature represents a second major phase in literary representations of westward expansion. pioneer literature contributed to aspects of frontier revival literature in several ways. pioneer accounts are travel narratives in which individual travellers’ westward journeys explicitly represent more wide scale migrations, cultural encounters, and expansionist discourse of the time. in this way, they establish the template of an eastern traveller, who, rather 	
   	
   than an isolated explorer, is an average citizen whose journey represents the process of ostensibly expanding and establishing ideas of nation. they also employ autobiography to represent this link between individual westward travel and nation building. because of the large number of first hand pioneer accounts and their historical significance for scholars across various disciplines, there has been a great deal of american and canadian scholarship about pioneer literature. during the last two or three decades, revisionist feminist approaches to pioneer literature have sought to shed light on the roles of female frontier settlers. in fact, given widescale contemporary recognition of earlier female pioneer figures such as laura ingalls wilder and susanna moodie, it is necessary to briefly address certain key differences between such earlier pioneer literature and the later frontier revival literature that i write about. for example, women’s pioneer texts tend to focus on the more traditionally feminine domestic roles of the authors, whereas women’s frontier revival authors assume more public and stereotypically masculine roles of adventure travellers. while pioneer texts focus more on daily, personal events, frontier revival literature is more concerned with both the physical movement of the traveller and the broader ideas of change that such movement represents. the more masculine role that frontier revival authors assume tends to involve greater levels of agency, not just in representing cultural discourses about heroism or progress, but also in negotiating and expanding such discourse. frontier revival literature is also about eastern visitors who only temporarily visit the west and who witness westward expansion with a sense of critical distance: visitors do not settle. as the term suggests, frontier revival literature documents westward expansion in a retrospective light amidst an increasingly populated western frontier. while pioneer authors live and witness the expansion of the frontier, frontier revival authors relive an increasingly mythologized frontier. frontier revival literature must also be seen within the context of the mass media boom in urban, 	
   	
   eastern north american cities because it is written for a media savvy urban audience. women frontier revival authors, while sharing some of the discursive conflicts, motifs, and interests of earlier pioneer writers, write in a way that consciously takes advantage of modern technology and social developments in opportunities for women to appropriate and critique urban, eastern frontier mythology from feminist perspectives. . . parkman, turner, and roosevelt frances parkman’s the oregon trail ( ), which was reissued again and again in the late nineteenth century, emphasizes the role of the eastern adventurer as a symbol of the greater westward expansion of anglo-saxon culture. the expansion of u.s. territories to the pacific coast in the s ended the first main period of westward american expansion (nugent xv), a period of geographical territorial expansion that relied heavily upon the ideology of early manifest destiny rhetoric about the divine right of anglo-saxon americans to take over the continent. writing at the peak of this westward expansion, and obviously self-conscious about this wider cultural symbolism, parkman elects himself to the dual roles of traveller and myth-maker. while technically writing as a historian, his narrative is more personal than objective. his journey is also symbolic of the wider migration that was taking place and to which he constantly alludes. in comparison to earlier explorers and settlers, parkman is also writing deliberately in the role of adventure-tourist as one who blatantly symbolizes and mythologizes, rather than simply anticipating or participating in, westward migration. most importantly, the meta-narrative of parkman’s text revolves around the journey and the daily physical movements of his body. i see the oregon trail as helping to establish the frontier revival frame because it consists of a 	
   	
   metonymic traveller, a cyclical westward journey, and tests of endurance including a loss and renewal of self-control, and a return home. written at the end of the first peak of westward migration, parkman’s metonymic journey captures the ideological context of westward expansion in a formulaic physical journey and in a set of recurring physical motifs. the emphasis on his own white, eastern, male body shows that he represents a specifically anglo-saxon idea of progress, which he repeatedly tests through trials in the wilderness and a final return home at the end of the text. as he writes in the preface to his edition, his individual journey was part of a greater movement of “the sons of civilization, drawn by the fascinations of a fresher and bolder life, [who] thronged to the western wilds in multitudes” (ix). this frame became particularly important during the late nineteenth-century nostalgia for a lost frontier when the idea of capturing and reliving the lost glory days of continental expansion was particularly popular. parkman’s symbolic journey sets the precedent for later travellers, who, seeking to evoke ideas of manifest destiny, can revive frontier ideology by reliving this frame in the wilderness. . . frederick jackson turner historian frederick jackson turner is a central figure of the frontier revival frame at the end of the nineteenth century. as nugent shows, the late s saw another peak in american imperialism, this time aimed at offshore ventures (xv). however, part of this imperialism involved a renewal of interest in expanding territory northward (bloom, ; doyle, north ). as doyle shows in north of america, turner’s lament over a vanishing frontier captured a wider cultural nostalgia for a lost american experience, which corresponded with literary portrayals, particularly of western canada, as a last american frontier to the north (doyle - ). in , turner 	
   	
   lamented the close of the american frontier at the chicago world’s fair and declared that “[t]he advance of american settlement westward, explain [s] american development” ( ) and defines the “dominant individualism” (turner ) of the “american intellect” ( ). the physical motifs that turner uses to represent an ideal of national progress through westward expansion are so pervasive in his text that they are easy to miss—a sign that the frontier revival frame was embedded in the north american imagination. similar to parkman, he describes a prototypical eastern traveller who undergoes a cyclical loss and renewal of control on the frontier. like parkman, turner describes this process through the metonymic body of the eastern traveller, whose westward journey “is the line of most rapid and effective americanization” ( ). however, compared to parkman, turner makes this metonymic connection explicit and in his brief essay straightforwardly lists the physical stages of a frontier journey that he sees as defining american progress and identity. this description of the physical stages of a frontier journey inadvertently serves as a nationalistic self-help manual on what types of individual bodies and physical movements represent the whole. these physical movements were to go beyond discourses of nationalism to become the blueprint for north american adventure literature of the time. first there is a loss of control in which “[t]he wilderness masters the colonist” ( ). then “he fits himself into the indian clearings and follows the indian trails. little by little he transforms the wilderness, but the outcome is not the old europe . . . here is a new product that is american” ( ). envisioning the frontier as a site of “perrenial rebirth” ( ), turner portrays the westward expansion of the white, eastern traveller as a nationalist ritual that can be continually reenacted. with the close of the american frontier, this “perennial rebirth” ( ) in a new frontier could easily be adopted by canadian writers because of the corporeal emphasis on the eastern white travelling body whose westward journey represents a racialized form of cross-border 	
   	
   imperialist expansion. turner’s frontier thesis condenses and popularizes the metaphorical connection between the eastern travelling body and cross-border manifest destiny ideals. . . theodore roosevelt theodore roosevelt’s idea of the strenuous life at the turn of the twentieth century further emphasized the global imperialist symbolism of the frontier revival frame, as well as its strongly racialized and gendered parameters. at the end of the nineteenth century, roosevelt’s philosophy of the strenuous life influenced american writers to depict the canadian wilderness as a new alternative frontier for masculine adventure and the expression of american expansionist rhetoric (doyle, north ; mount ). just as roosevelt desired urban americans to rediscover the masculine values of the wilderness, canadian and american writers in the northeastern american publishing industry of the s wrote “brawny tales of outdoor life” (mount ) for an urban audience (mount ). like parkman and turner, roosevelt mythologizes the western frontier through motifs of the metonymic eastern travelling body in the west. his series the winning of the west, published between and , is dedicated to parkman and explores what he sees as the “spread of the english-speaking peoples over the world’s waste spaces” ( ). roosevelt takes the frontier revival frame further to make a direct connection between the individual american citizen and a global, or at the very least, continental imperialist duty. in roosevelt’s “the strenuous life” speech, in which he promotes american imperialist involvements in the pacific in , he confirms that “as it is with the individual, so it is with the nation” ( ) and roosevelt’s ideal heroic individual, explicitly gendered as white and male, is one whose personal willingness to “wrest triumph from toil and risk” ( ) parallels the responsibilities that confront [the u.s.] in hawaii, 	
   	
   cuba, porto rico, and the philippines” ( - ). his use of the physical motifs of the metonymic travelling body, the cyclical journey, and a loss and renewal of control from the frontier revival frame self-consciously places him in the same myth-making tradition as parkman and turner. roosevelt uses the language of the frontier to link the body of the individual american not only to westward expansion, but to an imperialist mission that is now aimed at the world at large. as in duncan’s concept of “getting as far as you can go” ( ), the westward movement of the eastern travelling body represents cross-border ideas of progress as the manifest destiny of white anglo- saxon cultures. . . male american frontier revival authors in western canada late nineteenth-century male adventure writers in the northeastern american publishing industry, who were responding to roosevelt’s call for the “strenuous life,” often wrote about canadian and american western regions as though they were interchangeable (mount ). some of these writers such as julian ralph, w.h.h. murray, and charles dudley warner were obviously influenced by manifest destiny rhetoric and explicitly promoted the expansion of “anglo-saxon american republicanism over the whole western hemisphere” (doyle, north ). however, what has been hitherto ignored by scholarly discussions of these cross-border writers is their representation of the eastern travelling body to symbolize ideas of continental expansion. even more than parkman, turner, and roosevelt, they draw attention to the body as self-consciously re- living frontier activities and renewing american cultural progress. taking advantage of the formulaic popular adventure narrative, these writers focus on their individual physical experiences in the wilderness through detailed personal observations, anecdotes, and illustrations. at the same 	
   	
   time, they mythologize this very personal experience through allusions to frontier mythology. writing more in the style of adventure narratives rather than dry historical accounts, american journalists and adventure authors such as w.h.h. murray and hamlin garland create heroic personae that are at once personal and larger than life—both individualized and metonymic of collective imperialist goals. by writing about themselves performing familiar physical activities in the wilderness, they exploit motifs that emphasize the metonymic value of their physical movements and overall journeys. as well, because of the blurring of actual canadian and american western regions in these texts, manifest destiny rhetoric is less obviously associated with nation, and is especially coded through the white, eastern travelling body. it is important to remember that while these texts may appear to a modern reader to be uniformly imperialist, they actually reveal varying attitudes to westward expansion that are hidden in the formulaic conventions of popular literature. upon paying close attention to the representation of the body in these texts, i find varying degrees of complexity and self-awareness in these authors’ attitudes to the imperialist goals that they represent. this is nowhere more evident than in cross-border texts by women authors whose female bodies inevitably disrupt the ideological basis of the frontier revival frame. . “oh for a precedent:” women’s cross-border texts one has only to look at frontier revival texts by women authors of the time to find a range of richly diverse and complex perspectives on westward expansion. the six women i have chosen to study in my dissertation epitomize the use of the female travelling body to present a range of critical perspectives on cross-border expansionist rhetoric of the day. of course, like their male 	
   	
   counterparts, these women inevitably have diverging backgrounds, aims, and affiliations. some, like grace gallatin were devoted suffragists. others, like mary schäffer were wealthy adventurers who prioritized the pursuit of personal recreation or spiritual growth. some, including gallatin and schäffer started off assisting their husbands with literary adventure writing. schäffer and elizabeth taylor also use hobbies relating to ethnography or botany as a pretext for travel. sara jeannette duncan, and agnes laut were first and foremost professional writers who wrote primarily to support themselves and frequently changed their writing style to suit their audience. agnes deans cameron left her career as a teacher to be a professional writer, a path which was unfortunately cut short by her untimely death. as a group these authors present a striking counter- perspective to male frontier adventure writers of the time in that they use the same style, subject matter, and physical motifs as male frontier revival authors, but with two important differences. they all focus on gender through an interest in the women that they meet or observe on their journeys and by drawing attention to the novelty of doing stereotypically masculine activities as women. and they share a subtle skepticism about imperialism, which they express through the lens of their gendered perspective. as scholars of women’s travel literature and of american imperialism would argue, this intersection of proto-feminism and anti-imperialism is hardly a coincidence in the writing of nineteenth-century middle-class white women whose subject positions were generally caught between privileged socio-economic status and the disenfranchisement of their gender. feminist scholars have shown that there is no better place to examine intersections between gender identity and competing social discourses than the performative body (butler ; sidonie smith, “performativity” ; sidonie smith and watson, “mapping” ). cognitive linguists such as margaret freeman, elizabeth hart, bruce mcconachie, and eve sweetser also show how bodies 	
   	
   perform ideological concepts through specific image schemas, conceptual metaphors, and frames. as elizabeth hart observes, cognitive linguists see the body as central to making, rather than merely performing meaning. however, judith butler’s idea of rewriting ideas of sex and gender through the body ( ) offers visions of creative agency that in some ways overlap with cognitive linguistic readings of how the body makes and essentially remakes meaning. by acting out the frontier revival frame with a focus on the novelty of their female bodies in stereotypically masculine heroic roles, female adventure writers engage in a double performance of reliving the frontier not only as tourists, but as women. they disrupt the gender roles of the white middle- class easterners for whom they write. this physical challenge to the frontier revival frame is an ideological challenge not merely to gender codes of the day, but to the very illusion of the eastern travelling body as a neutral and objective symbol of american cultural progress. these female adventurers thus enact what butler refers to as an “enabling disruption” ( ) that occurs when women writers live the frontier revival frame through the female body. frontier revival literature by women at the end of the nineteenth century is more self- conscious and subversive in the use of physical motifs than comparable work by men. this is largely due to women’s focus on the novelty of the female body in adventuring roles normally associated with men. the challenge of adjusting to physical tasks that are par for the course in men’s adventure literature occupies much of these texts and adds a whole other layer of meaning to the imperialism of the frontier revival frame. all of a sudden, the eastern travelling body is not merely reliving frontier ideology, but rather fighting for the right to do so. furthermore, the obstructions in this struggle are not merely the climate, the rough terrain, or people of other ethnic origins encountered along the way, but rather the very gender codes that the eastern traveller carries with her from the east. grace gallatin’s exclamation, “oh for a precedent!” ( ) in her 	
   	
   brief stint in a cattle round up, expresses her physical awkwardness in trying an activity that is normally lived by western male labourers and symbolically relived by eastern male adventure writers. by placing themselves in masculinist adventuring roles, the authors extend ideals of individualism and progress to other women and also subtly throw the very imperialist terms of these ideals open to criticism and re-interpretation. these authors contribute to the emerging figure of the new woman, which patterson defines as “at once a character type, a set of distinct goals, and a cultural phenomenon . . . a distinctly modern ideal of self-refashioning” and political reform for women ( ). the increased presence of women in the work force and the professionalism of middle class women challenged middle-class gender codes and gave rise to this figure in works by female journalists such as sara jeannette duncan (fiamengo ). in front page girls, jean lutes shows that late nineteenth-century american women journalists used “stunt-girl” personae with a focus on the novel spectacle of the female body in public and on the personal and subjective experience of women authors in a way that revealed the underlying subjectivity of more conventional, male dominated journalistic discourse ( ). scholars of canadian women’s journalism show that this focus on sensationalized female personae existed in canadian journalism as well (fiamengo ; lang ), which supports my claim that canadian and american women popular writers used representations of the female body to destabilize imperialist discourse on both sides of the border. as well, the focus on the body is even more important in women’s frontier revival literature because of the need to consciously relive a waning frontier through physical activities. the particular authors i have chosen to study share audience, style, geographical regions of publication (east) and travel (mostly western canada), along with connections to the east coast publishing world, and cross-border backgrounds and influences, all of which make them prime 	
   	
   examples of female frontier revival literature. while little is known about elizabeth taylor, the daughter of the american consul to winnipeg knew ernest seton-thompson while in art school in paris (kelcey ) and also contributed travel writing to two major east coast nature magazines (outing and travel). her series of articles entitled “a woman in the mackenzie delta,” published in outing in - , documents her journey to the mouth of the mackenzie. duncan and laut were both fixtures in ex-patriot canadian journalism circles in the united states. they published novels, as well as journalism in many different canadian and american magazines, and laut was a well known popular historian. duncan’s a social departure: how orthodocia and i went around the world by ourselves ( ) begins her global journey with a trip on the c.p.r. laut’s enchanted trails of glacier park ( ) takes place in montana’s glacier park, but she alludes to canada frequently and describes the frontier regions of canada and the united states as interconnected. in a woman tenderfoot ( ), grace gallatin describes a journey with her husband through the canadian and american rockies. as mount observes, gallatin was not only part of the east coast literary scene because of her husband, canadian ex-patriot wilderness writer ernest seton-thompson, but also because of her family’s social connections in new york (mount ). she was a dedicated suffragist (skidmore ) and vocal supporter of women’s literature (skidmore ). aside from helping to illustrate her husband’s books, she wrote several book- length travel accounts in her own right. while cameron and schäffer published articles here and there, they each published one full-length travel book set in the canadian northwest and achieved a fair amount of success during their day, despite relatively minimal but sustained recognition in canadian literary studies. while cameron was originally from victoria, b.c., the new north ( ) documents her travels from chicago, where she lived and worked, to the mackenzie delta. schäffer, originally from philadelphia, wrote old indian trails ( ) to document her travels 	
   	
   through the rockies, where she eventually chose to remain. all of these women had cross-border connections either through marriage, family, residence, or profession. they all describe their journeys as taking place in a mythic cross-border west. it is important to mention that there are many other female writers who i considered including in this study, but whose work, for various reasons, i have chosen not to explore in detail. my research began by studying american adventure authors who were writing about canadian wilderness settings according to american imperialist discourses at the turn of the century. the more female adventure literature i read, the more i gravitated toward literature by women who were immersed in the eastern publishing industry and who wrote about cross-border western settings. such literature represents a climax in the projection of american imperialist discourse onto canada in wilderness literature of the time. it also provides the most interesting and layered grounds for comparison because of the repetition of familiar motifs and the focus on the body. the women i have chose to study write rich and complicated texts using the frontier revival frame. they focus on the novelty of being female adventurers and self-consciously describe their journeys in the wilderness using similar motifs of physical movement. they all critique the very manifest destiny rhetoric that they draw upon. these stylistic and thematic ties emerge through their uniquely cross-border perspective on women’s issues and on imperialism. the very cross- border nature of their texts contributed to their failure to be claimed in either the field of canadian or american literature. however, they provide key evidence of the countercultural literary strategies that the frontier revival frame made available to women on both sides of the border. just as american imperialist discourse is coded through the cross-border white travelling body in frontier revival literature, the cross-border promotion of women’s rights is coded through the white travelling female body. 	
   	
   . examples of the frontier revival frame in texts by male authors w.h.h. murray’s daylight land ( ), julian ralph’s on canada’s frontier ( ), and hamlin garland’s trail of the goldseekers ( ) epitomize frontier revival literature written by american men at the end of the nineteenth century and exemplify the roles of the frontier revival frame. these texts all focus on the eastern travelling body as a metonym for manifest destiny. furthermore, they present this role of the eastern traveller as white and male. they contain a cyclical journey, and use the motifs of controlled loss of control, renewal of cultural authority, and a final return. i provide examples from these texts in order to clarify how these roles emerge in frontier revival literature. these authors focus on the role of the traveller as metonym of manifest destiny values and emphasize the movements of the travelling body in representing such values. in his campy, fantastical travel narrative, daylight land, w.h.h. murray justifies his departure with elaborate, flowery language: “the fate of phaeton has warned me, and the pearly shell car of the dolphins is small. i go as a pilgrim, but a pilgrim favored by the gods” ( ). he light-heartedly describes himself as a heroic figure who has a higher duty to leave his family in the east for the sake of his western travels. often resorting to hackneyed, pseudo-shakespearean prose, murray’s self- description of his role as traveller is typical of the exaggerated tone of frontier revival literature compared to the solemnity of earlier works such as parkman’s the oregon trail. murray’s exaggeration shows a heightened self-consciousness of his travelling body in symbolizing manifest destiny. his irreverent tone also implies that his role is essentially derivative in its imitation of such earlier works, and in the context of countless images of travelling bodies in the booming periodical industry. one of these travel journalists, julian ralph, published a collection of essays written for harpers magazine about his travels in the canadian west, in which he comes 	
   	
   to canada to partake in and “witness . . . newer forces of nation-building on our continent” (vi). as with murray, ralph presents his own travels in the canadian west as a higher american calling. this self-conscious representation of the traveller’s body as a force of american continental expansion voices collective anxieties about the decrease of free land in the united states and the effect of the yukon gold rush in luring americans northward. hamlin garland’s trail of the goldseekers documents “the last great march of the kind which could ever come in america, so rapidly were the wild places being settled up” ( ). all three authors deliberately place their travelling bodies at the forefront of the larger movement of westward continental expansion. furthermore, murray, ralph, and garland also emphasize the corporeal signs of their white, eastern masculinity in focussing on the symbolic role of their travelling bodies. murray carefully describes himself and his companions as part of a white, elite, masculine sporting culture in recounting their time in victoria: “what a day we four gray-headed boys had at this most western city of our race, thrust out from the continent like a picket in front of an encamped army” ( ). as in this example, their physical identities as white, eastern men go hand-in-hand with their implicit entitlement to continental expansion. murray even makes frequent reference to aboriginal people as existing beneath or behind him and his white, eastern friends on an evolutionary scale. similarly, ralph consistently compares the heterogeneous nature of the population in the west to his own eastern pedigree, noting that “it would be difficult to draw a parallel between these labourers and any class or condition of men in the east” ( ). his position as an easterner is privileged throughout the book as one who lives the western expansion, but ultimately “witness[es]” (vi) and portrays such expansion from his eastern point of view. garland also notes that “every train from the east brought other prospectors to stand dazed and wondering 	
   	
   before the squalid little camp” at the end of the line ( ). while garland is critical of the effects of this tide of migration to the west, he still privileges his position in the eastern establishment by associating his trip with eastern symbolism of cultural progress. all three men portray their white, eastern identity as literally and symbolically at the forefront of western expansion and also characterize this continental destiny as distinctly masculine. murray, ralph, and garland present a temporary loss of physical control (or what i refer to as controlled loss of control) followed by a renewal of control, and symbolic return, so as to indicate a test of cultural authority in the west. murray portrays his physical struggle in the wilderness as symbolic of a greater challenge to national destiny when he documents “pushing up into a strange region known only to the indians and the hudson bay post folk, through an atmosphere pure and bracing as men ever rode in” ( ). by describing the territory as relatively unknown to white easterners, murray represents his physical struggle as a test of his white eastern authority. similarly, ralph contends that “bunyan would have strengthened the pilgrim’s progress had he known of such conditions with which to surround his hero” ( ). this allusion to pilgrim’s progress, a text that was extremely popular amongst early american christians (macdonald ), places his journey westward in both a wider, heroic tradition of allegorical journeys and also in the context of northeastern american manifest destiny rhetoric. as well, his discussion of the difficulty of his journey as heroic emphasizes that his western journey is a symbolic test of cultural control. garland echoes roosevelt’s concept of the strenuous life by declaring that on his journey, he “willingly and with joy took the long way round, the hard way through” ( ). by the time that garland published trail of the goldseekers, motifs of continental expansion were so recognizable that such descriptions of embracing physical hardship would have 	
   	
   been understood as signifying the redemptive cultural renewal of manifest destiny in a mythical cross-border west. the other form of renewed control experienced in the texts occurs through the cyclical nature of the journeys either in an imagined or a literal return home. this motif of a cyclical foreign journey that involves a symbolic loss and return to self-control is as old as western literature itself and occurs in fictional and non-fictional travel narratives. usually in literature, the cyclical journey represents a process of overcoming a psychological duality in the mind of the traveller, who must negotiate and reestablish cultural distinctions, prejudices, and often real social inequalities that are acknowledged by authors to varying degrees. in american frontier revival literature, this cyclical journey is best exemplified in turner’s idea of “perrenial rebirth” ( ) on the frontier, in which the westward journey represents a process of testing the boundaries of northeastern anglo-saxon culture in the west. in cross-border frontier revival literature, the frontier (along with its racial heterogeneity, uncertain territorial boundaries, often relaxed social institutions, and wilderness) represents a physical, psychological, and cultural threat that the traveller self-consciously uses to test and ultimately to prove the authority of northeastern manifest destiny through recurring physical trials and a formulaic return home. because of the cross-border nature of these texts, this renewal is often exaggerated as a return home to american soil. for instance, in daylight land, murray declares, “we had come to the end of our journey . . . and with happy hearts we were ready to turn our faces toward our distant homes. what a revelation it had been to us!” ( ). completing the pilgrimage that he establishes at the beginning of the text, murray reminds the reader that his westward journey was not a factual account of the western regions he explored, but rather a psychological and cultural “revelation” ( ) for the white, male, eastern traveller. similarly, garland comments at the end of his book 	
   	
   that “the goldseekers are still seeking. i withdrew, but they went on. in the warmth and security of my study, surrounded by the peace and comfort of my native cooly, i thought of them as they went toiling over the trail, still toward the north” ( ). as with murray, garland ends his narrative at home, to the east of his frontier journey where he looks back on his trip as a psychological process of renewal that is part of an ongoing cultural phenomenon of westward expansion. both murray and garland convey the symbolic nature of this return home through physical descriptions of deliberate and controlled retreat. while ralph does not describe his homeward journey, he does make numerous allusions to northeastern american culture in the last chapter of the book and ends by describing himself again as a witness who must maintain critical and cultural distance from his surroundings. these descriptions of return reassert the privilege of the authors as white, eastern travellers. . the frontier revival frame and women’s cross-border adventure texts for a brief overview of how female frontier revival authors differ in their use of this frontier frame i turn again to some examples from sara jeannette duncan’s a social departure and grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot. both duncan and gallatin illustrate the kind of response that many women writers had to the works of male authors such as murray, ralph, and garland. duncan and gallatin contribute to the dawn and height (respectively) of frontier revival literature. they skillfully use the popular frontier revival frame in a way that focusses on their unique and conflicting perspectives as women adventurers. their relative fame and success indicates their ability to use this frame to resonate with audiences and peers. both women emphasize the novelty of the female body in the metonymic role of traveller. they also embrace the loss of 	
   	
   control that they experience throughout their journey, and articulate their renewal of control as more of an affirmation and promotion of women’s rights then of imperialist values. by emphasizing the novelty of their physical experience as women adventurers, duncan and gallatin challenge the gendered and racialized parameters of frontier revival literature. as duncan speeds across western canada at the front of the c.p.r., she encourages readers to feel her mixture of exhilaration and estrangement: “you are projected swiftly into the illimitable, stupendous space ahead, but on a steady solid basis that makes you feel with some wonder that you are not doing anything very extraordinary after all, though the chinese navies along the road looked at orthodocia and me as if we were” ( ). her exaggerated feelings of “illimitable, stupendous” ( ) physical freedom, along with the allusion to being watched by the railway workers, show an awareness of transgressing gender conventions at the heart of the manifest destiny rhetoric in frontier revival literature. however, her experience of this moment as commonplace proves not only that women are capable of the physical freedom and accompanying ideas of social progress that male travel writers represent, but also that the norms of gender, race, class, and language that underlie such ideas are arbitrary and open to revision. she also hints at this subtle critique of the very imperialism that she draws upon in her self-deprecating and empathic mention of the chinese railway workers. keenly aware that her adventure tourism challenges gender norms, gallatin devotes a whole chapter to her affluent, white eastern female readership entitled, “outfit and advice for the woman-who-goes-hunting-with-her-husband” ( ), in which she cajoles her readers to break out of the mold and “use your muscles” ( ), and in which she includes a detailed description and illustration of her own cross-saddle outfit that allows women to ride with the physical freedom of men. like duncan, gallatin advises readers to not merely have a frontier adventure, but to indulge in the physical activities normally reserved for 	
   	
   eastern male travellers. she deliberately uses the shock value of her advice to change readers’ perceptions about who can represent and access the concepts of social progress intrinsic to frontier adventure literature. like murray, ralph, and garland, duncan and gallatin focus on the significance of their physical experiences of moving westward, while showing that such travel is even more shocking when done by a woman. by surprising their audience in this way, they destabilize the gender roles of manifest destiny rhetoric and show this rhetoric to be subjective and open to interpretation. duncan and gallatin also embrace the very loss of physical and cultural control that male authors portray as threatening to their sense of self. writers such as murray, ralph, and garland describe physical struggles as necessary tests that ultimately allow them to prove their cultural superiority over the frontier landscape. however, female authors such as duncan and garland present the physical freedom of the journey itself as a welcome relief to the restrictions of their everyday lives. for instance, duncan states that after some time spent on the cowcatcher, “orthodocia’s hair had come down and i had lost my hat, which naturally would not tend to impress the celestial mind with the propriety of our progression. we were intensely exhilarated, very comfortable and happy” ( ). duncan’s mock allusion to the “celestial mind” shows an irreverent awareness that they transgress the gender codes of manifest destiny rhetoric in which women bring domestic propriety to the frontier. the fallen hair and hat both connect their increased physical freedom with an emancipation from oppressive gender roles. gallatin humourously takes advantage of every physical struggle in the wilderness to relish her own physical freedom and prove her general capabilities as a woman. when falling off her horse, she dismisses the advice of her famous adventurer husband, saying, “i had the stage, centre front, and it was all i could attend to” ( ). gallatin’s theatrical enjoyment of this episode emphasizes the 	
   	
   pleasure that she takes in the physical hardships of the trail, a pleasure that is valuable in its own right because of the novelty of the freedom that she experiences. duncan’s and gallatin’s contentment in this state of disarray is ironic in different ways. on the one hand, it shows that they find freedom in flouting the social conventions they were expected to uphold. on the other hand, it also suggests that their physical loss of control serves a higher purpose, but that this purpose is in itself to revise the ideological framework of heroism that they call upon. they use frontier revival motifs to nod to the metonymic heroism of their male peers and to corresponding manifest destiny ideology. however, by celebrating their own freedom from gender constraints in these physical trials, they appropriate ideas of heroism and cultural progress to foreground the promotion of women’s rights as a higher calling that transcends the border itself. female authors tend to either avoid the cyclical journey altogether by not returning home, or else to indicate upon their return that they are reestablishing a different kind of return to order than their male peers. authors such as duncan and gallatin also focus more on their personal achievements as women as paradoxically both more important than reestablishing collective ideals and as a way of actually serving to improve those ideals all the more by revising them. at the end of the canadian part of her journey, duncan states “vancouver is the end of things generally, in so far as the c.p.r. and the dominion of canada are concerned, and the end of our duties and responsibilities, as indicated by our tickets” ( ). she later reminds the reader that the goal of their journey is “chiefly to be amused” ( ) and to travel alone as women ( ). this concept of vancouver as “the end of things” ( ) portrays the west as the “climax of civilization” (murray ). however, the fact that duncan is about to continue on around the world indicates that she is, at once, not bound to the conventions of manifest destiny, and also taking them to an even greater extreme. her insistence on her journey as a trip of personal pleasure that transcends 	
   	
   “duties and responsibilities” ( ) also emphasizes her personal freedom as both a novel departure from the ideological underpinnings of frontier revival literature, and as revising these ideas of cultural progress to include increased independence for women. in a sense, her epic all-female global journey uses the ultimate cyclical journey of global westward expansion as later envisioned by theodore roosevelt, but with less interest in empire than in proving her capabilities as an independent woman. similarly, gallatin ends her book, not by returning home, but by focussing on her own personal transformation. she states, “i know what it means to be a miner and a cowboy, and have risked my life when need be, but, best of all, i have felt the charm of the glorious freedom, the quick rushing blood, the bounding motion, of the wild life, the joy of the living and of the doing” ( - ) and she adds “i am a woman tenderfoot no longer” ( ). again, she describes the pleasures of basic physical adventure and freedom for women as the ultimate goals of her journey and ones that she takes back to her fellow eastern american women readers. her own increased freedom as a woman is thus the goal of her journey, which becomes more important than asserting her imperialist claim to the west. however, the very vocations and actions that she describes, along with the word “tenderfoot,” are deeply connected in the frontier revival frame to ideas of manifest destiny. this expression of female individualism according to dominant motifs of westward expansion portrays female individualism as a higher goal that improves ideas of cultural progress. true to their female peers, both duncan and gallatin subvert the stereotypical cyclical journey (and restoration of control) in frontier revival literature by presenting women’s freedoms as the ultimate destination/goal of their journeys—a goal that transcends national boundaries. 	
   	
   . conclusion while many canadians were geographically and symbolically crossing frontiers at the turn of the twentieth century, women frontier revival writers on both sides of the border were still struggling for the freedom to expand “their horizon [s]” (schäffer ), while staking countercultural claims to frontier symbolism of the day. to understand how authors write across, around, or about borders at that time, we should pay attention to the way that both canadian and american writers work within dominant american frontier discourse in often complex and socially critical ways. in order to gain a fresher and more original perspective on the history of westward expansion, we need to examine popular cross-border adventure texts, particularly those by women authors, in which complicated and rich metaphors of expansion live and breath in the very representation of the body. the body is the literal and the symbolic medium of imperialism in american frontier discourse. motifs of physical movement define manifest destiny. types of bodies define ideas of national progress and cross-cultural imperialist goals. the travelling female body—the body of the new woman “getting as far as [she] can go” ( )—redefines ideas of progress in her own image, thereby making turner’s “perennial rebirth” ( ) on the frontier a revival with a difference, an “enabling disruption” (butler ). by reclaiming the symbolism of the eastern travelling body, women adventurers relive the frontier revival frame as an ongoing rediscovery and renegotiation of the very terms of cultural progress that they set out to represent. . notes to chapter 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   see the introduction and chapter for a detailed description of terms such as cross-border, and frontier revival. 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   see chapter for a detailed explanation of my methodology where i break down terms such as conceptual metaphors, and frames in more depth and with examples. in this chapter, i explain in broader terms, why the body is so central to the field of frontier revival literature, and thus why these texts warrant drawing on conceptual metaphor theory in the first place. for broader discussions of conceptual metaphors and image schemas, please refer to lakoff and johnson. in this chapter, i offer a broad outline of the frontier revival frame without going into technical detail about frames, which i address in chapter . however, for a basic understanding of my use of the term, please refer to charles fillmore’s definition of a frame as “any system of concepts related in such a way that to understand any one of them you have to understand the whole structure in which it fits” ( ). eve sweetser and gilles fauconnier also clarify that frames can stem from experiential knowledge as in the case of conceptual metaphors, and they also contain specific roles that trigger the entire frame (sweetser and fauconnier ). in chapter , i explain that specific experiential metaphors that map physical movements onto abstract ideas of self-definition fit into the frontier revival frame. i essentially see this frame as a set of metaphors that come from the body and are thus universally accessible, but which are interpreted according to culturally specific ideas relating to manifest destiny. he explains that, “underpinning the democratic imperialistic urge was the conviction that the american people were, in various senses, exceptional in critical, empowering ways. they believed that, uniquely, they had gloriously abundant natural resources at hand; that the headlong expansion of their space and their numbers were signs of progress and the favor of providence; and above all, that their ideals, and thus their existence, were morally superior” ( ). furthermore, “indians, african-americans, asians (about to arrive in the west), and mexicans were obviously ‘others,’ and considered inferior to anglo-saxons” ( ). 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   i must reiterate here that not all of the authors that i look at are definitively eastern in origin. for instance, hamlin garland was actually from the midwest. however, i consider these authors as part of what white refers to as the “eastern establishment” because they wrote for eastern publishers and were embedded in the eastern literary scene. the participation of my authors in the east coast publishing industry does not always correspond with their actually coming from or living on the east coast. for instance, mary schäffer moved to banff, alberta. however, all of them published in the east and wrote primarily for an eastern audience. the canadian impetus to mythologize anglo-saxon westward expansion thus did not gain momentum until the late nineteenth century. as morrison points out, the rush to finish the railroad and promote westward expansion in canada was itself a reaction to american encroachment ( ). also, as katerberg observes, the “importation of american myth” and the creation of canadian myths occurred simultaneously and are inextricably linked ( ). innis’ thesis also reflects the fact that compared to the united states, where settlement in the west was strongly promoted, britain did little to encourage settlement into the west, preferring to focus on the fur trade. western canada was perceived as a place from which to extract resources that fueled the economy of the east and of britain itself. for a discussion of how such rhetoric reflected american fixations with travelling north, see barman’s “cascadia once upon a time” in cascadia, the elusive utopia: exploring the spirit of the people of the pacific northwest. one need only look to anthologies of canadian or american literature to see evidence of 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   the important role that pioneer literature has been given in north american literary canons. for instance, watts and rachels’ major recent anthology entitled the first west: writing from the american frontier - sheds light on the iconic status of american pioneer writers such as david crockett and caroline kirkland (whose pioneer text has similarities to those by canadians, suzanna moodie and catharine parr traill). as well, prominent canadian anthologies, including moss’ and sugars’ recent canadian literature in english: texts and contexts, foreground the work of pioneer writers such as susanna moodie and catharine parr traill as major nineteenth- century canadian literary figures. for instance, see atwood; lyon; miller; h.n. smith, virgin land; watts and rachels; waterston; work. see the following: armitage; boardman and woods; finnegan; georgi-findlay; goldman; greenberg; imbarrato; jameson and mcmanus; kelcey; kolodny; lape; lawrence; mead; miller; pascoe; pagh; tompkins. in terms of important theoretical contributions, kolodny’s influential lay of the land ( ) shows how traditional literature about westward expansion is often highly gendered so that women are associated with the land itself—fertile and also threatening and mysterious—and also as civilizers ( ). other interesting work has been done to show how pioneer women were often expected to represent expansionist discourse within various concepts of the private sphere (greenberg; romero; wexler). also, work on women’s autobiographical strategies (goldman; imbarrato) explore the often conflicting roles that women expressed when telling their stories of frontier travel and settlement. while the oregon trail is not technically set in canadian territory, it sets the precedent for later cross-border texts for several reasons. parkman journeys to the pacific northwest, in which the western border between canada and the united states was literally just being decided upon. he 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   hints at this cultural ambiguity and exchange throughout the book mostly through frequent encounters with canadians. partly due to the ongoing shifts in territorial boundaries, parkman focusses on corporeal signs of identity so as to identify the westward expansion of american manifest destiny as white and anglo-saxon. this creates a broader form of racialized imperialism that seems to transcend the shifting geographical borders of the time. while turner’s frontier is decidedly american and does not include a cross-border setting, he emphasizes the continual expansion of anglo-saxon culture from east to west as the underlying imperialist impetus of his nationalist frontier myth. this racialized imperialist logic could conveniently be applied to and within canada at the time. in constance lindsay skinner: writing on the frontier, jean barman notes that skinner and turner were very interested in each other’s work ( - ). their correspondence demonstrates turner’s influence on frontier revival literature and the cross-border writers working in this genre (barman, constance - ). he describes the role of the american woman as the “housewife, the helpmeet of the homemaker, the wise and fearless mother of many healthy children” ( ). for the purposes of my study of cross-border women authors, i focus more on their male american as opposed to male canadian contemporaries because these women authors were more heavily influenced by trends in contemporary american literature and journalism, and in particular by several american male contemporaries. a fuller discussion of their male canadian contemporaries such as george grant and sandford flemming lies outside the scope of this dissertation. however, my own impression of grant’s ocean to ocean ( ), which documents his westward journey to survey land for the c.p.r., is that he adopts the imperialist rhetoric about the westward continental destiny of anglo-saxon culture at the heart of american manifest 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   destiny discourse through the use of the frontier revival frame. however, on the surface, he articulates this as part of a wider british imperial destiny. he focusses on how to unite a scattered canada (that he perceives to be divided along geographical, ethnic, and linguistic lines) into a coherent extension of the british empire—and how to fend off the imperial advances of the u.s. in his book, imperialist westward expansion is still gendered and racialized, but it lacks the forceful metonymic connection between the individual and the independent nation, as well as the desire to assert and restore cultural control, in the work of american male frontier revival authors. in discourses of difference, sara mills discusses how women travel writers’ gender identity historically places them in an ambivalent position toward imperialism. in relation to women’s travel writing set in canada, this textual ambivalence is also explored by wendy roy in maps of difference, and sherrill grace in the introduction to a woman’s way through labrador. alison sneider’s suffragists in an imperial age also shows how nineteenth-century american suffrage literature operated within imperialist american rhetoric. sneider’s text acts as a reminder for modern literary and post-colonial scholars in particular, to pay attention to how women writers are often forced to conceal anti-imperialist attitudes within historically specific imperialist discourses. in bodies that matter, butler argues that our physical bodies cannot exist outside of discourse in the sense that they inevitably perform concepts about sex and gender that are ideologically imposed on the body ( ). elizabeth hart states that “[e]mbodiment, in butler’s scenario, is thus something that happens to the body, is an imposition upon the body by culture” (elizabeth hart ), while according to cognitive linguists, “language and discourse are themselves . . . cognitively embodied” (elizabeth hart ). 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   my implication here is that these authors create a different relationship to their readers through their representation of the female body in a transgressive performance of imperialist westward expansion. instead of implying that they, as adventure writers, can objectively represent the nation as a whole, they show that there is an inherent tension between collective ideologies and the diversity of individuals they are supposed to represent. the authors’ self-reflexivity is transferred to the reader so that being more self-aware is incorporated into the very physical movements of the frontier revival frame. rather than merely identifying with the physical movements of the frame, the reader is encouraged to recognize the significance and tensions related to those movements. this very self-consciousness facilitates and makes room for readers to tap into types of social critique in women’s frontier revival literature and to envision themselves as not just imitating the frontier revival frame, but reiterating it with a sense of cultural self- criticism and self-awareness. if being aware of the frame becomes part of the frame itself, then readers are more inclined to identify with the frame as a reiterative paradigm that is open to a diverse range of interpretations and revisions. the somewhat permeable nature of the border at that time in history means that is admittedly difficult to find a vocabulary with which to describe writers who lived and worked in a way that defied easy affiliation with either canada or the united states. i use the term cross-border though to acknowledge that despite the ambiguity of the border at the time, it still existed and was still being crossed in ways by these authors. an awareness of the border, and an anxiety about subtly differing national discourses, runs parallel to the pushing of boundaries and questioning of national identities in these texts. in some ways this makes sense because ambiguity about the differences between canada and the united states would have fueled increased speculation about such differences, while at the same time increasing cross-border migration and cultural exchange. 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   sara jeannette duncan walks a tightrope of simultaneously addressing canadian, british, and american audiences, while also teasingly invoking subtle cultural differences that underlie these overlapping demographics. for a recent detailed discussion of laut’s life and work, see valerie legge’s introduction to the reprint of lords of the north. misao dean’s biography of sara jeannete duncan and her introduction to the reprint of duncan’s the imperialist offer thorough insights into duncan’s legacy as one of canada’s early internationally renowned writers. for work on cameron, see roy’s “primacy, technology, and nationalism in agnes deans cameron’s the new north” and my article “seeing for oneself: agnes deans cameron’s ironic critique of american literary discourse in the new north.” for work on schäffer, see janice sandford beck’s biography of schäffer, no ordinary woman, and e.j. hart’s introduction to the reprint of schäffer’s old indian trails of the canadian rockies. there are many other texts by women authors though that still can be considered part of the frontier revival. mina hubbard’s, a woman’s way through unknown labrador ( ) is a very good example of frontier revival literature in her use of the frontier revival frame and in her direct response to the journey of her american husband, leonidas hubbard and his american travel companion dillon wallace’s account of their journey in lure of the labrador wild ( ). work on hubbard’s text by buchanan et al. and grace has been very helpful in exploring the literary strategies and cultural backdrop of her work in a way that sheds light on the women in my dissertation. however, hubbard’s journey is set in labrador and i ultimately decided to narrow my study to travels in western settings for the sake of focussing my research at this stage. another text of interest that i left out for this same reason is over the border ( ) by american author eliza b. chase. as well, for the sake of narrowing my focus in terms of the eastern origin or 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   orientation of the authors, i chose not to explore mary hitchcock’s account of her trip to the yukon in two women in the klondike ( ). as well, i almost included caroline leighton’s book life at puget sound ( ), but decided that partly because she was travelling as a politician’s wife and wrote with a more historical than literary focus, the book did not have the same level of richness in its representation of the body and of pushing cultural boundaries as the texts that i chose to compare in this dissertation. i explain in chapter that i use the terms frame and role as a nod to specific work done on frames in cognitive linguistic scholarship. w.h.h. murray’s daylight land ( ) and julian ralph’s on canada’s frontier ( ) are written as rather lighthearted tourist travelogues about the authors’ trips in western canada. hamlin garland’s trail of the goldseekers ( ) is more of a serious first person adventure story about garland’s grueling travels through northern british columbia as part of the yukon gold rush. this return represents a kind of restoration of control and familiarity on the part of the traveller and usually coincides with a return to an urban, eastern setting that they describe as civilization. it can be traced from the ancient heroic (homer’s the odyssey) to the christian allegory (dante’s inferno; bunyan’s pilgrim’s progress) to fictional and non-fictional colonial travel narratives ranging from aphra behn’s oroonoko ( ) to joseph conrad’s heart of darkness ( ). i address the levels of success and public recognition of the authors individually in the principal close-reading chapters of the dissertation. however, i make this claim about their having achieved varying levels of fame based on considerations such as their connections to other literary figures, their track record of publishing in well-known magazines or with well-known publishers, the 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   extent of their literary output, and the positive response to their writing and/or lectures based on their writing. a self-critical awareness of being watched and judged by people of other ethnic backgrounds is a motif that runs throughout women’s frontier revival literature. the authors often express a sense of displacement in imagining what they must seem like to aboriginal people who they encounter on their way—particularly aboriginal women. see greenberg for a fuller discussion of the way that manifest destiny rhetoric was gendered. see work by romero as well as by wexler for discussions of nineteenth-century american discourses of imperialism and gendered ideals of domesticity. for descriptions of similar accounts of arrival in vancouver and victoria, see the first chapter of barman’s west beyond the west.	
   	
   	
   social departures: retracing the female frontier revival in duncan’s a social departure ( ) and taylor’s “a woman in the mackenzie delta” ( - ) and thus we sped away. -sara jeannette duncan, a social departure, . . introduction i begin my close readings with a comparative study of sara jeannette duncan’s and elizabeth taylor’s travel literature set in western canada. at first glance, these two writers may seem like an odd pairing. duncan is canadian, hailing from brantford, ontario, while taylor is an american from st. paul, minnesota. duncan was a prolific journalist and novelist who remains a canadian cultural icon, but taylor seems to have written only a few articles and remains so under the literary radar that only a handful of scholars know of her. duncan wrote an openly fictionalized account of her travels with real life fellow journalist lily lewis, while taylor wrote a more ostensibly non-fictional account of her journey. duncan travelled west on the c.p.r. line on her way to japan, and taylor wrote of her travels north to the mackenzie delta. duncan’s a social departure ( ) is undeniably short and fictionalized, often for humourous effect, and taylor’s account of western canada is also quite short; therefore, their views on western canada are limited. however, despite coming from different sides of the border, travelling in different directions, writing for different types of publications, and diverging in the extent to which they semi-fictionalize their travel accounts, they share key recurring motifs of physical motion that situate them in the field of frontier revival literature, and at the forefront of women’s frontier 	
   	
   revival literature. my study of representations of physical motion in these texts helps to illuminate a bigger and more detailed picture of the cross-border literary climate in which they wrote. these writers use familiar types of physical description both to fit within this field and to depart from it. these physical motifs point to the cultural capital of the mobile eastern white body that was popular and accessible to writers on both sides of the border as a means of affirming or debating the terms of national citizenship and empire in north america at the end of the nineteenth century (see note ). their use of these motifs illustrates cross-border female perspectives on ideas about the continental expansion of anglo-saxon culture in western north america at that time. in my new approach to duncan, i show how she uses repeated bodily motifs to engage in a cross-border dialogue about the role of women in society. duncan, while prolific and influential, merely scratches the surface of a booming cross-border periodical industry and a well-established american cultural interest in western canada at the time. reexamining duncan from this angle shows the importance of this cross-border rhetoric to canadian women writers, and to canadian writers in general. taylor’s publication in renowned eastern american journals with appeal to canadian writers, as well as her connections to canadian literary and political circles, make her work a worthwhile one to pair with duncan’s. virtually unknown today, taylor is a prime example of a writer whose very cross-border caché during her own lifetime has undoubtedly diminished her literary longevity. while taylor’s serialized magazine articles about travelling to the mackenzie delta have gone relatively unnoticed, when seen in the context of the frontier revival, her work provides telling evidence of a cross-border female response to the frontier revival that is further exemplified in the works of later canadian and american women authors such as gallatin, cameron, schäffer, and laut. by challenging representations of the 	
   	
   female body and of the canadian-american border in their texts, duncan and taylor set the groundwork for these later writers. in my comparative close reading of duncan’s a social departure and taylor’s “a woman in the mackenzie delta,” i examine their conflicted relationship to the frontier revival frame through their use of conceptual metaphor. both writers evoke certain aspects of the frontier revival frame such as the eastern traveller, a cyclical westward journey, and physical struggles including a loss and renewal of control. they also depart from this frame to emphasize their female perspective by focussing on different aspects of their journey such as the novelty of personal physical freedom as a more important destination/goal than reasserting any sort of imperialist cultural control over the west. these tensions between feminist and imperialist concerns occur in recurring patterns of metaphors throughout the texts. for instance, i focus on how they evoke the frontier revival frame by making frequent reference to testing physical corporeal and geographical boundaries as a way of testing the more abstract limits of the self. images of expanding boundaries are particularly prevalent in these texts and create interesting parallels between the geographical boundaries between canada and the united states, the imagined boundary of the frontier, the physical boundaries that travellers test in frontier revival literature, boundaries that constrain women’s physical freedom, and the culturally enforced boundaries that restrict women to the private, domestic sphere. i focus on recurring images of moving in between, through, and at the edges of bounded spaces, which are common in frontier revival literature. i identify a model of self based on a network of metaphors in frontier revival literature that starts at the most complex level with what i define as the self-control is bodily control and generic is specific metaphors whereby the physical movements of the traveller represent degrees and aspects of self-control, 	
   	
   which are metonymic for one or more collective group. in particular, i see the locational self (ls) and locational event structure (les) metaphors as inheriting these metaphors so that self-control is understood according to normal and abnormal locations and aspects of movement through space, which map onto abstract events including states, causations, changes, actions, purposes, means, and difficulties. the self as container metaphor, and its related metaphors (such as central is essential) and inferences (such as containment offers both protection and limitation), is also very important because containment maps onto the self in the ls and the les metaphors. i argue that containment offers a particular idea of bodily/self-control based on restricted movement/change that underlies the ls and les metaphors. furthermore, the objective standpoint metaphor, whereby getting outside of oneself offers self-perspective, indicates a fundamental tension in this overall model of self because types of bodily/self-control can be found both in containment and in a lack of containment. the type of control travellers seek in resisting the bounds of contained spaces, whether of individual bodies or frontier spaces, is bodily/self-control based on movement/change. other primary metaphors come into play here too, such as knowing is seeing because seeing outside of a confined space represents an increase in knowledge. another way of looking at this is to suggest an increase in control over one’s surroundings based on the amount of territory covered (a metaphor that i identify as knowledge gained is distance covered, which appears in such colloquial phrases such as “she covered a lot of ground” and “he has great depths”). within this model of self in frontier revival literature there are thus inherent tensions about what constitutes self-control. these tensions emerge in descriptions of testing boundaries. movement at the edge of bounded spaces represents tension between two different types of self-control, control associated with a lack of movement/change, 	
   	
   and control associated with movement/change. movement out of bounded spaces often represents a paradoxical temporary loss of control with the possibility of re-establishing a different kind of self-control through increased perspective and movement/change. movement between bounded spaces suggests a shift from one location/state of bodily/self-control to another. i examine thematic conflict in duncan’s and taylor’s texts through the lens of these tensions which i see as inherent to the model of self in frontier revival literature. for instance, duncan and taylor express an alternative female focus by such techniques as: highlighting the particularly female nature of bounded locations/states, representing a destination/goal as an extreme location/state outside of a bounded space or at an extreme edge of a bounded space, and making small personal events seem like major boundary crossings. my comparison of the use of conceptual metaphor in descriptions of physical movement in these texts sheds light on the emergence of frontier revival literature and the unique use of this field by women writers on both sides of the border. . duncan before analyzing a social departure, it is necessary to historically situate the text and take a closer look at some recent scholarship on duncan. i begin my discussion with duncan because of her pivotal transitional role in a time of significant cultural change in canada. two major developments during the s, when duncan began her literary career, were the completion of the c.p.r. across western canada and the beginning of the suffrage movement. these two events resonate in duncan’s work, especially a social departure, in which duncan questions the place of canada on the world stage of nation and empire, and that of women’s rights and affiliations as citizens. as misao dean observes in her biography of duncan, a different point of view, the 	
   	
   s saw a rise of nationalism that corresponded with a growing women’s movement ( ). dean suggests that this connection between discourses of nationalism and women’s rights is a repeating pattern ( ), which makes sense since questions of nation in the nineteenth century were likely to trigger related questions of citizenship and suffrage. as sneider points out in suffragists in an imperial age, nineteenth-century american women suffragists often worked within imperialist discourse. by adopting aspects of imperialist rhetoric, early feminists argue that remedying the disenfranchisement of women is part of a broader idea of cultural progress that is useful to society as a whole. i argue that travel texts written about western canada from the s onward offer a stage on which these related questions about nation and gender are performed through the travelling body. as i will show, motifs of physical mobility in such texts are central to ideas of nationhood (in terms of cultural progress) and gender (physical mobility represents a kind of social mobility in the public sphere that is historically more available to men). texts by american authors, or those that draw on motifs of american imperialism (through westward expansion), are the most forceful in their use of iconic physical motifs. duncan’s loosely american persona in a social departure takes advantage of these motifs to promote women’s rights. in the s, duncan was responding to specific imperialist texts about western canada, as well as playing a vocal part in the developing suffrage movement and the boom in female journalism. as heather milne points out in “narrating nation, travel and gender,” a social departure first appeared in print in , just three years after the completion of the c.p.r., and on the heels of popular formulaic american and british accounts of the newly opened canadian west that were distinctly masculinist in nature ( - ). the s also saw a boom in women’s opportunities in the periodical industry in which duncan participated by writing for the the globe (toronto), the star (montreal), and the week (toronto) (milne - ; fiamengo ). janice 	
   	
   fiamengo notes in “‘baptized with tears and sighs’” that duncan started her journalistic career when the suffrage movement in canada was just three years old ( ), and she was the first canadian woman to support suffrage in print ( ). a social departure was published as a book in but first appeared as serial articles in the montreal star in and then in lady’s pictorial in . a social departure ( ) is the bestselling book of duncan’s career (milne ). this success indicates her timely skill at combining nationalist discourses about cultural progress and canadian westward expansion with questions about women’s suffrage and women’s entry into the public sphere amidst increased opportunities for female journalists and writers. one of the most interesting aspects of duncan’s text is the way that she uses motifs of physical movement to refer to ideas of nationalism, while avoiding affiliation with any particular nation. several scholars point out that it is problematic to study duncan as a canadian writer because paradigms of canadian literature are too rigid (dean ) and tend to repatriate duncan as a distinctively canadian author despite the fact that she herself avoids such fixed categorization (devereux ). for instance, duncan makes many allusions in a social departure to being american and i see her use of recurring motifs of physical mobility as locating her partly within a nationalist american discourse of westward continental expansion. however, duncan’s text cannot be seen as simply american as she uses a canadian setting and allusions to aspects of canadian and british identity. cecily devereux offers the best recent articulation of duncan’s complex relationship to ideas of nationhood and empire when she observes that, “duncan seems to have written for a trans-national readership . . . that represents not a specifically ‘canadian’ but an anglo-saxon identity, locatable in canada, britain, the us” ( ). this racialized anglo-saxon identity is nowhere more evident than in duncan’s emphasis on the travelling body performing iconic physical movements in the text. as with her frontier revival peers, duncan literally and 	
   	
   figuratively moves in between different national affiliations within an overarching white, anglo- saxon framework that she communicates on the level of the body. while duncan was in some ways aiming a social departure at a predominantly british readership, she identifies more closely with american concepts of mobility. these seemingly disparate nationalist affiliations are connected, because as devereux notes, to self identify as american “was an imperial gesture that affirmed anglo-saxon racial continuity, and, most importantly, power” ( ). as i show throughout my analysis, the broader imperialist power of american nationalist discourse lies in the recurring physical motifs of westward expansion. such motifs stem from persistent nineteenth- century political and literary rhetoric about westward expansion and find a climax in late nineteenth-century frontier revival literature about expanding into the mythic last frontier of western canada. examining how this broad anglo-saxon imperialism emerges through the travelling body allows for a more nuanced understanding of the canadianness of duncan’s literature. despite her appeal to a broadly anglo-saxon audience, her work, as with that of the other authors i discuss, deserves to be studied as transnational in a canadian literary context. for one thing, duncan’s writing is remembered primarily in canada (devereux ). her promotion of canadian literature (milne ) and extensive work in canadian magazines situate her within a canadian cultural context. conflicts in duncan’s approach can be seen as representative of the very contradictions in canadian literature of her day. despite the fact that there was a rise in canadian nationalism in the s (dean ), canadianness was not really a “functional public category” at that time (devereux ). while milne describes duncan as dramatizing the collision between british and american identity ( ), this very conflict should be explored as distinctive of late nineteenth- century canadian identity. because canadian nationalism was influenced by british and 	
   	
   american imperialist discourses, duncan’s reference to different national affiliations can be seen as representing the very complexities of being canadian at the turn of the twentieth century. a broader awareness of her writing is necessary not just for the sake of understanding her work in relation to canadian literature, but also in order to understand representations of empire at the time (devereux ). we must look to the body for a deeper understanding of this canadian perspective on empire at the turn of the twentieth century because of the importance of gendered and racialized physical motifs in establishing and negotiating shifting ideas of empire, nation, and citizenship. what exactly does this contradictory canadian identity look like and how does it relate to duncan’s take on gender? there are persistent conflicts in duncan’s portrayal of the travelling body. dean reminds us that “her novels and journalism address themselves to the ‘difference’ that her sex and ex-centric nationality allowed her to feel, to questions of what it means to be a colonial, to the colonial point of view” ( - ). dean parallels duncan’s perspective “from the margin of anglo-american ideology” and her subtly critical gaze toward british and american imperialism ( ) with her gender-based alienation from the nation state. this double critique of imperialism from the point of view of a canadian and of a woman appears on the level of the body in duncan’s text. on the most basic level, her focus on the personal novelty of her female body in traditionally masculinist heroic roles subverts gender expectations, while also upsetting the imperialist goals and assumptions of travel texts involving conquering the land and its aboriginal inhabitants. fiamengo observes that the conservative climate of canadian newspapers ( ) in which female journalists were closely scrutinized contributed to duncan’s highly performative persona in her work ( ). duncan’s self-reflexive persona in a social departure emerges through the body in her tendency to self-consciously re-enact stereotypically masculine and 	
   	
   imperialist roles from the perspective of a colonial woman. while the self-deprecating and self- conscious nature of her persona might seem at first to be a mark of amateur writing, inexperience with travel, or insecurity as a female colonial traveller, it is an expression of duncan’s subtle and slippery social criticism. as fiamengo argues, her ironic stance offers a kind of guerilla art that allows her to conceal and shift her social criticism at will ( ). we must look to duncan’s inconsistencies and contradictions because the basis of her social criticism is a resistance to orthodoxy in any form (fiamengo ). duncan insists on the multidimensionality of her public self, which allows her to shift between different kinds of subject positions such as female and male or colonial and imperialist (fiamengo ). this shifting occurs most vividly on the level of the body in a social departure when duncan represents iconic physical activities in the frontier revival frame from a disarmingly female perspective so as to appropriate and disrupt masculinist and imperialist assumptions about gender and citizenship. . a social departure on several occasions, duncan describes her national affiliation according to her body to emphasize that such affiliations are more about proving her personal capabilities as a woman, than aligning herself with a particular state. at one point, duncan and orthodocia meet a british woman on the train who laments having to immigrate to canada. orthodocia and the woman agree wholeheartedly that the latter was unable to disagree with coming to canada once her husband had “made up his mind” ( ) to do so. duncan responds to what she implies are more conservative british attitudes about gender, but only retrospectively to the reader: “’dear me said i in my american mind, reflecting on the conduct limitations of the british matron, dear me!” 	
   	
   duncan makes an interesting use of the physical-object self metaphor in reference to “my american mind” ( ). first of all, the idea of making up one’s mind is an expression of this metaphor because it maps object control onto self-control. in the physical-object self metaphor, the self is referred to as an object (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). this suggests that she has critical distance and control over her own identity. it is interesting that duncan portrays herself here as an american in order to contrast herself with the patriarchal authority of the british woman’s husband who dictates the terms of her mobility. it is even more interesting that she does so by playfully using the same physical-object self metaphor, but in a different way. first of all, the self as container metaphor maps the interior space of her body onto her mental faculties. in the context of discussions of female mobility, this metaphor also reminds the reader that she has a private, critical distance from restrictive stereotypical attitudes toward the female body. ironically and humourously, her reference to this interiority contrasts vividly with her public admission of it to the reader, and with the speeding train that she is on at the time of having this thought. this contrast reminds the reader of the way that restrictions on women’s physical and social mobility are arbitrary and socially constructed. by expressing disdain for the woman’s husband “in [her] american mind” ( ), duncan presents herself and the british man as separate bounded containers and thus different locations/states. of course, the term “american” may have been applicable to north americans at that time. duncan seems to be self-conscious about the slipperiness of the word through the playful and shifting allusions to british, canadian, and american identity. in this passage, these locations/states refer both to their opposing mindsets about women’s mobility, and also to their different geographical and cultural contexts. duncan’s discussion of her “american” mind as a bounded object thus on the one hand evokes the idea of national types and aligns herself with supposedly more 	
   	
   progressive american attitudes to female mobility. on the other hand, the self-reflexive labeling of her own mind as an object shows a playful awareness that this is more of a symbolic philosophical allegiance relating to women’s travel, rather than a fixed identification with nation. aside from her ambiguous identification with american and british personae, duncan makes allusion to her canadian background. she notes, “it is very ‘american’ for young ladies to travel alone, but not such a common thing in my part of the continent” ( ). duncan suggests that american attitudes to female mobility are more relaxed compared to those of canadians. despite already contrasting herself with orthodocia and affiliating more with an american perspective, she still distinguishes herself as canadian in this passage. once again though, duncan deliberately shies away from naming herself as canadian, instead alluding to canada as “my part of the continent” ( ). this ambiguity paints british, american, and canadian identity as broad strokes of the same anglo-saxon brush. similar to the image of “my american mind,” this description of canada as “my part of the continent” evokes the mapping between the self and a bounded location in the locational self metaphor. in this case, the physically bounded region of canada maps onto a more abstract idea of nationhood with which she affiliates herself. according to the bodily/self control and the generic is specific metaphors, she exerts authority in affiliating herself with the country and extends this to her mostly female readership. once again, duncan plays with the idea of national identity as a physically bounded, and thus potentially restricted/protected, sense of self that is lacking in movement/change. however, the use of the word “part” evokes the objective standpoint metaphor by implying a sense of perspective on canada’s place in the continent as a whole. by placing the nation in a broader continental setting, duncan evokes the concept of nationalism, while doing so in a way that is disconnected from a specific nation. this ambiguity nods to a kind of broad anglo-saxon cultural 	
   	
   identity that in this case is more closely aligned with north american discourse of eastern travellers on the western frontier. her inclusion of canada in this continental viewpoint echoes american discourse of incorporating canada, particularly western canada, into the united states. duncan further represents her american persona as a symbolic extreme that contrasts with british or old world conservatism about women’s mobility. she describes orthodocia’s relatives trying to come to terms with her trip with “‘that american young lady,’ which was me” ( ). duncan’s use of a demonstrative adjective (“that”) to refer to herself in the third person implies the objective standpoint metaphor, whereby one gains perspective by getting outside of oneself. this suggests different things about her american identity. first of all, being american is a way of metaphorically getting outside of herself in a way that tests her personal and cultural boundaries. this idea of looking outside of herself as an american also suggests that her persona as a traveller is a symbolic american one that is separate from (but allows perspective on) her canadian identity. duncan’s subtle indication that her american persona is more symbolic than real also reminds the reader that her traveller role is metonymic for a cross-border female audience moreso than for a particularly canadian, british, or american one. duncan proceeds to upbraid orthodocia’s family and general public opinion in britain for being more accepting of marriage than of female independence in her address to the reader: “naturally you will think of matrimony first, which casualty would have enabled orthodocia to go to the planet mars alone, i believe with the full approval of all her friends and acquaintances” ( ). by describing marriage as a journey that parallels their own trip, duncan envisions travelling the world and settling into the domestic sphere through marriage as representing diverging types of self-definition. her description of marriage as an absurdly extreme journey ironically suggests that it is more dangerous to orthodocia’s sense of self than an actual journey around the world with a trusted female 	
   	
   companion. the deliberate use of this metaphor to depict women’s experiences of marriage in a negative light implies that restrictions on women’s physical/social mobility are actually more harmful than the physical mobility that is seen as going against acceptable norms of female identity. she also draws attention to the importance of actual physical journeys as a kind of leveling ground with which to influence and change the metaphors by which women live their lives in or beyond the domestic sphere. duncan’s discussion of her ride on the cowcatcher describes her journey as a kind of ironic performance of american identity. she notes, “i dwelt with fascination upon certain words by an american author—‘and the bear was coming on,’ and i thought of the fool-hardiness of travelling on a cow-catcher without a gun” ( ). this allusion seems to refer to american author charles dudley warner’s article, “the adirondacks verified” in atlantic monthly about killing a bear. as an american author who travelled to western canada on the c.p.r. and wrote for an eastern american audience, warner is a prime example of male frontier revival authors. duncan’s allusion to him carefully situates herself in relation to eastern american perceptions of western canada. by describing herself as “dwel[ling]” “on” warner’s words, duncan evokes the locational self metaphor. she compares her self to the metaphorical location of warner’s “words,” which suggests a cultural affiliation with the northeastern american publishing industry. the concept of living in something as abstract as language, especially that of a cross-border travel writer’s language indicates that this very cultural affiliation is more symbolic than nationalistic. the specific metaphor of “dwelling” has particularly domestic connotations that subtly present a more feminine private sphere as representing and transcending national affiliation. because of metaphors such as good is up, the image of living on top of warner’s words suggests that she is capable of the kind of cultural test of authority that is faced by her male peers in frontier revival 	
   	
   literature. however, the fact that she both temporarily resides “on” his work and is physically separate from it implies that she transcends this test and has critical distance from it. the image of the bear “coming on” also evokes the les mapping of a physical obstacle onto a difficulty that occurs in the struggle in the wilderness of frontier revival literature. on the one hand, she invokes a sense of credibility by suggesting that she is capable of facing this obstacle and proving her cultural authority. on the other hand, her tongue in cheek, cavalier approach to riding the cowcatcher without a gun suggests that she is not actually interested in using this symbolic obstacle as a means of emphasizing national divisions or imposing cultural control on the landscape. instead, duncan’s humourous allusion to a male american frontier revival author calls on the symbolism of anglo-saxon cultural dominance to emphasize her own personal achievements that she metonymically extends to her female readership. duncan’s discussion of her home in this passage further complicates her american persona in a social departure. after alluding to warner, she states, “i wondered what would be said in our respective home circles if the bear really came on” ( ). her discussion of home circles again evokes the self as container metaphor, this time to describe their places of origin. this metaphor of containment suggests separate bounded locations/states, so that in this case the bounded geographical location maps onto the separate abstract states of national identity. however, duncan’s ambiguous reference to their “respective home circles” in the plural, and with no specific allusion to their cultural backgrounds, suggests that the boundaries of these bounded locations/states may overlap or shift. this ambiguity draws attention to duncan’s own shifting and more symbolic affiliation with a pan-anglo-saxonism, rather than a specific nationalist discourse. as well, her interest in how people in their “home circles” would react to the bear again reminds us that this obstacle/difficulty normally serves as a means of proving one’s eastern 	
   	
   cultural authority over the canadian frontier. her interest in such a hypothetical reaction subtly reminds the reader that she is invested in proving herself in this cultural framework. duncan’s portrayal of herself as lacking an actual gun facetiously suggests that she is braver than her male peers, while also indicating a sense of ironic removal from the imperialist connotations of the obstacles/difficulties in frontier revival literature. duncan’s speculative interest in how people will respond to her actions back in their “home circles” further emphasizes that she is expanding the boundaries of the bounded location/state not only through facing the stereotypical obstacles/difficulties of the struggle in the wilderness, but also with different destinations/goals. duncan repeatedly emphasizes that unlike her male predecessors, who continuously reiterate a sense of national dominance over western canada, the point of her travels is to achieve personal mobility, and thereby agency, that she then extends to her female readership. she first emphasizes this in the description of orthodocia’s “battles” ( ) to go on their trip. the idea of fighting battles touches on the struggle in the wilderness and the test of bodily/self control in the frontier revival frame. it also connotes more culturally specific, and often racist motifs of violent encounters with aboriginal people in frontier revival literature. fear of such encounters abounds in these texts, often contrasting with authors’ actual meetings with aboriginal people. for instance, the explicit racist animosity that murray projects onto non-white people in daylight land echoes earlier american depictions of frontier battles and represents a major obstacle/difficulty through which to assert his sense of anglo-saxon superiority. with characteristic wit, duncan deliberately suggests that for women, the real obstacle/difficulty is to get out of the door to begin with. while she implies that this struggle is harder for women in england, it is a battle that she herself takes part in. duncan assures the reader that in overcoming their naysayers, “we exercised forbearance, valour, and magnificent perseverance, and we 	
   	
   prevailed” ( ). here duncan uses stock phrases to describe the kind of self-controlled movement past obstacles/difficulties toward a destination/goal that represents the assertion of cultural authority in frontier revival literature. once again, she ironically applies this idea of cultural progress to the personal struggle for women to access the individual agency of travel in frontier revival literature at all, let alone the perks of national affiliation or cultural superiority that come along with it. through the use of these physical descriptions she deliberately extends this struggle for bodily/self control onto a collective female struggle that both triggers and transcends imperialist discourses of westward expansion. duncan also uses climactic moments during their journey through western canada to foreground their struggle for personal agency. she humourously describes riding the cowcatcher of the c.p.r. train as a kind of epic inner battle: [t]o be a faithful historian i must say that it was an uncomfortable moment. we fancied we felt the angry palpitations of the monster we sat on, and we couldn’t help wondering whether he might not resent the liberty. it was very like a personal experiment with the horns of a dragon, and orthodocia and i found distinct qualms in each other’s faces. but there was no time for repentance; our monster gave a terrible indignant snort, and slowly, then quickly, then with furious speed, sent us forth into space ( ). first of all, duncan gently mocks the feigned objectivity of journalism and travel writing in her discussion of personal physical discomfort from the point of view of a “faithful historian” ( ). she also hints at this contrast between objective masculinist domains of knowledge and their own more subjective experience in her discussion of this event as a “personal experiment.” the image of the two women sitting on a beast again implies a conflicted relationship to the cultural authority that she is trying to invoke. their position on top of this beast suggests an act of bodily/self control through the control is up metaphor, and also because of their control over the 	
   	
   force/cause of their movement/change according to the les metaphor. therefore, duncan portrays them as proving themselves and performing a cultural rite of passage. but they also personify the train itself as a male who, like their naysayers, might “resent the liberty.” so by conquering it, they are defying the very masculine monopoly on physical mobility and the ideas of cultural progress that such mobility represents. again this is tied to nation—the train physically and symbolically unites the provinces of canada. however, it is also alien to them (it is a beast— or a dragon). this sense of alienation emphasizes that the train itself, despite uniting canada, represents a broader, more symbolic imperialist project and power from which the women are excluded. it also emphasizes that they are affiliating themselves more with the idea of citizenship through the image of the train (more so than with a particular nation) in order to include women in a public dialogue about what constitutes nationhood, empire, and citizenship. also, according to the les metaphor, she represents the train as a large, moving object that maps onto an external event whose force/cause acts upon them. their personal distance from the very force/cause of their journey reminds the reader again of their critical distance from the physical and symbolic vehicle of empire on which they ride. rather than asserting, they are departing from social convention. but this very departure occurs in the recognizable, even clichéd image of the c.p.r. as a symbol of continental expansion in frontier revival literature, and thereby indicates a desire to redefine or expand ideas of nation and citizenship. duncan also uses self-deprecating humour to play down events that would normally be given importance in the texts of her male peers. describing the rockies in hyperbolic terms is a stock convention in frontier revival literature. however, duncan remarks that “orthodocia and i had our first glimpse of the rockies from the window of the ‘ladies toilet-room’ between the splashes of the very imperfect ablutions one makes in such a place” ( ). as part of the ls 	
   	
   metaphor, the bounded location of the women’s washroom maps onto her state of mind. once again, she evokes the tension between the self as container and the objective standpoint metaphor in her description of trying to test the bounds of her own sight/knowledge and expand her own movement/change. she subtly extends this personal test of bodily/self control to an implied female readership through the reference to orthodocia and their shared confinement in the female washroom. this confined space evokes the domestic sphere. not only are they in a room designated for women, but the room is specifically geared towards the private sphere in a nod to victorian gendered discourses of middle class femininity that prioritized modesty and cleanliness. far from dwelling on a sense of victimhood, duncan’s vision of the rockies “between the splashes” of her own toilette offers a teasing, irreverent perspective on the literary conventions of her male peers. by essentially fitting the mammoth scenery “between” the movements of her own bodily cleansing rituals, duncan situates the landscape within her female location/state. it could be argued that duncan is presenting herself in a humourously mock-heroic role so as to seem less threatening to readers both male and female alike. it is difficult to know the extent to which duncan meant for passages such as these to convey a sense of sarcasm or critique of dominant discourse. however, her skill at combining sharp, witty, political commentary in this passage, with nods to more socially conventional elements of female behaviour, suggests her awareness of a sense of conflict. the subversive tension in this image is undeniably present as part of her self-deprecating persona and it emerges in the description of her body in relation to her physical environment. not only does she test the boundaries of her female experience, but she also invites the landscape in, so to speak, to her own private female space. she thus indicates an alternative way of relating to the landscape that is more openly subjective and identified with her female perspective. trying to get out of her space indicates that she wants 	
   	
   more agency, but inviting the landscape in suggests that she does not want to simply assume the same kind of imperialist sight/knowledge of her surroundings as her male peers. another way that duncan diverges from her male peers is through her willing loss of bodily/self-control—a loss that she does not seem interested in rectifying or overcoming. one of the best examples of this divergence occurs near the beginning of the book when she describes their expectations for their journey: “we were both quite aware, however, when we made our last farewells out of the car window in the noisy lamp-lit darkness of montreal station, the september night that saw us off, that the c.p.r. would take us over the prairies and across the rockies, and finally to a point along the shore of the pacific ocean, somewhere in british columbia, we believed, where in the course of time we should find a ship. it was our intention to commit ourselves to the ship, but there speculation ceased and purpose vanished away, for who hath fore- knowledge of the pacific, or can prophecy beyond the rim of it?” ( - ). duncan’s use of phrases such as “quite aware,” “we believed,” and “our intention” attributes some agency to the two women. however, this entire passage represents a willful embrace of a loss of control through images of the train, which “take[s]” them across the country. their destination of “a point along the shore” maps a bounded location of a specific spot at the edge of the continent onto a state of cultural progress that is brought about by testing the boundaries of canadian identity. however at the same time, the lack of specificity in this passage emphasizes a willing loss of control over their geographical location. what matters is the symbolic act of expanding the frontier and testing the limits of their own bodies. her statement that “there speculation ceased and purpose vanished away, for who hath fore-knowledge of the pacific, or can prophecy beyond the rim of it?” ( - ) indicates a destination/goal of gaining perspective on themselves and on their imperial identity by moving out of a bounded location/state. rather than indicating a 	
   	
   restoration of control, duncan suggests that this open-ended movement toward self perspective is in itself the destination/goal of their journey. duncan’s departure from canada and the very sense of the unknown that lies beyond the geographical borders are more important than reasserting a fixed affiliation with national boundaries. she appropriates the familiar motif of expanding borders in the pursuit of cultural progress to promote her own more alternative and proto-feminist interest in resisting, rather than reaffirming, cultural affiliation. this willing loss of control culminates in a disinterest in actually going home by completing the conventional circular journey of the frontier revival frame. duncan states, “we were tarrying in corona—which you will not find upon the map” ( ). her recurring desire to be delayed, to become lost, to get off the map rather than to inscribe their names on it, represents a deliberate disinterest in asserting the male explorer’s imperialist gaze on his surroundings, and even less of an interest in asserting cultural authority by going home. maps are suspect in this passage. they must either get off them, or remap them, which produces a constant tension in the text between trying to prove oneself through conventional motifs of physical mobility, and trying to change the meaning of these motifs. her description of the landscape in this town reflects an openly subjective perspective on their surroundings: “before that there seems always an unrest about it, a vague undulation of line along the sky, the contour of the country never broken, but always gently changing with the point of view, like the bounds of truth as we know them” ( ). this image of a shifting horizon indicates an increase in perspective on herself and the country through a process of moving outside of a contained location/state and increasing sight/knowledge and movement/change. the idea of a horizon that shifts as they move with it (and is thus never really attainable) hints at an awareness that the delineations between locations/states are changeable and subjective. her comparison between the shifting horizon and “truth” emphasizes a more 	
   	
   subjective idea of self, on an individual and a collective level. unlike many of her male peers, she recognizes that her own cultural perspective is not fixed. her recurring sense of novelty at performing stereotypically masculine physical activities also makes this subjectivity more apparent. duncan’s inability to assume an uncomplicated physical relationship to her role as traveller constantly informs her more subjective understanding of self and cultural progress that she represents throughout her travels. duncan uses the motif of expanding a frontier space, while imbuing this imperialist symbolism with an alternative, more subjective female perspective. the shifting of the horizon represents cultural progress, but for duncan this progress conveys a necessary, and distinctly gendered social departure, rather than a reinstatement of the status quo. the progress of duncan’s last canadian frontier is one that consists of a more flexible relationship toward citizenship and nationhood. . taylor while virtually no literary criticism has been written on elizabeth taylor, what little information that exists sheds some light on her american take on the cross-cultural frontier feminist adventure perspective that duncan pioneered. there is biographical material on her in the minnesota historical society archives, but one of the few published references to her in recent scholarship occurs in barbara kelcey’s study of european women travelling in northern canada in alone in silence. kelcey’s study provides biographical information that helps to situate taylor’s work in relation to eastern american perspectives on western canada. taylor was the daughter of james taylor, the us consul to winnipeg who was a known supporter of american expansionist ideas (kelcey ). she would, therefore, have been aware of eastern american discourses about 	
   	
   expansion into western canada at the time. she also appears to have been connected to eastern american perspectives on canada through her friendship with ernest seton-thompson. kelcey points out that taylor met seton-thompson in art school in paris, where he was planning an arctic voyage and encouraged her to travel to northern canada (kelcey ). as mount shows in when canadian literature moved to new york, seton-thompson was a nature writer, one of the founders of the boy scouts, and an instrumental figure amongst canadians who adopted and participated in the american fixation with the canadian wilderness at the turn of the twentieth century ( - ). taylor’s contact with seton-thompson, along with the fact that she published accounts of her trip in the prominent eastern wilderness magazines travel and outing, suggest her close proximity to the cross-border literary climate of frontier revival literature. taylor’s connections to american political and literary discourses about the canadian wilderness, and more importantly western canada, confirm her deliberate engagement with such discourses in her text. as well, the fact that she had to overcome the concerns of both her father and hudson bay company officials in order to embark on her journey (kelcey ) suggests that taylor was well aware of how gender norms were embedded in imperialist perceptions of western canada, and also that she knowingly subverted such assumptions in her text. similar to duncan, taylor makes several interesting references to a kind of symbolic american persona throughout her text. she begins with a quote from a poem called “the two streams,” which appears to be about western canada, and which was written by famous boston judge and writer, oliver wendell holmes sr. (holmes ). her discussion of this poem as the impetus for her journey aligns her with eastern american literary perceptions of western canada. as well, taylor mentions that the steamer leaves the rapids of the drowned for the mackenzie delta on the fourth of july (“arctic circle” ). after the holmes quotation, taylor proceeds 	
   	
   to frame her journey in relation to what she terms “the popular idea of the far north” (“northward” ), again placing her writing in the context of popular american expansionist ideas about western canada. the minimal number of direct allusions to taylor’s american heritage suggests that like duncan, taylor’s american persona is not as literal as it might seem. instead she refers to american nationalist discourse in a way that evokes a symbolic imperialist anglo-saxon persona with which to prove her capabilities as a woman. for example, she complicates her national affiliation in the text by describing her journey as ultimately starting in paris and ending in edmonton. by doing this, she portrays herself as a cosmopolitan traveller who transcends nationalism in her text. also, by establishing paris as her point of departure, taylor subtly subverts the anglo-american discourse of her readers. however, like duncan, taylor exaggerates american myths of westward expansion by extending her trip beyond the boundaries of north america. as devereux remarks about duncan ( ), taylor’s american persona lies in an understanding that imperialism is performed through the body itself. she taps into the cultural capital (see note ) of the westward moving anglo-saxon travelling body at the turn of the twentieth century. taylor presents this persona as more about a symbolic contrast between the rural and the urban in her discussion of the wilderness as a “frontier” (“northward” ) that contrasts with the “city” (“northward” ). both of these passages are written with a self- reflexive concern for how the wilderness surroundings would be perceived by primarily eastern, urban readers. like duncan, taylor cultivates an american persona in her text that is less about affiliating with american nationalism than it is about adopting the cultural credibility and symbolic imperialist authority of a white, anglo-saxon traveller who pushes the edges of the western canadian frontier. 	
   	
   before engaging in an analysis of “a woman in the mackenzie delta,” i turn to a few of its distinctive features in comparison with duncan’s a social departure. taylor’s account of her trip, which took place in (laframboise ), was published as a series of four articles from - in outing. compared to duncan, who speaks with the detached and confident ironic tone of an established journalist, taylor adopts a more personal voice throughout her text. she begins by describing her lifelong “childish resolution” (“northward” ) to travel to the arctic (“northward” ) and focusses on her own personal observations rather than deflecting her point of view through a fictionalized and naïve travelling companion as in the case of duncan. the effect of this personal narration is to give the impression of a text that is more explicitly autobiographical in nature compared to the highly fictionalized a social departure. taylor is not as ascerbic and flamboyant as duncan who, as fiamengo points out, hides behind an ironic, shifting tone ( ). because of the more personal and autobiographical nature of taylor’s text, which involves extensive description of her physical movement, we can see even more explicitly how symbolic discourses emerge through the individual travelling body in her text and in the daily lives and imaginations of her female readers. like duncan, taylor is fascinated by her own physical mobility and is more interested in the goal of attaining such novel physical freedom than in asserting cultural authority through opposition to aboriginal people or through a return home. taylor focusses in particular on the time that she spends watching and learning how to move in the wilderness and how to overcome personal restrictions and fears about her mobility. she also makes use of pronouns and verbs to describe this focus on personal mobility. for instance, she starts by describing her journey as “it” (“northward” ) and often presents herself as physically adjacent to, and thus symbolically ambivalent towards, typical destinations/goals in the wilderness. she represents her alienation and critical distance from imperialist discourses of 	
   	
   westward expansion. however, taylor gradually develops more physical and psychological agency throughout the journey. her focus on personal physical freedom envisions an alternative idea of cultural progress that encompasses more choice and independence for women. . “a woman in the mackenzie delta” so from the heights of will life's parting stream descends, and, as a moment turns its slender rill, each widening torrent bends,— from the same cradle's side, from the same mother's knee,— one to long darkness and the frozen tide, one to the peaceful sea! -oliver wendell holmes, “the two streams,” complete poetical works, . taylor’s opening references to oliver wendell holmes’ poem, “the two streams” makes use of conceptual metaphor to represent her physical journey as an individual and cultural rite of passage. she begins by quoting the last two lines of the poem and then observes, “i had wished to visit the far north ever since the time when, as a little girl of ten years old, i had read dr. holmes’ beautiful poem, “the two streams,” and had resolved that in the years to come i would follow the great river to the ‘frozen tide’” (“northward” ). taylor’s discussion of “the years to come” (“northward” ) as a river that she follows invokes the les and ls metaphors by mapping the 	
   	
   bounded physical path of the athabaska river onto her lifetime. her image of “follow[ing] the ‘frozen tide’” represents her physical journey toward the destination of the mackenzie delta as the pursuit of a major life goal. once again this process of testing the boundaries of the contained spaces of the river source, the canadian border, the rivers themselves, and the arctic circle, conveys an idea of movement/change out of a fixed location/state. it also suggests a movement/change toward a state of increased perspective that she explicitly links to male models of physical mobility set in the western canada of frontier revival literature. holmes sets “the two streams” in western canada and describes the continental divide, from which two different rivers head north and south: “from the same cradle's side,/from the same mother's knee,—/ one to long darkness and the frozen tide,/one to the peaceful sea!” ( ). it is interesting that holmes describes canada as a contained female space from which these two rivers run. his american idea of continental unity is not only enacted in the setting of a mythic western canadian last frontier, but is also clearly gendered. the cradle of the rockies maps a bounded location onto a protective and limiting state that he describes as female, which evokes the restriction of women to the domestic sphere. in contrast, the two opposing streams emanating from this female source indicate a more masculine model of testing the boundaries and, therefore, defining and redefining ideas of manifest destiny on both sides of the border. this passage from holmes’ poem epitomizes the distinctly masculine model of cultural self-definition in frontier revival literature that duncan and taylor emulate for their own purposes. the description of the athabaska river as leading to “darkness and the frozen tide” emphasizes the idea of western canada as a significant northern boundary above the united states that must be crossed in order to gain perspective on american identity. taylor’s admission that her dream to follow this northern path is a “childish resolution . . . not to be thought of for a woman unused to the rigor of an arctic 	
   	
   winter” (“northward” ) reminds the reader that by testing the limits of her physical strength, as well as the various boundaries of her journey, she takes on a more masculine role in stimulating debate around citizenship and identity. the use of this quote at the beginning of her text reminds the reader of her desire to extend the symbolic significance of this role to women and to include them in such debates. as does duncan, taylor ironically portrays resistance to her own journey as the main obstacle/difficulty that she has to face. late nineteenth-century travel writers such as taylor often had to explain and justify their choice of dress in order to appease readers’ conservative attitudes toward women’s travel. taylor describes her struggle to bring appropriate travel supplies and clothing as a process of “wrestl[ing]” (“northward” ) with such decisions, a process that includes arguing with a dressmaker in paris who tries to convince her to wear the latest women’s fashions. her use of this word draws on the obstacles/difficulties that occur in stereotypically masculine physical activity in frontier revival literature to describe her own struggle to defy gender expectations on her trip. this comparison ironically suggests that her defiance of gender norms is in itself a heroic process of testing cultural boundaries similar to the male struggle in the wilderness in frontier revival texts. taylor describes her conversation with one particularly fear mongering naysayer: “he asked me what enemies i expected to encounter, and was very skeptical when i mentioned the mosquito as being the most formidable. he spoke of the savage tribes which i should meet, and drew a touching picture of my being murdered in my sleep” (“northward” - ). again, she refers to the male model of establishing bodily/self- control in the wilderness through conquering foreign enemies. in particular, the phrases “expected to encounter” and “i should meet” indicate an established male model of movement/change and the overcoming of obstacles/difficulties. furthermore the image of his 	
   	
   warning as occurring “in” a painting and occurring while she is “in” her sleep indicates that this male model of cultural progress protects and restricts women from active participation in testing and redefining cultural boundaries. taylor’s wry suggestion that the mosquito is her biggest obstacle reminds readers of her skepticism toward the gendered dichotomies of frontier revival literature. furthermore, she states that “the real risks, however, lay in another direction. was it prudent to go two thousand miles from the nearest settlement?” (“northward” ). on the one hand, this statement both sensationalizes her vulnerability as a female traveller and acquiesces to readers’ gender expectations. on the other hand, her reference to “the real risks” reminds the reader of the value in pushing the boundaries of these very expectations. her suggestion that such risks “lie in another direction” ironically emphasizes that such defiance of gender norms pushes the very boundaries of frontier revival literature itself, thereby further testing the limits of cultural progress. taylor repeatedly compares herself to the supplies that are transported to h.b.c. posts along the river so as to convey the conflict between herself and the ideas of cultural progress that she enacts. at one landing point, she says, “our camp effects were soon piled up on a car, i was perched on top of the load, and with two indians pushing behind i was trundled in fine style to the end of the track to begin camp-life there” (“northward” ). the verbs “perched” and “trundled” describe her as a kind of parcel that the male guides manoeuvre on the trip. both verbs suggest that she is not in control of the force/cause of her movement/ change. they also portray such force/cause as emanating from an external event/large moving object, reminding us that she does not necessarily have agency on her journey. her containment in the overall moving object of the boat and in the implied metaphor of packaged supplies evokes stereotypical portrayals of women on the frontier as confined to the domestic sphere. her reference to the aboriginal men 	
   	
   “pushing behind” also suggests their ambivalence to the journey in that they are part of the force/cause of the journey, while relegated to the back of the group, as opposed to leading the way. the image of being taken “to the end of the track to begin camp-life there” (“northward” ) portrays her ambivalent relationship to the force/cause of her journey. she achieves a destination/goal that pushes the edges of a frontier space, but by beginning camp life there she takes on a domestic role and seems to represent a stereotypically feminine, domestic image of imperialist westward expansion. however, this idea of being “taken” to this destination/goal implies ambivalence to both traditional concepts of domestic femininity, as well as to the wider imperialist connotations of setting up camp in a remote frontier location. taylor’s ambivalence associates her female perspective in the wilderness with an ongoing negotiation with, rather than assertion of, imperialist ideas of progress. in this light, her new “camp life” suggests a new cultural beginning based on a potential revision of gender roles. taylor often describes her increasing physical and psychological independence on her trip as a process of diverting from the overall path of the boat and her fellow travellers. when arriving at the mackenzie delta, she claims, “then the goods must be landed and the furs put on board. as for myself, i hardly knew where to turn first, there was so much to do.” . . . “i ventured out into the muskeg” (“eskimos” ). in this passage, taylor uses verbs such as “landed” and “put” in reference to the supplies, thus evoking previous uses of similar words to describe herself as cargo. however, in this case she explicitly differentiates herself from the supplies. in particular, her statement that “i hardly knew where to turn first” (“eskimos” ) clearly maps her physical force and movement onto an increased agency over the cause and change of her own self- definition. as well, the verb “turn” implies controlled movement/change. the common idiom of “where to turn” contrasts significantly with the verbs that taylor uses to describe her movement 	
   	
   near the beginning of her text. this development in verbs to describe her movement emphasizes her increased personal mobility throughout the text, and shows how deeply entrenched the connection between social and physical mobility is in frontier revival literature. the sense of uncertainty in this idiom is also important for different reasons. it suggests a move from one location/state to another that symbolizes the masculinist process of testing cultural boundaries in the frontier revival frame. furthermore, the question of “where to turn” anticipates grace gallatin’s exclamation a few years later in a woman tenderfoot of “oh for a precedent” ( ). this physical disorientation and sense of novelty hints that she is deliberately adopting a masculine model of extreme physical mobility that frontier revival writers saw as the epitome of cultural progress at the time. taylor uses a similar idiom in her description of trying to find the courage and strength to pursue her personal interest in the local wildlife. she describes the freedom to conduct her own research once other people take over the stereotypically female domestic chores with which she had been preoccupied, noting, “i turned my attention more to plants and butterflies” (“arctic circle” ). in the phrase “turned my attention,” she explicitly maps her own physical force and movement onto abstract concepts of cause and change. taylor uses the physical object self and self as container metaphors to describe her state of attention (self) as a bounded location or object that she can hold and turn. she also employs the locational self metaphor by referring to a particular state of attention as the bounded location of an object, perhaps her own body, over which she has control. she represents gaining control over her own state of concentration and focus in this image of moving the bounded location of her body. she explicitly uses the verb “turn” to demonstrate increased personal agency and self-definition. she also evokes the objective standpoint metaphor by suggesting that her state of 	
   	
   attention is the bounded location of a physical object that is separate from herself, and which she looks at from the outside. the phrase “turning my attention” indicates a change in direction, which thereby suggests a change in her desired destination/goal, and also implies the ability to move in between different locations/states with control over movement/change and sight/knowledge. taylor is careful to present her attention as focussed on learning about the wildlife, and she emphasizes at several points throughout the book that her own goals of studying the surrounding environment differ from the more practical necessities of moving supplies along the river. it is important that she connects her increased agency and self-knowledge and bodily control with such alternative personal goals of expanding her own knowledge, as opposed to imposing authority on the place itself. taylor alludes to another common idiom to express alienation from the traditional goals of arctic exploration literature. voicing her regret at not being able to stay at the mackenzie delta, she states, “[b]ut regrets were useless. that boat waited for no woman, the ‘brigade’ of the athabaska would be waiting for us before long, and one could not expect the whole northern service of the hudson bay company to be disarranged because one person wanted to catch butterflies, and botanize, and sketch, at the delta” (“eskimos” ). in this passage, taylor refers to the idiomatic expression “time waits for no man,” in which time and the inevitability of change are understood as a fellow traveller with whom one must try to keep up. true to the les and ls metaphors, this idiom maps movement through space onto abstract ideas about changes of the self. the idea that movement is inevitable and will occur whether or not we try to control it maps onto the idea that change is inevitable whether or not we try to control it. the implication of this idiom then is that because movement/change is inevitable, one must assert bodily/self control or else the force/cause of this movement/change will act upon us. taylor’s phrase “that boat 	
   	
   waited for no woman” makes the idiom literal by substituting “boat” for “time” and by literally suggesting that she must keep up with it. also by substituting “no man” with “no woman” she changes the meaning as well. first of all, she self-reflexively draws her readers’ attention to the metaphorical nature of the idiom (and to the fact that we are used to making this implicit connection between movement/change). secondly, she humourously suggests that this idiom, although appearing to be universal, stems from the male body and is used to understand male life experience. it does not have the same taken-for-granted metaphorical resonance for female travellers or readers because women are not usually on the proverbial boat at all. taylor’s more literal concern with catching the boat emphasizes that basic metaphors of self-definition do not fairly apply to women because they reflect masculine concepts of physical mobility to which women are still trying to gain access. catching the boat for taylor signifies the struggle to access the basic physical mobility by which cultural progress is defined. taylor also repeatedly expresses alienation from the typical destinations/goals of exploration when she reaches one of her main destinations, the arctic circle. she describes feeling disenchanted when discovering that it does not resemble her childhood expectations of a large “shining circle” (“arctic circle” ): “we crossed the arctic circle nine miles north of good hope, at rabbit skin river. by no amount of grown up reasoning had i been able to free my mind of the childish idea of the circle” (“arctic circle” ). taylor’s description of her childhood dream of reaching the delta refers back to the allusion to holmes’ poem at the beginning of her text, along with her initial discussion of her childhood dream of travelling northward. the physical journey represents her individual self-definition, as well the collective pursuit of cultural progress. this image of moving past a contained space in an extreme northern setting evokes the testing of boundaries in frontier revival literature. she refers back to her 	
   	
   original claim that her dream of travelling northward is “childish” because of her gender. taylor’s suggestion here that she must outgrow her childish misconceptions of the arctic thus also indicates that she is breaking past gender barriers. furthermore, she suggests that the barrier she is supposedly breaking does not exist in the first place. she describes herself as proving her bodily/self control through the physical expansion out of contained spaces in frontier revival literature. her suggestion that she crosses an invisible boundary emphasizes that conceptual metaphors occur amidst socially constructed concepts. her crossing of this boundary as a woman indicates an awareness of the arbitrariness of the gendered nature of this frame. in this case, the destination/goal of her trip becomes not only the original idea of the arctic circle that represents masculinist ideals of cultural progress, but also an escape from the way that these ideals have been mythologized as exclusively male. her escape from the gendered nature of the frame in this passage conveys an empathic, more realistic awareness of the surrounding landscape itself, outside of the mythical lens of the frontier revival. taylor’s eagerness to expand her personal knowledge extends to a willing loss of control when encountering aboriginal people. despite being glad to be helped ashore at one point, she remarks that “i fancy i looked somewhat perturbed, however, for the indian who helped me out glanced at my face and laughed” (“northward” ). imagining her own appearance through the eyes of the aboriginal person, taylor essentially acts out a combination of the knowing is seeing and objective standpoint metaphors. by pretending to see herself through the eyes of the woman, she maps looking at herself from the outside to an increase in objectivity. compared to male writers, such as w.h.h. murray, who constantly speak of aboriginal people as objects towards whom they direct an imperial gaze, taylor embraces a loss of cultural authority by attempting to see herself through the eyes of aboriginal people. this image of seeing herself from 	
   	
   another’s perspective indicates a loss of control, especially in her awareness that she is an object of humour. this increase of perspective and self-knowledge echoes the struggle in the wilderness in frontier revival literature and suggests that this obstacle/difficulty is a heroic test that she overcomes similar to her male peers. rather than trying to re-impose her cultural authority, however, taylor hints at a different paradigm of exploration and cultural progress that is more inclusive both of her own gender as well as that of aboriginal people. she emphasizes a sense of gender solidarity across geographical borders in another image of an aboriginal woman laughing at her: “evidently i impressed her as presenting an utterly absurd appearance, for, after looking me all over, she would shut her eyes, shake her head from side to side and go off into a fit of laughter” (“eskimos” ). this image of the woman “looking [her] all over” goes even further in emphasizing the increase in perspective and self-knowledge that appears in the previous passage. not only does the woman find her to be ridiculous, but she also seems unable or unwilling to comprehend taylor at all. by describing the woman as closing her eyes, taylor draws attention to the woman’s body as a separate bounded location/state that is unknowable and impenetrable. and despite trying to gain perspective on herself through the woman’s eyes, this very perspective leads to a sense of how foreign she must seem to the aboriginal people she encounters. the description of the woman as “go [ing] off” into laughter also indicates that the woman is outside of her personal field of knowledge and cannot be quickly understood or conquered by taylor herself. however the woman’s sense of enclosure (bounded location) in shutting her eyes and shutting herself off from taylor also indicates their shared state of alienation in this passage. this recurring concept of mutual alienation is far more common in frontier revival texts by women than by men and also captures a sense of shared otherness across the cultural divides of their ethnic backgrounds. taylor’s alienation when trying to gain perspective on herself in these interactions 	
   	
   defines the pursuit of cultural progress as a matter of finding self-knowledge, increasing personal freedom, and empathizing with aboriginal people who are normally objectified in frontier revival texts. another way that taylor embraces loss is in her disinterest in returning home. when describing her reluctance to leave one of the camps, she states, “that small island might have been in the land of the lotus eaters” (“northward” ). taylor’s allusion to the odyssey here is paradoxical in a way that is typical of female frontier revival authors. on the one hand, the idea of a lotus land symbolizes a kind of delay in pursuing an ultimate goal. more specifically, this delay is characterized by a state of pleasure and escape that has the capacity to make one forget one’s goal. taylor expresses delight at her increased personal freedom on her journey, and she seems to suggest that this freedom is in opposition to the social conventions that she is expected to assert and conform to as either a woman or as a traveller. on the other hand, the very fact that she articulates this longing to escape her own social background through an allusion to homer ironically situates this very sense of alienation in the context of masculine heroism, and thereby legitimizes it as part of an overall pursuit of cultural progress. this allusion to homer’s lotus land is also important in its implicit reference to a cyclical model of a masculine journey that begins and ends at the same place—a model that underlies frontier revival literature. when thought of as a physical point along a cyclical journey, “lotus land” also connotes a point somewhere on the outer periphery of the circle, relatively far away from the beginning point of her journey. since this return usually represents a restoration of bodily/self-control in frontier revival texts, her allusion to “lotus land” implies a lack of interest in restoring cultural control at the end of her text. however, once again, this very image of testing the boundaries of a contained space (in this case the cycle of the journey itself) suggests an increase in perspective and knowledge that male 	
   	
   frontier revival authors see as necessary to their overall journeys. she conveys this sense of distance from her original starting point as a means of achieving perspective in her claim that “the world we had left seemed too far away for any disturbing sense of a feeling of homesickness” (“northward” ). this image of social departure, which recalls duncan’s phrase, more explicitly suggests a process of having moved outside of a contained space and transitioned out of a particular location/state. the idea of not wanting to return to her previous location/state evokes the testing of cultural boundaries in the frontier revival frame, but takes it one step further by not wanting to restore the original boundaries or return to the original location/state. by calling on the frontier revival frame in this way, taylor rebels against the anglo-saxon imperialism of her male peers, while also suggesting that her rebellion is heroic, redemptive, and necessary for improving ideas of cultural progress. . conclusion duncan’s exclamation, “[a]nd thus we sped away” ( ) near the beginning of a social departure captures how important this idea of departure is in both of these texts. the last frontier of western canada in frontier revival literature becomes a site not just in which to prove their cultural authority, or to escape their own cultural backgrounds, but rather to do both at the same time. both women assume a masculine model of self in frontier revival literature and push it to an extreme in their hyperbolic desire to endure a loss of bodily/self control, and in their disinterest in restoring the cultural safety and order of eastern, urban society. by taking this masculine model of self to an extreme they suggest that the very act of escaping restrictive social expectations about gender is in itself a matter of cultural progress. 	
   	
   writers such as duncan and taylor anticipate virginia woolf’s later claim in three guineas that “as a woman, i have no country. as a woman i want no country. as a woman my country is the whole world” ( ). early frontier revival literature by male writers such as w.h.h. murray and julian ralph exaggerates the gendered distinctions beneath cross-border american rhetoric of continental unity, partly as a way of transcending the actual border and making american expansionist rhetoric more about gender, race, and language. these authors present this model of self in frontier revival literature as a masculine imperative to redefine and debate ideas of cultural progress and identity compared to women’s roles of maintaining cultural values in the domestic sphere. in this cross-border literature, the american nationalism of manifest destiny is replaced by an idea of nation that transcends geographical boundaries. frontier revival authors promote a symbolic ango-saxon imperialism that is coded through the body. consequently, the bodies that they represent as having control over defining and redefining the idea of empire are white and male. the imperialism in these texts occurs less as an affiliation with a particular state, than as an idea of imperialist identity through which to debate what it means to have a self and to be a citizen of the english-speaking western world. in frontier revival literature, canada becomes a symbolic setting for imperialist expansion that transcends particular geographical boundaries. however, for women writers such as duncan and taylor, a location/state was not simply an idea that could be applied across the border, but rather a political process from which they were literally disenfranchised. by taking male models of self in frontier revival literature to an extreme, they emphasize their own lack of a fixed location/state through a dramatic departure from their gendered social roles. furthermore, the setting of canada in frontier revival literature as caught in the middle between two imperial powers contributes to a more self-reflexive treatment of imperialist identity amongst these women writers, particularly duncan. 	
   	
   the movement out of contained spaces reflects increased opportunities for women to participate in the public sphere at the turn of the twentieth century. duncan’s and taylor’s departure from gender roles represents an entry onto a public stage on which to debate the terms of cultural identity and progress. through my close reading, i hope to shed light on the ways that cross-cultural imperialism was coded through the white male travelling body at the time, and the ways that women writers appropriated such imperialist discourse to debate ideas of cultural progress. duncan and taylor are at the forefront of this specific discourse and also depart from it by laying the groundwork for a specifically cross-border female approach to frontier revival literature. both writers use images of mobility to paradoxically enter the public sphere by publically announcing their departure from it so as to debate the roles of women on both sides of the border. they help to introduce us to a small, but influential and persistent group of women on both sides of the border who play a role in this larger discourse of cross-border north american imperialism. in part because of the time period and the genre of frontier revival literature, duncan and taylor offer prime examples of how the travelling body, and particularly the female travelling body, participates in cross-border debates of the day. the last push of american imperialist expansion into western canada provides a vehicle, like duncan’s cowcatcher, on which to symbolically push women into such public cross-border debates. duncan and taylor convey this paradoxical departure from (and entry into) the public sphere through the use of a male model of self in the frontier revival frame from a female perspective. in the frontier revival frame, the process of breaking out of bounded locations/states of self represents a means of gaining bodily/self-control through perspective (getting outside of a contained space), increased sight/knowledge, and movement/change. male frontier revival authors live out this model of bodily/self-control without fully acknowledging that it is a 	
   	
   privilege from which women and other groups are excluded. images of getting out of contained spaces throughout duncan’s and taylor’s texts convey an effort to escape restrictions on women’s social roles. male authors of frontier revival literature represent the act of redefining ideas about states of cultural identity and progress in images of extreme movement/change in between, through, and at the edge of frontier locations. this model of self was mapped experientially from the male travelling body onto masculine social roles, despite its ostensibly broader metonymic function. for duncan and tayor, the ability to move from one bounded location to another, to exist at extreme edges of confined spaces, or to move to extreme lengths outside of confined spaces proves that women can access and rewrite the bodily/self-control of the male model of self presented in frontier revival literature. furthermore, specific motifs such as focussing on personal destinations/goals, struggling for personal agency over the force/cause of their journeys, and a disinterest in restoring bodily/self-control all help to emphasize a more self- reflexive perspective on the model of self in the frontier revival frame. by living the frontier revival through the female body, they provide a new model of self that encourages women on both sides of the border to acknowledge that they “have no country” (woolf ), to depart from their social roles, and to reshape and contest the terms of cultural progress from which they have been disenfranchised. . notes to chapter 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   see sweetser for a fuller discussion of containment. 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   lakoff and johnson define the objective standpoint metaphor as mapping being outside of a contained space onto increased perspective (“step outside yourself”) (philosophy in the flesh ). please refer to chapter for fuller discussions of my approach to manifest destiny discourse. devereux suggests that duncan is preoccupied with an idea “not of empire as space, but of the racialized bodies that inhabit it and move through it as themselves the space of empire” ( ). her suggestion that bodies were symbolic of empire is a useful reminder of the way that imperialist discourse was acted out on the level of the body in north american literature at the time in a way that often prioritized race and straddled geographical and national boundaries. this applies not only to the movement of bodies in symbolizing types of expansion, but also to types of bodies in promoting and privileging the expansion of certain groups over others. frontier revival literature is a prime example of writing that nodded alternately to canadian and american culture, while privileging the broader expansion of white north americans. it is useful to examine how racialized and gendered bodies acted out different types of cross-border imperialist discourse at the time. she revised her text when publishing it as a book so as to make it appeal more to a british audience (milne ). in dean’s biography of duncan, a different point of view, she comments on duncan’s persistent refusal to affiliate with “predetermined social and political categories” ( ). for a fuller discussion of this metaphor, see lakoff and johnson, philosophy in the flesh, . duncan’s discussion of the state of her mind as a bounded location is a good opportunity to discuss some cognitive linguistics work on containment, particularly given the importance of the sc and os metaphors throughout my close readings. lakoff and johnson note that metaphors 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   such as states are locations have many different inferences that go along with them ( - ). for instance, in the case of this metaphor, they explain some of the following inferences: “if you’re in a bounded region, you’re not out of that bounded region” and “[i]f you’re in a state, you’re not out of that state;” “[i]f you’re out of a bounded region, you’re not in that bounded region” and “[i]f you’re out of a state you’re not in that state; “[i]f you’re deep in a bounded region, you are far from being out of that bounded region” and “[i]f you’re deep in a state, you are far from being out of that state;” “[i]f you are on the edge of a bounded region, then you are close to being in that bounded region” and “[i]f you are on the edge of a state, then you are close to being in that state” ( ). sweetser also discusses some key metaphors relating to our understanding of self that involve containment. for instance, she identifies a protection is containment metaphor and notes that “[c]ontainers limit, as well as protecting their contents” ( ). some examples of this in daily speech are “i feel too fragile to open up emotionally yet” (sweetser ). she also discusses the essential is central and stable/unchanging is central metaphors, both of which relate to boundedness (sweetser ). as in the case of this passage from duncan, the bounded location of the body can map onto states of self. however, the frontier revival authors also often describe moving in, between, and through bounded locations and it is important to think about how these interconnecting metaphors and inferences relating to containment emerge throughout these texts. right from the beginning of the text, duncan sets up her travels with orthodocia as a study in national types. as susan harris smith and melanie dawson point out in the american s, “[r]eferences to ‘types’ frequently appear in periodicals of the s, emphasizing continued and often conflicting efforts to define identities and confirm prejudices about where and how 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   individuals fit into society” ( ). from the very first line of her book, duncan sets up this interest in types: “orthodocia, as her name implies, is an english girl” ( ). labeling characters according to their nationality becomes a kind of playful endeavor that seems to reflect real underlying cultural differences, while also failing to define the characters fully. for instance, orthodocia’s name is clearly a fictional attempt to describe her more conservative upbringing in relation to duncan. duncan’s own in-betweenness as a canadian is often hinted at in the way that her persona shifts according to who she is talking to. in this opening passage where duncan refers to herself as “that american young lady” ( ) shortly after establishing orthodocia’s english upbringing in the opening line of the book, she is clearly describing herself as american in relation to orthodocia. furthermore, in chapter , duncan says “[i]t is very ‘american’ for young ladies to travel alone, but not such a common thing in my part of the continent” ( ). in this passage, she uses the term in quotations and sets herself apart from it by alluding to canada as a similar, but different “part of the continent.” duncan’s general playful and self-conscious interest in the slipperiness of national types indicates an awareness of various different meanings for the term american. this description of herself through someone else’s eyes is very similar to passages in the other texts, notably those of cameron and schäffer. another way of looking at this passage and similar ones in other examples is through the lens of the multiple selves metaphor, which “conceptualized multiple values as multiple selves” (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). in this metaphor, the subject refers to one’s self as other people whose social roles represent values and shared location connotes shared values, while disparate locations represent disparate values (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). examples of this metaphor in daily language are “i keep going back and forth between my scientific self and my religious self;” “i keep returning to 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   my spiritual self” (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). by referring to “‘that american young lady,’ which was me” ( ), duncan seems to identify herself as american; however, in keeping with the multiple selves metaphor, she actually refers to herself as two separate selves—“that american young lady” and “me.” as well, the use of the quotation, along with the use of the third person, and the word “that” ( ) actually remind us that she is seeing herself relationally through the eyes of orthodocia’s family, and in the context of their cultural background. the implied disparity of locations in this image of looking at herself through their eyes, implies a disparity of values between herself the national or cultural type by which she is labeled. the allusion to mars, the roman god of war also subtly implies that marriage itself is a kind of battleground for women, rather than more traditional concepts of it as a source of security or comfort. for instance, in the oregon trail, one of the most influential early frontier revival texts, parkman portrays aboriginal people as violent lurking enemies. while later texts are less violently charged in their racism, they often portray encounters with aboriginal people as aggressive or threatening events that test their sense of control and wellbeing in the wilderness. for other brief references to taylor see laframboise’s travellers in skirts and harding’s journeys of remarkable women. she says, “the twelve days at the rapids of the drowned passed away at last; and on the morning of the fourth of july a whistle was heard, and around the bend of the river appeared the tiny steamer, which was to take us to the mackenzie delta” (“arctic circle” ). duncan made many revisions to her autobiographical account by the time it was published as a book including turning lily lewis into a fictional british character (milne ). 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   for the entire poem, see the complete poetical works of oliver wendell holmes ( ) where it appears as follows: behold the rocky wall that down its sloping sides pours the swift rain-drops, blending as they fall, in rushing river-tides! yon stream, whose sources run turned by a pebble's edge, is athabasca, rolling toward the sun through the cleft mountain-ledge. the slender rill had strayed, but for the slanting stone, to evening's ocean, with the tangled braid of foam-flecked oregon. so from the heights of will life's parting stream descends, and, as a moment turns its slender rill, each widening torrent bends,— from the same cradle's side, from the same mother's knee,— one to long darkness and the frozen tide, one to the peaceful sea! 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   see mills’ discourses of difference for a discussion of the importance of clothes in negotiating discourses of femininity in women’s travel literature ( ). white male travellers were also highly dependent on (often aboriginal) guides throughout their journeys. however, it is often the case that male authors either gloss over this dependency by describing their physical movements through the wilderness as more autonomous than they actually were, or by describing their relationship with their male guides as a kind of partnership of mutual dependency. this discrepancy partly reflects the increased physical independence that men had on the trail. the tendency among women authors to describe their movements as dependent on or as subject to others also reflects their appeal to, or at the very least, awareness of different social expectations around male and female behaviour. it also conveys in some cases, a more anti- imperialist awareness that seems to accompany their sense of increased dependency on others, and their difficulty as women in assuming the attitude of autonomy and control in the wilderness that is so common with their male peers. taylor uses several more examples of women as supplies including the following passages: “one boat was left, and in that the passengers, with a number of pieces, were to be sent” (“northward” ); “i had a comfortable seat on the tents between two guns, with our traps piled high about me” (“arctic circle” ); “she was heavily laden, and the tiny space in front was piled high with boxes, tents and bags, and on these the passengers perched wherever they could find room” (“arctic circle” ); “standing among our bags and rolls of bedding we watched the steamer get under way” (“northward” ). “peering out from my head-net i could see all kinds of botanical treasures in the swamps and pine-barrens. . . i kept my dry seat on the top of the wagon” (“arctic circle” ). 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   the fact that homer’s travellers get waylaid by women in lotus land is of course also a significant undercurrent to her allusion. by relating to the men in this literary allusion, she emphasizes that her travels represent an appropriation of masculine roles. she also destabilizes entrenched gender dichotomies associated with travel whereby women are seen as static obstacles/impediments to the movement/change towards a destination/goal. here are some other examples of taylor either not wanting to go home or minimizing the return home: “it was with real regret that i left the little wrigley, on which i had stayed so long” (“homeward” ); “a great change had taken place since i passed over the road before” (“homeward” ); “the return of the arctic expedition to civilization was even less imposing than its departure from the latin quarter of paris” (“homeward” ). 	
   	
   . new sensations: grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot ( ) and agnes deans cameron’s the new north ( ) . . . [t]he quick rushing blood, the bounding motion. -grace gallatin, a woman tenderfoot, . . introduction by the time grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot was published right at the turn of the century, the persona of the proto-feminist female adventure tourist on the canadian frontier had a recognizable caché because of earlier texts such as those by duncan and taylor. american grace gallatin ( - ) and canadian agnes deans cameron ( - ) both wrote significant adventure texts about western canada during the first decade of the twentieth century that built upon earlier texts in important ways. gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot ( ) and cameron’s the new north ( ) are written from the similar perspective of adventurous eastern female travellers on a western or northwestern frontier with an interest in questioning ideas of gender and ethnicity that underlie imperialist discourses of frontier expansion. unlike duncan and taylor, these authors present much more self-consciously personal and provocative personae with which to challenge readers’ perceptions. they use a large number of illustrations (in gallatin’s text) and photographs (in the case of cameron) to focus on their often iconoclastic activities and comportment. they also present their opinions much more freely than duncan and taylor by openly discussing issues of gender and race equality. the disruptive female travelling body is the focal point of their texts to a much greater extent than in the work of earlier writers. 	
   	
   this focus on the body emerges in several ways. first of all, they both refer to themselves as physically guiding the reader through their specific frontier location, and more broadly through the gender struggles of women’s daily lives. they also emphasize physical sensation as an alternative, supposedly more feminine and subjective, access to knowledge. as well, they skillfully play up tensions between conceptual metaphors to emphasize their personal inability to fit into any particular model of identity. while elements of doubleness or liminality are felt throughout earlier texts, they emerge in these later works in the increasingly modern era of mass media as a form of playful empowerment. these authors indicate a broader awareness of identity itself as a shifting, performative entity. ideas of citizenship and heroism on the frontier were by then a fixture in the north american imagination and consisted of stock images and roles that were used to sell dime novels and magazines—even wars—to the american public, as in the case of roosevelt’s speech “the strenuous life.” audiences would have been more discerning and more sophisticated in their reading of frontier revival literature, more aware of the stock characters and plot twists of such work, and more likely to recognize such literature as a symbolic forum in which to live and re-live ideas of citizenship. gallatin and cameron speak confidently to a demographic familiar with debates about citizenship in frontier revival literature. the travelling female body comes even more to the forefront in these texts compared to those by duncan and taylor. both authors present the female body as disruptive but with an air of confidence, evident, for instance, in cameron’s direct gaze at the reader in so many of her photographs. this confident resistance to gender stereotypes implies a cultural recognition and actual demand for more original perspectives on the familiar literary conventions of frontier revival literature. 	
   	
   . grace gallatin’s a woman tenderfoot i had the stage, centre front, and it was all i could attend to. -gallatin, a woman tenderfoot, . grace gallatin’s well-known commitment to women’s rights and interest in women’s literature help to explain her confident personae in a woman tenderfoot. while little has been written about gallatin’s life or work, she represents a unique and relevant figure within north american wilderness literature of the time. as nick mount observes in when canadian literature moved to new york, gallatin, who originally came from chicago, was married to famous canadian expatriate wilderness writer ernest seton-thompson, and not only collaborated with him on his work, but also introduced him to her contacts in the elite new york arts circles near which they lived ( ). she thus had an extremely close proximity to the circle of canadian expatriate authors who mount identifies as contributing prominently to the wilderness writing boom in the american east-coast publishing industry at the turn of the twentieth century ( ). especially given her prominent role in assisting and collaborating with seton-thompson, and her own literary treatment of canadian and american settings, it is odd that gallatin is so fleetingly mentioned in this recent comprehensive study of cross-border authors of that period. despite, and maybe because of, her various roles ranging from wife to famous author, outspoken literary socialite, suffragist, prolific travel writer, and word traveller, she remains on the margins of scholarly work. in this wild spirit, colleen skidmore points out that gallatin was a suffragist from the age of and a lifelong political activist who was actively involved in associations of women’s literature and amassed an impressive collection of literary works by women ( ). i believe that, far from 	
   	
   being a peripheral historical figure, gallatin offers a striking feminist counter perspective to the wilderness literature of her male peers. in addition to gallatin’s “infinite determination to secure larger, more adventurous lives for women” (skidmore ), she is also a skilled writer. a woman tenderfoot is very well crafted as a series of tightly edited tales about her travels, including stock frontier revival activities such as elk hunting, bear watching, cattle round-ups, and mining. as joyce kelley notes, gallatin evokes popular romance novels in the sensationalist framing of her anecdotes ( ). her tone and use of cultural allusion situate her firmly within a well off, educated feminist perspective on wilderness literature by male writers. the playful, theatrical telling of her own adventures calls attention to the way such literature is not really of or about the west, but rather a projection of eastern north american literary concepts of citizenship. gallatin’s direct addresses to the reader, along with her use of humour and poetic proverbs and lessons, echo seton-thompson’s animal stories and carve out a place for female authors to re-mythologize this made up west in a way that reflects the interests of women. from the very beginning of her text, gallatin emphasizes the topic of physical mobility as the defining concern of her demographic. in her prefatory address to the reader she states: “i can only add that the events related really happened in the rocky mountains of the united states and canada; and this is why, being a woman, i wanted to tell about them, in the hope that some going- to-europe-in-the-summer-woman may be tempted to go west instead” ( ). gallatin here establishes philippe lejeune’s “autobiographical pact” (eakin vii) with her readers, reminding them that the book is a factual account. in the context of women’s frontier revival literature, this pact occurs through the medium of the body. secondly, she is talking directly to her readers and encouraging them not only to witness, or to believe, her but also to literally imitate her model 	
   	
   of physical behaviour. in other words, she emphasizes that ideas of going west, not to mention more standard prototypes of daily physical mobility on the frontier, can be reenacted by women in order to help them participate in redefining and representing ideas of cultural progress. gallatin continually stresses that, “being a woman” ( ), she appropriates male models of behaviour from a female perspective. this emphasis on the authenticity of performing her journey as a female proves to her reader that women are capable of living and redefining ideas of cultural progress. in her preface, gallatin also defines her demographic according to types of physical mobility in her reference to “some going-to-europe-in-the-summer-woman” ( ) whom she hopes to encourage to “go west instead” ( ). this exaggeratedly hyphenated term emphasizes her conviction that mobility is a defining factor in one’s identity. the casual and almost arbitrary nature of this type of voluntary mobility acknowledges the privilege of white upper middle class women who can travel to europe on a whim. the accompanying image of herself, along with the note at the end of the passage that reads: “new york city, september st, ” ( ), further identify her demographic as white, anglo-saxon, affluent women from the northeastern united states. however, this very sense of arbitrary mobility also implies an ironic lack of personal agency and hints at how women’s physical and social mobility are often restricted by marriage or social expectations. she suggests here that restrictions on where and how women travel are felt to varying degrees across the spectrum of female experience, thereby reminding us that gender inequalities can exist on all different socioeconomic levels. her humourously hyperbolic way of referring to the reader promotes a heightened understanding of how women’s identities are shaped by social attitudes about physical mobility. by guiding women to “go west instead” ( ), she implies that travelling westward offers a more progressive paradigm of physical and social mobility for women. this juxtaposition between the old and the new world echoes frederick 	
   	
   jackson turner’s portrayal of the frontier as a mythic site of liberation from old world conservative values. she extends this mythic juxtaposition to women by pointing out their more urgent need for increased freedom of physical mobility. here she offers two general paradigms of physical movement to her demographic. first of all, there is the broader movement of going west as a cultural change away from europe, allowing for a national identity with more progressive attitudes about gender equality. secondly, on a more micro level there are the models of daily physical freedom that she enacts on the western frontier to instruct readers about how to live such equality through the body itself. throughout the text, gallatin represents herself as physically interacting with readers so as to present a model of physical activity for them to follow. for instance, in the introduction entitled “the why of it,” she starts off by saying, “but briefly, in order to come to this story, i must have a side talk with the woman-who-goes-hunting-with-her-husband” ( ). gallatin visualizes the story as a kind of destination/goal that she approaches. this hyphenated term to describe her demographic is even more specific than the previous one. she locates her readers even more deliberately within the northeastern american climate of wilderness literature. once again, the use of a hyperbolic hyphenated term indicates that even women of this privileged class do not have the same access to the ideas of cultural identity formation and independence in wilderness literature as their male counterparts. gallatin’s insistence that she must have a “side talk” ( ) with the female reader in order to reach the destination/goal of the story suggests an awareness of this marginalization. it also hints at her own effort to change social attitudes about gender in order to allow women to reap the same cultural rewards as men from the models of physical activity in wilderness literature. gallatin repeatedly cajoles the reader to reject traditional gender conventions by copying her models of physical behaviour. for instance, in the second 	
   	
   chapter, in which she offers a detailed guide about how to prepare for a trip west, she declares, “[s]o enough; come with me and learn how to be vulgarly robust” ( ). this physically interactive approach to her demographic challenges the reader to have more critical distance from social attitudes about the female body. she also offers a practical understanding of how changing one’s patterns of physical mobility either by going west or by being more physically active can allow access to the cultural capital of wilderness literature. gallatin offers specific advice on how to be “vulgarly robust” ( ) so as to encourage a life of increased physical activity, psychological freedom and social mobility amongst her female readers. she encourages readers to experience the “pleasure to use your muscles, to buffet with the elements, to endure long hours of riding, to run where walking would do, to jump an obstacle instead of going around it” ( ). this idea of embracing obstacles/difficulties evokes the culturally redemptive struggle in the wilderness in frontier revival literature. her exaggerated eagerness to confront these obstacles/difficulties through almost excessive physical exertion proves that women too can fill the previously masculinist role of pushing the bounds of cultural progress inscribed in such literature. gallatin dares the reader “to return physically at least, to your pinafore days when you played with your brother willie. red blood means a rosecolored world. did you feel like that last summer at newport or narragansett?” ( ). she guides the reader to return to the physical freedom of youth, which she associates with increased gender equality. the idea of this childlike freedom as a physical return (involving a reversal of direction) to the equality of youth connects movement through space with change over a woman’s lifetime. while images of movement/change usually refer to a form of progress, gallatin suggests in this image of return that as women grow older, they internalize negative gender stereotypes that must be unlearned. as well, it is interesting that gallatin describes the movement/change (and implied 	
   	
   progress) of the westward journey as a return for women. she suggests that the type of cultural progress envisioned on the frontier should not be seen as an unprecedented freedom for women, but rather as a simple return to the levelling ground of physical mobility and agency that both genders arguably share before internalizing gender norms. also, this image of return recalls the redemptive cyclical journey of the traveller in frontier revival literature and turner’s frontier myth. she aligns the progress of women’s rights with the culturally redemptive pursuit of cultural progress as a whole. just as turner’s prototypical male traveller must shed the physical and accompanying psychological burdens of civilization in order to redefine the nation on the frontier, so too must gallatin’s women travellers shed the burden of socialized gender norms to partake in the ideals of progress so celebrated by their male peers. gallatin emphasizes the importance of changing paradigms of female physical mobility through her focus on experiencing “new sensation[s].” for instance, when she gets lost trying to follow her husband on horseback, she states, “i just clung to the saddle, trusting to blondey’s instinct to follow the other animal, and tried to enjoy the fact that i was getting a new sensation” ( ). in another episode, she loses control of her horse when it gallops away with her, causing her to lose many of her possessions and her hair to fall dramatically down her back. similarly, she comments, “well it was a sensation any way—an absolutely new one” ( ). the word sensation connotes subjective, and often stereotypically feminine ways of experiencing one’s environment either through the senses or through emotion. in both of the above passages, gallatin gets through uncomfortable or frightening experiences by assuring herself that experiencing a “new sensation” is the destination/goal of her trip. this is an interesting variation on the writing of her male peers who portray the act of overcoming obstacles/difficulties as a way of controlling their environments. 	
   	
   as with duncan and taylor, gallatin suggests that the act of expanding the limits on women’s physical sensations is necessary in order to encourage psychological and emotional independence. the novel of sensation was a particular genre of writing, originating in nineteenth- century english literature that was defined by lewd and melodramatic subject matter and was prominently contributed to by women authors (cuddon ). sensation fiction also influenced victorian periodical culture and female journalists engaged in the new woman debate with a shared interest in “aberrant women and on gender inequalities of the social system (particularly of marriage), and in depicting women frustrated or maddened as a result of male abuse of these inequities” (palmer - ). in front page girls, jean lutes shows how late nineteenth- century american sensation journalism prominently featured female “stunt reporters” ( ) whose highly corporeal and personalized personae offered “new models of self-reflexive authorship” ( ) and challenged gender norms and masculinist conventions of journalistic objectivity ( - ). gallatin’s repetition of the word sensation to the reader, particularly considering the didactic tone of the text, describes the novelty of expanding her personal boundaries as of public importance by subtly aligning herself with sensationalist motifs. gallatin’s outspoken suffragist beliefs and her strong enthusiasm for women’s literature also suggest that she would have been well aware of these intersections between sensation fiction, new woman debates, and women’s fiction and periodical writing. her focus on sensation throughout the text places the disorderly female body of the new woman right at the centre of familiar images of masculine heroism so as to publicize the novelty of her physical experiences as representative of progress for women and for the nation. this focus on physical sensation is reprised at the end of the book when she describes a kind of physical and psychological transformation. gallatin ends the text by stating that she is a “woman tenderfoot no longer” ( ), hinting that like her male peers, her journey represents a 	
   	
   metonymic personal transformation. however, this transformation takes on different meanings because it revolves around the female body. like stunt reporters, gallatin emphasizes the sheer physical novelty of her female body changing at the end of the text in order to illustrate that women too can take part in redefining their own identities and ideas of cultural progress. at the end of the text, she also presents a catalogue of experiences on her journey and, not coincidentally, much of the list consists of verbs relating to the senses or to feelings. she presents images of being “sung asleep,” “nearly frozen” and “baked” ( ), which all describe her as going through dramatic physical changes. the almost grotesque and painful nature of these images of metamorphosis, reminiscent of classical myth or of grimm’s fairytales, exaggerates the sense of personal and cultural transformation in more traditional frontier revival texts by men. compared to her male peers, whose struggles to push the bounds of cultural progress are part of a more generally scripted role to which they can adhere, the female traveller must struggle and transform herself in the effort to merely gain access to this iconography of cultural progress. her emphasis on personal transformation occurs on the level of physical sensation to remind us of the struggle to access the basic physical freedoms that allow women to partake in the ideals of social mobility in frontier revival literature. in this same passage, gallatin explains that in trying to access the role of the male traveller, she is more interested in pushing the bounds of the basic daily bodily/self-control of women, rather than more grandiose imperialist aims of westward expansion. her struggle to fill male roles is evident in her statement, “i know what it means to be a miner and a cowboy” ( ). however, she observes that “best of all, i have felt the charm of the glorious freedom, the quick rushing blood, the bounding motion, of the wild life, the joy of the living and of the doing, of the mountain and the plain; i have learned to know and feel some” ( ). by focussing on the physical and 	
   	
   emotional sensations of her experience here in the climactic ending to her book, and in almost graphic terms, gallatin asserts that this struggle for basic physical agency for women is the main destination/goal of her journey. she suggests that it is harder to come by than the seemingly greater cultural goals of imperialist expansion. by stating that she “learned to know and feel some” ( ), she again attributes a sense of intellectual credibility to “new sensation[s]” ( ). her increased physical freedom on the frontier transforms her self-knowledge, a process that is for her, more important than conquering the west. gallatin stresses that for women to see themselves and be seen as people who question and redefine, rather than merely obstructing or upholding, ideas of cultural progress, they must have access to the kinds of basic physical sensations that accompany such psychological and social agency. at several points, gallatin contrasts types of movement to indicate different social attitudes toward men and women. for instance, during the cattle round up when she takes on a distinctly masculine role, she imagines one of the cowboys having to choose between his lover in the east and his lifestyle in the west: “on the one hand, peace, comfort, affection, and the eternal sameness; on the other, effort, hardship, fighting sometimes, but ever with the new day a whole world of unlived possibilities, change, action, and bondage to no one” ( ). gallatin’s description of the staid, civilized eastern background of the cowboy and the active independence of his western frontier life acknowledges the longstanding romanticized juxtaposition between ideas of east and west in frontier adventure literature. the reference to a woman waiting for him at home acknowledges deep-seated cultural beliefs about urban, eastern influences as a feminizing threat to the more rugged masculinity of the west. through the lens of gallatin’s self-reflexively female persona, we become aware that far from being the fault of women, such eastern restraints are due to socially constructed gender norms with which women such as gallatin struggle. 	
   	
   gallatin identifies a regional dichotomy in which the western frontier represents freedom from oppressive social norms. she reminds the reader that she experiences this dichotomy through the test case of her own body in her use of the phrase, “on the one hand.” her reference to “change” and “action” in reference to the frontier evokes mappings between movement/change and self- propelled movement/action. drawing on the objective standpoint metaphor, she portrays the state of masculine freedom on the western frontier as perspective/objectivity outside of a restrictive bounded location. in other words, she represents a paradigm of masculine social freedom on the western frontier as one of continual and unrestricted movement/change that pushes boundaries and gains increased perspective on the self. in contrast, the allusion to “peace,” “comfort,” and “sameness” corresponds to the inferences of protection and lack of movement/change in the self as container metaphor. here we have two opposing states/locations of self corresponding with the objective standpoint and the self as container metaphors. gallatin’s observations of this male figure shed light on how these metaphors correspond with the regional distinction between east and west and different gendered models of behaviour in mainstream frontier literature of the time. gallatin’s personal trials throughout the text often revolve around trying to get out of the state of containment that she associates with the overly protective confines of the private sphere. perhaps not coincidentally, it is when gallatin first enters canada in winnipeg that she encounters her first major conflict with what she perceives to be antiquated, gender norms in the figure of another woman. upon giving away some flowers to a sick woman on the train, she unwittingly falls into a cycle of ongoing social niceties. she describes this type of interaction as being confined in small spaces against her will. for instance, she sees herself as walking “into the aura” ( ) of the woman, and her first glimpse of the woman is described as follows: “i noticed a made 	
   	
   up berth in which was reclining a young woman and hovering over her solicitously a man, evidently the husband” ( ). the image of walking into the woman’s aura again evokes the self as container metaphor to represent a state of self as a bounded location. however, once again, the idea of this location as magical or luring the author against her will evokes the objective standpoint metaphor and the idea that containment offers a restrictive lack of perspective. the image of the woman in a small berth, being watched over by her husband, associates this state of containment with the double-edged nature of the private domestic sphere, in that the woman’s privileged and protected status goes hand-in-hand with a restrictive state of infantilization. gallatin further emphasizes her fear of being trapped by more traditional gender roles when she describes being intercepted by this woman as she attempts to step out of the train for fresh air: “i was thanked. up and down, backwards and forwards, inside and out, and all hands around” ( ). this exaggerated image of gallatin being completely physically surrounded by the woman’s polite attention portrays the social codes of female behaviour as metaphorically restrictive and also literally restrictive in women’s lives through clothing, norms of physical decorum and the confinement to domestic spaces. the fact that this image is at once of enclosure and chaotic movement in different directions hints at the tension between the self as container and the objective standpoint metaphors, whereby containment is both protective and restrictive. gallatin’s ambivalence toward her own gender roles emphasizes these tensions. gallatin uses the verb plunge to represent her ambivalence toward the gender roles of her day. for instance, after spending two chapters explaining the preparations and broader circumstances of her journey, she titles the chapter that actually begins to recount her adventures, “the first plunge of the woman tenderfoot” ( ). used to signal her departure 	
   	
   for the west, the verb hints at an escape from a contained space—in this case, the physical restrictions on women’s experiences. she uses the metaphor of being plunged into a much larger physical space to indicate the novelty of pushing boundaries on female experience. plunging out of her smaller bounded space is liberating (objective standpoint) and also destabilizing (self as container). we see this tension even more so in her later use of the word during the cattle round up when she states, “[t]his was a chance for me to be relieved of my crass ignorance concerning round-ups, really to have a definite conception of the term instead of the sea of vagueness and conjecture into which i was plunged by the usual description” ( ). in this passage, she describes the unknown nature of masculine activities on the frontier as a kind of large sea into which she is pushed. evoking the self as container and objective standpoint metaphors, this image is simultaneously destabilizing (as a loss of a bounded container in the former metaphor) and freeing (as a means of gaining perspective in the latter). by moving out of one bounded location, she moves beyond the protective and restrictive state of her more traditional, eastern female gender role. rather than portraying this leap out of her comfort zone as a straightforward transition into an open space, she represents it as a move into a bigger bounded location. in other words, the transition out of her gender role leads to a new point of view, which is actually just a different state of being associated with more masculine gender roles. this passage is reminiscent of duncan’s wry observation in a social departure that despite being socially acceptable, marriage is metaphorically a much more treacherous journey than actually travelling around the world with a female companion. gallatin is pointing out here that by literally joining the cattle round up with the male cowboys, she is avoiding a much more treacherous metaphorical plunge that occurs when trying to understand other ways of life from which one is sheltered as a woman. by actually trying the roundup, she learns physically and 	
   	
   psychologically how to take on a different form of identity, which she sees as a more practical and safe way of equipping women with life experience, rather than letting them be thrown into a changing society without understanding the rules. in other words, like duncan, she suggests that it is safer to learn how to push boundaries of experience (to set precedents) than to struggle to understand attitudes and lifestyles from which one is excluded. and in order to do this, one must learn alternative paradigms of physical behaviour. these tensions between in and out remind us that cultural ideas of progress on the frontier rely on this very tension because of the process of pushing boundaries and moving in between states/locations. while this state of transition between in and out evokes ideas of pushing the limits of cultural progress, it also reflects gallatin’s own sense of being stuck between the private domestic sphere of traditional female roles and the more active lifestyle of men on the western frontier. gallatin takes advantage of her conflicting personae throughout the book as a way of tapping into the underlying metaphorical tensions related to the testing of cultural boundaries in frontier revival literature. by doing so, she relates her own struggle to expand the boundaries of women’s experiences to wider ideas of cultural progress. gallatin plays up the tensions between the self as container and objective standpoint metaphors by experiencing her physical confinement in the wagon during the round up as being left out of the male activities around her. after informing the reader that her husband found out about her participation in the roundup, gallatin wryly states: “i rode in the wagon” ( ). the simplicity of this statement indicates how culturally resonant images of physical confinement were for women at the time as she does not have to explain why her husband makes this decision or even that he communicates this decision to her. the statement “i rode in the wagon” immediately evokes the ideas of protection (self as container) and 	
   	
   restriction (objective standpoint) associated with containment and women’s confinement to traditional domestic roles. she then portrays this confinement as being outside of the action of the cowboys and of the male role that she had just performed. she notes that, “from the time i got into the wagon and became a mere onlooker, my point of view changed. the exhilaration of action had disappeared. i was a cowboy no longer” ( ). this passage evokes the objective standpoint metaphor as the process of getting into the wagon forces her to look at the masculine role in the cattle round up from the outside. however, the process of looking at the roundup occurs in the bounded location of the wagon. her return to the bounded location/state of female containment calls on the self as container metaphor to represents a process of looking with a critical eye at the male frontier roles from which she is excluded. gallatin plays on the opposing meanings of in and out to emphasize the complexity of her female subject position in frontier revival literature. throughout her physical trials, gallatin creates a new ideal of female bodily/self -control. while hunting an elk, she comments, “i was conscious of nothing to the right, or to the left of me; only of what i was going to do” ( ). in this passage, she implies that she is in a contained space with no peripheral sight/knowledge outside of this bounded location/state. in this case, her bounded location is not that of a fixed domestic space lacking in movement/change, but rather a controlled path. as with frontier revival literature in general, the bounded path of the traveller evokes both the bodily/self-control of the bounded location/state (associated with the self as container metaphor), as well as the process of movement/change (with the possibility of moving outside of bounded locations) in the objective standpoint metaphor. this exaggerated description of controlled mobility along a bounded path indicates her heightened self- reflexivity as a female traveller in trying to push the boundaries of women’s identity formation. 	
   	
   later when having to drive a horse and carriage up a mountain in the canadian rockies, she notes, “there was no place for mistakes. there was no place for anything but the right thing” ( ). in this passage, gallatin is literally forced to steer the wagon on a fixed path with a cliff on one side and a sheer drop on the other. with no leeway, she must physically adapt in order to stay on the bounded path of the trail. “the right thing” represents staying within the bounded path. unlike being confined to a domestic sphere without movement/change, this bounded location is one of extreme movement/change in which she must navigate and test the boundaries not only of her own physical body and geographical environment, but also of her cultural surroundings. her very effort to stay in the bounded space represents a process of testing her own limits. gallatin also describes being in a bounded space as a way of indicating a kind of inclusion within a social group that is paradoxically found outside the confines of the domestic sphere. sweetser sheds light on this idiomatic use of in and out in her study of containment in julius ceasar. she observes that “social acceptance (or positive social position) is centrality, and social rejection (or negative social position) is peripherality or exclusion” ( ). during the cattle round up, gallatin makes this connection between “social position” and “centrality” (sweetser ) by exclaiming, “oh, but i do not want to be so far away and look on; i want to be in it” ( ). here the image of looking from far away indicates a lack of sight/knowledge based on a peripheral and thereby less important location/state. this peripheral position suggests a lack of importance according to the central is essential metaphor. in this case, being “in” indicates bodily/self-control through containment and also inclusiveness and self-control in a cultural group. in this case, the group in question is associated with her male peers in frontier revival literature and their male readership. gallatin makes the interesting switch between “in” as being trapped in the domestic sphere of the wagon and “in” as 	
   	
   belonging to the masculine activity that she watches. this shifting of metaphors emphasizes her own shifts between different models of gendered behaviour throughout the text and between different experiences of inclusion and exclusion. it also shows an awareness of just how subjective and fluid these gendered models of cultural identity are. gallatin’s awareness of the performativity of physical models of behaviour is more explicit during a sequence when she falls off her horse (see fig . ). ignoring her famous nature-writer husband, she claims: “i had the stage, centre front, and it was all i could attend to” ( ). it is no coincidence that she describes her independent physical efforts to save herself as being at the centre of a stage. the self as container metaphor here indicates her deliberate entry into the masculine sphere of defining cultural progress through physical tests in the wilderness. gallatin’s fantasy of conjuring a stage here highlights the dramatic or heroic nature of her physical movements in a way that is undeniably tongue-in-cheek. it reminds the reader that the ideas of cultural heroism in frontier tourism are neither inherently gendered nor essential at all, but rather culturally authorized performances. gallatin also presents the body itself as a bounded location/state over which women must gain more control. for instance, during her climactic struggle, she describes the process of conquering her fears and steering the wagon over the mountain, saying, “i grabbed the reins in both hands” ( ). this idiom of taking the reins is an example of how a physical action becomes synonymous with an abstract idea. taking the reins usually signifies a process of taking control of a situation. gallatin’s use of this idiom emphasizes her own body as a bounded location to convey a process of regaining control over her state of mind. the implied state of control over her surroundings indicates that control over the bounded location of one’s body also reflects increased self-control in other types of bounded locations/states. in trying to encourage women 	
   	
   to be brave in the wilderness, gallatin observes earlier on that “there is only one thing to do—keep your nerve, grasp it firmly, and look at it closely” ( ). in this passage, the state of courage for women is understood as the bounded location of the female body. this image of holding tightly onto an abstract concept describes the body as creating a bounded location/state separate from its surroundings. reminiscent of the self control is object control metaphor, in which the self is described as an object (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ), this image describes one’s self-confidence as something that can be held and looked at as an extension of the containment of the body itself. once again, there is a tension between the self as container (whereby self- control is containment) and the objective standpoint metaphors (whereby perspective is found by getting outside the self). gallatin evokes the tension between different states of self in frontier literature through testing the boundaries of the self or existing in a state of transition and deliberately evokes these tensions in her encouragements of women so as to show that they too can access and contest ideas of cultural progress. . cameron’s the new north . . . we can but look and feel. -agnes deans cameron, the new north, . cameron was also outspoken about women’s rights and had groundbreaking success as a teacher, traveller, journalist, writer and lecturer. in , she worked as a teacher in victoria, becoming the first female high school instructor in british columbia, and going on four years later to work as the first female principal in the province (pazdro ). involved in organizations such as the 	
   	
   canadian women’s press club, the y.m.c.a., and the suffrage movement (richeson viii), cameron promoted “equal rights” feminism (pazdro ) and was outspoken about education reform (pazdro ), believing that students should be taught “responsibilities of citizenship” (pazdro ). these interests in education reform, citizenship, and women’s rights inform the new north at every turn and should guide modern readers to look beneath cameron’s use of imperialist frontier expansion rhetoric to her underlying inquiries about human rights and ideas of cultural progress. cameron’s outspoken beliefs ultimately led to her suspension from her job in , after which she worked for canadian and american magazines (pazdro ). when she lost her job in , cameron moved to chicago to work for the western canadian immigration association (pazdro ). similar to gallatin, cameron was immersed in a cross-border literary climate and presented a feminist perspective on it. on the surface, the new north is dryer and more pedantic in tone than a woman tenderfoot and not as directly written as a guide for female travellers. it is important to remember that cameron’s financial dependency on her work required her to carefully consider her reading demographic. she was influenced by the fixation with western canada in american newspapers and by canadian government and business interests in promoting western canada to american immigrants and investors (richeson viii). not having the same access to gallatin’s well-off, eastern female readership, cameron wrote strategically with these cultural perspectives in mind. she frames her text, particularly at the beginning and end, with a mixture of canadian nationalism and american rhetoric about frontier expansion. by reading past the surface language of frontier expansion, we can discover cameron’s actual interests in promoting the rights of women and aboriginal people, and in questioning ideas of cultural progress. the subversive and complex 	
   	
   layers in cameron’s text occur largely through her inventive, incongruous, and destabilizing representations of the body in photographs and descriptions of physical movement. there have been some scholarly responses to cameron’s book, most of which comment on her unorthodox layering of perspectives on the north. several scholars have pointed out that cameron expresses an interest in women and aboriginal people in the text (pazdro ; laframboise ; roy ; reid ). laframboise argues that cameron draws on popular discourses of canada as northern ( ), in order to convey her underlying interest in the roles that women play in the north ( ). roy also draws attention to cameron’s particular fascination with notions of primacy in the new north and points out that claims of being first, usually facilitated through “technologies of representation and communication,” are central to travel literature ( ). as well, reid identifies cameron as a new woman ( ), skilled at presenting a carefully crafted persona with which to “curb her political views” ( ). in my own work on cameron, i build on these earlier scholars by focussing specifically on how she develops a new woman persona in the north through her emphasis on the female body . furthermore, i am interested not only in cameron’s focus on women in the north, but also in her wider engagement with ideas about gender, ethnicity, and citizenship at the heart of imperialist travel conventions. in the new north, agnes deans cameron adopts a strong physical persona in relation to the reader. at the beginning of the text, she exclaims, “[w]ell, we had tried sweat and longing for two years, with planning and hoping and the saving of nickels, and now we are off” ( ). cameron’s use of the pronoun “we” refers to her female travelling companion and niece, jesse cameron. her allusion to their conflict and anticipation in facing their long awaited journey also implicitly includes their female demographic in this “we.” her use of the present tense also includes readers in her journey as though they are physically accompanying her as they turn the 	
   	
   page. like gallatin, she establishes this physical presence from the start and includes her female readers in this physicality by acting as a kind of guide. she even describes the trajectory of their journey as if referring to their personal physical movements. for instance, she declares, “turning sharply to the north, we travel two hundred miles” ( ). this way of addressing the reader reminds us that far from being simply a travelogue, the account of her journey is significantly told through the medium of the female body. similar to duncan, cameron starts off her text with an emphasis on travelling to extreme frontier regions. quoting from merchant of venice, she claims “shakespeare makes his man say, ‘i will run as far as god has any ground,’ and that is our ambition” ( - ). in the original context of the play, this statement equates travelling to an extreme region with a kind of hypothetical demonstration of the speaker’s individual will. once again, this image of pushing into an extreme frontier region represents a metaphorical testing of one’s personal and cultural boundaries. cameron’s use of this quote immediately establishes this metaphorical connection in readers’ minds and aligns her with masculine models of identity and masculine literary traditions. her comment that this is “our ambition” also reminds us that she is living the paradigm of frontier revival literature through the female body. she elaborates: “we are to travel north and keep on going till we strike the arctic—straight up through canada” ( ). this common equation of north with up evokes the control is up metaphor, as well as more complex ideas of cultural hierarchy. the description of moving through the bounded location of canada indicates a process of pushing the literal and metaphorical boundaries of a location/state. the extreme vertical movement dramatically reconfigures the north american map so that what matters is not geographical borders, but rather expansion into frontier zones on behalf of eastern, white, anglo- saxon north americans. the image of constant, linear motion with the extreme destination/goal 	
   	
   of the arctic portrays this physical endeavour as a personal and cultural pilgrimage. moreover, her plan to “strike the arctic” evokes a kind of masculine, imperialist view of expansion in the north as the height of cultural progress. cameron describes her journey as part of a shared ongoing movement of previous male explorers to establish her credibility as an adventure traveller in the north. she notes, “[f]rom that far-off day in spring when we first touched the clearwater we have been following in the historic footprints of sir alexander mackenzie” ( ). this common expression of following in another’s footsteps is a good example of conceptual metaphor in an everyday idiom. in keeping with the les, ls and sc metaphors, she presents us with the idea of following along the imagined bounded location of previous explorers’ paths through the north as a way to achieve a state of cultural progress. the bounded location represents a state of self and the movement in this path represents directed change in the state of self over time. the idea of following in the footsteps of an early male explorer associates this cultural progress with the imperialist expansion of anglo- saxon culture in the northwest. as roy points out, this description of white men’s footprints subtly prioritizes their version of history and erases earlier aboriginal presence in the north ( ). cameron describes her preoccupation with these male explorers: “for six months we have been treading the silent places. we have thought much of these faith possessed men who found the roads that others follow” ( ). cameron develops her idiom here in the contrast between finding roads and following them. on the level of conceptual metaphor, the image of literally carving a path through the forest conveys an interesting metaphorical tension. for one thing, finding a path indicates a process of moving into a bounded location and forging a newly stable or fixed state of self. however, the implication of having broken off other more beaten paths and also of finding a path through a wilderness area at the periphery of bigger geographical territories, implies 	
   	
   a process of expanding the boundaries of the self. it is no coincidence that cameron uses an image of such tension because like other women travellers, she identifies and idealizes a paradoxical model of self amongst earlier male explorers that is based on the ability to define ideas of cultural progress through the very process of pushing boundaries of cultural identity. while cameron sees herself as following, rather than forging, such models of self, these tensions raise questions as to the creative and transformative potential of the very act of following. as her narrative continues, we find in this derivative aspect of her text, a continuing emphasis on her own act of pushing the boundaries of the very paths that she ostensibly imitates or follows. cameron implies that she expands on the nation building practices of earlier male explorers by actively interpreting and imagining these earlier explorers. like so many frontier revival authors, cameron quotes kipling, and she goes so far as to imagine him speaking backward in time to mackenzie, while trying herself to follow in their footsteps. this fantastical image of kipling speaking to mackenzie draws attention to her own role in identifying with previous models of male exploration, and in actively reimagining these models. certain inconsistencies in cameron’s account suggest that, while cameron claimed to have found one of mackenzie’s camps, she may have misidentified the site (roy ). the actual unreliability of her account is a reminder of cameron’s openly subjective appropriation of the stories of early male explorers. for instance, she adds that “i try hard to throw back my thoughts to the year —one hundred and sixteen years. it is a far call!” ( ). cameron’s image of throwing her thoughts back in time is interesting because she describes the process of following in these male travellers’ footsteps (in order to attain cultural progress) as a process of actually going backwards. the image of struggling to throw herself backwards indicates a sense of conflict and suggests that their ideas of cultural progress may ironically be anachronistic or inaccurate. as well, her struggle to go 	
   	
   backwards reminds us that these ideas of cultural progress are not inherent or natural, but require her to actively imagine them and struggle to identify with them in a way that may involve some level of conflict. cameron consistently reminds the reader that while she pays homage to previous male explorers, she retains a critical distance from them not only to highlight her own achievements, but also as a way of criticizing the legacy of expansion in the west. when visiting peace river crossing and what she claims to identify as mackenzie’s historic camp-site, she observes that “the lost camp had never been photographed until we brought our inquisitive camera to bear upon it” ( ). in this passage, cameron implicitly compares herself to mackenzie in the sense that she rediscovers his camp and captures it through photography. the image of the camera “bear[ing] upon” the camp immediately evokes two meanings—that of the camera touching the camp physically and that of it affecting and influencing the place itself. cameron reminds us of the role of the camera in physically capturing this destination and in achieving the more abstract goal of marking the cultural significance of her own visit. by suggesting that she leaves her mark physically on the place through the lens of the camera, she emphasizes the importance of her physical journey in recreating and re-interpreting the journeys of earlier male explorers. as roy points out, technology works in the text to prove cameron’s precedent-setting perspective on the north not only as an explorer, but also as a woman “overstepping gender boundaries” ( ). the camera serves not only to prove cameron’s ability to embody ideas of cultural progress as a woman, but also to provide a more progressive and perhaps skeptical perspective on such ideas of progress. on several occasions, cameron emphasizes the novelty of adopting typically masculine roles from a female point of view, and she equates this novelty with the type of precedent setting achievements of earlier male explorers. she notes, “we are the first white women who have 	
   	
   penetrated to fort rae, and we afford as much interest to the indians as they afford us” ( ). this image of penetration was common amongst male explorers and was part of her “literary vocabulary” (roy ). cameron’s use of this phallic imagery to describe their encounter with aboriginal people in fort rae aligns her with the imperialist tradition of male white explorers along the lines of race. however, cameron’s description of a mutual fascination between herself and the aboriginal people implies that her precedent setting role as a white female explorer is not just a matter of proving herself according to previous imperialist models, but is also a matter of reinventing such models in a more socially conscious way. near the end of the book, cameron goes so far as to sponsor and give her name to a cree baby in order for its mother to receive treaty payment. describing herself as fathering the child, cameron states, “may she follow pleasant trails” ( ). once again, she positions herself in a stereotypically masculine and imperialist role in relation to aboriginal people. however, despite the quite literally paternalistic attitude that she adopts in passages such as these, she also identifies with aboriginal people in a way that stands out from the language and assumptions found in previous texts by male explorers. in fact her wish for the child to “follow pleasant trails” directly projects her own role as a female traveller with its sense of novelty and opportunity onto the child herself. she uses her identification with the male role of explorer to identify with aboriginal people, and to attempt to extend the ideas of cultural progress to which she has just managed to gain access. her sense of doubleness as a white imperialist traveller and as a woman informs her complex identification with aboriginal people throughout the text. cameron also uses various metaphors to represent the development of northwestern canada and to describe herself as both participating in and as separate from this imperialist expansion. near the beginning of the text she states, “the tide of immigration has stopped south of where we 	
   	
   stand. but that there stretches beyond us a country rich in possibilities we know” ( ). cameron describes frontier expansion as a wave that has stopped at the canadian/american border. canada, particularly northern canada, appears as a large bounded location/state into which this tide can pour. in other words, the movement of americans into canada, and more generally anglo-saxon white easterners across the continent, represents a shifting from one location/state to another. she presents this movement it as a kind of cultural progress found in pushing the very geographical boundaries of the continental west. by positioning herself at this boundary, she acts as a guide who foretells and witnesses this larger cultural movement. the tide of immigration is a large moving object/external event that exerts force and causal agency. while cameron documents this cultural change and accepts it as a natural progression, she also indicates her critical distance from it by placing herself in this boundary position. cameron expresses a similar ambivalence toward the metaphor of the nation as being born on the western canadian frontier. at one point she declares that “we are witnessing here the birth- throes of an entirely new nation” ( ), and later she adds, “god has intended this to be the cradle of a new race, a race born of the diverse entities now fusing in its crucible” ( ). this concept of the nation being born on the frontier is a common figure of speech that occurs in frederick jackson turner’s frontier thesis and also in julian ralph’s on canada’s frontier. what exact nation cameron is referring to here is not entirely clear. it would seem that she refers to canadian identity; however, the birth of the nation that she refers to coincides with an influx of americans and what cameron conceives essentially as the dissolution of the canadian/american border. in this light, the birth in question involves intercontinental western imperialism. her allusion to race here also echoes turner’s idea of the west as a site in which all races fuse into a new american identity. despite the pluralistic undertones of this image, the focus on racial assimilation here 	
   	
   emphasizes an idea of anglo-saxon cultural identity. her image of witnessing or seeing/knowing this birth as opposed to creating or navigating it again portrays cameron as someone who chronicles this imperialist expansion into the north, rather than simply endorsing or enacting it. the metaphor of birth is also striking considering her speaking position as a woman, especially in light of the passage in which she gives her name to a cree baby. cameron’s detachment from this figurative birth on the frontier as a female witness de-familiarizes this metaphor. her personal ambivalence to such stereotypes of femininity signals a wider ambivalence toward the gendered discourses underlying imperialism itself. we see this further in her sense of de-familiarization in naming the child. rather than simply imposing her name on the infant, she captures the ironic and startling contrast between her own name and the real identity of the child as if poking fun at the conceit of naming behind the imperial process, and refusing to identify with its stereotypes of gender and race. cameron uses the melting pot metaphor rather uncritically at the beginning and ending of her text in what is clearly an attempt to voice american expansionist rhetoric on behalf of the immigration association for which she worked in chicago. she envisions a mass of immigrants heading to “western canada’s melting-pot, drawn by that strongest of lures—the lure of the land” ( ). here she views immigration and development in the west as a large moving object/external event. the idea of being lured by the land suggests that the force/causal agency of the movement/change is natural and inevitable. the image of the melting pot offers a bounded location to represent a new state of self created on the frontier and indicates that this new state of cultural identity is an inevitable part of cultural movement/change. cameron’s curiosity about “the new canadian who will step out” ( ) near the end of the text offers just a hint of the anti- imperialist skepticism that runs throughout the book. her own sensationalist appropriation of 	
   	
   masculine roles on the frontier means that we cannot read this line at the end of the book without recognizing cameron herself, and the iconoclastic images of her throughout the text as a prime example of the “new canadian” in question. the new cultural identity, cameron suggests, is not as homogenous or traditional as one might expect. however, this new and more progressive incarnation of cultural progress remains firmly couched in the expansionist rhetoric of assimilation. another common metaphor that cameron uses to discuss the frontier is that of a book. this metaphor is used by frederick jackson turner himself to describe westward expansion as pages turning in the narrative of the nation. sure enough, at the end of the new north, cameron uses the metaphor to allude to american frontier myths. encouraging canadians to embrace westward expansion and immigration, she advises her readers to “learn [a] lesson from a page torn out of [their] neighbour’s book” ( ). this comparison between the land and books marks an interesting parallel between the physical expansion of the frontier and the physical documentation of such expansion through literary texts. cameron suggests that this process is essential in order to “learn what to follow and what to avoid” ( ). she explicitly suggests that the books that these two countries are reading record the movement/change of the two nations. the cultural experience of the frontier is inextricable not only from the material bodies of travellers, but also from the material archive of the text that names, documents, and witnesses such expansion. the common idiom of tearing a page out of your neighbour’s book hints at a kind of literary inter-textuality across the border that seems to parallel the miscegenation and assimilation of cross-border frontier expansion. the knowing is seeing metaphor occurs in this image of one nation reading from another’s book. to see/know this american book suggests a process of imitating american frontier expansion both culturally and materially. the visceral image of the two countries as 	
   	
   bodies who must look at each other and at each other’s texts makes a connection between the body and the text. to know frontier expansion one must see it and this material knowledge occurs through the body and through the text. cameron suggests an ongoing process of recording the body of the traveller and reliving the material records of travelling bodies. cameron’s use of photography sets her apart from the previous authors discussed in this dissertation and raises interesting questions about how to interpret the photography of female frontier revival authors. at the turn of the century, photography began to change the face of travel writing due to its heightened promise of objectively and reliably representing the first hand perspectives of travel writers. as roy points out, cameron uses kodak cameras (which first appeared in ) and an underwood typewriter to appeal to “the traveller’s conventional claim to be first, a claim that she enlarged to include the sometimes complementary and sometimes contradictory categories of gender, geography, ethnography, and nationalism” ( ). publications such as national geographic fostered a north american cultural climate in which “visualizing a culture or place became synonymous for actually being there” (bloom ) and visual images promoted american imperialist goals ( - ). photography also played a prominent role in representing western frontier settings and expressing “euro-american entitlement to the frontier” (williams ). for cameron, the stakes of her photographs were high as she knowingly entered into this larger climate of wilderness photography because she had to use discourses of photographic authenticity and objectivity to prove her credibility as a travel writer, and as a woman traveller. the illusion of objectivity in ethnographic photojournalism at the time was connected to a deeper denial of the cultural agendas and biases of photographers and their audiences because photography offered a short hand means to sight/knowledge. as bloom points out, popular ethnographic photography such as the material in national geographic 	
   	
   was presented to readers as a democratizing medium that provided geographical information to average people outside of elitist circles of scientists, academics, or travel writers ( ). cameron’s insistence on first hand knowledge throughout the book, in combination with the often casual and humourous nature of her photographs, and the seemingly genuine human connection that she appears to forge with her subjects, indicate her appeal to this more populist approach to photography as a democratizing medium. rather than feigning a sense of empiricism, she also seems to be aware throughout her book, most explicitly in her incongruous appearance in several photographs, of the subjectivity of her own perspective. while cameron insists on the reliability of first hand knowledge, she repeatedly emphasizes the ultimate indeterminacy of sight/knowledge so as to convey a paradoxical idea of self-reflexive subjectivity that is more reliable than empirical approaches to travel writing. it is difficult to say with certainty to what extent the complexity of cameron’s use of photography reflects her social justice interests or other concerns that she may have had to deal with, such as the need to soften or justify her role as a female traveller. barthes reminds us that “the reading of the photograph is . . . always historical” ( ) and it is important to remember that cameron’s role as an outspoken and iconoclastic female travel writer both appealed to her reader’s identification with imperialist discourse, while also challenging their assumptions about ideas of gender and race within that discourse. a striking feature of cameron’s work is her overall avoidance of what wexler refers to as “the innocent eye” ( ) of american female photojournalists at the turn of the twentieth century. in tender violence, wexler explains that such women employed a photographic gaze of domestic neutrality “attributed to them by white domestic sentiment” to create “images that were, in turn, a constitutive element of the social relations of united states imperialism during the era’s annexation and consolidation of colonies” ( ). what is so interesting about cameron’s 	
   	
   photographs, and what perhaps helps to explain why she has fallen through the cracks of literary history, is that she avoids this more socially acceptable “innocent” (wexler ) female gaze that glosses over the violence and conflict of imperialist expansion. in stark contrast with gallatin’s dainty, fashionable illustrations, cameron’s photographs have an almost gruesome, stark quality. the blurring of gender and race in her photographs, along with her use of unconventional poses, facial expressions, and scenarios make it difficult to interpret her work as without conflict, complexity, and social criticism. as roy observes, cameron’s use of photography “shows her as someone who included among her claims to uniqueness the fact that she challenged strictures about the appearance and behaviour of a woman traveller” ( ). cameron’s exuberant use of photographs to emphasize the importance of first-hand perspectives appeals to the thirst for photography as a way of backing up the authenticity and cultural authority of travel writers. however, in all her photographs, her own female body seems to disrupt such claims to objective sight/knowledge. she connects ideas of photographic authenticity to the subjectivity and changeableness of ideas of gender, race, and nationality. rather than hiding behind the camera so as to tap into an illusion of authorial objectivity and cultural control, cameron puts her own incongruous body front and centre to force her readers to look more closely at the complexities of such categories of identity. cameron also plays with this metaphor of the country as a text through photography and in visual references to herself in iconoclastic authorial roles. for instance, she hints at the struggle to make the reader see/know her experience in the north in phrases such as “let me try to give you the picture” ( ). cameron’s focus on photography is probably the most striking aspect of the new north because of the number of dramatic portraits of the author herself in odd and sometimes shocking poses, such as the picture of cameron holding a severed moose head (see fig . ). 	
   	
   these photographs, along with cameron’s self-conscious fixation on guiding the reader’s sight/knowledge, constantly remind us that she brings a sensationalist new female body and text to the reader, and one that is captured with the new means of photography in a way that is much more stark than the lady-like illustrations of writers such as duncan, taylor, and gallatin. the body that cameron brings to the reader is disorderly and provocative. she is masculine in build and dress and in the poses she assumes, and she appears in several photos to stare out at the reader in an almost confrontational, haughty manner. by confidently taking on masculine poses (such as a photograph of her in silhouette, wearing a mountie style hat outside a hudson bay company fort), she represents a sense of imperialist masculine authority. however, cameron plays up the novelty of her gender at every turn in photographs such as the graphic portrait with the moose head. the newness of cameron’s body relates not merely to her femininity in masculine roles, but the jarring and somewhat graphic representation of the ambiguity of such roles. cameron’s wry expression, along with statements such as the above that imply her manipulation of the sight/knowledge of the reader, show that it is impossible to distinguish between masculinity and femininity. the newness that cameron evokes through these photographs lies in a jarring juxtaposition between the literalness of photography and the utter ambiguity of her gender identity in the north. cameron uses the ambiguity of her gender identity in photographs to de-familiarize readers’ assumptions about imperialism and race. one of the most striking photographs is that of cameron sitting next to an aboriginal woman whose traumatic story of cannibalism due to extreme hunger cameron recounts to the reader (see fig . ). cameron’s sympathetic portrait of the woman presents the social realities of hunger and poverty in contrast with southern racist assumptions surrounding wendigo myths. in the photograph, cameron sits next to the woman in what could 	
   	
   be read as a position of authority. she is taller in stature than the woman and stares knowingly at the camera, reminding us of the ethnographic lens through which aboriginal people become visible in adventure literature. however, her demeanour is one of warmth and humour and they sit together on the steps of a building in what appears to be a moment of casual personal exchange. her mountie hat is even placed on the woman’s lap as if to openly challenge readers’ racist assumptions. addressing the reader, cameron again guides how we see the picture, exclaiming, “louise the cannibal! when we look on our joint picture, it might be somewhat difficult to distinguish the writer from the indian woman. she is ‘even as you and me’” ( - ). the extreme visual gender ambiguity with which cameron confronts the reader in her photographs parallels the racial ambiguity that she would have us acknowledge between herself and aboriginal inhabitants of the north. this image of the two women looking at the picture together and not being able to distinguish each other reminds us that our ability to see/know race is limited even in the supposedly objective medium of photography. seeing the body and the text is a crucial material accompaniment to how we know, but neither seeing nor knowing can ever be definitive. cameron reminds us that the body is a text that cannot be read in a fixed way according to either gender or race. cameron makes many allusions to other texts within her book so as to further complicate the reader’s identification with the travel narrative. at one post, she states, “we come across an hb journal of the vintage of where the reckless scribe introduces two thursdays into one week. acknowledging his error in a footnote with the remark, ‘it is not likely that the eye of man will ever read this record’” ( - ). the common idiom, “the eye of man” evokes the seeing/knowing metaphor to refer to literature as a material means of accessing abstract cultural knowledge. the h.b.c. author’s assurance that his mistake does not matter because it will not be seen makes the 	
   	
   assumption that the more a piece of text is literally read and shared amongst the public, the more cultural influence it has. by sharing this text with the public, cameron reminds us of her authority as a travel writer in gaining physical access to places and texts on her journey and enhancing cultural knowledge. she conveys the novelty of her position as a female writer in her allusion to “the eyes of man” by reminding us that her perspective (that of a female adventure traveller) is so lacking in precedent that it was not foreseen as a possibility by the original author. cameron’s sharing of this piece of historical information subtly pokes fun at the supposedly objective, imperialist discourse of the h.b.c. records. her unique body and perspective as a female traveller brings a different kind of sight/knowledge to more traditional representations of northern canada. on several occasions, cameron goes so far as to challenge dictionary and textbook definitions of the north. for instance, in fort good hope she remarks that “looking around the walls of the ‘homey’ room we wonder if this really can be the ‘arctic circle, ½ [degrees] from the north pole, which marks the distance that the sun’s rays.’ etc., etc., as the little geographies so blithely used to state” ( ). this objective-sounding textbook definition offers a spatial and geographical image with which to understand the north. it creates a mental image by which readers see and know the place. however, cameron suggests the importance of ultimately seeing a place for oneself, reminding us that the physical act of seeing is ultimately subjective and open for continual interpretation and debate. she warns of the biases that underlie seemingly empirical forms of knowledge that are imposed on the north through political, literary and educational texts. cameron reminds the reader that different understandings of space correspond with different ways of knowing in her more personal, subjective, and female-oriented description of the arctic as “homey.” by conceiving of the arctic as a domestic, bounded location/state, in which she feels a sense of comfort and belonging, she draws on the sc and ls metaphors to associate the place 	
   	
   with a normal or familiar location/state. in contrast, the textbook evokes a bounded location/state that cameron implies is restrictive and inaccurate in its representation of the place. she uses the os metaphor in her description of the textbook definition as a kind of imperialist map that is imposed upon the place. cameron’s alternative use of this metaphor of the home in opposition to the textbook conveys a bounded location/state that reflects both a distinctly female perspective on the frontier and also a rejection of more masculinist ways of seeing, mapping, and defining the north. cameron tends to subvert many of the metaphors of movement that she uses on the surface to justify expansion into the west. in arctic red river, she imagines speaking to local inuit people, lamenting, “my best wish for you is that civilisation may never reach you” ( ). once again, movement across the frontier represents a cultural passage through time with the assumption that increased industrialization and development of frontier territories coincide with cultural improvement and progress. as with her previous metaphors of frontier expansion, cameron portrays the movement of “civilization” as a large moving object/external event with its own force/causal agency that she participates in with critical distance. cameron’s wish that civilization not reach the inuit is ironic in different ways. first of all, her questioning of the destination/goal of frontier expansion suggests that such expansion may not be as synonymous with a kind of natural cultural progress as it seems. furthermore, cameron’s presence in the arctic demonstrates that she herself is part of the imperialist encounter between anglo-saxon travellers and inuit people. she adds, “this intrusion of the whites has changed the whole horizon here; we can scarcely call it the coming of civilization” ( ). this idea of changing the horizon evokes the os metaphor and associates the movement/change of frontier expansion with the celebrated process of pushing boundaries in adventure literature. however, her use of the word, 	
   	
   “intrusion” and her objectification of outsiders as “the whites” suggest that she attempts to speak on behalf of those who are on the opposite side of anglo-saxon expansion. she represents the north as a bounded location/state that is disturbed by frontier expansion. her hesitation to “call it the coming of civilization” ( ) questions the way ideas of civilization have been defined as movement, and reminds us that while movement may connote change, such movement/change does not necessarily represent progress. cameron skillfully acknowledges this underlying conceptual metaphor of movement/change, while also separating it from distinctly cultural and imperialist ideas of progress. cameron also characterizes her own struggle to understand the north as a kind of physical battle to overcome the legacy of imperialist perceptions of the arctic in travel literature. like duncan and taylor, she experiences a conflict on the frontier that occurs ironically with frontier mythology itself. for instance, in wondering how to classify inuit people according to what she sees as questionable ideas of “civilisation” ( ), cameron declares, “these are the questions that confront us when we speak of these farthest north canadians” ( ). in metaphors we live by, lakoff and johnson discuss the metaphor “argument is war,” which connects ideas of verbal debate with physical confrontation ( - ). they also note that while this metaphor stems from universal bodily experience, its emergence and popularity in language reflect a distinctly western idea of debate as physical confrontation ( - ). cameron’s use of this metaphor draws on the important connection between language and violence in western literature. more specifically, the concept of a violent struggle on the frontier through obstacles/impediments is central to the abstract idea of cultural redemption through imperialist conquest in the masculine heroic paradigm of frontier revival literature. cameron evokes this paradigm to gain credibility in describing her very opposition and conflict with it. rather than combating the inuit, she is fighting the ideas of 	
   	
   her own male peers. to be confronted by the questions of one’s own cultural background evokes a mirroring process. she reminds us that the ideas one imposes upon the land are like projections that reflect back upon the speaker. this internalized physical struggle suggests that travel literature represents a conflict in the bounded location/state of the body and mind of the traveller. while certain texts by male authors, such as hamlin garland’s the trail of the goldseekers, address these tensions to a degree, cameron is more emphatic and striking in her portrayal of them. as a woman, she is already marginalized from the dominant culture that she represents, and she registers these tensions more personally and nowhere more visibly than through the disorderly medium of the female travelling body. cameron reverses the imperialist gaze to criticize her own cultural background. she admits that “the stumbling-block in this honest search for a tag to put on my people is the term ‘civilization’” ( ). once again, she represents her physical and intellectual struggle in the north as occurring with her own cultural background. her destination/goal of classifying her own “people” recognizes that in naming the north, one is essentially naming oneself. as james doyle observes in north of america, ethnographic writing or travel literature usually becomes a kind of cultural self-portrait of the author and his or her background ( ). this cultural self-portrait is complicated when the female traveller cannot see herself in the ideas of civilization that she is meant to project onto the north. cameron’s tendency to sarcastically quote textbook and dictionary definitions contrasts throughout the text with photographic self-portraits that seem to defy previous modes of representation. more mysterious than the north itself becomes the idea of her own culture, a culture in which she gains credibility through her masculine and confrontational personae, but which she also deliberately distorts through the ambiguity of such personae. 	
   	
   cameron’s use of these metaphors of conflict gain access to masculine paradigms of imperialist adventure and ironically wage war on the exclusionary and inaccurate nature of these paradigms. throughout the text, cameron’s main alternative to falsely objective perspectives on the north is to experience the north subjectively and to be open to other perspectives on the place. as she approaches lake athabaska, she comments, “we speak only of what we observe from the deck of a boat as we pass down this wonderful river. what is hidden is a richer story which only the coming of the railroad can bring to light” ( ). there are three different kinds of movement in this image—that of the river, the industrialized mechanisms of expansion including the boat and the railroad, and the implied self-reflexive image of the turning pages of a story book. accordingly, there are different ideas of change—that of the natural locale itself through the form of the river, the more cultural “intrusion” of adventure travellers and immigrants on the boat, and the ideas of cultural progress associated with natural evolution and the advancement of anglo- saxon culture in adventure texts. cameron’s physical positioning on the edges of the boat and the river reminds us of her critical distance from the imperialist agenda of such texts. as well, the image of the story of development in the north as hidden portrays cameron’s limited sight/knowledge of her authorial perspective on her surroundings. her focus on such limitations emphasizes the inability for literature to fully represent the movement/change of the north or to categorize such movement/change as divinely ordained. this image of the story as hidden in the landscape but revealed by the railroad and its corresponding frontier expansion suggests that the reality of the place itself is a complex interaction between the environment, the inhabitants, and outside cultural influences that can never fully be captured. what is so interesting about cameron is her embrace of the fallibility of her perspective. in fact, her enthusiasm about this peripheral 	
   	
   and limited view suggests that this subjective way of experiencing travel and the north and ideas of cultural movement/change is a more truthful and perhaps more modern perspective. like gallatin, cameron describes physical sensation as a more truthful and openly subjective way of experiencing the frontier in her statement, “[a]s we pass in silence we can but look and feel” ( ). this image of “pass[ing] in silence” ( ) again represents their movement/change through the wilderness as peripheral to the more dominant imperialist trajectory of frontier expansion—the typical “intrusion” of foreigners. her silence evokes the argument is war metaphor and reminds us of her own lack of voice within the imperialist culture that she represents, as well as a deference to the alternative cultural traditions of people who inhabit the north. her emphasis on “look[ing]” and “feel[ing]” as the best ways to represent the landscape reminds the reader that knowledge stems from the physical capacities of sight and touch. furthermore, she draws attention to the inevitable subjectivity, and yet universality, of personal experience and sensation that informs one’s knowledge. this is a direct contradiction to the textbook objectivity that gallatin sees as marginalizing the north, and which obviously marginalizes women authors as well. like gallatin, cameron uses a sensationalist and personalized focus on the female body as a paradigm for more self-reflexive understandings of frontier expansion and corresponding ideas of cultural progress. . conclusion while duncan and taylor inflect their work with political undertones, gallatin and cameron are more explicit in their questioning of the imperialist legacy of frontier revival literature. their concern with issues of women’s rights and the perspectives of aboriginal populations are more at 	
   	
   the forefront of these texts. also at the forefront is the female body in vivid illustrations and photographs. gallatin and cameron develop strong, personalized personae and confront the reader both in tone and in provocative images of themselves. gallatin goes so far as to structure her text as a guide to encourage increased physical and social freedom for women. while cameron’s text adheres more to the expansionist rhetoric of her day, she offers outspoken critiques of imperialist attitudes, and encourages more open minded attitudes toward gender and ethnicity. combining the shock value of sensationalist journalism and dime store novels, cameron’s and gallatin’s work builds upon certain aspects of duncan’s and taylor’s texts in key ways. they are at once more honestly autobiographical—provocative, challenging, and political in their explicit and outspoken discussions of gender and ethnicity, and in their questioning of imperialist masculine paradigms—and also more literary in their use of inter-textual references and a highly self-conscious use of literary iconography. fixated on physical descriptions of the female body, these texts bring the body to the forefront of the discussion as the medium through which to live and relive imperialist rhetoric about cultural progress. the subject of these texts is no longer ostensibly the charting of geographical territories, but rather the interaction between real women’s lives and the kinds of iconography and cultural ideas about citizenship and progress they must read and perform on a daily basis. they guide their readers on how to access the personae through which debates about cultural progress are acted out. cameron and gallatin focus on the body in several key ways. they speak directly to their audience in a visceral manner as though they are literally guiding the reader through the text and they offer models of physical behaviour from which the reader can learn. they also both emphasize the metaphorical tensions related to movement/change in between, through, and at the 	
   	
   edge of bounded location/states. recurring images of liminality and the process of shifting between spaces emphasize that states of self are subjective and changeable. cameron and gallatin remind us that women travellers do not fit easily into any subject position. both authors celebrate this ambiguity and present it as a powerful alternative perspective on what they reveal to be falsely objective ideas of cultural identity in frontier revival literature. they portray their struggle with masculine paradigms of travel through their physical hardship on the trail and they offer new paradigms of female movement in the wilderness. gallatin focusses on new ways of mastering one’s individual body and interacting with increased control in relation to one’s environment. cameron describes herself in physical conflict with official versions of the north and describes her continual effort to see/know the place for herself. one of the main ways these authors offer a more subjective and self-reflexive approach to their subject matter is through their shared focus on physical sensation. experiencing their surroundings through the framework of their senses personalizes their experience through the body itself. they remind us that our knowledge occurs through the lens of the body and that the familiar paradigms of adventure and cultural progress stem from the white male body. they self- reflexively adopt both stereotypically masculine and feminine traits in their physical descriptions and illustrations. the repeated placement of their female bodies in iconoclastic scenarios provokes, teases, and shocks the reader into thinking of ways to experience and thus to know frontier regions from different perspectives. guiding their readers in the vocabulary of the body, they offer the means to re-experience and re-imagine one’s place in society—to reshape the terms of cultural identity and belonging. 	
   	
   . notes to chapter 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
   in his forward to philippe lejeune’s on autobiography, paul john eakin interprets lejeune’s idea of the autobiographical pact as an understanding between the author and the reader that despite the performativity of identity and autobiography, an autobiography is still rooted in factual, real world events (ix). i use this term a few times in my dissertation as a reference to pierre bourdieu’s discussion of cultural capital that he outlines in the field of cultural production. palmer writes that “novels of sensationalists and ‘new women’ writers were both focal points for and embodiments of contemporary gender anxieties” ( ). for further discussions of sensation fiction see jones’s problem novels: victorian fiction theorizes the sensational self and talairach-vielmas’ moulding the female body in victorian fairy tales and sensation novels. undergoing a transformation on the trail is something that occurs throughout texts by male authors. however, female frontier revival writers describe this transformation on more personal terms and sometimes describe it as a more conflicted struggle. this has a lot to do with the fact that they are battling so many gender stereotypes on the trail in addition to the standard physical challenges of wilderness travel and the symbolic struggle of proving oneself on behalf of specific ideas of cultural progress that male authors describe. in foregrounding their often conflicted personal struggles on the trail, female authors also show more ambivalence toward dominant discourses of westward expansion with which male authors tend to identify seamlessly. of course, certain male authors, such as hamlin garland are critical of the underlying imperialism of westward expansion. however, despite garland’s critique of imperialism, he avoids focussing on the personal struggle of his journey. it is worth noting that female authors’ critique of the 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   underlying attitudes of frontier adventure literature is felt and lived much more viscerally and immediately through the personal struggle of their individual bodies. despite garland’s more theoretical and poetic critique of the gold rush, he still has the privilege of somehow embodying the ideals of the journey. in comparison, the foregrounding of the personal struggle of the female body in women’s texts represents the stakes of their journey and of their critique of imperialism as somehow much higher. in other words, they do not just use the frame as a vehicle for criticism, but rather struggle with the very terms of the frame itself. i see these complex metaphors as stemming from the underlying sc metaphor and ultimately contrasting with the os metaphor in which self-control through perspective occurs outside of a contained space. sweetser studies how conceptual metaphors relate to each other in her article, “‘the suburbs of your good pleasure:’ cognition, culture and the bases of metaphoric structure” ( ). she identifies models of self based on interacting metaphors. for instance, she points out that the domain of containment includes the metaphor essential is central ( ). ideas of social inclusion as containment can be seen as stemming from this more primary metaphor. in philosophy in the flesh, lakoff and johnson cite the expressions “hold your horses” or “hold a tight reign” as examples of highly common ways of referring to external events ( ). in the same text, they also discuss johnson’s concept of conflation, in which source domains and target domains become so synonymous in our minds that we forget that this connection is metaphorical ( ). idioms such as “to take the reins” are a prime example of metaphorical expressions that are so incorporated into everyday use that the connection between the physical action (of grabbing reins) and the abstract idea (of taking control) become synonymous in the public imagination. we forget that these expressions are metaphorical. by using such idioms from a startling female perspective, these authors make the reader aware of the metaphoricity of 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   their everyday language. consequently, we become aware not only of how our bodily and material lives affect our ways of thinking, but also of how cultural attitudes about the body relating to gender and ethnicity inform conceptual metaphors and the way they occur in our daily lives and speech. pazdro explains that cameron spoke out about several controversial issues throughout her career in the education system. she was against teaching domestic science in the classroom ( ) and also publically argued against disparities between the salaries of male and female teachers (pazdro ) and age discrimination in the school system (pazdro ). she and another female teacher were suspended from their jobs in for allegedly going against their superiors by refusing to conduct oral instead of written exams ( ). however, pazdro notes that the man who filed a complaint against her was explicitly opposed to women principals and to her personally ( ). the superintendent who suspended them openly admitted to making an example of them ( ). as pazdro, explains, given that cameron and her female colleague were the only female principals in the city, it is likely that their suspension was at least partly fueled by misogynist attitudes toward women teachers and principals ( ). she also notes that in , cameron lost her job over a minor infraction involving letting a student use a ruler during a test (pazdro ). after a public outcry in support of cameron, a two month inquiry took place that ultimately ruled against her (pazdro ). pazdro observes that the inquiry proceedings, “bordering on the ridiculous,” were part of an ongoing discriminatory process of forcing cameron out of her job ( ). in my article, “seeing for oneself: agnes deans cameron’s ironic critique of american literary discourse in the new north,” i explore in more depth how cameron develops specific 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   american discourses of canada as a last frontier in order to challenge ideas about gender, ethnicity, and imperialism. wendy roy argues that cameron’s tendency to not refer to her niece directly creates the impression of a royal “we” ( ). it seems that cameron is referring to his wintering over site before he set out on his journey. i discuss photography in greater depth in chapter . roy notes that “[t]ravellers have traditionally enforced claims both to primacy and to uniqueness through technologies of representation and communication that include diaries, maps, and illustrations” ( ). it is important to be aware of how new technological advancements in photography influenced the writing of female travellers who would have been more dependent on proving themselves according to such technology, while also more vulnerable to having their appearances judged by readers and potential publishers. in on photography, susan sontag argues that “[c]ameras define reality in the two ways essential to the workings of an advanced industrial society: as a spectacle (for the masses) and as an object of surveillance (for rulers). the production of images also furnishes a ruling ideology. social change is replaced by change in images” (qtd. in wexler ). the paradox that sontag identifies here lies in the way that images, which often appear to democratize knowledge and access to information, also distract people from social realities and are, despite seeming neutral or lacking in cultural bias, often monitored and used by those in power to control and exploit those who are not. 	
   	
   	
   hunters of peace: mary schäffer’s old indian trails ( ) and agnes laut’s enchanted trails of glacier park ( ) . introduction in this chapter, i address two authors who usher in a final phase of women’s frontier revival literature—mary schäffer ( - ) and agnes laut ( - ). despite the fact that mary schäffer’s old indian trails ( ) and agnes laut’s enchanted trails of glacier park ( ) emerge only one or two decades after gallatin’s and cameron’s texts, the differences in their approach signal the vast amount of social change for women at the turn of the twentieth century. both authors, laut especially, describe their female perspectives on the wilderness with notably more confidence and ease than the earlier women writers in a way that reflects the rapid and ongoing advances for women at the time, including suffrage and increased entry in the labour force. in a cultural climate of industrialization, urbanization, and militarization, combined with the heightened popularity of wilderness movements and organizations, frontier revival literature was, more than ever, a barometer for ideas about cultural identity, progress, and citizenship. the increased participation and visibility of women in wilderness writing and wilderness organizations such as the camp-fire girls, conservation movements, and alpine clubs reflected advancements in women’s causes. however, women’s increased participation in wilderness culture at the time also took on an even more interesting and telling facet of social mobility that emerged in the later frontier revival literature of schäffer and laut—the ability to enter into more public dialogues not only about gender, but also about issues more tangentially related, or even seemingly unrelated, to being a woman. the ability to speak as a woman about bigger debates on 	
   	
   cultural identity is, in the case of these writers, a kind of logical progression from the struggles of earlier women writers to speak about being a woman. this newer ability to speak for the whole— to present the illusion of cultural objectivity and neutrality—is a legacy taken for granted by male frontier revival authors and wrestled with by earlier female frontier revival writers. both schäffer and laut show an increased level of comfort in their ability to speak as women—to address their gendered perspective with more frankness, to relate their gendered perspective to wider, more intersecting social issues, and also to downplay, or attempt to transcend the discussion of gender in their treatment of issues relating to race, ethnicity, development, and conservation. the body remains at the centre of these texts, but in a way that links the struggle for gender equality with these other issues. both authors build on earlier women writers’ engagement with iconic physical motifs of frontier revival literature. they develop these motifs by describing themselves as pushing the horizons of female experience and navigating intercontinental movement/change, by identifying the landscape with idealized female-friendly bounded locations/states, and by self-reflexively shifting between different bounded locations/states. female perspectives on the frontier revival motifs become a familiar short hand in the later texts of schäffer and laut. rather than focussing on women’s issues either explicitly, or by sensationalizing their own struggle for confidence on the frontier, they both use this shorthand in connection to bigger issues relating to conservation and aboriginal rights. in particular, both authors are preoccupied with the diverse ways of seeing/knowing the frontier, and they relate the complexities of their subject positions as women travellers to the wider complexities of the frontier. they suggest that such complexities are crucial to recognize in the face of simplistic and biased cultural representations of western regions that support and gloss over the large-scale destruction of natural resources and aboriginal cultures. they convey and extend the complexity 	
   	
   of their perspectives through photography, allusions to art, and representations of their changing points of view. by extending their gendered use of frontier motifs to bigger issues of cultural identity, schäffer and laut question the underlying violence and exploitation of imperialist attitudes toward the frontier and encourage more inclusive and social justice oriented perspectives on cultural progress. . schäffer the significant amount of biographical information available about schäffer’s life testifies to her ongoing recognition as a travel writer, artist, and photographer and sheds light on her active participation in frontier revival literature. born in philadelphia to a quaker family, schäffer was fixated on ideas of the west from an early age (e.j. hart ). this early fascination, along with the literary tendencies of her family (e.j. hart ) and her own familiarity with wilderness literature of her day (beck ), indicate her informed engagement with eastern representations of cross- border western settings. in , schäffer took the c.p.r. trip from montreal to vancouver, where she met medical doctor and botanist dr. charles schäffer, whom she married upon returning to philadelphia (e.j. hart ). notably, schäffer was trained by george lambden, a famous american flower artist (e.j. hart ). she also developed significant photography skills, creating her own photographic techniques for representing specimens (birkett ; e.j. hart ). in fact, in several of her photographs were included in a paris exhibition of work by american women photographers (birkett ). like gallatin, she used her skill as an artist to assist her husband in his work over years of botanical excursions in national parks throughout the canadian rockies (e.j. hart - ) and to pay tribute to him after his death in by returning to the 	
   	
   rockies to finish his work (e.j. hart ), which led to the publication of alpine flora of the canadian rocky mountains (e.j. hart ). in fact, after the death of her husband, schäffer began her considerable publishing career, which included writing articles in a range of magazines from rod and gun (montreal and toronto), the bulletin of the geographical society of philadelphia (philadelphia) to the canadian alpine journal (banff), which culminated with old indian trails, the account of her trip to the rockies with female companion mollie adams and two male guides. positive reviews of old indian trails (beck ; e.j. hart ) confirm her skilful engagement in literary discourses of her time. the success of her lectures in philadelphia based on her travels (c. smith ) shows her involvement in eastern cultural interests in western canada. the range of publications about schäffer demonstrates her ongoing relevance in the fields of women’s literature and wilderness writing. she has been the subject of a novel and theatrical productions, various non-academic biographies (beck; foran), anecdotes in studies of female travellers (macfarlane; skidmore), and feminist, postcolonial, and art history analysis (lippard; macfarlane). she also remains one of the few women in this dissertation whose name tends to ring a bell across a wider spectrum of non-academic and academic readers. the small pressed wildflower in the century-old copy of old indian trails that is held in storage at the ubc library is a small reminder of her longstanding presence in the peripheral consciousness of the canadian reading public. it is tempting to discuss schäffer as a feminist wilderness icon; however, the novelty of her role as female traveller has been exaggerated in many responses to her work. biographical discussions of her life have contributed to her legacy as a canadian folk heroine, despite her original american and british heritage. this is partly because of the admittedly dramatic arc of her life story, including her transition from a young eastern traveller assisting her 	
   	
   husband to a seasoned traveller in the west and successful wilderness literary figure in her own right, her second marriage to her much younger guide, billy warren, and her final permanent residency in banff. one of the texts that has consolidated her place in canadian history is the reprint of old indian trails, published by the whyte museum of the canadian rockies and partly funded by the alberta th anniversary commission. the text is edited by historian and archivist e.j. hart, and hart’s informative biographical introduction describes schäffer as a local icon. the text takes significant liberties with schäffer’s original publication and seems to be geared more toward a non-academic readership. many of schäffer’s photos from the archives have been added to the book in a way that sensationalizes images of her female body in the wilderness with very little editorial commentary on the changes that have been made. the inclusion of these images emphasizes schäffer’s awareness of the novelty and significance of images of the female travelling body. however, the unexplained inclusion of these images, and e.j. hart’s romanticized portrait of her “spirit and pluck in venturing into that wilderness” (e.j. hart ), simultaneously exaggerate and gloss over schäffer’s gendered perspective on her surroundings. this focus on the novelty of schäffer’s eastern travelling body conceals the nuances of her perspective on the wilderness and only begins to provide clues as to the meaning of her work and to the breadth of her perspective on the wilderness that waits to be rediscovered in her text. the range of scholarly responses to schäffer’s work indicates the difficulties writers have in trying to place her into aesthetic and ideological categories. scholars see her as challenging imperialist concepts of race and gender through her complex interest in the perspectives of women and aboriginal people (lippard; macfarlane). however, schäffer’s disinterest in suffragists has also been pointed out (beck ), as have her contradictory tendencies to both critique and uphold 	
   	
   imperialist assumptions (beck ; macfarlane - ). more consistent aspects of her work include her frequent engagement in wilderness issues of her time and her promotion of conservationist values. as in biographical treatments of her work, scholarly work on schäffer is often dominated by a focus on her life story or on abstract theoretical ideas about empire, gender, and race. what tends to be missing in these studies is an examination of specific literary techniques that she employs in her text. while i also identify schäffer as a feminist figure in her own right, i see her feminism as characterized by the very understated quality of her allusions to women’s issues through the female body. the subtlety of her treatment of social justice issues can only be understood through a close reading of the body metaphors that she inherits from previous female frontier revival authors and extends to an interest in aboriginal cultures and wilderness conservation. schäffer’s use of photography remains one of the most interesting aspects of the original text of old indian trails and has garnered the most compelling responses to her work. her extensive training and experience in visual art culminates in her passion for photography on the trail and the success of her photographs. she moves beyond the sometimes grim sensationalism of agnes deans cameron’s use of photography in the new north. compared to the more recent edition, the original version of the text contains only black and white photographs with less of an emphasis on human figures. the majority of the photographs in the original text are examples of schäffer’s skillful, documentary style of nature photography. the few photographs that she includes of human figures carry more weight in the original text and offer subtle glimpses into her gendered perspective on the landscape. just as susan sontag challenges the illusion of objectivity in photography, scholars of exploration literature point out how photography in north american wilderness regions at the turn of the twentieth century was not the “benign tool of 	
   	
   observation” (williams ) that it may have seemed, but was rather a means of supporting imperialist discourses about expansion in northern (bloom - ) and western regions (williams ) of north america. lucy lippard interprets schäffer’s photography as offering a “sympathetic” lens on aboriginal people without falling into noble savage stereotypes ( ). more skeptical in her reading, lisa macfarlane argues that schäffer’s written text and photography “demystify imperial practices of seeing and recording, yet at the same time those practices are central to how she records her experience” ( ). i touch on several of her photographs in this chapter with a focus on her use of self- portraiture and her intimate photograph of sampson beaver and his family. i read schäffer’s portraits of herself and of aboriginal people on the trail as contributing to her masculinist and imperialist authorial credibility, while also associating her gender with a more personalized and humanized relationship to the landscape and to the aboriginal people whom she encounters. these contradictions emerge in the complex positioning of the female body in relation to the landscape and to the aboriginal subjects in her photographs. schäffer’s photography extends an increased confidence in her female perspective on the landscape to a more complex and self-aware way of seeing/knowing the rockies so as to challenge the imperialist objectification of the land and its inhabitants. . the horizons of gender in old indian trails one of the most recurring images in old indian trails is that of the horizon as a metaphor for the boundaries of personal and cultural identity. near the beginning of the text, she questions, “why must so many cling to the life of our great cities, declaring there only may the heart-hunger, the 	
   	
   artistic longings, the love of the beautiful be satisfied, and thus train themselves to believe there is nothing beyond the little horizon they have built for themselves?” ( ). as discussed in earlier chapters, the horizon is the natural boundary or limit of one’s sightline, evoking the limits of knowledge. the pushing of the horizon on the frontier represents the movement/change of the boundaries of sight and cultural knowledge. her reference to the “little horizon” of eastern urban spaces evokes the literal limitations on the horizon in eastern cities due to urban architecture. one of the interesting aspects of schäffer’s use of this image in the urban space is the tension here between natural and artificially built horizons. the suggestion that city dwellers have “built” a horizon “for themselves” implies that urban cultural perspectives, particularly on the western frontier, are biased and restrictive. she emphasizes not only the need to get out of the confined urban perspective, but also to rethink urban interpretations of the frontier. schäffer is most creative with her use of the horizon metaphor when she applies it to the female experience. describing her frustration at wanting to escape gender norms on the frontier, she states, “there are times when the horizon seems restricted and we seemed to have reached that horizon. and the limit of all endurance,—to sit with folded hands and listen calmly to the stories of the hills we so longed to see, the hills which had lured and beckoned us for years before this long list of men had ever set foot in the country” ( ). here schäffer compares the restrictive urban horizon specifically to restraints on female experience. at the turn of the twentieth century, nature was often mythologized from an urban, middle-class perspective as a redemptive alternative to the perceived social ills of industry and development (schmitt xvii-xviii). the task of escaping and reforming urban society on the western frontier was pervasively seen as a masculine endeavour (morrison - ) and one that was opposed with the restrictive influences of female domesticity (greenberg ). schäffer challenges stereotypes of a feminized urban east 	
   	
   coast by implying that gender norms are not innate, but are rather imposed upon women. by using this more masculine image of the horizon in the city space, she suggests that women are looking for the same kinds of “freedom” and “progress” that their male peers are in order to break free from gender norms and the restriction to the private sphere, and to gain access to the rhetoric of male heroism that is associated with actively defining and pushing the boundaries of cultural identity. this horizon image conveys schäffer’s wish not just to escape domesticity, but also to escape from the gender ideology that simultaneously confines women to the domestic sphere and devalues this sphere in relation to male roles in society. her use of the horizon metaphor in the city reminds readers that eastern women and men who long for some kind of cultural renewal or freedom on the frontier are engaged in the same struggle—to broaden individual and cultural horizons. according to schäffer, this escape from civilization is not an escape from women, but actually an escape from institutionalized social inequalities. the very first photograph in schäffer’s text, which appears as the frontispiece in the original edition, skillfully situates her against a receding wilderness horizon so as to evoke her subtle and complex preoccupation with pushing boundaries (see fig . ). the dimensions of the photograph create a narrow verticality that guides the viewer into the distant hills, which contain what appear to be a series of paths. this emphasis on perspective involves the reader in schäffer’s movement/change in the wilderness. the faded details of the distant hills echo the chiaroscuro wilderness backgrounds in renaissance paintings and help to situate schäffer within a creditable aesthetic legacy of wilderness art. there are three main fields of perspective in this photograph including the grassy area in the foreground, the dense, seemingly impenetrable forest behind schäffer, and the distant hills. schäffer’s positioning in front of the forest deliberately places her at the edge of a bounded location to indicate her role in pushing her own states of self, and those 	
   	
   of the various collective identities with which she is affiliated—the united states and canada, white easterners, and women. according to the objective standpoint and knowing is seeing metaphors, she gains perspective by existing outside of (and as seemingly ready to push through) the bounded location/state of the forest. the visual representation of these metaphors reminds the reader that this process is one that they experientially partake in while reading the book. by directly facing the reader, she takes on the role of visual and cultural guide. the question of just what kind of guide schäffer represents here can only be found by sifting through the various small discrepancies of the photograph, which, as with those found in cameron’s photos, resist the absolutism and empiricism of imperialist representations of the wilderness. this photograph situates schäffer within the iconography of male white travel writers. like cameron, she dons a mountie-style hat and faces the camera with a grave directness, evoking the militaristic cultural superiority of male explorers. however, schäffer’s skirt and buckskin jacket complicate this image by evoking her contradictory female perspective, as well as her compassion and curiosity in relation to aboriginal people. the similarity between the angle of the horse’s and schäffer’s heads in relation to the camera evokes her interests in wilderness conservation and animal rights. as macfarlane notes, schäffer’s self-deprecating caption, “nibs and his mistress” directs readers’ attention away from her and onto her horse. unlike the often sensationalist and awkwardly candid photographs of cameron, including the grotesque opening image of her holding a severed moose’s head, this photograph presents subversive undertones that are at once more subtle and far reaching (particularly in schäffer’s more sympathetic treatment of animals). despite her air of confidence and authority, schäffer’s relatively relaxed posture does not convey the desire to assert excessive control over her animal, the landscape, or even the reader. similarly, in addition to her relaxed, stationary pose, the 	
   	
   absence of any discernable trail in the foreground of the photograph suggests her alternative search for peace and equality, as opposed to cultural conquest in the wilderness. while the openness of the foreground indicates her freedom from the restrictiveness of social codes, her central positioning in the centre of the photograph portrays her as nestled in the bounded locations of the park, the book, and the photograph. this nod to the self as container metaphor as well as the objective standpoint metaphor implies that she shifts between locations/states of self in the wilderness, or also potentially finds a new and alternative location/state of self, one that seems to include her own conflicting perspectives as female, adventure traveller, nature photographer, and conservationist. schäffer also explores the complexity of her perspective on the wilderness by portraying her camp as a kind of protective, domestic space while her guides are off in the wilderness. at one point she observes, “the next day passed as only a woman in camp knows how to pass it. to study out how to do a large wash in a small teacup, to smooth out the rough-dry garments and avoid appearing as though one had personally passed through a wringer, these are chores which cause an off-day in camp to glide as swiftly by as the passing of the sun” ( ). her description of the day as passing “as only a woman in camp knows how to pass it” presents an image of movement/change in the wilderness that is paradoxically focussed on the bounded location/state of female domesticity. this tension between wilderness freedom and domesticity challenges separate spheres ideology as well as the dichotomy between the feminine east and the masculine west. by evoking this stereotype of female domesticity, she strengthens her credibility amongst readers. however, schäffer’s domestic chores here operate outside of any particular social, moral, or familial framework, and instead facilitate her own sense of personal freedom and wellbeing as a woman in the wilderness. she reminds us that in the wilderness, she escapes gender codes that 	
   	
   dictate and limit women’s experiences in the private sphere. by describing domestic chores as heroic, she places a value on her own female perspective on the wilderness that is more associated with personal growth and an appreciation for the wilderness. she further associates this idea of domesticity with a harmonious relationship to her surroundings in the image of the days “glid[ing] as swiftly by as the passing of the sun.” her domestic chores not only pass the time, but do so in a way that connects her to the wilderness. all of the images in this passage involve shifting bounded locations/states. schäffer mentions studying “how to do a large wash in a small teacup” and learning to “avoid appearing as though one had personally passed through a wringer” ( ). her allusion to a wringer washing machine appeals to her middle-class, white female demographic. this domestication of the wilderness and foregrounding of her personal, female perspective could, according to critics such as wexler, run the risk of glossing over the more violent and exploitative context of wilderness expansion ( ). however, it would be a rather reductive and anachronistic mistake to interpret motifs of domesticity and the private sphere as inherently lacking in social criticism or complexity. schäffer’s discussion of doing domestic chores humanizes her to a female readership, while also subtly challenging gender expectations. performing domestic chores in such an incongruous wilderness setting de-familiarizes these deeply familiar aspects of female experience so as to acknowledge their place in women’s lives, while also recognizing that women can play multiple roles. the image of trying to fit her washing into a teacup exaggerates domestic physical containment to convey the struggle to maintain the standards of cleanliness and ritual to which she is accustomed. this metaphor of the tea-cup exaggeratedly suggests the pressure to fit into restrictive gender norms. however, schäffer’s gently humourous tone, along with her personal contentment during such domestic rituals, playfully identify with a domestic perspective 	
   	
   as a woman, while recognizing that this identification is not inherent or complete. like gallatin, schäffer uses images of states of transition between bounded locations to emphasize the fluidity of female identity in experiencing moments of domesticity as well as individualism and freedom on the frontier. the struggle that she evokes in these domestic tasks ironically portrays her domestic outlook on the wilderness as heroically pushing cultural boundaries. one of the only other photographs that actually depicts schäffer in her original text presents one of these moments of blissful female solitude in the wilderness (see fig . ). near the end of the chapter entitled “tribulations of the investigator,” schäffer includes a remarkably domestic image of herself doing laundry in maligne lake—the lake that she famously visited and surveyed. dramatically captured in silhouette, schäffer is situated near the central foreground of the frame and is seen standing in the water up to her mid calves, bent over while cleaning an article of clothing that is also partially immersed in the water. schäffer’s representation of herself in such a feminine pose indicates a domestication of the wilderness. as an addition to the photograph, the caption, “when i saw the last of those four men i knew what was going to happen” ( ), emphasizes her gendered perspective on the landscape. the contrast between herself and “those four men” as well as her eagerness to experience the locale without their presence suggests that as a woman, she has a different relationship to the landscape in her prioritization of small quotidian and domestic experiences in the wilderness. while this image of domesticity conveys a somewhat deceitfully “innocent eye” (wexler ) on the wilderness, it also pushes the boundaries of acceptable female behaviour in imperialist discourse of westward expansion. as i will show, the photograph is far from a conventional image of orderly domesticity. she re-envisions the wilderness as a utopian female space that is at once feminine in 	
   	
   its allusion to the domestic realm, and yet also free from restrictive, imperialist social codes of traditional femininity. seen in sharp relief against the vast open expanse of water, with a dramatic and mountainous horizon in the distance, schäffer’s lone figure in the wilderness evokes her patriarchal and imperialist role in pushing cultural boundaries and representing ideas of freedom and independence associated with cultural progress. however, she appears to merge into the lake as though she is at one with the wilderness as opposed to trying to gain control over it. she appears to blend into the landscape in different ways. the underexposed quality of the photograph makes her silhouette appear dark and without detail, and the triangular shape of her figure, as well as the shadow that she casts into the lake, suggest her seamless connection to her surroundings, as though she is a natural feature of the landscape. despite the vast expanse of open water, schäffer is actually framed by the edge of the lake in the foreground and the mountainous opposing shoreline. as with the frontispiece photograph, she appears to have the perspective that comes with being outside of a bounded location/state. however, the reminders of the bounded location of the lake and of the domestic sphere also associate this very increased perspective with a new state of self—one in which her freedom of perspective lies in a more alternative, female identification with the land and in the ability to shift between different bounded locations/states. the destination/goal of the female traveller here seems not to be the physical domination and cultural conquest of the land, but instead, the ability to experience the more daily individual freedoms that women of her time could not take for granted. ideas of cultural progress and identity, which normally other the wilderness and seek to deny or devalue the female experience, must make room in schäffer’s photograph for both. schäffer’s more peaceful and subjective 	
   	
   relationship to the land re-envisions ideas of cultural progress as more open, inclusive, and relational. schäffer also pushes the boundaries of her own perspectives on the wilderness when she describes looking at herself through the eyes of the people she encounters on the trail. while camping, schäffer comes across explorer a.p. coleman. schäffer’s description of their encounter revolves around how he must perceive her. she states, “[h]e was a truly remarkable man, for being a hundred and twenty-five miles from a railroad, two women were probably the very last objects he expected to find in that tent in a snow-storm” ( ). schäffer’s ability to imagine her appearance from the perspective of others is a recurring feature of her writing. she evokes the os metaphor by gaining perspective on her own identity in imagining herself from the point of view of those around her. this image of being far away from a railroad also establishes a location far outside the bounded track of the railway and the sense of familiar cultural identity that it represents. the remoteness of her location evokes the masculine destination/goal of pushing frontier boundaries in the wilderness. her reminder that two women in a tent are an unexpected sight suggests that seemingly universal traditional destinations/goals in the wilderness are actually very gendered. once again, she describes her experience of the wilderness as a kind of contained alternative female space that exists outside of gender norms and imperialist ideas of cultural progress. by seeing this contained space from the point of view of a contemporary male writer, schäffer not only presents an alternatively gendered perspective on the wilderness, but also a more self-aware and self-critical perspective. schäffer describes a similarly self-conscious passing encounter with rudyard kipling and his wife. on her way back from the wilderness, and approaching the town of banff, she describes passing a carriage of people whom she later discovers are the kiplings: “i only saw it all in one 	
   	
   awful flash from the corner of my right eye, and i remember distinctly that she had gloves on. then i realized . . . that my three companions looked like indians, and that the lady gazing at us belonged to another world. it was then that i wanted my wild free life back again, yet step by step i was leaving it behind” ( ). schäffer’s description of this moment as an intense flash on the margins of her sight portrays her own identification with the wilderness as a bounded location/state that represents an alternative cultural knowledge of cultural progress. the essential is central metaphor reminds us that after her time on the trail, she sees her own alternative perspective as ironically of more importance than that of a famous male author such as kipling. her sense of disorientation in this encounter appears in the tension between her and kipling’s wife’s opposing bounded locations/states. she emphasizes the deeply experiential nature of their opposing psychological and cultural states in her observation that they come from “different worlds.” as in the encounter with coleman, schäffer evokes the os metaphor by describing the lady’s gaze as making her suddenly aware of her own perspective through the eyes of eastern gender codes. similarly, as is evident in her synecdochal reference to the woman’s gloves, she also objectifies kipling’s wife from outside of the carriage in a way that offers an outsider’s perspective on the other woman’s bounded location/state. this awareness of her own shifting between “different worlds” conveys a critical distance from ideas of cultural progress, which she represents and from which she is excluded in this passage. schäffer’s perception of herself through kipling’s wife’s eyes is poignant because she acknowledges her own conflicted perspective on multiple levels. she does not fit into any role either in society or in the wilderness, and she reminds us here of the bias and potential inaccuracies of dominant eastern perspectives on the frontier. 	
   	
   schäffer’s similarly self-conscious descriptions of her encounters with aboriginal people emphasize her fascination with challenging norms of both gender and ethnicity on the trail. while talking with a man named silas abraham, schäffer attempts to impose suffragist attitudes onto him by telling him that he should not expect his wife to do all the domestic chores. she is surprised to find that he has a sense of humour when he jokes that she must be lazy for not completing such tasks herself. schäffer describes with warmth and humour the experience of having to laugh at her own attempts to impose white, urban feminist values on the aboriginal people she meets: “the missionary effect went to the floor with a bang and every one burst out laughing (at the missionary, of course)” ( ). by referring to herself as a missionary, schäffer recognizes the complexity of her own subject position. she contextualizes her own feelings of cultural marginalization as a woman within a position of race and class privilege. she identifies with the man across their intersecting experiences of gender and ethnicity, while also self- reflexively undermining and attempting to break free from her own cultural authority and privilege. in particular, schäffer’s image of “the missionary effect” falling “to the floor with a bang” again makes use of the os metaphor as well as synecdoche to emphasize the dissociation that she experiences when seeing herself through the eyes of others on the trail. here, she employs the self control is object control metaphor as she describes part of her self as an object that crashes out of her control. the violence of this image indicates a sudden and dramatic shift in self-perspective involving a loss in bodily/self-control. as well, the description of the crowd as “bursting out laughing” evokes an exploding container to indicate that this loss of control is mutual and amicable and represents a kind of cultural exchange in perspective and understanding. 	
   	
   schäffer also uses the verb to catch to describe a mutual exchange and broadening of cultural perspectives in her encounters with aboriginal people. when she meets the families of sampson beaver and silas abraham, she states: “they all talk at once. . . the only intelligible word i caught being ‘yahe weha’ a name they had given me the year before meaning ‘mountain woman’” ( ). schäffer describes herself as subject to being perceived, even named, by others. her dissociative self-description here has even more interesting political connotations than in her encounters with kipling’s wife because she describes her identity as blending with and even being named and identified by aboriginal women and children. rather than a moment of tension between her and her cultural background, this is an instance of willful immersion and loss of bodily/self-control at the hands of aboriginal people. she conveys this accepted loss of control in the image of catching her name from the clamour of sounds that greets her. by catching her name from this group of people, she defines her state of bodily/self-control as an object that is defined by the process of shifting between bounded locations/states. as well, her perspective and shifting location/state represent a kind of relational process of mutual exchange and emphasize her willingness to gain objectivity on her own cultural identity by looking at herself through the eyes of others. she suggests that her ability to enter into this kind of exchange provides more artistic and authorial legitimacy in her description of photographing the women: “there were no men to disturb the peace, the women quickly caught our ideas, entered the spirit of the game. and with musical laughter and little giggles, allowed themselves to be hauled about and pushed and posed in a fashion to turn an artist green with envy” ( ). this image of men “disturbing the peace” asserts her idea of the wilderness as a utopian female bounded location/state that she imagines as free from oppressive masculinist influences, and she extends this idea to include aboriginal women. by describing the women as catching “our ideas,” 	
   	
   schäffer indicates a mutual exchange whereby her very willingness to lose bodily/self-control among these women allows her in turn to catch or capture them in photographs. schäffer’s playful allusion to the envy of other artists proposes an ideal of artistic merit based on a self- reflexive cultural exchange and dialogue that she fosters in relation to her aboriginal subjects. her style of photography seems to represent her subjects more accurately partly because of her commitment to improving relations between subject and photographer and between aboriginal inhabitants of the area and travel writers such as herself. schäffer’s photograph of the beaver family offers a particularly memorable glimpse into her perspective on the aboriginal people whom she encounters (see fig . ). sampson actually gives her a map of the route to maligne lake, which she includes in the text, and upon which she relies on her journey. featured in the chapter, “golden plains of the saskatchewan,” this photograph captures sampson, along with his wife and child, and is accompanied by the caption, “sampson beaver, his squaw, and little frances louise.” the description of sampson’s wife as “his squaw” in the caption diminishes the individuality and complexity of her female subject. this objectification also informs the contrived nature of the photograph in which the three figures appear close up in the middle of the frame and all stare directly at the camera as though subjects of an ethnographic study. however, schäffer’s personal acquaintance with the family is also apparent. the subjects face toward the camera in poses of relaxed intimacy so as to show a familiarity and understanding between photographer and subject. in order for schäffer to achieve the angle of the photograph, she would have to kneel down on the ground in front of the family. all three figures smile at the photographer in what appear to be natural expressions of humour, warmth, and understanding, as if to suggest an active, willing participation in the picture-taking process, and also a relationship of trust and familiarity with schäffer. the adults are pictured 	
   	
   sitting down and appear at eye level with the photographer so as to indicate a sense of equality— and a literally and figuratively leveling common ground between them. the knowing is seeing metaphor is particularly pertinent to photography because of the way that photographers shape the boundaries of the viewer’s sightline. ideas of the male gaze or the imperialist gaze tap into this metaphor by exploring how artists shape understandings of cultural difference by literally shaping our field of vision. the expressive intimacy in the eye contact of schäffer’s subjects powerfully conveys a relational aesthetic gaze between subject and photographer, in which the reader participates. by encouraging her readers to see aboriginal people literally eye-to-eye, and to participate in this more equal, relational gaze, schäffer encourages a cross-cultural dialogue, and reminds readers of the cultural value, individuality, and human rights of aboriginal people, and the losses that they incur throughout frontier expansion. . wilderness conservation in old indian trails near the beginning of the text, schäffer emphasizes that her alternative destinations/goals in the wilderness reflect not only her gender, but also a more conservationist approach to nature. in the first chapter, she explains, “our chief aim was to penetrate to the head waters of the saskatchewan and athabaska rivers. to be quite truthful, it was but an aim, an excuse, for our real object was to delve into the heart of an untouched land, to tread where no human foot had trod before, to turn the unthumbed pages of an unread book, and to learn daily those secrets which dear mother nature is so willing to tell to those who seek” ( ). schäffer uses the word “penetrate” to evoke the masculinist language that writers of the time used to describe their destinations/goals in the wilderness. however, she indicates that she has an alternative perspective by referring to the 	
   	
   discrepancy between more traditional “aim[s]” and the “real object” of her journey. the fact that the words “aim” and “object” are both ways of referring to a physical destination reminds readers that she physically pursues an alternative cultural goal in the wilderness. interestingly, schäffer’s image of “delv[ing] into the heart of an untouched land” and “turn[ing] the unthumbed pages of an underead book” both draw on common metaphors of the land as a virginal female body and “tabula rasa.” both of these metaphors describe the land as a bounded location/state that is empty and passive in relation to the movement/change of travellers. however, as in her photograph of the beaver family, schäffer portrays herself in a dialogue with the land itself in her suggestion that she aims to “learn daily those secrets which dear mother nature is so willing to tell to those who seek.” in this passage, she portrays the location of the land, not merely as passive and empty, but as in a position of authority and as already filled with a state of knowledge that it may or may not confer on the traveller. this image of listening to the land again calls on the os metaphor and illustrates schäffer’s desire to gain perspective on her self and her own cultural background, rather than simply asserting cultural control. while schäffer’s articulation of having different destinations/goals is somewhat gendered throughout the text, she focusses this sense of difference on issues of conservation. describing the garbage left behind by tourists at camp parker, she laments the wasteful behaviour of a typical fellow traveller: “when he has drained the last drop from the condensed milk-can, has finished the maple syrup, or cleaned up the honey-jar, he drops the useless vessel on the spot, and camp parker has consequently developed into a rubbish heap . [. . .] and the other average camper will go on to the end of time tripping over the objectionable stuff” ( ). in referring to an archetypal male traveller, schäffer adopts the universalizing tone of frontier heroism. however, her criticism of this archetypal figure reminds us of the gendered nature of such heroic roles, and aligns her 	
   	
   feminist critique with environmental concerns. these images of bounded food containers being used up and left behind parallels the wider invasion and exploitation of the surrounding wilderness and its inhabitants. the word “developed” is significant because it evokes the movement/change of frontier adventure writing, while suggesting that the movement of tourists leads to a kind of change that does not result in cultural progress. her reference to “the other average camper” indicates an alternative to this archetype, and the gender neutrality of this term reminds us that she is a candidate for this role. the description of the rubbish heap as getting in the way of other tourists such as herself implies that eastern travellers ironically become their own obstacle/ impediment to achieving cultural progress because of the wasteful and exploitative way that most of them treat the land. as well, the image of tourists tripping over the rubbish heap “to the end of time” connects the movement of frontier travel with change over time and reminds the reader of the actual negative changes to the landscape that underlie frontier expansion. schäffer describes her own behaviour on the trail as an alternative to the way her male contemporaries act. when leaving nashan lake, she comments that “neither our coming nor going left one ripple on her placid face; born to loneliness she would not miss us” ( ). similar to male adventure writers, schäffer personifies the land as female and as representative of a type of pure or chaste femininity. however, in contrast to common phallic imagery of penetration, she describes her relationship to this feminized space as a more neutral “coming” and “going.” this image of entering and leaving the landscape without disturbing it suggests her ability to shift perspectives between different bounded locations/states. in comparison to motifs of intrusion, invasion, and penetration, her more neutral image of “coming” and “going” suggests that the movement of their journey results in no major change in the overall wilderness itself. in other words, the kind of progress she seeks in the wilderness involves an internal transformation that she 	
   	
   feels should not be imposed in a detrimental way on the wilderness. she also conveys her fear of harming her natural surroundings by adding: “i can imagine no more haunting memory of the trail than to feel that i or my companions might be responsible for any of the many forest fires which have from time to time disfigured that glorious mountain country of which i write” ( ). her discussion of trail memories connects the movement of her journey with the change of the passing of time in her own individual life. the idea of being “haunted” by such recollections acknowledges the unreliability of her own memory, and creative process, in accurately recording the movement/change of the trail. in fact, this ironic image of the trail as following her as opposed to the other way around is reminiscent of the relational gaze in her photography and suggests that the act of trying to physically or intellectually control the landscape ultimately draws attention to one’s lack of control. her sense of fallibility in representing the land emphasizes the importance of protecting the wilderness that defines cultural identity, and of re-envisioning cultural progress as a non-exploitative, more socially responsible endeavour. schäffer’s fascination with the horses on her journey is one of the most prominent eco- conscious aspects of her text. she insists that, “living with them, trailing with them, watching over their interests, they soon ceased to be beasts of burden” ( ). her use of the words “living” and “trailing” directly connects the group’s movements with the changes in the lives of both the humans and animals on the trail. there is a leveling gesture here to place the deeply interconnected physical and psychological lives of humans and animals on an equal footing. her image of “watching over their interests” suggests a kind of paternalistic, but compassionate attempt to identify with the experience of the animals on the trail. while she describes herself above them in a position of implied authority, she also attempts to see/know their perspective. her suggestion that they cease to be “beasts of burden” implies that in identifying with the horses, 	
   	
   she gains perspective/objectivity on her own identity. schäffer’s attempt to alleviate their physical burden requires seeing beyond their objectified status on the trail and recognizing their interior life. she adds that, “[o]n the trail we lived with them and talked to them til they and we understood each other’s movements thoroughly; their characters were as individual as our own” ( ). she suggests that communicating with the horses in a more psychologically relational manner goes hand in hand with becoming more physically in sync with them. her insistence on identifying with the animals conveys her own priority as a female traveller to move beyond stereotypical objectifications not only of women, but of the land and surrounding wildlife. rising above such objectifications, schäffer questions the way ideals of cultural progress rely on processes of dehumanization and exploitation. schäffer insists on inscribing the experience of animals into cultural memory about westward travel. after observing the severe effects on horses in the trek to moose lake, she notes that “instead of realizing the real beauty of that charming sheet of water that day, my mind was not only on our horses, but on those which had gone before and must come after before the coming railroad, the grand trunk pacific, would be a fact” ( ). schäffer’s impulse to focus on the aesthetic beauty of her surroundings indicates her awareness of how exploration literature objectifies the wilderness. she draws attention to the discrepancy between aesthetic descriptions of nature and the actual violence, hardship, and exploitation of animals that they conceal. she hints that she cannot invest in representations of the wilderness that do not recognize the underlying realities and effects of wilderness travel on the actual wilderness. by describing her mind as “on our horses,” she again draws on the self control is object control and os metaphors by referring to herself (in this case, her mind) as a physical object that she controls and looks at from the outside. these metaphors emphasize her attempt to gain 	
   	
   perspective/objectivity on her cultural background by entering into a more relational understanding of the land around her. her allusion to “those which had gone before and must come after before the coming railroad” connects the collective movement of horses on the trail to the change of westward expansion. while images of railways are commonly used to represent cultural progress, schäffer deliberately reminds the reader of the exploitation of animals that underlies familiar images of westward movement/change. by including the experiences of animals in her book, schäffer tells her story in dialogue with her surroundings, offering a more diverse and multifaceted perspective on westward expansion and ideas of cultural progress. . laut laut’s vast contribution to wilderness literature and her strong reputation throughout the first half of the twentieth century in american wilderness circles are testament to her active engagement in frontier revival literature. born in ontario in and raised in winnipeg (legge ix), laut began living permanently in new york in partly to be more integrated in the american publishing industry (legge xiii), where she eventually worked as assistant editor of, among other publications, the famous wilderness magazine outing (legge xiv). beginning her journalistic career at the winnipeg free press in (legge xi), she went on to enjoy a successful career as a journalist, contributing to publications such as the montreal herald, the new york evening post, and the london graphic (legge xii). aside from her significant legacy of journalistic work, laut also published many wilderness novels, popular history, and travel literature. she is one of the most interesting female frontier revival authors in terms of her considerable participation in wilderness writing on both sides of the border. not only did she spend years working and travelling across canada with her camera (legge xii), but she was also largely recognized by her 	
   	
   contemporaries as an influential canadian literary figure (legge xxv), despite her extensive travel and work experience south of the border. her tendency to write about canadian settings for american readers in books such as her novel lords of the north, and to weave together canadian and american settings as in enchanted trails of glacier park, accentuates her professional and personal identity as a cross-border figure. laut’s interest in comparing and contrasting aspects of american and canadian culture (legge xv) shows her awareness of how cultural ideas of the wilderness negotiate and cross the border. as well, her membership in several women’s organizations in new york, including the woman’s civic federation and woman’s city (legge xiv), suggests her interest in women’s issues of her time. furthermore, like schäffer, laut had a lifelong interest in aboriginal cultures and, in particular, aboriginal art (legge x). in enchanted trails of glacier park, laut conducts an impressive balancing act by alluding to her canadian identity, while writing about and for american culture, and by participating in the dominant rhetoric of westward expansion, while subtly highlighting issues relating to gender, aboriginal cultures, and the environment. the remarkably small amount of academic discussion of laut, despite her contribution to canadian literature and her engagement in new york wilderness literary circles, is partly a reflection of the difficulties in categorizing her work. an important way that enchanted trails of glacier park departs from the previous texts that i discuss is that it is not set in the canadian rockies, but rather in montana’s glacier park. however, laut makes frequent reference to travelling in the canadian rockies, to the canadian border, and to the role of western canada in what she portrays as an intercontinental process of westward expansion. laut’s cross-border discussion of the west helps to establish the objective tone of the book with its broad historical focus and discussion of issues of public policy relating to national parks and aboriginal people. 	
   	
   as with cameron, the tone of her writing resembles that of a textbook or government pamphlet at times. in longwinded descriptions of the history of westward expansion, she adopts a generalized form of american manifest destiny rhetoric and focusses on westward expansion as less about national divisions than about the expansion of white, anglo-saxon eastern culture. her generalized cross-border perspective risks concealing the imperialist nature of such rhetoric of frontier expansion. however, it also offers a way of appropriating imperialist rhetoric. her more detached tone throughout the text allows her to downplay her gender, while also extending this gendered perspective to other more pressing concerns of the time. laut has recurring physical motifs throughout her text that subtly hint at her gendered perspective on the landscape; however, she repeatedly uses these motifs as platforms from which to discuss bigger issues of conservation and civil rights. she tends to deflect her own female perspective on the wilderness by describing the physical experiences of other women travellers on the trail. laut’s text may at first appear to offer an almost officious or mainstream perspective on the west. however, her impersonal persona in itself reflects increased opportunities for women writers and the ability to assume authorial credibility without focussing on gender. it also allows laut to cloak her underlying interest in women’s perspectives within a broader context of cultural concerns. like schäffer, laut remains fascinated by representation of the west, and she addresses issues and problems of representation at great length throughout her text, while also including several photographs. interestingly, in keeping with laut’s relatively impersonal tone, she does not seem to appear in any of the photographs. there are very few photographic representations of women. the photographs are primarily of dramatic landscape scenes or, on occasion, of aboriginal men. unlike schäffer’s more personable and humanizing representations of sampson beaver and his family, laut represents aboriginal people in detached, formal poses. the lack of 	
   	
   visual references to the photographer in these pictures conveys a sense of objectivity that is reminiscent of ethnographic and documentary images of the time. laut’s photographic gaze is disembodied in its concealment of her authorial perspective, and in this way remains a less prominent and challenging aspect of her text in comparison with schäffer’s use of photography. however, her inclusion of a large proportion of photographs of aboriginal people amidst nature photographs and images of western cities and railways does prioritize the experiences of aboriginals within the overall representation of westward expansion. furthermore, the very candid and documentary nature of her photography suggests the value of trying to see/know the experiences of aboriginal people and western settings outside of conventionally biased and objectifying representations. . intercontinental movement/change in enchanted trails of glacier park echoing schäffer’s fascination with horizons, laut focusses on the westward movement of exploration, trade routes, settlement, and ongoing frontier expansion to represent ideas of change and cultural progress that seem to transcend the border itself. referring to an archeologist’s dream of following a “racial trail going back to the dawn of time” ( ), she associates travel in the wilderness of the national park system with a pinnacle of evolution. this allusion to darwinian concepts in relation to westward expansion runs the risk of promoting justifications for the racial exploitation, inequality, and prejudice that underlie such expansion. however, laut is careful to acknowledge the actual diversity that comprises the west. she also discusses technology, particularly the emergence of the automobile, to both evoke and complicate ideas of racial progression on the frontier, stating that the car “has pulled up the racial roots of a thousand years. 	
   	
   it has converted home to wheels. it has made a continent one for the first time in history” ( ). this discussion of “racial roots” describes humanity as an ongoing biological and cultural progression. the image of the car as pulling these roots up suggests that it offers a form of westward movement/change, which disrupts traditional frontier travel that she associates with more gradual racial evolution. the increased speed and individualized aspects of car travel can be seen as making the west more accessible and diverse. however, her claim that it has “made a continent one” ( ) recalls the rhetoric of anglo-saxon inter-continental expansion to suggest that this new accessibility merely facilitates anglo-saxon cultural domination. laut’s embrace of the chaos and disorder in this image does suggest curiosity about the democratizing potential for highway systems and increased access for the public to wilderness areas. this concept of continental expansion, while still a predominantly eastern and anglo phenomenon, remains a kind of vehicle for an increasingly diverse west and more diverse concepts of north american identity. laut continually links questions surrounding changing women’s roles to bigger questions about cultural identity through descriptions of the female body. she uses the recurring rhetorical question of “why [c]limb?” ( ) and claims that she has found an answer to this question in the enthusiasm of a young woman who she meets on the trail. after relaying the woman’s thoughts on the benefits of climbing, laut puts this question to the reader: “in the young town girl’s recital, have i answered the question—why climb?—why motor? why fly? why do anything that takes the dead weight of fatigue from body and mind, and gives tireless pace to feet, and carefree joy to every pulse of heart and nerve. and wings to the very soul? she had been up on the roof of america, and, like the morning stars of the old earth’s youth, sang with the joy of life. and that is—why climb?!” ( ). her catalogue of types of mobility including climbing, motoring, and flying, emphasizes new modes of transportation, which would actively expand women’s physical 	
   	
   and social mobility. in this light, she situates increases in women’s freedom within wider ideas of social and economic progress. like gallatin, she focusses on the value of physical freedom as a way of ensuring and expanding social mobility. accessing the wilderness of the national parks represents for her an alleviation of the impediments/difficulties facing “body and mind.” by referring to the importance of increasing the pace of one’s movement/change and the extent of knowledge gained/ground covered she suggests a process of pushing the boundaries of identity. she also evokes this pushing of boundaries in the image of reaching the “roof of america,” and combines it with the control is up metaphor to suggest a pinnacle of cultural progress. such progress pushes the limits of the bounded location of the body (“heart and nerve”), resulting in a corresponding state of “joy.” she focusses on the more individual destination/goal of personal freedom and contentment in relation to women and extends this to the country as a whole. the question of “why climb?” becomes symbolic of how women’s lives can be improved by expanding their physical freedom. the wilderness setting of the park offers a site in which to not merely preserve and reenact older ideas of cultural progress and empire, but also to redefine and expand such ideas. one of the other recurring motifs that she extends from the female body to a broader north american demographic is that of expanding sight/knowledge. she pokes fun at this same young woman visiting from a big city, asking “[d]id she see the mountains?” ( ). because the woman evidently has literally seen the mountains, laut’s question makes an explicit metaphorical connection between sight/knowledge that echoes cameron’s guidance on how to look at wilderness areas in a way that expands, rather than reasserts, cultural belief systems. this need to look beyond social norms and expectations has a particular urgency for women and becomes a convenient recurring motif in laut’s text in her portrait of the wilderness as a chance to 	
   	
   reinterpret, rather than reify, cultural belief systems. like cameron and schäffer, laut idealizes a way of seeing that is based on a reciprocal cultural exchange of knowledge and the ability to see outside of one’s self so as to gain perspective/objectivity on one’s cultural knowledge. she declares that whether the young woman realizes it or not, the mountains are having an effect on her: “[i]f a few little needle-stings did puncture her periphery, the ozone was expelling fatigue poisons, cleaning out sluggish lungs and clearing a tired brain” ( ). in this passage, she describes the young woman as a vessel that the surrounding environment permeates in order to expand her sight/knowledge. she employs the objective standpoint metaphor to suggest the need for the bounded location/state of the female body/mind to allow for movement/change. her focus on the woman’s sight as allowing this change within the bounded location/state of the body/mind portrays sight as a way of receiving, as well as merely imposing, knowledge upon the surrounding environment. laut’s playful solicitousness about this woman’s physical relationship to her surroundings in the wilderness calls attention to increases in women’s freedoms and associates such freedoms with progress. laut’s emphasis on sight extends the need to overcome restraints on female knowledge to a wider struggle to think outside of dominant cultural perspectives on the west. beginning her narrative with a caution against those who go to the mountains without really seeing them, laut adds: “why do i say: many people go to the mountains and never see them. or miss the best that the mountains have to reveal?” ( ). this image of movement toward the mountains acknowledges ideas of change and progress associated with adventure tourism. her claim that this movement/change can involve a kind of sight without knowledge reminds readers that all movement/change does not necessarily entail progress. the image of the mountains as revealing themselves in a way that often goes unnoticed also portrays the mountains as a bounded 	
   	
   location/state. rather than presenting them as passively awaiting the movement/change of the tourist, she describes them as in turn projecting knowledge into the sightline of the tourist. like many of the other women i discuss—most memorably, duncan and cameron—laut emphasizes the subjectivity of tourists’ perceptions so as to advocate a more interactive, receptive, and inclusive way of observing and learning from the wilderness. in her description of visitors, she comments that “[t]hey got out of the mountains just what they took with them—their own mental limit; just exactly the range of their own inner eye” ( ). her suggestion that the sight/knowledge that the tourist receives depends on “their own mental limit” portrays the tourist as a kind of bounded location/state that mirrors the bounded location/state of the wilderness setting. this image of the wilderness and the tourist as interacting bounded locations/states suggests the importance of shifting between cultural perspectives. the tension between the os and sc metaphors hints at an ongoing cycle of gaining perspective and redefining one’s personal and cultural identity. she envisions a kind of identity formation that is based upon ongoing cultural exchange and an acceptance of the diversity of which north american society consists. in her discussion of ways of seeing, laut makes several allusions to popular culture as a lens that shapes dominant perceptions of the frontier—perceptions that she suggests are racialized and gendered. while on a bus in glacier park, she observes the interactions between an aboriginal driver and a young female tourist, focussing on the former: “i watched the by-play. it was exquisite. here was a son of the wilds, a real movie hero, who knew mountains and loved them with a passion only the indian legends of his ancestral blackfeet can express” ( ). laut presents a way of seeing here that is detached on many different levels. like gallatin and schäffer, she describes the events as a shifting dramatic set (bounded location/state) in order to convey the subjectivity of her perspective on the west. by distancing herself as an objective voyeur of 	
   	
   westward expansion, she emphasizes her critical perspective on dominant representations of the wilderness that shape ideas of cultural progress. furthermore, the focus of laut’s attention here is not the scenery, or, in keeping with the stage metaphor, the action on centre stage. instead, she is interested in what she refers to as the “by-play” consisting of the interactions of her fellow travellers. she evokes the os metaphor here to contradict the essential is central metaphor that underlies the bounded location/state of the image of a stage. her interest in the peripheral action of her fellow companions reminds us that travellers unconsciously perform cultural ideas in the wilderness, despite their apparent objectivity, as witnesses, to their surroundings. it is of particular importance that laut refers to a film set, as opposed to a theatrical stage, when referring to the aboriginal driver as a “real movie hero.” she parallels the movement/change of the bus with that of motion pictures so as to emphasize that ideas of cultural progress in the wilderness are ongoing cultural performances. by portraying the man as both in and out of a cinematic screen, she acknowledges the tensions underlying dominant representations of the west. his simultaneous heroism and marginality hints at the objectification of aboriginal people in popular representations of the west and suggests that these familiar stereotypes do not correspond neatly with reality. laut’s fascination with dominant representations of aboriginal people is coupled here with her interest in gender in her description of the young woman as “ a perfect copy of a girl on a magazine cover” ( ). she describes the woman as occupying the bounded location/state of a popular magazine, thus confined by dominant gender norms. by referring to her as a “copy” she again calls attention to the way that members of marginalized groups do not fit easily into the fixed cultural categories that continue to underlie popular consumption of images of the west. laut’s representation of these two young people as fitting uncomfortably within dominant discourse or on the margins of familiar stages of mass culture 	
   	
   reminds readers of how mainstream representations of the west prescribe and potentially confine our sight/knowledge. laut’s description of the tension between the man and woman emphasizes their mutual objectification in mainstream representations of the wilderness. laut quotes the woman as exclaiming, “say—do you know—i always get the loveliest kick out of these mountain lakes” ( ), and comments: “did kick refer to her vocation in the jazz halls of the city canyons, or what sometimes flows through those canyons? i don’t know; but i’ll wager she didn’t see the same mountains that boy saw” ( ). laut’s description of the woman as “in the jazz halls of the city canyons” associates her with the bounded location/state of an eastern, urban space that she describes as a kind of parallel to the western landscape. rather than associating this woman with confinement to the domestic sphere, she associates her with the public sphere of the entertainment industry. her discussion of the jazz halls as bounded locations/states suggests that while the movement/change of women beyond the domestic sphere leads to increased perspective/ objectivity, it also potentially leads to new confining bounded locations/states through the objectifying public consumption and commodification of the female body in popular entertainment. while this word hints at the woman’s more modern perspective on the landscape, it also suggests that new freedoms may represent new kinds of confinement within the potentially violent cultural lens that the urban, industrialized east continues to impose on women and on the western landscape. laut’s reminder that the woman and the man see/know the landscape differently draws attention to how their perspectives are both shaped by dominant gendered and racialized representations of the west over which neither could possibly be fully in control. laut further emphasizes that neither the woman nor the aboriginal man fully identifies with or has control over their perspectives on the wilderness when she states that—“from the boy’s 	
   	
   grim grip on the wheel and the grimmer look on his face, i inferred the by-play was not moving on very fast to the climax scheduled in the third act; and here we were more than half-way home. the movie business was not panning out as it does in the play” ( ). once again, she alludes to the bounded locations/states of theatre and film to suggest that these fellow travellers are both playing roles in the wilderness. by blurring the boundaries of these roles, laut shows that dominant perceptions of westward expansion are at once very powerful in shaping travellers’ perceptions of the wilderness and of race and gender, while also not conducive to capturing the actual diversity and complexity of lived experience, particularly of marginalized members of society. laut’s distinction between theatre and film hints at how technological changes in cultural representation affect the way that people not only view the west, but also live in their bodies and perceive themselves on a daily basis. her observation that “the movie business was not panning out as it does in the play” identifies film as a different way of shaping sight/knowledge than theatre. the idiom “to pan out” refers to the outward movement of a lens and, thus, evokes a change in perspective/objectivity. using a film metaphor to describe the theatre, she portrays these forms of representation as deeply connected in their ability to shape sight/knowledge. however, her description of film as ironically offering less perspective suggests that while the newer technology of film provides a bigger and seemingly more objective view of the west, it also limits or confines the perspective of the viewer. her own critical distance from this scene indicates a skepticism about contemporary film representations of the west, including the burgeoning genre of the western. laut’s humourous depiction of the two figures’ failed attempts to live up to filmic representations of the west reminds readers of the way that mass produced images of the frontier play a powerful and deceptive role in shaping an individual’s sight/knowledge of western settings and of themselves. 	
   	
   laut’s critique of popular and mass produced representations of the west encompasses her discussion of western stereotypes, or what she refers to as types. she critiques what she sees as the common ilk of young male traveller who just goes west to “do things he would never do at home” ( ), stating, “[h]e is trying to live up to what he thinks is the wild west.” ( ). her discussion of a mythic “wild west” that young men feel they must “live up to” employs the control is up metaphor and the image of young men literally looking up to cinematic portrayals of the west to find bodily/self-control through popular models of behaviour. in particular, her focus on young men indicates the way that representations of the west define ideals of heroic masculinity. she suggests that such models of heroism not only shape people’s daily lives, but also act as an escape that does not reflect the realities of the western frontier anymore than it does the daily lived realities of masculinity. she extends this critique to young people in general: “it’s the ‘kid’ girl or boy, who has never kicked entirely free of all conventional bonds before. they do here and sometimes they kick too high” ( - ). this image of pushing boundaries on the frontier echoes the obstacles/impediments and movement/change at the edges of bounded locations/states in frontier revival literature. laut explicitly recognizes that these motifs are aimed at a fairly narrow demographic of white, middle class, english-speaking easterners. her repetition of the colloquial word kick throughout the book is another nod to eastern mass culture and emphasizes that these bigger frontier motifs are more about providing models of behaviour for easterners than about accurately reflecting western settings. the word connotes modern increases in physical and social freedoms that young people would have experienced at the time. other underlying connotations of aimlessness and violence attached to this word also raise questions about the sense of cultural progress and agency that young easterners try to achieve when travelling west. 	
   	
   laut encourages artists to break free from popular representations of the west. she credits influential eastern artist frederick remington for popularizing images of the western frontier through his famous illustrations, some of which he contributed to her earlier work. however, while praising his skill, particularly in his later paintings, she laments that “the illustrator suffers the limitations of his craft—centerpiece, foreshortened foreground, emphasis and overemphasis of shadows to bring out the lights in blacks and whites” ( ). the physical limitations of “foreshortened foreground” evoke the restricted scale of illustrations (in order to comply with publishing formats) that curb the sight/knowledge of the reading public. as well, her emphasis on the embellished contrasts between black and white in illustrations further suggests the kind of overly simplified and potentially dogmatic constraints on the reader’s perspective in the case of illustrations. laut also promotes artists who are actually from western settings, including famous painter charlie russell and a blackfoot sculptor, whom she refers to as clark. in reference to these two men, she claims that “both are preserving, in an art peculiarly northwestern, a life that will be a passing memory in ten years” ( ). juxtaposed with her criticism of illustrations, laut’s discussion of a painter and sculptor suggests that these other art forms offer greater perspective/objectivity than the art of illustration. in recommending art forms that are literally outside the bounds of her own book, she challenges the reader to avoid investing in any one particular representation of the west. her promotion of western artists, particularly an aboriginal sculptor, encourages a broadening of cultural understandings of the west outside of dominant eastern stereotypes. as well, her suggestion that these artists preserve ways of life that are disappearing emphasizes the important role that art plays in recording and influencing cultural movement/change. she suggests that cultural literacy is an important responsibility in order to better understand and influence the definition and direction of cultural progress. 	
   	
   laut’s own use of photography as opposed to illustration associates the former with an increased level of accuracy of sight/knowledge. she deliberately includes a photograph of an aboriginal man amidst her discussion of frontier artists (see fig . ). laut’s insistence that readers familiarize themselves with art that goes beyond stereotypes of the west is tied directly to her concern for aboriginal people because she not only recommends an aboriginal artist, but also insists that real artists of the frontier have a responsibility to capture ways of life that “are passing forever” ( ). accordingly, she includes a photograph of an aboriginal man, along with the caption, “the last of their kind.” captured in a profile view, the man sits in the foreground of the photograph, leaning against what appears to be a dead tree and dressed in traditional clothing, while holding what resembles an arrow. he directs his head upward as though looking into the distant horizon. the absence of any specific information in the caption, along with the contrived pose of the figure, evokes a romanticized, elegiac portrait that is overly generalized and staged. however, the photograph acts as a reminder of the presence of aboriginal people on the frontier. the starkness of the man’s silhouette against the natural surroundings suggests a kind of perspective/objectivity that is further implied in his distant gaze toward an unseen horizon. the sense of mystery as to what he sees/knows portrays aboriginal perspectives on the frontier as existing beyond the grasp of biased eastern representations. laut’s inclusion of this photograph suggests the importance of more realistic representations of the west, and of an awareness of the limitations on the part of eastern artists to fully understand or capture the diversity and complexity of the cultures and landscapes of which the west consists. one of the most interesting photographs that laut includes of aboriginal people attempts to offer a specific glimpse into alternative cultural practices of representing aboriginal people. in the chapter, “a woodland world,” laut provides a photograph of three aboriginal figures sitting 	
   	
   in a circle in front of two large teepees, while engaged in what appears to be a serious discussion (see fig . ). the caption reads, “james willard schultz, tail-feathers coming over the hill and eagle child in conference” ( ). this caption lends more cultural specificity to laut’s photographic eye because of her detailed reference to each man by name. as well, unlike the figure in the previous photograph (see fig . ), the three subjects in this case seem to be much less posed. they appear in relaxed and natural positions and are either unaware of or indifferent to the photographer’s gaze, to the point that the back of one of the figures is completely turned on the camera. more importantly, their engagement in a serious dialogue suggests a culturally specific, complex, and distinct way of life that laut suggests is not only important to respect and preserve, but which is also beyond the biased and subjective grasp of the eastern outsider. laut further challenges readers to more fully consider the cultural diversity of the west by trying to speak on behalf of aboriginal people. she quotes a blackfoot man named eli gardapie: “‘in canada, it is different,’ he said. ‘there, the indians can always retreat to good hunting grounds farther north as the white settlers cut off the lands; but here—our lands are gone’” ( ). in this passage, she reminds readers that cultural anxieties about the receding frontier take on a whole new meaning for those people who originally inhabited the land. she also seems to recognize that the idea of canada as the last northern frontier has different connotations for aboriginal people. movement into western canada is no longer just a trope—a symbol of american cultural progress—but rather a matter of necessity, of survival. laut’s inclusion of this passage emphasizes her attempt to portray a broader and more accurate representation of the west. her matter-of-fact statement, “that was the indian point of view” ( ), draws directly on the language of visual representation to show the way that eastern authors impose racialized imperialist perspectives on the west. her attempt to make readers see/know the frontier from an 	
   	
   alternative aboriginal perspective indicates her commitment to challenging dominant racialized attitudes that inform eastern representations of the west. by guiding readers toward alternative ways of seeing, laut encourages us to know the west for ourselves, while also recognizing and engaging in a multiplicity of perspectives. . wilderness conservation in enchanted trails of glacier park one of the most common motifs throughout the text is laut’s insistence that women take physical precautions in the wilderness, and she extends this warning to represent the value of having socially responsible attitudes to westward expansion. at one point, she describes her own personal experience of learning the importance of trail safety while travelling through the rockies on her horse: “i had to make her shut her eyes and walk the central plank to get her across at a run before the night train came. we were on the bridge at six thirty. the train came at seven. never again off trails for me!” ( ). in a manner reminiscent of gallatin’s struggles to control her horse, laut describes her personal impediment/difficulty here as a cultural rite of passage that she applies to her readers. like gallatin, laut emphasizes the importance of learning bodily/self- control through an image of perilously negotiating the edges of bounded locations/states. the narrowness of the bridge implies the pushing of bounded locations/states in frontier revival literature, while the need to stay in the containment of the path indicates her adherence to a heroic model of self within such literature. her exaggerated difficulty in staying in the bounded location of the path reminds us that for women travellers, the struggle of the westward journey consists not only in pushing the cultural boundaries of the traveller’s state, but also in fitting into the very traveller role to begin with. her empathy with the horse in this passage connects her 	
   	
   more marginalized female perspective on the frontier to an increased identification with the surrounding landscape and animals. she further extends her own experience and warning to readers: “keep on the trail; and with warm clothing, water-proof matches, a jack knife and a good alpenstock, you are as safe in glacier park as in your own home” ( ). by comparing staying “on the trail” to the safety of “your own home,” laut associates the bounded location/state of female domesticity with established paths in the wilderness. her suggestion that the paths offer the safety of the home evokes the confinement and protection associated with the sc metaphor. as with schäffer, this comparison between the wilderness and the domestic sphere associates the location of the wilderness with a new state of female identity, while also implying an increased perspective/objectivity on female identity. and, as in the new north, the identification with the landscape as home employs this new female perspective on the land to challenge notions of the canadian frontier as a threatening or uninhabited space. laut’s focus on staying on the trail emphasizes the struggle of women travellers to balance their conflicting roles in the wilderness. she connects this balancing act to a more respectful and humanizing approach to the wilderness itself. laut extends this alternative perspective on the wilderness to her readers in general. she warns, “never—never—never—absolutely never go off the trail—especially above timber line on the bare rocks where you feel so safe because you can see over tree tops” ( ), emphasizing the risk of get lost by losing sight of familiar landmarks. this image of being able to see above the tree-tops indicates the os metaphor because the increased sight/knowledge outside the bounded location/state of the trees offers an exhilarating perspective/objectivity. however, laut cautions against this illusion of control, indicating that one must be even more vigilant, once attaining such perspective, about returning to the bounded location/state of the trail. she suggests that 	
   	
   increased perspective offers sight/knowledge that differs from the more close-up, immediate dangers of the wilderness. laut cautions the reader about investing too strongly in the destination/goal of perspective/objectivity on the trail by suggesting that unrestrained sight/knowledge or movement/change offer an illusion of independence and control. as a female traveller, she is forced to be more vigilant about avoiding risks both on the trail and in relation to her readers. she suggests that travellers should acknowledge their ultimate fallibility and subjectivity on the trail: “physically, man, woman, child, old or young—is safe if one keeps on the trail. spiritually, also, i think that holds good” ( ). laut reminds readers that keeping “on the trail” is an important lesson that can be learned from the vigilance of female travellers. her observation that this is not merely practical, but also spiritual, advice indicates that the bounded locations of trails represent abstract states of cultural progress. crucially, she reminds readers that such progress should entail not unrestrained movement/change, but rather a sense of balance and responsibility. laut presents female individualism in the wilderness as a model for more eco-conscious destinations/goals. she emphasizes her own preference for solitude on the trail, stating that “[m]an is a sociable animal. in the wilds, i am a slightly unsociable one” ( ). the phrase “social animal” describes easterners’ travels in western wilderness settings as a kind of parallel to, or an expression of, eastern social structures. her preference for being antisocial reminds the reader that her western travels are more of an escape from the bounds of social convention than a way of reasserting her eastern, urban perspective on the west. her perspective as a female writer travelling in a female body disrupts the abstract and universalizing function of the word “man” and indicates that her gendered perspective informs her more alternative approach to western travel and her unwillingness to simply assert the cultural norms of her own eastern background. 	
   	
   furthermore, her use of the word “animal” suggests a kind of female solidarity with her surroundings based on the objectification of both women and nature in wilderness literature. her identification with the wilderness emphasizes that she travels as a means of escape from the very literary conventions that inscribe female experience and exploit nature. interestingly, laut also identifies with modern technological advances, including the car, as a way of expressing the newfound mobility and freedom of women travellers to access the wilderness: “personally,” she says, “i like a private boat or a private car; for i like to get my own impressions first-hand without having them dinned into my ears by people around me” ( ). she connects the bounded location of private vehicles to a state of increased independence—particularly an independence of sight/knowledge. she parallels the bounded location of these vehicles with that of her own body when referring to her desire to avoid having other people’s impressions “dinned” into her ears. by connecting these two levels of boundedness, laut emphasizes that her own increased freedom as a female traveller represents increased cultural progress, and also succeeds in transcending imperialist or nationalist concerns. laut’s insistence on experiencing the landscape for herself suggests a desire to perceive the landscape and to re-imagine north american cultural progress in a way that avoids bias. like schäffer, laut explicitly extends this independence in the wilderness to a more eco- conscious approach. she declares, “i never climb mountains for records. i climb them for view” ( ). the idea of recording her climbs indicates the importance of material documentation in expressing the cultural significance of wilderness travel. however, her interest in “view” prioritizes the sight/knowledge of the individual over the destination/goal of cultural conquest. her interest in the subjective experience of travelling in the wilderness suggests that individual experience is more accurate or less deceptive than official and inevitably biased cultural attempts 	
   	
   to objectively document the landscape. laut’s interest in receiving and entering into a kind of subjective dialogue with the surrounding wilderness reflects her alternative female perspective on the land by prioritizing the subjectivity of individual experience over traditional goals of conquest. not only does this subjectivity represent a more respectful and conservation minded approach, but it also appeals to the ideals of individualism at the heart of wilderness literature. laut also focusses on images of the wilderness as a sanctuary that offers freedom from social constraints and yet still represents ideals of social responsibility. like schäffer, laut idealizes the wilderness as a female utopian space near the beginning of her text. she reminds the reader that “[n]ature has protected her sanctuary. those who penetrate these mysteries have to climb, and climb humbly” ( ). this personification of nature as female echoes dominant objectifications of the landscape as a female body, particularly in the use of the word “penetration.” however, echoing schäffer’s imagery, laut’s description of this female sanctuary indicates an identification with the land from a female perspective as a bounded location/state of freedom from restrictive gender norms. furthermore, her discussion of this female location represents it as a state that must be treated with respect and humility. she connects the need to protect this freedom in the wilderness with the traveller’s responsibility to avoid disturbing local landscapes and cultures. on a more abstract level, this responsibility involves identifying with movement/change in wilderness settings without imposing conquest, violence, and destruction. by presenting this female bounded location/state as an elevated destination/goal, she further hints that the wilderness, like the precarious freedom from gender roles that she experiences while there, is a delicate environment that is, in its very freedom from society, representative of cultural progress. the national parks, for laut, represent a balancing force against the oppressive power structures of urban, eastern culture. she sees them as sites in which to encourage more 	
   	
   responsible and equitable ways of renewing and redefining society, rather than blank slates for imperialist expansion. laut further conveys this idea of nature as a redemptive counterpart to industrialized society in her recommendations on how to experience the wilderness: “and if you want to see it in its glory you must wander beside it and rest beneath its flowing drapery of branches and inhale its epic garden scents as of sunlight imprisoned for centuries. and watch and listen to its little sleepless sentry” ( ). images of “wander [ing]” and “rest [ing]” present ideas of movement/change that are not destination/goal oriented, but which focus on experiencing the landscape in a more reciprocal, interactive, and non-violent manner. the positioning of the reader “beside” and “beneath” presents the traveller as adjacent to large moving objects/external events in a manner that is reminiscent of earlier female travellers such as duncan and taylor. laut uses synesthetic imagery to describe the traveller as a bounded location/state that is permeable to the wilderness. similarly, the wilderness is a bounded location of a prison and a state of confinement that laut implies can be released by the traveller’s receptiveness to the landscape. this imagery of shifting between locations/states evokes motifs throughout women’s frontier revival literature, and is extended here to a paradigm of eco-consciousness whereby the traveller defines herself in relation, rather than in opposition, to the land. this respect for the land represents an alternative idea of cultural progress based on social responsibility rather than exploitation and conquest. laut associates the idea of nature as sanctuary with a broader departure from capitalist ideas of cultural progress. describing the wilderness as an escape from eastern urban values, she addresses the reader: “think of a region where you do not chase time as a marker for gain and can forget the little pad on your desk with engagements for every hour of the day!” ( ). in this 	
   	
   passage, she describes the pursuit of wealth in the city as a “chase” whereby the daily movements of life represent the pursuit of change through profit. her use of this metaphor emphasizes the way that the movement/change of wilderness literature often expresses eastern ideas of cultural progress that reflect the capitalist interests of the eastern elite. this idea of the west as an escape from an eastern materialistic realm draws on the os metaphor to describe the wilderness as a place of unbridled movement/change outside of the protections and restrictions of urban bounded locations/states. laut suggests that the confinements of the east lie not in the domestic sphere, or in some kind of oppressive femininity, but rather in the patriarchal, industrial, capitalist system. she further goes against masculinist ideas of movement/change and destinations/goals in the wilderness when she reminds us that “[i]t is not haste that has made civilization. it is the spiritual quality inside the husk of civilization” ( ). like cameron and schäffer, she challenges readers’ expectations by presenting images of idealized bounded locations/states in the wilderness. her declaration that “haste” has not “made civilization” troubles the familiar masculinist and imperialist focus on movement toward fixed destinations as a means of achieving cultural goals of change in the wilderness. instead, the more domestic image of the wilderness as a bounded location/state draws on the essential is central metaphor to associate the destination/goal of cultural progress with ideas of protection and restriction rather than movement/change. this identification with containment in the wilderness extends her female perspective to promote the conservation of nature, and more socially responsible and equitable ideals of cultural progress. 	
   	
   . conclusion like preceding female frontier revival authors, schäffer and laut live and explore the cultural transitions of their day through the female body. duncan, taylor, gallatin, and cameron focus on the female body in their texts as a way of proving their capabilities in the wilderness and their capabilities as publically visible and outspoken figures who test and redefine the boundaries of citizenship, identity, and progress. what sets schäffer and laut apart from these earlier writers is their increased comfort and ease in entering into such public dialogues. using familiar physical motifs of preceding women travellers, they extend their gendered perspectives to issues of aboriginal rights and environmental conservation—proposing a broader critique of the underlying social inequalities beneath ultra-capitalist and imperialist perspectives on cultural progress. the shared goal that stands out in these texts is not to engage in combative political debate, but rather to start a dialogue about peace. both schäffer and laut make a point of explicitly rejecting familiar destinations/goals, choosing instead to “learn daily those secrets which dear mother nature is so willing to tell to those who seek” (schäffer )—and to “climb . . . for [the] view” (laut ). paradoxically, it is in this search for individual solitude and balance on the trail that they propose an alternative perspective on the land and its inhabitants and on cultural identity itself. schäffer and laut subtly draw on familiar motifs of the female body in the wilderness to associate their gendered perspective with broader social critiques. first of all, they appropriate motifs of movement/change such as pushing horizons or following paths of intercontinental expansion as a way of escaping the restrictive gender norms of the city. they identify with alternative destinations/goals of individual solitude so as to prioritize a respect for nature and aboriginal people and to re-envision cultural progress as the pursuit of peace, balance, and 	
   	
   equality. they associate their states of freedom on the trail with bounded locations that direct a more domestic lens toward the wilderness. these idealized bounded locations/states evoke the essential is central metaphor and connotations of protection of the self relating to containment. they remind readers that obstructions to cultural progress emerge not in the private sphere, but in women’s forced confinement to that sphere or in rigid perceptions about women’s domestic roles. their reimagining of the wilderness as utopian bounded spaces presents women’s experiences in the domestic sphere as a valuable alternative model to masculinist conceptions of cultural progress as an imbalanced prioritization of extreme movement/change. this domestic perspective on the surrounding landscape emphasizes the value of conservation, sustainability, and the preservation of aboriginal cultures. their insistence on interacting with the wilderness and its inhabitants in a way that leaves minimal negative impact emphasizes a new concept of cultural progress as a form of sustainable movement/change that does not involve violence and exploitation. as well, the necessity and ability to shift in and out of locations/states, which tends to be fraught with tension in earlier works, takes on more of a sense of ease in the texts of schäffer and laut. this shifting in and out of bounded locations/states emphasizes their subjective and relational perspective on the frontier, and provides a new model for cultural identity as more self- critical, diverse, and fluid in its ongoing self-redefinition. their skillful use of photography presents these motifs within a dialogue about the representation of the wilderness and aboriginal inhabitants of the areas that they explore. schäffer and laut acknowledge technological advances in photography and film and hint at an increased urgency for cultural literacy amidst the mass consumption of popular images of the west. they employ photography as a way of situating the female experience of the wilderness in a wider spectrum of cultural issues so as to acknowledge the diversity of ways in which one can see 	
   	
   and know the frontier experience, and to encourage a more self-aware, sustainable, and inclusive dialogue about cultural progress. . notes to chapter 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   one of the major backdrops to the writing of schäffer and laut is the growth of conservation movements in north america. in nash’s the call of the wild, he shows that the american conservation movement took place at the turn of the twentieth century as a reaction to the economic threat of diminishing natural resources. edward g. white also explores in the eastern establishment and the western experience, how during this time, roosevelt and his advisors attempted to promote the conservation of national forests, resources, and sections of land ( ). white explores roosevelt’s commitment to accommodating the increased industrialization of the east, alongside his fervent idealization of rural, non-capitalist values in the west ( ). the idea of sustainability as a way of accommodating industry, while prioritizing conservation, is a contradictory element that runs throughout frontier revival literature. in national parks: the american experience, alfred runte describes the formation of american national parks as stemming from a larger cultural debate about “what should the nation preserve—and how” ( ). he notes that national parks ultimately helped to link ideas of public with ideas of protection ( ). similarly, schäffer’s and laut’s interest in conservation re-envisions ideas of cultural identity as based more on a sense of responsibility and sustainability, than on unbridled competition and profit. in national parks and the woman's voice: a history, polly welts kaufman also points out that women were a crucial part of historical efforts to preserve national wilderness sites (xxxvii). she notes that women tended to either participate in dominant masculinist approaches to the 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   national parks, or else “create their own goals based on their own values, and work as outsiders to bring the desired change” (xxxvi). schäffer and laut are examples of how women may have also adopted seemingly gender-neutral perspectives on the national parks as a way of veiling what were actually quite gendered and social justice oriented models of eco-consciousness. famous english novelist mrs. humphrey ward wrote a book inspired by schäffer called lady merton, colonist (e.j. hart ). elsie park gowan and sharon stearns have both adapted schäffer’s story for theatre (skidmore ). see gowan; stearns. beck’s no ordinary woman helps to contextualize schäffer’s participation in nature movements of her time. the slightly awkward grammatical phrasing in this passage can be explained by schäffer’s shift from a more general discussion of a symbolic horizon that sometimes “seems restricted” ( ) to a personal admission that she and mollie adams “seemed to have reached that horizon” ( ). however, macfarlane argues that “[t]he photograph highlights schäffer as . . . the lady adventurer in control of herself and her horse and comfortable with her place” and also “erases considerable money, effort, equipment, and hired expertise that made such an identity possible” ( ). in other words, despite the peaceful nature of the photograph, schäffer asserts herself as a confident, authoritative figure in relation to her surroundings. as well, what macfarlane points out as the highly posed nature of the photograph (particularly in comparison with the candid, awkward style of cameron’s photos) conveys what wexler refers to as “the innocent eye” ( ) of turn of the century female photojournalists in that it couches imperialist discourse in scenes of apparent peace and domesticity ( ). 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   lucy lippard explains that sampson beaver, a stoney aboriginal man who schäffer befriends on the trail, gave schäffer a hand-drawn map to maligne lake, which led to her travelling party subsequently becoming known as the first group of white people to access the lake ( ). she also returned to survey maligne lake in (lippard ). for fuller discussions of the links between motifs of domesticity and imperialism see: greenberg; romero; wexler. schäffer refers to him as remarkable because of his apparent lack of surprise in response to meeting her in the wilderness. schäffer describes herself as feeling heroic on the return from her trip, admitting that “[a] smile of sincere admiration went round when we collected to behold our united elegance of appearance on the morning we started on our last ride” ( ). this collective pride on their return echoes the formulaic cyclical journey and reassertion of cultural control in the frontier revival frame. however, she immediately contrasts this feeling of heroism with the disorienting encounter with the kiplings. her sense of alienation from the passing carriage represents her exclusion from dominant discourses of imperialist expansion in adventure travel. she does not fit comfortably into either the masculine or feminine standards of such discourse. furthermore, the description of herself as looking aboriginal also indicates that she does not comfortably conform to ideas and assumptions about race in popular adventure literature of the time. in this metaphor, the self is described as an object (lakoff and johnson, philosophy ). schäffer’s more humanizing photograph of beaver is thus a kind of acknowledgement of the fact that, as with her male peers, her own explorations in the wilderness, often occur not only at the expense of aboriginal people, but also through their help in navigating the natural and cultural 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   environment. she challenges her own authority in surveying and exploring maligne lake, not only by alluding to sampson, but particularly in her inclusion of the map and of his photograph, both of which confront and challenge the reader. while this term now carries significant racist connotations, i am cautious in applying contemporary interpretations of the word to schäffer’s use of it. however, regardless of the specific implications of the term “squaw” during schäffer’s time, it operates in this caption as a form of racial categorization, objectifying the woman in her photograph. lucy lippard also interprets this photograph as establishing a friendly relationship between the subjects and the photographer so as to convey a “dialogue, an exchange” ( ). she also suggests that the photo captures “a reciprocal moment (rather than a cannibalistic one)” ( ). as roy points out in her discussion of agnes deans cameron’s the new north, the word penetrate was common amongst male and female writers of the time to describe movement through geographical space and was part of the “literary vocabulary” of women travel writers ( ). however, as roy also reminds us, the word still has undeniably masculine connotations ( ). the widespread use of this term is an example of how the language of travel is often associated with the male body and with male life experience so that women travel writers at the turn of the century adopt (often unintentionally) such masculine language. it may seem anachronistic to point out schäffer’s use of this term, considering its prevalence amongst male and female authors. however, it is important to mention it because female frontier revival literature awakens the dead metaphors of travel writing. words that are taken for granted as part of a shared “literary vocabulary” (roy ), particularly ones relating to the body, become de-familiarized in the work of female authors. frederick jackson turner also refers to this term ( ). 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   i use perspective/objectivity as a way to be more specific about the kind of bodily/self-control achieved in the objective standpoint metaphor. schäffer does not seem to witness the accumulation of dead horses that writers describe in accounts of the klondike gold rush. however, she often recounts the fatigue and perilous struggles of her and her companions’ horses and her sympathy for their plight seems to be the main basis of her overall concern about animal welfare on the trail. it is actually difficult to tell who the subjects are in some of the photographs. if laut is pictured, she does not identify herself. williams shows that the rise of tourism and the field of anthropology at the end of the nineteenth century resulted in a high demand for ethnographic images of aboriginal people ( ). she associates this wave of interest in representing aboriginal ways of life with a commodifying imperialist gaze ( - ). as bloom points out, the national geographic was instrumental in legitimizing often lurid and objectifying images of aboriginal people in the guise of scientific or ethnographic authenticity ( ). she argues that “[b]y claiming that photographs showed things as they were, the underlying structure of gender, class, and race relations that determined the geographic’s policy of voyeurism was never called into question” ( ). lippard comments on the extent to which ethnographic photography has affected our “communal ‘memory’ of native people” ( ) as “wary, pained, resigned, belligerent, and occasionally pathetic faces, ‘shot’ by nineteenth- and early twentieth-century photographers” ( ). laut’s discussion of race here is an attempt to tap into anthropological or archeological ideas of ethnic and cultural groups that can supposedly be traced throughout history. near the beginning of the book she describes an archeologist’s desire to explore “a racial trail going back to the dawn of time” ( ) and says that “it is important for all the arts and literature to-day to preserve every 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   scrap of legend and myth and symbol from the vanishing races” ( ). she adds that “[c]ould we trace their family tree, there might be a chance of tracing our own” ( ). laut seems to use the term race as a synonym for the more socially constructivist ideas of ethnicity or culture, which she sees as developing over time and involving fluid exchanges between different groups of people. while she does not seem to view the term race as an absolute, discrete, or essentialist category, she does evoke scientific discourses of natural selection in the assumption that there are more primitive, “vanishing” ( ), races that are destined to die out. furthermore, her allusion to “our own” ( ) race, includes the reader in some kind of dominant racial category. in some ways, she thus associates dominant white, anglo-saxon culture with a kind of discrete, scientific category that, while indebted to other cultures, is a pinnacle of western civilization and evolution. lakoff and johnson define this metaphor as mapping vertical orientation onto control (philosophy in the flesh ). an example from everyday language is “[d]on’t worry! i’m on top of the situation” (philosophy in the flesh ). this metaphor can be seen as embedded in turn of the century american concepts of the importance of industrial and capitalist growth. for contemporary studies of the way that westerns constructed ideological visions of the frontier see berton’s hollywood’s canada: the americanization of our national image and tompkin’s west of everything: the inner life of westerns. laut’s discussion of artistic representations of the west raises the question of other prominent artists who contributed to the cultural iconography of western settings. thacker points out that canadian artists such as paul kane were highly influential, along with american artists such as frederick remington, in constructing the visual iconography associated with western frontier settings ( ). he argues that these artists were part of an ongoing dialogue about western settings and that “[t]he stories, the histories, and the myths [to which they contributed] are utterly 	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   interconnected, interdependent” ( ). other female artists and photographers also contributed in significant ways to north american concepts of frontier settings. emily carr’s legacy in north american frontier art offers a particularly interesting and conflicted perspective on aboriginal cultures, and her work continues to be discussed for its combination of imperialist, feminist, and social activist concerns (moray - ). as well, frances rooney’s study of american edith watson’s photographs of canadian wilderness settings demonstrates a growing interest in how cross-border female artists contributed to north american representations of the frontier (rooney). this use of the pronoun “man” would not have been as problematic in laut’s day as it is now and would have been used in everyday speech. however, laut’s contrast between the pronouns “man” and “i” subtly differentiates herself from the universalizing masculinist perspective of frontier adventure literature. she illustrates this contrast in her focus on the physical movement/change in location/state that she identifies with the wilderness. laut draws attention to the personal bodily experience of travelling in the wilderness as a woman, which contrasts with the ostensibly objective and neutral metonymic role assumed by male travellers. the gendered distinction between a feminized urban east and a more rugged masculine west was so pervasive at that time that laut’s subtle use of pronouns to reverse this gendered expectation would cause tension in the reader. while i do not think that this strategy is explicit or necessarily intentional on laut’s part, i see the pronoun shift as helping to convey underlying tensions in her perspective as a female traveller. 	
   	
   	
   conclusion. coming full circle: reflecting on the women of the frontier revival it was then that i wanted my wild free life back again, yet step by step i was leaving it behind. -mary schäffer, old indian trails, . . the problem of restoring order as i reach the end of my chapters, i find myself returning, like the frontier revival authors, to the beginning of my own journey throughout this dissertation—to the question of how these authors shed light on a fundamental question for canadian literature scholars:—“where is here?” (frye ). in other words, how do they illuminate the mechanisms by which we define our sense of place in canada and canada’s place in the world? how do they articulate and problematize such definitions? frontier revival texts recognize both the importance of representations of movement in defining collective identities, as well as the ambiguities and problems that underlie such definitions. frontier revival authors show that collective ideas of self relating to ideas of north american progress and westward expansion are played out through the travelling body. however, it is crucial to remember that the travelling body itself, while instantly recognizable as a symbol of collective identity building, is and was a site of heightened anxieties and ambiguities relating to the border and national identity, eastern vs. western regional identities, gender, ethnicity, and class. because of uncertainties about changing attitudes toward women at the time, and the 	
   	
   increasingly sensationalized media exposure of the female body, frontier revival literature by women highlights the troubled yet important role of the body in performing place. as i come to the end of my discussion, i also find myself drawn back to the way that my six frontier revival authors ended their texts. as with the more conventional male frontier revival literature, there is a strong emphasis on the importance of the physical return home in restoring some kind of order. however, female frontier revival authors, while evoking this restoration at the end of their texts, complicate the very ideas of order and progress to which they refer. returning to the mary schäffer quote with which i start my introduction, i cannot help noticing that each of these six texts ends with similar lingering doubts about how to define collective ideas of identity and progress when returning home. schäffer’s description of her forward, “step by step” motion associates her movement toward banff with a change in reasserting the urban, eastern, anglo- saxon values of her upbringing that would normally be equated with ideas of progress. however, she ironically describes this movement/change as actually taking her away from the freedom that she experiences on the trail. the question of “where is here?” (frye ) is not only central to the study of travel literature in canada, but is also more of an urgent question for women struggling to access and contest the symbolic weight of the travelling body. in this brief conclusion, i reflect on what i see as three major stages of my work including theorizing the travelling female body within an interdisciplinary approach, finding opportunities for new kinds of comparative close readings, and paying attention to how representations of the travelling female body interact with complex cultural settings and changes over time. i address some of the questions, challenges, and broader implications of these stages of my dissertation research. i show how my work invites new directions in scholarship including increased interdisciplinary and cross-border approaches to canadian literature, increased attention to how 	
   	
   the body conveys meaning, and more of a focus on visual culture (photography, painting, journalism, cinema, advertising) in literary close readings of travel writing. i would like to participate in and encourage further efforts to restore the work of specific cross-border women travel writers to the history of canadian literature. the main goal of this project is to acknowledge the ways in which these texts do not fit neatly into conventional literary categories, while showing how they meaningfully engage in the complexities and ambiguities of their age, and identifying the specific and distinct vocabulary that women authors use to negotiate ideas of self. . corporeal cartography: mapping my research on the travelling body . . movement/change: theorizing the travelling body the first major stage of my dissertation, on which i focus in the introduction and chapters and , involves figuring out how to theorize and read the female travelling body. on a broad level, i argue that motifs of physical movement in travel literature (all the more so in the genre of frontier revival literature) convey a great deal of meaning; furthermore, i show that women frontier revival authors are more self-reflexive about such meaning. my interest in reading the travelling female body in these texts requires me to find a way to define what i mean by the travelling body and to find a way of reading language on the level of the body that takes into account both experiential and cultural processes of meaning making. i use aspects of cognitive linguistics to tighten the feminist literary lens of my work. i follow in the footsteps of feminist scholars who show that the body is performative in that it acts 	
   	
   out cultural ideas, while concealing its own performativity. i argue that motifs of travel are loaded with gendered and racialized cultural meaning, even though authors may go out of their way to make them seem neutral, universal, and innate. however, cognitive linguists remind us that embodied cognition contributes to shared universal processes of meaning making that underlie thought and language. we cannot simply regard the body as inscribed and controlled by cultural norms. it is true that feminist models offer an ironically disembodied approach to embodiment by focussing so heavily on the way that abstract ideas control bodily experience. i attempt to remedy this problem in my work by focussing on the specific ways that meaning emerges through representations of the travelling body. however, contrary to elizabeth hart’s criticism of feminist theorists (elizabeth hart - ), butler does not argue that the body cannot exist outside of cultural discourse. rather, butler points out that there is no possible way to refer to the body in language that is not mediated by cultural discourses and power relations ( ). as a literary scholar, i argue that because there is no way, at least in terms of literary analysis, to discuss the body without touching on cultural and literary denotations, connotations, contexts, and intertexts, it is best to explore such meaning as deliberately and as exhaustively as possible. throughout my dissertation, i attempt to show that attention to the cultural context of embodiment in feminist literary analysis is more than a politically correct attempt to fill gaps in the history of women writers in canada. by examining the cultural significance of the seemingly neutral body in travel literature, i go beyond traditional boundaries of discipline and geography to find new and far- reaching networks of literary and cultural activity. i show that pervasive late nineteenth-century ideas about an archetypal and metonymic travelling body constitute an entire genre that has previously gone unnoticed. this genre stretches across the geographical border and sheds light on a whole historical period that deserves more attention in canadian literature. motifs of travelling 	
   	
   bodies in frontier revival literature reveal an eastern north american fascination with ideas about western canada as a final north american frontier in which to expand anglo-saxon cultural goals and values. examining bodily motifs in these texts allows me to pay attention to how gendered and racialized these ostensibly neutral ideas of progress are, and how american ideas of progress are extended to, and appropriated by, canadian authors and readers through the vehicle of the white travelling body. however, as feminist scholars sometimes indicate, but neglect to fully explore, the difficulty in discussing the body outside of cultural discourse does not mean that the body itself cannot influence discourse. i borrow and build on conceptual metaphor theory and frame theory in order to provide a detailed and specific vocabulary with which to read the travelling body. while my dissertation falls outside the field of linguistics, i draw on conceptual metaphor and frame theory as a way of offering what i see as a corrective and strengthening influence on the feminist literary analysis of travel literature. i borrow the idea of frames as general knowledge structures and i study physical motifs that exist in the intersection between networks of conceptual metaphors and cultural discourses. this allows me to identify an archetypal travelling body that could not be approached or analyzed using solely feminist or cognitive linguistic literary analysis. i read the movements of the travelling body in frontier revival literature through what i show to be a complex network of specific conceptual metaphors and i interpret these metaphors in a specific literary and cultural context. aside from figuring out how to read the travelling body, i also try to clarify as much as possible (mostly in chapter ) the specific literary and historical context of the travel literature that i write about, as well as the interdisciplinary scholarly fields to which i contribute. it is impossible to understand the frame concept of the travelling body without fully considering the 	
   	
   specific cultural settings of these texts. for this part of my research, i build primarily on classic texts of feminist travel theory (mills, discourses of difference; pratt), as well as important and groundbreaking work in the field of canadian women’s travel literature (buchanan et al.; buss; goldman; grace; roy). i also draw on american scholars writing about travel, gender, and imperialism (imbarrato; greenberg; wexler; romero), and canadian literary scholars and historians who promote interdisciplinary work in canadian studies (barman; doyle; jameson and mcmanus; morrison; mount; pagh). i see my work as contributing most immediately to recent scholarship on canadian travel literature and, in particular, canadian women’s travel literature. i am indebted to the work of canadian travel literature scholars (barman, constance; buchanan et al.; buss; doyle; goldman; grace; gerson; kelcey; kröller; laframboise; legge; reid; roy; skidmore; waterston) whose efforts to unearth almost forgotten texts from the archives and to point out the cultural significance of canadian female travel writers has laid an invaluable groundwork for my research. i attempt to find a way of exploring the bigger historical picture so as to connect canadian women travellers to each other as well as to their male peers and to writers on both sides of the border. through my study of six different authors over a period of several decades, as well as my cross-border focus, and my interest in discourses of east and west, i try to broaden the topic of canadian women’s travel literature to show its significance for many different areas of study including fin-de-siècle east coast journalism, outdoor adventure literature, nature writers, and discourses relating to manifest destiny and the new woman. i develop a more detailed, focussed, and structured method of close reading that helps to situate and connect these texts to each other according to textual strategies. 	
   	
   . . movement: comparative close readings the second major stage of my dissertation consists of actually applying my theoretical model to comparative close readings of my six texts in order to discover how the female travelling body creates different types and patterns of meaning. written in chronological order, these chapters— particularly, chapters and —chart the development of my approach to close reading. through my close readings, i also notice several important patterns such as women writers’ focus on personal destinations/goals and on complicating the final restoration of control at the end of the texts. one of the most important recurring motifs that i study throughout chapters to is that of containment. when i started out in the methodology chapters, i did not anticipate how important motifs of containment would be throughout the texts. i had assumed that motifs of forward and upward movement or of object control would predominate in the texts. in fact, the farther i get in my research, the more i find myself focussing not only on the importance of containment in these texts, but also on the ambiguities and tensions surrounding containment, and this focus persists throughout all three of my close reading chapters. just as, if not more, important than the recurring mapping of movement/change in the metaphors of frontier revival literature is the equally common mapping of bounded locations/states. most descriptions of movement in these texts in some way relate to containment. it seems that types, degrees, or perspectives on containment are crucial factors in describing different types of movement/change or locations/states. travellers tend to describe themselves as moving in between, through, or at the edge of bounded locations as a way of illustrating types of changes or states. the inherent tensions between the self as container and the 	
   	
   objective standpoint metaphors convey ongoing thematic tensions in frontier revival literature, in which travellers paradoxically strive to define locations/states in the very act of testing the limits of locations/states. motifs of containment have special significance in texts by female frontier revival authors for several reasons. women are usually associated with containment in frontier revival texts as a way of representing a lack of movement/change in the domestic sphere. women are either idealized as static emblems of cultural norms or demonized as obstructing the movement/change of progress. women, as contained spaces, are usually associated with bounded locations/states, the boundaries of which male travellers either penetrate, avoid, or expand. women travellers who take on more unconventional gender roles such as the six authors in my study challenge these familiar motifs of containment. whether drawing attention to gendered restrictions on movement/change as in the case of taylor, or playfully appropriating motifs of containment to assert alternative female perspectives as in the case of duncan, these authors play with motifs of containment as a way of expressing their conflicted subject positions as female travellers. a strategy that all six women have in common is to describe themselves as occupying multiple different locations/states or shifting between locations/states. such changeability expresses an increased self-awareness of sensations of fluidity, conflict, liminality, marginalization, and social critique associated with their gendered perspectives. this metaphor play emerges as specific, textual strategies by which these authors express their conflicted subject positions—an aspect of women’s texts that is too often discussed in overly abstract ways. i am interested in how these women express their gendered perspective on travel by complicating motifs used by male writers. for instance, moving in between bounded locations/states is common in frontier revival literature. i show that an in-depth look at such strategies allows for a greater understanding of devices and thematic tensions that are present in 	
   	
   texts by men and women, but which occur in a more deliberate, nuanced, and self-reflexive way in women’s texts. . . change: reading the travelling body over time the third major stage of my dissertation (occurring mostly in chapters - ) involves thinking about how such motifs change over time. discussing these texts chronologically helps me to think more specifically about the rapid changes occurring between and , not only in terms of major historical events or changing attitudes about gender, race, and nationalism, but also in areas of technology, media, journalism, and writing conventions that affect the style and format of frontier revival texts. pairing authors from different sides of the border according to different and sequential time periods allows me to take note of how such changes affect, but are not necessarily limited, to canadian literature. my reading of duncan and taylor helps me to establish certain key motifs of s frontier revival literature such as focussing on personal destinations/goals and avoiding a straightforward return to order at the end of the text. in my comparison of the texts by agnes deans cameron and grace gallatin in chapter , i find several ways that these authors develop earlier motifs. for instance, the use of multiple illustrations and photography (in cameron’s text) sensationalizes the female body in order to explicitly represent the female travelling body as a challenge to gender norms. writing at what i see as the height of frontier revival literature, cameron and gallatin present much more explicitly feminist personae in their texts. they play more deliberately with motifs of containment and express their sense of conflict as female travellers more deliberately through images of shifting between locations/states. 	
   	
   i had to think most about the way the use of conceptual metaphor changes over time while writing chapter . both schäffer and laut write in a later and more transitional style. they evoke their gendered perspective by drawing on motifs in similar ways to earlier female frontier revival authors, while extending such motifs to broader topics including aboriginal rights and environmental concerns. making significant use of photography, both authors present themselves as more neutral or impersonal nature photographers and laut goes so far as to refer to cinema in her text. their use of photography and allusions to other media extend their gendered perspective to broader philosophical, ethical, and aesthetic discussions about how to represent the west. overall, it is useful to pay attention to how metaphor use evolves over time. it would be a mistake to see a frame such as the frontier revival frame as overly fixed or permanent. in the case of frontier revival literature, i argue that from to , female frontier revival authors establish a set of recurring motifs in their use of conceptual metaphor. these motifs, which are then adopted by writers such as cameron and gallatin, are given intense media exposure, and are deliberately and recognizably imbued with feminist and suffragist ideology. they later become inflected by the more objective and pseudo-scientific discourse of nature journalism so as to connect feminist ideals to broader social issues. it can be helpful to think of metaphor use as occurring in waves of relatively increased and decreased self-reflexivity around embodiment. it would also be useful to explore further how the recurring use of metaphor leads to changes in frames and genres over time. for instance, while the general components of the frontier revival frame stay the same throughout this period, women’s frontier revival literature helps to make readers more aware of the frame and to associate aspects of the frame with different bodies and cultural perspectives. this very process of essentially appropriating a dominant frame can be seen as part of the way frames and genres evolve. however, certain key aspects of frames seem to be 	
   	
   more constant than others. for instance, certain basic aspects of the frontier revival frame can be seen as underlying literary epics such as the odyssey. it would be interesting to inquire further into the role of women authors in drawing attention to the more culturally and historically specific aspects of frames that evolve over time. . new directions: possibilities for future research in terms of possible directions for future research, i hope to encourage work in a range of time periods, geographies, and genres of literature about how representations of the body convey conceptual metaphor. in order to make conceptual metaphor and/or frame theory relevant to either cognitive linguistics or literary studies it is necessary to move beyond identifying basic metaphors. we must identify networks of metaphors and engage in a close literary analysis of such metaphors that is informed by cultural and historical research. studying recurring frames and networks of metaphors can provide insight into how genres take shape and change over time across geographical or national boundaries. more work needs to be done on reading conceptual metaphor in literature with a focus on the body, especially literature by women. continued work in this area will help to provide a more structured and specific vocabulary with which to understand representations of the body in literature and how women authors use a corporeal vocabulary to write in and against genres. visual aspects of these texts also strike me as being important and deserving of much more sustained and detailed attention than i am able to give them here. indeed, photography and illustration are central to representations of the body in frontier revival literature. more work needs to be done on gendered visual representations of the body in frontier revival literature, with 	
   	
   an awareness of the visually sensationalized female travelling body in print journalism and novels of the time and even in the burgeoning medium of cinema. i hope to encourage several other developments in the study of canadian literature. i would like to promote a stronger emphasis on cross-border women’s writing in canadian literary scholarship. i wish to further explore the importance of transnational and cross-border influences on women writers at the turn of the twentieth century and the feeling of “placelessness” (buchanan et al. ) that such authors express in their work. studies of fin-de-siècle cross-border canadian writers (doyle; mount) often focus on male writers, while neglecting the prominent role of women in entering journalism and publishing circles at the time. i want to encourage more detailed studies of key figures of the frontier revival genre including several women discussed in this dissertation. key work has been done on canadian women travel writers (barman, constance; buchanan et al.; gerson; grace; roy) and i am hoping that more can be done to study the literary strategies of these writers and to contextualize them in relation to each other, to male writers of the time, to american writers, and to various cross-border cultural discourses. one of the most rewarding challenges of this dissertation is trying to find a way of talking about these texts that does what neither feminist literary analysis nor conceptual metaphor and frame theory can do on their own, while also finding a way to make my work intelligible to, and legitimate in, these somewhat disparate disciplines. i would like to continue to take up this challenge by helping to find ways of reading and interpreting the vast corporeal cartography of canadian travel literature. the very ambiguities and questions that linger in the process of defining canadian identity and literature are what define us. the travelling body is a moving target, a palimpsest, of these culturally defining debates. 	
   	
   my work can also be seen as falling into the broader category of language and gender studies. encouraging work on canadian travel literature in this interdisciplinary field would be a useful way of approaching the study of women’s literature with an emphasis on specific linguistic, rhetorical, and literary close reading tools. exploring the interconnections between language and gender helps to uncover textual strategies used by women writers, which in turn allows us to show how literature by women is connected to that of other male and female writers on both sides of the border. promoting the field of language and gender in the study of canadian literature would help to show how gender and the gendered body relate to language and how gendered language practices shed light on more general processes of meaning making. . as far as you can go: final thoughts the literal movement of westward expansion through immigration and industry between and remains a formative and yet elusive influence on ideas of canadian and north american identity. in many ways, frontier revival texts allow us to try to make sense of this movement—to relive it again and again—through images of the travelling body. frontier revival texts provide moments of movement that are ironically frozen in time in orderly snapshots of a disorderly event that spanned borders and saw vast migrations, confrontations, and interactions across boundaries of geography, gender, and race. in keeping with the palimpsest metaphor, the female travelling body is interesting in these texts because it is more written upon than the male travelling body; it negotiates more layers of meaning. however, this metaphor does not fully hold because the body is not only written upon, but is also writing, creative, experiential, alive. the female travelling body is more intertextual and self-aware than the male travelling body, both in the extent to which 	
   	
   it rewrites and is written upon, and also in the extent to which it acknowledges interchange between experiential and cultural knowledge. schäffer’s passing glimpse into rudyard kipling’s carriage on her reluctant return from the wilderness illustrates feminist perspectives on frontier revival literature. the movement/change of female frontier revival authors does not just go from here to there; it asks, where is here? unlike male frontier revival authors, women writers look for an answer in the indeterminacy of the question. they look to the tensions held in balance between the role of the travelling body in creating and carrying meaning, and between the significance and the fluidity of such meaning. far from simply moving from place to place, or even just making an empty intellectual gesture, their bodies acknowledge specific cultural conflicts in travel literature relating to real world issues of empire, borders, national identity, citizenship, gender, class, and race. this perspective on where and who we are waits for us to meet its gaze, to acknowledge, uncover, debate and interpret, and to see ourselves in the rich language of the female travelling body. . notes to chapter 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   one of the challenges here is to remember that embodied cognition contributes to meaning making (to understanding the world through the body), while all language directly relating to the body or stemming from the body is also influenced by cultural discourse. this tension between embodied cognition and cultural discourse should not be seen as one that can be either ignored or resolved. rather, it needs to be explored as a defining source of meaning in literary texts and one that contributes to the development of frames. 	
   	
   figures figure . frame diagram. frontier revival frame ) traveller ) westward journey ) struggle ) return conceptual	
   metaphors:	
   -­‐self-­‐control	
   is	
  bodily	
   control	
   -­‐generic	
  is	
   specific	
   -­‐locational	
   event	
   structure	
   -­‐locational	
   self	
   -­‐self	
  as	
   container	
   -­‐objective	
   standpoint	
   cultural discourses: -manifest destiny -western canada as the last north american frontier -the strenuous life -east-coast nature writing -suffrage -the new woman 	
   	
   figure . anon, “you feel with wonder that you are not doing anything very extraordinary at all.” sara jeannette duncan, a social departure: how orthodocia and i went round the world by ourselves, (london, edinburgh, dublin, and new york: thomas nelson & sons, ), . 	
   	
   figure . e.m. ashe, “i could not keep away from his hoofs,” grace gallatin, a woman tenderfoot, (new york: doubleday, page and co, ), . 	
   	
   figure . agnes deans cameron, “a magnificent trophy,” agnes deans cameron, the new north: being some account of a woman’s journey through canada to the arctic, (new york & london: d. appleton and company, ), ii, frontispiece. 	
   	
   figure . agnes deans cameron, “cannibal louise, her little girl, and miss cameron,” agnes deans cameron, the new north: being some account of a woman’s journey through canada to the arctic, , (new york & london: d. appleton and company, ), . 	
   	
   figure . mary schäffer, “nibs and his mistress,” mary schäffer, old indian trails: incidents of camp and trail life, covering two years’ exploration through the rocky mountains of canada, (toronto: william briggs. new york: g.p. putnam’s sons, ), n.pag., frontispiece. 	
   	
   figure . mary schäffer, “when i saw the last of those four men i knew what was going to happen,” mary schäffer, old indian trails: incidents of camp and trail life, covering two years’ exploration through the rocky mountains of canada, (toronto: william briggs; new york: g.p. putnam’s sons, ), . 	
   	
   figure . mary schäffer, “sampson beaver, his squaw, and little frances louise,” mary schäffer, old indian trails: incidents of camp and trail life, covering two years’ exploration through the rocky mountains of canada by mary schäffer, (toronto: william briggs; new york: g.p. putnam’s sons, ), . 	
   	
   figure . agnes laut, “the last of their kind,” agnes laut, enchanted trails of glacier park, (new york: robert m. mcbride & company, ), (lavergne, tn: kessinger publishing, ), . 	
   	
   figure . agnes laut, “james willard schultz, tail-feathers coming over the hill and eagle child in conference,” agnes laut, enchanted trails of glacier park, (new york: robert m. mcbride & company, ), (lavergne, tn: kessinger publishing, ), . 	
   	
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   new, w.h. borderlands: how we talk about canada. vancouver: university of british columbia press, . nugent, walter. habits of empire: a history of american expansion. new york: alfred a. knopf, . ortony, andrew, ed. metaphor and thought. nd ed. cambridge: cambridge university press, . pagh, nancy. at home afloat: women on the waters of the pacific northwest. calgary: university of calgary press, . palmer, beth. women’s authorship and editorship in victorian culture: sensational strategies. oxford: oxford university press, . parkman, francis. the oregon trail: sketches of prairie and rocky-mountain life. toronto: george n. morange & company limited, . parrill, fey, vera tobin, and mark turner, eds. meaning, form, and body. stanford: c.s.l.i. publications, . parr traill, catharine. canadian settler’s guide. toronto: old countryman office, . pascoe, peggy. relations of rescue: the search for female moral authority in the american west, - . new york and oxford: oxford university press, . patterson, martha h. beyond the gibson girl: re-imagining the american new woman - . illinois: the university of illinois press, . 	
   	
   pazdro, roberta j. “agnes deans cameron: against the current.” in her own right: selected essays on women’s history in b.c. ed. barbara latham and cathy kess. victoria: camosum college, . - . piepmeier, alison. out in public: configurations of women’s bodies in nineteenth-century america. chapel hill and london: the university of north carolina press, . pratt, mary louise. imperial eyes: travel writing and transculturation. london and new york: routledge, . ralph, julian. on canada’s frontier. new york: harper & brothers, . reid, jane e. the joys of the long trail: three women adventure-travellers in canada at the turn of the century. ma thesis. . ann arbor: u.m.i., . richardson, alan, and ellen spolsky, eds. the work of fiction: cognition, culture, and complexity. aldershot, hampshire & burlington, v.t.: ashgate, . richeson, david. “foreword to the spectra edition.” foreword. the new north: an account of a woman’s journey through canada to the arctic. ed. david richeson. saskastoon: western producer prairie books, . romero, lora. home fronts: domesticity and its critics in the antebellum united states. durham: duke university press, . rooney, frances. working light: the wandering life of photographer edith s. watson. ottawa: carleton university press, . 	
   	
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   watts, edward, and david rachels, eds. the first west: writing from the american frontier, - . new york: oxford university press, . wendell holmes, oliver. the complete poetical works of oliver wendell holmes. new york: grosset & dunlap publishers, . wexler, laura. tender violence: domestic visions in an age of u.s. imperialism. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . white, g. edward. the eastern establishment and the western experience: the west of frederick remington, theodore roosevelt, owen wister. austin: university of texas press, . williams, carol j. framing the west: race, gender, and the photographic frontier in the pacific northwest. new york: oxford university press, inc., . woolf, virginia. three guineas. . new york and burlingame: harcourt, brace & world, inc., . work, james c., ed. prose & poetry of the american west. lincoln and london: university of nebraska press, . youngs, tim, and peter hulme. the cambridge companion to travel writing. cambridge: cambridge university press, . reflections sandra l. bertman, ph.d. editor’s note: one might title this column “by indirections find directions out” tacos, spinach, straight talk, and metaphors sometimes approaching “truth at a slant” as the poet, emily dickenson, advocates sets the stage for empathy and honest communication. but not always. metaphors do not solve problems as much as uncover them, all the while inviting reflective practice. we invite you to savor and comment on these two morsels. hamlet . . . sandra l. bertman, ph.d. national center for death education http://www.sandrabertman.com email: sbertman@gmail.com annals of behavioral science and medical education , vol. , no. , – © by the association for the behavioral sciences and medical education – / the eyes of texas are upon…me automatic doors slide open i enter, first time wearing my medical school shirt a coat of arms? not quite, but i wear it as one, proudly attention is drawn, one head, two heads, three heads turn eyes gaze, then stare, then fix now, uncomfortable maybe brown and maroon don’t mix? so this is what the song means somehow, i doubt it the interview interview day arrives, my sweat is heavy, bullets falling so many possible questions to be asked, so many answers to be said how am i different? strengths? weaknesses? why do i want to be a physician? that is it, that is the question so many possible responses, so many, i have it, the response, my response i am calm now, no more bullets my response will be poetry, i am ready i walk in, formalities exchanged, here it comes “so, tell me about the violence in mexico and the drug cartels” i wondered, did anyone else get this question? here come the bullets the score within these walls, judgment is a ghost assumptions are phantoms disrespect is invisible, comparisons are formless so i thought casual conversation leads to mcat score discussion no hesitation to reveal mine, i am proud, i gave it my all my colleague begins to form a thought, a response surely, it will be in keeping with this casual and harmless good natured banter “well, it’s a good thing you’re mexican, i’m sure that helped your application” a chuckle follows, if it were a text, jk would follow a good joke makes everyone laugh judgment is well alive, assumptions are of matter, disrespect is visible comparisons take form poems robert dominguez section editor << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (gray gamma . ) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /off /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /perceptual /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails true /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false 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a c f d e e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d f c c f c c e e f b e f b d e e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /tur <feff f c c c c c e fc e c e d f fc e fc c e d e a c d e e f c c f c f d b e e c b c c e e e f c f c e f c f f e f e b fc fc d c c e c c e> /ukr <feff a e e f c b f e d d f e a c d f c f d d b f d d e e f b f a b e e a c d e e d d e a c d c e d a e f e c e e e f e c f f e f d e> /enu <feff a f f f e f f c c e e e d f c f f e c e e d e d c d > >> >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice ll-no -june .qxp learning landscapes | volume , number , spring the ar ts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? nancy j. adler, mcgill university abstract given the dramatic changes taking place in society, the economy, and technology, st century organizations need to engage in new, more spontaneous, and more innovative ways of managing. i investigate why an increasing number of companies are including artists and artistic processes in their approaches to strategic and day- to-day management and leadership. “the mfa is the new mba . . . an arts degree is now perhaps the hottest credential in the world of business.”—harvard business review (pink, : ) n obel peace prize laureate elie wiesel was interviewed on his perceptionsof the prospects for peace in the middle east. after reciting the now all-too-familiar litany of missed opportunities, suffering, murder, and acts of terrorism, the interviewer asked his final question: “mr. wiesel, do you have hope?” much to the interviewer’s surprise, elie wiesel immediately answered, “yes.” with unconcealed incomprehension, the seasoned journalist challenged,“but how can you have hope? you of all people! you who have worked with both sides for decades and fully understand the profound depths of the impasse as well as the ongoing escala- tion of intransigence and death. how can you say you have hope?” from “the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do?,” by nancy j. adler, , academy of management learning & education, ( ), – . copyright by nancy j. adler. reprinted with permission. learning landscapes | volume , number , spring in a quiet, but deeply assured voice, elie wiesel responded, “because it is human to have hope.” hope is not an empirical conclusion. hope does not come from watching three versions of the evening news and adding up the data to conclude either for or against hope. hope is what people bring to a situation; hope is what leaders bring to their organizations and to the world. the need for hope is not limited to geopolitical diplomacy or the caustic dynamics of the middle east’s search for peace. international business strategists coach managers and executives to maintain unreasonable expectations (their trans- lation of hope into business parlance), reminding them that no company or society ever outperforms its aspirations. what does it take to turn hope into reality? “by what law,” demand the busi- ness strategists,“must competitiveness come at the expense of hope?” (hamel, : ). given the extremely competitive nature of the global economy, is it reasonable to simultaneously aspire to business success and societal well-being? perhaps not in the past, but today not only is it a reasonable aspiration, but it is already beginning to happen (see cooperrider & adler, ; arena, ; and laszlo, , among others). in the first year of the st century, united nations secretary general kofi annan launched the u.n. global compact, which supports business in designing and implementing positive solutions to the challenges of globalization. within only a few years, over companies from around the world joined the global compact, thus committing themselves to supporting a more sustainable and inclusive global econ- omy (cooperrider, ). twenty-first century society yearns for a leadership of possibility, a leader- ship based more on hope, aspiration, and innovation than on the replication of histor- ical patterns of constrained pragmatism. luckily, such a leadership is possible today. for the first time in history, companies can work backward from their aspirations and imagination rather than forward from their past (hamel, : ).“the gap between what can be imagined and what can be accomplished has never been smaller” (hamel, : ). the defining question—and opportunity—for this century is this: “now that we can do anything, what do we want to do?” (mau et al., : ). responding to that question demands anticipatory creativity. designing options worthy of implementation calls for levels of inspiration and passionate cre- nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring ativity that have been more the domain of artists and artistic processes than of most managers. as harvard business professor rob austin well understands,“the economy of the future will be about creating value and appropriate forms, and no one knows more about the processes for doing that than artists.” entering the twenty-first century: the time is right for the cross-fertilization of the arts and leadership “the time seems right for this cross-fertilization [of the arts and leadership]. it seems that all the overripe hierarchies of the world, from corporations to nation states, are in trouble and are calling, however reluctantly, on their people for more creativity, [more] commitment, and [more] innovation” (whyte, : ). why else, as we enter the st century, would we be seeing increasing numbers of corporate lead- ers bringing artists and artistic processes into their companies? consider what has transpired in the first few years of the st century and ask yourself: • why else would major corporations worldwide invite a poet, david whyte, to address their senior executives, including at a prominent global aero- space company and aircraft manufacturer, not by any definition an arts- based organization? • why else would a harvard business school professor have chosen to col- laborate with a theatre director in to author the book artful making: what managers need to know about how artists work (austin & devin, ; also see guillet de monthoux, )? • why else would the world economic forum in davos, switzerland have offered the workshop entitled “if an artist ran your business”? why? because the time is right for the cross-fertilization of the arts and lead- ership. as additional examples reveal, the trend is unequivocal: • at the beginning of the st century, denmark opened the world’s first business-school-based center for art and leadership. the graduates of copenhagen’s center are now among the most highly sought after candi- dates on the european job market. the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? learning landscapes | volume , number , spring • similarly, corporate recruiters in north america are increasingly visiting top art and design schools in search of corporate talent. according to harvard business review, not only is an arts degree the new hot credential; the mfa (master of fine arts) is becoming the new business degree (pink, ). in , % of consulting firm mckinsey’s new hires had mbas; today that number is down to % (pink, ). mckinsey explains that not only are other disciplines just as valuable in helping new hires per- form well at the firm but also, thanks to the globalization of white collar labor, mckinsey can recruit mbas in india for financial analysis and num- ber-crunching work at much lower salaries. the scarce resource is innova- tive designers, not financial analysts. • leading business schools worldwide are adding arts-based courses to their curriculum, including wharton’s compulsory mba workshop entitled “leadership through the arts,” facilitated by the world-renowned dance company pilobolus, in which participants explore movement, improvisation, and collaborative choreography. at mit, three of the / sloan leadership courses had arts-based components, includ- ing “unconventional leadership: a performing advantage” (flaherty, ) and “leadership as acting: performing henry v.” in the university of chicago’s required leadership exploration and development course, mbas write, produce, and showcase a film. while in europe, oxford university offers executives conductor peter hanke’s course, “leadership as a performing art.” with actor/director richard olivier’s mythodrama in residence, cranfield university offers leadership development programs based on shakespeare. • at the very beginning of the st century, the largest professional society for management professors, the academy of management, created an arts and poetry group—adding the arts to the ranks of business policy, human resource management, international management, and organiza- tional behavior as worthy areas of discussion. in the same year, the academy of management held its first art exhibit in parallel with the academy’s traditional array of paper-presenting sessions, and the journal of management inquiry published a special section that included images of many of the art works. the time is right for the cross-fertilization of the arts and leadership. according to management consultant and opera singer david pearl, “business and nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring the arts [are] not . . . different fields, but . . . different aspects of the creative process. shakespeare, remember was a manager and an artist. he ran a company and wrote the plays. if the two fields weren’t separate for someone like [shakespeare]. . . , why then for us normal mortals?” (darso, : ). the st century is already anything but business as usual, and most man- agers already know it. options and approaches that worked well in the th century no longer work as well, if at all, today. strategies unimaginable a mere decade ago are realized daily, if not by one’s own company, then by competitors half a world away. the challenge facing business is to design strategies worthy of implementation, not simply to select from among approaches that have succeeded in the past. old approaches no longer work: business turns to the arts according to conductor harvey seifter ( ), clearly, many business leaders have concluded that there are valuable les- sons to be learned from the experiences and insights of artists, lessons that can help their companies stay profitable in these challenging times. . . . this represents a dramatic shift in the boundaries that traditionally defined experiences relevant to the business world, a shift triggered by profound technological and social changes that has transformed the culture of busi- ness over the past decade. what has changed so dramatically that business executives, professors, con- sultants, and publishers are increasingly turning to artists and artistic processes to guide their thinking and action? five defining trends are outlined below. trend : rapidly increasing global interconnectedness the world today is dynamically globally interconnected in ways we could not have imagined even a decade ago, let alone a century ago. old approaches to business no longer work the way they used to. few organizations have experience successfully managing in such an environment. the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? learning landscapes | volume , number , spring in a world in which everything is interconnected, everything matters; noth- ing is inconsequential (mau et al., ). change ripples across industries, geogra- phies, and sectors without regard for borders or boundaries. today, rapid, massive change is not only possible, it is inevitable. the discrete, circumscribed strategies of yesterday are no longer appropriate or effective. benchmarking competitors’ best practices becomes meaningless in a world changing at today’s heretofore unimagin- able pace. leaders search for successful strategies, only to discover that the most viable options need to be invented; they cannot simply be replicated. designing innovative options requires more than the traditional analytical and decision-making skills taught during the past half century in most mba programs. rather, it requires skills that creative artists have used for years. many management experts suspect that the traditional mba is obsolete (bennis & o’toole, ; ewers, ; and mintzberg, , among others). trend : increasing domination of market forces within global society, power has increasingly shifted to the private sector. forty-nine of the largest economies in the world are now multinational compa- nies, not countries. with the shifting balance of power, the old assumption that gov- ernment would take care of society’s welfare is no longer valid either for business or for society. wal-mart, for example, is now the th largest economy in the world, with sales exceeding $ billion (mau et al., : ). if it were a country, wal-mart would be china’s eighth largest trading partner (friedman, a). wal-mart’s single- day revenue is larger than the annual gdp of independent countries. wal-mart is now the world’s largest private-sector employer. with over . million employees worldwide, it has more people in uniform than the entire u.s. army (http://www.wal martfacts.com/; mau et al., : ). what wal-mart does matters, not just to its own employees and customers, but to the global economy and society in which it oper- ates. for such companies, designer bruce mau’s statement, “[n]ow that we can do any- thing” is literally becoming true (mau et al., : ). wal-mart can do almost any- thing; the crucial questions, from society’s and the company’s perspectives, are these: “what will it do?” and “who will it benefit?” in wal-mart’s case, this is a particularly important question, as the company’s behavior toward its employees and other stakeholder groups has been severely criticized both in the courts and in the popu- lar press. nancy j. adler http://www.walmartfacts.com learning landscapes | volume , number , spring what u.n. secretary general kofi annan wants businesses to do is to become co-creators of society’s success: let us choose to unite the power of markets with the strengths of universal ideals . . . let us choose to reconcile the creative forces of private entrepre- neurship with the needs of the disadvantaged and the requirements of future generations. arnold toynbee (mau et al., : ), in observing societal dynamics, clearly believed such repositioning was becoming possible: the [ st] . . . century will be chiefly remembered by future generations not as an era of political conflicts or technical inventions, but as an age in which human society dared to think of the welfare of the whole human race as a practical objective. those who plead for global corporate citizenship recognize that without the private sector, no attempt to create and maintain a vibrant, equitable, and sustainable society can succeed. leaders from all sectors are searching for new partnership options that include business as a co-creator of a society we can be proud of. how will business leaders co-create the viable options society needs? cellist and world renowned symphony conductor benjamin zander and his wife rosamund ( : ) explain why, at this particular moment in history, leaders are turning to artists to help them navigate in this globally interconnected, market-dominated society: artists—musicians, performers, painters, and poets—have rarely been in a position to speak directly to those engaged in business or government. for most of human history, artists have been employed merely to serve author- itative institutions, usually by bringing emotional truth to established prin- ciples. the general truths held by leading institutions of relatively closed societies were historically sufficient, overall, to maintain order and provide direction. in our new global society, however, there is no guiding institution that speaks compellingly to the majority of the people. markets have replaced governments, religion, and other institutions as the regulating force and the highest authority, and markets are not conversant in a human tongue. the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? learning landscapes | volume , number , spring the radical shift in the structure of the world begs for creativity; it asks us to rethink who we are as human beings. . . . it may be that writers, painters, and musicians have an unprecedented opportunity to be co-creators with soci- ety’s leaders in setting a path. for art, after all, is about rearranging us, creating surprising juxtapositions, emotional openings, startling presences, flight paths to the eternal. world leaders increasingly turn to the arts because the old ways no longer work as they used to, and business leaders have been among the first to realize this. trend : an increasingly turbulent, complex, and chaotic environment already in the opening years of the st century, in addition to globalization and the domination of market forces, extremely high rates of change, ambiguity, unpredictability, and turbulence define the environment faced by business (see zimmerman, lindberg, & plsek, and friedman, a, b). with greater levels of stability, continuity, and certainty characterizing most of the th and th centuries, leaders were able to rely, with a fair amount of confidence, on hierarchical, military, industrial, and machine-based models to guide their actions. those newtonian mod- els no longer work very well. as the levels of chaos and complexity increase, st-cen- tury leaders are shifting away from the more hierarchical machine-like models to more human and biological metaphors to guide their strategies (see morgan, ; zimmerman, lindberg, & plsek, ; wheatley, ). among the most powerful human metaphors are those of the arts. three distinct trends within the overall pattern of chaos and complexity— discontinuous change, networked teams, and simultaneity—help explain business’ appropriation of more arts-based approaches. discontinuous change: continuous improvement is no longer good enough one of the primary characteristics of the increasingly complex and chaotic environments faced by business today is not just change, but an increasing propor- tion of discontinuous, disruptive change (see amis, slack, & hinings, ). inventing “the next great thing”—or, as michael lewis ( ) refers to it, the new new thing— defines a business’s success, or if it is invented by competitors, its demise. in contrast to th-century business strategies, continuously improving existing products and processes is no longer good enough. it is not that enhancements and increased effi- ciency—including at the level of six sigma—are not important; however, they are not sufficient for economic survival, let alone business success. global business strate- nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring gists warn companies not to get caught in a “prison of incrementalism” (hamel, : ). by the time an organization has wrung the last percent of efficiency out of the how, someone else will have invented a new what. inventing new whats—that’s the key to thriving in . . . the st century. business can no longer assume that continuous improvement is good enough (hamel, : – ). creating the next great thing demands constant innovation; it’s a design task, not merely an analytical or administrative function. historically, such creativity has been the primary competence of artists, not managers. poet david whyte ( : ) explains that “[t]here is a good practical reason for encouraging our artistic pow- ers within organizations that up to now might have been unwelcoming or afraid of those qualities.” the artist must paint or sculpt or write, not only for the present generation but for those who have yet to be born. good artists, it is often said, are fifty to a hundred years ahead of their time, they describe what lies over the hori- zon in our future world . . . . the artist . . . must . . . depict this new world before all the evidence is in. they must rely on the embracing abilities of their imag- ination to intuit and describe what is as yet a germinating seed in their pres- ent time, something that will only flower after they have written the line or painted the canvas. the present manager must learn the same artistic disci- pline, they must learn to respond or conceive of something that will move in the same direction in which the world is moving, without waiting for all the evidence to appear on their desks. to wait for all the evidence is to finally recognize it through a competitor’s product (whyte, : – ). constant, intuition-based innovation is required to respond to discontinu- ous change; without it, no business can succeed in the st century. from hierarchies to networks—individuals to teams: prior structures no longer work the way they used to as work has become more complex and the business environment more chaotic, organizations increasingly have shifted from single-company hierarchies to flatter, more networked, multiorganizational structures, including global strategic alliances, international joint ventures, and a wide array of cross-border mergers, acquisitions, and partnerships (see barlett & ghoshal, ; and friedman, a, b, the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? learning landscapes | volume , number , spring among many others). within such networked partnerships, people are asked much less frequently to contribute as individuals and much more frequently to collectively collaborate across networks of both co-located and geographically distanced global teams (maznevski & chudoba, ; maznevski & distefano, ). unfortunately, however, the success rate of such globally networked organ- izations and teams has not been outstanding. historically, three quarters of all inter- national joint ventures and strategic alliances have failed. actors, dancers, and musicians—performing as ensembles—have devel- oped team-based collaborative skills to a much greater extent than have most managers. harvard business professor rob austin and his colleague, theatre director lee devin, are already advising “[m]anagers [to] . . . look to collaborative artists rather than to more traditional management models if they want to create economic value in this new century” (austin & devin, : xxii). it is therefore not surprising that busi- nesses are increasingly turning to such world-renowned ensembles as orpheus—a leaderless chamber orchestra—for models, guidance, and coaching (seifter, , ). given the novelty of such approaches, their potential has yet to be assessed. simultaneity and the collapse of time: planning no longer works the way it used to as the business environment more frequently calls upon managers to respond to unpredicted and unpredictable threats and opportunities, the ability to improvise increasingly determines organizations’ effectiveness. strict reliance on tra- ditional managerial planning models no longer works. without the luxury of the lead time necessary for planning, managers must use their professional expertise and experience to respond spontaneously—in other words, to improvise. as canadian management professor mary crossan ( : ) explains: improvisation occurs when planning intersects real-time problems and opportunities. . . . in order to keep pace with change, it has become essential to blend the traditional skills of planning and analytical foresight with the ability to respond in the moment to problems and opportunities as they arise. although improvisation has been evident in the arts, it has [only] more recently been acknowledged as an important [managerial skill]. . . . in moving from traditional managerial approaches to improvisation, core skills shift from sequential planning-then-doing to simultaneous listening-and- observing-while-doing. successful improvisation only occurs when team members trust that their colleagues are taking care of the team’s best interest. individual star nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring performance undermines, rather than supports, effective collective action. it is no sur- prise, then, that managers are increasingly turning to improvisational actors, dancers, and musicians for guidance as they attempt to shift from sequential planning to approaches incorporating more spontaneity (see van-gundy & naiman, ). trend : as advances in technology decrease the cost of experimentation, organizations’ scarcest resource becomes their dreamers, not their testers can business people rapidly turn their best ideas into new products, services, and market relationships? perhaps not in the past, but in the st century the answer is unequivocally “yes”. with advances in technology over the past decade, the cost of the continuous experimentation needed to test new ideas is at an all-time low, and it continues to decrease. assisted by advanced computer technologies, rapid and cheap iteration allows managers to substitute experimentation for planning. the challenge is not to test new ideas, but rather to dream up novel ideas worthy of test- ing. inventing new “things to test—in scientific terms, generating hypotheses—is fundamentally a creative act” (austin & devin, : xxv). like artists, business people today need to be constantly creating new ideas. as we enter the st century, organ- izations’ scarcest resource has become their dreamers, not their testers. how do companies find such dreamers? for google’s chairman and ceo dr. eric schmidt, the answer lies in an organization’s culture. according to schmidt (austin & devin, : xvii),“you need to let the artists [in your company] explore and create the next great thing, which they will do reliably if you permit it.” harvard’s rob austin, however, is more cautious. according to austin (austin & devin, : xxvii), “managers and management students don’t understand how to create on cue, how to innovate reliably on a deadline. . . . artists are much better at this than . . . [are man- agers. it’s] something theatre companies [for example] do all the time.” trend : yearning for significance—success is no longer enough following a century focused on the efficiencies gained through mechanis- tic and reductionist techniques, we yearn today for wholeness and meaning. this yearning prominently expressed itself, for example, in the last american presidential election, as both sides battled to present themselves as the political party most rep- resenting the country’s “true” values. the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? learning landscapes | volume , number , spring not only prominent politicians and humanitarians, but management thought-leader rosalie tung ( ) in her academy of management presidential address and business strategist gary hamel ( : ) also recognize that: what we need is not an economy of hands or heads, but an economy of hearts. every employee should feel that he or she is contributing to some- thing that will actually make a genuine and positive difference in the lives of customers and colleagues. for too many employees, the return on emo- tional equity is close to zero. they have nothing to commit to other than the success of their own career. why is it that the very essence of our humanity, our desire to reach beyond ourselves, to touch others, to do something that matters, to leave the world just a little bit better, is often denied at work? . . . to succeed in the [ st century]. . . , a company must give its members a rea- son to bring all of their humanity to work. former u.s. president john f. kennedy recognized the role of the arts, and in particular, poetry, in returning leaders to their humanity: when power leads . . . [people] toward ignorance, poetry reminds . . . [them] of… [their] limitations. when power narrows the areas of …[people’s] concern, poetry reminds…[them] of the richness and diversity of… [their] existence. when power corrupts, poetry cleanses, for art establishes the basic human truths which must serve as the touchstone of our judgment. similarly, poet david whyte ( : ) recognizes the greater humanity that each of us yearns to bring to work. the artist’s sensibility is one that grants life to things outside of our normal human ken. it understands that our place in this world can never be measured by the dow jones, that our ultimate arrival on our deathbed enti- tles us to other perspectives than mere fiscal success or the size of our retire- ment account. free markets are not the be all and end all of life; they are the best we can do at the moment and are even now being ameliorated by the realization that any freedom is always understood within some far greater social, ecological, or religious sense of belonging. it is not coincidence that the beginning of the new century produced a con- fluence of people’s yearning for societal significance and the invitation to artists to nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring partner with business leaders. speaking in davos, switzerland to the world’s senior business leaders, president of the world economic forum klaus schwab ( : – ) outlined the challenge: in today’s trust-starved climate, our market-driven system is under attack . . . large parts of the population feel that business has become detached from society, that business interests are no longer aligned with societal interests . . . the only way to respond to this new wave of anti-business sentiment is for business to take the lead and to reposition itself clearly and convincingly as part of society. examples of business leaders using arts-based approaches are only now beginning to gain prominence. industrialist and founder of the tefen industrial park, stef wertheimer, for example, whose aspiration is no less than the simultaneous achievement of outstanding financial success and the creation of peace in the middle east, has built a series of industrial parks that bring together arab, druze, and jewish israelis. the industrial parks are extremely profitable, already accounting for more that $ billion in annual revenue and % of israel’s industrial exports. and they rely integrally on the arts. wertheimer describes tefen as “a collaborative creation by both industry and art, to the point that we cannot separate . . . them.” from prediction to aspiration: a leadership of hope as we enter the st century, leaders recognize that we cannot create finan- cially successful companies and an equitable, peaceful, sustainable world by simply applying yesterday’s approaches to business. global society’s hoped-for future can never be achieved through mere projections—linear or otherwise—extrapolated from past trends. not even the best set of marketing, accounting, finance, and it tech- niques, no matter how rigorously applied, will get us from here to where we want to go. the very essence of st century leadership increasingly demands the pas- sionate creativity of artists. german artist joseph beuys predicted that the predomi- nant art form of the st century would be “social sculpture.” beuys (in darso, : ) understood that art needs to “play a [much] wider role in shaping the content of our daily lives.” the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? learning landscapes | volume , number , spring similar to great artists whose passion moves them beyond mastered technique to meaningful statement, st century leaders also require passion and courage. such leadership relies on three very different types of courage: the courage to see reality as it actually is, and not as others would have us see it; the courage to envision previously unimagined and unimaginable possibilities; and the courage to inspire others to bring possibility back to reality. confusing the courage to see reality accurately with simply imaging hoped-for possibilities is mere fanciful thinking; it is not, in any sense, leadership. the courage to see reality: collusion against illusion escaping societal conformity has long been part of most artistic traditions, and considerably less a part of managerial practice. for most of the th century, managers stressed conformity, not unique perception, appreciation, or vision. yet sim- ilar to the historic role of artists, leaders today must have the courage to see reality as it actually is, even when no one else has yet appreciated that reality. such reality-based perception is not easily acquired, either for managers or for artists. “moments when illusion is stripped away and reality is revealed are extremely hard to come by. there is a vast conspiracy against them” (palmer, : ). education philosopher parker palmer admonishes leaders not to collude with illusion: the illusion that the world is better than it is; the illusion that our organizations and companies are more success- ful than they are; the illusion that future success can simply be projected from past performance; the illusion that someone else, wiser and more powerful than we are, will take care of society; the illusion that what happens on the other side of the planet can- not possibly affect us; and the illusion that the future is knowable and predictable. for business, the fundamental illusion is that prior predictors of success will continue to predict success. the reality is that business “success has never been more transient,” and therefore more unpredictable, than it is today (hamel, : ). for the first time in history, there is no longer a statistically significant relationship between company size and profitability. for example, prior to its scandal-accelerated collapse, who would have predicted the demise of arthur andersen? in a chaotic and rapidly changing world, a company’s denial of reality can rapidly become tragic (hamel, : ). as global business strategist gary hamel ( : ) reminds executives, “never forget that good companies gone bad are simply companies that for too long denied . . . reality.” we all know how easy it is to collude with illusion, and how difficult it is to see unwanted truths. september th, painfully stripped away the illusion of nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring invulnerability from many americans who deeply believed “it could never happen here.” march forced the citizens of madrid to face a similar reality. enron’s precip- itous collapse offered a glimpse of the fragility of the world’s economic system in the face of massive corruption. while guarding against becoming stuck in current reality, leaders must begin by accurately seeing that reality. as quebec voters decided whether the province should separate from the rest of canada, thus breaking the country apart, mcgill strategy professor henry mintzberg asked his fellow citizens to turn off their tvs and radios and to look out the window. “ask yourself,” mintzberg challenged his friends and neighbors, “do our anglophone and francophone children play together? do we, as english and french canadians, invite each other into our homes? do we enjoy our neighbors’ unique cultural heritage?” with canada’s fate hanging in balance, mintzberg pleaded with quebec voters to see reality with their own eyes and not collude with the politically defined illusion of “two solitudes”—an illusion that, if believed, would break the coun- try in two. by a narrow margin, the people of quebec voted to remain part of canada. they chose to see with their own eyes and not to collude with a politically created illusion. leadership, whether corporate or societal, starts with truth—with having the courage to see reality as it is. dutch artist frederick franck, who worked with albert schweitzer in africa and wrote such bestsellers as the zen of seeing and what does it mean to be human, believes that not just artists, but all of us are capable of sketching beautifully (franck, , ; franck et al., ). we fail in our attempts to learn to draw not because of a lack of artistic talent but rather because we don’t learn how to see (franck, ). beyond impeding our artistic abilities, franck ( : ) believes that “[n]ot seeing . . . may well be the root cause of the frightful suffering . . . we humans inflict on one another, on animals, and on earth herself.” franck’s cure: learning how to draw, and thus how to see. are these just the naïve beliefs of an -year-old dutch artist? is it irrational to believe that we would treat other people and our environment with more respect if we saw it more accurately? franck thinks not, and an increasing number of profes- sionals in other disciplines agree with him. researchers at yale medical school, for example, have already found that by introducing medical students to art, through an introductory art history seminar, the student-doctors’ diagnostic skills improve signif- icantly (dolev, friedlaender, krohner, & braverman, ). it appears that learning to see the details in paintings teaches the medical students to see the actual constella- tion of characteristics and symptoms manifested by patients they examine, rather the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? learning landscapes | volume , number , spring than simply relying on global interpretations based on what they expect to see in each particular category of patient. after only one year, the art-trained student- doctors’ improvement in their diagnostic skills was more than % greater than that of their non-art trained colleagues. management professors c. k. prahalad and stuart hart, in their bottom-of- the-pyramid approach to strategy, now counsel major multinationals to “see” markets that were previously invisible to them—and remain invisible to most of their com- petitors (see prahalad & hart, ; hart & christensen, ; and prahalad & hammond, , among others). they dispel the illusion that the world’s poorest peo- ple do not constitute a market, that they do not possess buying power, and that there aren’t significant profits to be earned by the companies serving them. bottom-of-the- pyramid strategies dramatically use collusion-against illusion for the mutual benefit of business and society. “to see is to forget the name of the thing one sees.” as the journal of financial planning summarizes, “leaders must have the skill of seeing things the way they are, not for what we label them. one of the first jobs of a leader is defining real- ity—and that requires a new discipline of seeing.” hope made real: the courage to envision possibility in addition to accurately seeing reality, st century leadership requires the courage to envision possibility—to dream the big dream. envisioning possibility means maintaining hope and not descending into cynicism even when colleagues and friends misinterpret one’s aspirations and disparagingly label them as naïve. more than a century ago, the poet emily dickenson wrote the prescient line: “i dwell in possibility.” echoing the same optimistic perspective at the opening of the current century, harvard business school press published the art of possibility, coau- thored by benjamin zander, the conductor of the boston philharmonic (zander & zander, ). perhaps harvard recognized that our artistic traditions provide a bet- ter guide for creating possibility—for supporting aspirations and generating unrea- sonable expectations—than have most of our managerial models and approaches. perhaps executive thought leaders finally understand that albert einstein’s warning applies to them: “the world will not evolve past its current state of crisis by using the same thinking that created the situation.” seeking no less than to initiate massive change, the former dean of university of virginia’s school of architecture and ceo william mcdonough, a master nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring at envisioning and maintaining unreasonable expectations, offers one of the most hopeful contemporary visions and processes for combining business and societal success in what he calls “the next industrial revolution” (mcdonough & braungart, ). based on the highest aspirations, artistic talent, design skills, environmental consciousness, and business pragmatism, mcdonough and his partner, chemist michael braungart, suggest a new design assignment for business and societal lead- ers in the st century:“instead of fine-tuning the existing destructive framework [for business and society], why don’t people and industries set out to create something entirely new?” why not create (mcdonough & braungart, : – ): • buildings that act like trees and produce more energy than they con- sume, while purifying their own waste water; • factories whose effluents are the quality of drinking water; • products that do not ultimately become useless waste, but rather can be tossed onto the ground to decompose and become food for plants and animals and nutrients for the soil; or alternately, that can be returned to industrial cycles to supply high-quality raw materials for new products; • transportation that improves the quality of life while delivering goods and services; and • a world of abundance, not one of limits, pollution, and waste. perhaps from a th century perspective, mcdonough and braungart appear naïvely idealistic. however, they have already proven that their unreasonable expec- tations are achievable. their success with designs for such companies as basf, ford, herman miller, nike, and volvo, among many others, is testament to possibility made real. even with such a strong focus on enhancing society and the environment, mcdonough does not ignore the bottom line. in the initial redesign of ford’s riviere rouge plant, for example, the mcdonough–braungart protocol saved ford over $ million (mcdonough & braungart, : ). according to the chairman of ford motor company william clay ford, jr., “there are very few visionaries who are practi- cal—bill mcdonough is one of the most profound environmental thinkers in the world.” time magazine, in awarding mcdonough its distinction as one of the “heroes for the planet” stated that mcdonough’s “utopianism is grounded in a unified philos- ophy that—in demonstrable and practical ways—is changing the design of the world” (mcdonough, ). the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? learning landscapes | volume , number , spring mcdonough believes that buildings, communities, and factories should be generative; like trees, they should give more back to the physical and social environ- ment than they consume. he believes that being “less bad” is not equivalent to being good—and that it is time for leadership that is good. “companies fail to create the future not because they fail to predict it but because they fail to imagine it” (hamel, : ). mcdonough’s success is driven by imagination and design, not by more commonly taught managerial problem-solving and decision-making techniques. inspiration: the courage to bring reality to possibility in addition to having the courage to see reality as it is and imagine possibil- ity, leaders must be able to inspire people to move from their current reality toward much more desirable outcomes. whereas th-century managerial frameworks focused primarily on motivation, often attempting to identify sets of rewards and punishments that would motivate workers to produce more, st-century leaders know that such motivation is not enough. the leadership challenge today is to inspire people, not simply to motivate them. what inspires people to give their best to organizations? whereas money motivates some people, meaning is what inspires most people (boyatzis & mckee, a, b; erez, kleinbeck, & thierry, ; gallo, ; pomeroy, ). management guru peter drucker counseled business leaders to learn about inspiration from volun- tary-sector organizations, categorically stating, “unless people would volunteer to work with you and your organization, you are not truly a leader.” ask yourself: “why would anyone choose to work for your organization if you didn’t pay them? why would anyone choose to work for you?” drucker understood the essential nature of intrinsic motivation for leaders and organizations. artists also understand intrinsic motivation. whereas most motiva- tion systems in business have focused primarily on extrinsic rewards, most artists are almost entirely motivated intrinsically. it is therefore not surprising that british the- atre director richard olivier uses shakespeare’s henry v, and not some arbitrary set of motivation theories, to teach executives about inspirational leadership. olivier sees henry v as “shakespeare’s greatest leader—inspired and inspiring, visionary yet prag- matic, powerful yet responsible.” gary hamel ( : ), a business strategist, not a theologian, reminds the business people he works with that god commanded the nomadic israelites to rest one day out of seven—but god did not “decree that the other six had to be empty of nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring meaning.” he coaches executives that they need “[a] cause, not a business. . . . without a transcendent purpose, individuals will lack the courage” they need to innovate beyond the ordinary (hamel, : ). “courage . . . comes not from some banal assurance that ‘change is good’ but from devotion to a wholly worthwhile cause” (hamel, : ). the art of leadership: hope made real who are we as artists? perhaps more important, who are we as human beings? how is business influencing life on this planet? how does business hope to influence life on the planet? what skills does business bring to the task of creation? according to ivan g. siedenberg, chairman and ceo of verizon, “creativity is the one irreplaceable human skill in an increasingly automated world . . . the only sustainable source of competitive advantage.” at this unique moment in history, we are beginning to see a confluence of the best skills of business and those of the artistic community in service of the largest aims of humanity. nobel peace prize laureate elie wiesel reminds us that it is human to have hope. the world’s multiple crises remind us daily that mere prediction, whether for business or for society, will not bring us anywhere near our hoped-for outcomes. if the world is to have peace and the economy is to sustain widespread prosperity, such outcomes will have to be created. combining the global influence and entrepreneurial skills of business with the inspirational creativity and improvisa- tional skills of the artist community gives us hope that we will not collude with illu- sion, that we will not settle for anything less than our highest levels of aspirations, and that we will have the capacity to create the kind of world that we all wish for and that our children deserve. the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? notes i would acknowledge the many creative scholars—artists and management profes- sors alike—who are contributing to the establishment of the field of arts and man- agement and to its rapid advance, including the many members of the aacorn net- work, along with those, such as rob austin, peter hanke, bruce mau, rob nickerson, danica purg, david whyte, and ben zander, whose work and comments have been extremely valuable in developing my own integration of the arts and leadership. in particular, i would like to thank the thoughtful and extremely insightful colleagues who took the time to help me develop my conceptualization of arts and leadership and to critique this article, including troy anderson, ariane antal, neal ashkanasy, james bailey, jean bartunek, rob nickerson, and rosalie tung. the strengths of the article i owe to them; the errors and weaknesses are my own. . paraphrased from rourke’s los angeles times article on eli wiesel. . for a discussion of the role of hope in leadership, see luthans, van wyk, and walumbwa ( ), luthans and jensen ( ), and luthans ( a), among others. . while echoing the sentiments of other business strategists, hamel ( : ) stated that “no company outperforms its aspirations.” . see the particularly important work of cameron, dutton, and quinn ( ) on positive organizational behavior, building on the seminal work of seligman ( , & ) in positive organizational psychology. . rob austin, professor of technology and management at harvard business school, in e-mail to the author, as a part of the aacorn network, april . . david whyte worked with the senior executives at mcdonnell douglas for more than a year. in , boeing bought mcdonnell douglas. . at the davos world economic forum, the session “if an artist ran your business” was held on thursday january nd at : pm and led by denmark’s lotte darsoe, research manager for the creative alliance learning lab denmark, and included such noted artists as photographer yann arthus-bertrand, film director shekhar kapur, director of the hermitage museum mikhail piotrovsky, and actor chris tucker. the session was described as follows: creativity is an admired and sought after trait in business. but despite—or perhaps because of—creativity’s high value, there are no easy methods for cultivating it. ( ) what is creativity? who determines whether or not something is creative? ( ) how can the use of artistic competencies and communication forms contribute to organi- zational change and new product development? ( ) what can business leaders learn from artists? . see www.cbs.dk/cal . see www.pilobolus.com for information on pilobolus. see tiplady ( ) for examples of mba programs incorporating arts and design-based approaches. contact adler at nancy.adler@mcgill.ca for the syllabus from her arts and leader- ship mba seminar. learning landscapes | volume , number , spring nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring . for theatre-based leadership books, see olivier ( ) and olivier and janni ( ), among others. . the journal of management inquiry devoted a special section in to artistic works that were shown at the academy of management exhibit organized by j. keith murnighan. see the introduction by murnighan ( ) and the individual artistic works by adler ( a, b), bishop and rowe ( ), ferris ( ), king ( ), poulson ( ), reeves, duncan, and ginter ( ), ringseis ( ), strong ( ), and taylor ( ). the academy of management’s art and poetry group was last convened in . . see boland and collopy ( ) for a discussion of designing as managing. see fastcompany’s special issue on design for a listing of the most influential designers, including breen ( ), byrne ( ), and canabou ( ). also see paul bates’ application of design principles to organizational consulting at the national health service in the united kingdom, warren bennis’ ( ) review of leadership through the design process of architect frank gehry, kim cameron’s ( ) analysis of organizational transformation using architecture and design, and van aken’s ( ) use of a design approach in conducting research. . for a discussion of the increasingly rapid changes in the global economy, see friedman ( , a, b). . most mba programs grew up originally in north america, and only later in europe; much more recently asians began to develop their own mba programs and to import programs from abroad. it is therefore not surprising that such mba programs often reflect the strengths and weaknesses of a th-century euro- centric perspective that in many ways is not encompassing enough to guide managers in a st-century economy that has gone global. . as cited in the october th, report of the aspen institute and the world resource institute ranking business schools on their social impact. . wal-mart’s revenue on the day after u.s. thanksgiving was almost $ . bil- lion (mau et al., : ). . speech given by u.n. secretary general kofi annan at the world economic forum in davos, switzerland in which initiated the united nations global compact, see http://www.aiccafrica.com/pdf% files/global% compact%- handout.pdf . a particularly important and innovative approach is the global ethical initiative, founded and led by mary robinson, former president of ireland and former head of the united nation’s human rights commission. the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? learning landscapes | volume , number , spring . see a.t. kearney’s study reported in haebeck, kroger, and trum ( ) and schuler and jackson ( ). kearney’s study (in schuler & jackson, ) con- cludes that “only percent of mergers and acquisitions in the u.s. achieve their objectives, as measured by share value, return on investment and post-combina- tion profitability.” for research on the instability of international joint ventures, see summary by yan and zeng ( ). although the definitions (complete termi- nation versus significant change of ownership) and overall results vary, numer- ous studies have reported substantial international joint venture instability, including % termination (harrigan, ); % termination (barkema & vermeulen, ); and % instability through termination or acquisition (park & russo, ). also see hamel’s classic article on international strategic alliances. . see, for example, the work of rob nickerson, an actor/director who led second city improv’s training program for years and then went on to work with man- agers. he now coaches managers and executives from a wide range of industries. see nickerson at robnickerson@bigboxcreative.com. also see de pree ( ). . see austin and devin ( : xxv). . the gender specific individual nouns and pronouns, he and his, have been changed to the gender neutral plural form, people and their. the quote is from a speech given at amherst college, amherst, massachusetts ( october ). as cited at wiki quote: http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/john_f._kennedy. for an inter- esting selection of poems written by one of our era’s leading business professors, see stanford professor james march’s poetry books (march , , , , , and ). . appearing on the fast company website, in a complement to the march print edition. it is part of the section, “fast - winners: meet the winners” link: http://www.fastcompany.com/fast _ / winners.html . see http://www.gemsinisrael.com/e_article .htm for a description of the open air museum at tefen. note that warren buffett bought wertheimer’s privately held company, iscar, in may , stating that “you won’t find in the world a better run company than iscar” ( tigay, ). . see the discussion by tung ( ) on the importance of understanding china’s future, not just as a projection of its recent past. . artist joseph beuys as cited in darso ( : ). note that beuys referred to the th century. . palmer ( : ) used the phrase “collusion against illusion.” the list of illusions are those of the author. for companies, it has been said that the best predictor of nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring corporate failure is prior success, due to the hubris-caused blindness that often accompanies success (hamel, ). . “ . . . for the top publicly listed companies in america, the correlation between company size (as measured by average revenues over the past years) and profitability (measured by average operating margins for the same period, whether measured over , , or years, is no more than . —a result that is not statistically significant. put simply, there is no reason to expect that being bigger will make a company more profitable. size and imagination of the sort that pro- duces new, wealth-creating strategies are not correlated” (hamel, : ). . the art-trained medical students improved by %, whereas the control group, which attended clinical tutorial sessions without the art sessions improved by %. . l. weschler ( ) as cited by karl weick ( : ). . fred mandell, principal of lennick aberman leadership group, as cited in the journal of financial planning, april . see also, www.lennickaberman.com. . according to a -year ( – ) gallup poll surveying over million people, only % are inspired. gallup found that organizations with higher inspiration levels, on average, performed better, including showing a % higher customer loyalty rate, % higher employee retention, % higher productivity, % higher profitability, and % higher safety rate (as reported by the bennett performance group http://www.bennettperformancegroup.com/). one of the primary bases of inspiration in the organization is employees’ need to make an impact, for each person to know that his or her work is a part of a more important higher goal (http://www.bennettperformancegroup.com/). . see olivier ( ) for a discussion of his use of henry v to teach inspirational lead- ership. quote is from a description of the book at: http://www.sfb.co.uk/cgi- bin/profile.cgi?s_ &t_ . the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? 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is forgetting the name of the thing one sees: a life of contemporary artist robert irwin. berkeley, ca: university of california. wheatley, m. j. . leadership and the new sci- ence. san francisco: berrett-koehler publishers. wheatley, m. j., & kellner-rogers, m. . a sim- pler way. san francisco: berrett-koehler publishers. whyte, d. . the heart aroused. new york: currency doubleday. whyte, d. . crossing the unknown sea: work as a pilgrimage of identity. new york: riverhead books. nancy j. adler learning landscapes | volume , number , spring the arts & leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? nancy j. adler is the s. bronfman chair in management at mcgill university. she received her doctorate from ucla. dr. adler conducts research and consults on global leadership, cross-cultural management, and women as global leaders. she has authored over articles, produced a film, and published four books. she is a fellow of the academy of management, the academy of international business, and the royal society of canada. she was named a m fellow, recognizing her as one of the top university-level teachers, among all disciplines, in canada. nancy is also an artist working primarily in watercolor and ink. yan, a., & zeng, m. . international joint ven- ture instability: a critique of previous research, a reconceptualization, and direc- tions for future research. journal of international business studies, : – . zander, r., & zander, b. . leadership: an art of possibility. video program. american media and groh productions. zander, r. s., & zander, b. . the art of possibil- ity: transforming professional and personal life. boston: harvard business school press. zimmerman, b., lindberg, c., & plsek, p. . edgeware: insights from complexity science for health care leaders. irving, tx: vha, inc. link to: http://people.mcgill.ca/nancy.adler http://people.mcgill.ca/nancy.adler