N E O - O R I E N T A L I S M s UGLY WOMEN AND THE P A R I S I A N 

A V A N T - G A R D E , 1905 - 1908 

B y 

E L I Z A B E T H G A I L K I R K 

B . F . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f M a n i t o b a , 1982 
B . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f M a n i t o b a , 1983 

A T H E S I S SUBMITTED I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L L M E N T OF 

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF 

MASTER OF A R T S 

I N 

THE F A C U L T Y OF GRADUATE S T U D I E S 

( D e p a r t m e n t o f F i n e A r t s ) 

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g 

t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d 

THE U N I V E R S I T Y OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA 

. O c t o b e r 1988 

<£> E l i z a b e t h G a i l K i r k , 1988 



In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced 

degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it 

freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive 

copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my 

department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or 

publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written 

permission. 

Department of F i n e A r t s 

The University of British Columbia 
1956 Main Mall 
Vancouver, Canada 
V6T 1Y3 

Date O c t o b e r , 1988 

DE-6(3/81) 



ABSTRACT 

The N e o - O r i e n t a l i s m of M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude (Souvenir  

of B i s k r a ) , and P i c a s s o ' s Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n , both of 

1907, e x i s t s i n the s i m i l a r i t y of the extreme d i s t o r t i o n of 

the female form and d e f i n e s the d i f f e r e n t meanings a t t a c h e d 

to these "ugly" women r e l a t i v e to d i s t i n c t i v e n o t i o n s of 

e r o t i c and e x o t i c imagery. To understand N e o - O r i e n t a l i s m , 

t h a t i s , 19th c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t concepts which were 

f i l t e r e d through P r i m i t i v i s m i n the 20th c e n t u r y , the 

r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s antagonisms of the p e r i o d , which not 

o n l y i n f l u e n c e d a t t i t u d e s towards e r o t i c and e x o t i c imagery, 

but a l s o d e f i n e d and c a t e g o r i z e d humanity, must be c o n s i d e r e d 

i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . v 

My i n t r o d u c t i o n i s an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of c u r r e n t a r t 

h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p which has l i n k e d the m a n i p u l a t i o n of 

form by M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o and s h i f t i n g a v a n t - g a r d e p r a c t i c e 

i n P a r i s i n the years 1905 - 1908, when Cubism d i s p l a c e d 

Fauvism, to the concepts of O r i e n t a l i s m and P r i m i t i v i s m . The 

problem of the i d e o l o g i c a l content of images of women, which 

I undertake to a d d r e s s , a r i s e s from these s t u d i e s which r e l y 

upon the assumed m e t a p h y s i c a l f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h the e x o t i c or 

the i n t u i t i v e , p e r s o n a l concern for e r o t i c symbolism by the 

a r t i s t s as a s o l u t i o n to meaning. 



The absence of a r i c h c r i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e s u r r o u n d i n g the 

p a i n t i n g s encourages my approach to the problem of meaning 

whereby i n Chapter One I examine images of women produced i n 

P a r i s i n the s p e c i f i c d i s c o u r s e s of popular and o f f i c i a l 

c u l t u r e i n 1906. These r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the female are 

I d e n t i f i e d as I d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s which f u n c t i o n e d i n 

r e l a t i o n t o the important and broader i s s u e s of the moment 

a f f e c t i n g the dominance of F r e n c h c u l t u r e : c l a s s s t r u g g l e 

and n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m . 

In Chapter Two the "ugly" women of M a t i s s e ' s The Blue  

Nude (Souvenir of B i s k r a ) and P i c a s s o ' s Les D e m o i s e l l e s  

d ' A v i g n o n are a n a l y s e d as intended a v a n t - g a r d e t r a n s f o r m a -

t i o n s of images of female p r o s t i t u t e s and compared w i t h the 

Images of women In popular and o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e and with each 

o t h e r , In r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r f u n c t i o n w i t h i n the h i s t o r i c a l 

c o n t e x t of t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n . In c o n c l u s i o n I suggest t h a t 

the d i f f e r e n c e i n meaning between these p a i n t i n g s by M a t i s s e 

and P i c a s s o was I d e o l o g i c a l , o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n the c o n t e x t of 

c l a s s s t r u g g l e and n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m , and d e f i n e d by t h e i r 

d i s t i n c t i v e c o n s c i o u s and unconscious use of P r i m i t i v i s m . 

i l l 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

ABSTRACT . . i i 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS v 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v i 

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . 1 

CHAPTER I ILLUSIONS OF POWER AND POWERFUL 

DELUSIONS 27 

CHAPTER 2 UGLY INTENTIONS 91 

CONCLUSION 136 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 140 

ILLUSTRATIONS . . 148 

IV 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

F i g u r e Page 

1. H e n r i M a t i s s e , The Blue Nude 
(Souvenir of B i s k r a ) , 1907 148 

2. Pablo P i c a s s o , Les D e m o i s e l l e s 
d ' A v i g n o n , 1907 149 

3. Georges Rochegrosse, La J o l e Rouge, 

1906 150 

4. R a d l g u e t . L ' E t a t D e p r a v a t e u r , 1906 . . 151 

5. R a d i g u e t . Le C o u t u r i e r Pornoqraphe, 

1906 152 

6. R a d i g u e t . Pour l e s Berenqferes, 1906. . 153 

7. D i v e r s . La L l b e r t e , 1906 154 

8. Grandjouan. l e r mal, 1906 155 
J 

9. H e n r i M a t i s s e . The R e c l i n i n g Nude I , 
1907 156 

10. Pablo P i c a s s o . The Harem, 1906 . . . . 157 

v 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

I wish to thank D r . Serge G u i l b a u t for s h a r i n g h i s 

c r i t i c a l , h i s t o r i c a l approach t o a r t h i s t o r y w i t h me and f o r 

h i s s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n as a d v i s o r and c r i t i c throughout 

the process of p r o d u c t i o n of my t h e s i s . I am, as w e l l , 

g r a t e f u l to D r . Maureen Ryan f o r her a s s i s t a n c e and her 

encouragement d u r i n g the f i n a l stage of t h i s p r o c e s s . I wish 

to thank my c o l l e a g u e s and f r i e n d s , Andrea Thornsett, Anne 

K r l s t i a n s e n , M i c h a e l Mao and Lee Horvath f o r t h e i r i n v a l u a b l e 

and u n f l a g g i n g p e r s o n a l s u p p o r t and f r i e n d s h i p . I am 

e s p e c i a l l y a p p r e c i a t i v e to John, K a t h r y n , Susan and David f o r 

t h e i r love and u n d e r s t a n d i n g . 



INTRODUCTION 

Along w i t h a l l other peoples v a r i o u s l y 
d e s i g n a t e d as backward, degenerate, 
u n c i v i l i z e d , and r e t a r d e d , the O r i e n t a l s 
were viewed i n a framework c o n s t r u c t e d out 
of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m and m o r a l -
p o l i t i c a l admonishment. The O r i e n t a l was 
l i n k e d thus to elements i n Western s o c i e t y 
( d e l i n q u e n t s , the i n s a n e , women, the poor) 
h a v i n g i n common an i d e n t i t y best d e s c r i b e d 
as lamentably a l i e n . 

1 
Edward S a i d , 1978. 

. . . indeed the key n o t i o n of O r i e n t a l i s m 
i t s e l f — - c a n n o t be c o n f r o n t e d without a 
c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of the p a r t i c u l a r power 
s t r u c t u r e In which these works c a m e . i n t o 
b e i n g . 

2 
L i n d a N o c h l i n , 1983. 

Dans l ' h i s t o l r e e t dans l e p r e s e n t , l a 
q u e s t i o n du p o u v o i r e s t au coeur des 
r a p p o r t s des hommes et des femmes. 

3 
M i c h e l l e P e r r o t , 1984. 

1 



M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude (Souvenir of B i s k r a ) of 1907, 

( F i g . 1) and P i c a s s o ' s Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n of 1907, 

( F i g . 2) are N e o - O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s of female p r o s t i t u t e s . 

T h e i r N e o - O r i e n t a l i s m i s expressed through the p r i m i t i v i z e d 

form of t h e i r "ugly" female s u b j e c t s which d i f f e r e n t i a t e s 

them from t r a d i t i o n a l e r o t i c and e x o t i c 19th c e n t u r y 

O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s of women. . I suggest t h a t these two 

p a i n t i n g s by M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o are a v a n t - g a r d e products 

which d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n the meanings they p r o d u c e . My 

t h e s i s i s an I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n meaning i n 

r e l a t i o n to the p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n of these images as 

i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s of a v a n t - g a r d e p r a c t i c e t h a t 

manipulate both O r i e n t a l i s m and P r i m i t i v i s m i n a s p e c i f i c 

h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . 

The f a i l u r e of contemporary s c h o l a r s h i p to address the 

d i f f e r e n t meanings of The Blue Nude (Souvenir of B i s k r a ) and 

Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n i n h i s t o r i c a l and c r i t i c a l terms i s 

e v i d e n t i n the l a c k of u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the r e l e v a n c e and 

c o m p l e x i t y of the concepts of O r i e n t a l i s m and P r i m i t i v i s m . 

A r t h i s t o r i a n s who have used " O r i e n t a l i s m " or 

" P r i m i t i v i s m " as c a t e g o r i e s f o r examining M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o 

have r e f u s e d to r e c o g n i z e the s e r i o u s n e g a t i v e and h i g h l y 

p o l i t i c a l use of the concepts of O r i e n t a l i s m and P r i m i t i v i s m 

f o r r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s d o m i n a t i o n . Both " O r i e n t a l i s t s " 

(authors of s t u d i e s which focus upon 19th c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t 

p a i n t i n g ) and " P r i m i t i v i s t s " (authors of s t u d i e s which focus 

2 



upon the r e l a t i o n s h i p between 20th c e n t u r y modern a r t and 

p r i m i t i v e a r t ) look upon M a t i s s e ' s i m a g i n a t i v e use of c o l o u r 

and m a n i p u l a t i o n of form as a modern 20th c e n t u r y n e g a t i o n of 

both the r e a l i s m of 19th c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g a n d o f 

e t h n o c e n t r i c P r i m i t i v i s m . Ignored by the O r i e n t a l i s t s , 

P i c a s s o ' s formal d i s t o r t i o n s serve as p r i m a r y m a t e r i a l f o r 

the P r i m l t l v l s t s who c o n s i d e r them as a f f i r m a t i v e , romantic 

e q u i v a l e n t s t o p r i m i t i v e f o r m - - p r o o f of an a f f i l i a t i o n 

between p r i m i t i v e and modern a r t i s t i c "genius." 

Donald R o s e n t h a l , i n h i s e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e , 

O r i e n t a l i s m : The Near E a s t i n French P a i n t i n g , 1800-1880, of 

1982, p r o j e c t s the predominant contemporary O r i e n t a l i s t 

a t t i t u d e . H i s t e x t i n c l u d e s a d i s c u s s i o n which spans 

c e n t u r i e s of a r t from G e n t i l l e B e l l i n i i n the 15th c e n t u r y to 

M a t i s s e i n the 20th c e n t u r y . A c c o r d i n g to R o s e n t h a l , the 

c u r r e n c y of O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g , and thus h i s s c h o l a r l y 

c o n c e r n , was a response to the new i n t e r e s t of the a r t market 
4 

i n r e a l i s t i c p a i n t i n g s . Although he admitted an awareness 

of Edward S a i d ' s t h e s i s , O r i e n t a l i s m of 1978, which assesses 

O r i e n t a l i s m as an i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t of Western domination 

i n North A f r i c a , R o s e n t h a l chose t o r e j e c t S a i d ' s v i e w p o i n t 

because of i t s "negative" s i g n i f i c a n c e and thus f e l t he had 

a b s o l v e d h i m s e l f of any r e s p o n s i b l e c r i t i q u e of the i s s u e s 
5 

r a i s e d by S a i d . R o s e n t h a l ' s c h o i c e , to d i s m i s s the complex 

problem of the c o l o n i a l c o n n e c t i o n as merely i n e v i t a b l e , 

n e u t r a l i z e d the p o l i t i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s of O r i e n t a l i s t 

3 



Imagery. Thus, R o s e n t h a l r a t i o n a l i z e d the e t h n o c e n t r i c 

a t t i t u d e of O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t e r s by h i s statement t h a t they 

" . . . s i n c e r e l y admired the peoples of the Near E a s t , even 
6 

i f for the wrong r e a s o n s . " 

R o s e n t h a l f a i l e d t o r e f l e c t upon t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of 

p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t i n the p a i n t i n g s them s el v es . He d e c l a r e d : 

In t h i s s t u d y , F r e n c h O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g 
w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n terms of i t s a e s t h e t i c 
q u a l i t y and h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t , and no 
attempt w i l l be made a t a r e - e v a l u a t i o n of 
i t s p o l i t i c a l u s e s . 7 

I r o n i c a l l y , he used as a source f o r h i s c a t a l o g u e , Jean 

A l a z a r d ' s c a t a l o g u e t e x t of 1930, which was e n t i t l e d L 1 O r l e n t 

et l a p e i n t u r e f r a n c a i s e au XIXe s i e c l e d'Euqene D e l a c r o i x 

a August R e n o i r , which he knew had been " . . . p u b l i s h e d i n 

c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the c e n t e n n i a l of the F r e n c h conquest of 
8 

A l g e r i a . " R o s e n t h a l ' s c o n c l u d i n g statement i s a d e n i a l of 

h i s t o r y i t s e l f : 

Today, when the I s l a m i c world i s l e s s a 
p i c t u r e s q u e t o u r i s t haven than a camp of 
powerful i d e o l o g i e s , the e x o t i c i s m of some 
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t canvases 
seems m e r e t r i c i o u s and f a l s e . S t i l l , as 
long as the d e s i r e to know the whole w o r l d , 
and not j u s t our f a m i l i a r c o r n e r , remains a 
powerful one, the s e a r c h for the e x o t i c of 
an e a r l i e r c e n t u r y and i t s b r i l l i a n t 
m a n i f e s t a t i o n i n a r t w i l l r e t a i n t h e i r h o l d 
on our i m a g i n a t i o n . 9 

T h i s statement r e p r e s e n t s the genre of r o m a n t i c i z e d 

s c h o l a r s h i p which I wish t o a v o i d . S a i d r e f u t e d t h i s type of 

u n c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e by e x p l a i n i n g how O r i e n t a l i s m operates as 

f o l l o w s : 

4 



o r i e n t a l i s m , . . . Is not an a i r y European 
f a n t a s y about the O r i e n t , but a c r e a t e d body 
of t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e i n which, f o r many 
g e n e r a t i o n s , t h e r e has been a c o n s i d e r a b l e 
m a t e r i a l investment. Continued investment 
made O r i e n t a l i s m , as a system of knowledge 
about the O r i e n t , an accepted g r i d for 
f i l t e r i n g through the O r i e n t i n t o Western 
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , j u s t as t h a t same investment 
m u l t i p l i e d — i n d e e d , made t r u l y p r o d u c t i v e — 
the statements p r o l i f e r a t i n g out from 
O r i e n t a l i s m i n t o the g e n e r a l c u l t u r e . 10 

S a i d ' s t h e s i s informed L i n d a N o c h l i n ' s powerful response 

t o R o s e n t h a l ' s u n c r i t i c a l , complacent and u n q u e s t i o n i n g 

a p p r o a c h . N o c h l i n ' s vehement a t t a c k , "The Imaginary O r i e n t , " 

of 1983, was t r i g g e r e d by R o s e n t h a l ' s view and h i s acceptance 

of 19th c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s as a u t h e n t i c documents 

i n s p i t e of t h e i r p o l i t i c a l content i n r e l a t i o n to 

c o l o n i a l i s m . I n s t e a d , N o c h l i n i n s i s t e d on an examination of 

the s t r u c t u r e s of power i n r e l a t i o n to these images. She 

demanded a c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the i s s u e s by a s k i n g 

s p e c i f i c a l l y , "whose r e a l i t y " (or i m a g i n a t i o n ) was b e i n g 

d e f i n e d by such p a i n t i n g , and she accused R o s e n t h a l of 

a v o i d i n g a c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h the "Important" i s s u e s as 
11 

r e v e a l e d by both S a i d ' s t e x t and by h i s t o r i c a l f a c t . 

By d e c o n s t r u c t i n g the r e a l and imagined imagery of 19th 

c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g , to show how meaning i s 

produced, N o c h l i n d e f l a t e d n o t i o n s of presumed a u t h e n t i c i t y 

of the r e a l and the innocence of r o m a n t i c i z e d v i s i o n . 

C e n t r a l t o N o c h l i n ' s a r t i c l e i s S a i d ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t 

O r i e n t a l i s m d i v i d e d the E a s t and West i n t o two c u l t u r a l 

e n t i t i t i e s i n which w h i t e , Western male s u p e r i o r i t y p l a y e d a 

5 



12 
major r o l e . N o c h l i n ' s f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e Included a 

c r i t i q u e of the s t r a t e g i e s of domination i m p l i c i t i n c e r t a i n 

O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s , s t r a t e g i e s which r e l a t e d to the 

contemporary F r e n c h male's a t t i t u d e s towards women, who were 
13 

c o n s i d e r e d to be i n f e r i o r and thus p o w e r l e s s . 

I t i s important t o note t h a t N o c h l i n ' s d i s s e c t i o n of the 

power r e l a t i o n s h i p s r e v e a l e d i n O r i e n t a l i s t . p a i n t i n g d i f f e r s 

from S a i d ' s t h e s i s of Western male c u l t u r a l hegemony i m p l i e d 

i n e x o t i c and e r o t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . She showed how the 

d i f f e r e n c e of c l a s s e n t e r e d Into the n o t i o n s of the 
14 

e r o t i c i z e d female as an e x o t i c s u b j e c t . T h i s n o t i o n has 

r e l e v a n c e i n the p r o d u c t i o n of meaning i n s c r i b e d i n 

i m a g i n a t i v e O r i e n t a l i s t imagery. For i n s t a n c e , she suggested 

t h a t these Images of the female nude r e v e a l e d 

contemporary Frenchmen's power over 
women, a power c o n t r o l l e d and mediated by 
the i d e o l o g y of the e r o t i c i n D e l a c r o i x ' s 
time . . . shared by men of D e l a c r o i x ' s 
c l a s s and t i m e , . . . 15 

N o c h l i n r e c o g n i z e d the c l a s s b a s i s of a n t a g o n i s t i c 

a t t i t u d e s between the sexes i n F r e n c h s o c i e t y which operated 

w i t h i n O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g . 

Maryanne Stevens' e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e of 1984, The 

O r i e n t a l i s t s ; D e l a c r o i x t o M a t i s s e i s a more s c h o l a r l y 

e f f o r t to p r e s e n t O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g i n I t s h i s t o r i c a l 

c o n t e x t . However, the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the power 

r e l a t i o n s h i p s i m p l i c i t i n O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s t r a t e g i e s i s 

not a d e q u a t e l y a d d r e s s e d . Stevens condemned S a i d ' s c r i t i c a l 

6 



l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s as b e i n g " . . . too s i m p l i s t i c an 

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of both western v i s i t o r s ' i n t e n t i o n s and t h e i r 
16 

a r t i s t i c work." Her more t r a d i t i o n a l i s t approach leads her 

t o .view•mid-19th c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g under the 

i n f l u e n c e of R e a l i s m to be the 

. t r u t h f u l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the 
e x t e r n a l w o r l d , based upon o b j e c t i v e 
o b s e r v a t i o n , (which) s e t an a e s t h e t i c 
s t a n d a r d f o r a r t i s t s and patrons a l i k e . 17 

Stevens' b e l i e f i n the p o s s i b i l i t y of an o b j e c t i v e v i e w p o i n t 

c l o u d s the v a l i d i t y of her a n a l y s i s . S a i d ' s t h e s i s p r o v i d e s 

the c o r r e c t i v e to any n o t i o n of o b j e c t i v i t y i n O r i e n t a l i s m 

which, S a i d i n s i s t s , must be understood 

. . . as a Western s t y l e f o r d o m i n a t i n g , 
r e s t r u c t u r i n g , and having a u t h o r i t y over the 
O r i e n t . . . t h e O r i e n t was not (and i s not) 
a f r e e s u b j e c t of thought or a c t i o n . 18 

Stevens' f a i l u r e i s a r e s u l t of her mistaken r e l i a n c e on 

a e s t h e t i c v a l u e judgments as her i n v e s t i g a t i v e c r i t e r i a . For 

her p u r p o s e s , p e r s o n a l f a s c i n a t i o n with North A f r i c a i s an 

accepted and unquestioned e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the p o p u l a r t a s t e 
19 

for O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g i n the p e r i o d . An absence of 

s e r i o u s c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n leads her t o conclude t h a t i 

. . . almost a l l the p a i n t i n g s which emerged 
- f r o m t h i s encounter between two c u l t u r e s 

speak of an enthusiasm for these f o r e i g n 
l a n d s , witnesses to t h e i r s p l e n d o u r , t h e i r 
enchantment and t h e i r powerful f a s c i n a t i o n . 20 

I n c l u d e d i n the c a t a l o g u e i s M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude, which i s 

d e s c r i b e d i n the formal language of t r a d i t i o n a l a r t h i s t o r y 
21 

without the n e c e s s a r y concern f o r c o n t e n t . 

7 



The t e x t s by R o s e n t h a l and Stevens are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o £ 

the t r a d i t i o n a l , u n c r i t i c a l a r t h i s t o r i c a l method wherein 

a e s t h e t i c and formal concerns are s e p a r a t e d from the complex 

h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t i n which these images were p r o d u c e d . 

R o s e n t h a l and Stevens are o n l y two examples; t h e y are not 
22 

a l o n e . The involvement of the F r e n c h s t a t e i n s u p p o r t i n g 

and p u r c h a s i n g O r i e n t a l i s t a r t a t the time of F r e n c h c o l o n i a l 

e n t e r p r i s e i n North A f r i c a has been documented but l a c k s an 

a n a l y s i s of the reasons f o r the p r o d u c t i o n and meaning of 

t h i s a r t . The r e s u l t i s a l i m i t e d and m i s l e a d i n g v i e w p o i n t 

which does not q u e s t i o n or attempt to understand the impact 

of i d e o l o g y upon "personal f a s c i n a t i o n " which r e s u l t s i n the 

c o n s c i o u s or unconscious p r o d u c t i o n of s p e c i f i c r e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n s . 

T h i s same concern w i t h p e r s o n a l f a s c i n a t i o n i s the focus 

of the P r i m l t l v l s t s who are the c o n t r i b u t i n g a u t h o r s to the 

massive, two-volume MoMA e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e , " P r i m i t i v i s m "  

i n 20th C e n t u r y A r t , 1984. T h i s t r a d i t i o n a l methodology 

erodes the c r i t i c a l v a l u e of t h i s c a t a l o g u e ' s c o n t e n t and 

leaves important q u e s t i o n s u n r e s o l v e d w i t h r e s p e c t to the 

s p e c i f i c s of a v a n t - g a r d e p r a c t i c e . T h i s c a t a l o g u e , i n s t e a d 

of p r o v i d i n g a c r i t i c a l a r t h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s , becomes a 

e u l o g y t o MoMA, i t s patrons and i t s c u r a t o r s f o r what i s 

c o n s t r u c t e d to be t h e i r p e r c e p t i v e r e c o g n i t i o n , throughout 

y e a r s of c o l l e c t i n g , of the a f f i n i t y between the p r i m i t i v e 

and the modern. W i l l i a m R u b i n , e d i t o r and c h i e f c o n t r i b u t o r 

8 



to the P r i m i v i s m c a t a l o g u e wrote: 

That many today c o n s i d e r t r i b a l s c u l p t u r e to 
r e p r e s e n t a major a s p e c t of world a r t , t h a t 
F i n e A r t s museums are i n c r e a s i n g l y d e v o t i n g 
g a l l e r i e s , even e n t i r e wings to i t , i s a 
f u n c t i o n of the triumph of vanguard a r t 
i t s e l f . (29) 23 

I t Is footnote 29 which j u s t i f i e s and r e v e a l s the r a t i o n a l e 

behind the p r o d u c t i o n of the e x h i b i t I t s e l f . I t r e a d s : 

The M i c h a e l C . R o c k e f e l l e r wing of the 
M e t r o p o l i t a n Museum i s the c l a s s i c i n s t a n c e 
of t h i s . I t depended d i r e c t l y upon Nelson 
R o c k e f e l l e r ' s p a s s i o n f o r t r i b a l a r t , which 
has l e d to h i s e a r l i e r founding of the 
Museum of P r i m i t i v e A r t . T h i s i n t u r n 
depended on and f o l l o w e d from h i s t a s t e f o r 
and involvement w i t h t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t 
and h i s knowledge of the importance of 
t r i b a l a r t for many modern a r t i s t s . 24 

R u b i n ' s r e f e r e n c e to c a p i t a l i s m , t r i b a l a r t and modern a r t 

r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s which he does not answer and which r e q u i r e 

an e x p l a n a t i o n by a c o n t e x t u a l , h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s . As 

w e l l , the c a s u a l observer of the c a t a l o g u e i s c l e v e r l y m i s l e d 

to b e l i e v e t h a t t r i b a l o b j e c t s were d i r e c t models f o r the 

P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e . Although t r i b a l o b j e c t s were c e r t a i n l y 

known i n P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e c i r c l e s , the c o m p l e x i t y of 

t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to a r t i s t i c p r a c t i c e r e q u i r e s c r i t c a l r e -

assessment, not j u s t an account of which a r t i s t saw what 

when. The i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n the c a t a l o g u e v i s u a l l y juxtapose 

t r i b a l and modern a r t i n a manner which a r t i f i c i a l l y 

c o n s t r u c t s a f a l s e i l l u s i o n of d i r e c t I n f l u e n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y 

i n the p e r i o d under d i s c u s s i o n . In a f o o t n o t e , however, 

Rubin d i d admit t h a t 

9 



There i s no drawing or p a i n t i n g by P i c a s s o 
t h a t i s d i r e c t l y c o p i e d from any t r i b a l 
o b j e c t . 25 

T h i s statement f a i l s to c o u n t e r a c t the c o n s t r u c t e d v i s u a l 

i l l u s i o n s of d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e presented i n the c a t a l o g u e . 

F u r t h e r m o r e , Rubin took g r e a t care to d i s m i s s t h e 

p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n of P r i m i t i v i s m . I n s t e a d , he 

r e p e a t e d l y emphasized i t s p o s i t v e c h a r a c t e r i n terms of 

formal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and p e r s o n a l f a s c i n a t i o n . His 

d i s c u s s i o n of the d i f f e r e n c e s between 19th and 20th c e n t u r y 

P r i m i t i v i s m i s i n terms of bourgeois a r t a p p r e c i a t i o n . He 

s t a t e d : 

For the bourgeois p u b l i c of the n i n e t e e n t h 
c e n t u r y , however, i f not f o r the a r t l o v e r s 
of the t w e n t i e t h , the a d j e c t i v e " p r i m i t i v e " 
c e r t a i n l y had p e j o r a t i v e meaning. Indeed, 
t h a t p u b l i c c o n s i d e r e d any c u l t u r e o u t s i d e 
E u r o p e , or any a r t o u t s i d e the parameters of 
B e a u x - A r t s and s a l o n s t y l e s — w h i c h meant a l l 
non-Western and some Western a r t - - i n h e r e n t l y 
i n f e r i o r . 26 

Gauguin was c r e d i t e d with promoting the " a f f i r m a t i v e 

a t t i t u d e " of the "'myth of the p r i m i t i v e ' " as an i d e a l i z e d 
27 

" l i t e r a r y and p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c e p t , " of s o c i a l c r i t i c i s m . . 

However, i n s t e a d of q u e s t i o n i n g the broader i d e o l o g i c a l 

i m p l i c a t i o n of P r i m i t i v i s m , Rubin amazingly s t a t e d : 
I t mattered l i t t l e , however, t h a t the 
a f f i r m a t i v e view of the P r i m i t i v e we have 
been d e s c r i b i n g had almost as l i t t l e 
r e l a t i o n to r e a l i t y as the n e g a t i v e one. 28 

Rubin suggested t h a t the movement of P r i m i t i v i s m i n i t s 

a f f i r m a t i v e and c r i t i c a l form to be the b a s i s f o r 20th 

c e n t u r y a v a n t - g a r d e I n t e r e s t i n the P r i m i t i v e was a 

10 



p r o g r e s s i v e movement from an a p p r e c i a t i o n of " P r i m i t i v e l i f e " 
29 

to an a p p r e c i a t i o n of " P r i m i t i v e a r t . " Thus, the modern 

a r t i s t ' s i n t e r e s t i n p r i m i t i v e a r t " . . . c o u l d o n l y by taken 
30 

by bourgeois c u l t u r e as an a t t a c k upon i t s v a l u e s . " Y e t , 

t h i s i s a p e c u l i a r t w i s t which c o n t r a d i c t s h i s t o r i c a l 

r e a l i t y . As Rubin h i m s e l f e x p l a i n e d , i t was t h i s same 

bourgeois c u l t u r e which i n t r o d u c e d A f r i c a n t r i b a l a r t i n t o 

Western c u l t u r e . He wrote: 

We owe to the v o y a g e r s , c o l o n i a l s , and 
e t h n o l o g i s t s the a r r i v a l of these o b j e c t s i n 
the West. But we owe p r i m a r i l y t o the 
c o n v i c t i o n s of the pioneer modern a r t i s t s 
t h e i r promotion from the rank of c u r i o s i t i e s 
and a r t i f a c t s to t h a t of major a r t , i n d e e d , 
to the s t a t u s of a r t a t a l l . 31 

The q u e s t i o n remains as to how and why the a v a n t - g a r d e 

chose a r e l a t i v e l y t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t o b j e c t , the female form, 

and transformed i t i n t o another form of c u l t o b j e c t of modern 

a r t . While p e r s o n a l f a s c i n a t i o n i s no doubt a f a c t o r f o r the 

i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t s , M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o responded d i f f e r e n t l y 

to P r i m i t i v i s m . To f u l l y comprehend these i n d i v i d u a l 

r e s p o n s e s , the c o m p l e x i t y of a v a n t - g a r d e i d e o l o g y must be 

c o n s i d e r e d i n e x t r a - a r t i s t i c terms. A r e l i a n c e on the 

a r t i s t ' s p e r s o n a l t a s t e f o r the a e s t h e t i c form of P r i m i t i v i s m 

p r o v i d e s o n l y a p a r t i a l and inadequate e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the 

i n c o r p o r a t i o n of a p r i m i t i v e v o c a b u l a r y i n v i s u a l i z a t i o n s of 

women, and s p e c i f i c a l l y female p r o s t i t u t e s , i n the e a r l y 20th 

c e n t u r y . 

F o l l o w i n g R u b i n ' s l e a d , h i s a r t h i s t o r i a n c o l l e a g u e s , 

11 



K i r k varnedoe and Jack Flam p r e s e n t s i m i l a r e v a l u a t i o n s of 

Gauguin and M a t i s s e i n t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n to the P r i m i t i v i s m 

c a t a l o g u e . These s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n MoMA s c h o l a r s e x e m p l i f y 

A l f r e d B a r r * s - m e t h o d s w h e r e f o r m a l ' d e s c r i p t i o n - , b i o g r a p h y and 

c r i t i c i s m are d e v o i d of c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s and an awareness of 

changing h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s . Although c o n t e n t i s 

s c r u t i n i z e d i n terms of t r a d i t i o n , r e f e r e n c e t o the r e a l 

p o l i t i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l i s s u e s as they r e l a t e to a r t i s t i c 

p r a c t i c e i s a v o i d e d . As a r e s u l t the success of t h e i r 

o s t e n s i b l e o b j e c t i v i t y i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . While i n the 

P r i m i t i v i s m c a t a l o g u e a t t e n t i o n t o the c o l o n i a l f a c t o r i s 

appended i n accompanying a r t i c l e s , such a n a l y s i s i s c a r e f u l l y 

s e p a r a t e d from the a p p r e c i a t i o n of a v a n t - g a r d e a r t where o n l y 

the p o s i t i v e , up-beat v i e w p o i n t of the c o l l e c t i n g , 

a c c u m u l a t i o n and a p p r e c i a t i o n of non^Western o b j e c t s i s 

promoted. 

F l a m ' s a r t i c l e , "Matisse and the F a u v e s , " a l s o p r o j e c t e d 

the p o s i t i v e a s p e c t of P r i m i t i v i s m . Flam proposed t h a t 

A f r i c a n a r t a t t r a c t e d the a t t e n t i o n of the a v a n t - g a r d e 

through i t s s y m b o l i c content because i t o f f e r e d "a new 

b e g i n n i n g " to the a r t i s t s as " . . . i t s i c o n o g r a p h i c content 
32 

and i t s h i s t o r y were unknown, . . . " T h i s d e f i n i t i o n of 

P r i m i t i v i s m ' s a t t r a c t i o n f o r the P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e by Flam 

agreed w i t h R u b i n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P i c a s s o ' s P r i m i t i v i s m 

i n Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n as the consequence of the 

a r t i s t ' s " . . . s e a r c h i n t o the o r i g i n of man's p i c t u r i n g 

12 



33 
h i m s e l f . " These authors f a i l to see the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the 

p r i m i t i v i z e d female image. While Rubin and Flam acknowledged 

the importance of A f r i c a n t r i b a l o b j e c t s f o r the a v a n t - g a r d e 

they d i s t a n c e d themselves from the n e g a t i v e r e a l i t y of French 

i n t r u s i o n upon A f r i c a n c u l t u r e and t e r r i t o r y , which by the 

e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y was an i n t e n s e and v i o l e n t form of Western 

domination and accounted f o r the p r o l i f e r a t i o n of A f r i c a n 

o b j e c t s i n F r e n c h s o c i e t y . As w e l l , they do not r e f l e c t upon 

the c o n d i t i o n s i n F r e n c h s o c i e t y which would r e v e a l the power 

r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n f l u e n c i n g c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s i n r e l a t i o n to 

the contemporary i s s u e of c l a s s s t r u g g l e . 

M a t i s s e ' s p r i m i t i v i s i n g of the female form i n The Blue 

Nude, was understood by Flam i n terms of p e r s o n a l symbolism. 

A c c o r d i n g to F l a m , the image e v o l v e d from " . . . memory and 

i m a g i n a t i o n , which gave M a t i s s e g r e a t e r freedom i n h i s 
34 

r e s t r u c t u r i n g of the human body." What Flam does not 

c o n f r o n t i s the f a c t t h a t M a t i s s e ' s "freedom" of i m a g i n a t i v e 

e x p r e s s i o n i s i d e o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d and not f r e e a t a l l . 

The dynamics of a r t i s t i c p r a c t i c e and i d e o l o g y are 

r e v e a l e d by a d i f f e r e n c e of o p i n i o n over the e f f e c t M a t i s s e ' s 

t r i p t o North A f r i c a i n 1906 had upon h i s a r t . Flam dated 

M a t i s s e ' s t r i p to B i s k r a from March of 1906, i n accordance 
35 

with A l f r e d B a r r ' s o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h . P i e r r e S c h n e i d e r ' s 
monograph M a t i s s e of 1984, r e v i s e d the date of the two-week 

36 

t r i p by M a t i s s e to North A f r i c a to May 10, 1906. Flam 

d e s c r i b e d t h i s t r i p as having had a p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e on 

13 



M a t i s s e ' s a r t w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n a f u s i n g o f a " N o r t h A f r i c a n 

s u b j e c t " w i t h a "Black A f r i c a n form" d e r i v e d from A f r i c a n 
37 

s c u l p t u r e . The Blue Nude was d e s c r i b e d i n the f o l l o w i n g 

t e r m s . 
The p i c t u r e i s not a l i t e r a l memory of 
a n y t h i n g t h a t M a t i s s e had seen, but r a t h e r a 
s y m b o l i c image of the powerful e f f e c t t h a t 
h i s e x p e r i e n c e of A f r i c a had had upon h i s 
i m a g i n a t i o n . 38 

S c h n e i d e r , i n h i s monograph on M a t i s s e , saw the e f f e c t of 

M a t i s s e ' s t r i p d i f f e r e n t l y . He p o i n t e d out the f u t i l i t y of 

the t r i p f o r M a t i s s e i n terms of a r t because The Blue Nude 

r e t a i n e d o n l y an " u n s p e c i f i c memory" of the O r i e n t which was 
39 

r e p r e s e n t e d by the palm leaves i n the p a i n t i n g . In formal 

terms, Schneider a t t r i b u t e d M a t i s s e ' s f a i l u r e t o M a t i s s e ' s 

i n a b i l i t y to p i c t u r e the O r i e n t other than as i l l u s i o n . 
From the s t a n d p o i n t of a r t — e s p e c i a l l y from 
M a t i s s e o n w a r d - - O r i e n t a l i s m was to appear as 
the n e g a t i o n of the O r i e n t . 40 

Schneider r e l a t e d t h i s f a i l u r e to M a t i s s e ' s p o s i t i o n i n North. 

A f r i c a as a f o r e i g n o u t s i d e r . M a t i s s e had expressed h i s 
41 

a l i e n a t e d f e e l i n g i n a l e t t e r to a f e l l o w - a r t i s t . T h i s 

concept of d e n i a l , a c c o r d i n g t o S a i d ' s t h e s i s , i s O r i e n t a l i s m 

a t work, a s t r a t e g y of power which d i v i d e s human c u l t u r e s 
42 

i n t o " ' u s ' " and " ' t h e y . ' " T h i s p o l a r i z a t i o n of E a s t and 
43 

West i s c e n t r a l to the t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e of O r i e n t a l i s m . 

However, The Blue Nude Is not o n l y a p a i n t i n g of an 

O r i e n t a l s u b j e c t , i t i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a female 
44 

p r o s t i t u t e . F l a m ' s monograph, M a t i s s e . The Man and His  

A r t , 1869-1918, of 1986, c o n t a i n s the f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n : 

14 



The woman i s s y m b o l i c of the p r i m i t i v e 
i n t e n s i t y and v i o l e n c e of the l a n d t h a t 
M a t i s s e p e r c e i v e d i n A f r i c a , a c o n v i n c i n g 
metaphor f o r dynamic growth, a k i n d of 
modern Venus. 45 

While Flam d e s c r i b e d the s u b j e c t as a c u l t image, t h a t i s 

both as a p r i m i t i v e f e r t i l i t y symbol and a Western goddess he 

d i d not e x p l a i n how the p a i n t i n g ' s f u n c t i o n as an a v a n t - g a r d e 

image of the female as f e r t i l i t y symbol has s i g n i f i c a n c e 

w i t h i n the i d e o l o g i c a l framework of N e o - O r i e n t a l i s m i n the 

e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y . A c c o r d i n g to S a i d , the r e l a t i o n s h i p 

between a g r i c u l t u r e , r e p r o d u c t i o n and c o l o n i a l i s m had been 

e s t a b l i s h e d as the s u b j u g a t i o n of the weaker " o t h e r " - - t h e 
46 

O r i e n t . In S a i d ' s words 

. . . t h e O r i e n t was viewed as something 
i n v i t i n g F r e n c h i n t e r e s t , p e n e t r a t i o n , 
i n s e m i n a t i o n - - i n s h o r t , c o l o n i z a t i o n . 47 

Edward S a i d ' s t h e s i s , O r i e n t a l i s m of 1978, i s 

fundamental to my s t u d y of the p a i n t i n g s and to an 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a r t i s t i c i n t e n t i o n , the p r o d u c t i o n of 

meaning and the complex f u n c t i o n of N e o - O r i e n t a l i s t imagery 

w i t h i n the P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e . 

S a i d ' s c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s , i n the f i e l d of l i t e r a t u r e , i s 

an a d m i t t e d l y s u b j e c t i v e view of Western c u l t u r a l hegemony 

which r e f u t e s the s u g g e s t i o n t h a t f a s c i n a t i o n with the 

O r i e n t , and s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h the I s l a m i c O r i e n t , i s innocent 

of s t r u c t u r e s of power. His a n a l y s i s of the major Western 

powers, i n p a r t i c u l a r , F r e n c h , B r i t i s h and American, focused 

upon t h e i r " i n t e l l e c t u a l a u t h o r i t y " over the O r i e n t w i t h i n 

15 



48 
Western c u l t u r e . " s a i d wrote: 

There i s n o t h i n g mysterious or n a t u r a l about 
a u t h o r i t y . I t i s formed, i r r a d i a t e d , 
d i s s e m i n a t e d ; i t i s i n s t r u m e n t a l , i t i s 
p e r s u a s i v e ; i t has s t a t u s , i t e s t a b l i s h e s 
canons of t a s t e and v a l u e ; i t i s v i r u t a l l y 
i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from c e r t a i n ideas i t 
d i g n i f i e s as t r u e , and from t r a d i t i o n s , 
p e r c e p t i o n s , and judgments i t forms, 
t r a n s m i t s , r e p r o d u c e s . 49 

Most i m p o r t a n t l y , S a i d r e f l e c t e d upon h i s p o s i t i o n as an 

- " O r i e n t a l s u b j e c t " who was r a i s e d i n the B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l 

t e r r i t o r i e s of Egypt and P a l e s t i n e as an I s l a m i c O r i e n t a l . 5 0 

S a i d ' s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e as an a l i e n a t e d P a l e s t i n i a n 

Arab s c h o l a r i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s prompted him t o w r i t e h i s 

book. I t was i n America where he f e l t the brunt of r a c i a l 

p r e j u d i c e towards the Arabs and Muslims which he suggested 

was the r e s u l t of the " . . . l i b e r a l American i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i 
51 

with Z i o n i s m , . . . " He f r a n k l y s t a t e d t h a t 

The web of r a c i s m , c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e s , 
p o l i t i c a l i m p e r i a l i s m , dehumanizing i d e o l o g y 
h o l d i n g i n the Arab or the Muslim i s v e r y 
s t r o n g i n d e e d , and" i t i s t h i s web which 
e v e r y P a l e s t i n i a n has come t o f e e l as h i s 
u n i q u e l y p u n i s h i n g d e s t i n y . 52 

As the f i r s t Arab s c h o l a r i n the West t o c o u r a g e o u s l y examine 

the dynamics of O r i e n t a l i s m through a c r i t i q u e of Western 

l i t e r a t u r e , he r e c o g n i z e d t h a t he was a l s o " . . . w r i t i n g the 

h i s t o r y of a s t r a n g e , s e c r e t s h a r e r of Western a n t i -

S e m i t i s m . " whose r o o t s were i r o n i c a l l y t o be found i n the 
53 

same c u l t u r a l p r e j u d i c e s which he e n c o u n t e r e d . S a i d ' s 

book, w r i t t e n as a response t o the p r o l i f e r a t i o n of 

h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d r a c i a l s t e r e o t y p e s which f u n c t i o n e d 

16 



as the b a s i s for f o r e i g n p o l i c y , i s an e s s e n t i a l source f o r 

s t u d y i n g modernist r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of O r i e n t a l i s m and 

P r i m i t i v i s m . Y e t , because of i t s c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e , h i s 

i n s i s t e n c e on the p e r v a s i v e n e s s of O r i e n t a l i s m i n Western 

hegemony has been r e j e c t e d , ignored or de-emphasized by many 

s c h o l a r s . T h i s has r e s u l t e d i n an incomplete p i c t u r e of the 

h i s t o r i c a l process as i t a f f e c t s the p r o d u c t i o n of meaning i n 

modern v i s u a l imagery. 

In h i s l i t e r a r y d i s c u s s i o n of modern O r i e n t a l i s m as a 

d o c t r i n e of d o m i n a t i o n , S a i d p o i n t e d out the s i g n i f i c a n c e of 

19th c e n t u r y r a c i a l t h e o r y which promoted P r i m i t i v i s m as a 
54 

n e g a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of human d i f f e r e n c e . L i n d a 

N o c h l i n ' s a r t i c l e , "The Imaginary O r i e n t " of 1983 extended 

S a i d ' s c r i t i q u e of l i t e r a t u r e t o i n c l u d e 19th c e n t u r y 

O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g and a f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e . 

O r i e n t a l i s m , through the concept of human d i f f e r e n c e d e f i n e d 

by the r a c i a l t h e o r y of P r i m i t i v i s m , not o n l y supported 

r a c i a l and s e x u a l s u p e r i o r i t y but a l s o n o t i o n s of c l a s s 
55 

s u p e r i o r i t y w i t h i n Western s o c i e t y i t s e l f . My t h e s i s w i l l 

address t h i s a n a l y s i s of the s t r u c t u r e s of power, as 

e x e m p l i f i e d by the work of S a i d and N o c h l i n , which has been 

m i s s i n g from the s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g M a t i s s e ' s 

The Blue Nude (Souvenir of B i s k r a ) and P i c a s s o ' s Les  

D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n as examples of O r i e n t a l i s m and 

P r i m i t i v i s m i n t r a d i t i o n a l a r t h i s t o r i c a l t e x t s . 

While the s t u d i e s by Rubin and Flam are v a l u a b l e , they 

17 



do not a d d r e s s the i s s u e o £ t h e p r i m i t i v i z e d form of the 

female p r o s t i t u t e i n a v a n t - g a r d e p r a c t i c e a t the s p e c i f i c 

moment of p r o d u c t i o n . The f a c t t h a t these r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of 

women have been transformed d i f f e r e n t l y by M a t i s s e and 

P i c a s s o must be addressed i n r e l a t i o n to F r e n c h neo-

c o l o n i a l i s m and to the i s s u e of c l a s s s t r u g g l e i n the e a r l y 

20th c e n t u r y . The "ugly" s u b j e c t s of the p a i n t i n g s are 

female p r o s t i t u t e s — i n F r e n c h s o c i e t y , the image of the 

p r o s t i t u t e was i t s e l f an i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t r e l a t i v e to 

both n e o - c o l o n i a l l s m and to c l a s s s t r u g g l e . 

I i n t e n d t o i n v e s t i g a t e the The Blue Nude and Les  

D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n as N e o - O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s and 

uncover the dynamics of the power r e l a t i o n s h i p s which are 

c o n c e a l e d i n the m a n i p u l a t i o n of the female form. My s t u d y 

w i l l b e g i n w i t h the assumption t h a t The Blue Nude, and Les  

D e m o i s e l l e s d 1 A v i g n o n as N e o - O r i e n t l i s t p a i n t i n g s of "ugly" 

female p r o s t i t u t e s produce meanings which are not merely 

r e f l e c t i o n s of the a r t i s t s 1 i n t e r e s t i n the A f r i c a n a e s t h e t i c 

as p e r s o n a l symbols> but are i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h 

d i f f e r e n t s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h i n a v a n t - g a r d e p r a c t i c e . I 

propose to s e a r c h f o r t h e i r d i f f e r e n t meanings as a v a n t - g a r d e 

images of females by f i r s t examining two seemingly d i s p a r a t e 

d i s c o u r s e s i n which the female was r e p r e s e n t e d a t the same 

h i s t o r i c a l moment, t h a t i s , i n both the p o p u l a r and o f f i c i a l 

c u l t u r e . My f i r s t chapter w i l l embody a d i s c u s s i o n of c l a s s 

s t r u g g l e and w i l l focus on Images of women i n an i l l u s t r a t e d 

18 



j o u r n a l of the F r e n c h l e f t which are r e l e v a n t to the issue of 

human i n e q u i t y expressed by t h i s d i s c o u r s e of o p p o s i t i o n to 

the dominant F r e n c h c u l t u r e . The dominance of F r e n c h 

o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e , which supported bourgeois v a l u e s and neo-

c o l o n i a l i s m , w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n to one p a i n t i n g 

by Georges Rochegrosse, h i g h l y v a l u e d by the o f f i c i a l F r e n c h 

Salon i n 1906. The Images i n these two d i s c o u r s e s produce 

meanings which r e l a t e to the power s t r a t e g i e s Inherent i n 

O r i e n t a l i s m and P r i m i t i v i s m a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , to the way 

women were v a l u e d i n d i f f e r e n t f a c t i o n s of F r e n c h s o c i e t y . 

My second chapter w i l l e x p l a i n how The Blue Nude and Les 

D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n were intended to f u n c t i o n as a v a n t -

garde images i n r e l a t i o n to the popular and o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e 

through the meanings imparted by t h e i r "ugly" s u b j e c t s . The 

p a i n t i n g s w i l l be c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y z e d i n terms of Neo-

O r i e n t a l i s m , which embodied d i f f e r e n t c l a s s a t t i t u d e s towards 

the p r i m i t i v l z e d female form. I t w i l l be shown t h a t M a t i s s e 

e x p l o i t e d the s e x u a l P r i m i t i v i s m of the e x o t i c female 

p r o s t i t u t e y e t r e t a i n e d the t r a d i t i o n a l Western i d e a l of 

beauty and thus upheld the v a l u e s and the dominance of F r e n c h 

o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e and n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m . C o n v e r s e l y , P i c a s s o 

chose to oppose the i d e a l of beauty and these v a l u e s by 

a t t e m p t i n g to i n s e r t h i s awareness of the i s s u e of c l a s s 

s t r u g g l e through h i s use of the form and c o n t e n t of 

P r i m i t i v i s m , c o n s c i o u s l y aware of the i n e q u i t i e s i n Western 

c i v i l i z a t i o n . In c o n c l u s i o n , i t i s suggested t h a t P i c a s s o ' s 

19 



p a i n t i n g f a i l e d t o s i g n i f y h i s I n t e n t i o n to d e f l a t e the 

p o s s i b i l i t y of Western bourgeois male dominance through 

enjoyment of p r i m i t i v e s e x u a l i t y by h i s c h o i c e of the 

s e x u a l l y a g g r e s s i v e I m a g e of the b r u t a l i z e d contemporary 

female p r o s t i t u t e . I n s t e a d , h i s a g r e s s i v e , p r l m l t i v i z e d 

p r o s t i t u t e s manipulated the Western bourgeois male's need to 

dominate. Thus, P i c a s s o ' s P r i m i t i v i s m was r a p i d l y absorbed 

as a r e f e r e n c e t o A f r i c a n a r t , which was the new a e s t h e t i c 

commodity promoted by the Western bourgeois male-dominated 

c u l t u r e t o r e i n f o r c e i t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s u p e r i o r i t y of 

r a c e , sex and c l a s s . T h e r e f o r e , the a m b i g u i t y of P i c a s s o ' s 

p r i m i t i v i z e d females c o u l d be used by the most " c i v i l i z e d " 

element of F r e n c h s o c i e t y as j u s t i f i c a t i o n for i t s v i o l e n t 

p o l i c i e s of a g g r e s s i o n and r e p r e s s i o n a t a moment of domestic 

and f o r e i g n c r i s e s when F r e n c h n e o - n a t i o n a l i s m and neo-

c o l o n i a l i s m were t h r e a t e n e d by s o c i a l i s m . 

Thus, the intended d i f f e r e n c e i n meaning between the 

p a i n t i n g s can be c l a r i f i e d by the h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t where 

the p a i n t i n g s , as i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n , connected w i t h each 

other and w i t h these l a r g e r i s s u e s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of the 

appearance of the "ugly" r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the female 

p r o s t i t u t e as a dominated or p o s s i b l y dominating s u b j e c t of 

P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t i n g a t a time of s o c i a l c r i s i s i n 

France can no longer be i g n o r e d . These p a i n t i n g s were 

produced i n P a r i s , the a r t c a p i t a l of the world and the 

c e n t r e of F r e n c h I m p e r i a l i s m where the o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e 

20 



promoted the p r o d u c t i o n of e r o t i c and e x o t i c Images of women 

a t the moment when F r e n c h s o c i e t y was t h r e a t e n e d , not o n l y by 

a domestic s o c i a l c r i s i s expressed through the i s s u e of c l a s s 

s t r u g g l e , but when F r a n c e , as a n a t i o n , was t h r e a t e n e d by the 

p o s s i b i l i t y of war with Germany over p o s s e s s i o n of the North 

A f r i c a n t e r r i t o r y of Morocco. 

21 



NOTES 

1 
Edward S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m (New Y o r k : Pantheon Books, 

1978), 207. 

2 • * • 
L i n d a N o c h l i n , "The Imaginary O r i e n t , " A r t i n A m e r i c a , 

7 (May 1983), 119. 

3 
M i c h e l l e P e r r o t , e d . , Une H i s t o l r e des Femmes e s t - e l l e  

P o s s i b l e ? ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s R i v a g e s , 1984), 220. 

4 
Donald A . R o s e n t h a l , O r i e n t a l i s m : The Near E a s t i n  

F r e n c h P a i n t i n g 1800-1880 ( R o c h e s t e r , New Y o r k : Memorial A r t 
G a l l e r y of the U n i v e r s i t y of R o c h e s t e r , 1982), 8. 

5 
I b i d . , 156 note 2. 

6 
I b i d . , 9. 

• 7 
I b i d . 

8 
I b i d . , 10. See a l s o 156 note 10. 

9 
I b i d . , 155. 

10 
S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m , 6. 

11 
N o c h l i n , "The Imaginary O r i e n t , " 119. 

12 
I b i d . 

13 
I b i d . , 123. 

14 
I b i d . , 124. 

15 
I b i d . 

22 



16 
Maryanne S t e v e n s , e d . , The O r i e n t a l i s t s : D e l a c r o i x  

to M a t i s s e : European P a i n t e r s In North A f r i c a and the Near  
E a s t , (London: Royal Academy of A r t s , 1984), 19. See a l s o 
23 note 42. < 

17 
I b i d . , 20-21. 

18 
S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m , 3. 

19 
Stevens, The O r i e n t a l i s t s , 22. Stevens de-emphasized 

the v i o l e n c e and the h o r r o r of c o l o n i a l i s m and i g n o r e d i t s 
r e l a t i o n s h i p to the c u l t i v a t i o n of t a s t e f o r O r i e n t a l i s t 
p a i n t i n g . Stevens views O r i e n t a l i s m as a benign c o n c e p t . 
With r e s p e c t to N o c h l i n ' s f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e , S t e v e n s , 
I b i d . , 23 note 59, d i s m i s s e d i t s r e l e v a n c e as f o l l o w s : "It 
has been suggested t h a t O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g c o n t r i v e d to 
make a v a i l a b l e e x p e r i e n c e s f o r b i d d e n to the p r u r i e n t 
West . . . As w e l l , S t e v e n s , I b i d . , e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y 
defended c o l l e c t o r s of O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g a g a i n s t S a i d ' s 
t h e s i s . She s t a t e d t h a t S a i d ' s book " . . . i m p l i e s t h a t the 
ownership of O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g denotes the d e s i r e of the 
West both to dominate the Near E a s t and to r e i n f o r c e the 
West's own sense of c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y . " Stevens does not 
c o n s i d e r the h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of the p r o d u c t i o n of 
O r i e n t a l i s t images. However, a c o n t r i b u t i n g author to t h i s 
c a t a l o g u e , Malcolm Warner, "The Q u e s t i o n of F a i t h : 
O r i e n t a l i s m , C h r i s t i a n i t y and I s l a m , " I b i d . , 37 and 39, 
notes 20-21, r e v e a l e d an i n s i g h t i n t o the i s s u e s r a i s e d - , 
by S a i d and N o c h l i n . 

20 
I b i d . 

21 
I b i d . , 210-211. 

22 
Lynne Thornton i s a p r o l i f i c producer of O r i e n t a l i s t 

p a i n t i n g e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e s from a t r a d i t i o n a l , u n c r i t i c a l 
p o i n t of view. Two examples a r e : Lynne Thornton and F e l i x 
M a r c i l h a c L ' A r t en Marge des Grands Mouvements: 2, Salons et  
O r i e n t a l i t e s de 1850-1950, V o l . 2, ( P a r i s : H d t e l Drouot, 
1974), and Lynne T h o r n t o n , Les O r i e n t a l i s t e s P e l n t r e s  
v o y a g e u r s , 1828-1908 ( P a r i s : ACR E d i t i o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l e , 
1983). T h o r n t o n , Les O r i e n t a l i s t e s , 22, a d m i t t e d l y r e l i e d . 
upon the work of Jean A l a z a r d f o r her model because of h i s 
" e x a c t i t u d e " which she r e l a t e d to h i s p o s i t i o n as the f i r s t 
c u r a t o r of the N a t i o n a l Museum of B e a u x - A r t s of A l g e r i a . 

23 



23 
W i l l i a m R u b i n , e d . , " P r i m i t i v i s m " In 20th C e n t u r y _ A r t 

V o l . I , (New Y o r k : Museum of Modern A r t , 1984), 7. 

24 
I b i d . , 75 note 29. 

25 
I b i d . , 337 note 94. See a l s o : C y n t h i a Nadelman, 

"Broken P r e m i s e s : ' P r i m i t i v i s m 1 a t MoMA," A r t News, 
( F e b r u a r y , 1985), 88-95. 

26 
I b i d . , 6. 

27 
I b i d . 

28 
I b i d . 

29 
I b i d . 

30 
I b i d . , 7. 

31 
I b i d . 

32 
I b i d . , 212. 

33 
I b i d . , 73. 

34 
I b i d . , 225. 

35 
I b i d . , 216. 

36 
P i e r r e S c h n e i d e r , M a t i s s e (New Y o r k : R i z z o l i , 1984), 

158. 

37 
R u b i n , " P r i m i t i v i s m " , 226. 

24 



38 
I b i d . 

39 
S c h n e i d e r , M a t i s s e , 158. 

I b i d . 

41 
I b i d . 

42 
S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m , 45. S a i d ' s r e f e r e n c e I b i d . , i s to 

Westerners and I s l a m i c O r i e n t a l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . 

43 
I b i d . , 46. 

44 
Andrea Thomsett, The Blue Nude (unpublished p a p e r , 

U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1981). T h i s paper r e v e a l e d 
the p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of the p a i n t i n g by i d e n t i f y i n g the 
female s u b j e c t as a p r o s t i t u t e and p o i n t i n g out the 
s i g n i f i c a n c e of i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to F r e n c h c o l o n i a l i s m i n 
North A f r i c a i n the h i s t o r i c c o n t e x t of 1907. 

45 
Jack F l a m , M a t i s s e , The Man and His A r t 1869-1918 

( I t h a c a , New Y o r k : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1986), 195. 

46 
S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m , 219. 

47 
I b i d . 

48 
I b i d . , 19. 

49 
I b i d . , 19-20. 

50 
I b i d . , 25. 

51 
I b i d . , 27 

52 
I b i d . 

25 



53 
I b i d . 

54 
I b i d . , 232. 

55 
N o c h l i n , "The Imaginary O r i e n t , " 124. 

26 



CHAPTER I 

ILLUSIONS OF POWER AND POWERFUL DELUSIONS 

" C h a i r A t r a v a i l . . . c h a i r A p l a l s l r ! " 
1 

Paule Mink, 1883. 

The d i s t o r t e d form of the "ugly" female s u b j e c t which 

emerged i n the P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e i n the years 1905 - 1908 

i s r e l a t e d to a moment i n F r e n c h h i s t o r y when the issue of 

c l a s s s t r u g g l e i n t e r s e c t e d w i t h n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m r e v e a l i n g 

i d e o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s between the r i g h t and the l e f t . 

M a t i s s e ' s s e d u c t i v e female, The Blue Nude of 1907 d i f f e r s 

from P i c a s s o ' s outrageous females of Les D e m o i s e l l e s  

d ' A v i g n o n , of 1907, y e t , each produces s p e c i f i c meanings 

which connect w i t h each other and with these broader i s s u e s 

through the contemporaneous n o t i o n s of P r i m i t i v i s m . These 

images operated w i t h i n c a t e g o r i e s of c o n s t r u c t e d human 

d i f f e r e n c e d e f i n e d by a t t i t u d e s towards P r i m i t i v i s m . While 

the female f i g u r e was a p r e v a l e n t s u b j e c t In the h i s t o r y of 

t r a d i t i o n a l and a v a n t - g a r d e F r e n c h a r t , the female s u b j e c t s 

i n these p a i n t i n g s by M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o are - d i s t i n g u i s h e d 

by t h e i r o v e r t l y d i s t o r t e d and p r i m i t i v i z e d forms. I t i s 

these extreme formal t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s to the female f i g u r e 

which r a i s e q u e s t i o n s with r e s p e c t to content r e l a t i v e to 

t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n the s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c c o n t e x t of t h e i r 

appearance as a v a n t - g a r d e p r o d u c t s . 

The s u b j e c t of M a t i s s e ' s p a i n t i n g i s a s i n g l e 

27 



r e c l i n i n g nude, her e r o t l c a l l y p r l m l t i v i z e d form i s p o s i t e d 

h o r i z o n t a l l y i n an e x o t i c background to produce the a l l u r i n g 

e f f e c t of an a v a i l a b l e a l i e n p r o s t i t u t e . She appears t o 

dominate an i m a g i n a t i v e l a n d s c a p e . M a t i s s e ' s s t y l e of 

exaggerated arabesque form and Fauve c o l o u r d i f f e r s from more 

t r a d i t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of r e c l i n i n g nudes by the obvious 

a c c e n t u a t i o n of the s u b j e c t ' s seemingly " p r i m i t i v e " female 

s e x u a l i t y and her non-Western o r i g i n s to s i g n i f y a p a s s i v e 

subjugated female. However, M a t i s s e ' s nude r e t a i n s a l l u s i o n s 

to the Western i d e a l of female beauty through her n u d i t y and 

pose which r e v e a l her feminine gender. C o n v e r s e l y , Les  

D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n c o n t a i n s a group of f i v e d e f e m i n i z e d 

females v e r t i c a l l y p o s i t i o n e d i n an ambiguously d e f i n e d space 

which d i f f e r s from t r a d i t i o n a l Images of e r o t i c and e x o t i c 

females and c o n t r a s t s with M a t i s s e ' s emphasis on p a s s i v e , 

p r i m i t i v e s e x u a l i t y . In p l a c e of the overblown curves of The  

Blue Nude, P i c a s s o e x p l o i t e d angular forms and used harsh 

l i g h t and n a t u r a l c o l o u r to s t r e s s the a g g r e s s i v e n s s of h i s 

"ugly" female p r o s t i t u t e s and to d i s t a n c e h i s s u b j e c t s from 

t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n s of female beauty i n Western s o c i e t y . The 

a g g r e s s i v e mood of P i c a c c o ' s f i g u r e s i s r e i n f o r c e d by a 

d e l i b e r a t e c o n f u s i o n and d i s p l a c e m e n t of e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e 

s i g n s of female gender I d e n t i f i c a t i o n which are i n s t e a d 

symbolized by the f r u i t . 

To e x p l a i n the d i f f e r e n c e i n meaning between these two 

p a i n t i n g s i n terms of the "ugly" female s u b j e c t as a p a s s i v e 

28 



v i c t i m or as a w i l l f u l a g g r e s s o r , i t i s e s s e n t i a l to examine 

the r e l a t i o n s h i p which e x i s t e d between p o l i t i c s and c u l t u r e , 

and as w e l l , to examine the p o s i t i o n of the a v a n t - g a r d e i n 

r e l a t i o n t o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the female s u b j e c t i n p o p u l a r 

c u l t u r e and o f f i c i a l Salon p r a c t i c e a t the same moment. 

As the a v a n t - g a r d e used both h i g h and low c u l t u r e as i t s 

m a t e r i a l , a s t u d y of these opposing d i s c o u r s e s can p r o v i d e a 

key to the complex s t r u c t u r e wherein the i s s u e s s u r r o u n d i n g 

n e o - c o l o n i a l l s m and c l a s s s t r u g g l e were connected through 

contemporaneous concepts of O r i e n t a l i s m and P r i m i t i v i s m . In 

terms of the a v a n t - g a r d e , and s p e c i f i c a l l y i n the case of 

M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o , images of "ugly" women are O r i e n t a l i s t 

through t h e i r r e f e r e n c e or response to the t r a d i t i o n a l 

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the e r o t i c and e x o t i c female as a s e x u a l 

o b j e c t . However, as N e o - O r i e n t a l i s t images which e x p l o i t 

P r i m i t i v i s m , the d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r meaning i s e v i d e n t when 

compared w i t h p o p u l a r and o f f i c i a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n s of the 

female s u b j e c t . In formal terms the p a i n t i n g s by M a t i s s e and 

P i c a s s o are s i m i l a r through t h e i r e x t e n s i v e d i s t o r t i o n of the 

female f i g u r e and t h e r e f o r e seem to be a t v a r i a n c e w i t h 

p o p u l a r and o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of women. 

For example, i t was i n the F r e n c h popular p r e s s , i n an 

i l l u s t r a t e d p e r i o d i c a l l i k e L ' A s s l e t t e au B e u r r e , where the 

q u e s t i o n of the image of the " p r i m i t i v i z e d " female s u b j e c t as 

v i c t i m was viewed i n r e l a t i o n t o c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e . As w i l l 

29 



be shown at- a l a t e r p o i n t , i n t h i s same d i s c o u r s e the 

powerful female was presented i n r e l a t i o n to c l a s s s t r u g g l e 

through the a p p r o p r i a t i o n of the o f f i c i a l view of c l a s s i c a l 

beauty and not f o r m a l l y d i s t o r t e d as an "ugly" symbol of the 

working c l a s s . In the o f f i c i a l bourgeois a r t world of the 

S a l o n , the t r a d i t i o n a l p o r t r a y a l s of the s u b j e c t e d female a t 

the mercy of the male a g g r e s s o r c o n t i n u e d to emphasize her 

p r i m i t i v e , l e s s than human, female n a t u r e , a l s o without 

formal d i s t o r t i o n . L a . J o i e Rouge, ( F i g . 3 ) , by Georges 

Rochegrosse, i s a p a i n t i n g of 1906 which e x h i b i t s these 

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the c l a s s i c a l beauty of the female nude 

which were p r e v a l e n t i n the sphere of o f f i c i a l Salon a r t . 

Although for d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s , as w i l l be demonstrated,, 

i n both p o p u l a r and o f f i c i a l d i s c o u r s e s , the female image 

r e t a i n e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h c l a s s i c a l n o t i o n s of b e a u t y . I t 

was i n the r e a l m of o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e where the f a l s e d e l u s i o n 

of Western bourgeois male s u p e r i o r i t y was n u r t u r e d by what 

may be termed a n e g a t i v e concept of P r i m i t i v i s m . How t h i s 

n e g a t i v e concept of P r i m i t i v i s m , which was an e s s e n t i a l 

component of O r i e n t a l i s m ' s I d e o l o g i c a l a u t h o r i t y and i t s 

importance to French n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m i n the e a r l y 20th 

c e n t u r y , was developed w i l l be e x p l a i n e d by r e f e r e n c e to 

c e r t a i n t h e o r i e s of P r i m i t i v i s m . As w i l l be s e e n , these 

t h e o r i e s focused on human d i f f e r e n c e as a means to c a t e g o r i z e 

those who were " d i f f e r e n t " and were used to d e f i n e r a c e , sex 

and c l a s s . To counter t h i s n e g a t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of 

30 



P r i m i t i v i s m w i t h the non-Western p e o p l e s , women and the 

working c l a s s , segments of the popular press exposed the 

s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n of these m a r g i n a l i z e d s o c i a l groups i n 

r e l a t i o n to c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e . 

As proponents of human emancipation and c r i t i c s of 

a u t h o r i t y , the French popular p r e s s , e x e m p l i f i e d by a 

p e r i o d i c a l such as L ' A s s l e t t e au B e u r r e , was c o n s c i o u s of the 

inhuman c o n d i t i o n of those groups a f f e c t e d by the n e g a t i v e 

c o n n o t a t i o n of P r i m i t i v i s m as i t was used as an instrument of 

d o m i n a t i o n . At the same t i m e , i t was the F r e n c h M a r x i s t 

s o c i a l i s t s who used a 19th c e n t u r y c o n c e p t , which suggested 

t h a t women had b e e n . p o w e r f u l i n a n c i e n t " p r i m i t i v e " 

m a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y , to promote the cause of F r e n c h working 

c l a s s women a t the t u r n - o f - t h e - c e n t u r y . Of s i g n i f i c a n c e i n 

the e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y i s the c h o i c e of the F r e n c h s o c i a l i s t 

f e m i n i s t s to c o n f r o n t bourgeois f e m i n i s t s over the i s s u e of 

c l a s s when t h i s issue was b a s i c to F r e n c h s o c i a l i s t debates 

over i d e n t i t y of the working c l a s s i n the c l a s s s t r u g g l e . 

The h i s t o r y of the F r e n c h s o c i a l i s t s t r u g g l e i s r e l a t e d 

t o the changing c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i n France f o l l o w i n g the 
2 

bourgeois R e v o l u t i o n of the l a t e 18th c e n t u r y . By the 19th 

c e n t u r y , the new dominant middle c l a s s , the b o u r g e o i s i e , had 

promised a new s o c i a l order founded on the r e v o l u t i o n a r y 
3 

p r i n c i c p l e s of " ' L i b e r t y , E q u a l i t y and F r a t e r n i t y . ' " In 

p r a c t i c e , however, the bourgeois p h i l o s o p h y of l i b e r a l i s m , 

which promoted the r i g h t s of the I n d i v i d u a l , . w a s a p p l i c a b l e 

31 



4 
o n l y to members of a c e r t a i n g r o u p . The r u l i n g middle c l a s s 

f i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d the T h i r d F r e n c h R e p u b l i c i n the 1870's 

and enjoyed s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s based on ownership of p r i v a t e 
5 

p r o p e r t y . T h i s v a l u e system, which a f f o r d e d the F r e n c h 

m i d d l e , w h i t e , masculine-dominated c l a s s i t s power and 

s u p e r i o r s t a t u s , denied these same r i g h t s to c o l o n i z e d 

p e o p l e s , women and t h e . w o r k i n g c l a s s , those who were 

" d i f f e r e n t , " who were viewed as i n f e r i o r , through the 

a u t h o r i t y of O r i e n t a b l i s m and the t h e o r y of P r i m i t i v i s m . 

O r i e n t a l i s m ' s s u p p o r t i n g c o n c e p t , P r i m i t i v i s m , embodied the 

r a c i a l t h e o r i e s which supported the n o t i o n s of r a c i a l , s e x u a l 
6 . ' 

.and c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e . 

The n e g a t i v e concept of P r i m i t i v i s m was a u s e f u l t o o l of 

domination i n the economic, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n 

France a t the end of the 19th c e n t u r y . As F r a n c e ' s f o r e s t 

and a g r i c u l t u r a l economy was s l o w l y eroded by modern forms of 

i n d u s t r y and transformed under the bourgeois economic system 

of c a p i t a l i s m , the r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n was f o r c e d to f i n d new 
7 

methods f o r s u r v i v a l . At the same moment t h a t F r e n c h 

I m p e r i a l i s m I n t e n s i f i e d and e x e r t e d new p r e s s u r e s upon non-

Western c u l t u r e s , changes i n l a n d use p a t t e r n s and 

t r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l labour p r a c t i c e s , which o r i g i n a t e d i n the 

mld-19th c e n t u r y , a c c e l e r a t e d , d i s p l a c i n g segments of the 

r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n who were f o r c e d to seek work i n the new 

I n d u s t r i e s i n the urban environment. 

32 



F r e n c h I m p e r i a l i s m and the r e s t r u c t u r i n g of F r e n c h 

s o c i e t y a t i t s r o o t s had a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t upon c o l o n i a l 

s u b j e c t s , women and the working c l a s s , those d e s i g n a t e d as 

i n f e r i o r by the r u l i n g c l a s s , and who were d r i v e n to take 

steps to c o u n t e r a c t t h e i r d i s p l a c e m e n t i n the s o c i a l , 

economic and p o l i t i c a l o r d e r . At c e r t a i n moments, the 

working c l a s s u n i t e d with s o c i a l i s t s u p p o r t e r s i n a c l a s s 

s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the bourgeois o p p r e s s o r s . T h i s movement was 

complex and by no means a p r o g r e s s i v e h i s t o r i c a l process 

without r e p r e s s i v e s e t b a c k s , yet a moment of u n i t y o c c u r r e d 

i n the p e r i o d of 1905-1908 when s o c i a l i s t concerns f o r 

s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y supported the cause 

of the c o l o n i a l s u b j e c t s , women and the working c l a s s and 
8 

c o a l e s c e d i n t o a v i v i d e x p r e s s i o n of c l a s s s t r u g g l e . The 

r e s u l t was the p o l a r i z a t i o n of the c l a s s e s which d i v i d e d 

s o c i e t y i n t o two main opposing f a c t i o n s ; the b o u r g e o i s , who 

were i n fear of and t h r e a t e n e d by s o c i a l i s m as a p o l i t i c a l 

f o r c e because of i t s support of c o l o n i a l p e o p l e s , women and 

the working c l a s s and i t s aim to a b o l i s h p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y ; 

and the s o c i a l i s t s , who were faced with "embourgoisement" of 

the working c l a s s due t o a p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m i s t t r a d e - u n i o n 
o r g a n i z a t i o n s which weakened t h e i r cause based on c l a s s 

9 
s t r u g g l e . T h i s i d e o l o g i c a l polemic between the two f a c t i o n s 

was, of c o u r s e , confused by the d i f f e r i n g n o t i o n s of r a c e , 

sex and c l a s s which were a t i s s u e i n the p e r i o d 1905 -
10 

1908. S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a s h i f t i n f o r e i g n p o l i c y and 

33 



c o l o n i a l p r a c t i c e from a c q u i s i t i o n of l a n d and peoples to the 

e x p l i c i t economic e x p l o i t a t i o n of French I m p e r i a l i s m , had 

dangerous n a t i o n a l and I n t e r n a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . The 

p o s s i b i l i t y of war with Germany over Morocco d r a m a t i c a l l y 
11 

i n c r e a s e d from 1905 - 1907. T h i s f a c t o r p r o v i d e d the 

n e c e s s a r y impetus t o the emerging n e o - n a t i o n a l i s t movement of 

the extreme r i g h t which c l a s h e d with s o c i a l i s t i n t e r n a t l o n a -
12 

l i s t i d e a l s . Economic c o m p e t i t i o n due to c o l o n i a l 

development l e d to a c r i s i s i n the south of France i n the 

summer of 1907. The u p r i s i n g s , caused by problems i n the 

wine markets, verged on c i v i l war s i g n a l l i n g a new u n r e s t i n 
13 

r u r a l F r e n c h s o c i e t y . 

The i l l u s t r a t e d p e r i o d i c a l , L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , which 

appeared weekly from the s p r i n g of 1901 u n t i l the f a l l of 
1912, i s one source of v i s u a l m a t e r i a l of F r e n c h popular 

14 

c u l t u r e . A s a t i r i c c r i t i q u e of o f f i c i a l R e p u b l i c a n 

s o c i e t y , t h i s p e r i o d i c a l promoted the s o c i a l and economic 

emancipation of the working c l a s s . The concerns and the 

d i s t r i b u t i o n of L ' A s s i e t t e au Beurre Were n a t i o n a l and 

i n t e r n a t i o n a l and t h e * g e n e r a l e d i t o r i a l p o l i c y was 

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an entrenched o p p o s i t i o n to a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s 

of a u t h o r i t y . T h i s s a t i r i c c r i t i q u e of F r e n c h s o c i e t y o f t e n 

i n c l u d e d images of women and these o f f e r c l u e s to the way 

i n which women were v a l u e d i n a s p e c i f i c c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e . 

The meaning and f u n c t i o n of these images a l s o r e v e a l s i s s u e s 

of c l a s s c o n f l i c t . 

34 



A3 w i l l be demonstrated, many o £ the a r t i s t s were 

i n f l u e n c e d by the d o c t r i n e of R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s m , a 

m i l i t a n t working c l a s s n o t i o n of worker a c t i v i s m d i r e c t e d 

a g a i n s t the bourgeois s t a t e and i t s economic system of 
15 

c a p i t a l i s m . R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s m d i f f e r e d from the 

p o l i t i c a l aims and methods of the e l e c t e d s o c i a l i s t s who 

looked upon the economic o r g a n i z a t i o n of the working c l a s s as 
16 

one stage of the c l a s s s t r u g g l e . The d i f f e r e n c e i n focus 

was p a r t of a major i d e o l o g i c a l c l a s h which d i v i d e d the 

F r e n c h l e f t , and which had i t s r o o t s i n the mid-19th c e n t u r y 

debate between Proudhon and Marx c o n c e r n i n g the s i g n i f i c a n c e 
17 

of c l a s s s t r u g g l e . I t was Proudhon who f i r s t r e c o g n i z e d 

the working c l a s s as a d i s t i n c t s o c i a l group d e f i n e d by t h e i r 

common p o s i t i o n as wage l a b o u r e r s . Proudhon's concept of 

s y n d i c a l i s m was based on an a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of the 

working c l a s s who were to be u n i t e d through t h e i r s i m i l a r 
18 

i n t e r e s t s f o r mutual s o c i a l and economic b e n e f i t . By 

1902, s y n d i c a l i s m had taken a new form and working c l a s s 

s y n d i c a t e s were i n f i l t r a t e d by m i l i t a n t a n a r c h i s t s many of 

whom had adopted new and v i o l e n t methods which brought 

r e p r e s s i v e a c t i o n from the dominant a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e i r 

methods were a t odds w i t h both the e x i s t a n t bourgeois 

s y n d i c a t e s and r e f o r m i s t working c l a s s s y n d i c a t e s and as w e l l 

opened debate on the r e v o l u t i o n a r y l e f t ' w i t h the e l e c t e d 
19 

M a r x i s t s o c i a l i s t s . W i t h i n t h i s c o n t e x t , L ' A s s i e t t e au  

Beurre stands as an important document of the working c l a s s 
35 



( 

s t r u g g l e a n d o c c u p i e s a s p a c e on t h e e x t r e m e l e f t i n 

o p p o s i t i o n to the dominant c u l t u r e . Indeed, a c o n t r o v e r s y 

which c e n t e r e d upon L ' A s s i e t t e au Beurre e r u p t e d i n the f a l l 

of 1905 as a r e s u l t of the v i s u a l e x p r e s s i o n of c l a s s 

d i f f e r e n c e and working c l a s s c o n d i t i o n s . The i s s u e of 

September 30th, 1905 of L ' A s s i e t t e au Beurre was removed from 
20 

c i r c u l a t i o n a t i t s P a r i s i a n o u t l e t s . An ensuing debate 

over freedom of e x p r e s s i o n confirmed the mood of fear i n the 

c o n s e r v a t i v e element of bourgeois s o c i e t y which f e l t 

t h r e a t e n e d by the v i s i b i l i t y and i n c r e a s e d o r g a n i z a t i o n of 
21 

the working c l a s s . However, i n s p i t e of i t s f r a g i l e 

e x i s t e n c e L ' A s s i e t t e au Beurre c o n t i n u e d to be p u b l i s h e d . 

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the female as a 

v i c t i m of r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s e x p l o i t a t i o n was the 

s u b j e c t of a s e r i e s of i l l u s t r a t e d c a r t o o n s by Radiguet i n 

the March 17th, 1906 i s s u e of L " A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , e n t i t l e d 

"Images M o r a l e s . " For example, L ' E t a t Depravateur ( F i g . 4) 

i s a d e p i c t i o n of the s t a t e - s u p p o r t e d E c o l e des B e a u x - A r t s 

which has been re-named " l ' e c b l e de p o r n o g r a p h i e . " Radiguet 

a t t a c k e d the bourgeois t r a d i t i o n which supported the"use of 

l i v e , nude models as s u b j e c t s for p a i n t i n g s for which honour 

and g o l d medals were o f f e r e d as reward. He p i c t u r e d the 

"maitres pornographes" 
. . . en compagnie de nymphes denudees. E t 
i l s r e p r o d u i r o n t a. l ' i n f i n i l e s formes 
p r o v o c a n t e s , v o l u p t u e e s , de ces impudiques 
c r e a t u r e s . E t , ce f a i s a n t , i l s a c q u e r r o n t 
g l o i r e et f o r t u n e . 22 

36 



Most o b j e c t i o n a b l e to him was the p o s i t i o n of these o l d e r 

a r t i s t s a t L ' E c o l e des B e a u x - A r t s as t e a c h e r s of the younger 

g e n e r a t i o n of men and women of the bourgeois c l a s s i n " . . . 
23 

1'etude abhoree du n u . " T h i s p r a c t i c e , which a s s u r e d the 

c o n t i n u i t y of bourgeois m o r a l s , was not condemned by the 

guardians of p u b l i c m o r a l i t y such as Senator Rene Berenger, 

the senat or r e s p o n s i b l e for the c e n s o r s h i p .laws. In f a c t , i t 
was noted i n the accompanying t e x t t h a t : " . . . M. Berenger 

24 
ne d i t r i e n . " 

Le C o u t u r i e r Pornographe ( F i g . 5) i n the same i s s u e , 

d e s c r i b e d the world of the c o u t u r i e r s a l o n , the b a s t i o n of 

the f a s h i o n i n d u s t r y so important to bourgeois c a p i t a l i s m , - as 

a t o r t u r e chamber where the female model was v i c t i m i z e d . The 

c o u t u r i e r i s shown e r o t i c i z i n g the model's n a t u r a l form by 

s q u e e z i n g her i n t o a c o r s e t which a c c e n t u a t e s her b r e a s t s and 

h i p s . The c a p t i o n e x p l a i n s t h a t "Cet a r t i s t e e s t un infame 
25 

deformateur de l a beaute f e m i n i n e . C ' e s t erotomane . . . " 

In comparison, the s t a t u e of the Venus de M i l o i s p i c t u r e d as 

r e s i s t i n g t h i s u n n a t u r a l c o n f o r m i t y to the e r o t i c needs of 

the bourgeois male through her untransformed, n a t u r a l n u d i t y . 
La f r e q u e n t a t i o n des oeuvres d ' a r t l u i a 
demontre combien l e nu e s t peu e x c i t a n t . . . 
Combien peu l a c h a i r e s t emue devant l a 
Venus de M i l o , par exemple. E t son e s p r i t 
s a t a n i q u e s ' e s t acharne a mettre en v a l e u r 
t o u t ce q u i , dans l a femme, peut e x c i t e r l a 
c o n c u p i s c e n c e . 26 

The n a t u r a l form of the female v i c t i m has been r e - f o r m e d and 

deformed by the male c r e a t i v e g e n i u s , the c o u t u r i e r , Into the 

37 



d e s i r e d image of a female, degraded to s u i t the bourgeois 

male's need f o r her as the o b j e c t of h i s s e x u a l p l e a s u r e to 

ensure h i s i d e n t i t y with power, m a s c u l i n i t y , p o t e n c y - - h i s 
27 

v i r i l i t y . 

Pour l e s Berengeres ( F i g . 6) i s a s a t i r i c a n a l y s i s of 

the s t a t e ' s attempt to r e g u l a t e p r o s t i t u t i o n , an i n s t i t u t i o n 

which r e v e a l e d the power r e l a t i o n s h i p s of r a c e , sex and 

c l a s s . The v i s i b i l i t y of p r o s t i t u t i o n was a t h r e a t to 

bourgeois morals and order a c c o r d i n g to Senator B e r e n g e r , who 

was a l s o the head of the e x t r a - p a r l i a m e n t a r y committee s e t up 

to i n v e s t i g a t e and c o n t r o l the White Slave T r a d e , which was 

the g l o b a l market f o r p r o s t i t u t i o n . The p r o s t i t u t e was seen 

as a n e c e s s a r y commodity by the bourgeois b u t , i f too 
28 

v i s i b l e , as a dangerous example to honest bourgeois women. 

The image of the p r o s t i t u t e presented i n L ' A s s i e t t e au  

Beurre d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d was t h a t of a powerless v i c t i m , 

d e m o r a l i z e d and d i s e a s e d . R a d i g u e t ' s t e x t and i l l u s t r a t i o n s 

showed the process by which young g i r l s a r r i v e d i n P a r i s from 

the p r o v i n c e s to be l u r e d i n t o c l a n d e s t i n e p r o s t i t u t i o n under 

the g u i s e of c h a r i t y . They are greeted a t the t r a i n s t a t i o n s 

by " s a i n t e s femmes" and p l a c e d as s e r v a n t s i n the homes of 

the b o u r g e o i s where they become the o b j e c t s of s e d u c t i o n . 

Young c i t y g i r l s , "midinettes" who p l i e d t h e i r t r a d e i n the 

s t r e e t s , were i d e n t i f i e d and reprimanded, while the most 

debauched of a l l , "les c o u r t i s a n e s l e s p l u s huppees," of the 

b r o t h e l , " l a maison de passe" were encouraged to r e f o r m by 

38 



29 
"l'exemple du t r a v a i l et de l a v e r t u . " Radiguet thus 

uncovered, the r e a l c l a s s h y p o c r i s y i n the a t t i t u d e of the 

bourgeois towards the growth of c l a n d e s t i n e p r o s t i t u t i o n . 

The placement of young r u r a l g i r l s i n q u e s t i o n a b l y safe 

environments, t h a t i s the homes of the b o u r g e o i s , 

c o n t r a d i c t e d o f f i c i a l e f f o r t s to c o n t r o l the i n t e r n a t i o n a l 
30 

t r a f f i c i n p r o s t i t u t e s , The White Slave T r a d e . The 

bourgeois d i d not c o n s i d e r p r o s t i t u t i o n to have v a l u e as work 

and viewed a l l p r o s t i t u t e s as l a z y and n a t u r a l l y 
31 

d e g e n e r a t e . In f a c t , s t u d i e s have shown t h a t p r o s t i t u t e s 

were m a i n l y r e c r u i t e d from the lower c l a s s e s , t h a t i s women 

who were d i s p l a c e d from t h e i r r u r a l o r i g i n s t r y i n g to s u r v i v e 

i n the i n c r e a s i n g l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d s o c i e t y as members of the 

urban p r o l e t a r i a t . These "lower working c l a s s " women were 

drawn i n t o c l a n d e s t i n e a c t i v i t y i n P a r i s or i n t o the White 

Slave Trade where they were t r e a t e d l i k e e x o t i c commodities 
32 

f o r export to world markets. Radiguet was e x p l i c i t l y 

commenting on the f a t e of r u r a l working c l a s s women as 

v i c t i m s of p r o s t i t u t i o n i n P a r i s who were f o r c e d i n t o 

p r o s t i t u t i o n f o r s u r v i v a l a t the s e r v i c e of the bourgeois and 

who s u f f e r e d d e g r e d a t i o n and condemnation a t the hands of the 

b o u r g e o i s . 

I t i s important to note t h a t the image of the p r o s t i t u t e 

as a degenerate was entrenched i n , P r o u d h o n ' s p a r t i c u l a r brand 

of s o c i a l i s m i n the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . In h i s w r i t i n g s , 

he p r o j e c t e d the image of the p r o s t i t u t e as one who was both 

39 



33 
u n n a t u r a l and u g l y . He viewed a l l women who were Involved 

i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s o u t s i d e a m u t u a l , devoted form of marriage 

as l e a v i n g themselves open to the r i s k of a c q u i r i n g the 

degenerate c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p r o s t i t u t e . T h i s v i e w p o i n t 

was s i m i l a r to the bourgeois v i s i o n of the p r o s t i t u t e as 

degenerate and subhuman. In c o n t r a s t , French M a r x i s t 

s o c i a l i s t s agreed w i t h Marx and Engels t h a t the i n s t i t u t i o n 

of bourgeois marriage was i n i t s e l f a form of p r o s t i t u t i o n 

and the cause of d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s p r o d u c i n g the n e c e s s i t y f o r 
34 

c o m m e r c i a l i z e d p r o s t i t u t i o n . Paule Mink, a s o c i a l i s t 

f e m i n i s t a c t i v e i n the 1880's, blamed the c o n d i t i o n of 

p o v e r t y imposed on women workers as the cause of p r o s t i t u t i o n 
by f o r c i n g them to supplement t h e i r inadequate wages--the 

same inadequate wages which were p a i d to t h e i r male 
35 

c o u n t e r p a r t s . Thus, as e a r l y as 1883 she considered. 

c a p i t a l i s m to be the cause of the female w o r k e r ' s m i s e r y 

which r e s u l t e d In her s t a t e of double o p p r e s s i o n as producer 

and s e x u a l o b j e c t — " ' C h a i r a t r a v a i l , . . . c h a i r a 
36 

p l a i s i r ! ' " P a u l L a f a r g u e , a F r e n c h M a r x i s t s o c i a l i s t 

a c t i v e l y w r i t i n g around the t u r n - o f - t h e - c e n t u r y , i d e n t i f i e d 

the bourgeois male's greed for s e x u a l g r a t i f i c a t i o n through 

p r o s t i t u t i o n as an e s p e c i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e to t h a t c l a s s 

because of the r i s k of v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e . Lafargue 

t r a n s f e r r e d the image of v i c t i m i z a t i o n and d e g e n e r a t i o n from 

the female p r o s t i t u t e to the bourgeois male consumer, who, 

through h i s greed for power, guaranteed h i s s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n 

40 



37 
as a v i c t i m of the p o w e r f u l l y dangerous female. W i t h i n 

t h i s t r a d i t i o n , L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , d i d not p r o j e c t the 

p r o s t i t u t e as a powerful and dangerous f o r c e , but as a 

powerless v i c t i m a t the mercy of the a u t h o r i t a r i a n 
38 

b o u r g e o i s . 

The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the female nude i n L ' A s s i e t t e au 

Beurre a l s o f u n c t i o n e d i n r e l a t i o n to the l i b e r t a r i a n cause 

of the R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s t s . I l l u s t r a t e d on the cover 

of the i s s u e of A p r i l 14th, 1906, stood a female nude under 

the t i t l e of La L i b e r t e , ( F i g . 7 ) . Her p e r s o n i f i e d form i n 

the c o n t e x t of t h i s i s s u e , which was a c r i t i q u e of 

r e p r e s s i v e , a u t h o r i t a r i a n governments, i s an obvious a l l u s i o n 

to D e l a c r o i x ' s v i c t o r i o u s L i b e r t y L e a d i n g the People of 1830. 

However, La L i b e r t e i s a s a t i r i c comment upon the r e p r e s s i v e 

p o l i c i e s of the r a d i c a l government of The T h i r d F r e n c h 
39 

R e p u b l i c i n the e l e c t o r a l year of 1906. A l t h o u g h , as 

Theodore Z e l d i n has s t a t e d , " L i b e r t y was the r e p u b l i c ' s f i r s t 
40 

p r i n c i p l e . " the R e p u b l i c , i n 1906, was u s i n g m i l i t a r y f o r c e 

to c o n t r o l domestic s t r i f e caused by the s t r i k e and a n t i -

m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s of m i l i t a n t t r a d e - u n i o n i s t s , the 
41 

R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s t s . 

Thus, i n 1906, the s o l i t a r y , d e j e c t e d f i g u r e of La  

L i b e r t e p i c t u r e d on the cover of L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , stands 

on the stone parapet of a p r i s o n . T h i s woman r a i s e s her arms 

i n a s y m b o l i c g e s t u r e of r e a l anguish p r o j e c t i n g an image of 

d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t i n s t e a d of the v i c t o r i o u s pose of D e l a c r o i x ' s 

41 



female. The female p o r t r a y e d as La L i b e r t e i n L ' A s s i e t t e au 

Beurre has a f f i n i t i e s with c l a s s i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of 

feminine beauty i n the academic t r a d i t i o n through her n u d i t y 

and the e r o t i c emphasis on the l i n e of her b r e a s t , t o r s o and 

h i p e f f e c t e d by the upward movement of her arms. However, 

t r a d i t i o n a l academic s t r a t e g i e s are d i s r u p t e d by the absence 

of c l a s s i c a l i l l u s i o n , the expected h o r i z o n t a l pose and the 

l o n g , f a i r f l o w i n g h a i r of academia. She i s not an o b j e c t 

f o r a bourgeois male power f a n t a s y , nor i s she a p r o s t i t u t e , 

but she i s a symbol of a n g u i s h i n r e l a t i o n to c l a s s s t r u g g l e . 

S e r v i n g as a symbol f o r the l i b e r t a r i a n cause of the 

R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s t s , La L i b e r t e i s f l a n k e d on her l e f t 

by two l i s t s of names which are h i g h l i g h t e d by a background 

s t r i p of b r i g h t orange. Heading the l i s t are the names of 

the a r t i s t s ' i m p r i s o n e d c o l l e a g u e s , most of whom were known to 
4 2 

be e i t h e r R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s t s or t h e i r s y m p a t h i z e r s . 

Below are l i s t e d the names of the a r t i s t s who were " f r e e . " 

The i s s u e , for which t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n a c t e d as a 

f r o n t e s p i e c e , was d e d i c a t e d t o imprisoned l e f t i n t e l l e c t u a l s 

who had themselves c o n t r i b u t e d to some of the c o n t e n t s from 

t h e i r p r i s o n c e l l s . Of the many comments w i t h i n the i s s u e 

i t s e l f was a b i t t e r statement by one of the a c t i v i s t s , 

L a p o r t e , i n t e r n e d a t La Sante. He mocked the R e p u b l i c a n 

concept of l i b e r t y i n 1906 with the f o l l o w i n g statement: 

L a p o r t e wrote: 

4 2 



La l i b e r t e ! P r i v i l e g e des a i g r e f i n s , des 
a g i o t e u r s et des a r r i v i s t e s ; s e u l s , l e s 
i m b e c i l e s ont f o i en ce mot en regime 
c a p i t a l i s t e . 43 

Thus, the d e j e c t e d female f i g u r e of La L i b e r t e , when 

juxtaposed to the l i s t s of the names of male a c t i v i s t s , a c t e d 

i n r e l a t i o n to the l i b e r t a r i a n aspect of c l a s s s t r u g g l e . 

T h i s image's r e l a t i o n s h i p with D e l a c r o i x ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of 

L i b e r t y L e a d i n g the People was s a t i r i c , e s p e c i a l l y as the 

r e v o l u t i o n of 1830 was a v i c t o r y f o r the "upper middle 
44 

c l a s s . " In terms of F r a n c e ' s r e v o l u t i o n a r y p a s t . La 

L i b e r t e f u n c t i o n e d as the symbol of the f a i l u r e of R e p u b l i c a n 

promises of freedom and of the d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t on the l e f t . 

T h i s emphasis upon freedom by the m i l i t a n t l e f t was d i f f e r e n t 

from the emphasis upon e q u a l i t y promoted by the M a r x i s t 

s o c i a l i s t s . 

A l s o of g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e to the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of 

women i n a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p with c l a s s s t r u g g l e was the 

a r t i s t , Grandjuoan's cover i l l u s t r a t i o n , l e r mai ( F i g . 8 ) , 

f o r the A p r i l 28th, 1906 i s s u e of L ' A s s i e t t e a u - B e u r r e . 

C l e a r l y intended as propoganda f o r the new s t r a t e g y of d i r e c t 

a c t i o n c a l l e d f o r by the C o n f e d e r a t i o n Generale du T r a v a i l , 

( C . G . T . ) , the o r g a n i z e d v e h i c l e for the d o c t r i n e of 

R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s m , t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of women 

f u n c t i o n e d as a f o r c e f u l symbol of the power of women i n the 

context of c l a s s s t r u g g l e and s p e c i f i c a l l y i n r e l a t i o n to the 
45 

c a l l f o r a g e n e r a l s t r i k e of 1906. 

43 



Grandjouan chose the Image of t h r e e females to p e r s o n i f y 

the d i f f e r e n t 8-hour p e r i o d s of a 24-hour day, i n t u r n , to 

s i g n i f y the e i g h t hours of work, e i g h t hours of l e i s u r e and 

e i g h t hours of s l e e p demanded by the working c l a s s . Although 

transformed to serve the needs of the o r g a n i z e d working 

c l a s s , the three females r e p r e s e n t e d s a t i r i c a l l y a l l u d e to 

the Three Graces of c l a s s i c a l myth and to the c l a s s i c a l 

t r a d i t i o n of the F r e n c h academy. The nude or semi-nude 

females are not degraded but are s u b t l y e r o t i c i z e d by the 

placement of the g a r l a n d s of flowers which surround the 

numeric "8" d e s i g n a t e d to each f i g u r e and which c o n c e a l and 

c a l l a t t e n t i o n to the g e n i t a l a r e a . These g a r l a n d s 

f u n c t i o n e d to connect these f i g u r e s to the t r a d i t i o n a l 

s e a s o n a l f e r t i l i t y f e s t i v a l s which had t h e i r r o o t s i n a n c i e n t 

c l a s s i c a l s o c i e t y and which were of s i g n i f i c a n c e i n the May 

c e l e b r a t i o n s of the French peasant c u l t u r e and In the 

contemporary o r g a n i z a t i o n of the r u r a l workers i n the c l a s s 
46 

s t r u g g l e . Thus, i n t h i s image the female w o r k e r / r e p r o d u c e r 

was c l e v e r l y l i n k e d as a new c u l t f i g u r e through her 

d e s c r i b e d feminine "nature" and powerful s t a t u s as goddess to 

both the c l a s s s t r u g g l e of the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d p r o l e t a r i a t and 

to r u r a l l a b o u r . I t was known In the 19th c e n t u r y , t h a t 

while females dominated under m a t r i a r c h a l s o c i a l systems i n 

a n t i q u i t y , by the c l a s s i c a l p e r i o d , p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y 

superceded m a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y . Subsequently e n s l a v e d as a 

s e x u a l o b j e c t the. female's power was r e l a t e d to the Western 

44 



i d e a l of beauty and r e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a b i l i t y , with women no 

longer being viewed as dominant e i t h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l l y or 
47 

i n s p i r a t i o n a l l y . 

In h i s e f f o r t to promote the cause of c l a s s s t r u g g l e , 

i n 1906, Grandjouan produced an i l l u s i o n of female power by 

t r a n s f o r m i n g the goddesses of c l a s s i c a l myth i n t o 

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t r e f e r r e d to the working c l a s s i n the 

p e r i o d of monopoly c a p i t a l i s m . Grandjouan chose to e f f e c t 

t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n by changing the d e t a i l s of the head and 

face of the f i g u r e on the l e f t of the i l l u s t r a t i o n to d e p i c t 

a female worker r e p r e s e n t i n g the 8 hours of "work." 

A l t h o u g h she i s armed w i t h a p i c k - a x e to r e p r e s e n t labour 

t h i s image produces an i l l u s i o n to the r e a l s i t u a t i o n . o f 

working women and p h y s i c a l l a b o u r . The p o s i t i o n of women 

workers i n France i n r e l a t i o n to both p h y s i c a l labour and to 

the s y n d i c a t e s was somewhat p r o b l e m a t i c . While the 

p a r t i c i p a t i o n of women i n v a r i o u s s e c t o r s of i n d u s t r y was 

I n c r e a s i n g , as was t h e i r presence i n the s y n d i c a t e s , women 

were not h i g h l y v i s i b l e i n o c c u p a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g h a r d , 
44 

p h y s i c a l l a b o u r , nor i n s t r i k e a c t i v i t y . 

Grandjouan's p o r t r a y a l of " l e i s u r e " i n the l e r mai 

i l l u s t r a t i o n i s c l o s e r to the t r a d i t i o n a l c l a s s i c nude. The 

gaze of t h i s f i g u r e i s i n d i r e c t , her f a i r h a i r , l o n g and 

f l o w i n g and her f a i r , smooth s k i n and y o u t h f u l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s 

add to the i l l u s i o n of l e i s u r e . She f u n c t i o n s as the symbol 

of the l e i s u r e time which the working c l a s s were d e n i e d . 

45 



w h i l e t h i s f i g u r e , as an Image o £ female beauty Is s e d u c t i v e , 

the element of bourgeois enjoyment of her body as a male 

power f a n t a s y i s e f f e c t i v e l y b l o c k e d by the c o n t e n t of c l a s s 

s t r u g g l e which t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n p r o j e c t s i n the changed form 

of the c l a s s i c a l goddesses i n t o symbols of c l a s s s t r u g g l e . 

The most r e a l i s t i c f i g u r e of the t r i o i s the d a r k - h a i r e d 

image of "Sleep" whose d e e p l y shadowed face i s the l e a s t 

" b e a u t i f u l " and whose p a r t i a l l y draped f i g u r e i s the l e a s t 

e r o t i c . She f u n c t i o n s more as a f o i l f o r the s t e r e o t y p e of 

l e i s u r e a t c e n t e r . These feminine forms, the pink blossoming 

g a r l a n d s and blooms of the background t r e e almost o b l i t e r a t e 

the crowd of working c l a s s m i l i t a n t s whose faces are 

r e p r e s e n t e d as "ugly" which appear from behind the t r i o of 

females i n c o l o u r l e s s and m a s k - l i k e form. Grandjouan has 

s a t i r i c a l l y r e p l a c e d the image of the lower c l a s s women as 

"ugly" w i t h c l a s s i c a l b e a u t i e s who f u n c t i o n as a c t i v e and 

i n s p i r a t i o n a l l e a d e r s f o r the economic s t r u g g l e of the French 

working c l a s s . Although the R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s t s 

promoted the economic emancipation of women and were c l o s e r 

to the economic p o l i c i e s of the M a r x i s t s o c i a l i s t s i n 1906, 

i t was the r e f o r m i s t element t h a t r e t a i n e d Proudhon's a n t i -

f e m i n i s t t e n d a n c i e s . Proudhon's i n f l u e n c e was s t i l l f e l t by 

those male workers who saw female workers as a t h r e a t to male 

employment i n the e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y . I t was the M a r x i s t 

s o c i a l i s t s who were the advocates of the emancipation of 

women as s e x u a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l e q u a l s . In f a c t , 

46 



s o c i a l i s t f e m i n i s t s s e p a r a t e d t h e i r cause from t h a t of the 

bourgeois f e m i n i s t s a t the b e g i n n i n g of the 20th c e n t u r y over 

the i s s u e of c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e . S o c i a l i s t f e m i n i s t s promoted 

t h e i r s t r u g g l e f o r e q u a l i t y w i t h i n the s t r u c t u r e of the 

s o c i a l i s t p a r t y where p o l i t i c a l , as w e l l as s e x u a l and 
49 

economic e q u a l i t y was a p o s s i b i l i t y . The images of women 

i n L ' A s s l e t t e au B e u r r e , as s e x u a l v i c t i m s of bourgeois 

i n s t i t u t i o n s were counterposed to the i l l u s i o n of power 

p r o j e c t e d through t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to c l a s s s t r u g g l e as 

members of the working c l a s s . T h i s attempt to e l e v a t e the 

p o s i t i o n of working c l a s s women p i c t u r e d i n the s o c i a l i s t 

popular press c l a s h e d with the female images i n the dominant 

o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e where she was presented as a powerless 

o b j e c t of bourgeois male power f a n t a s y . However, i n 

L ' A s s i e t t e au Beurre female power f u n c t i o n e d i n r e l a t i o n to 

c l a s s s t r u g g l e and working c l a s s females were n e i t h e r 

s t r i c t l y c u l t f i g u r e s of goddesses nor were they "ugly" 

women. 

L o u i s C h e v a l i e r has shown how the popular c l a s s e s i n 

France a c q u i r e d the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of "ugly" i n the 19th 

c e n t u r y and were d e s c r i b e d as i n f e r i o r r a c i a l l y . T h i s image 

of u g l i n e s s e v o l v e d from the need of the bourgeois to p r o t e c t 
50 

t h e i r p r i v i l e g e d i d e n t i t y as " c i v i l i z e d . " In the 19th 
c e n t u r y , the l a b o u r i n g c l a s s was c o n s i d e r e d i n the same 

51 

c o n t e x t as the c r i m i n a l element by the b o u r g e o i s . As w e l l , 

C h e v a l i e r e x p l a i n e d t h a t the lower c l a s s e s were c h a r a c t e r i z e d 

47 



by the bourgeois as I n f e r i o r w i t h r a c i s t language such as the 
52 

terms: " . . . ' b a r b a r e s ' , ' s a u v a g e s ' , ' n o m a d e s ' , . . . " The 

l a b o u r i n g c l a s s i n the 19th c e n t u r y were i d e n t i f i e d as "ugly" 

and menacing through a s s o c i a t i o n s with people who were 

d i f f e r e n t and t h e r e f o r e of i n f e r i o r r a c i a l o r i g i n s . 

C h e v a l i e r e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t i n the context of the e a r l y 19th 

c e n t u r y , a l t h o u g h the imagery of popular c u l t u r e appeared to 

r e f u t e t h i s r a c i s t image, "Cette r e f u t a t i o n e s t une 
53 

a c c e p t a t i o n . " T h e r e f o r e , the lower c l a s s e s began to 

i d e n t i f y w i t h the r a c i s t image of i n f e r i o r i t y f o i s t e d upon 
54 

them by the b o u r g e o i s . 

The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of working c l a s s women i n the popular 

p r e s s , e x e m p l i f i e d by L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , i n the e a r l y 20th 

c e n t u r y , r e f u s e d the i d e n t i t y of "ugly" and u n c i v i l i z e d to 

express c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e . I n s t e a d , Grandjuoan s a t i r i c a l l y 

a p p r o p r i a t e d and transformed the dominant Western i d e a l of 

female beauty. In c o n t r a s t , an o f f i c i a l Salon work of a r t 

l i k e the O r i e n t a l i s t image of La J o i e Rouge, 1906, which 

operated w i t h i n the c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n , r e t a i n e d t h i s i d e a l 

of female beauty to e x p l o i t the concept of human d i f f e r e n c e . 

The dominant view of the female as a powerless o b j e c t was 

r e j e c t e d by L ' A s s i e t t e au Beurre i n r e l a t i o n to c l a s s 

s t r u g g l e , w h i l e , as w i l l be shown, i n Rochegrosse's 

O r i e n t a l i s t p o r t r a y a l , the female was p i c t u r e d as r a c i a l l y 

p r i m i t i v e and humanly d i f f e r e n t . 

48 



The images produced by M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o i n 1907, 

operated w i t h i n these c a t e g o r i e s of c o n s t r u c t e d human 

d i f f e r e n c e . M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude f u n c t i o n e d as the 

t r a d i t i o n a l powerless female v i c t i m of O r i e n t a l i s t imagery 

whose r a c i a l and s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e was emphasized w i t h 

d i s t o r t e d form, yet r e c o g n i z a b l y s y m b o l i c of the Western 

i d e a l of female beauty. P i c a s s o ' s Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n , 

r e f u s e d t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with the Western 

i d e a l of female beauty and p a s s i v i t y and were transformed 

through t h e i r d i s t o r t e d form i n t o f i g u r e s of a g g r e s s i o n and 

power and appear to f u n c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to c l a s s s t r u g g l e . 

The "ugly" s u b j e c t s produced by M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o are 

c o n s c i o u s l y or u n c o n s c i o u s l y transformed through the 

d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e each a r t i s t had towards the concept of 

P r i m i t i v i s m and the dominant i d e a l of female b e a u t y . I t i s 

w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n of P r i m i t i v i s m , as an i d e o l o g i c a l 

c o n s t r u c t i o n based on a t t i t u d e s towards human d i f f e r e n c e t h a t 

N e o - O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s of female p r o s t i t u t e s must be 

s t u d i e d . 

The n o t i o n of human d i f f e r e n c e i s c e n t r a l to S a i d ' s 

argument t h a t the "main i n t e l l e c t u a l issue" of O r i e n t a l i s m i s 

i t s e l f the concept of the d i v i s i o n of humanity i n t o 

c a t e g o r i e s of i n f e r i o r and s u p e r i o r which are the v e r y 

i d e o l o g i e s which support the r e l a t i o n s h i p s of power. S a i d ' s 

a n a l y s i s of the power s t r u c t u r e s i n h e r e n t i n O r i e n t a l i s m 

p o i n t e d to the importance of c a t e g o r i z i n g humans i n t o 

49 



d i v i s i o n s of r a c e , sex and c l a s s . 

He wrote: 

For such d i v i s i o n s are g e n e r a l i t i e s whose 
use h i s t o r i c a l l y and a c t u a l l y has been to 
press the importance of the d i s t i n c t i o n 
between some men and some other men, u s u a l l y 
towards not e s p e c i a l l y admirable ends. 55 

L i n d a N o c h l i n used S a i d ' s t h e s i s to d e c o n s t r u c t 19th 

c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s t o u n v e i l the power s t r u c t u r e s 

i m p l i c i t i n these p a i n t i n g s by s p e c i f i c a l l y examining the way 

i n which images of women f u n c t i o n e d . She c o n s i d e r e d the 

p a i n t i n g s to be s i g n i f i c a n t " . . . a s p o l i t i c a l documents a t 

a time of p a r t i c u l a r l y a c t i v e m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n North 
56 

A f r i c a . " N o c h l i n ' s s t u d y r e f l e c t e d upon the conquest of 

A l g e r i a by the F r e n c h i n the 19th c e n t u r y and the 

r e l a t i o n s h i p of p o l i t i c s t o c u l t u r e i n accordance w i t h 

h i s t o r i c a l f a c t . She s t a t e d t h a t : 

. . . " O r i e n t a l i s m " I t s e l f i n the v i s u a l 
a r t s i s s i m p l y a c a t e g o r y of o b f u s c a t i o n , 
masking important d i s t i n c t i o n s under the 
r u b r i c of the p i c t u r e s q u e , supported by the 
i l l u s i o n of the r e a l . 57 

At the t u r n - o f - t h e - c e n t u r y , the C o l o n i a l M i n i s t r y had 

made an o f f i c i a l attempt to r e v i v e O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g 

through p u b l i c e x h i b i t i o n s of O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s from the 
58 

19th c e n t u r y . In 1903, C a m i l l e M a u c l a i r , a c o n s e r v a t i v e 

c r i t i c , when c o n f r o n t e d with the number of O r i e n t a l i s t 

p a i n t i n g s from the 19th c e n t u r y , lamented the l a c k of 
59 

contemporary O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s . However, he d i d 

mention one contemporary a r t i s t w i t h t i e s to both F r a n c e ' s 

50 



O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g t r a d i t i o n and to F r e n c h c u l t u r e i n North 

A f r i c a , Georges Rochegrosse. M a u c l a i r suggested t h a t 

I n d i r e c t l y M. Rochegrosse may be connected 
w i t h o r i e n t a l i s m . Although he i s o n l y 
concerned w i t h i t from the p o i n t of view of 
h i s t o r y , he has p l a c e d many of h i s 
c o m p o s i t i o n s i n t o r e a l A l g e r i a n l a n d s c a p e s . 
His b e a u t i f u l and. l e a r n e d i l l u s t r a t i o n to 
"Salammbo," among o t h e r s , has been 
f a i t h f u l l y r e c o n s t r u c t e d on the v e r y spots 
where the war of the M e r c e n a r i e s took p l a c e , 
and the a r t i s t has brought back from h i s 
annual v i s i t s to A l g i e r s a number of 
v i b r a t i n g s t u d i e s which might take a p l a c e 
among the best of t h i s epoch. 60 

M a u c l a i r , an a v i d s u p p o r t e r of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s as F r e n c h 

t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s who had a c l a s s i c a l r e s p e c t f o r the human 

f i g u r e and c o l o u r f u l l a n d s c a p e , a p p r e c i a t e d 19th c e n t u r y 

O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g f o r the same r e a s o n s . In a d d i t i o n , he 

p r a i s e d Rochegrosse f o r h i s love of the O r i e n t and c o n s i d e r e d 

him to be a c r u c i a l f i g u r e i n the r e v i v a l of O r i e n t a l i s t 

p a i n t i n g with i t s c o l o n i a l content which, i n the c o n t e x t of 

the 20th c e n t u r y , i n d i r e c t l y supported n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m . He 

s t r e s s e d the importance of t h i s a r t i s t who p i c t u r e d F r a n c e ' s 

c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r y i n North A f r i c a i n the form of h i s t o r y 

p a i n t i n g , . t h e h i g h e s t c a t e g o r y of the F r e n c h academic 

t r a d i t i o n . Rochegrosse's a b i l i t y to fuse O r i e n t a l i s t and 

h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g prompted M a u c l a i r to d e s c r i b e Rochegrosse as 

an important r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a 
f o r s a k e n branch of p a i n t i n g , which he 
r e v i v e s , i n f u s i n g i n t o i t a strange v i t a l i t y 
enamoured of l u x u r y and b l o o d . 61 

La J o l e Rouge, the p a i n t i n g by Georges Rochegrosse, made 

a d r a m a t i c impact a t the 1906 s p r i n g Salon des A r t i s t e s 

51 



F r a n c a l s . The s u b j e c t o £ the p a i n t i n g , the c l a s s i c a l theme 

of r a p e , was presented i n an O r i e n t a l i s t s t y l e . Under the 

guise of a h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g , La J o i e Rouge f u n c t i o n e d i n 

r e l a t i o n to French n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m i n the e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y . 

T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p can be c l a r i f i e d by d e c o n s t r u c t i n g the 

s t r a t e g i e s of Western bourgeois male power i n h e r e n t i n 19th 

c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g , which c e n t e r e d on the image of 

the nude female i n the c o n t e x t of the e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y . 

I t was J . P . C r e s p e l l e , who, i n 1966 commented upon 

Rochegrosse's a f f i n i t y with the 19th c e n t u r y F r e n c h 

O r i e n t a l i s t t r a d i t i o n and h i s c o n n e c t i o n with North A f r i c a . 

S i t u a t i n g the a r t i s t i n t h i s . c o n t e x t , C r e s p e l l e noted t h a t 

R o c h e g r o s s e 1 s s p e c i a l t y was "le nu s e n s u e l " and t h a t he 

f o l l o w e d D e l a c r o i x ' s l e a d i n the i m a g i n a t i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n of 

a " r a h a t - l o k o u m . " C r e s p e l l e p i c t u r e d Rochegrosse as "un 

manlaque de l a r e c o n s t l t u t i o n h l s t o r l q u e . " who, as Gerome 
62 

before him, had t r a v e l l e d i n North A f r i c a . In her s t u d y , 

N o c h l i n found Gerome's r e a l i s m as a v i s u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 

wherein " . . . the Near E a s t e x i s t e d as an a c t u a l p l a c e to be 
63 

m y s t i f i e d with e f f e c t s of r e a l n e s s . . . " On the other 

hand she e x p l a i n e d D e l a c r o i x ' s Romantic O r i e n t a l i s m as a 

d e p i c t i o n of the Near E a s t ' s e x i s t e n c e 
as a p r o j e c t of the i m a g i n a t i o n , a 

f a n t a s y space or s c r e e n onto which s t r o n g 
d e s i r e s — e r o t i c , s a d i s t i c or b o t h - - c o u l d be 
p r o j e c t e d with i m p u n i t y . 64 

N o c h l i n suggested t h a t i t was these f a n t a s i e s " . . . of 

f o r b i d d e n p a s s i o n s - - t h e a r t i s t ' s own f a n t a s i e s . . . " which 

52 



r e v e a l e d " . . . the contemporary Frenchmen's power over 

women. . . " T h i s power, a c c o r d i n g t o N o c h l i n , was " . . . 

both c o n t r o l l e d and mediated by the i d e o l o g y of the e r o t i c i n 
65 

D e l a c r o i x ' s t i m e . " A power by which by which the enjoyment 

of the female body was produced through t h e i r v e r y 

d e s t r u c t i o n , which N o c h l i n suggested was the f u n c t i o n of 
66 " 

D e l a c r o i x ' s Death of S a r d a n a p a l u s , 1827-1828. N o c h l i n 

connected t h i s Western male power f a n t a s y , i n which the 

a r t i s t ' s s e x u a l access to h i s model's body was r e l a t e d t o 
67 

male v i o l e n c e , to c l a s s v a l u e s . 

La J o l e Rouge i s a g r a p h i c v i s i o n of a male power 

f a n t a s y i n the form of an academic h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g which 

f u n c t i o n e d i n r e l a t i o n to the dominant c u l t u r e i n France i n 

1906. The s u b j e c t i s a v i o l e n t , murderous rape y e t , through 

i t s c l a s s i c a l r e f e r e n c e s and O r i e n t a l i s t s t y l e the p a i n t i n g 

a v o i d s e x p l i c i t a l l u s i o n to the i s s u e s of F r e n c h domestic and 

f o r e i g n p o l i c y , such as c l a s s s t r u g g l e and n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m , 

the message of r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s dominance i s 

c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n i t s form and c o n t e n t . 

R o c h g r o s s e ' s s u b j e c t , of v i o l e n t male enjoyment of 

female f l e s h made s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s to t r a d i t i o n a l 

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of women. The p o r t r a y a l of t h i s s u b j e c t 

promoted F r e n c h c l a s s i c i s m ' s debt to P o u s s i n , r e c a l l i n g 

P o u s s i n ' s p a i n t i n g , The Rape of the Sabine Women, c . 1636. 

The voluptuous r e c l i n i n g nude i n the lower r i g h t c o r n e r of 

La J o i e Rouge r e c a l l s T i t i a n ' s nude i n h i s p a i n t i n g , 
53 



B a c c h a n a l , c.1518, and evokes F r e n c h c l a s s i c i s m ' s debt to the 

16th c e n t u r y I t a l i a n Renaissance t r a d i t i o n of p a i n t i n g s of 

female nudes f o r wealthy, powerful male p a t r o n s . At the same 

t i m e , R o c h e g r o s s e ' s s t y l e i s O r i e n t a l i s t and i m p l i e s an 

i n d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e to North A f r i c a . In R o c h e g r o s s e ' s 

p a i n t i n g , a group of males mounted on horseback, v i o l e n t l y 

overpower a group of nude women. The males a r e themselves 

c l o t h e d i n Roman b a t t l e a t t i r e i n c o n t r a s t to the females who 

are e n t i r e l y nude. The s i n g l e t r a d i t i o n a l r e c l i n i n g nude i s 

sprawled s u g g e s t i v e l y i n the lower r i g h t c o r n e r of the canvas 

where her e n t i r e form can e a s i l y be enjoyed by the s p e c t a t o r . 

The males wear g r i n s of p l e a s u r e as the women's b l o o d flows 

from the v i o l e n t s t r u g g l e and mingles with the p r o f u s i o n of 

e x o t i c blossoms. As N o c h l i n has e x p l a i n e d , t h i s " . . . 

d i s p l a y of naked, powerless women to c l o t h e d , powerful men— 

i n a v a r i e t y of g u i s e s , . . . " was a t y p i c a l 19th c e n t u r y 

O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s t r a t e g y s y m b o l i c of male power of which 

the u l t i m a t e i n male domination was the f a n t a s y of "sexual 
6 8 

p l e a s u r e and murder." Rochegrosse, a p p l y i n g these 

s t r a t e g i e s , has emphasized female i n f e r i o r i t y through the 

d i s p l a y of female n u d i t y without d i r e c t l y d i s t o r t i n g the 

f l e s h of h i s l i v e models. These women are intended to be 

viewed as p a s s i v e v i c t i m s whose s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e i s 

understood i n terms of t h e i r r a c i a l p r i m i t i v e n e s s c o n s t r u c t e d 

as an a f f i n i t y with the l u s h , n a t u r a l forms of the l a n d s c a p e . 

While o v e r t r e f e r e n c e s to c l a s s , s t r u g g l e and n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m 

54 



are absent from the p a i n t i n g they are concealed i n the 

e x p r e s s i o n of the Roman m i l i t a r y power of the males who 

r e p r e s e n t the epitome of Western c i v i l i z a t i o n , dominated by 

w h i t e , bourgeois h e t e r o s e x u a l males. T h e i r dominant p o s i t i o n 

i s r e i n f o r c e d by the i n f e r e n c e of the n a t u r a l i n f e r i o r i t y of 

the female who was both r a c i a l l y and s e x u a l l y d i f f e r e n t . The 

O r i e n t a l i s m of La J o i e Rouge, i n s p i t e of the avoidance of 

d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e to North A f r i c a , can be understood through 

S a i d ' s t h e s i s . S a i d has e f f e c t i v e l y e x p l a i n e d how 

" s u b s t i t u t i o n and displacement" work as O r i e n t a l i s t 

s t r a t e g i e s and 

. i n d i s c u s s i o n s of the O r i e n t , the 
O r i e n t i s a l l absence, whereas one f e e l s the 
O r i e n t a l i s t and what he says as presence; 
y e t we must not f o r g e t t h a t the 
O r i e n t a l i s t ' s presence i s enabled by the 
O r i e n t ' s e f f e c t i v e absence. 69 

T h e r e f o r e , Rochegrosse's c h o i c e of a c l a s s i c a l s u b j e c t 

and O r i e n t a l i s t s t y l e a c t s to d i s g u i s e the contemporary 

meaning of the p a i n t i n g and i t s f u n c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to 

F r e n c h n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m . As w e l l , N o c h l i n has shown how these 

s t r a t e g i e s of absence are i n h e r e n t i n 19th C e n t u r y 
70 

O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g . In p a r t i c u l a r , i t i s through the 

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the female as p r i m i t i v e l y s e x u a l , powerless 

v i c t i m s which enhanced Western bourgeois male s u p e r i o r i t y . 

The audiences r e c e p t i v e to La J o i e Rouge i n 1906 can be 

e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d . S p e c i f i c a l l y , the p a i n t i n g a t t r a c t e d the 

a t t e n t i o n and the a p p r o v a l of p r o - c o l o n i a l i s t , n a t i o n a l i s t , 

commercial and o f f i c i a l c i r c l e s of F r e n c h c u l t u r e . As was 

55 



I t s u s u a l p r a c t i c e , the P a r i s i a n newspaper, L ' i l l u s t r a t i o n 

presented the s p r i n g Salon of the S o c i e t e des A r t i s t e s 

F r a n c a i s with an e x t e n s i v e p h o t o g r a p h i c d i s p l a y i n the A p r i l 

28, 1906 i s s u e . T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n c o i n c i d e d with Grandjuoan's 

l e r mal s t r i k e manifesto i n L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e . 

L ' I l l u s t r a t i o n , reproduced La J o i e Rouge i n a d o u b l e - p a g e d , 

b l a c k and white photograph which would reach i t s 
71 

I n t e r n a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e . In c o n t r a s t to L ' A s s i e t t e au 

B e u r r e ' s s a t i r i c a t t a c k on F r e n c h R e p u b l i c a n v a l u e s , and 

dominant, a u t h o r i t a r i a n s o c i e t i e s worldwide, L ' I l l u s t r a t i o n 

appealed to those v a l u e s by p r o v i d i n g the bourgeois and upper 

c l a s s e s w i t h u p - t o - d a t e i n f o r m a t i o n on h i g h s o c i e t y , fashion, 

and p o l i t i c s on a g l o b a l s c a l e . E v i d e n t i n numerous 

photographs and accompanying t e x t s was the j o u r n a l ' s p r o -

c o l o n i a l p o i n t of view which emphasized the a v a i l a b i l i t y of 

r i c h r e s o u r c e s and the p o t e n t i a l markets which c o u l d be found 

i n A f r i c a . P r o p o s a l s for the c o n t i n u e d p e n e t r a t i o n of 

A f r i c a n t e r r i t o r i e s and assurances of the success of 

government p o l i c i e s for n a t i v e p a c i f i c a t i o n were elementary 

to i t s p r o - c o l o n i a l t h r u s t . To r e a s s u r e i t s audience t h a t 

the n a t i v e s were i n f a c t b e n e f i t i n g from n e o - c o l o n i a l 

e n t e r p r i s e s p h o t o g r a p h i c d e p i c t i o n s of r i t u a l , n a t i v e t r i b a l 

dances were used as proof t h a t dancing n a t i v e s were indeed 

happy n a t i v e s ! In t h i s same way.and i n the same y e a r , La  

J o i e Rouge c o u l d serve to j u s t i f y male c h a u v i n i s m as a noble 

e n t e r p r i s e expressed i n terms of a h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g which 

56 



masked i t s r e a l contemporary message. T h i s d e l u s i o n of 

power, through the s t r a t e g y of male f a n t a s y would a p p e a l to 

t h i s r e a d e r s h i p as a counter-image to the i l l u s i o n s of female 

working c l a s s power d e p i c t e d i n the the s o c i a l i s t popular 

p r e s s . 

Le M a t i n , a major n a t i o n a l i s t P a r i s i a n d a i l y , a l s o 

p l a y e d up the importance of La J o i e Rouge. The r e v i e w of the 

Salon was accompanied with a l p h a b e t i c a l l i s t i n g s and a 

d e t a i l e d map of the Salon to guide the viewing p u b l i c to the 

exact l o c a t i o n s of the e x h i b i t s . Thus, the p u b l i c ' s e f f o r t s 

to f i n d the p a i n t i n g were s i m p l i f i e d - - a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n which 

was n e c e s s i t a t e d by the p r o l i f e r a t i o n of a r t o b j e c t s i n t h i s 

p e r i o d . La J o i e Rouge, was number 1,434 and i t s p o s i t i o n i n 

Room "33" was noted with d e l i b e r a t e care by the c r i t i c , 

V i c t o r de Swarte. The p a i n t i n g of the bloody r a p e , 

p a r t i c u l a r l y the v i o l e n c e , e x c i t e d t h i s c r i t i c and i n s p i r e d 

him with i t s "powerful" imagery. He saw harmony i n i t s 

c o m p o s i t i o n where 

. . une chaude lumiere aux r e f l e t s 
p u i s s a n t s f a i t v i b r e r l e s personnages q u i 
occupent l e haut de l a t o i l e ; mouvements 
b i e n rythmes, harmonie soutenue dans c e t t e 
s a n g l a n t e chevauchee, bravo Rochegrosse! 72 

Rochegrosse was awarded the Medal of Honour by the Salon 

and h i s o f f i c i a l success and f i n a n c i a l reward were s o l i d i f i e d 
73 

by the purchase of the p a i n t i n g by the s t a t e . The v i c t o r y 

of both the a r t i s t and the p a i n t i n g i t s e l f c o n t i n u e d to be 

c e l e b r a t e d months l a t e r In Le J o u r n a l des A r t s , the 

57 



p u b l i c a t i o n o £ t h e c o m m e r c i a l a r t d e a l e r , D r o u o t . P u b l i s h e d 

r e v i e w s . b y two d i f f e r e n t c r i t i c s appeared June 9th and 13th. 

The i n i t i a l a r t i c l e s t r e s s e d the importance of the a r t i s t , 

Rochegrosse h i m s e l f , i n r e l a t i o n to the growing French 

c u l t u r a l e n t e r p r i s e s i n A l g e r i a . On June 9 t h , " L ' E c o l e 

F r a n c a i s e d ' A l g e r , " an a r t i c l e by Yvanhoe Rambosson, 

expressed the view t h a t Rochegrosse's v a l u e as a F r e n c h 

a r t i s t was imparted by h i s r o l e as a t e a c h e r - - a r o l e which 

was v i t a l to the promotion and r e v i v a l of O r i e n t a l i s t 

p a i n t i n g a t t h a t moment c o i n c i d e n t to the n e o - c o l o n i a l i s t 

i n t e r e s t s of the French s t a t e . 

Rambosson c o n c e n t r a t e d on the c h a r a c t e r of the a r t i s t 

which was c o n s t r u c t e d as "noble" and he a l s o emphasized 

R o c h e g r o s s e 1 s c o n t r i b u t i o n as an " . . . educateur a r d e n t et 

d e s i n t e r e s s e . " to the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a new F r e n c h Academy 
74 

which competed with the Ecole' des Beaux-Arts d ' A l g e r . The 

new s c h o o l had a h i g h e n r o l l m e n t of more than t h i r t y 

s t u d e n t s , most of whom were s u b s i d i z e d or o n l y p a i d a s m a l l 

amount of the c o s t s . T h i s was compared w i t h the more e l i t i s t 

B ea ux - Arts which c o s t the F r e n c h government 50,000 f r a n c s for 

o n l y h a l f a dozen s t u d e n t s . The f u n c t i o n of the new F r e n c h 

s c h o o l i n A l g e r i a was 
. d ' e t a b l i r sur l e t e r r l t o i r e de notre 

b e l l e c o l o n i e une s o r t e de V i l l a M e d i c i s 
a l g e r i e n n e , dont l e s e j o u r s e r a i t des p l u s 
e n v i e s . C ' e s t v e r s ce but gue marchent l e s 
fondateurs de l ' o e u v r e et M. J o n n a r t , 
gouveneur de 1 ' A l g e r i e , semble d i s p o s e a 
e n t r e r dans l e u r s idees et a a c q u e r i r une 

58 



V i l l a ou s e r a i e n t admis l e s a r t i s t e s 
d e s i r e u x de se p e r f e c t i o n n e r hors de P a r i s 
et a i l l e u r s q u ' a Rome. 75 

Moreover, the b e n e f i t of a teacher such as Rochegrosse was 

r e l a t e d to h i s use of "le modele v i v a n t " and h i s i n t e r e s t i n 

the l a n d s c a p e . T h i s r e f o r m of F r e n c h p a i n t i n g toward the use 

of the l i v e model and the r e a l landscape to produce a new 

g e n e r a t i o n of O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t e r s was known to be " . . . 

chere a M. D u j a r d i n - B e a u m e t z , notre s o u s - s e c r e t a i r e d ' E t a t 
76 

. . . " The new s c h o o l founded by the a r t i s t , M. D r u e t , 

c o u l d , w i t h s t a t e s u p p o r t , t r a n s f o r m the A l g e r i a n c a p i t a l 

i n t o " . . . une s o r t e de F l o r e n c e moderne." The s c h o o l 

r e p r e s e n t e d " . . . l e r £ v e des jeunes o r i e n t a l i s t e s . . . " 

such as Rochegrosse and was intended to encourage O r i e n t a l i s t 
77 

imagery. Thus, Rochegrosse's i n t e r e s t i n the female nude 

and the A l g e r i a n landscape s u i t e d the c u l t u r a l p o l i c i e s of 

the F r e n c h s t a t e ' s n e o - c o l o n i a l i s t e f f o r t . 

The r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of the p a i n t i n g i t s e l f was not 

mentioned i n Le J o u r n a l des A r t s u n t i l June 13th, i n an 

a r t i c l e by L e o p o l d Honore, and then o n l y i n c o n j u n c t i o n with 

Rochegrosse's p e r s o n a l b i o g r a p h y which d e s c r i b e d h i s t i e s to 

19th c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g , h i s academic rewards and 

h i s s i g n i f i c a n c e to the F r e n c h t e r r i t o r y of A l g e r i a . W r i t t e n 

under the t i t l e which c o n t a i n e d o n l y the name of the a r t i s t , 

"Rochegrosse," without r e f e r e n c e to the p a i n t i n g i t s e l f , 

Honore p r a i s e d the p a i n t i n g with h i s v i v i d d e s c r i p t i o n of i t s 

i m a g i n a t i v e r e n d e r i n g of 

59 



une horde de c a v a l i e r s q u i passe 
f u r i b o n d e , une horde g r i s e e de sang, de 
carnage et se ruant f r e n e t i q u e m e n t , avec 
v o l u p t 6 , pour l e s e u l p l a i s i r de v o i r rouge 
et d ' e t r e 1 ' a v a n t - c o u r r i e r du neant. C e t t e 
chevauchee e s t t r a g i q u e , et Mars, t o u t en 
haut du groiipe, en e s t l e metteur en s c e n e . 
Des l u e u r s d ' i n c e n d i e i l l u m i n e n t l a nature 
en emoi, l a trombe humaine p a s s e , de 
1 ' i v r e s s e e s t dans l e r e g a r d de tous ces 
c a v a l i e r s f a n t a s t i q u e s , de tous ces demons 
q u i h a l e t e n t et q u i h u r l e n t . Les chevaux se 
c a b r e n t , h e n n i s s e n t , chevauchent dans l e s 
c h a i r s p a l p i t a n t e s des femmes a n g o i s s e e s , 
eperdues dans l e sang q u i a f l o t s , c o u l e , 
parmi l e s f l e u r s t o u t e s de pourpre 
e p a n o u i e s . 78 

Honore was impressed by the l a r g e s i z e of the p a i n t i n g and 

the i m a g i n a t i v e freedom of the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the s u b j e c t as 

an h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n but avoided the contemporary 

s i g n i f i c a n c e of i t s Roman m i l i t a r y a n a l o g y . His focus was 

c e n t e r e d upon Rochegrosse and the a r t i s t ' s s i g n i f i c a n c e to 

F r e n c h c u l t u r e as an important l i n k to the 19th c e n t u r y 
79 

O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t e r s who were h i s t e a c h e r s . T h i s author 

d e l i n e a t e d Rochegrosse's s u c c e s s f u l debut a t the Salon of 

1882, h i s subsequent r e c e i p t of many awards and medals, and 

the f a c t t h a t many of h i s h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g s d e c o r a t e d 

numerous p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s i n the p r o v i n c e s and i n P a r i s . By 

1906, as Honore p o i n t e d o u t , Rochegrosse had gained 

membership on the j u r y of the S o c i e t e e des A r t i s t e s F r a n c a i s 

and spent h i s w i n t e r s a t h i s own A l g e r i a n r e s i d e n c e o u t s i d e 

the c o l o n i a l c a p i t a l , a t Djenan-Meriem a t E l B i a r . Honore 

accorded t h i s a r t i s t ' s success to the f a c t t h a t h i s 

b r i l l i a n c e drove him onto " . . . un i d e a l a r t i s t l q u e encore 

60 



p l u s beau," which c o n t r i b u t e d to h i s t e c h n i c a l a b i l i t i e s as 

"un v i r t u o s e de l a c o u l e u r , " and was enhanced by h i s imagina-
80 

t i v e and c o m p o s i t i o n a l s k i l l s . Rochegrosse was d e s c r i b e d 

by Honore as the archetype of the male c r e a t i v e genius f o r 

whom the e x p r e s s i o n of beauty was the p r i m a r y impetus for h i s 

c r e a t i v i t y . 

T h i s success d i d not s u r p r i s e L o u i s V a u x c e l l e s , a c r i t i c 

who i s b e t t e r known for the a t t e n t i o n he p a i d to the a v a n t -

garde a t t h i s t i m e . However, V a u x c e l l e s a l s o devoted h i m s e l f 

to f u l l coverage of the t r a d i t i o n a l Salons and p u b l i s h e d 

f u l l - l e n g t h i l l u s t r a t e d books on the s u b j e c t . He p e r c e i v e d 

t h a t even i n the P a r i s i a n m i l i e u of a r t i s t i c o v e r p r o d u c t i o n 

" . . . i l e t a i t n o r m a l , qu'un a r t i s t e du merite de M. 

Rochegrosse . . . " would be awarded the Medal of Honour a t 

t h i s S a l o n . V a u x c e l l e s admired h i s technique but d i d not 

approve of the v i o l e n t Roman analogy of male power. 

V a u x c e l l e s d i d approve of the d e p i c t i o n of the female nudes. 

He wrote: 
Son t a b l e a u , vaut par des q u a l i t e s 
e x c e p t i o n n e l l e s , et s o u f f r e de d e f a u t s 
6tonnants; l ' o e u v r e e s t c o n f u s e , denuee 
d ' u n i t e , mais l e s morceaux y sont 
e x t r a o r d i n a i r e s . . . c ' e s t 1 ' i r r u p t i o n de 
1 1 Idee de meurtre et de v i o l dans l ' i d e e 
de v o l u p t e p a i s i b l e et a m o l l i e . 81 

Instead of d e s c r i b i n g the p a i n t i n g h i m s e l f , V a u x c e l l e s quoted 

a n e g a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n by a "M. Ravaisson" who had s a i d t h a t 

" . . . l a J o i e rouge, l a j o i e du crime et de 
l ' h o r r e u r . . . un magnifique p r e t e x t e 
i m a g i n a t i f pour un homme q u i a v o u l u p e i n d r e 
des femmes nues . . . " 82 

61 



D e s p i t e t h i s c r i t i c ' s c l a i m s , t h e r e i s more a t stake i n 

t h i s p a i n t i n g than the excuse to p a i n t nude females. Of 

importance i s how these nude females are degraded and 

presented as v i c t i m s of male v i o l e n c e and p l e a s u r e through 

the male enjoyment of t h e i r f l e s h and b l o o d . As a h i s t o r y 

p a i n t i n g La J o i e Rouge f u n c t i o n e d to r e c a l l the i d e a l s of 

order and c l a r i t y , the b a s i s of F r e n c h c l a s s i c i s m adopted by 

the academic t r a d i t i o n , through i t s r e f e r e n c e s to P o u s s i n ' s 

v i o l e n t v e r s i o n of the l e g e n d a r y rape of the Sabine women by 

the Romans. Rochegrosse, however, d i d not l i m i t h i s 

r e f e r e n c e s to the v i o l e n t a c t i o n s of the males toward the 

females, pos.ed here as a type of subhuman s p e c i e s , but 

h i g h l i g h t e d the male w a r r i o r s ' enjoyment and p l e a s u r e i n the 

v i o l e n t s e x u a l s u b j u g a t i o n of the female nudes. T h i s 

e x p r e s s i o n of enjoyment on the faces of the male a g g r e s s o r s 

c o u l d be shared by the male viewer and enhance h i s d e l u s i o n 

of r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s s u p e r i o r i t y . While Rochegrosse 

has not made h i s females "ugly" i n the manner i n which 

M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o would, La J o i e Rouge f u n c t i o n e d i n 

r e l a t i o n to the assumptions of human d i f f e r e n c e and Western 

bourgeois male dominance c r i t i c a l to the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the 

v a l u e s of the F r e n c h R e p u b l i c a t the moment of domestic 

s o c i a l u n r e s t and n a t i o n a l i s t c r i s i s . 

T h i s concept of human d i f f e r e n c e was c r u c i a l to F r e n c h 

hegemony i n North A f r i c a and to domestic c o n t r o l of s o c i a l 

u n r e s t i n the p e r i o d 1905-1908. Although A l g e r i a was f i r m l y 

62 



under the c o n t r o l o £ the T h i r d F r e n c h R e p u b l i c i n 1906, 

F r e n c h domination of North A f r i c a had i t s o r i g i n s i n the 
83 

1830's when A l g e r i a was o c c u p i e d by French f o r c e s . By the 

e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y , A l g e r i a was c o n s i d e r e d to be an e x t e n s i o n 
84 

of France i t s e l f . The emergence of F r e n c h n e o - n a t i o n a l i s m 

on the extreme r i g h t a t t h i s time was a d i r e c t response to 

Germany's l a t e s t a g g r e s s i v e c h a l l e n g e to F r e n c h I m p e r i a l i s t 
85 

schemes of expansion i n t o A f r i c a . In p a r t i c u l a r , Germany's 

I n t e n t i o n to thwart French domination i n North A f r i c a by 

i n t e r v e n i n g i n F r e n c h p l a n s to annex Morocco to i t s North 

A f r i c a n t e r r i t o r y , f u e l l e d F r e n c h n e o - n a t i o n a l 1 s t f e e l i n g . 

The F r e n c h i n t e n t i o n of a n n e x a t i o n of Morocco was c r u c i a l to 

F r e n c h p l a n s to p e n e t r a t e i n t o A f r i c a and to u n i f y t h e i r 

North A f r i c a n t e r r i t o r y w i t h West and C e n t r a l A f r i c a . G l o b a l 

c o m p e t i t i o n for access to r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s and markets put 
86 

p r e s s u r e on i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of F r e n c h hegemony i n A f r i c a . 

The F r e n c h I m p e r i a l i s t e f f o r t i n North A f r i c a , promoted 

through the c o l o n i a l l o b b y , had the f u l l support of the 
87 

French m i l i t a r y . However, the t e n s i o n s between France and 
Germany were f u r t h e r inflamed when the F r e n c h succeeded i n 

88 
i n s t i t u t i n g a p r o t e c t o r a t e i n Morocco i n 1906. Yet i n 

F r a n c e , n e o - n a t i o n a l i s t p o l i c i e s , which proposed i n c r e a s e s i n 

the use of m i l i t a r y f o r c e i n F r e n c h c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r i e s , 

were c h a l l e n g e d by s o c i a l i s t d e p u t i e s i n open debates i n the 
89 

F r e n c h p a r l i a m e n t . 

63 



The c o n s t r u c t i o n of c a t e g o r i e s of human d i f f e r e n c e 

p l a y e d a r o l e i n domestic r e l a t i o n s as w e l l . The F r e n c h 

R e p u b l i c was faced with the p o s s i b i l i t y of c i v i l war i n the 

s p r i n g of 1907 when a spontaneous u p r i s i n g of s m a l l l a n d 

p r o p r i e t e r s and the a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o l e t a r i a t were j o i n e d by 

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of a l l segments of the p o p u l a t i o n i n the M i d i 

who opposed the c a p i t a l i s t monopoly which had produced a 
90 

s e r i o u s economic c r i s i s i n the wine i n d u s t r y . S o c i a l i s t 

support f o r the u p r i s i n g c o n f l i c t e d with o f f i c i a l p o l i c i e s of 

r e p r e s s i o n . At the same moment when the F r e n c h were 

employing b r u t a l m i l i t a r y means to c o n t r o l the indigenous 

u p r i s i n g s i n v a r i o u s r e g i o n s of A f r i c a these same f o r c e s 

p a r t i c i p a t e d i n bloody massacres of F r e n c h c i t i z e n s i n the 
91 

south of France i n the summer of 1907. 

R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n f o r the F r e n c h R e p u b l i c a n measures of 

r e p r e s s i o n to c o n t r o l the s o c i a l u p r i s i n g s i n France and 

c o l o n i a l u n r e s t can be found i n the r a c i a l t h e o r i e s of 

Gustave Le Bon. Le Bon's t h e o r i e s were founded on the 

premise of human d i f f e r e n c e and S a i d has s u c c i n c t l y d e s c r i b e d 

the importance of Le Bon's t h e o r i e s as f o l l o w s : 
S i n c e the O r i e n t a l was a member of a s u b j e c t 
r a c e , he had to be s u j e c t e d : i t was t h a t 
s i m p l e . The l o c u s c l a s s i c u s f o r such 
judgment and a c t i o n i s to be found i n 
Gustave Le Bon's Les L o i s p s y c h o l o q i q u e s de  
l ' e v o l u t i o n des peuples (1894). 92 

Le Bon's e a r l y t h e o r i e s of human d i f f e r e n c e were based on 

a n a t o m i c a l s t u d i e s of human s k u l l s which l e d him to conclude 

t h a t : 

64 



" . . . what d i s t i n g u i s h e s i n f e r i o r from 
s u p e r i o r races i s not the s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s 
i n the average c a p a c i t y of t h e i r s k u l l s , 

. the s u p e r i o r race c o n t a i n s a c e r t a i n 
number of i n d i v i d u a l s whose b r a i n i s h i g h l y 
d e v e l o p e d , whereas the i n f e r i o r race 
c o n t a i n s no such i n d i v i d u a l s . . . as a race 
grows c i v i l i z e d , the s k u l l s . . *. become 
more and more d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ; . 
c i v i l i s a t i o n conduces not to i n t e l l e c t u a l 
e q u a l i t y , but to an i n e q u a l i t y t h a t i s 
always growing more pronounced . . . Among 
i n f e r i o r peoples or the i n f e r i o r c l a s s e s of 
s u p e r i o r peoples the man and the woman are 
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y on much the same l e v e l . . . 
i n p r o p o r t i o n as peoples grow c i v i l i s e d 
the d i f f e r e n c e between the sexes i s 
a c c e n t u a t e d . " 9 3 

A c c o r d i n g to Le Bon, the most c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t i e s e x h i b i t e d 

the g r e a t e s t degrees of r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e . 

T h e r e f o r e , f o r Le Bon P a r i s i a n s o c i e t y e x e m p l i f i e d the most 

c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t y and the female P a r i s i a n was d e s c r i b e d i n 

the most b a r b a r i c terms. 

"Whereas the average volume of the s k u l l s of 
male P a r i s i a n s i s such as to range them 
among the l a r g e s t known s k u l l s , the average 
of the s k u l l s of female P a r i s i a n s c l a s s e s 
them among the s m a l l e s t s k u l l s . . . on a 
l e v e l with the s k u l l s of Chinese women, and 
s c a r c e l y above the feminine s k u l l s of New 
C a l e d o n i a . 1" 94 

S i g n i f i c a n t l y Le Bon compared the h i g h degree of 

c i v i l i z a t i o n among the F r e n c h , s p e c i f i c a l l y the P a r i s i a n 

F r e n c h w i t h t h a t of Roman c i v i l i z a t i o n before i t s d e c l i n e 
95 

when a t t a c k e d by barbarous p e o p l e s . T h i s comparison 

between Roman and F r e n c h c i v i l i z a t i o n i s c e n t r a l to an 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Rochegrosse's La J o i e Rouge where male 

c h a u v i n i s m can be r e l a t e d to F r e n c h n e o - c o l o n i a l i s t p o l i c i e s 

65 



i n A f r i c a and to the way i n which women were v a l u e d i n 

contemporary F r e n c h c u l t u r e . S a i d has e x p l a i n e d t h a t : 

Race t h e o r y , ideas about p r i m i t i v e o r i g i n s 
and p r i m i t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , modern 
d e c a d e n c e , . t h e p r o g r e s s of c i v i l i z a t i o n , the 
d e s t i n y of the white (or Aryan) r a c e s , the 
need f o r c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r i e s — a l l these 
were elements i n the p e c u l i a r amalgam of 
s c i e n c e , p o l i t i c s , and c u l t u r e whose d r i f t , 
almost without e x c e p t i o n , was always to r a i s e 
a European race to dominion over non-
European p o r t i o n s of mankind. 96 

Le Bon's a d d i t i o n of h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s to the 

e a r l i e r p h y s i c a l dimension as a means of d i v i d i n g humanity, 

supported the n o t i o n of s u p e r i o r i t y of the F r e n c h n a t i o n 

so n e c e s s a r y to F r e n c h n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m . He b e l i e v e d t h a t : 

By the a i d of c l e a r l y d e f i n e d a n a t o m i c a l -
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , such .as the c o l o u r of the 
s k i n , and the shape and volume of the s k u l l , 
i t has been p o s s i b l e to e s t a b l i s h t h a t the 
human race comprises s e v e r a l s p e c i e s which 
are q u i t e d i s t i n c t and p r o b a b l y of v e r y 
d i f f e r e n t o r i g i n . . . o b s e r v a t i o n proves 
t h a t the m a j o r i t y of the i n d i v i d u a l s of a 
g i v e n race always possess a c e r t a i n number 
of common p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 
which are as s t a b l e as the a n a t o m i c a l 
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . . . are r e g u l a r l y and 
c o n s t a n t l y reproduced by h e r e d i t a r y 
the n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . .9 7 

As w e l l , I t was Le Bon who used h i s dehumanizing r a c i a l 

t h e o r i e s to s p e c i f i c a l l y argue a g a i n s t the s o c i a l i s t s d e s i r e 

f o r human e q u a l i t y . He suggested t h a t : 

S o c i a l i s m . . . proposes e q u a l i t y of 
c o n d i t i o n , without dreaming t h a t s o c i a l 
i n e q u a l i t i e s are born of those n a t u r a l 
i n e q u a l i t i e s t h a t man has always been 
powerless to change. 98 

66 



Le Bon r a t i o n a l i z e d the Ideology o£ the r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y o£ 

the French n a t i o n through the masculine members of i t s 

p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s who, l i k e the Romans before them, were 

s u p e r i o r to other r a c e s , to women of t h e i r own c l a s s and to 

both sexes of the lower c l a s s . Le Bon i d e n t i f i e d t h i s group 

with the Romans a t the h e i g h t of t h e i r power and warned of 

the t h r e a t from the " b a r b a r i a n s " i n the guise of s o c i a l i s t s 

who argued for human e q u a l i t y and r e s p e c t for human 

d i f f e r e n c e . 

Such arguments f o r human d i f f e r e n c e were i n t e g r a l to 

O r i e n t a l i s m which operated as an " i n t e l l e c t u a l d o c t r i n e " 

i n support of r a c i s t p r a c t i c e through the c o n s t r u c t of 

P r i m i t i v i s m as a n e g a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of r a c i a l , s e x u a l 

and c l a s s i n f e r i o r i t y . I t i s terms of human d i f f e r e n c e t h a t 

O r i e n t a l i s m and P r i m i t i v i s m have s i g n i f i c a t i o n to an a n a l y s i s 

of the ways i n which the female was e n v i s i o n e d i n the 

d i s c o u r s e s of popular and o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e . For example, i n 

L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , when the female was imaged i n r e l a t i o n 

to the dominant c u l t u r e she was an i n f e r i o r human, o p p r e s s e d , 

anguished or deformed to s u i t the bourgeois male's needs. 

When imaged i n r e l a t i o n to the s t r u g g l e of the working c l a s s 

she was humanized on the l e v e l of c l a s s as an i l l u s i o n 

r e l a t i n g to c l a s s i c a l n o t i o n s of beauty. Grandjouan's l e r  

m a i , was a s a t i r i c i l l u s i o n c o n s t r u c t e d to d i s r u p t the 

h i s t o r i c p o r t r a y a l of the working c l a s s female as "ugly" and 

r e j e c t the n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n of P r i m i t i v i s m a s s o c i a t e d 

67 



with women and with the working c l a s s . T h i s i n s e r t i o n o£ the 

content of c l a s s s t r u g g l e removed the p o s s i b l i t y of bourgeois 

male enjoyment i n s p i t e of the a p p r o p r i a t i o n of the Western 

i d e a l of female beauty. 

Rochegrosse•s p o r t r a y a l of p r i m i t i v i z e d females 

p r o j e c t e d the image of the v i c t i m i z e d female i n r e l a t i o n to 

the dominant c u l t u r e as suggested i n the popular p r e s s , but 

u n l i k e L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , Rochegrosse a v o i d e d o v e r t 

r e f e r e n c e to c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e and c l a s s s t r u g g l e . La J o i e  

Rouge p o r t r a y e d women as powerless sex o b j e c t s whose nude 

forms were s u b j e c t e d to the v i o l e n c e of male p l e a s u r e . T h i s 

d e l u s i o n of Western bourgeois male power was r e i n f o r c e d 

through the d e g r a d a t i o n the females by j u x t a p o s i n g t h e i r 

n u d i t y to the group of males d r e s s e d as w a r r i o r s of legendary 

Rome. T h i s d e l u s i o n of r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s s u p e r i o r i t y 

was i d e o l o g i c a l l y important to the a u t h o r i t y of the French 

R e p u b l i c i n i t s promotion of n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m and i t s 

o p p o s i t i o n to s o c i a l i s t p r e s s u r e f o r human e m a n c i p a t i o n . 

The way i n which the female was p i c t u r e d as an "ugly" 

v i c t i m of bourgeois male power, or as a b e a u t i f u l i l l u s i o n of 

female power i n r e l a t i o n to c l a s s s t r u g g l e i n the popular 

p r e s s d i f f e r e d from the d e l u s i o n of bourgeois male power 

p r e s e n t e d i n o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e . In t u r n t h i s r e v e a l s the 

d i f f e r e n t i d e o l o g i e s from which an image of woman was 

c o n s t r u c t e d i n the e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y . The q u e s t i o n which 

remains to be answered i s how the N e o - O r l e n t a l1st p a i n t i n g s 

68 



by the P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e a r t i s t s , M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o — 

images i n which the female f i g u r e i s o v e r t l y d i s t o r t e d 

through the concept of P r i m i t i v i s m - - c o u l d f u n c t i o n i n 

r e l a t i o n to the i s s u e s of c l a s s s t r u g g l e and n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m 

as expressed by popular and o f f i c i a l c u l t u r e . At a moment 

when a t t i t u d e s towards n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m and c l a s s s t r u g g l e 

were i n c r e a s i n g l y d e f i n e d by c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e i n f l u e n c i n g 

F r e n c h f o r e i g n and domestic p o l i c y , c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e over the 

i s s u e of n a t i o n a l i s m , had d i v i d e d the F r e n c h f e m i n i s t 

movement i t s e l f . The intended meaning of the "ugly" female 

p r o s t i t u t e s of The Blue Nude and Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n 

must be c l a r i f i e d i n r e c o g n i z t i o n of the f a c t t h a t the 

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the p r o s t i t u t e as " p r i m i t i v e l y " s e d u c t i v e 

and dominated or a g g r e s s i v e and r e s i s t a n t to domination was 

i d e o l o g i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d . The "ugly" women are s y m b o l i c of 

d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s towards the concept of P r i m i t i v i s m and 

are t h e r e f o r e of s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e both to c l a s s s t r u g g l e 

and n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m a t a moment of n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l 

c r i s i s i n F r e n c h h i s t o r y . 

69 



NOTES 

1 
M a r i l y n J . Boxer and Jean H, Q u a t a e r t , e d s . S o c i a l i s t  

Women: European S o c i a l i s t Feminism i n the N i n e t e e n t h and  
E a r l y Twentieth C e n t u r i e s (New York: E l s e v i e r , 1978), 84. 
See a l s o I b i d . , 110, note 21. 

2 
R . D . Anderson, France 1870-1914: P o l i t i c s and S o c i e t y 

(London: Routledge & Kegan P a u l , 1977), 1-3. 

3 
Edward M c N a l l B u r n s , Western C i v i l i z a t i o n s : T h e i r  

H i s t o r y and T h e i r C u l t u r e , 8th e d . , (New Y o r k : W.W. Norton & 
Company, I n c . , 1973), 571. 

4 
I b i d . , 557. 

5 
R . D . Anderson, France 1870-1914, 96-97. 

6 
Edward S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m (New York: Pantheon Books, 

1978), 207. 

7 
Annie K r i e g e l , Le P a i n et l e s Roses ( P a r i s : Presses 

U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de F r a n c e , 1968), 51-53. See a l s o : P a u l L o u i s , 
Les Etapes du S o c i a l i s m e , ( P a r i s : Bibliothfeque C h a r p e n t i e r , 
1903), 328-331. 

8 
J e a n - M a r i e Mayeur and Madeleine R 6 b e r i o u x , e d s . , The  

T h i r d R e p u b l i c from i t s O r i g i n s to the Great War, 1871-1914, 
t r a n s . J . R . F o s t e r (Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 
1984), 248-249, e x p l a i n e d how the g e n e r a l s t r i k e of May 1, 
1906, had both n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , 
v i v i d l y i n d i c a t i n g the s i t u a t i o n of widespread s o c i a l u n r e s t 
i n F r a n c e . Although the d r i v i n g f o r c e behind the working 
c l a s s a c t i o n was the CGT ( C o n f e d e r a t i o n Generale du T r a v a i l ) , 
an a p o l i t i c a l working c l a s s movement o r g a n i z e d on a n a t i o n a l 
s t r u c t u r e of f e d e r a t i o n s , t h e r e was support from the S . F . 1 . 0 . 
( S e c t i o n F r a n c a i s e de 1 ' I n t e r n a t i o n a l e O u v r i e r e ) the a v a n t -
garde F r e n c h s o c i a l i s t movement, which was a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y 
connected to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t s o c i a l i s t c a u s e . T h i s 
a c t i o n on the p a r t of the i n d u s t r i a l working c l a s s i n support 
of an e i g h t - h o u r work day was an important e x p r e s s i o n of 
working c l a s s a c t i o n . Georges L e f r a n c e , Le Mouvement  
S y n d i c a l sous l a T r o i s i e m e Republique ( P a r i s : P a y o t , 1967), 
145, s t a t e d t h a t the e l e c t i o n s for members to the Chamber of 
Deputies i n the F r e n c h p a r l i a m e n t of May 6th and 20th, 1906 

70 



i n c r e a s e d s o c i a l i s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n d r a m a t i c a l l y . R. D, 
Anderson, F r a n c e _ l 8 7 0 - 1 9 1 4 , 134, s t a t e d t h a t the r e p r e s s i v e 
and v i o l e n t measures taken by the French government i n u s i n g 
F r e n c h m i l i t a r y t r o o p s a g a i n s t the s t r i k e r s i n f l u e n c e d the 
vote i n the 1906 e l e c t i o n s i n which the S . F . I . O . had "877,000 
votes and f i f t y - f o u r s e a t s ; " i n the e l e c t i o n of 1906. 

9 
I b i d . , 121. 

10 
Mayeur and R e b e r i o u x , The T h i r d R e p u b l i c , 306-307. 

11 
I b i d . , 267. 

12 
R . D . Anderson, France 1870-1914, 114-115. 

13 
Mayeur and R e b e r i o u x , The T h i r d R e p u b l i c , 251-252, have 

d e s c r i b e d how the d i s o r d e r i n the M i d i r e g i o n i n the south of 
F r a n c e , from March to June 1907, engaged "the a g r i c u l t u r a l 
p r o l e t a r i a t " i n a r e v o l t of spontaneous a c t i o n a g a i n s t the 
l a r g e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d winegrowers. The involvement of the 
r u r a l p r o l e t a r i a t i n t h i s spontaneous u p r i s i n g was supported 
by the CGT and the S . F . I . O . The r e g i o n r e l i e d on the economy 
of the wine i n d u s t r y , an economy which was being t h r e a t e n e d 
not o n l y by l a r g e monopoly i n d u s t r i e s but a l s o by c o m p e t i t i o n 
from the i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n of the A l g e r i a n wine i n d u s t r y . 
Thus n e o - c o l o n i a l i s t e n t e r p r i s e s had a d i r e c t e f f e c t on the 
s t a b i l i t y of the F r e n c h r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n i n the south of 
F r a n c e , whose involvement i n the u p r i s i n g was c o u n t e r a c t e d by 
French m i l i t a r y f o r c e and b l o o d s h e d . 

14 
E l i s a b e t h and M i c h e l D i x m i e r , L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e :  

Revue s a t i r i q u e i l l u s t r e e 1901-1912 ( P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e 
F r a n c o i s Maspero, 1974), 9. 

15 
I b i d . , 106-108. 

16 
L e f r a n c , Le Mouvement S y n d i c a l e , 98. 

17 
P a u l L o u i s , H i s t o i r e du S o c i a l i s m e en France de l a  

R e v o l u t i o n a nos J o u r s , ( P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e des S c i e n c e s 
P o l i t i q u e s et S o c i a l e s , 1925), 146-147 e x p l a i n e d how 
Proudhon's r e c o g n i t i o n of the working c l a s s as a d i s t i n c t 
s o c i a l group was b a s i c to h i s concept of s y n d i c a l i s m i n which 

71 



the s y n d i c a t e was formed by a group of workers who were 
u n i t e d for mutual s o c i a l and economic b e n e f i t . The 
o r g a n i z a t i o n was dependant upon i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e and not 
upon p o l i t i c a l a l l e g i a n c e . Proudhon's concept of c l a s s 
s t r u g g l e as an economic s t r u g g l e was d i r e c t e d towards manual 
l a b o u r e r s and ran counter to subsequent orthodox M a r x i s t 
d o c t r i n e ' s method of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n and i t s u l t i m a t e aim 
of p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of the working c l a s s which was not 
c o n f i n e d to manual workers. 

L o u i s S. Feuer ( e d . ) , Marx & E n g e l s : B a s i c W r i t i n g s  
on P o l i t i c s and P h i l o s o p h y (Garden C i t y , New Y o r k : Anchor 
Books, Doubleday & Company, I n c . , 1959), 35-36 r e f e r r e d to 
the o r i g i n a l w r i t i n g s of Marx and Engels wherein they 
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e i r t h e o r y of s o c i a l i s m and communism from 
t h a t of Proudhon. Proudhon's s o c i a l i s m was condemned by them 
as " c o n s e r v a t i v e bourgeois s o c i a l i s m " i n The Communist  
M a n i f e s t o of 1848. F e u e r , I b i d . , quoted from the M a n i f e s t o 
as f o l l o w s : " ' A p a r t of the b o u r g e o i s i e i s d e s i r o u s of 
r e d r e s s i n g s o c i a l g r i e v a n c e s , i n order to secure the 
c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e of bourgeois s o c i e t y . . . To t h i s 
s e c t i o n belong e c o n o m i s t s , p h i l a n t h r o p i s t s , h u m a n i t a r i a n s , 
improvers of the c o n d i t i o n of the working c l a s s , o r g a n i s e r s 
of c h a r i t y , members of s o c i e t i e s for the p r e v e n t i o n of 
c r u e l t y to a n i m a l s , temperance f a n a t i c s , h o l e - a n d - c o r n e r 
reformers . . . We may c i t e Proudhon's P h i l o s o p h i e de l a  
Misere . . . as an example of t h i s form . . . The s o c i a l i s m 
of the b o u r g o i s i e s i m p l y c o n s i s t s of the a s s e r t i o n t h a t the 
bourgeois are b o u r g e o i s - - f o r the b e n e f i t of the working 
c l a s s . ' " 

P a u l L o u i s , Les- Etapes du S o c i a l i s m e , 221, who was moved 
to w r i t e on t h i s s u b j e c t more than f i f t y year l a t e r , 
p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e ' h i s t o r i c polemic between Marx and Proudhon 
c o n t i n u e d to be p r o b l e m a t i c f o r the u n i t y of the French l e f t . 
L o u i s wrote: "Proudhon se c l a s s e e n t r e l e s s o c i a l i s t e s , par 
l e s n o t i o n s q u ' i l a apportees au corps de d o c t r i n e s du XIXe 
s i e c l e ; dans l e domaine p r a c t i q u e , i l demeure un 
i n d i v i d u a l i s t e , un c o n s e r v a t e u r p e t i t b o u r g e o i s . - - E n v e r i t e 
Marx a v a i t r a i s o n . " 

18 
L o u i s , H i s t o i r e du S o c i a l i s m e , 148-149. L o u i s , I b i d . , 

149 quoted from Proudhon's C a p a c i t e des c l a s s e s o u v r i e r e s : 
" * . . . L a r e v o l u t i o n , q u i r e s t e a f a i r e , c o n s i s t e a 
s u b s t i t u e r l e regime economique ou i n d u s t r i e l au regime 
gouvernemental, f e o d a l ou m i l i t a i r e . Par regime i n d u s t r i e l , 
nous entendons non pas une forme de gouvernement ou l e s 
hommes adonnes aux travaux de 1 ' a g r i c u l t u r e et de l ' i n d u s t r i e 
d e v i e n d r a i e n t a l e u r t o u r c a s t e dominante, mais une 
c o n s t i t u t i o n de l a s o c i e t e e ayant pour base, a l a p l a c e de ,1a 
h i e r a r c h i e des p o u v o i r s p o l i t i q u e s , 1 ' o r g a n i z a t i o n des 
p o u v o i r s economiques . . . *" T h i s c o n f l i c t a f f e c t e d the 
r e l a t i o n s h i p between the CGT and the S . F . I . O . because of the 

72 



d i v i s i o n s over aim and method. L e f r a n c , Le_Mouvement  
S y n d i c a l e , 138, has d e s c r i b e d the s i t u a t i o n a t the Congress 
of Amiens, h e l d by the CGT from October 8-14, 1906. The 
r e s u l t of the Congress was a c l e a r mandate s u p p o r t i n g the 
autonomy and a p o l i t i c a l s t a t u s of the s y n d i c a t e s . 

Thus r e c o r d e d i n the p u b l i s h e d t r a n s c r i p t of the minutes 
of the S . F . I . O . T h i r d N a t i o n a l Congress, a t Limoges, November 
1st to 4 t h , 1906, 201-202, i s the f a c t t h a t the motion to 
acknowledge the autonomous a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of the 
working c l a s s i n the CGT was passed by the S . F . I . O . a f t e r 
much o p p o s i t i o n from the G u e s d i s t s . (The G u e s d i s t s were the 
f o l l o w e r s of the F r e n c h M a r x i s t s o c i a l i s t J u l e s Guesde.) The 
acceptance of the Amiens motion f o l l o w i n g an i n t e n s e s e r i e s 
of debates was the r e s u l t of m a j o r i t y support f o r the concept 
of " d o u b l e - a c t i o n " on the economic and p o l i t i c a l f r o n t s as an 
e s s e n t i a l compromise for c o o p e r a t i o n between the two groups. 
Jean M a i t r o n , H i s t o i r e du Mouvement A n a r c h i s t e en France  
1880-1914 ( P a r i s : S o c i e t e U n i v e r s i t a l r e D ' E d i t i o n s et de 
L i b r a i r i e , 1955), 310, o u t l i n e d the importance of the Amiens 
congress f o r the R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s t movement. 

Jean M a i t r o n , Ravachol et l e s A n a r c h i s t e s ( P a r i s : 
C o l l e c t i o n a r c h i v e s , J u l l i a r d , 1964), 14-18 p r o v i d e d the 
reasons f o r and d e s c r i b e d the process by which the a n a r c h i s t s 
entered the s y n d i c a t e s a f t e r the y e a r s , 1890-1894 when the 
bombings by i n d i v i d u a l a n a r c h i s t e x t r e m i s t s f a i l e d to e f f e c t 
s o c i a l change. M a i t r o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t the a d o p t i o n of 
B a k u n i n ' s method of " d i r e c t a c t i o n " was c o n t r a r y to s o c i a l i s t 
p a r l i a m e n t a r i s m . M a i t r o n , I b i d . , 19, e x p l a i n e d how the 
economic, a p o l i t i c a l c o r p o r a t e s t r u c t u r e of the s y n d i c a t e s 
was c o n s i d e r e d to be the i d e a l v e h i c l e f o r the new method of 
c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n by the m i l i t a n t a n a r c h i s t s . Annie 
K r i e g e l Les I n t e r n a t i o n a l e s O u v r i e r e s ( P a r i s : P r e s s e s 
U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de F r a n c e , 1964), 26-27, e x p l a i n e d how Marx 
had won the b a t t l e a g a i n t B a k u n i n ' s l i b e r t a r i a n , a n t i -
a u t h o r i t a r i a n n o t i o n of autonomous worker f e d e r a t i o n s a t the 
l e v e l of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Workingmen's A s s o c i a t i o n before 
i t s demise i n the post-Commune r e p r e s s i o n . I n s i s t i n g on a 
c e n t r a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l p a r t y a u t h o r i t y , . Marx r e f u t e d B a k u n i n ' s 
r e v i s i o n of Proudhon's n o n - v i o l e n t a n t i - s t a t i s m i n t o a method 
of v i o l e n t a c t i o n and s e c r e t o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h i s was counter 
to the economic and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of the p r o l e t a r i a t 
i n M a r x i s t terms. B a k u n i n ' s death i n 1874 d i d not d e t e r the 
m i l i t a n t r e v o l u t i o n a r y s y n d i c a l i s t s from a d o p t i n g h i s 
methods as a means of s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n and to view s o c i a l i s t 
p o l i t i c i a n s as c o l l a b o r a t o r s of the e l e c t e d bourgeois 
r a d i c a l s a t the t u r n - o f - t h e - c e n t u r y . 

Claude W i l l a r d , Les G u e s d i s t e s : Le Mouvement  
S o c i a l i s t e en France (1893-1905) ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s S o c i a l e , 
1965), 12 and 17. W i l l a r d , I b i d . , 12, documented how M a r x i s t 
d o c t r i n e was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o France by J u l e s Guesde and 

73 



P a u l Lafargue through t h e i r knowledge of The Communist  
M a n i f e s t o and C a p i t a l . The Communist M a n i f e s t o by Marx and 
E n g e l s , 1848, was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o F r e n c h by L a u r a Lafargue 
and p u b l i s h e d i n L ' E g a l i t e , 1882. Alexandre Zevaes, De  
L ' I n t r o d u c t i o n du Marxisme en France ( P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e M a r c e l 
R i v i e r e et C i e , 1947), 38, d e s c r i b e d how Marx's C a p i t a l was 
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o F r e n c h by Joseph Roy i n 1872 and p u b l i s h e d i n 
b o o k l e t s which s o l d for 10 centimes by 1875. 

L o u i s , H i s t o i r e du S o c i a l i s m e , 252, has i n d i c a t e d t h a t 
the i n f l u e n c e of the F r e n c h s o c i a l i s t s can be d i s c e r n e d i n 
the n a t i o n a l worker f e d e r a t i o n s of 1876, 1878 and 1879. The 
P a r i s Congress of 1876 was the f i r s t meeting of the working 
c l a s s where the F r e n c h p r o l e t a r i a t were o r g a n i z e d on the 
b a s i s of a separate c l a s s with d i s t i n c t p o l i t i c a l c o n c e r n s . 
See a l s o : W i l l a r d , Les G u e s d i s t e s , 12 and Georges L e f r a n c , 
l e mouvement s o c i a l i s t e sous l a t r o i s i e m e r e p u b l i q u e , Vo1. I , 
( P a r i s : p e t i t e b i b l i o t h e q u e payot, 1977), 29. L o u i s , 
H i s t o i r e du S o c i a l i s m e , 254, o u t l i n e d the f a c t t h a t the 
Congress of M a r s e i l l e s i n O c t o b e r , 1879 adopted a motion 
s u p p o r t i n g c l a s s s t r u g g l e . Boxer and Q u a t a e r t , S o c i a l i s t  
Women, 77-78 e x p l a i n e d t h a t a t t h i s founding meeting of the 
P a r t i o u v r i e r f r a n c a i s ( P . O . F . ) , and i n c l u d e d i n the p o l i c y 
of J u l e s Guesde and P a u l L a f a r g u e , who had c o l l a b o r a t e d 
d i r e c t l y with Marx and E n g e l s , t h e r e was a c a l l f o r economic 
and s e x u a l e q u a l i t y f o r a l l workers. See a l s o L e f r a n c : l e  
mouvement s o c i a l i s t e , 39-41, and W i l l a r d , Les G u e s d i s t e s , 18. 
M a i t r o n , Ravachol et l e s A n a r c h i s t e s , 12, has o u t l i n e d how 
the s o c i a l i s t s had s e p a r a t e d themselves from the a n a r c h i s t e s 
as e a r l y as 1881. 

20 
" P o r n o g r a p h i e , " Supplement, L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , 

October 28, 1905, No. 239. The e x e c u t i o n of t h i s ban was 
made p o s s i b l e through the s a n c t i o n of o f f i c i a l a u t h o r i t y 
bestowed upon Senator Rene B e r e n g e r , the d i r e c t o r of the 
s t a t e - s p o n s o r e d League f o r the R e p r e s s i o n of S t r e e t L i c e n c e s . 
J u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h i s a c t of c e n s o r s h i p was encoded i n the 
law of 1898 which d e f i n e d as p o r n o g r a p h i c " . . . une 
p u b l i c a t i o n obscene ou c o n t r a i r e aux bonnes moeurs." Under 
t h i s law, the p e n a l t y for e i t h e r the p r o d u c t i o n or s a l e of 
m a t e r i a l d e f i n e d as p o r n o g r a p h i c was a f i n e of 5,000 f r a n c s 
and two years imprisonment. 

The a r t i s t s defended t h e i r r i g h t to p u b l i s h i l l u s t r a t i o n s 
such as the banned image by P o u l b o t , La G r a i n e du B o i du L i t 
i n t h i s s p e c i a l supplement of October 28th, 1905. They 
i n s i s t e d t h a t P o u l b o t ' s image, of a couple who were engaged 
i n s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e while c o m p l e t e l y c o n c e a l e d by 
b e d c l o t h e s , was meant as a humourous p o r t r a y a l of the 
guaranteed m i s e r y i n t o which a working c l a s s c h i l d would be 
b o r n . The image showed another young c h i l d i n the g r e y , 
c o l o u r l e s s , crowded room which appears to symbolize the 
c o l o u r l e s s world of working c l a s s r e a l i t y . The a r t i s t s 

74 



p r o t e s t e d the l a b e l of pornography f o r the d e p i c t i o n of c l a s s 
d i f f e r e n c e and accused the censors of h y p o c r i s y for t h e i r 
c l a i m s of m o r a l i t y when the censors own bourgeois v a l u e s 
p e r m i t t e d the p o r t r a y a l of v i o l e n c e and drunkenness without 
c e n s o r s h i p . The a r t i s t s p r o t e s t e d t h e i r i d e n t i t y w i t h the 
c r i m i n a l element i n s o c i e t y due to the s e v e r i t y of punishment 
f o r t h e i r attempts a t f r e e e x p r e s s i o n . The a r t i s t s of 
L ' A s s i e t t e au Beurre b e l i e v e d t h a t P o u l b o t ' s image was 
censored s t r i c t l y because i t showed the e x i s t e n t s o c i a l 
i n e q u i t i e s and gave v i s i b l e r e c o g n i t i o n to the i n c r e a s i n g 
numbers of the working c l a s s - - a n image t h a t t h r e a t e n e d the 
s t a t u s quo of the b o u r g e o i s . L o u i s C h e v a l i e r , C l a s s e s  
L a b o r i e u s e s et C l a s s e s dangereuses a P a r i s , pendant l a  
premiere m o i t i £ du XIXe s i e c l e . ( P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e Generate 
F r a n c a i s e , 1978), 604-606, has documented the process by 
which the F r e n c h p r o l e t a r i a t shared an i d e n t i t y w i t h the 
c r i m i n a l element of s o c i e t y as sub-human, an image expressed 
through the c u l t u r e of the b o u r g e o i s i e which saw i t s e l f as 
s u p e r i o r . 

Jean Rabaut, H i s t o i r e des feminismes f r a n c a i s ( P a r i s : 
S t o c k , 1978), 256-257, has shown t h a t the l e a d i n g s o c i a l i s t 
p o l i t i c i a n s , u n l i k e many a n a r c h i s t s , were not i n favour of 
n e o - M a l t h u s i a n e f f o r t s toward c o n t r a c e p t i o n as a method of 
p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l - - c o n t r o l aimed a t the lower c l a s s e s . 
M i c h e l F o u c a u l t , The H i s t o r y of S e x u a l i t y (New Y o r k : 
Pantheon Books, 1978), 128, has made a study of the power 
r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n h e r e n t i n human s e x u a l i t y . His a n a l y s i s of 
the c l a s s s t r u c t u r e of s e x u a l i t y r e v e a l s the hegemony of the 
b o u r g e o i s i e i n the r e g u l a t i o n of s e x u a l behaviour by 
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e x u a l p r a c t i c e i n r e l a t i o n 
to systems of law and t a b o o s . 

"Les Masques de L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , " Supplement, 
L ' A s s i e t t e au Beure, F e b r u a r y 17, 1906, (No. 255), 3, i s an 
a r t i c l e which c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s how the r e p r e s s i v e p o l i c i e s 
of the censors had f o r c e d the a r t i s t s i n t o an o r g a n i z a t i o n 
based on the s t r a t e g y of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n . The f o r m a t i o n of 
the League for the L i b e r t y of A r t was announced and 
o s t e n s i b l y i t was r e p o r t e d to have a membership of 500 
a r t i s t s , w r i t e r s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s . I t i s important to note 
t h a t the d e f i n i t i o n of c l a s s was p r o b l e m a t i c for the l e f t and 
took two d e f i n i t i v e d i r e c t i o n s i n 1907. For example, Hubert 
L a g a r d e l l e , "Les I n t e l l e c t u e l s et l e S o c i a l i s m e O u v r i e r , " Le  
Mouvement S o c i a l i s t e , 1907, (January - June, 1907), 112, 
s t a t e d t h a t : "Une c l a s s e e s t une c a t e g o r i e d'hommes p l a c e s 
sur l e meme p l a n economiques et u n i s par des i n t e r e t s 
m a t e r i e l s et moraux homogenes." In c o n t r a s t , the M a r x i s t 
J u l e s Guesde, as r e c o r d e d i n the minutes of the 
4th N a t i o n a l Congress of the S . F . I . O . , a t Nancy, August 1 1 t h -
14th, 1907, 496, i n s i s t e d t h a t : " . . . l e p r o l e t a r i a t n ' e s t 
pas l i m i t e a ce que vous p r e t e n d e z , c ' e s t q u ' i l embrasse 
t o u t e s l e s a c t i v i t e s , l e s p l u s c e r e b r a l e s comme l e s p l u s 
m u s c u l a i r e s , i n g e n i e u r s , c h i m i s t e s , savants de toute nature 

75 



de venus eux a u s s l de l a c h a i r A p r o f i t s , et en mesure 
d ' a s s u r e r l e fonctionnement de l a p r o d u c t i o n s u p e r i e u r e 
demain . . . Ouvert de d r o i t a tous ceux q u i t r a v a i l l e n t du 
bras ou du c e r v e a u , l e P a r t i S o c i a l i s t e e s t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t 
un p a r t i de c l a s s e , p l u s complet que ne peut l ' S t r e l e 
S y n d i c a t lui-meme." 

21 
R . D . Anderson, France 1870-1914, 3. 

22 
"Images M o r a l e s , " L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , March 17, 1906. 

23 
I b i d . 

24 
I b i d . 

25 
I b i d . 

26 
I b i d . 

27 
I b i d . 

28 
A l a i n C o r b i n , Les f l l l e s de noce: misere s e x u e l l e et  

p r o s t i t u t i o n (19e et 20e s i e c l e s ) ( P a r i s : A u b i e r Montagne, 
1978), 436 and 465-468. Berenger was a c o n s e r v a t i v e member 
of the senate who was i m p l i c a t e d i n the p a s s i n g of laws of 
r e p r e s s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o p u b l i c m o r a l i t y and the punishment 
of o f f e n d e r s . He was a f a v o u r i t e t a r g e t of the p o p u l a r press 
due t o h i s p o s i t i o n as a p u b l i c a u t h o r i t a r i a n f i g u r e . The 
r e g u l a t i o n of the v i s i b i l i t y of p u b l i c p r o s t i t u t i o n was h i s 
main concern and he was not i n t e r e s t e d i n the e r a d i c a t i o n 
of the i n s t i t u t i o n of p r o s t i t u t i o n i t s e l f . "Les Masques de 
L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , " Supplement, L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , 
F e b r u a r y 17, 1906, 3, d e s c r i b e d Senator Berenger as " l ' a n c i e n 
p r o c u r e r i m p e r i a l . " 

29 
"Images M o r a l e s , " L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , March 17, 1906. 

30 
C o r b i n , Les f l l l e s de n o c e : , 420-421. 

31 
I b i d . , 353. C o r b i n , I b i d , 354, has e x p l a i n e d how the 

b o u r g e o i s image of the p r o s t i t u t e was t h a t of a woman of 

76 



l e i s u r e and p r o s t i t u t i o n was not c o n s i d e r e d t o . b e work by the 
b o u r g e o i s . 

32 
Abraham F l e x n e r , P r o s t i t u t i o n In Europe (New York: The 

Century C o . , 1914), 63. The m a j o r i t y of P a r i s i a n p r o s t i t u t e s 
- were from r u r a l France or from other c o u n t r i e s . I b i d . , 73. 

P i e r r e L . Horn and Mary B'eth Pr i n g l e , e d s . , The Image of  
the P r o s t i t u t e i n Modern L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k : F r e d e r i c k 
Ungar P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1984), 24, have d i s c u s s e d the ways i n 
which p r o s t i t u t e s transformed t h e i r image and o f t e n assumed 
the d i s g u i s e of r e s p e c t a b l e working c l a s s women to e n t i c e and 
arouse the bourgeois male c l i e n t who hoped to escape the 
d i s e a s e d p r o f e s s i o n a l and enjoy a male power f a n t a s y . C o r b i n , 
Les f i l l e s de noce, 417, d e s c r i b e d the importance of P a r i s 
t r a i n s t a t i o n s as r e c r u i t m e n t areas f o r young r u r a l g i r l s 
i n t o p r o s t i t u t i o n , and The White Slave T r a d e . 

33 
I b i d . , 345, note 92. C o r b i n , I b i d . , c i t e d from P i e r r e 

Joseph Proudhon's Oeuvres Completes, "La p o r n o c r a t i e , " 372-
374. L o u i s , H i s t o i r e du S o c i a l i s m e , 66-67, has p o i n t e d out 
the r o l e of the U t o p i a n s o c i a l i s t s i n the r e c o g n i t i o n of the 
i n f e r i o r p o s i t i o n of the l a b o u r i n g c l a s s e s and women i n the 
new s o c i a l order of the 19th c e n t u r y . S a i n t - S i m o n i d e n t i f i e d 
the s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s produced by i n d u s t r i a l p r o g r e s s and 
p r i v i l e g e s . o f p r o p e r t y as the b a s i c causes of s o c i a l 
i n e q u i t i e s . Boxer and Q u a t a e r t , S o c i a l i s t Women, 8, have 
e x p l a i n e d t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n of the need to e l e v a t e the 
p o s i t i o n of women i n s o c i e t y was b a s i c to S a i n t Simon's 
s o c i a l c r i t i q u e . A l b e r t Brimo, l e s femmes f r a n c a i s e s  
face au p o u v o i r p o l i t i q u e ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s M o n t c h r e s t i e n , 
1975), 16, s t a t e d t h a t i t was F o u r i e r who c o i n e d the term 
"feminism" to advocate the s p e c i a l s t a t u s of women and t h e i r 
need f o r emancipation from t h e i r oppressed s t a t e . S. Debout, 
C h a r l e s F o u r i e r : T h e o r i e des Quatre Mouvements et des  
Destinees Geneerales ( P a r i s : Jean-Jacques P a u v e r t , E d i t e u r , 
1967) 157, r e c o r d e d F o u r i e r ' s p l a n s (which were u l t i m a t e l y 
i m p r a c t i c a l ) f o r s o c i a l harmony. As Pauvert shows h e r e , 
F o u r i e r had blamed the i n f e r i o r p o s i t i o n of "le sexe f a i b l e " 
on the s e x u a l r e s t r a i n t s imposed by the t h r e a t of v e n e r e a l 
d i s e a s e , the C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n and the i l l u s i o n which made 
t h e i r s t a t u s seem f a v o u r a b l e when compared w i t h the 
d e g r a d a t i o n a f f o r d e d to b a r b a r i a n women. An i l l u s i o n which 
produced a " . . . t e i n t e de bonheur sur l a c o n d i t i o n moins 
d e p l o r a b l e des femmes c i v i l i s e e s . " Thus, F o u r i e r ' s w e l l -
known c l a i m , . I b i d . , 147, t h a t " . . . 1 ' e x t e n s i o n des 
p r i v i l e g e s des femmes e s t l e p r i n c i p e g e n e r a l de tous progres 
s o c i a u x . " 

Brimo, l e s femmes, 20, d i s c u s s e d Proudhon's a n t i -
f e m i n i s t p o s i t i o n which c o n f i n e d women to t h e i r domestic r o l e 
w i t h i n marriage and f a m i l y - - a bourgeois v i e w p o i n t . As w e l l , 

77 

http://to.be


Brimo p o i n t e d o u t , I b i d . , 46-47, t h a t Proudhon not only-
d e n i e d women the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r economic independance but 
denied them t h e i r r i g h t to p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y . He saw the 
p o s s i b l i t y of t h e i r p o l i t i c a l independance as a t h r e a t to 
bourgeois marriage and to t h e i r husband's v i r i l i t y . 

34 
F e u e r , Marx & E n g e l s , 25-26. Marx and E n g e l s , I b i d . , 

d e f i n e d the e x p l o i t a t i o n of women as p u b l i c and p r i v a t e 
p r o s t i t u t e s was the r e s u l t of bourgeois marriage which was 
based on the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the system of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y 
and i n h e r i t a n c e and encouraged a d u l t e r o u s r e l a t i o n s . E l e a n o r 
Burke L e a c o c k , e d . , The O r i g i n of the F a m i l y , P r i v a t e  
P r o p e r t y and the S t a t e by F r e d e r i c k E n g e l s , 2nd e d . , (New 
Y o r k : I n t e r n a t i o n a l P u b l i s h e r s , 1973), 137, quoted E n g e l s ' 
view of p a t r i a r c h a l monogamous f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s as " . . . 
the open or c o n c e a l e d domestic s l a v e r y of the w i f e , . . . " 
ensured by her economic dependance. 

35 
Boxer and Q u a t a e r t , S o c i a l i s t Women, 84. 

3 6 
Mink as quoted by Boxer and Q u a t a e r t , S o c i a l i s t Women, 

84. The e n t i r e quote read as f o l l o w s : " ' E x p l o i t e d as l a b o r , 
j u s t as her male companion i n m i s e r y , i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the 
r e d u c t i o n of men's wages--for the l e a d e r ' s of i n d u s t r y t e l l 
her c r u e l l y t h a t she can use her sex to complement her 
n o t o r i o u s l y inadequate wages--the working woman i s a l s o 
exposed to. e v e r y k i n d of o b s e s s i o n and t y r a n n y . ' C h a i r a 
t r a v a i l , 'she i s a l s o ' c h a i r a p l a i s i r ! ^ " L o u i s , 
H i s t o i r e du S o c i a l i s m e , 262, e x p l a i n e d t h a t from i t s 
i n c e p t i o n the P . O . F . , under the d i r e c t i o n of the M a r x i s t 
s o c i a l i s t s J u l e s Guesde and P a u l L a f a r g u e , had i n c l u d e d the 
economic and s e x u a l e q u a l i t y of a l l workers i n the p a r t y 
program of 1880. 

37 
Jacques G i r a u l t , e d . , P a u l L a f a r g u e : Textes C h o i s i s 

( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s S o c i a l e s , 1970), 124-125. A c c o r d i n g to 
G i r a u l t , Lafargue wrote i n the s t y l e of the pamphleteer and 
h i s Le d r o i t a paresse was p u b l i s h e d i n Guesde's L ' E g a l i t e i n 
1880 and has s i n c e been c o n t i n u o u s l y r e p u b l i s h e d . I t i s a 
M a r x i s t c r i t i q u e of c a p i t a l i s m i n which Lafargue e x p l o r e d the 
n e g a t i v e e f f e c t of work and a b s t i n e n c e as d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s 
a c t i n g upon the " f l e s h " of the working c l a s s . As w e l l , he 
p i c t u r e d the bourgeois male as i n c r e a s i n g l y v i c t i m i z e d by the 
need to consume the p r o d u c t s for which he had d r i v e n the 
working c l a s s to o v e r p r o d u c e . In G i r a u l t ' s p u b l i c a t i o n of 
the a r t i c l e i n P a u l L a f a r g u e , 124-125, Lafargue w i t t i l y 
showed how " A u j o u r d ' h u i i l n ' e s t f i l s de parvenu q u i ne se 
c r o i t tenu de developper l a p r o s t i t u t i o n and de m e r c u r l a l i s e r 

78 



son corps pour dormer un but au l a b e u r que s'imposent l e s 
o u v r l e r s des mines de m e r c u r e ; . . . " F e u e r , Marx_&_Engels, 
13, quoted The Communist M a n i f e s t o i n which t h i s process of 
s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n i s c l e a r l y o u t l i n e d : " . . . not o n l y has 
the b o u r g o i s i e forged the weapons t h a t b r i n g death to i t s e l f ; 
i t has a l s o c a l l e d i n t o e x i s t e n c e the men who are to w i e l d 
those weapons—the modern working c l a s s — t h e p r o l e t a r i a n s . " 

38 
E l i s e e R e c l u s , L ' E v o l u t i o n , La R e v o l u t i o n et L ' I d e a l  

Anarchique ( P a r i s : P . - V . S t o c k , E d i t e u r , 1902), 12-13. 
Reclus I b i d . , wrote: " A i n s i quand nous voyons une femme pure 
de s e n t i m e n t s , noble de caractfere, i n t a c t e de t o u t scandale 
devant 1 ' o p i n i o n , descendre v e r s l a p r o s t i t u t e e et l u i d i r e : 
'Tu es ma s o e u r ; je v i e n s m ' a l l i e r avec t o i pour l u t t e r 
c o n t r e 1'agent des moeurs q u i t ' i n s u l t e et met l a main sur 
ton c o r p s , c o n t r e l e medecin de l a p o l i c e q u i te f a i t 
apprehender par des a r g o u s i n s et te v i o l e par sa v i s i t e , 
c o n t r e l a s o c i e t e toute e n t i e r e q u i te m^prise et te f o u l e 
aux p i e d s ' . . . " 

39 
Theodore Z e l d i n , France 1848-1945: P o l i t i c s and Anger 

( O x f o r d : Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1979), 334. 

40 
I b i d . , 209. 

41 
R . D . Anderson, France 1870'-1914, 25-26. 

42 
"La L i b e r t e , " L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , A p r i l 14, 1906. 

Georges L e f r a n c , Le S y n d i c a l i s m e en France ( P a r i s : Presses 
U n i v e r s i t a i r e de F r a n c e , 1966), 130-131 has e x p l a i n e d t h a t : 
"En decembre (1905), 22 a n t i - m i l i t a r i s t e s , dont l e s 
s y n d i c a l i s t e s Bousquet et P a t a u d , sont condamnes a des peins 
v a r i a n t de 4 a 6 mois de p r i s o n pour a v o i r s i g n e une a f f i c h e 
aux c o n s c r i t s . En J a n v i e r 1906, l o r s q u e se r e u n i t l a 
conference d ' A l g e s i r a s , l a C . G . T . f a i t apposer une a f f i c h e : 
Guerre a l a g u e r r e " : e l l e p u b l i e en f e v r i e r un numero 
s p e c i a l de l a V o i x du peuple sur l e s C o n s e i l s de r e v i s i o n 
t i r e a 30,000 e x e m p l a i r e s ; i l e s t s a i s i a l ' i m p r i m e r i e et 
e n t r a i n e un debut de p o u r s u i t e : c o n t r e G r i f f u e l h e s et Pouget, 
a i n s i que c o n t r e l e d e s s i n a t e u r Grandjouan; l a p o l i c e a s a i s i 
l e s bandes abonnees; de mars a a o u t , Y v e t o t e s t i n c a r c e r e . " 

43 
E . L a p o r t e , L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , A p r i l 14, 1906. 

44 
R . D . . Anderson, France 1870-1914, 1. 

79 



45 
l e r m a i , L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , A p r i l 28, 19 06. 

L e f r a n c , Le S y n d i c a l i s m e , 20-21, e x p l a i n e d t h a t the concept 
of the g e n e r a l s t r i k e as a means of " d i r e c t a c t i o n " was f i r s t 
proposed a t the workers' Congress of the F e d e r a t i o n of the 
S y n d i c a t e s i n F e b r u a r y , 1888, i n s p i t e of the f a c t t h a t t h e r e 
was a l a r g e f a c t i o n of G u e s d i s t e s i n attendance who were 
fundamentally opposed to the s t r i k e as a method f o r s o c i a l 
r e v o l u t i o n . M a i t r o n , Ravachol et l e s A n a r c h i s t e s , 121, wrote 
t h a t the s t r i k e was propogated as a t a c t i c of d i r e c t a c t i o n 
by the m i l i t a n t woodcutter, T o r t e l i e r . M a i t r o n a l s o 
e s t a b l i s h e d , I b i d . , 127, t h a t T o r t e l i e r was a member of the 
Woodworkers S y n d i c a t e . L e f r a n c , Le S y n d i c a l i s m e , 20-21, 
concluded t h a t Guesde d i d not approve of the g e n e r a l s t r i k e 
as a r e a l i s t i c method for s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to 
L e f r a n c e , Guesde c o n s i d e r e d i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n t h i s r e s p e c t 
as "'un mirage t r o m p e u r . ' " However, as L o u i s , H i s t o i r e du 
- S o e i a l i s m e , 274, has shown, the s t r i k e was adopted as a 
method of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n by the working c l a s s a t the 
M a r x i s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t Congress a t P a r i s i n 1889, 
with the support of the F r e n c h M a r x i s t s , who helped t o d r a f t 
the t e x t . The purpose of the s t r i k e was to reduce the 
working day to 8 hours and was c o p i e d from the American 
F e d e r a t i o n of Labor who had agreed on the date of May 1 s t , 
1890. L o u i s f u r t h e r s t a t e d , I b i d . , 275, t h a t i n F r a n c e , the 
s t r i k e s of 1890 and 1891 had r e s u l t e d i n a c t s of v i o l e n t 
r e p r e s s i o n on the p a r t of the a u t h o r i t i e s and a r r e s t s and 
deaths of the s t r i k e r s and of s m a l l c h i l d r e n were a b h o r r e n t 
to the n o n - v i o l e n t M a r x i s t s o c i a l i s t s . In c o n t r a s t , by l e g a l 
e l e c t i o n s , t h e r e were f i f t y s o c i a l i s t s e l e c t e d to the French 
p a r l i a m e n t by 1893. 

46 
J o l y o n Howorth, Edouard V a l l l a i n t : La C r e a t i o n de  

l ' u n l t e S o c i a l i s t e en France ( P a r i s : e d i / S y r o s , 1982) 198, 
commented upon the s i g n i f i c a n c e of r e g i o n a l popular f e s t i v a l s 
for the u l t i m a t e u n i f i c a t i o n and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of the 
F r e n c h urban and r u r a l c l a s s i n r e l a t i o n to the 1890 and 1891 
I n t e r n a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e of the May 1st s t r i k e d a t e . 

47 
P a u l L a f a r g u e , The R i g h t to be Lazy and other s t u d i e s 

T r a n s , by C h a r l e s H. K e r r , ( C h i c a g o : C h a r l e s H. K e r r & 
Company c o - o p e r a t i v e , 1907), 128-131 argued "On The Woman 
Q u e s t i o n , " t h a t the female's i n f e r i o r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n began 
under the c l a s s i c a l system of p a t r i a r c h y where she was 
d e p r i v e d of the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r her i n t e l l e c t u a l 
development—the q u a l i t y f o r which she had been admired under 
a n c i e n t m a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y . 

80 



48 
I b i d . , 134-136. Lafargue blamed the i n t r o d u c t i o n of 

c a p i t a l i s m , the economic system of the b o u r g e o i s , for the 
d i f f i c u l t s o c i a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s under which the 
contemporary working c l a s s female worked as producer and 
r e p r o d u c e r . 

Madeleine G u i l b e r t , Les Femmes et 1 ' O r g a n i s a t i o n  
S y n d i c a l e avant 1914 ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s du Centre N a t i o n a l de 
l a Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , 1966), 12-13, s t u d i e d the 
r e l a t i o n s h i p of working women and the s y n d i c a t e s i n France 
based on s t a t i s t i c s from 1866-1911. Women c o n t i n u e d to 
dominate the i n d u s t r i e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y open to female l a b o u r , 
the t e x t i l e and f a b r i c i n d u s t r i e s , t h e i r numbers i n c r e a s e d 
due to the m e c h a n i z a t i o n a c h i e v e d by the 20th c e n t u r y . In 
1906, 55 per cent of the labour i n the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y and 
88 per cent i n the f a b r i c i n d u s t r y was p r o v i d e d by women. 
I n d u s t r i e s where they p a r t i c i p a t e d the l e a s t were those 
r e q u i r i n g the most p h y s i c a l e x e r t i o n , the c o n s t r u c t i o n , 
m e t a l l u r g y and mining i n d u s t r i e s . There were l a r g e numbers 
of women employed as domestic s e r v a n t s . G u i l b e r t , I b i d . , 15, 
a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t women were i n c r e a s i n g l y a c t i v e i n 
p r o f e s s i o n s , commercial e n t e r p r i s e s and p r o f e s s i o n a l 
i n d u s t r i e s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , the number of women working i n the 
f o l l o w i n g i n d u s t r i e s t r i p l e d from 1866-1911: r u b b e r , paper 
and c a r d b o a r d , metals and c h e m i c a l s . The food i n d u s t r y was 
an i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e employer of female w o r k e r s . 

G u i l b e r t ' s s t u d y , I b i d . , 18, documented the f a c t t h a t 
women's wages were as much as o n e - h a l f to o n e - t h i r d lower 
than t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s . A c c o r d i n g to G u i l b e r t , I b i d . , 
20, t h e i r lower wages and t h e i r a b i l i t y to perform mechanized 
t a s k s favoured t h e i r employment and i n some cases they 
r e p l a c e d male workes. Female workers were p r e f e r r e d i n s m a l l 
i n d u s t r i e s such as f a b r i c and f o o d , e s p e c i a l l y i n the P a r i s 
a r e a . Where p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h and knowledge of machinery was 
important such as m e t a l l u r g y , male workers were g i v e n 
p r e f e r e n c e . 

G u i l b e r t , I b i d . , 25, p o i n t e d out t h a t female 
unemployment was l e s s p r o b l e m a t i c than male unemployment 
where the h i g h e s t unemployment was i n the f o l l o w i n g male-
dominated a r e a s : c o n s t r u c t i o n , stonework, metalwork, wood 
i n d u s t r i e s , l e a t h e r and s k i n s , f o l l o w e d by the female-
dominated f a b r i c and food i n d u s t r i e s . By 1906, while 
m e c h a n i z a t i o n had changed the c o n d i t i o n s of the labour 
s t r u c t u r e i n favour of the employment of women i n i n d u s t r i e s 
p r e v i o u s l y dominated by men, the s a l a r i e s of female workers 
were v e r y much lower. 

As G u i l b e r t ' s study shows, I b i d . , 432-433, t h e r e were 
male workers who o r g a n i z e d t o r e s i s t the inroads made by 
female workers i n t r a d i t i o n a l l y male-dominated i n d u s t r i e s . 
S t r i k e s by male s y n d i c a l i s t s a g a i n s t the employment of women 
l e s s e n e d as women's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the s y n d i c a t e s 
i n c r e a s e d . Female membership i n the s y n d i c a t e s t r i p l e d 

81 



between 1900-1914 i n s p i t e o£ male o p p o s i t i o n In c e r t a i n 
a r e a s . There were few women a c t i v i s t s i n the s t r i k e s and the 
problems of women workers were not c o n s i d e r e d important and 
were r a r e l y i n c l u d e d i n the agenda of the many congresses 
which were dominated by R e v o l u t i o n a r y S y n d i c a l i s t s . G u i l b e r t 
does suggest, I b i d . 406, t h a t s e v e r a l of the m i l i t a n t l e a d e r s 
were i n t e r e s t e d i n the economic emancipation of women workers 
and spoke out as i n d i v i d u a l s . 

49 
Boxer and Quataert, S o c i a l i s t Women, 95, e x p l a i n e d how 

S o c i a l i s t u n i t y had an e f f e c t upon the f e m i n i s t movement 
which was d i v i d e d by the issue of c l a s s . S o c i a l i s t f e m i n i s t s 
viewed bourgeois f e m i n i s t s as e x p l o i t e r s of working c l a s s 
women--they " e x p l o i t e d t h e i r maids." Boxer and Quataert, 
I b i d . , 96-97, d i s c u s s how these d i f f e r e n c e s took on a p u b l i c 
character, i n 1902 when bourgeois f e m i n i s t s " . . . sponsored 
by a c l e r i c a l , n a t i o n a l i s t p a r t y , announced t h e i r forthcoming 
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n an e l e c t o r a l campaign, . . . " S o c i a l i s t 
f e m i n i s t s responded with a request f o r a p u b l i c debate on the 
issue of c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e w i t h i n the f e m i n i s t movement as 
f o l l o w s : '"Members of the bourgeois c l a s s and thus 
b e n e f i c i a r i e s of the present s o c i a l order which guarantees 
your p r i v i l e g e s . . . you have come f o r t h to defend the r i g h t 
to p a r a s i t i s m which s o c i e t y a f f o r d s you .. . . " The 
bourgeois f e m i n i s t s r e f u s e d the debate. S o c i a l i s t f e m i n i s t s , 
unable to j o i n the newly formed S.F.I.O. as an autonomous 
group i n 1905, were subsumed w i t h i n the p a r t y i t s e l f . 

Although women d i d not have the vote t h i s was a major 
step f o r the S o c i a l i s t f e m i n i s t s who now had the o p p o r t u n i t y 
to e f f e c t emancipation i n p o l i t i c a l terms and the c o m p e t i t i o n 
between the sexes became secondary to c l a s s antagonism. Paul 
Lafargue's t e x t "On the Woman Question" of 1904, condensed 
and p u b l i s h e d under the t i t l e "La Femme" i n L'Humanite on 
August 14th, 1906, was a p l e a f o r female emancipation i n 
r e c o g n i t i o n of c l a s s s t r u g g l e . His c r i t i q u e provided a 
d e f i n i t i o n of c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e and the double o p p r e s s i o n of 
p e t i t bourgeois and working c l a s s women. C a l l i n g f o r 
c o o p e r a t i o n between the sexes he b e l i e v e d t h a t ". . . l a f i n 
de l a s e r v i t u d e feminine, qui commence avec l a c o n s t i t u t i o n 
de l a p r o p r i e t y p r i v e e et qui ne peut prendre f i n qu'avec son 
a b o l i t i o n . " 

As s t a t e d i n the minutes of the 3rd N a t i o n a l Congress  
of the S.F.I.O. a t Limoges, November 1st - 4th, 1906, 150-
151, Madeleine P e l l e t i e r , a prominent 20th c e n t u r y f e m i n i s t 
was thus able to introduce the f o l l o w i n g r e s o l u t i o n : 
"Considerant que d e j a en 1891 l e C o n s e i l i n t e r n a t i o n a l de 
B r u x e l l e s i n v i t a i t l e s s o c i a l i s t e s de tous l e s pays a 
a f f i r m e r energiquement, dans l e u r programme, l ' e g a l i t e 
complete des deux sexes et a abroger l e s l o i s qui mettent l a 
femme en dehors du d r o i t commun e t p u b l i c ; Considerant que, 
d e p u i s , l e P a r t i s o c i a l i s t e s ' e s t t o u j o u r s , dans l a q u e s t i o n 

82 



des sexes, prononce dans ce sens; Le Congres n a t i o n a l 
d e c l a r e l e g i t i m e et urgente 1 ' e x t e n s i o n du s u f f r a g e 
u n i v e r s e l aux femmes et charges l e s e l u s du p a r t i de 
p r e s e n t e r dans ce sens, autant que p o s s i b l e c e t t e annee, un 
p r o j e t l o i a l a Chambre." Thus, r e c o r d e d i n the minutes of 
the 4th N a t i o n a l Congress of the S . F . I . O . a t Nancy, August 
11th - 14th, 1907, 536, i s the acceptance of the above 
r e s o l u t i o n and i t s o f f i c i a l a d o p t i o n by the p a r t y upon motion. 

The q u e s t i o n of c l a s s was an i s s u e i n the I n t e r n a t i o n a l 
S u f f r a g a t e movement as w e l l . The c o n s e r v a t i v e P a r i s i a n Le  
Temps used the s u f f r a g a t e movement as an o p p o r t u n i t y to 
c r i t i c i z e s o c i a l i s m . P o i n t i n g to the f a c t t h a t female 
s u f f r a g a t e s were from the n o b l e , bourgeois and working c l a s s 
i t was suggested oh June 15, 1906 t h a t : "Ce simple f a i t ne 
m o n t r e - t - i l pas 1 1 i n s u f f i s a n c e de l a c o n c e p t i o n m a t e r i a l i s t e 
de l ' h i s t o r e d ' o u decoule l a d o c t r i n e s o c i a l i s t e ? " On the 
other hand Jean L o n g u e t ' s a r t i c l e "Feminisme et S o c i a l i s m e , " 
i n the L'Humanite of June 19, 1907, e x p l a i n e d the n e c e s s i t y 
of working c l a s s f e m i n i s t a c t i o n . He quoted an E n g l i s h 
s u f f r a g a t e who had spoken to a P a r i s audience as a woman of 
the p r o l e t a r i a t as f o l l o w s : "'Pour nous, i l n ' y a pas l u t t e  
de sexe, ma i s l u t t e des c l a s s e s . C ' e s t pour et par l e 
s o c i a l i s m e qu'avec des m i l l i e r s d ' o u v r i e r e s a n g l a i s e s nous 
l u t t o n s pour l e s d r o i t s p o l i t i q u e s des femmes." Longuet, 
i n d i c a t e d h i s t o t a l agreement, and concluded t h a t "Cette 
p e n e t r a t i o n du mouvement f e m i n i s t e parmi l e s femmes du 
p r o l e t a r i a t . . . " was e s s e n t i a l . 

G u i l b e r t , Les Femmes et L ' O r g a n i s a t i o n S y n d i c a l e , 435, 
r e v e a l e d the ways i n which female workers t h r e a t e n e d male 
workers i n s i t u a t i o n s where they were p e r f o r m i n g the same 
jobs and where m a c h i n e - a s s i s t e d labour negated the need f o r 
some s p e c i a l i z e d q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n was s e c t o r 
s p e c i f i c and was more p r e v a l e n t i n " . . . l a t y p o g r a p h i c dans 
c e r t a i n e s p r o f e s s i o n s des metaux, dans l e s c u i r s et peaux, 
v o i r e meme dans c e r t a i n s s e c t e u r s de 1 1 a l i m e n t a t i o n . " 
G u i l b e r t , I b i d . , 228, e x p l a i n e d t h a t i t was the male-
dominated r e f o r m i s t s y n d i c a t e i n the book i n d u s t r y , which was 
i n f l u e n c e d by Proudhon's a n t i - f e m i n i s m and was r e s i s t e n t to 
female workers. As w e l l , G u i l b e r t quoted s t a t i s t i c s from the 
O f f i c e du T r a v a i l of 1890-1908 to show t h a t : "Le nombre 
t o t a l des greves d'hommes demandant l e r e n v o i d ' o u v r i e r e s 
s ' e l e v e , au cours de ces d i x - h u i t annees, a 56 dont 6 en 1907 
et 3 en 1908." 

G u i l b e r t ' s s t u d y , I b i d . , 174, r e v e a l e d t h a t i t was the 
a n a r c h i s t press which was a n t i - f e m i n i s t i n terms of female 
p o l i t i c a l e m a n c i p a t i o n . The a n a r c h i s t s saw the women's 
s t r u g g l e f o r t h e i r r i g h t to vote as t y p i c a l of i n t e l l e c t u a l s 
and of the b o u r g e o i s . T h e r e f o r e , i t can be shown t h a t 
a l t h o u g h the a n a r c h i s t s promoted the concept of the b e n e f i t 
of e d u c a t i o n f o r women f o r economic independance, they p l a c e d 
i d e o l o g i c a l l i m i t s on complete female e m a n c i p a t i o n . 

See a l s o Madeleine R e b e r i o u x ' s a r t i c l e " L ' O u v r i e r e , " i n 

83 



J e a n - P a u l A r o n , M i s e r a b l e et g l o r l e u s e l a femme du XIXe  
s i e c l e ( P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e Artheme F a y a r d , 1980), 77, where 
she argued t h a t the unequal c o n d i t i o n s which faced women 
workers made i t d i f f i c u l t f o r them to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the 
s t r i k e s and t h a t " . . . feminisme o u v r i e r — e n France i l 
n ' e x i s t e p a s . . . " L e f r a n c , Le Mouvement S y n d i c a l e , 138, 
s t a t e d t h a t the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y was under the i n f l u e n c e of 
the G u e s d i s t s . Mayeur and R e b e r i o u x , The T h i r d R e p u b l i c , 
249, concluded t h a t the workers of the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y 
(which was dominated by female l a b o u r ) d i d not p a r t i c i p a t e i n 
the s t r i k e of May 1, 1906. 

50 
L o u i s C h e v a l i e r , C l a s s e s l a b o r l e u s e s et C l a s s e s  

danqereuses. 680. 

51 
I b i d . , 647. 

52 
I b i d . , 613. 

53 
I b i d . , 650. 

54 
I b i d . , 685. 

55 
S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m , 45. 

56 
L i n d a N o c h l i n , "The Imaginary O r i e n t , " A r t i n A m e r i c a , 

7 (May 1983): 189. 

57 
I b i d . 

58 
C a m i l l e M a u c l a i r , The Great F r e n c h P a i n t e r s (London: 

Duckworth and C o . , 1903), 98. T h o r n t o n , Les O r i e n t a l i s t e s  
P e i n t r e s Voyaqeurs, 21, noted t h a t while O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g 
had d e c l i n e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , the F r e n c h S o c i e t y of 
O r i e n t a l i s t P a i n t e r s was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1893 when France was 
becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e r e s t e d i n A l g e r i a . O r i e n t a l i s t 
p a i n t i n g a l s o c o n t i n u e d to f l o u r i s h i n Belgium i n r e l a t i o n to 
B e l g i u m ' s c o l o n i a l i s t i n t e r e s t s i n the A f r i c a n Congo. 

59 . 
M a u c l a i r , The Great F r e n c h P a i n t e r s , 85. 

84 



60 
I b i d . 

61 
I b i d . , 98. 

62 
J . - P . C r e s p e l l e , l e s m a l t r e s de l a b e l l e epoque 

( P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e H a c h e t t e , 1966), 65. 

63 
N o c h l i n , "The Imaginary O r i e n t " , 123. 

64 
I b i d . 

65 
I b i d . , 123-124. 

66 
I b i d . , 124. 

67 
I b i d . 

68 
I b i d . , 125. 

69 
S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m , 208-209. See a l s o : Gustave Le Bon, 

The Psychology of Peoples (London: T . F i s h e r Unwin, 1899), 
70, wherein Le Bon expressed h i s b e l i e f t h a t the Romans were 
the most c i v i l i z e d race before being d e s t r o y e d by the 
b a r b a r i a n s . Le Bon, I b i d . , 48-49, a l s o c o n s i d e r e d c r o s s -
b r e e d i n g between men and women u n s u c c e s s f u l u n l e s s i t was 
between f a i r l y s i m i l a r s p e c i e s (In t h i s argument, human 
beings were posed as not a l l being of the same s p e c i e s ) . Le 
Bon f u r t h e r argued t h a t humanity was c a t e g o r i z e d and graded 
a c c o r d i n g to the degree of c i v i l i z a t i o n of the d i f f e r e n t 
s p e c i e s . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , i n t h i s c o n s t r u c t , women were not 
viewed as b e i n g of the same s p e c i e s as men. T h e r e f o r e , 
a c c o r d i n g to t h i s t h e o r y , R o c h e g r o s s e 1 s women can be 
understood as both r a c i a l l y and s e x u a l l y i n f e r i o r to the 
" c i v i l i z e d " male. 

70 
N o c h l i n , "The Imaginary O r i e n t " , 122. 

71 
"Societe des A r t i s t e s F r a n c a i s , " L ' I l l u s t r a t i o n , A p r i l 

28, 1906. T h i s e n t i r e issue was devoted to a p h o t o g r a p h i c 
d i s p l a y of the 1906 S a l o n . 

85 



• 72 
V i c t o r de Swarte, "Salon des A r t i s t e s F r a n c a i s , " Le 

M a t i n , A p r i l 30, 1906, 4. 

73 
L o u i s V a u x c e l l e s , Salons de 1906 ( P a r i s : M a n z i , Joyant 

et C i e , 1906), 45 and 83. 

74 
Yvanhoe Rambosson, " L ' E c o l e F r a n c a i s e d ' A l g e r , " Le  

J o u r n a l des A r t s , June 9, 1906, No. 45, p . 1. T h i s 
p u b l i c a t i o n was the e x p l i c i t y l a b e l l e d the "Chronique de 
l ' H S t e l Drouot" and r e f e r r e d to the s a l e s and e x h i b i t s of a 
h i g h l y commercial a r t i s t i c e n t e r p r i s e s e r v i n g the French a r t 
market. 

75 
Yvanhoe Rambosson, " L ' E c o l e F r a n c a i s e d ' A l g e r , " , p . 1. 

76 
I b i d . 

77 
I b i d . 

78 
L e o p o l d Honore, "Rochegrosse," Le J o u r n a l des A r t s , 

June 13, 1906, No. 46, p . 1. 

79 
I b i d . 

80 
I b i d . 

81 
V a u x c e l l e s , Salons de 1906, 46-47. A black and white 

p r i n t r e p r o d u c t i o n of Rochegrosse's p a i n t i n g , La J o i e Rouge 
appeared i n the 1906 e d i t i o n of t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n i n s e r t e d 
between pages 45 and 46. T h o r n t o n , Les O r i e n t a l i s t e s  
P e i n t r e s Voyageurs, 20, mentioned t h a t popular O r i e n t a l i s t 
p a i n t i n g s were reproduced to reach a wider market. M i c h e l 
L a c l o t t e and Genevieve Lacambre, Le Musee du Luxembourg  
en 1874 ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s , des Musees Nationaux, 1974), 11, 
e x p l a i n e d the c a r e l e s s manner i n which p a i n t i n g s bought by 
the s t a t e were i m p r o p e r l y documented and sent o f f to 
p r o v i n c i a l museums or put i n t o s t o r a g e . Lacambre, I b i d . , 11, 
a l s o made r e f e r e n c e to the c r i t i c , C h a r l e s M o r i c e ' s statement 
t h a t the Luxembourg, which was f i l l e d with e r o t i c and e x o t i c 
p a i n t i n g s of women purchased by the s t a t e , should be c a l l e d 
"'une maison de p a s s e . ' " 

86 



82 
V a u x c e l l e s , Salons_de_19 06, 46-47. 

83 
V i n c e n t C o n f e r , France and A l g e r i a : The Problem of  

C i v i l and P o l i t i c a l Reform, 1870-1920 ( S y r a c u s e , New Y o r k : 
Syracuse U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), 6-7, d i s c u s s e d F r e n c h 
hegemony i n A l g e r i a which was under French c o n t r o l by the 
1840's. C o n f e r , I b i d . , 7, suggested t h a t i n the 1870's the 
government of the T h i r d R e p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d the 
c u l t u r a l d i v i s i o n s which produced r a c i a l t e n s i o n . While 
A l g e r i a n - b o r n Jews were c o n s i d e r e d to be French c i t i z e n s the 
Moslem A r a b s , who comprised the major p o p u l a t i o n group were 
denied these same r i g h t s u n t i l the decree which " . . . 
embodied an e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e for Arab and Berber 
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . . . " was put i n t o p r a c t i c e i n 1908. 
A c c o r d i n g to C o n f e r , p r i o r to t h a t t i m e , the Moslems had no 
r i g h t s as French c i t i z e n s . C o n f e r , I b i d . , 38, e x p l a i n e d how 
the f a c t t h a t A l g e r i a n Jews were c o n s i d e r e d to be F r e n c h 
c i t i z e n s produced intense a n t i - s e m i t i c f e e l i n g amdist the 
F r e n c h A l g e r i a n s . 

84 
Mayeur and R e b e r i o u x , The T h i r d R e p u b l i c , 273. 

85 
R . D . Anderson, France 1870-1914, 118. 

86 
S t u a r t M i c h a e l P e r s e l l , The F r e n c h C o l o n i a l Lobby 1889- 

1938 ( S t a n f o r d , C a l i f o r n i a : Hoover I n s t i t u t i o n P r e s s , 1983), 
18, documented the ambitious program of F r e n c h I m p e r i a l i s t s 
from the 1890's. P e r s e l l , I b i d . , quoted from a p r o v o c a t i v e 
speech by a F r e n c h e x p l o r e r who had r e c e i v e d p r i v a t e 
f i n a n c i n g f o r e x p e d i t i o n s i n t o A f r i c a and which had been 
p u b l i s h e d i n the o f f i c i a l j o u r n a l of the Comite de l ' A f r i q u e 
F r a n c a i s e , L ' A f r i q u e f r a n c a i s e , 1891. The content of h i s 
statement i s evidence of the g l o b a l c o m p e t i t i o n f o r c o n t r o l 
i n A f r i c a . The e x p l o r e r proposed t h a t " ' F r a n c e has a duty to 
expand i n A f r i c a . I t must e s t a b l i s h a base of a c t i o n f o r 
f u t u r e expansion . . . Our d u t y i s to r e a l i z e the union of 
West, C e n t r a l , and North A f r i c a . . . We must do t h i s to beat 
the Germans and E n g l i s h i n e s t a b l i s h i n g o u r s e l v e s i n the 
a r e a . ' " P e r s e l l , I b i d . , 181, note 52 r e f e r r e d to h i s source 
f o r the above quote as the BCAF, J a n u a r y , 1891. 

87 
P e r s e l l , The French C o l o n i a l Lobby, 24. P e r s e l l 

r e f e r r e d to the importance of the French F o r e i g n L e g i o n to 
the I m p e r i a l i s t e n t e r p r i s e s and i t s f u n c t i o n to ensure French 
e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n c o n t r o l l i n g i n d i g e n o u s , u p r i s i n g s . A l l 
a u t h o r i t y was p l a c e d i n the hands of F r e n c h o f f i c e r s . 

87 



P e r s e l l , I b i d . , 8, e x p l a i n e d t h a t from 1889 F r e n c h 
I m p e r i a l i s t concepts were d i s s e m i n a t e d through the c o l o n i a l 
lobby which sponsored a s e r i e s of n a t i o n a l c o l o n i a l 
c o n g r e s s e s . P e r s e l l , I b i d . , 33, used as an example a 
r e f e r e n c e to " L ' E x p o s i t i o n C o l o n i a l e au B o i s de V i n c e n n e s , " 
i n an a r t i c l e of May 18, 1907 i n L ' I l l u s t r a t i o n , which 
d e s c r i b e d the n a t i v e v i l l a g e s which were s e t up to d e p i c t " l a 
v i e i n d i g e n e . " ( T h i s was F r e n c h I m p e r i a l i s t propoganda at 
work, through i t s i d e o l o g y which counted on the a l l u r e of 
e r o t i c and e x o t i c s c a n t i l y c l a d n a t i v e s to e x c i t e the 
p u b l i c . ) P e r s e l l , I b i d . , 17, has suggested t h a t i n f a c t , 
the a s s o c i a t i o n of the Comite de l " A f r i q u e w i t h F r e n c h 
I m p e r i a l i s t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n North and West A f r i c a was so 
c l o s e t h a t the Comite " . . . seemed to almost l e a d the 
government." P e r s e l l , I b i d . , 35, has o u t l i n e d how 
C o l o n i a l i s t l e c t u r e s , a s s o c i a t i o n s , newspapers, congresses 
and e x p o s i t i o n s p r o l i f e r a t e d and s t a t e d : " P o s s i b l y the most 
i n f l u e n t i a l g a t h e r i n g of c o l o n i a l i s t s d u r i n g the T h i r d 
R e p u b l i c was a s s o c i a t e d with the 1906 M a r s e i l l e E x p o s i t i o n , 
the Congres c o l o n i a l de M a r s e i l l e . " P e r s e l l , I b i d . , 
r e p o r t e d t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s i n c l u d e d d e p u t i e s , s e n t a t o r s , 
m i n i s t e r s , mayors, p r e s i d e n t s of chamber of commerce, 
businessmen and academics as w e l l as " . . . r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s 
of more than t h i r t y c o l o n i a l s o c i e t i e s and newspapers . . . " 

C o n f e r , France and A l g e r i a , 38-39, documented the 
process by which new c o l o n i a l p o l i c i e s were implemented i n 
North A f r i c a and t h e i r e f f e c t on the indigenous p e o p l e s . A 
Moslem u p r i s i n g known as the "Marguerite A f f a i r " of 1901 
o c c u r r e d i n the Department of Oran which shared a border with 
northwestern Morocco. F r e n c h m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n was 
j u s t i f i e d when f i v e European s e t t l e r s and a policemen l o s t 
t h e i r l i v e s as a r e s u l t of the e v e n t . Arab s u r v i v o r s were 
t r i e d i n a F r e n c h c o u r t (where they had no r i g h t s as French 
c i t i z e n s ) i n the south of F r a n c e . Debate over the i s s u e of 
a s s i m i l a t i o n or a s s o c i a t i o n r e s u l t e d i n the s e p a r a t i o n of the 
n a t i v e Arabs and Berbers from the Europeans to c l e a r l y 
d i s t i n g u i s h and ensure the s u p e r i o r i t y of the Europeans. A 
F r e n c h R e p u b l i c a n a n t i - s e m i t i c element blamed the u p r i s i n g on 
the Jews. C o n f e r , I b i d . , 40-41, d e s c r i b e d the c o n c l u s i o n to 
the i n c i d e n t — t h e French c o l o n i s t s were g i v e n more 
" p r o t e c t i o n " and the n a t i v e s more government r e s t r i c t i o n s . 
The s o c i a l i s t s sympathized with the n a t i v e s and t h e r e were 
some R e p u b l i c a n s who c a l l e d f o r equal t r e a t m e n t . However, 
the G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l of A l g e r i a , J o n n a r t , blamed the problems 
i n A l g e r i a on economic l o s s e s from reduced s a l e s of A l g e r i a n 
wine to France and the f a n a t i c i s m of r e l i g i o u s Moslems,. 

C o n f e r , I b i d . , 46, has shown t h a t by 1903 p o l i c i e s 
which i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d human d i f f e r e n c e were i n e f f e c t i n 
A l g e r i a and a s s i m i l a t i o n was r e j e c t e d i n favour of 
a s s o c i a t i o n . The debate s u r r o u n d i n g the problem of s o l u t i o n s 
to c o n t r o l l i n g the North A f r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n had i n c l u d e d 
s u g g e s t i o n s of " e l i m i n a t i o n or e x t e r m i n a t i o n " of n a t i v e s . 

88 



They were r e j e c t e d as i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r c i v i l i s e d Frenchmen 
but t h i s type of Inhuman behaviour was seen as a p o s s i b l e 
"* . . . p o l i c y of the Moslems themselves i f they should g a i n 
c o n t r o l of North A f r i c a from the F r e n c h . ' " A c c o r d i n g to 
C o n f e r , I b i d . , these views were expressed by P a u l Azan, a 
c a r e e r s o l d i e r i n the F r e n c h A l g e r i a n m i l i t a r y who " . . . 
l a t e r became G e n e r a l Azan, w r i t e r on A l g e r i a n h i s t o r y and 
head of the S e r v i c e h i s t o r i q u e de l'Armee . . . " 

88 
P e r s e l l , The F r e n c h C o l o n i a l Lobby, 48-49,. e x p l a i n e d 

the process whereby French expansion i n t o Morocco " . . . was 
a c l a s s i c i m p e r i a l i s t v e n t u r e . " In 1904 The Comite du Maroc 
was e s t a b l i s h e d by members of the Comite de l ' A f r i q u e 
f r a n c a i s e to educate and i n f l u e n c e French p u b l i c o p i n i o n 
under the l e a d e r s h i p of Eugene E t i e n n e , the A l g e r i a n deputy 
i n the F r e n c h p a r l i a m e n t . P e r s e l l , I b i d . , 51, e x p l a i n e d t h a t 
access to a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and markets were promised to 
F r e n c h c o l o n i a l i s t s who were encouraged to s e t t l e i n oases on 
the border between A l g e r i a and Morocco. P e r s e l l , I b i d . , 51-
52, concluded t h a t E t i e n n e ' s n e o - c o l o n i a l i s t p o l i c i e s 
dominated F r e n c h f o r e i g n p o l i c y . 

Jack D. E l l i s , The F r e n c h S o c i a l i s t s and the Problem of  
the Peace 1904-1914 ( C h i c a g o : L o y o l a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 
1967), 57, documented the s i g n i f i c a n c e of F r e n c h f o r e i g n 
p o l i c y and F r e n c h I m p e r i a l i s m i n r e l a t i o n to the German 
c h a l l e n g e to F r e n c h hegemony i n A f r i c a when K a i s e r Wilhelm II 
landed a t the p o r t of T a n g i e r on March 31, 1905. E l l i s , 
I b i d . , 59-60, e x p l a i n e d t h a t i n order to d i m i n i s h the t e n s i o n 
between Germany and F r a n c e , an I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference was 
h e l d a t A l g e c i r a s , January to A p r i l , 1906. F r e n c h and 
Spanish i n t e r e s t s were upheld and they won the r i g h t to 
p o l i c e the p o r t s . T h i s outcome i n c r e a s e d the t e n s i o n s 
between Germany and France and inflamed the n e o - n a t i o n a l i s m 
of the extreme r i g h t i n F r a n c e . 

89 
I b i d . , 60-61. E l l i s I b i d . , d e s c r i b e d how l o c a l r i o t s 

brought F r e n c h s h i p s to the p o r t of T a n g i e r and q u e l l e d the 
r i o t w i t h the use of m i l i t a r y f o r c e . By 1907 F r e n c h 
s o c i a l i s t s were openly c h a l l e n g i n g the use of m i l i t a r y means 
to c o n t r o l n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n s i n c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r i e s i n 
p a r l i a m e n t . 

90 
As s t a t e d i n note 13 above, the M i d i u p r i s i n g s from 

March to June, 1907 were the r e s u l t of a depressed wine 
market which s u f f e r e d from the promotion of A l g e r i a n wine by 
the F r e n c h I m p e r i a l i s t s and the growth of l a r g e 
i n d u s t r i a l i z e d i n t e r e s t s i n s o u t h e r n F r a n c e . The c o m p e t i t i o n 
f o r the wine market squeezed out the s m a l l landowners and 
caused r e a l h a r d s h i p for them and the r u r a l l a b o u r e r s . F61ix 

89 



Napo, 1907: La R e v o l t e des Vignerons (Toulouse: Domaine 
O c c i t a n , 1971), 53, has c a r e f u l l y documented how t h i s 
movement a g a i n s t the F r e n c h government took on a l a r m i n g 
p r o p o r t i o n s when Spanish and A l g e r i a n workers j o i n e d the 
s t r u g g l e of the s m a l l land owners and l a r g e segments of the 
taxpayers i n the M i d i . Numbering 600,000, the p r o t e s t o r s 
r e f u s e d to pay t a x e s . The movement was so massive t h a t 
s o c i a l i s t s were o p t i m i s t i c about the outcome. However, t h i s 
optimism became a lament when massacres of p r o t e s t o r s 
f o l l o w e d . An a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "La C r i s e V i t i c o l e : On 
demissione en masse et l e s Troupes se m u t i n e n t , " L ' H u m a n i t e , 
of June 12, 1907, p . 1, r e p o r t e d on the f a c t t h a t the troops 
who were r e c r u i t e d l o c a l l y r e f u s e d to take measures a g a i n s t 
the people from t h e i r own r e g i o n and i n f a c t mutineed. See 
a l s o " L ' E t a t de Siege dans l e M i d i , " L 1 H u m a n i t e , of June 20, 
1907, p . 1. On June 19th the government sent more t r o o p s to 
q u e l l .the u n r e s t w i t h f o r c e and the June 22, 1907 h e a d l i n e i n 
L'Humanite read "Apres des M a s s a c r e s . " p . 1. 

91 
Mayeur and R e b e r i o u x , The T h i r d R e p u b l i c , 250-252. 

92 
S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m , 208. 

93 
Le Bon, The Psychology of P e o p l e s , 48-49 

94 
I b i d . , p . 70. 

95 
I b i d . 

96 
S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m , 232. 

97 
L e B o n The Psychology of P e o p l e s , 4-6. 

9 8 
A l i c e Widener, e d . , Gustave Le Bon: The Man and His  

Works ( I n d i a n a p o l i s : L i b e r t y P r e s s , 1979), 108. P a u l 
L a f a r g u e , The R i g h t to be Lazy and other S t u d i e s , 137-138, 
argued a g a i n s t such t h e o r i e s i n h i s a r t i c l e "On the Woman 
Q u e s t i o n " and proposed t h a t the l o s s of s u p e r i o r s t a t u s and 
the " b r u t a l s u b j u g a t i o n of women" i n contemorary s o c i e t y was 
a r e s u l t ' of a s o c i e t y based on p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y . He 
suggested t h a t the r e - i n s t i t u t i o n of common p r o p e r t y would 
a s s u r e " . . . the s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s of free and e q u a l women 
and men who w i l l not be u n i t e d nor s e p a r a t e d by s o r d i d 
m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s . . . " 

90 



CHAPTER II 

UGLY INTENTIONS 

Demetrios throws upon the t a b l e the lump of 
damp c l a y which he has brought t h e r e . He 
p r e s s e s i t , he kneads i t , he draws i t out 
a c c o r d i n g to the human form; a s o r t of 
barbarous monster i s born of h i s a r d e n t 
f i n g e r s ; he l o o k s . 

1 
P i e r r e L o u y s , 1896. 

I I e x i s t e deux s o r t e s d'hommes en b o l s , 
Les t e t e s precieusement t r a v a i l l e e s , 
R e c e p t a c l e s de d o c t r i n e s a d m i r a b l e s , 
E t l e s b r u t e s , j ' e n t e n d s non faconnees, 
E h ! s i , l e s b r u t e s et l e s buches. 

2 
A l f r e d J a r r y , c . 1906. 

Le forfit n ' e s t pas qu'un monde v e g e t a l . 
C ' e s t a u s s i un monde humain . . . l a s o c i e t e 
des hommes des b o i s f u t l ' u n e des s o c i e e t e s 
l e s p l u s anciennement s t r u c t u r e e s . 

3 
Annie K r i e g e l , 1968. 

The Blue Nude (Souvenir of B i s k r a ) , by M a t i s s e and Les 

D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n , by P i c a s s o were c o n c e i v e d i n 1906. 

While i t can be shown t h a t M a t i s s e completed h i s p r i m i t i v i z e d 

image by the s p r i n g of 1907, there i s s t i l l some c o n t r o v e r s y 

over the c o m p l e t i o n date of P i c a s s o ' s p a i n t i n g i n i t s p r e s e n t 

s t a t e . However, the p r i m i t i v e r e f e r e n c e i n the l a t t e r was 
4 

a c h i e v e d by the l a t e summer of 1907. In these Neo-

O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s , the P r i m i t i v i s m which c h a r a c t e r i z e s 

the female s u b j e c t s as "ugly" i s expressed through extreme 

91 



formal d i s t o r t i o n . When p l a c e d i n the g e n e r a l i z e d c o n t e x t of 

academic and a v a n t - g a r d e t r a d i t i o n s of the p a i n t e d female 

nude as e r o t i c a n d / o r e x o t i c , i t i s the extreme formal 

d i s t o r t i o n s produced by M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o which seems to 

d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e i r p a i n t i n g s from e i t h e r t r a d i t i o n . 

The European t r a d i t i o n of the p a i n t e d female nude as an 

o b j e c t of s e x u a l p l e a s u r e dates from the I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e . 

From the time of B o t t i c e l l i i n the 15th c e n t u r y and G i o r g i o n e 

and T i t i a n i n the 16th c e n t u r y , a c l a s s i c a l c o n t e x t was used 

to d i s t a n c e the viewer from r e a l i t y . By the 18th c e n t u r y , 

t h e r e were important c h a l l e n g e s to the p o r t r a y a l of such 

s u b j e c t matter which departed from t h i s c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n ; 

f o r example, Goya's e r o t i c and e x o t i c p a i n t i n g s , the Majas 

1797-1798. Here, the female s u b j e c t i s contemporized 

without a l l u s i o n to c l a s s i c a l myth. Through the 19th 

c e n t u r y , Ingres and Cabanel chose the c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n of 

m y t h o l o g i c a l r e f e r e n c e to mask the e r o t i c i s m of t h e i r female 

nudes. However, i t was Ingres who s u b t l y d i s t o r t e d h i s 

female nudes t o h e i g h t e n t h e i r e r o t i c i s m and o f t e n p l a c e d 

them i n p s e u d o - r e a l i s t i c O r i e n t a l s e t t i n g s to a c h i e v e an 

e x o t i c e f f e c t . In c o n t r a s t , D e l a c r o i x ' s O r i e n t a l i s m , as 

manipulated i n p a i n t i n g s such as The Death of S a r d a n a p a l a l u s , 

1827-8, p r e s e n t e d female nudes as o b j e c t s of male v i o l e n c e 

under the g u i s e of imaginary v i s i o n s . Manet's modernist 

approach to the female nude as p r o s t i t u t e i n the 19th c e n t u r y 

was an a v a n t - g a r d e n e g a t i o n of c l a s s i c a l and imaginary 

92 



r e f e r e n c e i n the t r a d i t i o n a l sense of the e r o t i c and e x o t i c . 

By the l a t e 19th c e n t u r y , Gauguin's i n t e r e s t i n the non-

western female s u b j e c t as a source f o r e r o t i c and e x o t i c 

r e p l a c e d c l a s s i c a l myth w i t h the myth of the p r i m i t i v e 

T a h i t i a n s o c i e t y . Cezanne's e a r l y p a i n t i n g s of nude females 

were obvious imaginary bourgeois v i s i o n s of the e r o t i c and 

e x o t i c . His l a t e b a t h i n g c o m p o s i t i o n s , which i n t e g r a t e d 

a b s t r a c t and d i s t o r t e d female nudes i n t o wooded l a n d s c a p e , 

were scenes of r u r a l F r e n c h p r i m i t i v i s m . 

In the s p e c i f i c c o n t e x t of t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n i n 1906 and 

1907 as P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the female, 

i t i s the emphasis on P r i m i t i v i s m of form which appears to 

d i f f e r e n t i a t e the p a i n t i n g s by M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o from the 

female s u b j e c t s p i c t u r e d i n contemporaneous o f f i c i a l and 

popular c u l t u r e . 

P l a c e d i n the c o n t e x t of a v a n t - g a r d e responses t o 

academic t r a d i t i o n , The Blue Nude and Les D e m o i s e l l e s  

d ' A v i g n o n , form a d i a l o g u e w i t h the new t a s t e i n the 20th 

c e n t u r y f o r the e r o t i c and e x o t i c as symbolized by the 

r e v i v a l of 19th C e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g and the debates 

a t t h a t time over the c o n t i n u a t i o n of the F r e n c h t r a d i t i o n i n 

p a i n t i n g . Ingres The T u r k i s h B a t h , c . 1852, was c e n t r a l to a 

r e t r o s p e c t i v e which he shared with Manet a t the 1905 S o c i e t y 

du S a l o n d'Automne. As w e l l , e x o t i c and e r o t i c female nudes 

by Gauguin and Cezanne and Cezanne's a b s t r a c t , d i s t o r t e d 

b a t h e r s were i n c r e a s i n g l y v i s i b l e a t the Salon d'Automne by 

93 



1905 and 1906 i n P a r i s . 

The q u e s t i o n t o be answered however, i s how the n o t i o n s 

of O r i e n t a l i s m and P r i m i t i v i s m i n f l u e n c e d the e r o t i c and 

e x o t i c a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t i n g s of women by M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o . 

These p a i n t i n g s , which were not reproduced from l i v e models, 

operated d i f f e r e n t l y w i t h i n the c o n t e x t of O r i e n t a l i s m and 

P r i m i t i v i s m i n r e l a t i o n to the i s s u e of c l a s s s t r u g g l e , as 

p i c t u r e d i n the F r e n c h p o p u l a r p r e s s , and the world of 

o f f i c i a l a r t where the r e v i v a l of O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g 

c o i n c i d e d w i t h n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m . 

The two p a i n t i n g s , The Blue Nude (Souvenir of B i s k r a ) 

and Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n are l i n k e d , through the s u b j e c t 
5 

of the "ugly" female as p r o s t i t u t e . M a t i s s e ' s The_ Blue 

Nude, i s i d e n t i f i e d as a p r o s t i t u t e through the known codes 

of academic p r a c t i c e wherein the p r o s t i t u t e was s i g n i f i e d by 
6 

her h o r i z o n t a l pose and her n u d i t y . the Blue Nude, however, 

p r o j e c t s a new v i s i o n of p r i m i t i v e s e x u a l i t y through her 

d i s t o r t e d form, which i s not t y p i c a l of e i t h e r O r i e n t a l i s t 

p a i n t i n g or of Ingres more s u b t l y I d e a l i z e d o d a l i s q u e s . She 

i s d i f f e r e n t and M a t i s s e has emphasized her d i f f e r e n c e by 

s t r e s s i n g the awkward c o n t o u r s of her form and by a p p l y i n g 

dashes of raw Fauve c o l o u r . There are a l l u s i o n s t o the 

Western i d e a l of female beauty i n the p a i n t i n g such as the 

h o r i z o n t a l pose I t s e l f , the female n u d i t y , and the i n d i r e c t 

gaze, however, the p a i n t i n g l a c k s the f i n i s h of t r a d i t i o n a l 

Salon p a i n t i n g . 

94 



The e r o t i c e f f e c t of The_Blue_Nude 1 s p r i m i t i v e s e x u a l i t y 

i s a c c o m p l i s h e d through the gross e x a g g e r a t i o n of her female 

anatomy and enhanced by the e x o t i c s e t t i n g . While she i s 

a l m o s t - l i f e - s i z e d , which produces an i l l u s i o n of her 

dominance i n the l a n d s c a p e , her inhumanity i s a c c e n t u a t e d by 

the humanly i m p o s s i b l e pose and the a b r u p t i n t r u s i o n of the 

canvas edge which c u t s o f f p a r t of her l e f t arm. Her s k i n i s 

d i f f e r e n t , i t i s t i n g e d w i t h blue which s e p a r a t e s her from 

the creamy-pink nudes of the Western academic and Salon 

t r a d i t i o n . The Blue Nude has the s t a t u s of a s u b j e c t e d , 

F r e n c h p o s s e s s i o n whose g r o t e s q u e l y s i z e d body and l a r g e f e e t 

are a t a n g i b l e c o n t r a s t to the Western i d e a l of female beauty 

and r e i n f o r c e her u n c i v i l i z e d n a t u r e . Her head appears t o be 

too s m a l l and y o u t h f u l to f i t the overblown m a t u r i t y of her 

form. The o v e r t s e x u a l i t y of her immense, t w i s t e d t o r s o i s 

emphasized by her r a i s e d s h o u l d e r s which t h r u s t her massive 

b r e a s t s outwards and dwarf her almost s u p e r f l u o u s head and 

neck. M a t i s s e has r e p l a c e d the academic c o n v e n t i o n of the 

c l a s s i c a l nude w i t h l o n g , f l o w i n g f a i r l o c k s w i t h a female 

whose h a i r i s s h o r t , b l a c k and d u l l . 

M a t i s s e has e x p l o i t e d the curve of the h i p of The Blue  

Nude i n the same way t h a t Rochegrosse had p i c t u r e d h i s s i n g l e 

nude i n the lower r i g h t c o r n e r of La J o i e Rouge, a c o n v e n t i o n 

t h a t goes back to T i t i a n ' s nudes. However, i n M a t i s s e ' s 

p a i n t i n g the l e f t l e g of The Blue Nude i s inhumanly f l u n g 

a c r o s s her body t o expose massive amounts of f l e s h y t h i g h and 

95 
( 



t o c o m p l e t e l y o b s c u r e , and t h e r e b y focus upon, her g e n i t a l 

a r e a . There i s an u n n a t u r a l angle to her buttock which 

c o n t r a s t s w i t h the curves of her f l e s h y b r e a s t s and t h i g h . 

These v i b r a t i n g curves are reproduced i n the r e p e t i t i v e blue 

forms of her b r e a s t and i n the dark depths of the mysterious 

shadow behind her t o r s o and a g a i n echoed by a palm f r o n d . 

S i m i l a r t o the models i n the c o u t u r i e r Salons of L ' A s s i e t t e  

au B e u r r e , d i s c u s s e d i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , The Blue Nude 

has been deformed to Increase the s i z e of her b r e a s t s and her 

b u t t o c k s . Reminiscent of Rochegrosse's e x o t i c landscape i n 

La J o i e Rouge, crimson flowers d e c o r a t e the l e f t s i d e of the 

canvas i n a l u s h p r o f u s i o n of s y m b o l i c f e r t i l i t y . T h e i r 

r e a l i s m c o l l i d e s with the a r t i f i c e and p l a s t i c u n r e a l i t y of 

the s t r a n g e l y - c o l o u r e d palm f r o n d s . However, w h i l e The  

Blue Nude f u n c t i o n s as a s e x u a l o b j e c t i n the same manner as 

Rochegrosse's powerless nudes, she i s not j u s t a r e p r o d u c t i v e 

symbol but a symbol of e x o t i c p r o s t i t u t i o n . Her p r i m i t i v e 

s e x u a l i t y marks her as an a l i e n sub-human s p e c i e s — a n "ugly" 

woman subjugated by and s u b j e c t to the demands of Western 

c i v i l i z a t i o n . Thus, w h i l e the p a i n t i n g i s of a d i s t o r t e d 

female nude w i t h p r i m i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , o f f e r i n g a 

c o n t r a s t to Roehdegrosse's c l a s s i c a l b e a u t i e s , as a female 

s u b j e c t The Blue Nude s t i l l remains c l o s e to the F r e n c h 

t r a d i t i o n of c l a s s i c a l l y posed r e c l i n i n g nudes. The 

d e c o r a t i v e f e a t u r e s of t y p i c a l O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g of 

96 



powerless women In imaginary e x o t i c landscape do not negate 

t h i s t r a d i t i o n . 

In c o n t r a s t , P i c a s s o ' s image i s both a n t i - c l a s s i c and 

n o n - d e c o r a t i v e and breaks w i t h the t r a d i t i o n of, r e c l i n i n g 

nudes and d e c o r a t i v e landscapes which are found i n the 

p a i n t i n g s of Rochegrosse and M a t i s s e . I n s t e a d , P i c a s s o ' s 

p a i n t i n g of f i v e females seems t o form a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p 

w i t h the i l l u s i o n s of female power produced i n the d i s c o u r s e 

of the popular p r e s s , f o r example, the images of female 

workers i n L ' A s s i e t t e au Beurre who f u n c t i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n 

with the c l a s s s t r u g g l e . However, P i c a s s o has e x p l o i t e d 

d i s t o r t e d form and r e j e c t e d c l a s s i c a l n o t i o n s of b e a u t y . 

P i c a s s o ' s c o m p o s i t i o n i s more complex than The Blue Nude 

and i n p l a c e of a s i n g l e f i g u r e t h e r e i s a group of f i v e 

n e a r l y l i f e - s i z e d female f i g u r e s of which four are s t a n d i n g 

and one i s s e a t e d . In comparison w i t h M a t i s s e ' s p a i n t i n g , 

P i c a s s o has a l s o i n c r e a s e d the e f f e c t of compressed space 

through the use of a b s t r a c t s p a t i a l i l l u s i o n and i n t e n s i f i e d 

the formal d i s t o r t i o n of h i s s u b j e c t s . In c o n t r a s t t o 

M a t i s s e ' s s i n g l e nude, which sprawls l a z i l y i n a c o n f i n e d 

l a n d s c a p e , g i v i n g the appearance she i s i n a dominant 

p o s i t i o n , P i c a s s o has arranged h i s f i g u r e s i n t h r e e 

d i s t i n c t i v e groups; a s i n g l e f i g u r e a t l e f t and two groups of 

two, one of which i s i n the middle p o r t i o n of the canvas and 

the other on the f a r r i g h t . At l e f t , stands a s o l i t a r y 

f i g u r e i n p r o f i l e , b r e a s t p l a t e i n p l a c e of c u r v i n g b r e a s t s 

97 



and she i s d r a p e d . At c e n t r e , the p a i r of f r o n t a l l y - p o s e d 

females are u n i f i e d by t h e i r i d e n t i c a l f a c i a l f e a t u r e s which 

are a t the same time p r o f i l e s and f r o n t a l views; t h e i r legs 

of s i m i l a r shape and c o l o u r do not a l i g n w i t h t h e i r b o d i e s . 

These f i g u r e s a l s o d i f f e r from the o t h e r s through t h e i r 

a p p a r e l ; one i s i n a u t i l i t a r i a n u n d e r s h i r t and the other 

p a r t i a l l y draped i n f a b r i c . The feminine form of both 

f i g u r e s , w h i l e e x p l i c i t , i s de-emphasized by the use of 

angles i n p l a c e of curves as a means t o h i g h l i g h t the 

feminine body. The two f i g u r e s on the r i g h t have been 

transformed i n t o sub-human forms w i t h mask-faces and a r e 

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by t h e i r poses and the degree to which each 

i s p r i m i t i v i z e d . The background f i g u r e ' s nude t o r s o has 

square p a t c h e s , which i n c o l o u r and form, resemble areas of 

t i l l e d l a n d yet are p l a c e d t o i n d i c a t e b r e a s t s : the lower 

p o r t i o n of her body i s p a r t i a l l y b l o c k e d by the seated 

f i g u r e . The p r i m i t i v e e f f e c t of t h i s seated f i g u r e i s 

a c h i e v e d through the l a c k of d e f i n i t i o n i n the hands, the 

i n c r e a s e d asymmetry of the mask-face and body, and the 

a m b i g u i t y and a g g r e s s i o n of the open-legged pose. Some 

p o r t i o n s of t h i s f i g u r e a r e obscured from view, s i m i l a r to 

the way i n which M a t i s s e had c u t o f f the arm of The Blue Nude 

a t the canvas edge. 

The most d i s t u r b i n g a s p e c t s of P i c a s s o ' s seated f i g u r e 

a r e her p r i m i t i v e f e a t u r e s , her a g g r e s s i v e pose and the 

d i s r u p t i o n of immediate gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The 

98 



d e l i b e r a t e l a c k of. d e t a i l , such a s t h e a b s e n c e of b r e a s t s a n d 

d e f i n i t i o n of female g e n i t a l i a , i n c r e a s e s the e f f e c t of 

gender c o n f u s i o n and p r o b l e m a t i z e s her i d e n t i t y as female. 

Female i d e n t i f i c a t i o n has been s h i f t e d t o the s t i l l - l i f e of 

f r u i t where d i s p l a c e d s e x u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are found i n 

t h e i r s y m b o l i c forms. In f a c t , a s t i l l - l i f e i s formed w i t h i n 

the p a i n t i n g i t s e l f by a w h i t e - c l o t h e d t a b l e laden w i t h t h i s 

f r u i t which t i l t s and j u t s i n t o the p i c t u r e space c u t t i n g 

through the f r o n t a l plane near the c e n t r e of the p a i n t i n g . 

The seated f i g u r e i s a c t i v a t e d by a gesture which suggests 

the e a t i n g of a p i e c e of the f l e s h - c o l o u r e d melon. T h i s 

d e v o u r i n g motion i s l i n k e d t o the t a b l e by the empty r i n d of 

the melon wedge. An i l l u s i o n of s e x u a l a g g r e s s i v e n e s s i s 

produced by the d e v o u r i n g motion and the open-legged pose of 

the most p r i m i t i v i z e d f i g u r e . P i c a s s o ' s D e m o i s e l l e s d i f f e r 

from the c l a s s i c a l n o t i o n of beauty e x h i b i t e d by the powerful 

nudes of the p o p u l a r p r e s s , from both the t r a d i t i o n a l 

powerless nudes manipulated by Rochegrosse and M a t i s s e ' s 

a l l u s i o n t o t h i s same t r a d i t i o n . . I n s t e a d , P i c a s s o has taken 

M a t i s s e ' s s u g g e s t i o n s of p r i m i t i v e form i n The Blue Nude to a 

new extreme. That i s , whereas M a t i s s e ' s d i s t o r t e d nude 

becomes an i n c r e a s i n g l y powerless o b j e c t through h i s 

c o n c e p t i o n of P r i m i t i v i s m , P i c a s s o ' s d i s t o r t e d nudes 

a c q u i r e powerful and t h r e a t e n i n g personas through h i s 

m a n i p u l a t i o n of P r i m i t i v i s m . 

Space i n the Les D e m o i s e l l e s d 1 A v i g n o n i s compressed, 

99 



fragmented and s h a l l o w and d e f i n e d by patches of s k y - b l u e and 

n a t u r a l e a r t h tones of r u r a l l a n d s c a p e . The f l o w i n g curves of 

the c u r t a i n a t the upper l e f t tend to become t e x t u r a l l y 

b r i t t l e and j a g g e d . While M a t i s s e had s t r e s s e d the e x o t i c 

and d e c o r a t i v e q u a l i t y of imaginary l a n d s c a p e , P i c a s s o 

d i s r u p t e d t h i s e f f e c t w i t h d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s of form, space and 

c o l o u r . P i c a s s o ' s s p a t i a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n i s i n t e n s i f i e d by 

the d i s j o i n t e d bodies and i n c o n s i s t e n t f l e s h t o n e s which are 

l i t by a h a r s h , even l i g h t . References to landscape and 

c u r t a i n s i n the compressed space produce an ambiguous 

i n t e r i o r / e x t e r i o r environment. The s t r i d e n c y of P i c a s s o ' s 

f i g u r e s a c t t o de-emphasize, d i s p l a c e and t r a n s f o r m any 

c o n s t r u c t i o n of p a s s i v e f e m i n i t y through gender i d e n t i t y , 

which, i n the case of the seated nude, i s symbolized i n the 

environment of the s t i l l - l l f e . P i c a s s o has not o n l y r e v e r s e d 

M a t i s s e ' s s t r a t e g y of e x p l o i t i n g the t r a d i t i o n of the 

overblown arabesque form of The Blue Nude but e x p l o i t e d 

M a t i s s e ' s a n g u l a r deformations to d e f e m i n i z e and p r i m i t i v i s e 

the f i g u r e s . 

P i c a s s o ' s f i g u r e s d i f f e r from p o p u l a r and o f f i c i a l 

images of the nude s p e c i f i c a l l y through t h e i r r e j e c t i o n of 

the Western i d e a l of female b e a u t y . H i s a g g r e s s i v e use of 

P r i m i t i v i s m a l s o c o n t r a s t s w i t h M a t i s s e ' s concern f o r the 

p r i m i t i v e s e x u a l i t y of the s u b m i s s i v e North A f r i c a n female. 

T h u s , w h i l e the female nudes i n Grandjouan's p o p u l a r images 

are p r e s e n t e d as powerful i n r e l a t i o n to working c l a s s 

100 



i s s u e s , and produce an i l l u s i o n which r e j e c t s t h e i r i d e n t i t y 

as "ugly" women, through the a p p r o p r i a t i o n of the Western 

i d e a l of female beauty, the nudes, as has a l r e a d y been 

d i s c u s s e d , are t h r e a t e n i n g i n r e l a t i o n to c l a s s s t r u g g l e . 

Rochegrosse's nudes i n h a b i t the world of o f f i c i a l a r t 

and a p p e a l d i r e c t l y to the male-dominated b o u r g e o i s c l a s s 

through t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n of the e r o t i c and e x o t i c without 

t h r e a t to French c u l t u r a l dominance or to Western male 

dominance i n terms of r a c e , sex or c l a s s . M a t i s s e ' s 

p r e s e n t a t i o n of h i s s e d u c t i v e p r i m i t i v e l y I n f e r i o r female 

nude supported the same v i e w p o i n t as Rochegrosse. At the 

same t i m e , i n s p i t e of the formal p r e s e n t a t i o n of The Blue  

Nude as a dominant f i g u r e , M a t i s s e ' s p r i m i t i v z e d nude 

e x h i b i t s a g r e a t e r degree of i n f e r i o r i t y and d o m i n a t i o n . 

P i c a s s o , on the other hand, transformed h i s female s u b j e c t s 

i n t o f i g u r e s of power and a g g r e s s i o n . The two most 

p r i m i t i v i z e d f i g u r e s on the f a r r i g h t appear to embody the 

image of the working c l a s s p r o s t i t u t e and a c t t o d i s r u p t the 

t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of the p o w e r l e s s , nude female 

p i c t u r e d f o r the enjoyment of the Western, b o u r g e o i s male. 

P i c a s s o ' s r e f e r e n c e to the working c l a s s through the s u b j e c t 

of the p r o s t i t u t e e x h b i t s an awareness of c l a s s s t r u g g l e 

which i s absent from M a t i s s e 1 s p a i n t i n g . 

T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n v i e w p o i n t between M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o 

can be i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e i r a r t i s t i c p r a c t i c e i n r e l a t i o n to 

the p r o d u c t i o n of The Blue Nude and Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n 

101 



i n 1906 and 1907. Although both a r t i s t s were p a r t of the 

same a v a n t - g a r d e c i r c l e i n P a r i s t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the 

a r t i s t i c world was not the same. Eager to p a r t i c i p a t e In the 

system, M a t i s s e had e x h i b i t e d h i s a r t i n both t r a d i t i o n a l and 
7 

p r o g r e s s i v e S a l o n s . P i c a s s o , on the c o n t r a r y , was-not 

showing i n a r t Salons a t t h i s t i m e ; I n s t e a d , h i s work was 

known i n the shops of a few s m a l l d e a l e r s and by the v i s i t o r s 

who had access to the p r i v a c y of h i s s t u d i o , which a l s o 
8 

f u n c t i o n e d as h i s home. C o n s i s t e n t w i t h M a t i s s e ' s p r a c t i c e , 
The Blue Nude was e x h i b i t e d a t the s p r i n g Sal on des 

9 

Independants of 1907 under the t i t l e T a b l e a u I I I . By 

showing a t the Independants, M a t i s s e was a b l e t o bypass a 

j u r y , d i r e c t l y address the bourgeois p u b l i c and i n v i t e i t s 

a t t e n d a n t c r i t i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n as w e l l as i t s p a t r o n a g e . 

P i c a s s o , i n c o n t r a s t , chose t o bypass the Sal on system 

e n t i r e l y , and to ignore the bourgeois p u b l i c , i t s c r i t i c a l 
i n t e r v e n t i o n and i t s p a t r o n a g e . I n s t e a d , he kept h i s 

p a i n t i n g i n h i s s t u d i o where i t was seen by a s e l e c t audience 
10 

of f r i e n d s , a r t i s t s , d e a l e r s and p a t r o n s . M a t i s s e 

succeeded i n l u r i n g a buyer immediately and h i s p a i n t i n g was 

purchased by Leo S t e i n , a p r i v a t e American c o l l e c t o r then 
11 

l i v i n g i n P a r i s . Y e t , except f o r two photographs from 1907 

and 1908, P i c a s s o ' s p a i n t i n g was known i n t h i s p e r i o d o n l y 
12 

through anecdote and memoir. 

A l t h o u g h , no known documented c r i t i c i s m of P i c a s s o ' s 

p a i n t i n g e x i s t s from 1907, t h e r e are three known p u b l i s h e d 

102 



c r i t i c i s m s of M a t i s s e ' s p a i n t i n g , each from a d i f f e r e n t 

c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . L o u i s V a u x c e l l e s , was the f i r s t to 

d e s c r i b e the p a i n t i n g i n h i s r e v i e w of the S a l o n f o r the 

l i b e r a l P a r i s i a n d a i l y , G i l B i a s . His view from the 

a n a r c h i s t l e f t p r o v i d e s a v i v i d d e s c r i p t i o n of M a t i s s e ' s nude 

as an "ugly" woman. 

J ' a v o u e ne pas comprendre. Une femme nue, 
l a i d e , etendue dans 1'herbe d'un b l e u 
opaque, sous des p a l m i e r s . Je ne v o u d r a i s , 
en quoi que ce f u t , f r o i s s e r un a r t i s t e dont 
je s a i s l ' a r d e u r , l a c o n v i c t i o n ; mais l e 
d e s s i n i c i m ' a p p a r a i t r u d i m e n t a i r e et l e 
c o l o r i s c r u e l ; l e bras d r o i t de l a nymphe 
homasse e s t p l a t et pesant; l e hanchement du 
corps deforme determine une arabesque de 
f e u i l l a g e a moins que ce ne s o i t 
1 ' i n c u r v a t i o n du f e u i l l a g e q u i motive l a 
courbe de l a femme. I I y a l a un e f f o r t 
d ' a r t tendant v e r s l ' a b s t r a i t , q u i m'echappe 
t o t a l e m e n t . 13 

V a u x c e l l e s d i s l i k e d the "ugly" a b s t r a c t i o n of the female form 

and r e v e a l e d h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r a r e a l i s t i c , l e s s i m a g i n a t i v e 

d i s t o r t i o n of f e m i n i n i t y which he f e l t had been s a c r i f i c e d to 

M a t i s s e ' s d e c o r a t i v e "arabesques." In the same r e v i e w , 

V a u x c e l l e s took s p e c i a l c a r e t o note t h a t the "Fauves" had by 

now r e c e i v e d o f f i c i a l a p p r o v a l and c o u l d no longer be 
14 

c o n s i d e r e d as a v a n t - g a r d e by the s p r i n g of 1907. 

A c r i t i q u e from the r i g h t by Georges D e s v a l l i e r e s 

r e f l e c t e d a c o n s e r v a t i v e v i e w p o i n t i n p r a i s e of M a t i s s e and 

e x p l a i n s the c o n n e c t i o n between d e c o r a t i v e form and o f f i c i a l 

a c c e p t a n c e . D e s v a l l i e r e s commented on The Blue Nude i n the 

Grande Revue', on A p r i l 10, 1907: 

103 



"Deormations v o u l u e s , un peu t r o p 
premeditees p e u t - e t r e , s u r t o u t dans l a 
grande f i g u r e . Grand e f f o r t a r e g a r d e r 
s e r i e u s e m e n t , a t t e n t i v e m e n t , respecteusement." 15 

D e s v a l l i e r e s d i d not o b j e c t t o the p r i m i t i v i z e d form of the 

nude but t o the overtness of M a t i s s e ' s formal d i s t o r t i o n . 

U n l i k e V a u x c e l l e s , D e s v a l l i e r e s approved of the d e c o r a t i v e 

form which V a u x c e l l e s had found d i s c o n c e r t i n g . 

C h a r l e s M o r i c e , c r i t i c f o r the Mercure and known f o r 

h i s sympathetic approach to the P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e , wrote 

h i s remarks under the t i t l e " A r t Moderne," i n the A p r i l 1 5 t h , 

1907 i s s u e . His d i s a p p r o v a l r e l a t e d to both the form and the 

content of M a t i s s e ' s p a i n t i n g and was expressed i n h i s 

d i s l i k e of t h i s 

"academie d i s l o q u e e : Tableau No. I l l ; 
I n q u i e t a n t e : p r e t e n t i e u s e , q u i ne s i g n i f i e 
r i e n ou ce p a r f a i t contentment de s o i dont 
l e s v r a i s mattres n ' o n t jamais connu que l e 
d e s i r . . . II s ' y o b s t i n e ; et i l y e s t 
s u i v i . F a u t - i l done r e g a r d e r de p l u s pres 
. . . ce T a b l e a u No. I l l , et t r i s t e m e n t y v o i r 
l e temoignage d e p l o r a b l e d'une impuissance 
aggravee de v a n i t e ? I I n ' y a , 1&, n i 
c o m p o s i t i o n , - - m a l g r e l a s i m p l i c i t y b a l b u t l a n t e 
du d e s s i n , on cherche 1 ' u n i t e du ' T a b l e a u , ' 
e l l e se perd dans l e s p l a n s q u i s ' e n t r e h e u r t e n t , 
dans l e s c o u l e u r s q u i r e f u s e n t de s ' a c c o r d e r , 
n i d e c o r a t i o n , n i e x p r e s s i o n , n i s t y l e . " 16 

I t was the l a c k of meaning—the emptiness of the content 

iwhich r e s u l t e d from the absence of formal c o h e s i v e n e s s and ah 

o v e r a l l harmony which d i s t u r b e d the S y m b o l i s t c r i t i c , M o r i c e . 

V a u x c e l l e s was the o n l y c r i t i c to acknowledge the 

s u b j e c t of M a t i s s e ' s p a i n t i n g as a female. Indeed, i t was 

M a t i s s e ' s p r l m i t l v i z a t i o n for the sake of d e c o r a t i o n which 

104 



V a u x c e l l e s read as m a s c u l i n i z i n g , commenting p a r t i c u l a r l y 

upon the deformed r i g h t arm of The Blue Nude. V a u x c e l l e s 

c a l l e d her an "ugly" and "masculine nymph" whose deformed 

curves form an u n n a t u r a l , a b s t r a c t p r e s e n t a t i o n merely f o r 

the sake of d e c o r a t i o n . I r o n i c a l l y , i t was t h i s v e r y manner 

of d e c o r a t i v e d e f o r m a t i o n of the f i g u r e which a t t r a c t e d 

D e s v a l l i e r e s and f o r which he gave M a t i s s e c r e d i t f o r h i s 

c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n - - a s i f M a t i s s e had been l o o k i n g a t a l i v e 

model. D e s v a l l i e e r e s o n l y concern was the obviousness of 

t h i s d e v i c e , not t h a t M a t i s s e had p r i m i t i v i z e d the form of 

h i s model. In c o n t r a s t , Morice saw The Blue Nude as a f a i l e d 

a v a n t - g a r d e response t o the academic t r a d i t i o n of the female 

nude which he blamed on M a t i s s e ' s f a i l u r e t o i n v e s t the forms 

with s i g n i f i c a n t meaning. To M o r i c e , the p a i n t i n g was 

n o t h i n g more than an empty symbol of the a r t i s t ' s s e l f -
17 

c o n c e i t . 

A year l a t e r , i n the s p r i n g of 1908, P i c a s s o ' s "ugly" 

women were c o n s i d e r e d to be the u g l i e s t . V i s i t e d i n h i s 

s t u d i o by the American a r t i s t / c r i t i c , G e l e t t B u r g e s s , P i c a s s o 

was i n t e r v i e w e d and the p a i n t i n g , Study by P i c a s s o , was 

photographed. T h i s a r t i c l e by B u r g e s s , which was not 

p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1910 i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s , d e s c r i b e d the 

c r i t i c ' s e x p e r i e n c e i n the world of the P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e 

t o h i s American audience as an i n i t i a t i o n i n t o . . . a 
18 

u n i v e r s e of u g l i n e s s . " In p a r t i c u l a r , i t was P i c a s s o ' s 

p a i n t i n g s which the American c r i t i c found most " p r i m i t i v e " 

105 



and thus the most " u g l y . " He wrote: 

Monstrous m o n o l i t h i c women, c r e a t u r e s l i k e 
A l a s k a n totem p o l e s , hacked out of s o l i d , 
b r u t a l c o l o r s , f r i g h t f u l , a p p a l l i n g ! . . . 
h i s p y r a m i d a l women, h i s s u b - A f r i c a n 
c a r i c a t u r e s , f i g u r e s w i t h eyes askew, w i t h 
c o n t o r t e d l e g s , a n d — t h i n g s unmentionably 
worse, . . . Where has he found h i s 
o g r i l l l o n s ? . . . Only the v e r y j o y of l i f e 
c o u l d r e v e l i n such b r u t a l i t i e s . 19 

Burgess was t h e r e f o r e the f i r s t to suggest the " A f r i c a n " and 

p r i m i t i v e c o n t e x t of P i c a s s o ' s Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n , a t 

a time when p r i m i t i v e a r t was becoming both c o m m e r c i a l i z e d 
20 

and p r i z e d by c o l l e c t o r s . Burgess a l s o noted t h a t i t was 

M a t i s s e who was the l e a d e r of the v i s i o n of u g l i n e s s which 

Burgess found t o be the predominant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the 
21 

P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e . A c c o r d i n g t o B u r g e s s , the p r o d u c t i o n 

of "ugly" women by "The Wild Men of P a r i s , " who f o l l o w e d 

M a t i s s e ' s l e a d , was not o n l y a s i g n of y o u t h f u l r e b e l l i o n but 
22 

was the outward m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e i r v i r i l i t y . 

T h i s c o n f l a t i o n of P r i m i t i v i s m and male power i n 

r e l a t i o n to the P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e , and to M a t i s s e and 

P i c a s s o i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s woven i n t o the a r t h i s t o r i c a l 

t r a d i t i o n which surrounds the s h i f t i n g s t y l e s of Fauvism and 

Cubism. The s c h o l a r s h i p of A l f r e d B a r r , J r . , c o n t i n u e s t o 

p r o v i d e b a s i c r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l f o r the s t u d y of M a t i s s e and 

P i c a s s o . In h i s a r t i c l e , " M a t i s s e , P i c a s s o , and the C r i s i s 

of 1907," Barr e s t a b l i s h e d the importance of M a t i s s e ' s a r t as 

an i n f l u e n c e on P i c a s s o and the subsequent s h i f t i n a v a n t -

garde l e a d e r s h i p . B a r r ' s s t u d y r e s t e d on the premise of the 
106 



c r e a t i v e m a l e a r t i s t i c geniu3 a n d h i s b e l i e f t h a t t h e s e 

a r t i s t s , d i f f e r e n t i n p e r s o n a l i t y , were both g e n i u s e s . He 

commented upon t h e i r o p p o s i t e q u a l i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r 

age, e x p e r i e n c e and p e r s o n a l i t y t o show t h a t M a t i s s e was the 

n a t u r a l l e a d e r due to h i s m a t u r i t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e , s e r i o u s n e s s 
23 

and t a l e n t . In c o n t r a s t , B a r r a r g u e d , P i c a s s o was the 

y o u t h f u l , Spanish p r o d i g y who worked alone and chose to 
24 

remain a l o o f from the S a l o n s . Barr compared M a t i s s e ' s 

Bonheur de v l v r e of the s p r i n g of 1906 w i t h P i c a s s o ' s 

Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v l g n o n i n terms of a common s t y l i s t i c 

source which c o u l d be found i n Cezanne's bather c o m p o s i t i o n s . 

While acknowledging t h a t both a r t i s t s borrowed f r e e l y from 

Western and non-western t r a d i t i o n s , B a r r suggested t h a t t h e r e 

was a d i f f e r e n c e i n s p a t i a l forms. Barr c o n c l u d e d , however, 

t h a t t h e i r r e a l d i f f e r e n c e l a y i n t h e i r " e f f e c t " w i t h 

M a t i s s e ' s p a i n t i n g an obvious e x p r e s s i o n of "enjoyment of the 

good l i f e " and P i c a s s o ' s b e i n g " f o r b i d d i n g , f o r m i d a b l e , even 
25 

f r i g h t e n i n g . " Although he mentioned the appearance of the 

"formidable" Blue Nude i n 1907, he d i d not d i s c u s s the 

p a i n t i n g nor q u e s t i o n other e x t r a - a r t i s t i c f a c t o r s which 

might i n f l u e n c e the d i f f e r e n t " e f f e c t " of the c o n t e n t of 
26 

M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o ' s p r o d u c t i o n a t t h i s t i m e . M a t i s s e ' s 

Bonheur de v l v r e appeared a t the same moment as R o c h e g r o s s e 1 s 

La J o i e Rouge and Grandjouan's l e r m a l . As an e x p r e s s i o n of 

M a t i s s e ' s l i b e r a l b e l i e f i n human freedom and the enjoyment 

107 



of s e x u a l p l e a s u r e and l e i s u r e i t f u n c t i o n e d as a symbol of 
27 

bourgeois v a l u e s . 

The i s s u e s of P r i m i t i v i s m and male power were c e n t r a l to 

the c r i t i c a l debates which arose i n r e l a t i o n to the promotion 

f o r and the c r i t i c i s m of the S a l o n d'Automne of 1905. From 

i t s I n c e p t i o n i n 1903, the Salon d'Automne was intended to be 

a p r o g r e s s i v e , j u r i e d Salo n f o r the e x h i b i t i o n and s a l e of 

a r t produced by i t s members and as an a l t e r n a t i v e to both the 

h i e r a r c h y of t r a d i t i o n a l Salons and t o the u n j u r i e d , open 
28 

d i s o r d e r of the S a l o n des Independants A c c o r d i n g to E l i e 

F a u r e , i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the 1905 c a t a l o g u e , the S a l o n 

d'Automne's p r i d e was i n the s u p p r e s s i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l 

c a t e g o r i e s , open t o a l l the a r t s , and as Faure phrased i t , 
t h i s newest S a l o n r e p r e s e n t e d " . . . l ' o r d r e confus de l a 

29 
v i e . " In r e f e r e n c e to the 1905 r e t r o s p e c t i v e show of works 

by Ingres and Manet a t the S a l o n d'Automne, Faure suggested 

t h a t i t was through t h i s type of r e t r o s p e c t i v e and the 

S a l o n s ' s openness to the a v a n t - g a r d e t h a t the c o n t i n u i t y of 

the F r e n c h t r a d i t i o n through "son p a t r l m o l n e h e r e d i t a i r e " was 

a s s u r e d and the danger of " 1 ' a l l u r e r e v o l u t i o n n a i r e " on the 
30 

p a r t of the younger a r t i s t s would be d i s s i p a t e d . T h i s 

r e t r o s p e c t i v e would p l a y a d i s t i n c t i v e r o l e i n the 

encouragement of the a v a n t - g a r d e i n the e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y to 
31 

p a i n t e r o t i c and e x o t i c female s u b j e c t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , 

F a u r e ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of M l a r e n a i s s a n c e de l ' E c o l e 

f r a n c a i s e " was not j u s t an e x p r e s s i o n of male domination but 

108 



32 
a l s o c a s t In the language of F r e n c h n a t i o n a l i s m . For 

i n s t a n c e , F a u r e ' s U t o p i a n i d e a l i s m embodied the b e l i e f t h a t 

the new g e n e r a t i o n i n h e r i t e d through "notre sang" and "l'dme 

f r a n c a i s e " the a b i l i t y to i n v e n t "un langage nouveau" from 

the 17th c e n t u r y precedent of a P o u s s i n t o the 20th c e n t u r y 
33 

precedents of Gauguin and Cezanne. Faure denounced 

s c i e n t i f i c p o s i t i v i s m t o promote the importance of i n t u i t i o n 

as the new language of the a v a n t - g a r d e , a language which was 
34 

" . . . l a t r a c e i n t e l l e c t u e l l e des g e n e r a t i o n s d i s p a r u e s . " 

Faure viewed the i n f l u e n c e of the P r i m i t i v i s m of Gauguin or 

Cezanne on a v a n t - g a r d e a r t as p o s i t i v e through i t s 

r e j u v e n a t i o n of the u n i t y , s u p e r i o r i t y and v i r i l i t y of the 

F r e n c h t r a d i t i o n . Faure b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s p o s i t i v e 

i n f l u e n c e , which flowed from F r e n c h c l a s s i c i s m , was embodied 

i n the f u n c t i o n of the S a l o n d'Automne as both a showplace 

and marketplace f o r F r e n c h a v a n t - g a r d e a r t . 

In o p p o s i t i o n to such a view, a c o n s e r v a t i v e c r i t i c l i k e 

C a m i l l e M a u c l a i r , c r i t i c i z e d the 1905 Salon d'Automne f o r i t s 
35 

i n d i s c r i m i n a t e promotion of the a v a n t - g a r d e . M a u c l a i r , an 

a r d e n t promoter of Impressionism, was the most v i o l e n t c r i t i c 

of what he termed Cezanne's " p r i m i t i v i s m . " He d i d not 

h e s i t a t e t o c h a s t i z e Cezanne's f o l l o w e r s who showed a t the 

S a l o n d'Automne. However, M a u c l a i r viewed the 1905 

r e t r o s p e c t i v e showing of Ingres and Manet i n a d i f f e r e n t 

l i g h t . For M a u c l a i r , who measured the success of a work of 

a r t by p o s i v i t i s t c r i t e r i a , Ingres and Manet were the 

109 



exemplary upholders of the t r u e forms of beauty: Ingres f o r 
36 

h i s s k i l l e d d r a f t s m a n s h i p and Manet f o r h i s use of s c i e n c e . 

M a u c l a i r chose Cezanne as the main t a r g e t of h i s 

c r i t i c a l view of the new g e n e r a t i o n of a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t e r s . 

Under M a u c l a i r ' s pen, Cezanne a c q u i r e d the i n f e r i o r persona 

of the r u r a l F r e n c h peasant who was u n c u l t u r e d and 

u n c i v i l i z e d . 

Regarder l e s t a b l e a u x de M. Cezanne aupres 
d ' u n Monet ou d ' u n R e n o i r , c e l a e q u i v a u t a 
comparer une danse de paysans en sabots et 
une danse' d ' I s a d o r a Duncan. 37 

M a u c l a i r saw Cezanne's i n f l u e n c e on contemporary modern a r t 

as d e t r i m e n t a l and i d e n t i f i e d P r i m i t i v i s m w i t h both the 

peasant c l a s s and w i t h A f r i c a n c u l t u r e as a form of c u l t u r a l 

r e g r e s s i o n . To prove h i s p o i n t , he compared the methods and 

s u b j e c t s chosen by Ingres and Cezanne i n r e l a t i o n to the 

d i f f e r e n c e between what he c o n s i d e r e d to be h i g h and low 

c u l t u r a l forms. Thus, w h i l e the p a i n t i n g s of Ingres were 

r e m i n i s c e n t of s o p h i s t i c a t e d o p e r a , Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s were 

o n l y s u i t e d t o a comparison w i t h "les tams-tams des p a l a b r e s 
38 

a f r i c a i n e s . " M a u c l a i r f e l t t h r e a t e n e d by P r i m i t i v i s m which 

he viewed as a s i g n of d e g e n e r a t i o n of the s u p e r i o r i t y of the 

F r e n c h c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n . T h i s t r a d i t i o n of academic 

technique and a e s t h e t i c s t a n d a r d which, a c c o r d i n g to 

M a u c l a i r , had been upheld by the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , was now i n 

j e o p a r d y . H i s fear of P r i m i t i v i s m was r e l a t e d to v i r i l i t y i n 

h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of the P a r i s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e a t the 1905 Salon 

as a new g e n e r a t i o n of " . . . des n e u t r e s , i n c a p a b l e s 

110 



39 
d ' e n r a y e r un mouvement, l n c a p a b l e s d ' e n c r e e r u n . " 

T h e r e f o r e , while the l i b e r a l , a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t i d e o l o g y of the 

S a l o n d'Automne p r o j e c t e d the a v a n t - g a r d e ' s i n t e r e s t i n 

P r i m i t i v i s m as a masculine symbol of power and p o t e n c y , t o 

r e g e n e r a t e French c i v i l i z a t i o n , M a u c l a i r ' s c o n s e r v a t i v e , 

p o s i t i v i s m defended the same dominant i n t e r e s t s of r a c e , sex 

and c l a s s by e n v i s i o n i n g a v a n t - g a r d e P r i m i t i v i s m as a symptom 

of degeneracy and by c a l l i n g the a r t i s t s impotent, powerless 

eunuchs, dangerous to F r e n c h c u l t u r a l dominance. 

M a u c l a i r was c o n f i d e n t t h a t the p o p u l a r i t y of the c u l t 

of Cezanne would be ephemeral i n the sphere of p u b l i c 

t a s t e which would not a c c e p t "ugly" female s u b j e c t s . He 

wrote: 
I I (the p u b l i c ) aime l e s femmes en savon 
r o s e , parce que " c ' e s t j o l l " , mais i l ne 
t o l e r e r a pas l e s femmes e q u a r r l e s a coups de 
serpe et l e s b a r b o u l l l a g e s c o n g o l a i s , parce 
que ce n ' e s t pas j o l i " . 40 

The l i b e r a l view of the S a l o n d'Automne looked w i t h a p p r o v a l 

upon the p r o d u c t i o n of "ugly" female s u b j e c t s of lower c l a s s 

p r o s t i t u t e s and female peasants as r e j u v e n a t i n g F r e n c h a r t , 

w h i l e these same "ugly" female images t h r e a t e n e d M a u c l a i r ' s 

c o n s e r v a t i v e concern f o r p r o t e c t i o n of the s t a t u s quo. As 

has been d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter One, a l t h o u g h these a t t i t u d e s 

towards P r i m i t i v i s m were d i f f e r e n t , they were supported by Le 

Bon's r a c i a l t h e o r i e s , of the s u p e r i o r i t y of F r e n c h 

c i v i l i z a t i o n through the male bourgeois c l a s s , and were i n 

turn> s u p p o r t i v e of F r e n c h n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m and of r e l e v a n c e 

i n the atmosphere of i n c r e a s e d p o l a r i z a t i o n of the c l a s s e s i n 

111 



F r a n c e . In 1906 and 1907 c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s had permeated 

not o n l y the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d working c l a s s but a l s o the 

f e m i n i s t movement and the r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s , groups which 

c h a l l e n g e d the s t a t u s quo of bourgeois c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . 

At the same t i m e , the A f r i c a n n a t i v e s were r e s i s t i n g easy 

s u b j u g a t i o n . 

As the p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s i s demonstrates, the P r i m i t i v i s m 

of the "ugly" e x o t i c and e r o t i c nude i n M a t i s s e ' s Neo-

O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g The Blue Nude d i f f e r e d from the 

P r i m i t i v i s m expressed by P i c a s s o ' s "ugly" women of Les 

D e m o i s e l l e s d*Avignon. M a t i s s e ' s p a i n t i n g f u n c t i o n e d i n 

support of the new t a s t e f o r e r o t i c and e x o t i c imagery and 

i n d i r e c t l y upheld the d e l u s i o n of Western bourgeois male 

s u p e r i o r i t y . Not reproduced d i r e c t l y from a model but from a 

damaged, h a n d - s c u l p t e d c l a y model of a d e c o r a t i v e s c u l p t u r e , 

s i m i l i a r to the subsequent R e c l i n i n g Nude ( F i g . 9 ) , M a t i s s e ' s 

s e d u c t i v e p a i n t i n g was the r e s u l t of an A l g e r i a n v a c a t i o n i n 
41 

May of 1906. M a t i s s e had spent some time a t the o a s i s of 

B i s k r a which was well-known as a haven f o r wealthy Europeans 

s e e k i n g a warm, d r y c l i m a t e and e x o t i c s e x u a l e x p e r i e n c e s . 

I t s a l l u r i n g r e p u t a t i o n was promoted i n the l i t e r a r y works of 

P i e r r e Louys and Andre G i d e . The novels of L o u y s , which 

were w r i t t e n f o r a F r e n c h , bourgeois h e t e r o s e x u a l male 

a u d i e n c e , are p a r t i c u l a r l y s l g n i f i c n t as precedents f o r the 
42 

e r o t i c and e x o t i c i d e o l o g i e s of M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude. 

B i s k r a ' s c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e - t o F r e n c h c u l t u r a l and p o l i t i c a l 

112 



hegemony i n A f r i c a was i t s p o s i t i o n a s t h e s o u t h e r n - m o s t 

p o i n t on the F r e n c h - A l g e r i a n r a i l w a y . The a v a i l a b i l i t y of 

e x o t i c s e x u a l p l e a s u r e o f f e r e d by the s e r v i c e s of l o c a l 

p r o s t i t u t e s who belonged t o the F r e n c h dominated c u l t u r e of 

A l g e r i a , was an added f e a t u r e i n d i c a t i v e of F r e n c h c o n t r o l i n 

North A f r i c a . North A f r i c a n women were not o n l y enjoyed by 

t o u r i s t s they were used to p r o v i d e s e x u a l s e r v i c e s f o r the 
4 3 

F r e n c h m i l i t a r y . As p o i n t e d out i n Chapter one, the 

m i l i t a r y were a v i t a l f a c t o r i n the process of F r e n c h neo-

c o l o n i a l i s m i n North A f r i c a . 

The promotion of A f r i c a n e r o t i c a i n F r e n c h n o v e l s , 

p s e u d o - a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l magazines, c o l o n i a l e x p o s i t i o n s and 

a r t c o i n c i d e d w i t h the changing s t r u c t u r e of p r o s t i t u t i o n 

w i t h i n France i t s e l f . P r o s t i t u t i o n i n P a r i s i n the e a r l y 

20th c e n t u r y became the focus of p r e s s u r e groups; by those 

who as a b o l i t i o n i s t s wanted a l l r e g u l a t i o n e l i m i n a t e d , and by 

those who were concerned t h a t the p r o s t i t u t e , l i k e the 
4 4 

c r i m i n a l , r e q u i r e d s u r v e i l l a n c e by s t a t e a u t h o r i t i e s . 

Between 1904 and 1908 s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l 

b r o t h e l s (maison de p a s s e , maison de t o l e r a n c e , maison c l o s e ) 

was l i b e r a l i z e d and a new form of s p e c i f i c a l l y bourgeois 

b r o t h e l emerged, the m a l s o n - d e - r e n d e z - v o u s , , no doubt t o o f f e r 
45 

l e s s r i s k to the h e a l t h of bourgeois c l i e n t e l e . 

The malson-de-rendez-vous i n c r e a s i n g l y r e p l a c e d the 

maisons de t o l e r a n c e which a t the c l o s e of the 19th c e n t u r y 

had been viewed as "temples des p e r v e r s i o n s . " The maisons 

113 



de t o l e r a n c e f u n c t i o n e d as e r o t i c and e x o t i c a t t r a c t i o n s f o r 

t o u r i s t s and wealthy c l i e n t e l e . T h e i r e x o t i c d e c o r a t i o n had 

p r o v o c a t i v e l y enhanced the p r o f u s i o n of nudes who openly 

d i s p l a y e d t h e i r bodies i n a v a r i e t y of lewd p o s e s . To 

respond to the i n c r e a s i n g demand for e x o t i c s e x u a l p l e a s u r e , 

p r o s t i t u t e s were r e c r u i t e d , as mentioned, from other c u l t u r e s 

through the White Slave T r a d e . The bourgeois male voyeur 

c o u l d s a f e l y observe t h i s "tableau v i v a n t " and v a r i o u s s e x u a l 

s p e c t a c l e s from p r i v a t e e n c l o s u r e s where they were s e c r e t e d 
46 

and t h e i r i d e n t i t y p r o t e c t e d . The i n h a b i t a n t s of these 

b r o t h e l s were o f t e n e x o t i c a l l y costumed t o match the decor 

and o f f e r e d a wide v a r i e t y of s e r v i c e s to s u i t a l l s e x u a l 

t a s t e s and p r e f e r e n c e s . T h i s type of b r o t h e l was an 
important commercial i n d u s t r y i n P a r i s a t the t u r n - o f - t h e -

47 
c e n t u r y . 

The maison-de-rendez-vous f u n c t i o n e d d i f f e r e n t l y by 

o f f e r i n g a more d i s c r i m i n a t i n g atmosphere of bourgeois 

r e s p e c t a b i l i t y and d i s c r e t i o n . The p r o s t i t u t e was chosen 

from photographs i n a m i l i e u which d i f f e r e d s i g n i c i c a n t l y 

from t h a t of the malsbn de t o l e r a n c e . The m a l s o n - d e - r e n d e z -

vous had been n o t a b l e for i t s e x o t i c a l l y d e c o r a t e d e x t e r i o r s 

and i n t e r i o r s and s i m i l a r l y costumed p r o s t i t u t e s . I t was 

through i t s e x o t i c e x t e r i o r t h a t i t a d v e r t i s e d i t s f u n c t i o n 
48 

as a b r o t h e l . In the atmosphere of r e f o r m , the bourgeois 

need f o r e r o t i c and e x o t i c s e x u a l s t i m u l a t i o n was d i s r u p t e d 

and new venues were c a l l e d f o r such as the t h e a t r e , the c a f e -

114 



c o n c e r t s , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o g r e s s i v e a r t s a l o n s a n d t h e 

p r o l i f e r a t i o n of photographs which c o u l d be found i n numerous 

p u b l i c a t i o n s p i c t u r i n g nude or semi-nude females e r o t i c a l l y 
49 

and e x o t i c a l l y posed. M a t i s s e ' s s m a l l c l a y s c u l p t u r e s of 

t h i s p e r i o d were a l s o a response to the t a s t e f o r e x o t i c and 

e r o t i c images. 

P s e u d o - a n t h r o p l o g l c a l magazines were a r i c h source of 

e r o t i c and e x o t i c imagery and i t i s known t h a t M a t i s s e r e l i e d 

on such a p u b l i c a t i o n f o r the pose of h i s d e c o r a t i v e 

s c u l p t u r e , Two Negresses , 1908, h i s source b e i n g a photograph 

p u b l i s h e d i n L'Humanite F e m i n i n e : Femmes d ' A f r i q u e , i s s u e of 

January 5, 1907. Such photographs p r o v i d e d the " c i v i l i z e d " 

Western bourgeois male w i t h proof of h i s powerful s t a t u s 

t h e r e b y p r o t e c t i n g h i s imagined r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s 

s u p e r i o r i t y . The d i s t o r t e d female of M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude 

f u n c t i o n e d i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n to these photographs of 

A f r i c a n women, to Rochegrosse's La J o i e Rouge, and t o L o u y s ' 

n o v e l and m u s i c a l , A p h r o d i t e . S a i d has d e s c r i b e d t h i s 

d e l u s i o n of power as O r i e n t a l i s m , a b e l i e f whereby 
. . . women are u s u a l l y the c r e a t u r e s of a male 
p o w e r - f a n t a s y . They express u n l i m i t e d 
s e n s u a l i t y , they are more or l e s s s t u p i d , 
and above a l l they are w i l l i n g . 51 

T h i s d e l u s i o n was e s s e n t i a l f o r m a i n t a i n i n g the power 

s t r u c t u r e of the male-dominated F r e n c h b o u r g e o i s c l a s s i n 

r e l a t i o n to both i t s c o n t r o l i n A f r i c a and i n F r e n c h s o c i e t y 

I t s e l f . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , the v i o l e n t , r a p a c i o u s males of 

La J o i e Rouge are absent from M a t i s s e ' s p a i n t i n g . In l i e u of 

115 



the v i e w e r ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the d e p i c t i o n of Roman male 

power, the bourgeois male i s d i r e c t l y i m p l i c a t e d through the 

c o n s t r u c t i o n of an e r o t i c and e x o t i c male power f a n t a s y i n 

r e l a t i o n to a North A f r i c a n s u b j e c t . While Rochegrosse's 

p a i n t i n g and L o u i s ' novel r e t a i n a l l u s i o n s to the c l a s s i c a l 

concept of female beauty, M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude, l i k e the 

more p o p u l a r i z e d images i n the p s e u d o - a n t h r o p o l i g c a l 

magazine, i s more o b v i o u s l y i n f u s e d w i t h the new t a s t e f o r 

the e x o t i c and e r o t i c p r i m i t i v e s e x u a l i t y of A f r i c a n women 

r e l a t i v e to c l a s s i c a l forms of the e x o t i c and e r o t i c . 

M a t i s s e ' s p r i m i t i v i z e d f i g u r e i s N e o - O r i e n t a l i s m a t work. 

The a v a n t - g a r d e c r i t i c A p o l l i n a i r e r e c o g n i z e d t h i s process i n 

M a t i s s e ' s a r t i n h i s c r i t i q u e of December, 1907. A p o l l i n a i r e 

was c o n v i n c e d t h a t M a t i s s e r e l i e d on the concept of beauty of 

Western t r a d i t i o n i n s p i t e of h i s f a s c i n a t i o n with other 

c u l t u r e s . 

But a l t h o u g h he i s eager to know the 
a r t i s t i c countenance of a l l human r a c e s , 
H e n r i M a t i s s e remains devoted above a l l to 
the beauty of E u r o p e . 52 

The s e n s u a l c r e a t u r e of M a t i s s e ' s i m a g i n a t i o n i n h a b i t s 

the t e r r a i n of a l u s h North A f r i c a n o a s i s , u n p r o t e c t e d by 

harem or v e i l — h e r s u b j e c t e d pose proof of the c u l t u r a l 

breakdown f o r which she i s a symbol. While Rochegrosse's 

image r e l a t e d to the p h y s i c a l a b d u c t i o n of women f o r male 

p l e a s u r e and p r o c r e a t i o n they are not o b v i o u s l y p i c t u r e d as 

p r i m i t i v e , t h e i r i n f e r i o r i t y i s r e l a t i v e to t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a -

t i o n as female. In c o n t r a s t , M a t i s s e ' s nude i s p i c t u r e d as 

116 



d i f f e r e n t , a n a l i e n who h a s b e e n c o l o u r f u l l y d e c o r a t e d a s a 

F r e n c h s u b j e c t t o denote her c u l t u r a l s u b j u g a t i o n . Her 

f u n c t i o n as a p r o s t i t u t e i s r e i n f o r c e d by the p o s i t i o n of the 

f l e s h y t h i g h which h i g h l i g h t s her g e n i t a l a r e a i n an 

i n v i t i n g l y s e d u c t i v e f a s h i o n which I n t e n s i f i e d her appeal as 
53 

e r o t i c and e x o t i c . 

The most t e r r i f y i n g image to a bourgeois male 

h e t e r o s e x u a l was t h a t of the eunuch, the c a s t r a t e d male who 

was rendered impotent. While v a c a t i o n i n g a t G o s o l , S p a i n i n 

the summer of 1906, P i c a s s o p a i n t e d the image of a eunuch i n 

The Harem, ( F i g . 1 0 ) . The s e x u a l l y impotent male s l a v e i s 

p l a c e d i n the f a r r i g h t foreground of the p a i n t i n g where he 

f u n c t i o n s as the guard of the harem, a f i g u r e of power and 

a u t h o r i t y over the female I n h a b i t a n t s i n s p i t e of h i s 

e m a s c u l a t i o n . The eunuch's head i s s m a l l and h a i r l e s s , 

dwarfed by h i s f l e s h y form, a form which l a c k s the muscular 

t e n s i o n of masculine p h y s i c a l power. Seated on the ground, 

he l a z e s a g a i n s t the w a l l forming a b a r r i e r between the 

viewer and the women w i t h i n the harem. There are f i v e female 

f i g u r e s i n the i n t e r i o r , four young s l a v e g i r l s i n c l a s s i c a l 

poses who are a t v a r i o u s stages of p r e p a r i n g t h e i r t o i l e t - -

b a t h i n g and combing t h e i r h a i r . An o l d s e r v a n t i s hunched i n 

the f a r r i g h t c o r n e r of the harem, o b v i o u s l y past her prime 

as a s e x u a l o b j e c t . Her f i g u r e p r o v i d e s a f o i l f o r the 

y o u t h f u l nude b e a u t i e s . The s o f t ochre c o l o u r of the 

i n t e r i o r and the abundance of pink f l e s h tones exudes an 

117 



e r o t i c and e x o t i c ambiance but t h e r e i s an absence of 

expressed s e x u a l t e n s i o n between the young nude females and 

the eunuch. The nude bodies and e r o t i c i z e d poses b a r e l y 

arouse the eunuch's c u r i o s i t y and he c o n t i n u e s w i t h h i s meal. 

The o n l y symbol of male potency i s i n the spout of the wine 
54 

v e s s e l , the "porron" which r e s t s on the ground and i s 

f i r m l y grasped by the l e f t hand of the eunuch. The male 

viewer i s spared s e x u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with the eunuch and 

h i s v i r i l i t y i s not t h r e a t e n e d on any l e v e l . The young 

female s l a v e s , symbols of the world market i n female 

p r o s t i t u t i o n , The White Slave T r a d e , are not p r i m i t i v i z e d and 

are made t o appear as c o m f o r t a b l e with t h e i r e n s l a v e d s t a t e 

as M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude of 1907. 

In Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n , P i c a s s o transformed the 

harem m o t i f t o i n c l u d e a European lower c l a s s b r o t h e l and the 

mood, i s no longer warmly e r o t i c and e x o t i c l i k e t h a t of 

The Harem, i n s p i t e of the predominance of p i n k y f l e s h t o n e s . 

P i c a s s o ' s most p r i m i t i v i z e d p r o s t i t u t e s c o u l d f u n c t i o n as 

symbols of contemporary female s l a v e r y i n r e l a t i o n to working 

c l a s s p r o s t i t u t e s who were seen by the l e f t as s l a v e s i n the 
55 

"'Harem of the C a p i t a l i s t s . ' " However, while P i c a s s o ' s 

p a i n t i n g appears to r e l a t e to the issue of c l a s s s t r u g g l e 

through h i s images of powerful females i n a manner s i m i l a r to 

female power i l l u s t r a t e d i n L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , h i s 

f i g u r e s are p r i m i t i v i z e d l i k e the women i n L ' A s s i e t t e au  

Beurre who were shown as v i c t i m s of bourgeois v a l u e s . As 

118 



w e l l , he has r e j e c t e d Grandjouan's image o £ c l a s s i c a l beauty 
56 

and i n s t e a d emphasized power as b r u t a l a g g r e s s i o n . Les 

D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n p r o j e c t s an ambiguous image which has 

the i l l u s i o n o £ female power and v i c t i m i z a t i o n through 
57 

p r i m i t i v i z e d , d e f e m i n i z e d form. P i c a s s o a l s o a v o i d e d the 

d e c o r a t i v e a s p e c t s of The Blue Nude to deny the p o s s i b i l i t y 

of a bourgeois male power f a n t a s y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the e r o t i c 
58 

and e x o t i c . P i c a s s o has r e v e r s e d Grandjouan's p r o j e c t i o n 

of female power through the c l a s s i c a l image of the female and 

h i s s u b j e c t i s not a d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e to c l a s s s t r u g g l e but 

the issue of p r o s t i t u t i o n which r e l a t e d more d i r e c t l y to 

male/female power r e l a t i o n s h i p s and which was i t s e l f a 
59 

complex i d e o l o g i c a l issue a t t h a t moment. 

P i c a s s o , l i k e M a t i s s e , chose the form of a t r a d i t i o n a l 

c u l t image of the p r o s t i t u t e f o r h i s p a i n t i n g but h i s 

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s d i f f e r from M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude i n form 

and c o n t e n t . In P i c a s s o ' s p a i n t i n g of Les D e m o i s e l l e s , the 

c u l t image of a powerful female p r o s t i t u t e i s produced 

through the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the Roman l o v e goddess of the 

Venus de M i l o to a p r i m i t i v e form through the a d d i t i o n of a 

wooden head r e m i n i s c e n t of the more a n c i e n t and powerful 
6 0 

f i g u r e of A p h r o d i t e . He has r e v e r s e d the process of 

p r i m l t l v i z a t l o n of the female as v i c t i m of b o u r g e o i s t a s t e 

f o r the e x o t i c and e r o t i c d e p i c t e d i n L ' A s s i e t t e au B e u r r e , 

and removed r e f e r e n c e s to the c l a s s i c a l goddesses as 

f e r t i l i t y symbols. In c o n t r a s t , the power of t h i s female c u l t 

119 



image was e f f e c t e d through the e x p l o i t a t i o n of a n g u l a r form, 

the powerful g e s t u r e of the arm and the embodiment of the 

b i s e x u a l form of a hermaphrodite which preceded the Roman 
61 

c u l t f i g u r e of the e n s l a v e d female Venus. I t i s the 

c e n t r a l f i g u r e s which symbolize the e n s l a v e d c o u r t e s a n s of 

Roman t i m e s , f o r which I b e r i a n s c u l p t u r e c o u l d p r o v i d e a 
62 

l o g i c a l a l l u s i o n i n terms of form and c o n t e n t . Rubin has 
a l r e a d y suggested the resemblance between the l e f t c e n t r a l 

63 
f i g u r e and M i c h e l a n g e l o ' s The C a p t i v e S l a v e , which was 

housed i n the Louvre w i t h the s t a t u e of Venus de M i l o , which 

e f f e c t i v e l y p r o v i d e s another image of enslavement. P i c a s s o ' s 

two c u l t f i g u r e s of e n s l a v e d females p e r f e c t l y d e s c r i b e the 

s i t u a t i o n of the female under p a t r i a r c h y where her u s e f u l n e s s 

as a p r o s t i t u t e was her s u b j u g a t i o n to male power and as a 

female, as r e p r o d u c e r . At r i g h t , the two most d e f e m i n i z e d and 

p r i m i t v i z e d f i g u r e s c o u l d f u n c t i o n as the modern c u l t image 

of the female working c l a s s p r o s t i t u t e whose e x i s t e n c e was a 
64 

double-edged n e c e s s i t y and danger to bourgeois dominance. 

These nudes o f f e r an important i n d i c a t i o n of the s o c i a l 

s i g n i f i c a n c e of P i c a s s o ' s u t i l i z a t i o n of "ugly" p r i m i t i v e 

form, d e r i v e d from h i s own experiments w i t h wood s c u l p t u r e t o 

r e s t r u c t u r e h i s image of the working c l a s s p r o s t i t u t e i n 
65 

a n t i - c l a s s i c a l form. These d e f e m i n i z e d females r e s i s t 

bourgeois male consumption as f e r t i l i t y symbols by denying 

immediate gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , d i s r u p t i n g the c l a s s i c a l 

i d e a l of beauty and r e s i s t i n g the s e d u c t i v e element of e r o t i c 

120 



and e x o t i c d e c o r a t i v e imagery. T h e i r p r i m i t i v e form i s 

a g g r e s s i v e and c o u l d serve to i d e n t i f y t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to 

the "new b a r b a r i a n s " of which Le Bon, the t h e o r i s t of r a c i s t 

d o c t r i n e , r e c o g n i z e d as the g r e a t e s t c h a l l e n g e t o the 
66 

s t r e n g t h of the F r e n c h n a t i o n . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y 

s i g n i f i c a n t a t a moment when the dominance of F r e n c h c u l t u r e 

and of the F r e n c h n a t i o n was t h r e a t e n e d . 

P i c a s s o was not a p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t a t t h i s moment but 

through h i s own e x p e r i e n c e s i n Spanish s o c i e t y and as an 

a l i e n , i s o l a t e d a r t i s t i n P a r i s , h i s I d e n t i t y was as a young 

Bohemian. His empathy w i t h the oppressed i s e v i d e n t i n h i s 

a r t d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d both i n h i s new concern for a n t i -

c l a s s i c a l f i g u r e c o m p o s i t i o n s and h i s n o n - d e c o r a t i v e s t i l l -

l i f e p a i n t i n g s . The q u e s t i o n remains, however, why h i s 

p r o s t i t u t e s are "ugly" a g g r e s s o r s . 

A l f r e d J a r r y ' s l i t e r a r y and t h e a t r i c a l a v a n t - g a r d i s m 

o f f e r s a model which may have p r o v i d e d the impetus t o 

P i c a s s o ' s attempt express h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the image 

of the working c l a s s as p a s s i v e v i c t i m s . J a r r y , a prominent 

f i g u r e among P a r i s i a n Bohemia, produced a l a t e work which 

i n d i c t e s h i s awareness of the change r e s u l t i n g from the 

p o l a r i z a t i o n of c l a s s e s i n F r e n c h s o c i e t y and the new mood of 

a g g r e s s i o n on the p a r t of the m i l i t a n t lower c l a s s e s , 

p a r t i c u l a r l y the r u r a l p r o l e t a r i a t . J a r r y ' s Ubu sur l a Butte 

was o r i g i n a l l y performed with c h a r a c t e r s who were p l a y e d by 
s67 

wooden puppets a t the comic opera i n P a r i s i n 1901. In 

121 



1906, J a r r y i n s e r t e d a prologue i n t o the p u b l i s h e d t e x t of 

Ubu sur l a Butte which was not p a r t of the o r i g i n a l 
68 

v e r s i o n . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s prologue i s the f a c t 

t h a t J a r r y , who r e c o g n i z e d the i n c r e a s i n g d i v i s i o n of s o c i e t y 

i n t o two opposing c l a s s e s , chose t o i d e n t i f y w i t h the 

"brutes" and c h a r a c t e r i z e d h i s p r o v i n c i a l wooden puppets as 

symbols of the m i l i t a n t r u r a l p r o l e t a r i a t . While p r o j e c t i n g 

t h e i r image as "ugly" and u n f o r t u n a t e members of F r e n c h 

s o c i e t y , b r u t a l i z e d by the dominant c l a s s and l e f t t o c o n s o l e 

themselves w i t h e x c e s s i v e a l c o h o l consumption, i n 1906, J a r r y 

chose t o d e p i c t h i s wooden-headed "brutes" no l o n g e r as 

p a s s i v e v i c t i m s but as b r u t a l l y a g g r e s s i v e and dangerous. 

Thus, J a r r y ' s c h a r a c t e r s not o n l y f u n c t i o n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o 

the r u r a l p r o l e t a r i a t but a l s o to the most " p r i m i t i v e " 

a g g r e s s i v e , dangerous group, the bucherons. 

I t i s t h i s new a g g r e s s i v e form and content of the female 

p r o s t i t u t e s i n P i c a s s o ' s N e o - O r i e n t a l i s t Les D e m o i s e l l e s  

d ' A v i g n o n which d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the form and 

c o n t e n t of the powerless female p r o s t i t u t e of M a t i s s e ' s Neo-

O r i e n t a l i s t The Blue Nude. Although both a r t i s t s are u s i n g 

P r i m i t i v i s m , P i c a s s o ' s p a i n t i n g i s a r e j e c t i o n of the 

O r i e n t a l i s t t r a d i t i o n of the e x o t i c and e r o t i c female as 

p a s s i v e which i s , i n s p i t e of the changed form of M a t i s s e ' s 

nude, s t i l l v e r y much p r e s e n t i n the P r i m i t i v i s m of M a t i s s e ' s 

form and c o n t e n t . 

122 



NOTES 

1 
P i e r r e Louys A p h r o d i t e , T r a n s , by W i l l i s L . Parker (New 

Y o r k : H a r t s d a l e House, 1932), 240. See a l s o Theodore 
Z e l d i n , F r a n c e , 1848-1945 A m b i t i o n , Love and P o l i t i e s , 
Volume I , ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1973), 305-306, i n which 
Z e l d i n a p p r a i s e d t h i s book as f o l l o w s : " P i e r r e L o u i s ' s 
A p h r o d i t e was looked upon as a b r e v i a r y i n p r a i s e of 
p r o s t i t u t i o n . P u b l i s h e d i n 1896, i t had by 1904 s o l d 125,000 
c o p i e s and i n s p i r e d t h r e e p l a y s and four opera l i b r e t t i , and 
s i n c e then has been r e g u l a r l y r e p r i n t e d . " 

2 
Maurice S a i l l e t , A l f r e d J a r r y : Tout Ubu ( P a r i s : 

L i b r a i r i e Generale F r a n c a i s e , 1962), 457. I t can be 
a s c e r t a i n e d from h i s w r i t i n g s t h a t J a r r y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the 
"brutes" and the s o c i a l l y m a r g i n a l i z e d groups i n F r e n c h 
s o c i e t y . 

3 
Annie K r i e g e l , Le P a i n et l e s Roses ( P a r i s : Presses 

U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de F r a n c e , 1968), 51. A c c o r d i n g t o K r i e g e l , 
I b i d . , 53, the "bucherons" r e p r e s e n t e d one of the most 
important f a c t i o n s of F r e n c h s o c i e t y i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n of 
the r u r a l p r o l e t a r i a t a t the t u r n - o f - t h e - c e n t u r y . As the 
p a t t e r n of the F r e n c h economy changed under 
i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , and new sources of energy were found, the 
bucherons r e l i a n c e on the f o r e s t f o r sustenance was 
t h r e a t e n e d . K r i e g e l , I b i d . , 54, wrote t h a t economic m i s e r y 
r e s u l t e d i n a spontaneous s t r i k e i n r u r a l France by the 
bucherons of the Cher r e g i o n i n the 1890's and produced the 
f i r s t evidence of s e r i o u s u n r e s t i n the r u r a l l a b o u r i n g 
c l a s s . I b i d . , 54. Robert F o r s t e r and O r e s t Ranum, e d s . , 
R u r a l S o c i e t y i n F r a n c e : S e l e c t i o n s from the Annales 
( B a l t i m o r e : Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977), 137-138 
d i s c u s s the p r a c t i c e s of the woodworkers as s e a s o n a l workers, 
who worked i n the f o r e s t s i n the w i n t e r and i n t h e i r o f f -
season t u r n e d t o a g r i c u l t u r a l labour In the f i e l d s and 
v i n e y a r d s , thus were mediators between the two most a n c i e n t 
economic systems i n F r a n c e . J o l y o n Howorth, Edouard  
V a l l l a n t : La C r e a t i o n de !•'unite S o c i a l l s t e en France 
( P a r i s : e d i / S y r o s , 1982), 206, note 7, d e s c r i b e d the 
involvement of the s o c i a l i s t , V a i l l a n t , i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n 
of the s t r i k e of the bucherons i n the Cher i n 1891, but s a i d 
the h i s t o r y of t h i s s t r i k e has not yet been w r i t t e n . 

4 
B r i t t a Martensen-^Larsen, "When d i d P i c a s s o complete 

' L e s D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n ' ? , " Kunstgesch 48, No. 2, 19 85, 
264, suggested t h a t the p a i n t i n g was retouched a f t e r Burgess 
had photographed i t i n 1908. However, W i l l i a m R u b i n , e d . , 

123 



P r i m i t i v i s m " i n 20th Century A r t , V o l . I , (New Y o r k : Museum 
of Modern A r t , 1984), 251, suggested the c o m p l e t i o n date of 
l a t e June or e a r l y J u l y , 1907. 

5 
For example, the s u b j e c t s of P i c a s s o ' s Les D e s m o l s e l l e s  

d ' A v i g n o n have been d e s c r i b e d as p r o s t i t u t e s by: Leo 
S t e i n b e r g , "The P h i l o s o p h i c a l B r o t h e l , P a r t 1," A r t News, 
(September, 1972), pp. 22-29 and "The P h i l o s o p h i c a l B r o t h e l , " 
P a r t 2, A r t News (October, 1972), pp. 38-47; M i c h a e l L e j a , 
"*Le Vieux Marcheur* and 4 L e s Deux R i s q u e s ' : P i c a s s o , 
P r o s t i t u t i o n , V e n e r e a l D i s e a s e , and M a t e r n i t y , 1899-1907," 
A r t H i s t o r y , V o l . 8, No. 1, (March, 1985), pp. 66-81. F o r 
example, the s u b j e c t of M a t i s s e ' s , The Blue Nude has been 
d e s c r i b e d as a p r o s t i t u t e by Andrea Thomsett, The Blue Nude, 
u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , Vancouver, 
B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1981.' 

6 
Timothy J . C l a r k , " P r e l i m i n a r i e s t o a P o s s i b l e 

Treatment of ' O l y m p i a ' i n 1865," S c r e e n , V . 21, ( S p r i n g , 
1980), 23-24 has d e s c r i b e d the c o n j u n c t i o n of the female nude 
i n western t r a d i t i o n w i t h the h i s t o r i c a l l y s p e c i f i c and 
i d e o l o g i c a l image of the p r o s t i t u t e i n a v a n t - g a r d e F r e n c h 
a r t . 

7 
Roger Benjamin, M a t i s s e ' s "Notes of a P a i n t e r "  

C r i t i c i s m , T h e o r y , and C o n t e x t ; 1891-1908 (Ann A r b o r , 
M i c h i g a n : U . M . I . Research P r e s s , 1987). Benjamin p r e s e n t s 
a l e n g t h y and d e t a i l e d s t u d y of M a t i s s e ' s e a r l y p e r i o d which 
m e t i c u l o u s l y d e s c r i b e s h i s e x h i b i t i o n p r a c t i c e . 

8 
A l f r e d H . B a r r , J r . , P i c a s s o : F i f t y Years of His A r t , 

(New Y o r k : Simon and S c h u s t e r , 1946), 43. 

9 
L o u i s V a u x c e l l e s , "Le Salon des Independants", G i l  

B i a s , March 20, 1907, p . 1. 

10 
P i e r r e D a l x , Georges B o u d a i l l e , and Joan R o s s e l e t 

P i c a s s o 1900-1906, Catalogue r a i s o n n e (Neuchcttel, S w i t z . : 
E d i t i o n s Ides et C a l e n d e s , 1966, 62-63. 

11 
A l f r e d H . B a r r , J r . , M a t i s s e : His A r t and His P u b l i c , 

(New Y o r k : Museum of Modern A r t , 1951), 94-95. 

124 



12 
M i c h e l Hoog, " L e s _ D e m o l s e l l e s _ d ' A v i g n o n et l a p e i n t u r e 

P a r i s en 1907-1908, 1 1 Gazette des B e a u x - A r t s . V . 82 (1973), 
212, f i g . 5. G e l e t t B u r g e s s , "The W i l d Men of P a r i s , " 
A r c h i t e c t u r a l R e c o r d , , (May, 1910), 409. M i c h e l Hoog, "Les  
D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n et l a p e i n t u r e P a r i s , " 214-215 s t r e s s e d 
the importance of the P a r i s i a n c o n t e x t of P i c a s s o ' s p a i n t i n g 
and M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude. He p o i n t e d out the c l o s e 
r e l a t i o n s h i p between these p a i n t i n g s r a t h e r than the 
t r a d i t i o n a l view which l i n k e d Les D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n and 
M a t i s s e ' s J o i e de V i v r e of 1906, n o t i n g t h a t M a t i s s e ' s work 
was h i g h l y v i s i b l e by March of 1907. 

13 
L o u i s V a u x c e l l e s , "Le Salon des Independants," 

G i l B i a s , March 20, 1907. 

14 
I b i d . 

15 
Benjamin, M a t i s s e ' s "Notes of a P a i n t e r " , 304> note 93. 

Benjamin, I b i d . , 305, note 94, e x p l a i n e d t h a t he had r e v e r s e d 
B a r r ' s e a r l i e r n e g a t i v e r e a d i n g to a p o s i t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 

16 
I b i d . , 295, notes 246-247. 

17 
Timothy J . C l a r k , " P r e l i m i n a r i e s . . . , " 27, d e s c r i b e d 

t h i s l a c k of meaning as " . . . the moment a t which n e g a t i o n 
and r e f u t a t i o n becomes s i m p l y too complete; they erase what 
they a r e meant t o negate, and t h e r e f o r e no n e g a t i o n takes 
p l a c e ; . . . " 

18 
B u r g e s s , "The W i l d Men of P a r i s , " 401. Edward F . F r y , 

"Cubism 1907-1908: An E a r l y Eyewitness A c c o u n t , " The  
A r t B u l l e t i n , 43, (March, 1966), 70-73, was one of the f i r s t 
t o a n a l y z e the Burgess a r t i c l e . F r y , I b i d . , 73, p o i n t e d out 
t h a t the p r i m i t i v e f i g u r e s i n P i c a s s o ' s s t u d i o were from the 
F r e n c h c o l o n y of New C a l e d o n i a . See a l s o E l l e n O p p l e r , 
Fauvlsm Reexamined (New Y o r k : G a r l a n d P u b l i s h i n g I n c . , 
1976), 161, f o r a l o g i c a l r e - d a t i n g of the i n t e r v i e w by 
Burgess to the s p r i n g of 1908 based on h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of the 
s p r i n g weather i n P a r i s . 

19 
B u r g e s s , "The W i l d Men of P a r i s , " 408. 

20 
Sandra E . L e o n a r d , H e n r i Rousseau and Max Weber 

125 



(New.York: R i c h a r d L . F e i g e n & C o . , 1970), 36, demonstrated 
how by 1908 the a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t i n g s of Henry Rousseau were 
used as " A f r i c a n " background by a commercial d e a l e r i n 
A f r i c a n o b j e c t s i n P a r i s . 

21 
B u r g e s s , "The W i l d Men of P a r i s , " 402. 

22 
I b i d . , 404. B u r g e s s , I b i d . , wrote, " A l l young, a l l 

v i r i l e , a l l e n t h u s i a s t i c , . . . " 

23 
A l f r e d H . B a r r , J r . " M a t i s s e , P i c a s s o , and the C r i s i s 

of 1907," Magazine of A r t . 44, (May, 1951), 163. 

24 
I b i d . , 166. B a r r r e l i e d on Leo S t e i n ' s memoirs, 

A p p r e c i a t i o n , 1947, for h i s comparison of the p e r s o n a l i t i e s 
of M a t i s s e and P i c a s s o . 

25 
I b i d . , 168. 

26 
I b i d . , 166. 

27 
C a r o l Duncan, " V i r i l i t y and Domination i n E a r l y 20th-

c e n t u r y Vanguard P a i n t i n g , " A r t f o r u m , 12 (1973/74), p . 35, had 
p r a i s e d M a t i s s e f o r h i s concept of "human freedom" i n The Joy  
of L i v i n g , and suggested t h a t i t " . . . remains a v i s i o n of 
s o c i a l order without d o m i n a t i o n , a dream i n which s e n s u a l 
beauty may be enjoyed without f e a r . " Duncan d i d not see t h i s 
d e p i c t i o n of l e i s u r e as a c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n the h i s t o r i c a l 
c o n t e x t of i t s p r o d u c t i o n and i n s t e a d c o n s i d e r e d M a t i s s e to 
be the one a r t i s t who " . . . attempted t o t r a n s c e n d the 
a s s e r t i o n of v i r i l i t y . . . " 

28 
For example, the Catalogue f o r the S o c i e t e des A r t i s t e s  

Independants, of the s p r i n g of 1906, p . 1, d e f i n e d i t s 
purpose as f o l l o w s "La S o c i e t e des ' A r t i s t e s Independants' 
basee sur l a s u p p r e s s i o n des J u r y s d ' a d m i s s i o n , a pour but de 
permettre aux A r t i s t e s de p r e s e n t e r l i b r e m e n t l e u r s oeuvres 
au jugement du P u b l i c . " In c o n t r a s t , the 1905 Catalogue du 
S o c i e t e du S a l o n d'Automne ( P a r i s : C i e F r a n c a i s e des P a p i e r s -
Monnaie, 1905), 199, s t a t e d t h a t t h i s Sal on was t o promote 
a l l the "Beaux-Arts" not o n l y w i t h an a n n u a l , f a l l e x h i b i t i o n 
but by h e l p i n g i t s members i n e v e r y way p o s s i b l e . As w e l l , 
I b i d . , 202-203, t h e r e was a complex a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h i e r a r c h y 
i n p l a c e w i t h r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s , and t h i s Sal on r e t u r n e d 

126 



to the J u r y system. A r t i c l e 21, i b i d . , 205, s t a t e d t h a t : 
"Les d i s c u s s i o n s p o l l t i q u e s ou r e l l g l e u s e s sont formellement 
i n t e r d i t e s dans l a S o c i e t e . " 

i 

29 
E l i e F a u r e , Catalogue of the S o c i e t e du Sal on  

d'Automne, 1905, p . 18. 

30 
I b i d . , 19. 

31 
J - . - C . H o l l , "Le Salon d'Automne," Les C a h i e r s d ' A r t , 

I I , P a r i s , (October 1905), 73-74, commented on the "Ingres et 
Manet," r e t r o s p e c t i v e as p e c u l i a r and i n t r i g u i n g . In p a r t i -
c u l a r , " . . . l e rapprochement l n a t t e n d u n ' e t a l t p e u t - e t r e 
pas opportun a c e t t e h e u r e . Ce f u t , en e f f e t , un etonnement 
g e n e r a l de v o i r Ingres f i g u r e r a c o t e de Manet, . . . j e ne 
v o i s qu'une e x p l i c a t i o n p l a u s i b l e , l a presence du B a i n T u r c . " 
H o l l d i s t i n g u i s h e d between Ingres concern w i t h the "contours 
de l a forme" and h i s "science de l a c o m p o s i t i o n " of the 
B a i n T u r c and Manet's concern w i t h c o l o u r t o r e v i v e the o l d 
b a t t l e between Ingres and D e l a c r o i x . H o l l d e s c r i b e d the 
j u x t a p o s i t i n of Ingres and Manet as a c o n f r o n t a t i o n of " . . . 
deux mondes opposes, l ' u n v i v a n t dans l e s penombres 
i n t e l l e c t u e l l e s , l ' a u t r e d r e s s e en p l e i n e l u m i e r e . " H o l l 
concluded t h a t Ingres was out of p l a c e a t t h i s Sal on w h i l e 
Manet e x e m p l i f i e d an a v a n t - g a r d e a r t i s t misunderstood i n h i s 
own t i m e . 

L o u i s V a u x c e l l e s ' "A Propos d'Une R e t r o s p e c t i v e , " 
appeared i n h i s column, "La V i e A r t i s t i q u e , " G i l B i a s , of 
September 10, 1905, p . 1, had a l s o c o n c e n t r a t e d on the 
example of Manet f o r the younger a r t i s t s who were " s i 
a s s o i f e s de g l o i r e immediate." In h i s review of Manet's 
d i f f i c u l t s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the c r i t i c s of h i s t i m e , 
V a u x c e l l e s d e s c r i b e d him as "Ce martyre d ' u n a r t i s t e d o i t 
e t r e un theme de m e d i t a t i o n s graves pour l e s a r t i s t e s . " 
Of s i g n i f i c a n c e was the way i n which V a u x c e l l e s r e v i v e d a l l 
the o l d c r i t i c i s m of Manet i n r e l a t i o n to h i s l a c k of 
i d e a l i z a t i o n of the female nudes i n Dejeuner sur l ' h e r b e and 
O l y m p l a , by c o n c e n t r a t i n g on t h e i r s u b j e c t . He r e v i v e d the 
i s s u e of Olympla s h o c k i n g the p u b l i c because of her s t a t u s as 
" l a pauvre e o u r t i s a n e " and the nudes i n Dejeuner sur l ' h e r b e 
who d i s t u r b e d the j u r y and the bourgeois because of t h e i r 
s t a t e of undress while i n the company of c l o t h e d males. 
However, a c c o r d i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d i n the c a t a l o g u e 
by F r a n c o i s e C a c h i n , C h a r l e s S. M o f f e t t , and M i c h e l M e l o t , 
Manet 1832-1883 (New Y o r k : Museum of Modern A r t , 1983), 347-
348, n e i t h e r of these p a i n t i n g s were shown a t the 
r e t r o s p e c t i v e and the o n l y " h o r i z o n t a l " was a f u l l - p o r t r a i t 
by Manet e n t i t l e d Lady w i t h F a n s , P o r t r a i t Nina de C a l l i a s . 
T h i s r e c l i n i n g nude i s posed l o u n g i n g on a c h a i s e - l o u n g e , i n 

127 



an e x o t i c , p r i m a r i l y b l a c k , f i l m y " ' A l g e r i a n ' costume i n 
which she l i k e d t o r e c e i v e . " v i s i t o r s to P a r i s i a n s a l o n . 

32 
F a u r e , C a t a l o g u e , S o c i e t e du Salon d'Automne, 1905, 20. 

Faure c l a i m e d , I b i d . , 19, t h a t "Le S a l o n d'Automne a 
e n t r e p r i s de demontrer, par ces e x p o s i t i o n s r e t r o s p e c t i v e s , 
l a l e g i t i m i t e constante de l 1 ' e f f o r t r e v o l u t i o n n a i r e pour 
r e j o i n d r e l a t r a d i t i o n . La t r a d i t i o n d ' u n people c o n s i s t e a 
f a i r e germer dans l ' i n t i m l t e de sa nature l e f r u i t de ses 
decouvertes n o u v e l l e s sur l e t e r r a i n des a c q u i s i t i o n s q u i 
c o n s t i t u e n t son p a t r i m o i n e h e r e d i t a i r e . . . " 

33 
I b i d . , 21. 

34 
I b i d . , 24. 

35 
C a m i l l e M a u c l a i r , "La C r i s e de l a L a i d e u r en P e i n t u r e , " 

T r o i s C r i s e s de l ' A r t A c t u e l ( P a r i s : Imprimerie D e s l i s 
F r e r e s , 1906), 286-287. P u b l i s h e d as one chapter of t h i s 
book, of J u n e , 1906, "La C r i s e de l a L a i d e u r en P e i n t u r e " was 
an argument d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t the s a l o n which f u n c t i o n e d with 
a j u r y system, u n l i k e the Independants or p r i v a t e g a l l e r i e s , 
and t h e r e f o r e had the power t o be s e l e c t i v e . In support of 
h i s d i s g u s t w i t h the p a i n t i n g s " . . . qu'on n ' a u r a i t pas 
t r o l s j o u r s sur son mur sans l e r e t o u r n e r avec c o l e r e , . . . " 
M a u c l a i r then quoted from Remy de Gourmont's remarks on the 
S a l o n des Independants of the s p r i n g of 1906, ( p u b l i s h e d i n 
the Mercure de F r a n c e , A p r i l , 1906), wherein the a v a n t - g a r d e 
were a t t a c k e d f o r t h e i r c h o i c e of s u b j e c t s . A c c o r d i n g to 
M a u c l a i r , I b i d . , 289-291, Gourmont had asked " ' Q u i done 
v o u d r a i t se mettre quotidiennement sous l e s yeux ces femmes 
d ' h o p i t a l ou de lupanar? . . . i l s s ' e n t e t e n t a d i s h o n o r e r 
l e u r t a l e n t par l e c h o i x des s u j e t s , non l e s p l u s s a l e s , mais 
l e s p l u s betes . . . L ' o e u v r e s e u l e e x i s t e et t o u t son 
charme e s t dans l a beaute. Qui a trompe l e s p e i n t r e s en l e u r 
f a i s a n t c r o i r e que l e s u j e t n ' a pas d ' i m p o r t a n c e . . . mais 
Manet a f a i t une a u t r e oeuvre t o u t de meme avec Olympla 
qu'avec une pioche et un p a n i e r de p r u n e s . " Gourmont's 
g r e a t e s t worry.was t h a t the "bourgeois" might t u r n with-new 
a p p r e c i a t i o n toward "les Cabanel et l e s Bouguereau." 
M a u c l a i r p a r t i c u l a r l y emphasized Gourmont's o b j e c t i o n s t o the 
l a c k of c o n c e r n f o r b e a u t i f u l s u b j e c t s i n the 1906 Salon des 
Independants. The c a t a l o g u e of the S a l o n des Independants of 
1906, pp. 280-281, l i s t e d e i g h t works by K l e e s Van Dongen, 
whose f i g u r a t i v e s u b j e c t s were known f o r t h e i r v u l g a r 
p r e s e n t a t i o n of p r o s t i t u t i o n and lower c l a s s e n t e r t a i n e r s . 
(Note a l s o : M a t i s s e ' s J o i e de v l v r e was e x h i b i t e d a t t h i s 
S a l o n . ) 

128 



M a u c l a i r , T r o l s C r i s e s de l ' A r t A c t u e l , "La C r i s e de l a 
L a i d e u r en P e i n t u r e , " 296-297 c i t e d the reasons f o r the 
a v a n t - g a r d e ' s f a i l u r e to produce n o t h i n g but bad p a i n t i n g as 
t h e i r n e g l e c t of f i n i s h and t h e i r "goQt de l a l a i d e u r , " 
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the nude female s u b j e c t . M a u c l a i r wrote: 
"Beaucoup de femmes nues f i g u r a i e n t l a : t o u t e s e t a i e n t l a i d e s 
et v i l e s de formes et t o n a l i t e s , presentees avec une 
misogynie etrange . . . qu'on v o y a i t en ces g a l e r i e s des 
femmes s o r t a n t du tub p l u s malpropres qu'avant d ' y § t r e 
e n t r e e s . . . On r e s t a i t s t u p e f a i t devant l ' i g n o m i e 
methodique des c h a i r s et des formes . . . Ce que c e r t a i n s 
exposants a v a i e n t p e i n t en r e g a r d a n t l e modele nu e t a i t 
i n i m a g i n a b l e de l a i d e u r et d ' a b e r r a t i o n . " 

36 
I b i d . , 300. M a u c l a i r c o n c e n t r a t e d on the formal i s s u e s 

i n r e l a t i o n t o Manet and Ingres and not the s u b j e c t of t h e i r 
p a i n t i n g s which H o l l (see note 31 above) had chosen as the 
focus of h i s c r i t i q u e . I n s t e a d , M a u c l a i r used Gourmont's 
c r i t i q u e of the d i s e a s e d and lower c l a s s p r o s t i t u t e as an 
"ugly" s u b j e c t of a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t i n g s . See a l s o note 35 
above. 

37 
M a u c l a i r , T r o l s C r i s e s de l ' A r t A c t u e l , 305. 

38 
I b i d . , 308. 

39 
I b i d . , 312. 

40 
I b i d . , 314-315. 

41 
M i c h a e l P . M e z z a t e s t a , H e n r i M a t i s s e , S c u l p t o r / P a i n t e r , 

( F o r t Worth, Texas: K i m b a l l A r t Museum, 1984), 61. 

42 
H . P . C I i v e , P i e r r e Louys (1870-1925), A B i o g r a p h y , 

( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1978), 103-104, e x p l a i n e d t h a t 
while both Louys and Gide had v i s i t e d B i s k r a and d e s c r i b e d 
i t s e r o t i c and e x o t i c p l e a s u r e s i n l i t e r a r y form ( f o r 
example, L o u y s ' Les Chansons de B i l i t i s of 189 4 and G i d e ' s 
Les N o u r r i t u r e s t e r r e s t r e s of 1896), i t was Louys who wrote 
p o r n o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e f o r the bourgeois male h e t e r o s e x u a l 
which p r e s e r v e d h i s v i r i l e and s u p e r i o r s t a t u s . C l i v e , P i e r r e  
L o u y s , 105-106, documented the f a c t t h a t both men had been 
s e x u a l l y i n v o l v e d w i t h the same young A l g e r i a n g i r l of the 
Ouled N a i l t r i b e - - g i r l s from t h i s t r i b e were known f o r t h e i r 
e x o t i c and e r o t i c d a n c i n g and t h e i r " w i l l i n g n e s s " t o 

129 



p r o s t i t u t e themselves to r a i s e funds f o r t h e i r dowry. 
F i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1896, Louys n o v e l , A p h r o d i t e , (New 

Y o r k : 1932), c e n t r e d on t h i s c l a s s i c a l c u l t f i g u r e of 
p r o s t i t u t i o n which a c t e d to c o n c e a l h i s more o v e r t r e f e r e n c e 
to the contemporary i s s u e and h i s promotion of the 
i n s t i t u t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o male power. H i s t e x t p r e s e r v e d 
the v i r i l e image of the c r e a t i v e genius of the a r t i s t / h e r o 
who i m m o r t a l i z e d the l i f e l e s s form of a lower c l a s s , f o r e i g n -
born c o u r t e s a n as a v i c t i m of h e t e r o s e x u a l male power. C l i v e , 
P i e r r e L o u y s , 186-187, s t a t e d t h a t A p h r o d i t e was presented as 
a m u s i c a l on the stage of the P a r i s Comic Opera i n March of 
1906. S p e c i a l l i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e s were used t o h i g h l i g h t the 
feminine forms of the dancers under the wisps of d r a p e r y 
which t h e y were o b l i g e d t o wear because they were p r o h i b i t e d 
from p e r f o r m i n g t h e i r r o l e as d a n c i n g p r o s t i t u t e s i n the 
nude. L 1 I l l u s t r a t i o n p u b l i s h e d i t s r e v i e w of the performance 
on March 31st, p . 193, and suggested t h a t i t s r e a d e r s 
compare the photos of the e r o t i c dancers i n A p h r o d i t e with 
the e x o t i c Javanese dancers p i c t u r e d on the f o l l o w i n g two 
pages. The a r t i c l e made e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o the s i m i l a r i t y 
of costume which exposed the d a n c e r s ' forms and s u g g e s t i v e 
movements. I m p l i c i t i n the review was the l i n k between the 
r e a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of the stage performers as o b j e c t s of male 
power and the v i s u a l s t i m u l a t i o n p r o v i d e d by the Javanese 
harem g i r l s who were the p r o p e r t y of one man, the S u l t a n . 
E l i s a b e t h Hausser, P a r i s au Jour l e J o u r , Les Evenements vus  
par l a p r e s s e . P a r i s , 1900-1919 ( P a r i s : Les E d i t i o n s de 
M i n u i t , 1968), 228, quoted an a r t i c l e w r i t t e n by G . F a u r e , Le  
F i g a r o , A p r i l 27, 1906, as f o l l o w s : " ' . . . Mary Garden en 
c o u r t i s a n e grecque e s t 'on ne peut p l u s b e l l e , n i p l u s 
s e d u i s a n t e , n i p l u s touchante* et l e s i n v o c a t i o n s a l'amour 
de l a premiere danseuse ' r a p p e l l e n t a s ' y meprendre l e s 
e s q u i s e s pantomimes de M a t a - H a r i . ' " O b v i o u s l y , t h e r e f o r e , 
the performance of Mary Garden i n A p h r o d i t e was d e l i b e r a t e l y 
compared w i t h t h a t of M a t a - H a r i , a well-known c o u r t e s a n who 
s p e c i a l i z e d i n e x o t i c Javanese d a n c i n g . 

43 
Andrea Thomsett, The Blue Nude, 6, supported t h i s p o i n t 

of view i n her d i s c u s s i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p of p r o s t i t u t i o n 
w i t h the F r e n c h m i l i t a r y and u l t i m a t e l y w i t h the p a i n t i n g , 
The Blue Nude i t s e l f . 

44 
Abraham F l e x n e r , P r o s t i t u t i o n i n Europe (New Y o r k : The 

C e n t u r y C o . , 1914), 327. 

45 
A l a i n C o r b i n , Les f l l l e s de noce: mlsere s e x u e l l e e t  

p r o s t i t u t i o n (19e et 20e s l e c l e s ) ( P a r i s : A u b i e r Montagne, 
1978), 470-471. 

130 



46 
I b i d . , 182-183. 

47 
I b i d . , 185-186. 

48 
I b i d . , 258-259. 

49 
The t r a d i t i o n a l and p r o g r e s s i v e Salons were a l s o 

covered by Le R i r e , a s a t i r i c P a r i s i a n i l l u s t r a t e d p e r i o d i c a l 
which kept a c l o s e watch on the a r t i s t i c and p o l i t i c a l 
communities. I t a t t a c k e d a r t i s t i c , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l 
i s s u e s w i t h i t s humour d i r e c t e d toward the a n a r c h i s t s and the 
b o u r g e o i s . The 4th of May i s s u e of 1907 of Le R i r e , p . 2, 
c o n t a i n e d a drawing by Guillaume of an o l d e r couple l o o k i n g 
a t a r e c l i n i n g nude a t the s a l o n . The c a p t i o n , "Au Sal on de 
La N a t i o n a l e " was accompanied by the bourgeois male's warning 
to h i s w i f e : "Ne r e s t e done pas comme c a devant ce t a b l e a u , 
H e r m a n c e . . . O n d i t que e ' e s t l 1 h a b i t u d e des modeles q u i ont 
pose pour l e p e i n t r e . . . " F a n t a s i o , a p o p u l a r p u b l i c a t i o n 
of the t i m e , was f i l l e d with photographs of female 
e n t e r t a i n e r s , e i t h e r nude or i n s u g g e s t i v e costumes. As 
w e l l , performances such as A p h r o d i t e , and Mata H a r i ' s e r o t i c 
and e x o t i c dances p r o l i f e r a t e d on the P a r i s s t a g e . 

50 
A l b e r t E . E l s e n , The S c u l p t u r e of H e n r i M a t i s s e (New 

Y o r k : H a r r y N . Abrams, 1972), 219, note 59. E l s e n had 
i d e n t i f i e d the photograph as the source for M a t i s s e ' s 
s c u l p t u r e but he d i d not i d e n t i f y the p u b l i c a t i o n from which 
i t was t a k e n . The photograph appeared i n the c o n t e x t of A . 
V i g n o l a ' s p e r i o d i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n , L'Humanite Feminine ( P a r i s : 
L i b r a i r i e Documentaire, J a n u a r y 5, 1907), i n the c o n t e x t of 
an a r t i c l e from t h i s i l l u s t r a t e d s e r i e s e n t i t l e d , "Femmes 
d ' A f r i q u e : S u d - A l g e r i e n et T u n i s i e , " H i e s e r i e , p . 40. The 
photograph was t i t l e d , "Jeunes f i l l e s t a r g u i . " T h i s 
p u b l i c a t i o n o r i g i n a t e d on December 1, 1906, and the f i r s t 
i s s u e c o n t a i n e d a s e r i e s of a r t i c l e s and photographs of 
"Arabes et Mauresques, Etudes de nus, de costumes, de 
moeurs," on December 15, 1906, "Bedouins et B e r b e r e s ' " and on 
December 29, 1906,"Negresses, Dahom6ennes et C o n g o l a i s e s . " 
From i t s f i r s t i s s u e , L'Humanite F e m i n i n e , "Femmes d ' A f r i q u e : 
Arabes et Mauresques," of December 1, 1906, and i t s 
subsequent f o r m a t s , i t i s apparent t h a t the p o p u l a r i t y of 
t h i s p e r i o d i c a l would r e s t upon i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n of women 
from v a r i o u s A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s as e r o t i c i z e d o b j e c t s of 
c u r i o s i t y . T h e i r poses were o b v i o u s l y manipulated by 
p r o f e s s i o n a l photographers to a p p e a l to the western male 
through the emphasis on t h e i r e x o t i c costumes and s e t t i n g or 
t h e i r " p r i m i t i v e " n u d i t y . While t h e i r c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y was 

131 



emphasized i t was r e c a s t w i t h i n the framework of the Western 
male's power f a n t a s y . ( A f r i c a n women were d e s c r i b e d i n the 
Western c o n s t r u c t s of "Eves" and "Venuses".) An 
i d e o l o g i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d v i e w p o i n t was thus imposed upon the 
A f r i c a n female to emphasize her p h y s i c a l e r o t i c i s m and her 
e x o t i c o r i g i n s . Measured a g a i n s t Western s t a n d a r d s of 
c l a s s i c a l beauty, the s i z e of her b r e a s t s , t h i g h s and f e e t as 
w e l l as her f a c i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and s k i n c o l o u r the A f r i c a n 
woman was d e f i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o Western c u l t u r e . A . 
V i g n o l a , L 1 Humanite F e m i n i n e , "Femmes d ' A f r i q u e : Arabes et 
Mauresques," 3 - 5 , imposed a form of h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y upon 
t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n ' s content by d i s c u s s i n g the o r i g i n s of North 
A f r i c a n c u l t u r e i n r e l a t i o n to C h r i s t i a n i t y . I s l a m i c Arabs 
and North A f r i c a n Jews were d e s c r i b e d i n terms of common 
o r i g i n through r e f e r e n c e to b i b l i c a l s t o r i e s . For example i t 
was suggested t h a t "Cette legende q u i donne aux c o m p a t r i o t e s 
de Mahomet et aux I s r a e l i t e s une o r i g i n e commune, n e ' e s t que 
l e r e f l e c t de l a v e r i t e h i s t o r i q u e . " E x p l a n a t i o n for the 
c u r r e n t i m p u r i t y of the Arab r a c e and thus i t s d e g r a d a t i o n 
was r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y to Le Bon's t h e o r i e s through the b e l i e f 
t h a t the cause was the mixing of the r a c e s which r e s u l t e d 
from the r a c i a l l y d i f f e r e n t A f r i c a n women taken as s l a v e s i n 
Moslem harems. Western r a c i s t t h e o r y was thus r e l a t e d to 
and r e s p o n s i b l e for the e r e c t i o n of a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r s which 
d i v i d e d North A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s and eased F r e n c h dominance. 

51 
Edward S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m (New Y o r k : Pantheon Books, 

1978) 207. 

52 
L e r o y C . B r e u n i g , e d . A p o l l l n a i r e on A r t : Essays and  

Reviews 1902-1918, T r a n s . Susan Suleiman, (New Y o r k : The 
V i k i n g P r e s s , 1972), 38. 

52 
L o u y s , A p h r o d i t e , 11, commented upon the r e l a t i o n s h i p 

between v i r i l i t y and c r e a t i v i t y i n h i s p r e f a c e t o A p h r o d i t e 
as f o l l o w s : "It i s because s e n s u a l i t y i s a c o n d i t i o n , 
mysterious but n e c e s s a r y and c r e a t i v e , of i n t e l l e c t u a l 
development. Those who have not f e l t to t h e i r l i m i t the 
s t r o n g e s t demands of the f l e s h , whether as a b l e s s i n g or as a 
c u r s e , are i n c a p a b l e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g f u l l y the demands of 
the s p i r i t . J u s t as the beauty of the s o u l i l l u m i n e s the 
f e a t u r e s , so o n l y the v i r i l i t y of the body n o u r i s h e s the 
b r a i n . The worst i n s u l t t h a t D e l a c r o i x c o u l d address to men— 
t h a t which he threw i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y a t the r a l l e r s of Rubens 
and a t the d e t r a c t o r s of Ingres—was t h i s t e r r i b l e word: 
'Eunuchs t'" 

132 



54 
S t e i n b e r g , "The P h i l o s o p h i c a l B r o t h e l , P a r t I , " 27, 

mentioned the s e x u a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s of the "porron" as a 
p h a l l i c symbol. However, he r e j e c t e d the n o t i o n t h a t t h i s 
f i g u r e was a eunuch because of the nude form—an i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n w i t h which I do not a g r e e . 

55 
C o r b i n , Les f i l l e s de noce, 344, c i t e d C . A n d l e r ' s 

Le manifeste communiste de K a r l Marx et F . E n g e l s , 151. 
C o r b i n , Les f i l l e s de noce, 349-350, a l s o suggested t h a t the 
s o c i a l i s t s were s i l e n t on the i s s u e of r e g u l a t o r y change i n 
c o n t r o l l i n g p r o s t i t u t i o n , b e l i e v i n g t h a t b o u r g e o i s c u l t u r e 
was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the i n s t i t u t i o n of p r o s t i t u t i o n . 

56 
C a r o l Duncan, " V i r i l i t y and Domination i n E a r l y 2 0 t h -

c e n t u r y Vanguard P a i n t i n g , " A r t f o r u m , 12 (1973/4), 35-36 
d e s c r i b e d P i c a s s o ' s p a i n t i n g as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n to " . . . 
c e l e b r a t e the domination of woman by man." Duncan i g n o r e d 
the s p e c i f i c i t y of the moment and i d e o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n 
a v a n t - g a r d e p r a c t i c e . 

57 
Ronald Johnson, " P r i m i t i v i s m i n the E a r l y S c u l p t u r e of 

P i c a s s o , " A r t s Magazine, 49 (June, 1975), 64-68 i s an 
important d i s c u s s i o n of P i c a s s o ' s wooden s c u l p t u r e s . 
However, he c o n t i n u e s the t r a d i t i o n a l assumption of t h e i r 
c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p , to p r i m i t i v e a r t . Johnson, " P i c a s s o ' s 
D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n and the Theatre of the A b s u r d , " 
A r t s Magazine, 55, no. 2, (October, 1980), 102-113 d i s c u s s e d 
the s i g n i f i c a n c e of P i c a s s o ' s formal P r i m i t i v i s m i n r e l a t i o n 
to the a r t i s t s s u b j e c t i v i t y . Johnson, I b i d . , 106, noted " . . 
. the i n c r e a s i n g p r i m i t i v i s m from l e f t t o r i g h t . . . " His 
formal a n a l y s i s of the p a i n t i n g not o n l y s u p p o r t s the f a c t 
t h a t P i c a s s o ' s f i g u r e s seem to be " . . . hacked and c u t out 
of wood . . . (but t h a t ) . . . the d r a p e r y and c u r t a i n s . . . 
(are) rough and u n s e n s u a l . " While Johnson, I b i d . , 109, 
r e c o g n i z e d P i c a s s o ' s " d e - f e m i n i z a t i o n " as a p o s s i b l e symbol 
of i n f e r t i l i t y , he d i d not connect t h i s to the i d e o l o g i c a l 
c o m p l e x i t y of the h i s t o r i c moment. 

57 
M i c h a e l L e j a , " % L e Vleux Marcheur* and ' L e s Deux 

R i s q u e s ' : P i c a s s o , P r o s t i t u t i o n , V e n e r e a l D i s e a s e , and 
M a t e r n i t y , 1899-1907," A r t H i s t o r y , V o l . 8, No. 1, (March, 
1985), 78-79 r e c o g n i z e d the importance of the s o c i a l c o n t e x t 
of p r o s t i t u t i o n as a s u b j e c t but saw P i c a s s o ' s p a i n t i n g as a 
f a i l u r e . L e j a r e d e f i n e d the f u n c t i o n of the p a i n t i n g as a 
f a i l e d e x p r e s s i o n of a s e x u a l dllemna In w h i c h . P i c a s s o f a i l e d 
i n h i s i n t e n t i o n " . . . t o make the viewer r e c o g n i z e 
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y the twin i n e v i t a b i l i t i e s of s u b m i s s i o n and 

133 



subsequent harm . . . " L e j a does not e x p l o r e the p o s s i b i l i t y 
of P i c a s s o ' s p o s s i b l e i n t e n t i o n to remove the s e d u c t i v e 
c o n t e n t . 

59 
L e j a , " l L e Vieux M a r c h e u r ' , " 68-69 o u t l i n e d the 

c o m p l e x i t y of the i d e o l o g i c a l debate s u r r o u n d i n g p r o s t i t u t i o n 
i n the e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y i n r e l a t i o n to P i c a s s o ' s s u b j e c t s . 

60 
Johnson, " P i c a s s o ' s " D e m o i s e l l e s . . . , 105, noted the 

p r o d u c t i o n of P i c a s s o ' s wooden s c u l p t u r e s i n r e l a t i o n to the 
e v o l u t i o n of the p a i n t i n g and began t o q u e s t i o n the d i r e c t 
i n f l u e n c e of p r i m i t i v e a r t upon P i c a s s o ' s expermiments. 

61 
P i c a s s o ' s a c c e n t u a t i o n of t h i s f i g u r e ' s knee appears to 

s a t i r i z e the " p e r f e c t knees" of c l a s s i c a l s c u l p t u r e . See 
a l s o Hugh Honour, N e o - C l a s s i c l s m (Harmondsworth: Penguin 
Books L t d . , 1977), 117, where he d e s c r i b e d the " p e r f e c t 
knees" which were admired by academics and b e l i e v e d to be 
found o n l y i n a n t i q u e s c u l p t u r e . 

62 
B a r r , P i c a s s o , 1946, 51. 

63 
R u b i n , " P r i m i t i v i s m " . 245. 

64 
C o r b i n , Les f i l l e s de noce, 482, suggested t h a t the 

i s s u e of p r o s t i t u t i o n , which was surrounded by c o n t r a d i c t o r y 
v i e w p o i n t s , would, a t a time of n a t i o n a l t h r e a t take on a g r e a t e r 
s i g n i f i c a n c e . Thus, the p r o s t i t u t e presented a problem f o r 
the French n a t i o n i n the double r o l e of e s s e n t i a l product but 
dangerous through the r i s k of d i s e a s e . C o r b i n , I b i d . , 478-
479, documented the f a c t t h a t the young r u r a l p r o s t i t u t e s 
were i n f a c t r e s i s t a n t t o measures of r e g u l a t i o n and c o n t r o l . 

65 
P i e r r e D a i x , "II n ' y a pas " D ' A r t negre dans Les  

D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n , " Gazette des B e a u x - A r t s , 11, 1970, 263 
argued a g a i n s t the i m i t a t i o n of p r i m i t i v e a r t by P i c a s s o and 
e x p l a i n e d t h a t P i c a s s o ' s use of "hachures" as a means "pour 
s i g n i f i e r l e r e l i e f " was to produce a "code f i g u r a t i f " 
u n r e l a t e d t o a l i v e model or t o a p r i m i t i v e mask. T h e r e f o r e , 
Daix suggested t h a t P i c a s s o ' s formal experiments c o u l d have a 
s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e not d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o A f r i c a n a r t . In 
f a c t , P i c a s s o ' s s e a r c h f o r a " p r i m i t i v e " form with which to 
express h i s c o n t e n t can be found i n h i s experiments a t G o s o l , 
S p a i n . On d i s p l a y a t the Musee P i c a s s o , P a r i s , i n June, 

134 



19 86, was a t r e e branch upon which P i c a s s o had i n c i s e d the 
f i g u r e of a female nude In a c l a s s i c a l pose i n the summer of 
1906, a t G o s o l , which I suggest was an e a r l y attempt by 
P i c a s s o to f i n d a v e h i c l e f o r a n t i - c l a s s i c a l form r e l a t i v e to 
" p r i m i t i v e " r u r a l c u l t u r e . 

66 
Widener, Gustave Le Bon, 135. J u l e s Guesde, Le  

S o c i a l i s m e au Jour l e J o u r , P a r i s , 1899, 473, r e f e r r e d to the 
d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e of the "Nana's" of the world through the 
t h r e a t they posed for t h e i r c l i e n t s , the b o u r g e o i s male and 
t h a t they s h o u l d not be viewed as v i c t i m s i n the c o n t e x t of 
the h i s t o r i c s t r u g g l e . See a l s o Susan H o l l l s C l a y s o n , 
D i s s e r t a t i o n ( U . C . L . A . , 1984) R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of P r o s t i t u t i o n  
i n E a r l y T h i r d R e p u b l i c France (Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n : UMI, 
1985), f o r her important d i s c u s s i o n of the s o c i a l 
s i g n i f i c a n c e of the l i t e r a r y and a r t i s t i c r e n d e r i n g s of the 
s t e r e o t y p e of Nana. M i c h e l F o u c a u l t , The H i s t o r y of  
S e x u a l i t y (New Y o r k : Pantheon Books, 1978), 127, argued t h a t 
the f u n c t i o n of the c l a s s i d e o l o g y of the b o u r g e o i s , which 
saw the need to reproduce i t s e l f , was important t o t h i s 
c l a s s ' s attempt t o r e t a i n i t s s u p e r i o r and p r i v i l e g e d s t a t u s . 
He proposed t h a t " . . . the b o u r g o i s i e endowed i t s e l f , i n an 
a r r o g a n t p o l i t i c a l a f f i r m a t i o n , w i t h a g a r u l o u s s e x u a l i t y 
which the p r o l e t a r i a t long r e f u s e d to a c c e p t , s i n c e i t was 
f o i s t e d on them f o r the purpose of s u b j u g a t i o n . . . and we 
must say t h a t t h e r e i s a bourgeois s e x u a l i t y , and t h a t t h e r e 
are c l a s s s e x u a l i t i e s . " 

67 
S a l l l e t , A l f r e d J a r r y : Tout Ubu, 15. See a l s o K e i t h 

Beaumont, A l f r e d J a r r y : A C r i t i c a l and B i o g r a p h i c a l Study 
(New Y o r k : S t . M a r t i n ' s P r e s s , 1984) 143. 

68 
S a i l l e t , A l f r e d J a r r y : Tout Ubu, 457-459. See a l s o 

K e i t h Beaumont, A l f r e d J a r r y , 143. 

135 



CONCLUSION 

L'homme e s t un temoin de sa propre e x i s t e n c e 
et de l ' u n i v e r s q u i i ' e n t o u r e . L ' A r t e s t l e 
temoinage q u ' i l l a l s s e , . . . 

1 
Gustave G e f f r o y , 1905. 

R e l a t e d through t h e i r "ugly" female s u b j e c t s , M a t i s s e ' s 

The Blue Nude (Souvenir of B i s k r a ) and P i c a s s o ' s Les  

D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n are N e o - O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g s of 

p r o s t i t u t e s whlqh d i f f e r i n meaning through t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n 

of P r i m i t i v i s m . 

In M a t i s s e ' s p a i n t i n g , the "ugly" woman f u n c t i o n e d as a 

symbol of r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s i n f e r i o r i t y by which the 

Western bourgeois male-dominated F r e n c h c u l t u r e c o u l d r e t a i n 

d e l u s i o n s of power. The v i o l e n t r e s t r u c t u r i n g of her form to 

emphasize her p r i m i t i v e n e s s had r e l e v a n c e w i t h i n the c o n t e x t 

of the o f f i c i a l sphere of F r e n c h c u l t u r e which promoted the 

t a s t e f o r e r o t i c and e x o t i c female imagery. The Blue Nude, 

as a p a s s i v e , l a z y and " w i l l i n g " North A f r i c a n p r o s t i t u t e , 

f u n c t i o n e d as a v i t a l commodity w i t h i n the s t r u c t u r e of 

F r e n c h n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m . 

P i c a s s o ' s "ugly" women are p o r t r a y e d as p r o s t i t u t e s 

transformed through P r i m i t i v i s m to symbolize the changing 

h i s t o r i c a l process of power r e l a t i o n s h i p s . P i c a s s o r e j e c t e d 

t r a d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s t o F r e n c h c l a s s i c i s m and the e r o t i c 

136 



and e x o t i c d e c o r a t i v e content of O r i e n t a l i s t p a i n t i n g to 

e x p l o i t i t s v i o l e n c e . His p r o s t i t u t e s r e f u s e the 

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the female p r o s t i t u t e as p a s s i v e , w i l l i n g 

v i c t i m s and are i n s t e a d symbols of a g g r e s s i o n r e s p o n d i n g t o 

the c o m p l e x i t y of the debates over r a c i a l , s e x u a l and c l a s s 

i d e n t i t y . 

M a t i s s e ' s well-known statement, p u b l i s h e d i n 1908 

r e v e a l s h i s a f f i n i t y with bourgeois v a l u e s . M a t i s s e wrote: 

Ce que je r e v e , c ' e s t un a r t d ' e q u i l i b r e , 
de p u r e t e , de t r a n q u i l l i t e , sans s u j e t 
i n q u i e t a n t ou p r e o c c u p a n t , q u i s o i t , pour 
t o u t t r a v a i l l e u r c e r e b r a l , pour l'homme 
d ' a f f a i r e s a u s s i b i e n que pour l ' a r t i s t e 
des l e t t r e s , par exemple, un l e n i f i a n t , 
un calmant c e r e b r a l , quelque chose 
d'analogue a un bon f a u t e u i l q u i l e d e l a s s e 
des ses f a t i g u e s p h y s i q u e s . 2 

The Blue Nude was the p e r f e c t s u b j e c t f o r f a n t a s i e s of 

bourgeois power. P i c a s s o ' s p a i n t i n g of v i o l e n t and 

a g g r e s s i v e females was intended to f u n c t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y from 

M a t i s s e ' s The Blue Nude, however, through i t s v i o l e n t , yet 

ambiguous c o n t e n t , Le D e m o i s e l l e s d ' A v i g n o n c o u l d s t i l l 

p r o v i d e p l e a s u r e to the Western bourgeois male. 

The appearance of the "ugly" women i n the b a t t l e over 

a v a n t - g a r d e l e a d e r s h i p i n P a r i s i n 1907 i s r e l a t e d to F r e n c h 

n e o - c o l o n i a l l s m and c l a s s p o l a r i z a t i o n . P r i m i t i v i s m , as a 

t o o l of c l a s s , s e x u a l and r a c i a l domination was viewed i n 

d i s t i n c t i v e ways by the p o p u l a r and o f f i c i a l c i r c l e s of 

c u l t u r e . I n c o r p o r a t i o n of the image of the female p r o s t i t u t e 

as a p r i m i t i v i z e d s u b j e c t i n avant g a r d e - p a i n t i n g was 

137 



i n f l u e n c e d by c l a s s i d e o l o g i e s , i n the v i o l e n t atmosphere of 

s o c i a l and c o l o n i a l u n r e s t to which the i n c r e a s i n g l y 

n a t i o n a l i s t F r e n c h R e p u b l i c responded with b r u t a l r e p r e s s i o n 

and Germany t h r e a t e n e d F r e n c h I m p e r i a l i s t hegemony i n A f r i c a , 

the appearance of the "ugly" women i n the P a r i s i a n a v a n t -

garde s h o u l d not be s u r p r i s i n g . A f t e r a l l , "It was an ' u g l y ' 

3 
moment." 

138 



NOTES 

1 
Gustave G e f f r o y , " S i g n i f i c a t i o n de l ' A r t , " Les C a h l e r s  

d ' A r t , P a r i s , 1905, 3. 

2 
H e n r i M a t i s s e , "Notes d'un P e i n t r e , " December, 1908, as 

quoted i n Benjamin, M a t i s s e ' s "Notes of a P a i n t e r , " Appendix, 
741-742, from M a t i s s e ' s o r i g i n a l t e x t . 

3 
Serge G u i l b a u t , i n d i s c u s s i o n , Graduate Student Round 

T a b l e , Department of F i n e A r t s , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h 
Columbia, Vancouver, B r i t i s h Columbia, March, 1987. 

139 



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"Apres des M a s s a c r e s . " L ' H u m a n i t e . P a r i s , (June, 1907). 

A r o n , J e a n - P a u l . M i s e r a b l e e t g l o r i e u s e : l a femme du XIXe  
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B a r r , A l f r e d H . J r . M a t i s s e . H i s A r t and H i s P u b l i c . 
New Y o r k : The Museum of Modern A r t , 1951. 

. " M a t i s s e , P i c a s s o , and the C r i s i s of 1907." Magazine 
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153 



-L'Assiette au Beurre^ 

F i g . 7. D i v e r s . La L i b e r t e , 
A p r i l 1906. C o v e r . L ' A s s i e t t e  
au B e u r r e . 

154 



F i g . 8. Grandjouan. l e r mai, 
A p r i l 1906. C o v e r . L ' A s s i e t t e au 
B e u r r e . 

155 



F i g . 9. H e n r i M a t i s s e . The  
R e c l i n i n g Nude I_, 1907. The 
Museum of Modern A r t , New Y o r k , 
the L i l l i e P. B l i s s Bequest. 

156 



I* 
F i g . 10. Pablo P i c a s s o . The  
Harem, 1906. C l e v e l a n d Museum of  
A r t , C l e v e l a n d . Leonard C. Hanna  
J r . C o l l e c t i o n . 

157