cjmh_12_03.pdf


Stigma and disclosure: Implications for coming out of the

closet

PATRICK W. CORRIGAN
1
& ALICIA K. MATTHEWS

2

1
Center for Psychiatric Rehabilitation &

2
Department of Psychiatry,

University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA

Abstract

Background: There are costs and benefits for people with psychiatric disorders to decide to
disclose publicly these disorders.
Aims: The gay and lesbian community has struggled with the same tension and their
discoveries about coming out may prove useful for the disclosure concerns of persons with
mental illness.
Methods: Lessons learned about coming out by the gay and lesbian community include a
variety of models that map the stages for successfully coming out; e.g., identity confusion,
comparison, identify acceptance, immersion, and identity synthesis. Navigating these stages
requires consideration of the costs and benefits of disclosure; we review some of these
including social avoidance and disapproval as key costs and improved psychological well-
being and interpersonal relations as benefits.
Conclusions: The paper ends with a review of levels of disclosure for people who opt to come
out.
Declaration of interest: This paper was made possible in part by MH62198-01 from the
National Institute of Mental Health.
Keywords: mental illness, stigma, coming out, gays

Dealing with the stigma of mental

illness by coming out of the closet

Harvey Milk, the first openly gay
supervisor of San Francisco, once said,
‘I would like to see every gay lawyer,
every gay architect come out, stand up
and let the world know. That would do
more to end prejudice overnight than
anybody could imagine.’ (cited in Herek,
1996, p. 213).

Advocates and researchers agree that
one way to challenge the stigma of
mental illness is through contact. Mem-
bers of the general public are more likely
to diminish prejudicial attitudes and
discriminating behaviors when they have
contact with people with mental illness.
This parallels a basic finding about
change in racial prejudice; namely, the
white majority decreased prejudice and
discrimination when they had contact

Address for Correspondence: Patrick Corrigan, 7230 Arbor Drive, Tinley Park, IL 60477, USA; Tel: 708 614-

4770; Fax 708 614-4780; E-mail: p-corrigan@uchicago.edu; www.stimgaresearch.org

Journal of Mental Health (June 2003) 12, 3, 235 – 248

ISSN 0963-8237print/ISSN 1360-0567online/2003/030235-14 # Shadowfax Publishing and Taylor & Francis Ltd

DOI: 10.1080/0963823031000118221



with people of color (Johnson & John-
son, 2000; Jones et al., 2000). The
experience of mental illness stigma differs
from racism in that the stigma of mental
illness may be hidden while the signs that
yield racial discrimination are largely
manifest. Hence, the experience of men-
tal illness is like many other groups in
which members may hide their associa-
tion, groups including minority subsets
of sexual orientation, educational attain-
ment, and social status (Corrigan &
Lundin, 2001).
Despite the ability of many individuals

to conceal their sexual orientation, the
gay and lesbian community has discov-
ered that their community benefits when
individuals choose to disclose their sexual
orientation. In this article, we argue that
the community of people with mental
illness may similarly benefit from disclos-
ing their illness to the public at large. We
assert that what is known about ‘coming
out’ in terms of sexual orientation may
provide hypotheses and methods that
might guide future research in this area
as it relates to mental illness. However, it
should be noted that in comparing the
experiences of sexual minorities to those
with mental illness, we are in no way
implying that any aspects of gay, lesbian,
bisexual, or transgender orientations
represent a psychiatric disorder. A sec-
ond, equally important point also needs
to be made. In stating that homosexu-
ality is not a psychiatric disorder, we
have reinforced the notion that being
mentally ill is in someway morally wrong.
Assertions like these are equally unjust
and need to be corrected.

How contact changes stigma

Before we juxtapose the experiences of
sexual minorities to those with mental

illness, we will briefly review the litera-
ture on the relationship between social
contact and stigma. Here we review the
three ways of changing public stigma –
protest, education, and contact – and the
body of evidence on the strengths and
weaknesses of each. Briefly, protest
strategies highlight the injustice of spe-
cific stigmas and lead to a moral appeal
for people to stop thinking that way.
Education strategies have largely focused
on replacing the emotionally charged
myths of mental illness (e.g., people with
mental illness are dangerous!) with facts
that counter the myths (e.g., on average,
people with mental illness are no more
dangerous than the rest of the popula-
tion). Although research suggests that
these interventions might lead to mild
change in attitudes (Holmes et al., 1999;
Keane, 1991; Morrison, 1980; Penn et al.,
1994) and limited change in behavior
(Corrigan et al., in press), research has
shown contact to yield the best changes
in stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimina-
tion.
Contact effects are understood in terms

of familiarity. Research shows that
members of the general public who are
more familiar with individuals labeled
mentally ill are less likely to endorse
prejudicial attitudes (Holmes et al., 1999;
Link & Cullen, 1986; Penn et al., 1994,
1999). Moreover, members of the general
public who interact with a person with
mental illness as part of an anti-stigma
program show significant changes in
their attitudes (Corrigan et al., 2001). A
subsequent study has shown that attitude
change that results from contact main-
tains over time and is related to a change
in behavior (Corrigan et al., 2003). In a
similar vein, Herek (1986) and Herek &
Capitanio (1996) observed that contact
between homosexuals and heterosexuals

236 Patrick W. Corrigan & Alicia K. Matthews



diminished stigmatizing attitudes among
heterosexuals. Hence, he concluded that
coming out (one way to facilitate con-
tact) has significant value for diminishing
the stigma experienced by gay men and
lesbians. Given that many gays and
lesbians have benefited from decisions
regarding coming out, it is not unreason-
able, given the similarities, that people
with mental illness can benefit from these
lessons. Some of these lessons, and their
relevance for people with mental illness,
are reviewed here.

Parallel societal experiences

In this paper, we seek to better under-
stand ways which people might manage
the stigma of mental illness by comparing
their experiences to gays, lesbians, and
bisexuals. For this enterprise to be
fruitful, we must first demonstrate that
the comparison is valid. First, the mark
that signals the stigma of homosexuality
and of mental illness is not readily
transparent. Goffman (1963) distin-
guished stigmatized groups like these
from groups whose stigmatizing mark is
readily observed (e.g., skin color). This
notion may seem contrary to naı̈ve
psychological notions that gays and
people with mental illness are easily
recognizable. Members of the general
public may list several cues that are
thought to be characteristic of each
group but in fact lead to mistaken
identification. For example, labeling ef-
feminate men as gay will lead to false
positives (Brookey, 2000). Similarly, tag-
ging eccentric or unkempt people as
mentally ill leads to erroneous identifica-
tions (Corrigan, 2000).
Yet another commonality lies in the

vagaries of categorical distinctiveness
between the stigmatized group and the

majority. On one hand, naı̈ve psycho-
logical notions might suggest that
homosexuality (and mental illness)
distinguishes a unique category from
the rest of the population (straights or
non-mentally ill). They are frequently
described as binary groups (Cover, 2000):
a person is either straight or gay,
mentally ill or sane. This kind of duality
is false and accentuates the ‘we versus
they’ qualities that augment stigma (Link
& Phelan, 2001). Similarly, the boundary
between mental illness and ‘normal’ is
gray. First, epidemiological research sug-
gests that the prevalence rate of major
mental illnesses is as high as 20% thereby
debunking the idea that mental illness is
a rare occurrence (Narrow et al., 2002).
Second, and more germane to the point
here, many of the characteristic symp-
toms of mental illness are quite common
at subclinical levels. Hence, like gay
versus straight, a clear distinction be-
tween the sane and mentally ill is not
borne out by the data.
Another commonality is the way in

which experiences with stigma emerge in
the two communities. This similarity can
be understood by contrasting it to the
experiences of those whose stigma is
readily manifest from birth. For example,
members of stigmatized ethnic minority
groups are born into families and com-
munities who typically bear the same
marks, are aware of potential prejudice
that results from the stigma, and provide
guidance for how to respond to preju-
dice. Conversely, the life experiences that
result in someone calling themselves gay
or mentally ill typically occur in adoles-
cence and young adulthood rather than
at birth (Fisher & Akman, 2002; Weiser
et al., 2001). Consequently, sexual mino-
rities and individuals with mental illness
often undergo a developmental process

Coming out of the closet 237



that is different from their primary care
providers and larger support systems. At
the worst, family members and others
ostracize the person who is struggling
with either their gay or mentally ill
identity (Savin-Williams, 2001). More
commonly, parents and other mentors
are unable to provide any clarity to their
experiences.
Finally, both groups have been stig-

matized because of similar, society-wide
misperceptions. In earlier times, homo-
sexuality and mental illness were both
viewed in moral terms. Homosexuality
represented a volitional decision to opt
for a sinful lifestyle (Zachary, 2001).
Mental illness embodied the demon-
possessed individual who did not have
sufficient moral backbone to hold off
Lucifer (Kinzie, 2000). The nineteenth
and twentieth centuries replaced the
religious models with views that medica-
lized the conditions (Duberman, 1993;
Foucault, 1980). The DSM-I defined
homosexuality as a sexual deviation
involving pathological behavior (Amer-
ican Psychiatric Association, 1952).
DSM-II cut the category of sociopathic
personality disturbances from the defini-
tion but continued to list homosexuality
among deviant sexual practices (Amer-
ican Psychiatric Association, 1968). At
the same time, most of what has been
considered to be major mental illnesses
(e.g., schizophrenia) have been defined as
medical conditions (American Psychia-
tric Association, 1952, 1968, 1980). Note
that homosexuality per se was removed
as a psychiatric disorder from DSM-III
(American Psychiatric Association, 1980)
while mental illnesses obviously are the
only focus of the diagnostic manual.
Implicit in the medicalizing of a

phenomenon is the idea that it can be
corrected through treatment. During

much of the twentieth century, some
mental health professionals believed
homosexuality could be cured through
intensive psychotherapy. Most social
scientists and health care professional
now recognize gays and lesbians as an
alternative sexual orientation that is not
an appropriate target of psychotherapy
(Davies & Neal, 2000). In some ways,
parallels between the experiences of
sexual minorities and the mentally ill
diminish here. As noted above, mental
illnesses have appropriately continued to
be construed by the psychiatric commu-
nity as medical conditions (American
Psychiatric Association, 1987, 1994,
2000) while sexual orientation has not.
The parallel between homosexuality and
mental illness also diminishes when con-
sidering issues related to treatment.
Although there are several mental health
survivor groups that question the legiti-
macy of psychiatric treatment (Crossley,
1998), empirical research generally sug-
gests that most people with mental illness
are better able to accomplish life goals
when receiving evidence-based pharma-
cotherapy and psychosocial services
(Drake et al., 2001). Hence, unlike gays
and lesbians, treatment may play an
important role in the lives of many
people with major mental disorders.
One other difference seems to emerge

between sexual minorities and people
with mental illness; embracing their
identity. Most advocates and researchers
agree that essential to the psychological
well-being of gays, lesbians, and bisex-
uals is embracing their sexual orientation
(Besner & Spungin, 1995). At first
appearances, the parallel does not seem
to hold for people with mental illness.
Rare would be the suggestion that a
person needs to embrace their illness.
Instead, it seems from the perspective of

238 Patrick W. Corrigan & Alicia K. Matthews



patient and doctor that the number one
goal of membership in the mental illness
group is to get out of it. Some clinicians
and advocates assert, however, that a
necessary part of recovery is identifying
the role that one’s experience with mental
illness plays in defining the self (Fisher,
1994; Mosher & Burti, 1992). Despite the
reasonableness of this perspective, a re-
view of the literature yielded no empirical
studies on identity development among
people with mental illness.
Despite the paucity of information

about identity development among peo-
ple with mental illness, there is an
important literature on disease insight
that may be relevant here (Amador &
Kronengold, 1998; McEvoy, 1998).
However, the professional literature
mostly views mental illness as a pathogen
that interferes with identity development.
This difference in viewpoints is ripe for
conceptual development and empirical
testing in two ways. First, does mental
illness as an experience have significance
for identity development in ways other
than disruption? If yes, then second,
what models might explain identity and
identity development in people with
mental illness? Some models of identity
development relevant to gays and les-
bians are reviewed in the next section as
possible candidates.

Lessons learned on coming out

Researchers studying sexual minorities
have developed a series of models that
represent identity development in this
population (McCarn & Fassinger, 1996;
Rosario et al., 2001; Vincke, 1999). One
model with a fair amount of empirical
support has described the process of
integrating a lesbian and gay identity
into the self-concept by dividing it into

five stages (Brady & Busse, 1994; Cass,
1979, 1984; Sophie, 1985). We extrapo-
late these stages here to issues related to
identity development for people with
mental illness.
During the first two stages – identity

confusion and comparison – people begin
to question their sanity. They are aware
of their psychiatric symptoms and feel
alienated from the seemingly ‘normal’
population. Slowly, people in this situa-
tion learn to tolerate this new identity
and seek out others with mental illness.
At the identity acceptance stage of
identity development, people decide to
disclose to trusted others. Concern and
fear about one’s mental illness may be
replaced by acceptance or pride. Some
people become immersed in the culture of
consumer, survivor, and ex-patient
groups (Frese & Davis, 1997; Trainor et
al., 1997). Moreover, there is a rejection
of values in the dominant culture; one
way this shows is the anti-psychiatry
movement (Crossley, 1998). Finally, the
relative extremism of identity pride ob-
served during the immersion stage is
replaced by identity synthesis such that
the person’s identity as mentally ill
becomes only one aspect of their identity.
Cass’ (1979) model of identity integra-

tion assumes statements like ‘I am gay
and proud of it!’ are an essential element
of developing a healthy self-concept. It is
still unclear whether a parallel exists in
mental illness: ‘I am mentally ill and
proud of it.’ Is this a necessary part of the
self that needs to be recognized and
included into an integrated view of one’s
self? An alternative way to view state-
ments like ‘I am mentally ill and proud of
it!’ may be as a necessary political
assertion. Namely, because people with
mental illness are discriminated by the
majority, they may need to identify their

Coming out of the closet 239



similarities as a stigmatized group to
obtain greater social power. In this case,
an identity model like Cross’ (1971) may
be illustrative of the development pro-
cess. Several studies have empirically
validated aspects of his paradigm (Hall
et al., 1972; Mio & Iwamasa, 1993;
Parham, 1989; Ponteretto & Sabnani,
1989; Ridley et al., 1994). Cross’ model
seeks to map identity development in
African Americans as they move from a
‘Negro’ identity, which included some of
the majority groups stereotypes, to a
‘Black’ identity which represents views
that emerge from the African American
community. Once again, we explain the
model in terms of how it might apply to
people with mental illness.
During the pre-encounter stage, people

with mental illness are unaware of their
political plight and of the way that
assumptions by the seemingly ‘normal’
majority influence attitudes about them.
The subsequent encounter stage brings
into awareness these subtle assumptions
in two ways. First, people experiencing
early signs of significant psychiatric
symptoms are challenged by their view
of normalcy. Second, people struggling
with psychiatric symptoms encounter
advocates who are out of the closet and
seemingly dealing with the prejudice that
mental illness entails. These challenges
lead to immersion where some people
steep themselves in the consumer-ex-
patient-survivor movement. This immer-
sion leads to hostility towards the ‘nor-
mal’ majority and rejection of psychiatric
services. During the internalization
phase, ideas that are learned as the result
of interacting with the consumer-ex-
patient-survivor community become part
of the person’s self-identity. People tran-
sition from statements about them (‘The
consumer community is supportive be-

cause of its common bond with mental
illness’) to about me (‘I am supportive
because of my mental illness’). In the last
stage of Cross’ model – internalization-
commitment – the identity statements
yield affective products including right-
eous anger and self-love.

Benefits and costs to disclosing

What are the advantages and disad-
vantages to coming out of the closet?
Once again, we would argue that many of
the consequences to coming out of the
gay closet are similarly applicable to the
experiences of people with mental illness.
Costs and benefits are listed in Table 1.
Perhaps most sobering among the risks
of coming out for sexual minorities is
bodily harm. The news media regularly
reports on hate crimes based on sexual
orientation. The case of Matthew She-
pard is perhaps best known. This 21-
year-old gay male was beaten to death
outside of Laramie, Wyoming in 1998.
Unfortunately, this is not a rare occur-
rence. Results of one study showed 41%
of a sample of lesbians and gay men
reported being victims of a bias-related
crime and another 9.5% reported an
attempted bias crime against them
(Herek et al., 1997). Data provided by
Human Rights Watch (2001) has shown
that more than 80% of gay and lesbian
students report incidents of name-calling
and other forms of verbal harassment in
a single year.
On one hand, there does not seem to

be a facile comparison between these
kinds of hate crimes and the experiences
of people with mental illness. There is
no body of evidence clearly suggesting
that people with mental illness who
come out are victims of crime in
retaliation for their ‘mentally ill’ life

240 Patrick W. Corrigan & Alicia K. Matthews



style. Alternatively, some advocates be-
lieve violence against people with mental
illness comes in a more subtle form
(Chamberlin, 1998; Fisher & Ahern,
2000). Namely, the prescription of coer-
cive and/or mandated treatments, such
as involuntary commitments and man-
dated medication, has been perceived as
a violent measure by some people with
mental illness. Research has shown that
some people with mental illness experi-
ence mandated or coercive treatment as
harmful and abusive (Svensson & Hans-
son, 1994).
There are other examples of less

violent, but still punitive, consequences
to disclosing. Many members of the
general public may choose to avoid
people who have come out as gay.
Experiences of social disapproval may
negatively impact the self-esteem of
people who are out. Of even greater
concern, disclosing one’s sexual orienta-
tion may translate into job and housing
discrimination (Ragins & Cornwell,
2001). Although specific statistics have
been difficult to gather, mounting evi-
dence suggest that gays and lesbians
suffer employment discrimination (Jen-
nings, 1994; Olson, 1987; Weaver v Nebo
School District, 1998). A similar pattern
has been found for people with mental
illness. Individuals who are disclose their

psychiatric conditions are less likely to
obtain or maintain jobs because of
stigma (Corrigan & Watson, 2002).
Despite the disadvantages, benefits to

disclosing a stigmatized status exist.
Perhaps key among these is the removal
of the stress that results from having to
no longer keep a secret on such an
important part of one’s identity (Rosario
et al., 2001). Research by Daniel Wegner
and colleagues (Wegner & Lane, 1995)
has examined the deleterious effects of
secrets for people with concealable stig-
mas. Labeling it the secrecy cycle,
Wegner and colleagues found that at-
tempts at secrecy activate a set of
cognitive processes that lead to an
obsessive preoccupation with the secret.
Coming out negates the need for con-
cealment and therefore helps the person
avoid the secrecy cycle.
Among sexual minorities, diminished

stress that results from coming out leads
to better relationships with one’s partner
(Beals & Peplau, 2001) and improved job
satisfaction (Day & Schoenrade, 1997,
2000). Moreover, people who come out
report greater support from their families
(Kadushin, 2000). Further, as a group,
sexual minorities have embraced coming
out as beneficial for the political and
socio-economic needs of their commu-
nities. As such, advocacy groups repeat-

Table 1: Summary of costs and benefits of coming out of the gay closet

Benefits Costs

Psychological well being Physical harm
. Increased self-esteem
. Decreased distress
Diminished risky behavior Social avoidance by others
Facilitate interpersonal relations Social disapproval
Enhance relatedness to key institutions like
work

Self-consciousness and self-fulfilling
prophecies

Coming out of the closet 241



edly urge individual gays and lesbians to
come out at all levels.
Although the benefit for the stigma-

tized community seems clear, the impact
on individuals within that community is
less transparent. There are no algorithms
that suggest how the costs and benefits of
coming out will add up to affect an
individual. Hence, the individual must
consider these advantages and disadvan-
tages for themselves in deciding whether
or when to disclose. In the next section,
several levels of disclosure, and its impact
on people making the disclosure decision,
are reviewed.

Different levels of disclosure

Cain (1991) interviewed 38 gay men to
determine decision rules for coming out.
The author asserts that people choose to
disclose their gay orientation because it
meets at least one of six needs. (1)
Research has shown that maintaining a
secret about an important aspect of one’s
identity is inversely related to psycholo-
gical well-being (Rosario et al., 2001).
Hence, disclosing the secret serves the
therapeutic purpose of enhancing one’s
self-esteem. (2) Disclosing may enhance
closeness in relationships that were dis-
tant because of the closeted secret. (3)
Sometimes people disclosed as a way to
resolve interpersonal problems. One spe-
cific example with relevance to mental
illness was coming out to avoid constant
questions about one’s whereabouts when
covertly involved in the gay world (or
mental health community). (4) Preventive
disclosures attempt to avoid worse out-
comes that might occur by accidentally
discovering that a person is gay. (5) Some
people opt to publicly announce their
sexual orientation because they believe
the more people that are out, the more

the homophobic majority will diminish
their prejudice. (6) Finally, Cain noticed
that disclosure sometimes serves a spon-
taneous function. Examples include on-
the-spot decisions or slips of the tongue.
Cain (1991) noted that just as there are

reasons why people opt to disclose, so
there are functions that keep people in
the closet. Called concealment, four
examples are described below. (1) Often
times, people believed that disclosure was
neither appropriate nor relevant to the
situation. For example, several people
reported it would be improper to share
their sexual orientation with parents who
have discouraged any discussion whatso-
ever on sexual matters. (2) Some people
opt to conceal their homosexuality out of
deference to a significant other. Age was
often cited as reason to defer and not tell
someone (e.g., aging grandparents). (3)
Some people stay in the closet because
they lack the necessary emotional re-
sources to face the challenge of disclo-
sure. For example, they do not have the
stress management skills or support to
handle the disapproval and anger they
may experience from others when they
come out. (4) Finally, some people opt
not to disclose because of concerns that
people in positions of power (e.g.,
employer) might use the information
against them.
In an ethnographic study of 146 people

with mental illness, Herman (1993) iden-
tified several specific ways in which
people might disclose. Based on our
work with mental health advocates (Cor-
rigan & Lundin, 2001), we summarized
her observations into five specific levels
of disclosure. According to Herman
(1993), at the most extreme level, people
may stay in the closet through social
avoidance. This means keeping away
from situations where people may find

242 Patrick W. Corrigan & Alicia K. Matthews



out about one’s mental illness. Instead,
they only associate with other persons
who have mental illness. Others may
choose not to avoid social situations but
instead to keep their experiences a secret.
An alternative version of this is selective
disclosure. Selective disclosure means
there is a group of people with whom
private information is disclosed and a
group from whom this information is
kept secret. While there may be benefits
of selective disclosure such as an increase
in supportive peers, there is still a secret
that could represent a source of shame.
People who choose indiscriminant disclo-
sure abandon the secrecy. They choose to
disregard any of the negative conse-
quences of people finding out about their
mental illness. Hence, they make no
active efforts to try to conceal their
mental health history and experiences.
Broadcasting one’s experience means
educating people about mental illness.
The goal here is to seek out people to
share past history and current experi-
ences with mental illness. Broadcasting
has additional benefits compared to
indiscriminant disclosure. Namely, it
fosters their sense of power over the
experience of mental illness and stigma.

Ways in which coming out has been

supported

Although the decision to come out is a
personal one, disclosure has been facili-
tated by a variety of institutions and
social movements. Three of these are
summarized below:
The reappropriation of stigmatizing labels
Several examples to diminish the effect

of a bad label are apparent from the
commercial world where businesses have
sought to escape prejudice by changing
their names (e.g., Valujet morphed into
Air Tran after a major accident). Learn-

ing from these lessons, perhaps one way
to deal with prejudice and discrimination
is to find words that are less pejorative to
describe a stigmatized group. An alter-
native approach is to reappropriate
stigmatizing labels. In the latter instance,
a stigmatized group revalues what was a
negative label by referring to itself in
terms of that label (Galinsky et al., 2003).
Queer is an example of this phenomenon
in the gay community. In 1990 four
members of ACT-UP dubbed itself
Queer Nation with the slogan ‘We’re
here. We’re Queer. Get used to it.’ What
used to be a disrespectful way of referring
to sexual minorities has been embraced
by the community. There is some evi-
dence of label reappropriation in the
consumer survivor community too. Per-
haps the best example is MadNation.
Established in 1997, MadNation now
comprises more than 800 members
‘working for social justice and human
rights in mental health’ (www.networks-
plus.net/fhp/madnation/announce.htm).
Galinsky et al. (2003) identified several

benefits to label reappropriation. Perhaps
most obvious, the public can no longer
use the term against the group. Secondly,
reappropriation implies that deviance or
abnormality is not a bad thing. Lastly,
the reappropriation of a term like queer
or mad actually becomes a source of
pride. In turn, this kind of pride enhances
the self-esteem of individuals who will-
ingly wear it.
Advocacy and support groups
A second social phenomenon that

facilitates disclosure is the advocacy and
support groups made up of people who
are out. Among sexual minorities, these
groups sometimes adopt a reappro-
priated name and become a resource in
the community. Groups like these pro-
vide a range of services including support

Coming out of the closet 243



for those who are just coming out,
recreation and shared experiences which
foster a sense of community within a
larger hostile culture, and advocacy/
political efforts to further promote gay
pride (Kates & Belk, 2001).
Several forces have converged over the

past century to foster consumer-operated
services for persons with psychiatric
disabilities. Some reflect dissatisfaction
with mental health services that disem-
power persons by providing services in
restrictive settings. Others represent a
natural tendency of persons to seek
support from others with similar pro-
blems. Recently, a variety of consumer-
operated service programs have devel-
oped including: drop in centers, housing
programs, homeless services, case man-
agement, crisis response, benefit acquisi-
tion, anti-stigma services, advocacy,
research, technical assistance, and em-
ployment programs (Van Tosh & del
Vecchio, 2000). Results of a qualitative
evaluation of consumer operated pro-
grams showed that participants in these
programs reported improvements in self-
reliance and independence; coping skills
and knowledge; and feelings of empow-
erment (Van Tosh & del Vecchio, 2000).
Future research needs to isolate the
active ingredients of consumer-operated
services that lead to positive change.
Outing
A third phenomenon related to disclo-

sure is outing. In the past decade, some
gay and lesbian advocates have called for
outing people in the closet as a way to
advance an anti-prejudice agenda. Outing
means publicizing the fact that a specific
person is gay or lesbian when that person
has actively tried to stay in the closet.
Outing generates strong ethical debate
(Chekola, 1994; Mayo & Gunderson,
1994; McCarthy, 1994) and may vary

from what is frequently considered the
most justified position (e.g., publicly out-
ing a conservative politician who takes an
anti-gay stand on important public is-
sues) to the least (e.g., outing a private
citizen who keep all facets of his or her life
private). In a parallel fashion, people
active in the mental illness community
might opt to out individuals in the closet
about their psychiatric problems. There
have been examples of the psychiatric
problems of famous people being dis-
closed for political agenda. Perhaps best
known of these was Thomas Eagleton’s
experiences with depression which were
leaked to the press. Senator Eagleton, a
democrat from Missouri, was George
McGovern’s running mate in the 1972
general presidential election. In this in-
stance, however, outing Eagleton was not
to serve mental health pride but to
increase prejudice. Similarly, there is not
yet any empirical evidence that outing has
somehow diminished either prejudicial
attitudes or discriminatory behaviors
toward gays. This needs to be the focus
of future research.

Conclusion

For the gay and lesbian community
coming out has significant advantages at
the individual and community level. We
argued in this paper that the experiences
of stigma are similar for gays/lesbians and
people with mental illness. Hence, what
the gay community has learned about
coming out may inform a similar move-
ment in the community of people who
identify themselves as mentally ill. In the
process, the research that has examined
some of the questions related to identity
development and disclosure in the gay
community may inform similar experi-
ences in people with mental illness. This

244 Patrick W. Corrigan & Alicia K. Matthews



review has provided a preliminary under-
standing of the coming out process. It has
also illustrated some methods for further
examining research questions in this area.
In particular, research needs to continue
to examine the ways in which the various
ways to come out impact the individual as
well as the community as a whole.

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Galen Bodenhausen and
Marie Ciavarella for helpful comments
on an earlier draft of this paper.

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