Scandinavia - Wikipedia Scandinavia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A subregion of Northern Europe This article is about Scandinavia as a cultural-linguistic region. For the broader group of northern European countries including Finland and Iceland, see Nordic countries. For the peninsula, see Scandinavian Peninsula. For other uses, see Scandinavia (disambiguation). Scandinavia Photo of the Fennoscandian Peninsula and Denmark, as well as other areas surrounding the Baltic Sea, in March 2002. Languages List of languages Official languages[1][2] Swedish Danish Norwegian Finnish Icelandic Faroese Sami Recognized minority languages Meänkieli, Karelian, Kven German Romani, Scandoromani Yiddish Demonym(s) Scandinavian Composition  Denmark  Norway  Sweden[3] Sometimes also:  Åland Islands  Faroe Islands  Finland  Iceland[a] Nordic territories that are not part of Scandinavia:  Bouvet Island  Greenland  Jan Mayen  Svalbard Internet TLD .dk, .no, .se .ax, .fi, .fo, .gl, .is, .sj Part of a series on Scandinavia Contemporary countries Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden History Prehistory Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age Migration Period Viking Age Christianization Sweden–Finland Kalmar Union Denmark–Norway Sweden–Norway Denmark–Iceland Nordic Council Geography Mountains Peninsula Baltic Sea North Sea Other topics Languages Scandinavism Nordic countries Monetary Union Defence Union Scandinavian Airlines v t e Scandinavia[b] (/ˌskændɪˈneɪviə/ SKAN-dih-NAY-vee-ə) is a subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties. The term Scandinavia in local usage covers the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The majority national languages of these three belong to the Scandinavian dialect continuum, and are mutually intelligible North Germanic languages.[4] In English usage, Scandinavia also sometimes refers more narrowly to the Scandinavian Peninsula, or more broadly so as to include the Åland Islands, the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland.[3][a] The broader definition is similar to what are locally called the Nordic countries, which also include the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen and Greenland, a constituent country within the Kingdom of Denmark.[5] Contents 1 Geography 2 Etymology 2.1 Appearance in medieval Germanic languages 2.2 Possible influence on Sami 3 Reintroduction of the term Scandinavia in the eighteenth century 4 Use of Nordic countries vs. Scandinavia 4.1 Scandinavian as an ethnic term 5 Languages in Scandinavia 5.1 North Germanic languages 5.2 Finnish 5.3 Sami languages 6 History 6.1 Ancient descriptions 6.2 The Middle Ages 6.3 Scandinavian unions 7 Economy 7.1 Tourism 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 11.1 Historical 11.2 Recent 12 External links Geography[edit] Galdhøpiggen is the highest point in Scandinavia and is a part of the Scandinavian Mountains. See also: Geography of Denmark, Geography of Finland, Geography of Iceland, Geography of Norway, and Geography of Sweden The geography of Scandinavia is extremely varied. Notable are the Norwegian fjords, the Scandinavian Mountains, the flat, low areas in Denmark and the archipelagos of Sweden and Norway. Sweden has many lakes and moraines, legacies of the ice age, which ended about ten millennia ago. The southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has relatively mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Many of the Scandinavian mountains have an alpine tundra climate. The climate varies from north to south and from west to east: a marine west coast climate (Cfb) typical of western Europe dominates in Denmark, southernmost part of Sweden and along the west coast of Norway reaching north to 65°N, with orographic lift giving more mm/year precipitation (<5000 mm) in some areas in western Norway. The central part – from Oslo to Stockholm – has a humid continental climate (Dfb), which gradually gives way to subarctic climate (Dfc) further north and cool marine west coast climate (Cfc) along the northwestern coast.[6] A small area along the northern coast east of the North Cape has tundra climate (Et) as a result of a lack of summer warmth. The Scandinavian Mountains block the mild and moist air coming from the southwest, thus northern Sweden and the Finnmarksvidda plateau in Norway receive little precipitation and have cold winters. Large areas in the Scandinavian mountains have alpine tundra climate. The warmest temperature ever recorded in Scandinavia is 38.0 °C in Målilla (Sweden).[7] The coldest temperature ever recorded is −52.6 °C in Vuoggatjålme, Arjeplog (Sweden).[8] The coldest month was February 1985 in Vittangi (Sweden) with a mean of −27.2 °C.[8] Southwesterly winds further warmed by foehn wind can give warm temperatures in narrow Norwegian fjords in winter. Tafjord has recorded 17.9 °C in January and Sunndal 18.9 °C in February. Etymology[edit] Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to Scania, a formerly Danish region that became Swedish in the seventeenth century. The original areas inhabited (during the Bronze Age) by the peoples now known as Scandinavians included what is now Northern Germany (particularly Schleswig-Holstein), all of Denmark, southern Sweden and the southern coast of Norway while namesake Scania found itself in the centre. The words Scandinavia and Scania (Skåne, the southernmost province of Sweden) are both thought to go back to the Proto-Germanic compound *Skaðin-awjō (the ð represented in Latin by t or d), which appears later in Old English as Scedenig and in Old Norse as Skáney.[9] The earliest identified source for the name Scandinavia is Pliny the Elder's Natural History, dated to the first century AD. Various references to the region can also be found in Pytheas, Pomponius Mela, Tacitus, Ptolemy, Procopius and Jordanes, usually in the form of Scandza. It is believed that the name used by Pliny may be of West Germanic origin, originally denoting Scania.[10] According to some scholars, the Germanic stem can be reconstructed as *skaðan- and meaning "danger" or "damage".[11] The second segment of the name has been reconstructed as *awjō, meaning "land on the water" or "island". The name Scandinavia would then mean "dangerous island", which is considered to refer to the treacherous sandbanks surrounding Scania.[11] Skanör in Scania, with its long Falsterbo reef, has the same stem (skan) combined with -ör, which means "sandbanks". Alternatively, Sca(n)dinavia and Skáney, along with the Old Norse goddess name Skaði, may be related to Proto-Germanic *skaðwa- (meaning "shadow"). John McKinnell comments that this etymology suggests that the goddess Skaði may have once been a personification of the geographical region of Scandinavia or associated with the underworld.[12] Another possibility is that all or part of the segments of the name came from the pre-Germanic Mesolithic people inhabiting the region.[13] In modernity, Scandinavia is a peninsula, but between approximately 10,300 and 9,500 years ago the southern part of Scandinavia was an island separated from the northern peninsula, with water exiting the Baltic Sea through the area where Stockholm is now located.[14] Correspondingly, some Basque scholars have presented the idea that the segment sk that appears in *Skaðinawjō is connected to the name for the Euzko peoples, akin to Basques, that populated Paleolithic Europe. According to one scholar, Scandinavian people share particular genetic markers with the Basque people.[13][unreliable source?] Appearance in medieval Germanic languages[edit] The Latin names in Pliny's text gave rise to different forms in medieval Germanic texts. In Jordanes' history of the Goths (AD 551), the form Scandza is the name used for their original home, separated by sea from the land of Europe (chapter 1, 4).[15] Where Jordanes meant to locate this quasi-legendary island is still a hotly debated issue, both in scholarly discussions and in the nationalistic discourse of various European countries.[16][17] The form Scadinavia as the original home of the Langobards appears in Paulus Diaconus' Historia Langobardorum,[18] but in other versions of Historia Langobardorum appear the forms Scadan, Scandanan, Scadanan and Scatenauge.[19] Frankish sources used Sconaowe and Aethelweard, an Anglo-Saxon historian, used Scani.[20][21] In Beowulf, the forms Scedenige and Scedeland are used while the Alfredian translation of Orosius and Wulfstan's travel accounts used the Old English Sconeg.[21] Possible influence on Sami[edit] The earliest Sami yoik texts written down refer to the world as Skadesi-suolo (north Sami) and Skađsuâl (east Sami), meaning "Skaði's island". Svennung considers the Sami name to have been introduced as a loan word from the North Germanic languages;[22] "Skaði" is the giant stepmother of Freyr and Freyja in Norse mythology. It has been suggested that Skaði to some extent is modeled on a Sami woman. The name for Skade's father Thjazi is known in Sami as Čáhci, "the waterman"; and her son with Odin, Saeming, can be interpreted as a descendant of Saam the Sami population.[23][24] Older joik texts give evidence of the old Sami belief about living on an island and state that the wolf is known as suolu gievra, meaning "the strong one on the island". The Sami place name Sulliidčielbma means "the island's threshold" and Suoločielgi means "the island's back". In recent substrate studies, Sami linguists have examined the initial cluster sk- in words used in Sami and concluded that sk- is a phonotactic structure of alien origin.[25] Reintroduction of the term Scandinavia in the eighteenth century[edit] Scandinavism—a Norwegian, a Dane and a Swede. This image is considered emblematic of Scandinavism and is widely used in Scandinavian school books[citation needed] Main article: Scandinavism See also: Politics of Denmark, Politics of Norway, and Politics of Sweden Although the term Scandinavia used by Pliny the Elder probably originated in the ancient Germanic languages, the modern form Scandinavia does not descend directly from the ancient Germanic term. Rather the word was brought into use in Europe by scholars borrowing the term from ancient sources like Pliny, and was used vaguely for Scania and the southern region of the peninsula.[26] The term was popularised by the linguistic and cultural Scandinavist movement, which asserted the common heritage and cultural unity of the Scandinavian countries and rose to prominence in the 1830s.[26] The popular usage of the term in Sweden, Denmark and Norway as a unifying concept became established in the nineteenth century through poems such as Hans Christian Andersen's "I am a Scandinavian" of 1839. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism. In a letter describing the poem to a friend, he wrote: "All at once I understood how related the Swedes, the Danes and the Norwegians are, and with this feeling I wrote the poem immediately after my return: 'We are one people, we are called Scandinavians!'". The influence of Scandinavism as a Scandinavist political movement peaked in the middle of the nineteenth century, between the First Schleswig War (1848–1850) and the Second Schleswig War (1864). The Swedish king also proposed a unification of Denmark, Norway and Sweden into a single united kingdom. The background for the proposal was the tumultuous events during the Napoleonic Wars in the beginning of the century. This war resulted in Finland (formerly the eastern third of Sweden) becoming the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland in 1809 and Norway (de jure in union with Denmark since 1387, although de facto treated as a province) becoming independent in 1814, but thereafter swiftly forced to accept a personal union with Sweden. The dependent territories Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland, historically part of Norway, remained with Denmark in accordance with the Treaty of Kiel. Sweden and Norway were thus united under the Swedish monarch, but Finland's inclusion in the Russian Empire excluded any possibility for a political union between Finland and any of the other Nordic countries. The end of the Scandinavian political movement came when Denmark was denied the military support promised from Sweden and Norway to annex the (Danish) Duchy of Schleswig, which together with the (German) Duchy of Holstein had been in personal union with Denmark. The Second war of Schleswig followed in 1864, a brief but disastrous war between Denmark and Prussia (supported by Austria). Schleswig-Holstein was conquered by Prussia and after Prussia's success in the Franco-Prussian War a Prussian-led German Empire was created and a new power-balance of the Baltic sea countries was established. The Scandinavian Monetary Union, established in 1873, lasted until World War I. Use of Nordic countries vs. Scandinavia[edit]   Scandinavia according to the local definition   The extended usage in English, which includes Iceland and the Faroe Islands, the Åland Islands and Finland Further information on this terminology: Nordic countries and Fennoscandia The term Scandinavia (sometimes specified in English as Continental Scandinavia or mainland Scandinavia) is commonly used strictly for Denmark, Norway and Sweden as a subset of the Nordic countries (known in Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish as Norden; Finnish: Pohjoismaat, Icelandic: Norðurlöndin, Faroese: Norðurlond).[27] However, in English usage, the term Scandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym or near-synonym for Nordic countries.[5][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36] Debate about which meaning is more appropriate is complicated by the fact that usage in English is different from usage in the Scandinavian languages themselves (which use Scandinavia in the narrow meaning), and by the fact that the question of whether a country belongs to Scandinavia is politicised: people from the Nordic world beyond Norway, Denmark and Sweden may be offended at being either included in or excluded from the category of "Scandinavia".[37] Nordic countries is used unambiguously for Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland, including their associated territories (Svalbard,[citation needed] Greenland, the Faroe Islands and the Åland Islands).[5] In addition to the mainland Scandinavian countries of:  Denmark (constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system)  Norway (constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system)  Sweden (constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system) The Nordic countries also consist of:  Finland (parliamentary republic)  Iceland (parliamentary republic)  Åland Islands (an autonomous province of Finland since 1920)  Faroe Islands (an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark (The unity of the Realm), self-governed since 1948)  Greenland (an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark (The unity of the Realm), self-governed since 1979)  Jan Mayen, which is under Norwegian sovereignty, is not considered part of Scandinavia as a cultural-historical region, but as a part of the Kingdom of Norway.  Svalbard, which is under Norwegian sovereignty, is not considered part of Scandinavia as a cultural-historical region, but as a part of the Kingdom of Norway (since 1925). It is part of the Nordic countries (Norden). The clearest example of the use of the term Scandinavia as a political and societal construct is the unique position of Finland, based largely on the fact that most of modern-day Finland was part of Sweden for more than six centuries (see: Finland under Swedish rule), thus to much of the world associating Finland with all of Scandinavia. But the creation of a Finnish identity is unique in the region in that it was formed in relation to two different imperial models, the Swedish[38] and the Russian.[39][40][41] There is also the geological term Fennoscandia (sometimes Fennoscandinavia), which in technical use refers to the Fennoscandian Shield (or Baltic Shield), that is the Scandinavian peninsula (Norway and Sweden), Finland and Karelia (excluding Denmark and other parts of the wider Nordic world). The terms Fennoscandia and Fennoscandinavia are sometimes used in a broader, political sense to refer to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland.[42] Scandinavian as an ethnic term[edit] Further information on this terminology: North Germanic peoples Whereas both narrow and broad conceptions of Scandinavian countries are relatively straightforwardly defined, there is ambiguity and political contestation as to which people are Scandinavian people (or Scandinavians). English dictionaries usually define the noun Scandinavian as meaning any inhabitant of Scandinavia (which might be narrowly conceived or broadly conceived).[43][44][45] However, the noun Scandinavian is frequently used as a synonym for speakers of Scandinavian languages (languages descended from Old Norse). This usage can exclude the indigenous Sámi people of Scandinavia.[46] Thus, Scandinavians always include Scandinavian-speaking Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes (and, earlier, speakers of the North Germanic languages). In usages based on cultural/linguistic definitions (native speakers of North Germanic languages), Scandinavians also include Faroe Islanders, Icelanders, the Swedish-speaking population of Finland, the Swedish-speaking population of Estonia, and the Scandinavian diaspora.[citation needed] In usages based on geographical definitions (inhabitants of Continental Scandinavia), Scandinavians include Sami people and, depending on how broad an understanding of Scandinavia is being used, Finns and Inuit.[32] Languages in Scandinavia[edit] Main articles: North Germanic languages, Sami languages, Finnic languages, and Scandoromani Two language groups have coexisted on the Scandinavian peninsula since prehistory—the North Germanic languages (Scandinavian languages) and the Sami languages.[47] The majority of the population of Scandinavia (including Iceland and the Faroe Islands) today derive their language from several North Germanic tribes who once inhabited the southern part of Scandinavia and spoke a Germanic language that evolved into Old Norse and from Old Norse into Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Faroese, and Icelandic. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a dialect continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent. A small minority of Scandinavians are Sami people, concentrated in the extreme north of Scandinavia. Finland (sometimes included in Scandinavia in English usage) is mainly populated by speakers of Finnish, with a minority of approximately 5%[48] of Swedish speakers. However, Finnish is also spoken as a recognized minority language in Sweden, including in distinctive varieties sometimes known as Meänkieli. Finnish is distantly related to the Sami languages, but these are entirely different in origin to the Scandinavian languages. German (in Denmark), Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in parts of Scandinavia. More recent migrations has added even more languages. Apart from Sami and the languages of minority groups speaking a variant of the majority language of a neighboring state, the following minority languages in Scandinavia are protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages: Yiddish, Romani Chib/Romanes and Romani. North Germanic languages[edit] Main article: North Germanic languages Continental Scandinavian languages:   Danish   Norwegian   Swedish Insular Scandinavian languages:   Faroese   Icelandic The North Germanic languages of Scandinavia are traditionally divided into an East Scandinavian branch (Danish and Swedish) and a West Scandinavian branch (Norwegian, Icelandic and Faroese),[49][50] but because of changes appearing in the languages since 1600 the East Scandinavian and West Scandinavian branches are now usually reconfigured into Insular Scandinavian (ö-nordisk/øy-nordisk) featuring Icelandic and Faroese[51] and Continental Scandinavian (Skandinavisk), comprising Danish, Norwegian and Swedish.[52] The modern division is based on the degree of mutual comprehensibility between the languages in the two branches.[53] The populations of the Scandinavian countries, with common Scandinavian roots in language, can—at least with some training—understand each other's standard languages as they appear in print and are heard on radio and television. The reason Danish, Swedish and the two official written versions of Norwegian (Nynorsk and Bokmål) are traditionally viewed as different languages, rather than dialects of one common language, is that each is a well-established standard language in its respective country. Danish, Swedish and Norwegian have since medieval times been influenced to varying degrees by Middle Low German and standard German. That influence came from not just proximity but also that Denmark and later Denmark-Norway ruling over the German speaking region of Holstein, and in Sweden with its close trade with the Hanseatic League. Norwegians are accustomed to variation and may perceive Danish and Swedish only as slightly more distant dialects. This is because they have two official written standards, in addition to the habit of strongly holding on to local dialects. The people of Stockholm, Sweden and Copenhagen, Denmark have the greatest difficulty in understanding other Scandinavian languages.[54] In the Faroe Islands and Iceland, learning Danish is mandatory. This causes Faroese people as well as Icelandic people to become bilingual in two very distinct North Germanic languages, making it relatively easy for them to understand the other two Mainland Scandinavian languages.[55][56] Although Iceland was under the political control of Denmark until a much later date (1918), very little influence and borrowing from Danish has occurred in the Icelandic language.[57] Icelandic remained the preferred language among the ruling classes in Iceland. Danish was not used for official communications, most of the royal officials were of Icelandic descent and the language of the church and law courts remained Icelandic.[58] Finnish[edit] Historically verified distribution of the Sami languages (legend) The Scandinavian languages are (as a language family) unrelated to Finnish, Estonian and Sami languages, which as Uralic languages are distantly related to Hungarian. Owing to the close proximity, there is still a great deal of borrowing from the Swedish and Norwegian languages in the Finnish and Sami languages.[59] The long history of linguistic influence of Swedish on Finnish is also due to the fact that Finnish, the language of the majority in Finland, was treated as a minority language while Finland was part of Sweden. Finnish-speakers had to learn Swedish in order to advance to higher positions.[60] Swedish spoken in today's Finland includes a lot of words that are borrowed from Finnish, whereas the written language remains closer to that of Sweden. Finland is officially bilingual, with Finnish and Swedish having mostly the same status at national level. Finland's majority population are Finns, whose mother tongue is either Finnish (approximately 95%), Swedish or both. The Swedish-speakers live mainly on the coastline starting from approximately the city of Porvoo (in the Gulf of Finland) up to the city of Kokkola (in the Bay of Bothnia). The Åland Islands, an autonomous province of Finland situated in the Baltic Sea between Finland and Sweden, are entirely Swedish-speaking. Children are taught the other official language at school: for Swedish-speakers this is Finnish (usually from the 3rd grade), while for Finnish-speakers it is Swedish (usually from the 3rd, 5th or 7th grade).[citation needed][61] Finnish speakers constitute a language minority in Sweden and Norway. Meänkieli and Kven are Finnish dialects spoken in Swedish Lapland and Norwegian Lapland. Sami languages[edit] The Sami languages are indigenous minority languages in Scandinavia.[62] They belong to their own branch of the Uralic language family and are unrelated to the North Germanic languages other than by limited grammatical (particularly lexical) characteristics resulting from prolonged contact.[59] Sami is divided into several languages or dialects.[63] Consonant gradation is a feature in both Finnish and northern Sami dialects, but it is not present in south Sami, which is considered to have a different language history. According to the Sami Information Centre of the Sami Parliament in Sweden, southern Sami may have originated in an earlier migration from the south into the Scandinavian peninsula.[59] History[edit] For a more in-depth look at the history of the region, see History of Scandinavia. Ancient descriptions[edit] A key ancient description of Scandinavia was provided by Pliny the Elder, though his mentions of Scatinavia and surrounding areas are not always easy to decipher. Writing in the capacity of a Roman admiral, he introduces the northern region by declaring to his Roman readers that there are 23 islands "Romanis armis cognitae" ("known to Roman arms") in this area. According to Pliny, the "clarissima" ("most famous") of the region's islands is Scatinavia, of unknown size. There live the Hilleviones. The belief that Scandinavia was an island became widespread among classical authors during the first century and dominated descriptions of Scandinavia in classical texts during the centuries that followed. Pliny begins his description of the route to Scatinavia by referring to the mountain of Saevo ("mons Saevo ibi"), the Codanus Bay ("Codanus sinus") and the Cimbrian promontory.[64] The geographical features have been identified in various ways. By some scholars, Saevo is thought to be the mountainous Norwegian coast at the entrance to Skagerrak and the Cimbrian peninsula is thought to be Skagen, the north tip of Jutland, Denmark. As described, Saevo and Scatinavia can also be the same place. Pliny mentions Scandinavia one more time: in Book VIII he says that the animal called achlis (given in the accusative, achlin, which is not Latin) was born on the island of Scandinavia.[65] The animal grazes, has a big upper lip and some mythical attributes. The name Scandia, later used as a synonym for Scandinavia, also appears in Pliny's Naturalis Historia (Natural History), but is used for a group of Northern European islands which he locates north of Britannia. Scandia thus does not appear to be denoting the island Scadinavia in Pliny's text. The idea that Scadinavia may have been one of the Scandiae islands was instead introduced by Ptolemy (c. 90 – c. 168 AD), a mathematician, geographer and astrologer of Roman Egypt. He used the name Skandia for the biggest, most easterly of the three Scandiai islands, which according to him were all located east of Jutland.[11] Neither Pliny's nor Ptolemy's lists of Scandinavian tribes include the Suiones mentioned by Tacitus. Some early Swedish scholars of the Swedish Hyperborean school[66] and of the ninettenth-century romantic nationalism period proceeded to synthesize the different versions by inserting references to the Suiones, arguing that they must have been referred to in the original texts and obscured over time by spelling mistakes or various alterations.[67][68] Part of a series on the Norse people Extent of Norse language in 900 AD: Western Norse in red and Eastern Norse in orange. Scandinavia History History Nordic Stone Age Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Germanic Iron Age Migration Period Viking Age Norse–Gaels Normans Old Norse religion Germanic paganism Proto-Indo-European religion Christianization Paganism Gods Æsir Vanir Jötunn Sigurd Sigmund Völundr Vættir Elves Light elves Dark elves Dvergr Einherjar Fenrir Hel (being) Dís Norns Valkyries Jörmungandr Ask and Embla Cosmology Ásgarðr Vanaheimr Miðgarðr Vígríðr Bifröst Fólkvangr Ginnungagap Helheim Múspellsheimr Niflheimr Mímisbrunnr Hvergelmir Urðarbrunnr Yggdrasill Walhǫllr Jötunheimr Rituals and worship Blót Seiðr Norse funeral Yule Walpurgis Night Midsummer Hörgr Heathen hofs Vé Gothi Calendar Runic magic Völva Galdr Death in Norse paganism Society Norse law Earl Thrall Félag Thing Mead hall Holmgang Old Norse Nithing pole Nīþ Ergi Berserker Events Æsir–Vanir War Fimbulwinter Ragnarök Wild Hunt Sources Poetic Edda Prose Edda Tyrfing Cycle Völsung Cycle Saga Runestone WikiProject Norse history and culture v t e The Middle Ages[edit] During a period of Christianization and state formation in the 10th–13th centuries, numerous Germanic petty kingdoms and chiefdoms were unified into three kingdoms: Denmark, forged from the Lands of Denmark (including Jutland, Zealand and Scania (Skåneland) on the Scandinavian Peninsula)[69] Sweden, forged from the Lands of Sweden on the Scandinavian Peninsula (excluding the provinces Bohuslän, Härjedalen, Jämtland and Idre and Särna, Halland, Blekinge and Scania of modern-day Sweden, but including most of modern Finland) Norway (including Bohuslän, Härjedalen, Jämtland and Idre and Särna on the Scandinavian Peninsula and its island colonies Iceland, Greenland, Faroe Islands, Shetland, Orkney, Isle of Man and the Hebrides) The three Scandinavian kingdoms joined in 1387 in the Kalmar Union under Queen Margaret I of Denmark. Sweden left the union in 1523 under King Gustav Vasa. In the aftermath of Sweden's secession from the Kalmar Union, civil war broke out in Denmark and Norway—the Protestant Reformation followed. When things had settled, the Norwegian Privy Council was abolished—it assembled for the last time in 1537. A personal union, entered into by the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway in 1536, lasted until 1814. Three sovereign successor states have subsequently emerged from this unequal union: Denmark, Norway and Iceland. The borders between the three countries got the shape they have had since in the middle of the seventeenth century: In the 1645 Treaty of Brömsebro, Denmark–Norway ceded the Norwegian provinces of Jämtland, Härjedalen and Idre and Särna, as well as the Baltic Sea islands of Gotland and Ösel (in Estonia) to Sweden. The Treaty of Roskilde, signed in 1658, forced Denmark–Norway to cede the Danish provinces Scania, Blekinge, Halland, Bornholm and the Norwegian provinces of Båhuslen and Trøndelag to Sweden. The 1660 Treaty of Copenhagen forced Sweden to return Bornholm and Trøndelag to Denmark–Norway, and to give up its recent claims to the island Funen.[70] In the east, Finland was a fully incorporated part of Sweden from medieval times until the Napoleonic wars, when it was ceded to Russia. Despite many wars over the years since the formation of the three kingdoms, Scandinavia has been politically and culturally close.[citation needed] Scandinavian unions[edit] The Kalmar Union (c. 1400) Denmark–Norway as a historiographical name refers to the former political union consisting of the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, including the Norwegian dependencies of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The corresponding adjective and demonym is Dano-Norwegian. During Danish rule, Norway kept its separate laws, coinage and army as well as some institutions such as a royal chancellor. Norway's old royal line had died out with the death of Olav IV[71] in 1387, but Norway's remaining a hereditary kingdom became an important factor for the Oldenburg dynasty of Denmark–Norway in its struggles to win elections as kings of Denmark. The Treaty of Kiel (14 January 1814) formally dissolved the Dano-Norwegian union and ceded the territory of Norway proper to the King of Sweden, but Denmark retained Norway's overseas possessions. However, widespread Norwegian resistance to the prospect of a union with Sweden induced the governor of Norway, crown prince Christian Frederick (later Christian VIII of Denmark), to call a constituent assembly at Eidsvoll in April 1814. The assembly drew up a liberal constitution and elected Christian Frederick to the throne of Norway. Following a Swedish invasion during the summer, the peace conditions of the Convention of Moss (14 August 1814) specified that king Christian Frederik had to resign, but Norway would keep its independence and its constitution within a personal union with Sweden. Christian Frederik formally abdicated on 10 August 1814 and returned to Denmark. The Norwegian parliament Storting elected king Charles XIII of Sweden as king of Norway on 4 November. The Storting dissolved the union between Sweden and Norway in 1905, after which the Norwegians elected Prince Charles of Denmark as king of Norway: he reigned as Haakon VII. Economy[edit] See also: Economy of Sweden, Economy of Denmark, Economy of Finland, Economy of Iceland, and Economy of Norway The economies of the countries of Scandinavia are amongst the strongest in Europe.[72] There is a generous welfare system in Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Finland.[73] Tourism[edit] Various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States (such as The American-Scandinavian Foundation, established in 1910 by the Danish American industrialist Niels Poulsen) serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. Today, the five Nordic heads of state act as the organization's patrons and according to the official statement by the organization its mission is "to promote the Nordic region as a whole while increasing the visibility of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden in New York City and the United States".[74] The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, such as the Scandinavian Tourist Board.[75] The cooperation was introduced for the Asian market in 1986, when the Swedish national tourist board joined the Danish national tourist board to coordinate intergovernmental promotion of the two countries. Norway's government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America.[76] See also[edit] Baltic region Baltoscandia Fennoscandia Kvenland Nordic Council Nordic countries Nordic Cross Flag Scandinavian colonialism Scandinavian family name etymology Scandinavian Peninsula Scandza Vikings Notes[edit] ^ a b "Scandinavia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Retrieved 28 October 2009. Scandinavia, historically Scandia, part of Northern Europe, generally held to consist of the two countries of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Norway and Sweden, with the addition of Denmark. Some authorities argue for the inclusion of Finland on geologic and economic grounds and of Iceland and the Faroe Islands on the grounds that their inhabitants speak Scandinavian languages related to those of Norway and Sweden and also have similar cultures. ^ Danish, Swedish and archaic (Dano-)Norwegian: Skandinavien, Norwegian, Faroese and Finnish: Skandinavia, Icelandic: Skandinavía, Sami: Skadesi-suolu/Skađsuâl References[edit] ^ "Languages". Nordic Cooperation. Archived from the original on 5 July 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2017. ^ Landes, David (1 July 2009). "Swedish becomes official 'main language'". The Local (Se). Retrieved 8 July 2017. ^ a b "Definition of Scandinavia in English". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 23 December 2016. A large peninsula in north-western Europe, occupied by Norway and Sweden … A cultural region consisting of the countries of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark and sometimes also of Iceland, Finland, and the Faroe Islands ^ John Harrison, Michael Hoyler, Megaregions: Globalization's New Urban Form? (p. 152), Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015 ^ a b c "Facts about the Nordic region". Nordic Council of Ministers & Nordic Council. 1 October 2007. Archived from the original on 8 February 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2014. Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland work together in the official Nordic co-operation. ^ Battaglia, Steven M. (2 January 2019). "Shifting Weather Patterns in a Warming Arctic: The Scandes Case". Weatherwise. 72 (1): 23–29. doi:10.1080/00431672.2019.1538761. ^ Högsta uppmätta temperatur i Sverige Archived 26 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b Lägsta uppmätta temperatur i Sverige Archived 28 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ Anderson, Carl Edlund (1999). Formation and Resolution of Ideological Contrast in the Early History of Scandinavia. PhD dissertation, Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse & Celtic (Faculty of English), University of Cambridge, 1999. ^ Haugen, Einar (1976). The Scandinavian Languages: An Introduction to Their History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. ^ a b c Knut Helle (2003). The Cambridge History of Scandinavia: Prehistory to 1520. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47299-9. ^ John McKinnell (2005). Meeting the other in Norse myth and legend. Ds Brewer. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-84384-042-8. ^ a b J. F. Del Giorgio (24 May 2006). The Oldest Europeans: Who Are We? Where Do We Come From? What Made European Women Different?. A J Place. ISBN 978-980-6898-00-4. ^ Uścinowicz, Szymon (2003). "How the Baltic Sea was changing" Archived 12 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Marine Geology Branch, Polish Geological Institute, 9 June 2003. Retrieved 13 January 2008. ^ Jordanes (translated by Charles C. Mierow), The Origins and Deeds of the Goths, 22 April 1997 ^ Hoppenbrouwers, Peter (2005). Medieval Peoples Imagined. Working Paper No. 3, Department of European Studies, University of Amsterdam, ISSN 1871-1693, p. 8: "A second core area was the quasi-legendary 'Isle of Scanza', the vague indication of Scandinavia in classical ethnography, and a veritable 'hive of races and a womb of peoples' according to Jordanes' Gothic History. Not only the Goths were considered to have originated there, but also the Dacians/Danes, the Lombards, and the Burgundians—claims that are still subject to debate." ^ Goffart, Walter (2005), "Jordanes’s Getica and the disputed authenticity of Gothic origins from Scandinavia". Speculum. A Journal of Medieval Studies 80, 379–98 ^ Paulus Diaconus, Historia Langobardorum, Bibliotheca Ausustana ^ History of the Langobards, Northvegr Foundation Archived 6 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ Erik Björkman (1973). Studien zur englischen Philologie. Max Niemeyer. p. 99. ISBN 978-3-500-28470-5. ^ a b Richard North (1997). Heathen gods in Old English literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-521-55183-0. ^ Svennung, J. (1963). Scandinavia und Scandia. Lateinisch-nordische Namenstudien. Almqvist & Wiksell/Harrassowitz, 1963, pp. 54–56. ^ Mundel, E. (2000). "Coexistence of Saami and Norse culture – reflected in and interpreted by Old Norse myths" Coexistence of Saami and Norse culture – reflected in and interpreted by Old Norse myths University of Bergen, 11th Saga Conference Sydney 2000 ^ Steinsland, Gro (1991). Det hellige bryllup og norrøn kongeideologi. En analyse av hierogami-myten i Skírnismál, Ynglingatal, Háleygjatal og Hyndluljóð. Oslo: Solum, 1991. (In Norwegian). ^ Aikio, A. (2004). "An essay on substrate studies and the origin of Saami". In Etymologie, Entlehnungen und Entwicklungen: Festschrift für Jorma Koivulehto zum 70. Geburtstag. Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki 63, Eds. Irma Hyvärinen / Petri Kallio / Jarmo Korhonen, Helsinki, pp. 5–34 (p. 14: "On the basis of Scandinavian loanwords it can be inferred that both sk- and -ʃ- were adopted in the west during the early separate development of the Saami languages, but never spread to Kola Saami. These areal features thus emerged in a phase when Proto-Saami began to diverge into dialects anticipating the modern Saami languages.") ^ a b Østergård, Uffe (1997). "The Geopolitics of Nordic Identity – From Composite States to Nation States". The Cultural Construction of Norden. Øystein Sørensen and Bo Stråth (eds.), Oslo: Scandinavian University Press 1997, 25–71. Also published online at Danish Institute for International Studies Archived 14 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine. For the history of cultural Scandinavism, see Oresundstid's articles The Literary Scandinavism and The Roots of Scandinavism. Retrieved 19 January 2007. ^ "Scandinavia". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Microsoft Corporation. 1997–2007. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 30 January 2007. Scandinavia (ancient Scandia), name applied collectively to three countries of northern Europe—Norway, Sweden (which together form the Scandinavian Peninsula) and Denmark. ^ "Scandinavia". The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2008. Retrieved 9 January 2008. Scandinavia: Denmark, Norway, Sweden—sometimes also considered to include Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, & Finland. ^ 'Scandinavia', Collins Cobuild. ^ 'Scandinavia, proper noun', Lexico: Powered by Oxford. ^ 'Scandinavia, geographical name', Merriam Webster. ^ a b Knut Helle, 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, Volume I: Prehistory to 1520, ed. by Knut Helle, E. I. Kouri, and Jens E. Oleson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 1-14 (pp. 1-4). ^ "Scandinavia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Retrieved 28 October 2009. Scandinavia, historically Scandia, part of northern Europe, generally held to consist of the two countries of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Norway and Sweden, with the addition of Denmark. Some authorities argue for the inclusion of Finland on geologic and economic grounds and of Iceland and the Faroe Islands on the grounds that their inhabitants speak Scandinavian languages related to those of Norway and Sweden and also have similar cultures. ^ Lonely Planet Scandinavian Europe. 2009. ^ The Rough Guide to Scandinavia. 2008. ^ "Official Site of Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America". 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2008. ^ Olwig, Kenneth R. "Introduction: The Nature of Cultural Heritage, and the Culture of Natural Heritage—Northern Perspectives on a Contested Patrimony". International Journal of Heritage Studies, Vol. 11, No. 1, March 2005, pp. 3–7. ^ "Finland and the Swedish Empire". Country Studies. U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 25 November 2006. ^ "Introduction: Reflections on Political Thought in Finland." Editorial. Redescriptions, Yearbook of Political Thought and Conceptual History, 1997, Volume 1, University of Jyväskylä, pp. 6–7: "[T]he populist opposition both to Sweden as a former imperial country and especially to Swedish as the language of the narrow Finnish establishment has also been strong, especially in the inter-war years. [...] Finland as a unitary and homogeneous nation-state was constructed [...] in opposition to the imperial models of Sweden and Russia." ^ "The Rise of Finnish Nationalism". Country Studies. U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 25 November 2006: "The eighteenth century had witnessed the appearance of [...] a sense of national identity for the Finnish people, [...] an expression of the Finns' growing doubts about Swedish rule [...] The ethnic self-consciousness of Finnish speakers was given a considerable boost by the Russian conquest of Finland in 1809, because ending the connection with Sweden forced Finns to define themselves with respect to the Russians." ^ Editors and Board, Redescriptions, Yearbook of Political Thought and Conceptual History ^ "Fennoscandia, n.", Oxford English Dictionary Online, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, December 2019). Accessed 10 February 2020. ^ 'Scandinavian, noun', Lexico: Powered By Oxford. ^ 'Scandinavian noun', Merriam-Webster. ^ 'Scandinavian 2. countable noun', Collins Cobuild. ^ Kennedy, Arthur Garfield (1963). "The Indo-European Language Family". In Lee, Donald Woodward (ed.). English Language Reader: Introductory Essays and Exercises. Dodd, Mead. North Germanic, or Scandinavian, or Norse, peoples, as they are variously called, became a distinctive people...; Spaeth, John Duncan Ernst (1921). Old English Poetry. Princeton University Press. The main divisions of Germanic are: 1. East Germanic, including the Goths, both Ostrogoths and Visigoths. 2. North Germanic, including the Scandinavians, Danes, Icelanders, Swedes, "Norsemen." 3. West Germanic. The Old English (Anglo-Saxons) belong to this division, of which the continental representatives are the Teutonic peoples, High and Low Franks and Saxons, Alemanni, etc.; Thompson, Stith (1995). Our Heritage of World Literature. Cordon Company. ISBN 978-0809310913. The North Germanic, or Scandinavian group, consists of the Norwegians, Danes, Swedes, and Icelanders.; Gordon, Eric Valentine; Taylor, A. R. (1962). An Introduction to Old Norse. Clarendon Press. Norse was the language spoken by the North Germanic peoples (Scandinavians) from the time when Norse first became differentiated from the speech of the other Germanic peoples; Ränk, Gustav (1976). Old Estonia, The People and Culture. Indiana University. Contacts are not impossible also with the Northern Germanic peoples, i.e., with the Scandinavians directly across the sea...; Barbour, Stephen; Stevenson, Patrick (1990). Variation in German: A Critical Approach to German Sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521357043. For the period when the existence of the Germanic tribes is first clearly recorded by Roman writers, archaeological evidence suggests five tribal groups, with perhaps five incipient distinct Germanic languages, as follows: (1) North Germanic tribes (Scandinavians)...; Diringer, David (1948). The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind. Philosophical Library. "Old Norse" was spoken by the North Germanic or Scandinavian peoples; Bolling, George Melville; Bloch, Bernard (1968). Language. Linguistic Society of America. Northern Germanic peoples, i.e. the Scandinavians...; Jones, Gwyn (2001). A History of the Vikings. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192801340. North Germanic (Scandinavian) peoples.... ^ Dirmid R. F. Collis (1990). Arctic languages: an awakening. Unipub. p. 440. ISBN 978-92-3-102661-4. ^ "Population". ^ Aschehoug og Gyldendals store norske leksikon: Nar – Pd. 1999. ISBN 978-82-573-0703-5. ^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International ^ Jónsson, Jóhannes Gísli and Thórhallur Eythórsson (2004). "Variation in subject case marking in Insular Scandinavian". Nordic Journal of Linguistics (2005), 28: 223–245 Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 9 November 2007. ^ Bernd Heine; Tania Kuteva (2006). The changing languages of Europe. Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 978-0-19-929734-4. ^ Iben Stampe Sletten; Nordisk Ministerråd (2005). Nordens sprog med rødder og fødder. p. 2. ISBN 978-92-893-1041-3. ^ "Urban misunderstandings", Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen. ^ Faroese and Norwegians best at understanding Nordic neighbours, Nordisk Sprogråd, Nordic Council, 13 January 2005. ^ Aðalnámskrá grunnskóla: Erlend tungumál, ISMennt, EAN, 1999. ^ Holmarsdottir, H. B. (2001). "Icelandic: A Lesser-Used Language in the Global Community". International Review of Education/ Internationale Zeitschrift Fr Erziehungswissenschaft/ Revue Inter. 47 (3/4): 379. Bibcode:2001IREdu..47..379H. doi:10.1023/A:1017918213388. ^ Hálfdanarson, Guðmundur. Icelandic Nationalism: A Non-Violent Paradigm? Archived 1 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine In Nations and Nationalities in Historical Perspective. Pisa: Edizioni Plus, 2001, p. 3. ^ a b c Inez Svonni Fjällström (2006). "A language with deep roots" Archived 5 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine.Sápmi: Language history, 14 November 2006. Samiskt Informationscentrum Sametinget: "The Scandinavian languages are Northern Germanic languages. [...] Sami belongs to the Finno-Ugric language family. Finnish, Estonian, Livonian and Hungarian belong to the same language family and are consequently related to each other." ^ Suzanne Romaine (1995). Bilingualism. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 323. ISBN 978-0-631-19539-9. ^ Institute, Mercator (5 November 2020). "The Swedish language in education in Finland" (PDF). ^ Oskar Bandle (March 2005). The Nordic languages: an international handbook of the history of the North Germanic languages. Walter de Gruyter. p. 2115. ISBN 978-3-11-017149-5. ^ www.eng.samer.se – The Sami dialects Archived 20 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine Sapmi: The Sami dialects ^ Pliny the Elder. Naturalis Historia. Book IV, chapter XXXIX. Ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Online version at Persus. Retrieved 2 October 2007. ^ Pliny the Elder. Naturalis Historia. Book VIII, chapter XVII. Ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Online version at Persus. Retrieved 2 October 2007. ^ Oskar Bandle (2002). The Nordic languages: an international handbook of the history of the North Germanic languages. Mouton De Gruyter. p. 358. ISBN 978-3-11-014876-3. ^ Malone, Kemp (1924). "Ptolemy's Skandia". The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 45, No. 4. (1924), pp. 362–70. ^ Stadius, Peter (2001). "Southern Perspectives on the North: Legends, Stereotypes, Images and Models" Archived 25 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine. BaltSeaNet Working Paper 3, The Baltic Sea Area Studies, Gdansk/Berlin, 2001. Online version retrieved 2 October 2007. ^ Oskar Bandle (2002). The Nordic languages: an international handbook of the history of the North Germanic languages. Mouton De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014876-3. ^ "Treaty of Copenhagen" (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 November 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. ^ The Monarchy: Historical Background[permanent dead link]. The Royal House of Norway. Official site. Retrieved 9 November 2006.[dead link] ^ "GDP Ranked by Country 2020". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 28 January 2020. ^ McWhinney, James. "The Nordic Model: Pros and Cons". Investopedia. Retrieved 28 January 2020. ^ About The American-Scandinavian Foundation. Official site. Retrieved 2 February 2007. ^ Scandinavian Tourist Board. Official site. Archived 17 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ The Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America. Official Website. Retrieved 2 February 2007. Further reading[edit] Historical[edit] Barton, H. Arnold. Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era: 1760-1815 (U of Minnesota Press, 1986) online review Derry, T. K. A History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland (George Allen & Unwin, 1979). online review Helle, Knut, ed. The Cambridge history of Scandinavia. Volume 1, Prehistory to 1520 (Cambridge UP, 2003). Mikkelsen, Flemming, Knut Kjeldstadli, and Stefan Nyzell, eds. Popular struggle and democracy in Scandinavia: 1700-present (Springer, 2017). Nissen, Henrik S. ed. Scandinavia during the Second World War (1983) online review Nordstrom, Byron J. Scandinavia since 1500 (U of Minnesota Press, 2000). Pulsiano, Phillip, and Paul Leonard Acker. Medieval Scandinavia: an encyclopedia (Taylor & Francis, 1993). Salmon, Patrick. Scandinavia and the great powers 1890-1940 (Cambridge UP, 2002). Sawyer, Birgit. Medieval Scandinavia: From conversion to reformation, circa 800-1500 (U of Minnesota Press, 1993). Sawyer, Peter Hayes. Kings and vikings: Scandinavia and Europe AD 700–1100 (1982) Wilson, David Mackenzie, and P. Foote. The Viking achievement: the society and culture of early medieval Scandinavia (Sidgwick & Jackson, 1970). Winroth, Anders. The Age of the Vikings (Princeton UP, 2016) excerpt Winroth, Anders. The Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants, and Missionaries in the Remaking of Northern Europe (Yale UP, 2012). excerpt Recent[edit] Anderson, Jorgen, and Jens Hoff, eds. Democracy and citizenship in Scandinavia (Springer, 2001). Bendixsen, Synnøve, Mary Bente Bringslid, and Halvard Vike, eds. Egalitarianism in Scandinavia: Historical and contemporary perspectives (Springer, 2017). Gallie, Duncan. "The quality of working life: is Scandinavia different?." European Sociological Review 19.1 (2003): 61–79. Green, Ken, Thorsteinn Sigurjónsson, and Eivind Åsrum Skille, eds. Sport in Scandinavia and the Nordic countries (Routledge, 2018). Hilson, Mary. The Nordic Model: Scandinavia since 1945 (Reaktion books, 2008). Ingebritsen, Christine. Scandinavia in world politics (Rowman & Littlefield, 2006). Kröger, Teppo. "Local government in Scandinavia: autonomous or integrated into the welfare state?." in Social Care Services (Routledge, 2019) pp. 95-108. Lappi-Seppälä, Tapio. "Penal policy in Scandinavia." Crime and justice 36.1 (2007): 217–295. Nestingen, Andrew. Crime and fantasy in Scandinavia: Fiction, film and social change (University of Washington Press, 2011). Rogerson, Richard. "Taxation and market work: is Scandinavia an outlier?." Economic theory 32.1 (2007): 59–85. online Strand, Robert, R. Edward Freeman, and Kai Hockerts. "Corporate social responsibility and sustainability in Scandinavia: An overview." Journal of Business Ethics 127.1 (2015): 1-15 online. External links[edit] Look up scandinavia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Scandinavia (category) Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Scandinavian Civilization. "Scandinavia: Official Website of the Scandinavian Tourist Boards in North America". Scandinavian Tourist Boards in North America, Globescope Internet Services, Inc. 2005. Retrieved 5 September 2008. Nordic Council – official site for co-operation in the Nordic region Nordregio – site established by the Nordic Council of Ministers vifanord – a digital library that provides scientific information on the Nordic and Baltic countries as well as the Baltic region as a whole Expat Scandinavia – Site with useful information for expats in Scandinavia. v t e Earth's primary regions and subregions v t e Regions of Africa Central Guinea region Gulf of Guinea Cape Lopez Mayombe Igboland Mbaise Pool Malebo Congo Basin Chad Basin Cameroonian Highlands forests East Sudanian savanna Congolian rainforests Ouaddaï highlands Ennedi Plateau East African Great Lakes Albertine Rift East African Rift Great Rift Valley Gregory Rift Rift Valley lakes Virunga Mountains Kavirondo Zanj East African montane forests Eastern Arc Mountains Serengeti Horn of Africa Afar Triangle Al-Habash Barbaria Danakil Alps Danakil Desert Ethiopian Highlands Dahlak Archipelago Hanish Islands Gulf of Aden Gulf of Tadjoura Red Sea Indian Ocean islands Comoro Islands Lamu Archipelago Madagascar Central Highlands (Madagascar) Northern Highlands Zanzibar Archipelago Swahili coast North Eastern Desert Maghreb Ancient Libya Atlas Mountains Barbary Coast Bashmur Gibraltar Arc Ifriqiya Nile Valley Nile Delta Cataracts of the Nile Darfur Lower Egypt Lower Nubia Middle Egypt Nile Delta Nuba Mountains Nubia The Sudans Upper Egypt Tibesti Mountains Western Sahara South Rhodesia North South Thembuland Succulent Karoo Nama Karoo Bushveld Maputaland Highveld Fynbos Indian Ocean coastal belt Albany thickets Cape Floristic Region Skeleton Coast Kalahari Desert Okavango Delta Cape Peninsula False Bay West Pepper Coast Gold Coast Slave Coast Ivory Coast Cape Palmas Cape Mesurado Guinea region Guinean Forests of West Africa Upper Guinean forests Lower Guinean forests Guinean forest-savanna mosaic Guinea Highlands Gulf of Guinea Dahomey Gap Niger Basin Niger Delta Inner Niger Delta West Sudanian savanna Yorubaland Macro-regions Aethiopia Afromontane Arab world Commonwealth realm Equatorial Africa Françafrique Greater Middle East Guineo-Congolian region Islands of Africa List of countries where Arabic is an official language Mediterranean Basin MENA MENASA Middle East Miombo woodlands Mittelafrika Negroland Northeast Africa Portuguese-speaking African countries Sahara Sahel Sub-Saharan Africa Sudan (region) Sudanian savanna Tropical Africa Zambezian region v t e Regions of Asia Central (The 'stans) Roof of the World Greater Middle East Aral Sea Aralkum Desert Caspian Sea Dead Sea Sea of Galilee Tartary Transoxiana Turan Greater Khorasan Ariana Arachosia Khwarazm Sistan Kazakhstania Kazakh Steppe Betpak-Dala Eurasian Steppe Kazakh Steppe Pontic–Caspian steppe Mongolian-Manchurian grassland Wild Fields Yedisan Muravsky Trail Ural Ural Mountains Volga region Idel-Ural Pryazovia Bjarmaland Kuban Zalesye Ingria Novorossiya Gornaya Shoriya Tulgas Iranian Plateau Altai Mountains Pamir Mountains Tian Shan Badakhshan Wakhan Corridor Wakhjir Pass Mount Imeon Mongolian Plateau Western Regions Taklamakan Desert Karakoram Trans-Karakoram Tract Siachen Glacier Tibetan Plateau East (Northeast) Orient Japanese archipelago Northeastern Japan Arc Sakhalin Island Arc Korea Gobi Desert Taklamakan Desert Greater Khingan Mongolian Plateau Inner Asia Inner Mongolia Outer Mongolia China proper Manchuria Outer Manchuria Inner Manchuria Northeast China Plain Mongolian-Manchurian grassland North China Plain Yan Mountains Kunlun Mountains Liaodong Peninsula High-mountain Asia Himalayas Tibetan Plateau Tibet Karakoram Tarim Basin Sichuan Basin Northern Silk Road Hexi Corridor Nanzhong Lingnan Liangguang Jiangnan Jianghuai Guanzhong Huizhou Wu Jiaozhou Zhongyuan Shaannan Ordos Loop Loess Plateau Shaanbei Hamgyong Mountains Central Mountain Range Japanese Alps Suzuka Mountains Leizhou Peninsula Gulf of Tonkin Yangtze River Yangtze River Delta Yellow River Pearl River Delta Yenisey Basin Altai Mountains Wakhan Corridor Wakhjir Pass Far East Ring of Fire Asia-Pacific Tropical Asia North (Siberia) Arctic Arctic Circle Inner Asia Northeast Ural Ural Mountains Far East Russian Far East Okhotsk-Manchurian taiga Beringia Chukchi Peninsula Kamchatka Peninsula Extreme North Tartary Siberia Baikalia (Lake Baikal) Baraba steppe Khatanga Gulf Transbaikal West Amur Basin Yenisey Gulf Yenisey Basin Sikhote-Alin Kolyma Bering Strait Ring of Fire Outer Manchuria Asia-Pacific Southeast (Nanyang) Orient Sundaland Mainland Indochina Malay Peninsula Northern Triangle temperate forests Maritime Peninsular Malaysia Sunda Islands Greater Sunda Islands Lesser Sunda Islands Indonesian Archipelago Wallacea Timor Philippine Archipelago Luzon Visayas Mindanao Leyte Gulf Gulf of Thailand East Indies Nanyang Alpide belt Far East Ring of Fire Asia-Pacific Tropical Asia South (Indian subcontinent) Orient Greater India Indian subcontinent Himalayas Hindu Kush Bactria Carnatic region Tamilakam Western Ghats Eastern Ghats Ganges Basin Ganges Delta Guzgan Pashtunistan Punjab Balochistan Gedrosia Makran Marathwada Kashmir Kashmir Valley Pir Panjal Range Thar Desert Indus Valley Indus River Delta Indus Valley Desert Indo-Gangetic Plain Eastern Coastal Plains Kalinga Western Coastal Plains Meghalaya subtropical forests MENASA Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows Doab Bagar tract Great Rann of Kutch Little Rann of Kutch Deccan Plateau Coromandel Coast Konkan False Divi Point Hindi Belt Ladakh Aksai Chin Gilgit-Baltistan Baltistan Shigar Valley High-mountain Asia Karakoram Saltoro Mountains Siachen Glacier Bengal Bay of Bengal Gulf of Khambhat Gulf of Kutch Halar Gulf of Mannar Trans-Karakoram Tract Wakhan Corridor Wakhjir Pass Lakshadweep Laccadive Islands Amindivi Islands Paropamisadae Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman Islands Nicobar Islands Maldive Islands Alpide belt Asia-Pacific Tropical Asia Tibetan Plateau West (Middle East) Greater Middle East MENASA MENA Middle East Red Sea Hanish Islands Caspian Sea Mediterranean Sea Zagros Mountains Elam Persian Gulf Pirate Coast Strait of Hormuz Greater and Lesser Tunbs Al-Faw Peninsula Gulf of Oman Gulf of Aqaba Gulf of Aden Balochistan Arabian Peninsula Najd Al-Yamama Hejaz Tihamah Eastern Arabia South Arabia Hadhramaut Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert Tropical Asia Al-Sharat Tigris–Euphrates Mesopotamia Upper Mesopotamia Lower Mesopotamia Sawad Nineveh plains Akkad (region) Babylonia Canaan Aram Aram-Naharaim Eber-Nari Suhum Eastern Mediterranean Mashriq Kurdistan Levant (Syria region) Palestine region (Holy Land, Land of Israel) Transjordan Jordan Rift Valley Golan Heights Hula Valley Galilee Gilead Judea Samaria Arabah Negev Levantine Sea Anti-Lebanon Mountains Sinai Peninsula Arabian Desert Syrian Desert Fertile Crescent Azerbaijan Hauran Iranian Plateau Dasht-e Kavir Armenian Highlands Caucasus Caucasus Mountains Greater Caucasus Lesser Caucasus North Caucasus South Caucasus Shirvan Kur-Araz Lowland Lankaran Lowland Alborz Absheron Peninsula Kartli Anatolia Taurus Mountains Aeolis Paphlagonia Phasiane Isauria Ionia Bithynia Cilicia Cappadocia Caria Corduene Chaldia Doris Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Galatia Pisidia Pontus Mysia Arzawa Speri Sophene Biga Peninsula Troad Tuwana Alpide belt v t e Regions of Europe North Arctic Arctic Circle Nordic Northwestern Scandinavia Scandinavian Peninsula Fennoscandia Baltoscandia Jutland Gotland Sápmi Ingria West Nordic Baltic Baltic Sea Gulf of Bothnia Gulf of Finland Iceland Faroe Islands Livonia Curonian Spit Nemunas Delta East Danubian countries Prussia Galicia Volhynia Wallachia Transylvania Moldavia Bukovina Bessarabia Livonia Ruthenia Carpathian Ruthenia Donbass Sloboda Ukraine Sambia Peninsula Amber Coast Curonian Spit Izyum Trail Lithuania Minor Nemunas Delta Baltic Baltic Sea Vyborg Bay Karelia East Karelia Karelian Isthmus Lokhaniemi Southeastern Balkans Crimea North Caucasus Greater Caucasus Kabardia European Russia Arctic Arctic Circle Taman Peninsula Southern Russia Kola Peninsula East European Plain Ryn Desert Central North European Plain Baltic Baltic Sea Alpine states Alpide belt Visegrád Group Rhineland Eastphalia Westphalia Prussia Lusatia Bohemia Moravia Silesia Czech Silesia Pomerania Pomerelia Kashubia Bukovina Istria Transdanubia Polesia Germania Germania Slavica West Benelux Low Countries Northwest British Isles English Channel Channel Islands Cotentin Peninsula Doggerland Upper Rhine Plain Upper Rhine Gaul Gascony Normandy Brittany Septimania Batavia Gulf of Lion Iberia Al-Andalus Baetic System Meseta Central Pyrenees Alpide belt South Po Valley (Padania) Italian Peninsula Tuscan Archipelago Insular Italy Aegadian Islands Occitania Iberia Al-Andalus Baetic System Meseta Central Gibraltar Arc Southeastern Epirus Rumelia Balkans Aegean Sea Aegean Islands Attica Boeotia Opuntian Locris Phocis Megaris Peloponnese Chalkidiki Aetolia Gulf of Chania Istria Mediterranean Alpide belt Germanic Romance Celtic Slavic countries European Plain Eurasian Steppe Pontic–Caspian steppe Wild Fields Pannonian Basin Great Hungarian Plain Little Hungarian Plain Eastern Slovak Lowland v t e Regions of North America Upper Northern (i.e. Canada) Eastern Central Canada Atlantic Canada The Maritimes Great Lakes Northern Arctic Arctic Circle Canadian Arctic Archipelago Greenland Western Pacific Northwest Prairie Pothole Region Canadian Prairies The Maritimes French Canada English Canada Acadia Acadian Peninsula Quebec City–Windsor Corridor Peace River Country Cypress Hills Palliser's Triangle Canadian Shield Interior Alaska–Yukon lowland taiga Kodiak Island Newfoundland Island Vancouver Island Gulf Islands Strait of Georgia Labrador Peninsula Gaspé Peninsula Avalon Peninsula Bay de Verde Peninsula Brodeur Peninsula Melville Peninsula Bruce Peninsula Banks Peninsula (Nunavut) Cook Peninsula Gulf of Boothia Georgian Bay Hudson Bay James Bay Lower Northern (i.e. United States) Arctic Aleutian Arc Aleutian Range Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands Arctic Arctic Circle Bering Strait Gulf of Alaska Central Tallgrass prairie Midwest Upper Midwest Eastern East Coast Northeast Atlantic Northeast New England Mid-Atlantic Commonwealth Southeast Northern Great Lakes Southern Deep South Old South Santa Fe de Nuevo México South Central Gulf Coast Upland South Western West Coast Mountain states Intermountain West Great Basin Basin and Range Province Northwest Inland Northwest Pacific Northwest Southwest Old Southwest Four Corners Pacific Coast Ranges Oregon Trail Mormon Corridor Calumet Region Llano Estacado Third Coast Backcountry Trans-Mississippi Great North Woods Great Plains Interior Plains Great Basin Great Basin Desert Acadia Ozarks Ark-La-Tex Waxhaws Siouxland Twin Tiers Driftless Area Palouse Piedmont Atlantic coastal plain Outer Lands Black Dirt Region Blackstone Valley Piney Woods Rocky Mountains Mojave Desert The Dakotas Carolinas Shawnee Hills San Fernando Valley Tornado Alley North Coast Lost Coast Emerald Triangle San Francisco Bay Area San Francisco Bay North Bay East Bay Silicon Valley Interior Alaska–Yukon lowland taiga Gulf of Mexico Lower Colorado River Valley Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta Colville Delta Arkansas Delta Mobile–Tensaw River Delta Mississippi Delta Mississippi River Delta Columbia River Estuary Great Basin High Desert Monterey Peninsula Upper Peninsula of Michigan Lower Peninsula of Michigan Virginia Peninsula Keweenaw Peninsula Middle Peninsula Delmarva Peninsula Alaska Peninsula Kenai Peninsula Niagara Peninsula "Belt" regions Bible Belt Corn Belt Cotton Belt Rice Belt Rust Belt Sun Belt Snow Belt Mexico Central Tierra Caliente La Mixteca Huasteca Sierra Gorda Bajío Valley of Mexico Mezquital Valley Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine–oak forests Revillagigedo Islands Islas Marías Northern Basin and Range Province Baja California Peninsula Lerdo Landing Salton Trough Isla Llave Comarca Lagunera Sierra de San Francisco Gulf of California Colorado River Delta Pimería Alta Southern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca Yucatán Peninsula Ku-Maloob-Zaap Puuc Sierra Madre del Sur Triangle of the Sun Isthmus of Tehuantepec Sierra Madre de Chiapas Chiapas highlands Soconusco Petén Basin Sierra Madre Oriental Sierra Madre Occidental Gulf of Mexico Central Darién Gap Isthmus of Panama Lake Nicaragua Panama Canal Western Caribbean zone West Indies Caribbean Antilles Greater Antilles Hispaniola Lesser Antilles Leeward Islands Saint Martin Island Virgin Islands Southern Caribbean Leeward Antilles ABC islands Windward Islands Bajo Nuevo Bank San Andrés and Providencia Serranilla Bank Lucayan Archipelago Aridoamerica Mesoamerica Oasisamerica Anglo Middle America Latin French Hispanic American Cordillera Ring of Fire LAC  North America portal v t e Regions of Oceania Australia Australian Capital Territory Australian Capital Territory New South Wales Central Coast Central Tablelands Central Western Slopes Greater Western Sydney Hunter Mid North Coast Northern Rivers North West Slopes Northern Tablelands Riverina South Coast South West Slopes Southern Tablelands Western Plains Northern Territory Arnhem Land Barkly Tableland Central Australia Darwin Katherine Top End Queensland Central West Central Darling Downs Far North Gulf Country North South East South West Wide Bay–Burnett South Australia Adelaide Hills Barossa Light and Lower North Eastern Adelaide Eyre Western Far North Fleurieu and Kangaroo Island Limestone Coast Murray and Mallee Northern Adelaide Southern Adelaide Western Adelaide Yorke and Mid North Tasmania Central Highlands East Coast Midlands North East North West Northern South West Southern West Coast Victoria Barwon South West Gippsland Grampians Greater Melbourne Hume Loddon Mallee Western Australia Gascoyne Goldfields-Esperance Great Southern Kimberley Mid West Peel Pilbara South West Wheatbelt Melanesia Islands Region Bismarck Archipelago Solomon Islands North Solomon Islands Solomon Islands Fiji New Caledonia New Guinea Bonis Peninsula Papuan Peninsula Huon Peninsula Huon Gulf Bird's Head Peninsula Gazelle Peninsula Vanuatu Micronesia Caroline Islands Federated States of Micronesia Palau Kiribati Mariana Islands Guam Northern Mariana Islands Marshall Islands Nauru Wake Island Polynesia Easter Island Hawaiian Islands Cook Islands French Polynesia Austral Islands Gambier Islands Mangareva Islands Marquesas Islands Society Islands Tuamotus Kermadec Islands New Zealand South Island North Island Niue Pitcairn Islands Samoan Islands American Samoa Independent State of Samoa Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu Asia-Pacific Ring of Fire v t e Regions of South America East Amazon basin Atlantic Forest Caatinga Cerrado North Caribbean South America West Indies Llanos The Guianas Amazon basin Amazon rainforest Gulf of Paria Paria Peninsula Paraguaná Peninsula Orinoco Delta South Tierra del Fuego Patagonia Pampas Pantanal Gran Chaco Chiquitano dry forests Valdes Peninsula Triple Frontier Río de la Plata Río de la Plata Basin West Andes Tropical Andes Wet Andes Dry Andes Pariacaca mountain range Altiplano Atacama Desert Middle Latin Hispanic Bolivarian American Cordillera Ring of Fire LAC v t e Earth's polar regions Antarctic Antarctic Peninsula East Antarctica West Antarctica Eklund Islands Ecozone Extreme points Islands Arctic Arctic Alaska British Arctic Territories Canadian Arctic Archipelago Finnmark Greenland Northern Canada Northwest Territories Nunavik Nunavut Russian Arctic Sakha Sápmi Yukon North American Arctic v t e Earth's oceans and seas World Ocean Superocean Seven Seas Arctic Ocean Amundsen Gulf Barents Sea Beaufort Sea Chukchi Sea East Siberian Sea Greenland Sea Gulf of Boothia Kara Sea Laptev Sea Lincoln Sea Prince Gustaf Adolf Sea Pechora Sea Queen Victoria Sea Wandel Sea White Sea Atlantic Ocean Adriatic Sea Aegean Sea Alboran Sea Archipelago Sea Argentine Sea Baffin Bay Balearic Sea Baltic Sea Bay of Biscay Bay of Bothnia Bay of Campeche Bay of Fundy Black Sea Bothnian Sea Caribbean Sea Celtic Sea English Channel Foxe Basin Greenland Sea Gulf of Bothnia Gulf of Finland Gulf of Lion Gulf of Guinea Gulf of Maine Gulf of Mexico Gulf of Saint Lawrence Gulf of Sidra Gulf of Venezuela Hudson Bay Ionian Sea Irish Sea Irminger Sea James Bay Labrador Sea Levantine Sea Libyan Sea Ligurian Sea Marmara Sea Mediterranean Sea Myrtoan Sea North Sea Norwegian Sea Sargasso Sea Sea of Åland Sea of Azov Sea of Crete Sea of the Hebrides Thracian Sea Tyrrhenian Sea Wadden Sea Indian Ocean Andaman Sea Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal Flores Sea Great Australian Bight Gulf of Aden Gulf of Aqaba Gulf of Khambhat Gulf of Kutch Gulf of Oman Gulf of Suez Laccadive Sea Mozambique Channel Persian Gulf Red Sea Timor Sea Pacific Ocean Arafura Sea Bali Sea Banda Sea Bering Sea Bismarck Sea Bohai Sea Bohol Sea Camotes Sea Celebes Sea Chilean Sea Coral Sea East China Sea Gulf of Alaska Gulf of Anadyr Gulf of California Gulf of Carpentaria Gulf of Fonseca Gulf of Panama Gulf of Thailand Gulf of Tonkin Halmahera Sea Java Sea Koro Sea Mar de Grau Molucca Sea Moro Gulf Philippine Sea Salish Sea Savu Sea Sea of Japan Sea of Okhotsk Seram Sea Seto Inland Sea Shantar Sea Sibuyan Sea Solomon Sea South China Sea Sulu Sea Tasman Sea Visayan Sea Yellow Sea Southern Ocean Amundsen Sea Bellingshausen Sea Cooperation Sea Cosmonauts Sea Davis Sea D'Urville Sea King Haakon VII Sea Lazarev Sea Mawson Sea Riiser-Larsen Sea Ross Sea Scotia Sea Somov Sea Weddell Sea Endorheic basins Aral Sea Caspian Sea Dead Sea Salton Sea  Oceans portal Book Category v t e Hemispheres of Earth Northern Southern Eastern Western Land Water Book:Hemispheres of Earth Portal:Geography Commons:Maps of Earth's hemispheres v t e Timeline of the history of Scandinavia Authority control BNE: XX451129 BNF: cb15238529v (data) GND: 4055209-3 LCCN: sh85117937 NARA: 10046298 NDL: 00571659 NKC: ge130821 VIAF: 260843968 WorldCat Identities: viaf-260843968 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scandinavia&oldid=1000777979" Categories: Scandinavia Geography of Northern Europe Regions of Europe Hidden categories: Articles containing Icelandic-language text Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2016 Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2017 Pages using collapsible list with both background and text-align in titlestyle All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from January 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020 Articles containing Finnish-language text Articles containing Faroese-language text Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018 Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova La .lojban. Lumbaart Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Papiamentu ភាសាខ្មែរ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Rumantsch Русиньскый Русский Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 17:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement