Great Vowel Shift - Wikipedia Great Vowel Shift From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pronunciation change in English between 1350 and 1700 This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article is missing information about a recorded passage of text read in Middle English before the Great Vowel Shift. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (September 2016) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Great Vowel Shift" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) History and description of English pronunciation Historical stages Old English Middle English General development Overview In Old English In Scots Development of vowels Overview Great Vowel Shift Close front A Open back Close back Diphthongs Pre-L Pre-R Development of consonants Single consonants Clusters Variable features Rhoticity Flapping L-vocalization T-glottalization Cot–caught merger H-dropping Drawl TH R WH Related topics History of English Spelling v t e This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. The Great Vowel Shift was a series of changes in the pronunciation of the English language that took place primarily between 1400 and 1700, beginning in southern England and today having influenced effectively all dialects of English. Through this vowel shift, the pronunciation of all Middle English long vowels was changed. Some consonant sounds changed as well, particularly those that became silent; the term Great Vowel Shift is sometimes used to include these consonant changes.[1][2] English spelling started being standardised in the 15th and 16th centuries, and the Great Vowel Shift is the major reason English spellings now often deviate considerably from how they represent pronunciations.[3] The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by Otto Jespersen (1860–1943), a Danish linguist and Anglicist, who coined the term.[4] Contents 1 Causes 2 Overall changes 3 Details 3.1 Middle English vowel system 3.2 Changes 3.3 First phase 3.4 Second phase 3.5 Later mergers 4 Northern English and Scots 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Sources 7.1 References 7.2 Bibliography 8 External links Causes[edit] The causes of the Great Vowel Shift have been a source of intense scholarly debate, and, as yet, there is no firm consensus. The greatest changes occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries. Population migration: Some scholars have argued that the rapid migration of peoples from northern England to the southeast following the Black Death caused a mixing of accents that forced a change in the standard London vernacular. French loan words: Others argue that the influx of French loanwords was a major factor in the shift.[5] Middle class hypercorrection: Yet others assert that because of the increasing prestige of French pronunciations among the middle classes (perhaps related to the English aristocracy's switching from French to English around this time), a process of hypercorrection may have started a shift that unintentionally resulted in vowel pronunciations that are inaccurate imitations of French pronunciations.[6] War with France: An opposing theory states that the wars with France and general anti-French sentiments caused hypercorrection deliberately to make English sound less like French.[7] Overall changes[edit] The main difference between the pronunciation of Middle English in the year 1400 and Modern English (Received Pronunciation) is in the value of the long vowels. Long vowels in Middle English had "continental" values, much like those in Italian and Standard German; in standard Modern English, they have entirely different pronunciations.[8] The differing pronunciations of English vowel letters do not stem from the Great Shift as such but because English spelling did not adapt to the changes. German had undergone vowel changes quite similar to the Great Shift in a slightly earlier period but the spelling was changed accordingly (e.g. Middle High German bīzen → modern German beißen "to bite"). Word Vowel pronunciation Late Middle English before the GVS Modern English after the GVS bite /iː/ /aɪ/ meet /eɪ/ /iː/ meat /ɛər/ mate /ɑː/ /eɪ/ out /uː/ /aʊ/ boot /oʊ/ /uː/ boat /ɔː/ /oʊ/ This timeline shows the main vowel changes that occurred between late Middle English in the year 1400 and Received Pronunciation in the mid-20th century by using representative words. The Great Vowel Shift occurred in the lower half of the table, between 1400 and 1600–1700. The changes that happened after 1700 are not considered part of the Great Vowel Shift. Pronunciation is given in the International Phonetic Alphabet:[9] Details[edit] Middle English vowel system[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Before the Great Vowel Shift, Middle English in Southern England had seven long vowels, /iː eː ɛː aː ɔː oː uː/. The vowels occurred in, for example, the words bite, meet, meat, mate, boat, boot, and out, respectively. Southern Middle English vowel system front back close /iː/: bite /uː/: out close-mid /eː/: meet /oː/: boot open-mid /ɛː/: meat /ɔː/: boat open /aː/: mate — The words had very different pronunciations in Middle English from their pronunciations in Modern English. Long i in bite was pronounced as /iː/ so Middle English bite sounded like Modern English beet /biːt/. Long e in meet was pronounced as /eː/ so Middle English meet sounded similar to Modern English mate /meɪt/ Long a in mate was pronounced as /aː/, with a vowel similar to the broad a of spa. Long o in boot was pronounced as /oː/, similar to modern oa in General American boat /oʊ/. In addition, Middle English had: Long /ɛː/ in beat, like modern short e in bed but pronounced longer, and Long /ɔː/ in boat. Changes[edit] After around 1300, the long vowels of Middle English began changing in pronunciation as follows: Diphthongisation - The two close vowels, /iː uː/, became diphthongs (vowel breaking). Vowel raising - The other five, /eː ɛː aː ɔː oː/, underwent an increase in tongue height (raising). They occurred over several centuries and can be divided into two phases. The first phase affected the close vowels /iː uː/ and the close-mid vowels /eː oː/: /eː oː/ were raised to /iː uː/, and /iː uː/ became the diphthongs /ei ou/ or /əi əu/.[10] The second phase affected the open vowel /aː/ and the open-mid vowels /ɛː ɔː/: /aː ɛː ɔː/ were raised, in most cases changing to /eː iː oː/.[11] The Great Vowel Shift changed vowels without merger so Middle English before the vowel shift had the same number of vowel phonemes as Early Modern English after the vowel shift. After the Great Vowel Shift, some vowel phonemes began merging. Immediately after the Great Vowel Shift, the vowels of meet and meat were different, but they are merged in Modern English, and both words are pronounced as /miːt/. However, during the 16th and the 17th centuries, there were many different mergers, and some mergers can be seen in individual Modern English words like great, which is pronounced with the vowel /eɪ/ as in mate rather than the vowel /iː/ as in meat.[12] This is a simplified picture of the changes that happened between late Middle English (late ME), Early Modern English (EModE), and today's English (ModE). Pronunciations in 1400, 1500, 1600, and 1900 are shown.[8] To hear recordings of the sounds, click the phonetic symbols. Word Vowel pronunciation Soundfile late ME EModE ModE 1400 1500 1600 by 1900 bite /iː/ /ei/ /ɛi/ /aɪ/ meet /eː/ /iː/ meat /ɛː/ /eː/ /iː/ mate /aː/ /æː/ /ɛː/ /eɪ/ out /uː/ /ou/ /ɔu/ /aʊ/ boot /oː/ /uː/ boat /ɔː/ /oː/ /oʊ/ Before labial consonants and also after /j/,[13] /uː/ did not shift, and /uː/ remains as in soup and room (its Middle English spelling was roum). First phase[edit] The first phase of the Great Vowel Shift affected the Middle English close-mid vowels /eː oː/, as in beet and boot, and the close vowels /iː uː/, as in bite and out. The close-mid vowels /eː oː/ became close /iː uː/, and the close vowels /iː uː/ became diphthongs. The first phase was complete in 1500, meaning that by that time, words like beet and boot had lost their Middle English pronunciation, and were pronounced with the same vowels as in Modern English. The words bite and out were pronounced with diphthongs, but not the same diphthongs as in Modern English.[10] First phase of the Great Vowel Shift Word Vowel pronunciation 1400 1550 bite /iː/ /ɛi/ meet /eː/ /iː/ out /uː/ /ɔu/ boot /oː/ /uː/ Scholars agree that the Middle English close vowels /iː uː/ became diphthongs around the year 1500, but disagree about what diphthongs they changed to. According to Lass, the words bite and out after diphthongisation were pronounced as /beit/ and /out/, similar to American English bait /beɪt/ and oat /oʊt/. Later, the diphthongs /ei ou/ shifted to /ɛi ɔu/, then /əi əu/, and finally to Modern English /aɪ aʊ/.[10] This sequence of events is supported by the testimony of orthoepists before Hodges in 1644. However, many scholars such as Dobson (1968), Kökeritz (1953), and Cercignani (1981) argue for theoretical reasons that, contrary to what 16th-century witnesses report, the vowels /iː uː/ were actually immediately centralised and lowered to /əi əu/.[nb 1] Evidence from northern English and Scots (see below) suggests that the close-mid vowels /eː oː/ were the first to shift. As the Middle English vowels /eː oː/ were raised towards /iː uː/, they forced the original Middle English /iː uː/ out of place and caused them to become diphthongs /ei ou/. This type of sound change, in which one vowel's pronunciation shifts so that it is pronounced like a second vowel, and the second vowel is forced to change its pronunciation, is called a push chain.[14] However, according to professor Jürgen Handke, for some time, there was a phonetic split between words with the vowel /iː/ and the diphthong /əi/, in words where the Middle English /iː/ shifted to the Modern English /aɪ/. For an example, high was pronounced with the vowel /iː/, and like and my were pronounced with the diphthong /əi/.[15] Therefore, for logical reasons, the close vowels /iː uː/ could have diphthongised before the close-mid vowels /eː oː/ raised. Otherwise, high would probably rhyme with thee rather than my. This type of chain is called a drag chain. Second phase[edit] The second phase of the Great Vowel Shift affected the Middle English open vowel /aː/, as in mate, and the Middle English open-mid vowels /ɛː ɔː/, as in meat and boat. Around 1550, Middle English /aː/ was raised to /æː/. Then, after 1600, the new /æː/ was raised to /ɛː/, with the Middle English open-mid vowels /ɛː ɔː/ raised to close-mid /eː oː/.[11] Second phase of the Great Vowel Shift Word Vowel pronunciation 1400 1550 1640 meat /ɛː/ /ɛː/ /eː/ mate /aː/ /aː/, /æː/ /ɛː/ boat /ɔː/ /ɔː/ /oː/ Later mergers[edit] During the first and the second phases of the Great Vowel Shift, long vowels were shifted without merging with other vowels, but after the second phase, several vowels merged. The later changes also involved the Middle English diphthong /ai/, as in day, which had monophthongised to /ɛː/, and merged with Middle English /aː/ as in mate or /ɛː/ as in meat.[12] During the 16th and 17th centuries, several different pronunciation variants existed among different parts of the population for words like meet, meat, mate, and day. In each pronunciation variant, different pairs or trios of words were merged in pronunciation. Four different pronunciation variants are shown in the table below. The fourth pronunciation variant gave rise to Modern English pronunciation. In Modern English, meet and meat are merged in pronunciation and both have the vowel /iː/, and mate and day are merged with the diphthong /eɪ/, which developed from the 16th-century long vowel /eː/.[12] Second phase of the Great Vowel Shift Word Middle English 16th century pronunciation variants 1 2 3 4 meet /eː/ /iː/ /iː/ /iː/ /iː/ meat /ɛː/ /ɛː/ /eː/ /eː/ day /ai/ /ɛː/ /eː/ mate /aː/ /æː/ Modern English typically has the meet–meat merger: both meet and meat are pronounced with the vowel /iː/. Words like great and steak, however, have merged with mate and are pronounced with the vowel /eɪ/, which developed from the /eː/ shown in the table above. Northern English and Scots[edit] The Great Vowel Shift affected other dialects as well as the standard English of southern England but in different ways. In Northern England, the shift did not operate on the long back vowels because they had undergone an earlier shift.[16] Similarly, the Scots language in Scotland had a different vowel system before the Great Vowel Shift, as /oː/ had shifted to /øː/ in Early Scots. In the Scots equivalent of the Great Vowel Shift, the long vowels /iː/, /eː/ and /aː/ shifted to /ei/, /iː/ and /eː/ by the Middle Scots period and /uː/ remained unaffected.[17] The first step in the Great Vowel Shift in Northern and Southern English is shown in the table below. The Northern English developments of Middle English /iː, eː/ and /oː, uː/ were different from Southern English. In particular, the Northern English vowels /iː/ in bite, /eː/ in feet, and /oː/ in boot shifted, while the vowel /uː/ in house did not. These developments below fall under the label "older" to refer to Scots and a more conservative and increasingly rural Northern sound,[18] while "younger" refers to a more mainstream Northern sound largely emerging just since the twentieth century. Word Vowel Middle English Modern English Scots/Northern (older) Northern (younger) Southern bite /iː/ /ɛi/ /ai/ /ai/ feet /eː/ /iː/ /iː/ /iː/ house /uː/ /uː/ /ɐu~au/ /au/ boot /oː/ /iː/ /yː~uː/ /uː/ The vowel systems of Northern and Southern Middle English immediately before the Great Vowel Shift were different in one way. In Northern Middle English, the back close-mid vowel /oː/ in boot had already shifted to front /øː/ (a sound change known as fronting), like the long ö in German hören [ˈhøːʁən] (listen) "hear". Thus, Southern English had a back close-mid vowel /oː/, but Northern English did not:[14] Southern Middle English vowel system front back close iː uː close-mid eː oː open-mid ɛː ɔː open aː — Northern Middle English vowel system front back close iː uː close-mid eː, øː — open-mid ɛː ɔː open aː — In both Northern and Southern English, the first step of the Great Vowel Shift raised the close-mid vowels to become close. Northern Middle English had two close-mid vowels – /eː/ in feet and /øː/ in boot – which were raised to /iː/ and /yː/. Later on, Northern English /yː/ changed to /iː/ in many dialects (though not in all, see Phonological history of Scots § Vowel 7), so that boot has the same vowel as feet. Southern Middle English had two close-mid vowels – /eː/ in feet and /oː/ in boot – which were raised to /iː/ and /uː/. In Southern English, the close vowels /iː/ in bite and /uː/ in house shifted to become diphthongs, but in Northern English, /iː/ in bite shifted but /uː/ in house did not. If the difference between the Northern and Southern vowel shifts is caused by the vowel systems at the time of the Great Vowel Shift, /uː/ did not shift because there was no back mid vowel /oː/ in Northern English. In Southern English, shifting of /oː/ to /uː/ could have caused diphthongisation of original /uː/, but because Northern English had no back close-mid vowel /oː/ to shift, the back close vowel /uː/ did not diphthongise. See also[edit] Canaanite Shift High German consonant shift Slavic palatalisation Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law Grimm's law Chain shift "The Chaos" History of English Phonological history of English vowels Vowel shift Notes[edit] ^ Centralizing to /ɨi ɨu/ and then lowering to /əi əu/ argued by Stockwell (1961). Sources[edit] References[edit] ^ Stockwell, Robert (2002). "How Much Shifting Actually Occurred in the Historical English Vowel Shift?" (PDF). In Minkova, Donka; Stockwell, Robert (eds.). Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-017368-9. ^ Wyld, H. C. (1957) [1914]. A Short History of English. ^ Denham, Kristin; Lobeck, Anne (2009). Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction. Cengage Learning. p. 89. ^ Labov, William (1994). Principles of Linguistic Change. Blackwell Publishing. p. 145. ISBN 0-631-17914-3. ^ Millward, C. M.; Hayes, Mary (2011). A Biography of the English Language (3rd ed.). Wadsworth Publishing. p. 250. ISBN 978-0495906414. ^ Nevalainen, Terttu; Traugott, Elizabeth Closs, eds. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Oxford University Press. p. 794. ASIN B009UU4P66. ^ Asya Pereltsvaig (Aug 3, 2010). "Great Vowel Shift — part 3". Languages of the World. ^ a b Lass 2000, p. 72. ^ Wheeler, L Kip. "Middle English consonant sounds" (PDF). ^ a b c Lass 2000, pp. 80–83. ^ a b Lass 2000, pp. 83–85. ^ a b c Görlach 1991, pp. 68–69. ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton-de Gruyter. p. 14. ISBN 3-11-016746-8. ^ a b Lass 2000, pp. 74–77. ^ Jürgen Handke (Dec 7, 2012). "PHY117 – The Great Vowel Shift". YouTube. The Virtual Linguistics Campus. ^ Wales, K (2006). Northern English: a cultural and social history. Cambridge: Cambridge University. p. 48. ^ Macafee, Caroline; Aitken, A. J., A History of Scots to 1700, DOST, 12, pp. lvi–lix ^ Lass 2000, pp. 76. Bibliography[edit] Baugh, Alfred C.; Cable, Thomas (1993). A History of the English Language (4 ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Cable, Thomas (1983). A Companion to Baugh & Cable's History of the English Language. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Cercignani, Fausto (1981). Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Dillon, George L., "American English vowels", Studying Phonetics on the Net Dobson, E. J. (1968). English Pronunciation 1500–1700 (2 vols) (2 ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. (See vol. 2, 594–713 for discussion of long stressed vowels) Freeborn, Dennis (1992). From Old English to Standard English: A Course Book in Language Variation Across Time. Ottawa, Canada: University of Ottawa Press. Görlach, Manfred (1991). Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge University Press. Kökeritz, Helge (1953). Shakespeare's Pronunciation. New Haven: Yale University Press. Lass, Roger (2000). "Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology". In Lass, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III: 1476–1776. Cambridge University Press. pp. 56–186. Millward, Celia (1996). A Biography of the English Language (2 ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace. Pyles, Thomas; Algeo, John (1993). The Origins and Development of the English Language (4 ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace & Co. Rogers, William 'Bill', A Simplified History of the Phonemes of English, Furman, archived from the original on 2002-08-03 External links[edit] Great Vowel Shift Video lecture Menzer, M., "What is the Great Vowel Shift?", Great Vowel Shift, Furman University, archived from the original on 2002-08-10, retrieved 2010-09-07() "The Great Vowel Shift", Geoffrey Chaucer, Harvard University v t e History of English Proto-Indo-European Proto-Germanic Proto-West-Germanic Anglo-Frisian languages Old English Kentish Mercian Northumbrian West Saxon Anglo-Norman language Middle English Early Modern English Modern English Phonological history Vowels Great Vowel Shift Open unrounded vowels Open back vowels Close back vowels Close front vowels Diphthongs Changes before historic /l/ Changes before historic /r/ Trisyllabic laxing Consonants Rhoticity Flapping T-glottalization L-vocalization Consonant clusters H-dropping Wh Th Th-fronting Th-stopping v t e Germanic languages According to contemporary philology West Germanic Anglo-Frisian Anglic English* dialects Yola Fingallian Old English Middle English Scots Early Scots Middle Scots Frisian East Frisian Ems Saterland Frisian Weser Wangerooge Frisian Wursten Frisian North Frisian Insular Eiderstedt Föhr–Amrum Föhr Amrum Heligolandic Sylt Mainland Bökingharde Mooring Halligen Goesharde Northern Central Southern Karrharde Strand Wiedingharde West Frisian Hindeloopen Schiermonnikoog Westlauwers–Terschellings Mainland West Frisian Clay Frisian Wood Frisian Westereendersk Terschelling Old Frisian Middle Frisian Low German Historical forms Old Saxon Middle Low German West Low German Dutch Low Saxon Stellingwarfs Tweants Gronings Drèents Gelders-Overijssels Achterhooks Sallaans Urkers Veluws Northern Low Saxon East Frisian Low Saxon Schleswigsch Holsteinisch Hamburgisch Ollnborger North Hanoveranian Dithmarsch Emsländisch Westphalian Eastphalian East Low German Mecklenburg-Western Pomeranian Mecklenburgish West Pomeranian Brandenburgisch East Pomeranian–West Prussian Western East Pomeranian Eastern East Pomeranian Bublitzisch Pommerellisch Central Pomeranian West Central Pomeranian Low Prussian Mennonite Low German Low Franconian Standard variants Dutch* Frankish Old Dutch Middle Dutch Afrikaans* West Low Franconian Hollandic West Flemish French Flemish Zeelandic East Flemish Brabantian Surinamese Dutch Jersey Dutch Mohawk Dutch Stadsfries Bildts Yiddish Dutch East Low Franconian Meuse-Rhenish Limburgish Southeast Limburgish South Guelderish Transitional Low Dietsch High German Standard variants German* Namibian German Namibian Black German Brazilian German Unserdeutsch Barossa German Belgranodeutsch Parana Volga German Kiautschou Pidgin German Old High German Middle High German Early New High German Yiddish Eastern Western Litvish Poylish Ukrainish Galitzish Scots Yiddish Alsatian Yiddish Klezmer-loshn Ganovim Balagole Katsoves Lachoudisch Yenish Rotwelsch Lotegorisch Standard German German Standard German Austrian Standard German Swiss Standard German Central German West Central German Central Franconian Ripuarian Colognian Moselle Franconian Luxembourgish Transylvanian Saxon Hunsrückisch Hunsrik Rhine Franconian Lorraine Franconian Palatine Volga German Pennsylvania German Hessian Amana East Central German Thuringian Upper Saxon Ore Mountainian Lusatian-Neumarkish Berlinerisch Silesian German High Prussian Wymysorys Halcnovian Prague German High Franconian South Franconian East Franconian Main Franconian Vogtlandian Upper German Alemannic Low Alemannic Alsatian Coloniero High Alemannic Swiss German Highest Alemannic Walser German Swabian Bavarian Northern Bavarian Central Bavarian Viennese German Southern Bavarian South Tyrolean Cimbrian Mòcheno Hutterite German Langobardic North Germanic and East Germanic North Germanic Historical forms Proto-Norse Old Norse Old West Norse Old East Norse Old Gutnish West Scandinavian Norwegian* Spoken Bergensk Kebabnorsk Sognamål Trøndersk Valdris Vestlandsk Vikværsk Written Bokmål Nynorsk Old Norwegian Middle Norwegian Insular Scandinavian Faroese Icelandic Old Icelandic Middle Icelandic Gronlandsk Norn East Scandinavian Swedish* Åland Estonian Finlandic Gotlandic/Gutnish Jämtlandic Kalix Kiruna Luleå Norrland Ostrobothnian Småländska South Swedish Scanian Stockholm Rinkeby Uppländska Västgötska Westrobothnian Old Swedish Danish* Bornholmsk Gøtudanskt Insular Danish Jutlandic South Jutlandic Perkerdansk Old Danish Middle Danish Dalecarlian Elfdalian East Germanic Gothic Crimean Gothic Burgundian Vandalic Philology Language subgroups North East West Elbe (Irminonic) Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) North Sea (Ingvaeonic) Northwest Gotho-Nordic South Reconstructed Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic grammar Germanic parent language Ancient Belgian language Diachronic features Grimm's law Verner's law Holtzmann's law Sievers's law Kluge's law Germanic substrate hypothesis West Germanic gemination High German consonant shift Germanic a-mutation Germanic umlaut Germanic spirant law Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law Great Vowel Shift Synchronic features Germanic verb Germanic strong verb Germanic weak verb Preterite-present verb Grammatischer Wechsel Indo-European ablaut Italics indicate extinct languages * (asterisks) indicates languages with more than 3 million speakers Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Vowel_Shift&oldid=1003433987" Categories: History of the English language Vowel shifts Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from June 2020 Articles to be expanded from September 2016 Articles needing additional references from January 2011 All articles needing additional references Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles containing Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)-language text Articles containing German-language text Articles needing additional references from March 2020 Articles with hAudio microformats Pages including recorded pronunciations Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Interlingua Íslenska Italiano Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Nederlands 日本語 پنجابی Polski Português Русский Simple English Svenska Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 January 2021, at 23:47 (UTC). 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