Runes - Wikipedia Runes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Runic) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Runes (disambiguation). Ancient Germanic alphabet Runic Type Alphabet Languages Germanic languages Time period Elder Futhark from the 2nd century AD Parent systems Phoenician Greek alphabet (Euboean variant) Old Italic Runic Child systems Younger Futhark, Anglo-Saxon futhorc Direction Left-to-right ISO 15924 Runr, 211 Unicode alias Runic Unicode range U+16A0–U+16FF[1] This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. This article contains runic characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of runes. History of the alphabet Egyptian hieroglyphs 32 c. BCE Hieratic 32 c. BCE Demotic 7 c. BCE Meroitic 3 c. BCE Proto-Sinaitic 19 c. BCE Ugaritic 15 c. BCE Epigraphic South Arabian 9 c. BCE Geʽez 5–6 c. BCE Phoenician 12 c. BCE Paleo-Hebrew 10 c. BCE Samaritan 6 c. BCE Libyco-Berber 3 c. BCE Tifinagh Paleohispanic (semi-syllabic) 7 c. BCE Aramaic 8 c. BCE Kharosthi 3 c. BCE Brahmi 3 c. BCE Brahmic family (see) E.g. Tibetan 7 c. CE Devanagari 10 c. CE Canadian syllabics 1840 Hebrew 3 c. BCE Square Aramiac Alphabet 2007 Pahlavi 3 c. BCE Avestan 4 c. CE Palmyrene 2 c. BCE Nabataean 2 c. BCE Arabic 4 c. CE N'Ko 1949 CE Syriac 2 c. BCE Sogdian 2 c. BCE Orkhon (old Turkic) 6 c. CE Old Hungarian c. 650 CE Old Uyghur Mongolian 1204 CE Mandaic 2 c. CE Greek 8 c. BCE Etruscan 8 c. BCE Latin 7 c. BCE Cherokee (syllabary; letter forms only) c. 1820 CE Osage 2006 CE Runic 2 c. CE Ogham (origin uncertain) 4 c. CE Coptic 3 c. CE Gothic 3 c. CE Armenian 405 CE Caucasian Albanian (origin uncertain) c. 420 CE Georgian (origin uncertain) c. 430 CE Glagolitic 862 CE Cyrillic c. 940 CE Old Permic 1372 CE Hangul 1443 Thaana 18 c. CE (derived from Brahmi numerals) v t e Runes are the letters in a set of related alphabets known as runic alphabets, which were used to write various Germanic languages before the adoption of the Latin alphabet and for specialised purposes thereafter. The Scandinavian variants are also known as futhark or fuþark (derived from their first six letters of the alphabet: F, U, Þ, A, R, and K); the Anglo-Saxon variant is futhorc or fuþorc (due to sound-changes undergone in Old English by the names of those six letters). Runology is the study of the runic alphabets, runic inscriptions, runestones, and their history. Runology forms a specialised branch of Germanic linguistics. The earliest runic inscriptions date from around 150 AD. The characters were generally replaced by the Latin alphabet as the cultures that had used runes underwent Christianisation, by approximately 700 AD in central Europe and 1100 AD in northern Europe. However, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes in northern Europe. Until the early 20th century, runes were used in rural Sweden for decorative purposes in Dalarna and on Runic calendars. The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark (around 150–800 AD), the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (400–1100 AD), and the Younger Futhark (800–1100 AD). The Younger Futhark is divided further into the long-branch runes (also called Danish, although they were also used in Norway, Sweden, and Frisia); short-branch or Rök runes (also called Swedish-Norwegian, although they were also used in Denmark); and the stavlösa or Hälsinge runes (staveless runes). The Younger Futhark developed further into the Medieval runes (1100–1500 AD), and the Dalecarlian runes (c. 1500–1800 AD). Historically, the runic alphabet is a derivation of the Old Italic scripts of antiquity, with the addition of some innovations. Which variant of the Old Italic branch in particular gave rise to the runes is uncertain. Suggestions include Raetic, Venetic, Etruscan, or Old Latin as candidates. At the time, all of these scripts had the same angular letter shapes suited for epigraphy, which would become characteristic of the runes. The process of transmission of the script is unknown. The oldest inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany. A "West Germanic hypothesis" suggests transmission via Elbe Germanic groups, while a "Gothic hypothesis" presumes transmission via East Germanic expansion. Contents 1 History and use 1.1 Origins 1.2 Early inscriptions 1.3 Magical or divinatory use 1.4 Medieval use 1.5 Runes in Eddic lore 2 Runic alphabets 2.1 Elder Futhark (2nd to 8th centuries) 2.2 Anglo-Saxon runes (5th to 11th centuries) 2.3 "Marcomannic runes" (8th to 9th centuries) 2.4 Younger Futhark (9th to 11th centuries) 2.5 Medieval runes (12th to 15th centuries) 2.6 Dalecarlian runes (16th to 19th centuries) 3 Academic study 4 Body of inscriptions 5 Modern use 5.1 Esotericism 5.1.1 Germanic mysticism and Nazi symbolism 5.1.2 Modern neopaganism and esotericism 5.2 Bluetooth 5.3 J. R. R. Tolkien and contemporary fiction 6 Unicode 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Bibliography 10 External links History and use[edit] An inscription using cipher runes, the Elder Futhark, and the Younger Futhark, on the 9th-century Rök runestone in Sweden A Younger Futhark inscription on the 12th-century Vaksala Runestone in Sweden The runes were in use among the Germanic peoples from the 1st or 2nd century AD.[a] This period corresponds to the late Common Germanic stage linguistically, with a continuum of dialects not yet clearly separated into the three branches of later centuries: North Germanic, West Germanic, and East Germanic. No distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present phonologically in the spoken languages of the time. Similarly, there are no signs for labiovelars in the Elder Futhark (such signs were introduced in both the Anglo-Saxon futhorc and the Gothic alphabet as variants of p; see peorð.) The term runes is used to distinguish these symbols from Latin and Greek letters. It is attested on a 6th-century Alamannic runestaff as runa and possibly as runo on the 4th-century Einang stone. The name comes from the Germanic root run- (Gothic: 𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌰, runa), meaning "secret" or "whisper". In Old Irish Gaelic, the word rún means "mystery", "secret", "intention" or "affectionate love." Similarly in Welsh and Old English, the word rhin and rūn respectively means "mystery", "secret", "secret writing", or sometimes in the extreme sense of the word, "miracle" (gwyrth). Ogham is an older Celtic script from Ireland and Britain, similarly carved in to stone or wood. The root run- can also be found in the Baltic languages, meaning "speech". In Lithuanian, runoti means both "to cut (with a knife)" and "to speak".[3] According to another theory, the Germanic root comes from the Indo-European root *reuə- "dig".[4] The Finnish term for rune, riimukirjain, means "scratched letter".[5] The Finnish word runo means "poem" and comes from the same source as the English word "rune"; it is a very old loan of the Proto-Germanic *rūnō ("letter, literature, secret").[6] [b] Origins[edit] Main article: Elder Futhark The formation of the Elder Futhark was complete by the early 5th century, with the Kylver Stone being the first evidence of the futhark ordering as well as of the p rune. The alphabets of Este (Venetic), Magrè and Bolzano/Bozen-Sanzeno (Raetic), Sondrio (Camunic), Lugano (Lepontic) Specifically, the Raetic alphabet of Bolzano is often advanced as a candidate for the origin of the runes, with only five Elder Futhark runes (ᛖ e, ᛇ ï, ᛃ j, ᛜ ŋ, ᛈ p) having no counterpart in the Bolzano alphabet.[7] Scandinavian scholars tend to favor derivation from the Latin alphabet itself over Raetic candidates.[8][9][10] A "North Etruscan" thesis is supported by the inscription on the Negau helmet dating to the 2nd century BC.[11] This is in a northern Etruscan alphabet but features a Germanic name, Harigast. Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante suggest that runes derived from some North Italic alphabet, specifically Venetic: but since Romans conquered Veneto after 200 BC, and then the Latin alphabet became prominent and Venetic culture diminished in importance, Germanic people could have adopted the Venetic alphabet within the 3rd century BC or even earlier.[12] The angular shapes of the runes are shared with most contemporary alphabets of the period that were used for carving in wood or stone. There are no horizontal strokes: when carving a message on a flat staff or stick, it would be along the grain, thus both less legible and more likely to split the wood.[13] This characteristic is also shared by other alphabets, such as the early form of the Latin alphabet used for the Duenos inscription, but it is not universal, especially among early runic inscriptions, which frequently have variant rune shapes, including horizontal strokes. Runic manuscripts (that is written rather than carved runes, such as Codex Runicus) also show horizontal strokes. The "West Germanic hypothesis" speculates on an introduction by West Germanic tribes. This hypothesis is based on claiming that the earliest inscriptions of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, found in bogs and graves around Jutland (the Vimose inscriptions), exhibit word endings that, being interpreted by Scandinavian scholars to be Proto-Norse, are considered unresolved and long having been the subject of discussion. Inscriptions such as wagnija, niþijo, and harija are supposed to represent tribe names, tentatively proposed to be Vangiones, the Nidensis, and the Harii tribes located in the Rhineland.[14] Since names ending in -io reflect Germanic morphology representing the Latin ending -ius, and the suffix -inius was reflected by Germanic -inio-,[15][16] the question of the problematic ending -ijo in masculine Proto-Norse would be resolved by assuming Roman (Rhineland) influences, while "the awkward ending -a of laguþewa[17] may be solved by accepting the fact that the name may indeed be West Germanic".[14] In the early Runic period differences between Germanic languages are generally presumed to be small. Another theory presumes a Northwest Germanic unity preceding the emergence of Proto-Norse proper from roughly the 5th century.[c][d] An alternative suggestion explaining the impossibility of classifying the earliest inscriptions as either North or West Germanic is forwarded by È. A. Makaev, who presumes a "special runic koine", an early "literary Germanic" employed by the entire Late Common Germanic linguistic community after the separation of Gothic (2nd to 5th centuries), while the spoken dialects may already have been more diverse.[19] Early inscriptions[edit] Ring of Pietroassa (c. 250–400 AD) by Henri Trenk, 1875 Runic inscriptions from the 400-year period 150–550 AD are described as "Period I". These inscriptions are generally in Elder Futhark, but the set of letter shapes and bindrunes employed is far from standardized. Notably the j, s, and ŋ runes undergo considerable modifications, while others, such as p and ï, remain unattested altogether prior to the first full futhark row on the Kylver Stone (c. 400 AD). Artifacts such as spear heads or shield mounts have been found that bear runic marking that may be dated to 200 AD, as evidenced by artifacts found across northern Europe in Schleswig (North Germany), Fyn, Sjælland, Jylland (Denmark), and Skåne (Sweden). Earlier—but less reliable—artifacts have been found in Meldorf, Süderdithmarschen, northern Germany; these include brooches and combs found in graves, most notably the Meldorf fibula, and are supposed to have the earliest markings resembling runic inscriptions. Theories of the existence of separate Gothic runes have been advanced, even identifying them as the original alphabet from which the Futhark were derived, but these have little support in archaeological findings (mainly the spearhead of Kovel, with its right-to-left inscription, its T-shaped tiwaz, and its rectangular dagaz). If there ever were genuinely Gothic runes, they were soon replaced by the Gothic alphabet. The letters of the Gothic alphabet, however, as given by the Alcuin manuscript (9th century), are obviously related to the names of the Futhark. The names are clearly Gothic, but it is impossible to say whether they are as old as the letters themselves. A handful of Elder Futhark inscriptions were found in Gothic territory, such as the 3rd- to 5th-century Ring of Pietroassa. The Encyclopædia Britannica even suggests the original development of the runes may have been due to the Goths.[20] Magical or divinatory use[edit] A bracteate (G 205) from approximately AD 400 that features the charm word alu with a depiction of a stylized male head, a horse, and a swastika, a common motif on bracteates An illustration of the Gummarp Runestone (500–700 AD) from Blekinge, Sweden Closeup of the runic inscription found on the 6th- or 7th-century Björketorp Runestone located in Blekinge, Sweden Main article: Runic magic The stanza 157 of Hávamál attribute to runes the power to bring that which is dead back to life. In this stanza, Odin recounts a spell: Þat kann ek it tolfta, ef ek sé á tré uppi váfa virgilná,: svá ek ríst ok í rúnum fák, at sá gengr gumi ok mælir við mik.[21] I know a twelfth one if I see up in a tree, a dangling corpse in a noose, I can so carve and colour the runes, that the man walks and talks with me.[22] The earliest runic inscriptions found on artifacts give the name of either the craftsman or the proprietor, or sometimes, remain a linguistic mystery. Due to this, it is possible that the early runes were not used so much as a simple writing system, but rather as magical signs to be used for charms. Although some say the runes were used for divination, there is no direct evidence to suggest they were ever used in this way. The name rune itself, taken to mean "secret, something hidden", seems to indicate that knowledge of the runes was originally considered esoteric, or restricted to an elite. The 6th-century Björketorp Runestone warns in Proto-Norse using the word rune in both senses: Haidzruno runu, falahak haidera, ginnarunaz. Arageu haeramalausz uti az. Weladaude, sa'z þat barutz. Uþarba spa. I, master of the runes(?) conceal here runes of power. Incessantly (plagued by) maleficence, (doomed to) insidious death (is) he who breaks this (monument). I prophesy destruction / prophecy of destruction.[23] The same curse and use of the word, rune, is also found on the Stentoften Runestone. There also are some inscriptions suggesting a medieval belief in the magical significance of runes, such as the Franks Casket (AD 700) panel. Charm words, such as auja, laþu, laukaʀ, and most commonly, alu,[24] appear on a number of Migration period Elder Futhark inscriptions as well as variants and abbreviations of them. Much speculation and study has been produced on the potential meaning of these inscriptions. Rhyming groups appear on some early bracteates that also may be magical in purpose, such as salusalu and luwatuwa. Further, an inscription on the Gummarp Runestone (500–700 AD) gives a cryptic inscription describing the use of three runic letters followed by the Elder Futhark f-rune written three times in succession.[25] Nevertheless, it has proven difficult to find unambiguous traces of runic "oracles": although Norse literature is full of references to runes, it nowhere contains specific instructions on divination. There are at least three sources on divination with rather vague descriptions that may, or may not, refer to runes: Tacitus's 1st-century Germania, Snorri Sturluson's 13th-century Ynglinga saga, and Rimbert's 9th-century Vita Ansgari. The first source, Tacitus's Germania,[26] describes "signs" chosen in groups of three and cut from "a nut-bearing tree", although the runes do not seem to have been in use at the time of Tacitus' writings. A second source is the Ynglinga saga, where Granmar, the king of Södermanland, goes to Uppsala for the blót. There, the "chips" fell in a way that said that he would not live long (Féll honum þá svo spánn sem hann mundi eigi lengi lifa). These "chips", however, are easily explainable as a blótspánn (sacrificial chip), which was "marked, possibly with sacrificial blood, shaken, and thrown down like dice, and their positive or negative significance then decided."[27][page needed] The third source is Rimbert's Vita Ansgari, where there are three accounts of what some believe to be the use of runes for divination, but Rimbert calls it "drawing lots". One of these accounts is the description of how a renegade Swedish king, Anund Uppsale, first brings a Danish fleet to Birka, but then changes his mind and asks the Danes to "draw lots". According to the story, this "drawing of lots" was quite informative, telling them that attacking Birka would bring bad luck and that they should attack a Slavic town instead. The tool in the "drawing of lots", however, is easily explainable as a hlautlein (lot-twig), which according to Foote and Wilson[28] would be used in the same manner as a blótspánn. The lack of extensive knowledge on historical use of the runes has not stopped modern authors from extrapolating entire systems of divination from what few specifics exist, usually loosely based on the reconstructed names of the runes and additional outside influence. A recent study of runic magic suggests that runes were used to create magical objects such as amulets,[29][page needed] but not in a way that would indicate that runic writing was any more inherently magical, than were other writing systems such as Latin or Greek. Medieval use[edit] Codex Runicus, a vellum manuscript from approximately 1300 AD containing one of the oldest and best preserved texts of the Scanian Law, is written entirely in runes. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) As Proto-Germanic evolved into its later language groups, the words assigned to the runes and the sounds represented by the runes themselves began to diverge somewhat and each culture would create new runes, rename or rearrange its rune names slightly, or stop using obsolete runes completely, to accommodate these changes. Thus, the Anglo-Saxon futhorc has several runes peculiar to itself to represent diphthongs unique to (or at least prevalent in) the Anglo-Saxon dialect. Nevertheless, that the Younger Futhark has 16 runes, while the Elder Futhark has 24, is not fully explained by the 600-some years of sound changes that had occurred in the North Germanic language group.[30][self-published source?] The development here might seem rather astonishing, since the younger form of the alphabet came to use fewer different rune signs at the same time as the development of the language led to a greater number of different phonemes than had been present at the time of the older futhark. For example, voiced and unvoiced consonants merged in script, and so did many vowels, while the number of vowels in the spoken language increased. From c. 1100 AD, this disadvantage was eliminated in the medieval runes, which again increased the number of different signs to correspond with the number of phonemes in the language. Some later runic finds are on monuments (runestones), which often contain solemn inscriptions about people who died or performed great deeds. For a long time it was presumed that this kind of grand inscription was the primary use of runes, and that their use was associated with a certain societal class of rune carvers. In the mid-1950s, however, approximately 670 inscriptions, known as the Bryggen inscriptions, were found in Bergen.[31] These inscriptions were made on wood and bone, often in the shape of sticks of various sizes, and contained inscriptions of an everyday nature—ranging from name tags, prayers (often in Latin), personal messages, business letters, and expressions of affection, to bawdy phrases of a profane and sometimes even of a vulgar nature. Following this find, it is nowadays commonly presumed that, at least in late use, Runic was a widespread and common writing system. 17th-century clog almanac collected by Sir Hans Sloane. Now in the collection of the British Museum In the later Middle Ages, runes also were used in the clog almanacs (sometimes called Runic staff, Prim, or Scandinavian calendar) of Sweden and Estonia. The authenticity of some monuments bearing Runic inscriptions found in Northern America is disputed; most of them have been dated to modern times. Runes in Eddic lore[edit] In Norse mythology, the runic alphabet is attested to a divine origin (Old Norse: reginkunnr). This is attested as early as on the Noleby Runestone from c. 600 AD that reads Runo fahi raginakundo toj[e'k]a..., meaning "I prepare the suitable divine rune..."[32] and in an attestation from the 9th century on the Sparlösa Runestone, which reads Ok rað runaʀ þaʀ rægi[n]kundu, meaning "And interpret the runes of divine origin".[33] In the Poetic Edda poem Hávamál, Stanza 80, the runes also are described as reginkunnr: Þat er þá reynt, er þú at rúnum spyrr inum reginkunnum, þeim er gerðu ginnregin ok fáði fimbulþulr, þá hefir hann bazt, ef hann þegir.[21] That is now proved, what you asked of the runes, of the potent famous ones, which the great gods made, and the mighty sage stained, that it is best for him if he stays silent.[34] The poem Hávamál explains that the originator of the runes was the major deity, Odin. Stanza 138 describes how Odin received the runes through self-sacrifice: Veit ek at ek hekk vindga meiði a netr allar nío, geiri vndaþr ok gefinn Oðni, sialfr sialfom mer, a þeim meiþi, er mangi veit, hvers hann af rótom renn. I know that I hung on a windy tree nine long nights, wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin, myself to myself, on that tree of which no man knows from where its roots run.[35] In stanza 139, Odin continues: Við hleifi mik seldo ne viþ hornigi, nysta ek niþr, nam ek vp rvnar, opandi nam, fell ek aptr þaðan. No bread did they give me nor a drink from a horn, downwards I peered; I took up the runes, screaming I took them, then I fell back from there.[35] This passage has been interpreted as a mythical representation of shamanic initial rituals in which the initiate must undergo a physical trial in order to receive mystic wisdom.[36] In the Poetic Edda poem Rígsþula another origin is related of how the runic alphabet became known to humans. The poem relates how Ríg, identified as Heimdall in the introduction, sired three sons—Thrall (slave), Churl (freeman), and Jarl (noble)—by human women. These sons became the ancestors of the three classes of humans indicated by their names. When Jarl reached an age when he began to handle weapons and show other signs of nobility, Ríg returned and, having claimed him as a son, taught him the runes. In 1555, the exiled Swedish archbishop Olaus Magnus recorded a tradition that a man named Kettil Runske had stolen three rune staffs from Odin and learned the runes and their magic. Runic alphabets[edit] Elder Futhark (2nd to 8th centuries)[edit] Detail of the Elder Futhark inscription on a replica of one of the 5th-century AD Golden Horns of Gallehus found on Jutland, now Denmark Main article: Elder Futhark The Elder Futhark, used for writing Proto-Norse, consists of 24 runes that often are arranged in three groups of eight; each group is referred to as an Ætt. The earliest known sequential listing of the full set of 24 runes dates to approximately AD 400 and is found on the Kylver Stone in Gotland, Sweden. Most probably each rune had a name, chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. The names are, however, not directly attested for the Elder Futhark themselves. Reconstructed names in Proto-Germanic have been produced,[by whom?] based on the names given for the runes in the later alphabets attested in the rune poems and the linked names of the letters of the Gothic alphabet. The letter /a/ was named from the runic letter called Ansuz. An asterisk before the rune names means that they are unattested reconstructions. The 24 Elder Futhark runes are:[37] Rune UCS Transliteration IPA Proto-Germanic name Meaning ᚠ f /f/ *fehu "cattle; wealth" ᚢ u /u(ː)/ ?*ūruz "aurochs" (or *ûram "water/slag"?) ᚦ þ /θ/, /ð/ ?*þurisaz "giant" (or *þunraz "the god Thunraz") ᚨ a /a(ː)/ *ansuz "god" ("the god Wodinaz"[citation needed]) ᚱ r /r/ *raidō "ride, journey" ᚲ k (c) /k/ ?*kaunan "ulcer"? (or *kenaz "torch"?) ᚷ g /ɡ/ *gebō "gift" ᚹ w /w/ *wunjō "joy" ᚺ ᚻ h /h/ *hagalaz "hail" (the precipitation) ᚾ n /n/ *naudiz "need" ᛁ i /i(ː)/ *īsaz "ice" ᛃ j /j/ *jēra- "year, good year, harvest" ᛇ ï (æ) /æː/[38] *ī(h)waz "yew-tree" ᛈ p /p/ ?*perþ- Secrets; Destiny; Future; Feminine / Uncertain / Hidden. ᛉ z /z/ ?*algiz "elk" (or "protection, defence"[39]) ᛊ ᛋ s /s/ *sōwilō "Sun" ᛏ t /t/ *tīwaz "the god Tiwaz" ᛒ b /b/ *berkanan "birch" ᛖ e /e(ː)/ *ehwaz "horse" ᛗ m /m/ *mannaz "man" ᛚ l /l/ *laguz "water, lake" (or possibly *laukaz "leek") ᛜ ᛝ ŋ /ŋ/ *ingwaz "the god Ingwaz" ᛟ o /o(ː)/ *ōþila-/*ōþala- "heritage, estate, possession" ᛞ d /d/ *dagaz "day" Anglo-Saxon runes (5th to 11th centuries)[edit] Main article: Anglo-Saxon runes The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc The futhorc (sometimes written "fuþorc") are an extended alphabet, consisting of 29, and later 33 characters. It was probably used from the 5th century onwards. There are competing theories as to the origins of the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc. One theory proposes that it was developed in Frisia and later spread to England,[citation needed] while another holds that Scandinavians introduced runes to England, where the futhorc was modified and exported to Frisia.[citation needed] Some examples of futhorc inscriptions are found on the Thames scramasax, in the Vienna Codex, in Cotton Otho B.x (Anglo-Saxon rune poem) and on the Ruthwell Cross. The Anglo-Saxon rune poem gives the following characters and names: ᚠ feoh, ᚢ ur, ᚦ þorn, ᚩ os, ᚱ rad, ᚳ cen, ᚷ gyfu, ᚹ ƿynn, ᚻ hægl, ᚾ nyd, ᛁ is, ᛄ ger, ᛇ eoh, ᛈ peorð, ᛉ eolh, ᛋ sigel, ᛏ tir, ᛒ beorc, ᛖ eh, ᛗ mann, ᛚ lagu, ᛝ ing, ᛟ œthel, ᛞ dæg, ᚪ ac, ᚫ æsc, ᚣ yr, ᛡ ior, ᛠ ear. Extra runes attested to outside of the rune poem include ᛢ cweorð, ᛣ calc, ᚸ gar, and ᛥ stan. Some of these additional letters have only been found in manuscripts. Feoh, þorn, and sigel stood for [f], [þ], and [s] in most environments, but voiced to [v], [ð], and [z] between vowels or voiced consonants. Gyfu and wynn stood for the letters yogh and wynn, which became [g] and [w] in Middle English. "Marcomannic runes" (8th to 9th centuries)[edit] Marcomannic runes A runic alphabet consisting of a mixture of Elder Futhark with Anglo-Saxon futhorc is recorded in a treatise called De Inventione Litterarum, ascribed to Hrabanus Maurus and preserved in 8th- and 9th-century manuscripts mainly from the southern part of the Carolingian Empire (Alemannia, Bavaria). The manuscript text attributes the runes to the Marcomanni, quos nos Nordmannos vocamus, and hence traditionally, the alphabet is called "Marcomannic runes", but it has no connection with the Marcomanni, and rather is an attempt of Carolingian scholars to represent all letters of the Latin alphabets with runic equivalents. Wilhelm Grimm discussed these runes in 1821.[40] Younger Futhark (9th to 11th centuries)[edit] Main article: Younger Futhark The Younger Futhark: long-branch runes and short-twig runes While also featuring a runic inscription detailing the erection of a bridge for a loved one, the 11th-century Ramsung carving is a Sigurd stone that depicts the legend of Sigurd. The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian Futhark, is a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters. The reduction correlates with phonetic changes when Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse. They are found in Scandinavia and Viking Age settlements abroad, probably in use from the 9th century onward. They are divided into long-branch (Danish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The difference between the two versions is a matter of controversy. A general opinion is that the difference between them was functional (viz., the long-branch runes were used for documentation on stone, whereas the short-twig runes were in everyday use for private or official messages on wood). Medieval runes (12th to 15th centuries)[edit] Main article: Medieval runes Medieval runes A church bell from Saleby, Västergötland, Sweden, containing a runic inscription from 1228 AD In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign for each phoneme of the Old Norse language. Dotted variants of voiceless signs were introduced to denote the corresponding voiced consonants, or vice versa, voiceless variants of voiced consonants, and several new runes also appeared for vowel sounds. Inscriptions in medieval Scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune forms, and some letters, such as s, c, and z often were used interchangeably.[41][42] Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions preserved today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in Bergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks (the so-called Bryggen inscriptions). This indicates that runes were in common use side by side with the Latin alphabet for several centuries. Indeed, some of the medieval runic inscriptions are written in Latin. Dalecarlian runes (16th to 19th centuries)[edit] Main article: Dalecarlian runes Dalecarlian runes According to Carl-Gustav Werner, "In the isolated province of Dalarna in Sweden a mix of runes and Latin letters developed."[43] The Dalecarlian runes came into use in the early 16th century and remained in some use up to the 20th century.[44] Some discussion remains on whether their use was an unbroken tradition throughout this period or whether people in the 19th and 20th centuries learned runes from books written on the subject. The character inventory was used mainly for transcribing Elfdalian. Academic study[edit] Main article: Runology The modern study of runes was initiated during the Renaissance, by Johannes Bureus (1568–1652). Bureus viewed runes as holy or magical in a kabbalistic sense. The study of runes was continued by Olof Rudbeck Sr (1630–1702) and presented in his collection Atlantica. Anders Celsius (1701–1744) further extended the science of runes and travelled around the whole of Sweden to examine the runstenar ([[). From the "golden age of philology" in the 19th century, runology formed a specialized branch of Germanic linguistics. Body of inscriptions[edit] Main article: Runic inscriptions The Vimose Comb from the island of Funen, Denmark, features the earliest known runic inscription (AD 150 to 200) and simply reads, ᚺᚨᚱᛃᚨ "Harja", a male name.[45] The largest group of surviving Runic inscription are Viking Age Younger Futhark runestones, commonly found in Denmark and Sweden.[46] Another large group are medieval runes, most commonly found on small objects, often wooden sticks. The largest concentration of runic inscriptions are the Bryggen inscriptions found in Bergen, more than 650 in total. Elder Futhark inscriptions number around 350, about 260 of which are from Scandinavia, of which about half are on bracteates. Anglo-Saxon futhorc inscriptions number around 100 items. Modern use[edit] Main article: Modern runic writing Runic alphabets have seen numerous uses since the 18th-century Viking revival, in Scandinavian Romantic nationalism (Gothicismus) and Germanic occultism in the 19th century, and in the context of the Fantasy genre and of Germanic Neopaganism in the 20th century. Esotericism[edit] Germanic mysticism and Nazi symbolism[edit] Further information: Runosophy, Armanen runes, Wiligut runes, and Runengymnastik Runic script on an 1886 gravestone in Parkend, England From 1933, Schutzstaffel unit insignia displayed two Sig Runes The pioneer of the Armanist branch of Ariosophy and one of the more important figures in esotericism in Germany and Austria in the late 19th and early 20th century was the Austrian occultist, mysticist, and völkisch author, Guido von List. In 1908, he published in Das Geheimnis der Runen ("The Secret of the Runes") a set of eighteen so-called, "Armanen runes", based on the Younger Futhark and runes of List's own introduction, which allegedly were revealed to him in a state of temporary blindness after cataract operations on both eyes in 1902. The use of runes in Germanic mysticism, notably List's "Armanen runes" and the derived "Wiligut runes" by Karl Maria Wiligut, played a certain role in Nazi symbolism. The fascination with runic symbolism was mostly limited to Heinrich Himmler, and not shared by the other members of the Nazi top echelon. Consequently, runes appear mostly in insignia associated with the Schutzstaffel ("SS"), the paramilitary organization led by Himmler. Wiligut is credited with designing the SS-Ehrenring, which displays a number of "Wiligut runes". Modern neopaganism and esotericism[edit] Runes are popular in Germanic neopaganism, and to a lesser extent in other forms of Neopaganism and New Age esotericism. Various systems of Runic divination have been published since the 1980s, notably by Ralph Blum (1982), Stephen Flowers (1984, onward), Stephan Grundy (1990), and Nigel Pennick (1995). The Uthark theory originally was proposed as a scholarly hypothesis by Sigurd Agrell in 1932. In 2002, Swedish esotericist Thomas Karlsson popularized this "Uthark" runic row, which he refers to as, the "night side of the runes", in the context of modern occultism. Bluetooth[edit] The Bluetooth logo is the combination of two runes of the Younger Futhark, ᚼ hagall and ᛒ bjarkan, equivalent to the letters «H» and «B», that are the initials of Harald Blåtand's name (bluetooth in English), who was a king of Denmark from the Viking Age. Bluetooth logo with the initials of Harald Blåtand. J. R. R. Tolkien and contemporary fiction[edit] See also: Cirth § Runes from The Hobbit In J. R. R. Tolkien's novel The Hobbit (1937), the Anglo-Saxon runes are used on a map to emphasize its connection to the Dwarves. They also were used in the initial drafts of The Lord of the Rings, but later were replaced by the Cirth rune-like alphabet invented by Tolkien, used to write the language of the Dwarves, Khuzdul. Following Tolkien, historical and fictional runes appear commonly in modern popular culture, particularly in fantasy literature, but also in other forms of media such as video games (for example the 1992 video game Heimdall used it as "magical symbols" associated with unnatural forces) and role-playing games, such as Metagaming's The Fantasy Trip, which used rune-based cipher for clues and jokes throughout its publications. Unicode[edit] Main article: Runic (Unicode block) Runic Steel Stamps, Elder Futhark Runic alphabets were added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0. The Unicode block for Runic alphabets is U+16A0–U+16FF. It is intended to encode the letters of the Elder Futhark, the Anglo-Frisian runes, and the Younger Futhark long-branch and short-twig (but not the staveless) variants, in cases where cognate letters have the same shape resorting to "unification". The block as of Unicode 3.0 contained 81 symbols: 75 runic letters (U+16A0–U+16EA), 3 punctuation marks (Runic Single Punctuation U+16EB ᛫, Runic Multiple Punctuation U+16EC ᛬ and Runic Cross Punctuation U+16ED ᛭), and three runic symbols that are used in early modern runic calendar staves ("Golden number Runes", Runic Arlaug Symbol U+16EE ᛮ, Runic Tvimadur Symbol U+16EF ᛯ, Runic Belgthor Symbol U+16F0 ᛰ). As of Unicode 7.0 (2014), eight characters were added, three attributed to J. R. R. Tolkien's mode of writing Modern English in Anglo-Saxon runes, and five for the "cryptogrammic" vowel symbols used in an inscription on the Franks Casket. Runic[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)   0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F U+16Ax ᚠ ᚡ ᚢ ᚣ ᚤ ᚥ ᚦ ᚧ ᚨ ᚩ ᚪ ᚫ ᚬ ᚭ ᚮ ᚯ U+16Bx ᚰ ᚱ ᚲ ᚳ ᚴ ᚵ ᚶ ᚷ ᚸ ᚹ ᚺ ᚻ ᚼ ᚽ ᚾ ᚿ U+16Cx ᛀ ᛁ ᛂ ᛃ ᛄ ᛅ ᛆ ᛇ ᛈ ᛉ ᛊ ᛋ ᛌ ᛍ ᛎ ᛏ U+16Dx ᛐ ᛑ ᛒ ᛓ ᛔ ᛕ ᛖ ᛗ ᛘ ᛙ ᛚ ᛛ ᛜ ᛝ ᛞ ᛟ U+16Ex ᛠ ᛡ ᛢ ᛣ ᛤ ᛥ ᛦ ᛧ ᛨ ᛩ ᛪ ᛫ ᛬ ᛭ ᛮ ᛯ U+16Fx ᛰ ᛱ ᛲ ᛳ ᛴ ᛵ ᛶ ᛷ ᛸ Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 13.0 2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points See also[edit] Gothic runic inscriptions Runic inscription in the Netherlands Runiform (disambiguation) for "rune-like" but believed-unrelated scripts described as "runes" Hunnic language - possible script of 3rd & 4th century Hunn Empire Old Turkic script or Turkic runes Old Hungarian script or Hungarian runes, descended from Old Turkic runes Siglas poveiras Pentimal system of numerals Runic magic Notes[edit] ^ The oldest known runic inscription dates to around AD 150 and is found on a comb discovered in the bog of Vimose, Funen, Denmark.[2] The inscription reads harja; a disputed candidate for a 1st-century inscription is on the Meldorf fibula in southern Jutland. ^ see also wikt:Category: Proto-Finnic terms derived from Proto-Germanic ^ Penzl & Hall 1994a assume a period of "Proto-Nordic-Westgermanic" unity down to the 5th century and the Gallehus horns inscription.[18] ^ The division between Northwest Germanic and Proto-Norse is somewhat arbitrary.[19] References[edit] ^ Runic (PDF) (chart), Unicode. ^ Stoklund 2003, p. 173. ^ "Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language". LKZ. Retrieved 2010-04-13. ^ Friedrich Kluge, Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2001, ISBN 978-3-11-017473-1 ^ Nykysuomen sanakirja: "riimu" ^ Häkkinen, Kaisa. Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja ^ Mees 2000. ^ Odenstedt 1990. ^ Williams 1996. ^ Dictionary of the Middle Ages (under preparation), Oxford University Press, archived from the original on 2007-06-23. ^ Markey 2001. ^ G. Bonfante, L. Bonfante, The Etruscan Language p. 119 ^ Rix, Robert W. (2011). "Runes and Roman: Germanic Literacy and the Significance of Runic Writing". Textual Cultures. 6: 114–144. doi:10.2979/textcult.6.1.114. ^ a b Looijenga 1997. ^ Weisgerber 1968, pp. 135, 392ff. ^ Weisgerber 1966–1967, p. 207. ^ Syrett 1994, pp. 44ff. ^ Penzl & Hall 1994b, p. 186. ^ a b Antonsen 1965, p. 36. ^ "Runic alphabet", Encyclopædia Britannica, A likely theory is that the runic alphabet was developed by the Goths, a Germanic people, from the Etruscan alphabet of northern Italy and was perhaps also influenced by the Latin alphabet in the 1st or 2nd century BC. ^ a b "Hávamál", Norrøne Tekster og Kvad, Norway, archived from the original on 2007-05-08. ^ Larrington 1999, p. 37. ^ "DR 360", Rundata (entry) (2.0 for Windows ed.). ^ MacLeod & Mees 2006, pp. 100–01. ^ Page 2005, p. 31. ^ Tacitus, Germania, 10 ^ Foote & Wilson 1970. ^ Foote & Wilson 1970, p. 401. ^ MacLeod & Mees 2006. ^ McDermott, Larissa (2016). Runes. Lulu Press. p. 70. ISBN 9781365130724. Retrieved 2018-05-22. ^ William, Gareth (2007). West over Sea: Studies in Scandinavian Sea-Borne Expansion and Settlement Before 1300. Brill Publishers. p. 473. ISBN 9789047421214. Retrieved 2018-05-22. ^ "Vg 63", Rundata (entry) (2.0 for Windows ed.). ^ "Vg 119", Rundata (entry) (2.0 for Windows ed.). ^ Larrington 1999, p. 25. ^ a b Larrington 1999, p. 34. ^ Seigfried, Karl E.H. (Mar 2010), "Odin & the Runes, Part Three", The Norse Mythology. ^ Page 2005, pp. 8, 15–16. ^ also rendered /ɛː/, see Proto-Germanic phonology ^ Ralph Warren, Victor Elliott, Runes: an introduction, Manchester University Press ND, 1980, 51-53. ^ Grimm, William (1821), "18", Ueber deutsche Runen [Concerning German runes] (in German), pp. 149–59. ^ Jacobsen & Moltke 1942, p. vii. ^ Werner 2004, p. 20. ^ Werner 2004, p. 7. ^ Brix, Lise (May 21, 2015). "Isolated people in Sweden only stopped using runes 100 years ago". ScienceNordic. ^ Looijenga, Tineke (2003). Texts and Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions. Leiden: Brill. p. 160. ISBN 978-90-04-12396-0. ^ de Gruyter, Walter (2002). The Nordic Languages, Volume 1. p. 700. ISBN 9783110197051. Retrieved 2018-05-22. Bibliography[edit] Antonsen, Elmer H. (1965), "On Defining Stages in Prehistoric Germanic", Language, 41 (1): 19–36, doi:10.2307/411849, JSTOR 411849. Foote, P. G.; Wilson, D. M. (1970), The Viking Achievement, London: Sidgwick & Jackson, p. 401, ISBN 978-0-283-97926-2. Jacobsen, Lis; Moltke, Erik (1942), Danmarks Runeindskrifter, Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaards Larrington, Carolyne (1999), The Poetic Edda, Oxford World's Classics, translated by Larrington, ISBN 978-0-19-283946-6. Looijenga, JH (1997), Runes Around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700 (dissertation), Groningen University. MacLeod, Mindy; Mees, Bernard (2006), Runic Amulets and Magic Objects, Woodbridge, UK; Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, ISBN 978-1-84383-205-8. Markey, TL (2001), "A Tale of the Two Helmets: Negau A and B", Journal of Indo-European Studies, 29: 69–172 Mees, Bernard (2000), "The North Etruscan Thesis of the Origin of the Runes", Arkiv för Nordisk Filologi, 115: 33–82. Odenstedt, Bengt (1990), On the Origin and Early History of the Runic Script, Uppsala, ISBN 978-91-85352-20-3. Page, Raymond Ian (2005), Runes, The British Museum Press, p. 31, ISBN 978-0-7141-8065-6. Penzl, Herbert; Hall, Margaret Austin (Mar 1994a), "The Cambridge history of the English language, vol. I: the beginnings to 1066", Language (review), 70 (1): 185–89, doi:10.2307/416753, eISSN 1535-0665, ISSN 0097-8507, JSTOR 416753. ———; Hall, Margaret Austin (1994b), Englisch: Eine Sprachgeschichte nach Texten von 350 bis 1992 : vom Nordisch-Westgermanischen zum Neuenglischen, Germanistische Lehrbuchsammlung: Literatur, 82, Lang, ISBN 978-3-906751-79-5. Stoklund, M. (2003), "The first runes – the literary language of the Germani", The Spoils of Victory – the North in the Shadow of the Roman Empire, Nationalmuseet. Syrett, Martin (1994), The Unaccented Vowels of Proto-Norse, North-Western European Language Evolution, 11, John Benjamins, ISBN 978-87-7838-049-4. Weisgerber, Johannes Leo (1966–1967), "Frühgeschichtliche Sprachbewegungen im Kölner Raum (mit 8 Karten)", Rheinische Vierteljahrsblätter (in German). ——— (1968), Die Namen der Ubier (in German), Cologne: Opladen. Werner, Carl-Gustav (2004), The Allrunes Font and Package (PDF), The Comprehensive Tex Archive Network. Williams, Henrik (1996), "The Origin of the Runes", Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik, 45: 211–18, doi:10.1163/18756719-045-01-90000019 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Runes. Wikiversity has learning resources about Rune Yoga Nytt om Runer (runology journal), NO: UIO. Bibliography of Runic Scholarship, Galinn grund, archived from the original on 2008-09-05. Gamla Runinskrifter, SE: Christer hamp. Gosse, Edmund (1911). "Runes, Runic Language and Inscriptions" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Forgotten Scripts for use in gaming (runology Gaming), US: Afternight "Maeshowe: The Application of RTI to Norse Runes (Data Paper)", Internet Archaeology, 2018. Old Norse Online by Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the Linguistics Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin, contains a lesson on runic inscriptions v t e Runes Runology List of runologists Elder Futhark ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚨ ᚱ ᚲ ᚷ ᚹ ᚺ ᚾ ᛁ ᛃ ᛇ ᛈ ᛉ ᛊ ᛏ ᛒ ᛖ ᛗ ᛚ ᛜ ᛟ ᛞ           Old English Futhorc ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚩ o ᚱ ᚳ c ᚷ ȝ ᚹ ᚻ ᚾ ᛁ ᛄ ᛇ ᛈ ᛉ x ᛋ ᛏ ᛒ ᛖ ᛗ ᛚ ᛝ ᛟ œ ᛞ   ᚪ a ᚫ æ ᚣ y ᛠ ea Younger Futhark ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚬ ą ᚱ ᚴ     ᚼ ᚾ ᛁ ᛅ a       ᛋ ᛏ ᛒ   ᛘ ᛚ       ᛦ ʀ         Transliteration f u þ a r k g w h n i j ï p z s t b e m l ŋ o d See also Runic inscriptions interactive map Runic inscriptions Runestones Rune Poems Medieval runes Dalecarlian runes Runic magic v t e Types of writing systems Overview History of writing Grapheme Lists Writing systems undeciphered inventors constructed Languages by writing system / by first written accounts Types Abjads Numerals Aramaic Hatran Arabic Egyptian hieroglyphs Hebrew Ashuri Cursive Rashi Solitreo Tifinagh Manichaean Nabataean Old North Arabian Pahlavi Pegon Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Pitman shorthand Proto-Sinaitic Psalter Pahlavi Punic Samaritan South Arabian Zabur Musnad Sogdian Syriac ʾEsṭrangēlā Serṭā Maḏnḥāyā Teeline Shorthand Ugaritic Abugidas Brahmic Northern Assamese Bengali Bhaiksuki Bhujimol Brāhmī Devanāgarī Dogri Gujarati Gupta Gurmukhī Kaithi Kalinga Khojki Khudabadi Laṇḍā Lepcha Limbu Mahajani Meitei Modi Multani Nagari Nandinagari Odia Karani ʼPhags-pa Pracalit (Newar) Ranjana Sharada Siddhaṃ Soyombo Sylheti Nagari Takri Tibetan Uchen Umê Tirhuta Tocharian Zanabazar Square Marchen Marchung Pungs-chen Pungs-chung Drusha Southern Ahom Balinese Batak Baybayin Bhattiprolu Buhid Burmese Chakma Cham Grantha Goykanadi Hanunuo (Hanunó'o) Javanese Kadamba Kannada Karen Kawi Khmer Kulitan Lanna Lao Leke Lontara (Bilang-bilang) Makasar Malayalam Old Maldivian Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Mon (Old Mon) New Tai Lue Pallava Pyu Rejang Rencong Saurashtra Shan Sinhala Sundanese (Old Sundanese) Tagbanwa Tai Le Tai Tham Tai Viet Tamil Tamil-Brahmi Telugu Thai Tigalari Vatteluttu Kolezhuthu Malayanma Others Boyd's syllabic shorthand Canadian syllabics Blackfoot Déné syllabics Fox I Geʽez Gunjala Gondi Japanese Braille Jenticha Kharosthi Mandombe Masaram Gondi Meroitic Miao Mwangwego Pahawh Hmong Sorang Sompeng Thaana Thomas Natural Shorthand Warang Citi Alphabets Linear Abkhaz Adlam Armenian Avestan Avoiuli Bassa Vah Borama Carian Caucasian Albanian Coelbren Coorgi–Cox alphabet Coptic Cyrillic Deseret Duployan shorthand Chinook writing Early Cyrillic Eclectic shorthand Elbasan Etruscan Evenki Fox II Fraser Gabelsberger shorthand Garay Georgian Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli Glagolitic Gothic Gregg shorthand Greek Greco-Iberian alphabet Hangul Hanifi IPA Jenticha Kaddare Kayah Li Klingon Latin Beneventan Blackletter Carolingian minuscule Fraktur Gaelic Insular Kurrent Merovingian Sigla Sütterlin Tironian notes Visigothic Luo Lycian Lydian Manchu Mandaic Medefaidrin Molodtsov Mongolian Mru Neo-Tifinagh N'Ko Ogham Oirat Ol Chiki Old Hungarian Old Italic Old Permic Orkhon Old Uyghur Osage Osmanya Pau Cin Hau Runic Anglo-Saxon Cipher Dalecarlian Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Gothic Marcomannic Medieval Staveless Sidetic Shavian Somali Sorang Sompeng Tifinagh Tolong Siki Vagindra Vietnamese Visible Speech Vithkuqi Wancho Warang Citi Zaghawa Non-linear Braille Maritime flags Telegraph code New York Point Flag semaphore Moon type Ideograms and pictograms Adinkra Aztec Blissymbol Dongba Ersu Shaba Emoji IConji Isotype Kaidā Míkmaq Mixtec New Epoch Notation Painting Nsibidi Ojibwe Hieroglyphs Siglas poveiras Testerian Yerkish Zapotec Logograms Chinese family of scripts Chinese Characters Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze Script Seal Script large small bird-worm Hanja Idu Kanji Chữ Nôm Zhuang Chinese-influenced Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut Cuneiform Akkadian Assyrian Elamite Hittite Luwian Sumerian Other logo-syllabic Anatolian Bagam Cretan Isthmian Maya Proto-Elamite Yi (Classical) Logo-consonantal Demotic Hieratic Hieroglyphs Numerals Hindu-Arabic Abjad Attic (Greek) Muisca Roman Semi-syllabaries Full Celtiberian Northeastern Iberian Southeastern Iberian Khom Redundant Espanca Pahawh Hmong Khitan small script Southwest Paleohispanic Zhuyin fuhao Somacheirograms ASLwrite SignWriting si5s Stokoe Notation Syllabaries Afaka Bamum Bété Byblos Canadian Aboriginal Cherokee Cypriot Cypro-Minoan Ditema tsa Dinoko Eskayan Geba Great Lakes Algonquian Iban Japanese Hiragana Katakana Man'yōgana Hentaigana Sogana Jindai moji Kikakui Kpelle Linear B Linear Elamite Lisu Loma Nüshu Nwagu Aneke script Old Persian Cuneiform Sumerian Vai Woleai Yi (Modern) Yugtun v t e Braille ⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑ Braille cell 1829 braille International uniformity ASCII braille Unicode braille patterns Braille scripts French-ordered Albanian Azerbaijani Cantonese Catalan Chinese (mainland Mandarin) (largely reassigned) Czech Dutch English (Unified English) Esperanto French German Ghanaian Guarani Hawaiian Hungarian Iñupiaq IPA Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian Luxembourgish (extended to 8-dots) Maltese Māori Navajo Nigerian Philippine Polish Portuguese Romanian Samoan Slovak South African Spanish Taiwanese Mandarin (largely reassigned) Turkish Vietnamese Welsh Yugoslav Zambian Nordic family Estonian Faroese Icelandic Northern Sami Scandinavian Danish Finnish Greenlandic Norwegian Swedish Russian lineage family i.e. Cyrillic-mediated scripts Belarusian Bulgarian Kazakh Kyrgyz Mongolian Russian Tatar Ukrainian Egyptian lineage family i.e. Arabic-mediated scripts Arabic Persian Urdu (Pakistan) Indian lineage family i.e. Bharati Braille (see here for more) Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali) Bengali Punjabi Sinhala Tamil Urdu (India) Other scripts Amharic Armenian Burmese Cambodian Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Georgian Greek Hebrew Inuktitut (reassigned vowels) Thai & Lao (Japanese vowels) Tibetan Reordered Algerian Braille (obsolete) Frequency-based American Braille (obsolete) Independent Chinese semi-syllabaries Cantonese Mainland Chinese Mandarin Taiwanese Mandarin Two-Cell Chinese (Shuangpin) Japanese Korean Eight-dot Luxembourgish Kanji Gardner–Salinas braille codes (GS8) Symbols in braille Braille music Canadian currency marks Computer Braille Code Gardner–Salinas braille codes (science; GS8/GS6) International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Nemeth braille code Braille technology Braille e-book Braille embosser Braille translator Braille watch Mountbatten Brailler Optical braille recognition Perforation Perkins Brailler Refreshable braille display Slate and stylus Braigo Persons Louis Braille Charles Barbier Valentin Haüy Thakur Vishva Narain Singh Sabriye Tenberken William Bell Wait Organisations Braille Institute of America Braille Without Borders Japan Braille Library National Braille Association Blindness organizations Schools for the blind American Printing House for the Blind Other tactile alphabets Decapoint Moon type New York Point Night writing Vibratese Related topics Accessible publishing Braille literacy RoboBraille v t e Electronic writing systems Emoticons Emoji Kaomoji iConji Leet Unicode v t e Internet slang variants 3arabizi Alay (Indonesia) Denglisch Doge DoggoLingo Fingilish (Persian) Greeklish Gyaru-moji (Japan) Jejemon (Philippines) Leet ("1337") Lolspeak / LOLspeak / Kitteh Martian language (Chinese) Miguxês (Portuguese) O RLY? 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Vidivarii Vinoviloth Warini Christianization Gothic Christianity Christianization of the Franks Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England Christianization of Scandinavia Christianization of Iceland Category Authority control GND: 4050996-5 NDL: 00576702 NKC: ph116087 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Runes&oldid=1000359138" Categories: Runes Runology Alphabets Obsolete writing systems Germanic culture Magic symbols Hidden categories: Articles containing German-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Scripts with ISO 15924 four-letter codes Articles containing Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text Articles containing Swedish-language text Articles containing Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text Articles with text in Germanic languages Articles containing Gothic-language text Articles containing Old Irish (to 900)-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text 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