Anglo-Frisian languages - Wikipedia Anglo-Frisian languages From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Group of West Germanic languages This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Anglo-Frisian languages" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Anglo-Frisian Geographic distribution Originally England, Scottish Lowlands and the North Sea coast from Friesland to Jutland; today worldwide Linguistic classification Indo-European Germanic West Germanic North Sea Germanic Anglo-Frisian Subdivisions Anglic Frisian Glottolog angl1264 Approximate present day distribution of the Anglo-Frisian languages in Europe. Anglic:   English   Scots Frisian:   West Frisian   North Frisian   Saterland Frisian Hatched areas indicate where multilingualism is common. The Anglo-Frisian languages are the West Germanic languages which include Anglic (English and Scots) and Frisian varieties. The Northumbrian Language Society also considers Northumbrian an Anglic language.[1] The Anglo-Frisian languages are distinct from other West Germanic languages due to several sound changes: besides the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law, which is present in Low German as well, Anglo-Frisian brightening and palatalization of /k/ are for the most part unique to the modern Anglo-Frisian languages: English cheese and West Frisian tsiis, but Dutch kaas, Low German Kees, and German Käse English church and West Frisian tsjerke, but Dutch kerk, Low German Kerk, Kark, and German Kirche The grouping is usually implied as a separate branch in regards to the tree model. According to this reading, English and Frisian would have had a proximal ancestral form in common that no other attested group shares. The early Anglo-Frisian varieties, like Old English and Old Frisian, and the third Ingvaeonic group at the time, the ancestor of Low German Old Saxon, were spoken by intercommunicating populations. While this has been cited as a reason for a few traits exclusively shared by Old Saxon and either Old English or Old Frisian,[2] a genetic unity of the Anglo-Frisian languages beyond that of a Ingvaeonic subfamily can not be considered a majority opinion. In fact, the groupings of Ingvaeonic and West Germanic languages are highly debated, even though they rely on a lot more innovations and evidence. Some scholars consider a Proto-Anglo-Frisian language as disproven, as far as such postulates are falsifiable.[2] Nevertheless, the close ties and strong similarities between the Anglic and the Frisian grouping are part of the scientific consensus. Therefore, the concept of Anglo-Frisian languages can be useful and is today employed without these implications.[2][3] Geography isolated the settlers of Great Britain from Continental Europe, except from contact with communities capable of open water navigation. This resulted in more Old Norse and Norman language influences during the development of Modern English, whereas the modern Frisian languages developed under contact with the southernly Germanic populations, restricted to the continent. Contents 1 Classification 1.1 Anglic languages 1.2 Frisian languages 2 Anglo-Frisian developments 3 Comparisons 3.1 Numbers in Anglo-Frisian languages 3.2 Words in English, Scots, West Frisian, Dutch, and German 4 Alternative grouping 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading Classification[edit] The proposed Anglo-Frisian family tree is: Anglo-Frisian Anglic English Scots Yola (extinct) Fingalian (extinct) Frisian West Frisian East Frisian Saterland Frisian (last remaining dialect of East Frisian) North Frisian Anglic languages[edit] See also: List of dialects of English and World Englishes Anglic,[4][5] Insular Germanic, or English languages[6][7] encompass Old English and all the linguistic varieties descended from it. These include Middle English, Early Modern English, and Modern English; Early Scots, Middle Scots, and Modern Scots; and the now extinct Yola and Fingallian in Ireland. English-based creole languages are not generally included, as mainly only their lexicon and not necessarily their grammar, phonology, etc. comes from Modern and Early Modern English. Proto-Old English Northumbrian Mercian and Kentish West Saxon Early Northern Middle English Early Midland and Southeastern Middle English Early Southern and Southwestern Middle English Early Scots Northern Middle English Midland Middle English Southeastern Middle English Southern Middle English Southwestern Middle English Middle Scots Northern Early Modern English Midland Early Modern English Metropolitan Early Modern English Southern Early Modern English Southwestern Early Modern English, Yola, Fingallian Modern Scots Northern Modern English East and West Midlands Modern English Standard Modern English Southern Modern English West Country Modern English Frisian languages[edit] Main article: Frisian languages The Frisian languages are a group of languages spoken by about 500,000 Frisian people on the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany. West Frisian, by far the most spoken of the three, is an official language in the Dutch province of Friesland and on two of the West Frisian Islands. North Frisian is spoken in the northernmost German district of Nordfriesland, in North Frisia, and on some North Frisian Islands. The East Frisian language is spoken in Saterland in Germany. Anglo-Frisian developments[edit] The following is a summary of the major sound changes affecting vowels in chronological order.[8] For additional detail, see Phonological history of Old English. That these were simultaneous and in that order for all Anglo-Frisian languages is considered disproved by some scholars.[2] Backing and nasalization of West Germanic a and ā before a nasal consonant Loss of n before a spirant, resulting in lengthening and nasalization of preceding vowel Single form for present and preterite plurals A-fronting: West Germanic a, ā → æ, ǣ, even in the diphthongs ai and au (see Anglo-Frisian brightening) palatalization of Proto-Germanic *k and *g before front vowels (but not phonemicization of palatals) A-restoration: æ, ǣ → a, ā under the influence of neighboring consonants Second fronting: OE dialects (except West Saxon) and Frisian ǣ → ē A-restoration: a restored before a back vowel in the following syllable (later in the Southumbrian dialects); Frisian æu → au → Old Frisian ā/a OE breaking; in West Saxon palatal diphthongization follows i-mutation followed by syncope; Old Frisian breaking follows Phonemicization of palatals and assibilation, followed by second fronting in parts of West Mercia Smoothing and back mutation Comparisons[edit] Numbers in Anglo-Frisian languages[edit] These are the words for the numbers one to 12 in the Anglo-Frisian languages, with Dutch and German included for comparison: Language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 English one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve Scots[note 1] ane ae* yin twa three fower five sax seiven aicht nine ten eleiven twal Yola oan twye dhree vour veeve zeese zeven ayght neen dhen West Frisian ien twa trije fjouwer fiif seis sân acht njoggen tsien alve tolve Saterland Frisian aan twäi twäin twoo träi fjauwer fieuw säks soogen oachte njugen tjoon alwen tweelich North Frisian (Mooring dialect) iinj ån tou tuu trii tra fjouer fiiw seeks soowen oocht nüügen tiin alwen tweelwen Dutch een twee drie vier vijf zes zeven acht negen tien elf twaalf German eins zwei drei vier fünf sechs sieben acht neun zehn elf zwölf * Ae [eː], [jeː] is an adjectival form used before nouns.[9] Words in English, Scots, West Frisian, Dutch, and German[edit] English Scots West Frisian Dutch German day day dei dag Tag rain rain rein regen Regen alone alane allinne alleen allein stone stane stien steen Stein snow snaw snie sneeuw Schnee summer simmer simmer zomer Sommer way wey wei weg Weg almighty awmichtie almachtich almachtig allmächtig ship ship skip schip Schiff nail nail neil nagel Nagel old auld âld oud alt butter butter bûter boter Butter cheese cheese tsiis kaas Käse apple aiple apel appel Apfel church kirk tsjerke kerk Kirche son son soan zoon Sohn door door doar deur Tür good guid goed goed gut fork fork foarke vork Gabel Forke (dated) sib sib sibbe sibbe (dated) Sippe together thegither tegearre samen tezamen zusammen morn(ing) morn(in) moarn morgen Morgen until, till until, till oant tot bis where whaur wêr waar wo key key[note 2] kaai sleutel Schlüssel have been (was) wis ha west ben geweest bin gewesen two sheep twa sheep twa skiep twee schapen zwei Schafe have hae hawwe hebben haben us us ús ons uns horse horse hynder hoars (rare) paard ros (dated) Pferd Ross (dated) bread breid brea brood Brot hair hair hier haar Haar heart hert hert hart Herz beard beard burd baard Bart ear ear, lug (colloquial) ear oor Ohr green green grien groen grün red reid read rood rot sweet sweet swiet zoet süß through throu[note 3] troch door durch wet weet wiet nat nass eye ee each oog Auge dream dream dream droom Traum mouse moose mûs muis Maus house hoose hûs huis Haus it goes on it gaes/gangs on it giet oan het gaat door es geht weiter/los good day guid day goeie (dei) goedendag guten Tag Alternative grouping[edit] Main article: Ingvaeonic languages Ingvaeonic, also known as North Sea Germanic, is a postulated grouping of the West Germanic languages that encompasses Old Frisian, Old English,[note 4] and Old Saxon.[10] It is not thought of as a monolithic proto-language, but rather as a group of closely related dialects that underwent several areal changes in relative unison.[11] The grouping was first proposed in Nordgermanen und Alemannen (1942) by the German linguist and philologist Friedrich Maurer (1898–1984), as an alternative to the strict tree diagrams which had become popular following the work of the 19th-century linguist August Schleicher and which assumed the existence of an Anglo-Frisian group.[12] See also[edit] High German languages Low Franconian languages Notes[edit] ^ Depending on dialect 1. [en], [jɪn], [in], [wan], [*eː], [jeː] 2. [twɑː], [twɔː], [tweː], [twaː] 3. [θrəi], [θriː], [triː] 4. [ˈfʌu(ə)r], [fuwr] 5. [faiːv], [fɛv] 6. [saks] 7. [ˈsiːvən], [ˈseːvən], [ˈsəivən] 8. [ext], [ɛçt] 9. [nəin], [nin] 10. [tɛn]. ^ Depending on dialect [kiː] or [kəi]. ^ Depending on dialect [θruː] or [θrʌu]. ^ Also known as Anglo-Saxon. References[edit] ^ "History & Evolution". ^ a b c d Stiles, Patrick (2018-08-01). "Friesische Studien II: Beiträge des Föhrer Symposiums zur Friesischen Philologie vom 7.–8. April 1994" (PDF). www.academia.edu. doi:10.1075/nss.12. Retrieved 2020-10-23. ^ Hines, John, 1956- (2017). Frisians and their North Sea Neighbours. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 1-78744-063-X. OCLC 1013723499.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Anglic". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. ^ Woolf, Alex (2007). From Pictland to Alba, 789–1070. The New Edinburgh History of Scotland. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1234-5., p. 336 ^ J. Derrick McClure Scots its range of Uses in A. J. Aitken, Tom McArthur, Languages of Scotland, W. and R. Chambers, 1979. p.27 ^ Thomas Burns McArthur, The English Languages, Cambridge University Press, 1998. p.203 ^ Fulk, Robert D. (1998). "The Chronology of Anglo-Frisian Sound Changes". In Bremmer Jr., Rolf H.; Johnston, Thomas S.B.; Vries, Oebele (eds.). Approaches to Old Frisian Philology. Amsterdam: Rodopoi. p. 185. ^ Grant, William; Dixon, James Main (1921). Manual of Modern Scots. Cambridge: University Press. p. 105. ^ Some include West Flemish. Cf. Bremmer (2009:22). ^ For a full discussion of the areal changes involved and their relative chronologies, see Voyles (1992). ^ "Friedrich Maurer (Lehrstuhl für Germanische Philologie - Linguistik)". Germanistik.uni-freiburg.de. Retrieved 2013-06-24. Further reading[edit] Maurer, Friedrich (1942). Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde (in German). Strasbourg: Hünenburg. Euler, Wolfram (2013). Das Westgermanische [West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction] (in German). London/Berlin: Verlag Inspiration Un Ltd. p. 244. ISBN 978-3-9812110-7-8. Ringe, Don; Taylor, Ann (2014). The Development of Old English - A Linguistic History of English. 2. Oxford: University Press. ISBN 978-0199207848. v t e Germanic languages According to contemporary philology West Germanic Anglo-Frisian Anglic English* dialects Yola Fingallian Old English Middle English Scots Early Scots Middle Scots Frisian East Frisian Ems Saterland Frisian Weser Wangerooge Frisian Wursten Frisian North Frisian Insular Eiderstedt Föhr–Amrum Föhr Amrum Heligolandic Sylt Mainland Bökingharde Mooring Halligen Goesharde Northern Central Southern Karrharde Strand Wiedingharde West Frisian Hindeloopen Schiermonnikoog Westlauwers–Terschellings Mainland West Frisian Clay Frisian Wood Frisian Westereendersk Terschelling Old Frisian Middle Frisian Low German Historical forms Old Saxon Middle Low German West Low German Dutch Low Saxon Stellingwarfs Tweants Gronings Drèents Gelders-Overijssels Achterhooks Sallaans Urkers Veluws Northern Low Saxon East Frisian Low Saxon Schleswigsch Holsteinisch Hamburgisch Ollnborger North Hanoveranian Dithmarsch Emsländisch Westphalian Eastphalian East Low German Mecklenburg-Western Pomeranian Mecklenburgish West Pomeranian Brandenburgisch East Pomeranian–West Prussian Western East Pomeranian Eastern East Pomeranian Bublitzisch Pommerellisch Central Pomeranian West Central Pomeranian Low Prussian Mennonite Low German Low Franconian Standard variants Dutch* Frankish Old Dutch Middle Dutch Afrikaans* West Low Franconian Hollandic West Flemish French Flemish Zeelandic East Flemish Brabantian Surinamese Dutch Jersey Dutch Mohawk Dutch Stadsfries Bildts Yiddish Dutch East Low Franconian Meuse-Rhenish Limburgish Southeast Limburgish South Guelderish Transitional Low Dietsch High German Standard variants German* Namibian German Namibian Black German Brazilian German Unserdeutsch Barossa German Belgranodeutsch Parana Volga German Kiautschou Pidgin German Old High German Middle High German Early New High German Yiddish Eastern Western Litvish Poylish Ukrainish Galitzish Scots Yiddish Alsatian Yiddish Klezmer-loshn Ganovim Balagole Katsoves Lachoudisch Yenish Rotwelsch Lotegorisch Standard German German Standard German Austrian Standard German Swiss Standard German Central German West Central German Central Franconian Ripuarian Colognian Moselle Franconian Luxembourgish Transylvanian Saxon Hunsrückisch Hunsrik Rhine Franconian Lorraine Franconian Palatine Volga German Pennsylvania German Hessian Amana East Central German Thuringian Upper Saxon Ore Mountainian Lusatian-Neumarkish Berlinerisch Silesian German High Prussian Wymysorys Halcnovian Prague German High Franconian South Franconian East Franconian Main Franconian Vogtlandian Upper German Alemannic Low Alemannic Alsatian Coloniero High Alemannic Swiss German Highest Alemannic Walser German Swabian Bavarian Northern Bavarian Central Bavarian Viennese German Southern Bavarian South Tyrolean Cimbrian Mòcheno Hutterite German Langobardic North Germanic and East Germanic North Germanic Historical forms Proto-Norse Old Norse Old West Norse Old East Norse Old Gutnish West Scandinavian Norwegian* Spoken Bergensk Kebabnorsk Sognamål Trøndersk Valdris Vestlandsk Vikværsk Written Bokmål Nynorsk Old Norwegian Middle Norwegian Insular Scandinavian Faroese Icelandic Old Icelandic Middle Icelandic Gronlandsk Norn East Scandinavian Swedish* Åland Estonian Finlandic Gotlandic/Gutnish Jämtlandic Kalix Kiruna Luleå Norrland Ostrobothnian Småländska South Swedish Scanian Stockholm Rinkeby Uppländska Västgötska Westrobothnian Old Swedish Danish* Bornholmsk Gøtudanskt Insular Danish Jutlandic South Jutlandic Perkerdansk Old Danish Middle Danish Dalecarlian Elfdalian East Germanic Gothic Crimean Gothic Burgundian Vandalic Philology Language subgroups North East West Elbe (Irminonic) Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) North Sea (Ingvaeonic) Northwest Gotho-Nordic South Reconstructed Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic grammar Germanic parent language Ancient Belgian language Diachronic features Grimm's law Verner's law Holtzmann's law Sievers's law Kluge's law Germanic substrate hypothesis West Germanic gemination High German consonant shift Germanic a-mutation Germanic umlaut Germanic spirant law Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law Great Vowel Shift Synchronic features Germanic verb Germanic strong verb Germanic weak verb Preterite-present verb Grammatischer Wechsel Indo-European ablaut Italics indicate extinct languages * (asterisks) indicates languages with more than 3 million speakers Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. v t e History of English Proto-Indo-European Proto-Germanic Proto-West-Germanic Anglo-Frisian languages Old English Kentish Mercian Northumbrian West Saxon Anglo-Norman language Middle English Early Modern English Modern English Phonological history Vowels Great Vowel Shift Open unrounded vowels Open back vowels Close back vowels Close front vowels Diphthongs Changes before historic /l/ Changes before historic /r/ Trisyllabic laxing Consonants Rhoticity Flapping T-glottalization L-vocalization Consonant clusters H-dropping Wh Th Th-fronting Th-stopping Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Frisian_languages&oldid=1000281684" Categories: Anglo-Frisian languages West Germanic languages North Sea Germanic Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from December 2009 All articles needing additional references Articles containing West Frisian-language text Articles containing Dutch-language text Articles containing Low German-language text Articles containing German-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related 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