THE FOUNDING OF A T R A D I T I O N : A U S T R A L I A N / A M E R I C A N L I T E R A R Y RELATIONS BEFORE 1868 by DAVID JOHN HEADON M . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f S y d n e y , 1976 A T H E S I S SUBMITTED IN P A R T I A L F U L F I L M E N T OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES D e p a r t m e n t o f E n g l i s h We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE U N I V E R S I T Y OF A p r i 1 ( ^ ) D a v i d J o h n B R I T I S H 1982 H e a d o n , COLUMBIA 1982 In presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. I t i s understood that copying or publication of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission. Department of The University of B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date DE-6 (3/81) i i ABSTRACT In t h e e i g h t y y e a r s f r o m t h e a r r i v a l o f E n g l i s h c o n v i c t s a n d t h e i r g a o l e r s i n A u s t r a l i a t o t h e d e a t h , i n 1868, o f A u s t r a l i a ' s f i r s t m a j o r w r i t e r , C h a r l e s H a r p u r , an A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n was b o r n . T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n t r a c e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h a t t r a d i t i o n , o n e w h i c h few s c h o l a r s h a v e r e c o g n i z e d . E v e n b e f o r e t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e F i r s t F l e e t o f c o n v i c t s , many B r i t o n s saw A u s t r a l i a as p o t e n t i a l l y a n o t h e r A m e r i c a ; c o n - s e q u e n t l y , A u s t r a l i a ' s e a r l y i n h a b i t a n t s d i d s o t o o . A few r a d i c a l s and i d e a l i s t s e v e n c o n t e m p l a t e d C o o k ' s P a c i f i c d i s c o v e r y a s a new a n d p o t e n t i a l l y g r e a t e r A m e r i c a . B o t a n y B a y ' s f i r s t d e c a d e s n a t u r a l l y w i t n e s s e d some c h a n g e s i n t h e s e i n i t i a l p e r c e p t i o n s . Up t o D a r l i n g ' s p e r i o d o f g o v e r n o r s h i p (1825-31), A u s t r a l i a ' s r u l i n g e l i t e , t h o u g h f o r c e d t o t r a d e w i t h b u s y - - a n d , a t t i m e s , r u t h 1 e s s - - Y a n k e e m e r c h a n t s , c o n s i d e r e d t h e c o n t i n u i n g p r e s e n c e o f A m e r i c a n b o a t s t o be a t h r e a t t o t h e c o l o n y ' s s e c u r i t y : A m e r i c a n c a p t a i n s a i d e d i n t h e n u m e r o u s e s c a p e s o f c o n v i c t s o t h e r w i s e doomed t o s p e n d t h e t e r m s o f t h e i r n a t u r a l l i f e i n New H o l l a n d . R e a c t i o n t o A m e r i c a n s and A m e r i c a n i n f l u e n c e , t h e n , d e p e n d e d on o n e ' s p o s i t i o n i n t h e c o l o n i a l h i e r a r c h y . H o w e v e r , a f t e r G o v e r n o r B r i s b a n e d e c i d e d t o a l l o w f r e e d o m o f t h e P r e s s i n 1824, s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t s i n t h e A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s h i p b e g a n . An e x p a n d i n g A u s t r a l i a n m i d d l e c l a s s , c h a f i n g u n d e r t h e s t r i c t u r e s I I I o f c o l o n i a l r u l e from London, began t o i d e n t i f y i t s s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h a t o f t h e c i t i z e n r y i n p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y A m e r i c a . Led i n i t i a l l y by W.C. Wentworth, who p u b l i s h e d h i s S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n i n 1819> demand f o r s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t grew. T h i s d i s s e n t s h o u l d be viewed as A u s t r a l i a ' s f i r s t l i v e l y and r e c o g n i z a b l y i n d i g e n o u s l i t e r a t u r e . I t draws h e a v i l y on American p r e c e d e n t . In the 1830's, '40's and 1 5 0 1 s , r e v o l u t i o n a r y w r i t e r s such as Benjamin F r a n k l i n , Thomas J e f f e r s o n , Thomas P a i n e , James O t i s and P a t r i c k Henry became i n c r e a s i n g l y p o p u l a r amongst A u s t r a l i a n s i n s e a r c h o f p o l i t i c a l s o v e r e i g n t y . A m e r i c a came under s c r u t i n y as a c o u n t r y e x p e r i e n c i n g p a r a l l e l g r o w i n g p a i n s , but a t a more advanced s t a g e o f development. At the same t i m e , the example of American independence was o f r h e t o r i c a l and p o l i t i c a l v a l u e f o r A u s t r a l i a n s when d e a l i n g w i t h a r i g i d C o l o n i a l O f f i c e i n London. W h i l e " B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n , " as A m e r i c a was o f t e n a f f e c t i o n a t e l y l a b e l l e d , was a p o p u l a r p o l i t i c a l weapon up t o the 1 8 5 0 1 s , he was a l s o o f g r e a t 1i t e r a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e i n the l a t e r 1830's. Consumption o f American books i n A u s t r a l i a i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y as the p o p u l a t i o n expanded and books became cheaper. In I 8 3 8 , John Dunmore Lang's Colon i s t r e p r i n t e d W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing's e s s a y , "On the Importance and Means o f a N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e . " C o n s c i o u s o f the e f f o r t s o f Americans such as Channing, Emerson, Brownson, F u l l e r and P a r k e r t o e s t a b l i s h a s t r o n g n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a s m a l l group o f d e d i c a t e d A u s t r a l i a n s s t r o v e t o a s s e r t t h e i r own c r e a t i v e independence. They r e c o g n i z e d not o n l y A u s t r a l i a ' s p o l i t i c a l a f f i n i t y w i t h A m e r i c a , but s o c i a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l and l i t e r a r y a t t a c h m e n t s as w e l l . i v C o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n A u s t r a l i a and A m e r i c a became f a r more s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n t h e 1 8 4 0 1 s , 1 5 0 1 s and ' 6 0 ' s f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s . One was t h e g o l d f i e l d s i n C a l i f o r n i a a n d A u s t r a l i a , w i t h t h e s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r c h a n g e o f p o p u l a t i o n . A n o t h e r was t h e more a d v a n c e d s y s t e m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e two c o u n t r i e s - - t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l W a r , f o r e x a m p l e , was e x h a u s t i v e l y c o v e r e d i n a l l A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s . T h i r d , and f o r t h i s t h e s i s most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h r e e A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s , J o h n D u n - m o r e L a n g , D a n i e l D e n i e h y a n d C h a r l e s H a r p u r d e t e r m i n e d t o c o n s u l t a w i d e r a n g e o f A m e r i c a n s o u r c e s i n t h e i r q u e s t t o e s t a b l i s h b o t h a h i g h l y p r i n c i p l e d n a t i o n a n d a t r u l y A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e . Y e t , a s t h e w o r k s o f L a n g , D e n i e h y a n d H a r p u r i n d i c a t e , A u s t r a l i a n s o f t h e t i m e r e j e c t e d t h e p a t h o f e a s y i m i t a t i o n o f B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n . A l l t h r e e w r i t e r s e n v i s a g e d t h e i r c o u n t r y a s a f u t u r e w o r 1 d - 1 e a d e r . R e j e c t i n g b o t h d e s p o t i c c o l o n i a 1 - g o v e r n m e n t r u l e a n d A m e r i c a ' s a b h o r r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n o f s l a v e r y , t h e y w a n t e d t o e s t a b l i s h an i d e a l r e p u b l i c i n t h e s o u t h - - a U t o p i a o f y e o m a n - f a r m e r s . S h a p e d by t h e s e r e p u b l i c a n m u s i n g s , d e m o c r a t i c s e n t i m e n t s and Utopian s p e c u l a t i o n s , a l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n o f e n e r g e t i c i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n A u s t r a l i a n and A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s , e n l a r g i n g on s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r o o t s a s o l d a s t h e c o l o n y i t s e l f , was f o u n d e d . TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION 1 PART ONE: TO 1838 CHAPTER I: "A NEW AMERICA" OR BRITAIN'S "SINK OF WICKEDNESS " 52 S e c t i o n A. E x p l o r a t i o n and S e t t l e m e n t 52 S e c t i o n B. A t t i t u d e s t o the New C o l o n y - - i n England and Tory A u s t r a l i a 76 S e c t i o n C. C o n v i c t A t t i t u d e s 96 CHAPTER I I : PUBLICIZING THE "GRAND BEACON" 126 S e c t i o n A. The P r e s s 126 S e c t i o n B. S o c i e t y and L i t e r a t u r e 151 CHAPTER I I I : THE WRITERS 181 S e c t i o n A. W i l l i a m C h a r l e s Wentworth 181 S e c t i o n B. John Dunmore Lang . . 197 S e c t i o n C. Amasa Delano and C h a r l e s W i l k e s 201 v i P a g e P A R T TWO: 1838-68 C H A P T E R I V : S P R E A D I N G DEMOCRACY 2 2 4 S e c t i o n A . l 8 4 0 ' s 2 3 0 S e c t i o n B. 18501 s 2 4 4 S e c t i o n C . 1860' s 2 6 7 C H A P T E R V : YOUNG A M E R I C A A T L A R G E IN T H E C O L O N Y . . 2 9 4 S e c t i o n A . A u s t r a l i a n s R e a d i n g 2 9 4 S e c t i o n B . D e e p e r i n t o t h e V o r t e x 3 1 3 S e c t i o n C . T h e " ' G o - A - H e a d - A - T i v e " A m e r i c a n s . . . . 3 2 9 S e c t i o n D. M o n e y o r E v a n g e l i s m ? 3 4 2 C H A P T E R V I : S I G N A L F I R E S ON T H E R E D D E N I N G H I L L S . . . 365 S e c t i o n A . J . D . L a n g : G o i n g t h e W h o l e H o g 3 6 9 S e c t i o n B . D a n i e l H e n r y D e n i e h y : T h e V e h e m e n t V o i c e o f t h e S o u t h 3 9 6 S e c t i o n C . C h a r l e s H a r p u r : T h e W i l d B e e o f A u s t r a l i a 428 C O N C L U S I O N 4 8 5 B I B L I O G R A P H Y 5 0 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS T h i s t h e s i s was w r i t t e n o v e r a p e r i o d o f f o u r y e a r s . It was a p r i v i l e g e d t i m e , f o r I was f i n a n c i a l l y s u p p o r t e d by t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , e v e n t h o u g h i n d u l g i n g i n a l a b o u r o f l o v e . I a p p r e c i a t e t h e g r e a t f a i t h o f t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n . It h a s b e e n my g o o d l u c k , a l s o , t o h a v e w o r k e d w i t h some m a r v e l l o u s c o l l e a g u e s . In p a r t i c u l a r , I w o u l d l i k e t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e h e l p a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f two d e a r f r i e n d s , P e t e r Q u a r t e r m a i n , my s u p e r v i s o r , a n d J i m T u l i p , o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S y d n e y . I'm a l s o i n d e b t e d t o my o t h e r two c o m m i t t e e m e n , K e i t h A l l d r i t t and D i a n a B r y d o n , f o r r e a d i n g t h e d r a f t a n d f o r m a k i n g u s e f u l s u g g e s t i o n s , and t o B i l l New, J o s e p h J o n e s , A d r i a n M i t c h e l l , L e s M u r r a y a n d t h e l a t e W a l t e r S t o n e , who a l s o g a v e v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e when t h e n e e d a r o s e . T h a n k s a l s o t o M a r i a n F r a s e r a n d P a u l S t . P i e r r e , t h e p a t i e n t p r o o f - r e a d e r s o f my m a n u s c r i p t , a n d t o L y n d a M i l l e r , my t a l e n t e d t y p i s t . I am g r a t e f u l a l s o t o t h e m o s t e f f i c i e n t l i b r a r y s t a f f o f U . B . C , i n p a r t i c u l a r A l i c e M c N a i r a n d K a r e n P e p l o w , a n d t o I. K e p a r s , a s s i s t a n t t o t h e A c t i n g D i r e c t o r f o r A u s t r a l i a n S t u d i e s a t t h e N a t i o n a l L i b r a r y v i i i o f A u s t r a l i a . A t o t h e r t i m e s I was a i d e d i n my r e s e a r c h by s t a f f a t t h e M i t c h e l l a n d F i s h e r l i b r a r i e s i n S y d n e y , W . H . B o n d , l i b r a r i a n a t t h e H o u g h t o n L i b r a r y , H a r v a r d , a n d Edward Di Roma, C h i e f , E c o n o m i c a n d P u b l i c A f f a i r s D i v i s i o n o f t h e New Y o r k P u b l i c L i b r a r y . F i n a l l y , my f a m i l y . In A u s t r a l i a , my mum a n d d a d w e r e t h r o u g h o u t my m o s t d i l i g e n t r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t s , and my i n s p i r a t i o n . H e r e i n V a n c o u v e r , my w i f e p u t up w i t h my h o c k e y a n d t h e s i s m o o d s , f e d m e , t y p e d f o r me, a n d l o v e d me. S i m p l e w o r d s o f g r a t i t u d e a r e i n - s u f f i c i e n t . ix T h a t o u r c o l o n i a l l i t e r a t u r e . . . i s commonly s q u e e z e d i n t o t h e s k i m p i e s t o f c h a p t e r s i n o u r h a n d b o o k s o f A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e , i s d u e , I t h i n k , t o an e x a g g e r a t e d r e g a r d f o r e s t h e t i c v a l u e s . Our l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s h a v e l a b o r e d u n d e r t o o h e a v y a h a n d i c a p o f t h e g e n t e e l t r a d i t i o n - - t o b o r r o w P r o f e s s o r S a n t a y a n a ' s h a p p y p h r a s e - - t o e n t e r s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y i n t o a w o r l d o f m a s c u l i n e i n t e l l e c t s a n d m a t e r i a l s t r u g g l e s . T h e y h a v e s o u g h t d a i n t i e r f a r e t h a n p o l e m i c s , a n d i n c o n s e q u e n c e m e d i o c r e v e r s e h a s o b s c u r e d p o l i t i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n , and p o e t a s t e r s h a v e s h o u l d e r e d a s i d e v i g o r o u s c r e a t i v e t h i n k e r s . V e r n o n L o u i s P a r r i n g t o n , M a i n C u r r e n t s i n A m e r i c a n T h o u g h t ( 1 9 2 7 ) 1 1 INTRODUCTION . . . A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e w i l l o n l y be i n a f a i r way o f development when t h e r e i s s i d e by s i d e w i t h i t an A u s t r a l i a n s c h o o l o f c r i t i c i s m . F o r , a f t e r a l l , one s h o u l d be judged by one's own p e o p l e . A. P a t c h e t t M a r t i n i n S l a d e n ' s A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s (1888)2 Siiince the mid 1960's, A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s have acknowledged a s u r p r i s i n g l y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h w r i t e r s from the U n i t e d S t a t e s - s u r p r i s i n g b e c a u s e , i n s t a n d a r d c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l s and h i s t o r i e s o f A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e , few c o n n e c t i o n s a r e n o t i c e d . T h i s a p p a r e n t l y sudden development, most c o n s p i c u o u s i n r e c e n t p o e t r y , r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n : d i d e a r l i e r A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s read American a u t h o r s ? I r o n i c a l l y y e t a p p r o p r i a t e l y , i t took an A m e r i c a n , Joseph J o n e s , i n a 1976 U n i v e r s i t y o f Queensland book, t o ask a q u e s t i o n w h i c h l a i d down a c h a l l e n g e t h a t few o r no A u s t r a l i a n c r i t i c s have a d e q u a t e l y 3 met: "How does a democracy h e l p beget o t h e r d e m o c r a c i e s ? " P a r t l y a n s w e r i n g i t , Jones o b s e r v e s : L o o k i n g , o r l i s t e n i n g [ t o n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e ] more i n t e n s i v e l y the c o m p a r a t i v e r e a d e r may 2 a l s o become a w a r e o f a t o n e t h a t he c a n n o t l a b e l a s t h e e c h o o f a n y s i n g l e A m e r i c a n b u t t h a t n e v e r t h e l e s s s e t s up a r e s o n a n c e , a l o w - k e y e d t h e m a t i c hum, w h i c h he w o u l d l i k e t o be a b l e t o r e c o r d more p r e c i s e l y b u t i s n o t q u i t e s u r e a b o u t . T h i s i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y more i m p o r t a n t t h a n s p o r a d i c " d o c u m e n t a r y " e v i d e n c e s : i t s p r e s e n c e means t h a t two s e p a r a t e l i t e r a t u r e s a r e c l o s e t o e a c h o t h e r ' s w a v e l e n g t h , s o t o s p e a k - - t h a t two p e o p l e s must be t h i n k i n g a n d r e s p o n d - i n g a l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s . ^ In e s s e n c e , J o n e s d e n i e s t h e m a t t e r o f d i r e c t l i t e r a r y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , o p t i n g f o r a more g e n e r a l i z e d " s p i r i t o f t h e t i m e s , " w h i c h i s u n - d o c u m e n t a b l e . He b e g s t h e v e r y q u e s t i o n he r a i s e s . It i s t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s t h e s i s t o i d e n t i f y a n d c l a r i f y a v i g o r o u s c u r r e n t o f A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n a c t i v i t y d u r i n g t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a n w r i t i n g up t o C h a r l e s H a r p u r ' s d e a t h i n 1868. By t h e e n d o f t h e 1860' s , H a r p u r , D a n i e l D e n i e h y and J o h n Dunmore L a n g had a d v a n c e d a r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e o f t h e i r s o c i e t y a n d l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h p u b l i c l y c o n f i r m e d t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s a n d A m e r i c a n s f r o m J e f f e r s o n and P a i n e t o C h a n n i n g , E m e r s o n and W h i t m a n . I n d e e d , when A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s o f t h e 1880's a n d ' 90 ' s t u r n e d - - a s s o many A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c a n s , U t o p i a n s , S i n g 1 e - T a x e r s , s o c i a l i s t s a n d bushmen t h e n d i d - - t o A m e r i c a a s a s o u r c e o f p o l i t i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y i n s p i r a t i o n , t h e y w e r e o n l y r e p e a t i n g , i n a more i n t e n s e and w i d e - s p r e a d w a y , w h a t A u s t r a l i a n s h a d d o n e f o r a t l e a s t two g e n e r a t i o n s . T h e y m e r e l y c o n s o l i d a t e d what a m o u n t e d , by t h e n , t o an A u s t r a l i a n t r a d i t i o n . I t was t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e a n t i - c o l o n i a 1 w r i t e r a n d t h i n k e r t o l o o k t o A m e r i c a n s o u r c e s . S i m i l a r l y , a l m o s t a c e n t u r y l a t e r , f r o m t h e m i d d l e 1960's o n , s o c i a l d i s c o n t e n t a n d d i s g u s t w i t h t h e p r e v a i l i n g 3 l i t e r a r y c l i m a t e a g a i n g e n e r a t e d r e b e l l i o u s a t t i t u d e s a n d a t u r n t o w a r d s A m e r i c a n m o d e l s . T h e r e a r e , b a s i c a l l y , f o u r c r i t i c a l v i e w s o f t h e l i t e r a r y r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n A u s t r a 1 i a o a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . F i r s t , t h e r e a r e t h o s e who h a v e deemed e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n c o n n e c t i o n f r u i t l e s s b e c a u s e i t s i m p l y d o e s n ' t e x i s t . In 19^1, F r e d A l e x a n d e r , o n e o f t h e f i r s t h i s t o r i a n s t o comment o n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e , m a i n - t a i n e d t h a t " A u s t r a l iajh a r t a n d l i t e r a t u r e owes much t o E n g l i s h a n d E u r o p e a n i n f l u e n c e a n d t o t h e i r own s t u r d y i n d e p e n d e n c e ; t h e y owe l i t t l e t o A m e r i c a n s o u r c e s . " E q u a l l y c o n v i n c e d , V i n c e n t B u c k l e y p r o m u l g a t e d a s i m i l a r l i n e i n 1957: " • • • s o f a r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f A m e r i c a n p o e t r y h a s b e e n s o t t e n t a t i v e a s t o be a l m o s t i n d i s c e r n i b l e . " A s r e c e n t l y a s 1970, Norman H a r p e r , s t u d y i n g t h e h i s t o r y . o f A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s , w r o t e t h a t t h e " A m e r i c a n i m p a c t was r e l a t i v e l y s l i g h t . . . a n d i t w a s n ' t u n t i l t h e 1930's t h a t A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e came t o i n f l u e n c e A u s t r a l i a n n o v e l i s t s . " ^ T h e s e c o n d v i e w o r i g i n a t e s w i t h t h o s e who i g n o r e t h e A m e r i c a n c o n n e c t i o n c o m p l e t e l y . S u c h e a r l y l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s a s G . B ' . B a r t o n m i g h t be e x c u s e d o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e y w e r e s e e k i n g t o e s t a b l i s h s o u r c e s , r a t h e r t h a n s t u d y them i n d e t a i l , a n d k n o w i n g l i t t l e o f A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e , g o t on w i t h t h e i n i t i a l l y i m p o r t a n t b u s i n e s s o f c a t a l o g u i n g what t h e y c o u l d . S i m i l a r l y , t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n o f m a i n l y a c a d e m i c c r i t i c s was w r i t i n g w i t h a L o n d o n a u d i e n c e i n m i n d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y w i t h a " c o l o n i a l " v o c a b u l a r y . B u t t h e n e g l e c t o f t h e A m e r i c a n c o n n e c t i o n by s u c h a c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t c r i t i c a s 4 G . A . W i l k e s c a n o n l y be a s c r i b e d t o i g n o r a n c e . W i l k e s h a s a p r e - c o n c e i v e d n o t i o n t h a t t h e o n l y l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n i s t h e g r e a t E n g l i s h g 1i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . S u c h c o n s e r v a t i s m i s e q u a l l y a p p a r e n t i n t h e t h i r d v i e w : t h e p a s s i o n a t e r e s i s t a n c e t o m o d e r n i s t v e r s e i n A u s t r a l i a d u r i n g t h e u n a d v e n t u r o u s y e a r s b e t w e e n 1920 and I960. T h e v i l l a i n , t h e r e a l t h r e a t , i s m o s t o f t e n i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e f r e e - v e r s e r f r o m A m e r i c a ; t h e d e f e n d e r s o f t h e f o r m a l t r a d i t i o n r a n g e f r o m a c a d e m y p o e t - c r i t i c s s u c h a s A . D . Hope a n d James M c A u l e y , t o f r e e l a n c e w r i t e r s l i k e James D e v a n e y a n d F . T . M a c a r t n e y . T h e f o u r t h v i e w , a p p a r e n t i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i d e n t i f i e d A m e r i c a a s an o l d e r - b r o t h e r f i g u r e who had b e e n t h r o u g h an i d e n t i c a l t e e t h i n g s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s a t t i t u d e was a r t i c u l a t e d e a r l y by a number o f r a d i c a l n e w s p a p e r s i n t h e l 8 2 0 ' s and 1 3 0 1 s , n o t a b l y J o h n Dunmore L a n g ' s w e e k l y T h e C o l o n i s t (1835-41). It f o u n d s o c i a l e x p r e s s i o n i n p o t e n t i a l l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i o n s s u c h a s t h o s e o f T a s m a n i a ' s " P a t r i o t i c S i x " (1846) a n d t h o s e a t t h e E u r e k a S t o c k a d e ( 1 8 5 4 ) . 9 C l e a r l y , t h e A m e r i c a n q u e s t i o n , m a r k e d by t h e n e g l e c t , i g n o r a n c e a n d p r e j u d i c e o f a w i d e v a r i e t y o f c o m m e n t a t o r s f o r s o l o n g , n e e d s c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n . One must a v o i d t h e c o n s t a n t s t r e a m o f u n r e s e a r c h e d , b a l d a s s e r t i o n s w h i c h o n l y s e r v e t o c o n f u s e t h e i s s u e s . T h e c o n t i n u e d f a i l u r e t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e h i s t o r i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y i m p o r t a n c e o f an A m e r i c a n c o n n e c t i o n h a s r e s u l t e d i n a d e n i a l o f t h e r e c o g n i t i o n d u e t o c e r t a i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s . a n d l t h i n k e r s , i n 5 p a r t i c u l a r J o h n Dunmore L a n g a n d D a n i e l D e n i e h y . T h i s t h e s i s , e x a m i n i n g t h e c h a n g i n g n a t u r e o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n i n t e r a c t i o n i n p o e t r y a n d p r o s e , c o m p r i s e s two m a i n s e c t i o n s . T h e o p e n i n g s e c t i o n e x p l o r e s t h e f i r s t f i f t y y e a r s o f s e t t l e m e n t , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s l e a d i n g up t o G o v e r n o r P h i l l i p ' s a r r i v a l a t S y d n e y C o v e a n d t h e s y m b o l i c u n f u r l i n g o f t h e U n i o n J a c k o n t h e n i g h t o f J a n u a r y 26th, 1788. It e n d s i n I838, when J o h n Dunmore L a n g ' s C o l o n i s t p r i n t e d W i l l i a m E l l e r y C h a n n i n g ' s e s s a y , "On t h e I m p o r t a n c e a n d Means o f a N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e . " T h e s e c o n d p e r i o d s t r e t c h e s f r o m I838 t o C h a r l e s H a r p u r ' s d e a t h i n 1868, an a p p r o p r i a t e d a t e t o mark t h e d e m i s e o f t h e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a n r a d i c a l s . D a n i e l D e n i e h y d i e d i n 1865» a n d L a n g ' s p o l e m i c a l o u t b u r s t s had waned by t h e l860's. D u r i n g t h i s t h i r t y - y e a r s p a n , r e p u b l i c a n v e r s e s , w i t h o b v i o u s A m e r i c a n a n a l o g u e s , c o n s i s t e n t l y f e a t u r e d i n c o l o n i a l n e w s p a p e r s . W r i t e r s p e n n e d t h e i r p r o t e s t s and p u b l i c i z e d t h e i r h o p e i n a f u t u r e Utopian A u s t r a 1 i ar.wh i c h m i g h t e v e n t u a l l y p r o v i d e a m o r a l e x a m p l e f o r a l l t h e w o r l d t o f o l l o w . My a p p r o a c h t o t h e y e a r s c o v e r e d by t h e t h e s i s a c c o r d s i n o n e i m p o r t a n t way w i t h t h a t o f W e l s h s c h o l a r , Raymond W i l l i a m s , i n h i s two c r i t i c a l h i s t o r i e s o f E n g l i s h i d e a s and v a l u e s , C u l t u r e and S o c i e t y (1958) a n d T h e L o n g R e v o l u t i o n (i960). W h i l e m i n e i s n o t a M a r x i s t c r i t i q u e , i t i s , l i k e W i l l i a m s ' , f o c u s s e d o n c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n - - on t h e i m p o r t a n c e n o t o n l y o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d l i t e r a r y g e n r e s , b u t o f t h e w i d e r " b o d y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d i m a g i n a t i v e w o r k w h i c h e a c h 1 2 g e n e r a t i o n r e c e i v e s a s i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e . " 6 F o r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f i t s h i s t o r y , A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m h a s a t w o r s t p a i d s c a n t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t r i b u t i o n , a n d a t b e s t b i t t e r l y a t t a c k e d i t s r a d i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s . T h e l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s o f t h i s c a n n o t be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . G . B . B a r t o n ' s L i t e r a t u r e i n New S o u t h W a l e s ( 1 8 6 6 ) , w h i c h c o m p l a c e n t l y a s s e r t s A u s t r a l i a ' s d e b t t o t h e " M o t h e r C o u n t r y , " g a v e way t o H . M . G r e e n ' s An Out 1 i n e o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e (1930) a n d h i s l a t e r A H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e ( 1 9 6 1 ) . T h e s e , i n t u r n , g a v e way t o G . A . W i 1 k e s ' s A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e : .-A- C o n s p e c t u s ( 1 9 6 9 ) , i n w h i c h t h e w e i g h t f a l l s e x c l u s i v e l y 13 o n t h e " E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n . " T h e s e w o r k s g e n e r a t e an e m p h a s i s i n A u s t r a l i a n l e t t e r s w h i c h few c r i t i c s h a v e s e r i o u s l y q u e s t i o n e d , u n t i l r e c e n t l y . T h e f i r s t b e l l e t r i s t i c p o e t s i n A u s t r a l i a a n d t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t c r i t i c s t r u s t e d , a l o n g w i t h James M a c a r t h u r , t h a t " R e a s o n a n d E n g l a n d " 14 w o u l d p r e v a i l o v e r " d e m o c r a c y a n d A u s t r a l i a . " H o w e v e r , a f t e r t h e g o l d r u s h o f t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s a n d t h e s u d d e n s w e l l i n p o p u l a t i o n , t h e c o n - t i n u e d d o m i n a n c e o f E n g l i s h " R e a s o n , " e s p e c i a l l y i n A u s t r a l i a n c r i t i c i s m , i s more d i f f i c u l t t o a c c o u n t f o r . What f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e d c r i t i c s i n t h e y e a r s b e t w e e n B a r t o n ' s i n i t i a t i n g s t u d y a n d W i l k e s ' e q u a l l y r e s t r i c t i v e f r a m e w o r k ? T h i s c o m p l e x q u e s t i o n i s c e n t r a l t o an u n d e r - s t a n d i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h A u s t r a 1 i a n 1 i t e r a t u r e . T h e h i s t o r y f a l l s i n t o f o u r c l e a r p e r i o d s : t h e e a r l y y e a r s ( 1 8 1 0 - 6 0 ) ; t h e y e a r s o f a c a d e m i c c o l o n i a l i s m ( 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 0 0 ) ; t h e a r i d y e a r s ( 1 9 0 0 - 4 0 ) ; a n d t h e y e a r s d o m i n a t e d by t h e new c o l o n i a l s ( 1 9 4 0 - 7 0 ) . 7 1810-60 May t h i s - - t h y l a s t born INFANT--then a r i s e , To g l a d thy h e a r t , and g r e e t thy.'PARENT e y e s ; And AUSTRALASIA f l o a t , w i t h f l a g u n f u r l e d , A new BRITTANIA i n a n o t h e r w o r l d ! W.C. Wentworth, " A u s t r a l a s i a " (1823) 1 5 A u s t r a l i a ' s f i r s t f i f t y y e a r s as an E n g l i s h c o l o n y p r o d u c e d , not u n e x p e c t e d l y , l i t t l e w r i t i n g o f l i t e r a r y q u a l i t y and v i r t u a l l y no s e a r c h i n g c r i t i c i s m . Yet the c l i m a t e i n the e a r l y y e a r s f o r the a s p i r i n g w r i t e r h e l p s t o e x p l a i n c r i t i c a l r e s p o n s e s l a t e r i n the c e n t u r y and, f o r t h i s r e a s o n , w a r r a n t s some a t t e n t i o n . E n g l a n d , f o r the bard i n the A u s t n a l i a n w i l d e r n e s s , meant more than a mere l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n i n w h i c h he c o u l d w r i t e . I t r e p r e s e n t e d an e n t i r e way o f l o o k i n g a t the w o r l d . I t w o u l d , however, i n the l o n g run be an i r r e l e v a n t way, i n a n o t h e r hemisphere, under a d i f f e r e n t s k y - - and i t i s an i r r e l e v a n c e not u n l i k e t h a t s u f f e r e d by American w r i t e r s who, f o r o v e r two c e n t u r i e s , were a p t t o u t i l i z e an Old-World v o c a b u l a r y and t r a d i t i o n i n a New-World l a n d s c a p e . In 193**, W i l l i a m C a r l o s W i l l i a m s a r t i c u l a t e d the dilemma o f the American w r i t e r when, a t the b e g i n n i n g o f h i s e s s a y on "The American Background," he remarked on the d i s c o m f o r t o f the e a r l y s e t t l e r s : They saw b i r d s w i t h r u s t y b r e a s t s and c a l l e d them r o b i n s . Thus from the s t a r t , an A m e r i c a o f w h i c h they c o u l d have had no i n k l i n g drove the f i r s t s e t t l e r s upon t h e i r p a s t . They r e t r e a t e d f o r warmth and r e a s s u r a n c e t o something p r e v i o u s l y f a m i l i a r . But a t a c o s t . For what they saw were not rob i ns J ° 8 S i m i l a r p r o b l e m s f a c e d t h e f i r s t A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s , many o f whom, c o n f r o n t e d by t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d c o n f u s i o n s o f n a m i n g a n e w , g l a d l y - - a n d m i s t a k e n l y - - t h o u g h t o f A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e a s an i n s i g n i f i c a n t b r a n c h o f E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s a t t i t u d e , more t h a n a n y o t h e r , h e l p e d t o m o u l d d e r i v a t i v e c o l o n i a l t h i n k i n g . It s t i l l s u r v i v e s . In a c o u n t r y s t r u g g l i n g f o r p h y s i c a l s u r v i v a l , l i t e r a t u r e n e c e s s a r i had a low p r i o r i t y . A number o f y e a r s p a s s e d b e f o r e t h e wooden s c r e w - p r e s s b r o u g h t t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t by P h i l l i p , i n 1788, was e v e n u s e d . In f a c t , i t w a s n ' t u n t i l M a c q u a r i e ' s p e r i o d o f g o v e r n s h i p t h a t some poems w e r e p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y : M i c h a e l M a s s e y R o b i n s o n ' s s e r i e s o f b i r t h d a y o d e s (1810-21), a n d t h e " f r u i t s " o f t h e s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d f i r s t " A u s t r a l h a r m o n i s t , " B a r r o n F i e l d (1819).^ T h e n , a l i t t l e l a t e r , came W . C . W e n t w o r t h ' s p r i z e - w i n n i n g A u s t ra1 a s i a , an Ode (1823) a n d t h e " w i l d n o t e s " o f C h a r l e s T o m p s o n ' s " l y r e " (1826). Some i d e a o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s , m o t i v a t i o n s , a n d t h e i n t e n d e d a u d i e n c e o f t h e s e e a r l y p o e t s (and t h e i r l e s s e r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s ) c a n be g a i n e d f r o m R o b i n s o n ' s e x a m p l e . F o r h i s a n n u a l o d e s he r e c e i v e d two cows f r o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t h e r d - - a t o k e n o f M a c q u a r i e ' s a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e 18 u p l i f t i n g , p a t r i o t i c a l l y E n g l i s h t o n e o f t h e p o e m s . N e e d l e s s t o s a y , b o t h o f t h e E n g l i s h m o n a r c h s a n d M a c q u a r i e w e r e l a u d e d by R o b i n s o n f o r t h e i r b e n e v o l e n c e , f o r e s i g h t a n d c o u r a g e . F i r m l y A u g u s t a n , t h e f i r s t o d e p u b l i s h e d i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s h a l l o w r h e t o r i c a l f l o u r i s h o f a l l t h a t f o l l o w e d o v e r t h e n e x t e l e v e n y e a r s : T h o u g h , w a f t e d by t h e r e f l u e n t T i d e s , Y o u r w a t e r y W a s t e h e r S o n s d i v i d e , 9 S t i l l s h a l l t h e Muse p r e f e r h e r t r i b u t e L a y , And A u s t r a l a s i a h a i l h e r e G E O R G E ' S N a t a l D a y . A u s p i c i o u s M o r n ! t o BRITONS d e a r : T h e P r i d e o f e a c h r e v o l v i n g Y e a r ! 19 L a t e r o d e s p r o p a g a n d i z e , p r o c l a i m i n g t h e c o l o n i s t s ' z e a l a n d a c h i e v e m e n t s : . . . BR I T T A N I A 1 S S o n s came f o r t h , t o b r a v e T h e d r e a r y P e r i l s o f t h e l e n g t h ' n i n g W a v e ; When h e r b o l d B a r k s , w i t h s w e l l i n g S a i l s u n f u r l e d , T r a c ' d t h e s e r u d e C o a s t s , and h a i l ' d a n e w - f o u n d W o r l d . S o o n a s t h e i r F o o t s t e p s p r e s s ' d t h e y i e l d i n g s a n d , A s u n more g e n i a l b r i g h t e n ' d on t h e L a n d : Commerce a n d A r t s e n r i c h ' d t h e s o c i a l S o i l , B u r s t t h r o u g h t h e g l o o m and b a d e a l l N a t u r e s m i l e . 2 0 B u t R o b i n s o n , a c o n v i c t e d b l a c k m a i l e r , p e r j u r e r a n d f o r g e r w i t h s e n s e e n o u g h t o be d i s i n g e n u o u s a t a t i m e when t h e r e w a r d s r e a p e d t h r o u g h g o v e r n m e n t a l p a t r o n a g e made i t w o r t h w h i l e , r a r e l y s t r a y e d f a r f r o m m o n o t o n o u s l y r e p e t i t i v e a d u l a t i o n t o w a r d s h i s S O V E R E I G N ! - - t o whom t h y P e o p l e b e n d , A n d h a i l t h e i r GUARDIAN, F A T H E R , F R I E N D ! . . . O h , d e i g n f r o m d i s t a n t S h o r e s t o h e a r T h e u n i v e r s a l W i s h , s i n c e r e , R e - e c h o ' d f r o m A U S T R A L I A ' S L a n d W h i c h g r a t e f u l owns t h y f o s t ' r i n g H a n d ; - - T h a t H E A V ' N i n d u l g e n t t o a N A T I O N ' S P R A Y E R , MAY LONG THEIR SIRE P R E S E R V E — T H E IR MONARCH S P A R E ! 2 1 Who c o u l d b l a m e him? R o b i n s o n knew w h e r e h i s n e x t meal was c o m i n g f r o m . If t h e n a r r o w n e s s o f s u b j e c t m u s t a t t i m e s h a v e made t h e o n s e t o f J u n e i n l a t e r y e a r s a b o r i n g p r o s p e c t f o r R o b i n s o n , t h e f i n a n c i a l r e c o m p e n s e a n d p r e s t i g e a s A u s t r a l i a ' s f i r s t " P o e t L a u r e a t " no d o u b t 22 c o m p e n s a t e d . F o r t h e f i r s t o f many t i m e s t o c o m e , e x t e r n a l 10 c o n s i d e r a t i o n s - - t h e p e r v a s i v e a c t u a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r e s e n c e o f "Home"--heavily i n f l u e n c e d the pen o f the c o l o n i a l w r i t e r . I n e v i t a b l y , many l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s w o u l d , i n t h e f u t u r e , e s t a b l i s h t h e i r c r i t e r i a i n p u r e l y E n g l i s h terms. Though Robinson's c o n t e m p o r a r i e s d i d not e n j o y the same l o c a l esteem and f i n a n c i a l recompense f o r t h e i r v e r s e as he, they were no l e s s aware o f the a u d i e n c e they were a t t e m p t i n g t o p l e a s e and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e form t h e i r v e r s e s h o u l d t a k e . They, t o o , wanted t o maximize t h e i r chances o f a warm r e c e p t i o n from the E n g l i s h c r i t i c s . For example, i n 1819, B a r r o n F i e l d , the k i n g ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n the Supreme C o u r t o f the c o l o n y , p u b l i s h e d a s l i m two-poem volume w i t h 23 the m i l d l y a m b i t i o u s t i t l e F i r s t F r u i t s o f A u s t r a l i a n P o e t r y . Both o f the poems, "Botany-Bay F l o w e r s " and "The Kangaroo," penned s o l e l y f o r the consumption o f a d i s t a n t London p u b l i c , e x p l o i t the o d d i t i e s o f l o c a l f l o r a and f a u n a . F i e l d wasn't i n t e r e s t e d i n r e s p o n d i n g i n an i n d i v i d u a l way t o the c h a l l e n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n which he found h i m s e l f . He d i d n ' t a t t e m p t t o see the c o u n t r y w i t h new e y e s . R a t h e r , 2k as one c r i t i c has s a i d , he " c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i t i n s t e a d . " A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e n , h i s t r a v e l o g u e i n c l u d e d A F l o w e r [which] gladden'd me above the r e s t , Shap'd t r u m p e t - 1 i k e , which from a palmy s t a l k Hangs c l u s t ' r i n g , h y a c i n t h i n e , c r i m s o n red M e l t i n g t o w h i t e . B o t a n i c S c i e n c e p a l l s The p l a n t EPACRIS GRAND I FLORA . . . 5 L a t e r , he 11 . . . [spies] the Flowret in the grass, Which forms the subject of this humble Song, And (treason to my wedded Flower) cried: — Th1 Australian 'fringed V i o l e t ' Shall henceforward be my pet! . . . And here are winged grasshoppers; And, as to gnats for waggoners, We have musquitoes w i l l suffice To drive her team of atomies. 26 This was exactly what the reading public back home, needing to be t i t i l l a t e d by the exotic, wanted to hear. They were already well on the way to establishing their own uninformed images of England's latest acquisition to the south, stereotypes to which many ambitious colonial bards and c r i t i c s happily succumbed for most of the nine- teenth century. Thus, some seventy years l a t e r , Douglas Sladen's three anthologies of 1888 are crammed f u l l of black gins, gum-trees, 27 kangaroos and Buddawong seed-nuts. Fields' purpose in F i r s t Fru i ts does not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r from that of the host of reportage novelists in the following t h i r t y years up to 1850. Both convey information, often humorously, for a remote audience, seeking throughout to entertain and enlighten, c certainly not to disturb. The intention is not so much to convey accurate information as to meet the preconceptions of a distant reader. Knowing he would soon be returning to England, Field also wanted to establish for himself a modest reputation as a l i t e r a r y gentleman, a common colonial ambition. The problem of satisfying established, and foreign, l i t e r a r y c r i t e r i a also beset native-born writers throughout the century, 12 p a r t i c u l a r l y e a r l y b e l l e t r i s t i c p o e t s s u c h a s C h a r l e s T o m p s o n a n d W . C . W e n t w o r t h . B u t w h i l e c r i t i c s h a v e c o n s t a n t l y e m p h a s i z e d t h e i r E n g l i s h n e s s , t h e y h a v e d o w n p l a y e d t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r w h i c h t h e y w r o t e . B o t h Tompson a n d W e n t w o r t h d i s p l a y e d some a b i l i t y a s p o e t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y T o m p s o n ) ; t h e y e m p h a s i z e d c o n t e m p l a t i o n , p e r s o n a l i t y and a f a i r l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i r l o c a l e . B u t t h e i r c h o i c e o f p o e t i c f o r m and g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e s was no l e s s d e r i v a t i v e t h a n t h a t o f t h e e x p a t r i a t e s . T h e i r v e r s e l a u d e d A u s t r a l i a a s p o t e n t i a l l y a n o t h e r E n g l a n d . T o m p s o n w r o t e e l e g i e s , o d e s a n d p a s t o r a l s i n a t t i m e s s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d i m i t a t i o n o f t h e l i k e s o f P o p e , Cowper and 28 G r a y . H i s " A n E l e g y on W i n t e r i n A r g y l e s h i r e " d e a l s w i t h t h e o n - s e t o f w i n t e r i n New S o u t h W a l e s , n o t S c o t l a n d , t h o u g h t h e u n i n f o r m e d r e a d e r m i g h t n o t t h i n k s o : No m o r e a r e h e a r d t h e t h r u s h ' s m e l l o w n o t e s , No more t h e p l o v e r m o u n t s t h e e v ' n i n g b r e e z e , No more t h e s o a r i n g l a r k o n a e t h e r f l o a t s , S p o i l ' d o f t h e i r h o n o u r s , mourn t h e l e a f l e s s t r e e s . ^9 W i t h o u t t h e e a r l y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e " A n t a r c t i c w i l d s , " and t h e n e c e s s a r y u s e o f an a b o r i g i n a l p l a c e name, t h e poem i s s o c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d g e n e r a l i n i t s d i c t i o n a n d s y n t a x a s t o be t h o r o u g h l y a t home i n t h e n o r t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e . P e r h a p s W . C . W e n t w o r t h b e s t r e f l e c t s t h e p r e v a i l i n g s e n t i m e n t s o f t h o s e e s t a b l i s h i n g e a r l y A u s t r a l i a n l e t t e r s . H i s c o n c l u s i o n t o " A u s t r a l a s i a , " a t o n c e o p t i m i s t i c a b o u t an i n d e p e n d e n t f u t u r e and u n w a v e r i n g l y p a t r i o t i c t o B r i t a i n , i m p l o r e s " C e l e s t i a l p o e s y " t o 13 . . . g r a n t t h a t y e t an A u s t r a l M i l t o n ' s s o n g P a c t o l u s - 1 i k e f l o w d e e p a n d r i c h a l o n g : - - An A u s t r a l S h a k e s p e a r e r i s e , w h o s e l i v i n g p a g e T o N a t u r e t r u e may c h a r m i n e v ' r y a g e ; - - A n d t h a t an A u s t r a l P i n d a r d a r i n g s o a r , Where n o t t h e T h e b a n E a g l e r e a c h ' d b e f o r e . A n d , oh B r i t t a n i a ! s h o u l d ' s t t h o u c e a s e t o r i d e D e s p o t i c E m p r e s s o f o l d O c e a n ' s t i d e ; - - S h o u l d t h y t a m ' d L i o n — s p e n t h i s f o r m e r m i g h t - - No l o n g e r r o a r , t h e t e r r o r o f t h e f i g h t : — S h o u l d e ' e r a r r i v e t h a t d a r k , d i s a s t r o u s h o u r , When t h o u , no l o n g e r f r e e s t o f t h e f r e e , T o some p r o u d v i c t o r b e n d ' s t t h e v a n q u i s h ' d k n e e ; — May a l l t h y g l o r i e s i n a n o t h e r s p h e r e R e l u m e , a n d s h i n e more b r i g h t l y s t i l l t h a n h e r e ; May t h i s — t h y l a s t - b o r n INFANT— t h e n a r i s e , T o g l a d t h y h e a r t , and g r e e t t h y PARENT e y e s ; And A U S T R A L A S I A f l o a t , w i t h f l a g u n f u r l ' d , A new BRITANNIA i n a n o t h e r w o r l d ! 30 It was W e n t w o r t h w h o , i n 1853, w o u l d p i l o t t h e c a u s e o f t h o s e a d v o c a t i n g an u p p e r h o u s e i n New S o u t h W a l e s c o m p r i s e d o n l y o f men w i t h h e r e d i t a r y t i t l e s b a s e d o n l a n d h o l d i n g s - - a n A u s t r a l i a n H o u s e o f L o r d s . T h i s i s a f a r c r y f r o m t h e r a d i c a l c h a l l e n g e s and a n g r y y o u n g m a n ' s c o n f i d e n c e e v i d e n t i n h i s f i r s t p r i n t e d w o r k : A S t a t i s t i c a i , Hi s t o r icall and P o l i t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e C o l o n y o f New S o u t h W a l e s (1819). 3 1 In t h i s c l i m a t e o f l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c e , c r i t i c s i n e v i t a b l y f o l l o w e d t h e a p p a r e n t t e n d e n c y o f m o s t l o c a l w r i t e r s a s , i n t h e l a t e e i g h t e e n t h a n d e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e y h a d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . r - , When s e r i o u s r e v i e w i n g b e g a n i n A u s t r a l i a i n t h e l 8 3 0 ' s , E n g l i s h p e r i o d i c a l s s e t t h e s t a n d a r d s . S i n c e m u c h , b u t by no means a l l A u s t r a l i a n w r i t i n g b e f o r e 1868 r e f l e c t e d s t o l i d l y c o l o n i a l t h i n k i n g , s o t o o d i d t h e c o n c o m i t a n t c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t a r y o n t h a t w r i t i n g . A c r i t i c a l o r t h o d o x y - - s u b s e r v i e n t t o E n g l i s h s t a n d a r d s - - t o o k s h a p e , i n s p i t e o f an e q u a l l y c o m m i t t e d b u t l e s s v i s i b l e and n u m e r o u s g r o u p o f A u s t r a l i a n s d e d i c a t e d 32 t o d e m o c r a t i z i n g s o c i e t y a n d l i t e r a t u r e . In 1969, G . A . W i l k e s r e m a r k e d t h a t i n t h e y e a r s b e t w e e n C o o k ' s l a n d i n g a t B o t a n y B a y , i n 1770, a n d t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f C h a r l e s T o m p s o n ' s W i l d N o t e s , i n 1826, A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e had a more c u l t i v a t e d t e m p e r t h a n i t was e v e r t o p o s s e s s a g a i n , and an e l e g a n c e o f f o r m t h a t i t w o u l d be l o n g i n r e c o v e r i n g . T h e l i b r a r i e s o f e d u c a t e d c o l o n i s t s a t t h i s t i m e t y p i c a l l y i n c l u d e d t h e w o r k s o f P o p e , Cowper a n d G o l d s m i t h , w i t h T h o m s o n ' s S e a s o n s , Y o u n g ' s N i g h t T h o u g h t s , a n d B l a i r ' s T h e G r a v e . It was c o m p l e t e l y n a t u r a l f o r l o c a l w r i t e r s t o f o l l o w t h e s e l i t e r a r y m o d e s . . . .33 When W i l k e s i d e n t i f i e s an e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h l i t e r a r y s t y l e w i t h " c u l t i v a t i o n , " he r e v e a l s h i m s e l f a s an A n g l o p h i l e o f p e r h a p s l i m i t e d l i t e r a r y s e n s i b i l i t y . S e c o n d l y , i n u p h o l d i n g " c u l t i v a t i o n " a s d e s i r a b l e , he i s d e f e n d i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t f i n d s a e s t h e t i c a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l v a l u e s o l e l y i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h p e r i o d i c a l . T h i r d , and m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , t h i s v i e w o f l i t e r a t u r e n e c e s s a r i l y d e n i e s l i t e r a r y v a l u e t o a n y o t h e r k i n d o f w r i t i n g . In o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a more r e l i a b l e p e r s p e c t i v e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y , t h e r e f o r e , t o l o o k a t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e t o w h i c h m o s t l i t e r a r y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e p a i d v i r t u a l l y no a t t e n t i o n . In a c o u n t r y f o u n d e d a l o n g s c h i s m a t i c l i n e s , i n i t i a l l y c o m m i t t e d t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s h a r p s o c i a l d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r i v i l e g e d c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r and t h e l o w l y c o n v i c t , t h r e e k i n d s o f w r i t i n g a r e e v i d e n t . T h e r e i s t h a t p r o d u c e d by t h e l o c a l " a r i s t o c r a t i c " 15 c i r c l e s - - t h o s e u n q u e s t i o n i n g 1 y l o y a l t o t h e k i n g , o r s h r e w d e n o u g h t o mouth p a t r i o t i c s e n t i m e n t s . It e m p h a s i z e d t h e s c u l p t u r e d c a r e o f A u g u s t a n m o d e s , u s i n g a l a n g u a g e a l i e n t o A u s t r a l i a n c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e r e i s t h a t w r i t i n g p r o d u c e d by t h e s t e a d i l y more i n f l u e n t i a l m i d d l e c l a s s , w h i c h u s u a l l y f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e n e w s p a p e r s . T h e t h i r d i s t h a t o f t h e i l l i t e r a t e c o n v i c t , w h i c h o f t e n i n v o l v e d s a r d o n i c a p p r a i s a l o f t h e a c t u a l i t i e s o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n e n v i r o n m e n t . It was o r a l , and c o n s t i t u t e d a f o l k l i t e r a t u r e . A s t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p r o g r e s s e d , many c r i t i c s p a i d a t t e n t i o n o n l y t o t h e f i r s t g r o u p a n d t o t h e more d i g n i f i e d p r o d u c t s o f t h e s e c o n d . H o p i n g f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n E n g l a n d , s u c h c r i t i c s w e r e l a r g e l y i n d i f f e r e n t t o a n y s i g n o f a g e n u i n e l y l o c a l l i t e r a t u r e u n t i l a t l e a s t t h e 1 8 9 0 1 s . C o n v i c t ":1 i t e r a t u r e , " i n t h e f o r m o f p i p e s , s o n g s and b a l l a d s , g r e w i n i t i a l l y o u t o f t h e h a r s h p e n a l e x p e r i e n c e . It was t h e f i r s t t o v o i c e d i s s e n t a g a i n s t t h e g o v e r n o r ' s a u t h o r i t a r i a n p o w e r . H o w e v e r , i n 1824 p r e s s c e n s o r s h i p was a b o l i s h e d , a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f p r o t e s t a s s i m i l a t e d m i d d l e - c l a s s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n . A s i n p r e - r e ' v o l u t i o n a r y A m e r i c a , t h e p r e s t i g e a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f n e w s p a p e r s g r e w . S i m p l e c r i e s o f s c o r n f o r a u t h o r i t y s t e a d i l y m a t u r e d i n t o t h e more s o p h i s t i c a t e d e x p r e s s i o n o f r e p u b l i c a n and n a t i o n a l i s t t h e m e s . S t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l t i n A m e r i c a a n d t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c l i m a t e i n E u r o p e , g r e a t e r n u m b e r s o f p e o p l e a d o p t e d an a n t i - e s t a b 1 i s h m e n t s t a n c e . A m e r i c a was c o n c e i v e d o f a s i n s p i r a t i o n , model a n d e x a m p l e . B u t t h e o u t l e t f o r s u c h v i e w s up t o t h e 1 8 4 0 1 s was t h e s p o k e n w o r d o r n e w s p a p e r , n o t a b o o k o f poems o r n o v e l . H e n c e , i n s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a r y a p p r a i s a l s a n d h i s t o r i e s , i t h a s b e e n l a r g e l y i g n o r e d . 17 1860-1900 A n t i c i p a t i n g t h e t o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l w o r k s o f A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m f o r t h e n e x t f i f t y y e a r s , i n 1864 H e n r y M e l v i l l e ( ' H e n r i c u s ' ) d e c l a r e d t h a t he a n d h i s f e l l o w - c o l o n i s t s . . . do n o t want a c o l o n i a l l i t e r a t u r e . We a r e E n g l i s h . E n g l a n d i s o u r c o u n t r y . T h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e i s o u r m o t h e r t o n g u e . T h e E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e i s o u r h e r i t a g e . 34 E n g l a n d , t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f c r i t i c s a n d many o f t h e w r i t e r s , was " H o m e " - - a n d t h o s e who d i s a g r e e d i n p r i n t w i t h H e n r y M e l v i l l e ' s o r t h o d o x p o s i t i o n n e v e r t h e l e s s f o u n d i t i m p o s s i b l e t o e s c a p e t h e M o t h e r C o u n t r y ' s p e r v a s i v e a u t h o r i t y . A n o t a b l e e x a m p l e i s t h e E n g l a n d - e d u c a t e d G . B . B a r t o n (1836-1901 ) , a u t h o r o f t h e f i r s t two i m p o r t a n t c r i t i c a l w o r k s o f t h e new c o u n t r y , b o t h p r i n t e d i n S y d n e y : L i t e r a t u r e i n New S o u t h W a l e s (1866) a n d T h e P o e t s a n d P r o s e W r i t e r s o f New S o u t h W a l e s (1866). A s R e a d e r i n E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e a n d L a n g u a g e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S y d n e y , he r e p r e s e n t s t h e f i r s t o f a l o n g l i n e o f u n i v e r s i t y - b a s e d c o m m e n t a t o r s e x e r t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e l i t e r a r y c l i m a t e o f t h e i r e r a . Not u n e x p e c t e d l y , w h i l e r e s t r i c t i n g t h e s c o p e o f h i s w o r k s t o "men who h a v e i d e n t i f i e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e C o l o n y , " B a r t o n s t i l l f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o b e g i n w i t h t h e k i n d o f d e f e r e n t i a l manner p r o p r i e t y d e m a n d e d : 18 T o t r a c e t h e g r o w t h o f l e t t e r s i n t h i s c o m m u n i t y , f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t p e r i o d o f b u r h i s t o r y t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , a n d t o shew i n what manner t h a t g r o w t h has b e e n i n f l u e n c e d by t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y , a r e t h e o b j e c t s s o u g h t t o be a c c o m p l i s h e d i n t h e s e p a g e s . W i t h u s , L i t e r a t u r e r e q u i r e s t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n two a s p e c t s : f i r s t , a s a n a t i v e o r i n d i g e n o u s p r o d u c t ; a n d s e c o n d l y , a s a f o r e i g n o r i m p o r t e d o n e . T o o y o u n g t o p o s s e s s a " n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e " o f o u r o w n , t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e becomes an a 11 - i m p o r t a n t one.35 Not t h a t t h i s s t o p p e d h i m f r o m a r t i c u l a t i n g , l a t e r i n t h e i n t r o - d u c t i o n , t h e r e a l p u r p o s e o f h i s w o r k - - t o i s o l a t e t h e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l b a r r i e r s o p e r a t i n g a g a i n s t t h e f o u n d i n g o f an i n d e p e n d e n t 1i t e r a t u r e : If i t i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h i s c o u n t r y s h o u l d n o t be known • t o t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d s i m p l y i n i t s c o m m e r c i a l r e l a t i o n s , - - t h a t i t s h o u l d , i n due t i m e , p o s s e s s a l i t e r a t u r e o f i t s o w n - - h o w i s t h i s end t o be a c c o m p l i s h e d ? U n l e s s a r a d i c a l c h a n g e t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e t e m p e r o f t h e p e o p l e , t h e p r o s p e c t s o f an i n d e p e n d e n t l i t e r a t u r e a r e e x t r e m e l y d i m . If d i s c o u r a g e m e n t i n i t s b i t t e r e s t f o r m m u s t a l w a y s a w a i t t h e man o f l e t t e r s , t h e r e s u l t m u s t be i n j u r i o u s t o o u r c h a r a c t e r a s a c o m m u n i t y . . . We s h a l l t h u s be l e f t t o r e l y h e l p l e s s l y upon t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f a n o t h e r l a n d , a s we do a t p r e s e n t . . . . .36 Y e t , i r o n i c a l l y , h i s own f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e i s E n g l i s h . D e s p i t e h i s l a u n c h i n g an a t t a c k on t h o s e who " r e l y h e l p l e s s l y " on E n g l i s h a u t h o r s a n d c r i t i c a l s t a n d a r d s , B a r t o n h i m s e l f c o u l d n ' t a v o i d a s i m i l a r d e p e n d e n c e a t t i m e s . T h u s , i n t h e m i d s t o f a c o n c e r n e d p l e a f o r l i t e r a r y a u t o n o m y , he w r i t e s : I f , h o w e v e r , i n t h i s c o u n t r y , t h e p e o p l e w i l l p e r s i s t i n t h e i r c o l d i n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e i r n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , t h e n we must e x p e c t t o go b a c k , and t o s e e t h e d a y s o f C h a t t e r t o n a n d G o l d s m i t h r e t u r n upon u s . 37 19 L a t e r , B a r t o n f o l l o w s h i s one-page a p p r a i s a l o f K e n d a l l ' s Poems and Songs (1862), " t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t t o which the p o e t i c g e n i u s o f our c o u n t r y has y e t a t t a i n e d , " w i t h a l m o s t two pages o f e x c e r p t s from the London Athenaeum. These e x c e r p t s p u r p o r t t o e s t a b l i s h c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e o f the v a l i d i t y o f h i s l o f t y c l a i m . The d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t the o n l y measure o f s u c c e s s t h a t B a r t o n has i s E n g l i s h " a u t h o r i t y " ; he cannot appeal t o h i s r e a d e r ' s own t a s t e or judgment. B a r t o n ' s g r e a t v i r t u e as a c r i t i c i s i n s e e i n g the f u n d a m e n t a l l y c o m p l i a n t temper o f A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e as i t s c e n t r a l problem. F i f t e e n o r so y e a r s a f t e r h i s two books were p u b l i s h e d , a r t i c u l a t e r e a c t i o n t o A u s t r a l i a ' s c o l o n i a l i s m began t o g a i n momentum. T h i s took p l a c e not i n the u n i v e r s i t i e s o r g e n t e e l c o u n t r y homes, but on the farms and i n the urban sprawl o f tenement houses. Yet academic c r i t i c s i n A u s t r a l i a i n the l a s t q u a r t e r o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p e r s i s t e n t l y c l u n g t o the s t a n d a r d s o f a n o t h e r l a n d . The prominent members o f t h i s " c l a s s o f l e t t e r e d e l i t e , " t o use B a r t o n ' s p h r a s e , kept a l i v e the s p i r i t o f Sam B u c k l e y i n the novel The R e c o l 1 e c t i ons o f G e o f f r e y Hamlyn (1859): What h o n o u r s , what s o c i e t y , has t h i s l i t t l e c o l o n y t o g i v e , compared t o t h o s e open t o a f o u r t h - r a t e gentleman i n England? I want t o be a r e a l E n g l i s h m a n , not h a l f a one. I want t o throw i n my l o t h e a r t and hand w i t h the g r e a t e s t n a t i o n i n the world.3 9 T h i s , d e s p i t e r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s and v a l u e s . W i t h the n a t u r e o f c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f u n d e r g o i n g change, c r i t i c s , 20 e x c e p t t h o s e who l o o k e d t o t h e B u l l e t i n ( 1 8 8 0 - ) a s t h e i r f o r u m , b e g a n t o l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s o f a b l o s s o m i n g new l i t e r a t u r e s l o w l y d i s c o v e r i n g an i n d e p e n d e n t , i f u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d v o i c e . F r a n k W i l m o t ' s comment some y e a r s l a t e r t h a t " a l l t r u l y c r e a t i v e w r i t i n g i s y e a r s i n a d v a n c e o f i t s c r i t i c i s m a n d . . . w r i t i n g f o l l o w i n g t h e o r g a n i z e d c r i t i c i s m i s a l m o s t c e r t a i n t o be c o n v e n t i o n a l " seems e s p e c i a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e a c a d e m i c c r i t i c s a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s o f t h i s p e r i o d . T h e l e a d i n g p r o p o n e n t s o f t h i s d e v e l o p i n g o r t h o d o x y , l e d by t h e p r o l i f i c a n t h o l o g i s t a n d s o m e t i m e p o e t a n d c r i t i c D o u g l a s S l a d e n ( 1 8 5 6 - 1 9 ^ 7 ) , w e r e t h e p o e t and c r i t i c A r t h u r P a t c h e t t M a r t i n ( 1 8 5 1 - 1 9 0 2 ) ; M e l b o u r n e b a n k e r a n d h i s t o r i a n , H e n r y G y l e s T u r n e r ( 1 8 3 1 - 1 9 2 0 ) , a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e A l e x a n d e r S u t h e r l a n d ( 1 8 5 2 - 1 9 0 2 ) , a o n e - t i m e P r o f e s s o r o f E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e a n d r e g i s t r a r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M e l b o u r n e ; and T . G . T u c k e r ( 1 8 5 9 - 1 9 ^ 6 ) , s c h o l a r , e s s a y i s t a n d e s t e e m e d P r o f e s s o r o f C l a s s i c a l P h i l o l o g y , a l s o a t M e l b o u r n e . A l l , i t i s w o r t h n o t i n g , w e r e E n g l i s h - b o r n , e x c e p t S u t h e r l a n d , a G l a s w e g i a n , and a l l r e s o l v e d t o f u r t h e r t h e i r r o l e a s e n l i g h t e n e d c o m m e n t a t o r s on t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f o n e o f B r i t a i n ' s c o l o n i e s . T h e p r e o c c u p a t i o n s o f many A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y p o e t s , w e r e a l t e r i n g r a p i d l y a t t h i s t i m e , b u t t h e r e i s l i t t l e s i g n o f t h i s i n t h e s t a n d a r d c r i t i c i s m . 0 ' D o w d was w r i t i n g t o W a l t W h i t m a n , F a r r e l 1 21 t o Henry George; Heney, Gay and Le Gay B r e r e t o n were r e a d i n g Whitman and Thoreau; and Lawson, a l o n g w i t h Furphy and Da 1 ey,,._were f a m j j j a r w i t h American r a d i c a l example; but most o f the c r i t i c s o u t s i d e the Bui 1et i n adhered t o the proven f o r m u l a s . America went i g n o r e d . S l a d e n r e p r e s e n t s the p r o t o t y p e . A g r a d u a t e o f T r i n i t y C o l l e g e , O x f o r d , and the U n i v e r s i t y o f Melbourne, he spent f i v e y e a r s i n A u s t r a l i a (1879-84) b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o England t o "pursue h i s 41 h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s a t 'Home.'" He wasted no time e x p l o i t i n g h i s A u s t r a l i a n e x p e r i e n c e . D e c i d i n g t o h a r v e s t the " c o n t i n u i n g c r o p o f a n t i p o d e a n v e r s e and t o e x p o r t i t l i k e A u s t r a l i a n wheat and w o o l , t o the home c o u n t r y , " as one c r i t i c has put i t , S l a d e n had t h r e e 42 a n t h o l o g i e s p u b l i s h e d i n London i n 1888, a c e n t e n a r y y e a r . H i s d e d i c a t o r y l i n e s and the poem o p e n i n g t h e f i r s t volume a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t the e d i t o r ' s b i a s - - h i s c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n . I t b e g i n s : " T h i s l i t t l e volume, i n s p i r e d by l i f e i n the G r e a t e r B r i t a i n under the S o u t h e r n C r o s s , i s d e d i c a t e d TO THE ENGLISH OF THREE CONTINENTS." The f i r s t and l a s t s t a n z a s d e m o n s t r a t e iiits q u a l i t y and d i r e c t i o n : We a r e a l l sprung from men who f o u g h t a t C r e c y ; We a l l were Englishmen when Shakespeare w r o t e ; And we a r e s t i l l c o m p a t r i o t s i n e s s e , Though c a l l e d A u s t r a l i a n s , Yankees, and what not . . . . We a l l a r e E n g l i s h , born i n one g r e a t u n i o n Of b l o o d and language, h i s t o r y and song, A l l E n g l i s h , and t o c h e r i s h our communion We w i l l p r e s e n t a common f r o n t t o wrong.^3 S t i r r i n g s e n t i m e n t s from a d r u m - b e a t i n g E n g l i s h p a t r i o t , but h a r d l y the s t u f f o f w h i c h f u l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , l i v e l y a n t h o l o g i e s o f a 22 new c o u n t r y ' s w r i t i n g a r e m a d e . E a c h a n t h o l o g y o p e n s w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n by t h e e d i t o r , n o n e o f w h i c h r e v e a l s a n y s i g n o f c r i t i c a l p e r c e p t i o n and i n s i g h t . A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s i n c l u d e s an a d d i t i o n a l e s s a y by S l a d e n ' s f r i e n d , A r t h u r P a t c h e t t M a r t i n . A s k e d by t h e e d i t o r t o " p l e a s e g i v e y o u r own e x p e r i e n c e s - - w h a t l e d y o u , t r a i n e d and e d u c a t e d e n t i r e l y i n A u s t r a l i a , t o w r i t e v e r s e s ? " M a r t i n e a g e r l y g r a s p s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p a t i a t e on h i s own i m p o r t a n c e i n a n t i p o d e a n p o e t r y . Nor i s i t b e n e a t h S l a d e n t o i n d u l g e i n a l i t t l e s e l f - a g g r a n d i z e m e n t . H i s p e r s o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s r a n k s t h i r d b e h i n d James B r u n t o n S t e p h e n s a n d H e n r y K e n d a l l ( w i t h M a r t i n a c l o s e f i f t h ) . T h e m o s t p r e c i s e c r i t i c a l c l a i m i n a n y o f t h e t h r e e i n t r o d u c t i o n s , t h a t " m o s t y o u n g C o l o n i a l p o e t s . . . e x c e p t t h e few who h a v e an o r i g i n a l g e n i u s , draw t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m E n g l i s h p o e t s t h r o u g h t h e medium o f e i t h e r G o r d o n o r K e n d a l l , " i s a t l e a s t q u e s t i o n a b l e 45 i n t h e l a t e r l 8 8 0 ' s . S l a d e n , i t s e e m s , s u s p e c t e d t h i s h i m s e l f . In h i s c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e A u s t r a 1 i a n P o e t s i n t r o d u c t i o n , he a d m i t s t o b e i n g A g a i n , t h e g a p b e t w e e n l o c a l , i n f o r m e d o p i n i o n i n t h e p a p e r s a n d m a g a z i n e s , a n d t h e p u r p o r t e d l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t a n d a r d w o r k . S l a d e n ' s f e a r s w e r e n o t u n f o u n d e d . " A b o r i g i n a l " p a p e r s s u c h a s t h e S y d n e y c o n s c i o u s , b e f o r e t h e book i s p r i n t e d , o f t h e p r o m i s c u o u s a b u s e t h a t w i l l be p o u r e d upon i t by t h e l o w e r c l a s s o f A u s t r a l i a n p a p e r s , w h i c h a r e n o t h i n g i f t h e y a r e n o t " a b o r i g i n a l . " ^ 23 Q u a r t e r l y Magazine and the B u l l e t i n p r e d i c t a b l y responded t o the " s l i p s h o d workmanship" and " t h r e a d b a r e s u b j e c t s " o f the a n t h o l o g i z e d poems. One c r i t i c r e g a r d e d the c o n t e n t as a l m o s t t o t a l l y d e r i v a t i v e 47 o f " t h e g r e a t works o f E n g l i s h m a s t e r s . " The Bu11et i n e x p r e s s e d dismay a t the p r o d u c t i o n s o f t h i s " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e A u s t r a l i a n , " main- t a i n i n g t h a t "modest n a t i v e s f a i r l y w i l t e d b e f o r e him. H i s 'Haw!1 48 pervaded the whole c o n t i n e n t . " But i f a n t i p o d e a n r e s p o n s e v a r i e d n o t i c e a b l y , S l a d e n must not have been g r e a t l y d i s c o m f i t e d . A l l t h r e e a n t h o l o g i e s were a commercial s u c c e s s where i t counted most: London. The s a l e o f twenty thousand c o p i e s o f A u s t r a l i a n Ba11 ads and Rhymes ensured the p o p u l a r i t y o f 49 the next two a n t h o l o g i e s . In the t h r e e c o l l e c t i o n s , London l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s had t h e i r s t e r e o t y p e s o f A u s t r a l i a (and i t s v e r s e ) c o n f i r m e d . They got e x a c t l y what they wanted t o hear: Your sons might not pass muster i n Bond S t r e e t o r Pa 11-Ma 11, Butlwhen bush f i r e s a r e r a g i n g , they go t o f a c e the h e l l . . And something o f the Norman must m i n g l e i n t h e i r b l o o d , Who emulate o l d England by f e n c e and f i e l d and f l o o d --50 S l a d e n ' s a n t h o l o g i e s not o n l y g a i n e d him money and renown, they enhanced the c r e d i b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n s c h o l a r s o f the p e r i o d . One b e n e f i c i a r y was A r t h u r P a t c h e t t M a r t i n who, no doubt a i d e d by the impetus g i v e n t o h i s p e r s o n a l c a r e e r as a r e s u l t o f the p u b l i c i t y d e r i v e d from A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s , d e l i v e r e d a l e c t u r e i n London on A u s t r a l i a n l e t t e r s w h i c h was s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s p u b l i s h e d by Henry S o t h e r a n , P i c c a d i l l y , as The B e g i n n i n g s o f an A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e (1898).51 24 S l a d e n l a b e l l e d P a t c h e t t M a r t i n " a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e A u s t r a l i a n 52 l i t t e r a t e u r . " H e n c e , i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o a n t i c i p a t e M a r t i n ' s g r e a t r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e s t r o n g " B y r o n i c p e r s o n a l i t y " o f A u s t r a l i a ' s s o - c a l l e d " t r u e p i o n e e r p o e t , " Adam L i n d s a y G o r d o n , a s w e i l i a s t h e 53 i n v e t e r a t e l y c o l o n i a l t o n e o f a l l h i s c r i t i c a l w o r k . T h e p u r p o s e o f Beg i nn i n g s , p u b l i s h e d i n r e s p o n s e t o an e x p r e s s e d demand by t h e E n g 1 i s h p u b l i c , a n d t h u s t a i l o r e d t o t h e i r t a s t e , w a s , a s t h e p r e f a c e s u g g e s t s : . . . t o d e a l m e r e l y w i t h t h e be 1 1 e s - 1 e t t r e s - - w i t h t h e l i t t l e s c a n t y band o f p r o s e - w r i t e r s a n d v e r s e - m e n w h o , p r e s e r v i n g t h e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s and c u l t u r e o f t h e m o t h e r - l a n d u n d e r n o v e l c o n d i t i o n s a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h a v e b e e n l a y i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a f r e s h b r a n c h o f E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e i n t h i s f a r - o f f A u s t r a l w o r l d . 5 ^ T h e l e c t u r e b e g i n s w i t h an i n t e r e s t i n g c l a i m , o n e s o E m p i r e - c o n s c i o u s a s t o make e v e n S l a d e n l o o k a t r i f l e u n p a t r i o t i c : In t h e s t r i c t l o g i c a l s e n s e o f t h e w o r d s , t h e r e i s - - a n d t h e r e c a n b e - - n o s u c h t h i n g a s A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e ; a n y more t h a n t h e r e c a n be a S o u t h A f r i c a n , a C a n a d i a n , o r e v e n an A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . . . . [The U n i t e d S t a t e s ] t h o u g h p o l i t i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t - - a t t i m e s , I f e a r , h o s t i l e - - a r e s t i l l , i n t h e o l d G r e e k s e n s e , E n g l a n d ' s g r e a t e s t c o l o n y . 5 5 M a r t i n e f f o r t l e s s l y e n c o m p a s s e d ' J a 1 1 w r i t i n g i n E n g l i s h a s b e i n g e i t h e r f r o m " O l d E n g l a n d " o r "New E n g l a n d . " 5 6 G i v e n t h e e x t r e m e o r t h o d o x y o f h i s b e l i e f s and s t a n c e , t h e q u a i n t - n e s s o f t h e e n s u i n g c r i t i c a l j u d g e m e n t s comes a l m o s t a s a n t i c l i m a x . T h e r e i s p u z z l e m e n t a s t o why M a r c u s C l a r k e , i n H i s N a t u r a l L i f e , 2 5 " s h o u l d h a v e d e v o t e d s u c h an immense amount o f l a b o u r t o t h i s c o m p e n d i u m o f c r i m e , " d e l i g h t t h a t C l a r k e a n d H e n r y K i n g s l e y , "whom I c o n s i d e r t o be t h e f o u n d e r o f A u s t r a l i a n f i c t i o n , s h o u l d b o t h h a v e b e e n M o u n t e d P o l i c e m e n , " a n d , f i n a l l y , d i s m a y t h a t h i s f r i e n d G e o r g e G o r d o n M ' C r a e s h o u l d h a v e p u b l i s h e d " a t l e a s t two e p i c poems b a s e d on t h e t r a d i t i o n s and m y t h o l o g y o f t h e p o o r n a t i v e r a c e s whom we h a v e o u s t e d . B u t y o u c a n n o t w r i t e e p i c s on t h e A u s t r a l i a n b l a c k s ; y o u m i g h t a s w e l l c o m p o s e a s o n a t a on a m o n k e y . " " ^ I r o n i c a l l y , i n t h e l a s t p a r a g r a p h o f h i s a r t i c l e i n S l a d e n ' s A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s , M a r t i n c o n c l u d e s t h a t " A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e w i l l o n l y be i n a f a i r way o f d e v e l o p m e n t when t h e r e i s s i d e by s i d e w i t h i t an A u s t r a l i a n s c h o o l o f c r i t i c i s m . F o r , a f t e r a l l , o n e s h o u l d r O be j u d g e d by o n e ' s own p e o p l e . " P r e s u m a b l y M a r t i n f e l t h i m s e l f , a s an h o n o r a r y a n t i p o d e a n , p a r t o f t h i s s c h o o l when he l e c t u r e d on t h e s u b j e c t i n I 8 9 8 . He c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f q u a l i f i e d t o sum up t h e p r o g r e s s o f A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , d e s p i t e a l m o s t t w e n t y y e a r s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e B u 1 1 e t i n a n d o t h e r a c t i v i t y , t h i s w a y : I f e a r t h a t t h e y o u t h f u l v i g o u r and a b i l i t y o f t h e c o l o n i e s h a v e b e e n d i s p l a y e d o n t h e c r i c k e t - f i e l d a n d t h e m i n i n g m a r k e t r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e p o o r l y r e m u n e r a t e d s e r v i c e o f t h e M u s e s . 5 9 One o f t h e most r e p u t a b l e c r i t i c s w r i t i n g on A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , M a r t i n l e f t A u s t r a l i a f o r E n g l i s h s h o r e s i n 1 8 8 2 . He s t a y e d , p e r m a n e n t 1 y - - t o p r o d u c e Beg i nn i ngs 26 and w o r k s s u c h a s h i s p r o s e a n t h o l o g y , O a k - B o u g h and W a t t l e B l o s s o m ( L o n d o n , 1888), made up e n t i r e l y o f t h e w r i t i n g s o f A u s t r a l i a n s 1i v i ng i n E n g l a n d . 60 H a v i n g s p e n t a l m o s t a t h i r d o f B e g i n n i n g s on Adam L i n d s a y G o r d o n , M a r t i n s t i l l manages t o m e n t i o n b r i e f l y t h e B u i 1et i n p o e t s i n f l a t t e r i n g t e r m s . T h i s was n o t t h e c a s e i n a n o t h e r book p u b l i s h e d i n A u s t r a l i a a n d L o n d o n i n t h e same y e a r : T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e , by M e l b o u r n e ' s " l i t e r a r y - b a n k e r , " H . G . T u r n e r , a n d A l e x a n d e r S u t h e r l a n d , 61 two w r i t e r s e v e n more c o n s c i o u s l y c o l o n i a l i n t o n e t h a n M a r t i n . Begun a s a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s f o r t h e M e l b o u r n e R e v i e w , D e v e l o p m e n t a t t e m p t e d t o g i v e t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e c r i t i c a l s t a t e m e n t on A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e t o t h a t p o i n t . Y e t i t t o t a l l y i g n o r e d t h e B u i 1et i n s c h o o l , a p o i n t n o t l o s t o n e i t h e r M a r t i n , o r , n e e d l e s s t o s a y , A . G . S t e p h e n s . S t e p h e n s r e s p o n d e d t o t h i s n e g l e c t , c a s t i n g d o u b t s on t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s c h o l a r s h i p a p p a r e n t . I n d e e d , o n e h a s t o q u e s t i o n n o t m e r e l y t h e l i t e r a r y j u d g e m e n t s , b u t T u r n e r ' s e v e n more s u s p e c t h i s t o r i c a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t s . We f i n d g e n e r o u s p r a i s e f o r S l a d e n ' s a n t h o l o g i e s , w h i c h " a w a k e n e d an i n t e r e s t i n t h o s e c i r c l e s t h a t make o r mar t h e l i t e r a r y a s p i r a n t , " n a m e l y , t h e E n g l i s h l i t e r a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t , t o whom T u r n e r a n d S u t h e r l a n d c l e a r l y d i r e c t t h e i r 62 c o m m e n t s . And we f i n d h i s t o r i c a l p r e m i s e s c l o a k e d by t h e smug c o n d e s c e n s i o n o f a member o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n u p p e r e c h e l o n - - a g r o u p no d i f f e r e n t , B r i t i s h h i s t o r i a n J . A . F r o u d e o b s e r v e d d u r i n g h i s - A u s t r a l i a n v i s i t i n t h e l a t e l 8 8 0 ' s , f r o m t h e i r B r i t i s h c o u n t e r p a r t s . A t o n e p o i n t T u r n e r n o n c h a l a n t l y d i s m i s s e s f i f t y y e a r s o f r a d i c a l 27 l a b o u r h i s t o r y i n a p a r a g r a p h : Some o f t h e m o s t f e r v i d o u t p o u r i n g s o f e l o q u e n c e , on w h i c h e x c i t e d c r o w d s hung w i t h r e d - h o t e n t h u s i a s m , d r e w t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m s u c h s u b j e c t s a s a n t i - t r a n s p o r t a t i o n - - t h e u n l o c k i n g o f t h e l a n d s , - - t h e d i g g e r h u n t i n g f o r 1 i c e n c e s , - - o r t h e p i n c h b e c k g l o r y o f t h e E u r e k a s t o c k a d e . S e t f o r t h i n c o l d p r i n t , now t h a t a l l t h e s e t e m p o r a r y v; w r o n g s h a v e b e e n p e a c e f u l l y r e c t i f i e d , t h e y p r o v o k e a s m i l e a t t h e t e m p e s t u o u s w h i r l o f w o r d s t h a t p l a y e d r o u n d s u c h c o m p a r a t i v e l y u n i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s . & 3 T h e c o n c l u s i o n o f T u r n e r ' s s k e t c h o f ' . A u s t r a ] j a n . ) i t e r a t u r e . m o s t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s b o t h t h e i m p u l s e a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e c o l o n i a l m i n d a n d t h e b o o k ' s w o r k i n g p r i n c i p l e : We a r e j u s t i f i e d i n l o o k i n g f o r o r i g i n a l t h o u g h t , o r i g i n a l s o c i a l p r o b l e m s , a n d o r i g i n a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s ; l e t us h o p e t h a t i n w o r k i n g them o u t i n t h e p r i n t e d p a g e , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e b e s t o f t h a t g r a n d l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h h a s b e e n o u r h e r i t a g e may a l w a y s be a p p a r e n t . ° 4 F o r t h o s e c r i t i c s m o v i n g i n t h e same c i r c l e s w i t h T u r n e r a n d S u t h e r l a n d , t h e r e w o u l d a l w a y s be an E n g l a n d . Thomas G e o r g e T u c k e r , t h o u g h no l e s s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e G r e a t T r a d i t i o n t h a n a n y o f h i s a c a d e m i c c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , a p p r o a c h e d t h e r e c e n t p r o f u s i o n o f A u s t r a l i a n b a r d s a r o u n d h i m f r o m a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t s t a n d p o i n t . In t h e J u l y , 1899, e d i t i o n o f t h e M e l b o u r n e p e r i o d i c a l R e v i e w o f R e v i e w s , he c a l l e d f o r an end t o i n s u l a i — a n d h e n c e n a i v e - - l o c a l c r i t i c i s m . H i s l a t e r p a m p h l e t , T h e C u l t i v a t i o n o f L i t e r a t u r e i n A u s t r a l i a ( 1 9 0 2 ) , o p e n s w i t h t h e c o m m e n t , s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a common n e r v e s h a r e d by t h e M e l b o u r n e and S y d n e y c u l t u r a l e l i t e s , t h a t l i f e i s t o o b r i e f f o r t h e r e a d i n g o f A u s t r a l i a n 28 b o o k s . T u c k e r ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n was l a r g e l y w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by c o n t a c t w i t h a new l i t e r a t u r e . In a s e r i e s o f e a r l y l e c t u r e s , a p p e a r i n g i n p r i n t i n t h e M e l b o u r n e A r g u s , T u c k e r c a u t i o n e d t h e new g e n e r a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a n r e a d e r s f o r i t s " k n o w l e d g e o f t h e B r i t i s h I s l e s [ b e i n g ] o n e o f b o o k s and h e a r - s a y o n l y . " He s t a t e d t h a t We h e r e i n A u s t r a l i a , t h r o u g h o u r g e o g r a p h i c a l e x t e n t a n d i s o l a t i o n , a r e v e r y a p t t o d e v e l o p p a t r i o t i c i g n o r a n c e on a d a n g e r o u s s c a l e . We a r e l i k e l y t o t a l k o u r s e l v e s i n t o b e l i e v i n g , a n d t o i n s t i l i n t o o u r c h i l d r e n t h e b e l i e f t h a t we a r e t h e m o s t i n t e l l i g e n t and b e s t - g o v e r n e d p e o p l e i n t h e w o r l d , w i t h t h e most w o n d e r f u l o f f u t u r e s b e f o r e u s .66 He a d v i s e d t r a v e l a s t h e o n l y means o f o v e r c o m i n g c u l t u r a l n a r r o w n e s s . F o r T u c k e r , t y p i c a l o f t h e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s o f t h e p e r i o d , t h e way t o i n d e p e n d e n c e f o r A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e l a y i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i c l i n k s w i t h E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e . 29 1900-40 A u s t r a l i a b e l o n g s , by r a c e , p o l i t i c s and language t o a g r e a t c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a t reaches back f o r a thousand y e a r s , and i t i s c o n s t a n t l y r e c e i v i n g an i n f l o w , i d e a l as w e l l as human, from the c e n t r e o f t h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n . H.M. Green, An O u t l i n e o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e TT930) .6/ A u s t r a l i a ' s l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s were l e s s p a t e n t l y c o l o n i a l a f t e r 1900, but d i d n ' t r e j e c t a d e f e r e n t i a l r o l e e n t i r e l y . T u r n e r and S u t h e r l a n d v o i c e d the o p i n i o n o f most c r i t i c s o f t h e i r g e n e r a t i o n when they i n d i c a t e d t h a t the t e s t f o r A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e between 1850 and 1900 was "what the E n g l i s h r e a d e r was l i k e l y t o t h i n k o f i t , 68 what an E n g l i s h c r i t i c would be i n c l i n e d t o say o f i t . " However, a f t e r the i n t e n s e B u i l e t i n a c t i v i t y o f the 18901s, as w r i t e r s were emboldened t o be l e s s i m i t a t i v e o f E n g l i s h models, a change i n the t e n o r o f l o c a l c r i t i c i s m appeared imminent. J.F. A r c h i b a l d and A.G. Stephens h a r a s s e d " c o l o n i a l " c r i t i c s ; p u b l i s h e d Furphy, Lawson, P a t e r s o n and Dyson; condemned the " i m p e r i a l i s m " o f Tennyson and K i p l i n g ; and sought t o e s t a b l i s h a canon o f major A u s t r a l i a n works based on a r e j e c t i o n o f w r i t e r s i n any way d e r i v a t i v e o f the E n g l i s h t r a d i t i o n . Vance Palmer, t o o , e n e r g e t i c a l l y r a i l e d a g a i n s t the d e f i c i e n c i e s o f a c o m p l i a n t c u l t u r e : . . . a t the p r e s e n t s t a g e o f our c i v i l i z a t i o n we a r e con- t e n t t o read E n g l i s h books f o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f our l i f e . We . . . a r e c o n t e n t t o i m i t a t e the customs o f o l d d e g e n e r a t e n a t i o n s , and t o l e t our i n d i v i d u a l i t y be o b s c u r e d by the d e t e s t a b l e word ' c o l o n i a l ! ; Under such c o n d i t i o n s our a r t must s u f f e r . ^ 9 30 E v e n C h r i s t o p h e r B r e n n a n , a d e v o t e d a d v o c a t e o f t h e E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n , f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o t a k e a s t a n d i n a 1902 a r t i c l e , " T h e U n i v e r s i t y a n d A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e : A C e n t e n a r y R e t r o s p e c t 1 : " : 1 A n a b s o l u t e d e p e n d e n c e . . . w a s i n i t s e l f b a d , e v e n g i v e n a g e n e r a l h i g h s t a n d a r d o f t a s t e i n L o n d o n . B u t w h e n L o n d o n h a d d e g e n e r a t e d , a s i t d i d i n t h e e i g h t i e s a n d n i n e t i e s , A u s t r a l i a w a s b o u n d t o t o u c h s h u d d e r i n g d e p t h s o f v u l g a r i t y . ? u T h e p r o l o n g e d c o l o n i a l b i a s i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , i t s e e m e d , w o u l d q u i c k l y d i m i n i s h e a r l y i n t h e c e n t u r y . B u t i t d i d n ' t d i s a p p e a r . F o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s , r e m n a n t s o f t h e c o l o n i a l c o m p l e x r e m a i n e d - - p o s s i b l y b y d e f a u l t . T h e r e s e e m e d t o b e n o c r e d i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e . H i s t o r i c a l l y , a f t e r F e d e r a t i o n , a s r e p u b l i c a n i s m r e c e d e d , n a t i o n a l i s t i c s e n t i m e n t s o m e h o w b e c a m e e n m e s h e d , d u r i n g t h e B o e r W a r , w i t h t h e c a u s e o f a w a n i n g E m p i r e . S o c i e t y n a r r o w e d p o l i t i c a l l y a n d p o e t s , w i t h o n l y a f e w n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n s , r e s p o n d e d t o t h e d e s p o t i c p r e c e p t s o f V i s i o n m a g a z i n e , e m p h a s i z i n g , f r o m d e s p e r a t i o n , a t i r e d , a n a c h r o n i s t i c E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n . O u t o f t h i s v o i d , H . M . G r e e n p r o d u c e d t h e m a j o r c r i t i c a l w o r k o f t h e p e r i o d , A n O u t l i n e o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e (1930). D e s p i t e g o o d i n t e n t i o n s a n d f r e q u e n t p e r c e p t i v e c r i t i c a l j u d g e - m e n t s , O u t 1i n e s u f f e r s f r o m a f a i l u r e o f v i s i o n , a l a c k o f i n i t i a t i v e - - f o r w h i c h o n e m a y p e r h a p s b l a m e t h e t i m e s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e c r i t i c . G r e e n r e a f f i r m s , t h o u g h l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y , t h e o l d o r t h o d o x y . A s B r i a n K i e r n a n , a r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r , h a s n o t e d , t h e b o o k i s " o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e r e t a i n s t h e f a v o u r i t e m e t a p h o r a n d t h e g u a r d e d s t a n c e o f t h e 31 ' c o l o n i a l ' c r i t i c . n / l U n a b l e t o a v o i d t h e c o n s t r i c t i n g " t r a d i t i o n " i n w h i c h he was w r i t i n g , t h e a u t h o r o p e n s h i s a r g u m e n t w i t h l o g i c s t r i k i n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f T u r n e r a n d S u t h e r l a n d , a n d A . P . M a r t i n , t h i r t y y e a r s b e f o r e : A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e i s a b r a n c h o f E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , a n d h o w e v e r g r e a t i t may become and w h a t e v e r c h a r a c t e r - i s t i c s i t may d e v e l o p , i t w i l l r e m a i n a b r a n c h . . . a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t [ m u s t i n v o l v e ] an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t s o r i g i n s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s . . . .72 G r e e n u t i l i z e s t h e f a m i 1 i a r " t r e e " m e t a p h o r o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , a n d a p p r o v i n g l y e m p l o y s t h e " p a r e n t / c h i 1 d " d e v i c e . He s t r e s s e s t h e c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f w r i t e r s a n d c r i t i c s r e t a i n i n g t h e i r f i l i a l o b l i g a t i o n s , a n d l a t e r w a r n s o f t h e d a n g e r s o f i n d e p e n d e n t t h i n k i n g , o f " r e g a r d i n g t h e b r a n c h a n d i t s l e a v e s a s t h o u g h t h e y w e r e i s o l a t e d 73 f r o m t h e t r e e . " T o w a r d s t h e c l o s e o f h i s i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r , G r e e n p l a c e s h i s l i t e r a r y y a r d s t i c k p l a i n l y b e f o r e u s . T h e j u d g e m e n t s t o f o l l o w p r e s u p p o s e t h e f a c t t h a t " u n t i l q u i t e l a t e l y t h e l i t e r a r y a t m o s p h e r e o f A u s t r a l i a was more t h a n a g e n e r a t i o n b e h i n d t h a t o f E n g l a n d . " V i r t u a l l y a l l q u e s t i o n s o f i n f l u e n c e c o n c e r n t h e n a t i v e w r i t e r a n d h i s E n g l i s h m o d e l s : H a r p u r ' s o b v i o u s d e b t t o W o r d s w o r t h , S h e l l e y a n d T e n n y s o n ; K e n d a l l ' s t o S h e l l e y , a n d , i n " B e y o n d K e r g u e l e n , " t o S w i n b u r n e ; a n d s o o n . In c o n t r a s t , when G r e e n s u s p e c t s A m e r i c a n i n f l u e n c e on t h e A u s t r a l i a n b a l l a d t r a d i t i o n , h i s a p p r o a c h i s t e n t a t i v e . He c l e a r l y d o e s n ' t know t h e m a t e r i a l . A t o n e p o i n t , he m a i n t a i n s t h a t " T h e r e a r e w r i t e r s o f a s i m i l a r k i n d o f v e r s e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o d a y . I n 1930, n o t e v e n p r e l i m i n a r y s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h on t h e 32 A m e r i c a n c o n n e c t i o n had b e e n c a r r i e d o u t . In t h e p r e f a c e t o h i s l a t e r t w o - v o l u m e w o r k , A H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e ( 1 9 6 1 ) , G r e e n b r u s q u e l y r e c o r d s an a l t e r e d s t a n c e , b e i n g more k e e n l y a w a r e o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e 1 8 9 0 1 s i n m o u l d i n g a u n i q u e A u s t r a l i a n i d e n t i t y : It i s s c a r c e l y n e c e s s a r y t o a r g u e n o w a d a y s t h a t t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f A u s t r a l i a i s w o r t h d i s c u s s i n g on i t s own a c c o u n t , and n o t m e r e l y a s a p a r t o f t h e g r e a t l i t e r a t u r e i n E n g l i s h o f w h i c h i t i s an o u t g r o w t h . '6 I r o n i c a l l y , when H i s t o r y was p u b l i s h e d , t h e a u t h o r ' s c o n c e p t o f i n c l u s i v e l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y had d a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y . H i s r e s t r a i n e d a d v o c a c y o f " t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f o v e r s e a m o d e l s a n d t h e g r o w t h o f t h e i m p u l s e t o w r i t e i n o n e ' s own manner a b o u t what he h a s e x p e r i e n c e d " had b e e n u s u r p e d by t h e a g g r e s s i v e c o n s e r v a t i s m o f t h e new o r t h o d o x y o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s f r o m t h e a c a d e m y — A . D . H o p e , James M c A u l e y , B r a i n E l l i o t t , a n d , l a t e r , G . A . W i l k e s and L e o n i e K r a m e r . ^ New f o r c e s w e r e a t w o r k . 33 1940-70 . . . W h i t m a n ' s e x a m p l e p r o m p t e d a m u l t i t u d e o f i m i t a t i v e s c r i b b l i n g s w i t h o u t W h i t m a n ' s l u r c h i n g f o r c e , m a k i n g t h e w r i t i n g o f p o e t r y e a s y f o r e v e r y b o d y . A f e l l o w c o u l d go on t h e l o o s e i n s u c h v e r s e o r a g i r l l e t h e r h a i r d o w n , a n d w h e n e v e r a p o l i c e m a n t r i e d t o s t o p t h e n o i s e t h e y m e r e l y l a u g h e d a t law a n d o r d e r , u n t i l he g a v e up a n d j o i n e d t h e p a r t y . F r e d e r i c k T . M a c a r t n e y , A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a r y E s s a y s (1957)7^ In t h e two g e n e r a t i o n s s e p a r a t i n g B a r t o n ' s L i t e r a t u r e i n New S o u t h W a l e s a n d G r e e n ' s O u t l i n e , t h e d o m i n a n t c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e a l t e r e d f r o m o n e o f i g n o r a n c e b a s e d on a s t r o n g s e n s e o f i t s i n f e r i o r i t y and l a c k o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , t o o n e o f i g n o r a n c e r o o t e d i n a p a t h y . A p a r t f r o m a r a n g e o f s c h o l a r l y a r t i c l e s on W a l t Whitman a n d F r a n k W i l m o t ' s e c l e c t i c c o m m e n t a r i e s , a t t e n t i o n t o t h e A m e r i c a n s was s l i g h t i n d e e d . From a b o u t 19^0 o n w a r d s , t h o u g h , a c u r i o u s c h a n g e o c c u r r e d . A p a t h y a n d un.fami 1 i a r i t y t u r n e d t o s u s p i c i o n , r e s e n t m e n t , e v e n v i n d i c t i v e n e s s , a s t h e new o r t h o d o x y o f u n i v e r s i t y c r i t i c s f l e x e d i t s m u s c l e s . T h i s g a v e A u s t r a l i a n c r i t i c i s m a more a r t i c u l a t e , y e t no l e s s i n s u l a r a p p e a r a n c e . James M c A u l e y and H a r o l d S t e w a r t c o n j u r e d up t h e d e v a s t a t i n g 1 y s u c c e s s f u l " E r n Mai l e y " h o a x a s a 79 c h a l l e n g e t o t h e c a u s e o f m o d e r n i s m - - i n a d v e r t e n t l y r e e s t a b l i s h i n g a p r o v i n c i a l l i t e r a r y c l i m a t e i n F o r t i e s a n d F i f t i e s A u s t r a l i a a g a i n s t w h i c h o n l y a h a n d f u l o f p o e t s , a n d e v e n f e w e r c r i t i c s , s t r u g g l e d . T h e e n v i r o n m e n t , i n C h r i s W a 11 a c e - C r a b b e 1 s p h r a s e , was o n e o f " f o r m a l i s m 80 a n d B o g a r t i a n t o u g h n e s s . " T i e s w i t h t h e o l d o r d e r f l o u r i s h e d anew. 34 In c r i t i c i s m t h i s e m a n a t e d f r o m t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l q u a r t e r s o f t h e l i t e r a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t : f r o m l i t e r a r y j o u r n a l i s t s s u c h a s F r e d e r i c k T . M a c a r t n e y and James D e v a n e y ; f r o m t h e p o e t - e d i t o r s D o u g l a s S t e w a r t and K e n n e t h S l e s s o r ; a n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , f r o m s u c h a c a d e m i c c r i t i c s a s A . D . Hope and James M c A u l e y , G . A . W i l k e s a n d L e o n i e K r a m e r . F . T . M a c a r t n e y , an i d e o l o g i c a l c o l l e a g u e o f t h e a c a d e m i c c r i t i c s , was a f r e e l a n c e j o u r n a l i s t , Commonwealth L i t e r a r y Fund l e c t u r e r , c o - e d i t o r , w i t h E . M o r r i s M i l l e r , o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e : a B i b1i o g r a p h y (1956), a n d a s t r o n g p r e s e n c e i n A u s t r a l i a n c r i t i c i s m f r o m t h e l a t e 19301s o n w a r d s . H i s A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a r y E s s a y s (1957) m e a s u r e s t h e a u t h o r ' s t e m p e r a n d e x e m p l i f i e s t h e r e a c t i o n a r y a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e b u l k o f A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i n t h e 19501 s . M a c a r t n e y , a s e l f - c o n f e s s e d " p o l i c e m a n " d e f e n d i n g t h e o l d t i e s , w a s t e s l i t t l e t i m e g e t t i n g down t o t h e b u s i n e s s o f e n f o r c e m e n t . He b i t t e r l y a t t a c k s b o t h t h e p r o g r e s s o f p o e t i c m o d e r n i s m i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e t h e o r e t i c i a n s o f t h e m o v e m e n t . T h e A m e r i c a n s loom l a r g e a s t t a r g e t s f o r h i s v i t r i o l . In t h e f i r s t c o u p l e o f p a r a g r a p h s i n t h e o p e n i n g e s s a y , " A n A t t i t u d e t o L i t e r a t u r e " - - a m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e a u t h o r ' s b e l i e f s - - M a c a r t n e y i s o l a t e s T . E . Hulme and E z r a Pound a s t h e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y i n i t i a t o r s o f " t h e I m a g i s t s a m e - d a y 81 d r y - c l e a n i n g s e r v i c e f o r a r t a n d p h i l o s o p h y . " He t h e n i s o l a t e s t h e r o o t c a u s e o f t h e m o d e r n t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s f r e e b l a n k v e r s e : W a l t W h i t m a n , i r o n i c a l l y a p o e t w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l , b u t s o f a r u n d o c u m e n t e d i m p a c t on t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a n p o e t s b e f o r e M a c a r t n e y . In a manner r e m i n i s c e n t o f J a c k L i n d s a y ' s e d i t o r i a l q u i r k s 35 i n V i s i o n some y e a r s e a r l i e r , he p r o c e e d s t o d i s m i s s c a s u a l l y some o f t h i s c e n t u r y ' s m a j o r l i t e r a r y f i g u r e s a n d w o r k s i n a s e q u e n c e o f ' m e m o r a b l e j o u r n a l i s t i c o n e - l i n e r s : J o y c e ' s U1 y s s e s , " l i n g e r i n g ] as an immense n o v e l t y , l i k e t h e r e l e g a t e d b u l k o f a p e r f o r m i n g e l e p h a n t no l o n g e r i n t h e r i n g h a v i n g i t s t r i c k s e l a b o r a t e l y e x p l a i n e d , w i t h F i n n e g a n ' s Wake a s an a c c o m p a n y i n g a t a v i s t i c c h i m p a n z e e " ; G e r a r d M a n l e y H o p k i n s ' " i n v o l u t i o n s a n d c h i l d i s h t o n g u e - t w i s t e r s " ; t h e " v e r b a l c o n j u r i n g " a n d " b o y i s h t u r n s " o f T . S . E l i o t ; a n d E . E . C u m m i n g s ' " a d u l t n u r s e r y rhymes . . . n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e h o p e l e s s m u d d l e o f 82 s p e l l i n g , t y p o g r a p h y , and m e a n i n g . " M a c a r t n e y d e l i g h t e d l y p o i n t s t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l h o a x o f t h e E r n Mai l e y p o e m s , c o n d e m n i n g " t h o s e o r a c l e s whom James D e v a n e y i n P o e t r y i n Our T i m e c a11s ' t h e e x p l a i n e r s o f u n i n t e l l i g i b l e p o e m s . " " T e a c h e r , f r e e l a n c e j o u r n a l i s t and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , D e v a n e y was a c o n - t e m p o r a r y o f M a c a r t n e y who a l s o e x e r t e d some e f f e c t on t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f p o s t - S e c o n d W o r l d War A u s t r a l i a t h r o u g h a r t i c l e s i n p e r i o d i c a l s s u c h a s Meanj i n , and h i s c r i t i ca1 w o r k P o e t r y i n Our T i m e (1952). L i k e M a c a r t n e y , D e v a n e y c i t e s E l i o t a n d P o u n d - - f o r him " p r e c i o u s a n d 8k i n e f f e c t u a l " p o e t s - - a s key i n f l u e n c e s on m o d e r n i s t p o e t r y . L i k e M a c a r t n e y , he q u o t e s p a s s a g e s o f Whitman and S a n d b u r g d i s a p p r o v i n g l y . B u t he g o e s o n e b e t t e r , c o n c l u d i n g t h a t t h e m a s t e r s p i r i t s c o f m o d e r n i s m s u c h a s T . E . H u l m e , F . S . F l i n t , H a r t C r a n e , who w e r e s o p r o m i n e n t i n o n e p h a s e o r o t h e r o f t h e m o v e m e n t , had no t r u e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p o e t r y a n d w r o t e n o n e w o r t h k e e p i n g . T h e s e p e o p l e h a v e f a r t o o much i n f l u e n c e . T h e y a r e r e a l l y s m a l l p o t a t o e s , b u t t h e y i m p r e s s p e o p l e . . . 85 36 No l e s s i n c e n s e d a t the i c o n o c l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r o f the c u r r e n t p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f m o d e r n i s t l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y the A m e r i c a n moderns, Kenneth S l e s s o r and Douglas S t e w a r t a t t a c k e d the a b r u p t t e c h n i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s they f e l t were d i s r u p t i n g the c o n t i n u i t y o f E n g l i s h v e r s e . In an e a r l y paper e n t i t l e d "Modern E n g l i s h P o e t r y " (1931), S l e s s o r e x p r e s s e d h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h a t a r c h - e x p e r i m e n t e r E.E. Cummings' r e f r e s h i n g v i g o u r , but he c o u l d o n l y c o n c l u d e t h a t i t was, n e v e r t h e l e s s , a m a t t e r o f too much, too soon. V o i c i n g s e n t i m e n t s which a n t i c i p a t e d the tone o f most A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m f o r decades t o come, S l e s s o r warned: There can be no sudden e x p l o s i o n o f r e v o l t , such as i s a t t e m p t e d by the i n c e n d i a r i e s under the d o m i n a t i o n o f Cummings and G e r t r u d e S t e i n . Even T.S. E l i o t o b t a i n s h i s most p o w e r f u l p o e t r y by a s i m p l e i n f l e c t i o n o r v a r i a t i o n o f the s t a n d a r d i z e d pentameter. The d e f e n d e r s o f the E n g l i s h p o e t i c t r a d i t i o n , m u s t e r i n g behind the r e l i a b l e pentameter, c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e d the m o d e r n i s t r e b e l s as a v e r y r e a l t h r e a t . S l e s s o r e d i t e d S o u t h e r l y from 1956 t o 1961. Douglas S t e w a r t , l i k e S l e s s o r , was a man o f p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e i n the F i f t i e s and most o f the S i x t i e s t h r o u g h h i s own p o e t r y , and i n h i s c a p a c i t y as l i t e r a r y e d i t o r o f the B u l j e t i n (1940-60) and o f Angus and R o b e r t s o n p u b l i c a t i o n s . He p e r s i s t e n t l y e x p r e s s e d h i s deep c o n c e r n f o r the s t a t e o f Contemporary l i t e r a t u r e . An e x c e r p t from h i s c r i t i c a l work, The F l e s h and the S p i r i t (1948), w i l l s u f f i c e t o i l l u s t r a t e h i s c o m p l e t e i n t o l e r a n c e o f m o d e r n i s t t e n d e n c i e s and wr i t e r s : 37 S u r e l y i t i s the t w o f o l d d e s i r e o f e s c a p i n g from a r t and e s c a p i n g from Freud t h a t has b e g o t t e n the most d i f f i c u l t , the most " s o p h i s t i c a t e d " the most u n i n t e l l i g i b l e a r t o f our t i m e . The v u l g a r d i s p l a y s o f p r i v a t e e r u d i t i o n i n "The Waste Land" i n Pound's Cantos and i n Auden's New Year L e t t e r ; G e r t r u d e S t e i n ' s p r a t t l i n g , as o f an i d i o t c h i l d . . . a l l t h e s e which we f i n d " i n t e r e s t i n g " a r e m e r e l y , i n the a g g r a v a t e d form o f u n i n t e l 1 i g i b i 1 i t y , t h o s e " a l l e g o r i e s o f t h e s t a t e o f one's own mind" which Matthew A r n o l d r i g h t l y judged t o be an escape i n t o i n f e r i o r a r t . ^ 7 The Americans a g a i n emerge as a f e a r e d f o r c e i n the army o f t h e enemy. S t e w a r t c o u l d not condone what he termed i n a B u i l e t i j i a r t i c l e p o i n t e d l y e n t i t l e d "Goodbye t o the W r e c k e r s , " the " r e d u c t i o n o f the E n g l i s h 88 language i n t o a p r i v a t e mumbo jumbo." S t e w a r t ' s s e n t i m e n t s , a t once a n t a g o n i s t i c and r e s e n t f u l o f the d i f f i c u l t i e s posed t o the r e a d e r o f m o d e r n i s t v e r s e , t y p i f i e d t h e g r e a t b u l k o f academic c r i t i c i s m t h a t dominated t h e F i f t i e s . B r i a n K i e r n a n has r i g h t l y r e f e r r e d t o t h i s "major phase o f A u s t r a l i a n 89 l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m " as "smug and c o n f o r m i s t i n many ways." Indeed, t h r e e t h i n g s c h a r a c t e r i z e the temper o f the p e r i o d : an a n t i p a t h y , b o r d e r i n g on h o s t i l i t y towards m o d e r n i s t p o e t s , e s p e c i a l l y the A m e r i c a n s ; the overwhelming a n g l o c e n t r i s m o f E n g l i s h departments i n the major A u s t r a l i a n u n i v e r s i t i e s - - w h a t one v i s i t i n g American s c h o l a r 90 i d e n t i f i e d as a " d e b i l i t a t i n g p o m m i f i c a t i o n " ; and the i n s u l a r i t y , the " c l o s e d - s h o p " t e n d e n c i e s o f the Academy. Young c r i t i c s w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m on t h e i r minds were r u n n i n g s c a r e d . Max H a r r i s was r i g h t when, i n 1966, he spoke of the "academic monopoly [ i n A u s t r a l i a ] 91 of the f u n c t i o n s o f c r i t i c i s m . " L a t e r i n the same a r t i c l e , he w r y l y and perhaps a l i t t l e d e s p a i r i n g l y r e f e r r e d t o the " v i c i o u s 38 c r i t i c a l c i r c l e o f Hope e n d l e s s l y on McAuley, McAuley on B u c k l e y , 92 B u c k l e y on Hope, and Dr. L e o n i e Kramer on them a l l . " McAuley and Hope made t h e i r b i a s e s v e r y c l e a r . Hope had no time f o r modernism, and he c o n s e q u e n t l y a t t a c k e d i t s l e a d i n g p r o p o n e n t s . A l o n g w i t h McAuley, he c o n s t a n t l y e x p r e s s e d h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o keep A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e f r e e o f the t a i n t of r e b e l l i o u s e x p e r i m e n t i n e s s a y s such as " S t a n d a r d s i n A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e " ( i s s u e d i n 93 1956 as a C u r r e n t A f f a i r s B u l l e t i n ) , "The D i s c u r s i v e Mode" and " F r e e V e r s e : A Post-Mortem" ( t h e l a s t two i n c l u d e d i n The Cave and the 9/4 S p r i ng ). The t i t l e s t h e m s e l v e s r e f l e c t both the a u t h o r ' s i n f l e x i b l e sense o f h i s own c o r r e c t n e s s and h i s c a u s t i c a t t i t u d e towards t h o s e d a r i n g t o c a s t t h e i r h a t s i n w i t h the o p p o s i t i o n . The poet Les Murray's r e f e r e n c e t o r e c e n t A u s t r a l i a n r e v i e w i n g as "a Cosy Corner 95 and a s n a k e p i t " seems f a r more a p p r o p r i a t e t o the angry F i f t i e s . A p p r a i s i n g modernism, Hope u t i l i z e d a language o f v i o l e n c e , and once a g a i n the Americans were the p r i n c i p a l r e c i p i e n t s o f h i s h o s t i l i t y . In "The D i s c u r s i v e Mode" he r e f e r s t o the p r e s e n t d e s t r u c t i o n o f the l a n d s c a p e o f l i t e r a t u r e by the i n t r u s i o n o f a l i e n and s t e r i l e forms o f cheap amusement, by e x h a u s t i o n o f the h e a r t and mind, p r o c e e d i n g from greedy and i g n o r a n t e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e i r r e s o u r c e s , and by a p o i s o n i n g o f the atmosphere o f b e l i e f i n which the forms o f a r t b r e a t h e and f l o u r i s h . . . .96 Hope t r a c e s the modern h e r e s y back t o Edgar A l l a n Poe. P o e t r y , he m a i n t a i n s , had been " m u s i c , " b u t , under the impact o f the t r a d i t i o n founded by Poe, i t d e t e r i o r a t e d i n t o " t h e f o r m l e s s b a b b l e and vomit 97 o f the p o e t ' s s u b c o n s c i o u s mind." 39 In " F r e e V e r s e : A P o s t - M o r t e m " Hope g o e s f u r t h e r , l a y i n g t h e b l a m e f o r t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f f r e e v e r s e i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a t t h e f e e t o f W a l t Whitman and h i s s u c c e s s o r s - - t w o e x p a t r i a t e A m e r i c a n s who became F r e n c h p o e t s , F r a n c i s V i e l e - G r i f f i n a n d S t u a r t M e r r i l l , a s w e l l a s T . S . E l i o t and E z r a P o u n d . T r a c i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f f r e e v e r s e , Hope s u g g e s t s t h a t a f t e r P o u n d ' s '('1912" I m a g i s t a n t h o l o g y , f r e e v e r s e s p r e a d b a c k t o A m e r i c a , " m a i n l y by way o f M a r i o n M o o r e ' s 98 j o u r n a l P o e t r y , p u b l i s h e d i n C h i c a g o . " P r e s u m a b l y he h a s i n m i n d P o u n d ' s 1914 a n t h o l o g y and H a r r i e t M o n r o e ' s P o e t r y , w h i c h p u b l i s h e d M a r i a n n e M o o r e . T h e n c e , v i a t h e " h e r e t i c s " who p u b l i s h e d i n P o e t r y , s u c h a s P o u n d , Y e a t s , H . D . , W i l l i a m s , L a w r e n c e , S a n d b u r g , S t e v e n s a n d E l i o t , f r e e v e r s e s p r e a d " l i k e t h e g r e a t i n f l u e n z a e p i d e m i c s o f t h e p e r i o d , " t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s r e s e m b l i n g t h a t by w h i c h c e r t a i n p a r a s i t e s , l i k e t h e t a p e w o r m and t h e l i v e r f l u k e , o n l y become d a n g e r o u s i f t h e y a r e a b l e t o c a r r y o u t t h e i r s t a g e s o f g r o w t h i n t h e b o d i e s o f s e v e r a l t y p e s o f a n i m a l i n s u c c e s s i o n . 9 9 A few p a g e s l a t e r , Hope c l a r i f i e s h i s v i e w o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n m i l i t a r y t e r m s . He r e f e r s t o t h e " c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e g a r r i s o n f r o m w i t h i n , " a n d t h e " b a r b a r i a n a s s a u l t f r o m w i t h o u t . T h e w r i t e r c l e a r l y s e n s e s h i s b e l e a g u e r e d c l a s s i c a l w o r l d t o t t e r i n g . James M c A u l e y a d o p t e d an e q u a l l y p o l e m i c a l p o s e . M o r e o v e r t l y p o l i t i c a l t h a n H o p e , h i s c r i t i c a l w o r k , T h e End o f M o d e r n i t y (1959), e s t a b l i s h e d M c A u l e y a s a c r i t i c d e t e r m i n e d t o i m p o s e t h e m o s t v i g o r o u s - - and n a r r o w - s t a n d a r d s on t h e w o r k s he a p p r a i s e d . ' ^ P o e t r y s h o u l d h a v e n o t h i n g t o do w i t h m e t a p h y s i c s , t h e o l o g y , o r a n y o f t h e " i d e o l o g i c a l ko d r i v e l o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y " l i k e " d e i s m , p a n t h e i s m , n a t i o n a l i s m , 1 02 s o c i a l i s m , d e m o c r a t i s m a n d t h e r e s t . " H i s t a r g e t s a r e f a m i l i a l — t h e s o - c a l l e d " o l d G u a r d o f r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s " l i k e E l i o t , P o u n d , J o y c e 1 03 a n d L e w i s ; h i s a r t i s t i c p o s i t i o n , t h o u g h p e r h a p s more e x t r e m e t h a n any o f h i s c o l l e a g u e s i n t h e Academy o t h e r t h a n H o p e , n e e d s some a t t e n t i o n , i f o n l y t o h e l p us t o a p p r e c i a t e more f u l l y t h e f o c u s o f t h o s e c r i t i c s who commanded t h e most a t t e n t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a i n t h e F i f t i e s a n d S i x t i e s . In h i s e s s a y " T h e M a g i a n H e r e s y , " M c A u l e y d e - c l a r e s t h a t i t i s t i m e t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t p o e t r y d u r i n g t h e p a s t o n e h u n d r e d and f i f t y y e a r s a n d more has d e s c r i b e d an immense d e t o u r . M c A u l e y f o u n d e d t h e p e r i o d i c a l Q u a d r a n t , and e d i t e d i t f o r t h e n e x t t w e n t y y e a r s ( 1 9 5 6 - 7 6 ) u n t i l h i s d e a t h . He was a l w a y s a p o t e n t f o r c e - - w h e t h e r a s e d i t o r , p o l i t i c a l c o m m e n t a t o r o r p o e t . In h e r Commonwealth L i t e r a r y Fund l e c t u r e (1957) e n t i t l e d " J a m e s M c A u l e y : T r a d i t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a n P o e t r y , " L e o n i e K r a m e r , h a v i n g c r i t i c i z e d T . S . E l i o t ' s " s u p e r f i c i a l t e c h n i c a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l g i m m i c k s , " c o n c l u d e s by s t a t i n g t h a t M c A u l e y ' s a t t e m p t s t o " b r e a t h e new l i f e and v i g o u r i n t o " t r a d i t i o n a 1 v e r s e f o r m s " a r e " c a l c u l a b l e r i s k s , f a r l e s s t o be f e a r e d t h a n t h e a p p a r e n t f r e e d o m o f l i t e r a r y n o n - c o n f o r m i t y . " ^ ^ L i t e r a r y b a t 11 e-1 i nes , i t s e e m s , w e r e c a r e f u l l y d r a w n b e t w e e n t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t s a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t . E q u i v o c a t i o n was n o t p o s s i b l e . 41 G . A . W i l k e s ' A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e : A C o n s p e c t u s (1969) i s o n l y a p r o d u c t o f i t s t i m e . When i t i s remembered t h a t i n h i s C . L . F . l e c t u r e (1956) on t h e l o n g poem i n A u s t r a l i a and A m e r i c a ( u s i n g t h e v e r s e o f , a m o n g s t o t h e r s , F r a n c i s Webb a n d W i l l i a m C a r l o s W i l l i a m s ) , W i l k e s c o u l d w r i t e t h a t p o e t s i n e a c h c o u n t r y had " t u r n e d t o h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t s . . . b e c a u s e t h i s i s n o r m a l i n ' c o l o n i a l ' l i t e r a t u r e s a t a c e r t a i n s t a g e o f t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t , " we r e c o g n i z e a f r a m e w o r k c o n s i s t e n t n o t o n l y w i t h m o s t A u s t r a l i a n c r i t i c a l w o r k s o v e r t h e 106 p r e v i o u s t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s , b u t o v e r t h e l a s t c e n t u r y . W i l k e s ' t r a c i n g o f A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e " a s an e x t e n s i o n o f E u r o p e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n t o t h e s o u t h , " i s , f o r i . h i m , t h e o n l y v i a b l e s c h o l a r l y a p p r o a c h . A . D . H o p e ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t i n h i s e s s a y , " T h e P r a c t i c a l C r i t i c , " r e f l e c t s a s i n g u l a r t r u t h when a p p l i e d t o t h e h i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a n c r i t i c i sm: T h e poem i s a l w a y s u n d e r t h e c r i t i c ' s m i c r o s c o p e , and he seems n e v e r t o r e f l e c t t h a t w h i l e he i s t e s t i n g t h e poem t h e poem may i n f a c t be t e s t i n g h i m . S o m e t i m e s , i f he w e r e a w a r e o f i t , a v e r v s a r d o n i c e y e i s g a z i n g b a c k a t him t h r o u g h h i s l e n s . ^ T h e r e h a s b e e n an " o f f i c i a l " l i t e r a t u r e , c o g n i z a n t o f i t s E u r o p e a n r o o t s , w h i c h many c r i t i c s o v e r t h e y e a r s h a v e e m p h a s i z e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f a g r e a t d e a l o f o r a l l i t e r a t u r e , r a d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e and U t o p i a n 1 i t e r a t u r e - - t h a t i s , t h e k i n d o f w r i t i n g u s u a l l y f o u n d o n l y i n t h e o r i g i n a l j o u r n a l f o r m i n w h i c h i t a p p e a r e d , a n d i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h e d , " c o l o n i a l " c r i t e r i a . s o o f t e n u s e d a s t h e o n l y m e a s u r e s o f g o o d w r i t i n g . In t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e s o c i a l d o m i n a n c e o f kl an A n g l o p h i l e e l i t e p r o b a b l y f o r c e d e m e r g i n g c r i t i c s t o v o i c e t h e s e o f f i c i a l v i e w s , l e s t , i n b r e a t h i n g A m e r i c a n n e s s , t h e y s h o u l d p r o c l a i m t h e m s e l v e s R e p u b l i c a n s , o r a t t h e v e r y l e a s t , a n t i - E n g 1 i s h . From t h e 1 9 ^ 0 ' s t o t h e 1 6 0 1 s , i n t h e m i d s t o f a l i t e r a r y c l i m a t e n e a t l y e n c a s e d i n an a n t i - m o d e r n i s t s h e l l , i n f l u e n t i a l c r i t i c s f r o m t h e A u s t r a l i a n A c a d e m y a g a i n p e r c e i v e d A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e a s a t h r e a t t o t h e o r d e r l i n e s s o f t h e i r own c o u n t r y ' s w r i t i n g . T h e y d e s i g n a t e d W h i t m a n , P o e , Pound a n d t h e i r " f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s " a s t h e enemy i n A u s t r a l i a ' s m i d s t . And y e t a s t r o n g l i t e r a r y c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n A u s t r a l i a and A m e r i c a - - w h i c h b l o s s o m e d s o r e m a r k a b l y i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A u s t r a l i a a n d a g a i n i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 1 s — i s a l m o s t a s o l d a s w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t on t h e s h o r e s o f S y d n e y C o v e . 4-3 T I T L E P A G E / I N T R O D U C T I O N ENDNOTES ' V e r n o n L o u i s P a r r i n g t o n , Main- C u r r e n t s i n A m e r i c a n T h o u g h t , 3 v o l s . (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1927), P- v i . 2 A . P a t c h e t t M a r t i n , " C o n c e r n i n g A m e r i c a n P o e t s , " i n A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s : 1788-1888, e d . D o u g l a s B.W. S l a d e n ( L o n d o n : G r i f f i t h , F a r r a n , O k e d e n , W e l s h , 1888), p. x l i v . 3 J o s e p h J o n e s , Rad i c a l C o u s i n s : N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y Amer i c a n a n d A u s t r a 1 i a n Wr i t e r s ( S t . L u c i a : U n i v . o f Q u e e n s 1 a n d , P r e s s , 1976), p. i x . J o n e s , p . k\ . 5 F r e d A l e x a n d e r , A u s t r a l i a a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( B o s t o n : W o r l d P e a c e F o u n d a t i o n , 19^1), p . 13. 6 V i n c e n t B u c k l e y , E s s a y s i n P o e t r y : Ma i n l y A u s t r a l i an ( M e l - b o u r n e : M e l b o u r n e U n i v . P r e s s , 1957), P- 51- 7 Norman H a r p e r , i n T h e A m e r i c a n A l l i a n c e , e d . J o h n Hammond M o o r e ( V i c t o r i a : C a s s e l l , 1970), p . 17- W i l k e s p l e a d s t h e d e a r t h o f e s t a b l i s h e d s o u r c e s . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , G . A . W i l k e s , A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e : ' . A C o n s p e c t u s ( S y d n e y : A n g u s a n d R o b e r t s o n , 1969), p . kS. 9 See b e l o w , C h a p t e r IV, s e c t i o n s b) a n d c ) . ^ T h i s n e g l e c t i s n o t c o n f i n e d m e r e l y t o l i t e r a t u r e . " A u s t r a l i a n H i s t o r y , " Ray A i t c h i s o n w r o t e i n 1972 ( T h a n k s t o t h e Y a n k s ) , " h a s p l a y e d down t h e A m e r i c a n s t o r y . " S i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 4 0 ' s , h o w e v e r , l e d i n i t i a l l y by L l o y d C h u r c h w a r d and G o r d o n G r e e n w o o d , a n d more r e c e n t l y by J o h n Hammond M o o r e , Norman H a r p e r , E . D a n i e l P o t t s , A n n e t t e P o t t s a n d N o e l M c L a c h l a n , A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r i a n s h a v e c r e a t e d a s i t u a t i o n e n c o u r a g i n g , a t l a s t , t o b o t h a t e x t u a l a n d a c o n t e x t u a l l i t e r a r y s t u d y o f t h e c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e two c o u n t r i e s . My d e b t t o t h e a b o v e h i s t o r i a n s , a t many p o i n t s i n t h e t h e s : i . s , i s g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . ^ S e e b e l o w , C h a p t e r I I , s e c t i o n b ) . 1 2 Raymond W i l l i a m s , C u l t u r e a n d S o c i e t y (New Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v . P r e s s , 1958), p . 320. 1 3 G . B . B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e i n New S o u t h W a l e s ( S y d n e y : Thomas R i c h a r d s , 1866), p . 1; H . M . G r e e n , An O u t l i n e o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e ( S y d n e y : W h i t c o m b e & T o m b s , 1930); H . M . G r e e n , A H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e , 2 v o l s . ( S y d n e y : A n g u s a n d R o b e r t s o n , 1961); W i l k e s , p. 130. M o o r e , T . I n g l i s , S o c i a l P a t t e r n s i n A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v . o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1971), p. 239. ^ Poem r e p r i n t e d i n G . B . B a r t o n , e d . , T h e P o e t s a n d P r o s e W r i t e r s o f New S o u t h W a l e s ( S y d n e y : Gibbs'., S h a l l a r d , 1866), p p . 19-29- 16 W i l l i a m C a r l o s W i l l i a m s , S e l e c t e d E s s a y s o f W i l l i a m C a r l o s W i l l i a m s (New Y o r k : New D i r e c t i o n s , 1969), p . 13^. 45 ^ L i e u t e n a n t - C o l o n e l L a c h l a n M a c q u a r i e was Governor o f the c o l o n y from l a t e l 8 0 9 ~ t o 1821. 18 Robinson's odes commemorated the a n n i v e r s a r i e s o f the b i r t h - days o f George I I I (June 4)- and Queen C h a r l o t t e ( J a n u a r y 18). See Green, Hi s t o r y , p. 110. 19 M i c h a e l Massey R o b i n s o n , Odes o f M i c h a e l Massey R o b i n s o n , ;i;ntrod. George Mackaness (Sydney: D.S. F o r d , 1946), p. 21) (Ode f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n Sydney G a z e t t e , June 9, 1810). 20 R o b i n s o n , p. 31 (Sydney G a z e t t e , June 8, 1811). 21 R o b i n s o n , p. 55 (Sydney G a z e t t e , June 10, 1815). 22 Green, H i s t o r y , p. 110. 23 B a r r o n F i e l d , F i r s t F r u i t s o f A u s t r a l i a n P o e t r y (Sydney, 1819). The two poems c o m p r i s i n g th.i:s volume a r e r e p r i n t e d i n B r i a n E l l i o t t and A d r i a n M i t c h e l l , eds., Bards i n the W i l d e r n e s s : A u s t r a l i a n C o l o n i a l P o e t r y t o 1920 (Melbourne: N e l s o n , 1970). 24 B u c k l e y , E s s a y s , p. 4. I t s h o u l d be remembered, i n F i e l d ' s d e f e n c e , t h a t e a r l y American r e p o r t s such as John Smith's A True ) R e l a t i on (1608) and N a t h a n i e l Ward's S i m p l e C o b l e r o f Aggawam i n Amer i ca (1647) were a l s o o n l y b a r e l y d i s g u i s e d t r a v e l books w h i c h p o r t r a y e d A m e r i c a e x o t i c a l l y , i n an a t t e m p t t o encourage s e t t l e r s . 2 5 El 1 i o t t and Mi t c h e l 1 , p. 14. 26 E l l i o t t and M i t c h e l l , p. 15. 27 S l a d o n ' s a n t h o l o g i e s (1888) a r e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . Some decades a f t e r t h e i r p u b l i c a t i o n , B e r n a r d 0'Dowd a g a i n d i s c u s s e d the " f a l l a c y o f ' l o c a l c o l o u r . ' T h i s f a l l a c y i s the n o t i o n t h a t you can make a s e t o f v e r s e s A u s t r a l i a n by s p r i n k l i n g i t w i t h g o l d e n w a t t l e , k o o k a b u r r a f e a t h e r s , m y a l l blossom, and kangaroo t a i l s . . . ." See " L i t e r a t u r e i n A u s t r a l i a , " C o r r o b o r e e , I, No. 10 ( J u l y 1922), 3- 28 Tompson was j u s t twenty when h i s W i l d Notes from the L y r e o f a N a t i v e M i n s t r e l (Sydney, 1826) was p u b l i s h e d . H i s l a t e r p o e t r y remains u n c o l l e c t e d . E l l i o t t and M i t c h e l l r e p u b l i s h e d t h r e e o f h i s < poems. 2 9 E l l i o t t and M i t c h e l l , p. 2 9 . 30 B a r t o n , P o e t s and P r o s e W r i t e r s , p. 2 9 . 31 See below, C h a p t e r I I I , s e c t i o n a ) . 32 See below, C h a p t e r I I , i n p a r t i c u l a r . 3 3 W i I k e s , p. 16. 34 ' -' H e n r i c u s , 1 " C o l o n i a l C r i t i c i s m , " A u s t r a l a s i a n , F e b r u a r y 27, 1869• p. 269. 1 H e n r i c u s 1 was a pseudonym used by Henry M e l v i l l e , a c o l o n i a l j o u r n a l i s t . 35 B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e , p. 1. The i t a l i c s a r e mine. 36 B a r t o n , p. 13- 37 B a r t o n , p. 11. • 3 0 B a r t o n , pp. 105~7. 39 B a r t o n , p. 14; Henry K i n g s l e y , The R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f G e o f f r e y Hamlyn (London: M a c m i l l a n , 1859), pp. 400-1. 40 T h i s comment o f Wilmot's comes from one o f h i s u n c o l l e c t e d l i t e r a r y e s s a y s , e n t i t l e d "Modern P o e t r y . " Frank Wilmot C o l l e c t i o n , ML, MSS 4/4, M i t c h e l l L i b r a r y , Sydney. 47 4 1 Douglas B.W. S l a d e n , ed., A u s t r a l i a n B a l l a d s and Rhymes (London, W a l t e r S c o t t , 1888), p. 274. k 2 A.D. Hope, "The P r o v i n c i a l Muse: 1888-1900," A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s , 8, No. 1 (May 1977), p. 1.7- S l a d e n ' s t h r e e a n t h o l o g i e s o f 1888 were A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s and A u s t r a l i a n Ba11 ads, a l r e a d y c i t e d , a l o n g w i t h A C e n t u r y o f A u s t r a l i a n Song (London: W a l t e r S c o t t , 1888). A u s t r a l i a n Poets i s d i f f e r e n t t o the o t h e r two a n t h o l o g i e s i n t h a t the e d i t o r aimed a t g i v i n g "specimens o f the b e s t poems produced i n the a n t i p o d e s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f s u b j e c t . " (p. x i x ) . 43 S l a d e n , A u s t r a l i a n B a l l a d s , pp. v - v i . 44 S l a d e n , A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s , p. x l i i . 45 S l a d e n , A u s t r a l i a n B a l l a d s , pp. x x i i i - x x i v . I t would be i n t e r e s t i n g t o know who S l a d e n had i n mind when he t a l k e d o f the "few" p o e t s w i t h " o r i g i n a l g e n i u s . " 4 6 S l a d e n , A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s , p. xxx. 47 Thomas Heney, "On Some A u s t r a l i a n Poems," Sydney Q u a r t e r l y Magazine, Sept. 1888. R e p r i n t e d i n John B a r n e s , ed.gThe W r i t e r i n A u s t r a l i a : A C o l l e c t i o n o f L i t e r a r y Documents, 1856 t o 1964 ( M e l - bourne: O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1969), p. 38. 40 [A.G. S t e p h e n s ] , "D.B.W. S l a d e n , " B u l l e t i n , X V I I I , No. 918, ( S e p t . 18, 1897), red page. 4 9 Hope, " P r o v i n c i a l Muse," p. 23- 5 0 S l a d e n , A u s t r a l i a n B a l l a d s , p. 208. 5 ] L e c t u r e d e l i v e r e d March 27, 1898, a t South P l a c e I n s t i t u t e , London. I t was p u b l i s h e d as The B e g i n n i n g s o f an A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e (London: Henry S o t h e r a n , 1898). 48 52 S l a d e n , A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s , p. x x i i . 53 M a r t i n , Beg i nn i ngs, p. 16. ? M a r t i n , p. 8. 55 J M a r t i n , pp. 9-10. 56 p M a r t i n , p. 11. 5 7 M a r t i n , pp. 20, 25, 30/ 58 M a r t i n , i n S l a d e n , Aus t ra M a n P o e t s , p. x l i v . 59 M a r t i n , Beg i nn i ngs, p. 42. ^ M a r t i n p r a i s e s , amongst o t h e r t h i n g s , Gordon's a b i l i t y i n "A Song o f Autumn" t o be " i n England and A u s t r a l i a a t the same t i m e . " ( B e g i n n i n g s , p. 38.) ^ Henry G y l e s T u r n e r and A l e x a n d e r S u t h e r l a n d , The Development o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e (Melbourne, George R o b e r t s o n , I898). S l a d e n a f f e c t i o n a t e l y r e f e r r e d t o T u r n e r as a " l i t e r a r y - b a n k e r " i n A u s t r a 1 i a n P o e t s , p. x i i . 62 T u r n e r and S u t h e r l a n d , p. 22. T u r n e r and S u t h e r l a n d , p. 24. 64 T u r n e r and S u t h e r l a n d , p. 123. 65 T.G. T u c k e r , T h i n g s Worth T h i n k i n g About (Melbourne: George R o b e r t s o n , 1890), p. I85. T u c k e r , p. 189- ^ Green, O u t l i n e , p. 10. ^ T u r n e r and S u t h e r l a n d , p. v i i . 69 Vance Palmer, "An A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l A r t , " S t e e l e Rudd's Magazine, J a n . 1905- R e p r i n t e d i n B a r n e s , W r i t e r i n A u s t r a l i a , pp. 168-70. I t i s w o r t h comparing Palmer's comments w i t h t h o s e o f the Rev. Sydney S m i t h . See below, C h a p t e r I, s e c t i o n b)'. 7 0 C h r i s t o p h e r Brennan, "The U n i v e r s i t y and A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e : A C e n t e n a r y R e t r o s p e c t , " Hermes, J u b i l e e No., 1902. R e p r i n t e d i n The P r o s e o f C h r i s t o p h e r Brennan, ed. A.R. C h i s o l m and J . J . Quinn (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1962), p. 28. 7 1 B r i a n K i e r n a n , " L i t e r a t u r e , H i s t o r y , and L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y : P e r s p e c t i v e s on the N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y i n A u s t r a l i a , " i n B a r d s , Bohemians, and Bookmen: Essays i n A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e , ed. Leon C a n t r e l l ( S t . L u c i a : U n i v . o f Queensland P r e s s , 1976), p. 8. 72 Green, O u t l i ne, p. 9- 7 3 Green, p. 12. 7 4 „ Green, p. 16. 7 5 Green, p. 72. A comparison between Henry Lawson and B r e t H a r t e i s b r i e f l y taken up i n C h a p t e r IX o f O u t l i ne. 76 Green, Hi s t o r y , p. x i . 7 7 Green, H i s t o r y , p. x i v . 78 F e d e r i c k T. M a c a r t n e y , A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a r y Essays (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1957), PP- 12-13- 79 See, f o r example, A.Norman J e f f a r e s , "The Ern Mai l e y Poems," i n The L i t e r a t u r e o f A u s t r a l i a , ed. G e o f f r e y Dutton ( M i d d l e s e x : P e n g u i n , 1964), pp. 407~12. 80 C h r i s W a l l a c e - C r a b b e , quoted i n A l e x a n d e r C r a i g , ed., Twelve P o e t s : 1950-1970 (Sydney: J a c a r a n d a P r e s s , 1971), p. 101. 50 ^ M a c a r t n e y , p. 1. 82 M a c a r t n e y , pp. 10-16. Oo M a c a r t n e y , p. 16. 84 James Devaney, P o e t r y i n Our Time (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1952), p. 7- 85 Devaney, p. 113- 86 Kenneth S l e s s o r , "Modern E n g l i s h P o e t r y . " P r i n t e d i n Sydney by the A u s t r a l i a n - E n g l i s h A s s o c i a t i o n as o f f p r i n t No. 9 i n O c t o b e r , 1931- E x c e r p t s c o n t a i n e d i n H e r b e r t C. J a f f a , Kenneth S l e s s o r (New York: Twayne, 1971), PP- 73~4. 87 Douglas S t e w a r t , The F l e s h and the S p i r i t (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1948), p. 94. 88 Douglas S t e w a r t , "Goodbye t o the W r e c k e r s , " Bui 1eti n, LXIJ I , No. 3269 (Oct. 7, 1942), red page (p. 2). 89 B r i a n K i e r n a n , C r i t i c i sm (Melbourne: O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1974), p. 29. 90 John Greenway, " F o l k s o n g — A P r o t e s t , " A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s , 2, No. 3 (June 1966), p. 192. 91 Max H a r r i s , " C o n f l i c t s i n A u s t r a l i a n I n t e l l e c t u a l L i f e : 1940-1964," i n L i t e r a r y A u s t r a l i a , ed. Clement Semmler and Derek W h i t e l o c k (Melbourne: F.W. C h e s h i r e , 1966), p. 26. 92 H a r r i s , p. 30. 93 See K i e r n a n , Cr i t i c i sm, pp. 37-40. 94 A.D. Hope, The Cave and the S p r i n g ( A d e l a i d e : R i g b y , 1965). 51 95 Les Murray, The Peasant Mandarin ( S t . L u c i a : U n i v . o f Queens- l a n d P r e s s , 1978) , p. v i i i . 96 Hope, Cave and S p r i n g , p. 2. 97 Hope, p. 5. See a l s o pp. 7~8. 98 Hope, pp. 38-9. " Hope, p. 38. Hope, p. 41. ^ James McAuley, The End o f M o d e r n i t y (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1959). 1 02 McAuley, End, pp. 63 _ 5- 1 03 See James McAuley, "Comment," Quadrant, V, No. 1 (Summer 1960-1), 3-h. 104 McAuley, Erid, p. 159- ^ 5 L e o n i e Kramer, James McAuley ( C a n b e r r a : C a n b e r r a U n i v . C o l l e g e , 1957), P-1 11- L e c t u r e p r i n t e d w i t h T. I n g l i s Moore's The M i s f o r t u n e s o f Henry Handel R i c h a r d s o n as a C.L.F. L e c t u r e s p u b l i c a t i o n . 106 G.A. W i l k e s , Some Trends i n A u s t r a l i a n V e r s e ( C a n b e r r a : Canberra U n i v . C o l l e g e , 1956), pp. 12-13. L e c t u r e p r i n t e d as a C.L.F. L e c t u r e s p u b l i c a t i o n . W i l k e s , C o n s p e c t u s , p. 131. Hope, Cave and S p r i n g , p. 7 6 . PART ONE: TO I838 51 CHAPTER I "A NEW AMERICA" OR BRITAIN'S "SINK OF WICKEDNESS"? The c o m p a r i s o n between the e a r l y c o l o n i s t s o f A m e r i c a , a t l e a s t t h o s e of the n o r t h e r n s t a t e s , and the f o u n d e r s o f A u s t r a l i a , must q u i c k l y run o f f i n t o c o n t r a s t . The p r i m a r y o b j e c t o f the P i l g r i m F a t h e r s , was the enjoyment o f o p i n i o n s i n peace. The e a r l y d e n i z e n s o f the s o u t h e r n w o r l d burned t h e i r f i r s t c h u r c h t o escape the tedium o f a t t e n d a n c e . The f i r s t p i l g r i m s o f New England a t t e m p t e d a community o f goods on the p l a n o f the a p o s t l e s . The f i r s t A u s t r a l i a n s drew t h e i r s t o r e s from the c o m m i s s a r i a t , and adopted the t r a d i t i o n s o f H o u n d s d i t c h and Wapping. The l e a d e r s o f the f i r s t Americans were t h e i r c l e r g y , - - the b i b l e was t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and c i v i l s t a n d a r d . The r u l e r s o f the f i r s t A u s t r a l i a n s were h a l f m a r i n e , h a l f s o l d i e r s , whose pay was supplemented by the s a l e o f s p i r i t s s o l d by c o n v i c t women, t h e i r m i s t r e s s e s . Thus f o r many yeans the government o f t h e s e c o l o n i e s was a b s o l u t e , and the u s u a l consequences sometimes appeared. John West, The H i s t o r y o f Tasmania (1852)1 Sect i on A_ E x p l o r a t i o n and S e t t l e m e n t Even a b r i e f s k e t c h o f the h i s t o r i c a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l l i n k s between the A u s t r a l i a n and American c o n t i n e n t s , and p e o p l e s , must b e g i n b e f o r e t ' t h e n a r r i v a 1 i n Botany Bay, i n 1792, o f the American t r a d i n g 53 s h i p P h i l a d e l p h i a . B e f o r e , even, the f i r s t s t e p s on A u s t r a l i a n s o i l , i n 1770, o f t h r e e American s a i l o r s - - G o r e , Matra and Thurmond-- aboard Cook's Endeavour. W e l l b e f o r e . I t b e g i n s even b e f o r e A u s t r a l i a was d i s c o v e r e d , not w i t h E n g l i s h , but w i t h S p a n i s h adventurers--men s t r i v i n g , t h r o u g h o u t the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t o g i v e s u b s t a n c e t o the myth o f the g r e a t s o u t h l a n d . In 1519, h i s i m a g i n a t i o n s t i r r e d by B a l b o a ' s t e s t i m o n y t h a t a new ocean l a y t o the w e s t , F e r d i n a n d M a g e l l a n pushed beyond the s t r a i t now b e a r i n g h i s name, a c r o s s the new ocean t o the P h i l i p p i n e s ; he thus began a r e m a r k a b l e e r a o f S p a n i s h e x p l o r a t i o n o f the P a c i f i c , an e x p l o r a t i o n o n l y p o s s i b l e because o f S p a n i s h s e t t l e m e n t o f the A m e r i c a s . Subsequent voyages aimed a t c o n s o l i d a t i n g e f f e c t i v e e x p l o i t - a t i o n o f the r i c h e s o f the S p i c e I s l a n d s . But t h e r e was more: t e r r a a u s t r a l i s i n c o g n i t a and the promise o f heaven. The myth o f the g r e a t u n d i s c o v e r e d s o u t h land loomed l a r g e i n the i m a g i n a t i o n o f e v e r y p o t e n t i a l a d v e n t u r e r , as d i d the Church's promise o f s p i r i t u a l reward f o r t h o s e 1 ions o f the f a i t h who c o u l d c o n v e r t the heathen t o the one t r u e r e l i g i o n . One hundred y e a r s o f S p a n i s h sea voyages thus began, amounting t o both the f i r s t s u b s t a n t i a l s t e p towards the d i s c o v e r y o f A u s t r a l i a , and the f i r s t c o n n e c t i o n between the American c o n t i n e n t and the u n d i s c o v e r e d l a n d t o the s o u t h . Throughout the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , p o r t s i n Peru and M e x i c o were the means by which S p a n i s h e x p l o r e r s 2 equipped t h e i r s h i p s f o r the j o u r n e y west. A f t e r the l a s t o f the major S p a n i s h v o y a g e s - - Q u i r o s 1 second e x p e d i t i o n t o the New H e b r i d e s i n 54 1 6 0 6 — P h i l i p ' s c o f f e r s were h a r d l y improved. But two t h i n g s had been a c h i e v e d : the S p a n i s h had shown where l a n d was n o t ; and t h e i r i s l a n d d i s c o v e r i e s t o A u s t r a l i a ' s n o r t h had g i v e n g r e a t c r e d i b i l i t y t o the 3 concept o f an u n d i s c o v e r e d l a n d t o the s o u t h . An e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t American c o n n e c t i o n would have u n f o l d e d i f P h i l i p ' s e m i s s a r i e s had s t r u c k upon A u s t r a l i a ' s e a s t e r n s i d e . However, a c o m b i n a t i o n o f s e v e r e w i n d s , a f o r m i d a b l e s o u t h e r n s w e l l , arid n a v i g a t o r s d i s c o n c e r t e d by not s i g h t i n g l a n d f o r so long a t i m e , c o n f i r m e d a r o u t e t o the P h i l i p p i n e s and S p i c e I s l a n d s always t o the n o r t h . The S p a n i a r d s f a i l e d t o s i g h t A u s t r a l i a , but they had been on the v e r y b r i n k . One more s o u t h e r n t a c k o f s e v e r a l s h i p s would have made the d i f f e r e n c e . In t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , however, b e l i e f i n the r e p o r t s o f Q u i r o s (who was s u s c e p t i b l e t o h y p e r b o l e ) and T o r r e s was outweighed by the r e a l i z a t i o n o f Spawn's d e c r e a s i n g naval power, and the r i s e o f F r a n c e , H o l l a n d and England as t r a d i n g and m i l i t a r y r i v a l s . I t was l e f t up t o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e s e t h r e e n a t i o n s t o c l a r i f y the s u b t l e t i e s o f the P a c i f i c t h r o u g h voyages commencing not from South A m e r i c a , but from home p o r t s . I t would be o v e r two hundred y e a r s b e f o r e o c c u r r e n c e s i n A m e r i c a a g a i n a f f e c t e d the n a t u r e o f e v e n t s r e l a t i n g t o A u s t r a l i a and i t s near i s l a n d s . S p a i n ' s r o l e was o v e r ; England's y e t t o come. E l e v e n months a f t e r Q u i r o s landed i n the New H e b r i d e s , t h r e e weary s h i p s c a p t a i n e d by C h r i s t o p h e r Newport, w i t h George P e r c y , son o f the E a r l o f N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , and John Smith on b o a r d , dropped 55 anchor near the s o u t h o f Chesapeake Bay, V i r g i n i a . A t t e n t i o n thus s h i f t e d from the s o u t h e r n P a c i f i c t o the w e s t e r n A t l a n t i c , and would not r e v e r t t o the s o u t h f o r a c e n t u r y and a h a l f . When i t d i d , i n the l a t e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i t soon became c l e a r t h a t an A m e r i c a n / European t e n s i o n a g a i n c h a r a c t e r i z e d A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r y , j u s t as the s p i r i t o f e a r l y d i s c o v e r y i n the s o u t h e r n seas had been kept a l i v e by the S p a n i s h w o r k i n g out o f the New World. T h i s t e n s i o n a n t i c i p a t e s a s i m i l a r development i n the p r o g r e s s o f A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e . 1607-1788 On May 5 t h , 1768, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the Royal S o c i e t y i n t e r - viewed C a p t a i n James Cook t o a s c e r t a i n h i s s u i t a b i l i t y f o r a most i m p o r t a n t m i s s i o n : the o b s e r v a t i o n , from T a h i t i , o f the t r a n s i t o f Venus. The C o u n c i l l o r s e v e n t u a l l y approved o f Cook, but when h i s " c a t - b u i l t b a r k , " the Endeavour, l e f t Plymouth on August 26th, 1768, Cook c a r r i e d w i t h him a n o t h e r , and more i m p o r t a n t , s e t o f i n s t r u c t i o n s - - k from the A d m i r a l t y . A f t e r ' f u l f i l l i n g h i s o b l i g a t i o n s t o the Royal S o c i e t y , he was t o head s o u t h , t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40° o f l a t i t u d e , i n s e a r c h o f the renowned s o u t h e r n c o n t i n e n t , and c l a i m i t i n George I l l ' s name. N i n e t y - t h r e e o t h e r men s a i l e d w i t h Cook. The most v i s i b l e p e r - s o n a l i t y was u n d o u b t e d l y the d e b o n a i r b o t a n i s t and g e o l o g i s t Joseph Banks, i n h i s e a r l y t w e n t i e s and i n d e p e n d e n t l y w e a l t h y , who stepped on board w i t h an a p p r o p r i a t e r e t i n u e which i n c l u d e d two a r t i s t s , f o u r s e r v a n t s , and even a s p o r t i n g hound o r two. Less p r o m i n e n t , 56 but no l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e i r s y m b o l i c v a l u e t o t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s were two A m e r i c a n s : John Gore, a Second L i e u t e n a n t from V i r g i n i a , and James M a r i o M a t r a , both l o y a l t o the Crown, c o n f i r m e d T o r i e s w i t h - out any R e p u b l i c a n s y m p a t h i e s o r c o n n e c t i o n s a t a l l . I t i s worth remembering t h a t as the Endeavour g l i d e d p e a c e f u l l y down the C h a n n e l , Gore and Matra must have been w e l l aware o f the " W i l k e s and L i b e r t y " c a t c h c r y c u r r e n t l y s e n d i n g shock waves through London c i r c l e s - - a g r i m and c o n s t a n t reminder o f the f a i l u r e o f England's 5 r e p r e s s i v e c o l o n i a l p o l i c i e s i n A m e r i c a . John W i l k e s , an E n g l i s h m a n , v o i c e d the s p i r i t o f democracy w i d e l y i n h i s own c o u n t r y . He a d v o c a t e d the e t h i c a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n and on p r i n c i p l e r e j e c t e d the Stamp and Townshend A c t s (which imposed d u t i e s on c e r t a i n American goodsand l e d t o the r a l l y i n g c r y o f "no t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " ) . T h i s o p p o s i t i o n endeared him t o the g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f American c o l o n i s t s , and when he was i m p r i s o n e d f o r h i s s t a n d the B o s t o n i a n Sons o f L i b e r t y sent a l e t t e r o f s o l i d a r i t y , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t . . . your p e r s e v e r a n c e i n the GOOD OLD CAUSE may s t i l l p r e v e n t the g r e a t system from d a s h i n g t o p i e c e s . ' T i s from your endeavours we hope f o r a r o y a l " P a s c i t e , ut a n t e , boves," and from our a t t a c h m e n t t o "peace and good o r d e r " we w a i t f o r a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e d r e s s : b e i n g d e t e r m i n e d t h a t the King o f Great B r i t a i n s h a l l have s u b j e c t s but not s l a v e s i n t h e s e remote p a r t s o f h i s dominions. 6 D u r i n g the next one hundred y e a r s , the name W i l k e s would r e c u r c u r i o u s l y w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c a n h i s t o r y . 7 In seeming r e c o g n i t i o n of the n a t u r e o f the t i m e s , and as i f t o 5 7 c o u n t e r b a l a n c e the two L o y a l i s t s on b o a r d , members o f Cook's crew, as was o f t e n t h e i r wont, p r e s s e d an American s a i l o r , John Thurmond, i n t o s e r v i c e as he wandered t h r o u g h F u n c h a l , the c h i e f p o r t o f the M a d e i r a s . A member o f the crew o f a New York s l o o p , Thurmond was brought on board the Endeavour s t r u g g l i n g t o the l a s t . P a r t i s a n , r e p u b l i c a n , he would not s e r v e the K i n g - - n o r would he see h i s homeland o r Europe a g a i n , b e i n g b u r i e d a t sea b e f o r e the c o m p l e t i o n o f the 8 voyage. Three A m e r i c a n s , t h e n , one a p a r t i s a n , the o t h e r two o f L o y a l i s t s t o c k , belonged t o the crew o f the Endeavour,the day Cook's f i r s t l i e u t e n a n t , Zachary H i c k s , s i g h t e d the e a s t e r n c o a s t o f A u s t r a l i a i n 1 7 8 8 . Over the next f i f t y y e a r s , many o f t h e i r countrymen would f o l l o w them, i n an a s s o r t m e n t o f r o l e s — s o m e as p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s , a h a n d f u l t o s e t t l e , o t h e r s i n t r a d i n g , w h a l i n g o r s e a l i n g v e s s e l s . The A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n c o n n e c t i o n , d e s t i n e d t o be i n f l u e n t i a l i n the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n y ' s e a r l y h i s t o r y , had t r u l y begun. Not t h a t anyone a t the time p a i d any a t t e n t i o n t o the f a c t . C e r t a i n l y not the E n g l i s h a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e i r minds were on Americans i n a n o t h e r p a r t o f the g l o b e . F a t e ' s i n e v i t a b l e s t r a n g e t w i s t would soon i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k both c o n t i n e n t s . The War o f Independence, and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s , gave American p a t r i o t s the reason they sought t o f l a t l y r e f u s e t o c o n t i n u e a b s o r b i n g the p r i s o n e r s B r i t a i n had been r i d d i n g h e r s e l f o f s i n c e 1 7 1 7 - A new dumping ground was needed. At t h i s p o i n t , Cook's t r a v e l s and d i s c o v e r i e s i n the s o u t h e r n hemisphere assumed f a r g r e a t e r 58 importance f o r B r i t o n s . A t t e n t i o n t u r n e d t o the f a r - o f f i n l e t t o which Joseph Bank's pet s c i e n t i f i c p u r s u i t had g i v e n i t s name: Botany Bay. As Gordon Greenwood has put i t : "At no s t a g e i n the e a r l y h i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a was the i n f l u e n c e o f A m e r i c a more i m p o r t a n t o r more d i r e c t than a t the time when schemes f o r the s e t t l e m e n t o f Botany 9 Bay were under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . " B r i t a i n needed a new c o r n e r o f the w o r l d f o r her c o n v i c t s , as w e l l as a r e s e t t l e m e n t l o c a t i o n f o r the v a s t numbers o f American c o l o n i s t s who had remained c o n s t a n t t o t h e i r B r i t i s h background. A f t e r Joseph Banks came o u t , i n 1779, i n s u p p o r t o f a c o l o n y i n Botany Bay, p e o p l e on both s i d e s o f the A t l a n t i c began t o c o n s i d e r , f o r the f i r s t t i m e , comparisons between B r i t a i n ' s new t e r r i t o r i e s i n the s o u t h e r n hemisphere and the o l d e r ones i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . ^ Banks based h i s p r o p o s a l on the s u i t a b i l i t y o f Botany Bay as a penal s e t t l e - ment. I t seemed p h y s i c a l l y and g e o g r a p h i c a l l y s u i t e d t o t h e p u r p o s e - - b e i n g remote and h a v i n g a s m a l l , u s u a l l y p e a c e f u l n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n , temperate c l i m a t e and adequate s o i l . Given s u f f i c i e n t p r o v i s i o n s , Banks p r e d i c t e d the new c o l o n y would become s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y . He i n d i c a t e d as much t o a House o f Commons i n v e s t i g a t i v e committee,which q u i c k l y handed down a f a v o u r a b l e v e r d i c t . ^ But n o t h i n g s p e c i f i c was done f o r a c o u p l e o f y e a r s . I r o n i c a l l y , the man r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the f i r s t s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o s a l f o r Botany Bay's f u t u r e was none o t h e r than James M a r i o M a t r a , the New York L o y a l i s t . A f t e r h i s r e t u r n from Cook's 1770 e x p e d i t i o n , Matra l e f t the navy, and, i n 1772, was a p p o i n t e d B r i t i s h Consul a t 59 T e n e r i f f e on a v e r y low income. D u r i n g the r e v o l u t i o n a r y f e r m e n t , he r e t u r n e d t o New York t o p r o t e c t h i s p r o p e r t y but found t h a t , l i k e 1 2 the g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f L o y a l i s t s , he had been e f f e c t i v e l y d i s p o s s e s s e d . Most s t a t e s passed l e g i s l a t i o n s i m i l a r t o M a s s a c h u s e t t s ' C o n s p i r a c y A c t o f 1779, w h i c h d e c l a r e d t h a t a l l L o y a l i s t p r o p e r t y was f o r f e i t e d t o the s t a t e . Matra deemed t h a t h i s l o y a l t y d e s e r v e d compensation and so, e a r l y i n 1783, he penned a s h o r t t r a c t e n t i t l e d The case and 1 3 c l a i m o f the Amer i can L o y a l i s t s i m p a r t i a l l y s t a t e d and cons i d e r e d . He c o n s i d e r e d the Crown l i a b l e . Hence, f a l l i n g back on p a s t c o n n e c t i o n s , he w r o t e t o Joseph Banks, on J u l y 28, 1783, a s k i n g f o r more d e t a i l on Bank's e a r l i e r p r o p o s a l s t o the p a r l i a m e n t a r y committee. The outcome was a s u b m i s s i o n , on August 23, 1783, t o Lord N o r t h ' s c o a l i t i o n government f o r a s e t t l e m e n t i n New South Wales. Matra c o n c e i v e d o f the a r e a scanned by Cook as p o t e n t i a l l y a n o t h e r A m e r i c a , recompense f o r the one l o s t , and an a p p r o p r i a t e asyrl.um t o t h o s e u n f o r t u n a t e A m e r i c a n l o y a l i s t s t o whom Great B r i t a i n i s bound by e v e r y t i e o f honour and g r a t i t u d e t o p r o t e c t and s u p p o r t . . . . 1 The myth o f A u s t r a l i a as a n o t h e r A m e r i c a was born. I t w o u l d a f f e c t the c o u r s e o f A u s t r a l i a n p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y f o r a t l e a s t the next one hundred y e a r s . In a d d i t i o n , Matra a s s e r t e d the enormous s t r a t e g i c v a l u e o f the l o c a t i o n , o f p a r t i c u l a r importance i n the e v e n t o f war w i t h e i t h e r H o l l a n d o r S p a i n — t h u s g i v i n g B r i t a i n y e t a n o t h e r reason f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a c o l o n y . Wanting n o t h i n g s h o r t o f a new n a t i o n o f L o y a l i s t p i a n t a t i o n - o 60 owners d r a w i n g on the c o l o u r e d r a c e s o f the nearby i s l a n d s and C h i n a f o r c o o l i e l a b o u r , Matra e x p e r i e n c e d i n i t i a l t r o u b l e g a i n i n g a h e a r i n g . H i s f i r s t p r o p o s a l t o N o r t h ' s c o a l i t i o n government foundered when the m i n i s t r y v a c a t e d o f f i c e i n December, 1783- Lord Sydney, new S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r C o l o n i e s i n P i t t ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n c a b i n e t , heard Matra o u t , but s u g g e s t e d a c o l o n y based on c o n v i c t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . A p p r e c i a t i v e o f the i n f l e x i b i l i t y o f b u r e a u c r a c y , Matra a l t e r e d h i s p l a n t o i n c l u d e f e l o n s - - b u t as c u l t i v a t o r s o f t h e i r own s m a l l p l o t o f l a n d r a t h e r than as w h i t e s l a v e s . Though c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d , M a t r a ' s p r o p o s a l f a i l e d f o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t , B r i t o n s were s t i l l too s e n s i t i v e t o the a s t o n i s h i n g sequence o f e v e n t s i n A m e r i c a t o f a v o u r a b l y e n t e r t a i n t h o u g h t s o f a d u p l i c a t e copy somewhere e l s e . The d i s t r e s s i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the r e c e n t l y s i g n e d T r e a t y o f P a r i s , f o r m a l l y e n d i n g the war o f s e c c e s s i o n , were f r e s h i n t h e i r minds. Second, the i n f l u e n t i a l E a s t I n d i a Company s t i l l e n j o y e d a t r a d e monopoly i n C h i n a and the I n d i e s and i t was not about t o approve any p l a n s t h a t might t h r e a t e n , even m i l d l y , t h a t monopoly. So, d e s p i t e c o n t i n u i n g p r e s s u r e on the government from p r e s t i g i o u s L o y a l i s t a l l i e s , e n t h u s i a s m f o r M a t r a ' s p r o p o s i t i o n f a i l e d t o m a t e r i a l i s e a t a government l e v e l . Indeed, M a t r a ' s own a r d o r f o r a South-Seas c o l o n y waned as h i s p e r s o n a l l o t improved. He d i d w r i t e a n o t h e r s t a u n c h l y l o y a l i s t pamphlet i n 1788, but when many L o y a l i s t s were compensated f o r p r o p e r t y l o s s e s i n A m e r i c a , i t seems Matra s h a r e d t h e i r good f o r t u n e . He was made Consu1 - Genera 1 1 5 i n T a n g i e r s , d y i n g t h e r e on March -23, 1806. 61 One o t h e r p l a n was s u b m i t t e d t o Lord Sydney on J a n u a r y 13,1 1785, by S i r George Young, an a d m i r a l i n the Royal Navy. Though i n many ways a r e s t a t e m e n t o f M a t r a ' s p r o p o s a l s , i t d i d g i v e g r e a t e r emphasis t o the accommodation o f t r a n s p o r t e d c r i m i n a l s , though s t i l l i n the c o n t e x t o f a L o y a l i s t s e t t l e m e n t aimed a t e s t a b l i s h i n g a new and t h r i v i n g b a s t i o n o f Empire. P i t t and Sydney had o t h e r i d e a s , 16 however, and Young soon l o s t i n t e r e s t . E v e n t u a l l y , the i n d e c i s i v e Lord Sydney was j o l t e d by the sudden r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t two m a t t e r s needed a t t e n t i o n , u r g e n t l y : French encroachment i n t o the South Seas; and the d e t e r i o r a t i n g c o n v i c t s i t u a t i o n a t home. The magnitude o f the s e t b a c k t o the e f f i c i e n t o p e r a t i o n o f B r i t a i n ' s penal system caused by the f o r f e i t u r e o f the American c o l o n i e s c o u l d no l o n g e r be i g n o r e d . Thousands o f c o n v i c t s a w a i t e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n — a s i t u a t i o n not h e l p e d when, i n 1783, V i r g i n i a and M a r y l a n d a g a i n r e f u s e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y t o c o n s i d e r a c o n t r a c t o r ' s p l e a t o a c c e p t 150 c o n v i c t s as p l a n t a t i o n w o r k e r s . Edmund Burke, t o o , c o n t i n u e d t o p u b l i c i z e the f a c t t h a t the f a t e o f 100,000 p r i s o n e r s hung p r e c a r i o u s l y i n the b a l a n c e . The overcrowded h u l k s were a f e s t e r i n g and v i s i b l e wound; t h u s , i n A u g u s t , 1786, Lord Sydney c o n f i r m e d a government p l a n t o send c o n v i c t e d f e l o n s t o Botany Bay. Working w i t h u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c speed, he had a f l e e t ready f o r the j o u r n e y by May 13, 1787, under C a p t a i n A r t h u r P h i l l i p . " E l e v e n s h i p s c a r r y i n g a t o t a l o f 759 conv i c t s —568 men and 191 women — s e t out on the Capetown r o u t e on a j o u r n e y t h a t would end on J a n u a r y 26, 1788. 62 J u s t t h i r t y - e i g h t days a f t e r the F i r s t F l e e t d e p a r t e d P o r t s m o u t h , American t r a d e magnate, Robert M o r r i s , commissioned the c a p t a i n o f one o f h i s s h i p s , the A l 1 i a n c e , t o s a i l from the Delaware R i v e r t o Canton v i a New H o l l a n d ( A u s t r a l i a ) . M o r r i s , r e s p o n d i n g t o the f a c t t h a t the normal r o u t e round the Cape o f Good Hope c o u l d o n l y be used i n s p r i n g because o f s a i 1 i n g c o n d i t i o n s , wanted t o i n c r e a s e the b r e a d t h o f h i s C h i n a t r a d e . Under C a p t a i n Reed, the j o u r n e y was s u c c e s s f u l l y n e g o t i a t e d . An American v e s s e l had s a i l e d the Tasman Sea f o r the f i r s t t i m e . 1788-1812 S h o r t l y a f t e r the a r r i v a l o f the F i r s t F l e e t on J a n u a r y 26, 1788, P h i l l i p o r g a n i z e d the e r e c t i o n o f a f l a g s t a f f t o f l y the Union J a c k . S y m b o l i c a l l y , the o u t p o s t was c l a i m e d f o r George I I I and h i s s u b j e c t s , but American m e r c h a n t s , h a v i n g c a r e f u l l y o b s e r v e d the B r i t i s h government's movements t o s e t t l e New H o l l a n d , moved q u i c k l y t o c o n s o l i d a t e a r o l e i n the c o l o n y . The a m b i v a l e n t n a t u r e o f t h a t r o l e was e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d by the f i r s t two American v e s s e l s t o s t o p a t the s e t t l e m e n t . On November 1, 1792, a P h i 1 a d e l p h i a n c a p t a i n , Thomas P a t r i c k s o n , s a i l e d h i s s h i p , the Ph i 1 a d e l p h i a, i n t o P o r t J a c k s o n . P a t r i c k s o n a r r i v e d w i t h a s p e c u l a t i v e cargo, and the a d d i t i o n a l s e c u r i t y o f a recommendation by P h i n e a s Bond, B r i t i s h m i n i s t e r t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s . N e c e s s i t i e s l i k e beef and p i t c h were q u i c k l y purchased by the a u t h o r i t i a t h i g h p r i c e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r the c o l o n y ' s w e l f a r e , l u x u r y items ,63 such as t o b a c c o , g i n and r u m - - l a t e r t o become the l i q u i d c o i n a g e o f New South Wales--were snapped up by the o f f i c e r s o f the 102nd r e g i m e n t , the New South Wales C o r p s , and s o l d a t l u d i c r o u s l y i n f l a t e d p r i c e s t o the ho'nmi 1 i t a r y p o p u l a c e . T h i s s e t a p r e c e d e n t t h a t would prove the s c o u r g e , and e v e n t u a l d o w n f a l l , o f the t h r e e g o v e r n o r s a f t e r P h i l l i p . ^ 7 Only when Governor M a c q u a r i e w i s e l y brought h i s own r r e g i m e n t , the 7 3 r d , w i t h him t o Sydney i n 1809 d i d the p r a c t i c e c e a s e , e n d i n g a p e r i o d o f some twenty y e a r s o f c o r r u p t m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l h o l d i n g New South Wales t o ransom i n rum. M o s t l y American rum. When P h i l l i p , d e s p e r a t e f o r s u p p l i e s , welcomed P a t r i c k s o n ' s s h i p , he i n a d v e r t e n t l y began a t r a d e t h a t would have dual consequences f o r the i n f a n t c o l o n y . I f the Americans s u p p l i e d New South Wales w i t h much-needed f o o d , they h e l p e d t o undermine i t w i t h rum. As one r e c e n t commentator has put i t : " H i s [ P a t r i c k s o n ' s ] hard s e l l marked the b e g i n n i n g o f a t r a d i n g advantage which the U n i t e d S t a t e s has 18 m a i n t a i n e d a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a e v e r s i n c e . " Indeed, P a t r i c k s o n ' s f i n a n c i a l gamble a c t u a l l y p a i d o f f even more handsomely than he had a n t i c i p a t e d as P h i l l i p , i n d i r e need o f seaworthy v e s s e l s , c h a r t e r e d the Phi 1adelph i a f o r government e r r a n d s t o and from N o r f o l k I s l a n d . L a t e r he purchased the s h i p o u t r i g h t . A few weeks a f t e r the Phi 1 a d e l p h i a ' s a r r i v a l , a n o t h e r American v e s s e l , the Hope, a Rhode I s l a n d s e a l e r s k i p p e r e d by Benjamin Page, anchored i n Sydney Harbour. Though o f f i c i a l l y p u t t i n g i n t o Sydney t o r e p l e n i s h s u p p l i e s o f water and wood, Page i n d u l g e d i n some busy 64 t r a d i n g w i t h L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r G r o s e , the c o l o n y ' s i n t e r i m head a f t e r P h i l l i p ' s r e t u r n t o London due t o i l l - h e a l t h . One problem t h r e a t e n e d t o i n t e r r u p t the b a r g a i n i n g : Page's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t he would not s e l l the p r o v i s i o n s u n l e s s h i s c a r g o o f s p i r i t s was purchased 19 as w e l l . Grose's f e a r o f drought f o r c e d him t o a g r e e . The e l a b o r a t e c h r o n i c l e o f c o l o n i a l government a n t i p a t h y towards America had begun. I t would c o n t i n u e f o r many decades t o come. A m e r i c a , f o r the f i r s t t i m e , was an o f f i c i a l problem. Both the P h i l a d e l p h i a and the Hope e s t a b l i s h e d the p a t t e r n o f the v i s i t s o f American t r a d i n g s h i p s up t o 1800: unashamedly s p e c u l a t Of the f i f t e e n s h i p s a r r i v i n g i n P o r t J a c k s o n i n the p e r i o d , e l e v e n were v e n t u r e s a i m i n g a t q u i c k p r o f i t . W i t h the c o l o n y c h r o n i c a l l y s h o r t o f s u p p l i e s , Yankee c a p t a i n s demanded, and g e n e r a l l y g o t , c o l o s s a l p r i c e s f o r t h e i r s u p p l i e s and s p i r i t s . One e a r l y g o v e r n o r , H u n t e r , p r o t e s t e d h i s d i f f i c u l t l o t : "When d r i v e n t h r o u g h n e c e s s i t y t o p u r c h a s e from s p e c u l a t o r s and t r a d e r s who sometimes c a l l h e r e , we pay more than 500% above what the same a r t i c l e c o u l d be s e n t out f o r . " O c c a s i o n a l l y the American s p e c u l a t o r s were caught s h o r t . o When Page's u n c l e came t o the c o l o n y i n J u l y , 1794, as s k i p p e r o f t h e r e t u r n i n g Hope, he a n t i c i p a t e d a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o f i t / f r o m h i s s a l t e d s t o r e s and s p i r i t s but found the c o l o n y " t o o w e l l s u p p l i e d t o admit 20 o f any p u r c h a s e r s . . . ." However, such o c c a s i o n s were r a r e . More and more American t r a d e r s began h e a r i n g about the law which stopped B r i t i s h merchants from t r a d i n g i n New South Wales f o r f e a r o f v i o l a t i n g the i n f l u e n t i a l East I n d i a Company's c h a r t e r on the a r e a . 65 They came i n l a r g e numbers a f t e r 1800, c o g n i z a n t o f the f a c t t h a t i n 21 rum l a y t h e i r most s u b s t a n t i a l r e t u r n . The c o l o n y ' s p r o p e n s i t y f o r 22 s p i r i t u o u s consumption was a l r e a d y w e l l known. Encouraged by c o r r u p t c o l o n i a l o f f i c e r s , the rum t r a f f i c grew a l a r m i n g l y a t the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y . Governor John Hunter t r i e d t o stem the f l o w d u r i n g h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n (1795"9), but was s i n g u l a r l y u n s u c c e s s f u l ; Governor P h i l i p G i d l e y K i n g ( 1 7 9 9 - 1 8 0 6 ) , h i s s u c c e s s o r , a t t e m p t e d t o t a k e f i r m e r a c t i o n i n a d e t e r i o r a t i n g s i t u a t i o n . In J a n u a r y , 1801, he d e n i e d l a n d i n g r i g h t s t o the American s h i p F o l 1 e n s b y - - c a r r y i n g some 20,000 g a l l o n s o f s p i r i t s and wine. A few months l a t e r , the Mi s s o u r i , w i t h 14,000 g a l l o n s , was a c c o r d e d the same f a t e . In the f i r s t d i p l o m a t i c a c t i o n between A u s t r a l i a and A m e r i c a , King d e s p a t c h e d a c i r c u l a r t o the B r i t i s h c o n s u l i n New York i n f o r m i n g him t h a t f o r e i g n s h i p s c o u l d no l o n g e r l a n d more than t h r e e hundred g a l l o n s o f s p i r i t i n the c o l o n y . The r e s u l t was t h a t , between 1800 and 1804, w h i l e a l m o s t 70,000 g a l l o n s o f American s p i r i t s and wine were brought 23 t o the c o l o n y , o n l y 20,000 were a l l o w e d t o be l a n d e d . In t h i s c l i m a t e o f government d i s c o u r a g e m e n t and i n t i m i d a t i o n , an i l l i c i t t r a d e grew, and began t o p r o s p e r . D e f y i n g a f i v e per c e n t d u t y on s p i r i t s l a n d e d , and a d d i t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n s imposed by K i n g , American rum-runners e i t h e r smuggled t h e i r p r o d u c t i n t o the c o l o n y v i a nearby beaches, o r s o l d i t t o o u t l y i n g dependencies o f New South Wales. O f f i c i a l d i s a p p r o v a l o f the t r a f f i c i n t e n s i f i e d up t o 1810. So d i d the i m p o r t a t i o n o f American rum. R e l a t i o n s between the l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and v i s i t i n g American 66 t r a d e r s were f u r t h e r a g g r a v a t e d by the i s s u e o f s p e c i e . V i r t u a l l y e v e r y American v e s s e l t h a t put i n a t P o r t J a c k s o n i n t e n d e d t o proceed t o C h i n a , and each c a p t a i n was no doubt aware o f the C h i n e s e a v e r s i o n t o most w e s t e r n goods. Trade was d i f f i c u l t w i t h o u t an adequate amount o f s p e c i e , and here the t r a d e i n New South Wales came i n v e r y handy. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , American merchants wanted what the c o l o n y had too l i t t l e o f . London a d v i s e d i t s c o l o n i a l g o v e r n o r " t o p r e v e n t the c u r r e n t s p e c i e o f the C o l o n y from b e i n g c a r r i e d out o f i t , " but a c o m b i n a t i o n o f l o c a l s u s c e p t i b i l i t y and e f f i c i e n t m i l i t a r y c o r r u p t i o n proved too p o w e r f u l . As one New South Wales r e s i d e n t r e p o r t e d i n 1809: So n e c e s s a r y , i n d e e d , has i t been t o admit the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y o f S p i r i t s . . . t h a t when the s u p p l y . . . f a i l e d , S p i r i t s have been purchased from American t r a d e r s . . . a t the s e r i o u s s a c r i f i ce o f e v e r y p i ece o f co i n i t c o n t a i ned, money be i ng the on 1y payment wh i ch would be t a k e n . ^ In s p i t e o f the hard b a r g a i n d r i v e n by the A m e r i c a n s , and p e r s i s t e n t o f f i c i a l d i s a p p r o v a l o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , t r a d e , l e g a l o r o t h e r w i s e , c o n t i n u e d unabated. Only w i t h the o n s e t o f the War o f 1812 d i d the s i t u a t i o n a l t e r d r a s t i c a l l y . A w h a l e r , the Ann, which docked on August 1, 1812, was the l a s t American s h i p t o v i s i t Sydney f o r o v e r t h r e e y e a r s - - a s i t u a t i o n due not so much t o c o o l postwar r e l a t i o n s as t o the f a c t t h a t the C h a r t e r Renewal A c t o f 1813 ended the E a s t I n d i a Company's monopoly. B r i t i s h merchants f i n a l l y g a i n e d a c c e s s t o the A u s t r a l i a n market, w h i l e f o r e i g n t r a d e r s were e f f e c t i v e l y ol p r o h i b i t e d . In a l l , some s i x t y - s i x American v e s s e l s conducted t r a d e w i t h the growing New South Wales c o l o n y i n the twenty y e a r s between 1792 and 25 1812. But the e x t e n t o f the i n t e r a c t i o n went w e l l y b e y o n d mere b a r t e r i n g f o r goods. A f t e r George Vancouver's Voyage Around the W o r l d , p u b l i s h e d i n 1798, made r e f e r e n c e t o the s i g h t i n g o f numerous f u r s e a l s i n the south-west c o r n e r o f A u s t r a l i a , i t d i d n ' t t a k e American s e a l e r s (and l a t e r w h a l e r s ) long t o i n v e s t i g a t e the r e p u t e d w e a l t h 26 o f the South Seas. Herman M e l v i l l e (1851) a n t i c i p a t e d A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r i a n s on the s u b j e c t by a c e n t u r y o r so i n p u b l i c i z i n g the importance o f the w h a l e r ' s r o l e : That g r e a t A m e r i c a on the o t h e r s i d e o f the s p h e r e , A u s t r a l i a , was g i v e n t o the e n l i g h t e n e d w o r l d by the whalemen. . . . The w h a l e - s h i p i s the t r u e mother o f t h a t now mighty c o l o n y . Moreover, i n the i n f a n c y o f t the f i r s t A u s t r a l i a n s e t t l e m e n t , the e m i g r a n t s were s e v e r a l times saved from s t a r v a t i o n by the b e n e v o l e n t b i s c u i t o f the w h a l e - s h i p l u c k i l y d r o p p i n g an anchor i n t h e i r waters.27 And c e r t a i n t y the whalemen had a s i g n i f i c a n t p l a c e i n the d e v e l o p i n g c o l o n y , but not i n i t s t e e t h i n g s t a g e . The i n i t i a l impact was c r e a t e d by the a u d a c i o u s a n t i c s o f the American s e a l e r s . Nantucket w h a l e r s 28 d i d not a r r i v e on the scene i n any l a r g e numbers u n t i l a f t e r 1836- Many o f the e a r l y merchant a d v e n t u r e r s from Boston and Rhode I s l a n d v i s i t i n g the New South Wales c o l o n y i n the f i r s t twenty y e a r s r e a d i l y adapted t o s e a l i n g when the need a r o s e . S t r u c k by the p o t e n t i a l r e s o u r c e s o f the South Seas, i t took them l i t t l e time t o a d j u s t t h e i r 68 normal r o u t e t o C h i n a , v i a the F a l k l a n d and C r o z e t t I s l a n d s , .to i n c l u d e A u s t r a l i a . Seal s k i n s were one o f the few commodities o f i n t e r e s t t o the C h i n e s e . I f they c o u l d combine s e a l i n g w i t h a l i t t l e s p e c i e reaped from the s a l e o f s p i r i t s and p r o v i s i o n s i n the A u s t r a l i a n market, so much the b e t t e r f o r t h e i r chances o f l e a v i n g C h i n a w i t h a b o u n t i f u l c a r g o . What meagre p r o s p e r i t y the communities o f Sydney and Hobart i n i t i a l l y e n j o y e d was l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o the s e a l e r s and w h a l e r s . A s u r p r i s i n g number o f f o r e i g n f i s h i n g s h i p s v i s i t e d P o r t J a c k s o n i n the y e a r s b e f o r e and a f t e r l800--the m a j o r i t y , a g a i n , A m e r i c a n . The f i r s t o f t h e s e t o s a i l t h r o u g h Bass S t r a i t , the b r i g Fanny i n November-December, 1802, was s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s f o l l o w e d by the U n i o n , a s e a l e r whose commander, Isaac P e n d l e t o n , d e c i d e d t o b e g i n 29 o p e r a t i o n s o f f the South A u s t r a l i a n c o a s t i n 180 3 - The b r i s k s e a l i n g and f i s h i n g t r a f f i c c o n t i n u e d apace u n t i l 1807, when i t s u d d e n l y became a p p a r e n t t h a t the r u t h l e s s p u r s u i t o f s e a l s k i n s , r e g a r d l e s s o f s e x , had v i r t u a l l y e x t i n g u i s h e d what c o u l d a t the time have d e v e l o p e d i n t o a u s e f u l s o u r c e o f revenue f o r the new l a n d . No r e c o r d e x i s t s o f any American s e a l e r i n A u s t r a l i a n w a t e r s a f t e r 1807- The f i r s t American w h a l e r t o c a l l i n a t P o r t J a c k s o n was the Ann, from New 30 B e d f o r d , w h i c h docked i n May, 1805, and a g a i n i n 1809 and 1812. American s e a l e r s were a b l e t o dominate the s e a l t r a d e i n the e a r l y l800's because o f the r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f the East I n d i a Company's c h a r t e r and the c o m p e t i t i v e n a t u r e o f the Yankee s e a l e r s t h e m s e l v e s , always ready f o r e i t h e r some f i s h i n g o r a f r a c a s . B r i t i s h w h a l i n g and s e a l i n g 6 9 i n t e r e s t s w e r e c o m p l e t e l y h a m p e r e d by t h e c h a r t e r , w h i c h g a v e t h e company m o n o p o l y t r a d i n g r i g h t s f r o m t h e S t r a i t s o f M a g e l l a n t o t h e C a p e o f Good H o p e . U n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e d o c u m e n t , B r i t i s h w h a l e r s c o u l d n o t b r i n g p r o v i s i o n s o u t f o r t r a d e w i t h New S o u t h W a l e s , h a v i n g 31 i n s t e a d t o u s e b a l l a s t . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r s k i n s o r o i l c o u l d a t 32 a n y t i m e be s e i z e d a s e x p o r t s t a k e n f r o m a p r o h i b i t e d a r e a . T h e A m e r i c a n s e x p e r i e n c e d no s u c h s h a c k l e s , a n d w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y v e r y u n p o p u l a r w i t h c o l o n i a l - g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s . I n c i d e n t s r e f l e c t i n g t h e a r d o u r o f t h e A m e r i c a n s e a l e r s a n d t h e s i n g 1 e - m i n d e d n e s s w i t h w h i c h t h e y p u r s u e d t h e j o b i n hand f i g u r e 33 p r o m i n e n t l y i n t h e e a r l y A u s t r a l i a n p r e s s . F o r t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y K i n g d u r i n g h i s y e a r s a s g o v e r n o r , t h e s e a l e r s w e r e a' s o u r c e o f c o n s t a n t a n n o y a n c e , i f n o t i n f u r i a t i o n . K i n g had an a w f u l t i m e w i t h t h e m , b e i n g s u s p i c i o u s o f t h e i r movements a n d a w a r e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d t o h i s c o l o n y ' s s t a b i l i t y . H i s f a i l u r e t o a l t e r t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s c h a r t e r c a u s e d K i n g t o e m b a r k on a p o l i c y o f h a m p e r i n g A m e r i c a n s e a l e r s i n A u s t r a l i a n w a t e r s a s much a s p o s s i b l e . A m e a s u r e o f t h e s e r i o u s n e s s w i t h w h i c h he v i e w e d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s c a n be g a i n e d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t , when r e q u e s t i n g a d v i c e f r o m L o n d o n on what f u t u r e a c t i o n s h o u l d be t a k e n w i t h f o r e i g n s h i p p i n g , i n N o v e m b e r , 1 8 0 2 , he i s o l a t e d o n l y t h e A m e r i c a n s a n d t h e F r e n c h . B e t w e e n 1 8 0 0 and 1 8 0 9 , i n f a c t , a v a r i e t y o f r e g u l a t i o n s w e r e p a s s e d by o f f i c i a l s w a n t i n g t o s u p p r e s s A m e r i c a n a t t e m p t s t o 35 e x p l o i t A u s t r a l i a n w a t e r s . A m e r i c a n i n t e r f e r e n c e i n c r e a s i n g l y p r e o c c u p i e d t h e B r i t i s h e s t a b l i s h m e n t . 70 1812-16 S e v e r a l y e a r s o f d e t e r i o r a t i n g A n g l o - A m e r i c a n s r e l a t i o n s f i n a l l y r e s u l t e d i n P r e s i d e n t Madison's d e c l a r a t i o n , on June 18, 1812, o f war w i t h E n g l a n d . He c i t e d " F r e e Trade and S a i l o r ' s R i g h t s " as 36 the r e a s o n s . In terms o f l i v e s and l o s s e s , the consequences o f the War o f 1812 f o r A m e r i c a were d i s a s t r o u s . The r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f the c o n f l i c t f o r c o l o n i a l A u s t r a l i a , on the o t h e r hand, b o r d e r e d a t times on the b i z a r r e . In O c t o b e r , 1812, London informed Governor M a c q u a r i e o f the o u t b r e a k o f h o s t i l i t i e s and o r d e r e d a l l t h o s e l o y a l t o t h e Crown t o "do t h e i r utmost i n t h e i r s e v e r a l s t a t i o n s , t o C a p t u r e o f the S h i p s and V e s s e l s b e l o n g i n g t o the C i t i z e n s o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s , and t o 37 d e s t r o y t h e i r Commerce." M a c q u a r i e was caught i n a compromising s i t u a t i o n . R e l a t i o n s w i t h the c a p t a i n s o f American m e r c h a n d i s e s h i p s and the few American f i s h i n g boats now i n s o u t h e r n w a t e r s had improved. C o n f r o n t e d w i t h the l i k e l i h o o d o f s p o r a d i c s u p p l i e s from England as a r e s u l t o f war, he b a d l y needed imported goods t o supplement a shaky s u p p l y (of few commodities) from the l o c a l market. M a c q u a r i e knew as w e l l as anyone the i n v a l u a b l e , though o f t e n c o n t r o v e r s i a l r o l e t h a t American p r o v i s i o n s had p l a y e d i n the c o l o n y ' s s h o r t h i s t o r y . But t h i s wasn't enough t o s t o p the war e d g i n g i n on the faraway c o l o n y i n ways both p s y c h o l o g i c a l and a c t u a l . In November, 1812, f o r example, the American p r i v a t e e r H51kar s e i z e d the E n g l i s h b r i g Emu, on i t s way t o New South Wales. A c a r g o o f d e s p e r a t e l y r e q u i r e d female c o n v i c t s hence f a i l e d t o r e a c h i t s d e s t i nat i o n - - a b i t t e r . r 71 blow t o the p r o s p e c t i v e husbands among the r a p i d l y growing e m a n c i p i s t op r a n k s . In the f o l l o w i n g y e a r , E n g l i s h S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e E a r l B a t h u r s t d e s p a t c h e d word t o M a c q u a r i e o f a rumoured p l a n f o r a combined F r e n c h - A m e r i c a n a t t a c k on Sydney. However, the s o u r c e , a Dane named J o r g e n J o r g e n s e n , d i d n ' t i n s p i r e much c o n f i d e n c e i n the c r e d i b i l i t y o f the s t o r y . B a t h u r s t , d e s p i t e w r i t i n g a t a time of c o n s i d e r a b l e e d g i n e s s i n London, c o u l d s t i l l r e c o g n i z e " t h e d o u b t f u l c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s I n d i v i d u a l , the g r e a t e r impr.obabj]j-ty^pf^the p l a n i t s e l f , and the s t i l l g r e a t e r i m p r o b a b i l i t y o f - s u c h a., person b e i n g 39 m i n u t e l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h i t s d e t a i l s . . . ." B e l i e f i n the t h e o r e t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f a t t a c k remained, though, and Macquarie gave c l o s e p e r u s a l t o J o r g e n s e n ' s a l l e g a t i o n s , then informed B a t h u r s t t h a t he would r e n d e r as e f f i c i e n t as p o s s i b l e the s m a l l l a n d f o r c e 40 a t h i s d i s p o s a l i n case o f f o r e i g n a t t a c k . Events i n the f o l l o w i n g y e a r s showed t h a t M a c q u a r i e ' s v i g i l a n c e was not c o m p l e t e l y m i s p l a c e d . The American f r i g a t e , E s s e x , c a p t a i n e d by D a v i d P o r t e r , rounded Cape Horn i n mid 1813 and moved i n t o the 41 P a c i f i c w i t h t h e o b j e c t o f h a r a s s i n g B r i t i s h s h i p p i n g . P o r t e r s u p e r v i s e d the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a f o r t i f i e d base by p r i s o n e r s - o f - w a r ( g a t h e r e d from a v a r i e t y o f B r i t i s h s h i p s ) a t Nukahiva i n the Marquesas I s l a n d s . W h i l e the American s h i p was absent i n s e a r c h o f more b o o t y , f o u r t e e n p r i s o n e r s from the c a p t u r e d B r i t i s h s t o r e s h i p Ser i ngapatam, a l l o r d i n a r y seamen, overwhelmed t h e i r guards and s a i l e d the ex- w h a l e r t o P o r t J a c k s o n t o t e l l t h e i r s t o r y . When the v e s s e l a r r i v e d i n Sydney on J u l y 1-, 1814, a stunned p u b l i c was informed o f e v e n t s 72 i n the Sydney G a z e t t e o f the f o l l o w i n g d a y . n ^ P o r t e r ' s escapades were f i n a 1 1 y ha 1 t e d when the Essex was sunk by two B r i t i s h w a r s h i p s o f f the South American c o a s t , but not b e f o r e he had a c q u i r e d some $2.5 m i l l i o n w o r t h o f B r i t i s h naval p r o p e r t y . A u s t r a l i a , many w e l l - to-do c o l o n i a l s h a s t i l y r e a l i z e d , was s u s c e p t i b l e . t o f o r e i g n i n v a s i o n ; i f the French f a i l e d t o l a n d i n A u s t r a l i a , the Americans might. The " m o r t i f y i n g r e s u l t s " o f the a c t i o n s o f American p r i v a t e e r s on kk B r i t i s h s h i p p i n g added t o the u n r e s t . A m e r i c a , i t seemed, was s t i l l a c o n t r o v e r s i a l p r e s e n c e i n the s o u t h . A u s t r a l i a n w a t e r s were not an a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e f o r r a n American kS v e s s e l between 1812 and 1816, f o r o b v i o u s r e a s o n s . War and i t s a f t e r m a t h i n e v i t a b l y weakened t r a d i n g l i n k s — a s i t u a t i o n worsened by the r e s u l t o f the major d e b a t e , i n 1813, o v e r the E a s t I n d i a Company's monopoly c h a r t e r . A f t e r numerous p e t i t i o n s by merchants from a l l major E n g l i s h c i t i e s , most o f them c i t i n g the c o n t i n u o u s advantage American t r a d e r s were e n j o y i n g , some i n f l u e n t i a l M.P.'s took up the cause o f E n g l i s h commerce i n p a r l i a m e n t . A f t e r a long and a t times b i t t e r c o n f l i c t , i t was d e c i d e d t h a t New South Wales s h o u l d no l o n g e r be a p a r t o f the E a s t I n d i a Company's a r e a o f j u r i s d i c t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , the E n g l i s h government l a t e r d e c i d e d t o s t r i c t l y e n f o r c e the N a v i g a t i o n Laws i n New South Wales. A l l B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s were f o r b i d d e n t o t r a d e w i t h f o r e i g n v e s s e l s - - a move d i r e c t e d kG p r e d o m i n a n t l y a t the A m e r i c a n s . Even s o , Governor M a c q u a r i e took s t e p s t o recommence t r a d e c o n n e c t i o n s when he a l l o w e d the American schooner T r a v e l l e r t o dock a t 73 P o r t J a c k s o n on F e b r u a r y 19, 1816, because o f the t e a and sugar on board. Both commodities the c o l o n y b a d l y needed. Having a l l o w e d e n t r y , M a c q u a r i e d e p a r t e d t o c a r r y out o f f i c i a l d u t i e s i n the c o u n t r y . W h i l e he was a b s e n t , W.H. Moore, a government s o l i c i t o r , and a regiment c h a p l a i n , the Reverend Benjamin V a l e , both r e s e n t f u l of the r i g i d i t y o f M a c q u a r i e ' s r u l e and h i s seeming p r e f e r e n c e f o r emancipated c o n v i c t s , c h a l l e n g e d the Governor's a c t i o n s by c l a i m i n g the T r a v e l l e r as a l a w f u l p r i z e under the B r i t i s h N a v i g a t i o n A c t . On h i s r e t u r n t o Sydney, M a c q u a r i e , o u t r a g e d by the a r r e s t o f the American v e s s e l , i m m e d i a t e l y o r d e r e d i t s l i b e r a t i o n , d e c l a r i n g i n a l e t t e r t o London t h a t he c l a i m e d p r e c e d e n t i n s u b s t a n t i a t i n g h i s a c t i o n s : The c o n s t a n t usage and custom o f t h i s p l a c e , from i t s f i r s t becoming a B r i t i s h s e t t l e m e n t , had been i n v a r i a b l y ( i n t i m e s o f peace) t o admit American s h i p s and c a r g o e s t o come t o e n t r y i n e v e r y r e s p e c t as i f they were B r i t i s h p r o p e r t y . The r E n g l i s h a u t h o r i t i e s a c c e p t e d M a c q u a r i e ' s d e f e n c e , c i t i n g twenty- f i v e y e a r s o f c o n t i n u o u s t r a d e w i t h American merchants, but i n s i s t e d t h a t i n f u t u r e the N a v i g a t i o n A c t be adhered t o . These i n s t r u c t i o n s e f f e c t i v e l y put an end t o the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a renewed r e g u l a r t r a d e w i t h American v e s s e l s u n t i l Sydney was re-opened t o American s h i p s i n 18 31--but not b e f o r e ai s u b s t a n t i a l A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n - s h i p had e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f i n the young c o l o n y . 74 1816-38 In the f i f t e e n y e a r s f o l l o w i n g the renowned T r a v e l 1er c a s e i n 1816, few American s h i p s used P o r t J a c k s o n as a p o r t o f c a l l . The American s e a l e r s G e n e r a l Gates ( i n 1819 and 1820) and Yankee c a l l e d b r i e f l y f o r r e f r e s h m e n t , h a v i n g t i r e d o f o p e r a t i n g i n New Z e a l a n d w a t e r s , and the C h i l e stopped i n 1823, owing t o an o u t b r e a k o f s c u r v y amongst the crew. A l s o , a s m a l l amount o f i n d i r e c t t r a d e o c c u r r e d 48 t h r o u g h the t r a n s h i p m e n t o f American goods i n E n g l i s h b o a t s . But the rush o f t r a d i n g a c t i v i t y t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d the y e a r s between 1800 and 1812 was not t o re-emerge f o r many y e a r s . When A u s t r a l i a n p o r t s were reopened t o American merchant v e s s e l s , the f i r s t s h i p t o a r r i v e was the Tybee, d e s p a t c h e d i n 1832 by the t r a d i n g f i r m o f N a t h a n i e l B. Rogers and B r o t h e r s o f Salem, M a s s a c h u s e t t s . The Tybee o f f e r e d a shipment . i n c l u d i n g t o b a c c o , rum, lumber and muskets. An enthused Sydney G a z e t t e , d e s p i t e h a v i n g e x p r e s s e d s u s p i c i o n o f American s t r a t e g i c d e s i g n s on the South P a c i f i c i n the l a t e 18201 s, i n s i s t e d on the c u l t i v a t i o n o f an "immediate i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h the 49 U n i t e d S t a t e s . " The i n c r e a s i n g number o f Americans who j o i n e d the Rogers B r o t h e r s i n r e s p o n d i n g t o the c a l l i n the next decade were m o s t l y South Sea t r a d e r s who s u p p l i e d P a c i f i c w h a l i n g bases i n r e t u r n f o r w o o l , o i l , h i d e s and i s l a n d p r o d u c t s . 5 ^ The American f i r m o f Kenworth and Company f i r s t s e i z e d the o p p o r t u n i t y when i t opened a branch t r a d i n g o f f i c e i n Sydney i n 1833- Other companies f o l l o w e d , l e a d i n g u l t i m a t e l y t o the appointment o f James H a r t w e l l W i l l i a m s as f i r s t U.S. Consul t o Sydney i n May, 1836."^ 75 The a t t i t u d e towards the U n i t e d S t a t e s was, by the m i d d l e 1830's, r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the government-induced s u s p i c i o n o f e a r l i e r y e a r s . A decade o f a c t i v i t y by a f r e e A u s t r a l i a n p r e s s (and m i d d l e c l a s s ) r e c e p t i v e t o the d e m o c r a t i c c o n t e n t o f American p o l i t i c a l thought and i d e a s , and f i n a l l y a b l e t o e x p r e s s i t s a d m i r a t i o n p u b l i c l y , had a p p a r e n t l y c r e a t e d a c l i m a t e o f w i d e s p r e a d r e s p e c t f o r A m e r i c a ' s s u c c e s s f u l s t r u g g l e f o r i ndependence and r e p u b l i c a n government. W i l l i a m s ' a r r i v a l i n Sydney on the Draco on J a n u a r y 10, 1837, prompted a number o f r e p u t a b l e A u s t r a l i a n spokesmen t o s p e c u l a t e on the l i k e l i h o o d , i n the near f u t u r e , o f a s h i f t i n the c o l o n y ' s p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and even l i t e r a r y p r i o r i t i e s . They a n t i c i p a t e d a movement away from the h i t h e r t o immutable t i e s w i t h Great B r i t a i n , i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s - - a c o u n t r y o f t e n a f f e c t i o n a t e l y r e f e r r e d t o as " B r o t h e r 52 J o n a t h a n . " A s u r v e y l i m i t e d t o the government r e c o r d s , t r a d i n g s t a t i s t i c s and " o f f i c i a l " i n t e r a c t i o n between A m e r i c a and A u s t r a l i a i n the f i f t y y e a r s a f t e r the a r r i v a l o f the F i r s t F l e e t r e n d e r s such a s h i f t i n e x p l i c a b l e . One must l o o k e l s e w h e r e . I f the g o v e r n o r s from P h i l l i p t o D a r l i n g and t h e i r u n d e r l i n g s were e x p e r i e n c i n g Yankee t r o u b l e s , what was the b u l k o f the p o p u l a t i o n — c o n v i c t s , e m a n c i p i s t s and new s e t t 1 e r s - - t h i n k i n g ? What f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r concept o f America? Indeed, what l e d t o t h e i r c o n t e m p l a t i n g A m e r i c a i n the f i r s t p l a c e ? 76 S e c t i o n A t t i t u d e s t o t h e New C o l o n y - - i n E n g l a n d and T o r y A u s t r a l i a T h e b y - p r o d u c t s o f E m p i r e - - w a r , s p e c u l a t i v e i n v e s t m e n t , n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d f l o r a a n d f a u n a - - c o n s i s t e n t 1y c a p t u r e d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f l a r g e numbers o f E n g l i s h m e n i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . O f a l l B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s , A m e r i c a , b e c a u s e o f i t s s h e e r s i z e a n d p o t e n t i a l , was m e n - t i o n e d m o s t o f t e n - - t h e more s o i n t h e 1 7 6 0 1 s and 1 7 7 0 1 s when i t t h r e a t e n e d t o t a k e t h e s e e m i n g l y i m p o s s i b l e p a t h o f p o l i t i c a l i n d e p e n - d e n c e . W h i g s , T o r i e s and R a d i c a l s i n B r i t a i n e a c h a d o p t e d a d i f f e r e n t pub 1 i c c p o s i t i o n on t h e A m e r i c a n War o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . In an a t m o s p h e r e o f o o f t e n a c r i m o n i o u s d e b a t e , p l a n s f o r a s e t t l e m e n t i n New H o l l a n d w e r e c o n f i r m e d . A l m o s t i n e v i t a b l y , e v e n t s i n A m e r i c a h e l p e d t o s h a p e p e o p l e ' s r e a c t i o n s t o B r i t a i n ' s l a t e s t c o l o n i a l p o s s e s s i o n i n t h e d i s t a n t s o u t h . A s o n e h i s t o r i a n h a s p u t i t , " t h e n e a r - c o i n c i d e n c e o f t h e c o l o n i s a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a and t h e A m e r i c a n War o f I n d e p e n d e n c e e n c o u r a g e d f r o m t h e o u t s e t c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n t h e new d e p e n d e n c i e s i n t h e S o u t h 53 P a c i f i c a n d t h e o l d o n e s a c r o s s t h e P a c i f i c i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . " Many B r i t o n s , s h o c k e d by t h e r e v o l t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b e g a n t o 77 use A u s t r a l i a as a s u b s t i t u t e and compensation f o r t h e i r l o s t American dream. Of i n t e r e s t , h e r e , a r e the k i n d s o f comparisons made, and by whom. Four broad r e s p o n s e s g r e e t e d England's newest c o l o n y : the f i r s t was h e l d by a few Englishmen who, i n Botany Bay's e a r l i e s t y e a r s , p e r s i s t e n t l y c l u n g t o a r o m a n t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a ' s p o t e n t i a l , d e s p i t e the f i r s t l o a d o f " s e t t l e r s " c o m p r i s e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o f c o n v i c t s . These i d e a l i s t s p o r t r a y e d A u s t r a l i a as a s p a c i o u s , new and improved E n g l a n d . A n o t h e r group wanted so much t o see i n i t i a l p o t e n t i a l r e a l i z e d t h a t i t was w i l l i n g t o d i s t o r t p r e l i m i n a r y f a c t u a l r e p o r t s from the c o l o n y t o match i t s p r e c o n c e i v e d n o t i o n s . A t h i r d assemblage, c o m p r i s i n g men l i k e S i r Joseph Banks and C a p t a i n W a t k i n Tench, saddened by the p r o s p e c t o f B r i t i s h c i v i l i z a t i o n d e c l i n i n g i n Europe, took s o l a c e i n the n o t i o n t h a t . i t might be " r e g e n e r a t i n g i n the new s o c i e t i e s which Englishmen had e s t a b l i s h e d " : namely, i n 5k A m e r i c a and A u s t r a l i a . A f o u r t h o p i n i o n , s h a r e d by many w r i t e r s , was t h a t A u s t r a l i a , because o f the d e p l o r a b l e c a l i b r e o f i t s f i r s t c i t i z e n s , o f f e r e d a t o t a l l y i n f e r i o r comparison w i t h A m e r i c a . How c o u l d a s e t t l e m e n t r o o t e d i n w i c k e d n e s s and t h i e v e r y p o s s i b l y bear c o n t r a s t w i t h a l a n d sworn t o uphold the t e n e t s put f o r t h i n the l o f t y p r o s e o f the D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence? The common f a c t o r o f a l l f o u r views was a tendency t o see A u s t r a l i a as i n some way a v a r i a t i o n o f an o l d e r mould: e i t h e r a b e t t e r A m e r i c a , acnew A m e r i c a , a n o t h e r A m e r i c a o r a w h o l l y i n f e r i o r A m e r i c a . Each w i l l be looked a t i n t u r n . The p o i n t t o be l a t e r t a k e n up i s t h a t http://that.it 78 g i v e n t h i s E n g l i s h p r o c l i v i t y t o make A m e r i c a n / A u s t r a l i a n c o m p a r i s o n s , mt was o n l y n a t u r a l t h a t r e s i d e n t s i n A u s t r a l i a i n the f i r s t f o r t y yeatrs s h o u l d do the same t h i n g . The spectrum o f c r i t i c a l r e s p o n s e s t o Botany Bay q u i c k l y e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f , b e g i n n i n g even b e f o r e the F i r s t F l e e t o f c o n v i c t s l e f t E n g l a n d . Perhaps t h e f i r s t w r i t e r t o c o n s i d e r the A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n c o n t r a s t , i n an e s s a y p r i n t e d i n the London Morning Posjt^ s h o r t l y a f t e r Lord Sydney's p l a n s f o r a s e t t l e m e n t became p u b l i c , asked t h a t " t h e o r i g i n and p r o g r e s s of our American C o l o n i s t s be, f o r a moment, c o n s i d e r e d , " and c o n c l u d e d t h a t Sydney's p l a n s would r e s u l t i n " e v e n t u a l b e n e f i t 55 t o the B r i t i s h e m p i r e . " A s c a t t e r i n g o f s i m i l a r l y premature o p t i m i s m appeared o v e r the next twenty y e a r s . Some of i t was grounded l o o s e l y i n e x p e r i e n c e , l i k e Joseph Banks' v i s i o n o f " t h e f u t u r e p r o s p e c t o f empires and dominions which now cannot be d i s a p p o i n t e d . Who knows but t h a t England may r e v i v e i n New South Wales when i t i s sunk i n E u r o p e . " 5 ^ Some o f i i t , c o m p l e t e l y u n r e l a t e d t o the r e a l i t i e s o f the new l a n d , s i m p l y found y e t a n o t h e r c o n t e x t f o r a p p l y i n g e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y " e n l i g h t e n m e n t " i d e a s based on s o c i e t y ' s p r o g r e s s . Erasmus D a r w i n , n a t u r a l i s t , p h y s i c i a n and o c c a s i o n a l p h i l o s o p h i c p o e t , was one. A c o n f e s s e d b e l i e v e r i n n a t u r e ' s c a p a c i t y t o e x i s t " i n a s t a t e o f p e r p e t u a l improvement," Darwin penned some l i n e s e n t i t l e d "A Voyage o f Hope--to Sydney Cove, Near Botany Bay," which appeared as a broad- s i d e i n 1789. I n s p i r e d by a specimen o f c l a y m o d e l l e d i n t o a m e d a l l i o n by J o s i a h Wedgewood, he f o r e s a w a b r i g h t f u t u r e f o r the g r e a t s o u t h l a n d : 79 There s h a l l broad s t r e e t s t h e i r s t a t e l y w a l l s e x t e n d , The c i r c u s w i d e n , and the c r e s c e n t bend; T h e r e , r a y ' d from c i t i e s o'er the c u l t u r ' d l a n d , S h a l l b r i g h t c a n a l s , and s o l i d roads expand. -- There the proud a r c h , C o l o s s u s - 1 i k e , b e s t r i d e Yon g l i t t e r i n g s t r e a m s , and bound the c h a f i n g t i d e ; E m b e l l i s h ' d v i l l a s crown the l a n d s c a p e - s c e n e , Farms wave w i t h g o l d , and o r c h a r d s b l u s h between. -- There sha1 1 t a l l s p i r e s , and dome-capt towers a s c e n d , And p i e r s and quays t h e i r massy s t r u c t u r e s b l e n d ; 57 Thomas K. Hervey went even f u r t h e r , i m a g i n i n g A u s t r a l i a as the s i t e o f a U t o p i a n b r o t h e r h o o d , To where a l o v e l i e r v i s i o n meets t h e eye; Where spreads the B r i t i s h name from sun t o sun, And a l l the n a t i o n s o f the e a r t h a r e One.58 C e r t a i n l y a c l u s t e r o f e u p h o r i c f o r e c a s t s t o s u i t a b l y l a u n c h a new land c o u l d have' been . a n t i c i p a t e d . However, i n A u s t r a l i a ' s c a s e , c i t a t i o n o f the American example was j u s t as q u i c k l y e s t a b l i s h e d as a t a c t i c o f t h o s e opposed t o f u r t h e r c o l o n i a l e x p a n s i o n who w i s h e d t o c e n s u r e the a u t h o r i t i e s . A c o n c e r n e d A l e x a n d e r D a l r y m p l e e x p r e s s e d d i s g u s t w i t h the d e c i s i o n " t o send the Conv i c t s t o Botany Bay, on the E a s t - S i d e o f New-Holland, w h i l s t T h i s C o u n t r y i s s t i l l s m a r t i n g f r o m a War w i t h Her o l d C o l o n i e s , whom she found h e r s e l f unable t o keep i n de- ,,59 pendance. Dr. Johnson, had he been a l i v e t o w i t n e s s the f i n a l i z a t i o n o f p l a n s f o r Botany Bay, would no doubt have c o n c u r r e d , s i n c e he viewed A m e r i c a ' s r e v o l u t i o n a r y l e a d e r s a s " d i c t a t o r s o f s e d i t i o n " and " i ncendaia r i es . . . [who] t o s s brands among a r a b b l e p a s s i v e l y combust i b l e. W i t h the new c e n t u r y , and a f r e s h g e n e r a t i o n o f o b s e r v e r s , came 80 a g r a d u a l l y w i d e n i n g c o n t e x t o f d i s c u s s i o n , and more r a t i o n a l comment. John P i n k e r t o n , a S c o t t i s h g e o g r a p h e r , t y p i f i e d the new composure: [The] c o l o n y met w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e g a r d t o s u b s i s t e n c e , and the expence was c o n s i d e r e d as too g r e a t f o r the o b j e c t . But men of more e x t e n s i v e and p h i l o s o p h i c a l views b e h e l d w i t h complacence the d e s i g n o f t r a n s f e r r i n g the E n g l i s h r a c e and name t o such a d i s t a n t and i m p o r t a n t r e g i o n o f the g l o b e , w h i c h might s u p p l y new o b j e c t s t o commerce and s c i e n c e , and i n the c o u r s e o f a few c e n t u r i e s p r e s e n t as i t were a n o t h e r A m e r i c a , a c o u n t r y o f r i s i n g knowledge and c i v i l i z a t i o n , i n the m i d s t o f a b e n i g h t e d and savage r e g i o n o f the g l o b e . Nor were views o f a m b i t i o n and g l o r y u n d e l i g h t e d w i t h t h i s new d i f f u s i o n o f the g r e a t and s u r p r i s i n g p e o p l e o f a remote European i s l e , i n the most d i s t a n t e x t r e m i t i e s o f the n a v i g a b l e ocean.°' For P i n k e r t o n , A u s t r a l i a c o u l d w e l l be a r e m a r k a b l e new a d d i t i o n t o E n g l i s h power and p r e s t i g e ; l i k e A m e r i c a ; a n o t h e r b a s t i o n o f A n g l o - Saxon c u 1 t u r e . A r g u a b l y the most s e n s i b l e and i l l u m i n a t i n g v o i c e c o n c e r n i n g B r i t a i n ' s o n g o i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h A m e r i c a and A u s t r a l i a between 1800 and 1830 was the Reverend Sydney S m i t h — c a u s t i c o b s e r v e r , r a c o n t e u r , and the most admired w i t i n Whig a r i s t o c r a t i c c i r c l e s i n the f i r s t q u a r t e r o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Though a man so o f t e n g i v e n t o f a c e t i o u s comment t h a t c l o s e companions found i t d i f f i c u l t t o t a k e him s e r i o u s l y , Smith e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f i n the pages o f the Whig E d i n b u r g h Review, from i t s i n c e p t i o n i n O c t o b e r , 1802, t o h i s l a s t p u b l i s h e d a r t i c l e i n 1828, as a l i v e l y spokesman f o r l i b e r a l p r i n c i p l e s and a s t a u n c h a d v o c a t e o f r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n and the r i g h t s o f the 62 u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d . The d i s c e r n i n g way i n w h i c h he t a c k l e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l 81 i s s u e s can be gauged from h i s s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s on "Botany Bay" and " A m e r i c a . " S t r e t c h i n g over a p e r i o d o f t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s , t h e s e a r t i c l e s amply d e m o n s t r a t e the tendency o f informed E n g l i s h commentators o f the p e r i o d t o c l o s e l y i d e n t i f y A u s t r a l i a ' s p r o g r e s s w i t h d e v e l o p - ments i n A m e r i c a . Smith u n f a i l i n g l y u t i l i z e d the same frame o f r e f e r e n c e f o r both c o u n t r i e s , and a s i m i l a r v o c a b u l a r y . H i s comments, by f a r the most e l a b o r a t e o f the day, need c l o s e a t t e n t i o n , i f the p r e d i s p o s i t i o n o f London c i r c l e s o f the time i s t o be e f f e c t i v e l y gauged. Smith's a t t i t u d e t o both c o u n t r i e s underwent a s e r i e s o f changes and m o d i f i c a t i o n s . In h i s f i r s t a r t i c l e on A u s t r a l i a he mouthed the o l d c o n s e r v a t i v e p r e j u d i c e s i n language not u n l i k e t h a t o f D a l r y m p l e some twenty y e a r s b e f o r e . A p p a r e n t l y angered by the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the new c o l o n y , and, i n 1803, u n w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t the q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by the d e m o c r a t i c e x p e r i m e n t i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , Smith asked the q u e s t i o n d e s t i n e d t o d i s e n c h a n t a g e n e r a t i o n o f p r o s p e c t i v e A u s t r a l i a n s : "Are we t o spend a n o t h e r hundred m i l l i o n s o f money i n d i s c o v e r i n g i t s [ A u s t r a l i a ' s ] s t r e n g t h , and t o humble o u r s e l v e s a g a i n b e f o r e a f r e s h s e t o f Washingtons and F r a n k l i n s ? " As f a r as he was c o n c e r n e d , a r e p e t i t i o n o f the American e x p e r i e n c e i n A u s t r a l i a a t t h a t time seemed c e r t a i n : "The moment a f t e r we have s u f f e r e d such s e r i o u s m i s c h i e f from the escapade o f the o l d t i g e r , we a r e b r e e d i n g 64 up a young cub, whom we cannot r e n d e r l e s s ferocious,": o r more s e c u r e . " Smith a s s a i l e d both the s t r u c t u r e and the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the new c o l o n y as too s h o r t s i g h t e d . 82 H e m e l l o w e d . T h r o u g h o u t t h e t u r b u l e n t y e a r s o f w a r w i t h F r a n c e ( a n d , i n 1812, w i t h A m e r i c a ) , S m i t h t u r n e d t h e a t t e n t i o n s o f h i s p e n t o a n u m b e r o f p h i l a n t h r o p i c e n d e a v o u r s u n r e l a t e d t o B r i t i s h t e r r i t o r i e s . T h e n , i n 1818, h e p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t o f t h r e e a p p r a i s a l s o f A m e r i c a i n t h e R e v i e w . C o l l e c t i v e l y , t h e y h a d a d e c i d e d e f f e c t o n h i s r e p u t a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e w e i g h t o f h o n e s t e v a l u a t i o n p r e s e n t t h r o u g h o u t w a s l o s t i n t h e h o r n e t ' s n e s t a r o u s e d b y t w o o f S m i t h ' s d i g r e s s i o n s o n A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . H i s i n f l a m m a t o r y s t a t e - m e n t , " L i t e r a t u r e t h e A m e r i c a n s h a v e n o n e , " i n t h e f i r s t a r t i c l e , i n t e n d e d t o c u t a n y e x c e s s i v e A m e r i c a n p r i d e a n d p a t r i o t i s m t o t h e q u i c k , w a s b e t t e r e d o n l y b y t h e c r u e l l y a c c u r a t e s e q u e n c e o f r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s h e i n c l u d e d i n t h e s e c o n d a r t i c l e , a r e v i e w o f a s t a t i s t i c a l w o r k o n A m e r i c a , i n 1820: I n t h e f o u r q u a r t e r s o f t h e g l o b e , w h o r e a d s a n A m e r i c a n b o o k ? o r g o e s t o a n A m e r i c a n p l a y ? o r l o o k s a t a n A m e r i c a n p i c t u r e o r s t a t u e ? . . . F i n a l l y , u n d e r w h i c h o f t h e o l d t y r a n n i c a l g o v e r n m e n t s o f E u r o p e i s e v e r y s i x t h r , : m a n a s l a v e , w h o m h i s f e l l o w - c r e a t u r e s m a y b u y a n d s e l l a n d t o r t u r e ? W h e n t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a r e f a i r l y a n d f a v o u r a b l y a n s w e r e d , t h e i r l a u d a t o r y e p i t h e t s m a y b e a l l o w e d : b u t t i l l t h a t c a n b e d o n e , w e w o u l d s e r i o u s l y a d v i s e t h e m t o k e e p c l e a r o f s u p e r 1 a t i v e s . 6 6 C o m m e n t s a p p a r e n t l y n o t e a s i l y f o r g o t t e n . O v e r h a l f a c e n t u r y l a t e r , T h e N a t i o n m e n t i o n e d S m i t h a s t h e a u t h o r o f " s a v a g e l y c o n t e m p t u o u s a r t i c l e s a b o u t A m e r i c a , " a n d a s l a t e a s 1963 a t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m m e o n a n A m e r i c a n n e t w o r k , e n t i t l e d " C r e a t i v e A m e r i c a , " f a s h i o n e d i t s e l f a s a r e p l y t o S m i t h ' s " s n e e r i n g " c o m m e n t . 6 ^ 83 B u t t h e p o p u l a r image o f S m i t h a s a d e n o u n c e r o f A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c s , c u l t u r e and mores s i m p l y d o e s n ' t m a t c h t h e f a c t s . T h e E d i n b u r g h R e v i e w , a n d S m i t h i n p a r t i c u l a r , a l w a y s t r e a t e d A m e r i c a n s u b j e c t s f a i r l y . I n d e e d , s o s t r o n g l y had S m i t h warmed t o t h e p r o g r e s s i v e n a t u r e o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c e x p e r i m e n t by 1818 t h a t he c o u l d d e s c r i b e h i m s e l f i n a 68 l e t t e r t o L o r d F r a n c i s J e f f r e y a s a " P h i l o y a n k e i s t . " S m i t h h e a r t i >1 y a p p l a u d e d many o f t h e l e g i s l a t i v e i n i t i a t i v e s i n t h e " l a n d o f J o n a t h a n , " t i m e and a g a i n i l l u s t r a t i n g i n p r i n t h i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h J e f f r e y ' s Image o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f A m e r i c a n s a s b r a v e , 69 e n t e r p r i s i n g a n d i n d u s t r i o u s ! He s c r u p u l o u s l y s i n g l e d o u t e n - l i g h t e n i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e i r c o u n t r y - - a n e f f i c i e n t l y managed e c o n o m y , low s a l a r i e s f o r t h o s e i n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r , r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n , p o p u l a r e d u c a t i o n , u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e and f r e e d o m o f t h e p r e s s - - a s w o r t h y o f i m i t a t i o n by B r i t a i n . 7 ^ A s h i s image o f A m e r i c a t o o k o n a d i f f e r e n t f a c e , s o t o o d i d t h e way i n w h i c h he o b s e r v e d A u s t r a l i a ' s d e v e l o p m e n t . No l o n g e r c o n c e n t r a t i n g h i s a t t e n t i o n s o l e l y on t h e l o a t h s o m e f e a t u r e s o f t h e c o l o n y , he b e g a n t o t a k e n o t i c e o f c e r t a i n r e d e e m i n g f e a t u r e s , c o n s t a n t l y u s i n g A m e r i c a a s t h e b a s i s f o r c o m p a r i s o n . S i m i l a r i t i e s w e r e f i r m l y e n d o r s e d . T h e " l a n d o f c o n v i c t s a n d k a n g a r o o s was g r a d u a l l y s h o w i n g s i g n s o f d e v e l o p i n g i n t o " a v e r y f i n e a n d f l o u r i s h i n g s e t t l e m e n t , " t h e " A m e r i c a n a r r a n g e m e n t s r e s p e c t i n g t h e . e d u c a t i o n o f t h e l o w e r o r d e r s " b e i n g " e x c e l l e n t . " 7 ^ D i f f e r e n c e s w e r e c o n d e m n e d : 84 New South Wales i s a s i n k o f w i c k e d n e s s , i n which the g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f c o n v i c t s o f both sexes become i n f i n i t e l y more depraved than a t the p e r i o d o f t h e i r a r r i v a l . . . . The f e l o n t r a n s p o r t e d t o the American p l a n t a t i o n s , became an i n s u l a t e d rogue among honest men. . . . But i n Botany Bay, the f e l o n , as soon as he g e t s out o f the s h i p , meets w i t h h i s a n c i e n t t r u l l , w i t h the f o o t p a d o f h i s h e a r t , the c o n v i c t o f h i s a f f e c t i o n s , - - t h e man whose hand he has o f t e n met i n the same gentleman's p o c k e t - - . . . . In the f i v e y e a r s s e p a r a t i n g Smith's f i n a l two c r i t i q u e s o f A u s t r a l i a , a n o t i c e a b l e A m e r i c a n i z i n g o f h i s s t a n c e took p l a c e . He began t o equate the two c o u n t r i e s p o l i t i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y ; thus he opened h i s 1828 r e v i e w w i t h s m a t t e r i n g s of h y p e r b o l e more c h a r a c t e r - i s t i c o f the proponents o f propaganda e k i n g out a l i v i n g i n c o l o n i a l j o u r n a 1 s : I t i s now s e v e r a l y e a r s s i n c e we have s a i d a n y t h i n g i n o u r pages o f t h a t New World w h i c h B r i t a i n has been c r e a t i n g on the o t h e r s i d e o f the P a c i f i c - - a 1 though i t has been a l l the w h i l e i n a s t a t e o f c o n t i n u e d and even r a p i d advance- ment. . . . [ I t ] w i l l be no u n p l e a s i n g t a s k t o g l e a n from the works, a t the head o f t h i s a r t i c l e , some f u r t h e r n o t i c e s o f t h i s i n f a n t c o l o n y — d e s t i n e d , p e r h a p s , i n the c o u r s e o f ages, t o be the e a r l i e s t r e c o r d s o f a famous and p o t e n t nat i o n . ' ^ A u s t r a 1 i a - - n o l o n g e r B r i t a i n ' s g a r b a g e , " t h e f i f t h o r p i c k p o c k e t q u a r t e r o f the g1obe"--cou1d, t h r o u g h hard work, d i s c e r n i n g l e a d e r - s h i p and the c o n t i n u e d p r o g r e s s o f a l l branches o f i n d u s t r y , t r a n s f o r m 74 i t s e l f e n t i r e l y . Not i n t o a n o t h e r B r i t a i n , but "a new A m e r i c a . " A number o f Smith's c o n t e m p o r a r i e s were i n complete a c c o r d w i t h h i s endorsement o f American i n i t i a t i v e , b u t , l i k e Smith i n the e a r l y y e a r s , e q u i v o c a t e d o v e r A u s t r a l i a . The p r o s p e c t o f a m a s s i v e E n g l i s h 85 p r i s o n i n the P a c i f i c d i s t u r b e d . One such contemporary was the i n f l u e n t i a l u t i l i t a r i a n p h i l o s o p h e r Jeremy Bentham. In h i s own words more a " U n i t e d S t a t e s man" than an E n g l i s h m a n , Bentham c o r r e s p o n d e d a t l e n g t h w i t h prominent American l e a d e r s such as Benjamin F r a n k l i n , James, M a d i s o n , John Quincy Adams, and a v a r i e t y o f S t a t e g o v e r n o r s . 7 ' ' A lawyer h i m s e l f , Bentham p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r e c i a t e d American l e g a l r e f o r m , and from 1817 onwards, the y e a r o f hismomentous P1 an o f P a r i i a m e n t a r y Reform i n the Form o f a_ Catech i sm, e t c . , he encouraged h i s countrymen to. s h a r e h i s views i n a wide v a r i e t y o f a v i d l y p r o - American pamphlets. The W e s t m i n s t e r Review, begun w i t h Bentham money i n 1 8 2 4 , con- s o l i d a t e d h i s s e n t i m e n t s i n t o an o r t h o d o x y i n the 1 8 2 0 1 s. " A m e r i c a , " the f i r s t i s s u e s t a t e d , " i s the o n l y country which has p r e s e n t e d us w i t h the s p e c t a c l e o f a p e o p l e governed by a system o f genuine r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . " 7 ^ A u s t r a l i a ' s b e g i n n i n g s were a b h o r r e n t . Bentham d e t e s t e d B r i t a i n ' s " p e r i o d i c a l h a r v e s t s o f m a l e f a c t o r s , " and i n a s e c t i o n o f h i s " P r i n c i p l e s o f Penal Law" on t r a n s p o r t a t i o n he compared a t l e n g t h the d i f f e r e n c e s between American h a n d l i n g o f the " r e f u s e o f the B r i t i s h p o p u l a t i o n " and A u s t r a l i a ' s . 7 7 I f the e f f e c t on America was r e g r e t t a b l e , the consequences f o r A u s t r a l i a n development t h r e a t e n e d t o be c a t a s t r o p h i c . L i k e S m i t h , Bentham o b j e c t e d t o the p o l i c y i n Botany Bay o f c o n g r e g a t i n g l a r g e numbers o f c o n v i c t s t o g e t h e r i n one p l a c e . New South Wales c o u l d become a s e t t l e m e n t o f " t h e h i g h e s t p o l i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e , " but o n l y w i t h the " l a p s e o f a c e r t a i n number o f c e n t u r i e s , " and presumably o n l y i f an independent c o u r s e s i m i l a r 86 t o the American one were pursued. Most w r i t e r s who v o i c e d t h e i r o p i n i o n s on the Botany Bay penal s e t t l e m e n t i n the f i r s t t h i r t y y e a r s o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y - - a n d t h e r e weren't many--saw i t as a d e s p e r a t e l y i n f e r i o r A m e r i c a . They f e l t , a l o n g w i t h Bentham, t h a t c e n t u r i e s would be r e q u i r e d b e f o r e the c o u n t r y c o u l d overcome i t s d i s t r e s s i n g r o o t s . T h i n g s weren't as bad as S c o t t i s h bard James Montgomery's d e s o l a t e image s u g g e s t s : Pass we d r e a r New H o l l a n d ' s s h o a l s , Where no ample r i v e r r o l l s , — W o r l d o f unawaken'd s o u l s . 7 ^ But n e i t h e r d i d they w a r r a n t the buoyancy o f an Erasmus Darwin o r a 80 W i l l i a m L i s l e Bowles. Of t h o s e i n C h a r l e s Lamb's c i r c l e , Lamb h i m s e l f was the s h a r p e s t c r i t i c o f the New H o l l a n d e x p e r i m e n t . An " i n a u s p i c i o u s u n l i t e r a r y T h i e f l a n d " he l a b e l l e d A u s t r a l i a i n a r e v i e w o f B a r r o n F i e l d ' s 81 F i r s t F r u i t s (1820). H i s comments i n a l e t t e r t o F i e l d were s c a r c e l y more c o m p l i m e n t a r y : Do g i v e me some n o t i o n o f the manners o f the i n h a b i t a n t s where you a r e . They don't t h i e v e a l l day l o n g , do they? . . . Have you any p o e t s among you? Cursed p l a g i a r i s t s , I f a n c y , i f you have any. I would not t r u s t an i d e a o r a p o c k e t - h a n d k e r c h i e f o f mine among 'em.8 2 W i l l i a m H a z l i t t ' s e s t i m a t e o f h i s f r i e n d ' s a v e r s i o n " t o new f a c e s , t o new books, t o new b u i l d i n g s , t o new customs" might e x p l a i n Lamb's 83 r e a c t i o n , however. H a z l i t t , i n c o n t r a s t , was i n c l i n e d t o j u d g e the 87 i n h a b i t a n t s o f the c o l o n y a l i t t l e more s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y . Botany Bay was indeed an i r r i t a t i n g mote i n B r i t a i n ' s eye, but not a l l the c o n v i c t s earned t h e i r passage as c u t - t h r o a t s s and t h i e v e s . An i n d i v i d u a l may be o p p r e s s e d , a n a t i o n may be t r a m p l e d upon, mankind may be t h r e a t e n e d w i t h a n n i h i l a t i o n o f t h e i r r i g h t s , and the t h r e a t e n f o r c e d ; and not a f i n g e r i s r a i s e d . . . . At the v e r y time when a l l England went mad about the poor Queen, a man o f the name o f Bruce was sent t o Botany Bay f o r h a v i n g spoken t o a n o t h e r who was_c;on- v i c t e d o f s e d i t i o n ; and no n o t i c e was t a k e n o f i t . Robert Southey was a n o t h e r t o e x p r e s s a c e r t a i n sympathy f o r the t r a n s p o r t e d f e l o n s i n h i s Botany Bay . E c l o g u e s , w r i t t e n a t O x f o r d i n 1794 a t a time when he dreamt o f human p e r f e c t a b i 1 i t y , no m a t t e r what the c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Having read W a t k i n Tench's n a r r a t i v e s o f the c o l o n y , he d e p i c t e d the c o n v i c t e d E l i n o r , doomed f o r e t e r n i t y i n the f a r - o f f savage lands . . . Where angry England sends her o u t c a s t sons - - r e p e n t i n g her t r a n s g r e s s i o n s and c o n f i d e n t l y embracing the a f t e r 1 i f e : On t h e s e w i l d s h o r e s the s a v i n g hand o f Grace W i l l probe my s e c r e t s o u l , and c l e a n s e i t s wounds, And f i t the f a i t h f u l p e n i t e n t f o r Heaven.^5 Southey's i d e a l i s t i c p o l i t i c a l c o n c e p t s ( P a n t i s o c r a c y ) e n a b l e d him t o e n v i s i o n a b e t t e r f u t u r e , but the o p p r e s s i v e r e a l i t i e s o f the p r e s e n t were never f a r away. So w h i l e w r i t i n g h i s E c l o g u e s he i d e n t i f i e d l i f e i n Botany Bay, i n America and i n r e a c t i o n a r y England as an 88 i s o l a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e . "Whether I l i n g e r out e x i s t e n c e i n England i n A m e r i c a or among the c o n v i c t s o f New H o l l a n d i s a m a t t e r o f i n d i f f e r e n c e , " he 86 wrote t o Governor C h a r l e s B e d f o r d i n June, 1794. H i s s p e c u l a t i v e i d e a o f a f r e e commonwealth l o c a t e d i t s e l f a long way from r e p r e s s i v e Aust r a 1 i a. Much l i k e Southey i n l a t e r y e a r s , C o l e r i d g e r e j e c t e d Botany Bay o u t r i g h t , l a b e l l i n g i t a s e t t l e m e n t o f " d e s p a i r " when compared w i t h the l o f t y i d e a l s p e r v a d i n g the p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l atmosphere o f N o r t h A m e r i c a . At one p o i n t i n h i s e a r l y t w e n t i e s , he planned t o j o i n a communal s e t t l e - 88 ment on the banks o f the Susquehanna. The p l a n was s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s a b o r t e d , though C o l e r i d g e , d e s p i t e e s t a b l i s h i n g h i m s e l f as one of the most l u c i d c o n s e r v a t i v e v o i c e s o f h i s e r a , m a i n t a i n e d a h i g h r e g a r d f o r the U n i t e d S t a t e s up t o h i s death i n 1834. The Q u a r t e r l y Review o f 1835 posthumously p u b l i s h e d an e x t r a c t o f h i s " t a b l e t a l k , " where he once a g a i n i d e n t i f i e d h i s e l e v a t e d i m p r e s s i o n o f A m e r i c a ' s p o t e n t i a l : The p o s s i b l e d e s t i n y o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a , - - as a n a t i o n o f a hundred m i l l i o n s of f r e e m e n , - - s t r e t c h i n g from the A t l a n t i c t o the P a c i f i c , l i v i n g under the laws o f A l f r e d , and s p e a k i n g the language o f Shakespeare and M i l t o n , i s an august c o n c e p t i o n . Why s h o u l d we not w i s h t o see i t r e a l i z e d ? America would then be England viewed t h r o u g h a s o l a r m i c r o s c o p e ; Great B r i t a i n i n a s t a t e o f g l o r i o u s m a g n i f i c a t i o n ! " A f l e d g l i n g c o l o n y c o m p r i s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y o f c o n v i c t s , on the o t h e r hand, c o u l d h a r d l y bear the s t r a i n o f c l o s e and d i r e c t comparison a t t h i s p o i n t . Many of C o l e r i d g e ' s countrymen agreed w i t h him i n the e a r l y y e a r s of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , though as the y e a r s passed and the i n v e s t m e n t p r o s p e c t s 89 o f A u s t r a l i a grew, t h e y , l i k e Sydney S m i t h , began t o v i e w A u s t r a l i a w i t h i n c r e a s i n g o p t i m i s m . A u s t r a l i a and America might be more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d than f i r s t t h o u g h t . •A. J- Ji* C l e a r l y , t h e n , many o f George I l l ' s s u b j e c t s a t home viewed e v e n t s i n both A u s t r a l i a and America as i n some way comparable, the m a j o r i t y a t f i r s t a g r e e i n g w i t h C o l e r i d g e , Bentham, W i l l i a m Cobbett and R i c h a r d Cobden t h a t the immediate p r o s p e c t s o f American democracy f a r outweighed t h o s e o f New H o l l a n d ' s remote p r i s o n . The i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t o be made, though, i s not t h a t one was a r b i t r a r i l y f a v o u r e d a t the expense o f the o t h e r , but t h a t the two c o n t i n e n t s were o f t t i m e s viewed w i t h the same s p e c t a c l e s - - w i s e J o n a t h a n ' s l a n d spoken o f i n the same b r e a t h as the s i n k o f w i c k e d n e s s . The comparison was a n a t u r a l . Sydney S m i t h , and, l a t e r , penal r e f o r m e r Edward Gibbon W a k e f i e l d , m e r e l y a r t i c u l a t e d w i d e s p r e a d . . 90 o p i n i o n . One c o u l d r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t t h a t t h i s tendency would h o l d t r u e i n the t h o u g h t s and w r i t i n g s o f the f i r s t B r i t i s h s e t t l e r s Cand c o n v i c t s ) i n A u s t r a l i a . I f t h e i r countrymen back home kept i n s i s t i n g on the A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n c o n t r a s t , they c o u l d h a r d l y do o t h e r w i s e . And so i t happened. A r c h i b a l d A l i s o n ' s s t a t e m e n t , l o o k i n g back on the p r e v i o u s f i f t y t u r b u l e n t y e a r s o f r e p u b l i c a n a c t i v i t y , t h a t " t h e d e m o c r a t i c government o f A m e r i c a has s t r u c k f a r and wide i n t o the minds o f European p e o p l e , " r e t a i n e d a unique v a l i d i t y i n B r i t a i n ' s most r e c e n t a c q u i s i t i o n 91 i n the s o u t h . 90 The f o r c e s o f " A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n " worked i n many s t r a n g e ways r i g h t from the b e g i n n i n g , and i t mustn't have been long b e f o r e c i r c u m s t a n c e s caused l a r g e numbers o f men i n A u s t r a l i a , m o s t l y the g a o l e d , t o i d e n t i f y t h e i r p r e d i c a m e n t w i t h t h a t o f the i n h a b i t a n t s o f • p r e * r e v o l u t T o n a r y A m e r i c a . Any f a i n t hopes h e l d by the new a r r i v a l s i n A u s t r a l i a r e s t e d s q u a r e l y w i t h Tom P a i n e and h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y b r o t h e r s . For the o c c a s i o n a l i n t r e p i d o p t i m i s t , such as the a g e i n g p r i s o n e r , Thomas Fyshe P a l m e i — C a m b r i d g e - e d u c a t e d p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m e r , U n i t a r i a n m i n i s t e r and one o f the f i v e " S c o t t i s h M a r t y r s " s e n t e n c e d t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f o r s e d i t i o u s p r a c t i c e s - - t h e new s i t u a t i o n c o u l d even prompt e x c i t e d a n t i c i p a t i o n : The s o i l i s c a p i t a l , t h e ' c l i m a t e d e l i c i o u s . I w i l l t a k e i t upon me t o s a y , t h a t i t w i l l soon be the r e g i o n o f p l e n t y , and wants on 1 y ' v i'rtue and 1 i b e r t y t o be a n o t h e r A m e r i c a . . . .9 2 H y p e r b o l e i n a c o u n t r y as y e t so raw and p h y s i c a l l y t a x i n g may have been u n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , but i t was i n e v i t a b l e t h a t a t r a d i t i o n o f esteem f o r America shou1d e s t a b 1 i s h i t s e l f a t the o u t s e t , s i n c e Botany Bay p e r p e t u a l l y s e r v e d as the d e s t i n a t i o n f o r a l a r g e number o f independent and a r t i c u l a t e s p i r i t s who r e f u s e d t o be s i l e n c e d by the r e p r e s s i v e p o l i c i e s o f a nervous c o n s e r v a t i v e government. P o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s a r r i v e d more s t r o n g l y committed than e v e r t o the advocacy o f i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s . The b u l k o f c o n v i c t s , o f c o u r s e , knew n o t h i n g o f the t h e o r e t i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the d e m o c r a t i c cause. They had a p a i r o f e y e s , saw American b o a t s , and schemed and schemed. 91 L o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t o o , r e i n f o r c e d the American c o m p a r i s o n . Governor P h i l l i p ' s Commission and I n s t r u c t i o n s from the C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , f o r example, were t h o s e n o r m a l l y d i s p a t c h e d t o N o r t h American G o v e r n o r s , but f o r the names. F u r t h e r , o f A u s t r a l i a ' s f i r s t f i v e g o v e r n o r s , H u n t e r , King and M a c q u a r i e c o u l d a l l c i t e American b a t t l e e x p e r i e n c e , as c o u l d a s u b s t a n t i a l number o f o f f i c e r s c o m p r i s i n g the o r i g i n a l m i l i t a r y government and many o f the Rum Corps t r o o p s who a r r i v e d i n 1790. The odd American place-name around Sydney--such as Concord, Bunker's H i l l , and L i b e r t y P l a i n s , near P a r r a m a t t a - - b e a r s some 93 t e s t i m o n y t o e m o t i o n a l a t t a c h m e n t s . Sydney's f i r s t i n h a b i t a n t s were e i t h e r members o f the g o v e r n i n g m i l i t a r y c l i q u e , bound t o s u p p o r t the K i n g and t o c a r r y out s c r u p u l o u s l y the e d i c t s s e n t by the c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n B r i t a i n , o r they were c o n v i c t s , f o r c e d t o conform t o t h e s e p o l i c i e s . A " m i d d l e " c l a s s d i d not c o n s t i t u t e an e f f e c t i v e s o c i a l f o r c e u n t i l the end o f M a c q u a r i e ' s p e r i o d o f g o v e r n o r s h i p (1821). From t h e s e two p r i n c i p a l groups o f the c o l o n y - r u l i n g m i l i t a r y and f e 1 on ry--Amer i.'ca e 1 i c i t e d , not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t r e a c t i o n s . As seen e a r 1 i e r , whi1e the former i n e v i t a b l y responded i n a c a u t i o u s f a s h i o n t o the American r e v o l u t i o n and i t s spokesmen e s p o u s i n g d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s , the l a t t e r e n v i e d the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a system which h e l d l i b e r t y , e q u a l i t y and independence as man's i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s . E v e n t u a l l y , as f r e e s e t t l e r s and e m a n c i p i s t s i n c r e a s e d the l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n , and a m i d d l e c l a s s g r a d u a l l y took shape, t h e s e i d e a l s found v o i c e . It was u n d o u b t e d l y imprudent f o r the few r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h i s group--merchant, s u r g e o n , landed f r e e s e t t l e r s - - 92 t o o p e n l y a d v o c a t e the American example d u r i n g the decades o f the f i r s t f i v e g o v e r n o r s ; b u t , a f t e r the a b o l i t i o n o f p r e s s c e n s o r s h i p i n 1824, few r e s t r a i n t s e x i s t e d t o d i s c o u r a g e p u b l i c c r i t i c i s m o f the a u t h o r i t i e s . As I w i l l l a t e r show, Governor D a r l i n g (1825_31) would become the scapegoat o f an i n c r e a s i n g l y b o i s t e r o u s m i d d l e c l a s s . For the g r e a t e r p a r t o f i t s f i r s t hundred y e a r s , A u s t r a l i a ' s r u l i n g c l a s s d e s p i s e d and perhaps f e a r e d the p o l i t i c a l p r e c e d e n t s b e i n g s e t i n A m e r i c a , and g r e e t e d r e p u b l i c a n v i s i t o r s n e r v o u s l y . A l t h o u g h , as we have s e e n , they were f o r c e d t o encourage a t r a d i n g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Washington's r e b e l s i n the e a r l y y e a r s , they d i d n ' t much l i k e i t . But the c o l o n y c o n t i n u a l l y r e q u i r e d c e r t a i n n e c e s s i t i e s f o r i t s s u r v i v a l . I t must have n e t t l e d Hunter and h i s c o l l e a g u e s t o be c o n s t r a i n e d t o d e a l w i t h men unashamedly p u r s u i n g h i g h p r o f i t s , whatever the e m o t i o n a l c o s t , who came from a c o u n t r y not too many y e a r s ago a t war w i t h E n g l a n d , t a k i n g E n g l i s h l i v e s . Rum s m u g g l i n g , f i s h i n g v i o l a t i o n s , l o c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s i n c l u d i n g pub b r a w l i n g and c o n v i c t e s c a p e s , i n f l a t e d food and g e n e r a l m e r c h a n d i s e p r i c e s , and a d e s p e r a t e s h o r t a g e o f s p e c i e — a l l seemed t o 94 the a u t h o r i t i e s t o be a t 1 e a s t - p a r t i a l 1 y due t o Yankee m e d d l i n g . In the y e a r s up t o the end o f D a r l i n g ' s p e r i o d o f g o v e r n o r s h i p i n 1831, t h e r e i s no reason t o b e l i e v e t h a t the a t t i t u d e s o f A u s t r a l i a ' s r u l i n g m i n o r i t y - - t h e i r v i g i 1 a n c e — t o w a r d s the young American r e p u b l i c eased t o any g r e a t degree. I f a n y t h i n g , d u r i n g the y e a r s l e a d i n g up t o the war o f 1812, and t h r o u g h o u t the p e r i o d o f h o s t i l i t i e s , they appear t o have become a t r i f l e p a r a n o i d . The s c a r e p r o v i d e d by J o r g e n J o r g e n s e n ' s a l l e g a t i o n s o f a French/American i n v a s i o n , and the e x p l o i t s 93 o f the American p r i v a t e e r H o l k a r and D a v i d P o r t e r ' s f r i g a t e E s s e x , caused g r e a t c o n c e r n among the s m a l l but a l l - p o w e r f u l group i n A u s t r a l i a who had something t o l o s e . B a r r o n F i e l d ' s responses and w r i t i n g s perhaps t y p i f y the r u l i n g - c l a s s r a t i o n a l e o f the t i m e . H i s " m i l d , modest and c o n c i l i a t i n g manners" a t f i r s t prompted M a c q u a r i e t o b e l i e v e t h a t F i e l d (a poor p o e t , and o n l y m a r g i n a l l y b e t t e r as a j u d g e on the Supreme Court o f C i v i l J u d i c a t u r e i n New South Wales between 1818 and 1824) might f a v o u r the e m a n c i p i s t cause. However, as time soon r e v e a l e d , h i s d e c i s i o n s i n the 165 a c t i o n s a t law and 13 s u i t s i n e q u i t y t h a t he p r e s i d e d o v e r i n h i s f i r s t f o u r y e a r s i n the c o l o n y were marked by e r r a t i c , o f t e n r e a c t i o n a r y p r e j u d i c e s . He f o r c e f u l l y opposed t r i a l by j u r y and a l e g i s l a t i v e assembly f o r New 95 South Wales. In t h i s he was at one w i t h the " e x c l u s i v e " o r " e x c l u s i o n i s t " 96 cause. More i m p o r t a n t l y , he opposed any semblance o f d e m o c r a t i c l o b b y i n g , f e e l i n g i t i n d i c a t i v e of a r i s i n g American s p i r i t . When p e t i t i o n e d by a r a d i c a l group o f e m a n c i p i s t s demanding g r e a t e r e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y , he wrote t o r o y a l commissioner B i g g e : I see the shadow o f the s p i r i t o f the American r e v o l t a t t a x a t i o n r i s i n g i n the shape o f the p e t i t i o n f o r t r i a l by j u r y ; i t w i l l next demand l e g i s l a t i v e assembly; and . .. . end i n d e c l a r i n g i t s e l f a n a t i o n o f f r e e b o o t e r s and p i r a t e s . 9 7 Government f e a r o f p o s s i b l e n a v a l a g g r e s s i o n c o n t i n u e d w e l l i n t o the 1820's. When an E n g l i s h s e t t l e m e n t was planned f o r K i n g George's Sound (Western A u s t r a l i a ) i n 1826, f o r example, the l e a d e r o f the e x p e d i t i o n , C a p t a i n S t i r l i n g , a f t e r c h a n g i n g the s i t e t o some land near the Swan R i v e r , wrote home i n a s t a t e o f a l a r m t h a t an American w a r s h i p had been s i g h t e d nearby. The Home O f f i c e , though unimpressed by the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f the t e r r a i n , r e c o g n i z e d a c e r t a i n s t r a t e g i c importance "No o t h e r m o t i v e . . . than the p o l i t i c a l one o f p r e v e n t i n g o t h e r n a t i o n s , as the French o r A m e r i c a n s , o f p o s s e s s i n g themselves o f the south-west c o r n e r o f New H o l l a n d , s h o u l d induce us t o a n t i c i p a t e , 9 8 them. . . . Governor D a r l i n g c o u l d even c o n c e i v e o f a d i r e c t t h r e a t t o Sydney as l a t e as A u g u s t , 1 8 2 7 - In t h a t y e a r the l o c a l government paper, the Sydney G a z e t t e , e x p r e s s e d i t s d i s e n c h a n t m e n t w i t h American a c t i v i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t the i s l a n d s o f the P a c i f i c and p u b l i c i z e d the d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y o f Americans " a n n o y i n g " the c o l o n y " a t no d i s t a n t d a y . " 9 9 D i s t r u s t o f America i n the c o l o n i e s was by no means l i m i t e d t o the K i n g ' s d i r e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . L o c a l s q u a t t e r s w i t h t h e i r eye on the c r e a t i o n o f a f a m i l y d y n a s t y o r , a t the v e r y l e a s t , the s e c u r i t y o f l i f e ' s c o m f o r t s on l a n d worked w i t h c o n v i c t l a b o u r , were o f t e n j u s t as adamantly a n t i - A m e r i c a n . John M a c a r t h u r , Rum Corps l i e u t e n a n t and a d v o c a t e o f a home-grown a r i s t o c r a c y , echoed F i e l d ' s s e n t i m e n t s i n h i s c r i t i c i s m o f M a c q u a r i e ' s l a n d p o l i c y . The r e s u l t , f o r M a c a r t h u r , o f d i s t r i b u t i n g o n l y s m a l l g r a n t s t o p o t e n t i a l A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i s t s would "a t u r b u l e n t and immoral democracy l i k e t h a t o f A m e r i c a , w h i c h w i l l i n the end o v e r t u r n the government, and form a l i c e n t i o u s r e p u b l i c upon i t s r u i n s . H e demanded p r o t e c t i o n from the mob. P r o p e r t y , M a c a r t h f e l t , must have i t s due r e s p e c t and reward. Not a l l the new s e t t l e r s , however, wanted M a c a r t h u r ' s new England 95 on a n o t h e r s h o r e . As time p a s s e d , more and more r e f u s e d t o countenance t h e q u e s t i o n o f one i n s u l a r new a r r i v a l who asked where were the " b l u e - v e i n e d v i o l e t s , h a r e - b e l l s , b u t t e r - c u p s , d a i s i e s . . . ? Where were the l i o n s , the t i g e r s , e l e p h a n t . . . ? The s e q u e s t e r e d g l e n s or: purl i ng s t r e a m s , o r mountains peaked w i t h snow, the t o w e r i n g c r a g s , o r the g u s h i n g w a t e r f a l 1 s - - a l 1 t h a t s c e n e r y which was s u b l i m e ? " ^ They wanted t o s h a r e i n , t o a s s i m i l a t e the f r u i t s o f the new l a n d . But t h i s meant a g i t a t i n g f o r l e g a l and s o c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n i n the f a c e o f o p p o s i t i o n from the l a r g e landowners, the "pure m e r i n o s " o f the c o l o n y - - t h o s e who, a c c o r d i n g t o Roger T h e r r y , a l e g a l o f f i c i a l from I r e l a n d , "were not o n l y f r e e and u n c o n v i c t e d , but . . . c o u l d boast o f h a y i n g no c o l l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p or d i s t a n t a f f i n i t y w i t h t h o s e i n whose e s c u t c h e o n t h e r e was a b l o t . [They] formed the topmost round i n the 1 02 s o c i a l l a d d e r . " A u s t r a l i a ' s d e v e l o p i n g m i d d l e c l a s s , c o n f r o n t e d by s o c i a l b a r r i e r s , began t o a b s o r b and espouse American thi.nki.ng i n i t s s e a r c h f o r a s o c i e t y i n w h i c h they might have a g r e a t e r s t a k e . http://thi.nki.ng Sect i o n £ C o n v i c t A t t i t u d e s I t was n a t u r a l f o r the " m e r i n o s " of the c o l o n y t o r e j e c t e n t i r e l y any American p o l i t i c a l i d e a s which would l e a d t o changes i n the s t a t u s • quo; i t was e q u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e i r c h a l l e n g e r s t o e n d o r s e t h e same m a t e r i a l . W i l l i a m C h a r l e s Wentworth's A S t a t i s t i c a i , ' H i s t o r i c a 1 and P o l i t i c a 1 D e s c r i p t i o n o f the C o l o n y o f New South Wales (.1819) gave f i r s t e x p r e s s i o n t o a r i s i n g v o c a l group about t o work s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n the c o l o n y ' s p r e v i o u s l y s i m p l e , t w o - p a r t s t r u c t u r e . D e s p i t e i n i t i a l s e t b a c k s t o the e m a n c i p i s t cause d u r i n g the y e a r s under Governor B r i s b a n e (1821-5), t h r e e o c c u r r e n c e s d u r i n g the p e r i o d a c t e d as the p r i n c i p a l c a t a l y s t s o f the p r e s s u p r i s i n g i n the l a t e l820's: John Dunmore Lang a r r i v e d i n the c o l o n y i n 1823 d e t e r m i n e d t o make i t h i s home; Wentworth r e t u r n e d t o New South Wales i n 1824 ( a f t e r a s t i n t a t Cambridge) w i t h W i l l i a m W a r d e l l , e x - p r o p r i e t o r and e d i t o r o f the London Statesman; and p r e s s c e n s o r s h i p was a b o l i s h e d i n 1824. T h e i r c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t , as w i l l l a t e r be shown, produced a new a t t i t u d e towards America--one w h i c h i n c r e a s i n g l y i n c o r p o r a t e d American l i t e r a r y and r e l i g i o u s ideas t o complement p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y . But where were t h e p r e c e d e n t s p r i o r t o the l820's? 9 7 The w i d e s p r e a d a p p r o v a l o f American i d e a s e v i d e n t i n most c o l o n i a l newspapers o f the l a t e 1 8 2 0 ' s would appear an a b e r r a t i o n i f viewed s o l e l y i n terms o f the s e n t i m e n t s o f the r u l i n g e l i t e i n the p r e v i o u s t h i r t y y e a r s - - a t t i t u d e s r a n g i n g from w a r i n e s s t o o c c a s i o n a l h o s t i l i t y . I t becomes more e x p l i c a b l e , however, i f one examines American l i n k s i n terms o f the o t h e r , n u m e r i c a l l y overwhelming s e c t i o n o f the Botany Bay p o p u l a t i o n : the p r i s o n e r s . An i l l i c i t y e t t h r i v i n g c o n n e c t i o n e x i s t e d , one i m p o s s i b l e t o a s s e s s a c c u r a t e l y , y e t f o r c i n g the s p e c u l a t i o n , on the b a s i s o f the f a c t s we do have, t h a t i t had an immense impact on the c o n v i c t s - - a n d , u l t i m a t e l y , c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y and l i t e r a t u r e . To men i s o l a t e d on an i s l a n d p r i s o n , American ideas h e l p e d n o u r i s h the f a i n t c o n c e p t o f freedom; American s o i l s y m b o l i z e d t h a t freedom; and American s h i p s r e p r e s e n t e d the most v i s i b l e means of a c h i e v i n g i t . For some n i n e t y y e a r s , from the a r r i v a l o f the F i r s t F l e e t t o the r e s c u e o f a group o f F e n i a n s by the New B e d f o r d w h a l e r C a t a l p a , i n 1 8 7 6 , one s t i r r i n g , though f o r o b v i o u s reasons p o o r l y documented a r e a o f A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r y emerges as a saga o f escape on American 1 0 3 s h i p s . For the i l l i t e r a t e rank and f i l e , u n f a m i l i a r w i t h the r i g h t s Thomas P a i n e was i n s i s t i n g man had o r the p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s promulgated by J e f f e r s o n , the t e n e t s o f the American D e c l a r a t i o n of Independence were embodied i n the boats t h e m s e l v e s . In a word, freedom. The h a r d s h i p s e x p e r i e n c e d i n the f i r s t d a r k y e a r s must have d i s p o s e d many a c o n v i c t t o f o c u s a l i t t l e o b s e s s i v e l y on the f l a g o f the Ph i 1 a d e l p h i a, the f i r s t American v e s s e l t o v i s i t P o r t J a c k s o n . 98 I t e v i d e n t l y d i d n ' t t a k e the p r i s o n e r s w i t h i n i t i a t i v e long t o make c o n t a c t , f o r , by the b e g i n n i n g o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , escape from the new • s e t t 1ement was so common t h a t l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s i s o l a t e d a l l American boats i n N e u t r a l Bay, a few m i l e s n o r t h o f Sydney Cove. A compulsory ^200 bond was lodged by American c a p t a i n s on a r r i v a l i n Sydney, t o be f o r f e i t e d i f escapees were d i s c o v e r e d on the v e s s e l b e f o r e d e p a r t u r e . S i n c e the bond was l a t e r r a i s e d t o ̂ 500, t h i s .. i . 104 too must have proved s m a l l d i s c o u r a g e m e n t . A remark by C a p t a i n W.R. B r o u g h t o n , R.N., who s a i l e d from Botany Bay on the H.M.S. P r o v i d e n c e i n O c t o b e r , 1795, i n d i c a t e s the magnitude o f the problem t h a t government o f f i c i a l s f a c e d , so soon a f t e r f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t : "We a b s t a i n e d from f o l l o w i n g the example o f o t h e r s h i p s t h a t have touched a t t h i s c o l o n y , b y t n o t t a k i n g away any o f the c o n v i c t s , a p r a c t i c e v e r y g e n e r a l i n merchant s h i p s . M ^ 5 In t h i s p r a c t i c e , Americans assumed the most prominent r o l e f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s , r a n g i n g from sheer e x p e d i e n c y t o p h i l a n t h r o p y . Some s k i p p e r s p r o b a b l y d e c i d e d on the spur o f the moment t o a i d e s c a p e e s , h a v i n g been f o r c e d t o w i t n e s s i n s t a n c e s such as t h a t o f the c o n v i c t Morgan, f o r whom a l a r g e g a l l o w s was c o n s t r u c t e d on P i n c h g u t I s l a n d so t h a t he c o u l d hang i n f u l l v i e w o f e v e r y v i s i t i n g s h i p , h a v i n g f i r s t been d i p p e d i n t a r t o e n s u r e he l a s t e d long enough t o s a t i s f a c t o r i l y 10 6 a d v e r t i s e the d i s a s t r o u s consequences o f v i o l a t i n g E n g l i s h laws. The American p r e s e n c e e x e r t e d both d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s on the s t a b i l i t y o f the c o l o n y as a r e s u l t o f the i l l e g a l a s s i s t a n c e l e n t t o c o n v i c t s . The b e s t example o f the f o r m e r , and the most 99 renowned escape i n the e a r l y y e a r s o f the c o l o n y was t h a t o f Thomas M u i r , a h i g h - p r i n c i p l e d G l a s w e g i a n lawyer and p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m e r , and one o f the " M a r t y r s " b a n i s h e d from S c o t l a n d . The e x p l o i t s o f M u i r and h i s c o l l e a g u e s , c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d as they a r e t o an a c c o u n t o f the e f f e c t o f the American r e v o l u t i o n on New South Wales and the c o l o n y ' s f i r s t c o n t a c t w i t h American p o l i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , w a r r a n t d e t a i l e d a t t e n t i o n a t t h i s p o i n t . What an impact the a r r i v a l o f the f i v e " S c o t t i s h M a r t y r s " must have had on the t i n y s o u t h e r n o u t p o s t . Sentenced t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o Botany Bay f o r p e r i o d s r a n g i n g from seven t o f o u r t e e n y e a r s , f o u r o f them--Muir, Thomas Palmer, W i l l i a m S k i r v i n g and M a u r i c e M a r g a r o t - - a r r i v e d on the S u r p r i ze i n O c t o b e r , 1794. The f i f t h , Joseph G e r r a l d , a r r i v e d on the S o v e r e i g n i n November, 1795. As one commentator has put i t : "No s e r i e s o f t r i a l s i n S c o t t i s h h i s t o r y e v e r c r e a t e d such w o r l d - w i d e i n t e r e s t . In America they p r o v i d e d f r e s h m a t e r i a l f o r the d i s c u s s i o n which M u i r ' s c a s e had p r o v o k e d . " ^ 7 Many i n f l u e n t i a l Whigs o b j e c t e d t o the s e v e r i t y o f the s e n t e n c e s , because of the q u e s t i o n a b l e n a t u r e o f the c r i m e s . But t o no a v a i l . The c o n v i c t i o n s s t o o d , b r i n g i n g f i v e mentto Botany Bay on the wrong s i d e o f the law whose r e c e n t h i s t o r y - - l e t a l o n e p a s t d e e d s - - a s s u r e d t h a t t h e i r s t a y would prove o f i n t e r e s t t o anyone even v a g u e l y f a m i l i a r w i t h c u r r e n t e v e n t s o f w o r l d i n t e r e s t . What were t h e i r c r i m e s ? Thomas M u i r ' s c a s e sheds some l i g h t on a number o f a r e a s : the e d g i n e s s o f the P i t t government's h a n d l i n g o f American i s s u e s a t the t i m e ; the p r o f o u n d impact o f the American War o f Independence on a 100 S c o t t i s h l a b o u r movement a s p i r i n g t o p o l i t i c a l awareness; the r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l o f a t l e a s t a few o f the Botany Bay inmates; and the s u c c e s s - f u l e s c a p e - r a t e they e n j o y e d i n the y e a r s when rum was the p r i m a r y c o n c e r n o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s g a o l e r s . M u i r a t t e n d e d both the u n i v e r s i t i e s of Glasgow and E d i n b u r g h , a t one p o i n t s t u d y i n g under John M i l l a r , r - 108 the i l l u s t r i o u s l i b e r a l p r o f e s s o r o f j a w . The r e v e r b e r a t i o n s o f both the American War o f Independence ( w i t h i t s subsequent r e p u b l i c a n l e g i s l a t i o n ) and the French R e v o l u t i o n caused him, a l o n g w i t h a g r e a t number o f c o l l e a g u e s , t o adopt a r a d i c a l , a n t i - m o n a r c h i s t p o s i t i o n . As e a r l y as 1779, the impact o f American p o l i t i c s had worked what one o b s e r v e r c a l l e d "a g r e a t change i n the s e n t i m e n t s 109 o f the n a t i o n . Impassioned debate t h r e a t e n e d t o d i v i d e S c o t t i s h f a m i l i e s . As the 1780's, M u i r ' s i m p r e s s i o n a b l e y e a r s , began, c l e a r s i g n s t h a t " t h e s p i r i t o f l i b e r t y had t a k e n a n o r t h e r n t u r n " c o u l d be seen i n the r i s i n g c r y f o r c o u n t r y and burgh r e f o r m . T o p i c s l i s t e d f o r d i s c u s s i o n by members o f the E d i n b u r g h Pantheon D e b a t i n g S o c i e t y r e f l e c t e d the growing m i l i t a n c y . One asked s i m p l y : " S h o u l d the American War be i m m e d i a t e l y t e r m i n a t e d ? " ^ ' ' P o w e r f u l l y i n f l u e n c e d by the r a d i c a l mood o f the t i m e s , M u i r was soon e l e c t e d v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f the Glasgow A s s o c i a t e d F r i e n d s o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n and o f the Peopdse. At the g e n e r a l c o n v e n t i o n o f the S c o t t i s h S o c i e t i e s o f the F r i e n d s o f the P e o p l e i n E d i n b u r g h i n December, 1792, he read an i n f l a m m a t o r y a d d r e s s from the U n i t e d Irishmen o f D u b l i n - - o n e o f the reasons why he was a r r e s t e d i n J a n u a r y , 112 1793- The o t h e r reason c o m p r i s e d a f o u r - f o l d c h a r g e . In the 101 words o f the C l e r k o f the High C o u r t o f J u s t i c i a r y (of E d i n b u r g h ) , M u i r s t o o d accused o f SEDITIOUS SPEECHES and HARANGUES, a s p i r i t o f d i s l o y a l t y and d i s a f f e c t i o n t o the King and the E s t a b l i s h e d Govern- ment; . ... EXHORTING persons t o p u r c h a s e and peruse s e d i t i o u s and w i c k e d p u b l i c a t i o n s and w r i t i n g s . . . [and] f e l o n i o u s l y DISTRIBUTING or CIRCULATING [ t h i s m a t e r i a l ] . 1 1 3 F i n a l l y , the C l e r k e x c l a i m e d t h a t Thomas M u i r d i d sometime i n [September, O c t o b e r , o r November, 1792] . . . w i c k e d l y and f e l o n i o u s l y a d v i s e and e x h o r t John M u i r s e n i o r , l a t e h a t t e r i n Glasgow, Thomas W i l s o n b a r b e r i n Glasgow, and John B a r c l a y . . . t o read P a i n e ' s R i g h t s of Man, and t o p u r c h a s e the same; which book o r pamphlet, e n t i t l e d P a i n e ' s R i g h t s o f Man, i s a most w i c k e d and s e d i t i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n , c a l c u l a t e d t o v i l i f y the C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h i s c o u n t r y , t o produce a s p i r i t of i n s u r r e c t i o n among the p e o p l e , and t o s t i r them up t o a c t s o f o u t r a g e and o p p o s i t i o n t o the E s t a b l i s h e d Government . . . [ F u r t h e r M u i r d i d d i s t r i b u t e and c i r c u l a t e ] 'The Works o f Thomas, P a i n e , Esq.' A l s o , a w r i t i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n , e n t i t i H e d , 'A D e c l a r a t i o n o f R i g h t s , and an Address t o the P e o p l e , approved o f by a number o f the F r i e n d s o f Reform i n P a i s l e y ' . A l s o a paper o r p u b l i c a t i o n e n t i t u l e d , 'A d i a l o g u e b e t w i x t the Governors and the Governed;' A l s o , a paper o r p u b l i c a t i o n , e n t i t u l e d 'The P a t r i o t '. . . . M u i r a d m i t t e d h a v i n g d e l i v e r e d an a d d r e s s , but d e n i e d i t was s e d i t i o u s . He c a t e g o r i c a l l y d e n i e d the o t h e r a c c u s a t i o n s , a d m i t t i n g o n l y t h a t he e x e r t e d e v e r y e f f o r t t o p r o c u r e a more equal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the p e o p l e i n the House o f Commons. I f t h a t be a c r i m e , I p l e a d g u i l t y t o the c h a r g e . S h o r t l y b e f o r e b e i n g a r r e s t e d , M u i r had o b t a i n e d a French p a s s - p o r t , i n t e n d i n g t o seek r e f u g e i n A m e r i c a . I t was a l o g i c a l s t e p s i n c e the E n g l i s h government's r e p r e s s i v e measures were w i d e l y r e p o r t e d 102 t h r o u g h o u t the U n i t e d S t a t e s . When the s e d i t i o n t r i a l s began, f l a m e s o f o u t r a g e swept a l l A m e r i c a - - f a n n e d by two New York r e p r i n t s ( i n 1794 a l o n e ) o f the t r i a l . One U.S. S e n a t o r summed up the p o p u l a r f e e l i n g : A r e not M u i r and Palmer, and the o t h e r m a r t y r s o f S c o t t i s h d e s p o t i s m , t o a s t e d from one end o f the c o n t i n e n t t o the o t h e r ? 1 1 5 In New E n g l a n d , s c h o o l m a s t e r s were a p p a r e n t l y so moved by the c o u r t p r o c e e d i n g s t h a t e x c e r p t s from M u i r ' s a d d r e s s t o h i s a c c u s e r s were, i n l a t e r y e a r s , used i n l e s s o n s . One contemporary, S c o t t i s h j u d g e Lord Cockburn, remarked: " T h i s i s one o f the cases the memory whereof never p e r i s h e t h , h i s t o r y cannot l e t i.'ts i n j u s t i c e a l o n e . 1 , 1 1 6 M u i r ' s c o n t a c t w i t h America was a r e c i p r o c a l p r o c e s s . H i s p o l i t i c a l l e a n i n g s demanded t h a t he be f a m i l i a r w i t h American l e g i s l a t i v e p r e c e d e n t s and r e v o l u t i o n a r y l i t e r a t u r e ; l i k e w i s e h i s case was r e q u i r e d r e a d i n g i n American r e p u b l i c a n c i r c l e s . On t h i s b a s i s we can p o s i t t h a t d u r i n g h i s f i f t e e n - m o n t h s t a y i n A u s t r a l i a i t i s e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y t h a t the man Lord A d v o c a t e Robert Dundas l a b e l l e d a "demon o f m i s c h i e f " and the " p e s t o f S c o t l a n d " c o u l d have l i m i t e d h i m s e l f p u r e l y t o f a r m i n g a s m a l l p i e c e o f l a n d o p p o s i t e Sydney C o v e . ' ^ 7 Someone o f M u i r ' s i n d e p e n d e n t , c o n f i d e n t p e r s u a s i o n u n d o u b t e d l y would have u t i l i z e d the time t o d e m o n s t r a t e and, where p o s s i b l e , p u b l i c i z e h i s r e p u b l i c a n c o n v i c t i o n s . He had s t a t e d i n h i s t r i a l t h a t he 103 a d v i s e d the p e o p l e t o read d i f f e r e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s upon both s i d e s , which [ t h e q u e s t i o n o f p a r l i a m e n t a r y r e f o r m ] had e x c i t e d , and I am not ashamed t o a s s i g n my m o t i v e s . I c o n s i d e r the i g n o r a n c e o f the p e o p l e , on the one hand, t o be the s o u r c e from w h i c h d e s p o t i s m f l o w s : I c o n s i d e r , upon the o t h e r hand, an i g n o r a n t p e o p l e impressed w i t h a sense o f g r i e v a n c e s , and w i s h i n g t o have t h e s e g r i e v a n c e s r e d r e s s e d , t o be exposed t o c e r t a i n m i s e r y and complete r u i n . Knowledge must a l w a y s precede r e f o r m a t i o n , and who s h a l l d a r e t o say t h a t the p e o p l e s h a l l be d e b a r r e d from i n f o r m a t i o n , where i t c o n c e r n s them so m a t e r i a l l y ? ' ^ F u r t h e r , Governor Hunter.acknowledged i n a J e t t e r b a c k ^ t o Scot 1 and i n September, 1795, t h a t M u i r , S k i r v i n g Margarot and Palmer were a l l " v e r y g i f t e d 1 19 i n powers o f c o n v e r s a t i o n . " M u i r he deemed "a s e n s i b l e modest young man, o f a v e r y r e t i r e d t u r n , " but he was p r o b a b l y as poor a j u d g e o f t h i s a s p e c t o f M u i r ' s c h a r a c t e r as he was t h a t he "seemed t o bear h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i t h n a p r o p e r degree o f f o r t i t u d e and r e s i g n a t i o n . " Some f i v e months a f t e r Hunter r e c o r d e d h i s c h a r a c t e r a s s e s s m e n t , M u i r escaped on the American Ebenezer D o r r ' s f u r t r a d e r , O t t e r . M u i r ' s escape has been r e c o u n t e d f u l l y e l s e w h e r e by two h i s t o r i a n s — M a r j o r i e Masson and J.F. Jameson--in the American H i s t o r i c a l Review 1 20 (1923). B r i e f l y , he was p i c k e d up o f f the c o a s t by the O t t e r on F e b r u a r y 17, 1796, l e a v i n g b e h i n d a l e t t e r s t a t i n g h i s i n t e n t i o n t o p r a c t i s e law i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . He got t o Monterey, C a l i f o r n i a , a f t e r t r a n s f e r r i n g t o the S p a n i s h gunboat, S u t i 1 , where he e x p e c t e d t o o b t a i n the S p a n i s h g o v e r n o r ' s p e r m i s s i o n t o j o i n Joseph P r i e s t l e y and o t h e r r a d i c a l B r i t i s h e x i l e s i n P h i l a d e l p h i a . I n s t e a d , the V i c e r o y o f M e x i c o o r d e r e d him t r a n s p o r t e d t o S p a i n . Aboard the f r i g a t e 1 0 4 N i n f r a when i t was a t t a c k e d by the s e v e n t y - f o u r gun B r i t i s h s h i p I r r e s i s t i b 1 e , M u i r was s e v e r e l y wounded, l o s i n g an eye, which r e s u l t e d i n h i s h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n a t C a d i z . French f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r T a l l e y r a n d , f a m i l i a r w i t h M u i r ' s p a s t , i n t e r c e d e d on h i s b e h a l f and he was t r a n s - f e r r e d t o P a r i s i n December, 1 7 9 7 , where, though i n i t i a l l y something o f a c e l e b r i t y , he soon s l i p p e d i n t o o b s c u r i t y as a r e s u l t o f the c o n s t a n t p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l s . He d i e d a pauper a t C h a n t i l l y , near P a r i s , on J a n u a r y 2 6 , 1 7 9 9 - - b a r e l y seven y e a r s a f t e r h i s i n s p i r i n g a d d r e s s t o the c o n v e n t i o n o f F r i e n d s o f the P e o p l e a t E d i n b u r g h . The e x t r a o r d i n a r y sequence o f e v e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g M u i r ' s escape makes i n t e r e s t i n g r e a d i n g . Two p o i n t s a r e r e l e v a n t h e r e : f i r s t l y , we know t h a t when M u i r a n t i c i p a t e d p r o c e e d i n g t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1 7 9 3 , he and some of h i s c l o s e a s s o c i a t e s w r o t e t o " t h e f i r s t p e o p l e o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s " e n d e a v o u r i n g t o f a m i l i a r i z e them w i t h 1 21 h i s s i t u a t i o n . I t i s c l e a r l y p o s s i b l e t h a t M u i r ' s escape from Botany Bay was p l a n n e d w e l l i n advance, i n d i c a t i n g an i l l i c i t escape c o n n e c t i o n between persons i n the s e t t l e m e n t and American s h i p p i n g / p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s . Hunter c l a i m e d , i n a l e t t e r t o the Home S e c r e t a r y , t h a t " s e v e r a l p e o p l e " escaped on the O t t e r . In f a c t some t h i r t y - t w o b o l t e d f o r freedom--a measure o f both the sheer e f f i c i e n c y o f the o p e r a t i o n and the c o n s i d e r a b l e gap e x i s t i n g between o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s t h a t might r e f l e c t a d v e r s e l y on the c o r r e s p o n d e n t and the a c t u a l 1 2 2 f a c t s . S e c o n d l y , w h i l e i n Monterey, M u i r w r o t e e i g h t l e t t e r s , the f i r s t o f which he s e n t t o George Washington, then P r e s i d e n t o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s . U n l e s s the B r i t i s h p o l i t i c a l scene changed 105 a b r u p t l y , M u i r informed Washington, he i n t e n d e d t o s p e r d the r e s t of h i s l i f e " i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s , happy i f , i n the narrow range o f my a b i l i t i e s , I may be a b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e by t h e i r e x e r t i o n my 123 d e v o t i o n and my a t t a c h m e n t t o the l a n d o f my a d o p t i o n . " G i v e n the o p e n l y a d m i t t e d esteem he had f o r A m e r i c a both b e f o r e and a f t e r h i s time i n A u s t r a l i a , and h i s i n t e n t i o n , d e c l a r e d a t the t r i a l , t o pass on r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n t o the o p p r e s s e d whenever he c o u l d , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o c o n c e i v e o f M u i r not p r o p a g a n d i z i n g i n the c o l o n y whenever he had the oppor tun i t y - - a n d t h i s wasn!:t when t a l k i n g w i t h Governor Hunter. The same may be s a i d o f h i s f o u r c o l l e a g u e s i n e x i l e , a l t h o u g h the impact o f S k i r v i n g and G e r r a l d c o u l d o n l y have been s l i g h t compared t o the o t h e r s . S k i r v i n g , the l e a s t c o m b a t i v e o f the group, f r e t t e d s o r e l y f o r h i s w i f e and c h i l d r e n , f i n a l l y d y i n g o f d y s e n t r y a f t e r o n l y e i g h t e e n months i n the c o l o n y . S i m i l a r l y f o r Joseph G e r r a l d , the e m o t i o n a l u p h e a v a l , a l l i e d w i t h the f o r b i d d i n g p h y s i c a l e f f e c t s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n on a body a l r e a d y c o n s u m p t i v e , proved too much too q u i c k l y . Dead a f t e r o n l y f o u r months i n New South Wales, he would not have had an o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r o p a g a n i z e a t any l e n g t h about h i s s e v e r a 1 . y e a r s 1 e x p e r i e n c e as a lawyer i n P h i l a d e l p h i a i n the busy y e a r s o f the e a r l y 1780's (when the young r e p u b l i c was a t t e m p t i n g t o expand from a league o f f r i e n d - s h i p t o a t r u l y n a t i o n a l body). G e r r a l d had f i r s t - h a n d e x p e r i e n c e o f the now h i s t o r i c C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n , a t t e n d e d by some o f t h e f i n e s t minds i n A m e r i c a , i n c l u d i n g W a s h i n g t o n , F r a n k l i n , M a d i s o n , Wythe, I n g e r s a l l and James W i l s o n . T h i s i n s p i r e d him t o w r i t e s e v e r a l 106 e s s a y s on u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e on h i s r e t u r n t o England i n 1 7 8 8 — w r i t i n g s f a m i l i a r t o many r e s i d e n t s o f New South Wales, even i f 1 2k G e r r a l d b a r e l y had time t o d i s c u s s them i n h i s land o f e x i l e . Perhaps because, u n l i k e M u i r , he i n t e n d e d making a l i t t l e money d u r i n g h i s e n f o r c e d s t a y r a t h e r than r i s k e s c a p e , Thomas Palmer s t i l l managed t o i n c u r the i r e o f the a u t h o r i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t h i s s i x y e a r s i n the c o l o n y . An a c q u a i n t a n c e o f Joseph P r i e s t l e y and h i s r e f o r m i s t Birmingham f r i e n d s i n E n g l a n d , he w r o t e t o a f r i e n d a few weeks b e f o r e b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d t h a t I am not q u i x o t e enough t o a t t e m p t r e f o r m a t i o n i n r e l i g i o n o r p o l i t i c k s under a m i l i t a r y government w i t h a h a l t e r round my n e c k . ' 2 5 U n f o r t u n a t e l y h i s papers and e f f e c t s were l o s t s h o r t l y a f t e r h i s d e a t h . They may w e l l have c l a r i f i e d some o f t h e p u z z l i n g d e t a i l s o f h i s A u s t r a l i a n s t a y . From what we do know, i t i s c l e a r t h a t he was a n y t h i n g but r e s p e c t f u l t o a u t h o r i t y and he c o n s t a n t l y c h a l l e n g e d h i s g a o l e r s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r a c t i o n s r a t h e r than p a s s i v e l y a c c e p t the l o t o f an e x i l e . On h i s way out i n the S u r p r i z e , Palmer ( a l o n g w i t h S k i r v i n g ) was charged by the s n i p ' s c a p t a i n w i t h c o n s p i r i n g t o m u t i n y , w i t h the aim o f assuming command o f the s h i p and t a k i n g her t o France and A m e r i c a . On a r r i v a l i n Botany Bay, the c h a r g e s weren't p u r s u e d , but Governor H u n t e r , d e s p i t e b e i n g i n i t i a l l y impressed by Palmer's s t e a d i - 1 26 •mss, soon had reason t o doubt the v a l i d i t y o f h i s f i r s t judgement. Palmer r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t the t r a d i n g monopoly e n j o y e d by members o f the 107 Rum Corps and, because of t h i s , they i n t u r n a t t e m p t e d t o o s t r a c i z e him. P u b l i c o r d e r s were i s s u e d s t a t i n g t h a t no s o l d i e r c o u l d speak t o him, under p e n a l t y o f one hundred l a s h e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , Palmer, a l o n g w i t h James E l l i s and John B o s t o n , two young f r e e s e t t l e r s who accompanied him on the S u r p r i z e , managed t o pursue s u c c e s s f u l l y s s e v e r a l commercial avenues--among them, s h i p b u i l d i n g , s e a l i n g and m e r c h a n d i s e - t r a d i n g . Palmer r e f u s e d t o be d i s c o u r a g e d : "My f e l l o w - s u f f e r e r s laugh a t me, but I have no s c r u p l e i n s a y i n g i t [ A u s t r a l i a ] 127 i s the f i n e s t c o u n t r y I e v e r saw." As w i t h M u i r , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o imagine t h a t Palmer, though a i m i n g t o s u r v i v e h i s imprisonment, c o u l d i g n o r e h i s e a r l i e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Dundee " F r i e n d s o f L i b e r t y 1 , 1 " a group committed t o p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m and c o m p l e t e l y f a m i l i a r w i t h c u r r e n t r e v o l u t i o n a r y l i t e r a t u r e . Palmer's m y r i a d o f a c t i v i t i e s i n New South Wales would have brought him i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h v i r t u a l l y a l l the i n f l u e n t i a l p e o p l e i n the c o l o n y e x c e p t f o r the g o v e r n o r and m i l i t a r y (a w o r r y i n g s i t u a t i o n f o r t h o s e i n a u t h o r i t y , g i v e n Palmer's p a s t r e c o r d as a promoter o f 128 " l e v e l l i n g d o c t r i n e s " ). For example, he s t r u c k up a c l o s e f r i e n d - s h i p w i t h the s e t t l e m e n t surgeon George Bass, who l e f t h i s l i b r a r y o f books i n Palmer's c a r e when he l e f t f o r England i n 1799- We know he m a i n t a i n e d h i s i n t e r e s t i n e v e n t s a t home, f o r he w r o t e t o a f r i e n d i n A u g u s t , 1797: We have read o v e r and o v e r a g a i n our l i t t l e s t o c k o f books, t h e r e f o r e any c e l e b r a t e d pamphlets t h a t our f r i e n d s have done w i t h , i t would be a c h a r i t y t o send.'29 108 A d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n between Palmer and A m e r i c a cannot be p r o v e n , though he p r o b a b l y i n t e n t i o n a l l y s e l e c t e d Boston and Co. as the name o f h i s Sydney f i r m f o r i t s s y m b o l i c v a l u e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a c u r i o u s e p i s o d e took p l a c e a f t e r h i s death on the S p a n i s h i s l a n d of Guam 1 30 i n June, 1802. Because o f Palmer's u n i t a r i a n b e l i e f s , the C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s on Guam r e f u s e d t o bury him and h i s body was i n t e r r e d on a beach "among p i r a t e s " where i t l a y u n t i l May, 1804, when an American s h i p , the Mary, c a l l e d a t Guam. The c a p t a i n , f a m i l i a r w i t h Palmer's p a s t , conveyed the b o d i l y remnants t o B o s t o n . A t a b l e t was p l a c e d 1 31 o v e r h i s tomb i n one o f the c h u r c h e s o f t h a t c i t y . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a v o i d i n f e r r i n g t h a t d i r e c t c o n t a c t between Palmer and c i t i z e n s o f the new r e p u b l i c was l i k e l y . M a u r i c e M a r g a r o t , the son o f a wine and g e n e r a l merchant, grew up i n a h o u s e h o l d committed t o r e f o r m . H i s f a t h e r belonged t o an a c t i v e p o l i t i c a l group a t a time when the " W i l k e s and L i b e r t y " s l o g a n was r e v e r b e r a t i n g around B r i t a i n . The son adopted many o f h i s f a t h e r ' s f i g h t i n g t e n e t s . An a c q u a i n t a n c e o f the r e v o l u t i o n ' s l e a d e r s , and r e s i d e n t i n 1789 F r a n c e , Margarot had e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f as a t h r e a t t o the Tory e s t a b l i s h m e n t w e l l b e f o r e he r e p r e s e n t e d the London C o r r e s p o n d i n g S o c i e t y a t the B r i t i s h F r i e n d s ' C o n v e n t i o n i n E d i n b u r g h 1 32 i n 1793. In A p r i l , 1792, he penned the f i r s t Address o f the L.C.S., a s s e r t i n g l i b e r t y as e v e r y man's b i r t h r i g h t i n the same manner as P a i n e i n R i g h t s o f Man. L a t e r t h a t y e a r , w i t h L.C.S. l e a d e r , Thomas Hardy, he t r a v e l l e d t o P a r i s w i t h a message o f c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s t o the F r e n c h N a t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n . The communication f o r e c a s t t h a t " t h e 109 t r i p l e a l l i a n c e [not o f Crowns, but] o f the p e o p l e o f A m e r i c a , F r a n c e , and B r i t a i n , w i l l g i v e freedom t o Europe and peace t o the whole 1 33 w o r l d . " Two more pamphlets soon f o l l o w e d . One a d v o c a t e d a b s o l u t e e q u a l i t y b e f o r e the law, and the o t h e r wanted immediate p a r l i a m e n t a r y r e f o r m . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , he too was a r r a i g n e d f o r s e d i t i o n and brought t o t r i a l i n J a n u a r y , 1794--an o c c u r r e n c e b r i n g i n g s m a l l r e l i e f t o h i s a c c u s e r s , f o r i f M a r g a r o t behaved w i t h b r a z e n abandon b e f o r e h i s t r i a l , he a p p a r e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d t o be even more t r u c u l e n t d u r i n g the p r o c e e d i n g s ; the scene was d e s c r i b e d as one o f " I n s o l e n c e , :. 134 E f f r o n t e r y , and P e t u l a n c e u n p a r a l l e l e d . " - The crowd l o v e d i t , 1 35 c h e e r i n g h i s e v e r y p u b l i c appearance. M a r g a r o t ' s a u d a c i o u s b e h a v i o u r c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g h i s e x i l e . Almost i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r l a n d i n g i n Botany Bay he w r o t e t o the commanding o f f i c e r , L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r G r o s e , i n s i s t i n g on "Freedom, the common 1 36 b i r t h r i g h t :of B r i t o n s ! " I t d i d n ' t t a k e l o n g f o r cheek of t h i s k i n d t o i r r i t a t e the l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , and a t l e a s t one s e n i o r o f f i c e r soon c o n s i d e r e d M a r g a r o t ' s " t h e most s e d i t i o u s house i n the c o l o n y " - - an a c c u s a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e ~ a f t e r s e v e r a l i n s u r r e c t i o n a r y i n c i d e n t s i n which M a r g a r o t took p a r t between 1800 and 1804. Governor Hunter c l o s e l y o b s e r v e d M a r g a r o t ' s movements a f t e r he was i n d i r e c t l y l i n k e d w i t h the r e b e l l i o u s p l a n s o f a group o f I r i s h c o n v i c t s i n September-October, 1800. I t seems, however, t h a t Margarot c o n t i n u e d t o propound h i s r e p u b l i c a n f e e l i n g s w i d e l y , u n t r o u b l e d f o r a few 1 37 y e a r s a t l e a s t , d u r i n g K i n g ' s p e r i o d o f g o v e r n o r s h i p . T h i s l a s t e d u n t i l March, 1804, when a band o f c o n v i c t s , l e d by 1 1 0 the Irishman P h i l i p Cunningham, r o s e iin f ut i 1 e r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e i r 1 3 8 b e t t e r - e q u i p p e d k e e p e r s . A few months l a t e r , King o r d e r e d the s e i z i n g o f M a r g a r o t ' s p a p e r s . What he found f u r t h e r prompts one t o c o n s i d e r the d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e r e e x i s t i n g i n the c o l o n y an i l l i c i t network of r e p u b l i c a n bases aimed a t u n d e r m i n i n g t h o s e 1 39 i n power. K i n g saw f i t t o comment on " t h e v e r y e l e g a n t R e p u b l i c a n s e n t i m e n t s " c o n t a i n e d i n M a r g a r o t ' s p o s s e s s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a t t a c k s on h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as w e l l as. B r i t i s h m i n i s t e r s , c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h E n g l i s h s y m p a t h i z e r s , and a r e c o r d o f r e p e a t e d meetings w i t h 1 4 o l o c a l r a d i c a l s . At one p o i n t , M a r g a r o t even r e c o r d e d h i s a n t i c i p a t i o n o f a r e p u b l i c i n A u s t r a l i a : " I t has been o b s e r v e d t h a t the Empire o f the World has u n i f o r m l y moved from E a s t t o W e s t - - i n makingvthe c i r c u i t o f the g l o b e i t must, t h e r e f o r e , a f t e r A m e r i c a has e n j o y e d i t , make 141 i t s way e a s t w a r d once more." Of the f i v e m a r t y r s , Margarot s t a y e d l o n g e s t i n A u s t r a l i a - - s i x t e e n y e a r s i n a l l . Given h i s r e c o r d b e f o r e , d u r i n g and a f t e r e x i l e , \ M a r g a r o t ' s sheer p r e s e n c e , l e t a l o n e h i s i n f l a m m a t o r y t e n d e n c i e s , would have e x e r t e d a v i g o r o u s e f f e c t on a s e t t l e m e n t s t i l l s m a l l enough f o r him t o be known by s i g h t t o v i r t u a l l y e v e r y r e s i d e n t . " M a r g a r o t ' s f e e l i n g f o r s o c i a l j u s t i c e was t r u e , " one h i s t o r i a n has 1 4 2 w r i t t e n , "and i n him the i n t e l l e c t u a l ' l e f t ' came t o A u s t r a l i a . " In 1 8 1 0 , Sydney l o s t the l a s t o f the S c o t s t r a n s p o r t e d f o r s e d i t i o n , but not b e f o r e i t had w i t n e s s e d , o v e r the p r e v i o u s f i f t e e n y e a r s , two m a r t y r s ' deaths and the p r e s e n c e f o r d i f f e r i n g p e r i o d s o f t h r e e p o t e n t i a l l y e x p l o s i v e a d v o c a t e s o f the r e p u b l i c a n cause. For reasons 111 o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n they may have been l o a t h t o r e f e r t o Governors Hunter, K i n g and B l i g h by the d e m o c r a t i c e p i t h e t " f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s " ; y e t i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t any o f them c o u l d have f o r s a k e n the p r i n c i p l e s 143 f o r which they had so b i t t e r l y f o u g h t i n B r i t a i n . T h e i r S c o t t i s h 144 countrymen d i d n ' t f o r g e t them. Nor would A u s t r a l i a . The s t a n d taken i n the l a t e l 8 2 0's by r a d i c a l Sydney newspaper e d i t o r s s u g g e s t s c l o s e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h the v a l u e s - - a n d American p r e c e d e n t s - - f i r s t a i r e d i n the c o l o n y by the M a r t y r s from S c o t l a n d . Thomas M u i r was o n l y one o f many c o n v i c t s t o stow away, buy o r beg h i s way on board a d e p a r t i n g American boat. We l a c k w i d e s p r e a d d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h i s phenomenon s i m p l y because no g o v e r n o r o r g o v e r n - m e n t o f f i c i a l who v a l u e d h i s p o s i t i o n was l i k e l y t o i n f o r m h i s London s u p e r i o r s t h a t escapes were commonplace. Governor Hunter's r e a c t i o n t o M u i r ' s escape was p r o b a b l y t y p i c a l . C o n f r o n t e d by the escape o f o v e r t h i r t y p e o p l e on the O t t e r , he f o r w a r d e d a d i s p a t c h t o the Home 145 S e c r e t a r y which r e c o r d e d the f l i g h t o f a mere " s e v e r a l p e o p l e . " A c o u p l e o f y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1 7 9 8 , he r e c o r d e d the escape o f a c o n v i c t 146 named Evan Morgan on the American s h i p Argo. G i v e n Hunter's a p p a r e n t tendency t o u n d e r e s t i m a t e , i t seems h i g h l y l i k e l y Morgan had some c o n v i c t company. D u r i n g h i s p e r i o d as Governor, King became so i r r i t a t e d by the number o f escapes t h a t he began r e g u l a t i n g the v i s i t s o f American s h i p s t o the c o l o n y . In June, 1 8 0 4 , he i s s u e d o r d e r s t o t h i s e f f e c t , c i t i n g as one o f h i s reasons the c o n s t a n t p r a c t i c a l a s s i s t a n c e American boats gave t o e s c a p i n g c o n v i c t s . S t i l l the p r a c t i c e c o n t i n u e d , f o r 1.12 i n the Sydney G a z e t t e o f August 12, 1804, n o t i c e was g i v e n t h a t no s e a l i n g v e s s e l "under F o r e i g n C o l o u r s " c o u l d r e t u r n t o a p o r t from which i t had been d i s c h a r g e d . A c t i n g S e c r e t a r y B l a x s e l l t e s t i l y o u t l i n e d one reason as " t h e I n j u r y H i s M a j e s t y ' s S e r v i c e s u s t a i n s by the numerous C o n v i c t s t h a t have escaped and been r e c e i v e d on board 147 American Merchant S h i p s on t h e i r D e p a r t u r e . " Escapes c o n t i n u e d unabated, f o r i n December o f the same y e a r King c o m p l a i n e d t h a t the American s h i p Un ion had i l l e g a l l y d e p a r t e d nearby N o r f o l k I s l a n d w i t h e l e v e n men on b o a r d , a i m i n g a t a s p e c u l a t i v e voyage around the i s l a n d s . A p p a r e n t l y the s i t u a t i o n was no b e t t e r as l a t e as 1821, when Commissioner Bigge saw f i t t o mention i t as a p e r e n n i a l c o n c e r n i n a l e t t e r t o London. The a u r a A m e r i c a h e l d f o r some c o n v i c t s e v i d e n t l y w i t h s t o o d both t r a v e l and d i s l o c a t i o n . Sent t o the new s e t t l e m e n t i n the P o r t P h i l l i p Bay r e g i o n , E n g l i s h c o n v i c t W i l l i a m B u c k l e y escaped i n t o the w i l d s w i t h a few companions: He and h i s comrades had o r i g i n a l l y thought o f w a l k i n g t o C a l i f o r n i a ; f o r they were not educated men, and t h e i r geography was weak; but when B u c k l e y was l e f t s o l i t a r y , he made no such a t t e m p t , because o f the d i s t a n c e p a r t l y , and p a r t l y because he was i n doubt as t o C a l i f o r n i a ' s p r e c i s e whereabouts.^*9 I f some c o n v i c t s s e c u r e d freedom as a r e s u l t o f the A m e r i c a - i n s p i r e d s t o r i e s abounding i n the c o l o n y , o t h e r s a p p a r e n t l y a c t e d on t a l e s one o r two removes from the t r u t h , a t t h e i r p e r i l . O c c a s i o n a l l y , g o s s i p c i r c u l a t i n g the grog shops o f Sydney had s t r a n g e consequences i n 113 a r e a s t o t a l l y removed from the s o u r c e . When the Un i on v i s i t e d Sydney i n J a n u a r y and June o f 1804, her crew members so h i g h l y p r a i s e d the c l i m a t e and economic p o t e n t i a l of Kangaroo I s l a n d t h a t o t h e r seamen passed on the i n f o r m a t i o n i n Tasmania d u r i n g t h e i r f i s h i n g voyages. Four Van Diemonian c o n v i c t s responded by s t e a l i n g a whale- _ boat and heading f o r the a c c l a i m e d i s l a n d o f m i l k and honey, accompanied by f o u r Tasmanian a b o r i g i n a l g i r l s , B e t t y , B u m b l e f o o t , Pussy and Sukey. They made i t , e v e n t u a l l y e s t a b l i s h i n g a camp i n the a r e a o f p r e s e n t - d a y K i n g s c o t e . ' The p e r v a s i v e American p r e s e n c e i n the i n f a n t c o l o n y , i f begun by the a l m o s t immediate a r r i v a l o f Yankee t r a d e r s and s e a l e r s , c o u l d o n l y have been f u r t h e r s t i m u l a t e d by the w o r l d - w i d e p u b l i c i t y a c c o r d e d the t r i a l s , and u l t i m a t e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , of the f i v e " S c o t t i s h M a r t y r s . " Each man propounded a s t r o n g a t t a c h m e n t t o the new American democracy i n the arena where he had most t o l o s e - - t h e High C o u r t . There i s l i t t l e l i k e l i h o o d , as has been shown, t h a t they would have l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y f u r t h e r e d the r e p u b l i c a n cause i n A u s t r a l i a . D e s p i t e b e i n g warned by L t . Gov. Groseon a r r i v a l t o a v o i d "a r e c i t a l o f t h o s e \ p o l i t i c k s " t h a t had caused them so much m i s e r y , i t seems l i k e l y t h a t when M u i r and h i s countrymen s e t t l e d i n and around Sydney, the s i n k o f w i c k e d n e s s was f o r the f i r s t time i n t r o d u c e d t o the i d e a s f o r w h i c h the War o f Independence had been f o u g h t . T o m P a i n e and h i s d e m o c r a t i c b r o t h e r h o o d had a r r i v e d , though i t would be many y e a r s b e f o r e t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s c o u l d p u b l i c l y c e l e b r a t e the f a c t . 1/4- CHAPTER I. ENDNOTES John West, The H i s t o r y o f Tasmania ( L a u n c e s t o n , Tasmania: Henry D o w l i n g , 1852), I I , 339-40. 2 In 1791, the r e v e r s e would o c c u r . Food and s u p p l i e s from Botany Bay a i d e d C a p t a i n George Vancouver i n h i s e x p l o r a t o r y j o u r n e y a l o n g the n o r t h - w e s t c o a s t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a . See Gordon Greenwood, E a r l y A m e r i c a n - A u s t r a l i a n R e l a t i o n s (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1944), pp. 59~62. 3 The S p a n i s h voyages a r e t a k e n up by Greenwood i n E a r l y A m e r i c a n - A u s t r a l i a n R e l a t i o n s , C h a p t e r I For i n f o r m a t i o n on the Endeavour's f a t e , see K y l i e Tennant, A u s t r a l i a : Her S t o r y (London: M a c m i l l a n , 1956), p. 10. 5 The s i l v e r s m i t h , Paul R e v e r e , even saw f i t t o i n c l u d e the " W i l k e s and L i b e r t y " s l o g a n on a punchbowl d e d i c a t e d t o the "Immortal 92" members o f the M a s s a c h u s e t t s assembly who r e f u s e d t o r e s c i n d a c i r c u l a r l e t t e r they had e a r l i e r adopted c r i t i c i z i n g the n a t u r e o f the Townshend A c t s . See Samuel E l i o t M o r i s o n , The O x f o r d H i s t o r y o f the American P e o p l e (New York: O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1965), P- 193- B o s t o n i a n Sons o f L i b e r t y t o W i l k e s (June 6, 1768), quoted i n B e r n a r d Ba i1yn , The I deo1og i ca1 O r i g i n s o f the Amer i can R e v o l u t i on (Cambridge: H a r v a r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1967), P- 111. 115 7 See below, C h a p t e r I I I , s e c t i o n C. g Norman B a r t l e t t , 1776-1976: A u s t r a l i a and America Through Two Hundred Years (Sydney: Ure S m i t h , 1976), p. 8. For i n f o r m a t i o n about the Americans aboard the Endeavour, I am i n d e b t e d t o B a r t l e t t , pp. 8-21. Q Greenwood, p. 38. ^ See below, C h a p t e r I, s e c t i o n b. ^ ' Greenwood, p. 39. 1 2 L o y a l i s t s numbered about one t h i r d o f the p o p u l a t i o n o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s when t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y war began. 1 3 London, 1783- See Greenwood, p. 46. 1 4 Quoted i n Greenwood, p. 48. ^ Greenwood, pp. 46-51. ^ Greenwood, pp. 51~3- 1 7 John Hunter (Governor from 1795-9); P h i l i p G i d l e y King (1799- 1806); W i l l i a m B l i g h (1807-8). See, f o r example, Robert L a c o u r - Gayet, A C o n c i s e H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a (Harmondsworth: P e n g u i n , 1976), C h a p t e r s i x . 18 A i t c h i s o n , Thanks t o the Yanks, p. 2. 19 Werner L e v i , A m e r i c a n - A u s t r a l i a n R e l a t i o n s ( M i n n e a p o l i s : U n i v . o f M i n n e s o t a , 1947), p. 4. 20 Quoted i n Greenwood, p. 118. 21 See Greenwood, Appendix I. 116 22 John Dunmore Lang d r y l y noted t h a t " d u r i n g Governor K i n g ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n the p o p u l a t i o n o f New South Wales c o n s i s t e d c h i e f l y o f t h o s e who s o l d rum, and of t h o s e who drank i t . . . ." (John Dunmore Lang, Aji H i s t o r i ca 1 and S t a t i s t i ca 1 Account o f New South Wa1e s , Both as a_ Penal S e t t 1 ement and as a_ B r i t i s h C o l o n y (London: Cochrane S M'Crone, 1834), I, 78. 23 Greenwood, p. 128. 24 P a r l i a m e n t o f A u s t r a l i a , J o i n t L i b r a r y Committee, H i s t o r i cai Records o f A u s t r a l i a (Sydney, 1914- ) , s e r . 1, V I I , 479, 202. H e r e a f t e r , s o u r c e w i l l be c i t e d as HRA. 25 See Greenwood, Appendix I. 26 See, f o r example, H.A. L i n d s a y , "An American S e t t l e m e n t i n A u s t r a l i a , 1803," Quadrant, 5, No. 2 (Autumn 196l), 43- 27 Herman M e l v i l l e , Moby D i c k (1851; r p t . New York: W.W. N o r t o n , 1967), p. 100. 28 Compare the a c c o u n t s o f Greenwood and L e v i w i t h L.G. Church- ward, "Notes on American Whaling A c t i v i t i e s i n A u s t r a l i a n Waters 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 5 0 H i s t o r i c a l S t u d i e s , 4, No. 13 (Nov. 1949), 59-63. 29 Churchward, p. 60 ( c f . Greenwood, p. 67). 30 Churchward, p. 59 Ic.f. Greenwood, p. 67, and L e v i , p. 26). 3 1 HRA, I, i i i , 765:• 32 Greenwood, pp. 67-8. 33 The a d v e n t u r e s o f t h r e e o f the f i r s t American e x p e d i t i o n s i n t o A u s t r a l i a n w a t e r s - - n a m e l y C a p t a i n Isaac P e n d l e t o n ' s U n i o n , C a p t a i n P e r c i v a l ' s Char 1es and Amasa Delano's P i 1 g r i m - - a t t e s t t o 117 some o f the c o l o u r and c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u n d i n g t h i s a s p e c t o f American i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the c o l o n y . See Greenwood, C h a p t e r I I I , e s p e c i a l l y pp. 82-96. For more on Delano, see below, C h a p t e r I I I , s e c t i o n c- 34 HRA, 1, i i i , 636. T h i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t , s i n c e B r i t i s h r e l a t i o n s w i t h France were s o r e l y s t r a i n e d . In a g r e e i n g t o the T r e a t y o f Amiens (March, 1802) , B r i t a i n s u r r e n d e r e d a l l her c o l o n i a l c o n q u e s t s e x c e p t C e y l o n and T r i n i d a d . 35 See L e v i , pp. 28~9; Greenwood, pp. 82-3. 3 6 M o r i s o n , p. 382. 3 7 HRA, I, v i i , 523. 3 8 See HRA, I, v i i , 700, 728, 830; v i i i , 312, 352. 3 9 B a t h u r s t t o M a c q u a r i e (August 19, 1813), HRA, I, v i i i , 72. 4o See Greenwood, pp. 105 - 110. 41 See Greenwood, pp. 111-115. 42 A d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n o f the s t o r y was g i v e n i n the Sydney G a z e t t e some months l a t e r ( F e b r u a r y 22, 1815)- 43 Greenwood, p. 114, f o o t n o t e 78. ^ London C o u r i e r , June 2, 1813; HRA, I, i x , 57, 849. See L e v i , p. 20. 45 A peace t r e a t y was s i g n e d a t Ghent on December 24, l 8 l 4 . 46 B a t h u r s t t o M a c q u a r i e (December 11, 1815), HRA, I, v i i i , 648. 47 B a t h u r s t t o M a c q u a r i e (March 8, l 8 l 6 ) , HRA, I, i x , 42-3- See Greenwood, pp. 1 3 9 " 4 l . 48 B r i s b a n e t o B a t h u r s t (June 25, 1825) , HRA, I, x i , 674. 118 49 Sydney G a z e t t e , August 21, 1832. See E. D a n i e l and A n n e t t e P o t t s , Young America and A u s t r a l i a n G o l d : Americans and the Gold Rush of the 18501s ( S t . L u c i a : U n i v . o f Queensland P r e s s , 1974), p. 1. ^ Churchward, "American W h a l i n g , " p. 62. A U.S. c o n s u l was a p p o i n t e d t o Hobart i n 1843 and Melbourne i n 1852. See L e v i , p. 35. 52 See M c L a c h l a n , pp. 372-3• 53 N.D. M c L a c h l a n , "'The F u t u r e A m e r i c a ' : Some B i c e n t e n n i a l R e f l e c t i o n s , " H i s t o r i c a l S t u d i e s , 17, No. 68 ( A p r i l 1977), 365. 54 A l a n F r o s t , ' " ' A s i t were a n o t h e r A m e r i c a , ' " E i g h t e e n t h - C e n t u r y S t u d i e s , 7, No. 3 ( S p r i n g 1974), 270. 55 Quoted i n M c L a c h l a n , p. 366. ^ Banks t o Gov. Hunter (March, 1797), H i s t o r i c a l Records of New South Wales, I I I , 202-3. H e r e a f t e r , s o u r c e w i l l be c i t e d as HRNSW. ^ Ian T u r n e r , The A u s t r a l i a n Dream (Melbourne: Sun Books, 1968), p. 2. 58 Aust r a 1 i a, wi t h o t h e r poems, p. 41, quoted i n C o r a l L a n s b u r y , A r c a d y i n A u s t r a l i a (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1970), p. 16. 59 [ A l e x a n d e r D a l r y m p l e ] , A S e r i o u s A d m o n i t i o n t o the P u b l i c k , on the " I n t e n d e d " T h i e f - C o l o n y a t Botany Bay (London, 1786), quoted i n F r o s t , p. 265. ^ Samuel J o h n s o n , Po1i t i ca1 Wr i t ? ngs, V o l . X o f The Y a l e E d i t i o n o f the Works o f Samuel Johnson, ed. Donald J . Greene (New Haven: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977), pp. 443-4. 119 6 ' John P i n k e r t o n , Modern Geography, 2nd ed. (London, 1807), quoted i n F r o s t , p. 256. 62 Smith was, i n f a c t , " q u a s i e d i t o r " o f the f i r s t number. See Sheldon H a l p e r n , Sydney Smith (New York: Twayne, 1966), p. 30. Co The f i r s t a r t i c l e , " A u s t r a l i a , " was p u b l i s h e d i n 1803; the l a s t , "New South Wales," was p u b l i s h e d i n J a n u a r y , 1828. 64 Sydney S m i t h , The Works o f the Reverend Sydney S m i t h , 3 v o l s , i n one (New York: A p p l e t o n , i860), p. 21 ( c f . p. I 4 l ) . 6 5 The o t h e r two appeared i n J a n u a r y , 1820, and i n J u l y , 1824. 6 6 S m i t h , pp. 112, 141. 6 7 '..'Sydney S m i t h , " N a t i o n , XXII (March 9, 1876) , 164. 68 Sydney S m i t h , The L e t t e r s o f Sydney S m i t h , ed. Nowell L. Smith ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1953), I, 305- 69 S m i t h , p. 140. See a l s o pp. 115, 202-9. 7°:Smith, pp. 108-9, 202-4. 7 1 S m i t h , pp. 122-4. 7 2 S m i t h , p. 130. [Sydney S m i t h ] , "New South Wales," E d i n b u r g h Review, XLVII ( J a n u a r y 1828) , 87. 7 k S m i t h , p. 179; [ S m i t h ] , "New South Wales,"' p. 97. 7 5 Bentham t o J a c k s o n , i n Andrew J a c k s o n , Correspondence o f Andrew J a c k s o n , ed. J.S. B a s s e t t , IV (Washington: C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n , 1931), 46. 7 6 " T r a v e l s" of- Duncan,' F*J j n t . a n.d. Fauy i n_ .the. United,. S t a t e s , " W e s t m i n s t e r Review, 1, No. 1 ( J a n u a r y 1824), 102. 120 7 7 Jeremy Bentham, The Works o f Jeremy Bentham, ed. John Bowring (London, 1838-43;•rpt. New York: R u s s e l l and R u s s e l l , 1962), I, 490. 78 Bentham, p. 497. 79 "A Voyage Around the W o r l d , " i n James Montgomery, Poems o f James Montgomery, ed. R.A. W i l l m o t t (London: R o u t l e d g e , Warne & R o u t l e d g e , i860) , p. 264. 80 See "The S p i r i t of D i s c o v e r y , " i n W i l l i a m L i s l e Bowles, The P o e t i c a l Works o f W i l l i a m L i s l e Bowles, ed. G. G i l f i l l a n ( E d i n b u r g h : W.P. Nimmo, 1855), p. 289. 81 C h a r l e s Lamb, The Works o f C h a r l e s and Mary Lamb, ed. E.V. L u c a s , I (London: Methuen, 1903), 197- Oo Lamb, VI ( 1 9 0 5 ) , 500-1. go W i l l i a m H a z l i t t , The Spi r i t o f the Age (1825; r p t . London: Grant R i c h a r d s , 1904), p. 265. 84 W i l l i a m H a z l i t t , The Complete Works o f W i l l i a m H a z l i t t , ed. P.P. Howe, XX (London: J . J . Dent, 1934), 136. 85 Robert Southey, The P o e t i c a l Works o f Robert Southey (London: Longman, 1838), I I , 72, 74. See a l s o F r e d e r i c ' s impassioned p l e a f o r d i v i n e f o r g i v e n e s s , p. 89. 86 Robert Southey, New L e t t e r s o f Robert Southey, ed. Kenneth C u r r y (New York: Columbia U n i v . P r e s s , 1965), I, 57. See a l s o I I , 36. 87 Quoted i n L a n s b u r y , p. 19. John Keats a l s o c o n c e i v e d o f New Holland as a l a s t and d e s p e r a t e f r o n t i e r . See John K e a t s , The L e t t e r s o f John K e a t s , ed. M a u r i c e Buxton Forman, 3 r d . ed. (London: O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1947), p. 455. 121 88 Samuel T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e , The Complete Works of Samuel T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e , ed. W.G.T. Shedd (New York: H a r p e r , 1884), I I I , 623-4. For C o l e r i d g e ' s l a t e r t h o u g h t s on t h i s "stormy t i m e " i n h i s l i f e when A m e r i c a " r e a l l y i n s p i r e d Hope," see Samuel T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e , Inqu i r i ng S p i r i t , ed. K a t h l e e n Coburn (London: R o u t l e d g e and Kegan P a u l , 1 9 5 0 , P- 54. 8 9 Q u a r t e r l y Review, L I M , No. 105 ( F e b r u a r y 1835), 95- R e p r i n t e d i n I n q u i r i n g S p i r i t , p. 336. 9 0 See Edward Gibbon W a k e f i e l d , A L e t t e r From Sydney (1829; r p t . London: J.M. Dent, 1929), pp. 34-6, 66-9, 73"5, 156-9. 91 A r c h i b a l d A l i s o n (1833), quoted i n D a v i d Paul Crook, American Democracy i n E n g l i s h P o l i t i c s : 1815"1850 ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1965), E p i g r a p h . 92 A_ N a r r a t i v e o f the S u f f e r i ngs o f T. F. Pa 1 mer and W. S k i r v i ng D u r i n g a Voyage t o New South Wales (Cambridge, 1797), quoted i n M a r j o r i e Masson and J.F. Jameson, "The Odyssey o f Thomas M u i r , " American H i s t o r i c a l Review, XXIX (1923), 54. The f i v e " S c o t t i s h M a r t y r s " w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . 93 The f i r s t two L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r s , Robert Ross and F r a n c i s G r o s e , both f o u g h t a t Bunker's H i l l . See C.M.H. C l a r k , A H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a , I (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1962), 132-3; M c L a c h l a n , pp. 367-8. q/. See, f o r example, Gov. King t o P o r t l a n d ( J u l y 8, 1801), HRA, 1 , iii, 111-112; HRA, 1, V, 631. 95 A u s t r a l i a n D i c t i o n a r y o f B i o g r a p h y , ed. A.G.L. Shaw and C.M.H. 122 C l a r k , I (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1966) , 373-4. H e r e a f t e r , s o u r c e w i l l be c i t e d as ADB. 96 The e x c l u s i o n i s t s were so named because o f t h e i r s t r i c t e x c l u s i o n o f e m a n c i p i s t s from t h e i r s o c i e t y . See K.S. I n g l i s , The A u s t r a l i a n C o l o n i s t s (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1974), p. 14. 97 See A.W. J o s e , B u i l d e r s and P i o n e e r s o f A u s t r a l i a (London: J.M. Dent, 1928), p. 46. 98 y o HRA, 1, x i i , 775- QQ Sydney G a z e t t e , A u s t u s t 24, 1827. L e t t e r t o the London Morning C h r o n i c l e , e x t r a c t e d i n the A u s t r a l i a n , March 3, 1825, and quoted i n M c L a c h l a n , p. 369. ^ C.M.H. [Manning] C l a r k , A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a (New York: Mentor, 1963) , pp. 72-3- 102 Quoted i n I n g l i s , p. 14. 1 0 3 See, f o r example, Z.W. Pease, The C a t a l p a E x p e d i t i o n (New B e d f o r d , Mass.: George S. Anthony, 1897); Bruce Rosen, "The ' C a t a l p a ' Rescue," J o u r n a l o f the Royal A u s t r a l i a n H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , 65, P t . 2 (Sept. 1979), 73-90. H e r e a f t e r , s o u r c e w i l l be c i t e d as JRAHS. 104 L.G. Churchward, " A u s t r a l i a n - A m e r i c a n R e l a t i o n s d u r i n g the Gold Rush," H i s t o r i c a l S t u d i e s , 2, No. 5 ( A p r i l 1942), 11. A_ Voyage o f Di s c o v e r y t o the N o r t h P a c i f i c Ocean (London, 1804), quoted i n Masson and Jameson, p. 56. 1 06 See Tennant, A u s t r a 1 i a , p. 23. Henry W. M e i k l e , S c o t l a n d and the French R e v o l u t i o n (Glasgow: James M a c l e h o s e , 1912), p. 146. 123 1 08 M i l l a r , a prominent " F r i e n d o f the P e o p l e " i n 1792, l a t e r e m i g r a t e d t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s . For more i n f o r m a t i o n , see M e i k l e , pp. 106-111, 157- 109 Dr. S o m e r v i l l e , o f J e d b u r g h , quoted i n M e i k l e , p. 1. See C a l e d o n i a n M e r c u r y , March 3, 1784. ^ See M e i k l e , p. 2 ( a l s o p. 15). 1 1 2 By l a t e 1792, M u i r had adopted a r a d i c a l p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n (see M e i k l e , p. 109). H i s t r i a l was h e l d i n E d i n b u r g h on August 30-31, 1793. 113 An Account o f the T r i a l of Thomas Mui r , Esq., Younger o f Huntersh i l l , 2nd ed. (New York: Samuel C a m p b e l l , 1793), pp. 5-7. 1 14 Quoted i n Masson and Jameson, p. 51. ^ 5 The s p e a k e r was S e n a t o r G i l e s , i n the Senate on November 26, 1794 ( A n n a l s of C o n g r e s s , IV, 918). Quoted i n Masson and Jameson, p. 55- 116 Quoted i n M e i k l e , p. 131 ( c f . poem on p. 173). Quoted i n M e i k l e , pp. 133-4. 118 Quoted i n Masson and Jameson, p. 51. 1 1 9 HRNSW, I I , 856. 1 20 Masson and Jameson, pp. 55-71. See a l s o B a r t l e t t , pp. 34~5; ADB, I I, 266-7. 121 Quoted i n Masson and Jameson, p. 55. 1 22 See Masson and Jameson, pp. 57"8. 1 23 Quoted i n Masson and Jameson, p. 62. 1 24 See ADB, I, 438. 124 1 2 5 P a l m e r t o J . T . R u t t ( M a r c h 12, 1794), q u o t e d i n M a r j o r i e M a s s o n , " T h o m a s F y s h e P a l m e r , a P o l i t i c a l E x i l e , 1793," S c o t t i s h H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , X I I I , N o . 49 ( O c t . 1915), 162-3. l ?6 See HRNSW, I I , 882. 1 27 P a l m e r t o D r . D i s n e y ( A u g u s t 14, 1797), q u o t e d i n M a s s o n , p . 165- S h e r i f f o f P e r t h t o R. Graham (November 22, 1792), q u o t e d i n M e i k l e , .p. 98. 1 29 P a l m e r t o D r . D i s n e y ( A u g u s t 14, 1797), q u o t e d i n M a s s o n , p . 166. 1 30 P a l m e r l e f t S y d n e y f o r B r i t a i n i n J a n u a r y , 1801, on t h e u n s e a w o r t h y S p a n i s h s h i p , E l P 1 u m i e r , a f t e r s e r v i n g h i s s e v e n - y e a r s e n t e n c e . A f t e r a t e r r i b l e j o u r n e y t h e s h i p , a l m o s t s i n k i n g , p u t i n a t Guam. P a l m e r d i e d s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s . 1 3 1 A D B , I I , 312-13- 1 32 T h e L . C . S . was more r a d i c a l t h a n t h e S o c i e t y o f t h e F r i e n d s o f t h e P e o p l e . 133 Q u o t e d i n M i c h a e l R o e , " M a u r i c e M a r g a r o t : A R a d i c a l i n Two H e m i s p h e r e s , 1792-1815," Bui 1et i n o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h , X X X I , N o . 83 (May 1958), 69- 134 Q u o t e d i n R o e , p . 70. 1 35 One r e a s o n f o r t h i s s u p p o r t was t h a t t h e L . C . S . p r i n t e d no l e s s t h a n 100,000 c o p i e s o f M a r g a r o t ' s i n d i c t m e n t ( S e e M e i k l e , p . 145) 1 36 Q u o t e d i n R o e , p . 72. 1 37 J / See R o e , p . 73- 125 1 3ft See I n g l i s , pp. 178-81; G e o f f r e y Chapman I n g l e t o n , ed., True P a t r i o t s A l 1 (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1952), p. 31. 1 39 M a r g a r o t had b u r n t some papers a few days b e f o r e the o u t - break (Roe, p. 74) . 140 See, f o r example, HRA, 1, v, 535- 141 Quoted i n Roe, p. 74. 14? ADB, I I , 206. ] k 3 See M e i k l e , p. 107. 144 See M e i k l e , p. 238. ] k S HRNSW, I I I , 47. 1 kfi Hunter t o U n d e r - S e c r e t a r y King (Nov. 1, 1798), HRA, 1, i i ; 235. 1 47 Sydney G a z e t t e , August 12, 1804. 148 Bigge t o G o u l b u r n , October 31, 1821, quoted i n J . J . Eddy, B r i t a i n and the A u s t r a l i a n C o l o n i e s : 1818 — 31 ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1969), p. 247 (See a l s o p. 250). I t i s worth n o t i n g t h a t John Dunmore Lang, w h i l e t r a v e l l i n g t h r o u g h the U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1840, met an e x - c o n v i c t who c l a i m e d he had met a " c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f B r i t i s h c o n v i c t s i n was not s u r p r i s i n g , s i n c e the background o f some o f the community's most n o t e w o r t h y c i t i z e n s - - p r o m i n e n t i n a r e a s such as law, r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s , e d u c a t i o n and bus i n e s s - - _ a t t e s t e d t o a f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h America and d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s . F r a n c i s F o r b e s , f i r s t C h i e f J u s t i c e o f the Supreme C o u r t and thus the o n l y man i n the c o l o n y a b l e t o l e g a l l y / v e t o government b i l l s , was one. H i s c r u c i a l r o l e i n the d e f e a t o f s e v e r a l o f the most r e p r e s s i v e o f D a r l i n g ' s measures t o c o u n t e r a c t p r e s s s e d i t i o n r e f l e c t e d a commitment t o Whig l i b e r a l p r i n c i p l e s . D a r l i n g r e m o n s t r a t e d a g a i n s t F o r b e s ' m a n i f e s t 8k "Yankee p r i n c i p l e s . " L a t e r , p r e s i d i n g over a d i f f i c u l t case i n v o l v i n g one of the c o l o n y ' s l e a d i n g p r o p e r t i e d c i t i z e n s , John M a c a r t h u r , Forbes found both s i d e s c u l p a b l e but o r d e r e d M a c a r t h u r t o pay the 153 ^300 c o s t s . M a c a r t h u r ' s son had e a r l y a n t i c i p a t e d the d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t l a y ahead f o r members o f he and h i s f a t h e r ' s c l a s s when d e a l i n g w i t h a man whose u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e v e r y c i t i z e n ' s r i g h t s would i n - e v i t a b l y cause him " t o q u e s t i o n l o c a l r e g u l a t i o n s w h i c h , a l t h o u g h 85 o f m a n i f e s t u t i l i t y , a r e not s t r i c t l y s a n c t i o n e d by law." So an o b j e c t i v e and, above a l l , j u s t d e c i s i o n was p r o b a b l y t o be e x p e c t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y from a man who, i n the o p i n i o n o f a fe11ow-judge, had g h i s mind "from e a r l y e d u c a t i o n . . . imbued w i t h American s y m p a t h i e s . " Exposure t o d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s d i d indeed f i g u r e i r i n F o r b e s 1 background. H i s g r a n d f a t h e r , o f S c o t t i s h a n c e s t r y , had s e t t l e d i n the Bermudas and, w i t h h i s s o n s , e s t a b l i s h e d commercial i n t e r e s t s i n nearby A m e r i c a . Forbes a p p a r e n t l y a t t e n d e d s c h o o l and t r a v e l l e d w i d e l y on the m a i n l a n d , thus a b s o r b i n g " p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n s o f the 87 f r e e s t t e n d e n c y . " A c o n s i s t e n t a d v o c a t e o f c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l r i g h t s of man, he not o n l y r e j e c t e d D a r l i n g ' s Stamp A c t , but a l s o i n t r o d u c e d t r i a l by j u r y (of f r e e men and c u r r e n c y l a d s ) and s t o o d f i r m l y behind a p o l i c y o f o p e n i n g the l a n d s f o r the s m a l l s e t t l e r . Large e s t a t e s , Forbes m a i n t a i n e d , would o n l y encourage a p l u t o c r a c y o f the v e r y few-- a view no doubt c a u s a l l y l i n k e d t o M a c a r t h u r ' s a t t a c k on him as a 88 "dangerous, d e t e s t a b l e , u n p r i n c i p l e d , immoral, base and a r t f u l man." Other prominent c i t i z e n s i n the c o l o n y s h a r i n g F o r b e s ' commitment t o c e r t a i n l i b e r a l American i d e a l s i n c l u d e d John McEncroe, James McEachern, Timothy P i t m a n , P r o s p e r de M e s t r e , and even t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e Edward Deas Thomson. Born i n A r d s a l l a g h , I r e l a n d , McEncroe, a C a t h o l i c p r i e s t (and l a t e r a r c h d e a c o n ) , was o r d a i n e d i n 1819 a t the age of 154 t w e n t y - f i v e . Three y e a r s l a t e r he v o l u n t e e r e d t o accompany B i s h o p E n g l a n d , a man o f g r e a t c h a r i s m a t i c energy and a proponent o f l i b e r a l p r i n c i p l e s , t o the American m i s s i o n . R e p u b l i c a n A m e r i c a d e e p l y impressed the young I r i s h m a n , i n c o n t r a s t t o the g r i m c o n d i t i o n s he had e x p e r i e n c e d a t home. He soon became e d i t o r o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s C a t h o l i c M i s c e l l a n y , an e x p e r i e n c e o f g r e a t b e n e f i t t o him i n e l i c i t i n g a s e l f - a p p r a i s a l o f both r e l i g i o u s and s o c i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n . McEncroe's c o l l e a g u e s weren't slow t o r e c o g n i z e h i s c o n s i d e r a b l e 90 n a t u r a l t a l e n t s , and he e v e n t u a l l y became a V i c a r - G e n e r a l . A f t e r r e t u r n i n g t o I r e l a n d i n 1829, McEncroe a c c e p t e d the p o s i t i o n o f o f f i c i a l c h a p l a i n o f the C a t h o l i c s o f A u s t r a l i a i n 1832. Though s c a r c e l y i n f l u e n t i a l i n the y e a r s up t o 1840, McEncroe's p e r s o n a l p r e s t i g e and a u t h o r i t y r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h o u t the f o l l o w i n g two decades as the numbers o f Roman C a t h o l i c s grew, and he h i m s e l f became e d i t o r , i n 1850, o f the v i g o r o u s and u n d e n i a b l y i m p o r t a n t 91 C a t h o l i c newspaper, the Freeman's J o u r n a l . Edward Deas Thomson, C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y o f the c o l o n y from 1837 t o I856, had, l i k e McEncroe, f i r s t - h a n d e x p e r i e n c e o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s . Born the youngest son o f an a c c o u n t a n t - g e n e r a l o f the r o y a l navy, S i r John Deas Thomson, and Rebecca F r e e r , o f South C a r o l i n a , h i s e d u c a t i o n took him t o E d i n b u r g h High S c h o o l , Harrow and Normandy, F r a n c e . F o l l o w i n g the death o f h i s mother i n South C a r o l i n a , Thomson v i s i t e d America t o s o r t o u t the e s t a t e i n l a t e 1826. For a l m o s t a y e a r he t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h o u t the U n i t e d S t a t e s and Canada, k e e p i n g a j o u r n a l , a t h i s f a t h e r ' s r e q u e s t , on the American armed f o r c e s and 155 m a t t e r s o f g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t . He took up a p o s i t i o n as c l e r k o f the c o u n c i l i n New South Wales i n May, 1828, m a r r i e d one o f Governor Bourke's d a u g h t e r s f i v e y e a r s l a t e r , and was a p p o i n t e d C o l o n i a l 92 S e c r e t a r y and r e g i s t r a r o f the r e c o r d s a t the b e g i n n i n g o f 1837. Though an e n t r e n c h e d c o n s e r v a t i v e , Thomson d i d use h i s American e x p e r i e n c e t o good e f f e c t on o c c a s i o n t o c l a r i f y c e r t a i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e 93 problems, e s p e c i a l l y i n the f i r s t y e a r s of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e government. James McEachern, one o f the S c o t t i s h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s brought out t o the c o l o n y by John Dunmore Lang i n an a t t e m p t t o r a i s e the q u a l i t y o f the c o l o n y ' s c i t i z e n r y , needed l i t t l e time t o d i s p l a y h i s c l o s e knowledge o f r a d i c a l w r i t i n g - - i n c 1 u d i n g Tom P a i n e ' s c a r d i n a l p r o s e - - o f the p r e v i o u s decades. One l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n c r e d i t s him w i t h b e i n g the a u t h o r o f the u n i q u e r a d i c a l pamphlet "The I n d e f e a s i b l e R i g h t s o f Man" (1842). L i k e McEncroe, however, McEachern belongs 94 more p r o p e r l y t o the n e x t p e r i o d . In the l i v e l y Sydney b u s i n e s s w o r l d , two merchants t o make t h e i r p r e s e n c e f e l t were Timothy Pitman and P r o s p e r de M e s t r e . Americans by b i r t h and u p b r i n g i n g , both were 95 n a t u r a l i z e d by s p e c i a l a c t s o f the L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l . De M e s t r e ' s impact went beyond mere m e r c h a n d i s e . One o f the c h o i c e rumours >~ c i r c u l a t i n g the c o l o n y a t the time--and n o t h i n g t i t i l l a t e d the c o l o n i a l i m a g i n a t i o n more than j u i c y g o s s i p - - s u g g e s t e d t h a t poor P r o s p e r was 96 i n f a c t a b a s t a r d , the h a l f - b r o t h e r of Queen V i c t o r i a h e r s e l f ! American i d e a s e x e r t e d a marked e f f e c t i n o t h e r a r e a s o f the c o l o n i a l community, such as the temperance movement and r e l i g i o n . S o c i e t i e s p r e a c h i n g the l i m i t i n g o f l i q u o r consumption began a p p e a r i n g 156 i n the n o r t h e r n s t a t e s o f the Union from 1808 onwards, but f o r some y e a r s the s u c c e s s o f the temperance d o c t r i n e was l i m i t e d . I t s l o w l y permeated E n g l i s h s o c i e t y , m o s t l y v i a the new i n d u s t r i a l towns; i n America i t soon "ranked second o n l y t o the c r u s a d e f o r the a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y i n the ferment of moral r e f o r m which was the most e x c i t i n g 97 and p o w e r f u l f o r c e i n n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s b e f o r e the C i v i l War." Two Quaker m i s s i o n a r i e s , James Backhouse and George Washington W a l k e r , i n t r o d u c e d temperance i n t o A u s t r a l i a . A f t e r a r r i v i n g i n Hobart Town i n F e b r u a r y , 1832, they spent t h r e e s u c c e s s f u l y e a r s i n Tasmania and the next two y e a r s (l835~7) i n New South Wales. T h e i r Quaker c r e e d caused Backhouse and Walker t o c h a l l e n g e , amongst o t h e r t h i n g s , c o l o n i a l m o r a l i t y and the w o e f u l s t a t e of e d u c a t i o n . At p u b l i c meetings they urged a l l l i s t e n e r s t o adopt the temperance c r e e d and 98 t o use the n o n - d e n o m i n a t i o n a l t e x t b o o k s o f the School S o c i e t y . One r e s u l t o f Quaker l a b o u r was the appearance i n Sydney, i n 1837, o f the A u s t r a l i a n Temperance Magazine, a j o u r n a l of i m p r e s s i v e l i t e r a r y 99 q u a l i t y and c i r c u l a t i o n f i g u r e s . A n o t h e r was the f o r c e f u l appearance o f an e n e r g e t i c t e e t o t a l l e r movement — the Sydney branch l e d by M.T. Adam, a n o t h e r o f Lang's S c o t t i s h i m p o r t s , who had t r a v e l l e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e coming t o A u s t r a l i a . ^ ^ At i t s h e i g h t the Temperance S o c i e t y boasted s u p p o r t from c o l o n i a l l e a d e r s such as D e n i s o n , F r a n k l i n , La Trobe, and even the poet C h a r l e s Harpur, f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d . ^ Warmly endorsed by the i n f l u e n t i a l f o u r t h e s t a t e i n the l820's and '30's, and s u p p o r t e d by the s t r o n g e m o t i o n a l t i e s of a p o w e r f u l 157 b l o c o f l o c a l c i t i z e n s , the importance o f the American c o n n e c t i o n f o r A u s t r a l i a must have impressed i t s e l f on e m i g r a n t s a r r i v i n g d u r i n g Bourke's g o v e r n o r s h i p . Almost i n e v i t a b l y , t h e s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p and a d m i r a t i o n e x e r t e d a marked e f f e c t on the t e n t a t i v e g e s t u r e s towards a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e made f o r the f i r s t time i n the l830's. T h i s l e s s f i t f u l decade encouraged g r e a t e r c a t h o l i c i t y o f i n t e r e s t s . C o n n e c t i o n s between A u s t r a l i a n and American w r i t e r s advanced beyond s i m p l y p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T o r i e s and p a t r i o t s , c o n s c i o u s o f t h e i r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n and i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s , p a t r o n i z e d a u t h o r s c l o s e t o t h e i r h e a r t s , and the spectrum o f American w r i t e r s d i s c u s s e d i n A u s t r a l i a broadened n o t i c e a b l y . W i t h the c o l o n y a p p r o a c h i n g i t s f i f t i e t h a n n i v e r s a r y , E n g l i s h b o o k s e l l e r s f o r the f i r s t time deemed A u s t r a l i a , i n p a r t i c u l a r Sydney and H o b a r t , an avenue o f p o t e n t i a l p r o f i t , and worthy o f some a t t e n t i o n . S p e c u l a t i v e c a r g o e s o f m o s t l y r e l i g i o u s , l i t e r a r y and p h i l o s o p h i c a l works had been a r r i v i n g i n the young s e t t l e m e n t i n g r e a t e r numbers s i n c e the end of M a c q u a r i e ' s term as g o v e r n o r (1821), but b o o k s e l l e r s t h r o u g h o u t the '20's p e s s i m i s t i c a l l y a p p r a i s e d the meagre f r e e p o p u l a t i o n as p r o s p e c t i v e consumers. On a r r i v i n g i n Hobart on h i s way t o Sydney, the Rev. John M c G a r v i e noted w i t h a l a r m , i n May, 1826, t h a t t h e r e 102 " i s not a b o o k s e l l i n g shop i n the town." He was d e s t i n e d t o f i n d the s e t t l e m e n t o f Sydney no d i f f e r e n t . In e s s e n c e , the m a j o r i t y o f books c i r c u l a t i n g the c o l o n y a t t h i s time l a y p r i m a r i l y w i t h i n the domain o f t h e moneyed mi n o r i t y - - t h a t group P e t e r Cunningham d e s i g n a t e d as more p r i m than t h e i r E n g l i s h 158 c o u n t e r p a r t s ; men who, f o r a t l e a s t a n o t h e r f i f t y y e a r s , c o n t i n u e d t o dream o f a p r o s p e r o u s and l e i s u r e l y r e t i r e m e n t a t "Home." In 103 England. T h i s e l i t e i n c l u d e d government o f f i c i a l s , m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s , c l e r g y , p r o f e s s i o n a l men and merchants. C u r i o u s l y , w h i l e d e p r e c a t i n g the p o l i t i c s o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e s e men c o m p r i s e d a second avenue f o r the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f American works i n t o the c o l o n y . I f c o m b a t i v e e d i t o r s such as H a l l , Wentworth, Bent, Murray and W i l l s , and t h e i r e m a n c i p i s t sympath i z e r s , g r a v i t a t e d t o the l i v e l y t r a d i t i o n of American p o l i t i c a l w r i t e r s o f the R e v o l u t i o n f o r r a d i c a l p r e c e d e n t , t h e i r e x c l u s i v i s t opponents i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p r e c i a t e d — a n d purchased — t h e p r o d u c t s o f two Americans whose b e l l e t r i s t i c works, a p p r o p r i a t e l y Tory i n s p i r i t , began t o a r r i v e i n the c o l o n y i n the l a t e r 18201s: Washington I r v i n g and James Fenimore Cooper. As i n England (and, 1 Ok f o r t h a t m a t t e r , A m e r i c a ) , S c o t t and Byron topped the l a d d e r o f f a v o u r i t e s o f the A u s t r a l i a n g e n t r y , but I r v i n g and Cooper, a l o n g w i t h M i l t o n , Young, Cowper, Thomson and Shakespeare, a p p a r e n t l y o c c u p i e d the next rung o f p o p u l a r i t y . ^ 5 As e a r l y as the summer o f 1826, a p r i v a t e vendor i n Sydney, the A u s t r a l i a n Company, o f f e r e d f o r s a l e a t o t a l o f one hundred books by a u t h o r s they f e l t most l i k e l y t o s t i m u l a t e s a l e s . Washington I r v i n g was one. S i x months l a t e r , the o n l y a d v e r t i s e m e n t f o r books i n Tasmania d u r i n g 1826 appeared. A g a i n , a l o n g w i t h the s t a p l e s , I r v i n g ' s works were t e n d e r e d . ^ 6 I n t e r e s t i n the s t o r i e s , e s s a y s and c h a r a c t e r s k e t c h e s o f G e o f f r e y C r a y o n , Gent, c o n t i n u e d unabated f o r some y e a r s . Essays i n The S k e t c h Book ' ( l 8 l 9 ~ 2 0 ) d e s c r i b i n g 159 European t r a v e l , such as " R u r a l L i f e i n E n g l a n d , " "John B u l l " and "Westminster Abbey" no doubt had a s p e c i a l appeal t o the c o l o n i s t d e t e r m i n e d t o e v e n t u a l l y r e t u r n t o h i s homeland. An e x t r e m e l y i m p r e s s i v e : p r i v a t e l i b r a r y succumbed i n Sydney t o the a u c t i o n e e r ' s hammer i n 1828—the c o l l e c t i o n o f Dr. Henry G r a t t a n D o u g l a s . ' ^ 7 The t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s l i s t e d I r v i n g ' s works, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h o s e o f Shakespeare, S c o t t , Southey and Crabbe. About the same t i m e , i n the l a t e r l820's, i n t e r e s t i n the n o v e l s o f James Fenimore Cooper began t o m a t e r i a l i z e i n the pages o f s e v e r a l s a l e s s h e e t s . W e l l - t o - d o c o l o n i s t s a p p r e c i a t e d the a d v e n t u r o u s t a l e s o f both the young and aged N a t t y Bumppo, i n the f i r s t t h r e e n o v e l s o f the L e a t h e r - s t o c k i n g s e r i e s . C a t a l o g u e s o f 1828 l i s t e d such Cooper t i t l e s as The L a s t o f the Mohicans (1826) , The P r a i r i e (1827) and the sea s t o r y Red Rover (1828), j u s t a year o r two, sometimes o n l y months a f t e r t h e i r London p u b l i c a t i o n . Indeed, when Ralph M a n s f i e l d , e d i t o r o f the Sydney G a z e t t e , c o m p i l e d a c a t a l o g u e f o r the A u s t r a l i a n S u b s c r i p t i o n L i b r a r y , e a r l y i n 1829, the o n l y r e m o t e l y contemporary a u t h o r s he i n c l u d e d , a p a r t from the i r r e p r e s s i b l e S c o t t , were Cooper, I r v i n g and 108 John G i b s o n L o c k h a r t ( S c o t t ' s s o n - i n - l a w ) . I t was m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e , t h e n , t h a t M a n s f i e l d s h o u l d w r i t e t o h i s E n g l i s h a g e n t , the Rev. Robert Bourne, w i t h a l i s t o f r e q u i r e m e n t s s p e c i f y i n g the c o n s p i c u o u s need f o r " A l l Washington I r v i n g ' s Works, Known as G e o f f r e y 1 09 C r a y o n ' s . " Bourne c o u l d now send s u p p l i e s o f The S k e t c h Book a l o n g w i t h B r a c e b r idge Ha 11 (1822), a c o l l e c t i o n o f f o r t y - n i n e s k e t c h e s and t a l e s , a g a i n a l l e g e d l y by G e o f f r e y Crayon, w i t h a v a r i e t y o f 160 o f s e t t i n g s ( E n g l i s h as w e l l as French and S p a n i s h ) . E n t h u s i a s m f o r Cooper i n c r e a s e d i n the 18301s, as t h a t f o r I r v i n g g r a d u a l l y d e c l i n e d (though the b r a s h e i g h t e e n y e a r - o l d , James M a r t i n , i n p u b l i s h i n g The A u s t r a l i a n S k e t c h Book i n 1838, acknowledged Washington I r v i n g as h i s m o d e l ) . ''^ In terms o f a d v e r t i s e m e n t s f o r the period., Cooper ranked s i x t h behind S c o t t , B y r o n , Shakespeare, Johnson and G o l d s m i t h , but h i s i n f l u e n c e extended w e l l beyond t h i s . ' ' ' A r e c e n t c r i t i c , E l i z a b e t h Webby, has s u g g e s t e d the c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t o f Cooper's e x t r e m e l y p o p u l a r I n d i a n c h a r a c t e r s - - s u c h as Chingachgook, Uncas, Magua, Hard-Heart and Mahtoree--on the l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s o f e a r l y A u s t r a l i a n n o v e l i s t s . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i e d t o the 1 1 2 p o r t r a y a l o f the a b o r i g i n e . E v i d e n t l y t h i s i n f l u e n c e d i d n ' t escape some o f the e a r l y A u s t r a l i a n r e v i e w e r s , e i t h e r . S h o r t l y a f t e r C h a r l e s R o w c r o f t ' s The Bushranger o f Van Piemen's Land (1846) was p u b l i s h e d , one c r i t i c c h a r a c t e r i z e d i t s c o n t e n t as "almost pure Fenimore Cooper, w i t h a b o r i g i n a l s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r Red I n d i a n s and an e n d i n g s t r a i g h t 1 1 3 f rom The L a s t o f the Moh i cans.'' In d i r e c t i m i t a t i o n o f t h e i r E n g l i s h paragons, t h e n , budding A u s t r a l i a n s q u i r e s approved o f I r v i n g , t h e i r American h u m o r i s t and 114 t r a v e l l e r , and Cooper, t h e i r romancer. Some e m i g r a t i n g B r i t o n s , however, r e c o g n i z i n g an o b l i g a t i o n t o t h e i r new l a n d , found t h e i r l o t i n A u s t r a l i a a complex one i n v o l v i n g mixed l o y a l t i e s . W i l l i a m Woo l i s , who came t o A u s t r a l i a w h i l e s t i l l i n h i s t e e n s , c l e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e d t h i s problem. In the e a r l y 18301 s, he produced two l o n g (and t u r g i d ) poems as h i s p a r t o f the bond w i t h h i s new c o u n t r y : 161 The Voyage; A_ Moral Poem W r i t t e n P u r ? n g , and D e s c r i p t i v e o f , a Voyage from England t o New South Wales (1832) and A u s t r a l i a : A Moral and D e s c r i p t i v e Poem (1833)- Both p r e s e n t a wearisome s u c c e s s i o n o f e i g h t e e n - c e n t u r y c o u p l e t s and s u g g e s t a c o n s c i o u s l y d e r i v a t i v e muse; and both a r e the o b v i o u s p r o d u c t s o f an a u t h o r caught between h i s s e l f - c o n f e s s e d " n a t u r a l f o n d n e s s " f o r "my n a t i v e c o u n t r y " (and an a p p r o p r i a t e awareness o f h i s p r i n c i p a l a u d i e n c e - - " t h e p e o p l e o f E n g l a n d , t o whom t h i s Poem i s more i m m e d i a t e l y a d d r e s s e d " ) and h i s d e s i r e t o be i m p a r t i a l , t o v i e w A u s t r a l i a w i t h f r e s h and o b j e c t i v e e y e s . In p a r t s o f A u s t r a l i a , Wool I s a t t e m p t s t o c o n s i d e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s new e n v i r o n m e n t . The "Argument" o f t h e poem's l a s t C a n t o , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , e n d o r s e s an A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l a f f i n i t y : The C o l o n i a l P o e t s , Wentworth, Tompson, Lang, and H a l l o r a n - - t h e f a t e o f P o e t s , t h e i r m i s f o r t u n e s and m e l a n c h o l y e n d s — t h e reward o f m e r i t - - C o l u m b u s , C r i c h t o n - - t h e Augustan age, the C o u r t o f Augustus — the A u t h o r ' s a p o l o g y f o r d i g r e s s i o n - - t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a , t h e i r g r e a t n e s s and 1 i bera 1 i t y - - a n example f o r A u s t r a l i a ! ' ' - * Though Wool I s ' tone t h r o u g h o u t s u g g e s t s t h a t tfte E n g l i s h l a n d s c a p e w i l l always dominate h i s i m a g i n a t i o n , he a r d e n t l y p r a i s e s the e g a l i t a r i a n p r i n c i p l e s on w h i c h A m e r i c a , " t h i s r i s i n g S t a t e , " was founded: 162 In t h o s e wide S t a t e s , u n s h a c k l e d as the s e a , W i t h sons as d a u n t l e s s , and w i t h h e a r t s as f r e e , Who w i t h one mind t r u e P a t r i o t i s m f e e l , And hand and h e a r t f i g h t f o r the common w e a l . . . . A l l equal t h e r e --no L o r d s , or E a r l s , o r K i n g s — No b o a s t e d b l o o d whence p r i d e d e s c e n d i n g s p r i n g s -- No t i t l e d monkies p e n s i o n ' d on the Crown, Whose n o b l e s s i r e s would be asham'd t o own. . . . 1 1 Behind h i s r h e t o r i c s t a n d s the f i g u r e of Thomas P a i n e . In the poem's l a s t l i n e s , the poet a d v o c a t e s A m e r i c a as the most e t h i c a l model f o r h i s adopted l a n d : . . . h e r e ' s a l e s s o n f o r A u s t r a l i a ' s c o a s t ! Oh! c o u l d her sons a s t a t e r e s p o n d i n g b o a s t ! ^7 He i m p l o r e s A u s t r a l i a t o form one kingdom more, Tread i n the paths o f t h o s e who went b e f o r e . Judge by the p a s t , and l e t the h i s t ' r y t e l l How kingdoms f l o u r i s h ' d , or how kingdoms f e l l -- How w e a l t h and l u x ' r y y i e l d e d t o t h e i r f o e s -- How t h e s e by v i c e s f e l l , and t h o s e by v i r t u e r o s e ! And may t h i s motto r i p e n i n y o u r s e l f , "Knowledge i s Pow'r, and Temperance i s H e a l t h ! " For good r e a s o n , l o c a l r e v i e w e r s e x p r e s s e d r e s e r v a t i o n s about the 1 1 8 poem's language; but they r e l i s h e d i t s l o f t y "TONE." S k i l l might be l a c k i n g , but not commendable p a t r i o t i c p r i d e . About the same time t h a t Wool Is p u b l i s h e d A u s t r a 1 i a, l e s s than h a l f a c e n t u r y a f t e r the f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t , the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r u l y n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was t a k i n g f i r s t r o o t i n the minds o f a few l o n e l y e d i t o r s and t h w a r t e d p o e t s who dreamed a unique but r e l e n t - l e s s c o u n t r y o f d r o u g h t , f i r e , f l o o d and a s t r a n g e n i g h t sky. One 163 was a s c h o o l t e a c h e r named C a r m i c h a e l , one o f the men brought out by J.D. Lang t o h e l p m o d i f y the l a r g e c o n v i c t b a l a n c e of the p o p u l a t i o n . C a r m i c h a e l , i n an a d d r e s s t o open the Sydney M e c h a n i c s ' School o f A r t s , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t The I r v i n g w o r l d o f the mind we have q u i t t e d , a l t h o u g h we may s t i l l g l a n c e a t the panorama o f i t s movements, as r e f l e c t e d i n the l i t e r a r y and s c i e n t i f i c p u b l i c a t i o n s o f our b e l o v e d f a t h e r - l a n d . Yet i f we mean t o r i s e i n the s c a l e o f n a t i o n s , we must p o s s e s s a l i t e r a t u r e and s c i e n c e o f our own.''^ L i f e under the more l i b e r a l regime o f Governor Bourke seemed t o i n v i t e such p r e c o c i o u s s p e c u l a t i o n , f o r , d u r i n g the next f i v e o r s i x y e a r s , s e v e r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s c o u l d n ' t r e s i s t e n c o u r a g i n g , i n a v a r i e t y o f ways, the f o r m a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e . A t t e m p t s ranged from the f l u r r y o f r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s o f the anonymous w r i t e r i n the Van Diemen's Land Month 1y Magazine: Why s h o u l d we not have our p o e t s ? A r e not the i n s p i r i n g i n f l u e n c e s o f n a t u r e s c a t t e r e d o v e r the land? Do not men e v e r y day behold the awful and the m a g n i f i c e n t ? Why may not some o f them break out s i n g i n g a t the s i g h t ? Is t h e r e n o t h i n g i n l o f t y summits and deep narrow g l e n s , and s i l e n t l i m i t l e s s woods, and o l d u n d a t e a b l e t r e e s ? ' 2 ^ - - t o the n o t a b l e p u b l i c a t i o n by Lang's C o l o n i s t , i n 1838, o f W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing's monumental e s s a y , "On the Importance and Means o f 1 21 a N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e . No doubt Lang, a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y p e r s o n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the l a t t e r ( s i n c e he was i n Sydney a t the t i m e , and p o s s i b l y r e a d i n g 1 22 t o p r e p a r e f o r h i s f o r t h c o m i n g t r i p t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s ) , regarded 164 Channing's s e n t i m e n t s as e s s e n t i a l t o the development o f l i t e r a t u r e i n h i s new c o u n t r y ; i n d e e d , as an advanced and e l o q u e n t s t a t e m e n t o f the l o c a l p r o b l e m , and p o s s i b l e means o f a c t i o n . American p r e c e d e n t a g a i n emerged as p e r t i n e n t t o A u s t r a l i a n c o n d i t i o n s . Only t h i s time w i t h a d i f f e r e n c e . In the 1820's, A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i s t s had u t i l i z e d and c o v e t e d an American C o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e a d y won. When Lang c i t e d Channing's s e n t i m e n t s on l i t e r a r y development i n 1838, the American t h e o l o g i c a n ' s s e a r c h i n g a p p r a i s a l r e t a i n e d a mutual r e l e v a n c e . Channing's appeal t o the American P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y and a l l h i s f e l l o w c i t i z e n s t o h e l p work towards the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f "a p u r e , deep, r i c h , b e a u t i f u l , and e n n o b l i n g l i t e r a t u r e " f o r h i s c o u n t r y , r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y one v o i c e i n a p u r p o s e f u l American t r a d i t i o n o f l i t e r a r y n a t i o n a 1 i s m s t r e t c h i n g a t l e a s t as f a r back as P h i l i p Freneau's d e s p a i r i n g c r y f o r l i t e r a r y i n t e g r i t y i n the 1786 poem " L i t e r a r y I m p o r t a t i o n " : Can we never be thought t o have l e a r n i n g o r g r a c e U n l e s s i t be brought from t h a t h o r r i b l e p l a c e Where t y r a n n y r e i g n s w i t h her impudent f a c e ; ' 2 3 ^ Channing's p l e a , l i k e so many o t h e r s b e f o r e him, went s u f f i c i e n t l y unanswered t h a t i n 1837 Emerson saw f i t t o d i s c u s s the problem once a g a i n , though more o p t i m i s t i c a l l y , i n h i s landmark o r a t i o n , "The 1 24 American S c h o l a r . " O l i v e r Wendell Holmes, l i k e so many o f h i s 1 25 countrymen, a t l a s t had h i s I n t e l l e c t u a l D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence. The f i f t y y e a r s between Freneau and Emerson, however, w i t n e s s e d a s u c c e s s i o n o f A m e r i c a n s , c o n s c i o u s o f l i v i n g i n an age o f p r a c t i c a l i t y 165 and p o l i t i c s , a t t e m p t i n g t o urge t h e i r companions t o do i n l i t e r a t u r e what they had done on the b a t t l e f i e l d and i n C o n g r e s s - - t h a t i s , t o e s t a b l i s h , i n Washington's words, "a most c o n s p i c u o u s T h e a t r e . . . 126 f o r the d i s p l a y o f human g r e a t n e s s and f e l i c i t y . " The s t a g e o f the American i m a g i n a t i o n b a r e l y had a s k e l e t a l framework e r e c t e d a t the end of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . L o o k i n g back o v e r two c e n t u r i e s o f European s e t t l e m e n t i n the c o u n t r y , Channing c o u l d f i n d but two w r i t e r s worthy o f h o n o u r a b l e mention: J o n a t h a n Edwards and Ben F r a n k l i n — n e i t h e r , be 127 - i t n o t e d , g e n t e e l o r be 1 1 e s - 1 e t t r i s t e s , Men as p o l i t i c a l l y d i v e r s e as Noah Webster, F i s h e r Ames and James Ki rke P a u l d i n g added t o the debate o v e r the y e a r s , a debate w h i c h e f f e c t i v e l y c e n t r e d on two p o i n t s : f i r s t , the d e s p e r a t e need f o r a l l American w r i t e r s t o r i d themselves o f the " h a b i t o f s e r v i l e i m i t a t i o n " ; ' s e c o n d l y , the n e c e s s i t y f o r l o c a l w r i t e r s t o r e c o g n i z e and use the c r e a t i v e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e i r new"land. America had t o be d e l i v e r e d i n t o the a r t i s t i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f her w r i t e r s . On t h e s e two fundamental problems, Channing and Emerson seemed b e s t equipped t o comment, as w e l l as t o e l a b o r a t e on the c r u c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t t p e r i p h e r a 1 i s s u e s . I t was o n l y f i t t i n g , t h e n , t h a t t h e s e same two w r i t e r s , h a v i n g performed the c r u c i a l t a s k o f a r t i c u l a t i n g t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s problem i n the a r t s , s h o u l d c o n s t i t u t e two o f the most v i t a l i r i f 1 uences on the i m a g i n a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s — i n p a r t i c u l a r , D a n i e l Deniehy and C h a r l e s Harpur — i n the l 8 4 0 ' s , '50' s and '60's, as t h e y , t o o , sought t o s c a l e the f o r m i d a b l e h e i g h t s o f c r e a t i v e independence. The e x t e n s i v e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t r a d i t i o n o f a f f i n i t y (and sense o f shared r e s o u r c e s ) between 166 A u s t r a l i a n and American w r i t e r s had begun i n e a r n e s t . With the p r o d i g i o u s impact o f Walt Whitman, B r e t H a r t e and Henry George, s e v e r a l decades l a t e r , i t would reach f u l l blossom. As i n A m e r i c a d u r i n g the same p e r i o d , some New H o l l a n d e r s a n x i o u s l y c a n v a s s e d t h e i r c o u n t r y i n the 18301s s e a r c h i n g f o r some e v i d e n c e , any t a n g i b l e s i g n , o f moral and i n t e l l e c t u a l improvement t o c o u n t e r a c t the 129 overwhelming r e l i a n c e on " f u t u r e p e r s o n a l c o m f o r t and competency." At t h a t t i m e , they l o o k e d i n v a i n . Channing's s t r i c t u r e s touched o n l y a few i n A u s t r a l i a , but f o r t h i s hardy s m a l l g a t h e r i n g - - o f men l i k e Lang and the y o u t h f u l C h a r l e s Harpur and D a n i e l Henry D e n i e h y - - h i s e x h a u s t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f contemporary American l e t t e r s p r o v i d e d a v a l u a b l e g u i d e 1 30 t o f u t u r e a c t i o n . Deniehy, i n p a r t i c u l a r , would l a t e r a c t as s p o k e s - man and p u b l i c i z e r o f a l i t e r a t u r e r o o t e d i n A u s t r a l i a n s o i l . He en- v i s i o n e d a unique l i t e r a t u r e o f s u n s h i n e , l i g h t and democracy. In h i s a d d r e s s Channing f o l l o w e d a l o g i c a l o u t l i n e , moving e f f o r t - l e s s l y from the q u e s t i o n o f why any c o u n t r y needed an i n d i g e n o u s l i t e r a t u r e a t a l l t o the p r e s e n t s t a t e o f American l i t e r a t u r e and reason f o r i t s nebulous c o n d i t i o n , and, f i n a l l y , the p o s s i b l e c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . That i s : prob1 em,causes, means o f r e d r e s s . Having d e f i n e d " N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e " s e v e r a l l y , a t the o u t s e t , as " t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f a n a t i o n ' s mind i n w r i t i n g . . . . the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f new t r u t h s t o the s t o c k o f human knowledge. . . . the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a n a t i o n ' s i n t e l l e c t i n the o n l y forms by w h i c h i t can m u l t i p l y i t - s e l f a b r o a d , " Channing proceeded t o e x p r e s s h i s t h o u g h t s on l i t e r a t u r e 167 i n g e n e r a l . He r e g a r d e d l i t e r a t u r e as " p l a i n l y among the most power- f u l methods o f e x a l t i n g the c h a r a c t e r o f a n a t i o n , o f f o r m i n g a b e t t e r 131 r a c e o f men" and w r i t i n g as " t h e m i g h t i e s t i n s t r u m e n t on e a r t h . " A m e r i c a , he m a i n t a i n e d , l a c k e d both eminent w r i t e r s and the a p p r o p r i a t e r e s o u r c e s of i n s t r u c t i o n because "our w r i t e r s a r e accustomed t o p l e a d i n our excuse our y o u t h , the n e c e s s i t i e s o f a n e w l y - s e t t l e d c o u n t r y , and the d i r e c t i o n o f our b e s t t a l e n t s t o p r a c t i c a l l i f e . Be the p l e a s s u f f i c i e n t o r n o t , one t h i n g they p r o v e , and t h a t i s our c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f h a v i n g f a i l e d t o make i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the i n t e r e s t s o f the 1 32 i n t e l l e c t . " Words o b v i o u s l y commodious t o A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i s t s a decade l a t e r g r o p i n g w i t h the same p r o b l e m , o n l y i n a more a c u t e and l e s s s o l v a b l e form. Indeed, some commentators on A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e would be e x p r e s s i n g i d e n t i c a l r e s e r v a t i o n s when the c o u n t r y was f e d e r a t e d i n 1 9 0 1 . 1 3 3 . Channing went on t o d e c l a i m h i s c o u n t r y ' s huge r e l i a n c e "on f o r e i g n minds" as one o f the main causes o f the deep m a l a i s e i n American w r i t i n g . L i k e " Deniehy and the l a t e r John Dunmore Lang, he u n d e r c u t the s t a u n c h Tory elements s t i l l c a s t i n g a p a l l o v e r the c a l l o w n a t i v e p r o d u c t : "We boast o f our p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , and r e c e i v e our c h i e f t e a c h i n g s , 134 books, i m p r e s s i o n s , from the s c h o o l o f monarchy." Then, i n the most s i g n i f i c a n t c h a l l e n g e i s s u e d by the e s s a y , Channing q u e s t i o n e d the g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d concept o f " u s e f u l knowledge" as one o f p r a c t i c a l " u t i l i t y . " He broadened the q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the phrase w h i c h , f o r him, meant 168 knowledge w h i c h answers and m i n i s t e r s t o our complex and v a r i o u s n a t u r e ; we mean t h a t which i s u s e f u l , not o n l y t o the animal man, but t o the i n t e l l e c t u a l , m o r a l , and r e l i g i o u s man; u s e f u l t o a b e i n g o f s p i r i t u a l f a c u l t i e s , whose h a p p i n e s s i s t o be found i n t h e i r f r e e and harmonious exe r c i se.'35 U n l e s s America sought t o break the c o n s t r i c t i n g f e t t e r s o f a p u r e l y p i o n e e r i n g background and i n t e l l e c t u a l dependence, the f u t u r e l o o k e d b l e a k . In p o s s i b l y the best-known s e c t i o n o f the whole e s s a y , Channing p a s s i o n a t e l y harangued the f o r e b o d i n g consequences o f 1 i t e r a r y • s e r v i 1 i t y : A p e o p l e i n t o whose minds the t h o u g h t s o f f o r e i g n e r s a r e poured p e r p e t u a l l y , needs an energy w i t h i n i t s e l f t o r e s i s t , t o m o d i f y ' t h i s mighty i n f l u e n c e , and, w i t h o u t i t w i l l i n - e v i t a b l y s i n k under the w o r s t bondage, w i l l become i n t e l l e c t u a l l y tame and e n s l a v e d . . . . I t were b e t t e r t o have no l i t e r a t u r e than form o u r s e l v e s u n r e s i s t i n g l y on a f o r e i g n one.'3° Thus, he demanded t h a t America r e c o g n i z e i t s b e i n g u n i q u e l y s u i t e d t o v i e w "more j u s t l y " than any o t h e r c o u n t r y , the " g r e a t s u b j e c t s o f l i t e r a t u r e . " In Europe, one met " k i n g s , n o b l e s , p r i e s t s , p e a s a n t s . How much r a r e r i s i t t o meet men." The p a r t i c u l a r and s p e c i a l d e s t i n y o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s had t o be a r t i c u l a t e d t o e n a b l e American w r i t e r s t o c r e a t i v e l y e x p r e s s the democracy they s t o o d f o r : We d e l i g h t t o b e l i e v e t h a t God, i n the f u l n e s s [ s i c ] o f t i m e , has brought a new c o n t i n e n t t o l i g h t , i n o r d e r t h a t the human mind s h o u l d move here w i t h a new freedom, s h o u l d frame new s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , s h o u l d e x p l o r e new p a t h s , and reap new h a r v e s t s . ' 3 7 C o n c l u d i n g w i t h a programme.» o f a c t i o n , Channing f o r m u l a t e d p o s s i b l e c h a n n e l s : encouragement and f o s t e r i n g by the p e o p l e ; enlargement o f 169 l i t e r a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t e a c h i n g a t a more " p r o f o u n d " l e v e l ; b e t t e r u n i v e r s i t i e s ; and a new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e . At a t i m e when t a l k o f l i t e r a t u r e i n g e n e r a l , much l e s s l o c a l w r i t i n g , i n c u r r e d the w r a t h o f many o f the c o l o n y ' s more p r a c t i c a l l y minded c i t i z e n s , Lang's p u b l i c i t y f o r Channing's landmark a d d r e s s was 138 both b r a z e n and c o n s c i o u s l y p r o p h e t i c . L i k e C h a n n i n g , Lang w e l l a p p r e c i a t e d the c r u c i a l r o l e l i t e r a t u r e had i n the f o r m a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . In c a l l i n g on one o f America's f i n e s t w r i t e r s t o i l l u m i n a t e the A u s t r a l i a n s i t u a t i o n , Lang was d o i n g no more than f o l l o w i n g a p a t t e r n o f a c t i o n w h i c h Wentworth had e s t a b l i s h e d some twenty y e a r s e a r l i e r . W i t h the d i f f e r e n c e t h a t i n I 8 3 8 , i n a s e t t l e m e n t then o v e r f i f t y y e a r s o l d , Lang c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z e d the f u t u r e r e l e v a n c e contemporary American s p e a k e r s might have f o r an A u s t r a l i a w i t h independence on i t s mind. In r e p r o d u c i n g Channing's d i s c o u r s e , the C o l o n i s t f o r g e d an A u s t r a l i a n l i n k w i t h American i n t e l l e c t u a l and l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y t h a t would f l o u r i s h f o r the r e s t o f the c e n t u r y . Channing's d e c l a r a t i o n , "We l o v e our c o u n t r y much, but mankind more" a t t r a c t e d some prominent A u s t r a l i a n e m i g r a n t s w i t h a d e s i r e t o r a i s e t h e i r s t a t i o n and a t l e a s t two c u r r e n c y l a d s who, s t i l l s m a r t i n g from the s t a i n o f c o n v i c t i s m , would make i t t h e i r !>:• b u s i n e s s t o i n c u l c a t e the d e m o c r a t i c s e n t i m e n t s o f Channing, Emerson and the r e s t o f the prominent T r a n s c e n d a l i s t w r i t e r s upon the minds o f t h e i r countrymen. They were D a n i e l Henry Deniehy and C h a r l e s Harpur. 170 CHAPTER II ENDNOTES ' For the f u l l t e x t , see below p. 136. 2 A u s t r a l i a n Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l , J u l y , 1828, p. 246, quoted i n Green, H i s t o r y , I, 45. •3 See I n g l i s , A u s t r a l i a n C o l o n i s t s , pp. 178—81; R u s s e l l Ward and John R o b e r t s o n , comps., Such Was L i f e : S e l e c t Documents i n A u s t r a l i a n S o c i a l H i s t o r y , 1788-1850 (Sydney: Ure S m i t h , 1969), pp. 23-5- See Gordon Greenwood, e d . , A u s t r a 1 i a : A S o c i a l and P o l i t i c a l H i s t o r y (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1955), p. 56; C l a r k , H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a , I I , 153~5- 5 I n g l i s , p. 14. See L a c o u r - G a y e t , Cone i se H i. s t o r y , pp. l45~6; Greenwood, S o c i a l and P o l i t i ca1 H i s t o r y , p. 84. 7 Quoted i n Eddy, C o l o n i e s , p. 105. 8 L e t t e r o f "Fanny F l i r t , a Maiden Lady," t o the Sydney G a z e t t e , October 9, 1823, quoted i n C l a r k , S h o r t H i s t o r y , p. 73; see C l a r k , I I , 157. 9 G r e e n , 1 , 2 . ^ See, f o r example, the c r i t i c a l assessments o f George N a d e l , M i c h a e l Roe and E l i z a b e t h Webby. ^ B r i a n K i e r n a n i n C a n t r e l l , ed., B a r d s , p. 14. 171 1 2 S o u t h - A s i a n R e g i s t e r , i , (1827); Sydney Morning Hera-lid, June 12, 1849. 1 3 C h a r l e s Darwin, The Voyage o f the B e a g l e (1906; r p t . London: J.M. Dent, 1955) , p. 428. 14 P a r r i n g t o n , Main C u r r e n t s , i n t r o d u c t i o n , p. v i . ' 5 G r e e n , 1 , 6 5 . 16 Much the same was t r u e i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . See, f o r example, James M e l v i n Lee, H i s t o r y o f American J o u r n a l i s m (New York: Garden C i t y P u b l i s h i n g , 1923), p. 8 1 . ^ Thomas McCombie, The H i s t o r y o f the Colony o f V i c t o r i a (Melbourne, I858), p. 323, quoted i n Henry Mayer, The P r e s s i n A u s t r a l i a (Melbourne: Lansdowne P r e s s , 1964), p. 16. 18 See, f o r example, Green, I , 79- 1 9 Quoted i n Lee, p. 101. 20 Quoted i n Lee, p. 198. 21 W a r d e l l and Hayes were s u c c e s s i v e e d i t o r s o f the A u s t r a l i a n (a newspaper founded by W a r d e l l and W.C. Wentworth i n 1824); H a l l was the f o u n d i n g e d i t o r o f the Mon i t o r (1826-38). For more i n f o r m a t i o n on D a r l i n g ' s r e c a l l , see R.B. W a l k e r , The Newspaper P r e s s i n New South Wales, 1803-1920 (Sydney: Sydney U n i v . P r e s s , 1976), pp. 17~18; J.A. F e r g u s o n , "Edward Smith H a l l and the Moni t o r , " J o u r n a l o f the Royal A u s t r a l i a n H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , X V I I , P t . 3 (1932), 163-199- 22 Green , I, 74. 2 3 Eddy, p. 112. 24 D a r l i n g t o Horton ( F e b r u a r y 6, 1827), quoted i n Eddy, p. 113. 172 See a l s o W a l k e r , p. 15- 25 A u s t r a 1 i a n , J a n u a r y 6 , 1825. 26 See W a l k e r , p. 7« I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t Thomas J e f f e r s o n f e l t the i s s u e o f t r i a l by j u r y t o be r e l e v a n t t o t h e American s i t u a t i o n as l a t e as the 1790's. See h i s l e t t e r s t o James Madison ( P a r i s , December 20, 1787) and A l e x a n d e r Donald ( P a r i s , F e b r u a r y 7 , 1788) i n Thomas J e f f e r s o n , The Papers o f Thomas J e f f e r s o n , ed. J u l i a n P. Boyd, XII ( P r i n c e t o n , New J e r s e y : P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 ) , 4 3 8 - 4 3 , 5 7 0 - 2 . The Boyd e d i t i o n i s i n c o m p l e t e ; I w i l l r e f e r t o i t as f a r as i t goes, t o J a n u a r y 2 4 , 1791, the t e r m i n a l d a t e o f the l a s t p u b l i s h e d volume. Correspondence a f t e r J a n u a r y , 1791, w i l l be e x c e r p t e d from Thomas J e f f e r s o n , The L i f e and S e l e c t e d W r i t i n g s o f Thomas J e f f e r s o n , ed. A d r i e n n e Koch and W i l l i a m Peden (New York: Random House, The Modern L i b r a r y , 1 9 4 4 ) . 27 See, f o r example, "The A u s t r a l i a n C o l o n i e s , " Q u a r t e r l y Review, XXXI I ( 1 8 2 5 ) , 314. 28 See W a l k e r , p. 12. 2 9 See C l a r k , I I , 69. A u s t r a l i a n , June 2 8 , 1826. 31 E. M a c a r t h u r t o Horton ( J u l y 4 , 1 8 2 5 ) , quoted i n Eddy, p. 96. 3 2 ADB_, I , 501 . 33 Moni t o r , December 2 2 , 1826; see a l s o Moni t o r , November 2 4 , 1826. 34 P h r a s e used i n Sydney G a z e t t e , A p r i l 2 8 , 1831. See a l s o C l a r k , I I , 7 5 . 35 Quoted i n Eddy, p. 113. 36 See W a l k e r , pp. 1 2 - 1 3 ; C l a r k , I I , 7 5 " 6 . 37 For more on F o r b e s , see below, C h a p t e r I I , s e c t i o n b). 173 3 8 See C l a r k , I I , 79- 39 See, f o r example, Crook, American Democracy, p. 29. ^ G r e e n , 1 , 7 5 - 41 ADB, I, 87; E. M o r r i s M i l l e r , Pressmen and Governors (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1952), p. 85. 42 The Col on i a 1 T imes and Tasman i an A d v e r t i s e r ran from 1825 1859. I t was then i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the Hobart M e r c u r y . • 43 The L i c e n s i n g A c t was i n t r o d u c e d i n Van Diemen's Land by L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r George A r t h u r t o c u r b p r e s s l i c e n t i o u s n e s s . See ADB, I, 87. L e t t e r t o R i c h a r d P r i c e ( P a r i s , J a n u a r y 8, 1789), i n J e f f e r s o n , P a p e r s , XIV, 420. 45 Hobart Town G a z e t t e , A p r i l 22, 1825. 46 See M i l l e r , pp. 3"39- 47 A u s t r a l - A s i a t i c Review, Lead a r t i c l e , October 8, 1833- 48 D a r l i n g t o Murray (November 8, 1828), HRA, 1, x i v , 445- 49 D a r l i n g t o B a t h u r s t (September 4, 1826), HRA, 1, x i i , 529. 5 0 D a r l i n g ' s r e p l y t o a d d r e s s ( J u l y 4, 1829), HRA, 1, x v , 73"5. 51 See W a l k e r , p. 19- 52 Moni t o r , F e b r u a r y 20, 1830. 53 Sydney G a z e t t e , May 5, 1829- 54 See M c L a c h l a n , p. 372; W a l k e r , p. 16. 55 Quoted by Henry C o l l i n s i n i n t r o d u c t i o n to Thomas P a i n e , R i g h t s o f Man;- ( L o n d o n 1 791 -2; rpt... Harmpndsworth, 1969), p. 34. ^ ' Q u o t e d i n F e r g u s o n , p. 194. 5 7 Quoted i n W a l k e r , p. 17. 174 58 Quoted i n F e r g u s o n , pp. 193"4. Quoted i n I n g l i s , p. 43; Moni t o r , October 22, 1831. M o n i t o r , October 26, 1831 - 61 Quoted i n Eddy, p. 121. 62 L e t t e r t o John D i c k i n s o n (Washington, March 6, 1801), i n J e f f e r s o n , S e l e c t e d W r i t i n g s , p. 56l . 63 See, f o r example, C l a r k , I I I , 141. 64 The p h r a s e i s h i s t o r i a n N.D. McLachlan s. See M c L a c h l a n , p. 372. M o n i t o r , December.29, 1832; Mon i t o r , December 9, 1835; A u s t r a l i a n , November 11, 1834. See M c L a c h l a n , pp. 372-4. 66 Quoted i n I n g l i s , p. 43. Compare F r a n k l i n ' s A u t o b i o g r a p h y (London, 1868) w i t h the d e t a i l s o f W i l l s ' e a r l y l i f e i n ADB, I I , 605- 68 C u r r e n c y Lad, August 25, 1832; C u r r e n c y Lad, November 24, 1832, quoted i n M c L a c h l a n , pp. 374-5. 6 9 See ADB, ||, 605; Ing1 i s , p. 43- 7 ^ Andrew J a c k s o n was e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1828. 7 ' Sydney G a z e t t e , June 11, I 8 3 6 . I t would seem t o be no a c c i d e n t t h a t America r e c e i v e d p u b l i c i t y i n the G a z e t t e i n I836, s i n c e A.E. Hayes was e d i t o r o f t h a t newspaper from J a n u a r y 1, I 8 3 6 , t o August 29, 1836 ( W a l k e r , p. 22). 7 2 M o n i t o r , May 31-June 9, 1837- 73 See James P a r t o n , L i f e o f Andrew J a c k s o n (New York: Mason B r o t h e r , 1861), I I , 626-7; Robert R i m i n i , Andrew J a c k s o n (New York: Twayne, 1966) , p. 183- 175 74 See C l a r k , I I I , 141. H a n g ' s own newspaper, The C o l o n i s t (1835-40), begun p r i m a r i l y t o g i v e i t s f o u n d e r a p o l i t i c a l v o i c e , l a b e l l e d the H e r a l d " t h a t pure merino and h i g h Tory e s t a b l i s h m e n t " i n i t s i s s u e o f F e b r u a r y 28, 1838. 7 5 S o u t h - A s i a n R e g i s t e r , i (1827).. 7 ^ See below, C h a p t e r I I I , s e c t i o n b). 7 7 For example, the " P r o c e e d i n g s o f the Senate of the U n i t e d S t a t e s " o c c u p i e d a l m o s t as much space i n The C o l o n i s t as the " R e p o r t s from the House of Commons." See B a r t l e t t , p. 97- 78 C o l o n ! s t , J a n u a r y 19, 1837- 79 C o l o n i s t , J a n u a r y 19, 1837. 80 P. Cunningham, Two Years_ i n New South Wales (London: Henry C o l b u r n , 1827), I I , 54. 81 For more on the c o m p e t i t i o n f o r i m m i g r a n t s , see Cunningham, I, 5-8, 256; W a k e f i e l d , L e t t e r from Sydney, pp. 34, 68-9, 74; W.C. Wentwor t h ,,AA S t a t i s t i c a l , H i s t o r i c a i , and P o l i t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n o f the Colony o f New South Wales (London: G. and W.B. W h i t t a k e r , 1819), t i t l e page. 82 See H e r a l d , J a n u a r y 12, 1837- 83 See below, C h a p t e r I I I , s e c t i o n c ) . 84 ADB, I, 392; see a l s o C l a r k , I I , 73- 8 5 ADB, I, 393- 86 Quoted i n M c L a c h l a n , p. 368. 87 ADB, I, 392. One r e s u l t o f F o r b e s ' American t r a v e l was h i s s t r o n g commitment t o f r e e e d u c a t i o n (see ADB, I, 397). 176 p o ADB, I, 396. 8 9 See ADB, I I, 1 65- 90 P a t r i c k O ' F a r r e l l , The C a t h o l i c Church i n A u s t r a l i a : A_ S h o r t H i s t o r y , 1788-1967 (Melbourne: N e l s o n , 1968), p. 27. 9 1 Freeman's J o u r n a l (1850-71). 9 2 See AD_B_, I I , 523-*. 93 See ADB, I I , 526. For more d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on Thomson, see the r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d book by S.G. F o s t e r , C o l o n i a l Improver: Edward Peas Thomson 1800-1879 (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1978). See George Nadel , A u s t r a l i a ' s C o l o n i a l C u l t u r e (Melbourne: F.W. C h e s h i r e , 1957), P - 21. Nadel ̂ h o w e v e r , might b e r . . . m i s t a k e n . The pamphlet, "The Indefeas i b1e R i g h t s o f Man;" o r the C o n t e s t Between the Antagon i s t i c Pr i n e i p i e s of Pemocracy and Ar i s t o c r a c y i n New South Wales (Sydney: R.S. McEachern, n.d. [1842]), was p u b l i s h e d anonymously. F u r t h e r , the r e f e r e n c e s t o McEachern on p. 5 i n d i c a t e t h a t though he m a i n t a i n e d t h a t " t h e r i g h t t o v o t e was based on the i n d e f e a s i b l e and p r i m o r d i a l r i g h t s o f man," he might not have been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the pamphlet i t s e l f . 95 P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , i n t r o d u c t i o n , p. 1. 96 See I n g l i s , p. 19- For more on the de M e s t r e f a m i l y , see below, C h a p t e r I I I , s e c t i o n c), 97 M i c h a e l Roe, Quest f o r A u t h o r i t y i n E a s t e r n A u s t r a l i a , 1835" 1851 ( P a r k v i l l e , V i c t o r i a : Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1965), p. 165- 98 3 See ADB, I, 45. 9 9 See Roe, p. 165- 177 Lang's C o l o n i s t f a v o u r e d f u l l p r o h i b i t i o n from A p r i l , I836, onwa r d s . 1 0 1 See Roe, pp. 168-9- 1 02 Quoted i n E l i z a b e t h Webby, " E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e i n E a r l y A u s t r a l i a : 1820-1829," S o u t h e r l y , 27, Nov4 (1967) , 274. 1 03 See, f o r example, Cunningham, I I , 118-21; I n g l i s , p. 28. 104 S i r W a l t e r S c o t t ' s n o v e l s were p a r t i c u l a r l y p o p u l a r i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . See R u s s e l B. Nye and Norman S. Grabo, eds., The R e v o l u t i on and the Ear 1y R e p u b l i c, V o l . I I of Amer i can Thought and Wr i t i ng ( B o s t o n : Houghton M i f f l i n , 1965), p. x x x v i i . 1 0 5 See Webby, pp. 268, 276. 1 0 6 See Webby, pp. 271, 276. G r a t t a n c l a s h e d w i t h Governor D a r l i n g , and s u b s e q u e n t l y r e t u r n e d t o England i n 1827. See Webby, p. 272. 1 0 8 See Webby, pp. 273, 278-80, 282. See a l s o E l i z a b e t h Ann Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e and the Reading P u b l i c i n A u s t r a l i a 1800-1850: A Study o f the Growth and D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f a C o l o n i a l L i t e r a r y C u l t u r e d u r i n g the E a r l y N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , " I, D i s s . U n i v . o f Sydney 1971, p. 247. 1 0 9 The l e t t e r was dated F e b r u a r y 25, 1829- See E l i z a b e t h Webby, " A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e and the Reading P u b l i c i n the E i g h t e e n - T w e n t i e s , " S o u t h e r l y , 29, No. 9 (1969), 17-18. For more on Cooper's i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a r i t y i n the 1830's and 1840's, see Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I, 230; I I , 84, 102, 104, 107, 138-9, 145, 148-9, e t passim. For more on James M a r t i n ' s 178 The A u s t r a l i a n S k e t c h Book (Sydney: 'James Tegg, 1838), see C l a r k , H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a , I I I , 153 - 4; Webby i n C a n t r e l l , ed., B a r d s , pp. 2 5 - 6 ; Roe, p. 8 6 ; Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : I8OO - I 8 5 O , " I, 4 7 8 - 8 0 . 1 1 1 Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : I8OO - I 8 5 O , " I, 2 0 7 - 1 1 2 For more on the p o r t r a y a l o f the I n d i a n i n American f i c t i o n , see Lucy Lockwood H a z a r d , The F r o n t i e r i n American L i t e r a t u r e (New York: Thomas Y. C r o w e l l , 1 9 2 7 ) . A more r e c e n t view i s g i v e n by Edwin S i l l F u s s e l 1 , F r o n t i e r : American L i t e r a t u r e and the American West ( P r i n c e t o n , New J e r s e y : P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ) . 1 1 3 Quoted i n E l i z a b e t h Webby, "The A b o r i g i n a l i n E a r l y A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e , " S o u t h e r l y , 40, No. 1 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 6 2 . 1 14 For c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h i s v i e w , see W i l l i a m B. C a i r n s , B r i t i s h C r i t i c i sms o f Amer i can Wr i t i ngs , 1 7 8 3 - 1 8 1 5 , A_ C o n t r i b u t i o n t o the Study o f Anglo-Amer i can L i t e r a r y Rel a t i o n s h i ps (Madison, W i s c o n s i n : U n i v . o f W i s c o n s i n P r e s s , 1 9 1 8 ) , and P e r r y M i l l e r , The Raven and the Wha1e (New York: H a r c o u r t , Brace and Company, 1 9 5 6 ) . ^ 5 W i l l i a m Woo l i s , A u s t r a 1 i a : a_ Mora 1 and Descr i pt i ve Poem (Sydney: Stephens and S t o k e s , 1 8 3 3 ) , P- x v i . ' 1 6 Wool I s , pp. 68-9. 1 1 7 Wool I s , p. 70. 1 1 o M o n i t o r , May 1 , 1 8 3 3 - 1 1 9 H. C a r m i c h a e l , " I n t r o d u c t o r y D i s c o u r s e d e l i v e r e d a t the o p e n i n g o f the Sydney M e c h a n i c s ' School o f A r t s , " New South Wales Magazine, I, No. 2 ( 1 8 3 3 ) , 7 8 , quoted i n Nadel , p. 73- 179 1 20 Van Piemen's Land M o n t h l y M a g a z i n e , I (September, 1835), 5, quoted i n Nadel , p. 70. 121 Channing's e s s a y was f i r s t d e l i v e r e d as the Annual O r a t i o n o f the American P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f P h i l a d e l p h i a , on October 18, 1823. I t i s r e p r i n t e d under the t i t l e , "Remarks on N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e , " i n W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing, The Complete Works o f W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing (London: " C h r i s t i a n L i f e " P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1884), pp. 134-43- John Dumore Lang r e p u b l i s h e d the e s s a y i n the C o l o n i s t , A p r i l 16, 1838. 1 22 Lang t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h o u t the U n i t e d S t a t e s , from M a s s a c h u s e t t s t o South C a r o l i n a , i n 1840. 1 23 C h a n n i n g , p. 143; P h i l i p F r e n e a u , Poems o f F r e n e a u , ed. H a r r y Hayden C l a r k (New York: H a f n e r , I960), p. 94. 124 O r a t i o n d e l i v e r e d b e f o r e the Phi Beta Kappa S o c i e t y a t Harvard U n i v e r s i t y , Cambridge, August 31, 1837- 1 25 See Marcus C u n l i f f e , The L i t e r a t u r e o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s (Harmondsworth: P e n g u i n , 1964), pp. 46-7. 1 26 George W a s h i n g t o n , The W r i t i n g s o f George Washington, ed. John C. F i t z p a t r i c k , XXVI (Washington: U n i t e d S t a t e s Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1938) , 485- Channing, p. 136. 1 28 James K. P a u l d i n g , "A N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e , " from Sa1magund i , Second S e r i e s , August 19, 1820. Quoted i n Nye and Grabo, p. 308. 129 New South Wales Magazine, A u g u s t , 1833, quoted by Webby i n C a n t r e l l , ed., B a r d s , p. 24. 180 130 In E n g l a n d , the p u b l i s h i n g o f Channing's " N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e " e s s a y caused h i s r e p u t a t i o n t o r e a c h a peak. The same e s s a y was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o F r e n c h i n 1838, and w i d e l y r e a d . See A r t h u r W. Brown, Wi11iam E l l e r y Channing (New York: .Twayne, 1961), pp. 114, 140. ' 3 ' Channing, pp. 134-5- 1 32 Channing, p. 136. 1 33 Many Americans c o u l d s t i l l e x p r e s s r e s e r v a t i o n s about t h e i r own l i t e r a t u r e a t t h e t u r n o f the c e n t u r y . See, f o r example, Van Wyck B r o o k s , The W r i t e r i n America (New York: E.P. D u t t o n , 1953), p. 36. 134 Channing, p. 137- 1 35 Channing, p. 137- C h a n n i n g , p. 138. 1 37 J / Channing, p. 140. 1 3 8 See C l a r k , I I I , 155"6. 1 39 Channing, p. 135- CHAPTER I I I THE WRITERS Sect i on A W i l l i a m C h a r l e s Wentworth (1790-1872) Love f o r the c u t and t h r u s t o f p o l i t i c s and the p a s s i o n t o be i n d e p e n d e n t l y w e a l t h y dominated the t h o u g h t s o f a wide spectrum o f A u s t r a l i a n s , from e x c l u s i v e t o e m a n c i p i s t , c u r r e n c y l a d t o new a r r i v a l , i n the c o u n t r y ' s f i r s t f i f t y y e a r s . A shrewd few adapted e a s i l y t o the more e x p e d i e n t s o c i a l norms, thus amassing l a r g e f o r t u n e s . Of t h e s e , W i l l i a m C h a r l e s Wentworth s t a n d s a l o n e as the most c h a r i s m a t i c . The sheer b r e a d t h o f the man's t a l e n t s - - a s horseman, e x p l o r e r , g r a z i e r , s a t i r i s t , p r o p h e t i c b a r d , B a c c h a n a l , l a w y e r , newspaper e d i t o r , o r a t o r , p o l i t i c i a n and 1 i b e r t i n e - - j u s t i f y h i s c l a i m t o b e i n g the epitome o f the new c o l o n y ' s s t r e n g t h s and d e f i c i e n c i e s . He i s , i n a r e a l way, a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e man, the sum o f the community's a s p i r a t i o n s , achievements and f o l 1 i e s . ' A p p r o p r i a t e l y , Wentworth's p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l o p p o r t u n i s m 1 8 2 r e s u l t e d i n h i s b e i n g the f i r s t c o l o n i s t t o p u b l i c l y t a u n t the Mother C o u n t r y w i t h the t h r e a t o f c o l o n i a l r e b e l l i o n a l o n g American l i n e s . Though c o n s e r v a t i v e by i n c l i n a t i o n , Wentworth t h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e d the p o l i t i c a l c a p i t a l t o be made by comparing c u r r e n t A u s t r a l i a n e v e n t s t o e a r l i e r American r e v o l u t i o n a r y g e s t u r e s . He conducted h i s p u b l i c a f f a i r s a c c o r d i n g t o one r u l e o f b e h a v i o u r : when f r u s t r a t e d by r i g i d E n g l i s h b u r e a u c r a c y , c i t e American p r e c e d e n t . S c a r e t a c t i c s , y e s . And p o s s i b l y immoral, g i v e n h i s c o n s e r v a t i v e t e n d e n c i e s . But u n d e n i a b l y e f f e c t i v e , he f o u n d , and l i k e l y t o e x e r t an e f f e c t b e f o r e l o n g . Born sometime i n the e a r l y 1 7 9 0 's, the son o f a c o n v i c t mother and a surgeon f a t h e r who had a v o i d e d c r i m i n a l c o n v i c t i o n f o r highway r o b b e r y o n l y because o f h i s agreement t o j o u r n e y t o f a r - o f f New H o l l a n d , Wentworth soon marked h i m s e l f as a man c a p a b l e o f r i s i n g t o pre-esni nence 2 i n h i s n a t i v e l a n d . H i s y o u t h f u l p r o c l i v i t y f o r r e v e l r y and, as - one contemporary put i t , h i s tendency f o r "rough language" no doubt endeared him t o h i s peers a t a time when such b e h a v i o u r appeared the mark o f a manly s p i r i t . I t wasn't l o n g , however, b e f o r e boyhood b r a s h n e s s y i e l d e d t o the a d u l t ' s l i v e l y and more c r a f t y i n t e l l e c t . H i s language e v i d e n t l y remained unchanged, but the l i s t o f a m b i t i o n s grew. Wentworth's i n q u i r i n g mind began t o c o n c e i v e o f the i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n h i s f a r t i i , l y - - a n d country--demanded o f him. Though always a s t o u t a d v o c a t e o f the i n t r i n s i c w o r t h o f s u b j e c t s E n g l i s h and the B r i t i s h c o n s t i t u t i o n , Wentworth r e t a i n e d a deep r e s p e c t f o r the v a l u a b l e l e s s o n s o f the A m e r i c a n r e v o l u t i o n and the i n t e g r i t y 183 o f i t s p r i n c i p a l spokesmen (he named a p r o p e r t y bestowed on him by Governor M a c q u a r i e , "Vermont"). H i s l e t t e r s , p r i n t e d works and speeches u n f a i l i n g l y e x h i b i t a c u r i o u s d u a l i t y o f a l l e g i a n c e : l o y a l t y t o George M l , t o g e t h e r w i t h esteem f o r the s e r v i c e a b l e i d e a s o f O t i s , D i c k i n s o n , John Adams, H a m i l t o n , J e f f e r s o n and t h e i r countrymen. L i k e many o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , Wentworth o s c i l l a t e d between the two i n the l820's, f a v o u r i n g one o n l y as i t s u i t e d h i s l a r g e r purpose. Not t h a t t h o s e c l o s e t o him e v e r doubted which a l t e r n a t i v e he would u l t i m a t e l y choose; f o r the g r e a t e r p a r t o f h i s l a s t twenty y e a r s he r e s i d e d a t M e r l y House, i n D o r s e t , a c o n t e n t e d member o f B r i t a n n i a ' s h esteemed C o n s e r v a t i v e C l u b . Wentworth's A S t a t i s t i ca1 , H i s t o r i c a l and P o l i t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n o f the Colony o f New South Wales (1819) was one o f the most i n f l u e n t i a l books on the new s e t t l e m e n t t o be p u b l i s h e d i n the h a l f c e n t u r y t o 1838.5 To u n d e r s t a n d what l i e s behind i t , however, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o b r i e f l y g l a n c e a t Wentworth's l i f e i n the y e a r s j u s t p r i o r t o the book's p u b l i c a t i o n . He t r a v e l l e d t o London i n 1816 d e t e r m i n e d t o pursue law a t the M i d d l e Temple, d e s p i t e h i s f a t h e r ' s e x p r e s s w i s h t h a t he j o i n the m i l i t a r y . The atmosphere p r e v a i l i n g i n p o s t - N a p o l e o n i c England f o r t u n a t e l y f a v o u r e d the son, e n a b l i n g him t o b e g i n s t u d i e s i n F e b r u a r y , 1817- A l e t t e r w r i t t e n t o h i s f a t h e r ' s p a t r o n and kinsman, Lord F i t z w i l l i a m , j u s t b e f o r e he began h i s s t u d i e s , p e r t a i n s t o more e n l i g h t e n e d p r e o c c u p a t i o n s than mere p e r s o n a l a g g r a n d i z e m e n t : 1 8 4 I t r u s t t h a t your l o r d s h i p w i l l . . . pardon me f o r : b r i e f l y d i s c l o s i n g the more remote o b j e c t s o f my a m b i t i o n s . I t i s . . . by no means my i n t e n t i o n i n becoming a member o f the bar t o abandon the c o u n t r y t h a t gave me b i r t h . I am s e n s i b l e o f the s a c r e d c l a i m s w h i c h i t has upon me. . . . In w i t h d r a w i n g m y s e l f , t h e r e f o r e , f o r a time from t h a t c o u n t r y , I am a c t u a t e d by a d e s i r e o f b e t t e r q u a l i f y i n g m y s e l f f o r the performance of t h o s e d u t i e s t h a t b i r t h has imposed; and, i n s e l e c t i n g the p r o f e s s i o n o f law, I c a l c u l a t e upon a c q u a i n t i n g m y s e l f w i t h a l l the e x c e l l e n c e o f the B r i t i s h c o n s t i t u t i o n and hope a t some f u t u r e p e r i o d t o a d v o c a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y the r i g h t o f my c o u n t r y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n i t s a d v a n t a g e s . ^ The p a t r i o t , h e r e , i n n o c e n t l y e n v i s i o n s h i s s u c c e s s as t i e d t o the i n e v i t a b l e r i s e o f h i s n a t i v e c o n t i n e n t . The two may, i n the f o r e - s e a b l e f u t u r e , s e r v e and b e n e f i t each o t h e r f r e e of o u t s i d e i n t e r - f e r e n c e . Events soon shook Wentworth's y o u t h f u l n a i v e t e . For one t h i n g , he a t t e m p t e d t o g a i n a s i n e c u r e from S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e B a t h u r s t , a reward t o w h i c h he f e l t h i m s e l f e n t i t l e d by b i r t h and background. B a t h u r s t , w h i l e r e c o g n i z i n g the a p p l i c a n t ' s m e r i t as a p r o m i e n t c i t i z e n o f B r i t a i n ' s c o l o n i e s and e r s t w h i l e e x p l o r e r o f n o t e , r e f u s e d t o c r e a t e the new p o s i t i o n r e q u e s t e d : Vendue M a s t e r t o New South W a l e s . 7 Unused t o r e j e c t i o n , Wentworth r e a c t e d b i t t e r l y t o h i s f i r s t c o n t a c t w i t h b u r e a u c r a c y i n the Mother C o u n t r y , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t " e v e r y a p p l i c a t i o n , unsupported by i n t e r e s t , " g must f a i l i n the f a c e o f "a government so c o r r u p t as the p r e s e n t . " The w o r k i n g s o f p r i v i l e g e f o r the f i r s t time m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t him, and he d i d n ' t 1 i ke i t . Yet t h i s e x p e r i e n c e a l o n e f a i l e d t o unduly modify the smugness a c q u i r e d growing up i n A u s t r a l i a (and England) as a member o f a 185 f a m i l y w i t h p o w e r f u l moneyed i n t e r e s t s i n the community. For Went- w o r t h , h a v i n g proposed i n A p r i l t o John M a c a r t h u r ' s d a u g h t e r , c o n t i n u e d t o c l i n g t i g h t l y t o the a p p a r e n t c e r t a i n t y o f h i s coming m a r r i a g e , a u n i o n which promised t o f u l f i l h i s o v e r r i d i n g a m b i t i o n - - a u n i o n , as he put i t i n a l e t t e r t o h i s f a t h e r , so e s s e n t i a l t o the h a p p i n e s s o f your son and t o the accomplishment o f t h o s e p r o j e c t s f o r the f u t u r e r e s p e c t a b i l i t y and grandeur of our f a m i l y . . . .9 A l l g o i n g w e l l , the p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l s t a g e s o f the near f u t u r e promised t o be h i s . The combined f o r t u n e s o f the Wentworth and M a c a r t h u r f a m i l i e s would s u r e l y be s u f f i c i e n t t o dominate the c o r r i d o r s o f power i n New South Wales. I t was w i t h t h e s e t h o u g h t s o f h a s t e n i n g the ascendency o f a p r o p e r t i e d c l a s s o f gentlemen--a landed a r i s t o c r a c y - - f i r m l y i n mind t h a t Wentworth penned S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n . By May, 1818, the book was e s s e n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e . How t o a c c e l e r a t e theemergence o f h i s s o c i a l s t r a t u m ? Wentworth answered t h i s q u e s t i o n a s s e r t i v e l y , r e c o g n i z i n g , l i k e h i s American c o u n t e r p a r t s h a l f a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r such as James O t i s and John D i c k i n s o n , t h a t an a c c e p t a b l e s o l u t i o n t o the problem had t o e n t a i l u p h e a v a l s i n the l o c a l power s t r u c t u r e . He pursued two l i n e s o f argument: f i r s t , he s t r o v e t o e n t i c e p r o s p e c t i v e B r i t i s h e m i g r a n t s t o choose A u s t r a l i a r a t h e r than America as t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n by s t r e s s i n g the " s u p e r i o r i t y " o f the f o r m e r ' s a d v a n t a g e s . B o l s t e r i n g i m m i g r a t i o n was c r u c i a l t o Wentworth's p l a n s f o r ' h i s n a t i v e c o u n t r y i f a change was t o be wrought i n i t s image as " t h e f i f t h and p i c k p o c k e t o u s 186 c o r n e r o f the g l o b e . " , u B r i t o n s c o n s i d e r i n g New H o l l a n d as t h e i r new home had t o be c o n v i n c e d t h a t the s e c u r i t y o f l i f e and p r o p e r t y c o u l d be g u a r a n t e e d . So the g r e a t b u l k o f Wentworth's book amounted t o an e l a b o r a t e handbook o f c o l o n i a l 1 i f e - - i n d i s p e n s a b l e p o i n t s on how t o s u r v i v e , then t h r i v e . The second a s p e c t o f the book's argument was more i m p o r t a n t : c o n s o l i d a t i n g the f i r s t s t e p s towards the a c q u i s i t i o n o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t f o r the c o l o n y . To do t h i s n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e d r e v e a l i n g the m a l i g n a n c i e s o f a r b i t r a r y government and, o f c o u r s e , the p e r i l s o f d e s p o t i s m from too g r e a t a d i s t a n c e . W i t h B r i t i s h p o l i t i c i a n s and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s i n mind as h i s a u d i e n c e , Wentworth v i g o r o u s l y p u b l i c i z e d the p r e s e n t w o e f u l s t a t e o f the c o l o n y ; he u t i l i z e d a l i v e l y r h e t o r i c a l s t y l e w h i c h f u l l y e x p l o i t e d h i s l e g a l , p h i l o s o p h i c a l , s c i e n t i f i c and h i s t o r i c a l l e a r n i n g . P o l e m i c a l p r o s e s u i t e d him. As G.B. B a r t o n so a p t l y put i t , where " t h e a u t h o r [Wentworth] touched upon p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s , he was e v i d e n t l y b r e a t h i n g a c o n g e n i a l a t m o s p h e r e - - h i s lungs expanded and h i s cheeks glowed."'' Wentworth v o i c e d d i s g u s t w i t h the " a r i s t o c r a t i c body" i n New H o l l a n d "which would m o n o p o l i s e a l l s i t u a t i o n s o f power, d i g n i t y and emolument, and put t h e m s e l v e s i n a p o s t u r e t o domineer a l i k e over the 1 2 g o v e r n o r and the p e o p l e . " Such p e o p l e aimed a t c o n v e r t i n g " t h e g r e a t body o f the p e o p l e i n t o an h e r e d i t a r y d e f o r m i t y . " But Wentworth d i d n ' t c o n t e n t h i m s e l f w i t h s o l e l y n e g a t i v e c r i t i c i s m . No doubt c o g n i z a n t o f s e m i n a l e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y American p o l i t i c a l t r a c t s such as James O t i s ' The R i g h t s o f the B r i t i s h C o l o n i e s A s s e r t e d and 187 P r o v e d (1764), J o h n D i c k i n s o n ' s L a t e R e g u l a t i o n s r e s p e c t i n g t h e B r i t i s h C o l o n i e s C o n s i d e r e d (1765) a n d L e t t e r s f r o m a_ F a r m e r i n P e n n s y l v a n i a (1767-8), a s w e l l a s t h e c o n f i r m e d r e p u b l i c a n p r o p o s i t i o n s o f J o h n A d a m s , J e f f e r s o n , H a m i l t o n a n d t h e F e d e r a l i s t P a p e r s , he p r o c e e d e d t o o u t l i n e a s e r i e s o f p o s i t i v e r e f o r m s . T h e s e e c h o e d , i n p a r t o r w h o l e , t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i a l demands (and g r i e v a n c e s ) o f t h e 1 7 7 0 ' s . W e n t w o r t h demanded an e l e c t e d a s s e m b l y o f s m a l l p r o p e r t y h o l d e r s a n d a n o m i n a t e d l e g i s l a t i v e c o u n c i l ; e q u a l r i g h t s f o r e m a n c i p i s t s ; t r i a l by j u r y a n d a s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o c e s s o f a p p e a l ; 1 3 an e n d t o p r e s s c e n s o r s h i p ; and no t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . L e s t a n y o f h i s a b s e n t - m i n d e d E n g l i s h r e a d e r s m i s s t h e i n t e n d e d a n a l o g y , t h e b r a z e n p a t r i o t , t h e s e l f - c o n f e s s e d " n a t i v e o f A u s t r a l i a , " c l a r i f i e d h i s p o s i t i o n , e l u c i d a t i n g t h e l e n g t h s t o w h i c h some c o l o n i s t s 14 m i g h t be p r e p a r e d t o go i f t h e i r p l e a s went i g n o r e d . N a m e l y , e m u l a t i o n o f , e v e n a l i g n m e n t w i t h , A m e r i c a . W e n t w o r t h s o b e r l y o u t l i n e d t h e A u s t r a l i a n c a s e , g i v i n g s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e l o g i s t i c s o f c o l o n i a l s t r a t e g y . If B r i t a i n c o n t i n u e d t o show i t had l e a r n e d n o t h i n g f r o m t h e " t e r r i b l e " l e s s o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n , A u s t r a l i a n s w o u l d be f o r c e d t o d i s c a r d t h e i r " i n t o l e r a b l e y o k e " a n d p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s " u n d e r t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f more j u s t and c o n s i d e r a t e r u l e r s . " F u r t h e r - m o r e , " f r o m c o n s t r a i n e d r e s i s t a n c e t o t y r a n n y , a n d i n v i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e i r m o s t s a c r e d and i n d u b i t a b l e r i g h t s " t h e y c o u l d r e a d i l y c o n - d u c t a g u e r i l l a war by i n i t i a l l y r e t r e a t i n g t o t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e n e a r b y B l u e M o u n t a i n s : 188 To t h o s e who a r e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the l o c a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h i s colony,--who have t r a v e r s e d the f o r m i d a b l e c h a i n o f mountains by which i t i s bounded from n o r t h t o s o u t h , who have viewed the impregnable p o s i t i o n s . . . the independence o f t h i s c o l o n y , s h o u l d i t be goaded i n t o r e b e l l i o n , appears n e i t h e r so p r o b l e m a t i c a l nor remote, as might o t h e r w i s e be i m a g i n e d . ^ U n l e s s B r i t a i n responded t o the c o l o n i a l c r y , he c o n c l u d e d , "such w i . l l be the consequences o f the i m p o l i t i c and o p p r e s s i v e system o f g o v e r n - ment pursued i n t h i s c o l o n y . " H i s w a r n i n g s c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l e d John D i c k i n s o n ' s e x h o r t a t i o n s e x p r e s s e d i n the d r a f t o f the " D e c l a r a t i o n o f the Causes and N e c e s s i t y o f T a k i n g up Arms" t h a t the American 16 Congress adopted on J u l y 6, 1775. Wentworth's scheme might not have been p r a c t i c a l (arms? men? s u p p l i e s ? revenue?) but i t s t i l l j a r r e d on the B r i t i s h i m a g i n a t i o n , g i v i n g f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t c o l o n i a l v o i c e t o the d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n between American r e v o l u t i o n a r y e v e n t s (and i d e o l o g y ) and the p o l i t i c a l scene i n New H o l l a n d . H i s r a t i o n a l e found ready a c c e p t a n c e amongst h i s more r a d i c a l n a t i v e c o l l e a g u e s t h r o u g h o u t the l820's as they g r a d u a l l y r e a l i z e d the power and i n f l u e n c e o f p r e s s s t r i d e n c y . S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of A m e r i c a as a t o o l f o r the use o f a m b i t i o u s A u s t r a l i a n s . From the o u t s e t , however, Wentworth c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e f u s e d t o a d v o c a t e the r e p u b l i c a n p o s i t i o n adopted by most o f h i s American p r e d e c e s s o r s . Indeed, one p a r a g r a p h a f t e r the t h r e a t o f r e b e l l i o n , he p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t b e i n g c l a s s e d among t h o s e who a r e the sworn enemies o f a l l a u t h o r i t y There i s not a more s i n c e r e f r i e n d t o e s t a b l i s h e d government and l e g i t i m a c y than he, who 189 m i l d l y a d v o c a t e s the cause o f r e f o r m , and p o i n t s out w i t h decency the e x c r e s c e n c e s t h a t w i l l o c c a s i o n a l l y r i s e on the p o l i t i c a l body, as w e l l from an e x c e s s o f l i b e r t y as o f r e s t r a i n t : such a person may p r e v e n t a n a r c h y ; he can never o c c a s i o n i t . ' 7 He e v i d e n t l y wanted a p p r o p r i a t e r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s c l a i m s — h i s due as an E n g l i s h m a n - - s o t h a t he, and o t h e r s o f h i s s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , might pursue h i g h e r g o a l s as s o c i e t y ' s p o p u l a r l e a d e r s . C e r t a i n l y S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n was no t r e a t i s e f o r an independent A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c . Democracy had no p l a c e i n Wentworth's p l a n s . Landed p r o p e r t y , he m a i n t a i n e d a t a n o t h e r p o i n t , c o n s t i t u t e d " t h e o n l y s t a n d a r d by w h i c h the r i g h t e i t h e r o f e l e c t i n g , o r b e i n g e l e c t e d , can i n any c o u n t r y be p r o p e r l y r e g u l a t e d . " The C o u n c i l t h a t Wentworth 1 8 had i n mind bore "many resemblances t o the House o f L o r d s . " In e f f e c t , he wanted t o r e p l a c e one p r i v i l e g e d group w i t h a n o t h e r more r e g i o n a l l y q u a l i f i e d . Once c e r t a i n r i g h t s were e s t a b l i s h e d , the p o l i c y changes o f the would-be incumbents promised t o be m i n i m a l . For Wentworth, Americans l i k e P a i n e and Sam Adams were anathema. Unashamed l e v e l l e r s and, God i n heaven, Democrats. Tory r e a d e r s o f S t a t i s t i Ca 1 ' Descr i pt i o n , s e n s i n g a t h r e a t t o t h e i r b e l i e f s w h i c h d i d n ' t e x i s t , s e e t h e d . In A u s t r a l i a , John M a c a r t h u r 1 9 the e l d e r viewed Wentworth's p r o p o s a l s w i t h " d e c i d e d d i s a p p r o b a t i o n " ; i n E n g l a n d , the Q u a r t e r l y Review a s s a i l e d the book as y e t a n o t h e r repugnant m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h a t " s p i r i t o f u n i v e r s a l i n q u i s i t i o n " c u r r e n t l y sweeping the c i v i l i z e d w o r l d . The Review w r i t e r t h o r o u g h l y r e s e n t e d t h a t c o l o n i a l u p s t a r t Wentworth's " d i c t a t o r i a l and menacing t o n e , " making c u t t i n g r e f e r e n c e t o h i s i n d u l g e n c e i n the " f a s h i o n a b l e 190 o c c u p a t i o n o f c o n s t i t u t i o n - m o n g e r i n g . " Unbeknownst t o t h e s e u l t r a - c o n s e r v a t i v e t h i n k e r s , i n l i t t l e more than a decade t h e i r s e n t i m e n t s would be the m i d d l e - a g e d Wentworth's. Small c o n s o l a t i o n , a d m i t t e d l y , i n 1819. Because o f i t s i n f o r m a t i v e n a t u r e and c o n t r o v e r s i a l s t a n c e , 21 S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n soon became a s t a n d a r d work. Three e d i t i o n s appeared i n f i v e y e a r s - - t h e second e d i t i o n an e n l a r g e m e n t , and the 22 t h i r d r u n n i n g t o two volumes. I t was no c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t from the p u b l i c a t i o n y e a r o f the f i r s t e d i t i o n onwards, the B r i t i s h P r e s s began t o pay " r e g u l a r i f not c o p i o u s a t t e n t i o n t o the o v e r s e a s 23 Empire. . . ." F u r t h e r m o r e , r e a c t i o n s t o the f i r s t two e d i t i o n s c l e a r l y e x e r t e d an i n f l u e n c e on the New South Wales A c t o f 1823, w h i c h g r a n t e d the c o l o n y a nominated L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l and t r i a l by j u r y i n c i v i l a c t i o n s , and enhanced the l e g a l s t a t u s o f e m a n c i p i s t s (though not a c c o r d i n g them any p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s ) . 2 * * Wentworth, i t a p p e a r e d , had s u c c e s s f u l l y launched h i s p u b l i c c a r e e r w i t h a mixed bag o f c a r e f u l l y r e s e a r c h e d i n f o r m a t i o n , bravado and d e l i b e r a t e l y p r o v o c a t i v e remarks prompting r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f the American d e b a c l e . Most i m p o r t a n t l y o f a l l , the c h a l l e n g e s i n h e r e n t i n S t a t i s t i ca1 D e s c r i p t i o n v i r t u a l l y g u a r a n t e e d t h a t the s t r u g g l e f o r fundamental p e r s o n a l l i b e r t i e s and s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t i n A u s t r a l i a over the next decades would be viewed by both s i d e s as c l o s e l y a n a l a g o u s t o the American e x p e r i e n c e . Wentworth f i r s t a r t i c u l a t e d the terms o f the o n g o i n g d e b a t e . 191 He was a l s o the f i r s t o f a number o f h i s countrymen t o a b r u p t l y m o d i f y t h e s e terms as h i s m a t e r i a l s i t u a t i o n improved. The e x p e d i e n t aims o f many A u s t r a l i a n s a t t h i s time cannot be o v e r l o o k e d . Ever m i n d f u l o f h i s p e r s o n a l a m b i t i o n t o f a s h i o n f o r h i m s e l f "a r e p u t a t i o n which s h a l l r e f l e c t a s p l e n d o u r on a l l who a r e r e l a t e d t o me," and aware o f the c o n s t r u c t i v e i m p r e s s i o n made by the f i r s t two e d i t i o n s o f S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n , Wentworth r e w r o t e the 1824 t h i r d e d i t i o n 25 more c a r e f u l l y , removing the menacing b l u s t e r . The B l u e Mountains s c e n a r i o d i s a p p e a r e d , f o r , d e s p i t e h i s f e e l i n g t h a t the L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l was "a w r e t c h e d mongrel s u b s t i t u t e " f o r a L e g i s l a t i v e Assembly, an " a b o r t i o u s s u b s t i t u t e , " the 1823 A c t e v i d e n t l y p l a c a t e d him s u f f i c i e n He f e l t the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the C o u n c i l and the system o f j u d i c a t u r e c o n t i n u e d t o i n f r i n g e "on the r i g h t s and l i b e r t i e s o f the c o l o n i s t s , " and s e r v e the i n t e r e s t s p r i n c i p a l l y o f the c o l o n y ' s " a r i s t o c r a t i c j u n t a " ; but the e m a n c i p i s t s now had g r e a t e r r e c o g n i t i o n a t the expense 27 o f the e x c l u s i v e s ' p r e v i o u s s t r a n g l e h o l d on p o l i t i c a l power. Went- worth c o n s t r u e d the s l e n d e r c o n c e s s i o n s as a s y m b o l i c a c t o f f a i t h . G r e a t e r l i b e r t i e s were " i m p l i e d l y p r o m i s e d " i n the c o n s t i t u t i o n t o 28 f o l l o w i n f o u r y e a r s t i m e . However, j u s t i n c a s e , Wentworth a g a i n r a i s e d the American a 1 t e r n a t i v e - - o n 1 y t h i s time l e s s b o m b a s t i c a l l y . He l i k e n e d c o l o n i a l communities t o a p i e c e o f unmoulded wax. . . . B e n e f i t s sown t h e r e w i l l y i e l d g r a t i t u d e ; j u s t i c e c o n t e n t ; i n j u r i e s h a t r e d ; o p p r e s s i o n r e s i s t a n c e i n the f i r s t i n s t a n c e , d e f e a t and s e p a r a t i o n i n t h e end. P a s t h i s t o r y a t t e s t s t h a t t y r a n n y f l o u r i s h e s but f o r a s e a s o n ; t h a t i n j u s t i c e t r i u m p h s but f o r a day.^9 192 The onus was on the M i n i s t e r f o r the C o l o n i e s , f o r h i s a c t i o n s would d e t e r m i n e whether, i n f i n e , t h e i r i n f a n t e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w i l l remain the a t t a c h e d and d u t i f u l c h i l d o f a c o n s i d e r a t e p a r e n t , o r s e i z e the f i r s t f a v o u r a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y t h a t s h a l l o c c u r t o renounce the c o n t r o l [ s i c ] o f en u n f e e l i n g master.30 S i g n i f i c a n t l y , even as h i s p e r s o n a l p o l i t i c s grew r a p i d l y more con- s e r v a t i v e i n the decades a f t e r 1830, Wentworth c o n t i n u e d t o a p p r e c i a t e the shock v a l u e o f c i t i n g American p r e c e d e n t s and the good sense o f c e r t a i n American p o l i t i c a l and e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y . A f t e r the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the t h r e e e d i t i o n s of S t a t i s t i ca1 Descr i pt i o n , Wentworth's l o c a l s u p p o r t e r s q u i c k l y grew i n number i n the f o l l o w i n g ten y e a r s . E m a n c i p i s t c o l l e a g u e s j u b i l a n t l y h a i l e d h i s r e f e r e n c e t o the c o l o n y ' s e x c l u s i v e s and t h e i r a t t e n d a n t s as n o t h i n g but "whores, and rogues, and vagabonds"; they a p p r e c i a t e d , t o o , h i s i n t i m i d a t i n g p r e s e n c e on the l o c a l scene a f t e r h i s r e t u r n from England 31 i n 1824. Wentworth's p r e d i c t i o n of a " g e n e r a l r e v o l u t i o n " and the b o l d independence o f h i s c l a i m s t e m p o r a r i l y boded i l l f o r the grand 32 p l a n s and s e c r e t a m b i t i o n s o f c o l o n i a l T o r i e s . The a g g r e s s i v e n a t u r e o f the W e n t w o r t h - i n s p i r e d p e t i t i o n t o D a r l i n g i n J a n u a r y , 1827, prompted the g o v e r n o r t o w r i t e i n a l e t t e r t o home t h a t He [Wentworth] speaks as he w r o t e When c o m p i l i n g h i s book, o f the independence o f the c o l o n y , and compares i t t o the s i t u a t i o n f o r m e r l y o f A m e r i c a , and the p r o b a b i l i t y o f i t s b e i n g d r i v e n , as A m e r i c a was, t o shake o f f the yoke. In s h o r t , he i s a n x i o u s t o become the man of the p e o p l e , and he seems t o t h i n k t h a t the b e s t means o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s i s by i n s u l t i n g the government.33 1 9 3 Two t h i n g s a r e i m p o r t a n t here: D a r l i n g ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f S t a t i s t i ca 1 D e s c r i p t i o n as a p o t e n t i a l l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y work and h i s i n s i g h t i n t o the p e r s o n a l m o t i v e s h i d d e n behind Wentworth's campaign f o r the p u b l i c b e n e f i t . O c c u r r e n c e s i n the l 8 3 0 ' s bore out the v a l i d i t y o f D a r 1 i ng ' s remarks. What c o n t r i b u t e d t o Wentworth's d e s e r t i o n o f the f r e e p o p u l a t i o n ? Among o t h e r t h i n g s , the g r a d u a l waning of e m a n c i p i s t / e x c l u s i v e h o s t i l i t y , Wentworth's s u b s t a n t i a l i n h e r i t a n c e a f t e r h i s f a t h e r ' s d e a t h i n 1 8 2 7 , h i s m a r r i a g e i n 1 8 2 9 , h i s a c q u i s i t i o n o f many l a r g e p r o p e r t i e s i n New South Wales, and the sudden i n c r e a s e o f e m i g r a n t s a r r i v i n g i n the c o l o n y . As the 1 8 3 0 's p r o g r e s s e d , he became the i n c r e a s i n g l y r e a c t i o n a r y spokesman not o f J a c k s o n i a n democracy, but o f H a m i l t o n i a n c l a s s p r i v i l e g e . Wentworth a s s e r t e d the c l a i m s o f p r o p e r t y and e d u c a t i o n f o r the moulding o f a s u i t a b l e g o v e r n i n g c l a s s . He s t a u n c h l y d e f e n d e d , as A l e x a n d e r H a m i l t o n had, the o l d a r i s t o c r a c y - - w h a t he i n 1 8 5 3 g r u d g i n g l y acknowledged as a " s q u a t o c r a t i c o l i g a r c h y " - - a g a i n s t the c l a i m s o f a r i s i n g t i d e o f e m i g r a n t s y e a r n i n g f o r more l a n d . 3 5 Though he r e f e r r e d as l a t e as A u s t r a l i a Day ( J a n u a r y 2 6 ) , 1 8 3 3 , t o government chosen by the " p e o p l e " when recommending the American r e c o r d f o r cheap government, he seemed by then t o h o l d a d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n o f the 3 6 p e o p l e . Government by the p e o p l e meant, f o r the Wentworth o f the m i d d l e 1 8 3 0 ' s , government i n the hands o f h i s own c l a s s . He wanted an e d u c a t e d r u l i n g m i n o r i t y , one c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y l e g a l i z e d and r i c h enough t o r e s i s t the p e r i l s o f democracy. Wentworth's i d e a s a t t h i s time m i r r o r t h o s e o f John Adams as o u t l i n e d i n Defence o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n s 19* o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s (1787-8) and D i s c o u r s e s on D a v i l a (1790-1). The y e a r s f o l l o w i n g the f o r m a t i o n ( i n 1835) o f the i n s u l a r , e l i t i s t A u s t r a l i a n P a t r i o t i c A s s o c i a t i o n w i t n e s s e d a s e v e r e c u r t a i l - ment i n Wentworth's p o p u l a r s u p p o r t , s i n c e he now s p o k e ; f o r a c e r t a i n v e s t e d i n t e r e s t - - a m i n o r i t y o f w e a l t h y , a m b i t i o u s e m a n c i p i s t s and e m i g r a n t s , and growing numbers o f T o r i e s . A s u c c e s s i o n o f i n c i d e n t s soured the g e n e r a l p o p u l a c e : h i s r e f u s a l t o c h a i r the J a n u a r y , 1837, A u s t r a l i a Day meeting because o n l y n a t i v e - b o r n were g o i n g t o be p r e s e n t ; the c a n c e l l a t i o n o f h i s Sydney G a z e t t e s u b s c r i p t i o n ; h i s f u r t i v e , u n p r i n c i p l e d a t t e m p t t o s e c u r e m a s s i v e t r a c t s o f l a n d from the New Z e a l a n d Maori p e o p l e ; and f i n a l l y (and i n the eyes o f e g a l i t a r i a n A u s t r a l i a n s , most d e s p i c a b l y ) , h i s sudden s u p p o r t o f the movement t o 38 r e i n t r o d u c e c o n v i c t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . Wentworth's thousands and thousands o f c o l o n i a l a c r e s needed cheap l a b o u r t o c o n v e r t them i n t o p r o f i t . To o b t a i n such w o r k e r s , he w i l l i n g l y backed movements t o s e c u r e more c o n v i c t s , o r , i f n e c e s s a r y , c o o l i e l a b o u r from nearby P a c i f i c i s l a n d s . Old f r i e n d s sensed a B e n e d i c t A r n o l d . Sydney's p o p u l a r p r e s s bombasted t h e i r hero o f y e a r s gone by, c a l l i n g him the Ursa Major o f A u s t r a l i a n 39 p o l i t i c s , a " r a b i d , f r o t h i n g b u l l d o g . " Perhaps s a d d e s t o f a l l , and the f i n a l i r o n y , was the i n d i c t m e n t d e l i v e r e d by the A u s t r a l i a n , . the paper Wentworth had h e l p e d t o found so t h a t i d e a l s such as i n - dependence, freedom, c o n s i s t e n c y , h o n e s t y and i n t e g r i t y c o u l d g a i n c r e d e n c e i n the c o l o n y . With A u s t r a l i a Day, 1842, but a week away, the A u s t r a l i a n pronounced: 195 Mr. Wentworth i s one o f t h o s e persons who was an i n f l u e n t i a l man. H i s day i s gone by. H i s o p i n i o n i s worth n o t h i n g . He s t a n d s a l o n e and i s a l t o g e t h e r d i s r e g a r d e d . C e r t a i n l y he f i r s t t a u g h t the n a t i v e s o f t h i s c o l o n y what l i b e r t y was, but he has b e t r a y e d them s i n c e and they have w i t h - drawn t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e i n him.**0 But Wentworth's i n f l u e n c e d i d not d e c l i n e . A c t u a l l y , f o r the next decade he was a r g u a b l y as p o w e r f u l as any s i n g l e man, o t h e r than the g o v e r n o r , i n the c o l o n y . But h i s d o c t r i n e s g a i n e d e n e r g e t i c s u p p o r t o n l y from h i s s o c i a l e q u a l s . The f r e s h waves o f poor, d e m o c r a t i c a l l y minded e m i g r a n t s , o f whom a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e were r a d i c a l s and C h a r t i s t s , i n s t a n t l y d i s t r u s t e d A u s t r a l i a ' s g r e a t p a t r i o t . The d i s - l i k e was m u t u a l . For Wentworth, the mob c o n s i s t e d o f " i g n o r a n t p r e t e n d e r s " who, f o r the w e l l - b e i n g of the c o l o n y , had t o be e x c l u d e d from a l l branches o f e x e c u t i v e power on the b a s i s o f p r o p e r t y , e x p e r i e n c e k] and e d u c a t i o n . As A l e x a n d e r H a m i l t o n put i t , the " g r e a t b e a s t " had t o be c h e c k e d . Wentworth now f u l l y agreed w i t h the fundamental t e n e t o f H a m i l t o n i a n economics: "That power which h o l d s the p u r s e - kl s t r i n g s a b s o l u t e l y , must r u l e . " H i s money, a p p a r e n t l y , t e s t i f i e d t o h i s c a p a c i t y . As e v e n t s of the p e r i o d from 1838 t o 1868 d e m o n s t r a t e , even i n h i s f i n a l , p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e y e a r s , Wentworth never f o r g o t the a t t e n t i o n p a i d h i s f l i r t a t i o n s w i t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y A m e r i c a . I t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e whether he e v e r d i s p l a y e d a t o t a l a f f i n i t y w i t h any s i n g l e American p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i s t , but he always a t t e n d e d t o American u t i l i t y . W i t h A u s t r a l i a on the b r i n k o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , and h i s own c o n s e r v a t i s m perhaps more s t r i n g e n t than a t any p r e v i o u s p o i n t i n h i s l i f e , Wentworth 1 9 6 c o u l d s t i l l m a k e l i b e r a l u s e o f A m e r i c a n p r e c e d e n t s d u r i n g t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e b a t e s o f t h e e a r l y 1 8 5 0 1 s . I n t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e a b o l i t i o n o f p r e s s c e n s o r s h i p i n 1 8 2 4 t o t h e f i r s t p a r l i a m e n t e l e c t e d u n d e r a n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n , i n 1 8 5 6 , W e n t w o r t h , m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r c o l o n i s t b e s i d e s L a n g , e s t a b l i s h e d A m e r i c a a s a f a s h i o n a b l e p o l i t i c a 1 w e a p o n . I n d o i n g t h i s , h e h e l p e d c r e a t e t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h c a u s e d , g r o w i n g n u m b e r s o f A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s f r o m 1 8 4 0 o n w a r d s t o c o n s i d e r A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y o u t p u t , u n c o n v e n t i o n a l a s i t w a s , a s a v i a b l e c r e a t i v e s o u r c e . W e n t w o r t h , w i t h L a n g , p u t A m e r i c a o n t h e m a p f o r A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s . 197 S e c t i o n B_ John Dunmore Lang (1799~1878) Lang's f i r s t and second e d i t i o n s of An H i s t o r i c a l and S t a t i s t i c a l Account o f New South Wales (1834 and 1837) need some c o n s i d e r a t i o n a t t h i s p o i n t , as they a r e p r e l i m i n a r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f h i s i m p o r t a n t s t a t e m e n t s , t r a c t s and d o c t r i n e s t o f o l l o w i n the next two d e c a d e s - d o c t r i n e s w h i c h were t o s t i r the b l o o d o f a new g e n e r a t i o n o f w r i t e r s making the f i r s t a t t e m p t t o a b s o r b the A u s t r a l i a n environment and 43 p e c u l i a r h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n t o t h e i r w r i t i n g . L i k e Wentworth's S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n some f i f t e e n y e a r s b e f o r e , Lang's f i r s t e d i t i o n , w r i t t e n d u r i n g h i s t h i r d voyage t o England i n 1833, o f f e r e d i m p o r t a n t c l u e s t o t h e w r i t e r ' s l a t e r p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e . Wentworth a l e r t e d h i s countrymen t o A m e r i c a ' s v a l u e as a p o t e n t weapon o f i n t i m i d a t i o n , a p l o y w h i c h a n t i c i p a t e d the':tone of the c o l o n y ' s l820's; Lang's book more o b v i o u s l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d i t s decade i n s e e k i n g l e s s t o shock, and more t o g e t t i n g on w i t h the b u s i n e s s o f s h a p i n g a r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g community. Lang sought t o i d e n t i f y the c o l o n y ' s h i s t o r y and c h a r a c t e r w h i c h , i n the m i d d l e 44 1830's, he r e g a r d e d as " p e c u l i a r l y B r i t i s h p r o p e r t y . " H i s book, l i k e Wentworth's, became a m a r k e t i n g s u c c e s s , b e i n g u l t i m a t e l y p u b l i s h e d 198 i n f o u r e d i t i o n s o v e r a p e r i o d o f some f o r t y y e a r s . D e s p i t e t h e W e s t m i n s t e r R e v i e w ' s m u c h - p u b l i c i z e d comment t h a t L a n g " m i g h t h a v e e n t i t l e d h i s w o r k , T h e H i s t o r y o f D r . L a n g , t o wh i c h i s a d d e d , t h e H i s t o r y o f New S o u t h W a l e s , t h e v o l u m e i s a more v a l i d " h i s t o r y " *5 t h a n W e n t w o r t h ' s , i f l e s s r e b e l l i o u s i n s p i r i t . I t became a s t a n d a r d n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s o u r c e f o r t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e c o l o n y . A s G . B . B a r t o n commented i n 1866, No a c c o u n t o f t h i s C o l o n y h a s met w i t h m o r e n o t i c e f r o m t h e E n g l i s h P r e s s t h a n Dr. L a n g ' s , a n d p r o b a b l y none h a s b e e n m o r e l a r g e l y c i r c u l a t e d . I t c a n n o t be d o u b t e d t h a t t h e v a r i o u s e d i t i o n s o f h i s H i s t o r y h a v e d o n e more t o a f f e c t p u b l i c o p i n i o n a t home, w i t h r e g a r d t o t h i s c o u n t r y , t h a n a n y o t h e r pub 1 i c a t i o n . * ^ L i k e W e n t w o r t h i n h i s f i r s t e d i t i o n , L a n g e x p r e s s e d an i n t e r e s t i n , and r e s p e c t f o r , t h e m o t i v a t i o n s o f t h e A m e r i c a n r e b e l s . T h e s e e d s o f l a t e r d i s c o n t e n t a p p e a r i n m i c r o c o s m . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f c h a p t e r t w o , f o r e x a m p l e , he comments on t h e t o i l and d e d i c a t i o n n e e d e d t o f o u n d t h e c o l o n y i n 1788. T h e f i r s t f e w p a g e s p r o v i d e some h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d : B e f o r e t h e B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a w e r e v i o l e n t l y s e v e r e d f r o m t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y , t h r o u g h u n w i s e i f n o t t y r a n n i c a l l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e p r o v i n c e o f V i r g i n i a had f o r a l o n g t i m e b e e n t h e o n l y a u t h o r i z e d o u t l e t f o r t h o s e c r i m i n a l s i n G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d I r e l a n d who had b e e n s e n t e n c e d t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . * 7 W o r t h n o t i n g i s n o t o n l y t h e e v i d e n t s y m p a t h y f o r t h e A m e r i c a n r e v o l u t i o n - i s t s , b u t L a n g ' s o b v i o u s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h A m e r i c a n s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y . L a t e r , he d i s p l a y s i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e A m e r i c a n s y s t e m 199 o f r e l i g i o u s v o l u n t a r y i s m - - t o the p o i n t o f o p e n l y a d v o c a t i n g a s i m i l a r 48 system f o r New South Wales. The e l a b o r a t e e x t r a c t s on the American V o l u n t a r y System r e f l e c t the a u t h o r ' s m a n i f e s t d i s c o n t e n t w i t h the a u t h o r i t a r i a n measures o f B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l i s m , p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p a r e n t i n r e l i g i o n . Lang a t t a c k s the " t h o r o u g h l y e x c l u s i v e , i n t o l e r a n t , and t y r a n n i c a l s p i r i t of E p i s c o p a l d o m i n a t i o n i n the B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s , " i m m e d i a t e l y q u o t i n g from Smith's H i s t o r y o f New York t o p o r t r a y the m e l a n c h o l y dilemma o f the S c o t s P r e s b y t e r i a n s o f New York who e n c o u n t e r e d the " v i o l e n t " o p p o s i t i o n o f the dominant E p i s c o p a l P a r t y i n the e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h 49 c e n t u r y . He c o n c l u d e s the p o i n t by s t a t i n g t h a t I t was, d o u b t l e s s , the r e p e t i t i o n o f such a c t s o f i n t o l e r a n c e and o p p r e s s i o n . . . on the p a r t o f a d o m i n e e r i n g f a c t i o n s u p p o r t e d and a b e t t e d by the Government a t home, t h a t s e r v e d g r a d u a l l y t o wean the a f f e c t i o n s o f the American p e o p l e from t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e i r r i g h t f u l s o v e r e i g n , and t h a t s u b s e q u e n t l y gave the American R e v o l u t i o n t h a t moral and r e s i s t l e s s f o r c e , t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o w r e s t the f a i r e s t p r o v i n c e s from the B r i t i s h Empire, and t o p l u c k the b r i g h t e s t j e w e l from the B r i t i s h Crown.^ u In the y e a r s f o l l o w i n g 1834, Lang's o u t l o o k r a d i c a l i z e d i n • a c c o r d a n c e w i t h h i s growing a b s o r p t i o n w i t h American r e p u b l i c a n i s m . The f i r s t e d i t i o n of H i s t o r i c a l and S t a t i s t i c a l A c c o u n t , w i t h i t s r i d i c u l e o f c e r t a i n o f the t r a p p i n g s o f B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l government and i t s b o l d advocacy o f a new s e t o f c o l o n i a l p r i o r i t i e s ("Advance A u s t r a l i a , God save the K i n g ! " ^ ) i n i m p o r t a n t ways a n t i c i p a t e d the p u g n a c i t y of l a t e r e d i t i o n s . More s o p h i s t i c a t e d a p p r a i s a l s o f America 200 52 f o l l o w e d . By the time the t h i r d e d i t i o n was p u b l i s h e d i n 1852, Lang had assumed one of the most r a d i c a l s t a n c e s i n the c o l o n y . H i s s u c c e s s i o n o f pamphlets a s s e r t e d so f o r c e f u l a r e p u b l i c a n p o s i t i o n t h a t , by the e a r l y 1850's, i t was by no means o u t r a g e o u s f o r the W e s t m i n s t e r Review t o propose t h a t " h a v i n g now d e c l a r e d f o r a R e p u b l i c , 53 he p r o b a b l y means t o f i n i s h o f f by b e i n g i t s f i r s t P r e s i d e n t ! " From the time o f h i s v i s i t t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1840, Lang t o t a l l y committed h i m s e l f t o the p u b l i c i z i n g o f the i d e a l s o f the American r e p u b l i c , soon becoming the p r i n c i p a l spokesman o f A u s t r a l i a n democrats. loi Sect i o n C_ Amasa Delano (1763-1823) and C h a r l e s W i l k e s (1798-1877) Two o f the e a r l i e s t American commentators on the c u r i o s i t i e s o f A u s t r a l i a n l i f e were the " o l d weather beaten s a i l o r , " s e a - c a p t a i n , s e a l e r and sometime a u t h o r , Amasa Delano, and the c o n t r o v e r s i a l naval o f f i c e r , e x p l o r e r and s c i e n t i s t , C h a r l e s W i l k e s , l e a d e r of the r e - nowned American e x p l o r i n g e x p e d i t i o n t h a t v i s i t e d and c h a r t e d the c o a s t o f the A n t a r c t i c c o n t i n e n t , c o u n t l e s s P a c i f i c i s l a n d s and the American n o r t h w e s t c o a s t f o r a l m o s t f o u r y e a r s , from A u g u s t , I838, t o J u l y , 1842. Delano's a c c o u n t , A N a r r a t i v e o f Voyages and T r a v e l s i n the N o r t h e r n and S o u t h e r n Hemi s p h e r e s : compri s i ng Three Voyages Round the World (1817) , though d e v o i d o f any i n s i g h t i n t o the c o m p o s i t i o n o r p o l i t i c a l t e n d e n c i e s o f New H o l l a n d a t the b e g i n n i n g o f the n i n e - t e e n t h c e n t u r y , makes i n t e r e s t i n g r e a d i n g as i t p r o v i d e s an a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e on the h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l i n c i d e n t s t h a t i n v o l v e d Delano and the crews o f h i s two s h i p s , P i l g r i m and P e r s e v e r a n c e , d u r i n g t h e i r many months i n A u s t r a l i a n w a t e r s t h r o u g h o u t 1804.55 As has been shown, the c o l o n y ' s e a r l y g o v e r n o r s , e s p e c i a l l y Hunter 2 0 2 and K i n g , e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s t a n t f r u s t r a t i o n w i t h American t r a d e r s and s e a l e r s . They were, on the one hand, f o r c e d t o countenance the American p r e s e n c e because the c o l o n y s o r e l y needed the food s t a p l e s the Americans c o u l d s u p p l y ; on the o t h e r hand, as a r e s u l t , they had t o endure the p e r s i s t e n t annoyances o f extreme Yankee t h r i f t and i n t e n s e s i n g 1 e - m i n d e d n e s s . The A m e r i c a n s , and hereDelano was un- 56 d o u b t e d l y t y p i c a l , drove a hard t r a d i n g b a r g a i n . Delano's N a r r a t i ve s u p p l i e s some i n s i g h t i n t o the m o t i v a t i o n s and a s p i r a t i o n s o f the hardy bunch o f American seamen who c r e a t e d so pronounced an impact on the i n f a n t P o r t J a c k s o n s e t t l e m e n t . He o u t l i n e s t h r e e a c t u a t i n g p r i n c i p l e s f o r the a d v e n t u r o u s 1 i f e he chose i n h i s y o u t h : The f i r s t t h a t I know o f was an a m b i t i o n t o e x c e l o t h e r s i n a c h i e v e m e n t s ; the next was, t o s a t i s f y my own c u r i o s i t y i n a knowledge o f the w o r l d , and p a r t i c u l a r l y t o know how f a r m y s e l f and o t h e r s were imposed upon w i t h e x a g g e r a t e d a c c o u n t s of the w o r l d , and f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h i n g s a g r e a t way from home; the t h i r d and l a s t , and f o r many o f my l a t t e r y e a r s by f a r the g r e a t e s t , was, h o n e s t l y and h o n o u r a b l y t o o b t a i n a competency s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t m y s e l f and f a m i l y , through an o l d age, s h o u l d I l i v e t o see i t ; t o do a b e n e v o l e n t a c t now and t h e n , and t o l e a v e an unblemished c h a r a c t e r behind me. 57 Ego, i n q u i s i t i v e n e s s and the New Eng1 and. d e s i r e t o make money, i t seems, a l l had an equal s t a k e i n d e t e r m i n i n g Delano's a c t i o n s . And' p r o b a b l y the a c t i o n s o f the m a j o r i t y o f h i s countrymen i n s o u t h e r n P a c i f i c w a t e r s . A f t e r e x p e r i e n c i n g numerous s k i r m i s h e s w i t h B r i t i s h s h i p s as a crewman aboard an American p r i v a t e e r w o r k i n g the West I n d i e s r o u t e , he spent v i r t u a l l y a l l the y e a r s between 1790 and 1810 2 0 3 e n d e a v o u r i n g t o f i n a l l y s e c u r e f i n a n c i a l r e s p e c t a b i l i t y f o r h i m s e l f and h i s f a m i l y - f i v e o f t h e s e y e a r s on the " l o n g , e x t r a o r d i n a r y and t e d i o u s " voyage t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e d the extended s t a y i n A u s t r a l i a n r Q w a t e r s . I t i s perhaps worth n o t i n g here t h a t Herman M e l v i l l e 5 9 based " B e n i t o Cereno" on C h a p t e r X V I I I o f Delano's N a r r a t i ve. When M e l v i l l e f i r s t p u b l i s h e d h i s t a l e i n Putnam's Monthly Magazine i n l a t e 1 8 5 5 , the N a r r a t i v e was v i r t u a l l y unknown,ieven i n A m e r i c a . 6 ^ The r e a d e r s h i p M e l v i l l e had a t the t i m e , a l o n g w i t h the r e v i v a l o f M e l v i l l e s c h o l a r s h i p i n the 1 9 2 0 ' s and beyond, p r o b a b l y p r o v i d e d Delano's book w i t h a g r e a t e r a u d i e n c e o v e r the y e a r s than i t might o t h e r w i s e have had. The A u s t r a l i a n s e c t i o n o f the N a r r a t i ve has i t s o d d i t i e s , j u s t l i k e the i n c i d e n t i n v o l v i n g the S p a n i s h c a p t a i n , Don B e n i t o Cereno (and h i s mutinous s l a v e s h i p ) , t h a t e x c i t e d M e l v i l l e ' s i m a g i n a t i o n . S u f f i c i e n t reason e x i s t e d f o r Delano t o have borne a grudge a g a i n s t George I I I and h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a b r o a d , but the N a r r a t i v e , s t r a n g e l y , 61 e x h i b i t s v i r t u a l l y no f e e l i n g s of a n i m o s i t y . Indeed, Delano, more c o n s c i o u s l y the m e t i c u l o u s l y h o n e s t , p o s s i b l y even n a i v e r e c o r d e r o f e v e n t s , waxes o p t i m i s t i c a l l y on both the c o l o n y and England's n o b l e r o l e i n " t h i s h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t u n d e r t a k i n g . " He even goes so f a r as t o a s c r i b e "two grand m o t i v e s " t o the E n g l i s h government i n the manner a l m o s t o f a W e s t m i n s t e r p r o p a g a n d i s t : [The] f i r s t was pure humanity i n s a v i n g the l i v e s o f such g r e a t numbers o f v a g r a n t s . . . the second was, the g r e a t and magnanimous p r i n c i p l e o f p l a n t i n g a c o l o n y i n the most remote r e g i o n o f the w o r l d , i n o r d e r t o c i v i l i z e the n a t i v e s and make t h a t c o u n t r y b e n e f i c i a l t o mankind. 6 2 204 Delano seems o b i i v i o u s t o the i n t r i g u e s and s o r d i d n e s s o f the mean 1804 c o l o n y , a l i t t l e l a t e r e x p r e s s i n g t o t a l a p p r o v a l o f the g o v e r n - ment's h a v i n g " l a i d the p l a t f o r m f o r c i v i l i z i n g and u n i t i n g a l l p a r t s o f the w o r l d . No n a t i o n has been so much i n the h a b i t o f d o i n g s i m i l a r 63 deeds." V i s i o n s o f a coming U t o p i a . E i t h e r Delano s i n g u l a r l y l a c k e d even the s l i g h t e s t c a p a c i t y f o r p e n e t r a t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n , o r he knew w e l l the b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s o f f l a t t e r i n g the s u b l i m e b y - p r o d u c t s 64 of E n g l i s h i n n o v a t i o n . I s u s p e c t the l a t t e r . P r o f i t a b l e v i s i t s by v e r s a t i l e s e a l e r s and t r a d e r s l i k e Delano i n Botany Bay's f i r s t l o n e l y y e a r s d i d much t o p r e p a r e the way f o r the c o n s o l i d a t i o n of s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l t i e s i n l a t e r " y e a r s . I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t Delano, i n c o n t r a s t t o many o f h i s c o u n t r y - men, a s s i s t e d i n the escape o f c o n v i c t s from the c o l o n y . In f a c t , 65 he c l a i m e d some o f h i s men had been s h a n g h a i e d . But t o the e x t e n t t h a t he competed a c t i v e l y w i t h P o r t J a c k s o n s e a l e r s f o r the Bass S t r a i t s e a l t r a d e , a s s i s t e d government a u t h o r i t i e s i f the p r i c e was r i g h t , and pursued p r o f i t r e l e n t l e s s l y , he was t y p i c a l of the Americans w i t h whom the c o l o n y had f i r s t c o n t a c t . Amasa Delano's o b s e r v a t i o n s on the New South Wales s e t t l e m e n t were s l i g h t because he had v e n t u r e d i n t o s o u t h e r n w a t e r s w i t h the s o l e aim o f s e c u r i n g p r o f i t a b l e v e n t u r e s . A p a r t from h i s b r i e f , o p t i m i s t i c f o r e c a s t s f o r the f u t u r e o f the c o n t i n e n t , he took no 205 i n t e r e s t i n s p e c u l a t i n g on the r e p r e s s i v e p o l i t i c s o f New H o l l a n d o r r e s p o n d i n g t o any o f i t s unique problems. By c o n t r a s t , many members o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s m a r i t i m e e x p l o r i n g e x p e d i t i o n who v i s i t e d Sydney f o r s e v e r a l weeks i n l a t e 1839, and a g a i n i n March, 1840, d e t e r m i n e d t o do e x a c t l y t h a t . T h e i r d i a r i e s and o f f i c i a l j o u r n a l s convey an enormous amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n on the c o l o n y a t the end o f the 18301s. The more e n t e r t a i n i n g ones go beyond s i m p l e memos o f e v e n t s , a n i m a l s and s c e n e r y t o i n j e c t something o f themselves (and t h e i r background) i n t o what they r e c o r d . As a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample, t h r e e j o u r n a l s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d : the l e a d e r C h a r l e s W i l k e s 1 N a r r a t i v e o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s E x p l o r i n g E x p e d i t i o n (1845); naval L i e u t e n a n t George M. C o l v o c o r e s s e s 1 Fou r Yea rs i n a_ Government E x p l o r i ng Exped i t i on (1852); and a b l e seaman C h a r l e s E r s k i n e ' s Twenty Years B e f o r e the Mast (1890). W i l k e s 1 N a r r a t i ve, by f a r the most comprehensive and p e r c e p t i v e , w i l l be emphasized f o r t h a t r e a s o n . When John Quincy Adams, i n h i s f i r s t annual p r e s i d e n t i a l message on December 6, 1825, s u g g e s t e d t h a t a s h i p be r i g g e d out t o e x p l o r e the American n o r t h w e s t c o a s t , he gave p o s s i b l y f i r s t p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n t o a r a p i d l y growing p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f h i s p e o p l e : the d e s i r e t o expand commercial i n t e r e s t s by c h a r t i n g remote a r e a s e i t h e r a t home o r o v e r s e a s . Growing numbers o f c i t i z e n s regarded t h i s i n c r e a s e o f knowledge as i n e x t r i c a b l y bound t o the cause o f e n h a n c i n g the n a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a t i o n a l image. Something had t o be done t o a s s e r t A m e r i c a ' s c l a i m as a major power. So, i n 1828, a group o f i n f l u e n t i a l government o f f i c i a l s proposed a major n a v a l e x p e d i t i o n . 206 In the ten y e a r s t h a t f o l l o w e d , the planned d e s t i n a t i o n , s i z e and l e a d e r s h i p o f the e x p e d i t i o n endured a s u c c e s s i o n o f changes, 68 d e l a y s and b i t t e r c o n t r o v e r s i e s . So stormy was the atmosphere t h a t i n the m i d s t o f the d e b a c l e one paper saw f i t t o comment t h a t "Success a l o n e can e f f a c e the r e c o l l e c t i o n o f the b i c k e r i n g s and h e a r t b u r n i n g s , the d e l a y s and b l u n d e r s , which have marked the p r o g r e s s 69 o f t h i s e x p e d i t i o n from i t s i n c e p t i o n t o the p r e s e n t t i m e . " Two p o i n t s about the f i n a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f the p a r t y , r e g a r d i n g t h o s e who made i t and t h o s e who d i d n ' t . F i r s t , the q u e s t i o n o f command. S e v e r a l m a s s i v e naval egos s u f f e r e d immeasurably when the a m b i t i o u s , but i n rank l o w l y newcomer, l i e u t e n a n t C h a r l e s W i l k e s , was s e l e c t e d t o command the e x p e d i t i o n i n March, I838. A no-nonsense d i s c i p l i n a r i a n w i t h s t r o n g f a i t h i n h i s a b i l i t y and commensurate sense of h i s b e i n g d e s t i n e d f o r g r e a t n e s s , W i l k e s made a c o n s i d e r a b l e impact on Sydney r e s i d e n t s d u r i n g the month-long s t a y o f the e x p e d i t i o n . For t h o s e p r i v i l e g e d c i t i z e n s on the permanent i n v i t a t i o n - 1 i s t o f Government House, he embodied s t y l e and panache. For some o f the s e n i o r c i t i z e n s , on the o t h e r hand, t h o s e who r e c a l l e d the e a r l y days i n Botany Bay and c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f s e t t l e m e n t , h i s name brought back memories o f a famous namesake a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the r e p u b l i c a n c a u s e , John W i l k e s - - the man f o r whom the a u r a o f monarchy h e l d no f e a r s , who had h e l p e d i n s p i r e a g e n e r a t i o n of Americans t o r e v o l t and thus i n d i r e c t l y c r e a t e the c i r c u m s t a n c e s which l e d t o the Botany Bay s e t t l e m e n t . John W i l k e s was C h a r l e s ' g r e a t - u n c l e . 7 ^ S e c o n d l y , s i n c e the e x p e d i t i o n a l l a l o n g aimed a t o b t a i n i n g the 207 most t a l e n t e d p e r s o n n e l a v a i l a b l e , s e v e r a l p r o m i n e n t s c h o l a r s c o v e t e d t h e p o s i t i o n o f o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i a n . One o f t h e l e a d i n g c a n d i d a t e s was N a t h a n i e l H a w t h o r n e , l a t e r t o become o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l f i g u r e s i n t h e A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y r e n a i s s a n c e t h a t b l o s s o m e d i n New E n g l a n d . Who knows what e f f e c t s m i g h t h a v e b e e n w r o u g h t i n h i s f i c t i o n i f he had b e e n a member o f t h e W i l k e s e x p e d i t i o n ? And he a l m o s t made i t . A s s i s t e d by two o l d s c h o o l f r i e n d s , H o r a t i o B r i d g e a n d S e n a t o r F r a n k l i n P i e r c e , who u s e d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e t o t r y a n d a f f e c t t h e S e n a t e N a v a l C o m m i t t e e , H a w t h o r n e , a t o n e p o i n t i n e a r l y 1837, l o o k e d h i g h l y l i k e l y t o w i n t h e $1500 a p p o i n t m e n t . But t h e power s t r u g g l e g o i n g on i n n a v a l command, a n d s c i e n t i f i c j e a l o u s y , c r e a t e d d e l a y s w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y d e s t r o y e d h i s c h a n c e s . 7 ' H a w t h o r n e d e e p l y l a m e n t e d t h i s l o s t o p p o r t u n i t y 72 f o r t h e r e s t o f h i s l i f e . H i s f r i e n d B r i d g e , many y e a r s l a t e r , p o n d e r e d t h e r e s u l t s o f a s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n : " . . . t h e c u r r e n t o f h i s l i f e w o u l d h a v e b e e n s t r a n g e l y d i s t u r b e d , and h i s l a t e r w r i t i n g s w o u l d , I t h i n k , h a v e t a k e n on an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t c o l o r i n g - - w h e t h e r 73 f o r t h e b e t t e r , who s h a l l s a y ? " F a t e a l m o s t b r o u g h t H a w t h o r n e t o A u s t r a l i a n s h o r e s . B o s t o n ' s H e s t e r P r y n n e , A r t h u r D i m m e s d a l e and R o g e r C h i 11 i n g w o r t h m i g h t h a v e had t h e i r S y d n e y c o n v i c t c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h e e x p e d i t i o n f l e e t - - m a d e up o f t h e f l a g s h i p V i n c e n n e s a n d 7* f i v e o t h e r v e s s e 1 s - - f i n a 1 1 y l e f t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n A u g u s t , I838. Two o f t h e s h i p s , V i n c e n n e s and a n o t h e r s 1 o o p - o f - w a r , P e a c o c k , a n c h o r e d o f f S y d n e y C o v e a few h o u r s a f t e r s u n s e t on November 29, 1839, a f t e r W i l k e s had n e g o t i a t e d t h e t r i c k y s h o a l s o f t h e h a r b o u r w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f a p i l o t . No o n e knew o f t h e a r r i v a l . T h u s , o n t h e m o r n i n g 208 o f the 3 0 t h , a n x i e t y g r i p p e d Sydney's p o p u l a t i o n o f 2 4 , 0 0 0 , many 75 o f whom f e l t t h e i r s e t t l e m e n t t o be under a t t a c k . T h e i r f e a r s were soon put t o r e s t , however, and f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s q u i c k l y e s t a b l i s h e d ; but the c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a r r i v a l prompted W i l k e s and a number o f h i s c o l l e a g u e s t o comment on the meagre harbour f o r t i f i c a t i o n s . The e x p e d i t i o n commander s p e c u l a t e d : Had war e x i s t e d , we m i g h t , a f t e r f i r i n g the s h i p p i n g , and r e d u c i n g a g r e a t p a r t o f the town t o a s h e s , have a f f e c t e d a r e t r e a t b e f o r e d a y b r e a k , i n p e r f e c t safety.76 One o f h i s o f f i c e r s , L t . C o l v o c o r e s s e s , e x p r e s s e d l e s s c o n c e r n w i t h the t a c t i c s o f s e i g e . Amusing l o c a l r e a c t i o n s t r u c k h i s f a n c y : S e v e r a l o f the newspapers spoke o f i t [ t h e a r r i v a l o f the two s h i p s ] next morning as something v e r y r e m a r k a b l e , and j o c u l a r l y d e c l a r e d i t t o be a "Yankee t r i c k " done f o r the purpose o f s a v i n g the p i l o t a g e , and i n p e r f e c t k e e p i n g w i t h our u s u a l keenness i n money matters.77 H i s comments shed l i g h t on a c o u p l e o f a r e a s . For one, the e x p l o i t s o f e a r l y American s e a l e r s and t r a d e r s o b v i o u s l y d i d e s t a b l i s h c e r t a i n s t e r e o t y p e s about the Americans i n the minds o f A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i s t s , not the l e a s t o f w h i c h was t h r i f t . Next, C o l v o c o r e s s e s conveys the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n re 1 a t i o n s . w e r e , i n 1839, f r i e n d l y i n the extreme. Indeed, p e r u s a l o f o t h e r s o u r c e s p o i n t s t o an e x t r a - o r d i n a r i l y warm r e c e p t i o n f o r the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n . Bonhomie marked the e x p e d i t i o n s e n t i r e s t a y , the immediate c o n v i v i a l i t y o f the A u s t r a l i a n h o s t s b e i n g more than r e c i p r o c a t e d by the w e l l - l i k e d "Yankees." "We were," s a i d the n a t u r a l i s t T i t i a n 2 0 9 P e a l e , summing up the s e n t i m e n t s o f a l l h i s c o l l e a g u e s , " g r e e t e d w i t h the utmost h o s p i t a l i t y , e v e r y a t t e n t i o n was p a i d us by the a u t h o r i t i e s and c i t i z e n s . We were e l e c t e d h o n o r a r y members o f the A u s t r a l i a n C l u b , who gave us a s p l e n d i d e n t e r t a i n m e n t under the p a t r o n a g e o f h i s E x c l S i r George G i p p s , the Governor. T h i s was f o l l o w e d by a c o n s t a n t round o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t s , both p u b l i c and 7 8 p r i v a t e , which l a s t e d w h i l e we remained." O f f i c e r s , s c i e n t i s t s and s a i l o r s a l i k e responded t o once a g a i n b e i n g i n a " c i v i l i z e d <:' • c o u n t r y . " Many became good f r i e n d s w i t h l o c a l f a m i l i e s . The p u b l i c a n s and owners o f Sydney pubs, inns and b r o t h e l s , o f c o u r s e , r e j o i c e d i n the boost t o ' : t h e i r t r a d e . "Yankee Doodle" everywhere competed a c t i v e l y w i t h " R u l e B r i t t a n i a , " the Marsei 1 1 a i s e a n d the R u s s i a n 7 9 anthem. ' For the American crewmen t h e r e was, as one h i s t o r i a n has 8 0 put i t , "a welcome i n e v e r y grog shop a l o n g the Sydney w a t e r f r o n t . " When the time came t o d e p a r t f o r A n t a r c t i c a , many members o f the e x p e d i t i o n e x p r e s s e d g r e a t r e l u c t a n c e t o l e a v e the warmth o f A u s t r a l i a n s h o r e s . For the o f f i c e r s , s h a c k l e d by rank, c r i t i c i s m went no f u r t h e r 81 than v o i c i n g p r o t e s t i n p r i v a t e . O r d i n a r y s a i l o r s , on the o t h e r hand, c o u l d a t t e m p t t o t a k e advantage o f t h e i r g r e a t e r anonymity by jumping s h i p . Many d i d , b r i e f l y r e v e r s i n g the p a t t e r n (of c o n v i c t escape t o American s a n c t u a r y ) t h a t had e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f over the 8 2 p r e v i o u s h a l f a c e n t u r y . The a t t r a c t i o n o f what W i l k e s i d e n t i f i e d as " t h e s t r o n g resemblance o f a l l t h a t we saw t o our own homes, and the i d e n t i t y o f language" proved too much f o r some s a i l o r s who p r e f e r r e d r a t h e r t o r i s k the consequences o f d e s e r t i o n than l e a v e Sydney's 210 s h o r e s f o r t h e h a r s h , a n d p o s s i b l y f a t a l A n t a r c t i c c l i m a t e . T h o u g h we know t h a t a t l e a s t o n e l o c a l r e s i d e n t was a l i t t l e d i s a p p o i n t e d w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n p a r t y i n t h a t t h e y w e r e n e i t h e r N e g r o e s n o r I n d i a n s a s s h e had e x p e c t e d , t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f c o l o n i s t s d e l i g h t e d i n t h e u n e x p e c t e d v i s i t . A m e a s u r e o f t h e s t r o n g f e e l i n g s o f a f f i n i t y t h a t A u s t r a l i a n s had f o r t h e e x p e d i t i o n , a n d A m e r i c a n s i n g e n e r a l , c a n p e r h a p s b e s t be g a u g e d by W i l k e s 1 o b s e r v a t i o n on t h e r e t u r n t r i p i n M a r c h , 1840: Our r e c e p t i o n was f l a t t e r i n g ; s c a r c e l y was o u r a n c h o r w e l l down b e f o r e many o f o u r f r i e n d s came on b o a r d t o b i d us w e l c o m e ; and we f e l t t e n f o l d t h a t k i n d h o s p i t a l i t y w h i c h on o u r f o r m e r v i s i t we had f i r s t become a c q u a i n t e d w i t h . T h e y a p p e a r e d t o r e j o i c e i n o u r s u c c e s s a s i f we had b e e n t h e i r c o u n t r y m e n A s f a r a s A u s t r a l i a n s w e r e c o n c e r n e d , e v e n t s o f t h e p r e v i o u s f i f t y y e a r s had c e m e n t e d a s t r o n g bond o f f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r A m e r i c a n c o u s i n s - - t h e p l e a s a n t l y s u r p r i s e d r e c i p i e n t s o f w h i c h w e r e W i l k e s a n d h i s l a r g e g r o u p . E v e n t h e c u r r e n t E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , G o v e r n o r G e o r g e G i p p s , i m p r e s s e d W i l k e s Q r w i t h " t h e l i b e r a l v i e w s a n d f e e l i n g s he e v i n c e d t o w a r d s o u r c o u n t r y . " F o r many A u s t r a l i a n s , i t seemed t h e e x p e d i t i o n had o n l y e n d o r s e d a f a m i l i a r i t y t h a t was a l r e a d y i n g r a i n e d . B u t What o f t h e o t h e r s i d e ? How d i d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e g r e a t R e p u b l i c r e a c t t o a c o u n t r y t h a t o n l y a c o u p l e o f d e c a d e s a g o , a s E r s k i n e r e c a l l e d , had b e e n d e s i g n a t e d " t h e p i c k p o c k e t s ' q u a r t e r 86 o f t h e g l o b e ? " W i l k e s h i m s e l f c o u l d n ' t r e s i s t t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o r e m a r k o n t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e two c u l t u r e s . S e v e r a l p a r a l l e l s 2 1 1 s t r u c k him. N o t h i n g had e v i d e n t l y changed s i n c e John Dunmore Lang's H i s t o r i c a 1 and S t a t i s t i c a 1 Account some s i x y e a r s ear 1 i e r , f o r W i 1 k e s c o u l d see, l i k e Lang, t h a t " t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f w e a l t h " amounted t o the p r i n c i p a l m o t i v a t o r o f most c o l o n i s t s , s p e c u l a t i o n b e i n g "as 87 r i f e as we had l e f t i t i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . " A l s o , as i n A m e r i c a , Sydney s u f f e r e d the marked " i n f l u e n c e o f the p u b l i c p r e s s , " the o n l y d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g o f degree. For i n the s o u t h e r n c o l o n y " i t i s more l i c e n t i o u s than any e x c e p t the lowest o f our newspapers." N e v e r t h e l e s s , w h i l e c e n s u r i n g the e x c e s s e s o f the p r e s s , he remained f a i t h f u l t o the i d e a l s on w h i c h h i s c o u n t r y had been founded i n t h a t he d i d p r a i s e the brave independence o f newspaper e d i t o r s . As i n t e l l i g e n t and c e a s e l e s s a d v o c a t e s o f r e f o r m and c o l o n i a l r i g h t s , they were, f o r 88 W i l k e s , " t h e p r i n c i p a l check on the Governor and h i s C o u n c i l . " A p p r o p r i a t e p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n , f i n a l l y , from a c i t i z e n o f the c o u n t r y which had p e r p e t u a l l y s e r v e d the r o l e as model o r s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y f o r t h e s e e d i t o r s down the y e a r s . N o r c o u l d the t r a i n e d and m e t i c u l o u s o b s e r v e r r e s t r a i n h i m s e l f from s p e c u l a t i n g on a r e p u b l i c a n f u t u r e f o r the f o u n d l i n g c o l o n y . He saw f a m i l i a r p r e l i m i n a r y s i g n s e v e r y w h e r e — a n e l i t i s t system o f government, q u a l i t y c i t i z e n s e x c l u d e d from the upper reaches o f g o v e r n - m e n t because o f t h e i r h a v i n g been born i n t o the " l o w e r c l a s s e s , " the c o n t i n u e d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the a n a c h r o n i s t i c " r o y a l p r e r o g a t i v e " 89 and incompetent government from a f a r . A t s e v e r a l p o i n t s i n h i s work, W i l k e s v i r t u a l l y a g i t a t e s f o r s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t f o r N e w South Wales, c o n s i s t e n t l y making r e f e r e n c e t o the c o l o n y as a c o u n t r y 212 t o t t e r i n g on the b r i n k o f c i v i l u p h e a v a l . In the c o u r s e o f some t w e n t y - f i v e pages, he r e f e r s t o New South Wales as " t h i s r i s i n g c o l o n y , " " t h e r i s i n g community," " t h i s r i s i n g s t a t e " and " t h e s e r i s i n g c o l o n i e s , " c u l m i n a t i n g i n a passage i n which he comes v e r y near t o l o s i n g the l a s t semblances o f a u t h o r i a l detachment: I cannot but b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s s t a t e o f s o c i e t y i s d e s t i n e d i n a v e r y s h o r t time t o undergo a g r e a t change; and many o f the i n h a b i t a n t s seem t o be of the same o p i n i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f they o b t a i n a c o l o n i a l l e g i s l a t u r e . T h i s i t seems a l m o s t i n d i s p e n s a b l e they s h o u l d have, f o r the w i s h e s and wants o f the r i s i n g community a r e too l i t t l e known and heeded, a t the d i s t a n c e o f s i x t e e n thousand m i l e s , t o i n s u r e good government; and the a c t s and the v a r y i n g p o l i c y o f the mother c o u n t r y a r e so i l l adapted t o the s t a t e o f t h i n g s h e r e , as t o s t r i k e the most common o b s e r v e r s , and o n l y tend t o l o o s e n the t i e s 9 0 o f a f f e c t i o n t h a t b i n d the c o l o n i s t s t o i t . - 7 George C o l v o c o r e s s e s , whose.: j o u r n a l was p u b l i s h e d i n 1852, some seven y e a r s a f t e r W i l k e s 1 m a s s i v e t e x t , saw the i s s u e i n even more a b s o l u t e terms: There i s v e r y l i t t l e doubt t h a t when s u f f i c i e n t l y power- f u l , the c o l o n i s t s w i l l shake o f f the yoke o f the mother c o u n t r y , and e r e c t t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a s e p a r a t e s o v e r e i g n t y , *. such a s p i r i t b e i n g a b u n d a n t l y e v i d e n t , even a t p r e s e n t . They have not as y e t the s t r e n g t h n e c e s s a r y f o r an under- t a k i n g o f so g r e a t a magnitude; but none o f the i n c 1 i n a t i o n i s w a n t i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e the home government has t h r e a t e n e d t o s u b j e c t them t o what they c o n s i d e r u n j u s t t a x a t i o n . A l r e a d y the s t o r m - c l o u d has began [ s i c ] t o show i t s e l f above the h o r i z o n , and we w i l l v e n t u r e t o p r e d i c t , the time i s not f a r d i s t a n t when i t w i l l o v e r - spread the heavens, and shower upon them a l l the h o r r o r s o f f a m i l y s t r i f e . 9 ' Both W i l k e s and C o l v o r e s s e s f o r e s a w imminent change, and both c o n s i d e r e d 213 the l o c a l p o p u l a c e ready and w i l l i n g t o assume c o n t r o l . I f t h i s was t r u e - - a n d one must a l l o w , t o some e x t e n t , f o r the o b s e r v e r s ' s u b j e c t i v i t y - - t h e n , as the 1840 1 s began, the homeland o f t h e s e two w r i t e r s had been a p o w e r f u l c o n t r i b u t o r t o the v o l a t i l e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n they e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d . The v i s i t o f the p r e s t i g i o u s W i l k e s e x p e d i t i o n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r many A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i s t s the g o o d w i l l t h a t had been s t e a d i l y g r o w i n g f o r some decades i n the c o n v i c t s e t t l e m e n t . The Americans a p p a r e n t l y r e g a r d e d the two-week s o j o u r n as a chance t o repay o l d d e b t s . James Dana, the e x p e d i t i o n m i n e r a l o g i s t , was s i m p l y stunned by the e x t r a v a g a n t welcome a c c o r d e d him and h i s countrymen: "we have open door and 92 open h e a r t s e v e r y w h e r e . " At l a s t , g r a t i t u d e f o r A m e r i c a ' s s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the cause o f A u s t r a l i a n freedom c o u l d be shown. Openly and h o n e s t l y . The Americans responded i n k i n d , W i l k e s d e s i g n a t i n g New South Wales "a g l o r i o u s c o l o n y " w i t h a b r i g h t f u t u r e , and C o l - v o c o r e s s e s r e m a r k i n g on i t s b e i n g " e x c e e d i n g p r e c o c i o u s , a p p r o a c h i n g 93 f a s t t o commercial and p o l i t i c a l g r e a t n e s s . " In summarizing the p r e s e n t t h u s , both men p r o v i d e d a s y m b o l i c l i n k between the p o l i t i c a l advances o f the p r e v i o u s f i f t e e n y e a r s and the i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e s t r i d e s towards s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t o f the next f i f t e e n . When the l a s t o f the e x p e d i t i o n v e s s e l s d e p a r t e d Sydney Harbour i n March, 1840, f a r e w e l l e d by the f r i e n d s h i p o f a whole c o l o n y , no one c o u l d a n t i c i p a t e t h a t i n l i t t l e more than twenty y e a r s C a p t a i n W i l k e s would a g a i n be a l o c a l t a l k i n g p o i n t - - o n l y t h i s time i n l e s s p r o p i t i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s . As the e x p l o i t s o f the e x p e d i t i o n e x c i t e d 214 the A u s t r a l i a n i m a g i n a t i o n i n the r o l e i n the infamous T r e n t a f f a i r 94 e v e r y c o l o n i s t i n the l 8 6 0 ' s . e a r l y 1840's, so W i l k e s 1 p r i n c i p a l would engage the a t t e n t i o n o f 115 CHAPTER I I I ENDNOTES 1 R e f e r r i n g t o the y e a r s from 1789 t o 1850, H.M. Green has s a i d : "Of an age as i t has been o u t l i n e d i n t h i s H i s t o r y , o f i t s s t r e n g t h and a r r o g a n c e and c r u d i t y and i d e a l e n t h u s i a s m s , Wentworth i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e as Harpur c o u l d never be " (Green, I, 46). A.C.V. Melbourne i n W i l l i a m C h a r l e s Wentworth ( B r i s b a n e : B i g g s , 1934), p. 6, g i v e s Wentworth's b i r t h d a t e as sometime i n " t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f 1792"; M i c h a e l P e r s s e , i n ADB, I I , 582, s u g g e s t s i t was sometime i n 1790. 3 B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e i n New South Wales, p. 20. k See ADB, I I , 583; I I , 589- 5 Wentworth, W.C, A S t a t i s t i c a i , H i s t o r i ca 1 , and P o l i t i ca 1 D e s c r i p t i o n o f the Colony of New South Wales (London: G. and W.B. W h i t t a k e r , 1819). W.C. Wentworth t o F i t z w i l l i a m ( J a n u a r y 15, 1817) , quoted i n Melbourne, pp. 17 _ l8. 7 Melbourne, p. 20. 8 W.C. Wentworth t o D. Wentworth (March 22, 1817), quoted i n Mel bourne, p. 21. 216 9 W.C. Wentworth t o D. Wentworth ( A p r i l 10, 1817) , quoted i n Melbourne, p. 2 4 . ^ Sydney Smith's m u c h - p u b l i c i z e d phrase. See above, Chapter I, s e c t i o n b), ^ B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e i n New South Wa1es, p. 122. 1 2 S i n c e S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n (1819) was not a v a i l a b l e w h i l e t h i s t h e s i s was b e i n g w r i t t e n , r e f e r e n c e t o i t i s made t h r o u g h secondary s o u r c e s . See I n g l i s , p. k\. 1 3 Sydney S m i t h , i n h i s r e v i e w of Wentworth's S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n (1819), endorsed Wentworth's f a i t h i n the p o t e n t i a l o f New H o l l a n d , but he c o u l d n ' t agree t h a t the s o u t h e r n " l a n d o f c o n v i c t s and k a n g a r o o s " was y e t ready f o r an e l e c t e d assembly: ". . . we a r e a f r a i d t h a t a Botany Bay p a r l i a m e n t would g i v e r i s e t o j o k e s . . . ." ( S m i t h , Works, pp. 122, 129). S e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r , Robert Southey, j o t t i n g down the p r i n c i p a l p o i n t s o f S t a t i s t i ca 1 Descr, i j j t i on (1824), s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o Wentworth's " c r y f o r an independent paper" i n Southey's Common-Place Book, ed. John Wood Warter (London: Reeves and T u r n e r , 1876), p. 578. 14 Wentworth r e f e r s t o h i m s e l f as a " n a t i v e o f A u s t r a l i a " on the book's t i t l e - p a g e . ^ 5 Quoted i n Ward and R o b e r t s o n , Such Was L i f e , p. 7 6 . See a l s o L e v i , p. 52; Green, I, 59; B a r t l e t t , pp. 83-4. The p e r t i n e n t pages i n S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n (1819) a r e pp. 163, 243_6. Ward quotes from S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n , 2nd ed. (1820), pp. 197"8, 277~80. 2 1 7 See Nye and Grabo, pp. 3 1 - 2 ; D a v i d L. J a c o b s o n , John D i c k i n s o n and the R e v o l u t i o n i n P e n n s y l v a n i a , 1 7 6 4 - 1 7 7 6 ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v . o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 9 5 " 7 . ' 7 Ward and R o b e r t s o n , p. 7 7 . l Q Quoted i n ADB, I I , 5 8 4 . 19 Quoted i n Melbourne, p. 3 5 . 2 0 Quoted i n Eddy, p. 8 6 . 21 See L a n s b u r y , p. 42; B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e i n New South Wales, pp. 1 2 1 - 2 . 2 2 The second e d i t i o n o f S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n ( 1 8 2 0 ) ran t o 5 7 9 pages (compared w i t h the f i r s t e d i t i o n ' s 4 6 5 ) . The t h i r d e d i t i o n was ent i 1 1 ed  S t a t i s t i ca1 Account o f the B r i t i sh S e t t 1ements i n Aus t r a 1 as i a; i nc1ud i ng the Col on i es o f New South Wa1es and Van D i emen's Land, 3 r d ed., 2 v o l s . (London: Geo. B. W h i t t a k e r , 1 8 2 4 ) . 2 3 Eddy, p. 2 3 . 2 4 ADB, I I , 5 8 5 - 2 5 W.C. Wentworth t o D. Wentworth (May 1, 1 8 2 0 J , quoted i n C l a r k , I, 4 7 . 2 6 Wentworth, S t a t i s t i c a l Account ( 1 8 2 4 ) , I, 3 2 3 ; I, 3 2 6 . 27 ,Wentworth ( 1 8 2 4 ) , I, 3 3 1 ; I, 3 8 2 . Wentworth r e c o r d e d t h a t " l i k e the I n d i a n j u g g l e r ' s bag o f s e r p e n t s , t h e i r [ t h e e x c l u s i v e s ' ] n a t u r e i s not a l t e r e d , but they have h a p p i l y l o s t t h e i r p o i s o n o u s f a n g s " ( l , 3 8 3 ) . ? 8 Wentworth ( 1 8 2 4 ) , I, 4 1 7 - 218 2 9 Wentworth (1824), I, 418-19. 30 J Wentworth (1824), I, 420. See a l s o I, 417; I I , 302-3. 3 1 Wentworth (1824), I, 389. 32 Quoted i n Melbourne, p. 28. 33 D a r l i n g t o Hay ( F e b r u a r y 6, 1827), HRA, 1, x i i i , 81. In h i s p e t i t i o n , Wentworth demanded t r i a l by j u r y , t a x a t i o n by c o n s e n t , s u f f r a g e f o r t h e " e n t i r e f r e e p o p u l a t i o n " and an e l e c t e d assembly (ADB, I I, 585-6). 34 There a r e a number o f s i m i l a r i t i e s between Wentworth and H a m i l t o n : b o t h , i t seems, were c o n c e i v e d out o f wedlock; both i n f l u e n c e d the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t r i e s ; both e v e n t u a l l y defended a government o f p r o p e r t y and p r i v i l e g e i n o r d e r t o check impudent democracy; and both p r a i s e d the B r i t i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y encouragement o f government by a w e a l t h y m i n o r i t y . 35 Quoted i n Meibourne, p. 89. The phrase i s from Wentworth's speech on the New South Wales C o n s t i t u t i o n B i l l (1853)- See C.M.H. C l a r k , ed., S e l e c t Documents i n A u s t r a l i a n H i s t o r y 1851 -1900, (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1955), pp. 334-40. 36 See A u s t r a 1 i a n , F e b r u a r y 1, 1833. 37 Both Wentworth and Adams e n v i s a g e d a c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c a l system i n which a w e a l t h y and e x p e r i e n c e d m i n o r i t y governed i n such a way as t o p r e v e n t what they r e g a r d e d as d e m o c r a t i c e x c e s s e s . Only c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s i n a c o u n t r y ' s p o p u l a t i o n , they b e l i e v e d , were s u f f i c i e n t l y educated and t a l e n t e d t o l e a d . See Adams on "a n a t u r a l a r i s t o c r a c y among men," i n h i s l e t t e r t o Thomas J e f f e r s o n (November 219 15, 1813), i n Nye and Grabo, pp. 87-8. 3 8 See C l a r k , I I , 245; I I I , 158; ADB, I I , 587. 3 9 C l a r k , I I, 245. 40 A u s t r a 1 i a n , J a n u a r y 18, 1842. 41 Quoted i n Melbourne, p. 55- 42 Quoted i n P a r r i n g t o n , Main C u r r e n t s , T,"299-300. See a l s o R i c h a r d B. M o r r i s , ed., A l e x a n d e r H a m i l t o n and the Founding o f the N a t i o n (New York: D i a l P r e s s , 1957), pp. 130-9, 285"376. 43 John Dunmore Lang, An H i s t o r i c a l and S t a t i s t i c a l Account o f New South Wa 1 es , both as a_ Pena 1 S e t t 1 ement and as a_ B r i t i s h Col ony, 1st ed., 2 v o l s . (London: Cochrane and M'Crone, 1834); H i s t o r i c a i and S t a t i s t i c a l A c c o u n t , 2nd ed., 2 v o l s . (London: A . J . V a l p y , 1837). 44 Lang (1834) , I, i x . 45 Quoted i n B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e i n New South Wales, p. 128. 46 B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e i n New South Wales, pp. 125"6. See a l s o ADB, I I , 77; N a d e l , p. 37- 4 7 Lang (183*0, I, 21. 48 See Lang (1834), I I , 277-307 ( e s p e c i a l l y 302-6). 4 9 Lang ( 1 8 3 4 ) , 1 1 , 275"7- 5 0 Lang (183*0, I I, 277- 5 1 Lang (1834), I I , 303. ' 52 In H i s t o r i c a l and S t a t i s t i c a l Account (1837)> f o r example, Lang compares and c o n t r a s t s the American backwoodsman and the A u s t r a l i a n s q u a t t e r . See B a r t l e t t , pp. 94-6. 220 53 Quoted i n B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e i n New South Wales, p. 128. 54 Amasa D e l a n o , A N a r r a t i v e o f Voyages and T r a v e l s i n t h e N o r t h e r n and S o u t h e r n Hemi s p h e r e s : compri s i ng Three Voyages Round the World ( B o s t o n : E.G. House, 1817), p. 462. 55 See Greenwood, E a r l y A m e r i c a n - A u s t r a l i a n R e l a t i o n s , pp. 82-92. 56 See above, C h a p t e r 1, s e c t i o n a). 5 7 D e l a n o , pp. 421-2. 58 Delano, p. 421. See a l s o , D i c t i o n a r y o f American B i o g r a p h y , V (New York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1930), 217. H e r e a f t e r , s o u r c e w i l l be c i t e d as DAB. 5 9 D e l a n o , pp. 318-53- ^ " B e n i t o Cereno" f i r s t appeared i n Putnam's M o n t h l y Magazine, VI (October t o December, 1855), 353-67, 459~73, 633"44. For d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between M e l v i l l e ' s and Delano's t e x t s , see Herman M e l v i l l e , P i a z z a T a l e s , ed. E g b e r t S. O l i v e r (I856; r p t . New York: H e n d r i c k s House, 1948), pp. 230-8. 6 ' E a r l y i n the R e v o l u t i o n a r y War, f o r example, Delano's f a t h e r was c a p t u r e d and h e l d p r i s o n e r on the B r i t i s h s h i p , Rai nbow (DAB, V, 217). In the N a r r a t i ve, t h e o n l y time Delano e x p r e s s e s h i s i m p a t i e n c e w i t h E n g l i s h h a u g h t i n e s s o c c u r s on p. 146, when he r e f e r s t o the " a b u s i v e a t t a c k s " by the Q u a r t e r l y Review on h i s countrymen. 6 2 Delano, p. 448. 63 D e l a n o , p. 449- 64 See, f o r example, Delano's i n t e n t i o n a l l y s e r v i l e l e t t e r t o Gov. K i n g , i n w h i c h he a t t e m p t e d t o s e c u r e ^400 f o r the a i d he gave t o an E n g l i s h s h i p i n d i s t r e s s ( D e l a n o , pp. 461-3). 221 See Delano, p. 463. 66 C h a r l e s W i l k e s , N a r r a t i v e of. the U n i t e d S t a t e s E x p l o r i n g E x p e d i t i o n d u r i n g the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 5 vo1s. ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : Lea S B l a n c h a r d , 1845); Geo.[rge] M. Co 1 v o c o r e s s e s , Four Years i n a Government E x p e d i t i o n (New York: C o r n i s h , Lamport, I852); C h a r l e s E r s k i n e , Twenty Years B e f o r e the Mast ( B o s t o n : the a u t h o r , 1890). ^ 7 See D a n i e l C. H a s k e l l , The U n i t e d S t a t e s E x p l o r i n g E x p e d i t i o n , 1838-1842, and i t s P u b l i c a t i o n s 1844-1874 (New York: New York P u b l i c L i b r a r y , 1942), p. 2. 68 See, f o r example, H a s k e l l , pp. 2-4; D a v i d B. T y l e r , The Wi1kes Exped i t i o n ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : American P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , 19 6 8) , pp. 26-7. 69 N i l e s ' N a t i o n a l R e g i s t e r , LI I I (October 28, 1837), 130, quoted i n H a s k e l 1 , p. 4. 7 <^ See D a n i e l Henderson, The Hidden C o a s t s (New York: W i l l i a m S l o a n e A s s o c i a t e s , 1953), p. 5- 7 ' See T y l e r , p. 12; R o b e r t C a n t w e l l , N a t h a n i e l Hawthorne: the American Years (New York: R i n e h a r t , 1948), pp. 200-1, 462-3; H o r a t i o B r i d g e , P e r s o n a l R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f N a t h a n i e l Hawthorne (New Y o r k : H a r p e r s , 1893), pp. 82-3. 72 See Cantwel1, p. 463- 7 3 B r i d g e , p. 83. 74 ' H a s k e l l , p. 5. 7 5 See W i I k e s , I I , 160, 163- 222 7 6 W i I k e s , I I , 161. 7 7 C o l v o c o r e s s e s , p. 92. 78 Quoted i n J e s s i e Poesch, T i t i a n Ramsay P e a l e 1799~l885 and H i s J o u r n a l s o f the W i l k e s E x p e d i t i o n ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : American P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , 1961), p. 165. 79 J See W i l k e s , I I , 160; T y l e r , p. 129; E r s k i n e , pp. 95"6. 80 W i l l i a m B i x b y , The F o r g o t t e n Voyage o f C h a r l e s W i l k e s (New York: D a v i d McKay, 1966), p. 58. 81 See T y l e r , p. 127. 8? See T y l e r , pp. 120, 126-7, 15*; W i l k e s , I I , 277- 8 3 W i I k e s , I I , 160. 84 W i l k e s , I I , 362. The i t a l i c s a r e mine. 8 5 W i I k e s , I I , 242. 86 E r s k i n e , p. 94. The a u t h o r i i s , o f c o u r s e , a l l u d i n g t o Sydney Smith's phrase (see above, c h a p t e r I, s e c t i o n b ) . E r s k i n e then : launches i n t o a c o l o u r f u l s e r i e s o f comparisons between Sydney and a number o f American c i t i e s : "George S t r e e t [ i n Sydney] i s the Broadway o f Sydney. The Cove--God save the name!--is the o l d Ann S t r e e t o f B o s t o n ; South S t r e e t o f P h i l a d e l p h i a ; R i v e r o f S t y x , N o r f o l k ; Sausage Row, C i n c i n n a t i ; F i v e P o i n t s or the Hook o f New York; Hog Lane o f Canton. . . . There a r e p l e n t y o f o l d F a g i n s and o l d F a g i n ' s p u p i l s l i v i n g h e r e . Here you w i l l f i n d a l l n a t i o n s mixed up t o g e t h e r , e a t i n g , d r i n k i n g , s i n g i n g , d a n c i n g , g a m b l i n g , q u a r r e l i n g , and f i g h t i n g . " 8 7 W i I k e s , I I , 164. 88 Wi I k e s , I I , 225. 223 8 9 W i I k e s , I I, 220, 2 2 5 . 9 0 W i I k e s , I I , 201; 220-1, 225~6. 91 C o l v o c o r e s s e s , p. 100. 92 Quoted i n T y l e r , p. 124. 9 3 W i l k e s , I I , 276; C o l v o c o r e s s e s , p. 100. 94 See below, c h a p t e r IV, s e c t i o n c j . PART TWO: 1 8 3 8 - 1 8 6 8 ZZh- CHAPTER IV SPREADING DEMOCRACY No b e l i e v e r in the g l o r i o u s d e s t i n i e s of the A n g l o - Saxon r a c e can l o o k upon the e v e n t s o f the l a s t t h r e e y e a r s [1849-52] Without wonder and hope. The American and B r i t i s h empires a r e s e a t e d on a l l w a t e r s ; the o l d and new w o r l d s a r e f i l l e d w i t h the name and fame o f England and her c h i l d r e n . The l a n d s conquered by C a e s a r , t h o s e d i s c o v e r e d by Columbus, and t h o s e e x p l o r e d by Cook, a r e now j o i n e d t o g e t h e r i n one d e s t i n y . There a r e indeed p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n the v a r i o u s branches o f the Anglo-Saxon r a c e ; but they a r e o n l y the v a r i e t i e s o f the same f a m i l y , c o n s c i o u s of e t e r n a l u n i t i e s . How a w f u l l y grand a r e t h e i r p r o s p e c t s . A m e r i c a a t t r a c t e d by g o l d has pushed f o r w a r d her commercial p i o n e e r s , not o n l y t o the e x t r e m i t y o f her t e r r i t o r i e s , but t o a l l the i s l a n d s o f the P a c i f i c . The d i s c o v e r y o f g o l d i n C a l i f o r n i a was s c a r c e l y l e s s momentous t o the A u s t r a l a s i a n than t o the American c o n t i n e n t . They a r e now our n e a r e s t n e i g h b o u r s : t h e i r markets a r e a f f e c t e d by our own; t h e i r t e r r i t o r y o f f e r s the q u i c k e s t t r a n s i t t o Europe; e v e r y hour w i l l d e v e l o p the immense importance o f t h i s c o n t i g u i t y . John West, The Hi s t o r y o f Tasmania (1852) 225 When C h a r l e s D i l k e viewed a t f i r s t - h a n d both A u s t r a l i a and the U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1866-7, he was s t r u c k by the d i f f e r e n c e s between them as d e m o c r a c i e s . In the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s he found no t r a c e . . . a t p r e s e n t o f t h a t l o v e f o r g e n e r a l ideas which t a k e s A m e r i c a away from England i n p h i l o s o p h y . . . . Democracy i n the [ A u s t r a l i a n ] c o l o n i e s i s a t p r e s e n t an a c c i d e n t , and n o t h i n g more; i t r e s t s upon no b a s i s o f r e a s o n i n g , but upon a f a c t . 2 W h i l e r e c o g n i z i n g a d e a r t h o f any i d e o l o g i c a l commitment t o d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s , D i l k e d i s c o v e r e d p o w e r f u l e v i d e n c e o f what might be c a l l e d " p r a c t i c a l " democracy. He noted " t h a t no male c o l o n i s t a d m i t s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f the e x i s t e n c e o f a s o c i a l s u p e r i o r . " The u n c e r t a i n t i e s e v i d e n t i n 1838 had a p p a r e n t l y succumbed, o v e r the e n s u i n g t h r e e decades, t o a more r i g o r o u s s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e . Though the c o u n t r y might be r u d d e r l e s s and w a n t i n g a d i s t i n c t i v e n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y , the A u s t r a l i a n i n the s t r e e t remained c o n v i n c e d o f h i s own " e q u a l i t y w i t h the b e s t " - - a c u r i o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n which might h e l p t o e x p l a i n the complete c o l l a p s e o f the r e p u b l i c a n movement i n the community a t l a r g e (and i n l i t e r a t u r e ) i n the e a r l y y e a r s o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , when A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l i s t s were s i d e - t r a c k e d by the Boer War, an Empire s t r i v i n g t o m a i n t a i n i t s waning c r e d i b i l i t y and F e d e r a t i o n , which promised much and produced l i t t l e . In the c r u c i a l y e a r s between 1838 and 1868, the o r i e n t a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i s t s a l t e r e d i r r e v o c a b l y , from the l a s t v e s t i g e s o f a penal complex t o a semblance o f s e l f - a s s u r a n c e borne o f o v e r a decade o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l autonomy and r e s p o n s i b l e government. D u r i n g 226 t h i s p e r i o d o f s w i f t change, America p l a y e d an even more prominent r o l e i n c o l o n i a l developments than i n e a r l i e r y e a r s . A g a i n , economic- a l l y , p o l i t i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y , the U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n t i n u e d t o a i d and c o u n s e l d e m o c r a t i c f o r c e s a t work i n A u s t r a l i a . But busy i n t e r - a c t i o n f o r the f i r s t time took p l a c e , prompted by g o l d d i s c o v e r i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a and New South Wales. John West, m i n i s t e r , e d i t o r and a s t u t e h i s t o r i a n , grasped the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the new r e l a t i o n s h i p i n 1852 when he r e c o g n i z e d the Americans as A u s t r a l i a 1 s " n e a r e s t n e i g h b o u r s : t h e i r markets a r e a f f e c t e d by our own; t h e i r t e r r i t o r y o f f e r s the q u i c k e s t t r a n s i t t o Europe; e v e r y hour w i l l d e v e l o p the 3 immense importance o f t h i s c o n t i g u i t y . " Exchange o f both p o p u l a t i o n and commodities o c c u r r e d , and, more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , o f i d e a s . C u l t u r a l t i e s s o l i d i f i e d . As i n England d u r i n g the same p e r i o d , American books were f o r the f i r s t time read i n s u b s t a n t i a l numbers. In s h o r t , the s p o r a d i c and l a r g e l y e x p e d i e n t n a t u r e o f A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d A u s t r a l i a ' s f i r s t f i f t y y e a r s was r e p l a c e d by c l o s e c o n t a c t and more comprehensive u n d e r s t a n d i n g - - a s i t u a t i o n r e f l e c t e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e o f the day. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between the two c o u n t r i e s a f t e r 1838 d e v e l o p e d , decade by decade, as a f u n c t i o n o f major s o c i a l e v e n t s and movements. In the F o r t i e s , a g i t a t i o n f o r a g r e a t e r say i n government and the m a s s i v e s u p p o r t f o r the a n t i - t r a n s p o r t a t i o n movement once more m o t i v a t e d l o c a l demagogues t o c i t e American p r e c e d e n t a f t e r the f a s h i o n o f the 18201 s. Two pamphlets t o appear i n A u s t r a l i a d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , e n t i t i e d I n d e f e a s i b l e R i g h t s o f Man (1842) and Common Sense (1847), 227 bear w i t n e s s t o a c o n t i n u i n g a p p r e c i a t i o n o f Thomas P a i n e ' s t a c i t r e l e v a n c e t o c o l o n i a l p o l i t i c s . Then t h e d i s c o v e r y o f g o l d , f i r s t i n C a l i f o r n i a i n 1849, and a c o u p l e o f y e a r s l a t e r i n New South Wales and V i c t o r i a , c r e a t e d a s o c i a l upheaval i n both c o u n t r i e s o f such magnitude t h a t t h e e y e s w i t h which each l o o k e d a t the o t h e r a l t e r e d c o n s i d e r a b l y . G o l d prompted A u s t r a l i a n s t o adopt new a t t i t u d e s towards themselves and t h e i r P a c i f i c n e i g h b o u r s . F u r t h e r m o r e , American know-how, what George F r a n c i s T r a i n c a l l e d "Yankee n o t i o n s , " a r r i v e d . 5 Under g o v e r n o r s from P h i l l i p t o Bourke, A m e r i c a had always been a s p e c i f i c t o o l t o w h i c h scheming c o l o n i s t s c o u l d t u r n ; i t was a weapon r e a d i l y a v i l a b l e t o i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s i n s p i r e d by an u l t e r i o r m o t i v e . Events o f the F i f t i e s changed a l l t h a t . A u s t r a l i a n s and Americans met a t c l o s e q u a r t e r s , exchanged g r e e t i n g s , p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h i e s , songs and books. A s t r o n g demand f o r A m e r i c a n news r e s u l t e d i n A u s t r a l i a n s r e c e i v i n g the l a t e s t American happenings not o n l y v i a t h e London newspapers, but d i r e c t from San F r a n c i s c o (a bare t h r e e weeks away). I n i t i a l d i s t r u s t on the A u s t r a l i a n g o l d f i e l d s , based on t h e poor r e c e p t i o n a c c o r d e d many A u s t r a l i a n s i n 1849 C a l i f o r n i a , g r a d u a l l y changed i n t o a f a i r l y w i d e s p r e a d sympathy. Indeed, the A u s t r a l i a n p r e s s between 1850 and t h e c l o s e o f t h e American C i v i l War g e n e r a l l y d i s c u s s e d e v e n t s i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h an o b j e c t i v i t y , and o f t e n warmth, w h o l l y l a c k i n g i n t h e i r London c o u n t e r p a r t s . Seeds o f the i n t i m a t e s o c i a l t i e s o f the 18801s and 190's were sown i n t h i s decade. A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s , m i d - c e n t u r y , s t r u g g l e d t o a t t a i n a s t a t e o f mind t h a t would u l t i m a t e l y l e a d them t o the h a r v e s t and Walt Whitman. 228 S o c i a l l y r a d i c a l and e g a l i t a r i a n a t t i t u d e s took f i r m r o o t i n t h e A u s t r a l i a n i m a g i n a t i o n . S l a v e r y and the d r a m a t i c e v e n t s o f the C i v i l War i d e o l o g i c a l l y d i v i d e d A u s t r a l i a , i f the p r e s s i s any g u i d e , a l m o s t as much as i t d i d A m e r i c a . C o l o n i a l newspapers took t h e i r s t a n d f o r the N o r t h o r South. The i s s u e o f f r e e t r a d e , so i m p o r t a n t i n A u s t r a l i a l a t e r i n the c e n t u r y as the i d e a s o f Henry George g a i n e d prominence, s u r f a c e d f o r the f i r s t time i n t h e S i x t i e s as many A u s t r a l i a n s sought t o a p p r e c i a t e a l l the i s s u e s — not j u s t s i a v e r y — s u r round i ng the d r e a d f u l c o n v u l s i o n s d i v i d i n g t h e i r P a c i f i c c o u s i n s . As American f i r e d on A m e r i c a n , some A u s t r a l i a n s even began t o dream a grand dream: t h e i r c o u n t r y as God's chosen l a n d , a s o u t h e r n U t o p i a . ^ For A u s t r a l i a t o emerge as an e n l i g h t e n e d new w o r l d , J o n a t h a n ' s m i s t a k e s had t o be a v o i d e d . Between 1838 and 1868, t h e n , A u s t r a 1 i a n / A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s underwent a s e r i e s o f a l t e r a t i o n s . Only one t h i n g appeared unchanged by the passage o f y e a r s : the h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f escapes on American b o a t s . Ranging from the d r a m a t i c d e p a r t u r e s o f the e x i l e d Americans Benjamin W a i t , Samuel C h a n d l e r and James Gemmell from Van Diemen's Land i n 1841, through the I r i s h p a t r i o t s ' s i m i l a r e f f o r t s between 1851 and 1853, t o the b o l t f o r freedom o f John B o y l e O ' R e i l l y (on an American w h a l e r , near Bunbury, Western A u s t r a l i a ) i n 1869, and c u l m i n a t i n g , e i g h t y e a r s l a t e r , i n the d r a m a t i c escape o f s i x f e l l o w - I r i s h p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s on the w h a l i n g s h i p Cata1 pa, the p e r i o d i s n o t a b l e f o r i t s famous e s c a p e s , each w i d e l y r e p o r t e d a t the t i m e . 7 229 W i t h t h e C a t a l p a r e s c u e i n I876, a n e r a i n A m e r i c a n / A u s t r a l i a n r e l a t i o n s c a m e t o a c l o s e . F i t t i n g l y , i n t h a t c e n t e n n i a l y e a r o f A m e r i c a n I n d e p e n d e n c e , p r i s o n e r s f r o m t h e l a s t g r o u p o f f e l o n s t o b e d e p o s i t e d a t a n A u s t r a l i a n s e t t l e m e n t w e r e d a r i n g l y h e i s t e d f r o m a n E n g l i s h g a o l a n d a s s i s t e d t o f r e e d o m o n a n A m e r i c a n b o a t t o r e s i d e i n Y a n k e e N e w E n g l a n d . T h e p a t t e r n o f n e a r l y a c e n t u r y o f s i m i l a r , t h o u g h o f t e n m o r e c o v e r t e s c a p e s , w a s c o m p l e t e . 130 S e c t i o n A_ 1840' s The p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e between the p o l i t i c a l u n r e s t i n A u s t r a l i a i n the 1 8 2 0 1 s and i n the 1840 1 s i s t h a t d u r i n g the former p e r i o d c o l o n i s t s aimed t o r e a l i z e no more than c e r t a i n fundamental r i g h t s they f e l t t h e i r p r e r o g a t i v e as E n g l i s h m e n , w h i l e i n the l a t t e r the impetus owed much t o an i r r e p r e s s i b l e f e e l i n g t h a t s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d , and s h o r t l y would become a r e a l i t y . T h i s change o c c u r r e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s - - p r i n c i p a 11y an i n c r e a s e i n the number o f n a t i v e - b o r n A u s t r a l i a n s and a m b i t i o u s m i g r a n t s - - a n d was a c c e l e r a t e d by p o l i t i c a l A c t s i n the F o r t i e s t h e m s e l v e s . F i r s t , the C o n s t i t u t i o n A c t o f 1842 c r e a t e d b i t t e r n e s s amongst the r a d i c a l s , democrats and c h a r t i s t s i n the c o l o n y by imposing a £lO f r a n c h i s e and by r e t a i n i n g the i m p e r i a l government's r i g h t o f v e t o and c o n t r o l o v e r crown l a n d s ; and a t the same time i t s companion, the A c t f o r R e g u l a t i n g the S a l e o f Waste Land B e l o n g i n g t o the Crown i n the A u s t r a l i a n C o l o n i e s (1842) t h o r o u g h l y d i s e n c h a n t e d t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e s . Both s i d e s , i n f a c t , a d v o c a t e d a s i m i l a r s t r a t e g y f o r f u t u r e a c t i o n as growing numbers o f c o l o n i s t s equated t h e i r s i t u a t i o n w i t h the p r e - r e v o l ut'ionar.y p e r i o d g i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . 2 3 1 Once a g a i n , American p o l i t i c a l example, and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t t h o u g h t , assumed a d r a m a t i c r e l e v a n c e i n both New South Wales and Tasmania. In the l a t e 1 8 4 0 1 s, as the i s s u e o f p o s s i b l e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n g r a d u a l l y c l a r i f i e d i n t o the p r i n c i p a l q u e s t i o n a t s t a k e i n the c o l o n y , both c o n s e r v a t i v e l a n d h o l d e r and e g a l i t a r i a n e m i g r a n t once more r e c a l l e d the i d e a l s o f the 1 7 7 6 D e c l a r a t i o n i n a p r o f u s i o n o f p r a i s e and c e n s u r e . American p r i n c i p l e s c o n t i n u e d t o preoccupy the c o l o n i a l i m a g i n a t i o n . C o n s t i t u t i o n a l debate i n a l l the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s ( e x c e p t Western A u s t r a l i a ) t h r o u g h o u t the F o r t i e s and e a r l y F i f t i e s drew s t r o n g l y on the l e g i s l a t i v e p r e c e d e n t s o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s , e i t h e r t o p r e s e r v e o r t o condemn the c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n . W h i l e t h e r e remained no doubt t h a t the m a j o r i t y o f c o l o n i s t s c o n c e i v e d o f t h e m s e l v e s as f o r e e v e r t h e "Sons o f B r i t a i n , " u n d e n i a b l y " E n g l i s h f o r thousands o f y e a r s , " t h i s p r o v i d e d no b a r r i e r t o t h e i r p e r s i s t e n t q u e s t i o n i n g o f the Mother C o u n t r y ' s c o l o n i a l p o l i c y . And a p a r t o f t h i s i n q u i r y i n v o l v e d a c c l a i m i n g the b e n e f i t s o f independence d e r i v e d by the c i t i z e n s o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s . So o f t e n d i d the American c o n s t i t u t i o n get bandied around i n the Queensland L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l t h a t , as l a t e as 1 8 7 0 , one o f f i c i a l c h i d e d the body f o r sheer e x c e s s . ' ^ In New South Wales, the man who had been the f i r s t p u b l i c l y t o t a u n t England w i t h the t h r e a t o f an A u s t r a l i a n r e b e l l i o n , W i l l i a m C h a r l e s Wentworth, was a g a i n the most prominent speaker t o r e s o r t t o s i m i l a r t a c t i c s i n the decade l e a d i n g up t o s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t . J u s t as he had i n the f i r s t uncensored newspapers i n the 1 8 2 0 1 s, 232 Wentworth p l a y e d a major r o l e i n making America an a c c e p t e d , i f not p i v o t a l t a l k i n g p o i n t i n p a r l i a m e n t a r y c i r c l e s . By the F o r t i e s , however, he was an e n t r e n c h e d c o n s e r v a t i v e and he no l o n g e r w h i m s i c a l l y proposed r e v o l u t i o n . R a t h e r , he g r a v i t a t e d t o t h o s e men who s u i t e d h i s now more r e a c t i o n a r y p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e — s u c h as Washington, the Frenchman T o c q u e v i l l e and John C. Calhoun.'^ The a g e i n g Wentworth, as h i s contemporary ' John West put i t , " i s y e t a l i c t o r when he t u r n s towards the m u l t i t u d e , and a t r i b u n e o n l y when he f a c e s the s e a t 1 2 o f a u t h o r i t y . " The l i c t o r i n Wentworth r e a c t e d v i o l e n t l y , as T o c q u e v i l l e had a l s o , t o the p e r v a s i v e i n t i m a t i o n s o f J a c k s o n i a n democracy. T h i s new e q u a l i t a r i a n i s m , c a u s i n g e v e r y p o l i t i c i a n t o depend f o r s u r v i v a l on " K i n g Numbers," was anathema. For Wentworth, o n l y w e a l t h , p r o p e r t y and e d u c a t i o n c o u l d t r a i n men f o r the p r i n c i p a l 1 3 o f f i c e s o f s t a t e (as Adams had m a i n t a i n e d many y e a r s b e f o r e ) . Though T o c q u e v i l l e and Wentworth both f e a r e d l e v e l l i n g d o c t r i n e s , they responded t o the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the American d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e i n w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t ways. T o c q u e v i l l e a c c e p t e d the f a c t t h a t the " n o b l e has gone down i n the s o c i a l s c a l e , and the commoner gone up. . . ..Every h a l f c e n t u r y b r i n g s them c l o s e r , and soon they w i l l t o u c h . " He r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the " g r a d u a l p r o g r e s s o f e q u a l i t y i s something f a t e d . " T o c q u e v i 1 1 e 1 s concept o f m a j o r i t y t y r a n n y r e s t e d on h i s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t , i n A m e r i c a , i n d i v i d u a l i s m was b e i n g c o n t i n u a l l y compromised. True freedom of e x p r e s s i o n d i d n ' t e x i s t ' and c o n f o r m i t y abounded everywhere: " I know no c o u n t r y i n w h i c h , s p e a k i n g g e n e r a l l y , t h e r e i s l e s s independence o f mind and t r u e freedom o f d i s c u s s i o n 233 than i n America."''' Wentworth, on the o t h e r hand, not o n l y i n d i c t e d " t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n . . . . the p r o v e r b i a l i n c o n s t a n c y o f the p o p u l a r g a l e , " he adamantly opposed the v e r y " s p i r i t o f democracy 16 a b r o a d , w h i c h was a l m o s t d a i l y e x t e n d i n g i t s l i m i t s . . . ." As a S e l e c t Committee p r e p a r e d the d r a f t f o r an A u s t r a l i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n i n 1853, Wentworth l a s h e d the group w i t h s t r i d e n t a n t i - r e p u b l i c a n i n v e c t i v e . When the time came t o comment i n the L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l on the proposed C o n s t i t u t i o n B i l l ; i n A u g u s t , 1853, he l e f t no doubt as t o h i s p o s i t i o n , a s s a i l i n g democracy's " r e c k l e s s n e s s o f consequences." Who, Wentworth a s k e d , "would e v e r r e t u r n , i f once he l e f t t h e s e s h o r e s . . . so l o n g as s e l f i s h n e s s , i g n o r a n c e , and democracy h o l d sway?" He demanded the l e g i t i m i z i n g o f h i s r u l i n g c l a s s o f "Shepherd K i n g s , " an a m b i t i o n which c o u l d o n l y be r e a l i z e d i f the L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l framed "a B r i t i s h , not a Yankee c o n s t i t u t i o n . " ' 7 A p p a r e n t l y o b l i v i o u s t o t h e l a r g e r p a t t e r n o f Tocquevi11e's argument-- w h i c h a t t e m p t e d , as George W. P i e r s o n has put i t , t o "make d e m o c r a t i e 1 8 s a f e f o r the w o r l d " --Wentworth proceeded t o quote e l a b o r a t e l y from the F r e n c h a r i s t o c r a t t o j u s t i f y h i s argument. He was by no means t h e f i r s t A u s t r a 1 i a n landowner t o use Tocquevi11e's Democracy i n 19 Amer i ca : - f o r h i s own p u r p o s e s . But where T o c q u e v i l l e a t t e m p t e d t o p u r i f y democracy, Wentworth and h i s c o l l e a g u e s d e t e r m i n e d t o oppose i t . Wentworth s p e n t h i s l a s t p o l i t i c a l y e a r s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e r e c e n t r e p u b l i c a n o u t p o u r i n g s o f J a c k s o n i a n A m e r i c a ; y e t , t y p i c a l l y , even as he m a i n t a i n e d t h a t he was a man o f e n t r e n c h e d " C o n s e r v a t i v e 234 p r i n c i p l e s , " he r e v e r t e d t o h i s y o u t h f u l t r o u b l e - m a k i n g r o l e as i t 20 s u i t e d him. When Lord Grey e q u i v o c a t e d o v e r the r e p e a t e d remonstrances by the L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l f o r s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , Wentworth, t h r o u g h an a p p o i n t e d Committee, g r a t u i t o u s l y r e g r e s s e d t o h i s seasoned t r i c k o f a l l u d i n g t o the American R e v o l u t i o n . The Committee informed Grey t h a t the " a n n a l s o f America prove . . . [ t h a t i t was] o n l y when the m i s c h i e v o u s p r i n c i p l e o f d i r e c t i n t e r m e d d l i n g w i t h the f u n c t i o n s o f t h e i r l e g i s l a t u r e s was a s s e r t e d . . . t h a t t h o s e u n f o r t u n a t e h e a r t - b u r n i n g s a r o s e w h i c h l e d t o t h e i r dismemberment from the B r i t i s h 21 Empire." The o l d p o l i t i c a l f o x always r e c o g n i z e d , and t o r m e n t e d , the s o f t u n d e r b e l l y o f any o p p o s i t i o n . And when he d e a l t w i t h an i n t r a c t a b l e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , A m e r i c a _ r e p e a t e d 1y prov ided h im_ wi th. t e e t h . C h a r l e s W i l k e s , d u r i n g h i s squadron's Sydney v i s i t i n l a t e 1839, o b s e r v e d t h a t the " r i s i n g c o l o n i e s " o f A u s t r a l i a were p r o c e e d i n g r a p i d l y towards autonomy. On many o c c a s i o n s t h r o u g h o u t the F o r t i e s , h i s comments seemed t o r e t a i n more r e l e v a n c e t o v o l a t i l e Tasmania than t o New South Wales. One o f W i l k e s ' countrymen v i s i t i n g Tasmania i n 1841, a merchant named Augustus Rogers, c e r t a i n l y thought so. In a l e t t e r home t o h i s b r o t h e r , i n November, he commented: . . . d o u b t l e s s one o f t h e s e days they w i l l "throw o f f the yoke" h e r e , t h e i r [ s i c ] b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e g r u m b l i n g a l r e a d y as t o t h e i r t r e a t m e n t by the mother c o u n t r y . . . .22 L i k e t h e i r m a i n l a n d countrymen, a g i t a t i n g Tasmanian c o l o n i s t s con- s i s t e n t l y e x h i b i t e d t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f American h i s t o r y and p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t . 235 The e a r l y work o f newspaper e d i t o r s such as Andrew Bent and Robert Murray c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o the F o r t i e s as a r e s u l t o f the t e n a c i t y and d e d i c a t i o n o f men such as John Morgan. A commissioned o f f i c e r who had s e r v e d w i t h the Royal M a r i n e s i n the War o f 1812, Morgan b e f r i e n d e d John Quincy Adams i n the y e a r s between 1815 and 1817 when 23 Adams was ambassador t o London. Whether t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p a c t e d as a c a t a l y s t o r n o t , Morgan, e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s l a t e r y e a r s , v i g o r o u s l y espoused the p r i n c i p l e s f o r which the Americans had engaged i n the War o f Independence. Having a r r i v e d i n Richmond, Van Diemen's Land, i n 1834 as p o l i c e m a g i s t r a t e , Morgan spent s h o r t p e r i o d s as a f a r m e r , then as a j o u r n a l i s t , u n t i l he found h i s bent i n l i f e - - t h a t o f news- paper e d i t o r . Newspapers such as the Hobart Town A d v e r t - i s e r (1839), Tasmanian Weekly D i s p a t c h (l839 _ 4l) and the B r i t t a n i a and T r a d e s ' A d v o c a t e (1846-51) came under h i s c o n t r o l , e n a b l i n g him t o e x e r t 24 c o n s i d e r a b l e p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e on the c o l o n y . In t h e s e p a p e r s , he c o n s i s t e n t l y made "commendatory r e f e r e n c e s " t o "American i n s t i t u t i o n s " (as L i n u s M i l l e r , one o f the Americans e x i l e d t o Tasmania a f t e r the 25 Upper Canadian r e b e l l i o n , once remarked ). C o m p l e t e l y d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h the w o r k i n g s o f o f f i c i a l d o m , and the performance o f the L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l i n p a r t i c u l a r , Morgan mounted a campaign t o r e s i s t the 1840 Road A c t - - a n a t t e m p t by the C o u n c i l t o r a i s e revenue t h r o u g h the t a x a t i o n o f f r e e c o l o n i s t s . L i k e so many c o l o n i s t s b e f o r e him d a t i n g back t o the young Wentworth, Morgan r e s o r t e d t o t h a t f a m i l i a r Yankee 26 c r y , "No T a x a t i o n W i t h o u t R e p r e s e n t a t i o n . " L o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s e x p r e s s e d shock and o u t r a g e a t t h i s b l a t a n t p r o v o c a t i o n . T h i s from a man who, e a r l i e r i n the y e a r , i n an a t t e m p t t o f o c u s c o l o n i a l o p i n i o n on the i n j u s t i c e s c o n f r o n t i n g them, h e l d a " N a t i o n a l Union D i n n e r " t o which he asked as many Americans and Frenchmen as he c o u l d f i n d . And he h e l d i t j u s t days b e f o r e A u s t r a l i a Day. And they t o a s t e d the 27 memory o f Washington and La F a y e t t e ! D e s p i t e government a t t e m p t s t o stem h i s r e p e a t e d a t t a c k s , Morgan c o n t i n u e d t o a i r h i s " 1 i b e r a 1 - c u m - t r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i d e a s " r e f e r r i n g , whenever he f e l t the need, t o memorable American p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s 28 such as the Boston Tea P a r t y . O f t e n he c a r r i e d h i s words i n t o a c t i o n . When the Americans who were e x i l e d a f t e r the Upper Canadian r e b e l l i o n a r r i v e d i n Van Diemen's Land i n 1840, Morgan a p p a r e n t l y made a p o i n t o f t e n d e r i n g h i s s e r v i c e s t o a t l e a s t one o f them--Linus M i l l e r . M i l l e r mentions t h a t Morgan " t a l k e d much o f our i n s t i t u t i o n s , American e n t e r p r i s e , & c , w h i c h he g r e a t l y a d m i r e d , " and t h a t he q u i c k l y launched an urgent appeal' t o the l i e u t e n a n t - g o v e r n o r f o r the P a t r i o t s be t r e a t e d w i t h a l i b e r a l i t y a p p r o p r i a t e t o the o f f e n c e . T h e i r c r i m e r e p r e s e n t e d "a s t e r l i n g v i r t u e i n the e s t i m a t i o n o f n i n e - t e n t h s o f the c i v i l i z e d w o r l d , " Morgan b r a v e l y informed the i s l a n d , • 29 p o p u l a t i o n . H i s e f f o r t s t o promote a more independent Van Diemen's Land were not i n v a i n . Between 1845 and 1847, two i s s u e s e r u p t e d i n the c o l o n y , i n the second o f which Morgan h i m s e l f p l a y e d a l e a d i n g r o l e . In 1845, the Tasmanian G o v e r n o r , S i r John Eard1ey-Wi1 mot, r e s p o n d i n g t o h i s c o l o n y ' s debt o f some & 100,000, r a i s e d the d u t y on t e a , sugar and f o r e i g n goods from f i v e t o f i f t e e n p e r c e n t . S i x independent 237 members o f the L e g i s l a t i v e Counci1--named by t h e i r s y m p a t h i z e r s , 30 the " P a t r i o t i c S i x " - - r e s i s t e d the i n c r e a s e on the grounds o f i t s u n j u s t n e s s and e v e n t u a l l y r e s i g n e d from the C o u n c i l . Many heated p u b l i c meetings ensued, the l a r g e s t t a k i n g p l a c e i n H o b a r t , where p o s t e r s took up Morgan's e a r l i e r demand: "No T a x a t i o n W i t h o u t 31 R e p r e s e n t a t i o n . " The e n t h u s i a s t i c a c c e p t a n c e o f American c a t c h - c r i e s e v e n t u a l l y p a i d o f f , as the I m p e r i a l Government agreed t o g i v e monetary a s s i s t a n c e t o the f i n a n c i a l l y t r o u b l e d c o l o n y , and the " S i x " were r e i n s t a t e d . Less than two y e a r s a f t e r the i n c i d e n t i n v o l v i n g the " P a t r i o t i c S i x " had f i r s t f l a r e d up, Morgan s p a r k e d a n o t h e r c o n f r o n t a t i o n which r a p i d l y e s c a l a t e d i n t o a major i s s u e . S u s p e c t i n g y e t a n o t h e r u n l a w f u l t a x , he r e f u s e d on p r i n c i p l e t o pay a dog l i c e n c e - - a f a c t he made s u r e r e c e i v e d e x t e n s i v e c o v e r a g e i n the Br i t t a n i a. Summonsed, he s u d d e n l y found h i m s e l f the l i t i g a n t i n a t e s t c a s e . The l o c a l c o u r t judged him g u i l t y on two c o u n t s and i n s t i t u t e d a f i n e ; however, 32 Morgan a p p e a l e d t o the C h i e f J u s t i c e , who found i n h i s f a v o u r . J u b i l a n t , Morgan d e c l a r e d the d e c i s i o n a v i c t o r y f o r v i r t u e and l i b e r a l p r i n c i p l e s . The embarrassed Tasmanian G o v e r n o r , W i l l i a m D e n i s o n , no doubt m i n d f u l o f h i s p r e c a r i o u s p o s i t i o n i n the m i d s t o f the c o n t i n u o u s s t i r r i n g s o f young Democracy, must have p r i v a t e l y c u r s e d the l i b e r a l i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s o f the Home O f f i c e who i n s i s t e d on a v o i d i n g a n o t h e r A m e r i c a a t a l l c o s t s . Robert Lowe, t o become C h a n c e l l o r o f the Exchequer under G l a d s t o n e i n l a t e r p o l i t i c a l l i f e , p l a y e d a prominent r o l e i n perhaps the most 238 i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n o f the F o r t i e s t o rock the C o l o n i a l O f f i c e s o f S t a n l e y and Grey: t h a t o f r e s i s t a n c e t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . The i s s u e i g n i t e d i n 1846 when W.E. G l a d s t o n e , S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r War and the C o l o n i e s (and, by the by, a P o r t P h i l l i p p r o p e r t y - owner) proposed t o r e i n t r o d u c e c o n v i c t l a b o u r t o the A u s t r a l i a n 33 c o l o n i e s . A l l the major landowners and s q u a t t e r s endorsed the move. As K y l i e Tennant puts i t : " J u s t as the V i r g i n i a n s l a v e - h o l d e r s c l u n g t o the i n s t i t u t i o n o f s l a v e r y , so d i d the s q u a t t e r s c l i n g t o c o n v i c t - 34 ism." Lowe, a f r i e n d and s y m p a t h i z e r w i t h s q u a t t o c r a c y f o r the f i r s t few y e a r s a f t e r he a r r i v e d i n Sydney i n 1842, s p l i t i r r e v o c a b l y w i t h Wentworth o v e r the q u e s t i o n . However, Lowe had l e a r n t much i n the s h o r t time from h i s c o l l e a g u e and he, t o o , had become adept i n the a r t o f a l l u d i n g t o A m e r i c a a t j u s t the r i g h t moment t o engage crowd s u p p o r t . When s t i l l a p a r t o f the Wentworth c i r c l e , he had t h r i l l e d an 1846 A u s t r a l i a Day g a t h e r i n g w i t h h i s b a r r a g e o f v i t r i o l a g a i n s t Governor Gipps and the C o l o n i a l O f f i c e . Would the b l o o d y , e x p e n s i v e l e s s o n o f America have t o be l e a r n e d a g a i n by B r i t a i n , he a s k e d , t o t h e l u s t y and drunken c h e e r s o f a crowd o f m o s t l y landowners. The same group, however, were not q u i t e so t i t i l l a t e d w i t h Lowe's more e x p a n s i v e Yankee r e f e r e n c e a l i t t l e more than t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r . When the c o n v i c t s h i p Hashemy c a s t anchor i n Sydney Harbour on ' June 1 1 , 1849, a crowd o f some f i v e thousand g a t h e r e d a t C i r c u l a r Quay f o r a g r e a t p r o t e s t m e e t i n g . A v e t e r a n o f many an O x f o r d Union d e b a t e , Lowe knew e x a c t l y how t o appeal t o the p o p u l a c e . To thunderous c h e e r s , the Sydney Morning H e r a l d r e p o r t e d , he i m p l o r e d the crowd, 239 as the Van Diemonian Morgan had been d o i n g f o r y e a r s , t o demand t h a t c o l o n i a l i n t e g r i t y be r e c o g n i z e d : He c o u l d see from the meeting the time was not f a r d i s - t a n t when they would a s s e r t t h e i r freedom not by words a l o n e . As i n A m e r i c a , o p p r e s s i o n was the p a r e n t o f independence, so would i t be i n the c o l o n y . The t e a w h i c h the Americans f l u n g i n t o the water r a t h e r than pay the t a x upon i t , was not the cause o f the r e v o l t o f the American S t a t e s ; i t was the u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s o f the t a x - - i t was the d e g r a d a t i o n o f s u b m i s s i o n t o an u n r i g h t e o u s demand. And so s u r e as the seed w i l l grow i n t o t h e p l a n t , and t h e p l a n t t o t h e t r e e , i n a l l t i m e s , and i n a l l n a t i o n s , so w i l l i n j u s t i c e and t y r a n n y r i p e n i n t o r e b e l l i o n , and r e b e l l i o n i n t o independence.36 B e s t e d by the c u n n i n g use o f h i s own d e v i c e , Wentworth shouted i n t o the wind. In P a r l i a m e n t , he l a b e l l e d the A n t i - T r a n s p o r t a t i o n League members n o t h i n g but l e v e l l e r s and a n a r c h i s t s , but as he d i d so, he began t o l o o k more and more i s o l a t e d from the crowd t h a t had once w o r s h i p p e d him. A n t i - T r a n s p o r t a t i o n League banners f l e w on A u s t r a l i a n 37 s h i p s as f a r away as San F r a n c i s c o . U l t i m a t e l y , the Hashemy's branded c a r g o had t o be landed i n the f r o n t i e r o u t p o s t s o f Western A u s t r a l i a and Queensland. T h i s i s not a.l 1 . John West, the Tasmanian C o n g r e g a t i o n a l m i n s t e r and h i s t o r i a n , p l a y e d perhaps the major r o l e L n , h i s c o l o n y ' s a b o l i t i o n movement. H i s w r i t i n g s a t t e s t t o a c l o s e a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h American w r i t e r s and e v e n t s . In 1847 he d i s c u s s e d the c a s e f o r a b o l i s h i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n a pamphlet e n t i t l e d Common Sense: an enqu i ry i nto the i nf1uence o f t r a n s p o r t a t ion on the c o l o n y o f Van D iemen's Land (1847). The s h o r t t i t l e i t s e l f g u a r a n t e e d an a u d i e n c e , i f o n l y f o r 240 c u r i o s i t y ' s sake--a f a c t o f which the w r i t e r must have been w e l l aware. P r o b a b l y i n t e n d e d . In the b o o k l e t , West e n v i s i o n e d a community o f s m a l l f a r m e r s r e p l a c i n g t h e p r e s e n t l a n d e d o l i g a r c h y . He s h a r e d ground w i t h P a i n e i n the sense t h a t both d e s i r e d t o d i s t r i b u t e the w e a l t h o f the community more e q u i t a b l y (though P a i n e f o r e s a w d i f f e r e n t 39 means ). But more i m p o r t a n t l y , h i s sense o f the independent yeoman- farmer gave A u s t r a 1 i a n v o i c e t o a n o t i o n w h i c h , i n m i d - n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a , had become " t h e myth" o f t h a t c o u n t r y , as Henry Nash 40 Smith d e m o n s t r a t e s i n h i s book, V i r g i n Lands (1957). Benjamin F r a n k l i n (from the 1750's o n w a r d s ) , St John de C r e v e c o e u r and Thomas J e f f e r s o n gave c l e a r e x p r e s s i o n t o t h e myth i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y by a d v a n c i n g the n o t i o n o f the farmer as the c o r n e r s t o n e o f a w o r k i n g R e p u b l i c . As J e f f e r s o n put i t , the " s m a l l 41 l a n d h o l d e r s a r e the most p r e c i o u s p a r t o f a s t a t e . " Through the encouragement o f t h e Western yeoman, A m e r i c a might w e l l r e a l i z e what i n Europe had been s i m p l y a Utopian dream. In A u s t r a l i a , i t was p r e c i s e l y t h i s i d e a t h a t Lang and Deniehy would make t h e i r own i n the 1840's and , 50's. / ( 2 West's l a t e r w r i t i n g s r e f l e c t e d a keen e n t h u s i a s m f o r a con- s t i t u t i o n a l u n i o n t o b i n d the c o l o n i e s . He wanted a s t r o n g f e d e r a l g o v e r n i n g body ( P a i n e , t o o , had argued f o r a p o w e r f u l c e n t r a l g o v e r n - ment i n h i s Common S e n s e ) . In f a c t , some h i s t o r i a n s have c r e d i t e d West w i t h b e i n g the f i r s t A u s t r a l i a n t o c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y t r e a t the f e d e r a t i o n q u e s t i o n . In a s u c c e s s i o n o f e i g h t e e n a r t i c l e s f o r the Sydney Morning H e r a l d i n 1854, under the s u g g e s t i v e nom de plume 241 o f "John Adams," he argued f o r a "Union o f the A u s t r a l i a n Col on i e s . The f o u r t h a r t i c l e a t t a c k e d the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n Downing S t r e e t where the "'groans o f A u s t r a l i a ' d i e away i n s i l e n c e . . . t h e r e d e s p a t c h e s , w h i c h have run o v e r h a l f the w o r l d , a r e couched i n o b l i v i o n ; w h i l e beneath, i n c e l l a r s o f unfathomable d e p t h , l o n g - f o r g o t t e n p e t i t i o n s t h a t have prayed i n v a i n , and m e m o r i a l s , as a dead man out o f mind, l i e deep i n d u s t ! " The e i g h t e e n t h a r t i c l e , concerned w i t h t h e terms o f a f e d e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n , e l a b o r a t e d upon t h e example o f 45 the U n i t e d S t a t e s . West's p r e c i s i o n and e l o q u e n c e so impressed the H e r a l d ' s owner, John F a i r f a x , t h a t he h i r e d West as the paper's e d i t o r a c o u p l e o f months a f t e r the l a s t f e d e r a t i o n a r t i c l e appeared. As e d i t o r , West c o n t i n u e d t o pursue the paper's e s t a b l i s h e d c o n s e r v a t i v e l i n e , but i t i s c l e a r l y no c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t , whereas b e f o r e 185* the Hera 1d d e a l t w i t h American news o n l y i n e d i t o r i a l summaries, a f t e r t h a t y e a r i t had an e n t i r e s e c t i o n t o i t s e l f under the heading " A m e r i c a " o r "American News." A t t i t u d e s towards s l a v e r y and the American C i v i l War i n the l a t e 18501 s and '60's took shape i n the minds o f many c o l o n i s t s a c c o r d i n g t o the s t a n c e adopted by the H e r a l d on t h e s e i s s u e s . I f West's l o y a l t y t o the Mother C o u n t r y was o b v i o u s i n h i s f i r m c o n v i c t i o n t h a t England d e s i r e d t o a v o i d a r e p e t i t i o n of the American d e b a c l e i n A u s t r a l i a , he n e v e r t h e l e s s r e t a i n e d a tremendous a d m i r a t i o n f o r the U n i t e d S t a t e s . A m e r i c a was, t o use West's word, 47 A u s t r a 1 i a's "s i s t e r . " In both New South Wales and Tasmania, t h e n , t h r o u g h o u t the F o r t i e s and e a r l y F i f t i e s , the low hum o f a g i t a t i o n r o s e t o a clamour under 2 4 2 the impact o f the s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t q u e s t i o n and the p r i c k l y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n d i s p u t e . L o c a l s p o k e s m e n — i n c l u d i n g , as i n y e a r s gone by, o u t r a g e d 4 8 b u r e a u c r a t s - - r e a d i l y used American p r e c e d e n t s t o b o l s t e r t h e i r arguments, but i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o keep i n mind t h a t , a t t h i s t i m e , as i n e a r l i e r decades, the s o u r c e s o f p r o t e s t remained e s s e n t i a l l y u n a l t e r e d . The c r y f o r s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t was a n y t h i n g but u n i v e r s a l . In t h e two major c o l o n i e s the p l u t o c r a t s and e d u c a t e d m i d d l e - c l a s s o r a t o r s c o n t i n u e d t o l e a d the way. Both groups were p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h p r o t e c t i n g the " u n d e n i a b l e r i g h t s o f p r o p e r t y , " as Robert Lowe's 4 9 At 1 as put i t , not the " f a n c i f u l and m e t a p h y s i c a l r i g h t s o f man." In Tasmania, John West grasped the t e n o r o f the t i m e s a c c u r a t e l y : As might be e x p e c t e d , t h e p r e v a i l i n g s p i r i t of the c o l o n i e s i s d e m o c r a t i c : the democracy o f the m i d d l e c l a s s e s , not o f the mob.50 As we have seen, t h e s e were Wentworth's s e n t i m e n t s e x a c t l y . For as a group, the m i d d l e c l a s s e s c o n t e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h the s t e a d y a c q u i s i t i o n o f r i g h t s , g a i n e d i n r e l a t i v e l y o r d e r l y f a s h i o n . West's c o n c l u s i o n t o the second volume o f h i s H i s t o r y of Tasmania ( 1 8 5 2 ) was t y p i c a l o f the p l o y s used i n the p o l i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e o f c o l o n i s t s owing a debt t o Wentworth's c o n t r o v e r s i a l S t a t i s t i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n ( 1 8 1 9 ) — n a m e l y , suggest the o b v i o u s m i l i t a r y r e s o u r c e s o f the c o l o n y ( d i s t a n c e s , mountainous r e g i o n s , the s t r o n g l i k e l i h o o d o f f o r e i g n a i d ) , make p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e t o the c o u n t r y which had so s u c c e s s f u l l y u n d e r t a k e n s e v e r a n c e from the Empire ( t h e w e l l - r e a d West d i d so w i t h c u n n i n g s o p h i s t i c a t i o n by q u o t i n g humorous s a t i r i c a l e x c e r p t s from 243 Sydney Smith and Benjamin F r a n k l i n ) , then f l a t t e r the Mother C o u n t r y w i t h e a r n e s t d e c l a r a t i o n s t h a t she i s not about t o make the same m i s t a k e t w i c e . " E n g l a n d , " West m a i n t a i n e d , " w i l l not p e r m i t her 52 m i n i s t e r s t o o p p r e s s the c o l o n i e s . . . ." F i n a l l y , h a v i n g f l i r t e d w i t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y t a l k , s o l e m n l y r e a f f i r m the Englishman's n a t u r a l p r o c l i v i t y t o peace and b e l i e f i n s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n : The l o v e o f o r d e r i s t o o s t r o n g i n the E n g l i s h b r e a s t t o t o l e r a t e a n a r c h y . . . . [ S i n c e ] l i f e i s s h o r t , no w i s e man would w i s h t o waste a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n i n p a s s i n g t h r o u g h the d i s o r d e r s o f a r e v o l u t i o n t o g a i n the mere name o f a State.53 West was p r o b a b l y r i g h t , f o r no one i n the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s pushed, as Tom P a i n e and Sam Adams had pushed, f o r r e v o l u t i o n . D i s - enchanted C h a r t i s t s a r r i v i n g i n s u b s t a n t i a l numbers i n the F o r t i e s found a c o m p a r a t i v e l y p r o s p e r o u s new l a n d . C h a r l e s Di1ke d r y l y quoted an o l d j o k e . " Q u e s t i o n : 'What i s a C o l o n i a l C o n s e r v a t i v e ? ' Answer: 'A statesman who has got f o u r " p o i n t s " o f the P e o p l e ' s 54 C h a r t e r , and wants t o c o n s e r v e them." 1 The A u s t r a l i a n s i t u a t i o n was never s u f f i c i e n t l y c r i t i c a l t o s u s t a i n a r e v o l u t i o n . R a d i c a l w o r k e r s ' groups t h e m s e l v e s upheld such m i d d l e - c l a s s v i r t u e s as p i e t y , 55 t h r i f t , s o b r i e t y and i n d u s t r i o u s n e s s . These, o f c o u r s e , had been p r e c i s e l y t h o s e v a l u e s t h a t Benjamin F r a n k l i n a d v o c a t e d as d e s i r a b l e f o r an e x p a n d i n g m i d d l e - c l a s s A m e r i c a i n h i s A u t o b i o g r a p h y (1771-89). Even t e m p e r a m e n t a l l y , t h e n , A u s t r a l i a n s and Americans were b e g i n n i n g t o have much i n common. 244 S e c t i o n B_ 1850's F i r s t news o f the d i s c o v e r y o f g o l d i n C a l i f o r n i a a r r i v e d i n the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s i n December, 1848. W i t h the p r o s p e c t o f making one's f o r t u n e o n l y a s h o r t voyage away, many A u s t r a l i a n s were s o r e l y tempted t o t r y t h e i r l u c k a t the d i g g i n g s a c r o s s the P a c i f i c . E m i g r a t i o n t o A m e r i c a q u i c k l y " and g r e e d i l y ' began, as s i x crowded s h i p s s a i l e d out o f Sydney Harbour and one from Hobart ( i n December, 1849, and J a n u a r y , 1 8 5 0 ) , f o l l o w e d by s e v e r a l from Melbourne i n June. W i t h i n s i x months, 679 p e o p l e , o p t i m i s t s a l l , had headed out t o seek American g o l d . A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s were, f o r the f i r s t t i m e , t r u l y r e c i p r o c a l , as an A u s t r a l i a n p r e s e n c e r a p i d l y e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f on C a l i f o r n i a n s o i l . Tempting a d v e r t i s e m e n t s o f a l l v a r i e t i e s appeared everywhere t o l u r e the f o o t l o o s e . T a i l o r s wanted, t o r i g out the p r o s p e c t i v e d i g g e r , j o i n e r s t o c o n s t r u c t p o r t a b l e houses. A Mrs. B r i g n e l l a c t u a l l y o f f e r e d t o s e l l her house t o be t a k e n a c r o s s the P a c i f i c . Wrote the E n g l i s h - b o r n t r a d e r and w h a l e r Robert Towns: 245 The whole a f f a i r ( t o use a hackneyed p h r a s e ) , beggars d e s c r i p t i o n - - a p e r f e c t phenomenon . . . wonderfu1 and a t the same time t r u e . 5 7 At f i r s t , the l a r g e - c i r c u l a t i o n Sydney Morning H e r a l d added some f u e l t o the f l a m e s (though l a t e r i t was more c a u t i o n a r y ) . Four days i n t o the new y e a r , the paper's l e a d e r , e n t i t l e d "The New Gold C o u n t r y , " s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d the new t r a d i n g o u t l e t f o r Sydney's l o w - p r i c e d g r a i n and f l o u r . Tasmanian s h i p p e r s were e q u a l l y happy w i t h the p r o s p e c t o f g e t t i n g i n f l a t e d p r i c e s f o r t h e i r e x c e s s q u a n t i t i e s o f g r a i n and t i m b e r . Only Melbourne merchants and businessmen responded a n g r i l y from the b e g i n n i n g , a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e i r v u l n e r a b i l i t y . They s t o o d t o l o s e many v a l u a b l e w o r k e r s , w h i l e , because o f t h e i r g r e a t e r i s o l a t i o n , g a i n i n g no t r a d i n g advantage. An Argus l e a d e r i n J a n u a r y warned the l a b o u r i n g c l a s s e s t o be " c a r e f u l how they exchange h e a l t h , r O competence, and s e c u r i t y here f o r a f e v e r i s h dream i n C a l i f o r n i a . " A f t e r t h e . f i r s t group o f s h i p s d e p a r t e d Sydney, s c e p t i c i s m took h o l d o f the p o p u l a t i o n u n t i l a t l e a s t a few r a g s - t o - r i c h e s s t o r i e s c o u l d be c o r r o b o r a t e d . The a r r i v a l o f a s h i p from San F r a n c i s c o , w i t h t w e l v e hundred ounces o f g o l d , was a p p a r e n t l y c o n f i r m a t i o n enough. E m i g r a t i o n f i g u r e s r o s e s t e e p l y . So much so t h a t , d u r i n g the peak o f the e x c i t e m e n t , an e s t i m a t e d s i x thousand c o l o n i s t s l e f t A u s t r a l i a n . . 59 p o r t s ( m a i n l y Sydney) t o seek C a l i f o r n i a n r i c h e s . A s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e s e were c o n v i c t s and e x - c o n v i c t s , o f whom one group i n p a r t i c u l a r was t o make a major impact on the C a l i f o r n i a n community: the infamous "Sydney Ducks." I n t e g r a t e d i n t o the mass o f h o p e f u l s l e a v i n g f o r San F r a n c i s c o 246 were a bunch o f n o t o r i o u s Sydney f e l o n s and f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s . They i n c l u d e d Thomas B e l c h e r Kay ( " S i n g i n g B i l l y " ) , Sam W h i t t a k e r , John J e n k i n s , the handsome f o r g e r "Gentleman J i m " S t u a r t and George ("Jack the Dandy") Adams. W i t h o v e r a dozen more l i k e them, t h e s e men c o n s t i t u t e d a gang known as the "Sydney Ducks" o r "Sydney Coves," and made t h e i r base i n a d i s t r i c t i n n o r t h e a s t San F r a n c i s c o soon 60 l a b e l l e d "Sydney Town." The "Ducks" were not the o n l y A u s t r a l i a n gang i n C a l i f o r n i a , m e r e l y the most renowned. "Duck" a c t i v i t y soon g a i n e d a r e p u t a t i o n among r e s i d e n t C a l i f o r n i a n s who, because they o f t e n l a c k e d p r o o f , began blaming u n s o l v e d c r i m e s on the r e p r e h e n s i b l e Sydney e m i g r a n t s . A l l c o n v i c t s , they s h r i e k e d , o r damn near i t . T h i s h o s t i l i t y , a l l i e d t o the growing c r i m e r a t e (much o f i t due to'.the Sydney gangs, some not) ,: had two consequences of more f a r - r e a c h i n g importance f o r A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s t h r o u g h the e a r l y l850's: f i r s t , a n t i - f o r e i g n l e g i s l a t i o n was i n t r o d u c e d t o c u r b the r e l e n t l e s s waves o f e m i g r a n t s a r r i v i n g on the American •west c o a s t - - p r i n c i p a l l y i n the form o f a B i l l " f o r the B e t t e r R e g u l a t i o n o f the Mines and the Government o f F o r e i g n M i n e r s . " A l e g i s l a t i v e committee proposed a t a x on : f o r e i g n e r s t o p r e v e n t the c o u n t r y b e i n g i n u n d a t e d by " t h e w o r s t p o p u l a t i o n o f the Mexican and South American 61 S t a t e s , New South Wales," and o t h e r a r e a s . S e c o n d l y , wide c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y o c c a s i o n e d the f o r m a t i o n , i i n 1851 , o f the n o t o r i o u s Committee o f V i g i 1 a n c e - - a group c o n s t i t u t e d t o p r e v e n t c r i m e and p u n i s h o f f e n d e r s (by d e a t h , i f n e c e s s a r y ) . The b r u t i s h "Sydney Duck," John J e n k i n s , was the f i r s t c r i m i n a l hanged by the Committee w h i c h , t h r o u g h i t s 247 p r o c e s s o f " d e m o c r a t i c j u s t i c e , " a c c u m u l a t e d e v i d e n c e and then made d e c i s i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o a m a j o r i t y v o t e . When i t was f i n a l l y d i s b a n d e d , the Committee had c r o s s - e x a m i n e d n i n e t y - o n e s u s p e c t s , hung'' f o u r , whipped one, f o r c i b l y d e p o r t e d f o u r t e e n , o r d e r e d a n o t h e r f o u r t e e n t o l e a v e the a r e a , handed f i f t e e n o v e r t o the l e g a l a u t h o r i t i e s and d i s c h a r g e d f o r t y - o n e . ^ As a r e s u l t o f the v i g i l a n t e a c t i v i t y o f the Committee and the g e n e r a l low r e g a r d i n which A u s t r a l i a n a r r i v a l s were h e l d , the g o o d w i l l t h a t had marked c o n t a c t between A u s t r a l i a n s and Americans f o r so 63 many y e a r s began n o t i c e a b l y t o d e t e r i o r a t e . In 1850, C a l i f o r n i a 64 p o s t - o f f i c e w o r k e r s even r e f u s e d t o make up m a i l f o r New South Wales. New H o l l a n d e r s , i n t u r n , were informed t h a t o f s i x t e e n men a r r e s t e d i n San F r a n c i s c o i n 1849, t w e l v e were S y d n e y s i d e r s . A f t e r a f i r e i n December, the a u t h o r i t i e s d e t a i n e d some f o r t y - e i g h t Sydney men i n a t o t a l o f s e v e n t y . F u r t h e r , and more o m i n o u s l y , the Committee o f V i g i l a n c e c o n t i n u e d t o a s s e r t i t s r i g h t t o s c r e e n the p a s s e n g e r s o f a l l incoming A u s t r a l i a n s h i p s f o r u n d e s i r a b l e s . N a t u r a l l y , the Committee's c o n s i d e r a b l e power o f t e n produced e x c e s s e s . The most s e r i o u s example o c c u r r e d when an i n n o c e n t A u s t r a l i a n c a p t a i n was 66 a l m o s t hanged by a rampaging mob a f t e r a San F r a n c i s c o f i r e . As s t o r i e s o f C a l i f o r n i a myopia, i n t e n t i o n a l l y r e s t r i c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n and the q u e s t i o n a b l e a c t i v i t i e s o f the V i g i l a n c e Committee found t h e i r way back t o A u s t r a l i a , the community, perhaps u n d e r s t a n d a b l y , responded b i t t e r l y . Maybe the e d i t o r s o f newspapers such as the A r g u s , P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e and Sydney Morning H e r a l d were r i g h t a f t e r 248 a l l when they had p r o p h e t i c a l l y warned o f the d i r e consequences o f r i s k i n g s e c u r i t y a t home i n s e a r c h of an i l l u s o r y f o r t u n e . 6 7 Only the w o r s t c l a s s o f a d v e n t u r e r would v e n t u r e t o the d i g g i n g s , a l l had admonished. F a i r f a x ' s Hera 1d, w i t h tongue i n cheek, r e p r i n t e d a Punch a r t i c l e p u r p o r t i n g t o be a c o m p i l a t i o n o f a d v i c e : ''What C l a s s ought t o go to_ the D i g g i n s ? Persons who have n o t h i n g t o l o s e e x c e p t t h e i r l i v e s . . . . " Things you w i l l f i n d u s e f u l a t the D i g g i n s . A r e v o l v i n g p i s t o l , some knowledge o f t r e a t i n g gun-shot wounds, a t o l e r a t i o n o f s t r a n g e b e d f e l l o w s . . . . ' 'What i s the best t h i ng t o do when you get t o the D i g g i n s ? Go back home. . . ."68 U n f o r t u n a t e l y , l i g h t - h e a r t e d h y p e r b o l e t u r n e d i n t o h o r r i d r e a l i t y f o r many A u s t r a l i a n s who, by the f i r s t h a l f o f 1851, were r e t u r n i n g i n l a r g e r numbers t h a n t h o s e about t o embark. Some were j u s t p l a i n d i s e n c h a n t e d . O t h e r s had got word o f the g o l d d i s c o v e r i e s o f an e x - C a l i f o r n i a n m i n e r , Edward H a r g r a v e s , i n t h e i r own A u s t r a l i a n back- y a r d . Having f i r s t r e c o g n i z e d the c l o s e s i m i l a r i t y between C a l i f o r n i a g o l d r e g i o n s and c e r t a i n a r e a s i n New South Wales, Hargraves d i s c o v e r e d commercial q u a n t i t i e s o f g o l d a t a p l a c e near B a t h u r s t , on F e b r u a r y 12, 1851. The f l o w o f A u s t r a l i a n t r a f f i c t o A m e r i c a h a l t e d a b r u p t l y . Far more p r o s p e r o u s f i e l d s i n New South Wales and V i c t o r i a were about t o open up. The C a l i f o r n i a n g o l d r u s h , f o r a t i m e , d i d e x e r t c e r t a i n b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s on the A u s t r a l i a n economy. A s t u t e businessmen, aware o f the sudden and massive market i n San F r a n c i s c o , e x p o r t e d , a p a r t from g r a i n and f l o u r , s u p p l i e s o f b e e r , t i m b e r , b u i 1 d i n g 'materia1s and c o a l . Possum-fur rugs and k n a p s a c k s , t o o , were i n demand. The h i g h p o i n t f o r l o c a l s p e c u l a t i v e c a r g o was reached i n 1850 when e i g h t y - s i x s h i p s s o l d ^95,473 w o r t h o f goods. C o m p e t i t i o n from the e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s , however, soon a s s e r t e d c o n t r o l and A u s t r a l i a n e x p o r t s dropped 69 t o a l m o s t n o t h i n g i n 1851 - A p a r t from p r o v i d i n g A u s t r a l i a n t r a d e r s w i t h a b r i e f b o o s t , renewed c o n t a c t w i t h A m e r i c a prompted some l o c a l o b s e r v e r s once a g a i n t o comment on the p o t e n t i a l f o r c l o s e t i e s between the two c o u n t r i e s . As the p r e s s u r e f o r s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t i n A u s t r a l i a c o n t i n u e d t o b u i l d , some newspaper e d i t o r s c o u l d n ' t r e s i s t s p e c u l a t i n g , a l o n g w i t h the i r r e p r e s s i b l e John Dunmore Lang, on the p o s s i b i l i t y o f an A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c . One m a i n t a i n e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a n s w i l l not f a i l t o r e c o g n i z e i n the C a l i f o r n i a c o n s t i t u t i o n a model a f t e r which t h e i r own might be moulded. . . . The r e s u l t o f t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n may l e a d , even d u r i n g the e x i s t e n c e o f the p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n , t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f independent A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c s . 7 0 A n o t h e r applauded the A m e r i c a n s , who . . . accustomed t o a c t i o n , not w h i n i n g and p e t i t i o n i n g , have e l e c t e d t h e i r g o v e r n o r s , and a c c e p t e d t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n , w i t h o u t a moment's o b s t r u c t i o n ; and have o f f e r e d a p r a c t i c a l l e s s o n t o t h e s e c o l o n i e s w h i c h has produced a profound impress i o n . 7 ' But on the whole, the bad p r e s s a c c o r d e d C a l i f o r n i a ' s mob law and "kangaroo c o u r t s " overshadowed t h o s e who wished t o f o c u s on l o f t i e r i d e a l s . A l o t o f A u s t r a l i a n s s u f f e r e d i n C a l i f o r n i a . J.H. W i l l i a m s , the U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n s u l i n Sydney, knew i t (and, much t o the c h a g r i n 250 o f h i s countrymen, p u b l i c l y e x p r e s s e d h i s t o t a l d i s a p p r o v a l o f the 72 C a l i f o r n i a n a n t i - f o r e i g n e r l e g i s l a t i o n . ) And t h e i n d i g n a n t c o l o n i a l p o p u l a c e , d e s p i t e an ocean o f s e p a r a t i o n , knew i t . Henry P a r k e s , C h a r t i s t e d i t o r o f the Emp i r e , c o u l d n ' t c o n t a i n h i s o u t r a g e when informed o f the a c t i v i t i e s o f the Committee o f V i g i l a n c e and, worse, the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f some A u s t r a l i a n s i n t h a t Committee a g a i n s t t h e i r f e l l o w s . C o n f r o n t e d by the probable' r e t u r n o f t h e s e q u i s l i n g s , i n the p r e s e n c e o f a h o s t o f repugnant Ca'l i f o r n i ans, he fumed: " L e t 73 no door be opened t o r e c e i v e b l o o d - s t a i n e d w r e t c h e s . " In t h i s atmosphere o f anger and resentment, a g g r a v a t e d by the l o c a l p r e s s , thousands o f Americans from a l l o v e r the c o u n t r y - o n l y a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n C a 1 i f o r n i a n s - - p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t the c h a l l e n g e o f the A u s t r a l i a n g o l d f i e l d s i n l a t e 1851 - A p p r o x i m a t e l y n i n e t e e n thousand made the j o u r n e y o v e r the next f i v e y e a r s , the f i r s t groups s a i l i n g from San F r a n c i s c o , but the g r e a t m a j o r i t y d e p a r t i n g from New York. L i k e t h e i r A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s , t h e American newspapers i n i t i a l l y s c o f f e d o r i s s u e d s t e r n w a r n i n g s . "Beware," the New York Ih Hera 1d t r u m p e t e d , " o f t h e s e South Sea bubbles and Yazoo s p e c u l a t i o n s . But t h e i r e f f o r t s were t o no a v a i l ; s t o r i e s o f a t r u e E l Dorado t o the s o u t h m u l t i p l i e d . The f i r s t ' : i nf 1 ux o f Americans o c c u r r e d w i t h the s t i g m a o f C a l i f o r n i a s t i l l i n the a i r . D e s p i t e the growing f a m i l i a r i t y between the two c o u n t r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r e v i o u s f i f t y y e a r s , c e r t a i n members o f the f o u r t h e s t a t e i n s i s t e d on s t r e s s i n g the f r i c t i o n o f the r e c e n t p a s t . 251 P a r k e s 1 Empire c o n t i n u e d t o l a s h o u t : The b l o o d t h i r s t y mob cannot f l i n g c a l u m n i e s a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a when g u i l t y o f such a c t s [as l y n c h i n g J e n k i n s ] . . . . When the i n f u r i a t e d c i t i z e n s o f San F r a n c i s c o s t r a n g l e d the t h i e f whom they had caught i n t h e i r s t r e e t s , they hanged t h a t l i b e r t y which they seemed t o t h i n k they c o u l d p r e s e r v e . . . .75 In l i k e manner, the Melbourne Argus s u g g e s t e d the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i m m i g r a t i o n laws based on the American l e g i s l a t i o n , o n l y t h i s time t o bar u n d e s i r a b l e C a 1 i f o r n i a n s . 7 6 The c o n t i n u e d American endorsement o f s l a v e r y and i m p e r i a l i s t endeavours i n Cuba and Hawaii o n l y e x a c e r b a t e d the t e n s i o n . W i t h the s i t u a t i o n r e v e r s e d , many A u s t r a l i a n s began t o guard a g a i n s t " C a l i f o r n i a n s a v a g e s . " 7 7 A c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f the Sydney Morning H e r a l d s a r d o n i c a l l y c o n s i d e r e d the p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s o f B r i t i s h law on A m e r i c a n s , now " w i t h o u t the a i d o f Judge Lynch o r o f County J u s t i c e s , who smoke, chew t o b a c c o , and s p i t i n t h e i r C o u r t s o f J u s t i c e , w h i l e they s i t on the bench i n t h e i r s h i r t s l e e v e s , p i c k i n g t h e i r 78 t e e t h w i t h b o w i e - k n i v e s , and e n f o r c i n g t h e i r d e c r e e s w i t h r e v o l v e r s . " A c u r r e n t f a v o u r i t e o f the t i m e s , the " A u s t r a l i a n Gold D i g g e r ' s Song," c a p t u r e s the p r e v a i l i n g f e e l i n g : So boys w e ' l l now e n j o y o u r s e l v e s and have a j o l l y song, We c a r e not f o r A m e r i c a , and t h a t she!11 know 'ere l o n g , For though her " C a i " has g o l d e n mines, we have them here as w e i 1 , Much r i c h e r too ( B a l e Gammon b o y s ) , she c a n ' t our s t o r y t e l l . . . . Those d r a b i t e s t o l d us more than once, t h a t we were v i l l a i n s a l 1 , A l l rogues, and t h i e v e s and vagabonds, d e s e r v i n g s i x f e e t f a l 1 . . . . 7 9 252 However, d e s p i t e p r e s s and s o c i a l harassment, a r r i v i n g Americans 80 were r a r e l y p h y s i c a l l y abused. Resentment seldom went beyond t a l k . In f a c t , i t soon became o b v i o u s t o the l o c a l c i t i z e n r y t h a t t h i s f i r s t l a r g e i n p o u r i n g o f Americans i n t o A u s t r a l i a - - r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n , a t l a s t , had b e g u n — m i g h t r e a l i z e numerous b e n e f i c i a l r e s u l t s . Americans i n the f l e s h seemed t o b e l i e the n a s t y C a l i f o r n i a n s t o r i e s . As C. Rudston Read, a G o l d Commissioner, d i s c o v e r e d , most Americans were not c u t - t h r o a t s o r t r i g g e r - h a p p y . They worked h a r d , i n t e l l i g e n t l y , 81 and wanted o n l y t o a b i d e by p r e v a i l i n g B r i t i s h laws. S u s p i c i o n bred i n t h e s h o r t term q u i c k l y r e v e r t e d t o the r e s p e c t o f p a s t y e a r s . Americans were not a l l C a l i f o r n i a c u t - t h r o a t s . P r e d i c t a b l y , c o n s e r v a t i v e elements i n both England and A u s t r a l i a r e a c t e d t o t h e g o l d r u s h w i t h a l a r m . The London Times s e t the tone o f most f o r t h c o m i n g r e s p o n s e s . "What a r e we t o e x p e c t , " the e d i t o r lamented, " i n a second C a l i f o r n i a not s e p a r a t e d by a v a s t P a c i f i c Ocean, but p l a c e d by n a t u r e i n t h e v e r y c e n t r e o f t h o s e c o l o n i e s 82 which we have s e l e c t e d f o r the haunts o f c r i m e ? " Bad enough t h a t r e c e n t a g i t a t i o n f o r s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t i n the c o l o n i e s had taken on a d i s t u r b i n g A m e r i c a n f l a v o u r ; now B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n h i m s e l f was i n v a d i n g the A u s t r a l i a n g o l d f i e l d s t o a c t as a s u s t a i n e d s t i m u l u s t o r e p u b l i c a n a c t i v i t y . Or so the argument went. Government o f f i c i a l s c a u t i o u s l y a p p r a i s e d the American p r e s e n c e on the g o l d - f i e l d s from the o u t s e t . W i l l i a m P e t e r s , the B r i t i s h Consul i n P h i l a d e l p h i a , sent a r e p o r t t o the F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y on August 30, 1852, e x p r e s s i n g the f e a r t h a t A u s t r a l i a was s h o r t l y t o 253 become a r e p u b l i c : "Hundreds, i f not thousands, o f a d v e n t u r e r s a r e e i t h e r now on t h e i r voyage, o r soon w i l l embark from v a r i o u s p a r t s o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r A u s t r a l i a - - m o s t o f them bent 'on e x t e n d i n g the a r e a o f freedom' and on a i d i n g t h e i r f e l l o w men i n the 83 p u r s u i t o f L i b e r t y and R e p u b l i c a n i s m . " P e t e r s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t the Americans embarking f o r A u s t r a l i a were i n r e a l i t y r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , members o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n known as the "Order o f the Lone S t a r , " 84 whose s o l e purpose was t o p r o p a g a t e r e p u b l i c a n i s m w o r l d - w i d e . C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y P a k i n g t o n i n t u r n d e s p a t c h e d c o p i e s o f P e t e r s ' 85 r e p o r t t o Governors F i t z r o y and La Trobe f o r comment. F i t z r o y r e p l i e d t h a t the a c c o u n t e x a g g e r a t e d the e x t e n t o f r e p u b l i c a n s e n t i m e n t . Dr. Lang n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , he c o n s i d e r e d the A m e r i c a n s , and the p o p u l a c e a t l a r g e , t o o b u s i l y engaged i n a c q u i r i n g a f o r t u n e . La Trobe a l s o p l a y e d down the American p r e s e n c e ; i n a d d i t i o n , he m a i n t a i n e d t h a t the c o l o n i a l p r e s s and i t s e n t r e n c h e d t r a d i t i o n o f r a d i c a l i n t e r - a c t i o n w i t h American p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y and example posed a f a r more s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o c o l o n i a l s t a b i l i t y than the thousands o f Americans i n Melbourne and on the V i c t o r i a n g o l d f i e l d s . He was r i g h t . A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c a n s l o u d l y a g i t a t e d , i n the e a r l y F i f t i e s , f o r the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the p r i n c i p l e s o f 1776. For a t i m e , the i n f l u e n t i a l Dr. Lang and the poet C h a r l e s Harpur c o u l d even c o n t e m p l a t e r e v o l u t i o n as a l e g i t i m a t e , . 86 c o u r s e or a c t 1 on. A d m i n i s t r a t i v e v i g i l a n c e p e r s i s t e d f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . In l a t e 1853, the B r i t i s h M i n i s t e r i n Washington, John F. Crampton, informed P a k i n g t o n t h a t l i t t l e doubt remained i n h i s mind t h a t "a r e v o l u t i o n 25* i n A u s t r a l i a by w h i c h i t s c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h Great B r i t a i n s h o u l d be s e v e r e d would be an event h i g h l y a c c e p t a b l e t o the g r e a t mass o f the 87 American p e o p l e . " He was p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t i n h i s a s s u m p t i o n ; how- e v e r , most wanted a p e a c e f u l , r a t h e r than a v i o l e n t t r a n s f e r o f power. James Gordon B e n n e t t , e d i t o r o f the New York Hera I d , had s u g g e s t e d i n h i s e d i t i o n o f August 28, 1852, t h a t "a d e c l a r a t i o n o f independence i s s h o r t l y a n t i c i p a t e d " ( p r o b a b l y the s t i m u l u s f o r P e t e r s ' h a s t y d e s p a t c h ) ; b u t , t y p i c a l l y , he q u a l i f i e d t h e s e remarks i n l a t e r l e a d e r s . He a d v o c a t e d a " g r e a t independent r e p u b l i c " a l o n g American l i n e s i n A u s t r a l i a , though not one a c h i e v e d through "impending r e b e l l i o n . " B e n n e t t , e c h o i n g t h e s e n t i m e n t s o f h i s countryman C h a r l e s W i l k e s o v e r a decade e a r l i e r , p r e d i c t e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a n s would u l t i m a t e l y 88 " f e e l t h e m s e l v e s t o o l a r g e f o r t h e i r c o l o n i a l b r e e c h e s . . . ." C o n t r a r y t o the v i e w o f one commentator, t h a t the Americanswho invaded the A u s t r a l i a n g o l d f i e l d s "were l o u d d i s s e n t e r s and rowdy a g i t a t o r s who shoved the p e o p l e o f A u s t r a l i a towards the road t o s e l f - r u l e , " i t seems c l e a r t h a t the A u s t r a l i a n p e o p l e , i n l a r g e p a r t due t o American p r e c e d e n t and l i t e r a t u r e , were f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d on t h a t road i n the e a r l y l850's, t h e i r d i r e c t i o n a l r e a d y d e t e r m i n e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , the American e m i g r a n t s a p p e a r i n g a l l o v e r New South Wales and V i c t o r i a i n c l i n e d , f o r the most p a r t , t o views c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i r a m b i t i o n t o make money. The American Consul i n Sydney, James W i l l i a m s , knew w e l l what k i n d o f American would be tempted t o make the j o u r n e y : ". . . our countrymen w i l l e a g e r l y s e i z e upon t h i s new 89 f i e l d o f p r o f i t a b l e a d v e n t u r e . " Few m i l i t a n t r e p u b l i c a n s v e n t u r e d 255 from A m e r i c a t o A u s t r a l i a i n the e n t i r e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . In the e a r l y l850's, d e s i r e f o r g a i n was the p r i n c i p a l m o t i v a t o r , not the w i s h t o d i s s e m i n a t e r e p u b l i c a n d o c t r i n e s . The l a t t e r might w e l l o c c u r , but o n l y between pannings f o r g o l d ; j u s t a s , i n e a r l i e r y e a r s , American w h a l e r s , s e a l e r s and t r a d e r s o f t e n h e l p e d c o n v i c t s t o escape w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a c q u i r i n g s m a l l f o r t u n e s i n s o u t h e r n w a t e r s . Moreover, A m e r i c a , m i d - c e n t u r y , was i n a more advantageous p o s i t i o n c o m m e r c i a l l y t o e x p l o i t the A u s t r a l i a n market than she had e v e r been. "Her s h i p s , " as L.G. Churchward has put i t , "were the f a s t e s t i n the w o r l d , her s k i p p e r s the h a r d e s t , and her merchants 90 the k e e n e s t . " The Americans who came t o A u s t r a l i a between 1851 and I 8 5 6 , t h e n , can be l o o s e l y put i n t o two groups: merchants and m i n e r s . B e s i d e s the p r o f i t m o t i v e , they had a n o t h e r common f e a t u r e i n t h a t most had a s k i l l e d t r a d e o r p r o f e s s i o n on a r r i v a l , u n l i k e the A u s t r a l i a n s i n C a l i f o r n i a . The F l y i n g Scud, f o r example, a s h i p a r r i v i n g i n Melbourne i n September, 1854, c a r r i e d 135 p a s s e n g e r s , a l l o f whom were tradesmen 91 such as c a r p e n t e r s , masons, p l a s t e r e r s and b r i c k l a y e r s . W i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , the i m p r e s s i o n the Americans made on the i n i t i a l l y wary A u s t r a l i a n was a p o s i t i v e o n e — e i t h e r through d i l i g e n c e a t the d i g g i n g s (and i n the c a s e o f s e v e r a l Americans p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the Eureka S t o c k a d e , d e v o t i o n t o the cause) o r commercial e x p e r t i s e i n Melbourne. The v i g o r o u s works o f two such r e p r e s e n t a t i v e Americans i n A u s t r a l i a , the merchant George F r a n c i s T r a i n and the miner C h a r l e s D. F e r g u s o n , 256 w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . Merchants c o m p r i s e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f the new a r r i v a l s . In 1854, some 35% o f the American community r e s i d e n t i n V i c t o r i a 93 engaged i n t r a d e . Though l a v i s h l y p a t r i o t i c , e s p e c i a l l y on J u l y k, t h i s group i n t e r p r e t e d the " s p r e a d - e a g 1 i s t " d o c t r i n e as an e x p a n s i o n i n commerce, not as r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e p u b l i c a n i s m . Many, such as George F r a n c i s T r a i n , b e l i e v e d i n the p l a t f o r m o f "Young A m e r i c a " ( t h a t the d e s t i n y o f an emerging n a t i o n was t o become a r e p u b l i c ) o n l y i f the means t o the end was both l a w f u l and p e a c e f u l . T r a i n , a l e a d e r o f the American m e r c a n t i l i s t s i n Melbourne, prominent l o c a l c i t i z e n , and a d v o c a t e o f American democracy, r e a l i z e d o n l y too w e l l t h a t the s u c c e s s o f h i s b u s i n e s s v e n t u r e s i n V i c t o r i a depended e n t i r e l y upon the economic and p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y o f the c o l o n y . He had f o r g e d c l o s e t r a d i n g t i e s w i t h Great B r i t a i n w h i c h he d i d n ' t i n t e n d t o undermine by p u b l i c l y a d v o c a t i n g the m i l i t a r y o v e r t h r o w o f the B r i t i s h . He was not a l o n e . Both J.M. T a r l e t o n , the U.S. Consul a t the time the Eureka u p r i s i n g took p l a c e , and J.F. M a g u i r e , h i s s u c c e s s o r , were prominent members o f the l o c a l Chamber o f Commerce. A l l American businessmen r e a l i z e d t h a t , no m a t t e r what t h e i r p e r s o n a l p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n s , any d i p l o m a t i c b r e a c h w i t h B r i t a i n t h r e a t e n e d 95 t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d s . The poet c a l l i n g h i m s e l f an " a s p i r i n g g e n i u s o f Young A m e r i c a " who, w h i l e t r a v e l l i n g t o A u s t r a l i a on the c l i p p e r Ba11 imore, had w r i t t e n 0 A u s t r a l i a , l o o k out f o r your g o l d , We're bound t o change your Government, And then your mines t o hold.96 257 — n o doubt succumbed t o the p r e v a i l i n g p r e s s u r e s o f h i s countrymen on a r r i v a l . The m a j o r i t y o f A u s t r a l i a n s a p p r e c i a t e d the n a t i o n a l advantages t o be g a i n e d as a r e s u l t o f what the Hobart Guard i an, i n 1849, l a b e l l e d 97 Yankee " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t a c t f o r b u s i n e s s and go-ahead-ism." F l a t t e r i n g r e p o r t s o f t h e i r e n e r g e t i c c h a r a c t e r c o n s t a n t l y appeared. Some l o c a l s , however, i n t e r p r e t e d Yankee keenness as sheer a v a r i c e . A c o n t r i b u t o r t o the Sydney Morning H e r a l d , i n A u g u s t , 1853, p e t u l a n t l y s t a t e d t h a t they " a r e coming i n more numerously than e v e r . I t i s easy t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i r p a l l i d c o u n t e n a n c e s , which always have a careworn a s p e c t . . . 98 [as] i f the w o r s h i p p e d d o l l a r had s e t i t s s e a l upon t h e i r v e r y f a c e s . " Perhaps i t depended on whether o r not one was i n a c t i v e c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h American businessmen. One o b s e r v e r o f the American t r a d e r s i n Melbourne suggested t h a t o n l y "open o p p r e s s i o n " would f o r c e them t o abandon t h e i r commercial p u r s u i t s f o r a r i f l e . Perhaps he was r i g h t ; they never s u f f e r e d the onerous hand o f E n g l i s h a u t h o r i t y . On the o t h e r hand, the American d i g g e r s d i d . S e v e r a l p l a y e d c r u c i a l r o l e s i n the r e v o l t a t the B a l l a r a t d i g g i n g s i n l a t e 185* t h a t became known as the Eureka S t o c k a d e . Events s u r r o u n d i n g the Eureka u p r i s i n g a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the American c i t i z e n r y i n A u s t r a l i a a t t h a t t i m e — t h e i r m o t i v e s , c h a r a c t e r and d i f f e r e n c e s . In a d d i t i o n , the s u c c e s s i o n o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l i n c i d e n t s l e a d i n g up t o the Stockade c o n f i r m s the c o n t i n u i n g r e l i a n c e o f the A u s t r a l i a n p o p u l a c e on American r e v o l u t i o n a r y example a t times when i t wanted t o undermine r i g i d E n g l i s h law and a u t h o r i t y . 258 T h e l o n g p r e l u d e t o t h e b r i e f a n d o n e - s i d e d b a t t l e b e g a n a s e a r l y a s D e c e m b e r , 1851, when some f i f t e e n t o t w e n t y t h o u s a n d d i g g e r s , f u r i o u s a t t h e d o u b l i n g o f t h e m i n e r ' s l i c e n c e f e e , met a t M t . A l e x a n d e r t o v o i c e t h e i r p r o t e s t . T h e p o p u l a r c r i e s a t t h i s g a t h e r i n g , a n d a t a n o t h e r m i l i t a n t d e m o n s t r a t i o n a t B e n d i g o i n A u g u s t , 1852, w e r e v a r i a t i o n s on t h e o l d A m e r i c a n " t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " t h e m e . By t h e e a r l y 1 8 5 0 1 s , o f c o u r s e , t h e p h r a s e had b e g u n t o t a k e on an A u s t r a l i a n l i f e o f i t s own a s a r e s u l t o f t h e a l m o s t 102 c o n t i n u o u s s t r u g g l e w i t h u n b e n d i n g c o l o n i a l g o v e r n o r s . R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m i n e r s a n d t h e a u t h o r i t i e s k e p t s t e a d i l y f r a y i n g t h r o u g h 1853 and e a r l y 1854, a t w h i c h p o i n t t h e i n t r a c t a b l e S i r C h a r l e s Hotham t o o k o v e r a s G o v e r n o r o f V i c t o r i a f r o m La T r o b e . An e x r r e a r a d m i r a l i n t h e B r i t i s h N a v y , H o t h a m , d i s a p p o i n t e d w i t h h i s l a t e s t a p p o i n t m e n t , a p p r o a c h e d t h e j o b i n t h e s p i t - a n d - p o l i s h f a s h i o n o f a man a c c u s t o m e d t o s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n s and b e h a v i o u r . L a n d d i d n ' t s u i t h i m . He i m m e d i a t e l y demanded a c c o u n t a b i l i t y f r o m h i s i n f e r i o r s a s t o why t h e s t a t e had a c c u m u l a t e d s u c h a l a r g e d e b t . He d e t e r m i n e d t o r e c t i f y t h e s i t u a t i o n . One o f t h e f i r s t t h i n g s t o c a t c h H o t h a m ' s t r a m m e l l e d e y e was:' t h e l a g i n t h e p a y m e n t o f m i n e r ' s l i c e n c e s . H i s d e c i s i o n t o p u t i n c r e a s e d p o l i c e - p r e s s u r e on t h e many t h o u s a n d s o f d i g g e r s t h r o u g h o u t V i c t o r i a g o l d f i e l d s e f f e c t i v e l y s e t a c h a i n o f e v e n t s i n m o t i o n t h a t w o u l d c u l m i n a t e i n t h a t g r i m D e c e m b e r 3 m o r n i n g . From S e p t e m b e r 13, l i c e n c e s w e r e c h e c k e d t w i c e a d a y . T h e r e s u l t i n g t e n s i o n r e a c h e d a f i r s t c l i m a x when t h e S c o t s m a n James S c o b i e d i e d , e a r l y i n O c t o b e r , 259 i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h seemed t o i n d i c a t e a government c o v e r - u p o f 103 t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e . Three t o f i v e thousand miners s t a g e d a l a r g e r a l l y o u t s i d e the Eureka H o t e l , B a l l a r a t , t o draw a t t e n t i o n t o g o v e r n - ment i n e r t i a ; American r e v o l u t i o n a r y c r i e s f i l l e d the a i r . Less than a f o r t n i g h t l a t e r the B a l l a r a t Reform League was i n s t i t u t e d a t a mass m e e t i n g . A g a i n , members e x c i t e d l y d i s c u s s e d the American r e v o l u t i o n . On November 11, a m a s s i v e League meeting r e s u l t e d i n agreement on a s t a t e m e n t o f p r i n c i p l e s w i t h a f a m i l i a r J e f f e r s o n i a n r i n g : "That i t i s the i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t o f e v e r y c i t i z e n t o have a v o i c e i n the making o f the laws he i s c a l l e d upon t o obey. That t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s t y r a n n y . . . ." Henry Seekamp, r a d i c a l p r o p r i e t o r o f the B a l l a r a t Times, d e c l a r e d the League " t h e 104 germ o f A u s t r a l i a n independence." Events r a p i d l y e s c a l a t e d . F i r s t , on the n i g h t o f November 28, a gang o f I r i s h T i p p e r a r y boys a t t a c k e d t h e l a s t o f a column o f m i l i t a r y wagons, i n j u r i n g the American d r i v e r . Then, the next day, some t w e l v e thousand miners assembled i n B a l l a r a t a t a m e e t i n g . The " r e b e l " b l u e and w h i t e S o u t h e r n C r o s s f l a g f l e w f o r the f i r s t t i m e a m i d s t masses o f men c h a n t i n g American s l o g a n s and c a r r y i n g p l a c a r d s . A l l t h o s e i n v o l v e d swore the r e v o l u t i o n a r y Eureka Oath o f s o l i d a r i t y and began c o n s t r u c t i n g a s t o c k a d e f o r c e f u l l y t o r e s i s t the i n e v i t a b l e a t t a c k by the E n g l i s h m i l i t a r y . ' ^ 5 C o n t r a r y t o the s t o r y U.S. Consul T a r l e t o n s e n t t o h i s Washington s u p e r i o r s , both American f a c e s f a m i l i a r t o A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i s t s p l a y e d a prominent r o l e i n the Eureka s t o c k a d e : r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the w i l y 260 p r o f i t - m i n d e d b u s i n e s s community and a few a g g r e s s i v e l y r e p u b l i c a n 1 06 miners who c o u l d o n l y be pushed so f a r . D e s p i t e the b e s t e f f o r t s o f T a r l e t o n and h i s a i d e s t o a b s o l v e them w h o l l y , not o n l y from t h e Eureka c o n f l i c t i t s e l f but from the s u c c e s s i o n of i n c i d e n t s l e a d i n g up t o t h a t c l i m a x , a group o f m o s t l y anonymous American d i g g e r s j o i n e d hands w i t h t h e i r c o s m o p o l i t a n c o l l e a g u e s i n d e f i a n c e o f the a r b i t r a r y d e c i s i o n s o f E n g l i s h a u t o c r a t s . ' ^ 7 H i s t o r i a n s have found d i f f i c u l t y a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e i r numbers and m o t i v e s , but a g r e e on the f a c t t h a t "a f a i r l y l a r g e number o f A m e r i c a n s " took p a r t . E s t i m a t e s range from twenty t o o v e r one hundred. The c o n s e r v a t i v e guesses seem ... . 108 more 1 1 k e l y . The h a s t y p l a n s o f the Eureka r a d i c a l s o r i g i n a l l y d i v i d e d t h e i r meagre f o r c e i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s : the I r i s h pikemen, a group o f some t h i r t y C a l i f o r n i a n r i f l e m e n , and an a s s o r t m e n t o f m i s c e l l a n e o u s e n t h u s i a s t s headed by N e l s o n , an A m e r i c a n c a r p e n t e r . B e t r a y a l , a p a t h y and p r o b a b l y f e a r caused t h e s e groups t o d i s i n t e g r a t e t h r o u g h o u t the n i g h t l e a d i n g up t o the f r a c a s , but e i g h t known Americans p l a y e d a c t i v e r o l e s : the e n i g m a t i c James D. M c G i l l , c l a i m i n g he had a West P o i n t e d u c a t i o n , was put i n c h a r g e o f s t o c k a d e d e f e n c e s t r a t e g y and the Independent C a l i f o r n i a n Rangers (most o f whom, s u s p i c i o u s l y , were absent d u r i n g the f i g h t , i n c l u d i n g McGi11); N e i s o n , "an American c a r p e n t e r , a f i n e l y b u i l t man, f u l l o f energy and l i f e , who had a c o r p s under him composed o f the v e r y b e s t men i n the S t o c k a d e " ; the c o l o u r f u l Ohioan, C h a r l e s D e r i u s F e r g u s o n , d i g g e r , h o r s e - b r e a k e r and Cobb and Co. d r i v e r , who s e t t l e d i n A u s t r a l i a f o r some t h i r t y - o n e 261 y e a r s b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o America i n 1882; 3 James Hui1 , who had accompanied Ferguson t o A u s t r a l i a on t h e Don J u a n ; t h e New Y o r k e r James Brown, "a man-of-war's man" and sometime s a i 1 o r , gambler, d i g g e r and Mexican-War v o l u n t e e r ; the Negro John J o s e p h , a g r e a t s c r a p p e r , who "bore h i m s e l f t h r o u g h o u t the o r d e a l w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f d i g n i t y " and, because o f i t , was s u b s e q u e n t l y a r r e s t e d (and l a t e r a c q u i t t e d i n r i o t o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s ) f o r h i g h t r e a s o n ; A l a n s o n P. Ward, who had been "deputed t o c o l l e c t arms and ammunition" and, l i k e M c G i l l , d i d n ' t p a r t i c i p a t e i n the f i g h t ; and, f i n a l l y , an anonymous " b r a v e American o f f i c e r , who had the command o f the r i f l e - p i t men." At the b e g i n n i n g o f December, many o f the Americans a t the d i g g i n g s met a t the A d e l p h i c t h e a t r e , owned by one o f t h e i r countrymen, and r e s o l v e d t o a v o i d i n v o l v e m e n t i n the f r e n e t i c s e r i e s o f d i s p u t e s i n B a l l a r a t . However, d e s p i t e the b e s t e f f o r t s o f Consul T a r l e t o n and h i s m e r c h a n t - c o l l e a g u e s , some Americans e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y embraced the p o p u l a r cause as armed r e s i s t a n c e approached. Through a v a r i e t y o f means — some d i p l o m a t i c , o t h e r s p e r s o n a l l y r e s o u r c e f u 1--a 1 1 the A m e r i c a n s , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f J o s e p h , escaped c h a r g e s . ' " ^ The back-room d i p l o m a c y e n g i n e e r e d by T a r l e t o n and h i s a i d e , Dr. Kenworthy, t o get the c a p t u r e d Americans r e l e a s e d , prompted a c u r t response from two men, J.B. Humffray and C F . N i c h o l l s , who p r e s e n t e d Governor Hotham i n J a n u a r y , 1855, w i t h a p e t i t i o n t o the e f f e c t t h a t i f " H i s E x c e l l e n c y had s u f f i c i e n t <. e x t e n u a t i o n i n t h e conduct o f American c i t i z e n s , " we thought t h a t t h e r e were e q u a l l y good grounds f o r e x t e n d i n g s i m i l a r clemency t o a l l , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f n a t i o n a l i t y . . . .' 262 C u r i o u s l y , d e s p i t e h i s f e e l i n g t h a t " d e s i g n i n g f o r e i g n e r s " were c l e a r l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r E u r e k a , Hotham c o u l d ask: "Were t h e r e any 1 12 Americans a t Eureka? I have not heard o f i t . " More s o p h i s t i c a t e d d i p l o m a c y w i t h A m e r i c a , i t seems, had a l r e a d y begun. A number o f y e a r s a f t e r the Eureka u p r i s i n g , Mark Twain j u b i l a n t l y p r o c l a i m e d i t i the f i n e s t t h i n g i n A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r y . I t was a r e v o l u t i o n - s m a l l i n s i z e , but g r e a t p o l i t i c a l l y ; i t was a s t r i k e f o r l i b e r t y , a s t r u g g l e f o r a p r i n c i p l e , a s t a n d a g a i n s t i n - j u s t i c e and o p p r e s s i o n . I t was the Barons and John, o v e r a g a i n ; i t was Hampden and Ship-Money; i t was Concord and L e x i n g t o n ; s m a l l b e g i n n i n g s , a l l o f them, but a l l o f them g r e a t i n p o l i t i c a l r e s u l t s , a l l o f them epoch-making. I t i s a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e o f a v i c t o r y won by a l o s t b a t t l e . I t adds an h o n o r a b l e page t o h i s t o r y ; the p e o p l e know i t and a r e proud o f i t . They keep green the memory o f the men who f e l l a t the Eureka S t o c k a d e . . . . I f not the major event i n A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r y , i t c e r t a i n l y assumed importance i n the second h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . C o n c i l i a t o r y E n g l a n d , once a g a i n i l l u s t r a t i n g she had l e a r n e d the American l e s s o n w e l l , soon a f t e r s e t t l e d on a more d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n f o r the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s . The s p i r i t o f Eureka c o n t i n u e d , i n a number o f m i l i t a n t causes up t o 1901 ( c l a i m s f o r u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e and equal r i g h t s , p r o t e s t a g a i n s t l a n d laws, and worker demands), but o n l y 114 s p o r a d i c a l l y . A u s t r a l i a ' s p o p u l a t i o n , i n c r e a s i n g l y d i v i d e d a l o n g c l a s s l i n e s , never a g a i n t h r e a t e n e d any u n i f i e d r e s i s t a n c e t o E n g l i s h d o m i n a t i o n . S h o r t l y a f t e r E u r e k a , the r e b e l l i o n ' s d o u b t f u l l y competent l e a d e r , Irishman P e t e r L a l o r , d e c l a r e d " I c o n f i d e n t l y p r e d i c t a Bunker's H i l l . . . . n ' 1 5 L i k e many o f h i s i d e a l i s t i c comrades, he 263 c o n c e i v e d o f Eureka as the f i r s t s t e p t o s e p a r a t i o n a l o n g American l i n e s . The f i r s t l e a p towards a n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y . But n o t h i n g m a t e r i a l i z e d . I t would t a k e A u s t r a l i a u n t i l w e l l i n t o the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y even t o approach a t r u l y n a t i o n a l awareness, l e t a l o n e a n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y . The Melbourne Age, i n May, 1855, t e n t a t i v e l y suggested "a f l a g o f our own," o n l y t o be f o r c e d i g n o m i n i o u s 1 y t o back down because o f the p i t i f u l l y s m a l l r e s p o n s e . ' ' ^ U l t i m a t e l y , Eureka was no more than a p o t e n t reminder t o Eng1ish government o f f i c i a l s i n A u s t r a l i a t h a t America had been l o s t because o f unwise p o l i c i e s . A u s t r a l i a had b e t t e r not be. The prominent r o l e p l a y e d by a number o f Americans a t Eureka d i d n o t h i n g t o stem the e x p a n s i o n o f American commerce i n A u s t r a l i a , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n V i c t o r i a . By the m i d d l e l850's, the American i n f l u e n c e on day-to-day l i f e i n the c o l o n i e s was f e l t i n a v a r i e t y o f a r e a s . Encouraged by the g l o w i n g r e p o r t s t h a t f o l l o w e d the i n i t i a l s c e p t i c i s m i n t h e i r d a i l i e s , l a r g e numbers o f Americans endeavoured t o e x p l o i t t h i s new and "wide f i e l d f o r American e n t e r p r i s e , " b r i n g i n g w i t h them not j u s t Yankee know-how, but an abundance o f Yankee g o o d s . ' ' 7 Axes, p i c k s , s h o v e l s , a l a r m c l o c k s , r o c k i n g c h a i r s and i r o n s t o v e s were i m p o r t e d , a l o n g w i t h l a r g e s u p p l i e s o f bacon and f l o u r . As L.G. Churchward has put i t , the "energy o f the American merchant community, 1 1 8 1853-7, was r e m a r k a b l e . . . ." A Boston w a t e r - c a r t f i r s t s e t t l e d the d u s t o f Melbourne s t r e e t s ; f i r e - f i g h t i n g s e r v i c e s began through American i n i t i a t i v e ; Americans owned some o f the best h o t e l s i n A u s t r a l i a ; and the Boston e n g i n e e r , Sam McGowan,constructed the 264 f i r s t magnetic t e l e g r a p h l i n e from Geelong t o Melbourne. A f i r s t c u l m i n a t i o n o f American i n f l u e n c e o c c u r r e d i n 1853 when the A u s t r a l i a n Steamship L i n e was e s t a b l i s h e d i n New Y o r k , though i t managed o n l y 119 one New York/London/Melbourne j o u r n e y . W i t h the h e l p o f f i n a n c e from George F r a n c i s T r a i n , Freeman Cobb and s e v e r a l o t h e r s e s t a b l i s h e d the Cobb and Co. American T e l e g r a p h L i n e o f Coaches. Cobb and Co. became "a handy a b b r e v i a t i o n o f Yankee 1 20 commerce." T r a i n , moreover, began Melbourne's s t o c k exchange w i t h an i n i t i a l membership c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h r e e g u i n e a s . Because o f the s i g n a l American c o n t r i b u t i o n t o V i c t o r i a n commerce, a t one p o i n t he r e q u e s t e d t h a t George Washington's s t a t u e s t a n d a l o n g s i d e 1 21 Queen V i c t o r i a ' s o u t s i d e the exchange. T r a i n was a t the time the most renowned o f a g r e a t number o f Americans making a marked impact on the r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g c o l o n i e s . The Melbourne Hera 1d 1 s l e a d i n g a r t i c l e i n p r a i s e o f Freeman Cobb ( F e b r u a r y 3, 1855), e n t i t l e d " J o n a t h a n the Smart," might w e l l have a p p l i e d t o any number o f h i s countrymen r e a p i n g s u b s t a n t i a l f i n a n c i a l d i v i d e n d s , p a r t l y through p e r s o n a l s t y l e and c h a r i s m a , p a r t l y t h r o u g h w i l y b u s i n e s s acumen. The American merchants and e n t r e p r e n e u r s i n A u s t r a l i a unashamedly geared t h e i r b u s i n e s s e s t o m a x i m i s i n g p r o f i t . They s u p p l i e d q u a l i t y s e r v i c e , but charged q u a l i t y p r i c e s . Many owned h o t e l s , r e s t a u r a n t s and b o a r d i n g houses. Sam Moss' C r i t e r i o n H o t e l , f o r example, p r o v i d e d Melbourne w i t h an o p u l e n c e and grandness o f c a t e r i n g never b e f o r e seen by many l o c a l s . A l l major c o l o n i a l f u n c t i o n s were h e l d t h e r e , from the Queen's B i r t h d a y B a l l t o mayoral banquets. Americans c o n g r e g a t e d 2 6 5 a t the C r i t e r i o n e v e r y Independence Day, where the S t a r s and S t r i p e s was c e r e m o n i o u s l y r a i s e d through the h o t e l ' s s k y l i g h t . Moss p r e s e n t e d such a t t r a c t i o n s as L o l a Montez and " R a i n e r s ' C e l e b r a t e d Troop o f E t h i o p i a n E n t e r t a i n e r s . " For h i s t r o u b l e , he charged the d i g g e r s handsomely. As d i d the " s p i r i t e d Y a n k e e " ' p r o p r i e t o r o f the K i d d ' s Exchange, i n K i a n d r a , New South Wales. He a s s u r e d p a t r o n s o f a hot meal ( t h e o n l y one on the d i g g i n g s ) , but e x p e c t e d a handsome f e e . The chance o f r e n e g i n g was rendered i m p o s s i b l e by the b u i l d i n g ' s 1 2 2 a r c h i t e c t u r e . J u s t one e x i t . Exponents o f Yankee t h r i f,t,„ and_,i n i t j a t i ve, c o l oured many o t h e r avenues c o l o n i a l l i f e as w e l l , r a n g i n g from L a n g l e y the a u c t i o n e e r , owner o f the S t . L o u i s Mart and S t . L o u i s S t o r e s , whose t a l e n t f o r h y p e r b o l e c o u l d c o n v e r t t h e t a t t i e s t book i n t o a c r u c i a l and c o v e t e d work o f a r t , t o the b a r b e r , C h a r l e s " P r o f e s s o r " Sands, who p r a c t i s e d , i n h i s own words, " t h e a r t o f h a i r - c u t t i n g and s h a v i n g on s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s . " Sands r a r e l y c u t h a i r because he b u s i e d h i m s e l f w i t h the " t a l k i n ' and t r a d i n " n e c e s s a r y t o induce customers t o walk away 1 2 3 s a t i s f i e d w i t h h i s e x o r b i t a n t r a t e s . C l e a r l y , t h e n , what had been an i n t e r c h a n g e o f m o s t l y i d e a s , s i n c e the 1 8 2 0 1 s, became, i n the 1 8 5 0 1 s , one o f p o p u l a t i o n and s u p p l i e s . Gold n e c e s s a r i l y encouraged s p e c u l a t i o n and commerce, not r e p u b l i c a n musings. However, even as g o l d r u s h f e v e r g r i p p e d New H o l l a n d c o l o n i s t s , one a s p e c t o f s o c i e t y i n the g r e a t American d e m o c r a t i c e x p e r i m e n t i n c r e a s i n g l y d i s e n c h a n t e d A u s t r a l i a n p u n d i t s : s l a v e r y . A d m i r a t i o n f o r the superb c o n s t i t u t i o n a l advances o f the American r e v o l u t i o n a r y 266 f o r e f a t h e r s began t o wane as the 1 8 5 0 1 s p r o g r e s s e d and America, s u f f e r e d t h r o u g h the p r e s i d e n c i e s o f t h o s e weak sons o f J a c k s o n i a n democracy, F r a n k l i n P i e r c e and James Buchanan. To A u s t r a l i a n s , the "model R e p u b l i c " began t o . l o o k more and more l i k e a c o u n t r y on the b r i n k o f a c a t a c l y s m . Henry C l a y ' s Compromise o f 1 8 5 0 c o u l d not be m a i n t a i n e d , they s a i d , and, as e a r l y as 1 8 5 4 , one a s t u t e commentator suggested the l i k e l i h o o d , i n the not f a r d i s t a n t f u t u r e , o f c i v i l upheaval f o r the B r o t h e r s J o n a t h a n . 267 S e c t i o n C i8601 s When the i s s u e o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n re-anerged so v i g o r o u s l y i n A u s t r a l i a i n 1848, i t was i n e v i t a b l e t h a t c o l o n i s t s concerned w i t h the moral q u e s t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g the problem would t u r n t h e i r a t t e n t i o n , a t some p o i n t , t o the more s e r i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s s l a v e r y h e l d f o r t h e i r American c o u s i n s . W h i l e F r e e - S o i l d o c t r i n e s loomed i n the 1848 American p r e s i d e n t a l e l e c t i o n s ("Free s o i l , f r e e speech, f r e e l a b o r 1 24 and f r e e men" ) , i n New South Wales the Sydney Morning H e r a l d p e s s i m i s t i c a l l y a p p r a i s e d the g r i m American s i t u a t i o n : " R i g h t s c l a s h w i t h r i g h t s , i n t e r e s t s w i t h i n t e r e s t s , i l l - f e e l i n g i s everywhere 1 25 engendered." Having a l i g n e d i t s e l f c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y w i t h t h o s e f o r c e s opposed t o t h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n t o New South Wales, the Hera Id's p o s i t i o n on s l a v e r y i n the 1850's was o b v i o u s . I t c o u l d not s u p p o r t enslavement under any c i r c u m s t a n c e s , economic o r o t h e r w i s e . Because o f the Hera 1d's c o n s i s t e n t l y l a r g e c i r c u l a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r i o d - - s e c o n d t o none--the e d i t o r i a l s t a n d o f the newspaper h e a v i l y i n f l u e n c e d the a t t i t u d e s adopted by many A u s t r a l i a n 126 c o l o n i s t s . Some c o u n t r y newspapers s i m p l y r e p r i n t e d the H e r a l d 1 27 e d i t o r i a l w i t h o u t c i t i n g the s o u r c e . 268 P r e s i d e n t F r a n k l i n P i e r c e , the p o l i t i c a l unknown whose s u p p o r t e r s t r i e d t o c r e a t e an image f o r t h e i r c a n d i d a t e by naming him "Young H i c k o r y o f the G r a n i t e S t a t e , " a n t a g o n i z e d the e d i t o r s o f the Sydney Morning H e r a l d w i t h h i s e n t r e a t i e s t o the "God o f u n i v e r s a l b e n e v o l e n c e 1 28 and l o v e " t o b l e s s s l a v e r y . Throughout h i s t e n u r e , from 1852 t o I856, P i e r c e c o n s t a n t l y employed the e v a s i v e p h r a s e , " i n v o l u n t a r y s e r v i t u d e , " when he meant s l a v e r y . And he c o n s i d e r e d s l a v e r y "an 1 29 a d m i t t e d r i g h t " a l l o w e d by t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . Hera Id r e a d e r s were not impressed. They deemed h i s s e e m i n g l y unashamed p a r a d i n g o f p r o - s l a v e s e n t i m e n t s an ominous s i g n f o r the f u t u r e o f the r e p u b l i c . One o f the most prominent A u s t r a l i a n s t o r e c o g n i z e the c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n between the American s l a v e r y and A u s t r a l i a n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i s s u e s was the Tasmanian a b o l i t i o n i s t and sometime C o n g r e g a t i o n a 1 i s t m i n i s t e r John West, who assumed the e d i t o r s h i p of the Hera Id i n 1854. In h i s F e d e r a t i o n a r t i c l e s p r i n t e d j u s t p r i o r t o h i s becoming e d i t o r , West e n l a r g e d on comments made i n h i s e a r l i e r H i s t o r y of Tasmania (1852). W i t h h i s customary f o r e s i g h t , he p r o p h e s i e d the h o r r o r s t o come i f A m e r i c a f a i l e d t o f i n d a s o l u t i o n t o the " f a t a l o p p o s i t i o n of c o l o u r " : Three m i l l i o n s o f s l a v e s , w i t h a language p e c u l i a r t o t h e m s e l v e s , s i l e n t l y r e p r o a c h the o p p r e s s i o n which c o n s i g n s them t o p e r p e t u a l d e g r a d a t i o n , and by t h e i r immense number t h r e a t e n a t e r r i b l e vengeance. The u n i o n o f n o r t h and s o u t h has o f t e n been j e o p a r d i s e d by t h i s d i r e element i n the n a t i o n a l f e d e r a t i o n , and by t h i s i t i s perhaps d e s t i n e d t o p e r i s h . 1 3 0 269 F u r t h e r , a n t i c i p a t i n g the U t o p i a n s and dreamers who emerged i n A u s t r a l i a l a t e r i n the c e n t u r y , West c h a l l e n g e d l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s t o t a k e the n e c e s s a r y s t e p s t o e s t a b l i s h the F e d e r a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a : L e t the A u s t r a l i a n s t a t e s m a n , t h e n , c a s t h i s eyes o v e r t h e s e c o l o n i e s , and l e t him f e l i c i t a t e h i m s e l f t h a t , through t h e i r l e n g t h and b r e a d t h , he w i l l d i s c o v e r no a s p e c t i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e i r u n i t y . I f managed c a r e f u l l y , A u s t r a l i a i t s e l f might f i n a l l y c o n s t i t u t e the model r e p u b l i c a n s t a t e . When P r e s i d e n t P i e r c e d e l i v e r e d h i s f a r e w e l l a d d r e s s t o C o n g r e s s , he c o u l d n ' t r e s i s t a l a s t rebuke o f f r e e - s o i l e r s and a b o l i t i o n i s t s . H i s comments drew a s h a r p , i n c e n s e d response from West's Hera 1d, but the paper s h o r t l y became aware t h a t h i s s u c c e s s o r , a n o t h e r Union Democrat, James Buchanan, promised p o l i c i e s and b e h a v i o u r s c a r c e l y d i f f e r e n t . In h i s i n a u g u r a l address, much t o the d i s g u s t o f many d i s a p p o i n t e d A u s t r a l i a n s , Buchanan a t t a c k e d the a n t i - s l a v e r y movement. They had d e a r l y hoped f o r a v i c t o r y f o r the " P a t h f i n d e r , " the d e b o n a i r e x p l o r e r - c u m - R e p u b l i c a n - P a r t y - 1 e a d e r , John C. Fremont. New South Welshmen p r o b a b l y took s o l a c e i n the f a c t t h a t a t l e a s t West f o r e c a s t 131 a R e p u b l i c a n v i c t o r y next e l e c t i o n . Perhaps the most i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t o f w i d e s p r e a d p r e s s d i s c u s s i o n o f the s l a v e r y q u e s t i o n i n the 1850 1 s was the c o r r o s i o n o f any b l i n d f a i t h which s e c t i o n s o f the A u s t r a l i a n p u b l i c might have r e t a i n e d i n American democracy. S l a v e r y s h a t t e r e d i l l u s i o n s . As t h e I 1 1 u s t r a t e d Sydney News put i t , s l a v e r y made America "an i n f i n i t e l y g r e a t e r and 1 32 more g u i l t y t y r a n t than any avowed despot i n the w o r l d . " Staunch 270 d e f e n d e r s o f American r e p u b l i c a n i s m i n A u s t r a l i a , such as the i n - d e f a t i g a b l e John Dunmore Lang, r e a l i z e d i t r e p r e s e n t e d the rock on w h i c h A m e r i c a would c o n s t a n t l y f o u n d e r u n l e s s something c o u l d be done t o t e r m i n a t e i t . When Abraham L i n c o l n , the R e p u b l i c a n c a n d i d a t e , g a i n e d a d e c i s i v e e l e c t o r a l c o l l e g e v i c t o r y on p r e s i d e n t a l E l e c t i o n Day, i860, the c a t a l y s t appeared. C i v i l war t h r e a t e n e d . On A p r i l 12, 1861, s o u t h e r n guns f i r e d on F o r t Sumpter. The f o u r y e a r s o f c i v i l c o n v u l s i o n i n America d e f i n e d y e t a n o t h e r p e r i o d o f l i v e l y i n t e r a c t i o n between A m e r i c a and A u s t r a l i a . D e s p i t e the d e c l i n e from 1856 onwards i n the number o f Americans r e s i d e n t i n A u s t r a l i a , and the d e c r e a s e i n t r a d i n g volume, A u s t r a l i a n s i n s i s t e d on k e e p i n g a b r e a s t o f the d e e p l y r e g r e t t a b l e , y e t f o r them i n e v i t a b l e war d i v i d i n g t h e i r American c o u s i n s . New South Wales, i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h i t s now e x t e n s i v e h i s t o r i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the U n i t e d S t a t e s , devoured a l l the contemporary American news. In k e e p i n g w i t h the a m b i g u i t y t h a t had marked c o n t a c t between the two c o u n t r i e s s i n c e Governor P h i l l i p ; - s s e t t l e m e n t y e a r s , two r e a c t i o n s t o the C i v i l War predominated: on the one hand, p r o f o u n d sympathy f o r the p l i g h t o f a c o u n t r y w h i c h , s i n c e the c o l o n y ' s f i r s t y e a r s , had a i d e d and a b e t t e d c o l o n i a l men w i t h i n i t i a t i v e ; and, on the o t h e r hand, the r e c u r r e n c e o f p a r a n o i d f e a r s o f an American i n v a s i o n - - f e a r s , a g a i n , as o l d as the c o l o n y i t s e l f . The c r y f o r I m p e r i a l arms w i t h which t o defend the i s o l a t e d Empire o u t p o s t c o u l d be heard once more. On a t l e a s t t h r e e o c c a s i o n s d u r i n g the l860's--at the time o f the " T r e n t , " "Shenandoah" and "Alabama C l a i m s " d i s p u t e s - - a n A n g l o - A m e r i c a n war 271 seemed p o s s i b l e . Staunch l o y a l i s t s i n the c o l o n i e s took e v e r y 1 33 o p p o r t u n i t y t o c a s t i g a t e B r i t a i n ' s " d e g e n e r a t e c h i l d r e n i n A m e r i c a . " The i n f l u x o f Americans i n t o A u s t r a l i a i n the e a r l y F i f t i e s i i n i t i a t e d a c o n t i n u o u s demand f o r American i n f o r m a t i o n . Thus, when the American C i v i 1 War began, the c h a n n e l s f o r prompt conveyance of A m e r i c a n news were f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d . I n f o r m a t i o n came from e i t h e r London o r C a l i f o r n i a . N a t u r a l l y , the p a r t i c u l a r b i a s d i s p l a y e d depended on the o r i g i n o f the r e p o r t . E n g l i s h i n f o r m a t i o n always assumed an a r i s t o c r a t i c , s o u t h e r n s l a n t ; C a l i f o r n i a n s o u r c e s , a l t e r n a t e l y , 13* adopted a f i r m n o r t h e r n p r o - L i n c o l n s t a n c e . At f i r s t t h i s p r o v i d e d some c o n f u s i o n both f o r members o f the A u s t r a l i a n f o u r t h e s t a t e and f o r t h e i r r e a d e r s h i p . However, i t soon became o b v i o u s t h a t p r e j u d i c e d o v e r s e a s news r e p o r t s were f o r c i n g p r e s s - e d i t o r s i n t o a more i n t e r - p r e t a t i v e r o l e , a v i c a r i o u s i n v o l v e m e n t i n the a c t i o n t h a t had the 1 35 e f f e c t of v a s t l y i n c r e a s i n g C i v i l War c o v e r a g e . The A u s t r a l i a n p u b l i c wanted t o know what was happening; the A u s t r a l i a n e d i t o r o f t e n asked h i m s e l f why. Even s m a l l r u r a l papers v o i c e d an o p i n i o n . Over the f o u r - y e a r d u r a t i o n o f the war, the N e w c a s t l e C h r o n i c l e p u b l i s h e d 1 36 no fewer than f o u r t e e n e d i t o r i a l s on v a r y i n g a s p e c t s o f the c o n f l i c t . I n i t i a l l y , a t t i t u d e s e x p r e s s e d tended t o r e f l e c t the d i s t a n c e between the two c o u n t r i e s . The Sydney Morning H e r a l d e a r l y e x p r e s s e d an a l m o s t d i s p a s s i o n a t e d e s i r e t h a t " t h e p r e s e n t c r i s i s i n A m e r i c a may t u r n out t o the p r o m o t i o n o f human freedom and t o the p r o s p e r i t y 1 37 o f the American S t a t e s . " E v e n t s , however, v e r y q u i c k l y t h r u s t A u s t r a l i a n s i n t o the a c t i o n . C h a r l e s W i l k e s , the American c a p t a i n 272 whose s h i p s had s t r u c k f e a r i n t o the h e a r t s o f a l l Sydney t h a t l a t e November morning i n 1839, reappeared t o p l a y a prominent r o l e i n an i n c i d e n t i n 1861 t h a t would once a g a i n prompt A u s t r a l i a n papers t o c o n s i d e r the p o s s i b i l i t y o f naval i n v a s i o n by the U n i t e d S t a t e s . As c a p t a i n o f the U.S.S. San J a c i n t o , W i l k e s boarded the B r i t i s h m a i l steamer T r e n t (on i t s way from Havana t o Southampton) on November 8, 1861, t o t a k e i n t o c u s t o d y two C o n f e d e r a t e d i p l o m a t s , S e n a t o r s James M. Mason and John S I i d e 1 1 - W i l k e s s h o u l d r i g h t l y have c o n s i g n e d the T r e n t t o p o r t f o r a d j u d i c a t i o n b u t , w i t h h i s tendency t o the grand g e s t u r e and l o v e f o r the s p o t l i g h t , he s e i z e d the s h i p i n A m e r i c a ' s name. B r i t a i n was o u t r a g e d , and the London p r e s s urged t h a t A m e r i c a o f f i c i a l l y a p o l o g i z e f o r t h i s i n s u l t t o the E n g l i s h L i o n . Lord R u s s e l l , on b e h a l f o f c a b i n e t , d r a f t e d an a p p r o p r i a t e demand w h i c h , f o r t u n a t e l y , P r i n c e A l b e r t m o d i f i e d . The d i s p a t c h d i d n ' t r e a c h American S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e Seward u n t i l December 19, and by t h i s time the d r a m a t i c p o p u l a r s u p p o r t f o r W i l k e s ' h e r o i s m and the w i d e s p r e a d n a t i o n a l i s t i c f e r v o u r i n t h e n o r t h had s u b s i d e d . C o o l e r heads p r e v a i l e d and A m e r i c a e v e n t u a l l y l i b e r a t e d the h o s t a g e s , but not b e f o r e England and her c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r i e s around the w o r l d 1 3ft had begun m i l i t a r y (and p s y c h o l o g i c a l ) p r e p a r a t i o n f o r war. The E n g l i s h C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y e v i d e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d the s i t u a t i o n s u f f i c i e n t l y s e r i o u s t h a t on December 26, 1861, he informed A u s t r a l i a n government o f f i c i a l s o f h i s b e l i e f t h a t B r i t a i n "may s h o r t l y be i n v o l v e d 1 39 i n war w i t h the U n i t e d S t a t e s . " The f a c t t h a t the p r o t a g o n i s t i n the d i s p u t e was the v e r y man who had l e d an e l a b o r a t e American e x p e d i t i o n 273 t o the s o u t h some twenty y e a r s e a r l i e r a l s o w a r r a n t e d o f f i c i a l comment. In A u s t r a l i a , a v a r i e t y o f r e s p o n s e s g r e e t e d the T r e n t r e v e l a t i o n s . The mixed l o y a l t i e s o f the p e o p l e were r e f l e c t e d i n contemporary newspapers. John West's Hera 1d r e s e r v e d judgement, w h i l e the more d e m o c r a t i c a l l y i n c l i n e d Empire and M a i t l a n d E n s i g n s u p p o r t e d the n o r t h . The Empi re viewed the war as m e r e l y a r e v i v a l o f the feud between " A r i s t o c r a c y and Democracy." S e v e r a l c o u n t r y p a p e r s , mouth- p i e c e s o f the s q u a t t o c r a c y , took the o p p o r t u n i t y t o b e r a t e the n o r t h , and d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s i n g e n e r a l . C h a r l e s D i x o n , i n h i s Monaro Mercury and Cooma and Bombala A d v e r t i s e r , a t t a c k e d Abraham L i n c o l n , "a mere r u s t i c a t t o r n e y , " and c a l l e d f o r o f f i c i a l d i p l o m a t i c r e c o g n i t i o n o f the C o n f e d e r a c y , w h i c h he f e l t c o n t i n u e d t o f i g h t "Freedom's b a t t l e . " In the f i r s t t w e l v e months o f f i g h t i n g , the A u s t r a l i a n p r e s s , i g n i t e d by the T r e n t e p i s o d e , gave the C i v i l War e x h a u s t i v e c o v e r a g e . I n t e r e s t was based on both s e l f - i n t e r e s t and c o n s c i e n c e . Or perhaps the e r r a t i c Newcast1e Chron i c1e ed i t o r was not vo i c i ng a whol1y e c c e n t r i c o p i n i o n when he suggested t h a t " t h e p r o s p e c t o f o u r s e l v e s b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h one o f the c o n t e n d i n g p a r t i e s i s 1*1 f a r more e x c i t i n g " than s i m p l y a p p r a i s i n g the p r o g r e s s o f the war. Whatever the r e a s o n , the A u s t r a l i a n p e o p l e r e c e i v e d a s u r f e i t o f i n f o r m a t i o n , and i f the f r e q u e n c y o f news r e p o r t s d e c r e a s e d a l i t t l e i n the m i d d l e w a r - y e a r s , i t i n t e n s i f i e d a g a i n i n 1865 when the C o n f e d e r a t e s h i p - o f - w a r Shenandoah steamed i n t o a s u r p r i s e d P o r t P h i l l i p on J a n u a r y 25, s p a r k i n g a second major d i s p u t e between England and the U n i t e d S t a t e s . Only t h i s t i m e , government a u t h o r i t i e s i n 274 Melbourne were t o p l a y a l e a d i n g r o l e . The C o n f e d e r a t e s h i p ' s twenty- f o u r - d a y s t a y f o r c e d A u s t r a l i a t o become d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e h e c t i c p o l i t i c s s u r r o u n d i n g the American C i v i l War. The Shenandoah had been the E n g l i s h s h i p Sea K i n g , a f a c t w h i c h n e i t h e r t h e E n g l i s h nor t h e C o n f e d e r a t e a u t h o r i t i e s a p p a r e n t l y wished t o h i d e ( i n t h a t the l e t t e r s o f the o l d name, a d o r n i n g the s h i p , were o n l y p a r t l y o b s c u r e d ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , as the Shenandoah, the v e s s e l had r e c e n t l y t a k e n a t e r r i b l e t o l l o f Union s h i p p i n g . Hence, when C a p t a i n James W a r d e l l p l a c e d h i s c r a f t on a government-1 eased s l i p f o r r e p a i r s , the Union government's c o n s u l i n Melbourne, W i l l i a m B l a n c h a r d , demanded t h a t S i r C h a r l e s D a r l i n g , V i c t o r i a ' s g o v e r n o r , 142 s e i z e i t as a p i r a t e s h i p . D a r l i n g r e p l i e d t h a t h i s government would o n l y " t r e a t her as a s h i p - o f - w a r b e l o n g i n g t o a b e l l i g e r e n t Power," no more. A few days l a t e r , B l a n c h a r d accused W a r d e l l o f r r e c r u i t i n g crew members i n Melbourne, thus v i o l a t i n g the n e u t r a l i t y o f t h a t p o r t . R e a l i z i n g t h a t i f the Shenandoah were a l l o w e d t o d e p a r t , she would o b v i o u s l y c o n t i n u e i n her d e s t r u c t i v e ways, B l a n c h a r d launched i n t o a f u r i o u s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h h i s Union s u p e r i o r s i n Washington and w i t h D a r l i n g , i n an a t t e m p t t o f o r c e the g o v e r n o r i n t o a c t i o n . But h i s s e r i e s o f .angry:; e n t r e a t i es f a i l e d . In d e s p e r a t i o n , s h o r t l y b e f o r e the v e s s e l was a l l o w e d t o go, B l a n c h a r d s t e r n l y warned the V i c t o r i a n g o v e r n o r t h a t " t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Government w i l l c l a i m i n d e m n i t y f o r the damages a l r e a d y done t o i t s s h i p p i n g by the s a i d v e s s e l , and a l s o w h i c h may h e r e a f t e r be committed. . . . " He was r i g h t . In 1872 an i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r b i t r a t i o n t r i b u n a l i n Geneva awarded 275 a damages c l a i m t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s , because o f the Shenandoah's 1*3 e x p l o i t s , amounting t o o v e r s i x m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . I f the T r e n t e p i s o d e had provoked A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i s t s m e r e l y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r s y m p a t h i e s , the Shenandoah's c o n t r o v e r s i a l s t a y , because o f i t s p r o x i m i t y , demanded a r e a c t i o n . Many thousands o f V i c t o r i a n s made the t r i p t o S a n d r i d g e t o i n s p e c t the s h i p , though i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a p o p u l a r v o t e i n f a v o u r o f the s o u t h o r j u s t p l a i n c u r i o s i t y . Melbourne's A r g u s , t h r o u g h o u t the war a C o n f e d e r a t e s u p p o r t e r , n a t u r a l l y f e l t t h a t the v i s i t o r s "showed t h e i r S o u t h e r n sympathies by c h e e r i n g the v e s s e l h e a r t i l y , " but t h i s comment more t r u l y gauges the eye o f the b e h o l d e r than the a c t u a l s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . The one u n m i s t a k a b l e d i s p l a y o f s u p p o r t f o r the C o n f e d e r a c y was shown by the moneyed members o f the Melbourne C l u b , who e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y wined and d i n e d the Shenandoah c a p t a i n and o f f i c e r s . T h e i r p a r t i s a n s h i p e l i c i t e d a h o s t i l e r e a c t i o n from a number o f the major A u s t r a l i a n p a p e r s — a m o n g them the Hera 1 d, Empi r e and Agei The Hera 1d drew a t t e n t i o n t o perhaps the most s u b t l e i m p l i c a t i o n o f the Shenandoah 1 s e s s e n t i a l l y p l e a s a n t s t a y when i t h i g h l i g h t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y o f the v e r y same s h i p r e t u r n i n g , a t war's end, under the s t a r s and s t r i p e s , bent on t e a c h i n g the l o c a l s the 1*5 e r r o r of t h e i r ways. The r e a l i s s u e had a t l a s t s u r f a c e d : i n the event o f a n o t h e r A n g l o - A m e r i c a n war, what would A u s t r a l i a ' s p o s i t i o n be? Where would the s y m p a t h i e s o f government l i e ? And what o f the p e o p l e ? The p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d on the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s by the T r e n t 276 and Shenandoah d i s p u t e s f o r c e d the l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n d e e p l y t o c o n s i d e r the c a u s e s , p r o g r e s s and r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f the American c o n f l i c t . Throughout, d i s c u s s i o n c o n t i n u e d not o n l y i n d e t a i l , but a t a most s o p h i s t i c a t e d l e v e l o f i n q u i r y . S l a v e r y , i n q u i s i t i v e A u s t r a l i a n newspaper e d i t o r s a s t u t e l y r e a l i z e d , was not the o n l y i s s u e a t s t a k e . V i r t u a l l y a l l p u b l i c a t i o n s a d v o c a t e d an a n t i - s l a v e l i n e , though t h i s by no means accompanied a p r o - U n i o n p h i l o s o p h y . U n l i k e the con- s i s t e n t l y b i a s e d , a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c o u t p o u r i n g s and h a l f - t r u t h s o f the B r i t i s h p r e s s i n the l860's, the New South Wales p r e s s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , aimed a t d e p i c t i n g the whole t r u t h as b e s t i t c o u l d . The r e f u s a l o f the Sydney Morning H e r a l d t o s u p p o r t w h o l e h e a r t e d l y one s i d e o r the o t h e r p o s s i b l y b e s t r e f l e c t e d the c o m p l e x i t i e s a t the h e a r t o f t h e c o n f l i c t . W h i l e r i g o r o u s l y opposed t o s l a v e r y i n any form, West c o u l d not on p r i n c i p l e deny the C o n f e d e r a c y ' s r i g h t t o s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t . And though c o n s c i o u s o f the s e r i o u s moral f l a w s i n B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n ' s make-up, he c o n t i n u e d t o r e c a l l the f r u i t f u l r e l a t i o n s h i p A u s t r a l i a had had w i t h A m e r i c a s i n c e the f i r s t y e a r s o f Botany Bay s e t t l e m e n t . One r e c e n t c r i t i c m a i n t a i n s t h a t i n t h e C i v i l War y e a r s , the Hera 1d 146 " a t t a i n e d m a t u r i t y and a w o r l d s t a n d a r d i n j o u r n a l i s m . " C e r t a i n l y West's s y m p a t h e t i c t r e a t m e n t o f the i s s u e s bore marked c o n t r a s t t o London newspapers o f the same p e r i o d , such as the b l u s t e r o u s Times:. Some r u r a l p a p e r s , t o o , responded t o the i n t r i c a c i e s o f the war w i t h a s i n g u l a r c a r e and r e a s o n t h a t a t t i m e s t r a n s c e n d e d t h e emotion and s u b j e c t i v i t y o f t e n m a r r i n g d i s c u s s i o n e l s e w h e r e . The M a i t l a n d E n s i g n , f o r example, w h i l e c o n c e d i n g A u s t r a l i a n d e f i c i e n c i e s , 277 s t o o d f i r m on i t s o b j e c t i o n t o the p r i n c i p l e o f bondage: We have had abundant p r o o f o f [ r a d i c a l p r e j u d i c e ] i n our own c o l o n y i n the c a s e o f the C h i n e s e , and the Americans a r e j u s t l i k e o u r s e l v e s , and p r o b a b l y ; . n e i t h e r much b e t t e r nor worse. S t i l l t h e r e i s a wide d i f f e r e n c e between h a v i n g a d i s l i k e t o c o l o u r e d p e o p l e and k e e p i n g them i n s l a v e r y , and t h a t i s the d i f f e r e n c e which t h e r e i s between the F e d e r a l s and C o n f e d e r a t e s . 1 * 7 L a t e i n 1862, the Yass C o u r i e r f o c u s s e d on two o f the l e s s - p u b l i c i z e d m o t i v e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the b l o o d y American war, by now one o f a t t r i t i o n : Here we have a s e r i e s o f murderous a s s a u l t s , and no o b j e c t g a i n e d - - o c e a n s o f b l o o d s p l i t , not f o r the sake o f freedom, but t o g r a t i f y f e e l i n g s o f d i s a p p o i n t m e n t and r e v e n g e . 1 * 8 Even the s t e n t o r i a n N e w c a s t l e C h r o n i c l e , war-minded t h r o u g h o u t and eager f o r the b a t t l e t o e x t e n d t o A u s t r a l i a , had moments o f i n s i g h t . For i t s e d i t o r , a s t a t e s ' r i g h t e r and f r e e t r a d e r , s l a v e r y c o m p r i s e d o n l y one o f the war's c a u s e s . The o t h e r was the M o r r i l l t a r i f f , which r e s u l t e d i n an i n c r e a s e o f d u t i e s on c e r t a i n items r a t h e r than 1 *9 on the whole range o f i m p o r t s . For the C h r o n i c1e, the c h i e f cause o f the war was the Union's economic " s e l f - a g g r a n d i z e m e n t . " ^ 5 ^ Whether one a c c e p t e d t h i s o r not c l e a r l y depended on one's economic p e r s p e c t i v e . D a v i d Syme, a c o n v i n c e d p r o t e c t i o n i s t and e d i t o r o f the Melbourne Age, s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d the N o r t h ' s economic and moral s t a n d . ^ A f t e r the American C i v i l War, most c o n c e r n e d A u s t r a l i a n s , because o f the enormous amount of p u b l i c i t y g e n e r a t e d by the c o n f l i c t , had become even more f a m i l i a r w i t h the b e n e f i t s and d e f i c i e n c e s o f the r e p u b l i c a n system o f democracy i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . Perhaps the 278 g e n e r a l consensus was t h a t s l a v e r y , the s i n o f the f a t h e r s , had v i s i t e d i n a b r u t a l way the c h i l d r e n o f a l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n . For A u s t r a l i a n s , u n e q u i v o c a l p r a i s e f o r a l l American i n s t i t u t i o n s was no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e . In terms o f the American C i v i l War's e f f e c t on A u s t r a l i a , two t h i n g s s h o u l d be emphasized. F i r s t l y , t h r o u g h o u t the u p h e a v a l , A u s t r a l i a n a u t h o r i t i e s c o n s i d e r e d war w i t h America a c o n t i n u i n g p o s s i b i l i t y , as t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s had a t c e r t a i n t i m e s i n the p r e v i o u s f i f t y y e a r s . As a whole, the p o p u l a t i o n ' s a t t i t u d e towards t h e i r American c o u s i n s was a m b i v a l e n t a t b e s t . Y e t , s e c o n d l y , on one p o i n t a l l A u s t r a l i a n s were i n c o m p l e t e a c c o r d : a l l s h a r e d an o v e r - whelming a d m i r a t i o n f o r Abraham L i n c o l n . C o u n t r y - w i d e e x p r e s s i o n s o f g e n u i n e g r i e f g r e e t e d L i n c o l n ' s a s s a s s i n a t i o n l e s s than a week a f t e r Lee s u r r e n d e r e d a t Appomattox. For the f o u r - y e a r d u r a t i o n o f the war, the New South Wales p r e s s , c o n s c i o u s o f the c l o s e bonds w i t h America b u i l t up i n p a s t y e a r s , o f t e n e x p r e s s e d c o n f i d e n c e f o r the f u t u r e . There were moments, however, when the brave f r o n t c o l l a p s e d i n the f a c e o f A n g l o - A m e r i c a c o n f l i c t o v e r s e a s . The T r e n t a f f a i r u n s e t t l e d New South Wales. Both the Sydney Morn i ng Hera 1d and the Emp i re asked numerous q u e s t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the c o l o n y ' s d e f e n c e s . The s t a t e g o v e r n o r t o u r e d harbour f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and w a r s h i p s m a i n t a i n e d a c t i v e s t a t u s . For t h r e e months t h e N e w c a s t l e C h r o n i c l e remained c o n v i n c e d 152 t h a t an A n g l o - A m e r i c a n war had begun o v e r s e a s , or was imminent. C a u t i o u s c o l o n i a l s r a i s e d s i m i l a r c r i e s i n 1863, as A n g l o - A m e r i c a n 279 r e l a t i o n s a g a i n c o r r o d e d due t o the e x t e n s i v e damage caused by the C o n f e d e r a t e s h i p Alabama on the U.S. m e r c a n t i l e f l e e t i n 1862-3. T h i s time the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s a c t i v e l y formed a number o f v o l u n t e e r d e f e n c e f o r c e s such as Naval B r i g a d e s , A r t i 1 1 e r y U n i t s and R i f l e Companies. The New South Wales government c o n s t i t u t e d a S e l e c t Committee i n J u l y , 1863, t o e n q u i r e i n t o h a r b o u r d e f e n c e s , r e s u l t i n g i n the b u i l d i n g o f numerous f o r t i f i c a t i o n s around Sydney Harbour. I f A u s t r a l i a was t o be, as the N e w c a s t l e C h r o n i c l e c l a i m e d , a " g o l d e n b a i t t o marauding e x p e d i t i o n s , " then m i l i t a n t New H o l l a n d e r s d e t e r m i n e d 1 53 t o g i v e them a f i g h t . A l b e i t a s h o r t one, f o r , d e s p i t e the measures t a k e n i n 1863 » two y e a r s l a t e r the C h ron i c1e s t i l l e x p r e s s e d i t s c o m p l e t e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the e x i s t i n g d e f e n c e s : " P e r h a p s , a f t e r Sydney, N e w c a s t l e and a few o t h e r p l a c e s have been knocked t o p i e c e s , the Government may b e g i n t o t h i n k o f s e c u r i n g them fr.om 1 5* a t t a c k . " Government and p r e s s f e a r s o f an American i n v a s i o n c o n t i n u e d f o r a number of' y e a r s a f t e r the end of the war, and the Mel bourne A r g u s 1 c o n t e n t i o n t h a t " t h e p o l i t i c a l and moral q u e s t i o n s [ r a i s e d by the Shenandoah 1 s e x p l o i t s ] have been by no means u n r a v e l l e d " r e t a i n e d a r e l e v a n c e t o the A u s t r a l i a n s i t u a t i o n u n t i l w e l l i n t o the 18701s. In the A u s t r a l i a n i m a g i n a t i o n , i t seems, A m e r i c a c o n t i n u e d t o be both c l o s e f r i e n d and p o t e n t i a l f o e . A p p r e h e n s i o n about t h e p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t posed by A m e r i c a n i m p e r i a l s t a r k l y c o n t r a s t e d the g r e a t l o v e and a d m i r a t i o n A u s t r a l i a n s had f o r the Union's l e a d e r t h r o u g h o u t the war. Abraham L i n c o l n ' s s t a t u s i n c r e a s e d n o t i c e a b l y as the f i g h t i n g got b l o o d i e r and the d e a t h l i s t 280 l o n g e r . In'mid-1 8 6 2 , a group o f community l e a d e r s i n Sydney w i r e d a message t o L i n c o l n p r a i s i n g h i s " f i r m n e s s and f i d e l i t y . " He was a p o p u l a r f i g u r e , indeed a h e r o , i n a land not i n c l i n e d t o i s s u e h i g h p r a i s e f o r p e o p l e i n a u t h o r i t y ; no doubt the Hera 1d spoke f o r many A u s t r a l i a n s when i t s u g g e s t e d t h a t " t h e r e a r e few men i n t h e w o r l d who have more of the esteem o f n a t i o n s than the p r e s e n t PRESIDENT o f A m e r i c a . " ' 5 6 L i n c o l n ' s sudden d e a t h , w h i l e a t the peak o f h i s powers and s t a t u r e , d e v a s t a t e d A u s t r a l i a when l o c a l newspapers f i r s t p u b l i s h e d the news on June 2k. The b l a c k - b o r d e r e d Empire e d i t o r i a l page s a d l y r e f l e c t e d t h a t " n o t h i n g can compensate f o r the l o s s which freedom and the w o r l d has s u s t a i n e d . Men l i k e LINCOLN b e l o n g t o a l l n a t i o n s , and have a p l a c e i n e v e r y h e a r t which t h r o b s f o r the l o v e o f l i b e r t y . " 1 5 7 Thousands o f Sydney p e o p l e c o u l d not g a i n a d m i t t a n c e t o L i n c o l n ' s memorial s e r v i c e i n the P r i n c e o f Wales Opera House because o f the o v e r w h e l m i n g l y l a r g e number o f mourners who t u r n e d o u t . John Dunmore Lang f e l t a deep s p i r i t u a l a f f i n i t y w i t h L i n c o l n and p a i d p u b l i c 1 £.8 t r i b u t e t o t h e dead P r e s i d e n t . Indeed, e u l o g i e s f o r L i n c o l n c o n s t a n t l y appeared i n A u s t r a 1 i a n newspapers f o r many months a f t e r 1 5 9 h i s death--and c o n t i n u e d t o a p p e a r , s p o r a d i c a l l y , f o r decades. Joseph Furphy, b a r e l y i n h i s t w e n t i e s when L i n c o l n d i e d , was one who d e t e r m i n e d t o p r e s e r v e h i s memory. In the poem, " E l e g y on L i n c o l n , " he mourns the l o s s o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a t e s m a n . The e n t i r e w o r l d ' s f u t u r e l o o k s b l e a k : 281 L i n c o l n i s gone--who r u l e d the Western Land From the P a c i f i c t o the A t l a n t i c ' s b r i m - - And c o l d and n e r v e l e s s l i e s t h e might hand That s t r u c k the f e t t e r s from the negro's l i m b . Now anarchy and r e s t overwhelm In m i d - c a r e e r our l o r d l y s h i p o f s t a t e For L i n c o l n ' s hand no l o n g e r h o l d s the helm To g u i d e her passage through the f e a r f u l s t r a i t . ' ^ 0 The p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t might be n a i v e , but t h e r e i s no m i s t a k i n g the deep l o v e and r e s p e c t . in ENDNOTES CHAPTER IV ' West, H i s t o r y o f Tasmania, I I , 347"8. 2 C h a r l e s Wentworth D i l k e , G r e a t e r B r i t a i n : A Record o f T r a v e l i n Eng 1 i sh-Speak_i ng C o u n t r i e s Pur i ng 1 866 and 1867 (New York: H a r p e r , 1869), p. 319, 3 West, I I, 348. 4 The pamphlet, "The I n d e f e a s i b l e R i g h t s o f Man," i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c o l l e c t i o n o f d i v e r s e m a t e r i a l which r e j e c t s " t h e dangerous tendency o f A r i s t o c r a t i c i n f l u e n c e and Tory p r i n c i p l e s " (p. 2) and a s s e r t s " d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s " (p. 4). Two items r e p r i n t e d i n i t a r e i n t e r e s t i n g : a l o n g e x c e r p t from the f i r s t s e c t i o n o f the " D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence" and W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing ("Doctor Channing") on man's " i n d e f e a s i b l e r i g h t s " (pp. 14-15). Channing e l a b o r a t e s on the " l o g i c o f d e s p o t i s m " and i t s c o n t i n u i n g o p p o s i t i o n t o the l i b e r t y t h a t a l l men have a r i g h t t o e n j o y : " t h a t government i s most p e r f e c t , i n which P o l i c y i s most e n t i r e l y s u b j e c t e d t o J u s t i c e , o r i n which the supreme and c o n s t a n t aim i s t o s e c u r e the r i g h t s o f e v e r y human b e i n g . T h i s i s the b e a u t i f u l i d e a o f a f r e e government, and no government i s f r e e but i n p r o p o r t i o n as i t r e a 1 i ses t h i s . " For more on Common Sense ,see C l a r k , I I I , 422-3. 283 5 George F r a n c i s T r a i n , My L i f e i n Many S t a t e s and i n F o r e i g n Lands (New York: D. A p p l e t o n , 1902), p. 163- See below, C h a p t e r V I , s e c t i o n b), on D a n i e l Henry Deniehy. 7 For more on the escapes o f W a i t , C h a n d l e r and Gemmell, see below, C h a p t e r V, s e c t i o n bj; f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on the escapes o f the I r i s h p a t r i o t s - - T . B . MacManus, T.F. Meagher, John M i t c h e l and P a t r i c k 0 1 Donohue--see, f o r example, Jay Monaghan, A u s t r a l i a n s and the Gold Rush ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v . o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1966), pp. 206-22; f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on John B o y l e O ' R e i l l y ' s e s c a p e , and h i s p a r t i n the C a t a l p a r e s c u e , see above, c h a p t e r I, s e c t i o n c, f o o t n o t e 103- 8 See, f o r example, M i c h a e l Roe, " 1 8 3 0 - 5 0 i n A New H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a 1 i a , ed. F.K. C r o w l e y . ( M e l bourne: W i l l i a m Heinemann, 197*), pp. 90-1; C l a r k , I I I , 195-6. 9 John Pascoe Fawkner, quoted i n C l a r k , I I I , 103- See a l s o I I I , 156. I ̂ See Lev i, p. 55 - I I See B a r t l e t t , p. 135; P. Loveday, "'Democracy' i n New South Wales," JRAHS, XXXXII, P t . 4 (1956), 187-200. 1 2 West, I I, 3*2. I 3 See Wentworth, quoted i n C l a r k , S e l e c t Documents, p. 338. 14 A l e x i s de Tocquevi11e, Democracy i n A m e r i c a , ed. J.P. Mayer and Max L e r n e r ( P a r i s , 1835, 1840; r p t . New York: H a r p e r , 1966), p. 5. ' 5 T o c q u e v i l l e , p. 235• 1 6 Sydney Morning H e r a l d , J u l y 28, 1848, quoted i n Melbourne p. 74; Empi r e , September 18, 1851 , quoted i n Melbourne, p. 78. 284 ' 7 Wentworth, quoted i n C l a r k , S e l e c t Documents, pp. 336-9- 18 George W. P i e r s o n , quoted i n A l e x i s de T o c q u e v i l l e , Democracy i n A m e r i c a , ed. R i c h a r d D. H e f f n e r (New York: Mentor, 1956), p. 13- 1 9 See M c L a c h l a n , p. 373, f o o t n o t e 59; C l a r k , I I I , 193"5. 20 Wentworth, quoted i n C l a r k , S e l e c t Documents, p. 340. 21 Quoted i n Melbourne, pp. 79-80. 22 Quoted i n E. D a n i e l P o t t s and A n n e t t e P o t t s , "The Voyages of W i l l i a m and Augustus Rogers o f Salem, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , t o A u s t r a l i a , 1840-1842," JRAHS, LIV, P t . 3 ( S e p t . 1968), 259- 2 V Adams was P r e s i d e n t o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s from 1825 t o 1828. F o r - i n f o r m a t i o n on the Adams/Morgan f r i e n d s h i p , see P e t e r B o l g e r , " L i e u t e n a n t John Morgan: The Dog Tax M a r t y r , " JRAHS, LV, P t . 3 ( S e p t . 1969), 272. 24 See ADB, I I, 258. 25 L i n u s W. M i l l e r , Notes o f an E x i l e t o Van Piemen s Land ( F r e d o n i a , New York: W. M c K i n s t r y , 1846), p. 362. For more on M i l l e r , see below, c h a p t e r VJ s e c t i o n b). 26 Tasmanian Weekly P e s p a t c h , October 30, 1840, quoted i n B o l g e r , p. 276. 27 See B o l g e r , p. 277. 28 See ADB, I I , 258; B o l g e r , p. 2 7 7 - Morgan was a l s o an a d m i r e r o f W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing (see Roe, Quest f o r A u t h o r i t y , p. 177). 2 9 Mi H e r , p. 259- 30 The " P a t r i o t i c S i x " were R i c h a r d P r y , Thomas George Gregson, M i c h a e l F e n t o n , C h a r l e s Swanston, W i l l i a m Kermode and John K e r r v 285 31 See C l a r k , I I I , 325 - 30; W. Fearn-Wannan, A u s t r a l i a n F o l k l o r e (Melbourne: Lansdowne P r e s s , 1970), pp. 410-11. 3 2 S e e - B o l g e r , pp. 278-9; ADB, I I , 258. See B a r t l e t t , p. 108. 34 Tennant, p. 160. 3 5 See C l a r k , I I I , p. 337- 3 6 Quoted i n C l a r k , I I I , 418. 37 See Monaghan, p. 251, f o o t n o t e 21. 3 8 See C l a r k , I I I , 423. 39 See P a i n e ' s A g r a r i a n J u s t i c e opposed t o A g r a r i a n Law, and t o A g r a r i a n Monopoly (1797). ^® Henry Nash S m i t h , V i r g i n Lands (New York: V i n t a g e Books, 1957), P. 153. 41 Quoted i n S m i t h , p. 144. 42 See below, c h a p t e r V I , s e c t i o n s a^and b). 43 A r t i c l e s p u b l i s h e d between J a n u a r y 30, 1854 and September 1, 1854. See A C e n t u r y o f J o u r n a l i s m : The Sydney Morning H e r a l d and i t s Record o f A u s t r a l i a n L i f e 1831-1931 (Sydney: John F a i r f a x , 1931), p. 355. 44 Sydney Morning H e r a l d , March 11, 1854, quoted i n C e n t u r y o f J o u r n a 1 i s m , p. 357- 45 See Sydney Morning H e r a l d , September 1, 1854. 46 Sub-headings used i n c l u d e d " C a l i f o r n i a , " "Utah " and "Oregon." See Maya V a l d a S a p i e t s , " A u s t r a l i a n P r e s s Coverage o f A m e r i c a , 1860-65, w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o New South Wales," M.A. A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v . 1969, p. 58. 286 Zj7 West, I I , 3*1- A s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e p r e v a i l e d i n o t h e r p a r t s o f the c o l o n y . See, f o r example, C l a r k , I I I , 452-3- See, f o r example, C l a r k , I I I , 436-7; Roe, Quest f o r A u t h o r i t y , P- 56. ^ Quoted i n C l a r k , I I I , 320. See a l s o I I I , 326. 5 0 West,III, 347- 5 1 See West, I I , 344-5- West quotes r u l e XVI o f F r a n k l i n ' s " R u l e s by which a G r e a t Empire may be Reduced t o a Small One." See Benjamin F r a n k l i n , The Papers o f Benjamin F r a n k l i n , ed. Leonard W. L a b a r e e , XX (New Haven: Y a l e U n i v . P r e s s , 1976), 397-8. 5 2 West, I I, 344. 5 3 West, I I, 343- S k D i I k e , pp. 307-8. 5 5 See T.H. I r v i n g , "1850-70," i n C r o w l e y , p. 126. 5 6 See P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , pp. 2-3. 5 7 Quoted i n Monaghan, p. 96. 58 A r g u s , J a n u a r y 19, 1849, quoted i n Churchward, " A u s t r a l i a n - American R e l a t i o n s , " p. 15. 59 P o t t s and P o t t s , p. 2\ For more d e t a i l e d f i g u r e s , see Monaghan, pp. 121, 144, 177-8. 6 0 See B a r t l e t t , pp. 111-114. 61 Quoted i n L e v i , p. 39- 6 2 See B a r t l e t t , p. 115- 63 See, f o r example, L e v i , p. 41, f o o t n o t e 16. 64 P o t t s and P o t t s , p. 3. 287 65 Monaghan, p. 15*. See L e v i , p. 41 . 6 7 See Monaghan, pp. 7, 10-12, 15, 117-118. 68 Quoted i n Monaghan, pp. 28-9. 69 See A i t c h i s o n , p. 10; Monaghan, pp. 143~4; L e v i , p. 44. 7 ^ C o l o n i a l Times ( H o b a r t ) , F e b r u a r y 26, 1850. 7 1 Hobart D a i l y C o u r i e r , F e b r u a r y 16, 1850. 72 See P o t t s and P o t t s , pp. 3-4. 73 Quoted i n B a r t l e t t , p. 116. 7* Quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , p. 33. 7 5 Empire, August 20, October 22, 1851 - 76 See A i t c h i son, p. 11. 7 7 See P o t t s and P o t t s , p. 161 (and p. 27). 78 Sydney Morning H e r a l d , J a n u a r y 8, 1852. 79 Quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , pp. 4-5- 80 See P o t t s and P o t t s , pp. 27-8. 81 See B a r t l e t t , p. 124; E. D a n i e l and A n n e t t e P o t t s , "American R e p u b l i c a n i s m and the D i s t u r b a n c e s on the V i c t o r i a n G o l d f i e l d s , " H i s t o r i c a l S t u d i e s , X I I I , No. 50 ( A p r i l 1968), 148. 82 London Times, September 19, 1851 - 83 Quoted i n A i t c h i s o n , p. 19. 84 See P o t t s and P o t t s , "American R e p u b l i c a n i s m , " p. 145. 85 S i r C h a r l e s F i t z r o y was Governor o f New South Wales from 1846 t o 1855; C h a r l e s Joseph La Trobe was Governor o f V i c t o r i a from 1851 t o 1854. 288 86 See below, c h a p t e r V I , s e c t i o n s a j a n d c). Crampton t o P a k i n g t o n (October 31, 1853), quoted i n A i t c h i s o n , p. 20. 88 Quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , "American R e p u b l i c a n i s m , " p. 146. 89 Quoted i n B a r t l e t t , p. 124. 90 Churchward, " A u s t r a l i a n - A m e r i c a n R e l a t i o n s , " p. 16. 91 See P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , p. 66. 92 See below, c h a p t e r V, s e c t i o n s c ) a n d d). 93 L.G. Churchward, "Americans and o t h e r F o r e i g n e r s a t E u r e k a , " H i s t o r i c a l S t u d i e s , V I , No. 23 (Dec. 1954), 46. 94 See P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , pp. 155_9. 95 See Churchward, "Americans and o t h e r F o r e i g n e r s , " pp. 46-7- 96 Quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , p. 155- 97 Hobart Town G u a r d i a n , J a n u a r y 31, 1849. 98 Quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , p. 100. 99 Quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , "American R e p u b l i c a n i s m , " p. 147. C a l i f o r n i a , o f c o u r s e , was known as the " E u r e k a " s t a t e . Monaghan p o i n t s out trat-.Amer i can names began a p p e a r i n g t h r o u g h o u t the m i n i n g a r e a s o f A u s t r a l i a i n the 18501s (see p. 234). See Monaghan, p. 235. 102 See above, c h a p t e r IV, s e c t i o n a), 1 03 See, f o r example, Monaghan, pp. 242-3. 104 Quoted i n Robin G o l l a n , R a d i c a l and Working C l a s s P o l i t i c s (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , I960), p. 28; I n g l i s , p. 197- See Monaghan, p. 251. 289 * 10 6 See Churchward, "Americans and o t h e r F o r e i g n e r s , " p. 46; A i t c h i s o n , p. 32. ^ 7 See Monaghan, pp. 246-7. 108 See Churchward, "Americans and o t h e r F o r e i g n e r s , " p. 44; P o t t s and P o t t s , "American R e p u b l i c a n i s m , " p. 159; P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , p. 189. 109 See below, c h a p t e r V, s e c t i o n c ) . See Churchward, "Americans and o t h e r F o r e i g n e r s , " p. 48; P o t t s and P o t t s , "American R e p u b l i c a n i s m , " pp. 157-8, 160, 163; P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , pp. 186-91, 215; A i t c h i s o n , pp. 31-4. 1 1 1 Quoted i n Churchward, "Americans and o t h e r F o r e i g n e r s , 1 pp. 48-9. 112 Quoted i n A i t c h i s o n , p. 32. See a l s o Monaghan, p. 257- 113 Mark Twain, F o l l o w i n g the E q u a t o r (New York: H a r p e r , 1897), I, 240. 114 See R. E l s e - M i t c h e l l , "American I n f l u e n c e s on A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n h o o d , " JRAHS, LXI I , P t . 1 (June 1976), 9. 1 1 5 Quoted i n Monaghan, p. 265. See a l s o below, George F r a n c i s T r a i n on E u r e k a , c h a p t e r V, s e c t i o n c), 1 1 6 Quoted i n B a r t l e t t , p. 144. 1 1 7 See P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , p. 98. 118 Churchward, " A u s t r a l i a n - A m e r i c a n R e l a t i o n s , " p. 19. 119 See A i t c h i s o n , p. 16; P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , pp. 204-8; L e v i , pp. 45, 48. 1 20 P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , p. 90. 290 121 A i t c h i s o n , pp. 16-17. For more on the t r a d e c o n n e c t i o n ' between A u s t r a l i a and America a t t h i s t i m e , see P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , pp. 96-122. 1 22 See P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , pp. 73"8; A i t c h i s o n , p. 15; B a r t l e t t , p. 132. 1 23 See P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , pp. 66, 71; B a r t l e t t , p. 125. 124 See M o r i s o n , O x f o r d H i s t o r y , p. 568. 125 Quoted i n B a r t l e t t , p. 107. 126 See Wa1ker, Newspaper P r e s s i n New South Wa1es, pp. 3 5 - 7 , 42-3. > 1 27 See J.H. Moore, "New South Wales and the American C i v i l War," A u s t r a l i a n J o u r n a l o f P o l i t i cs and H i s t o r y , XVI, No. 1 (Apr i1 1970), 29. 1 28 M o r i s o n , p. 576; S a p i e t s , " A u s t r a l i a n P r e s s Coverage," p. 76. See P i e r c e ' s " I n a u g u r a l A d d r e s s " (March 4, 1853), i n James D. R i c h a r d s o n , comp., A C o m p i l a t i o n o f the Messages and Papers o f the P r e s i d e n t s (Washington: Bureau o f N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e and A r t , 1908), V, 199, 201-2. 1 29 See, f o r example, " I n a u g u r a l A d d r e s s " (March 4, 1853), quoted i n R i c h a r d s o n , V, 202. See a l s o P o t t s and P o t t s , pp. 199-200. 1 30 Sydney Morning H e r a l d , May 26, 1854 (see C e n t u r y o f J o u r n a l i s m , p. 358). West had, o f c o u r s e , v o i c e d h i s p o s i t i o n on s l a v e r y i n h i s e a r l i e r H i s t o r y o f Tasmania (1852), when he s a i d : "More f o r t u n a t e . . . than A m e r i c a , i n t h e s e r e g i o n s no A f r i c a n s l a v e r y e x i s t s - - 291 the b r o t h e r w i l l not s e l l h i s s i s t e r , o r the f a t h e r h i s son. The temporary i n c o n v e n i e n c e o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n w i l l l e a v e no deep i n d e n t on c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y ; but the b l a c k brand of s l a v e r y i s i n d e l i b l e " ( I I , 3*7). F u r t h e r , two y e a r s a f t e r the 1854 F e d e r a t i o n a r t i c l e s , the i s s u e s t i l l remained unencumbered by r e g i o n a l and economic com- p l e x i t i e s : " W i l l A u s t r a l i a improve upon the p a t t e r n o f the N o r t h , o r f o l l o w the f o o t s t e p s o f the S o u t h ? " (Sydney Morning H e r a l d , May 22, 1856). 131 See R i c h a r d s o n , V, 432-6; S a p i e t s , pp. 9 5 - 6 . 1 32 Quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , p. 199- 133 Monaro Mercury and Cooma and Bombala A d v e r t 1 s e r , J a n u a r y 2 4 , 1862, quoted i n Moore, p. 31. 13* 3 See Moore, pp. 25, 29- 135 See S a p i e t s , pp. 209,'250. 136 See J.M. Graham, "The N e w c a s t l e C h r o n i c l e and the American C i v i l War," JRAHS, LV I I I , P t . 3 ( S e p t . 1972), 202. 1 37 Sydney Morning H e r a l d , J u l y 29, 1 861 . 1 3ft See M o r i s o n , pp. 6 3 3 - 4 ; I n g l i s , pp. 2 2 7 _ 8 . 1 39 Quoted i n Moore, p. 32. 1 40 Quoted i n Moore, p. 32. 1 41 N e w c a s t l e C h r o n i c 1 e , J a n u a r y 15, 1862. 142 B l a n c h a r d was the former e d i t o r o f an A b o l i t i o n i s t newspaper, the N a t i o n a l Era ( p u b l i s h e d i n W a s h i n g t o n ) . See P o t t s and P o t t s , Young A m e r i c a , p. 14. 292 1*3 Quoted i n E r n e s t S c o t t , "The 'Shenandoah' I n c i d e n t , 1865," i n A u s t r a l i a and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , ed. Norman Harper (Melbourne: N e l s o n , 1971), p. 26. See a l s o I n g l i s , pp. 228-30; Dan O ' D o n n e l l , "The 'Shenandoah A f f a i r , ' and A n g l o - C o l o n i a l R e l a t i o n s w i t h the U n i t e d S t a t e s , 1864-1872," JRAHS, LVI I, P t . 3 (Sept. 1971), 213~42. For a t y p i c a l American r e a c t i o n , see the New York Times, A p r i l 29, 1865, quoted i n Frank C r o w l e y , comp., C o l o n i a l A u s t r a l i a 1841-1874, V o l . II o f A Documentary H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a (Melbourne: N e l s o n , 1980), pp. 489-91. 144 Quoted i n I n g l i s , p. 229. See Moore, p. 36. 1 4 6 S a p i e t s , p. 328. 147 M a i t l a n d E n s i g n , October 11, 1862. 148 Yass C o u r i e r , November 26, 1862. 1 49 See Graham, p. 203. The Melbourne A r g u s , to6, c o n s i d e r e d t a r i f f s t o be the p r i n c i p a l cause o f the C i v i l War ( I n g l i s , p. 228). 1 5 0 N e w c a s t l e C h r o n i c l e , December 14, 1861. See S a p i e t s , p. 326. 1 52 See Graham, p. 207. 1 53 N e w c a s t l e C h r o n i c l e , September 19, 1863. 154 N e w c a s t l e C h r o n i c 1e, August 16, 1 865- 1 5 5 Melbourne A r g u s , F e b r u a r y 17, 1864. For more on the 18701s, see, f o r example, O ' D o n n e l l , p. 231. 1 56 Sydney Morning H e r a l d , August 10, 1864. 293 ' 5 7 Empi r e , June 2k, I865. 1 58 A t an i n-memof"iam s e r v i c e a t the S c o t s Church Sydney on J u l y 2, 1865, Lang mourned f o r the " i l l u s t r i o u s American p r e s i d e n t . . . . 'He e x t i n g u i s h e d negro s l a v e r y i n A m e r i c a . ' " Quoted i n Lang, John Dunmore Lang, ed. A r c h i b a l d G i l c h r i s t (Melbourne: Jedgarm P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1951), I I, 670-1. 1 59 See Moore, p. 37- 160 Joseph Furphy, The Poems o f Joseph Furphy (Melbourne: L o t h i a n , 1916), p. 55. See a l s o , "The Death o f P r e s i d e n t L i n c o l n , " pp. k3~Sk. 2 7 4 - CHAPTER V YOUNG AMERICA AT LARGE IN THE COLONY Sect i o n A_ A u s t r a l i a n s Reading There i s no doubt t h a t the t h r e e decades between 1838 and 1868 a r e c r u c i a l t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f both A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y and i t s d e v e l o p i n g l i t e r a t u r e . In t h e s e y e a r s America f i g u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y - - e i t h e r p r o v i d i n g the model f o r the s l o g a n s t h a t c o l o n i a l o r a t o r s u t i l i z e d when a g i t a t i n g f o r the a b o l i t i o n o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t ; o r s u p p l y i n g many o f the men who p e o p l e d the g o l d - f i e l d s ; o r f u r n i s h i n g the m o t i v a t i o n , i n the F i f t i e s and S i x t i e s , f o r d i s c u s s i o n , by A u s t r a l i a n s , o f j u s t what they wanted f o r t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r c o u n t r y and t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e . An a f f i n i t y of the i m a g i n a t i o n between the two c o u n t r i e s took r o o t . As we s h a l l see, men l i k e : t h e f l a m b o y a n t George T r a i n and C h a r l e s F e r g u s o n , by t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n the new c o u n t r y , h e l p e d t o shape the o p i n i o n s A u s t r a l i a n s h e l d of B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n . But they were c e r t a i n l y not the o n l y s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . In the decades a f t e r Lang p u b l i s h e d Channing's s e m i n a l a d d r e s s "On N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e , " as 295 more and more American books became a c c e s s i b l e t o a s u r p r i s i n g l y w e l l - r e a d , eager A u s t r a l i a n p u b l i c , the major works o f America's p o l i t i c a l and c r e a t i v e w r i t e r s began t o channel the t h o u g h t s o f t h e i r contemporary A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s i n c e r t a i n v i t a l , and, most i m p o r t a n t l y , o r i g i n a l d i r e c t i o n s . ' In p a r t i c u l a r , John Dunmore Lang, C h a r l e s Harpur and D a n i e l Deniehy began l i s t e n i n g t o t h e f r e s h and c a p t i v a t i n g music emanat i ng from A m e r i c a , and p o n d e r i n g o v e r i t s r e l e v a n c e t o the new f r o n t i e r i n A u s t r a l i a . T h e i r works, c e r t a i n l y the most t r e n c h a n t and r e w a r d i n g o f t h e p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n , w i l l be e x p l o r e d i n d e t a i l i n the next c h a p t e r . However, b e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g the unique c o n t r i b u t i o n t o e a r l y A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e o f Lang, Harpur and D e n i e h y , t h e l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t i n which they found t h e m s e l v e s needs e l a b o r a t i o n - - i f o n l y t o i n d i c a t e the f a c t t h a t the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e t h r e e w r i t e r s t o seek American s o u r c e s was by no means a t y p i c a l . Indeed, i n the decades a f t e r I 8 3 8 , American p o l i t i c a l and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a r y works were o p e n l y a v a i l a b l e t o , and o f t e n read and d i s c u s s e d by A u s t r a l i a n s i n a l l w a l k s o f l i f e , whether poet o r p o l i t i c i a n - , merchant o r miner. As Harpur g r a p p l e d w i t h Emerson's concept o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e (and the l i b e r a t i n g , d e m o c r a t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t t h o u g h t ) a t h i s Hunter V a l l e y farm, p o l i t i c i a n s i n New South Wales and V i c t o r i a k e e n l y s u b s c r i b e d t o American r e v o l u t i o n a r y l i t e r a t u r e , and miners a t Turon and A d e l o n g and B a l l a r a t thumbed r e v e r e n t l y t h r o u g h U n c l e Tom's C a b i n ( 1 8 5 2 ) . I f t h e r e was a common f e a t u r e t o the works sought a f t e r , perhaps i t was t h a t most i n c l i n e d t o s e r m o n i z e . Vernon P a r r i n g t o n ' s c l a i m 296 t h a t t h e " f o u n d a t i o n s o f a l a t e r A m e r i c a w e r e l a i d i n v i g o r o u s p o l e m i c s , a n d t h e r o u g h s t o n e w a s p l e n t i f u l l y m o r t a r e d w i t h i d e a l i s m " r e l a t e s c l o s e l y t o t h e A m e r i c a n w o r k s f r o m P a i n e t o E m e r s o n a n d S t o w e : t h a t 2 A u s t r a l i a n s w a n t e d t o r e a d . B e f o r e 1833, e v e n i n E n g l a n d , f e w A m e r i c a n b o o k s w e r e a v a i l a b l e , a n d f e w e r s t i l l w e r e r e a d . M u c h t h e s a m e w a s t r u e i n A u s t r a l i a . A f t e r t h i s d a t e , h o w e v e r , a s t e a d i l y e x p a n d i n g n u m b e r o f A m e r i c a n b o o k s b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e i n b o t h c o u n t r i e s . O n c e a g a i n , 1838 e m e r g e s a s c o n v e n i e n t l y s y m b o l i c i n t h a t d u r i n g t h a t y e a r a l a w w a s e n a c t e d t o e s t a b l i s h r e c i p r o c a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o p y r i g h t . T h e U . S . C o n g r e s s , h o w e v e r , r e f u s e d t o s u p p o r t t h e l a w , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t E n g l i s h p u b l i s h e r s d e c l a r e d t h a t A m e r i c a n b o o k s c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e p r o t e c t e d b y c o p y r i g h t . A r a s h o f p i r a t e d A m e r i c a n e d i t i o n s a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y c a m e o n t o t h e m a r k e t a n d d e m a n d w a s s u c h t h a t , o v e r t h e e n s u i n g d e c a d e s , t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f c h e a p A m e r i c a n w o r k s g r e w t o e p i d e m i c 3 p r o p o r t i o n s . A s o n e c o m m e n t a t o r h a s r e m a r k e d : " T h e 18401 s a n d 18501 s w e r e t h e h e y d a y o f t h e c h e a p A m e r i c a n r e p r i n t . " I n e v i t a b l y , t h e g r e a t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y o f A m e r i c a n t e x t s i n E n g l a n d b e g a n t o e x e r t a n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t o n A u s t r a l i a i n t h e 18401 s a n d t h e r e a f t e r . I n d e e d , a t o n e p o i n t i n t h e 1850 1 s , t h e i s s u e l e d t o a h e a t e d p u b l i c d e b a t e i n M e l b o u r n e b e t w e e n t h e A r g u s n e w s p a p e r a n d M e l b o u r n e ' s l e a d i n g b o o k s e l l e r ( a n d , u l t i m a t e l y , t h e d o y e n o f n i n e - ty t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A u s t r a l i a n p u b l i s h e r s ) , G e o r g e R o b e r t s o n . R o b e r t s o n , s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e p l i g h t o f t h e c r e a t i v e w r i t e r i n a n y c o u n t r y , a d a m a n t l y d e f e n d e d t h e r i g h t o f A m e r i c a n a u t h o r s t o a p e r c e n t a g e o f 297 p u b l i c a t i o n p r o f i t s . The A r g u s , on t h e o t h e r hand, d e c l a r e d the cheap p i r a t e d e d i t i o n s "among the b e s t t h i n g s America sends t o u s . " F u r t h e r , i t a s s e r t e d t h a t R o b e r t s o n s t o o d as c u l p a b l e as anyone because t h e r e wasn't "a b o o k s t o r e i n t h e c i t y which does .not o f f e r t h e s e r e p r i n t s f o r s a l e . " The e d i t o r e x p r e s s e d h i s w i s h t h a t e v e r y decent household s h o u l d have "a good l i b r a r y o f cheap American r e p r i n t s . " The comments o f the Argus e d i t o r s u b s t a n t i a t e the f a c t t h a t a wide v a r i e t y o f American works c o u l d be purchased i n A u s t r a l i a by the e a r l y 18501s. P u b l i c a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f American p o l i t i c a l and i m a g i n a t i v e works had i n c r e a s e d apace i n the F o r t i e s , and w i t h the i n f l u x o f Americans t o the A u s t r a l i a n g o l d f i e l d s a f t e r 1851, demand grew f u r t h e r . 7 E x p a t r i a t e Americans wanted t o keep a b r e a s t o f e v e n t s i n t h e i r own c o u n t r y - - t h u s p r o v i d i n g o b v i o u s o p p o r t u n i t y f o r the e n t e r p r i s i n g s p e c u l a t o r a b l e t o s a t i s f y community needs. C e r t a i n American b o o k s e l l e r s and a u c t i o n e e r s became renowned f o r t h e i r m i n i s t r a t i o n s (and a n t i c s ) , r e s p o n d i n g c o l o u r f u l l y t o t h e unprecedented demand f o r American works. One s e l l e r and m o b i l e l i b r a r i a n , a p p a r e n t l y a Young American f o l l o w e r o f T r a i n i a n economic t h e o r y , b o l d l y a d v e r t i s e d h i s wares i n l a r g e l e t t e r s i n . t h e V i c t o r i a n g o l d f i e l d s : "Baker's g G o l d - d i g g e r s ' Go-a-head L i b r a r y and R e g i s t r a t i o n O f f i c e f o r New Chums." With hardy s e l l e r s l i k e Baker and the i n t r e p i d a u c t i o n e e r L a n g l e y e v e r eager t o t u r n books i n t o p r o f i t , d i g g e r s w i t h the money t o s u p p o r t t h e i r h a b i t c o u l d a t l e a s t read the b e s t , d e s p i t e t h e i r immediate g d i s c o m f o r t s . 298 At a t i m e , t h e n , when A u s t r a l i a n s were b e g i n n i n g t o s o b e r l y a s s e s s t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s p r o s p e c t s and p o t e n t i a l , i n t e r e s t e d commentators had more c o n v e n i e n t a c c e s s t o American t e x t s . ^ The A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n c o n n e c t i o n q u i c k l y outgrew the s i n g l e d i m e n s i o n o f e a r l i e r y e a r s . For t h a t s m a l l band o f c o l o n i s t s c o n c e r n e d w i t h e x p l o r i n g t h e deep i m p l i c a t i o n s o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a c o u n t r y and i t s l i t e r a t u r e , America assumed both an a c t u a l and an i m a g i n a t i v e p r e s e n c e . And a f t e r I838, they c o u l d u s u a l l y o b t a i n the American t e x t s r e l e v a n t t o t h e i r p u r s u i t s . Those i n t e r e s t e d i n A u s t r a l i a ' s p r o g r e s s towards s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t and p o s s i b l e independence c o u l d r e a d i l y c o n s u l t the w r i t e r s o f the Great R e p u b l i c , who had been t h e r e b e f o r e . I t i s not d i f f i c u l t . t o guess t h e k i n d s o f p o l i t i c a l works t h a t s o l d w e l l . In Melbourne, the New Y o r k e r Benjamin M o r t i m e r aimed a t b e i n g the p r i n c i p a l s u p p l i e r o f American books. F u l l y aware o f the v o l a t i l e p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e i n A u s t r a l i a , M o r t i m e r urged " t h e u t i l i t y o f s t u d y i n g the C o n s t i t u t i o n and the C o n s t r u c t i o n o f the Government o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s " and b o l d l y a d v e r t i s e d the works o f , among o t h e r s , J e f f e r s o n , C a l h o u n , C l a y , Maury and P r e s c o t t , a l o n g w i t h c o p i e s o f Webster's d i c t i o n a r y . B i o g r a p h i e s o f the major A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e s - - 1 i k e Washington, D a n i e l Webster, Henry C l a y and F r a n k l i n P i e r c e - - c o u l d a l s o be p u r c h a s e d , w h i l e t h o s e u n a b l e t o a f f o r d the t e x t s o f t e n r e l i e d on the newspapers t o p r o v i d e them w i t h c r u c i a l a r e a s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . 1 1 In J u l y , 1853, the A r g u s , f o r example, p r i n t e d J e f f e r s o n ' s D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence--the r h e t o r i c o f which was u n s w e r v i n g l y u t i l i z e d by miners i n t h e i r d e m o n s t r a t i o n s 299 l e a d i n g up t o Eureka. I n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s i n New South Wales w i s h i n g t o c o n s u l t American w r i t e r s i n t h e i r p u r s u i t o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t had s i m i l a r r e s o u r c e s i n t h e i r l i b r a r i e s and l o c a l b o o k s t o r e s . The P a r l i a m e n t a r y L i b r a r y , founded i n the 1840's, p o s s e s s e d a comprehensive c o l l e c t i o n o f American 1 2 h i s t o r i c a l and p o l i t i c a l works. I t seems they were much i n demand f o r , i n the c r u c i a l debates o f the e a r l y 18501s, W i l l i a m C h a r l e s Wentworth r e f e r r e d t o the w r i t i n g s o f George Washington, A l e x i s de T o c q u e v i l l e and John C. Calhoun i n such a d e t a i l e d way as t o r e f l e c t not o n l y h i s own c l o s e f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h the d o c t r i n e s i n q u e s t i o n , but a s i m i l a r i n t i m a t e knowledge on b e h a l f o f h i s a u d i e n c e . I t i s worth m e n t i o n i n g , t o o , t h a t i n an a d v e r t i s e m e n t i n the Free P r e s s , o f March 1842, b o a s t i n g a " S a l e o f the most p o p u l a r Books e v e r known i n the C o l o n y " the sponsor saw f i t t o i n c l u d e Thomas J e f f e r s o n ' s name, a l o n g w i t h the s t a p l e s ( S h a k e s p e a r e , D i c k e n s , Cooper, I r v i n g 1 3 and S c o t t ) . F i n a l l y , w i t h the i n f l u x o f Americans i n t o A u s t r a l i a i n the 1-8501 s, t h e r e i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t , meeting a t c l o s e q u a r t e r s , the c i t i z e n s o f both n a t i o n s would have d i s c u s s e d and c o n t r a s t e d the p o l i t i c a l systems i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t r i e s . George F r a n c i s T r a i n , f o r one, made i t h i s b u s i n e s s t o c i r c u l a t e h i s p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n o f c r u c i a l American works. L o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s bombarded him w i t h r e q u e s t s : . . . as they i n t e n d f r a m i n g a new c o n s t i t u t i o n , a l l hands a r e i n q u i r i n g f o r B a n c r o f t ' s H i s t o r y o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s , M a s s a c h u s e t t s s t a t e p a p e r s , F r a n k l i n ' s works, the c o n s t i t u t i o n , 300 and a l l the documents t h a t were p r i n t e d a t the dawn o f l i b e r t y i n ila bel 1 e Amer i c a . I had two c o p i e s o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n , both o f w h i c h a r e now i n the p o s s e s s i o n of M.L.C.'sJ't T r a i n ' s e x p e r i e n c e must have been a common one. However, i f the works of J e f f e r s o n , F r a n k l i n , Webster and t h e i r companions p r o c l a i m e d the d e s i r a b i l i t y o f r e p u b l i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s and a d v e r t i s e d the p r a i s e w o r t h y f e a t u r e s o f " l a b e l 1 e Amer i c a , " one o t h e r book p o s s i b l y d i d more, s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y , t o t a r n i s h America's image: H a r r i e t Beecher Stowe's U n c i e Tom's Cab i n ; o r L i f e among the Lowly (1852). To most A u s t r a l i a n s , g r i m l y aware o f the way t h e i r c o u n t r y had been f o r g e d on the b l o o d i e d backs o f c h a i n e d c o n v i c t s , s l a v e r y was anathema. They c o u l d not w i l l i n g l y model themselves on a n a t i o n i n which s l a v e r y was l e g a l - - a n a t t i t u d e which c o n t r i b u t e d t o the huge s u c c e s s o f Stowe's s i n c e r e , though too s e n t i m e n t a l t a l e . An enormous s u c c e s s i n 18501s England ( i n d e e d a " b e s t s e l l e r " f o r the next f i f t y y e a r s ) and thus h a s t i l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n p i r a t e d e d i t i o n s , U n c l e Tom's C a b i n soon made a f o r c e f u l impact on A u s t r a l i a . ' 5 M i n e r s i n the b a c k - b l o c k s so s t r o n g l y s a n c t i o n e d i t s h o n e s t y o f purpose t h a t the "much-thumbed" volume v i e d w i t h the B i b l e f o r the d i g g e r s ' l o y a l t y . ' 6 Moreover, Stowe's momentous work succeeded i n the c i t i e s as w e l l . L o c a l bards w r o t e poems i n response t o i t ; songs, such as "The S l a v e Mother," owed t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n t o i t ; even s h o p k e e p e r s , r e c o g n i z i n g the development o f a w i d e l y u n d e r s t o o d l o c a l c o n n o t a t i o n , u t i l i z e d the name.'7 Numerous l e c t u r e h a l l s were awash w i t h t e a r s s t i m u l a t e d by r e - t e l l i n g s of the p l o t . P e o p l e a n g r i l y q u e s t i o n e d the 301 e t h i c s o f a system which c o u l d t o l e r a t e such shameful abuse o f man by man. A u s t r a l i a n s were t o l d t h a t , i n A m e r i c a , g i r l s " w i t h eyes as b l u e . . . and c o m p l e x i o n s as f a i r as any o f A u s t r a l i a ' s f a i r e s t d a u g h t e r s . . . were bought and sold l i k e b e a s t s o f burden o r c h a t t e l s i n the m a r k e t p l a c e . " Many acknowledged U n c l e Tom's i n h e r e n t t r u t h as a " w i t h e r i n g e x p o s u r e o f the i n f i d e l i t y o f a n a t i o n t o i t s own 18 p o l i t i c a l c r e e d . " Yet A u s t r a l i a d i d have i t s c l a s s o f landed g e n t r y who r i g o r o u s l y d e n i e d Stowe's a s s u m p t i o n s i n U n c l e Tom's C a b i n . L i k e t h e i r c o u n t e r - p a r t s i n the s o u t h e r n s t a t e s o f A m e r i c a , they c o u l d o n l y see the p o s i t i v e b e n e f i t s o f s l a v e r y i n C h r i s t e n d o m f o r c o l o u r e d heathen r a c e s . They s u p p o r t e d W i l l i a m C h a r l e s Wentworth's p l e a f o r a c l a s s 19 o f "Shepherd K i n g s " i n A u s t r a l i a . Henry K i n g s l e y ' s p r o t a g o n i s t i n The R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f G e o f f r e y Hamlyn (1859) i l l u s t r a t e s the p o i n t a d m i r a b l y . R o a s t i n g i n "a p l a c i d , b u r n i n g summer" i n t h e A u s t r a l i a n o u t b a c k , he i d l y e x p a t i a t e s on the r e w a r d i n g c o m f o r t s o f s i t t i n g back, r e l a x i n g on a c o o l verandah: One t h i n g o n l y was wanted t o make i t p e r f e c t , and t h a t was n i g g e r s . To the winds w i t h U n c l e Tom's C a b i n , and Dred a f t e r i t , i n a hot w i n d ! What can an a c t i v e - m i n d e d , s e l f - h e l p f u l l a d y l i k e Mrs. Stowe, f r e e z i n g up t h e r e i n C o n n e c t i c u t , o b l i g e d t o do something t o keep h e r s e l f warm,--what can she, I ask, know about the r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a s o u t h e r n gentleman when t h e thermometer s t a n d s a t 125° i n the shade? P i s h ! Does she know the e x e r t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r c u t t i n g up a p i p e o f t o b a c c o i n a hot n o r t h wind? No! Does she know the amount o f p e r s p i r a t i o n and anger s u p e r i n d u c e d by k n o c k i n g t h e head o f f a b o t t l e o f Bass i n J a n u a r y ? Does she know the p h y s i c a l p r o s t r a t i o n w h i c h i s caused by b r e a k i n g up two lumps o f hard w h i t e 302 sugar i n a pawnee b e f o r e a t h u n d e r s t o r m ? No, she d o e s n ' t , o r she would c r y out f o r n i g g e r s w i t h the b e s t o f us! When the thermometer g e t s o v e r 100° i n the shade, a l l men would have s l a v e s i f they were a l l o w e d . An A n g l o - Saxon c o n s c i e n c e w i l l n o t , save i n r a r e i n s t a n c e s , bear a h i g h e r a v e r a g e heat than 9 5 ° . 2 u K i n g s l e y might have been h a v i n g f u n a t the expense o f the c l a s s he wished t o d e p i c t , but the i s s u e was one t h a t , f o r most A u s t r a l i a n s , c o u l d be approached w i t h l i t t l e humour. Of one t h i n g the a u t h o r c o u l d be c e r t a i n , however: i n 1859 h i s r e f e r e n c e s t o Mrs. Stowe, U n c i e Tom's Cab i n and Dred would not be l o s t on e i t h e r h i s Eng1i sh or h i s A u s t r a l i a n r e a d e r s . Both o f Stowe's a b o l i t i o n i s t n o v e l s , U n c i e Tom's Cab i n and Dred, A T a l e o f the G r e a t Dismal Swamp (1856) h e l d so much i n t e r e s t 21 f o r A u s t r a l i a n s t h a t they prompted a number o f s t a g e a d a p t a t i o n s . Frank F o w l e r , an E n g l i s h a u t h o r and j o u r n a l i s t who r e s i d e d i n A u s t r a l i a f o r h e a l t h reasons between 1855 and 1857, penned an a c c l a i m e d v e r s i o n o f Unc1e Tom's Cab i n ent i 11ed Eva, o r Leaves from U n c i e Tom's Cab i n. T h i s " c l e v e r and i n t e r e s t i n g " p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h i t s New O r l e a n s panorama and s p e c i a l e f f e c t s broken up by the banjo and tambourine i n t e r l u d e s o f E t h i o p i a n m i n s t r e l s , ran f o r s i x p o p u l a r n i g h t s a t the Lyceum 22 T h e a t r e . The Freeman's J o u r n a l r e v i e w e d the show i n f l a t t e r i n g 23 terms, l a b e l l i n g i t a p i e c e o f " c o n s i d e r a b l e a r t i s t i c m e r i t . " F o w l e r ' s knowledge o f American l i t e r a t u r e , as w i l l s h o r t l y be shown, extended w e l l beyond an a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h Mrs..Stowe. A c o n t r i b u t i n g member o f N i c o l D r y s a l e Stenhouse's i m p o r t a n t c i r c l e o f w r i t e r s (which i n c l u d e d Deniehy and Harpur) i n Sydney d u r i n g the 18501s, 303 Fowler f r e q u e n t l y e x h i b i t e d an i n t i m a t e knowledge o f contemporary American l i t e r a t u r e e i t h e r i n p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n , i n h i s w r i t i n g s 2k o r on the podium. As A u s t r a l i a n knowledge o f American p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s and p o l i c i e s grew t h r o u g h o u t the 1850's, c o n f u s i o n and d i s e n c h a n t m e n t i n t e n s i f i e d . The image o f the f o r e f a t h e r s who shaped the American R e v o l u t i o n r e - mained u n t a i n t e d , but the e s c a l a t i n g problem o f s l a v e r y s h a t t e r e d i l l u s i o n s . So much s o , t h a t when Henry K e n d a l l ( s h o r t l y a f t e r the appearance o f h i s f i r s t book, Poems and Songs (1862)) p u b l i s h e d a group of s i x sonnets i n John West's Sydney Morning H e r a l d i n June 25 and J u l y , 1863, he c o u l d look a t the war o n l y w i t h sad r e s i g n a t i o n . No t a k i n g s i d e s , no r h e t o r i c , j u s t a d e s p e r a t e p l e a f o r a c e s s a t i o n o f the c o n f 1 i c t : Ay, s t o p and sob! t h i s mad'..unnatural i r e Which makes a man become h i s b r o t h e r ' s f o e , And goads and d r i v e s h i s son a g a i n s t the s i r e . B r i n g s w i l d e r t e a r s than we s h a l l e v e r know! 2 " K e n d a l l had had enough o f p o l i t i c i a n s from n o r t h and s o u t h , o r perhaps newspapers i n A u s t r a l i a , p r o c l a i m i n g the j u s t n e s s of one cause o r the o t h e r . He c o u l d see o n l y the sombre r e a l i t y o f s u f f e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s : But y e t , w i t h i n a l o n e r e d - t r a m p l e d s p a c e , A Mother s i t s w i t h moan and broken w a i l . How can the woman o f t h i s d o l e f u l p l a c e Care aught f o r " G l o r y " t h a t they rave about!27 The tone o f the f i n a l sonnet d e s e r v e s mention. As the p o e t ' s "songs go f o r t h " from " w i l d A u s t r a l i a n h i l l s , " the g r i e f o f h i s American 3 0 4 b r o t h e r s assumes d e e p l y p e r s o n a l p r o p o r t i o n s . The e m o t i o n a l p r o x i m i t y and, above a l l , a sense o f the u n i v e r s a l human s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the f a r - o f f c o n f l i c t f o r both w r i t e r and contemporary r e a d e r a r e o b v i o u s . A measure o f the q u i e t agony o f s e v e r a l Walt Whitman poems i n Drum Taps ( I . 8 6 5 - 6 ) permeates the l i n e s : You y e a r n , my b r o t h e r s , f o r a r e g a l Rhyme Wherein might f l o w a t a l e o f g r i e f s u b l i m e , As f l o w the b r e e z e s b e a r i n g from the N o r t h The p a s s i o n o f a p a s s i o n - h a u n t e d c l i m e , But I am f a i n t ; and v o i c e s f u l l and f r e e A r e not o f s t o r m s . 2 8 I t i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f the d i s t u r b i n g impact of the American C i v i l War on A u s t r a l i a t h a t , f i r s t , K e n d a l l s h o u l d be moved t o respond so e l a b o r a t e l y , and, second, t h a t i n e x p r e s s i n g h i m s e l f i n such p r o f o u n d l y p e r s o n a l t e r m s , he c o u l d r e l y on h i s r e a d e r s e m p a t h i z i n g . Perhaps the most n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t o f New-World r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o s e and p o e t r y on A u s t r a l i a i n the decades a f t e r I838 was the impetus i t gave A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s t o b e g i n t o s p e c u l a t e more s e r i o u s l y on t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s v a s t m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l p o t e n t i a l . Fanned by the l i b e r a l i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s o f Governor Bourke's t e n u r e as g o v e r n o r i n the 1 8 3 0 1 s , the end o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o New South Wales, and a s t e a d y i n f l u x o f a m b i t i o u s e m i g r a n t s , a "custom o f p r o p h e t i c prophecy" 29 began. A u s t r a l i a s t i l l had a d i s t i n c t i v e and i n f l u e n t i a l group who, i n the event o f an A u s t r a l i a n War o f Independence, would choose, w i t h G e o f f r e y Hamlyn's Sam B u c k l e y , "The K i n g ' s (I beg pardon, the Queen's) s i d e , o f c o u r s e , " but g r e a t e r numbers were b e g i n n i n g t o s u s p e c t 305 u n q u e s t i o n i n g l o y a l t y t o a f a r - o f f s o v e r e i g n . J U For the f i r s t t i m e , some A u s t r a l i a n s r e a l i z e d t h a t the i d e a l o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d become a r e a l i t y . Optimism g a i n e d new s t r e n g t h . When Thomas C a m p b e l l , i n 1828, pondered A u s t r a l i a ' s f u t u r e t h u s : D e l i g h t f u l l a n d ! i n w i l d e r n e s s even b e n i g n , The g l o r i o u s p a s t i s o u r s , the f u t u r e t h i n e . . . . Land o f the f r e e ! t h y kingdom i s t o come-- Of s t a t e s , w i t h laws from G o t h i c bondage b u r s t , And c r e e d s by c h a r t e r e d p r i e s t h o o d s u n a c c u r s t . . . . --he e n v i s a g e d a n o t h e r B r i t a i n i n a n o t h e r hemisphere, as h i s c o u n t r y - man Erasmus Darwin had when Botany Bay was f i r s t s e t t l e d . R a d i c a l t h i n k e r s i n l 8 4 0 ' s A u s t r a l i a , however, had d i f f e r e n t i d e a s . The h e s i t a n t e x p r e s s i o n s o f independence o f the ' 30' s grew more c o n f i d e n t , a s s e r t i v e . W.A. Duncan, a c o l o n i a l f i g h t e r f o r the r i g h t s o f the common man, p u b l i s h e d an anthem e n t i t l e d " A u s t r a l i a The Wide And The F r e e " i n 1842, which seemed l o g i c a l l y t o extend the d e c l a m a t o r y a r g u - ments o f p r o t e s t i n g c o l o n i a l newspaper e d i t o r s o f the l820's. In t h e poem, Duncan a d v o c a t e d a r e a p p r a i s a l o f t h e c o l o n y ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h England. T y p i c a l l y , a l l u d i n g t o the American R e v o l u t i o n , he a s s e r t e d : I s i n g not o f wars, f o r our f i e l d s a r e u n s t a i n e d W i t h the b l o o d o f our p a t r i o t men; ' T i s i n peace, and by commerce our honours were g a i n e d ; Which i n peace o r by w a i — w e ' l l m a i n t a i n . 3 2 For p o s s i b l y the f i r s t t i m e , a c o l o n i a l w r i t e r t e n t a t i v e l y proposed the i d e a o f A u s t r a l i a as the u l t i m a t e New World--one as y e t u n t a r n i s h e d by w a r f a r e , and One f r e e o f Old-World p r e j u d i c e s and s o r d i d i n t e r n a t i o n a l 306 i n t r i g u e s : We b o a s t not indeed of a n t i q u i t y ' s badge, Nor our a n c e s t r a l deeds loud p r o c l a i m . . . . S t a r t i n g anew, A u s t r a l i a had the chance t o b u i l d a n a t i o n out o f i d e a l i s m , c a r e f u l l y a v o i d i n g the s m o u l d e r i n g ashes o f Europe. S t r o n g o v e r t o n e s o f r e s p o n s i b l e government, o f independence, pervade the poem. New-World r h e t o r i c abounds as Duncan broaches the i d e a o f a new b e g i n n i n g f o r the sons o f man i n the s o u t h e r n c o n t i n e n t . Over the next decades, some o f A u s t r a l i a ' s most a c t i v e men o f l e t t e r s began t o use, o r a t times s i m p l y e x p l o i t , an American v o c a b u l a r y . Henry P a r k e s , the w i l y m o n a r c h i c democrat, o r , i f you l i k e , d e m o c r a t i c m o n a r c h i s t , i n c l u d e d some o v e r t l y p o l i t i c a l poems i n h i s second volume o f ( r a t h e r poor) poems, Murmurs o f the Stream (1857). In "The Mother and Son," he makes s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o E n g l i s h s h o r t s i g h t e d n e s s when c o n f r o n t e d by a g e n u i n e l y p o p u l a r American r e p u b l i c a n movement: How i t s dogmas and e d i c t s had anger'd the brave To u n n a t u r a l war, by the w i l d Western wave! How i t s r e c o r d s were t r a c e d w i t h the sword i n the wild-wood And c i t i e s n e w - b u i l t o f A m e r i c a ' s c h i l d h o o d ! 33 In the poem's c o n c l u s i o n , Parkes e x p r e s s e s the hope t h a t no "son o f A u s t r a l i a " w i l l e v e r have t o s t a n d "a foeman" a g a i n s t England ( a f t e r the American example). A s i m i l a r s p i r i t o f democracy and independence pervades such poems as "A League Hymn" ( w r i t t e n " t o promote the o b j e c t s o f the A u s t r a l a s i a n A n t i - T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L e a g u e " ) , "Our Coming C o u n t r y - men" and "The Sun-Thought." Yet P a r k e s had none o f the m i l i t a n c y 307 p r e v a l e n t a t the d i g g i n g s , where the t h o u g h t s o f P a t r i c k Henry, Samuel Adams and Thomas P a i n e echoed c o n s t a n t l y i n the m i n e r s ' p r o t e s t s , h i g h l i g h t e d by the r e f r a i n o f the song, " V i c t o r i a ' s S o u t h e r n C r o s s , " which emerged from the Eureka S t o c k a d e : Be f a i t h f u l t o the S t a n d a r d , f o r v i c t o r y o f death.35 The most c o n s i s t e n t spokesmen f o r a r e p u b l i c a n , independent f u t u r e f o r A u s t r a l i a , however, were John Dunmore Lang, C h a r l e s Harpur and D a n i e l Deniehy. By the m i d d l e l850's, Lang had c o n f i r m e d h i s p o s i t i o n as the p u b l i c i s t o f the movement, i t s Thomas P a i n e , i f you l i k e ; Deniehy f i g u r e d as t h e sometime o r a t o r , i n s p i r a t i o n and c r i t i c o f t h e c a u s e , i t s Emerson; and Harpur, though h a r d l y p r a i s e d i n h i s own t i m e , emerged as the exemplar o f the new c r i t i q u e , i t s Walt Whitman. These men d i d as much as anyone t o c o n s o l i d a t e a d e m o c r a t i c f u t u r e f o r A u s t r a l i a . And so s u c c e s s f u l were they t h a t Henry K e n d a l l , Harpur's p r o t e g e o f s o r t s , c o u l d s e r i o u s l y s u g g e s t a U t o p i a n f u t u r e f o r A u s t r a l i a i n h i s 1859 poem "The Far F u t u r e . " In the same manner as Duncan (and, as I w i l l show, D e n i e h y ) , K e n d a l l imagined the p o s i t i v e b e n e f i t s o f b e i n g a young and g e o g r a p h i c a l l y i s o l a t e d c o u n t r y : The yoke o f dependence a s i d e she w i l l c a s t , And b u i l d on t h e r u i n s and wrecks o f the P a s t . 36 He c o u l d f o r e s e e a f u t u r e f r e e o f monarchy and s l a v e r y , a f u t u r e A u s t r a l i a acknowledged t o be the a r c h e t y p e o f democracy by the r e s t o f the w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g A m e r i c a : 3 0 8 When b u r s t i n g t h o s e l i m i t s above she w i l l s o a r , O u t s t r e t c h i n g a l l r i v a l s who've mounted b e f o r e , And, r e s t i n g w i l l b l a z e w i t h her g l o r i e s u n f u r l ' d , The empire o f empires and boast o f the w o r l d . T h i s i d e a o f A u s t r a l i a as a f u t u r e u t o p i a 1 - p u b l i c 1 y pushed by Deniehy-- would s u r f a c e o f t e n between i860 and the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y . Some l o c a l s , such as C h a r l e s T h a t c h e r , would u t i l i z e i t f o r ammunition i n an immediate cause ( i n T h a t c h e r ' s c a s e , the Land Q u e s t i o n i n the mid 3 7 1860' s ); o t h e r s , l a t e r i n the c e n t u r y , d e t e r m i n e d t o b u i l d t h e i r f u t u r e l i v e s on the premise t h a t the i d e a c o u l d be r e a l i z e d i n the s h o r t - t e r m . How e v e r i t was, though, the i d e a i t s e l f grew from an i d e o l o g i c a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e , and a v o c a b u l a r y , grounded i n p a r t a t l e a s t on the p o l i t i c a l - a n d s o c i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f the American R e v o l u t i o n Complementing the wide v a r i e t y o f American p o l i t i c a l works b e g i n n i n g t o e f f e c t changes i n A u s t r a l i a n s o c i a l l i f e was a c o r r e s p o n d i n g aware- ness o f , and p u b l i c i t y f o r more f a n c i f u l works by l e a d i n g contemporary American a u t h o r s . A g a i n , m i r r o r i n g the s i t u a t i o n w i t h p o l i t i c a l t r a c t s , the r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g E n g l i s h market ( i n the l 8 4 0 ' s ) f o r p i r a t e d American books soon wrought i t s e f f e c t on A u s t r a l i a . Maya S a p i e t s has w r i t t e n t h a t i n E n g l a n d , as i n her c o l o n i e s , " t h e r a i l w a y paperback owed i t s s u c c e s s t o the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f the works o f such a u t h o r s as Fenimore Cooper, Washington I r v i n g , N a t h a n i e l P. W i l l i s , Henry Wadsworth L o n g f e l l o w and James R u s s e l l L o w e l l . " P i r a t e d one or two s h i l l i n g c o p i e s o f the Novel Newspaper s p e c i a l i z e d i n I r v i n g and Cooper, and responded t o the l a r g e demand f o r R i c h a r d Henry Dana J u n i o r ' s c l a s s i c Two Years B e f o r e the Mast ( 1 8 4 0 ) , C h a r l e s Brockden Brown's G o t h i c 309 r o m a n c e s , James K i r k e P a u l d i n g ' s W e s t w a r d H o ! (1832), a n d t h e p l a y s 39 a n d n o v e l s o f N a t h a n i e l P. W i l l i s a n d . R o b e r t M o n t g o m e r y B i r d . L o c a l - c o l o u r n o v e l i s t s o f t h e S o u t h , W i l l i a m G i l m o r e Simms a n d J . P . K e n n e d y , a l s o had an a u d i e n c e f o r t h e i r p a g e a n t s ; t h e d i m e n o v e l s o f Edward J u d s o n a n d J . P . Ingraham f l o u r i s h e d ; and J o h n B u l l ' s c h i l d r e n s o o n became f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e b o o k s o f P e t e r P a r l e y , S u s a n W a r n e r 40 and J a c k A b b o t . C o l o n i s t s w i t h h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n s , o f c o u r s e , c o u l d r e a d i l y a c q u i r e t h e w o r k s o f E m e r s o n a n d C h a n n i n g , t h e poems and s h o r t s t o r i e s o f E d g a r A l l a n P o e , . o r e v e n t h e o c c a s i o n a l M e l v i l l e n o v e l . T h i s g r e a t e r a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f i m a g i n a t i v e w o r k s by A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s had d i s t i n c t c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r A u s t r a l i a b e t w e e n 1838 a n d 1 8 6 8 . C e r t a i n i n d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e t i m e g i v e us a c l u e . F r e d e r i c k S i n n e t t ' s t h r o w a w a y r e f e r e n c e t o N a t h a n i e l H a w t h o r n e ' s G o t h i c t a l e T h e H o u s e o f t h e S e v e n G a b l e s (1851) i n h i s " F i c t i o n F i e l d s " e s s a y (1856) t a k e s f o r g r a n t e d t h a t h i s r e a d e r s h i p h a d , a t t h e v e r y l e a s t , a n a c q u a i n t a n c e - 42 s h i p w i t h t h e New E n g l a n d a u t h o r ' s f i c t i o n . A s i m i l a r a s s u m p t i o n i s made i n an 1864 poem a t t r i b u t e d t o S i n n e t t - - t h i s t i m e i n r e f e r e n c e t o P o e : T h e l a t e l a m e n t e d E d g a r A l l e n [ s i c ] P o e , T h e a u t h o r o f " T h e R a v e n " , a s y o u know, Among h i s many we 1 1 - remembered rhymes Has w r i t t e n c e r t a i n v e r s e s upon c h i m e s . . . . * 3 T h e poem p u n s p r o f u s e l y , and much o f i t s humour w o u l d be l o s t on an a u d i e n c e who d i d n o t h a v e a k n o w l e d g e o f , and a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r , P o e ' s d a r k l y e v o c a t i v e p o e t r y and p r o s e . P o e ' s i m p a c t i n A u s t r a l i a , i n f a c t , 310 must have been a c o n s i d e r a b l e one, f o r Frank F o w l e r , as e a r l y as J u l y , 1856, d e l i v e r e d a l e c t u r e on the American w r i t e r a t the Sydney M e c h a n i c s ' School o f A r t s t o an u n e x p e c t e d l y l a r g e a u d i e n c e . The g r e a t mentor o f budding A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s o f the p e r i o d , N i c o l D r y s d a l e Stenhouse, c h a i r e d the m e e t i n g , a t t e n d e d by " s e v e r a l members o f p a r l i a - ment and many gentlemen d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e i r l i t e r a r y a t t a i n m e n t s . " Both o f the l e a d i n g Sydney newspapers o f the p e r i o d , the Empi re and Sydney Morning H e r a l d , c o v e r e d the l e c t u r e , the Empi re r e v i e w e r m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t " n o t h i n g he [ F o w l e r ] has essayed has g i v e n more g e n e r a l d e l i g h t than h i s e v e n i n g w i t h Edgar A l l a n Poe." F o w l e r , o f c o u r s e , was o n l y one o f a number o f w r i t e r s - - i n c l u d i n g Henry P a r k e s , Henry H a l l o r a n , J.S. Moore, J.L. M i c h a e l , R i c h a r d Rowe, Henry K e n d a l l , and, most i m p o r t a n t l y f o r my l a t e r p u r p o s e s , C h a r l e s Harpur and D a n i e l Deniehy--who g r a v i t a t e d t o Stenhouse's B a l m a i n (Sydney) home i n the l 8 5 0 ' s and '60's t o t a k e advantage o f the e x t r a o r d i n a r y r e s o u r c e s o f Stenhouse's l i b r a r y and p a r t a k e o f the f i n e c o n v e r s a t i o n and company t h a t always a t t e n d e d each v i s i t . Ann M a r i - J o r d e n s ' much-needed s t u d y , The Stenhouse C i r c l e ( 1 9 7 9 ) , d e a l s a t l e n g t h w i t h the more i m p o r t a n t g u e s t s o f Waterview House. S e v e r a l o f the p o i n t s she makes about members o f t h e group c l o s e l y r e l a t e t o t h e American c o n n e c t i o n . F i r s t , Stenhouse h i m s e l f , a generous p e r s o n a l i t y and u n d e n i a b l e i n f l u e n c e on a l l who g a t h e r e d about him, read e x t e n s i v e l y i n American l i t e r a t u r e . He s t r o n g l y endorsed the w r i t e r s o f the American \ T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t group, p a r t i c u l a r l y Emerson, and t h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n 311 i s r e f l e c t e d i n the s u b s t a n t i a l American h o l d i n g s i n h i s c o l 1 e c t i o n . H i s l i b r a r y c o n t a i n e d the works o f , among o t h e r s , Emerson, Channing, F u l l e r , Holmes, Poe, and a German t r a n s l a t i o n o f Stowe's U n c l e Tom's Cab i n. In a d d i t i o n , he c o u l d s u p p l y eager borrowers o f the " C i r c l e " w i t h an anonymous Handbook o f American L i t e r a t u r e , Samuel K e t t e l l ' s Specimens o f American P o e t r y (1829) and the f i r s t volume of the E c l e c t i c Magazine (New Y o r k , 1846) . Second, most o f the members o f Stenhouse's group, perhaps i n p a r t because o f t h e i r p a t r o n ' s i n t e r e s t , d i s p l a y e d a keen sympathy f o r American w r i t i n g . At t i m e s American a u t h o r s dominated the c o n v e r s a t i o n . R i c h a r d Rowe, not a g r e a t a d m i r e r h i m s e l f o f Emerson's p h i l o s o p h i c a l musings, c o u l d r e c a l l many c o n g e n i a l e v e n i n g s w i t h " l i t e r a r y f r i e n d s 48 t a l k i n g t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m . . . ." F o w l e r , c e r t a i n l y , was s t e e p e d i i n Emersonian p h i l o s o p h y and l i t e r a r y s t y l e - - a p r e o c c u p a t i o n which caused q u i t e a s t i r i n the s l i m w o r l d o f c o l o n i a l l e t t e r s . For him, Emerson's e s s a y s " c o n t a i n e d the p u r e s t i d e a l i s m , s i m p l e s t r e l i g i o n , 49 and p r o f o u n d e s t t h o u g h t . " There i s no doubt t h a t the major works o f American p o l i t i c a l and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e e x e r t e d a p o w e r f u l e f f e c t on the A u s t r a l i a n i m a g i n a t i o n i n the F o r t i e s , F i f t i e s and S i x t i e s . They l a r g e l y shaped the A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r ' s concept o f A m e r i c a . However, the impact o f the Americans a c t u a l l y r e s i d e n t i n A u s t r a l i a a t the time cannot be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d - - i n p a r t i c u l a r , the e x i l e d Yankee p r i s o n e r s s e n t t o Van Diemen's Land f o r t h e i r p a r t i n the Upper Canadian r e b e l l i o n , 312 and the merchants and miners who came v o l u n t a r i l y , h u n g r i l y , t o A u s t r a l i a ' s s h o r e s i n s e a r c h o f a f a s t f o r t u n e . I t i s t o them t h a t we must now t u r n . 3 1 3 S e c t i o n B Deeper i n t o the V o r t e x ^ 0 '.'Be c a r e f u l , s i r , t o r e s t r a i n your e v i l p r o p e n s i t i e s here. Your n o t i o n s o f l i b e r t y and e q u a l i t y must be kept w i t h i n your own b r e a s t . Van Diemen's Land i s not A m e r i c a . " S i r John F r a n k l i n , Governor o f Van Diemen's Land, t o American e x i l e L i n u s W. M i l l e r , 184051 In 1837-8, a r e b e l l i o n took p l a c e i n Upper and Lower Canada as E n g l i s h and F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g C a n a d i a n s , c h a f i n g under the d e s p o t i s m and p a t r o n a g e o f a r b i t r a r y B r i t i s h r u l e , sought t o r e f o r m c e r t a i n a b h o r r e n t s e c t i o n s o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n r e l a t i n g t o c o l o n i e s . They f e l t t h e m s e l v e s e n t i t l e d t o a government more f i r m l y c o n t r o l l e d by l o c a l c i t i z e n s . As might be e x p e c t e d , many of the Upper Canadian r e b e l s , w i t h whom t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l be c o n c e r n e d , were Americans who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the u p r i s i n g f o r a v a r i e t y o f i d e a l i s t i c and economic reasons ( w h i l e the g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f r e b e l s i n Lower Canada were French C a n a d i a n s ) . The r e v o l t f a i l e d d i s m a l l y . B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y and j u d i c i a l might moved q u i c k l y f i r s t t o c r u s h the o u t b r e a k s o f v i o l e n c e , and then s u i t a b l y p u n i s h the deeds o f the p r i n c i p a l i n s u r g e n t s . Twenty-nine men were e x e c u t e d ; e i g h t d e p o r t e d t o Bermuda; n i n e t y - s i x 314 French Canadians were s e n t t o New South Wales; w h i l e f i f t y - e i g h t A n g l o - C a n a d i a n s and U n i t e d S t a t e s c i t i z e n s found themselves b a n i s h e d t o Van Diemen's Land. Between J u l y , 1839 and F e b r u a r y , 1840, t h r e e s h i p s conveyed the e x i l e s t o H o b a r t , the m a j o r i t y , s e v e n t y - e i g h t i n a l l , aboard the B u f f a l o , the l a s t s h i p t o a r r i v e i n the s o u t h e r n --. c o l o n y . Van Diemen's Land made a p r o f o u n d i m p r e s s i o n on the Canadian P a t r i o t s . A r r i v i n g i n the i s l a n d p r i s o n a t a l m o s t e x a c t l y the same time as C h a r l e s W i l k e s and h i s f l e e t s a i l e d i n t o Sydney Harbour t o r e s t , r e s t o c k and r u m i n a t e on the r e p u b l i c a n p r o s p e c t s f o r New South Wales, the e x i l e s w i t n e s s e d the o p e r a t i o n s o f B r i t i s h j u s t i c e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n from a f a r l e s s p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n . P r i s o n e r s , they soon f o u n d , had no r i g h t s . E s p e c i a l l y p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s . T h e i r f r e e countrymen, bound f o r the A n t a r c t i c , might g i v e vent t o d e m o c r a t i c musings, but the P a t r i o t s ' o n l y c o n c e r n was e s c a p i n g D e v i l ' s I s l a n d and r e t u r n i n g home. Seven of the e x i l e s , on r e t u r n i n g t o A m e r i c a a t v a r i o u s i n t e r v a l s t h r o u g h o u t the 1 8 4 0 's,determined t o 53 r e c o r d t h e i r i m p r e s s i o n s o f and r e a c t i o n s t o e n f o r c e d banishment. Of t h e s e , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e group o f t h r e e w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o a t l e n g t h : the n a r r a t i v e s o f the Canadian Benjamin W a i t , and the Americans W i l l i a m Gates and L i n u s W. M i l l e r . The o t h e r s , a l o n g w i t h a more r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d book on a n o t h e r o f the P a t r i o t s , E l i j a h Woodman, w i l l be mentioned o n l y as they expand the major l i n e s o f argument i n 54 a way t h a t the t h r e e s e l e c t e d n a r r a t i v e s cannot do. The s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s o f the p r i s o n e r s ' e x i l e have been a d e q u a t e l y c o v e r e d e l s e w h e r e . 5 3 1 5 My c o n c e r n h e r e i s t o p l a c e t h e w o r k s i n a l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t , s h o w i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t h e y make t o A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h c o n v i c t i s m i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . When M a r c u s C l a r k e s e r i a 1 i s e d h i s g r e a t ' b u t u n e v e n w o r k on c o n v i c t i s m , H i s N a t u r a l L i f e , b e t w e e n 1 8 7 0 and 1 8 7 2 , and p u b l i s h e d c o n v i c t - r e l a t e d m a t e r i a l i n O l d T a l e s o f a Young C o u n t r y ( 1 8 7 1 ) , he i n i t i a t e d t h e m o s t f r u i t f u l n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a t t e m p t a r t i s t i c a l l y t o come t o t e r m s w i t h A u s t r a l i a ' s t a r n i s h e d c r i m i n a l p a s t . But h i s s i n g u l a r c o n t r i b u t i o n was o n l y o n e o f a s e r i e s o f s u c h a t t e m p t s , r a n g i n g f r o m t h e e a r l y i d e a l i z e d a c c o u n t o f c o n v i c t l i f e , Q_u i n t u s S e r v i n t o n ( 1 8 3 0 - 1 ) , by H e n r y S a v e r y , t o t h e d a r k l y r e a l i s t i c s t o r i e s o f W i l l i a m A s t l e y ( " P r i c e W a r u n g " ) i n c o m p i l a t i o n s s u c h a s T a l e s o f t h e C o n v i c t S y s t e m ( 1 8 9 2 ) . Some k i n d o f f i t f u l t r a d i t i o n , t h a t i s t o s a y , e x i s t s i n A u s t r a l i a n 1 i t e r a t u r e - - t o w h i c h c e l e b r a t e d a u t h o r s l i k e Thomas K e n e a l l y a n d P a t r i c k W h i t e h a v e , more r e c e n t l y , c o n t r i b u t e d . T h e w o r k s o f t h e A m e r i c a n P a t r i o t s , who came t o A u s t r a l i a i n s u c h g r i m and e x a c t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n 1 8 3 9 _ 4 0 , n e e d t o be a c c o r d e d a p l a c e i n t h a t t r a d i t i o n , e v e n t h o u g h t h e i r b o o k s w e r e n o t p u b l i s h e d i n A u s t r a l i a . 5 7 T h e n a r r a t i v e s d e s e r v e r e c o g n i t i o n f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s : t h e y d e a l , a t f i r s t h a n d , w i t h t h e e v e n t s , p e o p l e a n d p l a c e s w h i c h C l a r k e and Warung d i s c o v e r e d o n l y t h r o u g h e x h a u s t i v e r e s e a r c h , and t o t h a t e x t e n t c o n v e y an i m m e d i a c y , v i t a l i t y a n d , a t t i m e s , a s a r d o n i c humour o f s u r v i v a l w h i c h l a t e r f i c t i o n w r i t e r s , p e r h a p s , c o u l d n o t e m u l a t e ; t h e i r a c c o u n t s , t h e p r o d u c t s o f s u r p r i s i n g l y l i v e l y a n d i n q u i r i n g 316 minds, a r e i n t r i g u i n g as l i t e r a t u r e ( W a i t ' s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , b e i n g rg a r t i s t i c a l l y o r g a n i z e d as a " f o u n d " novel ); they a d m i r a b l y r e f l e c t the t e n a c i t y o f the human s p i r i t , r e c o r d i n g the l o f t y s e n t i m e n t s o f men committed t o a s e t o f i d e a l s , and p r e p a r e d t o d i e f o r t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s i f n e c e s s a r y ; they f o c u s our a t t e n t i o n on N o r t h American men f i g h t i n g f o r e x a c t l y the same c o n c e s s i o n s as would occupy the minds o f A u s t r a l i a n s f o r decades t o come; and, f i n a l l y , they r e p r e s e n t f u r t h e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f the s h a r e d ground between A u s t r a l i a and A m e r i c a , and the l i t e r a t u r e s o f t h o s e two c o u n t r i e s . Here a r e a g g r e s s i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n e x p e r i e n c i n g , a t c l o s e q u a r t e r s , the g r i m u n d e r c u r r e n t s o f the B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l sea. I n s p i r e d by the nerve and v i g o u r o f American n a t i o n a l i s m , which l a t e r c r y s t a l l i z e d as the i d e o l o g y of Young A m e r i c a , the American P a t r i o t s sought t o r e a l i z e the d e s t i n y o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s by t a k i n g p o s i t i v e s t e p s towards e n t r e n c h i n g t h o s e i d e a l s i n Canada. That they d i d n ' t p r o p a g a n d i z e i n Van Diemen's Land i s a measure o f the b r u t a l i t y and h o r r o r o f the system a g a i n s t which they were r e a c t i n g , and the sing1e-mindedness o f t h e i r endeavour t o r e t u r n "Home"-- meaning, i n c o n t r a s t t o the p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f a number o f t h e i r c o l o n i a l c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , the U n i t e d S t a t e s , not E n g l a n d . When compared t o the l o t o f the F r e n c h - C a n a d i a n e x i l e s i n Sydney, the Upper Canadian i n s u r g e n t s r e c e i v e d e x t r e m e l y h a r s h t r e a t m e n t . B r i t a i n ' s f i g u r e h e a d s i n the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s i n the 1840's, l i k e t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s , had l i t t l e time f o r e i t h e r p e t t y t h i e v e s , poachers o r m u r d e r e r s . But they a c t i v e l y d e s p i s e d t r e a s o n o u s a c t i v i t y . S i r 3 1 7 G e o r g e A r t h u r , L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r o f U p p e r C a n a d a i n 1 8 3 8 (and f o r m e r h o l d e r o f t h e same o f f i c e i n V a n D i e m e n ' s L a n d , 1824-6), g a v e t h e P a t r i o t s some i d e a o f what k i n d o f r e c e p t i o n t h e y c o u l d e x p e c t f r o m o f f i c i a l d o m i n t h e i r l a n d o f e x i l e i n h i s d e a l i n g s w i t h them b e f o r e s e n t e n c e was p a s s e d . T h e " o l d s i n n e r , " a s G a t e s c a l l e d h i m , had g a i n e d p r o m o t i o n t o t h e C a n a d i a n p o s t i n p a r t b e c a u s e o f h i s r e p u t a t i o n , 59 a c q u i r e d i n T a s m a n i a , f o r i n f l e x i b l e t r e a t m e n t o f d i s s i d e n t s . A r t h u r a p p r e c i a t e d s o b e r b e h a v i o u r and i n d u s t r i o u s h a b i t s i n h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s ; b u t t h e m i n u t e a n y o n e t h r e a t e n e d h i s o f f i c e , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , he r e s p o n d e d v i c i o u s l y . He s u f f e r e d n o t f o o l s , had a 60 d i s t i n c t p r o p e n s i t y f o r h a n g i n g s , a n d a b h o r r e d r e b e l s . M r s . B e n j a m i n W a i t , f o r y e a r s a s t u b b o r n a g i t a t o r f o r t h e f r e e i n g o f h e r h u s b a n d a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e P a t r i o t s , s o o n r e c o g n i z e d t h a t s h e " c o u l d n o t e x p e c t e v e n a p a r t i c l e o f m e r c y " f r o m " t h e b l o o d - s t a i n e d h a n d s o f A r t h u r . " ^ ' Nor w o u l d A r t h u r ' s s u c c e s s o r i n Van D i e m e n ' s L a n d , S i r J o h n F r a n k l i n , a man o f g r o s s p h y s i c a l p r o p o r t i o n s , h e a r o f a n y s u g g e s t i o n o f l e n i e n c y f o r men f o u n d g u i l t y o f c h a l l e n g i n g t h e c o l o n i a l power o f t h e B r i t i s h L i o n . On b e i n g i n f o r m e d t h a t many o f t h e C a n a d i a n r e b e l s w e r e , i n f a c t , A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s , F r a n k l i n r e p u t e d l y r e p l i e d , " S o much t h e w o r s e . You Y a n k e e s y m p a t h i s e r s must e x p e c t t o be p u n i s h e d . I do n o t c o n s i d e r t h e s i m p l e C a n a d i a n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e F r e n c h i n Lower C a n a d a , s o much t o b l a m e , a s t h e y h a v e b e e n e x c i t e d t o r e b e l l i o n by 62 y o u Y a n k e e s . " D e s p i t e b e i n g a nephew o f t h e " i m m o r t a l B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n , " i n L i n u s M i l l e r ' s w o r d s , he had d e c i d e d l y E n g l i s h a r i s t o c r a t i c 318 sympathies and r e g a r d e d the r e b e l s as the w o r s t k i n d o f c r i m i n a l w r e t c h . Throughout the s h o r t h i s t o r y o f the B r i t i s h o c c u p a t i o n o f New H o l l a n d , E n g l i s h b u r e a u c r a t s had a l m o s t unanimously d i s a p p r o v e d o f the p r i n c i p l e s f o r which the American R e v o l u t i o n had taken p l a c e , and t h a t c o u n t r y ' s r e p u b l i c a n c i t i z e n r y . F r a n k l i n , no e x c e p t i o n , would make the l o t o f the i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t s he had i n h i s c h a r g e as u n c o m f o r t a b l e as p o s s i b l e . C o n f r o n t e d by t h i s o f f i c i a l d i s a p p r o b a t i o n , the e x i l e s a p p a r e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d t o c l i n g even more t i g h t l y t o the p r i n c i p l e s which had o r i g i n a l l y m o t i v a t e d them t o j o i n the f r a c a s i n Upper Canada. P e r u s i n g the n a r r a t i v e s , one i s c o n s t a n t l y made aware of the r e p u b l i c a n t e n e t s t h a t the a u t h o r s s t o o d f o r , and f o u g h t f o r , and the l e n g t h s t o which they were p r e p a r e d t o go t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r humanity and, above a l l , i n t e g r i t y - - i n c o n d i t i o n s h o s t i l e t o t h e i r v e r y l i v e s , much l e s s b e l i e f s . The d e t e r m i n a t i o n and courage o f the S c o t t i s h M a r t y r s , e a r l y " v i s i t o r s " t o Botany Bay because o f t h e i r adherence t o the r i g h t s o f man p u b l i c i z e d by Thomas P a i n e , r e a p p e a r s i n the P a t r i o t a c c o u n t s , which were w r i t t e n i n p a r t t o c e l e b r a t e t h e i r t r i u m p h over the t e r r i b l e Tasmanian h a r d s h i p s . Because o f t h e i r d e v o t i o n t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f the American C o n s t i t u t i o n , as l a i d down by J e f f e r s o n and h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , and t h e i r t o t a l b e l i e f i n the u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h o s e p r i n c i p l e s , the e x i l e s always exuded a c e r t a i n s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s which made i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r them t o be c o e r c e d by t h e i r f o r b i d d i n g e n v i ronment. C o n f i d e n c e i n the j u s t n e s s o f t h e i r cause pervades the n a r r a t i v e s . 3 1 9 T h e s e a r e m e n a s s u r e d o f t h e i r r i g h t s a s c i t z e n s o f t h e s t a t e i n a w a y t h a t m a n y A u s t r a l i a n s o f t h e t i m e w e r e n o t . T h e i n d e f a t i g a b l e B e n W a i t , i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o h i s L e t t e r s f r o m V a n D i e m e n ' s L a n d , c a t a l o g u e s t h e s u m o f U p p e r C a n a d i a n g r i e v a n c e s ; a m o n g t h e m a r e t h e a b s e n c e o f a l l s e c u r i t y f o r l i f e a n d p r o p e r t y , t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e l i b e r t y o f t h e p r e s s , w a s t e o f p u b l i c r e v e n u e " a m o n g s w a r m s o f f o r e i g n o f f i c i a l s " a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e C o l o n i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n . A l l s t e m , c l a i m s W a i t , f r o m " t h e e x i s t e n c e 6 4 o f a n a r b i t r a r y , a r r o g a n t , v i n d i c t i v e , a n d f r a u d u l e n t o l i g a r c h y . . . . " H i s c h a r g e s e c h o t h o s e o f t h e A m e r i c a n r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s i n 1 7 7 6 ; a n d , i n f a c t , a m o u n t t o p r e c i s e l y t h e s a m e o b j e c t i o n s , t h o u g h m o r e c a u s t i c a l l y s t a t e d , t h a t ; i n c r e a s i n g 1 y m o b i l i z e d a g e n e r a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a n s t o a g i t a t e f o r r e s p o n s i b l e g o v e r n m e n t b e t w e e n 1 8 2 4 a n d 1 8 5 6 . T h e l a r g e n u m b e r o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g A m e r i c a n s , t h e n a r r a t i v e s i n d i c a t e , r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e C a n a d i a n p r e d i c a m e n t t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s ' p l i g h t i n t h e e a r l y 1 7 7 0 1 s - L i n u s M i l l e r , t h e e r r a t i c b u t c o m p e l l i n g l a w - s t u d e n t - c u m - r e b e l , p u t s i t b e s t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f N o t e s : I n t h e i r d i s t r e s s t h e y h a d t u r n e d t h e i r e y e s t o t h e s e U n i t e d S t a t e s ; s t u d i e d o u r g l o r i o u s a n d p e a c e f u l i n s t i t u t i o n s , u n t i l t h e y i m b i b e d t h e s p i r i t o f t h e h e r o e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n , a n d f e l t t h e G o d - l i k e d i v i n i t y o f l i b e r t y s t i r r i n g w i t h i n t h e i r s o u l s , a n d r o u s i n g t h e i r s l u m b e r i n g e n e r g i e s t o a c t i o n . ^ A l l C a n a d a , M i l l e r m a i n t a i n s , c r i e d o u t f o r h e l p ; i t w a s a c a l l w h i c h 6 6 n o p a t r i o t i c A m e r i c a n c o u l d p o s s i b l y i g n o r e . T h e f i r s t c h a p t e r o f M i l l e r ' s a c c o u n t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s t h e f e r v o u r o f t h e c o n c e r n e d 320 r e p u b l i c a n . H i s language i s s t e e p e d i n the r h e t o r i c a l s p l e n d o u r o f a committed a d v o c a t e o f J e f f e r s o n i a n democracy and P a i n e ' s r a d i c a l pronouncements. H i s comrades s c a r c e l y d i f f e r e d . 6 7 In the f i r s t c h a p t e r o f R e c o l 1 e c t i o n s , W i l l i a m G a t e s , the t w e n t y - t w o - y e a r - o l d f a r m e r , exudes the t r u e s p i r i t o f J e f f e r s o n ' s D e c l a r a t i o n i n h i s w i s h t h a t . . . Heaven speed the time when they [ t h e C a n a d i a n s ] t o o , l i k e the f a v o u r e d p e o p l e o f our own g l a d R e p u b l i c , s h a l l s i t under t h e i r v i n e s and f i g t r e e s w i t h o u t m o l e s t a t i o n , and i n t h a t f u l l and f r e e l i b e r t y which i s the i n a l i e n a b l e boon o f a l 1 men.68 P a i n e had t a l k e d o f " t h e seed time o f c o n t i n e n t a l u n i o n , f a i t h and 69 honor." The P a t r i o t s m e r e l y wanted t o c a s t the seeds a l i t t l e w i d e r and s t r e t c h the c o n t i n e n t a l i t t l e f u r t h e r . But they c o u l d n ' t s t r e t c h so f a r as t o i n c l u d e remote and b a r b a r o u s Van Diemen's Land. Inflamed by J e f f e r s o n ' s v i n d i c a t i o n o f each man's i n h e r e n t w o r t h , and P a i n e ' s c l a i m t h a t "as r e v o l u t i o n s have begun . . . i t i s n a t u r a l t o e x p e c t t h a t o t h e r r e v o l u t i o n s w i l l f o l l o w , " the American r e b e l s regarded t h e i r a c t i o n s i n Canada as n o t h i n g l e s s than t h e i r s a c r e d d u t y . P a i n e had e x h o r t e d them t o p r e a c h w i d e l y i n " t h i s day o f r e v o l u t i o n s , " and b e l i e v e i n the j u s t n e s s o f t h e i r c a u s e . 7 ^ For t h i s r e a s o n , a l l the P a t r i o t s c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e j e c t e d the l e g a l i t y o f t h e i r imprisonment and e x i l e . 7 ' They were not common c r i m i n a l s , and f e l t i n s u l t e d by the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r E n g l i s h p r i s o n warders t o c a t e g o r i z e them i n t h i s way; and worse, t o put them i n the same c e l l s as m u r d e r e r s , p r o s t i t u t e s , d r u n k a r d s and pimps, 321 the " o f f s c o u r i n g s o f E n g l a n d . " The P a t r i o t s f e l t s o i l e d by the e x p e r i e n c e , a f a c t w h i c h , perhaps b e t t e r than any o t h e r , e x p l a i n s t h e i r d e s i r e t o f l e e Van Diemen's Land as soon as p o s s i b l e , r a t h e r than view i t as a n o t h e r f r o n t i e r d e s p e r a t e l y i n need o f e x p o s u r e t o d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s . M i l l e r , i n one o f h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y b r a s h l e t t e r s w r i t t e n j u s t p r i o r t o an u n s u c c e s s f u l escape attempt, a r t i c u 1 a t e d the e x i 1 e s 1 s t a n d : . . . we have r i g h t s , w h i c h , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the c o n v i c t a p p a r e l upon our p e r s o n s , g a l l i n g c h a i n s upon our l i m b s , and the menial t a s k s which we a r e made t o p e r f o r m , we have never f o r f e i t e d . From the p e r i o d o f our f i r s t imprisonment i n Canada, t h o s e r i g h t s have been t r a m p l e d upon and v i o l a t e d . T r i e d under a p r o v i n c i a l a c t , e v i d e n t l y u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and repugnant t o the laws o f E n g l a n d , - - nay, not t r i e d , f o r the p r o c e e d i n g a g a i n s t us d e s e r v e d not the name o f a t r i a 1,--dragged t h r o u g h a thousand h o r r o r s t o the s h o r e s o f t h i s " f r e e and happy E n g l a n d , " i t was n a t u r a l f o r us t o hope f o r some a m e l i o r a t i o n o f our woes where the d i v i n i t y o f j u s t i c e p r e s i d e d i n p e r s o n ; but the e x p e r i e n c e o f a few months has t a u g h t us t h a t hopes founded upon so b a s e l e s s a f a b r i c must be v a i n and d e l u s i v e . 7 3 Because o f t h i s i l l e g a l imprisonment, the P a t r i o t s r e g a r d e d themselves not as p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s , but as s l a v e s . In a l e t t e r t o h i s f a t h e r , E l i j a h Woodman c l o s e d w i t h a s t a n z a o f v e r s e musing on the blows o f f o r t u n e : Oh t h i n k on my f a t e , I once freedom e n j o y e d , Was happy as happy c o u l d be. From you I am s e v e r e d , as a s l a v e I'm employed And d e b a r r e d the sweet j o y s o f the f r e e . 7 4 Woodman was c e r t a i n l y no p o e t , but h i s l e t t e r s have a poignancy and, i n t h e i r s i m p l e way, a d i g n i t y o f c o m p o s i t i o n t h a t much contemporaneous 322 b e l 1 e s t r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d A u s t r a l i a c o u l d n o t e q u a l . In s p i t e o f t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r e s s e n t i a 1 power 1 e s s n e s s i n t h e i r s o m b r e , e n f o r c e d home, i n s p i t e o f b e i n g c o m p e l l e d t o c o n t e m p l a t e l i f e a s " a m a n a c l e d s l a v e , " a l l t h e P a t r i o t s r e f u s e d t o c a p i t u l a t e t o B r i t a i n ' s s y s t e m o f c o n v i c t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . 7 5 F o r t h e m , i t r e p r e s e n t e d o n e o f t h e m o s t d r e a d f u l f o r m s o f l e g a l i z e d b r u t a 1 i t y and human d e g r a d a t i o n . And t h e y w o u l d n o t be f l o g g e d . F l o g g i n g was t h e most common f o r m o f p e n a l d i s c i p l i n e , b u t D a n i e l H e u s t i s , a V e r m o n t n a t i v e a n d o n e o f t h e m o s t i n t e l l i g e n t members o f t h e P a t r i o t s , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t " n o n e o f 76 t h e A m e r i c a n s w e r e f l o g g e d . " As o n e , t h e y r e f u s e d t o s u b m i t t h e m s e l v e s t o t h i s i n d i g n i t y . T h e A m e r i c a n C o n s t i t u t i o n ' s E i g h t h Amendment (1791) deems " a n y c r u e l o r u n e q u a l p u n i s h m e n t " i l l e g a l . 7 7 No d o u b t t h e e x i l e s f e l t f l o g g i n g v i o l a t e d b o t h t h e c r i t e r i a c i t e d i n t h e a m e n d m e n t . T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y - r e f u s e d t o y i e l d on t h i s p o i n t , t h e y w e r e a t l e a s t a b l e t o mount a muted p e r s o n a l p r o t e s t . M i l l e r s t a t e d t h a t he f e l t he " c o u l d e n d u r e a n y t h i n g b u t a f l o g g i n g ; and e v e n t h e t o r t u r e o f t h e l a s h I c a r e d b u t l i t t l e f o r , b u t t h e d e g r a d a t i o n I c o u l d n o t b e a r ; a n d r e s o l v e d t h a t I w o u l d n o t . " S t u b b o r n a d v o c a c y l e d t o a number o f h e a t e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h p r i s o n o v e r s e e r s , b u t , i f H e u s t i s i s r i g h t , t h e P a t r i o t s c e l e b r a t e d a s m a l l b u t i m p o r t a n t t r i u m p h on t h i s i s s u e . F i r s t - h a n d e x p e r i e n c e o f l i f e on a t r a n s p o r t s h i p and i n a d e s p e r a t e p e n a l c o l o n y o b v i o u s l y c r e a t e d an i n d e l i b l e i m p r e s s i o n on e a c h o n e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l e x i l e s . T h e y r e a c t e d by c r i t i c i z i n g n o t 323 j u s t t h e s e o b v i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a c r u e l and u n f e e l i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , but the w o r k i n g s o f the e n t i r e B r i t i s h s o c i a l system. The Van Diemonian o r d e a l c o n f i r m e d t h e i r w o r s t s u s p i c i o n s o f , and p r e j u d i c e s towards the r e a l n a t u r e o f the government t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s had o v e r t h r o w n . W a i t , M i l l e r and Gates a s s a i l the s o r d i d m a c h i n a t i o n s o f E n g l i s h power a t e v e r y l e v e l - - t h e i n d u l g e n c e s o f E n g l i s h monarchy and i t s a r i s t o c r a c y , the c o r r u p t i o n and i n h u m a n i t y o f c o l o n i a l o f f i c i a l s such as A r t h u r 79 and F r a n k l i n , and the i n e q u a l i t i e s o f the E n g l i s h c l a s s system. M i l l e r w r y l y q u e s t i o n s the c r e d i b i l i t y o f a p e o p l e ' s P a r l i a m e n t which c o u l d spend "Seventy thousand pounds s t e r l i n g f o r her M a j e s t y ' s s t a b l e s , and t h i r t y - f i v e thousand f o r p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n the kingdom o f 80 G r e a t B r i t a i n and I r e l a n d ! " Wait r e g a r d s h i s whole endeavour as m o t i v a t e d by "a d e s i r e o f e x p o s i n g the system o f t r e a c h e r y and consummate b a r b a r i t y , as p r a c t i c e d . . . by the ' s e l f s t y l e d ' generous, 81 1i be ra 1 and humane B r i t i s h government." Adherence t o what s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s c o u l d p o s s i b l y l e a d a government t o l e n d i t s c o n s e n t t o an a r e a under i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n c o n t i n u a l l y p e r p e t r a t i n g the w o r s t k i n d s o f c r u e l t y on thousands o f men, women and c h i l d r e n ? For W a i t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , might p e r m a n e n t l y r e s i d e s i n the hands, as Gates puts i t , o f "a number o f her q u e e n s h i p ' s most d u t i f u l m i n i o n s , " t h o s e men 83 e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d i n a u n i f o r m " t i n s e l l e d w i t h B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t y . " Van Diemen's Land, f o r the P a t r i o t s , r e p r e s e n t e d one o f the w o r s t a b e r r a t i o n s o f a c a n k e r e d system r e s o l u t e l y opposed t o men a s s e r t i n g t h e i r i n d e f e a s i b l e r i g h t s . Hence, i g n o r a n t o f the e x i s t e n c e of any t h e r e i s o n l y one And, 324 r e p u b l i c a n s e n t i m e n t on the i s l a n d , much l e s s the m a i n l a n d , they c o u l d n ' t p o s s i b l y embrace the cause o f democracy i n a l a n d which s y m b o l i z e d the a n t i t h e s i s o f t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s . They saw o n l y a g i a n t p r i s o n . And hated i t . R e f e r r i n g t o i t v a r i o u s l y as " t h a t d e t e s t a b l e penal c o l o n y , " " t h e p u r g a t o r y o f E n g l a n d , " and " t h a t c u r s e d l a n d o f Van Diemen," a l l d e l i g h t e d i n l e a v i n g the i s l a n d a t l a s t , as one might s t r u g g l e f r e e , f i n a l l y , from the h i t h e r t o i r o n g r i p o f L u c i f e r him- 84 s e l f . They s t r o v e t o s t a y a l i v e o n l y because o f the p o s s i b i l i t y o f once a g a i n r e a c h i n g A m e r i c a ' s s h o r e s — t h a t "Land o f Freedom," 85 "asylum f o r the o p p r e s s e d " and "home o f the f r e e and the b r a v e . " They had t o make i t back b e f o r e they d i e d ; and when a t l a s t they d i d r e t u r n , f o r one o f the e x i l e s the n o r t h e r n heavens t h e m s e l v e s e l i c i t e d a r e s p o n s e : In c r o s s i n g the e q u a t o r , the s o u t h e r n c r o s s soon d i s - a p p e a r e d , w h i l e the n o r t h e r n s t a r , which had been h i d d e n from my view so l o n g , g r a d u a l l y a r o s e above the h o r i z o n , and I h a i l e d i t s f i r s t appearance as I would have done the f a c e o f an o l d f r i e n d . ^ P r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h a d e s i r e t o r e t u r n home i n e v i t a b l y meant t h a t i l l e g a l f l i g h t never v e n t u r e d f a r from t h e i r t h o u g h t s , though o f a l l the P a t r i o t s who committed t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s t o p r i n t , o n l y Wait 87 managed a s u c c e s s f u l escape. M i l l e r t r i e d r e p e a t e d 1 y — e n d i n g up a t the dreaded P o r t A r t h u r p r i s o n f o r one such a t t e m p t — b u t , l i k e most o f h i s countrymen, he e x p e r i e n c e d the f r u s t r a t i o n (and, i n Van Diemen's Land, the t e r r o r ) o f c o n t i n u a l f a i l u r e . For some t i m e , the P a t r i o t s c l e a r l y viewed escape as the o n l y v a 1 i d response t o t h e i r 325 c o n t e m p t i b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . However, as t h i s o u t l e t proved i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t , i f not i m p o s s i b l e a f t e r Wait and two o t h e r P a t r i o t s s u c c e s s - f u l l y escaped i n 1842, they adopted a l t e r n a t e means o f s u r v i v a l : an a b s o l u t e commitment t o independent b e h a v i o u r and t h o u g h t , and a d e s i r e t o make the b e s t o f t h e i r l o t . The l a t t e r o f t e n took the form o f s a r d o n i c a l l y humorous a p p r a i s a l s o f e v e n t s and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f r e s i d e n t b u r e a u c r a t s . The P a t r i o t s would not be cowed by the b a r b a r i t y s u r r o u n d i n g them. In t h e i r a c c o u n t s , w r i t t e n so soon a f t e r r e t u r n i n g t h a t the t e r r i b l e memories were s t i l l f r e s h , they a l l r e f u s e d t o i n d u l g e i n 88 s e n s a t i o n a l i s m . Indeed, they i n t e n t i o n a l l y a v o i d e d the more h o r r i f y i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e i r y e a r s i n e x i l e . G a t e s ' a c h i n g r e a c t i o n i s t y p i c a l : There a r e s u f f e r i n g s t h e r e [ i n Van Diemen's Land] which not o n l y rend the f l e s h and break down the s t a l w a r t h e a r t o f proud manhood, but they p i e r c e the inmost s p i r i t and make dead e v e r y f e e l i n g o f humanity. There c o u l d be t a l e s t o l d o f t h a t , i s l a n d t h a t would c u r d l e the b l o o d - - t a l e s t h a t would make man b l u s h t o t h i n k them t r u e o f h i s f e l l o w man, and w h i c h , i f one s h o u l d r e l a t e them so f a r away, h i s l i s t e n e r s would but t h i n k him a t t e m p t i n g a game upon t h e i r c r e d u 1 i t y - - s o f i e n d - l i k e a r e many o f the h e l l i s h s o u l s t h a t l o r d i t t h e r e but b r i e f l y o v e r a gang o f t h e i r f e l l o w c l a y . I would not speak thus h a r s h l y ; but when one t h i n k s o f t h o s e s u f f e r i n g s which bowed h i s s p i r i t even t o the d u s t - - t h a t c r u s h e d and took from him h i s manhood, and degraded him t o t h e l e v e l o f a b e a s t , he must indeed be a man o f more p a t i e n c e than was even J o b , i f he can smother the b i t t e r n e s s o f h i s h e a r t . ^ T h i s i s a s t a t e m e n t o f g r e a t c o u r a g e - - u p l i f t i n g i r r i t s s p i r i t even as i t p r o f e s s e s i n t i m i d a t i o n . G a t e s , l i k e h i s f e l l o w s , endured. What c o n t i n u a l l y s u r p r i s e s one i n the n a r r a t i v e s i s each a u t h o r ' s a b i l i t y t o r i s e above h i s immediate s u r r o u n d i n g s i n a v a r i e t y o f ways: a spontaneous r e a c t i o n (such as the r o a r o f l a u g h t e r which 9 0 f o l l o w e d t h e i r b e i n g f i r s t a c c o u t r e d i n c o n v i c t c l o t h i n g ) , a b o a s t , 91 a d e c l a r a t i o n o f f a i t h , o r , sometimes, a wry j o k e . S u r v i v a l t a c t i c s pervade the a c c o u n t s . E a r l y i n t o t'heir imprisonment, the P a t r i o t s made a p o i n t o f c e l e b r a t i n g Independence Day i n d e f i a n c e o f t h e i r conf i nement: Out o f s e v e r a l pocket h a n d k e r c h i e f s a f l a g was m a n u f a c t u r e d , as n e a r l y r e s e m b l i n g the " s t a r - s p a n g l e d banner" as we c o u l d c o n v e n i e n t l y make i t . We p r o c u r e d some lemons and s u g a r , which e n a b l e d us t o pass around a r e f r e s h i n g bowl o f lemon- ade. . . . the heroes o f ' 7 6 were d u l y remembered. . . . 9 2 Songs sometimes f i l l e d the a i r i n a low moment. N e e d l e s s t o say, most were e i t h e r p a t r i o t i c o r n o s t a l g i c i n n a t u r e . P o p u l a r ones i n c l u d e d " H a i l C o l u m b i a , " "The S t a r - S p a n g l e d Banner," "Hunters o f 9 3 K e n t u c k y " and "Yankee Doodle." In t h i s , E l i j a h Woodman, one o f the group's more s e n i o r c i t i z e n s (he was f o r t y - t w o when i m p r i s o n e d ^ and he never d i d make i t back t o h i s homeland, d y i n g on the s h i p g o i n g back ) , p l a y e d a prominent and r e c o g n i z e d p u b l i c r o l e . On one o c c a s i o n , when s p i r i t s were d e p r e s s e d , he " s t r u c k u p ' P r e t t y Susan 1 and c o n t i n u e d s i n g i n g f o r some t i m e " t o e n l i v e n h i s despondent com- 9 5 p a n i o n s . On a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n , M i l l e r r e c o r d s , a p a r t y o f e x i l e s had j u s t r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r huts a f t e r a c h e e r l e s s day w o r k i n g i n m i s e r a b l e Van Diemonian r a i n : 327 A l l were s i l e n t . D r o o p i n g heads and sad countenances i n d i c a t e d t h a t the t h o u g h t s o f the m e l a n c h o l y p a r t y were o f b i t t e r wrongs, o r perchance o f d i s t a n t home and f r i e n d s . . . . Suddenly Mr. Woodman sprang from h i s b e r t h t o the f l o o r , and i n a tone o f v o i c e t h a t might have been heard a m i l e , s t r u c k up " t h e h u n t e r s o f K e n t u c k y . " The e f f e c t was i n s t a n t a n e o u s . As i f e l e c t r i f i e d , e v e r y man sprang t o the f l o o r ; s i c k , b l i n d and h a l t , j o i n e d i n the c h o r u s ; some danced, o t h e r s s h o u t e d , and a l l shook o f f the gloomy h o r r o r s o f Van Diemen's Land. 96 Whenever they t h r e a t e n e d t o succumb t o t h e i r w r e t c h e d p l i g h t , somehow, from somewhere, a new r e s o l v e was g a i n e d . Gates w e l l remembered: We e x h i b i t e d symptoms o f d i s a f f e e t i o n - - w e gave vent f r e q u e n t l y t o our c u r s e s . Though we were i n the hands o f c r u e l t y r a n t s , they had not power t o c h a i n our t h o u g h t s , and our Yankee s p i r i t s were not so f a r subdued but t h a t we would g i v e tongue now and then t o t h o s e thoughts. 9 7 Perhaps t h i s u n s w e r v i n g r e s o l v e i s b e s t r e f l e c t e d i n the f a c t t h a t not one o f them appears e v e r t o have l o s t h i s sense o f humour. R e c o l l e c t - ing the t e r r o r s o f the p a s t , M i l l e r and Gates c o u l d s t i l l manage t o laugh a t t h e i r j a i l e r s . S i r John F r a n k l i n , t h a t pompous, obese c a r i c a t u r e o f a man, comes i n f o r a s e r i e s o f barbed comments. "Old granny" o r " h i s b u l k i n e s s , " as they c a l l e d him, a p p a r e n t l y c u t an a b s u r d f i g u r e , and both a u t h o r s r i s e a d m i r a b l y t o the o c c a s i o n i n 98 t h e i r r e m i n i s c e n c e s . M i l l e r i n f o r m s h i s r e a d e r s t h a t a l l t h e i r b e s t i m a g i n a t i v e e f f o r t s would s t i l l f a i l t o g r a s p " t h e l e n g t h , b r e a d t h , depth and h e i g h t o f the g r e a t , h i g h and mighty F r a n k l i n , " w h i l e G a t e s , i n a passage o f S w i f t i a n s a v a g e r y , a l s o e x p r e s s e s ' h i s amusement a t 328 the g r e a t man's a p p e a r a n c e , f o r whether he was g r e a t i n the mental q u a l i t i e s , he was t r u l y g r e a t i n a l l t h a t makes the man, p h y s i c a 1 1 y - - f 1 e s h and b l u b b e r . H i s head was chucked down between h i s s h o u l d e r s , f o r the w i s e p r o v i s i o n , no doubt o f s h o r t e n i n g the esophagus; w h i l s t the stomach made equal advances toward the head, thus b r i n g i n g the two i n such c l o s e p r o x i m i t y , t h a t the sympathy which i s s a i d by p h y s i o l o g i s t s t o e x i s t between t h e s e organs was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d e v e l o p e d . But the v i t a l organs were so e n c r o a c h e d upon by t h e s e n e i g h b o u r s , t h a t they found i t e x c e e d i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o keep the o l d man i n s u f f i c i e n t w i n d , w h i c h came p u f f i n g from h i s brandy b o t t l e d nose, l i k e steam from the escape p i p e o f an a s t h m a t i c boat.99 Humour, i t seems, was an i m p o r t a n t a i d i n m a i n t a i n i n g . o n e ' s independence o f s p i r i t i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s which encouraged t o t a l s u b m i s s i o n . 3 2 ? S e c t i o n C The "Go-A-Head-A-Tive" A m e r i c a n s 1 0 0 Young A m e r i c a . . . . owns the p a s t , uses the p r e s e n t , and d i s c o u n t s the f u t u r e . He d i v e s deeper, swims l o n g e r , and comes up d r i e r . He t h i n k s q u i c k e r , a c c o m p l i s h e s more, and l i v e s f a s t e r than any o t h e r p a r t y . George F r a n c i s T r a i n , Spread-Eag1e i sm (1859) 1 0 1 ~ Two broad groups o f Americans i n u n d a t e d A u s t r a l i a n c i t i e s and g o l d f i e l d s i n the 18501s: merchants and m i n e r s . Both had q u i c k p r o f i t on t h e i r minds. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , too few members o f e i t h e r group committed t h e m s e l v e s t o p r i n t — w h i c h i s a p i t y , because the s m a l l number o f s p e e c h e s , f i c t i o n a l a c c o u n t s and memoirs t h a t we do have a r e l i v e l y , humorous and i l l u m i n a t i n g . The works o f the t h r e e w r i t e r s t o be d i s c u s s e d — G e o r g e F r a n c i s T r a i n , C h a r l e s D. Ferguson and W i l l i a m H. T h o m e s — r e a d s u r p r i s i n g l y w e l l . They a r e e n t e r t a i n i n g a c c o u n t s , \ the p r o d u c t s o f a l e r t , p e n e t r a t i n g minds, and they assume more than j u s t h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Each w r i t e r , i n h i s own way, t a k e s us back t o the 18501 s, w i t h i t s e x c i t e m e n t and c o n s t a n t u n p r e d i c t - a b i l i t y . T r a i n does so as the v i g o r o u s p o l e m i c i s t and epitome o f " S p r e a d - E a g l e i sm,V Ferguson as the wry, backwoods j a c k - o f - a 1 1 - t r a d e s , 330 and Thomes, i n h i s b e t t e r moments, as the keen o b s e r v e r o f h i s new 1 02 s u r r o u n d i n g s . T r a i n and F e r g u s o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , r e p r e s e n t i d e n t i f i a b l e American s t e r e o t y p e s o f the t i m e s . L i k e the memoirs o f the American P a t r i o t s i n the 1 8 H 0 ' S , the works o f T r a i n , Ferguson and Thomes, though f o r o b v i o u s reasons not t e c h n i c a l l y a p a r t o f A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e , d e s e r v e a p l a c e because o f the i n s i g h t s they s u p p l y i n t o A u s t r a l i a n mores o f the time and i n t o the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Young A m e r i c a down under. Moreover, they c o n t r i b u t e t o the w i d e n i n g t i e s , m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , between the A u s t r a l i a n and American c o m m u n i t i e s . However, w h i l e L i n u s M i l l e r and h i s e x i l e d American comrades w i t n e s s e d the b r u t a l a s p e c t s o f B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l i s m a t work, T r a i n , Ferguson and Thomes were the f o r t u n a t e i n h e r i t o r s o f the more p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T a n t a l i z e d by " t h e d a z z l i n g b r i l l i a n c y o f the S o u t h e r n E l Dorado," as T r a i n f e r v e n t l y put i t , and perhaps c o n c e i v i n g o f A u s t r a l i a as one more l i n k i n the l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n o f A m e r i c a ' s " m a n i f e s t d e s t i n y , " 103 each man i n h i s own way l o o k e d on A u s t r a l i a as the new f r o n t i e r . A p l a c e f i n a l l y t o o b t a i n t h a t e l u s i v e f o r t u n e . Each man a r r i v e d w i t h d i s t i n c t i v e s k i l l s , a m b i t i o n s and p r e j u d i c e s , but i t i s not d i f f i c u l t t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e i r common American background. They a r e a l l p a t r i o t i c c e l e b r a n t s o f J u l y k and a l l c o n f i r m e d r e p u b l i c a n s ; but f o r them, Young American i d e o l o g y t r a n s c e n d s p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r - a t i o n s . They i n t e r p r e t i t as p r i m a r i l y an economic and s o c i a l d o c t r i n e . As Freeman Hunt, e d i t o r o f the New York H e r a l d o b s e r v e d , i n d i v i d u a l dynamism must be c a t e r e d f o r . One must g i v e the American a t l a r g e a 3 3 1 chance t o d e f i n e h i s own l i m i t s o f a p p l i c a t i o n . Only then can the w o r l d a p p r e c i a t e " t h a t Young America which pours i t s e n e r g i e s t h r o u g h a l l the c h a n n e l s o f commerce i n a l l q u a r t e r s o f the g l o b e — w h i c h , a t home o r a b r o a d , upholds the h i g h c h a r a c t e r o f i t s c o u n t r y — w h i c h i s ready t o p l a n t i t s e l f wherever g r e a t achievements a w a i t i t , whether amid the f u r s o f the N o r t h West o r on the quays o f the s e a b o a r d ; now p l o u g h i n g the . . A r c t i c i c e s , o r s e a r c h i n g f o r new p o i n t s of development under the E q u a t o r ; now c a r r y i n g our f l a g and i n s t i t u t i o n s t o e r e c t them on the g o l d e n r o c k s o f C a l i f o r n i a ; o r , as i f not f i n d i n g room enough w i t h i n our own b o u n d l e s s domain, a i d i n g t o e s t a b l i s h a new p o r t , b u i l d a new c i t y and c r e a t e a new commerce on the g o l d e n s o i l o f A u s t r a l i a . " 1 0 ^ T h i s a p p r a i s a l , w r i t t e n t o c l a r i f y T r a i n ' s g r o w i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s , c o u l d a p p l y j u s t as w e l l t o the dynamic Ferguson and some o f the c h a r a c t e r s i n Thomes' A u s t r a l i a n n o v e l s . " C i t i z e n George F r a n c i s T r a i n " u n d o u b t e d l y emerges as the most v i g o r o u s w r i t e r o f the t h r e e , and perhaps the most knowledgeable American commentator on the A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o n n e c t i o n o f h i s g e n e r a t i o n . ' ^ 5 A c o m p u l s i v e t r a v e l l e r , d e f e n d e r o f f e m i n i s m , s l a v e r y , the F e n i a n movement and the Union ( w h i c h , thus enumerated, r e v e a l something o f the man's i d i o s y n c r a s i e s ) , T r a i n spent a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e y e a r s i n A u s t r a l i a , d u r i n g which time he made an o u t s t a n d i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the r i s e o f Melbourne as A u s t r a l i a ' s 1 0 6 f i n a n c i a l c e n t r e . In a d d i t i o n , however, he found the time t o w r i t e l e t t e r s home ( p r i n t e d as g u i d e s t o A u s t r a l i a i n the New York H e r a l d , l 8 5 3 - 5 ' ^ 7 ) and d e l i v e r a d d r e s s e s , each J u l y k, t o l a r g e and a p p r e c i a t i v e a u d i e n c e s o f American p a t r i o t s . H i s l e t t e r s , speeches and c r i t i c a l commentaries a l l found t h e i r way i n t o p r i n t . They form the b a s i s of 332 h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the l i t e r a t u r e o f the t i m e s , and have been l a r g e l y i gnored. T r a i n p u l l e d no punches. B r a s h , e n t e r t a i n i n g , an " a d m i r a b l e specimen o f Young A m e r i c a , " he r e p r e s e n t s an i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e i n t h a t , by way o f the podium and h i s two books on A u s t r a l i a p u b l i s h e d i n the 1850's, he must have c o n t r i b u t e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o the s h a p i n g o f American c o n c e p t s o f A u s t r a l i a , and, t o some e x t e n t , the way i n which 108 A u s t r a l i a n s r e g a r d e d t h e i r American c o u s i n s . A f t e r h e a r i n g one o f T r a i n ' s a d d r e s s e s i n c e l e b r a t i o n o f "Young A m e r i c a , " C h a r l e s Ferguson d e c l a r e d t h a t "never b e f o r e o r s i n c e d i d I l i s t e n t o a more e l o q u e n t 109 s p e e c h . " The I l l u s t r a t e d London News even g r u d g i n g l y a d m i t t e d t h a t a t "a 'spread e a g l e ' speech he has few s u p e r i o r s . " ' 1 ^ T r a i n had the a b i l i t y t o move p e o p l e w i t h h i s o r a t i o n s and s t i m u l a t e r e a d e r s o f h i s p r o s e i n t o a c t i o n . In A u s t r a l i a , he d e l i v e r e d some o f h i s v e r y b e s t a d d r e s s e s . Freeman Hunt, i n t r o d u c i n g An American Merchant (1857) t o the p u b l i c , managed t o f i n d a l i t e r a r y c a t e g o r y — a n d i n c o l o n i a l A u s t r a l i a , a most v i a b l e one, as t h i s t h e s i s a t t e s t s — f o r T r a i n ' s w r i t i n g s : Commercial L i t e r a t u r e i s a new term. . . . I t seems t o have been thought t h a t the o n l y books f o r a merchant t o read o r t o w r i t e , were t h o s e f o r m i d a b l e rows o f ponderous l e d g e r s , d e a l i n g o n l y i n the i n e x o r a b l e l o g i c o f a r i t h m e t i c , t o which l e a r n i n g was a s t r a n g e r , w i t h i n whose l i d s a gleam o f f a n c y o r o f humor d a r e not i n t r u d e , and which summed up the s u b j e c t s and r e s u l t s o f commerce, i n the u n i n v i t i n g r h e t o r i c o f f i g u r e s . But Commerce no l o n g e r l i n g e r s around i t s a n c i e n t h a u n t s . I t now pervades t h e w o r l d . . . . Whatever i s v a l u a b l e t o man, c a l l s on the merchant f o r h e l p . The v e r y g o l d which the sands and the r o c k s o f 333 C a l i f o r n i a and A u s t r a l i a so p r o f u s e l y y i e l d , r e q u i r e s the merchant's s h i p s and system o f exchange t o make i t o f the v a l u e i t r e a l l y r e p r e s e n t s . Why then s h a l l not commerce be i n s t a l l e d among the o c c u p a t i o n s whose achievements s h a l l be deemed worthy o f r e c o r d , and p o s s e s s a l i t e r a t u r e p e c u l i a r l y i t s own. 1 1 ' C e r t a i n l y T r a i n d i d b r i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e l e a r n i n g t o h i s w r i t i n g , a d i s t i n c t i v e c r e a t i v i t y o f t h o u g h t . Reading the b e l l e t r i s t i c f i c t i o n o f the day ( i n c l u d i n g Thomes' mammoth e f f o r t s , though one h e s i t a t e s t o assume a c a t e g o r y f o r Thomes 1 p r o d u c t i o n s o t h e r than o f the "dime" v a r i e t y ) , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t one c o u l d f i n d a contemporaneous novel w i t h the o f f - h a n d f r e s h n e s s o f T r a i n ' s o p e n i n g t o Spread-Eag1ei sm (1859): "Young America A b r o a d , " thrown o f f w h i l e r u n n i n g about the w o r l d the o t h e r day. . . . 1 1 2 Y e t , i n t h a t s e e m i n g l y c a t c h y b e g i n n i n g , T r a i n s u b t l y p r o j e c t s p a r t o f the r a t i o n a l e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g h i s Young A m e r i c a p l a t f o r m . The f a c t t h a t he i s , i n h i s own words, not "a l i t e r a r y man--not a p o e t , " 113 i s b e s i d e the p o i n t . The p r o s e r a c e s , and we f i n d o u r s e l v e s caught up i n the w h i r l o f w o r d s - - e s p e c i a 11y when T r a i n r e c o r d s some o f the e x c i t e m e n t o f contemporary l i f e and the p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n Young American i d e o l o g y . H i s s t y l e seems t o be a m i x t u r e o f Western t a l l - t a l e swagger and Emersonian a p h o r i s m s : Our age i s the age. [Men o f p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n s ] walked--we t a k e the r a i l - way. T h e i r d i s p a t c h e s went by h o r s e p o w e i — o u r s by e l e c t r i c i t y . The w o r l d i s l i b e r a l i z i n g . Even Pandemonium has got a new and r e v i s e d c o n s t i t u t i o n . The f i r e s a r e not so hot as under t h e o l d C a l v i n i s t i c reg ime. 334 Young A m e r i c a o b s e r v e s t h a t n a t u r e ' s f e a t u r e s a r e r e g u l a r . He l i k e s j o y , g l a d n e s s , b r i g h t c o l o r s ; g r o w l i n g , i l l - n a t u r e , s c o w l s he d e t e s t s . F l o w e r s , c l o u d s , l a n d and w a t e r have a thousand hues; the C r e a t o r d i d not d r e s s t h i s w o r l d i n d r a b . Young A m e r i c a b e l i e v e s i n a good h e a r t y l a u g h . L a u g h t e r i s the o n l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e mark from the brute~-anima1s never s m i l e . Only t h r e e c o r d s draw down the f a c e , but as many [as a] dozen t a k e i t up. . . . Some t h i n k me too f a s t , o t h e r s too slow; some s a y , modulate your v o i c e m o r e - - g e s t i c u l a t e l e s s - - d p n ' t get so e x c i t e d . Each g i v e s a d v i c e , but a l l c h e e r . ' 1 And, as r e a d e r s , we o f t e n f i n d o u r s e l v e s d o i n g j u s t t h a t . The a u t h o r i s as a u d a c i o u s as the e r a he d e s c r i b e s . T r a i n c o n f e s s e s t o never h a v i n g w r i t t e n f o r a n a r r o w l y l i t e r a r y market, and y e t i n h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y , My L i f e i n Many S t a t e s and i n F o r e i g n Lands (1902), he s u g g e s t s t h a t Emerson "has had more i n f l u e n c e upon me than any o t h e r man i n the w o r l d . " ' ' 5 L i k e many o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s i n the book, the c l a i m i s a d u b i o u s one; T r a i n ' s soulmate seems o f t e n t o be Paul Bunyan, r a t h e r . t h a n the Concord T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t . However, he i s no l e s s e n t e r t a i n i n g f o r m i s t a k i n g h i s s o u r c e s . Indeed, i n terms o f l i n k i n g c o n c e p t s o f A m e r i c a b u i l t up i n A u s t r a l i a p r i o r t o t h e l850's w i t h t h o s e i n the l a s t decades o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h i s works assume u n d e n i a b l e i m p o r t a n c e . They exude t h a t m i x t u r e of c h e e k i n e s s and independence, a c e r t a i n 1ikeab 1 e e f f r o n t e r y , t h a t p r o v i d e d one o f the s t e r e o t y p e s l a t e r A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s would make use o f . T r a i n e p i t o m i z e d the o u t s p o k e n , t h r i f t y , r e s o u r c e f u l A m e r i c a n . C h a r l e s Ferguson's e l a b o r a t e c a r e e r i n A u s t r a l i a , s t r e t c h i n g f o r a l m o s t t h i r t y - o n e y e a r s , s e r v e d t o e x t e n d t h a t model. I f we a c c e p t t h e a s s e r t i o n o f F.T. W a l l a c e , t h e c o m p i l e r o f Ferguson's memoirs, t h a t i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s l e a d i n g t o the book the p r o t a g o n i s t 335 " i n s i s t e d t h a t no e x a g g e r a t i o n s s h a l l be i n d u l g e d i n , and n o t h i n g s t a t e d b u t t h e s i m p l e t r u t h , " t h e n an e n t e r t a i n i n g r e c o r d o f some o f t h e more c o l o u r f u l a s p e c t s o f l i f e i n A u s t r a l i a i n t h e d e c a d e s a f t e r m i d - c e n t u r y e m e r g e s . ' ' 6 It i s t h e more c o m p e l l i n g f o r b e i n g l a r g e l y u n d e r s t a t e d , r e f l e c t i n g a f i r s t - h a n d r e a c t i o n t o , and f e e l f o r , t h e t i m e s ( a n d no o n e c o u l d h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d more f u l l y i n t h e p a n o r a m a and e x c i t e m e n t o f a r a p i d l y d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n t h a n F e r g u s o n ) . How much we owe t o W a l l a c e ' s c r e a t i v i t y we d o n ' t know, b u t c e r t a i n l y t h e p o r t r a i t o f t h e c e n t r a l " c h a r a c t e r " p r o j e c t e d by t h e book e f f e c t i v e l y g r a b s o u r a t t e n t i o n . F e r g u s o n c o n t i n u a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t Y a n k e e v e r s a t i l i t y w h i c h A u s t r a l i a n s o f t h e t i m e s o much a d m i r e d . D r o v e r , b o o t l e g g e r , s h o p - k e e p e r , - m i n e r , o r i g i n a l E u r e k a S t o c k a d e r , Cobb and Company d r i v e r , a b a t t o i r w o r k e r , e x p l o r e r ( f o r e m a n w i t h t h e monumental b u t i l l - f a t e d B u r k e and W i l l s e x p e d i t i o n ) , h o r s e - b r e a k e r a n d t r i c k r i d e i — F e r g u s o n t r i e d h i s h a n d , u s u a l l y w i t h m a r k e d s u c c e s s , a t many p r o f e s s i o n s . T h e " t r u t h , " a s r e c o r d e d i n E x p e r i e n c e s , h a s a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f i c t i o n . F e r g u s o n l e n t c r e d e n c e t o t h e m i d - w e s t e r n " t a l l t a l e " c l a i m s t h a t T r a i n made r e g a r d i n g " Y o u n g A m e r i c a . " F o r many A u s t r a l i a n s he ( F e r g u s o n ) m u s t h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d a r o b u s t e x t e n s i o n o f t h e D a v e y C r o c k e t t l e g e n d . In E x p e r i e n c e s , we t r a v e r s e , w i t h F e r g u s o n , t h e " m e n t a l p a n o r a m a " o f an i n v e t e r a t e a d v e n t u r e r , a man c o n t e n t t o a b s e n t h i m s e l f f r o m h i s home s t a t e , O h i o , f o r c l o s e o n t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s . ' ' 7 " V i s i o n s o f g o l d , " t h e a u t h o r e x c l a i m s i n t h e o p e n i n g o f h i s f i r s t c h a p t e r , 336 e x c i t e d my b r a i n . I t was not the g o l d a l o n e , but an awaken- ing o f a s t r o n g d e s i r e o f a d v e n t u r e which had pervaded my s p i r i t from a s m a l l s c h o o l - b o y t a k i n g my f i r s t l e s s o n i n geography. F o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s marked upon the pages o f the l i t t l e s c h o o l a t l a s were f a s c i n a t i n g . . . .'' 8 From the o u t s e t , we a r e a l e r t t o the p r i o r i t i e s o f the man whose e x p e r i e n c e s we a r e about t o f o l l o w : t r a v e l , a d v e n t u r e and money- making. By the book's end, n o t h i n g has happened t o change the r e a d e r ' s f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s . Ferguson s t a n d s u n r e p e n t a n t . A p p a r e n t l y f e e l i n g i t incumbent on him t o c o u n s e l c a u t i o n t o any young r e a d e r s ( " s t i c k t o your farm o r your t r a d e , s t a n d by the o l d homestead where you were b o r n " ) , h i s r e a l n a t u r e a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y responds i n d i r e c t c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o such d u t i f u l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e u r g i n g s . He c a p t u r e s the s p i r i t o f the whole e n t e r p r i s e i n a few l i n e s : F o l l o w your own i n c l i n a t i o n as I d i d , f o r t h a t you w i l l be s u r e t o do, as I d i d , and so w i l l e v e r y boy. I f he i s i n c l i n e d t o be a l a w y e r , t h e r e i s no use i n t r y i n g t o make a clergyman o f him; so o f one who i s bound t o t r a v e l , you cannot keep him a t home.''9 Ferguson would not a c c e p t the i n s u l a r l i f e o f a s m a l l town i n Ohio. He b e l i e v e d the w o r l d beckoned t o e v e r y young man, and t h a t Americans were p e c u l i a r l y s u i t e d t o respond t o the c h a l l e n g e . Oddly, d e s p i t e Ferguson's penchant f o r a l i f e o f a c t i o n , E x p e r i e n c e s t e s t i f i e s t o the f a c t t h a t he has a l i t e r a r y i n t e r e s t ; he e x h i b i t s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h w r i t e r s r a n g i n g from Shakespeare and D i c k e n s t o 1 20 h i s countryman Poe. Moreover, a c o m p e l l i n g p e r s o n a l i t y emerges from the book. The w r i t e r can be w r y l y humorous when the o c c a s i o n 337 w a r r a n t s - - f o r example, when he r e c o r d s the demise o f a Shakespearean a c t o r o f note from p u b l i c p e r s o n a l i t y t o b i l l i a r d - r o o m employee as " r a t h e r a sudden drop from K i n g Lear and Hamlet, P r i n c e o f Denmark, 121 down t o a common b i l l i a r d marker." At a n o t h e r p o i n t , he impresses w i t h h i s s i n c e r e and moving a t t e m p t t o b r i d g e the s w i r l i n g w a t e r s o f the American C i v i l War, f o r he approaches the c o n f l i c t i n t e l l i g e n t l y , 1 22 w i t h a deep sympathy f o r both s i d e s . But Ferguson i s b e s t when s i m p l y b e i n g h i m s e l f . Perhaps the most e n d e a r i n g example o f t h i s o c c u r s when he d e s c r i b e s h i s b e a u t i f u l f e m a l e p a r t n e r a t a J u l y k d i n n e r . R i s i n g s p l e n d i d l y t o the t a s k , he e x c l a i m s , a l l b r i g h t - eyed i n n o c e n c e : . . . 0 how she d i d s h i n e - - t h e o b s e r v e d o f a l l o b s e r v e r s . The s t a r - s p a n g l e d banner on the w a l l , emblem o f my b e l o v e d c o u n t r y , p a l e d and gr^w dim i n c o n t r a s t w i t h the sweeping t r a i n o f my p a r t n e r . L i k e T r a i n , Ferguson no doubt e x e m p l i f i e d f o r a l l the A u s t r a l i a n s w i t h whom he came i n c o n t a c t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r American t y p e whose e n t h u s i a s m and v i g o u r were c o n t a g i o u s . W i l l i a m Henry Thomes 1 c h a r a c t e r s i n h i s t h r e e n o v e l s s e t i n V i c t o r i a r e v e a l a knowledge o f A u s t r a l i a and A u s t r a l i a n c o n d i t i o n s 1 2k c l e a r l y based on h i s own e x p e r i e n c e s . Thomes' e n t e r p r i s e , l i k e F e r g u s o n ' s , l e d him t o t r y a number o f p r o f e s s i o n s - - s u c h as p r i n t e r , r e p o r t e r , s o l d i e r , s a i l o r , g o l d - d i g g e r , shop-keeper and, i n the r o l e o f which we have most i n f o r m a t i o n , t h a t o f " d i m e - n o v e l " a u t h o r . Thomes spent a t l e a s t t w e l v e months i n A u s t r a l i a , a r r i v i n g i n 1852-3 338 and l e a v i n g i n l a t e 185*, o r e a r l y 1855-'^ D u r i n g t h a t t i m e , he a c c u m u l a t e d s u f f i c i e n t f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t he c o u l d g i v e h i s f i c t i o n a t l e a s t an a u t h e n t i c framework o f l o c a l c o l o u r . H i s n o v e l s sag under the w e i g h t o f the w o r s t a s p e c t s o f Cooperesque r o m a n t i c i s m ( i n the t r a d i t i o n o f the " L e a t h e r s t o c k i n g " s e r i e s ) , and tend t o e x p l o i t such d e v i c e s as s e n s a t i o n a l c h a p t e r head- i n g s , but we do f i n d t r a c e s o f keen o b s e r v a t i o n and a g r a s p o f American 126 and A u s t r a l i a n manners. The e g a l i t a r i a n conduct o f h i s p r i n c i p l e American c h a r a c t e r s makes s e n s e - - t h e y a r e s t r o n g b e l i e v e r s i n r e p u b l i c a n i s m and the r i g h t s of man--though Thomes' w o r l d has been, as one c r i t i c has i n d i c a t e d , " c r e a t e d f o r h e r o e s , and . . . a hero i s i p s o f a c t o 1 27 a gentleman--even i f o n l y one o f N a t u r e ' s gentlemen." We must r e c o g n i z e him, f i r s t , as an i n c o r r i g i b l e American romancer, but h i s A u s t r a l i a n n o v e l s a r e a t t i m e s more than j u s t h i s t o r i c a l c u r i o s i t i e s . In The Gold Hunters ' A d v e n t u r e s ; o r L i f e i n A u s t r a 1 i a (1864), w r i t t e n , the a u t h o r s o u r l y i n f o r m s us, f o r the b e n e f i t o f " t h o s e who used t o d r i n k my l i q u o r and f e a s t a t my t a b l e , " Thomes t a k e s us on the t r a v e l s o f two American m i n e r s , F r e d e r i c k (Fred) B u t t o n and the 1 28 n a r r a t o r , J a c k . L u c k l e s s on the C a l i f o r n i a n d i g g i n g s , they head t o M e l b o u r n e , w h i c h they f i n d much more t o t h e i r l i k i n g . They s t r i k e up a f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a t i c k e t - o f - 1 e a v e man named S m i t h , who h e l p s them f i n d t h e i r way t o B a l l a r a t . At t h i s p o i n t , the s e t t i n g e s t a b l i s h e d , the t h r e e embark on a s u c c e s s i o n o f p i c a r e s q u e a d v e n t u r e s : among them, the t r a c k i n g down and c a p t u r e o f the i n e v i t a b l e gang o f bush- r a n g e r s ; a t r i u m p h a n t r e t u r n t o Government House, Melbourne, t o be 339 lauded f o r t h e i r h e r o i c deeds; the e v e n t u a l r e c o v e r y o f the b u s h r a n g e r s ' b u r i e d t r e a s u r e ; the f r e e i n g o f a y o u t h about t o be u n j u s t l y l y n c h e d ; and, i n the second h a l f of the book, t h e i r l i v e l y e x i s t e n c e on the B a l l a r a t g o l d f i e l d s . The B a l l a r a t s e c t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , has d i s t i n c t f i c t i o n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s , but Thomes seems more i n t e r e s t e d i n s a t i s f y i n g the r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a r e a d e r i n t h i r s t o f e n d l e s s a c t i o n than i n making the e f f o r t t o g i v e h i s c h a r a c t e r s depth and e x p l o r e the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s f r o n t i e r s e t t i n g . Thomes 1 second book, The Bushrangers (1873). i s s c a r c e l y d i f f e r e n t from h i s f i r s t . I t makes use o f t y p i c a l l y s e n s a t i o n a l s u b j e c t h e a d i n g s , which f a i r l y r e p r e s e n t the plot--among them a r e "A C o q u e t t e a t Work," "Rescue o f an E n g l i s h B a r o n e t , " " A l l i g a t o r s and t h e i r A t t a c k s , " "Forward t o the Rescue," "The L o s t C h i l d " and "The Hunt f o r the B a r o n e t ' s 1 29 Daughter." However, t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n redeeming f e a t u r e s i n B u s h r a n g e r s . In the book's o p e n i n g pages, f o r example, J a c k a c c u r a t e l y v o i c e s Young American wander 1 u s t : Heaven o n l y knows what s e n t me t o A u s t r a l i a the second t i m e . I was v e r y c o m f o r t a b l e i n B o s t o n , f o r I had money, and i t was s a f e l y i n v e s t e d . I had f r i e n d s , or r a t h e r t h o s e who p r o f e s s e d t o be such. I had p l e a s a n t rooms, and a p a i r o f f a s t h o r s e s ; and men s a i d t h a t I was a l u c k y dog, and d e s e r v e d my good f o r t u n e , and I have no doubt they were s i n c e r e i n t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n s . But s t i l l I was not happy and c o n t e n t e d \ f e l t as though I c o u l d s e t t l e down and remain a q u i e t c i t i z e n . . . and made d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t s t o c o n v i n c e m y s e l f t h a t I was happy. But a l 1 i n v a i n . 1 3 ° The n a r r a t o r ' s words c o u l d j u s t as e a s i l y be T r a i n ' s o r F e r g u s o n ' s . 340 L a t e r , he a u t h e n t i c a l l y d e s c r i b e s the g r i m r e a l i t i e s o f the A u s t r a l i a n e n v i ronment: I thought o f the c l o u d s o f b l i n d i n g d u s t which d r i v e the i n h a b i t a n t s o f A u s t r a l i a f r a n t i c as i t f i l l s t h e i r e y e s , noses, e a r s , and mouths, and burns the s k i n o f the f a c e l i k e c a u s t i c . I r e c o l l e c t e d the wet w i n t e r s , when the r a i n f a l l s as though r i v e r s i n the c l o u d s had broken l o o s e , and were d e t e r m i n e d t o sweep away a l l v e s t i g e o f l a n d ; the p i e r c i n g c o l d which i s e n c o u n t e r e d on the m o u n t a i n s ; the mud; the snakes; the m i l l i o n s o f i n s e c t s , w h i c h d r i v e s l e e p from the eyes o f the t e n d e r - s k i n n e d . . . The names o f Thomes' c h a r a c t e r s - - ! i k e H e z e k i a h Hopeful (from H i l l s b o r o u g h County, New H a m p s h i r e ) , C a p t a i n K e e l h a u l and B i l l T h r a s h e r --come s t r a i g h t from the "dime" d i c t i o n a r y . And y e t , w h i l e he u s u a l l y c o n t e n t s h i m s e l f w i t h s t e r e o t y p e d s i t u a t i o n s i n h i s s t o r i e s , he can o c c a s i o n a l l y d e p i c t i n c i d e n t s w i t h some s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . One such i n c i d e n t o c c u r s towards the end o f Bushrangers when J a c k f i n d s h i m s e l f the u n w i l l i n g v i c t i m o f the E n g l i s h c l a s s system. Though he has been i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the s a f e r e t u r n o f the E n g l i s h a r i s t o c r a t S i r W i l l i a m B y e f i e l d ' s l o n g - l o s t d a u g h t e r , J a c k ' s r e q u e s t t o marry t h i s same g i r l prompts an unceremonious r e p l y from her f a t h e r . S i r W i l l i a m a d m i t s t h a t J a c k i s "a f i n e , generous f e l l o w . . . but s t i l l not her equal i n p o s i t i o n o r f o r t u n e . " An o u t r a g e d J a c k r e p l i e s : I i n t e n d t o prove t o you t h a t an American s o v e r e i g n i s f u l l y equal i n p o s i t i o n , i f not s u p e r i o r i n some r e s p e c t s , t o an E n g l i s h b a r o n e t . ' ^ 2 T h i s scene, s e v e r a l pages l o n g , i n d i c a t e s Thomes 1 awareness o f some o f the s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f the American p r e s e n c e 3*1 i n an E n g l i s h c o l o n y i n the 18501 s; u n f o r t u n a t e l y , he a l l too o f t e n c o n t e n t s h i m s e l f w i t h the less-demanding t a s k o f r e p l i c a t i n g the .' s t a n d a r d s i t u a t i o n s o f the limp r o m a n t i c n o v e l . The memories o f T r a i n , Ferguson and Thomes, both f i c t i o n a l and f a c t u a l , n o t a b l y e n l a r g e our n o t i o n s o f the American i n A u s t r a l i a , m i d - c e n t u r y . They a r e a r t i c u l a t e , a t times s t i r r i n g spokesmen f o r t h e i r c o u n t r y , and the works d i s c u s s e d h e r e , i f not c o n s c i o u s l y l i t e r a r y , r e f l e c t c o n s i d e r a b l e c r e a t i v e r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s . The s t a y o f the t h r e e Americans i n A u s t r a l i a was m u t u a l l y p r o f i t a b l e . T r a i n got h i s f o r t u n e , Ferguson s a t e d h i s t h i r s t f o r a d v e n t u r e , and Thomes a c q u i r e d m a t e r i a l f o r h i s n o v e l s . A u s t r a l i a , on the o t h e r hand, 1 33 got " A m e r i c a n i z e d , " t o use T r a i n ' s word. B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n had a r r i v e d and many, l i k e T r a i n , " a t once undertook t o s p r e a d the g o s p e l 1 3* o f A m e r i c a n i s m . . . ." A f t e r i n i t i a l s u s p i c i o n , the g r e a t m a j o r i t y 1 35 o f t h e s e Americans were w e l l r e c e i v e d . Some s t a y e d f o r good. 3 U Sect i on p_ Money o r E v a n g e l i s m ? The f i c t i o n a l work o f Thomes and the p u r p o r t e d l y n o n - f i c t i o n a l a c c o u n t s o f T r a i n and Ferguson a l l , i n some way, r e f l e c t the a s p i r a t i o n s and i d e a l s o f Young America i n A u s t r a l i a a t a c r u c i a l time f o r both the development o f the American s p i r i t abroad and the e f f e c t o f t h a t s p i r i t on the h a s t e n i n g l i t e r a r y and s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n o f i n f a n t A u s t r a l i a . T h e i r t h o u g h t s bear c l o s e l y on the n a t u r e o f the A u s t r a l i a n / American c o n n e c t i o n o f the t i m e . U n l i k e the American P a t r i o t s e x i l e d t o Van Diemen's Land who a r r i v e d i n t h e i r i s l a n d p r i s o n g r i m l y d e t e r m i n e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r homeland as soon as p o s s i b l e , by whatever means a v a i l a b l e , the F i f t i e s Young Americans e a g e r l y sought A u s t r a l i a ' s g i l d e d s h o r e s . They f e l t themselves bound f o r a new E l Dorado, not 1 36 f o r D e v i l ' s I s l a n d . B a r e l y a decade s e p a r a t e d the two g r o u p s , and o f t e n as one reads the Young A m e r i c a n s , i r o n i c c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s a r i s e . T r a i n , Ferguson and Thomes s i m p l y do not l o o k a t A u s t r a l i a i n the l 8 5 0 ' s w i t h the same eyes as t h e i r c o u n t r y - men had s u r v e y e d Canada, and l a t e r Van Diemen's Land, i n the l a t e l 8 3 0 ' s and e a r l y l 8 4 0 ' s . The a g g r e s s i o n o f the new Young A m e r i c a n s i s economic, not m i l i t a r y . T r a i n , f o r example, i s c o n t e n t t o b o a s t , 3 4 3 w h i l e h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s sought t o defend honour and p r i n c i p l e w i t h t h e i r l i v e s , i f n e c e s s a r y . One o f the p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r s i n Thomes 1 The Gold H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s , Fred B u t t o n s , perhaps sums up the a t t i t u d e o f many o f h i s r e a l - l i f e c o u n t e r p a r t s when he i s asked t o comment on the l i n k s between A u s t r a l i a n and American r e p u b l i c a n i s m . He responds c a u t i o u s l y : 1 3 7 "We don't c a r e t o t a l k on the s u b j e c t . " L a t e r , when p r e s s e d , he g i v e s a more e l a b o r a t e d e f e n c e o f the p r o f i t - m i n d e d American E a g l e s i n A u s t r a l i a a t the t i m e : Go and t e l l the d i s s a t i s f i e d miners t h a t we w i l l never p l o t a g a i n s t them, a l t h o u g h i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t we s h a l l not t a k e up arms i n t h e i r d e f e n c e . We a r e t r a d e r s , and have done w i t h f i g h t i n g , and w i s h t o remain n e u t r a l . ' 3 8 The z e a l o u s commitment t y p i f y i n g the Upper Canadian r e b e l s had e v i d e n t l y l a p s e d . Americans f o u g h t a t Eureka~-a few, b r a v e l y i n d e e d - - b u t the i n t e g r i t y and, above a l l , r e s o l u t e p r i n c i p l e s o f a c t i o n a p p a r e n t i n Canada were g e n e r a l l y m i s s i n g i n A u s t r a l i a . When brought t o t r i a l , the American P a t r i o t s e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y espoused e g a l i t a r i a n n o t i o n s d e s p i t e s e v e r e c o e r c i o n . In A u s t r a l i a , however, i f C h a r l e s Ferguson can be taken as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , p a r t i c i p a n t s a t t e m p t e d t o e x t r a c t t h e m s e l v e s by any means p o s s i b l e from the a b o r t e d r e b e l l i o n . Never a thought o f a moral s t a n d . A r r a i g n e d , and e x t r e m e l y v u l n e r a b l e , 1 3 9 Ferguson posed as a M e t h o d i s t m i n i s t e r --a p l o y w h i c h , w i t h the b a c k i n g o f the American Consul -and American merchants i n Melbourne, a p p a r e n t l y worked. Reading Ferguson's a c c o u n t o f the s t r i f e , one i s s t r u c k by h i s t o t a l l y o b j e c t i v e tone. He remembers not what we d i d , but r a t h e r the "many g r i e v a n c e s they s u f f e r e d and o f w h i c h they 1 kO c o m p l a i n e d . " And he i s a t p a i n s t o i n d i c a t e h i s c h a r i n e s s when a number o f d i g g e r s s t r o n g l y a d v o c a t e mi 1 i t a n t a c t i o n j u s t p r i o r t o 1 4 1 the Eureka r e v o l t . Thomes' brusque f i n a l d i s m i s s a l o f Eureka i n 1 hi a few l i n e s r e f l e c t s a t r u t h . Most American m i n e r s , urged on by t h e i r merchant countrymen (who wanted t o a v o i d a r i f t w i t h E n g l i s h c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s ) , saw f i t t o remain n e u t r a l . Moreover, o f t h o s e who a c t u a l l y took p a r t , some d i d so f o r a v a r i e t y o f e s s e n t i a l l y p e r s o n a l r e a s o n s . R e f l e c t i n g on the a f t e r m a t h o f the r e v o l t decades l a t e r , Ferguson c o n c l u d e s h i s comments i n a b l u n t l y d i s i n t e r e s t e d 1 * 3 way. The f e r v e n t b e l i e f i n the T i g h t n e s s o f t h e i r cause t h a t had s e r v e d t o i n s p i r e M i l l e r , Wait and Woodman seems t o be s i n g u l a r l y l a c k i n g i n the m o t i v a t i o n s o f a g r e a t many o f t h e i r countrymen who a r r i v e d i n A u s t r a l i a i n the 1 8 5 0 ' s . Reading the Young A m e r i c a n s , we r e a l i z e t h e i r m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r t o be a l a r g e l y p e r s o n a l g o a 1 - - n a m e l y , a c c u m u l a t i n g a f o r t u n e as soon as p o s s i b l e . I f the P a t r i o t s a r e J e f f e r s o n and P a i n e ' s men, the Young Americans a r e , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , H a m i l t o n ' s . T r a i n c o n t i n u a l l y s t r o v e t o d e f u s e p o t e n t i a l l y v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t s . He c o u n s e l l e d good- w i l l i n the cause o f e x p a n d i n g commerce and w a r i l y c o n t e m p l a t e d the 1 hh "many r e v o l u t i o n i s t s " i n V i c t o r i a . In f a c t , as T r a i n p r e p a r e d t o d e p a r t A u s t r a l i a ' s s h o r e s , the Melbourne H e r a l d p r a i s e d h i s " s t r i c t and h o n o u r a b l e a b s t i n e n c e from a l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n our l o c a l and 145 n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . " The Age a g r e e d . For T r a i n , A u s t r a l i a r e p r e s e n t e d but a rung i n the Young American l a d d e r . He r e s t r i c t e d h i s m i l i t a n t 345 a c t i v i t y t o c o n s c i o u s l y r e p u b l i c a n remarks i n h i s l e t t e r s t o American newspapers. One o f t h e s e l e t t e r s c o l o u r f u l l y o u t l i n e s h i s c a s e , g i v i n g the r a t i o n a l e o f h i s " c o m m e r c i a l " l i t e r a t u r e . Imagining a d i a l o g u e between E n g l i s h c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s and Young A m e r i c a , he has the E n g l i s h p a r t y suggest d e s p e r a t e Yankee m o t i v e s - - t o w h i c h Young A m e r i c a b r a z e n l y r e p l i e s : How a b s u r d . . . . we have come t o make money not t o r e v o l u t i o n - i z e your c o u n t r y . Don't be f r i g h t e n e d g o v e r n o r ; our r e v o l v e r s we brought f o r s a l e - - n o t f o r r e b e l l e a d . ' ' * 6 In T r a i n , and t h o s e he l e d , the e x p l o i t a t i v e f a c e o f A m e r i c a t h a t the New H o l l a n d c o l o n y had been f o r c e d t o approve i n i t s e a r l y y e a r s r e s u r f a c e s w i t h a vengeance. Yet a more s u b t l e vengeance, at, once f l a t t e r i n g and d e v i o u s . The p r e v a i l i n g a t t i t u d e towards England o f the Young Americans bears marked c o n t r a s t t o the P a t r i o t s . W h i l e o c c a s i o n a l c r i t i c i s m 1 of E n g l i s h c o l o n i a l methods o c c u r s i n the works o f the Young A m e r i c a n s , 147 they g e n e r a l l y encourage f e e l i n g s o f c o m p a t i b i l i t y . T r a i n ' s l i v e l i h o o d depended on c o o p e r a t i o n , and he u n d e r s t o o d the importance o f good r e l a t i o n s . The w i l l i n g n e s s o f Thomes' c h a r a c t e r s t o woo the E n g l i s h , t h e i r d e s i r e t o be upwardly m o b i l e , a g a i n c o n t a i n s a g r e a t d e a l of t r u t h . No one had more d e s i r e than T r a i n , and when the o c c a s i o n r e q u i r e d i n g r a t i a t i n g words, he c o u l d respond a p p r o p r i a t e l y . Aware o f the l a r g e r e a d e r s h i p h i s books c o u l d e x p e c t i n B r i t a i n , he o f t e n a c c l a i m e d the b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s o f E n g l i s h s e t t l e m e n t . Indeed, i n h i s w r i t i n g s he w h o l e h e a r t e d l y approves and u t i l i z e s the f a m i l i a r 346 r h e t o r i c a l metaphor o f e a r l i e r E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s . With s l i g h t a l t e r a t i o n s 148 T r a i n t a l k s o f " t h e g i f t e d mother and the p r o g r e s s i v e c h i l d . " In The American Merchant, he e u l o g i z e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p i n g l o w i n g , but awful p o e t r y . T r a i n i s , a f t e r a l l , a businessman: So h e r e ' s a h e a l t h t o h a l l o w e d A l b i o n , the j e w e l o f the s e a , And her d a u g h t e r , f a i r C o l u m b i a , the happy and the f r e e ; Long may t h e i r sons t h e i r p r a i s e s s i n g , i n f r i e n d s h i p ' s j o v i a l s t r a i n s , And d r a i n the cup o f f e l l o w s h i p w h i l e y e t a drop remains. S t i l l , he c a n ' t r e s i s t , a t t i m e s , a s s e r t i n g h i s r e a l f e e l i n g s as he a c c l a i m s A m e r i c a n commercial s u p e r i o r i t y . In the c o c k y o p e n i n g s e c t i o n t o Spread-Eag1ei sm (1859), e n t i t l e d " E v e r y Man H i s Own A u t o c r a t , " w r i t t e n a few y e a r s a f t e r h i s A u s t r a l i a n s t a y , T r a i n a d a p t s h i s " c o m m e r c i a l " p r o s e t o a c c e n t u a t e h i s A m e r i c a n - n e s s . W i t h measured f r o n t i e r c r u d i t y , he s k e t c h e s the Young American purpose: Tooverawe the w o r l d and t o p a t r o n i z e Great B r i t a i n , and i f t h e s a i d G r e a t B r i t a i n do not behave h e r s e l f b e f o r e her l u s t y and saucy progeny, t o " g i v e her a 1i ck i ng 1 1 — such i s the w i s h o f "Young America."150 Diplomacy c o l l a p s e s and r e a l backwoods bravado t a k e s o v e r . Towards the end o f " A u t o c r a t " he a f f i r m s American ascendancy i n terms o f a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y l i g h t - h e a r t e d c o m p a r i s o n : England and America a r e p a r t n e r s , not r i v a l s . The younger n a t i o n i s the j u n i o r , who manages the w e s t e r n branch o f the o l d c o n c e r n ; y o u t h g i v e s a c t i v i t y , and hence the young man opens h i s l e t t e r s b e f o r e b r e a k f a s t , on the s t e p s o f the p o s t - o f f i c e , ' w h i 1 s t the o l d gentleman p r e f e r s b r e a k i n g the s e a l i n d r e s s i n g - g o w n and s l i p p e r s a f t e r d i n n e r . . . . o l d England r o s e w i t h renewed v i g o r , i n Young America.'5' 347 T r a i n o f t e n aimed a t e l i c i t i n g a u d i e n c e l a u g h t e r t o sweeten t h e p i l l o f a more s e r i o u s a s s e r t i o n . C l e a r l y , he f e l t " g o - a - h e a d - a - t i v e " 1 52 A m e r i c a had s u r p a s s e d E n g l a n d . J u s t as Thomes has h i s c h a r a c t e r s q u e s t i o n E n g l i s h m e r c a n t i l e and i n d u s t r i a l e f f i c i e n c y w h i l e t h e m s e l v e s i l l u s t r a t i n g Yankee "know-how," so T r a i n b l u s t e r s a t l e n g t h about i n n a t e American c a p a c i t y . Englishmen might be s c a r e d of new c h a l l e n g e s 1 53 and c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , but not A m e r i c a n s . In c o n t r a s t t o " t h e s l o w c o n s e r v a t i s m and unchangeab1eness o f the E n g l i s h c i v i l o f f i c e " s t a n d s rugged, tempestuous Young A m e r i c a . T r a i n b r o a d l y h i n t s t h a t i f a r e a l c o n t e s t o f w i l l s were t o m a t e r i a l i z e , the E n g l i s h would be overwhelmed: . . . A m e r i c a i s s t i l l a t f u l l speed, w h i l e England has stopped t o c o a l ! We a r e now neck and neck i n commerce. Where s h a l l we be t h i r t y y e a r s hence? . . . England knocks down the g a t e s of s t u b b o r n n a t i o n s , as i n C h i n a , and America w a l k s i n and t a k e s the t o l l o f commerce. John B u l l f i g h t s , J o n a t h a n n e g o t i a t e s , but w i l l f i g h t i f o c c a s i o n demands i t . 1 5** At one p o i n t i n " A u t o c r a t " he o u t l i n e s , p o i n t by p o i n t , h i s v e r s i o n o f the Young American p l a t f o r m , b u t , i n f e n c i n g thus h i s n a t u r a l f l a r e f o r the r h e t o r i c of h i s c a u s e , the s t a t e m e n t doesn't read n e a r l y as w e l l as a s e c t i o n a l i t t l e e a r l i e r where he f u l l y c a p t u r e s the s p i r i t o f the m e r c a n t i l e Young Americans i n A u s t r a l i a : S p r e a d - E a g l e i sm i s an I n s t i t u t i o n . Young A m e r i c a i s a n a t i o n , and s i g n i f i e s p r o g r e s s . Young A m e r i c a don't mean s u c k i n g b a b i e s a l o n e - - n o r s c h o o l b o y s — n o r f a s t young men. Of c o u r s e n o t . I t t a k e s the c o u n t r y — the whole c o u n t r y , and n o t h i n g but the c o u n t r y . Every man, woman and c h i l d , o l d and y o u n g — e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l 348 b o r n s i n c e t h e n a t i o n ' s b i r t h - d a y , i s a Young A m e r i c a n . It i s Y o u n g A m e r i c a a s an a m i a b l e r i v a l t o o l d E u r o p e . . . . Young A m e r i c a i s t h e v a n g u a r d o f c h a n g e — t h e c o m i n g o f a g e . H i s w a t c h w o r d i s R e f o r m . . . . B e i n g t r u e t o h i m s e l f , he c a n ' t be f a l s e t o h i s n e i g h b o u r . We c a n n o t f a s t e n an ism o n him ( e x c e p t S p r e a d - E a g 1 e i s m ) . . . . Young A m e r i c a w i l l be w a n t e d . T h e t i m e s a r e c h a n g i n g .155 T h i s e x c e r p t a l m o s t r e a d s a s a f o u n d poem o f t h e e r a . D i r e c t , c o n f i d e n t , c h a 1 1 e n g i n g - - a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . An e l e m e n t o f F e r g u s o n ' s a d v e n t u r o u s a d v i c e t o t h e y o u n g i s c a p t u r e d h e r e . And much m o r e . T r a i n e m e r g e s a s t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f e n t e r p r i s i n g ( b u t a l w a y s c o n c i l a t o r y a n d e x p e d i e n t ) m e r c a n t i l e A m e r i c a i n a v i g o r o u s p i e c e o f i n t e n t i o n a l l y p o l e m i c a l p r o s e . T h e z e a l o u s n a t i o n a l i s m o f T r a i n a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s c a n n e v e r be q u e s t i o n e d . L i k e t h e e a r l i e r A m e r i c a n P a t r i o t s , t h e y c o n s t a n t l y p r a i s e r e p u b l i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s i n r a p t u r o u s t e r m s . T r a i n ' s w r i t i n g s and s p e e c h e s e x h i b i t a c l o s e k n o w l e d g e o f h i s c o u n t r y ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y . ' 5 6 A g a i n , l i k e h i s c a p t i v e c o u n t r y m e n i n e a r l i e r Van D i e m e n ' s L a n d , T r a i n r e g a r d e d h i s s o u t h e r n s o j o u r n a s a t e m p o r a r y o n e . T h e t o n e o f o n e o f h i s l e t t e r s t o t h e B o s t o n P o s t , w r i t t e n i n l a t e 1 8 5 4 , c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s t h e P a t r i o t s ' p a s s i o n a t e m i s s i v e s t o home i n t h e e a r l y l 8 4 0 ' s : . . . b u s y a s y o u may be w i t h t h e c r o w d i n g e v e n t s o f t h i s w o n d e r f u l a g e , y o u need n o t f o r g e t u s , f o r some t i m e we a r e c o m i n g h o m e ! — t h e v e r y t h o u g h t o f w h i c h s u p p o r t s us i n o u r e x i l e , and n e r v e s us t o r e n e w e d e x e r t i o n .157 P a s s i n g through P o r t P h i l l i p Heads on the way back t o A m e r i c a , he can 349 1 58 h a r d l y c o n t a i n h i s e x h i l i r a t i o n and j o y . Ferguson c o n t r a s t s i n t e r e s t i n g l y i n t h i s r e s p e c t . A w h o l e h e a r t e d p a t r i o t - - h e c a l l e d one o f h i s mines the "Sons o f Freedom" and l i k e d t o quote the c e l e b r a t e d 1 59 t h r e e t e n e t s o f the D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence --he n e v e r t h e l e s s warmed t o A u s t r a l i a as T r a i n c o u l d not. As a miner and g e n e r a l r o u s t a b o u t , Ferguson got t o know A u s t r a l i a i n a way t h a t h i s merchant f e l l o w - A m e r i c a n d i d n o t , so t h a t he e x p e r i e n c e s the gloom and sadness 160 o f a n a t i v e when he f i n a l l y s a i l s out o f the Sydney Heads. The Young A m e r i c a n s , because o f t h e i r g r e a t e r i n v o l v e m e n t i n the A u s t r a l i a n community when compared t o the P a t r i o t s , were moved t o s p e c u l a t e on the p o t e n t i a l r e p u b l i c a n f u t u r e o f t h e i r adopted l a n d . They were aware o f the s t r o n g f o r c e s a t work i n the young c o u n t r y . T r a i n made i t c l e a r t h a t he would not r e s o r t t o arms i n s u p p o r t o f l o c a l independence, but he o c c a s i o n a l l y assumed the r o l e o f Young A u s t r a l i a n p r o p a g a n d i s t . U s i n g language r e m i n i s c e n t o f C h a r l e s W i l k e s b e f o r e him, T r a i n c o n t e m p l a t e d the f u t u r e o f the c o u n t r y he r e g a r d e d as " t h e b r i g h t e s t s t a r i n the whole B r i t i s h g a l a x y ! " 1 ^ 1 In h i s l e t t e r s t o American newspapers, h i s n a t u r a l e b u l l i e n c e and awareness o f the a f f i l i a t i o n s o f h i s a u d i e n c e l e d him t o c o n j e c t u r e 162 an imminent r e p u b l i c a n h o r i z o n f o r A u s t r a l i a . Sometimes he sounds a l i t t l e a b s u r d , as i n the c r u d e French o f h i s o u t b u r s t , " V i v e l e 1 63 A u s t r a l i a ! V i v e l e Melbourne! V i ve l e R e p u b l i q u e ! " Yet he can be e q u a l l y c a l c u l a t i n g . A s s e s s i n g the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the B a l l a r a t r e v o l t , he c h a r g e s h i s words w i t h o v e r t o n e s o f 1776: 350 The l o v e o f l i b e r t y t h a t i s c o n v u l s i n g the s h a k i n g t h r o n e s o f the o l d w o r l d has touched the g i a n t c h i e f t a i n o f the A u s t r a l i a n s , and the " s o u t h e r n c r o s s , " t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f the p e o p l e s a y , must be the f l a g o f the s o u t h e r n El D o r a d o . ' 6 I t i s no s u r p r i s e when, a few l i n e s l a t e r i n the same l e t t e r , he d e s i g n a t e s the Eureka r e b e l l i o n as the " A u s t r a l i a n Bunker H i l l . " (Did t h i s have any b e a r i n g on Mark Twain's s i m i l a r a s s e r t i o n decades l a t e r ? ) Thomes' c h a r a c t e r s , t o o , o c c a s i o n a l l y f l i r t w i t h r e v o l t b u t , when p r e s s e d , they r e a c t as T r a i n d i d - - t r e a d i n g w i t h c a r e , r a t h e r than commitment.'^ 5 35/ CHAPTER V ENDNOTES One v i s i t o r o f the time w r o t e t h a t " t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l t h i r s t f o r r e a d i n g t h r o u g h o u t A u s t r a l i a . . . . Everybody r e a d s . " See D. M a c k e n z i e , Ten Years i n A u s t r a l i a , 2nd ed. (London: W i l l i a m O r r , 1852), p. 44. 2 P a r r i n g t o n , Main C u r r e n t s , i n t r o d u c t i o n , p. V I I . 3 See C l a r e n c e Gohdes, American L i t e r a t u r e i n N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y Eng1 and ( C a r b o n d a l e , I l l i n o i s : S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v . P r e s s , 1944), pp. v i i , 16. ^ S a p i e t s , p. 8. 5 George R o b e r t s o n (l825~98) was A u s t r a l i a ' s f o r e m o s t book p u b l i s h e r b e f o r e 1890; h i s namesake (1860-1933), o f Angus and R o b e r t s o n p u b l i c a t i o n s fame, was t h e p r i n c i p a l book p u b l i s h e r i n the decades a f t e r 1890. See A r g u s , A p r i l 18-26, 1854, quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , Young Amer i c a , p. 68. 7 See, f o r example, Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I I , 116. 8 See W i l l i a m H o w i t t , Land, Labour, and Gold (London, 1855), quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , p. 67. 9 For more on the a u c t i o n e e r L a n g l e y , see H o w i t t , quoted i n Nancy K e e s i n g , ed., H i s t o r y o f the A u s t r a 1 i a n Gold Rushes (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1967) , pp. 124-5- 352 ^ See N a d e l , A u s t r a l i a ' s C o l o n i a l C u l t u r e , pp. 76, 104-5. '' See S a p i e t s , p. 12; P o t t s and P o t t s , pp. 66-7• 1 2 S a p i e t s , p. 12. 1 3 See B a r t l e t t , p. 135; Free P r e s s , March 31, 1842, quoted i n Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I I , 77-8. 14 Geo.[rge] F r a n c i s T r a i n , An.American Merchant i n Europe, As i a , and A u s t r a 1 i a: A_ Ser i es o f L e t t e r s (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1857), P. 386. ' 5 In E n g l a n d , t w e l v e d i f f e r e n t e d i t i o n s had been p r i n t e d by December, 1852, and twenty-seven e d i t i o n s by A p r i l , 1853• See S a p i e t s , p. 9; Gohdes, pp. 29, 101, 141. 1 g Quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s , p. 67. See a l s o , K e e s i n g , p. 125. ' 7 See Monaghan, p. 232; C l i v e T u r n b u l l , A u s t r a 1 i an L i ves (Melbourne: F.W. C h e s h i r e , 1965), p. 19- The poem, "Suggested by the P e r u s a l o f U n c l e Tom's C a b i n , " by " T h e t a , " a p p e a r i n g i n The Sydney U n i v e r s i t y Magazine, 1 ( J a n . 1855), 70-1, f a i r l y r e p r e s e n t s the A u s t r a l i a n poems w r i t t e n i n s u p p o r t o f the a n t i - s l a v e r y cause. I t beg i n s : Up, ye sons o f l i b e r t y ! Up, and s e t your b r e t h r e n f r e e . . . . T y p i c a l o f the t i m e , the poet r e c o r d s i n a l a t e r s t a n z a h i s sadness t h a t s l a v e r y ' s c u r s e s h o u l d brand Those whose f a t h e r s made a s t a n d , B e a r i n g freedom's banner h i g h , F i g h t i n g f o r t h e i r l i b e r t y . . . . 353 18 Hobart D a i l y C o u r i e r , J u l y 1, September 30, October 12, 15, 1853, quoted i n Monaghan, p. 232. 1 9 Quoted i n C l a r k , S e l e c t Documents (1851-1900), p. 339- 20 K i n g s l e y , p. 397. 21 Dred (1856) d i d not have the same impact i n A u s t r a l i a as i t s p r e d e c e s s o r , and y e t i t s t i l l prompted s e v e r a l e d i t o r i a l s i n the Sydney Morning H e r a l d . See P o t t s and P o t t s , p. 67. 22 See Sydney Morning Hera 1d, August 25, 26, 28, September 1, I 8 5 6 . 23 Freeman's J o u r n a 1 , August 30, I856. Ik See Ann-Mari J o r d e n s , The Stenhouse C i r c l e (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1979), p. 5*.. 25 F i v e o f the sonnets appeared i n the Sydney Morning H e r a l d , J u l y 2, 1863, and one on June 15- They a r e r e p r i n t e d under the t i t l e , "Sonnets r e f e r r i n g t o the War i n A m e r i c a , " i n Henry K e n d a l l , The P o e t i c a l Works o f Henry K e n d a l l , ed. T.T. Reed ( A d e l a i d e : L i b r a r i e s Board o f South A u s t r a l i a , 1966), pp. 289"92. 26 "The N i g h t B e f o r e the B a t t l e , " K e n d a l l , p. 290. 2 7 "The Mother," K e n d a l l , p. 291. 28 "From A u s t r a l i a , " Kendall., p. 292. Compare t h i s sonnet w i t h poems i n Whitman's Drum Taps (1865) such as " E i g h t e e n S i x t y - One," " B e a t ! Beat! Drums!" " R i s e 0 Days from Your Fathomless Deeps," "Come. Up from the F i e l d s F a t h e r " and "The Wound-Dresser," i n Walt Whitman, Leaves o f G r a s s , ed. S c u l l e y B r a d l e y , H a r o l d W. B l o d g e t t , A r t h u r G o l d e n , W i l l i a m White (New York: New York U n i v . P r e s s , 1980), I I , 466T7, 479-82, 483-6, 486-7, 488-9. 354 29 I n g l i s , p. 275. For a good example o f e a r l y c o l o n i a l o p t i m i s m , see C u r r e n c y Lad, October 27, 1832, where the w r i t e r c l a i m s t h a t " t h e s t a g n a n t w a t e r s o f i g n o r a n c e . . . have now g i v e n p l a c e t o t h o s e f o u n t a i n s o f knowledge, which i s s u e t h e i r a l m o s t b o u n d l e s s streams t o f e r t i l i z e , e n r i c h , and b l e s s the w o r l d . " 3 ^ K i n g s l e y , p. 238. 31 " L i n e s on the D e p a r t u r e o f E m i g r a n t s f o r New South Wales," i n Thomas Campbel1, The Complete Poet i ca1 Works of.Thomas Campbel1, ed. J . L o g i e R o b e r t s o n (London: Henry Frowde, 1907), p. 283. 32 A u s t r a l i a n , December 23, 1842 (p. 2). For more on Duncan, see Roe, Quest f o r A u t h o r i t y , pp. 105-7- 33 Henry P a r k e s , Murmurs o f the Stream (Sydney: J. Waugh, 1857) p. 25. 34 P a r k e s , pp. 21, 27-8, 29. 35 Quoted i n I n g l e t o n , True P a t r i o t s A l 1 , p. 256. 36 K e n d a l l , pp. 241-2. The poem was f i r s t p r i n t e d i n The A u s t r a 1 i an Home Companion and Band o f Hope J o u r n a l , November 5, 1859- 37 See the poem "Hurrah f o r A u s t r a l i a " i n C.R. T h a t c h e r , T h a t c h e r ' s C o l o n i a l M i n s t r e l (Melbourne, 1864), p. 24, r e p r i n t e d i n C r o w l e y , C o l o n i a l A u s t r a l i a , p. 477- 38 S a p i e t s , p. 8. 39 Dana's Two Years B e f o r e the Mast (1840) was a d v e r t i s e d i n A u s t r a l i a as e a r l y as 1843. See the s a l e o f books a d v e r t i s e d i n the P o r t Phi 11ip H e r a l d , March 3, 1843 (quoted i n Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I I , 169). 355 4 0 See S a p i e t s , pp. 8-9; Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I I , 60-1 . L] Maya V a l d a S a p i e t s has s a i d t h a t " E n g l i s h c r i t i c s began t o t a k e American n o v e l i s t s s e r i o u s l y o n l y a f t e r the p u b l i c a t i o n o f Edgar A l l a n P o e 1 s s h o r t s t o r i e s o f the 1840's" ( S a p i e t s , p. 8). See a l s o Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I I , 61, 153- 42 F r e d e r i c k S i n n e t t , The F i c t i o n F i e l d s o f A u s t r a l i a , ed. C e c i l H a d g r a f t (Melbourne, 1856; r p t . S t . L u c i a , Queensland: U n i v . o f Queensland P r e s s , 1966), p. 23. 43 Quoted i n S i n n e t t , p. 12. ^ Empi r e , J u l y 11, I856. See a l s o Sydney Morning H e r a l d , J u l y 9, I 8 5 6 . Fowler devoted a s e c t i o n t o Poe ( a l o n g w i t h L o n g f e l l o w and Emerson) i n h i s posthumously p u b l i s h e d L a s t G l e a n i n g s (London: Sampson Low, Son, and M a r s t o n , 1864), pp. 227_8. In p a r t i c u l a r , he a p p r e c i a t e d the American's "most f a n t a s t i c o r i g i n a l i t y . " 45 Waterview House was the name o f Stenhouse's Balmain r e s i d e n c e . 46 See J o r d e n s , pp. 24, 48, and c h a p t e r 7, e n t i t l e d "The S t e n - house L i b r a r y . " 47 See J o r d e n s , p. 126. 48 Quoted i n J o r d e n s , p. 52. 49 , F o w l e r , p. 229. See a l s o , J o r d e n s , pp. 95"6; B a r t o n , Poets and P r o s e Wr i t e r s , p. 115- 50 The s e c t i o n t i t l e i s t a k e n from one o f Benjamin Wait s l e t t e r s i n L e t t e r s from Van D i emen's Land, wr i t t e n dur i ng Four Years Impr i son- ment f o r P o l i t i c a l O f f e n c e s Committed i n Upper Canada ( B u f f a l o : 356 A.W. Wi l g u s , 1843), p. 48. 5 ' M i l l e r , Notes o f an E x i l e , p. 271. 52 See George Mackaness, " E x i l e from Canada," JRAHS, 1, P t . 6 (Dec. 1964), 429; George Rude, P r o t e s t and Punishment--the S t o r y o f the S o c i a l and P o l i t i ca1 P r o t e s t e r s T r a n s p o r t e d t o A u s t r a l i a 1788-1868 ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1978), p. 10. 53 W a i t , L e t t e r s from Van Diemen's Land (1843); M i l l e r , Notes o f an E x i 1 e (1846); W i l l i a m G a t e s , R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f L i f e i n Van Diemen's Land, ed. George Mackaness, 2 v o l s . ( L o c k p o r t , 1850; r p t . Sydney: D.S. F o r d , 1961); C a l e b Lyon, N a r r a t i v e and R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f Van D i emen's Land dur i ng a_ Three Y e a r s ' Capt i v i t y o f Stephen S. W r i g h t (New York: New World P r e s s , 1844); Robert Marsh, Seven Years o f My L i f e , o r a N a r r a t i v e o f a P a t r i o t E x i l e ( B u f f a l o : Faxon and S t e v e n s , 1847); D a n i e l D. H e u s t i s , A N a r r a t i v e o f the A d v e n t u r e s and S u f f e r i ngs o f Capta i n Dan i e1 D. Heust i s ( B o s t o n : S.W. W i l d e r , 1848); Samuel Snow, The E x i 1 e ' s R e t u r n : o r , N a r r a t i v e o f Samuel Snow ( C l e v e l a n d Smead R. Cowles, 1846). 54 The more r e c e n t book on Woodman i s F r e d Landon, An E x i 1 e from Canada ( T o r o n t o : Longman, Green, i960). 5 5 See, f o r example, Edwin C. G u i l l e t , The L i v e s and Times o f the P a t r i o t s ( T o r o n t o : Thomas N e l s o n , 1938); J . D a v i s B a r n e t t , "The Books o f the P o l i t i c a l P r i s o n e r s and E x i l e s o f I838," O n t a r i o H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y Papers and R e c o r d s , XVI (1918), 10-18. See P a t r i c k W h i t e , A F r i n g e o f Leaves (London: Cape, 1976); Thomas K e n e a l l y , B r i n g L a r k s and Heroes (Melbourne: C a s s e l l , 1967). 357 5 7 L i n u s M i l l e r , f o r example, g i v e s us r a r e f i r s t - h a n d i n f o r m a t i o n on the infamous P o r t A r t h u r p r i s o n i n the remote s o u t h c o a s t o f Tasmania. He spent time t h e r e as an inmate (see N o t e s , c h a p t e r s XXV and XXVI, e s p e c i a l l y pp. 328-33). P o r t A r t h u r "was s i t u a t e d a t the t i p of a p e n i n s u l a which was j o i n e d t o the i s l a n d by a narrow isthmus where h a l f - s t a r v e d dogs were s a i d t o roam f r e e " ( L a c o u r - Gayet, C o n c i s e H i s t o r y , p. 162). 58 For more on t h i s , see Mary Brown's i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Benjamin W a i t , The Wa i t L e t t e r s ( O n t a r i o : P r e s s P o r c e p i c , 1976), pp. 5_9. 59 3 3 G a t e s , I, 32. 60 See W a i t , The Wait L e t t e r s , pp. 42, 140. 61 See W a i t , The Wa i t L e t t e r s , p. 21. See a l s o pp. 22-32; Mrs. Wa i t ' s 1 e t t e r s i n Wa i t , L e t t e r s from Van D i emen's Land. 62 Robert Marsh, quoted by George Mackaness i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o G a t e s , p. 6. See a l s o W a i t , The Wa i t L e t t e r s , p. 132; M i l l e r , pp. 339-40. 6 3 Mi 1 l e r , p. 27*. 64 W a i t , L e t t e r s from Van Diemen's Land, i n t r o d u c t i o n . See a l s o p. 45; W a i t , The Wait L e t t e r s , p. 51. 6 5 M i l l e r , p. 2. 6 6 See M i l l e r , p. 3- 6 7 Many Canadians were no d i f f e r e n t , i f Wait i s i n any way t y p i c a l . The T o r o n t o P a t r i o t even c a l l e d him a "Yankee Dandy" (quoted i n G u i l l e t , p. 109). Wait o f t e n mentioned " t h e cause o f t r u t h and the r i g h t s o f man" i n h i s w r i t i n g s . See W a i t , The Wa i t L e t t e r s , pp. 12, 16, 41, 51. 358 68 G a t e s , I, 9. See a l s o p. 8; Samuel Snow, quoted i n B a r n e t t , p. 12. 69 Thomas P a i n e , Common Sense, ed. Isaac Kramnick ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1776; r p t . Harmondsworth: P e n g u i n , 1976), p. 82. 7 0 P a i n e , R i g h t s o f Man, pp. 182-3, 184. 7 1 See, f o r example, W a i t , The Wai t L e t t e r s , pp. 19, 79-80, 148-9; M i l l e r , pp. 91, 232, 350, 352. 72 M i l l e r , p. 233- See a l s o p. 119; W a i t , The Wait L e t t e r s , p. 126. 7 3 M i l l e r , p. 232. 74 Woodman, quoted i n Landon, p. 196. See a l s o p. 220; W a i t , The Wait L e t t e r s , p. 34. 7 5 W a i t , The Wait L e t t e r s , p. 34. 7 6 H e u s t i s , quoted i n Gu.il l e t , p. 211. See a l s o G a t e s , I , 53, 70. 7 7 See H. McQueen, " C o n v i c t s and R e b e l s , " Labour H i s t o r y , No. 15 (Nov. 1968), 22. 7 8 M i l l e r , p. 331. See a l s o p. 336. 79 A r t h u r , i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e d — b e i n g v a r i o u s l y c a l l e d " t h e b l o o d y R o b e s p i e r r e o f the Canadian R e v o l u t i o n " ( W r i g h t , quoted i n G u i l l e t , p. 197) and " t h e Bloody E x e c u t i o n e r " ( W a i t , The Wait L e t t e r s , p. 62). 80 M i l l e r , p. 217- See a l s o pp. 213-16. 81 W a i t , L e t t e r s from Van Diemen's Land, p. 48. 82 W a i t , The Wait L e t t e r s , p. 82. 8 3 G a t e s , I , 40, 30. 84 G a t e s , I, 31 (see a l s o I I , 30-1); W a i t , L e t t e r s from Van Diemen's Land, p. 48; Woodman, quoted i n Landon, p. 257; M i l l e r , http://Gu.il 359 pp. 254, 326-7, 366, 368-9. O r W a i t , The Wait L e t t e r s , pp. 11, 144; G a t e s , I I , 16, 40. M i l l e r , p. 370. 87 See George Mackaness 1 i n t r o d u c t i o n t o G a t e s , I, 6. See a l s o G a t e s , I I , 16; M i l l e r , pp. 286, 304. 88 See, f o r example, Marsh, quoted i n GuI1 l e t , pp. 194-7; M i l l e r , pp. 325-6; Woodman, quoted i n Landon, pp. 217 - l8; G a t e s , I, 41, 54, 70-1; I I , 31. 89 G a t e s , I I , 32. See a l s o Woodman, quoted i n Landon, p. 211. 90 See G a t e s , I, 42; Snow, quoted i n Gui1 l e t , p. 212. 91 •See, f o r example, Woodman, quoted i n Landon, pp. 226, 262. 92 H e u s t i s , quoted i n Gu11 l e t , p. 197- 9"? 3 J G a t e s , I, 33- 94 Landon's An E x i l e from Canada, t r a c e s the f u l l s t o r y . 95 Woodman, quoted i n G u i l l e t , p. 196. 96 M i l l e r , p. 299- The f i r s t v e r s e o f "The Hunters o f K e n t u c k y " i s g i v e n i n Landon, p. 206. 97 G a t e s , I, 55. See a l s o , W a i t , The Wa i t L e t t e r s , p. 65; M i l l e r , p. 323. 98 3 Mi H e r , p. 298; G a t e s , I , 44. 9 9 Mi H e r , p. 263; G a t e s , I , 45. ""^ Geo.[rge] F r a n c i s T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i sm (New York: Derby & J a c k s o n , 1859), p. xv. T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i s m , pp. x i - x i i . 360 102 For more on T r a i n ' s use o f the term "Spread-Eag le i sm," see Spread-Eag le i sm, pp. v i i - i x . 103 L e t t e r o f T r a i n , December 6, 1853, i n George F r a n c i s T r a i n , A_ Yankee Merchant i n G o l d r u s h A u s t r a l i a - - t h e L e t t e r s o f George F r a n c i s Tra i n, ed. E. D a n i e l and A n n e t t e P o t t s (Melbourne: Heinemann, 1970), p. 88. See a l s o , New York H e r a l d , F e b r u a r y 15, December 2, 1853, quoted i n E. D a n i e l and A n n e t t e P o t t s ' i n t r o d u c t i o n t o T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p. xv. 1 0 4 Freeman Hunt, i n t r o d u c t i o n t o T r a i n , An American Merchant (1857), p. v i . T r a i n s i g n s h i m s e l f " C i t i z e n George F r a n c i s T r a i n " a t the end o f the p r e f a c e t o h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y , My L i f e i n Many S t a t e s and i n F o r e i g n Lands (1902), p. xv. The book was p u b l i s h e d about s i x t e e n months b e f o r e T r a i n d i e d , i n h i s mid-70's. 106 See P o t t s and P o t t s ' i n t r o d u c t i o n t o T r a i n ' s L e t t e r s ; A i t c h i s o n , Thanks t o the Yanks, pp. 13~22. 1 0 7 See T r a i n , An American Merchant (1857) and L e t t e r s (1970). 108 New York H e r a l d , J u l y 21, 1856, quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s ' i n t r o d u c t i o n t o T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p. xx. 1 09 C h a r l e s D. F e r g u s o n , The E x p e r i e n c e s o f a F o r t y - n i n e r d u r i n g T h i r t y - F o u r Y e a r s ' R e s i d e n c e i n C a l i f o r n i a and A u s t r a l i a , ed. F r e d e r i c k T. W a l l a c e ( C l e v e l a n d , Ohio: W . i l l i a m s , 1888), p. 328. Quoted i n T r a i n , Spread-Eaglei.sm, p. x v i i i . Freeman Hunt, i n t r o d u c t i o n t o T r a i n , An American Merchant, pp. i i i - i v . 361 112 T r a i n , Spread-Eaglei-sm. P- v. 1 1 3 T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i sm, p. v i . 1 '^ T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i sm, pp. x - x i . 1 1 5 T r a i n , My L i f e , p. 61. I t i s worth n o t i n g t h a t Emerson a l s o knew o f T r a i n , though h i s t h o u g h t s on the a g g r e s s i v e merchant-cum- p o l i t i c i a n were not q u i t e so f l a t t e r i n g . He noted i n h i s Journa1 (1862) t h a t " T r a i n s a i d i n a p u b l i c speech i n New Y o r k , ' S l a v e r y i s a d i v i n e i n s t i t u t i o n . ' 'So i s h e l l , ' e x c l a i m e d an o l d man i n the crowd." See Ralph Waldo Emerson, The J o u r n a l s of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Edward Waldo Emerson and Waldo Emerson F o r b e s , IX ( B o s t o n : Houghton, M i f f 1 i n , 1913) , 460. 1 1 6 F e r g u s o n , E x p e r i e n c e s o f a F o r t y - n i n e r (1888) , p. v i i i . 1 1 7 F e r g u s o n , p. 447- See a l s o , p. 444. 1 1 8 r Q F e r g u s o n , p. 9. 119 ,_ , 0 1 F e r g u s o n , p. 421. 1 20 See F e r g u s o n , pp. 3 7 2 , 401. 121 F e r g u s o n , p. 329- See, i n a d d i t i o n , pp. 247, 270, 332, 487. 1 22 See F e r g u s o n , pp. 3 2 6 - 7 . 1 23 F e r g u s o n , pp. 331-2. 1 24 W i l l i a m H. Thomes, The Gold H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s ; o r L i f e i n A u s t r a 1 i a ( B o s t o n : Lee and Shepard, 1864); W i l l i a m H. Thomes, The B u s h r a n g e r s : a_ Y a n k e e 1 s A d v e n t u r e s dur i ng h i s Second V i s i t t o A u s t r a l i a ( B o s t o n : Lee and Shepard, 1873); W i l l i a m H. Thomes, The Bel 1e o f A u s t r a l i a , o r Who Am [? ( B o s t o n : De W o l f e , F i s k e , 1884). 3 6 2 1 2^ 3 See DAB, X V I I I , 4 4 7 ~ 8 ; B.R. E l l i o t t , "An A m e r i c a n - A u s t r a 1 i a n N o v e l i s t o f the N i n e t e e t h C e n t u r y : W.H. Thomes," The A u s t r a 1 i a n Q u a r t e r l y , XXIX, No. 3 ( S e p t . 1 9 5 7 ) , 7 9 " 8 l . 1 2 6 C h a p t e r headings such as " D i s c o v e r y o f S t o l e n T r e a s u r e s i n the Stockman's C e l l a r (XIV) and " F i n d i n g a 1 1 0 l b . Nugget (XXXVII) i n Gold H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s . 1 27 E l l i o t t , p. 7 9 . For an example i n a Thomes n o v e l , see B u s h r a n g e r s , p. 3 4 8 . 1 2 8 Thomes, Gold H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s , p. 1 4 . 1 2 9 3 C h a p t e r s XXVIII, X X X I I I , XL, XLV, L I M and L V I M , r e s p e c t i v e l y . 1 3 0 Thomes, B u s h r a n g e r s , p. 9 . 1 3 1 Thomes, B u s h r a n g e r s , p . 1 0 . 1 3 2 Thomes, B u s h r a n g e r s , p p . 4 5 0 - 1 . 1 3 3 T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p . 9 2 . 1 3 4 3 T r a i n , My L i f e , p . 1 5 7 . 1 3 5 See, f o r example, F e r g u s o n , p . 2 4 0 ; T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p p . 1 1 9 , 1 2 1 ; Thomes,Gold H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s , p . 1 3 4 . 1 3 6 " D e v i l ' s I s l a n d " was a name commonly a s c r i b e d t o Tasmania d u r i n g the f i r s t h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 1 3 7 Thomes, Gold H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s , p . 3 5 4 . See a l s o , p p . 265-72. 1 3 8 T h o m e s , G o l d . H u n ^ r V _ A d v e n t u r e s , p . 3 5 5 - 139 S e e M o n a g h a n , A ^ i S j r ^ i a n j . a n d t j ^ G o l d R u s h , P - *68. 1 4 0 F e r g u s o n , p . 2 7 5 - 1 4 1 S e e F e r g u s o n , p . 2 8 1 . 363 142 See Thomes, Gold H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s , pp. 554-63 ( e s p e c i a l l y P. 563). 143 See F e r g u s o n , pp. 300-1. 144 T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p. 44. 145 Melbourne H e r a l d , November 3, 1855, quoted i n P o t t s and P o t t s ' i n t r o d u c t i o n t o T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p. x i x . 146 T r a i n ' s L e t t e r t o the Boston P o s t , A p r i l 11, 1855, quoted i n T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p. 158. See a l s o , My L i f e , p. 160. 147 T r a i n d i d , f o r example, u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y r e f e r t o " t h e c u r s e o f E n g l i s h t y r a n n y and i n j u s t i c e " i n one o f h i s l e t t e r s t o the Boston P o s t (October 30, 1854). See a l s o , F e r g u s o n , p. 254. 148 p. 344. 149 T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i sm, p. 40. See a l s o , An American Merchant, T r a i n , An American Merchant, p. 354. See a l s o , Spread-Eag1i sm, pp. x x i i i , 39- ' ^ T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i sm, p. x v i i i . See a l s o , p. x i i . ' 5 ' T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i s m , p. x x x i i i . 1 52 T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i s m , p. xv. See a l s o , Thomes, Gold H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s , p. 132. 153 See, f o r example, Thomes' Gold H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s , p. 132; T r a i n , My L i f e , pp. 131, 138. 1 54 T r a i n , The American Merchant, p. 354. 1 55 T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i sm, pp. v i i i - i x . See a l s o , pp. x i n - x i v , 59. 364 1 5 6 S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i s m , p p . x x , 4 0 , 5 7 ; L e t t e r s , p . 109- 1 5 7 L e t t e r t o B o s t o n P o s t , F e b r u a r y 2 , 1 8 5 5 , q u o t e d i n L e t t e r s , P. 1 5 2 . 158 S e e T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p . 1 8 6 . 1 5 9 F e r g u s o n , p p . 256, 420. 1 6 0 F e r g u s o n , p . 490. 1 6 1 T r a i n , S p r e a d - E a g l e i s m , p . 42. 1 6 2 S e e T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p . 84. 1 6 3 L e t t e r t o B o s t o n P o s t , J u l y 6, 1854, q u o t e d i n T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p . 1 2 0 . 164 L e t t e r t o Boston P o s t , A p r i l 11, 1855, quoted i n T r a i n , L e t t e r s , p . 1 6 0 . See a l s o , L e t t e r s , p . 1 4 0 ; S p r e a d - E a g l e i s m , p . 59. 1 65 S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , T h o m e s , G o l d H u n t e r s ' A d v e n t u r e s , p . 339- 3 £5 CHAPTER VI SIGNAL F I R E S ON THE REDDENING H I L L S I w i s h y o u w o u l d a b o l i s h t h e u s e o f t h e word ' C o l o n i a l , 1 a t a n y r a t e w i t h r e g a r d t o l i t e r a t u r e , a n d c a l l i t [ A u s t r a I i a n l i t e r a t u r e ] e i t h e r ' A u s t r a l i a n ' o r ' N a t i o n a l . ' Depend upon i t t h a t A u s t r a l i a w i l l n e v e r be more t h a n ^ a c i p h e r among t h e n a t i o n s , u n t i l h e r s o n s a s s u m e t o t h e m s e l v e s n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and p r o u d l y s t a m p them by t h e p e n t o be a c k n o w l e d g e d a n d a d m i r e d by t h e w o r l d ! " T h e C o l o n i a l L i t e r a r y J o u r n a l , F e b r u a r y 2 7 , 1845 . . . A u s t r a l i a [ i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ] n e e d e d an E m e r s o n t o r e p e a t : ' A l l a r t - - y e t t o be c r e a t e d ; a l l 1 i t e r - a t u r e - - y e t t o be w r i t t e n ; a l l n a t u r e - - n e w and u n d e s c r i b e d . . . . Why s h o u l d n o t A m e r i c a n s e n j o y an o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n t o t h e u n i v e r s e ? ' An A u s t r a l i a n Whitman was r e q u i r e d t o i n j e c t n a t i v e l i f e a n d v i g o u r , a Poe t o p r o c l a i m a c u l t u r a l d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e , and a b o v e a l l a M e l v i l l e t o w r i t e a m a s t e r p i e c e . ' G e o f f r e y S e r l e , From D e s e r t s t h e P r o p h e t s Come ( 1 9 7 0 ) 2 In h i s H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e , H . M . G r e e n p r o p e r l y d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t , a s l a t e a s t h e l 8 8 0 ' s , a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s and a g r e a t many more r e a d e r s s t i l l 3 l o o k e d t o E n g l a n d f o r n e w s . P r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e l o c a l p r o d u c t 366 c o u l d a t times be a demora1ising1y l o n e l y p u r s u i t , and d e s p a i r r e g u l a r l y s u r f a c e d i n the works of e a r l y w r i t e r s who d e t e r m i n e d t o be A u s t r a l i a n . S t r o n g d r i n k p r o v i d e d the most common balm f o r the a r t i s t i c s o u l i n s e a r c h o f immediate c o m f o r t and c o m p a n i o n s h i p . For most o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i n f a c t , t h e r e i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t the tone o f c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y owed much t o t h e i n p u t o f "nouveau r i c h e b o o r s , " as G e o f f r e y S e r l e has c h a r a c t e r i z e d them, p e o p l e m o t i v a t e d o n l y by a d e s i r e t o make money and r e t i r e t o the c o m f o r t s o f home, England. P e o p l e w i t h no time f o r the r u s t i c c o l o n i a l p r o d u c t . In the decades a f t e r 1838, no one was more aware o f the c o n s t a n t l y d e b i l i t a t i n g i n f l u e n c e of t h i s group than D a n i e l Deniehy, John Dunmore Lang and C h a r l e s Harpur. In d e f i a n c e o f the "Home" m e n t a l i t y , they r e c o g n i z e d two t h i n g s : one, t h a t c u l t u r e c o u l d not be r e a d i l y t r a n s p l a n t e d from one hemisphere t o a n o t h e r ; and, two, t h a t A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d o n l y be advanced by w r i t e r s d e t e r m i n e d t o c r e a t e anew. S u n l i g h t would have t o be l e t i n . B e l i e f i n the v a l i d i t y of t h i s e n t e r p r i s e q u i t e n a t u r a l l y took them t o the Americans f o r i d e a s . But they approached i n d e p e n d e n t l y , and a l e r t . For them--the b r a s h p i o n e e r s - - i t was a d i a l o g u e o f e q u a l s . The f i r s t t r u l y c r e a t i v e l i n k s between A u s t r a l i a and the U n i t e d S t a t e s were f o r g e d i n the 1840's, 150 1 s and '60's. When Lang p r i n t e d Channing's a d d r e s s , hoping t o s t i m u l a t e l o c a l l e t t e r s , he, a l o n g w i t h h i s more p e r c e p t i v e countrymen, a p p r e c i a t e d the d i s t i n c t h i s t o r i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s between A u s t r a l i a and A m e r i c a . U n l i k e A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a had no p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c d e n s i t y . 5 As F r e d e r i c k S i n n e t 367 c h a r a c t e r i z e d i t i n I856: "The a n t i q u i t y o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s q u i t e puts us t o shame. . . ." The American l e s s o n , t h e r e f o r e , c o u l d o n l y a p p l y up t o a c e r t a i n p o i n t . When Emerson d e l i v e r e d h i s a d d r e s s , "The American S c h o l a r , " t o the Cambridge Phi Beta Kappa S o c i e t y i n A u g u s t , 1837, t h e r e were many a p p a r e n t s i m i l a r i t i e s between h i s comments and numerous contemporary a s s e r t i o n s i n A u s t r a l i a . 7 But A u s t r a l i a a t t h a t t i m e had o n l y f i f t y y e a r s o f w h i t e c i v i l i z a t i o n behind i t (and no rumoured p r i o r s e t t l e m e n t ). A m e r i c a , w i t h o v e r two c e n t u r i e s o f w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t , was r i p e f o r a r e n a i s s a n c e i n l i t e r a t u r e . Rank and f i l e A u s t r a l i a n s , on the o t h e r hand, would remain a c q u i s i t i v e f o r many y e a r s t o come--1eaving behind a t r a i l o f v i s i o n a r i e s w i t h o u t a s u b s t a n t i a l a u d i e n c e . C o n f r o n t e d c o n s t a n t l y by the l o c a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h m a t e r i a l w e l l - b e i n g , c o n f r o n t e d by a community s t r u g g l i n g t o overcome a c u t e d i s l o c a t i o n , f a c e d w i t h the i n t r a c t a b l e n a t u r e o f the a u t h o r i t i e s and a s i t u a t i o n where t h e r e seemed t o be " n o t h i n g f o r the p u b l i c mind t o break i t s e l f on," Deniehy, Lang and Harpur sought t o e s t a b l i s h A u s t r a l i a 9 i n the i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e i r f e l l o w s . In t h e i r d i s t i n c t ways, they a t t e m p t e d t o c r e a t e a unique i d e n t i t y f o r s u c c e e d i n g g e n e r a t i o n s by f o r m u l a t i n g an o r i g i n a l , r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e f o r s o c i e t y and l i t e r a t u r e . Doing t h i s i n v o l v e d a d i a l o g u e w i t h B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n , an acknowledgement o f the advances made i n A m e r i c a . The w r i t e r s from the U n i t e d S t a t e s t h a t r e p u b l i c a n A u s t r a l i a n s approved o f a d d r e s s e d t h e i r works t o a l l 10 p e o p l e , not j u s t t o the a r i s t o c r a c y . 368 I t i s a t once t y p i c a l and s y m b o l i c t h a t Deniehy, Lang and Harpur s h o u l d be the s o l e — a n d e x t r e m e l y voc i f erous—members o f an a n t i - w a r a l l i a n c e i n the mid 18501s, p r o t e s t i n g p o s s i b l e A u s t r a l i a n i n v o l v e m e n t (on the B r i t i s h s i d e ) i n the Crimean War. 1 1 A l l t h r e e viewed A u s t r a l i a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n as a dangerous p r e c e d e n t . Avowedly " r e d r e p u b l i c a n , " they s t r o n g l y a d v o c a t e d an independent p o l i t i c a l c o u r s e . For Deniehy and Harpur, i n p a r t i c u l a r , p o l i t i c a l autonomy demanded, as i t s n a t u r a l c o n c o m i t a n t , l i t e r a r y independence. W i l l i a m Wool I s , i n the e a r l y 1830 1s, had s u g g e s t e d the f o r m a t i o n o f a " s t r o n g n a t i o n a l l i t e r a r y 1 2 c u l t u r e . " In the t h r e e decades a f t e r 1838, Deniehy and Harpur s e r i o u s l y a p p l i e d themselves t o the t a s k . Emerson's q u e s t i o n s would be t h e i r s : What s h a l l be the s u b s t a n c e o f my s h r i f t ? Adam i n the g a r d e n , I am t o new name a l l the b e a s t s i n the f i e l d and a l l the gods i n the sky. I am t o i n v i t e men drenched i n Time t o r e c o v e r themselves and come out o f t i m e , and t a s t e t h e i r n a t i v e immortal a i r . I am t o f i r e w i t h what s k i l l I can the a r t i l l e r y o f sympathy and emotion. . . . I am t o c o n s o l e the brave s u f f e r e r s under e v i l s whose end they cannot see by a p p e a l s t o the g r e a t o p t i m i s m , s e l f - a f f i r m e d i n a l l bosoms. 1 ' That they c o u l d not come up w i t h Emerson's answers would be a measure not so much o f i n f e r i o r i n t e l l e c t , as of the sharp c o n t r a s t between the c u l t u r a l m i l i e u o f Concord, M a s s a c h u s e t t s ? a n d o f Sydney, New South Wales. 30 Sect i on A_ John Dunmore Lang (1799-1878): Going f o r the Whole Hog'** Go on w i t h your g r e a t l a b o u r ! The a p p r o v a l o f e v e r y t h i n k i ng son o f the s o i l . . . i s s u r e l y an a n t e p a s t of what w i l l be y o u r s i n the coming ages. D a n i e l Deniehy, i n l e t t e r t o John Dunmore Lang, 1854?'5 Be i t t h i n e t o o , i n thy grand Old age, t o f a s h i o n w i t h p a t e r n a l hand A c h a r t e r t h a t s h a l l a l l our r i g h t s c o m p l e t e ! C h a r l e s H a r p u r , "To Dr. Lang, on Reading One of h i s B o o k s " ! 6 In I960, A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r i a n Robin G o l l a n a s s e r t e d t h a t "modern h i s t o r i a n s have so f a r f a i l e d t o a c c o r d [John Dunmore Lang] h i s p r o p e r p l a c e i n the h i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a n d e m o c r a c y . " ' 7 Very l i t t l e has o c c u r r e d s i n c e t o a l t e r the v a l i d i t y o f t h a t judgement today. We s t i l l have no comprehensive t e x t o f Lang's w r i t i n g s and speeches-- A r c h i b a l d G i l c h r i s t ' s two volumes o f e x c e r p t s , though h e l p f u l , a r e o d d l y i n d e x e d , and f r e q u e n t l y he a l t e r s the a c t u a l t e x t t o s u i t h i s 18 own p u r p o s e s , o r perhaps t o " i m p r o v e " the o r i g i n a l --and any s c h o l a r 370 a p p r o a c h i n g t h i s n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o l o s s u s o f A u s t r a l i a n p o l i t i c s , r e l i g i o n and l i t e r a t u r e has v i r t u a l l y no c r i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n i n w h i c h 19 t o w r i t e . There i s a need f o r some c o n c e r t e d s t u d y of the man's voluminous o u t p u t , h i s c h a r a c t e r and m i l i e u . He needs t o be p l a c e d i n a more adequate h i s t o r i c a l and l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t . Even C.M.H. C l a r k , i n volumes two and t h r e e o f h i s monumental A H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a (1968, 1973), s c a r c e l y a c c o r d s Lang the a t t e n t i o n he d e s e r v e s . An o u t s p o k e n P r e s b y t e r i a n m i n i s t e r , h i s t o r i a n , l a n d r e f o r m e r , p o e t , c r i t i c , j o u r n a l i s t , i m m i g r a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n t h e o r i s t , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , and c o n f i r m e d p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t and r e p u b l i c a n , Lang b e s t r o d e the narrow w o r l d o f c o l o n i a l A u s t r a l i a . Most o f h i s countrymen l a b o u r e d , 20 a t one time o r a n o t h e r , under h i s v a s t and c o m p e l l i n g shadow. T y p i c a l l y p e r v e r s e , Lang r e v e r s e d t h e u s u a l human p r o g r e s s i o n from y o u t h f u l r a d i c a l t o middle-aged c o n s e r v a t i v e . As he grew o l d e r , he came t o q u e s t i o n more a s s e r t i v e l y the n a t u r e o f a u t h o r i t y and the a c c e p t e d s o c i a l h e i r a r c h y . L i k e the g r e a t number o f American r e v o l u t i o n a r y w r i t e r s w i t h whom he came s t e a d i l y t o i d e n t i f y , Lang had a g e n e r a l d i s t r u s t o f p o w e i — e s p e c i a l l y power a t one remove, government from a d i s t a n c e . A f t e r a v i s i t t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1840, though s t i l l h o l d i n g t e n a c i o u s l y t o a r i g i d C a l v i n i s t v i e w o f the w o r l d , Lang d e t e r - mined t o promulgate l e v e l l i n g r e p u b l i c a n d o c t r i n e s t h r o u g h o u t A u s t r a l i a . In 1843, he i n t e n t i o n a l l y invoked the s p e c t r e of the American R e v o l u t i o n by a l l u d i n g t o the o l d " t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " maxim. By 1850 he c o u l d , u n l i k e h i s f r i e n d Dan Deniehy, c o n t e m p l a t e w i t h a p p a r e n t c o n s e n t (assuming the E n g l i s h government m a i n t a i n e d i t s i n t r a c t a b l e 371 ways) an A u s t r a l i a n armed r e v o l t . As h i s p o l i t i c s r a d i c a l i z e d , Lang's debt t o the p r o t a g o n i s t s o f the American R e v o l u t i o n grew. H i s l a t e r p r o s e c o n t a i n s many passages coming v e r y c1ose i n s p i r i t , and indeed i n s p e c i f i c v o c a b u l a r y , t o the p r i n c i p a l spokesmen o f 1776, e s p e c i a l l y J e f f e r s o n and P a i n e . To p u b l i c l y advance h i s main themes, Lang r e p e a t e d l y looked t o the American 21 model. I f D a n i e l Deniehy and C h a r l e s Harpur were t o have an a u d i e n c e f o r t h e i r i d e a s , they r e q u i r e d Lang, l i k e Tom P a i n e , a n e c e s s a r y s t e n t o r i a n f i g u r e , t o m a n u f a c t u r e an amenable s o c i a l c l i m a t e . A Scot by b i r t h , Lang a t t e n d e d the U n i v e r s i t y o f Glasgow between 1812 and 1820, and though t r a i n i n g f o r the m i n i s t r y under the s t e r n hand o f the E v a n g e l i c a l s , he seemed t o a b s o r b some p a r t o f h i s w i d e r , more d e m o c r a t i c s u r r o u n d i n g s . For two decades, S c o t t i s h r a d i c a l s had f o u g h t a s t o u t r e p u b l i c a n f i g h t , i n s p i r e d i n l a r g e measure by 22 P a i n e ' s R i g h t s o f Man. The P a i s l e y p o e t , A l e x a n d e r W i l s o n , caught the dominant mood some y e a r s l a t e r i n h i s A d d r e s s t o Synod o f Glasgow S Ayr (1844): The R i g h t s o f Man i s now w e l l kenned, And red by mony a hunder; For Tammy P a i n e the b u i k has penned, And l e n t the c o u r t a l o u n d e r . 2 3 C e r t a i n l y when Lang a r r i v e d i n New South Wales i n May, 1823, he had a c l e a r i d e a o f the r i g h t s o f the B r i t i s h - b o r n s u b j e c t , as Governor B r i s b a n e soon d i s c o v e r e d when he g r a t u i t o u s l y i n s u l t e d P r e s b y t e r i a n i s m 24 i n the w i d e l y c i r c u l a t e d Sydney G a z e t t e . Lang's o u t r a g e d r e p l y , 372 a s s e r t i n g the " c i v i l and r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t i e s " o f the f r e e - b o r n S c o t , gave the l o c a l s some h i n t o f what the f u t u r e might h o l d , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h o s e i n a u t h o r i t y . Lang soon f e l t the new l a n d t o be h i s t r u e home, and i t wasn't long b e f o r e he began t o r e f l e c t on the p o s s i b i l i t i e s and c h a l l e n g e s e n t a i l e d i n t h e p e c u l i a r , and remote- environment w i t h w h i c h he had d e c i d e d t o i d e n t i f y h i m s e l f . Some o f h i s e a r l y poems bespeak a v i g o r o u s n a t i o n a l s p i r i t . In t h e poem b o l d l y e n t i t l e d " A u s t r a l i a n Anthem" (1826), Lang f o r the f i r s t time e n l a r g e d on h i s dream f o r the f u t u r e o f the s o u t h e r n c o n t i n e n t : A u s t r a l i a ! l a n d o f hope! Thy sons s h a l l bear thee up Even t o the s k i e s ! And e a r t h ' s e x a l t e d ones S h a l l h a i r thee from t h e i r t h r o n e s , Queen o f the S o u t h e r n Zones. A u s t r a 1 i a, r i s e ! 2 5 Not memorable p o e t r y , but then t h a t p r o b a b l y wasn't the w r i t e r ' s i n t e n t i o n . He wanted t o awaken h i s countrymen t o t h e p o t e n t i a l g r e a t n e s s o f t h e i r f u t u r e d e s t i n y as a l e a d e r i n the s o u t h e r n hemisphere: 0 be i t then t h y c a r e , From S u p e r s t i t i o n ' s s n a r e And S l a v e r y ' s c h a i n , To s e t the w r e t c h e d f r e e ; T i l l C h r i s t i a n l i b e r t y , Wide o'er the S o u t h e r n Sea, Triumphant r e i g n ! 2 6 A q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y l a t e r , Lang would enumerate A u s t r a l i a ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as a p o t e n t i a l w o r l d l e a d e r , b u t , i n h i s e a r l y y e a r s i n the c o l o n y , 373 he s o u g h t o n l y t o i n s t i l l i n t h e m i n d s o f a l l A u s t r a l i a n s a s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y w i t h t h e i r new c o u n t r y . H e n c e , i n a n o t h e r e a r l y p o e m , t h e h u m o r o u s " C o l o n i a l N o m e n c l a t u r e " ( 1 8 2 4 ) , he p r o p o s e d a b a n d o n i n g names w h i c h s u g g e s t e d E m p i r e , i n f a v o u r o f names o f S c o t p a t r i o t s a n d , more i m p o r t a n t l y , " n a t i v e n a m e s , " s u c h a s C o o k b u n d o o n , C a r r a b a i g a , W i n g e c a r r i b b e e , T h e W o l l o n d i l l y , Y u r u m b o n , B u n g a r r i b b e e . F u r t h e r , t h e v o l u m e o f poems e n t i t l e d A u r o r a A u s t r a l i s : a S p e c i m e n o f S a c r e d P o e t r y f o r t h e C o l o n i s t s o f A u s t r a l i a , p r i n t e d i n 1826, i n c l u d e d , i h a d d i t i o n t o G r e e k a n d German t r a n s l a t i o n s , some poems t r a n s l a t e d f r o m a l o c a l A b o r i g i n a l d i a l e c t . T h i s d e s i r e t o c o n s o l i d a t e an o r i g i n a l A u s t r a l i a n p e r s p e c t i v e q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m B r i t a i n e v i d e n t l y p r o m p t e d L a n g , a t some p o i n t i n h i s c a p a c i o u s r e a d i n g , t o c o n s u l t A m e r i c a n p r e c e d e n t s . In a M a y , 1 8 3 3 ? a d d r e s s , he c i t e d t h e w o r d s o f c u r r e n t A m e r i c a n p r e s i d e n t A n d r e w J a c k s o n t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a c o u n t r y ' s g e n e r a l 28 " p o p u l a t i o n , " i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e " c u l t i v a t o r s o f t h e s o i l . " A l i t t l e l a t e r , i n t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f h i s H i s t o r i c a l and S t a t i s t i c a l A c c o u n t ( 1 8 3 4 ) , a s we h a v e s e e n , he d e m o n s t r a t e d a s u r p r i s i n g l y •! d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e o f A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s and s o c i a l h i s t o r y . T h i s w o r k p r e p a r e s t h e r e a d e r o f L a n g i n two ways f o r t h e s t a t e m e n t s a n d d o c t r i n e s t o c o m e . F i r s t , he e m e r g e s a s a c l e a r and o r i g i n a l t h i n k e r d e t e r m i n e d t o j u d g e W e s t m i n s t e r l e g i s l a t i o n a n d b u r e a u c r a t i c a c t i o n on e t h i c a l , r a t h e r t h a n p a t r i o t i c g r o u n d s . T h e r e v o l u t i o n i n 29 374 A m e r i c a , he s u g g e s t s , o c c u r r e d as a r e s u l t o f a r b i t r a r y and t y r a n n i c a l l e g i s l a t i o n . Second, Lang d i s p l a y s an o b v i o u s sympathy f o r the m o t i v e s which prompted r e b e l l i o n i n A m e r i c a . A c a r e f u l r e a d i n g o f the two- volume Hi s t o r y h e l p s t o e x p l a i n the more r a d i c a l r e v i s i o n s o f the 1837 second e d i t i o n as s i m p l y a n o t h e r s t e p i n the e v o l u t i o n o f Lang's p o l i t i c a l p o s t u r e d u r i n g the second h a l f o f h i s long l i f e . A d m i r a t i o n f o r democracy and American r e p u b l i c a n government n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e d Lang, a t some s t a g e d u r i n g the m i d d l e 18301 s, i n an a b r u p t r e a p p r a i s a l o f h i s b e l i e f s and f u t u r e d i r e c t i v e s . In H i s t o r i c a l and S t a t i s t i c a l Account (1837), i t becomes c l e a r t h a t Lang's p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n and p h i l o s o p h i c a l a t t i t u d e towards government have undergone a marked change. He s t i l l p l e a d s h i s own, and the c o l o n y o f New South Wales' " a f f e c t i o n toward the mother c o u n t r y , " but h i s a t t i t u d e towards l o c a l government has hardened n o t i c e a b l y : The d e v i c e o f a l e g i s l a t i v e c o u n c i l a p p o i n t e d by the crown i s n o t h i n g more nor l e s s than an i n g e n i o u s d e v i c e f o r i n v e s t i n g a g o v e r n o r , o r perhaps the mere agent o f a s e c r e t a r y o f s t a t e , w i t h a b s o l u t e power and f o r c o n c e a l i n g from the p e o p l e he governs the f a c t t h a t he p o s s e s s e s such power.30 He e n t e r t a i n s the thought o f a "more p o p u l a r form o f government" i n d e f i a n c e o f the i m p r e c a t i o n s o f the " c o l o n i a l t o r i e s " i n A u s t r a l i a . Lang was o b v i o u s l y b e g i n n i n g t o i d e n t i f y more f u l l y w i t h the p e o p l e . Thus h i s f o r e c a s t o f the coming A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c comes as no s u r p r i s e . The terms i n w h i c h he sees the r e p u b l i c a r e i n t e r e s t i n g , though, e s p e c i a l l y the r e c o u r s e t o a n a l o g y , so s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f Tom P a i n e ' s p r o s e s t y l e i n Common Sense (1776): 375 The c o l o n i s t s o f A u s t r a l i a w i l l d o u b t l e s s a t some f u t u r e p e r i o d e s t a b l i s h a r e p u b l i c a n government f o r t h e m s e l v e s and e l e c t a p r e s i d e n t o f the A u s t r a l i a n s t a t e s . I t i s a s i n g u l a r f a c t i n the h i s t o r y o f nra.ti;orts t h a t Great B r i t a i n , w i t h an e s s e n t i a l l y m o n a r c h i c a l government, has f o r a long time p a s t been l a y i n g the f o u n d a t i o n o f f u t u r e r e p u b l i c s i n a l l p a r t s o f the g l o b e and w i l l d o u b t l e s s be l e f t a t l a s t , l i k e the u n f o r t u n a t e hen t h a t has hatched ducks' eggs, t o b e h o l d her numerous brood s u c c e s s i v e l y t a k i n g t o the water.31 In the t r a d i t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d by Wentworth, Lang i n d i r e c t l y , but no doubt p u r p o s e f u l l y , l i n k s A u s t r a l i a ' s tomorrow w i t h A m e r i c a ' s y e s t e r d a y . In the y e a r s f o l l o w i n g the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the second e d i t i o n o f H i s t o r i.ca 1 and S t a t i s t i ca 1 A c c o u n t , Lang's p u b l i c pronouncements assumed a tone s t e a d i l y more i r r i t a t e d w i t h the proponents o f a r i s t o c r a c y and more d e e p l y i n tune w i t h the American system of democracy. In 1840, he d e c i d e d t o v i e w t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a t f i r s t hand--as de 32 T o c q u e v i l l e had done, so f r u i t f u l l y , l e s s than a decade e a r l i e r thus e s t a b l i s h i n g a c o n n e c t i o n d e s t i n e d t o a f f e c t the c o u r s e o f A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r y and l i t e r a t u r e f o r decades t o come. Lang's v i s i t i n c o r p o r a t e d a wide number o f both n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n s t a t e s , and from the o u t s e t he m e t i c u l o u s l y r e c o r d e d a l l h i s i m p r e s s i o n s . T h i s r e s u l t e d , soon a f t e r , i n the c o p i o u s R e l i g i o n and E d u c a t i o n i n A m e r i c a 33 (1840). Lang wanted t o a p p r a i s e the s t a t e o f the American P r e s b y t e r i a n movement,and, i n h i s own words, w i s h e d " t o throw a d d i t i o n a l l i g h t 34 upon the moral and r e l i g i o u s a s p e c t s o f American s o c i e t y . " (In a t t e m p t i n g the l a t t e r , he s u p p l i e s an even b e t t e r i n s i g h t i n t o the s u b s t a n c e o f h i s own p o l i t i c s a t t h a t time.) But perhaps most p e r t i n e n t l y , Lang wanted t o i n s t i t u t e a d i a l o g u e between A u s t r a l i a and the U n i t e d 376 S t a t e s by way o f a l e r t i n g Americans t o " t h e b l e s s i n g s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n i n the s o u t h e r n hemisphere . . . I mean the c o n t i n e n t o f New H o l l a n d , 35 and the a d j a c e n t i s l a n d s . " In Lang's hands, a f t e r h i s momentous 1840 j o u r n e y , a r e a l c o n n e c t i o n o f s u b s t a n c e between the two t r a n s - P a c i f i c c o n t i n e n t s b e g i n s . R e l i g i o n and E d u c a t i o n i s a f i n e r e s o u r c e f o r .students o f e a r l y A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s . In i t , Lang broaches s e v e r a l a r e a s o f common i n t e r e s t : the r e p u b l i c a n system o f government, the b a n e f u l e f f e c t s o f a r i s t o c r a c y (compared w i t h democracy), a b o l i t i o n and s l a v e r y , u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e , v o l u n t a r y i s m and u n i v e r s a l e d u c a t i o n . D i s e n c h a n t - ment w i t h the E n g l i s h t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f government pervades the book. Many passages r e c a l l the c r i t i q u e s o f James O t i s and John D i c k i n s o n , and a r e , i n s u b s t a n c e , c l o s e t o the speeches which marked the f i r s t and second C o n t i n e n t a l C o n g r e s s e s - - a t once b i t t e r and m i l d l y c o n c i l i a t o r y . Lang d i s c u s s e s John B u l l ' s c h i e f f a i l i n g : . . . I c o n f e s s I am s t i l l as much as e v e r i n the d a r k as t o where the C h r i s t i a n i t y o f the B r i t i s h Government i s c e n t r e d , o r i n what i t c o n s i s t s . . . . [ I t ] i s a s u b t l e and e v a n e s c e n t q u a l i t y , which p e r p e t u a l l y e l u d e s the s e a r c h o f the i n q u i r e r , and o f which t h e r e i s no p o s s i b i 1 i t y o f f i x i n g the hab i t a t . . . . i t i s l i k e a s q u i r r e l i n a n a t i v e f i g - t r e e i n an A u s t r a l i a n f o r e s t - - t h e r e i s no doubt the c r e a t u r e i s i n the t r e e , f o r the b i a c k f e l lows saw i t go i n ; but where i t i s e x a c t l y among the t h i c k f o l i a g e no man can tel1.37 Even i n h i s most s e r i o u s moments, Lang c o u l d n o t , a t t i m e s , r e s i s t the p l a y f u l a n a l o g y ( a l t h o u g h h e r e , as i n most o f h i s w r i t i n g , one s u s p e c t s c a r e f u l method behind the s a r d o n i c h u m o u i — a g a i n , Lang 377 u t i l i z e s a d i s t i n c t l y l o c a l i z e d a n a l o g y ) . In a l a t e r c h a p t e r , he c l a r i f i e s the c o n t r a s t between the E n g l i s h system and the American system i n terms o f i t s e f f e c t on the common p e o p l e . Whereas the E n g l i s h lower o r d e r s , "mere P a r i a h s , o r o u t c a s t s from s o c i e t y , " a r e made t o f e e l the w r e t c h e d n e s s and g o d l e s s n e s s o f t h e i r i g n o b l e l o t , t h e i r American c o u n t e r p a r t has h i s r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s as w e l l as the w e a l t h i e s t i n the l a n d ; and i t i s n a t u r a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t he s h o u l d l o v e the c o u n t r y t h a t s e c u r e s and p r o t e c t s them. The S t a t e has watched over him i n h i s y o u t h , and not o n l y g i v e n him an e d u c a t i o n t o f i t him f o r a v i g o r o u s manhood, but thrown open t o him e v e r y avenue t o honour and p r e f e r - ment. . . .38 Lang c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e j e c t s C a p t a i n M a r r y a t ' s c h a r g e t h a t the American 39 p e o p l e have been " d e m o r a l i z e d " by t h e i r sudden r i s e i n s t a t u s . On the c o n t r a r y , he f i n d s them both more r e l i g i o u s and e m i n e n t l y more c a p a b l e . As Thomas J e f f e r s o n , t h r o u g h o u t h i s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r , put g r e a t f a i t h i n " t h e good sense o f the p e o p l e , " so Lang, i n 1840, c l e a r l y showed t h a t he had assumed a s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n . J e f f e r s o n m a i n t a i n e d t h a t wherever the p e o p l e a r e w e l l informed they can be t r u s t e d w i t h t h e i r own government; t h a t whenever t h i n g s get so f a r wrong as t o a t t r a c t t h e i r n o t i c e , they may be r e l i e d on t o s e t them t o rights.^° T h i s was a l m o s t e x a c t l y the s t a n d Lang took i n h i s l i v e l y d e a l i n g s w i t h the B r i t i s h C o l o n i a l O f f i c e t h r o u g h o u t the 1840 1 s and 1 5 0 1 s . At v a r i o u s p o i n t s i n R e l i g i o n and E d u c a t i o n , Lang's sense of the 378 sharp c o n t r a s t between an a r i s t o c r a t i c and d e m o c r a t i c o r d e r i n s o c i e t y becomes c l e a r . He r e f e r s , a t one s t a g e , t o " t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c l e s s o n o f b r i b e r y and c o r r u p t i o n . " C o n f r o n t e d by an e a g e r , a m b i t i o u s e g a l i t a r i a n p e o p l e i n A m e r i c a , he sees as i n e v i t a b l e the demise o f p r i v i l e g e d systems around the g l o b e - - a n d , l i k e P a i n e , J e f f e r s o n and Samuel Adams, he r e j o i c e s : . . . I have no doubt w h a t e v e r , t h a t . . . the f u l l t i d e o f d e m o c r a t i c i n f l u e n c e t h a t i s a l r e a d y s e t t i n g i n w i t h a y e a r l y i n c r e a s i n g f o r c e and volume from the g r e a t Western w o r l d upon our s h o r e s , w i l l sweep away i n s u c c e s s i o n the law o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e i n Great B r i t a i n , and the law o f e n t a i l s , h e r e d i t a r y l e g i s l a t i o n , and the E s t a b l i s h e d Church. ^ A g a i n , i n t e n t i o n a l l y , he l o o k s w i t h s u p p r e s s e d e n t h u s i a s m t o the "coming s t r u g g l e " when the "moral and r e s i s t l e s s i n f l u e n c e " o f America's " e d u c a t e d m i l l i o n s " w i l l " ' o v e r t u r n , o v e r t u r n , o v e r t u r n . ' " An ominous o u t l i n e o f Lang's c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s i n A u s t r a l i a and E n g l a n d , some t e n y e a r s hence, i s v i r t u a l l y mapped i n the l a s t s e c t i o n s o f c h a p t e r s i x . The p r e s e n t c o m b a t i v e mood o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s - - o f Young A m e r i c a growing i n c o n f i d e n c e - - w i 1 1 s h o r t l y be Lang's own p u b l i c commitment. In the same manner as h i s countrymen, D a n i e l Deniehy and John West, Lang had g r a v e r e s e r v a t i o n s about the e x i s t e n c e o f b l a c k s l a v e r y i n a s o - c a l l e d d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r y . U n l i k e the g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f A u s t r a l i a n s , however, he was a b l e t o w i t n e s s i t s o p e r a t i o n a t f i r s t hand. Lang hated what he saw, but he n e v e r t h e l e s s r e f u s e d t o be swept away by the wind o f a b o l i t i o n i s t propaganda. Indeed, though 379 he f e l t t h a t s l a v e r y i n America and Texas would.soon be a b o l i s h e d , he d i d not b e l i e v e t h a t the a b o l i t i o n i s t t a c t i c o f d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n would p r o v i d e the means. He admired the s i n c e r i t y o f the movement, i t s "honesty o f i n t e n t i o n , " but he f e l t i t s : m i 1 i t a n c y c o u l d o n l y l e a d t o the s e v e r a n c e o f the U n i o n , which would i n t u r n r e s u l t i n the a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y i n America b e i n g " i n d e f i n i t e l y and h o p e l e s s l y 44 p o s t p o n e d . " T w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s b e f o r e i t happened, Lang f a i l e d t o a n t i c i p a t e a N o r t h e r n m i l i t a r y d e f e a t o f the South, but he d i d p r e d i c t t h a t i n s l a v e r y , the "grand anomaly i n the p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l system o f A m e r i c a , " t h e r e l a y the " s o u r c e a l i k e o f p r e s e n t weakness" 45 and " f u t u r e c a l a m i t y . " And he s a i d as much t o the American a u d i e n c e s he was a b l e t o r e a c h . In an a d d r e s s t o the American C o l o n i z a t i o n S o c i e t y of New Y o r k , on May 13, 1840, Lang r e f u s e d t o sweeten the p i l l o f c r i t i c i s m f o r f e a r o f c a u s i n g o f f e n c e . That was never h i s way. At one p o i n t he p r o c l a i m e d : I t r u s t I am under no o b l i g a t i o n t o c o n c e a l from t h i s assembly my own c o r d i a l a b h o r r e n c e o f s l a v e r y , as a c i v i l i n s t i t u t i o n , and my own e a r n e s t d e s i r e f o r i t s immediate and e n t i r e a b o l i t i o n . I have e v e r regarded s l a v e r y as an e v i l and b i t t e r t h i n g f o r the c o u n t r y i n which i t e x i s t s , as w e l l as f o r i t s m i s e r a b l e v i c t i m s . I t i s the grand c a l a m i t y o f t h i s c o u n t r y , t h a t such a system was e n t a i l e d upon i t from a bygone age. I t c o n s t i t u t e s the o n l y dark spot i n your s t a r - s p a n g l e d b a n n e r - - t h e o n l y gloomy and p o r t e n t o u s c l o u d i n the firmament o f your g l o r y . * " F u r t h e r , Lang a g a i n made r e f e r e n c e t o A u s t r a l i a ' s f u t u r e n o b l e r o l e . In a passage o f s e m i n a l importance t o the h i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a n / American r e l a t i o n s , he j u b i l a n t l y a s s e r t e d t h a t Great B r i t a i n was 380 c u r r e n t l y r a i s i n g up a second A m e r i c a i n the S o u t h e r n Hemisphere, t o t r e a d , I t r u s t , the same path o f g l o r y as t h i s g r e a t n a t i o n has t r o d d e n i n the N o r t h . 47 Over the next t e n y e a r s , as Lang, l i k e so many o f h i s A u s t r a l i a n c o l l e a g u e s , r e a 1 i z e d A m e r i c a was i n danger o f d e s t r o y i n g i t s e l f o v e r s l a v e r y , he began t o put h i s t r u s t i n the d e s t i n y o f A u s t r a l i a as 48 p o t e n t i a l l y the w o r l d ' s s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r . S l a v e r y c o n s t a n t l y w o r r i e d Lang as he a p p r a i s e d A m e r i c a ' s s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , but he s t i l l s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d American i n n o v a t i o n s i n r e l i g i o n and e d u c a t i o n . C o n t r a s t i n g the e f f e c t o f u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e on the p e o p l e o f Great B r i t a i n and the U n i t e d S t a t e s (where "a w i s e and p a t e r n a l government a r e e m p l o y i n g e v e r y a v a i l a b l e means o f i n - 49s f o r m i n g the u n d e r s t a n d i n g and i m p r o v i n g the h e a r t s o f the p e o p l e " ) Lang s t a t e d t h a t he e n t e r t a i n e d no f e a r s f o r i t s u n q u a l i f i e d s u c c e s s i n A m e r i c a , p r o v i d e d i t was accompanied by two t h i n g s : u n i v e r s a l e d u c a t i o n and freedom o f r e l i g i o n . 5 ^ In complete sympathy w i t h the most c r u c i a l p r i n c i p l e f o r which the American R e v o l u t i o n was f o u g h t , he e x p r e s s e d e n t i r e agreement w i t h the Americans i n t h i n k i n g t h a t a man's l i b e r t y , l i k e h i s p r o p e r t y , i s s a f e s t i n h i s own hands; and I am v e r y much d i s p o s e d t o agree w i t h them a l s o i n t h i n k i n g t h a t i t i s not s a f e a t a l l any where e l s e . 5 1 A p p l i c a t i o n o f the same p r i n c i p l e t o A u s t r a l i a was but a s h o r t s t e p away. Lang's American s o j o u r n o b v i o u s l y c l a r i f i e d ideas t h a t had been brewing i n h i s mind s i n c e h i s u n i v e r s i t y days i n and around the 381 r a d i c a l c e n t r e o f Glasgow. R e l i g i o n and E d u c a t i o n i n A m e r i c a c h r o n i c l e s Lang's i n c r e a s i n g l y m i l i t a n t a t t i t u d e towards E n g l i s h dominance, but i t a l s o s e r v e s as e v i d e n c e o f p o s s i b l y the f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n between a r t i c u l a t e spokesmen from A m e r i c a and A u s t r a l i a . Lang c o u l d never be s i l e n t on i s s u e s about which he f e l t s t r o n g l y , and i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t , w h i l e i n A m e r i c a , he sought t o e n l i g h t e n t h o s e he met about s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n A u s t r a l i a . And he met some o f A m e r i c a ' s most eminent c i t i z e n s - - among them Noah Webster, the committed n a t i o n a l i s t and l e x i c o g r a p h e r , John T r u m b u l l , a u t h o r o f " M ' F i n g a l , " and even P r e s i d e n t Van Buren, who impressed Lang,when they c h a t t e d , w i t h h i s i n f o r m a l i t y . There was none o f the " s t i f f n e s s and h a u t e u r " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the 11 52 " m i l i t a r y R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f R o y a l t y . " As u s u a l , Lang c o u l d n ' t r e s i s t the o p p o r t u n i t y o f b a i t i n g h i s A u s t r a l i a n Tory enemies. In a d d i t i o n , R e l i g i o n and E d u c a t i o n r e f l e c t s the a u t h o r ' s c l o s e knowledge of America through i t s c a s u a l mention of a v a r i e t y o f major American l i t e r a r y , r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e s . A more d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f Lang might do w e l l t o t o u c h on the common ground he s h a r e d w i t h two Americans he d e e p l y a d m i r e d - - t h e impassioned t h e o l o g i a n J o n a t h a n 53 Edwards (whose g r a v e Lang made a s p e c i a l p o i n t o f v i s i t i n g ) and the t h e o l o g i a n and s c i e n t i s t C o t t o n Mather,,.whose h i s t o r y o f the American c h u r c h , M a g n a l i a C h r i s t i Americana (1702), Lang r e g a r d e d 54 as a " g r e a t work." Lang makes i n c i d e n t a l m e n t i o n , as w e l l , o f W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing ("a l i t e r a r y man and a man o f t a l e n t " " ) , Emersonian T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m , Dr. W i t h e r s p o o n , Aaron B u r r , Washington 382 and P a t r i c k Henry. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , he r e f e r s t o W i r t ' s a c c o u n t o f Henry's l e g e n d a r y speech (17&5) t o the V i r g i n i a House o f B u r g e s s e s , i n which Henry i s s u e d h i s renowned c h a l l e n g e t o George I I I : T a r q u i n and Caesar had each h i s B r u t u s , C h a r l e s the F i r s t h i s C r o m w e l l , and George the T h i r d . . . may p r o f i t by t h e i r example! I f t h i s be t r e a s o n , make the most o f i t ! ^ ' T h i s i s _ L a n g ' s language. The American v i s i t r e p r e s e n t e d a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n Lang's p e r s o n a l p h i l o s o p h y o f government. He r e t u r n e d t o A u s t r a l i a i n March, 1841, a p p a r e n t l y r e a d y i n g f o r a c o n c e r t e d d r i v e towards an e v e n t u a l A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c . However, he r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s r e s u l t c o u l d o n l y be v a c c o m p l i s h e d s l o w l y , and t a i l o r e d h i s speeches a c c o r d i n g l y . As the F o r t i e s p r o g r e s s e d , Lang's p u b l i c v o i c e grew more a s s e r t i v e ; by the end o f the decade, he c o u l d j u s t l y l a y c l a i m t o b e i n g the A u s t r a l i a n Thomas P a i n e . He s t e a d i l y sought t o a p p l y what he had l e a r n t i n 1840, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the g r a d u a l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f an American r e v o l u t i o n a r y v o c a b u l a r y i n t o the A u s t r a l i a n p o l i t i c a l a r e n a . A c o u p l e o f y e a r s a f t e r h i s r e t u r n , i n a speech i n the L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l on j u d i c i a l e s t i m a t e s (1843), Lang paraded a l l the o l d c l i c h e s - - i n p a r t i c u 1 a r . t h e " t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " s1ogan--a1ong w i t h a few o r i g i n a l d e p a r t u r e s , as i f t o s i g n a l h i s f u t u r e i n t e n t i o n s . Blaming "a j e a l o u s d e s p o t i s m , " Lang p r e d i c t e d t h a t the p e o p l e , h a v i n g o b t a i n e d one i n c h o f the freedom t h a t b e l o n g s t o them o f r i g h t , can o n l y r e g a r d t h a t i n c h as o f v a l u e i n so 3 8 3 f a r as i t e n a b l e s them t o o b t a i n the whole ' e l l ' t h a t i s t h e i r due. The s t r u g g l e may be l o n g and a r d u o u s , but the v i c t o r y i s s u r e . 5 8 T a k i n g c a r e t o a v o i d i m p l i c a t i n g h i m s e l f a t t h i s p r e c a r i o u s s t a g e , f o r t r e a s o n r e t a i n e d a h a r s h p r i s o n s e n t e n c e , Lang p r u d e n t l y e x p l a i n e d the i n e v i t a b l e consequences o f a r b i t r a r y r u l e . A l i e n a t i o n , he c r i e d , would t a k e h o l d o f the p e o p l e , and more: . . . what can we e x p e c t but t h a t [a f e e l i n g o f a l i e n a t i o n ] w i l l g r a d u a l l y r i p e n i n t o d i s a f f e c t i o n , and t h a t d i s a f f e c t i o n w i l l a t l e n g t h d i s p l a y her i n s u r g e n t f l a g and r a l l y around i t a hundred thousand f r e e b o r n A u s t r a l i a n s t o r e p e a t the same scenes . . . as have been e x h i b i t e d a l r e a d y i n the misgoverned c o l o n i e s o f B r i t a i n i n o t h e r and f a r d i s t a n t 1ands. But w h i l e due c a u t i o n t y p i f i e d Lang's p u b l i c l y e x p r e s s e d s e n t i m e n t s , i n p r i v a t e h i s r e p u b l i c a n r e s o l v e b e l l o w e d . Never one t o a c c e p t o p p o s i t i o n t o h i s i d e a s l i g h t l y , the z e a l o t i n Lang was b e g i n n i n g t o t i r e of h i s c o n s t a n t c l a s h e s w i t h Governor G i p p s , as w e l l as w i t h the men who made up the A u s t r a l i a n s q u a t t o c r a c y . I m p a t i e n t w a i t i n g f o r a more v o l a t i l e c o l o n i a l c l i m a t e - - o f the k i n d t h a t i n America gave b i r t h t o Common Sense and a f l o o d o f l e s s c a p t i v a t i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y pamph1ets--Lang penned i n h i s notebook, dated J u l y 7 , 1 8 4 5 , a ;: " P r o c l a m a t i o n o f the League o f L i b e r a t o r s . " In the document he gave f u l l freedom t o h i s t a l e n t f o r r h e t o r i c , c o n t r a s t i n g the h e i g h t s o f " t h e s a c r e d cause o f freedom" w i t h the depths o f the " g a l l i n g and 5 9 d e g r a d i n g yoke" o f B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l rule.' More s i g n i f i c a n t l y , though, he a t t e m p t e d t o g i v e s u b s t a n c e not o n l y toua r e p u b l i c a n dream, 384 but t o an American one. H i s concept o f A u s t r a l i a , l i k e t h a t o f h i s countrymen John West and D a n i e l Deniehy (whom Lang o b v i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e d ) , c o n s i s t e d o f a s o c i e t y o f s m a l l yeoman-farmers, a l l d e d i c a t e d t o the p r e s e r v a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y and d e t e r m i n e d t o b r i n g about the t r a n s f e r o f power t h r o u g h b l o o d l e s s means. As he put i t i n h i s l a t e r work, Freedom and Independence f o r the Golden Lands o f A u s t r a l i a (1852), he wanted t o make " t h e w i l d e r n e s s and the s o l i t a r y p l a c e r e j o i c e w i t h the happy abodes o f a numerous, v i r t u o u s and C h r i s t i a n 60 p o p u l a t i o n . " Here a g a i n was A u s t r a l i a n e x p r e s s i o n o f the "myth" o f the s m a l l farmer t h a t J e f f e r s o n and F r a n k l i n had done so much t o 61 e s t a b l i s h i n A m e r i c a . Lang f e l t t h a t o n l y through a g r a r i a n e x p a n s i o n on s m a l l - s c a l e r e p u b l i c a n l i n e s c o u l d A u s t r a l i a t r a n s c e n d i t s t a r n i s h e d c r i m i n a l p a s t . At t h i s s t a g e he c o u l d not a d v o c a t e m i l i t a n t r e v o l t t o a c h i e v e h i s aim, though h i s s t i r r i n g words seemed t o be c a r r y i n g him i n e v i t a b l y towards t h a t end. Lang was e v o l v i n g i n t o an o f f e n s i v e p o l i t i c a l p a m p h l e t e e r . A l e t t e r Lang w r o t e t o Lord S t a n l e y i n the same y e a r as the League P r o c l a m a t i o n c o n f i r m e d h i s g r e a t e r m i l i t a n c y i n a few ways. Shrewdly p l e a d i n g not " t h e s l i g h t e s t p o s s i b l e d i s r e s p e c t " t o Governor G i p p s , he spoke i n g e n e r a l t e r m s - - i f they can be so c a l , l e d - - o f c o l o n i a l g o v e r n o r s " p l a y i n g the i m a g i n a r y p r e r o g a t i v e o f the crown a g a i n s t 62 the i n h e r e n t r i g h t s and the d e a r e s t i n t e r e s t s o f the p e o p l e . " Lang a p p a r e n t l y f e l t the time had come t o make b l a t a n t l y o b v i o u s t o a l l , the s i m i l a r i t i e s between the p r e s e n t l o t o f h i s c o l o n i a l countrymen and t h a t o f A m e r i c a j u s t p r i o r t o the R e v o l u t i o n . He went on t o 385 i l l u s t r a t e the sharp d i f f e r e n c e s between e x p a t r i a t e Englishmen i n t e n t on e x p l o i t i n g A u s t r a l i a and t h o s e who had d e c i d e d t o make A u s t r a l i a t h e i r home. A g a i n , d i r e c t l y a l l u d i n g t o the r i g h t s conceded the N o r t h A m e r i c a n s , Lang touched on a new theme which Deniehy, a few y e a r s l a t e r , would a b s o r b and make h i s own: the n a t u r a l a r i s t o c r a c y o f t a l e n t t h a t J e f f e r s o n i n s t i l l e d i n the American mind. Lang put i t t h i s way: . . . I am not i n s e n s i b l e t o the p o w e r f u l l y b e n e f i c i a l i m p u l s e t h a t would i m m e d i a t e l y be g i v e n t o the c o l o n i a l mind by t h r o w i n g open the h i g h e s t o f f i c e s under the l o c a l government t o the h o n o r a b l e a m b i t i o n o f our ingenuous y o u t h , and by making t h o s e o f f i c e s dependent i n f u t u r e , not on p a t r o n a g e o r i n t e r e s t , but on acknowledged a b i l i t y . 6 ^ Lang spent the p e r i o d 1846-9 i n England a g i t a t i n g f o r C o l o n i a l - O f f i c e s u p p o r t o f h i s p l a n s t o s t i m u l a t e w i d e s p r e a d B r i t i s h e m i g r a t i o n t o A u s t r a l i a i n o r d e r t h a t h i s v i s i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n o f s m a l l f a r m e r s might come t o p a s s . He e x p e r i e n c e d o u t r i g h t r e s i s t a n c e , i f not a n t i p a t h y . The l e v e l l e r i n him had s u f f e r e d f o o l s f o r too l o n g . As.C.M.H. C l a r k puts i t , two Langs r e t u r n e d t o A u s t r a l i a : 64 the o l d a n t i p o p i s h z e a l o t and the a s s a u l t i v e new democrat. Three y e a r s had been t o o l o n g i n the w i l d e r n e s s o f E n g l i s h government c o r r i d o r s . The time had come f o r unabashed advocacy o f an A u s t r a l i a n R e p u b l i c . The time had come t o push p u b l i c l y f o r the i n d e f e a s i b l e r i g h t s o f the A u s t r a l i a n man. I t was time t o t a k e the f i g h t t o the men Lang now saw as the l a t e s t o f h i s growing l i s t o f enemies. On November 14, 1849, s h o r t l y b e f o r e he r e t u r n e d t o A u s t r a l i a , 386 L a n g w r o t e a n o p e n l e t t e r t o E a r l G r e y w h i c h w a s l a t e r p u b l i s h e d i n t h e B r i t i s h B a n n e r . T h e c o n t e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t L a n g w e l l k n e w t h e k i n d o f l a n g u a g e t o w h i c h t h e E n g l i s h r e s p o n d e d . A m e r i c a ' s e s c a p e f r o m t h e f o l d o f E m p i r e s t i l l g r a t e d m a n y a c q u i s i t i v e B r i t i s h c i t i z e n s a n d , r e c o g n i z i n g t h i s , L a n g d e v o t e d m o s t o f h i s l e t t e r t o t h e c l o s e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n A m e r i c a a n d A u s t r a l i a . "I a m n o w r e t u r n i n g t o A u s t r a l i a , " h e d e c l a r e d , " w i t h t h e b i t t e r e s t d i s a p p o i n t m e n t a n d d e e p e s t d i s g u s t , c h e r i s h i n g p r e c i s e l y t h e s a m e f e e l i n g s a s t h e c e l e b r a t e d D r . B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n d i d w h e n h e l e f t E n g l a n d a s a B r i t i s h s u b j e c t f o r t h e l a s t t i m e . " 6 5 L a n g h a d a t l a s t i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f u n e q u i v o c a l l y w i t h t h e c a u s e o f A u s t r a l i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e a f t e r e n c o u n t e r i n g t h e e x p e d i e n t w o r k i n g s o f t h e E n g l i s h m i n i s t r y , j u s t a s F r a n k l i n o p t e d f o r t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c a u s e w h e n e x p o s e d t o t h e m a n y d e v i o u s p o l i t i c a l g a m e s i n L o n d o n . 6 6 B u t i n c a s e h i s a l l u s i o n t o t h e A m e r i c a n s c i e n t i s t a n d s t a t e s m a n w a s l o s t o n s o m e o f h i s y o u n g e r a u d i e n c e , L a n g c l a r i f i e d t h e p o i n t . W i t h t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t c o l o n i a l p o l i c i e s , h e m a i n t a i n e d , t h e p e o p l e o f N e w S o u t h W a l e s w o u l d b e f u l l y j u s t i f i e d " i n r e s o r t i n g t o m e a s u r e s o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n . " 6 7 F u r t h e r m o r e , b e c a u s e o f C o l o n i a 1 - O f f i c e i n e f f i c i e n c y a n d g o v e r n m e n t p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n , t h e s i t u a t i o n h a d e s c a l a t e d t o s u c h _ a n . a l a r m i n g e x t e n t t h a t . t h e c o l o n i s t s " w i l l n o w ' g o f o r t h e w h o 1e h o g , ' o r f o r n o t h i n g a t a l l . " L a n g w o u 1 d b e p r o v e d w r o n g - - b u t i n 1849, h i s p o l e m i c a l t h r u s t s m u s t h a v e d i s - c o m f o r t e d m a n y i n t h e u p p e r e c h e l o n s o f D o w n i n g S t r e e t p o w e r . A n d h e w e n t o n : 387 . . . your l o r d s h i p has f o r t h r e e y e a r s p a s t been k n o c k i n g a t the g a t e o f f u t u r i t y f o r the p r e s i d e n t o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s of A u s t r a l i a . Be a s s u r e d , my l o r d , he i s g e t t i n g ready and w i l l s h o r t l y be o u t ; and he w i l l a s t o n i s h the w o r l d w i t h the m a n l i n e s s o f h i s p o r t and the d i g n i t y o f h i s demeanor. In the c o n c l u d i n g s e c t i o n o f the l e t t e r , Lang extended the s u b s t a n c e o f h i s dream by r e i t e r a t i n g the p o i n t he had made i n h i s 1845 P r o c l a m a t i o n ; he i n s i s t e d t h a t w i t h o u t the " b a l e f u l d o m i n a t i o n o f D o w n i n g - s t r e e t " and h a v i n g "no f o u l b l o t o f s l a v e r y t o d e f i l e h i s n a t i o n a l e s c u t c h e o n , l i k e Zachary T a y l o r , p r e s i d e n t o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a , " an A u s t r a l i a n P r e s i d e n t would be f r e e t o d i r e c t " t h e b r i l l i a n t c a r e e r " o f h i s c o u n t r y i n such a way t h a t i t might 68 g e n e r a t e s o c i a l p a t t e r n s t o l e a d the w o r l d . D a n i e l Deniehy, a few y e a r s l a t e r , would a g r e e . On a r r i v a l back i n A u s t r a l i a , Lang endeavoured t o make good on the d i r e c t t h r e a t s c o n t a i n e d i n h i s l e t t e r t o Grey. I f the Sydney P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e was r i g h t i n s a y i n g t h a t the l e t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d " t h e f i r s t s t a k e d r i v e n i n t o the a n t - h i l l , " then Lang d e t e r m i n e d t o 69 r e p e a t the e f f o r t as much as p o s s i b l e i n the next few y e a r s . H i s o p e n l y r e p u b l i c a n w r i t i n g s came i n c r e a s i n g l y t o resemble Thomas P a i n e ' s a t the time o f w r i t i n g Common Sense (though Lang was l o a t h e t o a d v o c a t e v i o l e n c e and, w h i l e a t t a c k i n g E n g l i s h m a l p r a c t i c e , u s u a l l y a b s o l v e d the monarchy). In A p r i l , 1850, Lang d e l i v e r e d t h r e e l e c t u r e s i n Sydney which were soon p u b l i s h e d under the t i t l e The Coming Event; o r the U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s o f A u s t r a l i a . 7 ^ He makes no d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o Common Sense, but t h r o u g h o u t the l e c t u r e s a number o f the p o i n t s 3 8 8 he makes v i r t u a l l y r e p l i c a t e P a i n e ' s . Even h i s c h o i c e o f t i t l e seems t o owe something t o P a i n e who had, f o r example, spoken o f the independence o f A m e r i c a as "an e v e n t , which sooner o r l a t e r must a r r i v e , so from the l a t e r a p i d p r o g r e s s o f the c o n t i n e n t t o m a t u r i t y , the event c o u l d not be f a r o f f . " 7 ' F u r t h e r , Lang uses the p h r a s e , 7 2 "common s e n s e , " t h r o u g h o u t The Coming Event. The s i m i l a r i t i e s between Lang and P a i n e a r e s t r i k i n g . Both 7 3 the A u s t r a l i a n and the American a b h o r r e d government from a d i s t a n c e . Both d e d i c a t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o c o n v i n c i n g t h e i r f e l l o w s t h a t independence c o u l d o n l y happen w i t h v i g i l a n t , and, most i m p o r t a n t l y , immediate Ik commitment. Both e x p l o i t e d a r e v o l u t i o n a r y , e g a l i t a r i a n v o c a b u l a r y , t a l k i n g c o n s t a n t l y o f , i n Lang's words, the " n a t u r a l and i n h e r e n t r i g h t , i n d e f e a s i b l e and i n d e s t r u c t i b l e " o f the c o l o n i s t s o f New South Wales t o t h e i r " e n t i r e freedom and i n d e p e n d e n c e . " 7 5 P a i n e ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the R i g h t s o f Man spoke, i n 1 i ke terms, o f "a_ system o f un i v e r s a 1 76 peace, [founded] cm the i ndefeas i b l e and hered i t a r y R i g h t s o f Man." Lang and P a i n e both p r o c l a i m e d the need f o r a u n i t e d f r o n t o f c i t i z e n s , and sought the e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t s o l i d a r i t y i n t i t u l a r form as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the a t t e m p t t o change the t h i n k i n g o f a n a t i o n . Naming was i m p o r t a n t t o t h e m . 7 7 Both saw the need t o i n c i t e t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s t o s e v e r t i e s w i t h Great B r i t a i n i n an a t t e m p t t o e n s u r e peace w i t h the r e s t o f the w o r l d . They were d e e p l y s u s p i c i o u s o f 78 Old-World l i a s o n s and scheming. Where they d i f f e r e d was on the i s s u e o f t a c t i c s . Lang i n 1 8 5 0 c o u l d a t times toy w i t h the i d e a o f a 389 m i l l t a r y r e v o l t : . . . [ t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t c o n s e n t ] roused the s p i r i t and nerved the arm o f the American C o l o n i s t s f o r t h e i r g r e a t and s u c c e s s f u l s t r u g g l e f o r e n t i r e freedom and independence i n the y e a r 1776; and i t i s m o r t i f y i n g t o r e f l e c t , t h a t B r i t i s h d e s p o t i s m s h o u l d have become no w i s e r from the l e s s o n i t was then t a u g h t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the l a p s e o f f u l l s e v e n t y y e a r s . Does Great B r i t a i n r e q u i r e t h a t i n s t r u c t i v e l e s s o n t o be t a u g h t her i n the S o u t h e r n Hemisphere, as i t was i n the N o r t h e r n ? I t would appear t h a t she does.79 However, wary o f the f a c t t h a t i n the F i f t i e s a s i g n i f i c a n t (though d e c r e a s i n g ) m a j o r i t y o f h i s a u d i e n c e were B r i t i s h - b o r n , when he c l a r i f i e d the i s s u e i t was g e n e r a l l y t o endorse a p o l i c y o f non- v i o l e n t t r a n s f e r o f c o l o n i a l power. He s p e c i f i c a l l y d i s c l a i m e d " a l l d e s i r e o r i n t e n t i o n t o have r e c o u r s e i n any way'to p h y s i c a l f o r c e , " w a n t i n g i n s t e a d "a c o u r s e o f p e a c e f u l but e a r n e s t and e n e r g e t i c : 80 a g i t a t i o n . " P a i n e , on the o t h e r hand, r e a l i z e d t h a t independence 81 c o u l d o n l y be g a i n e d by f o r c e f u l means. In h i s Coming Event l e c t u r e s , Lang o u t l i n e d h i s most comprehensive p l a n , up t o t h a t p o i n t , f o r h i s p r o j e c t e d r e p u b l i c . At s e v e r a l p o i n t s he i n d i c a t e d h i s debt t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n s t i t u t i o n and f e d e r a l 82 system. That i s , he made e l a b o r a t e use o f the American system-- and y e t , l i k e Deniehy, he a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y c o n c e i v e d o f A u s t r a l i a s u r p a s s i n g the model: . . . I q u e s t i o n whether even the U n i t e d S t a t e s o f America w i l l have a more e x t e n s i v e f i e l d o f p o l i t i c a l power and o f moral i n f l u e n c e t o e x p a t i a t e o v e r than w i l l one day acknowledge the s o v e r e i g n t y o f the U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s o f A u s t r a l i a . 8 3 390 Ten y e a r s e a r l i e r , a d d r e s s i n g an American a u d i e n c e , he had b r a z e n l y m a i n t a i n e d a s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n : . . . i t must be e v i d e n t t o e v e r y i n t e l l i g e n t A m e r i c a n , t h a t the s e r i e s o f c o l o n i e s t h a t have thus been s u c c e s s - f u l l y p l a n t e d on the s h o r e s o f the A u s t r a l i a n C o n t i n e n t . . . w i l l , i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d , exceed a l l former p r e c e d e n t , w i l l , a t no d i s t a n t day, e x e r t a mighty i n f l u e n c e , e i t h e r f o r good o r f o r e v i l , on a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f the whole f a m i 1 y o f man. 8* But t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t i n h i s more p u b l i c i z e d Coming Event l e c t u r e s , the a g i n g myth o f A u s t r a l i a as a b e t t e r A m e r i c a was g i v e n perhaps i t s most prominent a i r i n g . Deniehy, s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by Lang t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r i o d , would t r y and g i v e the dream some l i f e i n l a t e r y e a r s . Lang's r a d i c a l i s m came t o t h e b o i l i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 5 0's. He d e l i v e r e d h i s Coming Event l e c t u r e s i n v a r y i n g forms t h r o u g h o u t " the c o l o n i e s , a r g u i n g c o n s t a n t l y , l i k e J e f f e r s o n , f o r the i n t r o d u c t i o n Or o f c e r t a i n fundamental p r i n c i p l e s . H i s e f f o r t s c u l m i n a t e d i n the p u b l i c a t i o n , i n 1 8 5 2 , o f the long p o l i t i c a l t r e a t i s e Freedom and Independence f o r the Golden Lands o f A u s t r a 1 i a - - h i s major attempt t o put h i s adopted c o u n t r y on what J e f f e r s o n once c a l l e d "a r e p u b l i c a n 86 t a c k . " Less r h e t o r i c a l and more a r t i c u l a t e than the Coming Event l e c t u r e s , Freedom and Independence s t r u c k r e s p o n s i v e c h o r d s a t home and a b r o a d . E s s e n t i a l l y , i t s y n t h e s i z e d the f r a g m e n t a r y r e p u b l i c a n i d e a s t h a t Lang had been w i d e l y d i s s e m i n a t i n g i n A u s t r a l i a d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s two y e a r s . I t was h i s major s t a t e m e n t o f l i b e r a t i o n , not j u s t f o r . t h e b e n e f i t o f h i s countrymen, but f o r the w o r l d t o p e r u s e . 391 The volume ran t o t h r e e e d i t i o n s . In the i n t r o d u c t i o n , Lang p r o c l a i m s the work t o be h i s " p r o p o s a l t o e s t a b l i s h f r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s on the b a s i s o f u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e and equal e l e c t o r a l d i s t r i c t s . " R e l y i ng h e a v i 1 y on James Grahame 1 s H i s t o r y o f the Un i t e d S t a t e s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a ( 1 8 3 6 ) , he l a u n c h e s h i s f i r s t e l a b o r a t e d e f e n c e o f r e p u b l i c a n i s m as the most d e s i r a b l e p o l i t i c a l model a v a i l a b l e . F u r t h e r , f o r a B r i t i s h c o l o n y a s p i r i n g t o independence, i t i s the o n l y "form 88 o f government e i t h e r p r a c t i c a b l e o r p o s s i b l e . At one p o i n t , Lang i l l u s t r a t e s j u s t how f a r h i s C a l v i n i s m has been usurped by h i s demo- c r a t i c i n c l i n a t i o n s . Why s h o u l d [Englishmen] o b j e c t t o a form o f government which has g i v e n b i r t h , i n e v e r y department o f human e x c e l l e n c e , t o a s e r i e s o f the g r e a t e s t and n o b l e s t men t h a t have e v e r t r o d the earth?°" In k e e p i n g w i t h h i s p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t s down the y e a r s , he s u p p o r t s h i s arguments by c i t i n g e s t a b l i s h e d s o u r c e s such as James O t i s , Benjamin F r a n k l i n , C o t t o n Mather, the d e c i s i o n s o f the American c o l o n i a l l e g i s l a t u r e s , the 1765 New York C o n v e n t i o n and the f i r s t 90 C o n t i n e n t a l Congress i n Ph i 1 a d e l ph i a (177**). Indeed, O t i s and F r a n k l i n - - " t h a t g r e a t a u t h o r i t y " whose o p i n i o n on c o l o n i a l m a t t e r s 91 " i s worth t h a t o f a hundred W e s t m i n s t e r R e v i e w e r s " - - a r e the o n l y two w r i t e r s quoted by Lang i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n . The c l a r i t y o f t h e i r arguments a i d s Lang t h r o u g h o u t h i s s e a r c h i n g e n q u i r y . The t a r g e t s f o r Lang's v i t r i o l a r e the same as i n e a r l i e r y e a r s : Empire r u l e from London and the supposed i n f a l l i b i l i t y o f B r i t i s h 3 9 2 o f f i c i a l s i n the c o l o n i e s . (He b i t t e r l y a t t a c k s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , Governors Gipps and F i t z r o y . ) But he now more d i r e c t l y h i n t s a t the p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i r e c t m i l i t a r y a c t i o n by New South Welshmen i f t h e i r demands a r e not i m m e d i a t e l y met. Lang uses an o l d p l o y , one f i r s t e x p l o i t e d by h i s p e r e n n i a l opponent, W i l l i a m C h a r l e s Wentworth, decades ear 1 i e r : . . . the passes o f the B l u e M o u n t a i n s , on the road t o the Gold Mines o f the i n t e r i o r , l i k e the S t r a i t s o f Thermopylae, c o u l d be defended by a mere h a n d f u l o f A u s t r a l i a n Greeks a g a i n s t the whole power o f P e r s i a . I f "two o r t h r e e thousand b a d l y armed men" s h o u l d a t t e m p t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y movement a t the A u s t r a l i a n mines, t h e r e i s no c a l c u l a t i n g the p o s s i b l e i s s u e . 9 2 A g a i n , the s p e c t r e o f r e v o l t r a i s e d t o o b t a i n Col o n i a 1 - O f f i c e c o n c e s s i o n s . A f a m i l i a r American and, by the e a r l y l 8 5 0 ' s , A u s t r a l i a n p a t t e r n . In the y e a r s a f t e r the p u b l i c a t i o n o f Freedom and Independence, 9 3 Lang c o n t i n u e d t o stump f o r independence and an A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c . D u r i n g t h a t t i m e , i t became more and more o b v i o u s t h a t , l i k e W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing, Lang d e s p i s e d war, but he c o n s i d e r e d some i s s u e s w o r t h f i g h t i n g f o r . S t i l l an avowed enemy o f U n i t a r i a n i s m , Lang e v i d e n t l y knew h i s Channing w e l l , and i n s e e k i n g t o e x p l a i n h i s s t a n d on war i n a S c o t s Church sermon i n 185*, he a l l u d e d t o the American > when s e e k i n g j u s t i f i c a t i o n : I have no sympathy w i t h t h o s e who m a i n t a i n t h a t a l l war i s u n l a w f u l and u n j u s t . The American d i v i n e , Dr. Channing, s a y s : "A community may employ f o r c e t o r e p r e s s the v i o l e n c e of i t s own c i t i z e n s , t o d i s a r m and r e s t r a i n i t s i n t e r n a l f o e s ; on what ground, t h e r e f o r e , can we deny i t the r i g h t o r r e p e l l i n g the i n r o a d s and a g g r e s s i o n s o f a f o r e i g n p o w e r ? " 9 * 393 Two t h i n g s a r e i n t e r e s t i n g h e r e : the man Lang had c a t e g o r i z e d as t a l e n t e d , but c e r t a i n l y not a " C h r i s t i a n d i v i n e " i n 1840, had e v i d e n t l y assumed t h a t e l e v a t e d p o s i t i o n i n the P r e s b y t e r i a n m i n i s t e r ' s t h i n k i n g 95 i n the m i d d l e l 8 5 0's. S e c o n d l y , Lang's t o n e , i n h i s sermon, s u g g e s t s t h a t h i s c o n g r e g a t i o n had a t l e a s t a w o r k i n g knowledge o f Channing's p r o s e . In k e e p i n g w i t h t h i s s t a n d , Lang v i o l e n t l y denounced the p r o s p e c t 96 o f A u s t r a l i a n i n v o l v e m e n t , a l o n g s i d e B r i t a i n , i n the Crimean War. On the o t h e r hand, he sought t o j u s t i f y the Eureka Stockade and e s t a b l i s h i t as but the f i r s t s k i r m i s h o f a l o n g campaign c l i m a x i n g i n the independence o f both V i c t o r i a and New South Wales. Lang blamed Eureka w h o l l y on A u s t r a l i a ' s r u l i n g c o l o n i a l o f f i c i a l s and t h e i r s y m p a t h i z e r s among the l o c a l g e n t r y . In a l e t t e r t o the Sydney Emp i r e , a week a f t e r the s h o r t b a t t l e , he a r t i c u l a t e d h i s p o s i t i o n - one as c l o s e as he would p u b l i c l y get t o e n c o u r a g i n g armed r e v o l u t i o n . Lang had come a l o n g way s i n c e the t e n t a t i v e c r i t i c i s m s o f E n g l i s h r u l e i n the f i r s t e d i t i o n o f h i s H i s t o r i c a l and S t a t i s t i c a l A c c o u n t s , twenty y e a r s e a r l i e r : No sane person w i l l suppose t h a t t h i s o u t b r e a k i s l i k e l y t o end w i t h the s h o o t i n g down o f t h i r t y d i g g e r s a t B a l l a r a t . The b l o o d shed w i l l not be f o r g o t t e n . The men i n whose s p i r i t s the wound t h a t has thus been i n f l i c t e d w i l l r a n k l e long and w i d e l y , w i l l " n u r s e t h e i r w r a t h t o keep i t warm" f o r some o t h e r and more f i t t i n g o c c a s i o n . I f a r e p u b l i c , such as c e r t a i n a t l e a s t o f the more prominent d i g g e r s p r o p o s e d , were s u c c e s s f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d a t P o r t P h i l l i p , i t would be a b s u r d t o say t h a t an i r r e p r e s s i b l e d e s i r e t o f o l l o w t h i s example would not be i m m e d i a t e l y c r e a t e d i n ten thousand b r e a s t s i n New South Wales, i n w h i c h no such 39* f e e l i n g now e x i s t s . We have p r e c i s e l y the same g r i e v a n c e s t o c o m p l a i n o f as the P o r t P h i l l i p p e o p l e . L e t i t be remembered t h a t t h e s e g r i e v a n c e s a r e i n c o m p a r a b l y g r e a t e r than any the American c o l o n i s t s had t o c o m p l a i n o f when they put f o r t h t h e i r famous d e c l a r a t i o n o f independence i n 1776.97 T h i r t y y e a r s o f l i v i n g i n a c o u n t r y a t b e s t d e s c r i b e d as a "dependency o f E n g l a n d , " t h i r t y y e a r s s t r u g g l i n g t o m o t i v a t e a community t o r e s i s t b e i n g "a mere f o o t b a l l , k i c k e d about a t p l e a s u r e by e v e r y u n d e r l i n g i n Downing S t r e e t , " had wrought s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n 98 Lang. In the e a r l y 18501 s, a t the peak o f h i s powers, he had e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f as the preeminent spokesman f o r the A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c a n movement. H i s commitment t o the cause o f the c o l o n i e s had deepened t o such an e x t e n t t h a t i n 1855 he d r a f t e d a D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence f o r the " P r o v i n c e o f V i c t o r i a " w h i c h s u g g e s t e d " f o r c e 99 o f arms" as a f e a s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e . The m i n i s t e r had t u r n e d i n t o a m i l i t a n t . In the s p i r i t o f 1776. Lang's A u s t r a l i a n countrymen f i n a l l y r e j e c t e d h i s c h a l l e n g i n g brand o f r e p u b l i c a n i s m . A number o f reasons f o r t h i s have been s u g g e s t e d : h i s dogmatic r e l i g i o u s s t a n d ; h i s c o n t i n u a l and l e n g t h y o v e r s e a s t r i p s ; and h i s u n n e c e s s a r i 1 y v i t r i o l i c , p e r s o n a l a t t a c k s on h i s p o l i t i c a l e n e m i e s . P e r h a p s the b e s t e x p l a n a t i o n , however, i s t h a t i n the f i n a l a n a l y s i s even the more " r a d i c a l " c o l o n i s t s f e l t s a t i s f i e d , i n the e a r l y l 8 5 0's, t h a t s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t was imminent and 3 9 5 w o u l d , moreover, s u p p l y the a p p r o p r i a t e v e h i c l e f o r p o l i t i c a l i n - dependence. Lang's r e p u b l i c c o u l d w a i t a w h i l e . Though not a " l o n e p r o p h e t , " as one h i s t o r i a n has c l a i m e d , Lang never a c h i e v e d w i d e s p r e a d s u p p o r t f o r h i s i d e a s . ^ C h a r l e s Harpur backed him as much as he c o u l d , but Harpur was t o o busy f i g h t i n g h i s own b a t t l e f o r l i t e r a r y s u r v i v a l i n a g r a s p i n g community. Lang's l e g a c y was t o g i v e A u s t r a l i a n s a g r e a t e r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e m s e l v e s , a sense o f l e g i t i m a t e autonomy. For a number o f y e a r s , 1 0 2 m i d - c e n t u r y , he f u l f i l l e d h i s d e s i r e t o be "a T r i b u n e o f the P e o p l e . " As s u c h , he would not l e t h i s c o u n t r y p l a y a s e r v i l e r o l e i n i t s r e l a t i o n s w i t h E n g l a n d . For h i s parameters o f r a d i c a l a c t i o n Lang l o o k e d , t h r o u g h o u t h i s p u b l i c l i f e , t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r g u i d a n c e . Yet he r e c o g n i z e d the danger o f m e r e l y s u b s t i t u t i n g one dominant i n f l u e n c e w i t h a n o t h e r . In Freedom and Independence, he spoke i n c l e a r terms o f the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s becoming "one mighty power i n the P a c i f i c , t h a t w i l l condescend t o p l a y 'no second f i d d l e 1 t o B r o t h e r J o n a t h a n , 1 0 3 but w i l l c l a i m p e r f e c t e q u a l i t y w i t h him from':the f i r s t . . . ." I t was an a p p r o p r i a t e l y grand v i s i o n f o r a man who e v e r r e f u s e d t o t h i n k as a s u b o r d i n a t e would. Z? L i k e Channing, r i g h t s , " w h i c h Deniehy had he i n t e n d e d a deep " r e v e r e n c e f o r t o communicate l o u d l y L i b e r t y , f o r human t o a l l h i s f e l low 402 1 24 c o l o n i s t s . From an e a r l y age, he sought t o t e a c h , as Emerson, Channing, P a r k e r , Brownson, R i p l e y and A l c o t t s e t about e d u c a t i n g t h e i r countrymen. F u r t h e r m o r e , Deniehy's p r i d e , i f a t times a l i t t l e too f o r t h - r i g h t , w a s not n a r r o w l y b o m b a s t i c , f o r he c o n c e i v e d of a framework i n w h i c h l o v e o f one's l a n d c o u l d be u s e f u l l y a p p l i e d . Deniehy's sense o f " s o c i a l p r o g r e s s " i n v o l v e d a v i s i o n o f an A u s t r a l i a n p o p u l a c e awakened t o the communal b e n e f i t s o f l i t e r a t u r e and s t a u n c h l y humane p r i n c i p l e s . As F r a n c e s G l a s s has r i g h t l y s u g g e s t e d , he b e l i e v e d i n 1 25 "an i n t e g r a t e d s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a e s t h e t i c and i n t e l l e c t u a l i d e a l . " Independence, Deniehy once d e c l a r e d , would n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d t o a " r e a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e " government ' . ' e n t i r e l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the p l a c e and p e o p l e , " and the "growth o f a n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , " the " n e c e s s i t y t h a t would ensue o f making the b e s t o f e v e r y t h i n g around us and so 126 c o n v e r t i n g the c o u n t r y r e a l l y i n t o a Home." One o f h i s l i t e r a r y r e v i e w s makes mention o f the "mora 1 arid menta 1 v i t a l i t y " so v i t a l t o 1 27 a d e v e l o p i n g community. G l a s s c a l l s t h i s n o t i o n " s i m p l e - m i n d e d , " but i f t h i s i s s o , then some of A m e r i c a ' s f i n e s t l i b e r a l spokesmen 1 28 o f the e r a were e q u a l l y n a i v e . George R i p l e y , f o r example, founded the s o c i a l i s t community Brook Farm, w i t h a group Hawthorne termed "a knot o f dreamers," i n the hope o f c o m b i n i n g honest t o i l w i t h 1 29 i n t e l l e c t u a l freedom, c u l t u r a l r e f i n e m e n t and r e l i g i o u s e n q u i r y . Emerson and Thoreau c o n c e i v e d o f a s i m i l a r model f o r s o c i e t y . Theodore P a r k e r , t o o , worked towards an i d e a l A m e r i c a 403 when the few s h a l l not be advanced a t the expense o f the many . . . [and] when a l l men s h a l l eat bread i n the sweat o f t h e i r f a c e , and y e t f i n d l e i s u r e t o c u l t i v a t e 1 30 what i s b e s t and d i v i n e s t i n t h e i r s o u l s . . . . J W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing, a g r e a t f a v o u r i t e o f D e n i e h y ' s , devoted much of h i s time t o the same s u b j e c t . He c o n s i d e r e d e v e r y man c a p a b l e o f moral p e r f e c t i o n , and s t r e s s e d human d i g n i t y and w o r t h i n some o f h i s most famous e s s a y s - - s u c h as "Honour Due To A l l Men" (1830), " S e l f - C u l t u r e " (1838), and "On the E l e v a t i o n o f the L a b o u r i n g C l a s s e s " (1840). Channing e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y p r o c l a i m e d t h a t the mass o f the p e o p l e a r e b e g i n n i n g t o comprehend them- s e l v e s and t h e i r t r u e h a p p i n e s s . . . they a r e c a t c h i n g g l i m p s e s o f the g r e a t work and v o c a t i o n of human b e i n g s , and a r e r i s i n g t o t h e i r t r u e p l a c e i n the s o c i a l s t a t e . ^ Thomas J e f f e r s o n , o f c o u r s e , had made i d e a l i s m a v i a b l e response o f a l l f u t u r e Americans when he l i s t e d , as among man's i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s , 1 32 " l i f e , l i b e r t y and the p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s . " In c o n s t r u i n g an o p t i m i s t i c f u t u r e f o r h i s c o u n t r y , Deniehy dreamed a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e New World dream, as we s h a l l see, and i f he l a c k e d the s u p p o r t o f an a p p r e c i a b l e number o f h i s own countrymen, he must have found g r a t i f y i n g sustenance among the d i s t i n g u i s h e d New England w r i t e r s c o m p r i s i n g an i m p o r t a n t s e c t i o n o f h i s l i b r a r y . Yet even i f we p e r c e i v e Deniehy's n o t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a ' s f u t u r e a s , i n the b r o a d e s t s e n s e , i d e a l i s t i c , i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t he took p a i n s t o ground h i s framework on s e v e r a l h a r d , r e a l i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s - - from the a p p l i c a t i o n o f which he would not f l i n c h . A g a i n , they 404 r e f l e c t the i n f l u e n c e o f contemporary American t h o u g h t , though c o m p r i s i n g the b a s i s o f an immediate c o u r s e o f a c t i o n i n an A u s t r a l i a n c o n t e x t . F i r s t , Deniehy i n s i s t e d on the "fundamental p o p u l a r r i g h t " o f a l l men t o nominate t h o s e "who a r e t o make, or c o n t r o l the making o f , laws b i n d i n g on the community." E n d o r s i n g a b a s i c J e f f e r s o n i a n p r i n c i p l e (and l i k e v o c a b u l a r y ) , he o f t e n spoke i n d e f e n c e o f " t h e e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e and the i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t and freedom o f e v e r y c o l o n i s t ... . t o work out the whole o r g a n i z a t i o n and f a b r i c o f our 133 p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . " Thomas P a i n e , t o o , had p r o j e c t e d t h i s 134 as one o f man's " n a t u r a l r i g h t s " i n the R i g h t s o f Man. L i k e P a i n e and J e f f e r s o n , Deniehy opposed t h o s e a r i s t o c r a t i c t r a p p i n g s he f e l t t o be i n t o t a l o p p o s i t i o n t o the t e n e t s o f a democracy—name 1 y, 1 35 nomineeism, p a t r o n a g e and p r i m o g e n i t u r e . He viewed them as t o t a l l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e , indeed i n s u l t i n g t o a l a n d s t r i v i n g t o overcome the h o r r o r s o f i t s c o n v i c t p a s t . S e c o n d l y , w h i l e he admired the sound m o t i v a t i o n s o f the genuine 1 36 r e v o l u t i o n a r y temperament, Deniehy c o u l d n ' t approve o f i t s e x c e s s e s . Even when, i n h i s m i d - t w e n t i e s , he promulgated the cause o f b e l l i g e r e n t r e p u b l i c a n i s m on paper and i n the l e c t u r e h a l l , he s t i l l c o u l d not c o u n t e n a n c e , as a p r e r e q u i s i t e o f t h i s programme, m i l i t a n t r e v o l t . Deniehy would have agreed w i t h P a i n e t h a t i t was time t o s t i r , but not i n armed r e s i s t a n c e . He s h a r e d the c o n s e r v a t i v e i n c l i n a t i o n s o f both Channing and J e f f e r s o n when f o r c e d t o c o n t e m p l a t e mob j u s t i c e . Thus h i s d i s a v o w a l o f the Eureka Stockade p a r t i c i p a n t s , whose conduct amount t o " r e b e l l i o n " : 405 The e x e r c i s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e on the p a r t o f the d i g g e r s has c o u n t e r a c t e d the i n f l u e n c e s o f t h o s e moral a g e n c i e s t h a t were s i l e n t l y but s u r e l y , s t e p by s t e p , d i s e n t h r a l l i n g t h e s e g o l d e n lands. 1 3 7 T h i r d l y , Deniehy c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e j e c t e d a r i s t o c r a c y and A u s t r a l i a ' s c o n t i n u e d o b e i s a n c e t o E n g l a n d . U n l i k e so many o f h i s countrymen, he put E n g l i s h i n s t i t u t i o n s t o the t e s t . L i k e P a i n e , Deniehy c o n c l u d e d t h a t England's government and s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y had been founded by 1 3ft the repugnant use o f f o r c e ( o r i g i n a l l y the Norman C o n q u e s t ) . He r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t , on t h i s b a s i s , t h a t A u s t r a l i a had t o adopt a s e r v i l e r o l e when a s s e s s i n g E n g l i s h demands; thus he a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Lang and Harpur i n o p p o s i t i o n t o A u s t r a l i a n i n v o l v e m e n t i n the Crimean War. A f t e r a meeting o f s u p p o r t f o r the E n g l i s h cause was h e l d a t Malcolm's C i r c u s , i n Sydney, Deniehy c a u s t i c a l l y a p p r a i s e d the p r o - c e e d i n g s : Look a t the m a t e r i a l o f the j o k e : War between a l l i e d England and F r a n c e w i t h the C z a r o f R u s s i a , on a q u e s t i o n about the Greek Church, and a meeting o f a c e r t a i n number of persons a t Sydney on the s h o r e s o f P o r t J a c k s o n i n the A u s t r a l i a n c o n t i n e n t , s i x t e e n thousand m i l e s o f f , t o e x p r e s s t h e i r " l o y a l t y " (who e v e r doubted i t , o r complimented them enough t o s u s p e c t i t ? ) and d e v o t i o n (how e l e g a n t l y the c h o i c e o f the noun) t o Her M a j e s t y . . . . Three months l a t e r , a p p r a i s i n g the S o l i c i t o r - G e n e r a l ' s proposed t a x t o s u p p o r t the w a r r i n g L i o n , Deniehy a p p a r e n t l y found the h i s t o r i c a l p a r a l l e l s w i t h p r e - r e v o l ut i ona ry Amer i ca too g r e a t t o r e s i s t . He added h i s name t o the growing l i s t o f A u s t r a l i a n commentators s i n c e Wentworth ( i n 1819) who had t h r e a t e n e d England w i t h open c o l o n i a l 4 0 6 r e v o l t . For Deniehy, the i d e a o f the t a x was about the most monstrous p r o p o s i t i o n we have e v e r h e a r d , and would tend as much t o a l i e n a t e the P e o p l e o f t h i s C o l o n y from the p a r e n t stem as the infamous Stamp A c t o f A m e r i c a a c c e l e r a t e d the r u p t u r e w i t h , and u l t i m a t e l y produced the s e p a r a t i o n o f the American c o l o n i e s from the B r i t i s h Crown. ^ ° The e n e r g e t i c A u s t r a l i a n t r a d i t i o n o f v e r b a l i n t i m i d a t i o n l i v e d on. R e v o l u t i o n a r y r h e t o r i c , i n Deniehy's hands, c o n t i n u e d t o be a u s e f u l t o o l d e s p i t e the l i k e l i h o o d o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t i n the near f u t u r e . F o u r t h l y , Deniehy d e p l o r e d the p a r o c h i a l p r e t e n t i o u s n e s s he found around him. Hence, he waged a c o n t i n u a l war o f words w i t h the A u s t r a l i a n proponents of a r i s t o c r a c y . I f the s u p e r i o r a t t i t u d e s of E n g l i s h p a t r i c i a n s were d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t , d e s p i t e an ocean o f d i s t a n c e , the p r e t e n s i o n s o f the l o c a l " e x p a t r i a t e d w i t l i n g s " proved 141 i m p o s s i b l e . " C o l o n i a l T o r y i s m always s t i n k s , " he once s a i d , 1 4 2 " f o r i t has s u f f e r e d by t r a n s i t from the o l d c o u n t r y . . . ." Deniehy d e s p i s e d Wentworth's n o t i o n o f a nominated Upper House, and i n one memorable speech he put p a i d t o the p r o p o s a l f o r e v e r . J u s t as J e f f e r s o n f e l t bound, i n the 1 7 9 0 ' s, t o d e s t r o y the c r e d i b i l i t y o f the F e d e r a 1 i s t s - - t h o s e men he f e l t t o have been " d a z z l e d by the g l i t t e r i n g o f crowns and c o r o n e t s , " and who "always c o n t r i v e t o 1 4 3 n e s t l e t h e m s e l v e s i n t o the p l a c e s o f power and p r o f i t " --so Deniehy, i n the e a r l y l 8 5 0 ' s , denounced, and u l t i m a t e l y d e m o l i s h e d any p o s s i b i l o f an A u s t r a l i a n House o f L o r d s . He laughed the " h a r l e q u i n a r i s t o c r a t s those A u s t r a l i a n m a g n i f i c o e s " back i n t o temporary o b l i v i o n when he 1 4 4 c o i n e d the p h r a s e " b u n y i p a r i s t o c r a c y " t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e i r pose. 407 F i f t h , and l a s t l y , w h i l e s t i l l a v e r y young man, Deniehy r e c o g n i z e d the d e s p e r a t e need h i s c o u n t r y had f o r a b l e r e p u b l i c a n p r o p a g a n d i s t s . R i s i n g t o the c h a l l e n g e o f Wentworth's a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a p r i v i l e g e d Upper House, he soon assumed c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as a p o p u l a r d i s s e m i n a t o r o f d e m o c r a t i c d o c t r i n e s . H i s l i t e r a r y l i f e , f o r a t i m e , took on s e c o n d a r y importance. In A m e r i c a , d u r i n g the same y e a r s as Deniehy's a c t i v e p o l i t i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t , George W i l l i a m C u r t i s , a R h o d e - I s l a n d o r a t o r , e d i t o r and e s s a y i s t , worked i n c e s s a n t l y t o m o b i l i z e h i s c o u n t r y ' s i n t e 1 1 i g e n t s i a - - m o s t o b v i o u s l y i n a c l a s s i c a d d r e s s t h a t he d e l i v e r e d t o the L i t e r a r y S o c i e t i e s o f Wesleyan U n i v e r s i t y , C o n n e c t i c u t , i n 1856. A f t e r l i s t i n g as t h e theme f o r h i s o r a t i o n " t h e d u t y o f the American s c h o l a r t o p o l i t i c s , " C u r t i s a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o the i s s u e o f whether o r not the s c h o l a r ' s r o l e made n o n - i n v o l v e m e n t o b l i g a t o r y : Because we a r e s c h o l a r s o f to-day s h a l l we s h r i n k from t o u c h i n g t h e i n t e r e s t s o f to-day? Because we a r e s c h o l a r s s h a l l we c e a s e t o be c i t i z e n s ? Because we a r e s c h o l a r s s h a l l we c e a s e t o be men?1 When C u r t i s asked t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , he had i n mind the i s s u e o f s l a v e r y , and the s c a l d i n g Kansas debate i n p a r t i c u l a r , y e t the q u e s t i o n s he 146 asked were u n i v e r s a l ones. In A u s t r a l i a , Deniehy, Lang and Harpur by t h e i r a c t i o n s answered an u n e q u i v o c a l "no" t o them a l l . C l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Lang's A u s t r a l i a n League, which d e d i c a t e d i t s e l f t o the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c , Deniehy d e l i v e r e d p u b l i c l e c t u r e s on the s u b j e c t o f r e p u b l i c a n i s m a t the A u s t r a l i a n 408 147 C o l l e g e i n S y d n e y , a n d i n G o u l b u r n . H a v i n g b e e n f o r c e d t o l e a v e S y d n e y f o r G o u l b u r n i n 1 8 5 4 , w h i l e a t t h e h e i g h t o f h i s p o p u l a r i t y and p o w e r s , t o t r y and p u t h i s f i n a n c i a l a f f a i r s o n a more s e c u r e f o o t i n g , D e n i e h y r e f u s e d t o be i n t i m i d a t e d by t h e s h i f t t o a l e s s e r l o c a t i o n . He r e g a r d e d i t o n l y a s a t e m p o r a r y m e a s u r e : . . . I e r e l o n g s h a l l r e t u r n t o S y d n e y w i t h p l e n t y i n b o t h p o c k e t s , l e a d i n g t h e v a n o f a R e p u b l i c a n " o p p o s i t i o n " t h a t w i l l , I t r u s t , s c a t t e r t o t h e w i n d s t h e p r e s e n t c o r r u p t and i m b e c i l e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n - - a n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h a t h a s d o n e i t s l e v e l b e s t t o b r i n g c g n t e m p t t o t h e g r e a t i n s t i t u t i o n o f p o p u l a r g o v e r n m e n t . . . In f a c t , i n some ways t h e move t o t h e c o u n t r y r e p r e s e n t e d an i d e a l o p p o r t u n i t y t o a d v a n c e what he c a l l e d , i n a l e t t e r t o L a n g , " o u r 149 c a u s e , " a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e a d v o c a t e s o f " E n g 1 i s h m a n i s m . " A f t e r b e i n g i n G o u l b u r n f o r w e l l o v e r a y e a r , D e n i e h y b e l i e v e d he had " g o t a r e g u l a r R e i g n o f T e r r o r , i n t h e p l a c e . " ' 5 ° He p e r s i s t e n t l y a d v o c a t e d a t h o u g h t f u l e g a l i t a r i a n i s m s e e m i n g t o owe much t o J e f f e r s o n - i a n t h o u g h t . ' 5 ' L i k e J e f f e r s o n , who t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e r e m a i n e d c o n v i n c e d t h a t " t h e r e p u b l i c a n i s t h e o n l y f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h i s n o t e t e r n a l l y a t o p e n o r s e c r e t war w i t h t h e r i g h t s o f m a n k i n d , " 1 52 D e n i e h y v i g o r o u s l y e s p o u s e d t h e e q u a l r i g h t s o f a l l men. T o do t h i s , he had a "means o f p l a y i n g f i e r c e l y e n o u g h on t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t s 1 53 o f t h e s q u a t o c r a t i c and q u a s i - a r i s t o c r a t m a b s . . . . " I n e v i t a b l y , D e n i e h y ' s a c t i v e r e p u b l i c a n i s m t o o k him c l o s e r a n d c l o s e r t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f A m e r i c a n d e m o c r a t i c a n d T r a . n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t t h o u g h t . C l e a r s i m i l a r i t i e s a p p e a r . F o r o n e , D e n i e h y o f t e n e x p r e s s e d h i s t o t a l b e l i e f i n t h e o n l y a r i s t o c r a c y t h a t f o r him r e a l l y c o u n t e d . As he put i t i n h i s speech a t the C o n s t i t u t i o n Committee R a l l y (1853): . . . f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s , t h e r e i s an a r i s t o c r a c y worthy o f our r e s p e c t and o f our a d m i r a t i o n . Wherever human s k i l l and b r a i n a r e eminent, wherever g l o r i o u s manhood a s s e r t s i t s e l e v a t i o n , t h e r e i s an a r i s t o c r a c y t h a t c o n f e r s e t e r n a l honour upon the l a n d t h a t p o s s e s s e s i t . That i s God's a r i s t o c r a c y , gentlemen; t h a t i s an a r i s t o c r a c y t h a t w i l l bloom and expand under f r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s , and f o r e v e r b l e s s the c l i m e where i t t a k e s root.154 Here was p r e c i s e l y the n o t i o n o f a n a t u r a l a r i s t o c r a c y among men t h a t J e f f e r s o n so s u c c e s s f u l y i n c u l c a t e d i n h i s countrymen; the v e r y i d e a t h a t W i l l i a m W i r t p r a i s e d h i s c o u n t r y f o r when r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t system w h i c h c o u l d a l l o w P a t r i c k Henry t o r i s e t o such a prominent n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n ; the same p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t Theodore P a r k e r , Emerson and the o t h e r T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t s took f o r g r a n t e d . ' 5 5 Emerson, though, went f u r t h e r than Deniehy and h i s American countrymen t o c o n s i d e r the i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t the p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n had f o r t h e o l o g y . In h i s H a r v a r d " D i v i n i t y School A d d r e s s " (1838), he a s s e r t e d h i s b e l i e f i n the p e r f e c t i b i l i t y o f man--an a b s o l u t e democrat i c not i o n : The i n t u i t i o n o f the moral s e n t i m e n t i s an i n s i g h t o f the p e r f e c t i o n o f the laws o f the s o u l . . . . I f a man i s a t h e a r t j u s t , then i n so f a r i s He God; the s a f e t y o f God, the i m m o r t a l i t y o f God, the m a j e s t y o f God do e n t e r i n t o t h a t man w i t h j u s t i c e . . . . Good i s p o s i t i v e . E v i l i s m e r e l y p r i v a t i v e , not a b s o l u t e . I t i s l i k e c o l d , which i s the p r i v a t i o n o f h e a t . A l l e v i l i s so much death o r n o n e n t i t y . Benevolence i s a b s o l u t e and r e a l . •> U n l i k e Hawthorne, who c o n s i d e r e d e v i l a r e a l i t y o f human e x i s t e n c e , Emerson f e l t e v i l t o be no more than the absence o f good. Thus, he d e n i e d i t s e x i s t e n c e . I f a l l the p e o p l e c o u l d be e d u c a t e d — a n d f o r 410 Emerson a p o l i t i c a l democracy c r e a t e d the c o n d i t i o n s under which such an i d e a l might be rea 1 i zed — then mankind c o u l d r e a c h p e r f e c t i o n . W h i l e Deniehy might w e l l have been aware t h a t t h i s view was i m p l i e d by h i s v i s i o n o f "God's a r i s t o c r a c y " i n A u s t r a l i a , he was c e r t a i n l y not p r e p a r e d t o v o i c e i t . The narrow i n t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e i n h i b i t e d him and the immediate p r a c t i c a l i t y o f h i s aims p r e c l u d e d i t . Even Emerson,in a more l e i s u r e l y New E n g l a n d , s u f f e r e d because he e x p r e s s e d h i s v i e w s ; H a r v a r d d i d not i n v i t e him back f o r t h i r t y y e a r s . Deniehy's A u s t r a l i a n v e r s i o n o f r e p u b l i c a n i s m , however, d i d i n v o l v e h i s e n e r g e t i c s u p p o r t o f l i t e r a t u r e as a pre-eminent c o n t r i b u t o r t o the n a t i o n a l f a b r i c . N a t i o n s , he f e l t , r o s e out o f t h i s n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , j u s t as g r e a t w r i t e r s would i n c r e a s i n g l y emerge from an e s t a b l i s h e d n a t i o n . Channing had a l r e a d y e x p r e s s e d t h i s s e n t i m e n t i n h i s " N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e " a d d r e s s (1 8 2 3 ) : . . . [ l i t e r a t u r e ] i s p l a i n l y among the most p o w e r f u l methods o f e x a c t i n g the c h a r a c t e r o f a n a t i o n , o f f o r m i n g a b e t t e r r a c e o f men; i n t r u t h , we apprehend t h a t i t may c l a i m the f i r s t rank among the means o f improvement.'5 7 By t h e e a r l y 18 5 0's, as Deniehy began t o p u b l i c l y f o r m u l a t e h i s c o n c e p t i o n s o f the n a t i o n - s t a t e , he had read and a b s o r b e d Channing t h o r o u g h l y , r e g a r d i n g him as y e t " a n o t h e r g r e a t man" from America (though o f " l o w e r i n t e l l e c t u a l r a n g e " than e i t h e r Emerson o r Theodore 1 ̂ 8 P a r k e r ). L i k e Channing, Deniehy d i r e c t e d h i s remarks c a r e f u l l y toward the p a r t i c u l a r a u d i e n c e he d e s i r e d . Thus, when c o n s i d e r i n g the e f f e c t o f l i t e r a t u r e on the l o c a l p o p u l a c e , he sought t o emphasize the o b l i g a t i o n o f c e r t a i n groups: 411 As a p u b l i c d u t y , we know none more i m p o r t a n t - - f o r p a r e n t s p a r t i c u l a r 1 y - - t h a n t o a i d i n the c u l t i v a t i o n o f n a t i v e 1 i t e r a t u r e . . . . 1 -*9 - - j u s t as Channing had done i n the l a s t p a r a g r a p h o f " S e l f - C u l t u r e , " an essay t h a t , as I w i l l s h o r t l y i n d i c a t e , Deniehy f e l t t o be o f v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e f o r h i s own countrymen. Deniehy saw h i s own p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o be t h a t o f e n c o u r a g i n g and, i f p o s s i b l e , e n n o b l i n g the l o c a l p r o d u c t . He coaxed and a s s i s t e d p r o s p e c t i v e a u t h o r s as much as p o s s i b l e , d e l i g h t f u l l y c a p t u r i n g the s p i r i t o f the whole u n d e r t a k i n g i n the same Freeman's J o u r n a l a r t i c l e j u s t r e f e r r e d t o : The l i t t l e p a c k e t o f j u v e n i l e m a n u s c r i p t dropped w i t h a nervous hand and b e a t i n g h e a r t i n t o the s l i t o f a l e t t e r - box a t a p u b l i s h i n g o f f i c e , may p r e l u d e g r a v e and n o b l e l a b o u r s i n r i p e r y e a r s - - l a b o u r s which may perhaps make men speak w i t h a l i n g e r i n g note o f k i n d n e s s i n t h e i r v o i c e s o f A u s t r a l i a , f o r the sake o f t h i n g s done by the hand, once so shame-fast [ s i c ] and so s m a l l , t h a t q u i v e r e d a t a l e t t e r - b o x one a f t e r n o o n l o n g , long ago.160 A l l the T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t w r i t e r s i n the 1830 ' s and '40 1 s a f f i r m e d the n e c e s s i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g an independent n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . Channing s t a t e d t h a t "a n a t i o n s h a l l t a k e a p l a c e , by i t s a u t h o r s , among the l i g h t s o f the w o r l d , " w h i l e O r e s t e s Brownson, i n h i s e s s a y , "American L i t e r a t u r e " (1840) p o i n t e d out i n s i n g u l a r l y b l u n t language the a b s o l u t e n e c e s s i t y f o r o r i g i n a l t h i n k i n g , l e s t n a t i v e minds become 161 " c r i p p l e d " and l i t e r a t u r e d e t e r i o r a t e t o the "tame and s e r v i l e . " Deniehy r e c o g n i z e d and a p p l i e d the t r u t h o f t h e i r remarks t o the rough-hewnAustra1ian s i t u a t i o n . Indeed, he o f t e n u t i l i z e d a r e c o g n i z a b l y American T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t v o c a b u l a r y , b e i n g e s p e c i a l l y fond o f 4 1 2 Emerson's c o n c e p t o f " s e l f - r e l i a n c e " - - t h e American's emphasis on the i n t e g r i t y o f the i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n o r s t a t e . When c o n t r a s t i n g the m e r i t s o f A u s t r a l i a a d o p t i n g e i t h e r a s u b o r d i n a t e o r independent p o l i t i c a l r o l e , i n one o f h i s A u s t r a l i a n League l e c t u r e s ( 1 8 5 4 ) , Deniehy i n c l u d e d Emerson's phrase t o c l a r i f y h i s sense o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l i b e r t y : " t h e r e must be something r a d i c a l l y v i t i a t i n g i n dependence, 1 6 2 and something supremely b e n e f i c i a l i n freedom and s e l f - r e l i a n c e . " In the same y e a r , when a t t a c k i n g the Tory b i a s o f the Sydney Morning Hera 1 d , he p o r t r a y e d t h a t newspaper as a " s t u r i i b l i n g b l o c k " i n the way of " i n d e p e n d e n c e , " " l o c a l f e e l i n g , " " s e l f - r e l i a n c e " and " n a t i o n a l 1 6 3 development." Deniehy a l s o made use o f Channing's n o t i o n o f " s e l f - c u l t u r e . " In one o f h i s l a s t l i t e r a r y r e v i e w s , he e x p r e s s e d h i s sympathy f o r the poet Henry K e n d a l l who, " l i k e most n a t i v e men, 1 6 4 l a b o u r e d under d i s a d v a n t a g e s i n h i s work of s e l f - c u l t u r e . " P r e - sumably he had Channing's d e f i n i t i o n o f " s e 1 f - c u 1 t u r e " i n mind: " t h e c a r e which e v e r y man owes t o h i m s e l f , t o the u n f o l d i n g and p e r f e c t i n g 1 6 5 o f h i s n a t u r e . " I t i s s a d l y i r o n i c t h a t i n t h i s same e s s a y , Channing s h o u l d i s s u e a s t e r n w a r n i n g a g a i n s t the e v i l s o f a l c o h o l : Of a l l the f o e s o f the w o r k i n g c l a s s , t h i s i s the dead- l i e s t . N o t h i n g has done more t o keep down t h i s c l a s s , t o d e s t r o y t h e i r s e l f - r e s p e c t , t o rob them o f t h e i r j u s t i n f l u e n c e i n the community, t o r e n d e r p r o f i t l e s s the means o f improvement w i t h i n t h e i r r e a c h , than the use o f a r d e n t s p i r i t s as a d r i n k . ' ^ When Deniehy w r o t e h i s r e v i e w , he was h i m s e l f s t r u g g l i n g w i t h the a l c o h o l w h i c h , a y e a r o r so l a t e r , would k i l l him. 413 The o b v i o u s c o r o l l a r y o f e n c o u r a g i n g a n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , f o r Deniehy, i n v o l v e d u r g i n g the y o u t h of one's c o u n t r y t o r i s k r i d i c u l e by f o u n d i n g a l i t e r a t u r e based on l o c a l m a t e r i a l , r e s p o n s e s and p r e - o c c u p a t i o n s . S h o r t l y a f t e r Deniehy's d e a t h , D a l l e y j u s t l y drew a t t e n t i o n t o Deniehy's d e v o t i o n d u r i n g " h i s b r i e f manhood t o the i n s t r u c t i o n 1 67 and e l e v a t i o n o f h i s young countrymen." When b a r e l y t w e n t y - t h r e e , Deniehy c o u l d , w i t h Whitmanic f l o u r i s h , e u p h o r i c a l l y c o n t e m p l a t e the p r e s s i n g c l a i m s o f A u s t r a l i a ' s y o u t h : . . . t h a t n o b l e r a c e now g a t h e r i n g i n the porches and v v e s t i b u l e s o f manhood, and which i s t o send f o r t h the c r e a t o r s . . . . We have l o v i n g f a i t h i n the coming men o f A u s t r a l i a . Our b e l i e f i s s t r o n g and s t e a d y i n t h e g e n i u s and the p u r i t y and the moral s t r e n g t h even now amid our n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n , c l i m b i n g and f l o w e r i n g w i t h the p r o f u s i o n o f a b o r i g i n a l v i n e s i n the c e n t r a l w i l d e r - ness. . . J 6 8 L i k e Whitman, Deniehy a p p r e c i a t e d the need f o r h y p e r b o l e t o a c h i e v e a d e s i r e d e f f e c t . To be an e f f e c t i v e p r o p a g a n d i s t one had t o b e - as Whitman o b v i o u s l y r e c o g n i z e d i n h i s 1855 " P r e f a c e " — b o t h a b u n d a n t l y o p t i m i s t i c and c o n s c i o u s l y p r o p h e t i c . Whitman f e l t the " g e n i u s o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s " t o be always most i n the common p e o p l e , s o u t h , n o r t h , w e s t , e a s t , i n a l l i t s S t a t e s , through a l l i t s mighty a m p l i t u d e . The l a r g e n e s s o f the n a t i o n . . . were monstrous w i t h o u t a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l a r g e n e s s and g e n e r o s i t y o f the s p i r i t o f the c i t i z e n . . . . The p r i d e o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s l e a v e s the w e a l t h and f i n e s s e o f the c i t i e s ' 7 and a l l r e t u r n s o f commerce and a g r i c u l t u r e , and a l l the magnitude o f geography o r shows o f e x t e r i o r v i c t o r y , t o e n j o y the s i g h t and r e a l i z a t i o n o f f u l l - s i z e d men, o r one f u l l - s i z e d man u n c o n q u e r a b l e and s i m p l e . 414 The American poets a r e t o e n c l o s e o l d and new, f o r A m e r i c a i s the r a c e of r a c e s . . . . T a k i n g h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s c o u n t r y ' s need one s t e p f u r t h e r , Deniehy s u r v e y e d the f i e l d o f contemporary A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s f o r t h o s e q u a l i t i e s w h i c h he d e s i r e d t o advance as exemplary f o r the purposes o f a coming r e p u b l i c a n A u s t r a l i a . By 1865, he c o u l d d e c l a r e t h a t A u s t r a l i a had i t s " n a t i v e men o f ' m i n s t r e l f i r e ' " ; o f the group, he r e g a r d e d C h a r l e s Harpur as the "most e m i n e n t . " ' 7 ^ Thanks i n g r e a t p a r t t o Deniehy's d e d i c a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , Harpur had emerged i n the 1850's as the new n a t i o n ' s most a r t i c u 1 a t e - - a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l - - 1 i t e r a r y f i g u r e . Deniehy f i r s t mentioned Harpur i n a p u b l i c l e c t u r e (on modern E n g l i s h p o e t r y ) t h a t he d e l i v e r e d i n 1851.'7' He made f l a t t e r i n g r e f e r e n c e t o Harpur's a b i l i t y and promised t o t a k e up the m a t t e r i n d e t a i l a t some l a t e r d a t e . He was as good as h i s word. Twice i n the next s i x y e a r s , r e g a r d l e s s o f the i n e v i t a b l e p e r s o n a l a t t a c k s aimed a t him f o r d e f e n d i n g a l o c a l p o e t , Deniehy p u b l i c l y a f f i r m e d h i s b e l i e f i n the q u a l i t y o f Harpur's v e r s e - - o n c e i n an e l a b o r a t e r e v i e w p u b l i s h e d i n Henry P a r k e s ' Empi re i n 1853, and once i n a p u b l i c l e c t u r e , c h a i r e d by N i c o l Stenhouse, a t the Sydney M e c h a n i c s ' School o f A r t s i n 1857. 1 7 2 F r a n c e s G l a s s has c a l l e d Deniehy's r e v i e w ( o f Harpur's The Bush- r a n g e r s , A P l a y i n F i v e A c t s , and Other Poems) the "most p e n e t r a t i n g l y 1 73 a e s t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n Harpur ever r e c e i v e d i n h i s l i f e t i m e . " C e r t a i n l y Deniehy's a p p r a i s a l o f Harpur's l o n g poem, "The Creek o f the Four G r a v e s , " c o n t a i n s some moments o f a c u t e i n s i g h t i n t o the 415 poem's m o t i v e s and d i r e c t i o n . More i m p o r t a n t h e r e , however, i s the way i n w h i c h Deniehy g r e e t e d Harpur's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the " h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l l i f e " o f h i s c o u n t r y . For Deniehy, Harpur had, i n the volume i n q u e s t i o n , e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f as one o f " t h o s e sons o f morning who s h a l l y e t e n l i g h t e n and d i g n i f y our home, b u i l d i n g up as w i t h the hands o f a n g e l s the n a t i o n a l mind." Deniehy c l e a r l y viewed Harpur as a c u l t u r a l a s s e t , a man around whom a c u l t u r e , a n a t i o n a l l i f e , c o u l d be p a r t i a l l y woven: Very s u r p r i s i n g as the f a c t w i l l u n q u e s t i o n a b l y be t o our E n g l i s h f r i e n d s , whose n o t i o n s o f our s o c i a l s t a t e - - o f the elements o f a p e c u l i a r n a t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e , g a t h e r i n g r a p i d l y below the s h i f t i n g s u r g e s , the ebb and f l o w o f a m a n y - c h a r a c t e r e d i m m i g r a t i o n , a r e shaped from . . . the " N o t e s " o f some r e t u r n e d p a s s a g e r e o f s i x o r t w e l v e months' f l y i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n the S o u t h e r n W o r 1 d - - A u s t r a 1 i a has a l r e a d y n u r t u r e d i n her w i l d e r n e s s e s a poet of her own. I t was o n l y f i t t i n g , t h e n , t h a t i n a l i g n i n g h i m s e l f w i t h the T r a n s c e n d e n t - a l i s t endeavour t o i s o l a t e and encourage s i m i l a r f i g u r e s i n A m e r i c a , Deniehy s h o u l d make s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o both Emerson and Channing t o r e i n f o r c e h i s argument. He compared Harpur t o the "American Emerson," then proceeded t o u t i l i z e a Channing maxim as r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r h i s argument: Channing never u t t e r e d a more memorable t r u t h , and none s h o u l d be made t o s i n k deeper in'.the minds o f our growing s t u d e n t s , than t h a t men o f a n a t i o n a r e not a l o n e i t s o n l y g e n u i n e p r o d u c t s . Such i n c i d e n t a l a l l u s i o n s t o the Americans appear t o c o n f i r m the f a c t t h a t A u s t r a l i a ' s "growing s t u d e n t s " o f l i t e r a t u r e were t h o r o u g h l y 416 f a m i l i a r w i t h the works o f t h e i r contemporary American c o u n t e r p a r t s . L i k e Deniehy, they r e c o g n i z e d c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n s between the American s i t u a t i o n and t h e i r own. Deniehy's r e v i e w e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y a c c l a i m e d Harpur's s u p e r i o r c r e d e n t i a l s . L i k e Channing, Deniehy demanded o r i g i n a l i t y ; not s i m p l y t h a t Harpur was born on A u s t r a l i a n " s o i l , and grew," but t h a t h i s l a r g e l y " f r e e , s e l f - d e p e n d e n t , and s e l f - m o u l d e d i n t e l l e c t " promised a body o f work p e c u l i a r l y i n t o u c h w i t h h i s A u s t r a l i a n environment and i s s u e s o f l o c a l i m p o r t a n c e . And l i k e Emerson, Deniehy f a v o u r e d , a t t h i s time i n h i s c o u n t r y ' s l i t e r a r y development, an emphasis on c o n t e n t , r a t h e r than form. J u s t as Emerson, i n h i s r e v i e w o f t h e younger W i l l i a m E l l e r y Channing's p o e t r y (1871), a p p l a u d e d h i s f r i e n d ' s "more p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l . . . American v e r s e s " and the "absence o f a l l c o n v e n t i o n a l imagery" and "workmanship," so Deniehy f o c u s s e d on the abundance o f i d e a s i n Harpur's v e r s e . ' 7 5 O r e s t e s Brownson had s a i d , some ten y e a r s e a r l i e r , t h a t " n o t h i n g i s more c e r t a i n than t h a t the men, who c r e a t e a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , must be f i l l e d w i t h the s p i r i t o f t h e i r n a t i o n , be the i m p e r s o n a t i o n s o f i t s w i s h e s , hopes, f e a r s , s e n t i m e n t s . " ' 7 ^ Deniehy f e l t Harpur's Bushrangers volume t o be imbued w i t h j u s t such c o n t e n t . F i l l e d w i t h the t h i r s t and i m a g i n a t i o n o f the young c o n t i n e n t . Having made s i m i l a r c l a i m s about Harpur as t h o s e proposed i n h i s e a r l i e r r e v i e w , Deniehy c o n c l u d e d h i s School o f A r t s l e c t u r e by c l a r i f y i n g , f o r h i s a u d i e n c e , the p a r a l l e l between the l i t e r a r y c l i m a t e s o f A u s t r a l i a and the U n i t e d S t a t e s . R e f e r r i n g t o the a c t i v e 417 encouragement o f p o e t r y i n c e r t a i n p a r t s o f A m e r i c a , he ended w i t h the q u e s t i o n : " w i t h how much advantage might not p o e t r y be c u l t i v a t e d i n A u s t r a l i a ? " ' 7 7 Harpur's p o e t r y f u l f i l l e d " t h e h i g h e s t f u n c t i o n s o f the Muse." A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e and, more r e l e v a n t l y , A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y , needed a s u c c e s s i o n o f sons o f the b o u n t i f u l s o i l t o plough f u r t h e r a f i e l d . Deniehy o b v i o u s l y f e l t the time had come t o c o n v e r t n a t i v e p r i d e and p a s s i o n i n t o p o s i t i v e achievement. N a t u r a l l y , a f t e r Deniehy made the c o n n e c t i o n between a l o c a l poet and the n a t i o n a l d e s t i n y , c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e s i n A u s t r a l i a - - many s t r u g g l i n g s t i l l t o make the l e a p from c o m f o r t a b l e c l a s s i c i s m t o e n e r g e t i c r o m a n t i c i s m - - f e l t i n s u l t e d by the c o n t e n t , the sheer a f f r o n t e r y o f h i s l e c t u r e . John West's Hera 1d r e v i e w e r c a s t i g a t e d Deniehy f o r h o l d i n g up " t o the a d m i r a t i o n and i m i t a t i o n o f our c o l o n i a l y o u t h the w r i t e r s o f namby-pamby, wishy-washy, m i l k - & - w a t e r v e r s e s . " I f A u s t r a l i a n s c o u l d n ' t be s e l f - c r i t i c a 1 , then they would ' ' i n f a l l i b l y c o n t i n u e i n the s t a t e o f g r o s s e g o t i s m and overweening s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e which Mr.. Deniehy's l e c t u r e shows i s so d e e p l y p l a n t e d i n the c o l o n i a l mind. T h i s want o f a t r u e sense o f our i n s i g n i f i c a n c e we see i l l u s t r a t e d e v e r y day." I t was w i l f u l l y p e r v e r s e o f Deniehy t o p a r a d e , f o r u n i v e r s a l i n s p e c t i o n , " p e r s o n s and t h i n g s A u s t r a l i a n , as w i l l a s s u r e d l y be laughed a t , and t h a t most h e a r t i l y i n Europe." Deniehy responded 1 79 by d e n y i n g the H e r a l d c o r r e s p o n d e n t ' s c h a r g e s . In the heat o f the b a t t l e between the proud n a t i v e and the d e b i l i t a t i n g E n g l i s h f o r c e s a c t i v e l y a t work i n the c o l o n y , Deniehy must have a g a i n found s o l a c e i n the f a c t t h a t i f the i m p r e s s i v e Channing was c o r r e c t i n a s s e r t i n g 4)8 t h a t the g r e a t d i s t i n c t i o n o f a c o u n t r y l a y i n i t s p r o d u c t i o n o f s u p e r i o r men, then so was he. F u r t h e r , and f o r Deniehy p o s s i b l y more r e w a r d i n g , Channing m a i n t a i n e d t h a t The most i l l u s t r o u s b e n e f a c t o r s o f the r a c e have been men who, h a v i n g r i s e n t o g r e a t t r u t h s , have h e l d them as a s a c r e d t r u s t f o r t h e i r k i n d , and have borne w i t n e s s t o them a m i d s t g e n e r a l d a r k n e s s , under s c o r n and p e r s e c u t i o n . . Even Deniehy's enemies c o u l d not q u e s t i o n the i n t e g r i t y o f h i s o p i n i o n s and h i s I r i s h - A u s t r a l i a n s t u b b o r n n e s s . In p r o c l a i m i n g Harpur's n a t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e , Deniehy gave the c o l o n i a l community e v i d e n c e o f h i s n o t i o n o f the " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e man" ( t o use Emerson's phrase) i n s o c i e t y . F r a n c e s G l a s s r i g h t l y g i v e s C a r l y l e c r e d i t f o r a r t i c u l a t i n g , i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , the i d e a o f the g r e a t man, b u t , more p e r t i n e n t l y , i t was Emerson who p o p u l a r i z e d 181 the n o t i o n . P o s s i b l y i n d i r e c t response t o Emerson's f e e l i n g t h a t the " s e a r c h a f t e r the g r e a t men i s the dream o f y o u t h , and the most s e r i o u s o c c u p a t i o n o f manhood," Deniehy saw the i m p e r a t i v e need f o r A u s t r a l i a t o produce t h o s e m a s s i v e t h i n k e r s , t h o s e rugged, undaunted masters and c o n f e s s o r s f o r t r u t h and r i g h t which the b o l d yeomanry o f e v e r y European l a n d and the g i a n t American S t a t e s have brought forth. 1 ° 2 He f i r m l y b e l i e v e d i n the g r e a t man as n a t i o n a l t r e a s u r e , and d i d h i s b e s t i n h i s s h o r t c a r e e r t o b r o a d c a s t the t a l e n t s o f t h o s e he l R 3 f e l t e n t i t l e d t o p u b l i c a c c l a i m . 419 Deniehy had a c l e a r i d e a o f both the s t a n c e t h a t A u s t r a l i a ' s emerging w r i t e r s and l e a d i n g c i t i z e n s s h o u l d t a k e and t h e i r p r o d i g i o u s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o the community. Here a g a i n , a s t r o n g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h contemporary American t h i n k i n g becomes e v i d e n t . He o b v i o u s l y absorbed the c o r e o f the American argument, and t h i s r e s u l t e d i n h i s u p h o l d i n g the p r i n c i p l e o f o r i g i n a l i t y a t a l l c o s t s . When p r a i s i n g the e x p a t r i a t e Frank F o w l e r , and h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o l o c a l l e t t e r s , Deniehy s t r o v e t o e s t a b l i s h F o w l e r ' s newness, d e n y i n g the a c c u s a t i o n 184 t h a t he was "but a ' d i l u t i o n o f Emerson.'" D e s p i t e the g r e a t a d m i r a t i o n t h a t he had f o r Emerson, he d i d not want l o c a l w r i t e r s t o s i m p l y r e p l a c e one model f o r a n o t h e r . S h o r t l y b e f o r e he d i e d , Deniehy showed t h a t he had not wavered from h i s p o s i t i o n when he warned the up-and-coming Henry K e n d a l l t o a v o i d s a t u r a t i n g h i m s e l f i n Poe o r 1 85 Tennyson, l e s t he compromise h i s commitment t o A u s t r a 1 i a n n e s s . "He i s g r e a t , " Emerson had s a i d , "who i s what he i s from n a t u r e , 186 and who never reminds us o f o t h e r s . " The Americans encouraged l e a d e r s , not f o l l o w e r s , as Deniehy w e l l u n d e r s t o o d . Nor was i t s u f f i c i e n t s i m p l y t o be o r i g i n a l . Deniehy's c o n f e s s o r s f o r t r u t h and r i g h t had t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i r g r a v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o g a i n an e d u c a t i o n and, i n t u r n , t o e d u c a t e t h e i r f e l l o w s . Imposing t h e s e r i g o r o u s s t a n d a r d s on h i m s e l f , Deniehy, d e s p i t e b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y p r e s s e d t o e n t e r p o l i t i c s from 1853 onwards, r e f u s e d t o embark on a p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r f o r a n o t h e r t h r e e y e a r s — w h e n he deemed the move as v i t a l l y n e c e s s a r y . In a l e t t e r t o Henry P a r k e s , i n December, 1854, he summarized the reasons f o r h i s i n i t i a l r e l u c t a n c e : 420 My e d u c a t i o n , i n the deep sense o f the word, i s not y e t c o m p l e t e - - ! have not y e t b u i l t m y s e l f i n t o what I c o n c e i v e t o be the r e q u i s i t e s p i r i t u a l and mental p r o p o r t i o n s - - I have not y e t l e a r n t , thought and o b s e r v e d enou ghJ87 And even when he f i n a l l y sought the p o l i t i c a l a r e n a , he d i d so w i t h f u l l knowledge o f h i s i n s u f f i c i e n c y : I would f a i n have known m o r e o f mankind e r e I undertook t o l e g i s l a t e f o r them. I would f a i n have abode l o n g e r i n t h a t atmosphere w h i c h M i l t o n termed " t h e s t i l l and s e v e r e a i r o f g r e a t s t u d i e s . " ' 8 8 Perhaps the time had come, w i t h A u s t r a l i a on the b r i n k o f making some c l a i m t o w o r l d c i t i z e n s h i p , t h a t men o f h i s p e r s u a s i o n , r e g a r d - l e s s o f t h e i r i n a d e q u a c i e s • s h o u l d s t a n d up f o r t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s . A u s t r a l i a ' s sons o f morning had t o r e a l i z e t h e i r pedagogic r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . For Deniehy, t h i s was o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e . A r e v i e w o f a l l h i s w r i t i n g s and speeches r e f l e c t s h i s c l e a r commitment t o e d u c a t i n g the p e o p l e i n an i m p r e s s i v e v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l , p h i l o s o p h i c a l , moral and l i t e r a r y s u b j e c t s . In A u s t r a l i a d u r i n g the g o l d - r u s h y e a r s , t h i s wasn't an e n v i a b l e t a s k . Theodore P a r k e r ' s a p p r a i s a l o f the American dilemma, i n h i s e s s a y " E d u c a t i o n , " c o u l d j u s t as e a s i l y have been D e n i e h y ' s : We t h i n k the end o f man i s t o l i v e f o r t h i s : w e a l t h , fame, s o c i a l rank. G e n i u s , wisdom, power o f mind, o f h e a r t and s o u l , a r e counted o n l y as means t o such an end. So i n the hot h a s t e t o be r i c h , famous, r e s p e c t a b l e , many l e t manhood s l i p t h r o u g h t h e i r f i n g e r s , r e t a i n i n g o n l y the r i c h e s , fame and r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . Never t i l l m a n l i n e s s i s thought the end o f man, never t i l l e d u c a t i o n i s v a l u e d f o r i t s e l f , can we have a w i d e , generous c u l t u r e , even among the w e a l t h i e s t c l a s s . ' 8 ^ 421 Deniehy had P a r k e r ' s e s s a y s i n h i s l i b r a r y , and, not c o i n c i d e n t a 1 1 y , he r e g a r d e d the A b o l i t i o n i s t m i n i s t e r as b e i n g i n the f i r s t rank 190 o f " t h e g r e a t and r e f i n e d and c u l t u r e d t e a c h e r s o f A m e r i c a . " In r e c o g n i z i n g the d e s p e r a t e need f o r u n i v e r s a l e d u c a t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a , Deniehy once a g a i n g r a v i t a t e d t o a fundamental n o t i o n h e l d by American w r i t e r s from J e f f e r s o n t o the New England T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 - i s t s and Whitman. The e n l i g h t e n e d J e f f e r s o n had been one o f the f i r s t A m e r i c a n s t o encourage f r e e and w i d e s p r e a d e d u c a t i o n . Democracy n e c e s s i t a t e d an i n t e l l i g e n t and informed p o p u l a c e . W i t h t h i s i n mind, the l a t e r T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t s endorsed the need f o r the a r t i s t t o advance p r i n c i p l e s d e s i g n e d t o encourage and e n l i g h t e n the common man. In the l 8 2 0 ' s and '30's, f o r example, Channing worked t e n a c i o u s l y t o e d u c a t e the poor and w o r k i n g c l a s s e s t o h e l p t h e m s e l v e s , e n d e a v o u r i n g t o e l e v a t e the t e n o r o f t h e i r e n t i r e e x i s t e n c e . H i s l e c t u r e s r e v e a l g r e a t i n s i g h t i n t o the p r i n c i p a l causes o f human m i s e r y and d e g r a d a t i o n . Deniehy's s t a n c e might w e l l have owed i t s s u b s t a n c e t o i d e a s propounded by Channing i n h i s second l e c t u r e on the " L a b o u r i n g C l a s s e s " : Undoubtedly some men a r e more g i f t e d than o t h e r s , and a r e marked out f o r more s t u d i o u s l i v e s . But the work o f such men i s not t o do o t h e r s ' t h i n k i n g f o r them, but t o h e l p them t o t h i n k more v i g o r o u s l y and e f f e c t u a l l y . Great minds a r e t o make o t h e r s g r e a t . T h i s s u p e r i o r i t y i s t o be used, not t o break the m u l t i t u d e t o i n t e l l e c t u a l v a s s a l a g e , not t o e s t a b l i s h o v e r them a s p i r i t u a l t y r a n n y , but t o rouse them from l e t h a r g y , and t o a i d them t o j u d g e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . In the M e c h a n i c s ' I n s t i t u t e s i n A u s t r a l i a , Deniehy r e c o g n i z e d one i m p o r t a n t means o f p o p u l a r e d u c a t i o n . He l i k e d t o c a l l the I n s t i t u t e " t h e P e o p l e s ' U n i v e r s i t y o f the age," and f e l t i t t o be an i m p o r t a n t 422 example o f the p e o p l e t a k i n g " t h e i r own c u l t u r e i n t o t h e i r own hands." Channing o f t e n c h a l l e n g e d moneyed i n t e r e s t s i n h i s s o c i e t y and r e f e r r e d 193 t o h i m s e l f as a " l e v e l l e r " ; Deniehy p r o b a b l y had no o b j e c t i o n s t o the term e i t h e r . From the b e g i n n i n g o f h i s p u b l i c l i f e , Deniehy p e r p e t u a l l y a s s a i l e d t h o s e who s u p p o r t e d , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , the "supremacy 194 o f a c l a s s " o r " t h e predominance o f a c r e e d . " He v i o l e n t l y opposed any s t a t e where, as he put i t i n one o f h i s poems, the P e o p l e s t a n d B a r r e d o u t . . . .1^5 A g a i n , he found an abundance o f s u p p o r t from the A m e r i c a n s . Brownson perhaps put i t most s u c c i n c t l y f o r h i s countrymen when he pronounced 196 t h a t " a l l who a r e born a t a l l a r e w e l l b o r n . " Y e t , as the F i f t i e s p r o g r e s s e d and Deniehy's e x p e r i e n c e o f l o c a l p o l i t i c s grew, he began t o dream a more i n c l u s i v e , a m b i t i o u s r e p u b l i c a n dream. He g r a d u a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d a v i s i o n of a s o c i e t y o f undaunted, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e men, where a l l the s e p a r a t e i d e a s he had c o n t i n u a l l y been a d v o c a t i n g merged t o g e t h e r t o produce one n a t i o n a l l y aware r a c e . A t r u l y brave and humane new w o r l d where c u l t u r e and the common man were i n s e p a r a b l e Deniehy dreamed, i n o t h e r words, the f i r s t comprehensive A u s t r a l i a n U t o p i a n dream. D i s e n c h a n t e d w i t h p o l i t i c s , he broadened, r a t h e r than narrowed- the scope o f h i s awareness--perhaps as h i s o n l y escape from the d e p r e s s i n g here and now. Deniehy f e l t t h a t i t was w i t h i n A u s t r a l i a ' s 423 g r a s p , i n the near f u t u r e , t o e s t a b l i s h a s o c i e t y o f e d u c a t o r s and t h o s e w a n t i n g t o be e d u c a t e d , t o e s t a b l i s h a v i a b l e s o u t h e r n U t o p i a . He proposed A u s t r a l i a as the model s o c i e t y A m e r i c a had hoped t o be, but now no l o n g e r c o u l d , because o f the c a n c e r o f s l a v e r y : The b u s i n e s s i s not now, how t o f u r t h e r the i n t e r e s t s o f two o r t h r e e t h r i v i n g l i t t l e c o l o n i e s a t a remote p o i n t o f the P a c i f i c , anomalous i n t h e i r o r i g i n , but o f f e r i n g a f a i r f i e l d f o r the immigrant whose l a b o u r s were i l l - r e q u i t e d i n Europe. Now the a f f a i r i n hand, i s how p r e p a r a t i o n s may be made f o r the s a f e conduct o f the g r a n d e s t e x p e r i m e n t i n f a s h i o n i n g a scheme o f l i b e r t y and s o c i a l h a p p i n e s s , the w o r l d has y e t b e h e l d . Wrecked on her s l a v e r y i n s t i t u t i o n , A m e r i c a has but p a r t i a l l y s o l v e d the g r e a t q u e s t i o n ; i t remains f o r A u s t r a 1 i a . ' 9 7 I r o n i c a l l y , the American T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t s p r o b a b l y h e l p e d Deniehy t o r e a c h t h i s c o n c l u s i o n , f o r no one was more o u t s p o k e n about the h o r r i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n o f s l a v e r y than the l i b e r a l humanists i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . Pennsy1 v a n i a n j o u r n a l s i n the 17701s rang w i t h P a i n e ' s d e n u n c i a t i o n s o f s l a v e r y , j u s t as New England p u l p i t s and newspapers i n the l830's, '40's and '50's r e v e r b e r a t e d w i t h the a b o l i t i o n i s t 198 a s s a u l t s o f Channing, P a r k e r , F u l l e r and Thoreau. Channing and 199 P a r k e r , i n p a r t i c u l a r , p l a y e d major r o l e s i n the a n t i - s l a v e r y cause. Both preached the i n s u r m o u n t a b l e b a r r i e r t h a t s l a v e r y p r e s e n t e d t o a s o c i e t y which p r i d e d i t s e l f on i t s f r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s . Deniehy a g r e e d ; f o r him, A m e r i c a had been " f o r ages s p o i l e d and damned . . . by reason o f the c a s t e - a b y s s e s o f S l a v e r y . . . . 1 , 2 0 0 As e a r l y as 1853, i n f a c t , Deniehy had begun t o s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a p p l y t o A u s t r a l i a the same k i n d o f o p t i m i s t i c language and s e n t i m e n t t h a t had c h a r a c t e r i z e d 424 p a t r i o t i c w r i t i n g i n p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y A m e r i c a . A r t h u r i n The Idea o f P r o g r e s s i n A m e r i c a , 1815~1860 (1951), shows The p h i l o s o p h y o f p r o g r e s s d e v e l o p e d by e a r l y European and American w r i t e r s proved e s p e c i a l l y a d a p t a b l e t o the American f a i t h i n the i d e a t h a t the U n i t e d S t a t e s were d e s t i n e d t o c a r r y out a p o l i t i c a l e x p e r i m e n t i n d e m o c r a t i c government. The r o o t s o f the idea o f a unique American m i s s i o n extended f a r back i n i t s h i s t o r y . From the time o f i t s d i s c o v e r y A m e r i c a had been c e l e b r a t e d as a l a n d o f d e s t i n y . W i t h the s u c c e s s o f the American R e v o l u t i o n a sharp break seemed t o be made w i t h the p a s t . 2 0 1 O p t i m i s t i c prophecy became p a r t i c u l a r l y common i n America i n the decades from 1830 t o the b e g i n n i n g o f the C i v i l War. O r e s t e s Brownson v o i c e d the p r e v a i l i n g a t t i t u d e o f many o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s when he ? 0 ? d e c l a r e d , i n 1842, t h a t "We a r e THE PEOPLE OF THE FUTURE. . . ." By the e a r l y l850's, Deniehy f e l t t h a t o n l y h i s c o u n t r y had the r i g h t t o m o r a l l y assume such a t i t l e . In h i s 1853 r e v i e w o f Harpur's poems, f o r example, he c o n s t a n t l y a l l u d e d t o the f u t u r e , e m p h a s i z i n g the v i t a l m i s s i o n o f both the i n d i v i d u a l poet and the l a n d he r e p r e s e n t e d . Harpur, Deniehy m a i n t a i n e d , was a type o f the growing n a t i v e mind, [who] must e x a l t e v e r y hope f o r the grandeur o f our n a t i o n a l d e s t i n i e s . . . . Out o f the mental a c h i e v e m e n t s o f the n a t i v e - b o r n , o f men who owe t o the s o i l , not o n l y , t h e i r b i r t h but t h e i r e d u c a t i o n , f l o w our d e e p e s t hopes f o r the p r o g r e s s o f our c o u n t r y . . . . We cannot change the i r r e v o c a b l e P a s t , but we may even now do much f o r what s h a l l g l o r i f y the f u t u r e . . . .2°3 so much E k i r c h , how J u s t a month b e f o r e h i s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r came t o a c l o s e ( i n 425 i 8 6 0 ) , Deniehy r e a f f i r m e d h i s b e l i e f i n a U t o p i a n A u s t r a 1 i a - - o n 1 y t h i s t i m e ; i n an even more i d e a l i s t i c form, and i n a form which had a l r e a d y been t e n t a t i v e l y e x p l o r e d by Lang and John West. Deniehy, t o o , c o n c e i v e d o f a s o c i e t y o f sma11-farmers i n A u s t r a l i a ( i n the s p i r i t o f J e f f e r s o n ) , but he took the model a l i t t l e f u r t h e r , s p e a k i n g of " t h e growth o f home f e e l i n g s , " " t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h o s e moral and d o m e s t i c c h a r i t i e s w h i c h bound the human r a c e i n one common b r o t h e r h o o d , " o f a "community o f f a m i l i e s " p r o s p e r i n g i n the A u s t r a l i a n 204 w i l d e r n e s s t o produce a "happy and c o n t e n t e d " n a t i o n . I t was a grand dream, and, though t e n t a t i v e , one o f the f i r s t a t t e m p t s by a n a t i v e A u s t r a l i a n t o e x p l o r e the moral i m p l i c a t i o n s and d e l i n e a t e the s p i r i t u a l groundwork o f an e s s e n t i a l l y f r e e community about t o embark on i t s f i r s t j o u r n e y as a n a t i o n , independent o f the encumbrances o f w a r - t o r n Europe. F r a n c e s G l a s s c a l l s Deniehy's c o n c e p t i o n the " s i m p l e - 205 minded e x p r e s s i o n " o f a " n a i v e U t o p i a n hope." T h i s may be so, but i t c e r t a i n l y took him a l o n g the same T r a v e l ' d Road as some o f A m e r i c a ' s f i n e s t w r i t e r s and t h i n k e r s . A l o n g and honoured t r a d i t i o n . And i t was an i d e a w h i c h found a s u r p r i s i n g l y l a r g e a c c e p t a n c e by many o f Deniehy's own countrymen when they s e a r c h e d f o r s o c i a l a l t e r n a t i v e s 9 n fi i n the heady decades o f the 1880's and '90's. In a l e t t e r t o Emerson i n 1840, George R i p l e y , one o f the f o u n d e r s o f Brook Farm, e x p r e s s e d h i s sense of the aims and o b j e c t i v e s o f the s e t t l e m e n t i n terms f u n d a m e n t a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f Deniehy: Our o b j e c t s , O a s you know, a r e t o i n s u r e a more n a t u r a l u n i o n between i n t e l l e c t u a l and manual l a b o r than now 426 e x i s t s ; t o combine the t h i n k e r and the w o r k e r , as f a r as p o s s i b l e , i n the same i n d i v i d u a l ; t o g u a r a n t e e the h i g h e s t mental freedom by p r o v i d i n g a l l w i t h l a b o r adapted t o t h e i r t a s t e s and t a l e n t s , and s e c u r i n g t o them the f r u i t s o f t h e i r i n d u s t r y ; t o do away w i t h the n e c e s s i t y o f menial s e r v i c e s by o p e n i n g the b e n e f i t s o f e d u c a t i o n and the p r o f i t s o f l a b o r t o a l l ; and thus t o p r e p a r e a s o c i e t y o f l i b e r a l , i n t e l l i g e n t , and c u l t i v a t e d persons whose r e l a t i o n s w i t h each o t h e r would p e r m i t a more s i m p l e and wholesome l i f e than can be l e d a m i d s t the p r e s s u r e o f our c o m p e t i t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s . 2 0 7 Brownson, Emerson, Channing and, e a r l i e r , J e f f e r s o n , a l l e l a b o r a t e d on A m e r i c a ' s n o b l e m i s s i o n and s a c r e d t r u s t . They, t o o , had l a r g e dreams, s t e e r i n g t h e i r s h i p , as J e f f e r s o n put i t , " w i t h Hope i n the 208 head, l e a v i n g Fear a s t e r n . " They, t o o , embraced a U t o p i a n f a i t h i n the f u t u r e . A m e r i c a i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , l i k e A u s t r a l i a , was not ready t o t u r n the dream i n t o s u b s t a n c e . Brook Farm f a i l e d , j u s t as W i l l i a m Lane's Cosme s e t t l e m e n t i n Paraguay i n the l 8 Q 0 ' s 209 would f a i l . But, a s i d e perhaps from i t s overwhelming o p t i m i s m and b e l i e f i n the u n l i m i t e d p o t e n t i a l o f d e m o c r a t i c man, t h e r e was n o t h i n g wrong w i t h the dream. Or the dreamers. Only t h o s e on whose s h o u l d e r s f e l l the t a s k o f a p p l i c a t i o n . In h i s l i t e r a r y r e v i e w s , Deniehy had k i n d words f o r a wide range o f American w r i t e r s - - f r o m I r v i n g , L o n g f e l l o w , Poe and N a t h a n i e l P a r k e r 210 W i l l i s t o Emerson, P a r k e r , Channing and F u l l e r . He a p p r e c i a t e d t h e i r a r r a y o f s k i l l s , y e t , l i k e h i s c o l l e a g u e Harpur, he was p r i n c i p a l 427 a t t r a c t e d by t h e i r tone. He p e r c e i v e d not the " s l i g h t e s t aroma o f 21 1 p a t r o n a g e " when he read the A m e r i c a n s . L i k e them, he r e s p e c t e d a l l humanity, and t h i s showed i t s e l f i n a l l the major c o n c e r n s o f Deniehy's w r i t i n g . He wanted t o i n s t i l l a d e m o c r a t i c s p i r i t i n the minds o f h i s c o m p a t r i o t s . Channing had s a i d t h a t the " t r u e s o v e r e i g n s o f a c o u n t r y a r e t h o s e who d e t e r m i n e i t s mind, i t s mode o f t h i n k i n g , 212 i t s t a s t e s , i t s p r i n c i p l e s . . . ." Had he l i v e d beyond h i s t h i r t y - seven y e a r s , and had he been f a v o u r e d w i t h an e d i t o r d e t e r m i n e d t o r e f l e c t h i s t o t a l a r t i s t i c and p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e , Deniehy would un- d o u b t e d l y have-been a c c o r d e d the r e c o g n i t i o n he d e s e r v e d a t the hands o f the B u l l e t i n g e n e r a t i o n , and t h o s e s u c c e e d i n g i t . Harpur's words i n the p o i g n a n t s o n n e t , "To. My Young Countryman, D.H.D.," might w e l l have been the s e n t i m e n t s o f many young A u s t r a l i a n s , down the y e a r s : Thy manhood's mental a m p l i t u d e expands B e f o r e me i n i t s omens, when I f i n d Something o f promise f a s h i o n e d by thy hands, Some blossom b r e a t h i n g o f thy f o r m i n g mind.213 Though the a v a r i c e and i n t r i g u e s o f c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y caused Deniehy t o r e s i s t p r o p o s i n g a s o c i a l model f o r the f u t u r e based on the p e r f e c t i b i l i t y o f man, as Emerson had done, i t i s s i g n i f i t h a t as h i s p e r s o n a l f o r t u n e s d e c l i n e d , h i s p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t s grew s t e a d i l y more o p t i m i s t i c . In t u r n i n g now t o C h a r l e s Harpur, we w i l l see t h a t q u i t e the o p p o s i t e o c c u r r e d . Harpur's w o r l d - v i e w s l o w l y d e t e r i o r a t e d . Sect i on C_ C h a r l e s Harpur (1813-68) : The W i l d Bee o f A u s t r a 1 i a 2 1 k And wonder ye not i f h i s speech be uncouth, Nor l o o k ye much f o r h i s rhymes t o be smooth, Nor t h a t the f l i g h t s h o u l d be l o f t y and f r e e Of one w i t h so l i t t l e o f l e a r n i n g as he; For a l l o f h i s a p t e s t y e a r s were p a s t [ s i c ] In p r i m a l s o l i t u d e s w i l d and v a s t . C h a r l e s Harpur, i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Poems (1883) when o'er My c o u n t r y s h a l l have swept the r i p e n i n g days Of c e n t u r i e s , her b e t t e r sons s h a l l p r i z e My l o n e l y v o i c e upon the p a s t ; Charges Harpur, "To An Echo on the Banks o f the H u n t e r " ( 1 8 4 3 ) 2 1 5 A u s t r a l i a n c r i t i c s need t o do a g r e a t d e a l more work on C h a r l e s Harpur b e f o r e i t c o u l d be s a i d t h a t h i s r e p u t a t i o n , whether b e t t e r o r perhaps worse than i t i s a t p r e s e n t , was f i n a l l y based on s u f f i c i e n t s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h . The b a r r i e r , o f c o u r s e , as w i t h Deniehy and Lang, i s t h e l a c k o f an a u t h o r i t a t i v e t e x t . Harpur e n t h u s i a s t s c o n f r o n t a w o e f u l l y i n a d e q u a t e a s s o r t m e n t o f h i s works: two books, by no means 429 c o m p r e h e n s i v e , p u b l i s h e d i n t h e p o e t ' s own t i m e ; a c o r r u p t t e x t ( 1 8 8 3 ) , p u b l i s h e d some f i f t e e n y e a r s a f t e r H a r p u r ' s d e a t h , i n t e n d e d t o a d e q u a t e l y r e f l e c t t h e p o e t ' s b e s t w o r k , b u t i n r e a l i t y s e r i o u s l y m a r r e d by t h e e m e n d a t i o n s and d i s t o r t i o n s o f an e d i t o r d e t e r m i n e d 216 t o s h a p e a g e n t e e l p o e t i n W o r d s w o r t h ' s i m a g e ; a s h o r t c o l l e c t i o n , o f 1 9 4 4 , c u l l e d f r o m t h e 1883 t e x t ; a n d , f i n a l l y , a more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r e c e n t c o m p i l a t i o n o f H a r p u r ' s p o e t r y , p r o s e and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 217 r e s p o n s i b l y e d i t e d , b u t a f a r f r o m d e f i n i t i v e c o l l e c t i o n . G i v e n H a r p u r ' s s i n g u l a r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o e a r l y A u s t r a l i a n l e t t e r s a n d , i n d e e d , t o t h e c o m m u n i t y t a k i n g s h a p e a r o u n d h i m , t h e f a c t t h a t we d o n ' t h a v e an e d i t i o n o f h i s c o l l e c t e d w o r k s c o n s t i t u t e s a s i z a b l e o b s t a c l e t o a n y t r u l y v a l i d a n a l y s i s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l i t e r a t u r e i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y A u s t r a l i a , much l e s s t o an e f f e c t i v e a p p r a i s a l 2 l 8 o f t h e man a n d h i s p o e t r y . In S e p t e m b e r , 1 8 4 5 , W . A . D u n c a n ' s W e e k l y R e g i s t e r s o u g h t t o e n c o u r a g e t h e k i n d o f l o c a l r e a d e r s h i p 219 i t f e l t H a r p u r d e s e r v e d . T h e p l e a h a s g o n e u n a n s w e r e d f o r a l m o s t a c e n t u r y a n d a h a l f . R e c e n t c r i t i c s , h o w e v e r , h a v e i l l u m i n a t e d c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t 220 a s p e c t s o f H a r p u r ' s o e u v r e . I i n t e n d t o e x t e n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n o n e p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n by l o o k i n g more c l o s e l y a t an a r e a t h a t h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d o f t e n i n t h e p a s t , b u t s c a r c e l y e l a b o r a t e d o n : H a r p u r ' s p l a c e i n t h e l i v e l y t r a d i t i o n o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r a d i c a l t h o u g h t i n A u s t r a l i a , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s and ' 5 0 ' s , a n d h i s c o n n e c t i o n s , a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s a c t i v i t y , w i t h A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s 221 f r o m J e f f e r s o n a n d P a i n e t o C h a n n i n g a n d E m e r s o n . H a r p u r , i n 430 f a c t , put t h e s e w r i t e r s t o a s t r i c t e r e t h i c a l t e s t than d i d any o f h i s A u s t r a l i a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . He probed f o r moral t r u t h s i n o r d e r t o g i v e the c o u n t r y of h i s b i r t h - - s o young and so v u l n e r a b l e t o r i d i c u l e - - a b a s i s f o r p o s i t i v e f u t u r e achievement. Harpur spent l e n g t h y p e r i o d s o f h i s l i f e on remote f a r m s , p h y s i c a l l y and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i s o l a t e d . W h i l e i n l a t e r y e a r s he sometimes rued h i s l o t when he pondered the d e l i g h t s accompanying r e s i d e n c e i n Sydney, near Stenhouse and h i s e n e r g e t i c c i r c l e o f f r i e n d s , a t the time he c o u l d s t i l l respond v i g o r o u s l y t o the r u r a l environment i n which he m o s t l y found h i m s e l f . The h a r s h c o u n t r y l i f e encouraged independent t h o u g h t . No wonder the A m e r i c a n s , w i t h t h e i r c o n t i n u i n g 222 emphasis on Man A l o n e i n N a t u r e , a p p e a l e d . In " S e l f - R e l i a n c e , " Emerson v o i c e d the fundamental t e n e t b e h i n d t h i s i d e a when he s a i d : 223 " I n s i s t on y o u r s e l f ; never i m i t a t e . " Harpur wouldn't i m i t a t e , but the v e r y n a t u r e o f h i s e x i s t e n c e caused him t o embrace a p h i l o s o p h y o f l i f e and l i t e r a t u r e which resembled prominent American w r i t e r s i n s e v e r a l u n m i s t a k a b l e ways. F i r s t , c a r r y i n g a C u r r e n c y Lad's deep resentment a t b e i n g e x c l u d e d from the f r u i t s o f h i s n a t i v e l a n d , he adopted a r a d i c a l s t a n c e towards a u t h o r i t y . P o s s i b l y a r o u s e d by the a t t i t u d e s o f h i s c o n v i c t f a t h e r who had, w i t h Wentworth and o t h e r s , p l a y e d a p a r t ( d u r i n g the l 8 2 0 ' s ) i n the campaign f o r the r e c o g n i t i o n of e v e r y B r i t o n ' s i n h e r e n t r i g h t s , Harpur soon i n c l i n e d towards a 224 r e p u b l i c a n p h i l o s o p h y o f government. I t was the o n l y system he f e l t c o u l d a d e q u a t e l y meet the u n i q u e needs o f a new c o u n t r y . The r e p u b l i c a n s y m p a t h i z e r i n time became an o u t s p o k e n p o l i t i c a l a g i t a t o r 431 f o r A u s t r a l i a n s o v e r e i g n t y and an a c t i v e a d h e r e n t o f the u n i v e r s a l r i g h t s o f man. For a w h i l e , Harpur even f e l t t h a t the end j u s t i f i e d the means. He c o u l d , u n l i k e Deniehy, a d v o c a t e armed r e s i s t a n c e as a p o s s i b l e means o f l i b e r a t i o n . S e c o n d l y , t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e t i m e , Harpur m a i n t a i n e d a p r o f o u n d l o v e f o r h i s c o u n t r y , i t s s p e c i a l q u a l i t i e s . I f e v e n t u a l l y d i s e n c h a n t e d w i t h the greed and a m b i t i o n o f h i s countrymen, l i k e Whitman, he never l o s t c o n f i d e n c e i n the l a n d i t s e l f . Harpur's a r d e n t p a t r i o t i s m — I a t l e a s t as f e r v e n t as t h a t o f Deniehy and L a n g - - l e d him t o p r o j e c t A u s t r a l i a , a t one p o i n t , as the p o t e n t i a l s t a g e f o r mankind's f i n e s t f u t u r e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s . I t i s s a d l y i r o n i c , however, t h a t the man who p r o u d l y d e s i g n a t e d h i m s e l f "An A u s t r a l i a n , " and whose f a m i l y s i m p l y y e t e l o q u e n t l y c a p t u r e d h i s one t r u e v o c a t i o n i n l i f e on h i s g r a v e headstone when they i n s c r i b e d the word " P o e t , " s h o u l d have been r e j e c t e d by so many o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s f o r p r e c i s e l y t h o s e reasons he h e l d d e a r e s t : Harpur f o u g h t hard t o e s t a b l i s h n a t i v e p r i d e 225 and a r o b u s t , i d e n t i f i a b l y A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e . In t h i s , he i s l i k e the American T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t s . T h i r d l y , Harpur r e c o g n i z e d , a l o n g w i t h Deniehy, an extreme need h i s c o u n t r y had f o r s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r s : p r o p h e t s , moral g u i d e s were r e q u i r e d t o c o u n t e r a c t the a c q u i s i t i v e t e n d e n c i e s o f a f r o n t i e r s o c i e t y . In A m e r i c a , Walt Whitman f o u g h t an i n c r e a s i n g l y s u c c e s s f u l b a t t l e t o e s t a b l i s h the v a l i d i t y o f h i s r o l e as American Poet and a r b i t e r o f s o c i a l v a l u e s . Harpur had an e q u a l l y p a s s i o n a t e sense o f p o e t i c m i s s i o n — and l i k e Whitman he adopted a wayward, y e t u n d e n i a b l y i m p r e s s i v e 432 a p p e a r a n c e , w i t h an e l a b o r a t e h o s t o f w i s e , g r e y w h i s k e r s - - y e t he u l t i m a t e l y f a i l e d t o c a p t u r e h i s c o u n t r y ' s i m a g i n a t i o n . P e r h a p s p i o n e e r i n g v a l u e s s t i l l had t o o g r e a t a h o l d . F o u r t h , a n d f i n a l l y , H a r p u r r i g o r o u s l y e s p o u s e d r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l f o u n d e d o n a r a t i o n a l , e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y b a s i s , d e s p i t e t h e a n t a g o n i s m h i s b e l i e f s c r e a t e d i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . He w o u l d n o t be c o e r c e d , e v e n by t h e C h u r c h . 2 2 ^ T h e s t r u g g l e t o e s t a b l i s h h i s own i d e n t i t y a n d t h e c r e d e n t i a l s o f t h e g r o u p he r e p r e s e n t e d i n e v i t a b l y l e d H a r p u r , a s i t had D e n i e h y , t o A m e r i c a n s o u r c e s . O n c e a g a i n , E m e r s o n a n d C h a n n i n g r e c e i v e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n , t h o u g h H a r p u r a p p r o a c h e d them c o n f i d e n t l y , a s an e q u a l . He was a t t r a c t e d by many o f t h e T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t s ' p r i n c i p l e s - t h e i r s e n s e o f t h e p o e t a s s e e r a n d c r i t i c o f s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s , t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e l u m i n o u s q u a l i t i e s o f n a t u r e , t h e i r u n d e n i a b l y d e m o c r a t i c t o n e a n d b e l i e f i n a p o s s i b l e b r o t h e r h o o d o f m a n , t h e i r a d v o c a c y o f u n i v e r s a l e d u c a t i o n , a n d , p e r h a p s most i m p o r t a n t l y f o r H a r p u r , t h e i r c o m m i t m e n t t o E m e r s o n ' s c o n c e p t o f " s e l f - r e l i a n c e . " 227 H a r p u r w o u l d c a l l i t " s o c i a l i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n . " O n l y t h r o u g h t h i s p r o c e s s c o u l d s o c i e t y b e g i n t o i n h e r i t t h e s p i r i t u a l a n d m o r a l b e n e f i t s o f a r e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t . H a r p u r f o r e s a w i n A u s t r a l i a ' s f u t u r e n o t s o much a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y , a s a s o c i e t y o f D e m o c r a t s . In t e r m s o f a c t u a l o u t p u t , H a r p u r ' s n a r r a t i v e a n d d e s c r i p t i v e 433 v e r s e , o f t e n i n a c c u r a t e l y deemed by c r i t i c s t o r e p r e s e n t the whole o f h i s a r t i s t i c s t a n c e , c o m p r i s e s but a s m a l l p a r t o f h i s t o t a l p o e t i c work. The e d i t o r o f the posthumous 1883 volume, i n p a r t i c u l a r , d i d the poet l e s s than j u s t i c e by imposing h i s own sense o f l i t e r a r y decorum on the poems i n hand. In t r y i n g t o package Harpur f o r what he c a l l e d " s y m p a t h e t i c r e c o g n i t i o n from the sons o f song i n E n g l a n d , " he o n l y succeeded i n making him appear c o n v e n t i o n a l and, worse, 228 d e r i v a t i v e . (Deniehy, i n 1 8 8 4 , _ s u f f e r e d , the.same f a t e a t _ t h e J n a n d s o f h i s e d i t o r . ) " In f a c t , Harpur r e l i s h e d p o l e m i c a l p o e t r y , and w r o t e an abundance o f p a t r i o t i c c h a n t s , s a t i r e s , e p i g r a m s , p a r o d i e s and p o l i t i c a l songs, u s u a l l y aimed a t a s m a l l number o f f a m i l i a r p e r s o n a l enemies and i n s t i t u t i o n s . R a d i c a l humanist thought i n f l u e n c e d him g r e a t l y — p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t emanating from A m e r i c a . Sometime i n h i s t w e n t i e s , i t seems, Harpur assumed a p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n c l o s e l y a l l i e d w i t h t h a t o f some o f A m e r i c a ' s l e a d i n g spokesmen d u r i n g the 229 R e v o l u t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y P a i n e and J e f f e r s o n . J e f f e r s o n put t h a t p o s i t i o n w e l l when he a f f i r m e d h i s b e l i e f i n the r e p u b l i c a n as " t h e o n l y form o f government w h i c h i s not e t e r n a l l y a t open o r s e c r e t war 230 w i t h the r i g h t s o f mankind. . . ." Harpur, t o o , remained t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e a c o n v i n c e d democrat; he never l o s t f a i t h i n the v a l i d i t y o f the d o c t r i n e , though he would e v e n t u a l l y d e s p i s e some o f i t s so- c a l l e d e n t h u s i a s t s i n A u s t r a l i a . In the e a r l y 1840's, Harpur p u b l i s h e d i n c e s s a n t l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y \ i n W.A. Duncan's A u s t r a l a s i a n C h r o n i c l e and W e e k l y ' R e g i s t e r . In the 434 R e g i s t e r a l o n e , between J u l y , 1843, and the end o f 1845, he c o n t r i b u t e d t h i r t y - t h r e e s i g n e d poems and, a c c o r d i n g t o E l i z a b e t h Webby's e s t i m a t i o n , 231 some t h i r t y - n i n e anonymous s a t i r e s . H i s meeting w i t h F a t h e r John McEncroe, d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , may have i n s p i r e d him; o r p o s s i b l y the i n c r e a s i n g encroachment o f Wentworth and the P a t r i o t i c A s s o c i a t i o n s p a r k e d a g r e a t e r m i l i t a n c y . I t might have been r e a d i n q P a i n e ' s 232 R i g h t s o f Man. But whatever the r e a s o n , Harpur's v e r s e began t o s t e a d i l y p u b l i c i z e the cause o f p o l i t i c a l l i b e r t y and t o r a i l a g a i n s t the i n e q u i t i e s o f A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y and Europe's p r o l o n g e d r e s i s t a n c e t o d e m o c r a t i c i d e a s . In 1845, the Reg i s t e r p u b l i s h e d "The Tree o f L i b e r t y , " a poem i n which Harpur added f u r t h e r s u b s t a n c e t o the e n e r g e t i c t r a d i t i o n A u s t r a l i a n spokesmen had e s t a b l i s h e d o f i n v o k i n g American r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r e c e d e n t s . The poem beg i ns w i t h f a m i l i a r s y m b o l i c purpose: W e ' l l p l a n t a T r e e o f L i b e r t y In the c e n t r e o f the l a n d , And round i t ranged as g u a r d i a n s be, A vowed and t r u s t y band.^33 Harpur wanted the o p t i m i s m o f the New W o r l d , not the a n i m o s i t i e s o f the O l d : But here a t l a s t , u n c u r s ' d by c a s t e , Each man a t N a t u r e ' s c a l l S h a l l p l u c k as w e l l what none may s e l l , The f r u i t t h a t blooms f o r A l l . Throughout the F o r t i e s , he e n l a r g e d on h i s i d e a s f o r a new s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ; he e n v i s a g e d a system more c l e a r l y i n tune w i t h the needs 435 o f the g e n e r a l p o p u l a c e , one which would encourage a p e o p l e t o be 234 "Eager, and n o b l e , and e q u a l , and f r e e . . . ." Harpur w h o l e - h e a r t e d l y endorsed Emerson's assessment o f the s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n and d e m o c r a t i c systems. In " P o l i t i c s , " Emerson put i t t h i s way: S i m i l a r l y , Harpur sensed the g r e a t b e n e f i t l i b e r t y promised t o each i n d i v i d u a l : namely, i n t e l l e c t u a l independence. But on a n a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h i s c o u l d o n l y be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h the p e r s i s t e n t propaganda o f a group o f d e d i c a t e d i d e a l i s t s . Harpur s t r o v e t o be one. "Words," he once w r o t e a p p r o v i n g l y , "may r e v o l u t i o n i s e o r r e a r / A mighty 236 s t a t e . " He w r o t e much, as h i s d e v o t i o n t o an A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c hardened. A note which accompanied the r e p r i n t i n g o f "A Tree o f L i b e r t y " i n the P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e (1849) began d e f i a n t l y : For the r e p u b l i c a n s p i r i t o f t h i s and o t h e r s , i f not a l l o f my n a t i o n a l poems, I can o f f e r no a p o l o g y . Why, indeed s h o u l d I? B e l i e v i n g , as I do, t h a t men p r o g r e s s as s e q u e n t l y from m o n a r c h i a l t o r e p u b l i c a n ideas . . . as they do from f e u d a l and d e s p o t i c ones t o t h o s e o f a l i m i t e d Here a g a i n i s the " i d e a o f p r o g r e s s " s u r f a c i n g i n an A u s t r a l i a n con- t e x t . In h i s m i d d l e y e a r s , Harpur, l i k e Lang and Deniehy--and b e f o r e them, a s u c c e s s i o n o f Ameni:cans--fel t t h a t a New-World d e m o c r a t i c monarchy. 237 s o c i e t y , b e g i n n i n g a f r e s h and u n t a i n t e d by the Old W o r l d , c o u l d 436 c o n v e r t o p t i m i s t i c prophecy i n t o r e a l i t y . T h i s commitment t o t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f r e p u b l i c a n i s m changed not a t a l l i n the next s i x y e a r s , f o r i n a n o t h e r o f h i s many p r o s e notes t o i n d i v i d u a l poems (dated May, 1855), he advanced the f o u n d a t i o n s o f h i s b e l i e f i n democracy and d e m o c r a t i c t h i n k i n g even more c l e a r l y . In s p i r i t e x a c t l y l i k e Thomas P a i n e , Harpur d e c l a r e d : As I f e e l but l i t t l e r e s p e c t f o r Monarchy men and Empire- w o r s h i p p e r s (as such) I cannot a p o l o g i s e f o r s p e a k i n g o f them somewhat c o n t e m p t u o u s l y . I am not o n l y a d e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c a n i n t h e o r y , but by e v e r y f e e l i n g o f my n a t u r e . I t s f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s l i e f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n the moral elements o f my b e i n g , ready t o f l o w e r f o r t h and bear t h e i r p r o p e r f r u i t . Hence, as I h o l d m y s e l f , on the ground o f God's humanity, t o be p o l i t i c a l l y s u p e r i o r t o no f e l l o w b e i n g , s o , on the same ground, I can f e e l m y s e l f i n f e r i o r t o none. . . .238 The s i m i l a r i t i e s between P a i n e and Harpur would f o r a time i n - c r e a s e i n the e a r l y l 8 5 0 ' s as Harpur's p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e ( l i k e t h a t o f John Dunmore Lang d u r i n g the same p e r i o d ) grew more m i l i t a n t . At a time when even committed r e p u b l i c a n s l i k e h i s f r i e n d Dan Deniehy r e f u s e d t o c o n t e m p l a t e arms, Harpur p u b l i c l y p r o c l a i m e d h i m s e l f a 239 " p h y s i c a l f o r c e r e v o l u t i o n i s t . " In the P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e ( 1 8 5 4 ) , he r e p u b l i s h e d an e a r l i e r poem, "War Song f o r the N i n e t e e n t h Century,' t h i s time w i t h the a d d i t i o n o f a new, and more o p e n l y a g g r e s s i v e c o n c l u d i n g s t a n z a . The l a s t f o u r l i n e s s t r i k e a r e v o l u t i o n a r y note r a r e l y seen i n A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e b e f o r e o r s i n c e : But unarmed r i g h t aye w i t h e r s In wrong's a l l b l a s t i n g b r e a t h -- Then on, ye Red R e p u b l i c a n s , To Freedom or t o Death.^40 437 The c h a l l e n g e e n t a i l e d i n the poem was h e i g h t e n e d by Harpur's p r o s e addendum; i n i t , he e l a b o r a t e d on h i s concept o f "Red R e p u b l i c a n s " as "men whose c o n v i c t i o n s o f the p o l i t i c a l n e c e s s i t y o f r e p u b l i c a n i s m i s u n s h a k a b l y founded upon the God-designed s o v e r e i g n t y o f the p e o p l e ; and who a r e p r e p a r e d , t h e r e f o r e , whenever a t r u e o c c a s i o n o f f e r s , t o champion i t s advent a t a l l h a z a r d s , and i n a l l p l a c e s . " In the s p i r i t o f P a i n e , Harpur o m i n o u s l y h i n t e d t h a t the time was f a s t a p p r o a c h i n g which would t r y the s o u l s o f a l l A u s t r a l i a n men. In 1851, Harpur had hoped t o have a volume o f h i s poems p u b l i s h e d 241 under the t i t l e , The W i l d Bee o f A u s t r a l i a . The volume f a i l e d t o m a t e r i a l i z e , but Harpur c o n t i n u e d t o s t i n g the f o r c e s o f monarchy and h e r e d i t a r y t i t l e i n A u s t r a l i a f o r y e a r s t o come. H i s f a i t h i n the e g a l i t a r i a n commitment o f l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s e v e n t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d , but he always c l u n g t o a b e l i e f i n the "onward marching s p i r i t / Of 242 immortal l i b e r t y . " R e p u b l i c a n i s m would e v e n t u a l l y have i t s day. And-yet d e s p i t e t h i s hard-edged s i d e both t o h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and the m a j o r i t y o f h i s p o e t i c o u t p u t , Harpur has c o n t i n u e d t o be f r e q u e n t l y judged i n terms o f a r e p u t a t i o n founded on the b a s i s o f a c o r r u p t t e x t , which l a r g e l y i g n o r e s h i s f i g h t i n g s i d e . Our p i c t u r e o f t h i s s e m i n a l A u s t r a l i a n poet needs r e d r e s s i n g , t h r o u g h the a i d o f a f a i t h f u l and comprehensive t e x t which r e f l e c t s the whole man. A l l the w a r t s . Such a t e x t would show t h a t Harpur s c r u p u l o u s l y a v o i d e d a narrow a p p l i c a t i o n o f e g a l i t a r i a n p r i n c i p l e s . He was no smug j i n g o i s t ; r a t h e r , he employed h i s i d e a o f r e p u b l i c a n i s m w i d e l y , j u s t as the American r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s had. Harpur a r t i c u l a t e l y responded t o P a i n e ' s c r y , 438 many y e a r s e a r l i e r , f o r a l l men t o work towards " t h e c i v i l i z a t i o n 243 o f N a t i o n s w i t h each o t h e r . " Harpur, t o o , propounded an i n t e r - n a t i o n a l i s t c r e e d as the o n l y t r u l y d e m o c r a t i c r e s p o n s e : He but p r o f a n e s the s p i r i t o f p a t r i o t i s m i n h i s p r e t e n s i o n s t h e r e t o , whose f r a t e r n a l sympathies a r e not c o - e x t e n s i v e w i t h humanity, and as wide as the w o r l d , however they may p r i m a r i l y c e n t r e amongst h i s own countrymen and i n the l a n d o f h i s n a t i v i t y . Nay, wherever T r u t h o b t a i n s w i t h the g r e a t e s t c e r t a i n t y , and r e c t i t u d e o f ..conduct p r o s p e r s . _ ~ most u n i v e r s a l l y — t h i t h e r s t i l l s h o u l d our s y m p a t h i e s tend as t o our b e t t e r c o u n t r y — t h e c o u n t r y o f Man. . . . The s e n t i m e n t s e x p r e s s e d here stem d i r e c t l y from the R i g h t s o f Man, which we know .Harpur had r e a d . He c e r t a i n l y l i k e d t o u t i l i z e P a i n e ' s phrase when p r o s e l y t i z i n g , and he many times went on p u b l i c r e c o r d 245 i n s u p p o r t o f movements o f n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n around the g l o b e . Only w i t h i n t h i s l a r g e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l framework d i d Harpur respond t o the problems o f h i s own c o u n t r y ; h i s was not a narrow n a t i o n a l i s m o f the k i n d t h a t t y p i f i e d the Home-Rule movement i n I r e l a n d . Harpur, i t a p p e a r s , had read P a i n e too c l o s e l y f o r t h a t . The more immediate i s s u e s a t home he n e c e s s a r i l y viewed w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f extreme sympathy f o r f o r e i g n r e v o l u t i o n a r y movements. Thus he a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o the p r e v a i l i n g c r i s i s o f i d e n t i t y i n A u s t r a l i a , f u l l y a p p r e c i a t i n g , as a n a t i v e - b o r n l i k e Deniehy, the r e t a r d i n g p r e s e n c e o f m o n a r c h i c f e e l i n g i n the c o l o n y . He d e p l o r e d the c o n s e r v a t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f the " s q u a t t e r y " o r l o c a l p a s t o r a l i s t s . Here were "men b r i m f u l o f E n g l a n d i s m " e x e r t i n g a dominant i n f l u e n c e on a c o u n t r y 246 thousands . o f m i l e s away from t h e i r acknowledged homeland. When 439 they had made t h e i r f o r t u n e , they would t h a n k f u l l y s e t s a i l f o r E n g l a n d . For Harpur, t h e s e were the men who r e p r e s e n t e d the p r i n c i p a l b a r r i e r t o e f f e c t i v e p o l i t i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l independence i n 247 A u s t r a l i a . Not the E n g l i s h monarchy o r p a r l i a m e n t . Hence he took e v e r y a v a i l a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s a t i r i z e o r a t t a c k o u t r i g h t the power- f u l b l o c o f l o c a l " s n o b - t o r i e s , " p u t t i n g them i n the same c a t e g o r y as the Duke o f W e l l i n g t o n , an Irishman whom Harpur deemed a sycophant 248 t o the E n g l i s h t h r o n e . "Money's w o r t h , " Harpur c o m p l a i n e d b i t t e r l y i n the l a t e 1840's, was the s o l e p r i o r i t y o f l o c a l s q u a t t e r s , and such men t h r e a t e n e d t o s u b v e r t any a t t e m p t s t o c r e a t e a n a t i o n a l 249 c o n s c i o u s n e s s . There i s g r e a t p o i g n a n c y s u r r o u n d i n g one o f Harpur's p r o s e n o t e s , w r i t t e n i n l a t e r l i f e , i n which he d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y r e c o r d s the l o s s o f t h i s i d e a l i s m , how h i s " f i r s t f a i t h i n the p e r f e c t - i b i l i t y o f the r a c e " was " c o n s i d e r a b l y d i s c o u n t e n a n c e d by my w o r l d l y 250 e x p e r i e n c e . " I t s h o u l d be remembered, however, t h a t Walt Whitman i n h i s l a t e r work e x p r e s s e d a s i m i l a r d i s e n c h a n t m e n t w i t h h i s c o u n t r y - men. The o p t i m i s m o f Whitman's l 8 5 5 " P r e f a c e " s t a r k l y c o n t r a s t s h i s l a t e r d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t i n D e m o c r a t i c V i s t a s (1871): . . . s o c i e t y , i n t h e s e S t a t e s , i s c a n k e r ' d , c r u d e , s u p e r - s t i t i o u s and r o t t e n . . . . The u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f the S t a t e s a r e not h o n e s t l y b e l i e v ' d i n ( f o r a l l t h i s h e c t i c glow, and t h e s e m e l o d r a m a t i c s c r e a m i n g s , ) nor i s humanity i t s e l f b e l i e v ' d i n . What p e n e t r a t i n g eye does not everywhere see t h r o u g h the mask? The s p e c t a c l e i s a p p a l l i n g . We l i v e i n an atmosphere o f h y p o c r i s y t h r o u g h - o u t . . . . our New World democracy, however g r e a t a s u c c e s s i n u p l i f t i n g the masses out o f t h e i r s l o u g h s , i n m a t e r i a l - i s t i c development, p r o d u c t s , and i n a c e r t a i n h i g h l y d e c e p t i v e s u p e r f i c i a l p o p u l a r i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y , i s , so f a r , an a l m o s t complete f a i l u r e i n i t s s o c i a l a s p e c t s , and i n r e a l l y grand r e l i g i o u s , m o r a l , l i t e r a r y , and e s t h e t i c r e s u l t s . 2 5 ' 440 H a r p u r ' s e n e r g y f o r t h e f i g h t e v e n t u a l l y waned i n h i s l a s t y e a r s , b u t n o t b e f o r e he had h a t e d o u t l o u d a l l t h e o b s t a c l e s he saw o b s t r u c t i n g t h e p a t h t o l o c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e . Y e t v i t r i o l i c a t t a c k s o n h i s e n e m i e s c o m p r i s e d o n l y a p a r t o f h i s b o l d n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m m e . M o r e c o n s t r u c t i v e l y , he e m b l a z o n e d h i s n a t i v e f a i t h and p a t r i o t i s m i n c e s s a n t l y i n t h e p a g e s o f c o l o n i a l n e w s p a p e r s . T h e y o u t h f u l s t r i d e n c y o f e a r l y poems s u c h a s " T o t h e L y r e o f A u s t r a l i a " : W i t h h e r g r e e n f o r e s t s r o u n d me, a b o v e h e r b l u e s k y , I l a p i n t h y m e a s u r e s some n a t i o n a l d r e a m ; And I f i n d t h a t t h e n o t e s , t h o u g h u n s t u d i e d a r e h i g h . When t h e g l o r y o f f u t u r e A u s t r a l i a ' s t h e t h e m e ! 2 5 2 - - w a s l a t e r b a l a n c e d by h i s d i l i g e n t a t t e m p t s t o map t h e u n i q u e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f A u s t r a l i a . Naming p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n H a r p u r ' s scheme o f t h i n g s . L i k e E m e r s o n , he r e c o g n i z e d t h e p o e t a s t h e t h i r d c h i l d o f t h e U n i v e r s e : " t h e s a y e r , 253 t h e n a m e r . . . . " H a r p u r 1 s - n a t u r a l i s t b e n t e m e r g e s i n s e v e r a l l o n g and f a s c i n a t i n g n o t e s t o t h e p o e m s - - e s p e c i a 11y t h a t o n t h e " C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e C o c k a t o o , " w h e r e he d i s c u s s e s t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d 254 w a r n i n g s y s t e m o f a f l o c k o f c o c k a t o o s . He a l s o w r o t e an a r t i c l e 255 on t h e s t r a n g e s o n g s o f i n d i g e n o u s b i r d s . S y m p a t h y w i t h t h e c u r i o s i t i e s o f h i s h o m e l a n d s t i m u l a t e d H a r p u r ' s i n t e r e s t , t o o , i n A u s t r a l i a ' s A b o r i g i n a l p o p u l a t i o n , a n d he r e s p o n d e d t o i t s a b u n d a n c e o f c o m p l e x d i a l e c t s and w o n d e r f u l l y r h y t h m i c n a m e s . H i s n o t e s t o t h e poem " T h e K a n g a r o o H u n t " r e f l e c t more t h a n a p a s s i n g i n t e r e s t . F u r t h e r , 256 he c a l l e d h i s T u r o s s R i v e r f a r m " E u r o m a , " an A b o r i g i n a l w o r d . 441 Almost i n e v i t a b l y , Harpur's abundant f a i t h i n A u s t r a l i a ' s p o t e n t i a g r e a t f u t u r e l e d him, amidst the e x c i t e m e n t and s u c c e s s o f the a n t i - t r a n s p o r t a t i o n movement i n the l a t e 1840 1 s, t o p r o j e c t a U t o p i a n v i s i o n . By the m i d p o i n t of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , as we have seen, many Americans had r e c o r d e d a s i m i l a r b e l i e f i n t h e i r c o u n t r y as the n a t u r a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the R e p u b l i c a n dream and the epitome o f p r o g r e s s r a n g i n g from P a i n e ' s statement i n Common Sense t h a t "We have i t i n our power t o b e g i n the w o r l d o v e r a g a i n " t o Emerson's, some s e v e n t y y e a r s l a t e r : I t seems so easy f o r America t o i n s p i r e and e x p r e s s the most e x p a n s i v e and humane s p i r i t ; new-born, f r e e , h e a l t h - f u l , s t r o n g , the l a n d o f the l a b o r e r , o f the democrat, o f the p h i l a n t h r o p i s t , of the b e l i e v e r , o f the s a i n t , she s h o u l d speak f o r the human r a c e . America i s the c o u n t r y o f the f u t u r e . 2 5 7 Harpur, l i k e h i s f r i e n d s Lang and Deniehy, might have c o n c u r r e d w i t h the Concord p h i l o s o p h e r , were i t not f o r the i n s t i t u t i o n o f s l a v e r y ; o r Q f o r d e m o c r a t i c A u s t r a l i a n s , t h i s was an a b h o r r e n t s t a i n . At h i s most o p t i m i s t i c , Harpur penned an "Anthem f o r the A u s t r a l a s i a n League," which u n f o r t u n a t e l y remains u n c o l l e c t e d : S h a l l we s i n g o f L o y a l t y To the f a r South's f i e r y youth? Yea--but l e t the paean be Of l o y a l t y t o God and T r u t h : To Man, t o p r o g r e s s , and t o a l l The f r e e t h i n g s , n o b l y f r e e , Of w h i c h t h e i r l o v e d A u s t r a l i a s h a l l The g o l d e n c r a d l e be. 442 H a r k ! h e r s t a r - e y e d D e s t i n i e s P o u r t h e i r v o i c e s o ' e r t h e s e a s - - H i t h e r t o t h e L a n d o f G o l d , A l l w h o w o u l d b e f r e e ! H e r e a d i a d e m b e h o l d F o r i m m o r t a l L i b e r t y ! N o t f o r O l d W o r l d q u e e n s a n d k i n g s , V i l l a i n S l a v e r y ' s o u t w o r n t h i n g s ! S h a l l w e s i n g o f L o y a l t y I n t h i s n e w a n d g e n i a l L a n d ? Y e a - - b u t l e t t h e p a e a n b e O f l o y a l t y t o L o v e ' s c o m m a n d , T o T h o u g h t , t o B e a u t y , a n d t o a l l T h e g l o r i o u s A r t s t h a t y e t I n g o l d e n A u s t r a l a s i a s h a l l L i k e c h r y s o l i t e s b e s e t . 2 5 9 T h e d i c t i o n a n d c o n t e n t h e r e , t h o u g h a b s t r a c t , a r e t h o r o u g h l y f a m i l i a r . A b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e a s h i s f r i e n d D e n i e h y , H a r p u r h a d b e g u n t o e x p l o i t a r e p u b l i c a n v o c a b u l a r y e m p h a s i z i n g N e w - W o r l d t e r m s s u c h a s " l o y a l t y , " " p r o g r e s s , " " d e s t i n i e s " a n d " l i b e r t y . " F o r b o t h D e n i e h y a n d H a r p u r , A u s t r a l i a h a d t h e p o t e n t i a l t o b e c o m e t h e c r a d l e o f w o r l d - w i d e d e m o c r a c y a n d , i n t u r n , t h e A r t s . H a r p u r ' s " A n t h e m , " f u r t h e r m o r e , p l a c e s h i m i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n t h o u g h t a s R . B . W . L e w i s h a s o u t l i n e d i t i n T h e A m e r i c a n A d a m (1955). A c c o r d i n g t o L e w i s , t h e A d a m i c " A m e r i c a n m y t h " c o n c e i v e d o f " t h e w o r l d a s s t a r t i n g u p a g a i n u n d e r f r e s h i n i t i a t i v e , i n a d i v i n e l y g r a n t e d s e c o n d c h a n c e f o r t h e h u m a n r a c e , a f t e r t h e f i r s t c h a n c e h a d b e e n s o d i s a s t r o u s l y 260 f u m b l e d i n t h e d a r k e n i n g O l d W o r l d . " H a r p u r h a d a l m o s t e x a c t l y t h e s a m e i d e a , o n l y h e p r o j e c t e d " A u s t r a l a s i a , " n o t A m e r i c a , a s t h e c h o s e n s i t e f o r h u m a n i t y ' s n e w b e g i n n i n g . S a d l y , a s t h e l 8 5 0 ' s w o r e o n , H a r p u r r e a l i z e d h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r p o s e A u s t r a l i a a s a m o d e l s t a t e i n t h e f a c e o f t h e s o r d i d p r a c t i c a l i t i e s 443 o f c o l o n i a l p o l i t i c s and the u n k i n d c e n s u r e s o f some r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the l o c a l l i t e r a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t . H i s i d e a l i s m , l i k e h i s b l o o d and t h u n d e r , began t o s u b s i d e . And e v e n t u a l l y t o p e r i s h . Harpur's c o n f i r m e d r e p u b l i c a n i n c l i n a t i o n s i n e v i t a b l y p l a c e d him i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o the mainstream o f contemporary American t h i n k e r s . He s h a r e d many o f t h e i r e g a l i t a r i a n p r e d i l e c t i o n s . But the c o n n e c t i o n s run d e e p e r , m a i n l y because o f h i s temperamental k i n s h i p , the p a r t i c u l a r problems and p r e j u d i c e s t h a t he e n c o u n t e r e d i n h i s own c o u n t r y , and h i s c l o s e s c r u t i n y o f Emerson's e s s a y s . S t r i k i n g a f f i n i t i e s emerge, w i t h the A u s t r a l i a n and the American t h i n k i n g a l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s . Harpur, f o r example, f e l t v e r y s t r o n g l y about the p o e t ' s r o l e i n s o c i e t y - - h i s moral r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o l e a d and t e a c h . I t i s a p i t y t h a t because o f the e d i t o r i a l p o s i t i o n o f the 1883 Poems t h i s a s p e c t o f the man has r e c e i v e d so l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n , f o r i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s t h o u g h t . In h i s e a r l y poems, Harpur r- s t r u g g l e d t o e x p r e s s h i s f i e r c e l o v e o f c o u n t r y and d e e p - s e a t e d sense o f d u t y t o the l a n d o f h i s b i r t h . The c a u t i o n o f one born o f c o n v i c t p a r e n t s , though, dominates: And might I but hope t h a t one song I may waken As a v o i c e i n the g a l e t h a t d r i v e s o v e r the g l a d e Should r i d e , when my c o u n t r y her empire hath t a k e n . On the f l o o d o f her ages, I'd count me r e p a i d . ' But h i s c o n f i d e n c e and s e l f - p r i d e c l e a r l y grew i n h i s t w e n t i e s , as the poem "The Dream by the F o u n t a i n , " w r i t t e n and p u b l i s h e d i n 1843, 262 i n d i c a t e s . H e s i t a n c y g i v e s way t o g r e a t e r s e l f - a s s u r a n c e . Perhaps even a l i t t l e b r a g g a d o c i o . The s u g g e s t i o n of the Muse t h a t the poet Be then t h e Bard o f thy C o u n t r y ! 0 r a t h e r , Should such be thy c h o i c e than a monarchy w i d e ! Lo 1 ' t i s the Land o f the g r a v e o f thy f a t h e r ! ' T i s the c r a d l e o f L i b e r t y ! - - T h i n k , and decide.263 - - g e n e r a t e s courage and o p t i m i s m , such t h a t the poet can make a s i m i l a r l y a u d a c i o u s c l a i m i n the poem's c o n c l u d i n g s t a n z a . Now, and i n the f u t u r e : No m a t t e r how few i n my wanderings cheer me, I know t h a t ' t i s mine 'mid the P r o p h e t s t o s t a n d ! No m a t t e r how many t h a t blame be anear me, I f e e l 1 i k e a Monarch o f Song i n the Land! Y e t , w h i l e Harpur s t r i v e s t o e s t a b l i s h the poet's v i t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n a new and d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y , he cannot escape an O l d World c l i c h e t o d e s c r i b e the subsequent f e e l i n g . Whitman wouldn't even t h i n k o f c a l l i n g h i m s e l f a "Monarch." Harpur's b r a s h n e s s , from one so young and raw, o f f e n d e d the d e l i c a t e s e n s i b i l i t i e s o f c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f the c o l o n i a l l i t e r a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t . Indeed, twenty y e a r s a f t e r "The Dream by the F o u n t a i n " f i r s t appeared i n the A u s t r a l a s i a n C h r o n i c l e , G.B. B a r t o n e x p r e s s e d h i s s h a r p d i s a p p r o v a l o f Harpur's s e l f - a p p o i n t e d Whitmanesque t i t l e . T h i s , s a i d B a r t o n , " i s something new t o L i t e r a t u r e . I f Mr. Harpur i s e n t i t l e d t o t h a t r o y a l d e s i g n a t i o n , he i s i n the u n e n v i a b l e p o s i t i o n 264 o f a Monarch w i t h o u t s u b j e c t s . " I t i s perhaps worth m e n t i o n i n g a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t , u n l i k e Whitman, Harpur would never be a l l o w e d ' kks the s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n o f r e c e i v i n g l e g i t i m a t e l y p o p u l a r a p p r o v a l o f h i s b a r d i c pose. W i t h Deniehy t h r e e y e a r s dead, few mourned Harpur's p a s s i n g i n 1 8 6 8 , d e s p i t e h i s u n c e a s i n g e f f o r t s t o p u b l i c i z e both the r o l e o f the poet i n g e n e r a l and h i s own v i t a l commitment t o A u s t r a l i a ' s s o c i a l , moral and a r t i s t i c development. As the F o r t i e s p r o g r e s s e d , Harpur endeavoured t o make good on the promises e n t a i l e d i n "The Dream by the F o u n t a i n . " Midway t h r o u g h 1 8 4 5 , i n Duncan's Reg i s t e r , he o u t l i n e d h i s sense o f the p o e t ' s 2 6 5 l o f t y c a l l i n g and i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l m i s s i o n . Then, about a y e a r l a t e r , he e l a b o r a t e d on t h e s e i d e a s i n the Ma i t l a n d Mercury by way o f a General P r e f a c e t o the p r i n t i n g o f o v e r f o r t y o f h i s poems. I t b o l d l y s k e t c h e d h i s f u t u r e p l a t f o r m o f a c t i o n . For Harpur, the t r u e v o c a t i o n o f t h e P o e t i c Muse i s a t once t o q u i c k e n , e x a l t and p u r i f y our n o b l e r and more e x q u i s i t e p a s s i o n s ; and by i n f o r m i n g the i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h wi s"dom--suggest i ng b e a u t y , both t o e n l a r g e and recompense our c a p a c i t i e s of p a t h e t i c f e e l i n g and i n t e l l e c t u a l enjoyment, and f u r t h e r , i n n a t i o n a l and s o c i a l r e g a r d s , t o i l l u s t r a t e whatever i s v i r t u o u s i n des i gn, and g l o r i f y a l l t h a t i s n o b l e i n a c t i o n ; t a k i n g o c c a s i o n a l s o , a t the same t i m e , t o pour the l i g h t n i n g o f i n d i g n a t i o n upon e v e r y - t h i n g t h a t i s mean and c o w a r d l y i n the p e o p l e , o r t y r a n n i c a l and c o r r u p t i n t h e i r r u l e r s . 2 ° ° I t i s d o u b t f u l whether Harpur, when he w r o t e t h i s p r e f a c e , was v e r y f a m i l i a r w i t h the p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l y i n g Emerson's l i f e and work ( t h e poet i n Whitman, o f c o u r s e , was s t i l l untapped p o t e n t i a l , as he put h i s e n e r g i e s i n t o the B r o o k l y n Da i 1 y Eag 1 e). We do know t h a t by the m i d d l e 18 5 0 ' s he had a copy of Emerson's E i g h t Essays (London: Tweedie, 446 1852) and, by the 1860 1 s, he had an o b v i o u s g r a s p o f the New E n g l a n d e r ' s t h o u g h t . But when he w r o t e the Mercury p i e c e , t h i s was p r o b a b l y not the c a s e . And y e t i n i t , we f i n d so much Emersonian c o n t e n t : Emerson's s t r e s s , i n "The P o e t " on "not m e t r e s , but a metre-making argument" p a r a l l e l s Harpur's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t p o e t r y have r e a l s u b s t a n c e by d i r e c t i n g i t s e l f t o l i t e r a r y and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c o n c e r n s r e l e v a n t 268 t o the p o p u l a t i o n ; Harpur's r e c o g n i t i o n o f the i n s t r u c t i v e o f f i c e o f the a r t i s t e s t a b l i s h e s him as one o f Emerson's t r u e s c h o l a r s , whose r o l e was " t o c h e e r , t o r a i s e , and t o g u i d e men by showing them f a c t s 269 a m i d s t a p p e a r a n c e s " ; and Harpur, l i k e Emerson, i n s i s t e d on the p o e t ' s d u t y t o p u b l i c l y a s s a i l i n j u s t i c e and any abuses o f power. I f the poet f u l f i l l e d t h i s o b l i g a t i o n , he became, f o r Emerson, one 270 o f the " c h i l d r e n o f the f i r e . " I t i s no c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t Harpur saw f i t t o u n d e r l i n e t h i s same p h r a s e , y e a r s l a t e r , i n h i s Tweedie ed i t i on. Above a l l , Harpur m a i n t a i n e d t h a t the poet had an o b l i g a t i o n t o f o l l o w h i s own i n s t i n c t s , not s o c i e t y ' s — a c o u r s e which promised a rough, u n s e t t l i n g r o a d . When Harpur had t h r e e a r t i c l e s on Emerson pub 1 i s h e d by the Sydney Times i n 1864, he was, by t h e n , f u l l y aware o f the s l i n g s and arrows o f a f i c k l e f r o n t i e r community. Thus, he warmly p r a i s e d Emerson's independence o f s p i r i t , h i s c o n t i n u e d d e t e r - m i n a t i o n t o speak out a g a i n s t s o c i a l wrongs. Of Emerson, Harpur s a i d : "he has no d e s p a i i — n a y , he i s e v e r r e a d i e s t t o champion a s e e m i n g l y d e s p e r a t e t r u t h . In the same s p i r i t he c o n c e i v e s t h a t whatever 271 d i s t u r b s and s t a r t l e s . . . must be . . . good and wholesome." In a c c l a i m i n g t h i s s i d e o f Emerson, Harpur must have known he was i n d i r e c t l y s i n g l i n g out f o r a c c l a i m a p a r t o f h i s own make-up. For some t h i r t y y e a r s he had c o n s t a n t l y paraded h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l views on s u b j e c t s as w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g as the Crimean War, r e l i g i o n , e d u c a t i o n , r e p u b l i c a n government, a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s and A u s t r a l i a ' s s q u a t t o c r a c y , i n d e f i a n c e o f the m a j o r i t y f e e l i n g o r o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e s . J u s t a s , i n A m e r i c a , Emerson was j o i n e d on the p u b l i c p l a t f o r m by Channing, Thoreau, F u l l e r , P a r k e r and Brownson. " I t i s not p o s s i b l e t o e x t r i c a t e y o u r s e l f , " Emerson once put i t , "from the q u e s t i o n s i n w h i c h your 272 age i s i n v o l v e d . " Harpur g a i n e d the k i n d o f forum n e c e s s a r y f o r h i s a t t e m p t t o p o p u l a r i z e h i s views when he d e l i v e r e d a l e c t u r e e n t i t l e d "The N a t u r e and O f f i c e o f P o e t r y " a t the Sydney M e c h a n i c a l School o f A r t s i n 273 l a t e September, 1859- Those f a m i l i a r w i t h h i s p r o s e o v e r the p r e v i o u s f i f t e e n y e a r s would have r e c o g n i z e d the p r i n c i p a l themes o f the t a l k as r e c u r r i n g ones i n Harpur's work. But now he proposed them even more a s s u r e d l y . As Channing had done i n h i s e s s a y , " N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e , " Harpur a s s e r t e d t h a t f o r p o e t r y t o be i m p o r t a n t i t had t o c o n c e r n i t s e l f not o n l y w i t h " t h e u t t e r a n c e o f e x q u i s i t e f e e l i n g and b e a u t i f u l f a n c y , " but w i t h " a l l manner o f moral t r u t h and s o c i a l 274 wisdom. . . ." The poet who " r e g a r d s h i s a r t as m e r e l y amusive, i s e i t h e r unaware o f i t s o r a c u l a r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , o r he has ' f a l l e n from h i s h i g h e s t a t e , ' and become unequal t o i t s d e s t i n y . " Put b l u n t l y , and u s i n g Emerson's (and Whitman's) t e r m i n o l o g y : kk8 . . . the t r u e s o c i a l m i s s i o n o f the p o e t , i n v i r t u e o f . the n a t u r a l bent o f h i s g e n i u s , i s t o e x a l t and p u r i f y our n o b l e s t and most e x q u i s i t e p a s s i o n s ; and by i n f o r m i n g the i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h s u g g e s t i o n s o f l o v e and i d e a l i s m s o f b e a u t y , a t once t o n o u r i s h our c a p a c i t i e s f o r p a t h e t i c f e e l i n g , and e n r i c h our powers of i n t e l l e c t u a l enjoyment. And f u r t h e r , i n n a t i o n a l r e g a r d s , i t i s i n h i s v o c a t i o n , t o i l l u s t r a t e whatever i s v i r t u o u s i n d e s i g n and g l o r i f y a l l t h a t i s n o b l e i n a c t i o n ; and a t the same t i m e , o r from time t o t i m e , as o c c a s i o n may a r i s e , t o e x p l o d e the thunder o f h i s i n d i g n a t i o n a g a i n s t whatever i s d e g e n e r a t e and s l a v i s h i n the p e o p l e , and whatever i s t y r r a n i c and c o r r u p t i n the i r r u l e r s . Here l a y one o f the e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t s o f T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t t h o u g h t . In o p p o s i t i o n t o what Harpur l a t e r termed a "sham age," both the 2 Americans and t h e A u s t r a l i a n a f f i r m e d t h e i r s t a t u s as moral l e g i s l a t o r s . Only then c o u l d they l a y c l a i m t o b e i n g " o r i g i n a l " men. At hits most impudent--and i n t r e p i d - - H a r p u r d e c l a r e d t h a t he was " m i s s i o n e d t o do more, f o r the i n t e l l e c t u a l f u t u r e o f my c o u n t r y than any o t h e r w r i t e r i t p o s s e s s e s , e i t h e r by b i r t h o r a d o p t i o n , " and y e t by h i s n a t u r e he c o u l d not p e r m a n e n t l y a t t a i n a h e i g h t t h a t 275 made him i n d i f f e r e n t t o c r i t i c i s m . He s c e p t i c a l l y a p p r a i s e d Emerson's pronouncement t h a t the " P o e t " would always be known t o h i s 276 own, and always c o n s o l e d " w i t h t e n d e r e s t l o v e . " Harpur knew too 277 w e l l the m a c h i n a t i o n s t y p i c a l o f l o c a l l i t e r a r y p o l i t i c s . So w h i l e he s h a r e d so many a t t i t u d e s w i t h the A m e r i c a n s , and d i d h i s b e s t t o promulgate h i s v i e w s , the u n a l t e r a b l e f a c t remained t h a t A m e r i c a , by 1850, c o u l d s u p p o r t and m o d e r a t e l y encourage i t s a r t i s t s i n a way t h a t was i m p o s s i b l e i n A u s t r a l i a f o r many decades t o come. G o l d - c r a z e d A u s t r a l i a i n the F i f t i e s ran roughshod o v e r the c o n s c i e n t i o u s 4 4 9 few who presumed t o l e g i s l a t e on e t h i c a l grounds, o r who i n s i s t e d on p u t t i n g the poem b e f o r e the h o r s e and nugget. Harpur and Emerson a l s o s h a r e d a b e l i e f i n the d o c t r i n e o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e . When Harpur d i s c o v e r e d Emerson, p r o b a b l y sometime d u r i n g the l a t e r l 8 4 0 ' s , he had a l r e a d y a r r i v e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y a t the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t o n l y t h r o u g h d e t e r m i n e d p e r s o n a l autonomy c o u l d the i n d i v i d u a l , o r poet or s c h o l a r , t r u l y f u l f i l h i s p o t e n t i a l and make a l a s t i n g i m p r e s s i o n on the h i s t o r y of h i s l a n d . Emerson's e s s a y on " S e l f - R e l i a n c e " m e r e l y c o n f i r m e d Harpur i n h i s f i n d i n g s , and T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t d i c t a such as "Whoso would be a man must be a n o n c o n f o r m i s t , " w i t h t h e i r r i n g o f s a c r e d t r u t h , must have hardened 278 h i s r e s o l v e i n times o f doubt. C e r t a i n l y Harpur r e g a r d e d t h i s a r e a of Emerson's thought as p r e e m i n e n t l y i m p o r t a n t . For Harpur, Emerson " a t h i s b e s t " was the p r o f o u n d "Bard o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e , " 279 not the m y s t e r i o u s , Swedenborgian a d v o c a t e o f the O v e r - S o u l . In a p r o s e note t o h i s poem " F i n a l i t y " (1847), Harpur proposed h i s own sense o f i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e i n terms o f a n a t i o n a l programme c e n t e r i n g on two a r e a s : e d u c a t i o n and what he l a b e l l e d 280 " s o c i a l i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n . " Through t h e s e means e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l might be improved t o the f u l l e x t e n t and . a c c o r d i n g t o the s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r o f h i s c a p a c i t y . T h i s i s demanded by a new and s i n g u l a r ( s e l f - s u s t a i n e d and s u s t a i n i n g ) o r d e r o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , which i s f a s t d e v e l o p i n g i t s e l f i n the whole human r a c e . A l l the g r e a t p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s t h a t were o r i g i n a l l y o n l y o p e r a n t as m o t i v e powers upon men i n b o d i e s o r n a t i o n a l l y , a r e b e g i n n i n g t o c e n t r e and m a n i f e s t themselves i n Man the i n d i v i d u a l . . . . Hence, t o o , men can no l o n g e r mould 450 them c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y i n t o masses. . . . men, h a v i n g p r o g r e s s e d beyond the s t a t e - 1 e g i s 1 a t i o n c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l y o b t a i n i n g , may become more and more, t o the d e s t i n e d e x t e n t , each and a l l o f them, Governments i n t h e m s e l v e s . T h i s i s a s e m i n a l passage. The p e r s o n a l p h i l o s o p h i e s o f A u s t r a l i a n and American w r i t e r s have perhaps never been c l o s e r , b e f o r e o r s i n c e , than they a r e i n t h i s e x t r a c t . Here, i n Harpur, a r e Emerson and Channing and Thoreau and P a r k e r and R i p l e y . Only by g o i n g i t a l o n e can the i n d i v i d u a l o b t a i n " s p i r i t u a l p r e r o g a t i v e s . " Harpur, a c u t e l y aware o f the s t i 1 1 - d i f f i c u 1 t l o t o f the C u r r e n c y Lad a t a time when v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s i n A u s t r a l i a were a t t e m p t i n g t o r e i n t r o d u c e t r a n s - p o r t a t i o n , sought t o i n s t i l l i n d i v i d u a l i n t e g r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n the p o p u l a t i o n . He wanted t h o s e who had f o r so l o n g been v i l i f i e d t o s t a n d up f o r t h e m s e l v e s . I t i s no a c c i d e n t t h a t Harpur marked w i t h a p p r o v a l Emerson's q u e s t i o n i n the essay " C h a r a c t e r " : " I f I 281 quake, what m a t t e r s i t what I quake a t ? H In some p o s i t i v e way, Harpur wanted t o a r t i c u l a t e the p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l y i n g John Dunmore Lang's r h e t o r i c a l c a l l t o a l l t h i n k i n g A u s t r a l i a n s t o make t h e i r s t a n d f o r p o l i t i c a l independence. Harpur h e l d t o the concept o f i n d i v i d u a l s o v e r e i g n t y so f i e r c e l y t h a t he c o u l d , on o c c a s i o n , be e s p e c i a l l y c r i t i c a l o f Emerson when he d e t e c t e d i n the American the s l i g h t e s t s t r a y i n g from the f u l l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e . Noble and manly c o n d u c t , f o r Harpur, grew out o f the " s p i r i t e d ways / And n a s c e n t s e l f - r e l i a n c e s " o f y o u t h , and a n y t h i n g l e s s than t h i s r i g o r o u s s t a n d a r d t r i g g e r e d a h a s t y 282 rebuke. Harpur would have n o t h i n g o f e q u i v o c a t i o n , nor would he 451 e n t e r t a i n t h o u g h t s t h a t c o u l d not be grounded i n reason o r w h i c h c a r r i e d the t a i n t of a r i s t o c r a t i c c o n d e s c e n s i o n and p r e j u d i c e . The A u s t r a l i a n r e j e c t e d Emerson's n o t i o n of g r e a t men and h i s b e l i e f t h a t you s h o u l d not " c r i t i c i s e a f i n e g e n i u s . " He had had q u i t e enough o f a u t h o r i t y - f i g u r e s when growing up under the r e s t r i c t i o n s o f a penal c o l o n y : . . . [Emerson] has, l i k e C a r l y l e , an a l m o s t i n s a n e a d m i r a t i o n o f c o n q u e r i n g h e r o e s , and o f the mere m a t e r i a l m a g n i f i c e n c e o f armed power. . . . To use a taw term o f s c h o o l b o y s , he would have us "knuck1edown" a t once t o e v e r y v e r i t a b l e man-compel 1er, e v e r y genuine G i a n t B l u n d e r b o r e . . . . But i t i s time a l l t h i s d e m i - d e i f i c a t ion were s c o u t e d from our e t h i c s . I f men a r e e v e r g i a n t s i n any p o l i t i c a l sense, i t [ i s ] o n l y because o f the s l a v i s h w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s t o be d w i n d l e d i n t o d w a r f s . And i t s h o u l d be the a c t o f good c i t i z e n s h i p , t h e r e f o r e , - - n o t t o w o r s h i p , but t o c l e n c h a c o l l a r o f i r o n about the t h r o a t o f e v e r y such h e r o i c a l man compound.284 Harpur always put Emerson's pronouncements t o the p r a c t i c a l t e s t . He had seen s u f f i c i e n t i l l - d i r e c t e d h e r o - w o r s h i p i n New South Wales t o make him a t l e a s t s u s p i c i o u s o f t h o s e i n power. U n l i k e Emerson, he knew o n l y too w e l l from h i s own e x p e r i e n c e t h a t unwise^and f o o l i s h 285 l e g i s l a t i o n was not "a rope o f sand" w h i c h p e r i s h e d , " i n the t w i s t i n g . " The r i g i d n a t u r e o f c o l o n i a l government had shown him t h a t change c o u l d o n l y be engendered by an abundance of t o i l , sweat and commitment. For the p r a c t i c a l l y minded Harpur, Emerson's e n l i g h t e n e d b e l i e f s sometimes d e p a r t e d too a b r u p t l y from the s l o u g h o f g r i m r e a l i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , Harpur l o o k e d askance a t Emerson's seeming c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . The New E n g l a n d e r ' s p r o p e r Concord manners on o c c a s i o n drew Harpur's c r i t i c i s m . How c o u l d the man who so o b v i o u s l y a p p r e c i a t e d farm l i f e 452 when he w r o t e t h a t the d a y - l a b o u r e r i s reckoned as s t a n d i n g a t the f o o t o f the s o c i a l s c a l e , y e t he i s s a t u r a t e d w i t h the laws o f the w o r l d . H i s measures a r e the h o u r s ; morning and n i g h t , s o l s t i c e and e q u i n o x , geometry, astronomy, and a l l the l o v e l y a c c i d e n t s o f n a t u r e , p l a y t h r o u g h h i s mind. - - a l s o say: I c o u l d b e t t e r eat w i t h one who d i d not r e s p e c t the t r u t h o r the laws, than w i t h a s l o v e n and u n p r e s e n t a b l e p e r s o n . Moral q u a l i t i e s r u l e the w o r l d , but a t s h o r t d i s t a n c e s , the senses a r e d e s p o t i c . Z O D On t h i s p o i n t , w i t h the A u s t r a l i a n d e f e n s i v e l y c o n s c i o u s o f h i s s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , Harpur and Emerson were w o r l d s a p a r t . Reading Emerson on manners, Harpur may v e r y w e l l have d i s m i s s e d him as a n o t h e r Tennyson, an " o l d - w o r l d 'Towney'--a d r e s s e r o f p a r t e r r e s , and a peeper i n t o 9 Pt 7 p a r k s . " Harpur saw h i m s e l f , by c o n t r a s t , always as n a t u r a l and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t man, a t r u e , though o f t e n l o n e l y a d v o c a t e o f democracy. W i t h a f l o u r i s h so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Whitman and Thoreau ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Wa1 den ( 1 8 5 4 ) ) , Harpur p r o j e c t e d h i m s e l f as a man o f the woods and mountains--a w i e l d e r o f the axe, and m a i n l y c o n v e r s a n t w i t h a b o r i g i n a l n a t u r e : - - a man made s t e r n and s e l f - r e l i a n t , and thence p l a i n , and even f i e r c e , by n a t a l nearness ( i f I may so speak) t o the i ncunabu1 a m u n d i . 2 S 8 For a b r i e f moment, h e r e , Harpur becomes Emerson's "namer," a s p i r i n g t o a c o n d i t i o n i n complete a c c o r d w i t h h i s e n v i r o n m e n t . In the s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d " S p r i n g , " from Walden, Thoreau g i v e s e x t r a o r d i n a r y 'i 453 e x p r e s s i o n t o t h e s a m e k i n d o f b a r d i c i l l u m i n a t i o n : W h e n I s e e o n t h e o n e s i d e t h e i n e r t b a n k , - - f o r t h e s u n a c t s o n o n e s i d e f i r s t , - - a n d o n t h e o t h e r t h i s l u x u r i a n t f o l i a g e , t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n h o u r , I a m a f f e c t e d a s i f i n a p e c u l i a r s e n s e I s t o o d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y o f t h e A r t i s t w h o m a d e t h e w o r l d a n d m e , - - h a d c o m e t o w h e r e h e w a s s t i l l a t w o r k , s p o r t i n g o n t h i s b a n k , a n d w i t h e x c e s s o f e n e r g y s t r e w i n g h i s f r e s h d e s i g n s a b o u t . I f e e l a s i f I w e r e n e a r e r t o t h e v i t a l s o f t h e g l o b e . . . . " A t t h o s e m o m e n t s w h e n h e e x p e r i e n c e d t h i s " n a t a l " p r o x i m i t y , H a r p u r n o d o u b t f e l t t h a t n o t e v e n E m e r s o n c o u l d l a y s i m i l a r c l a i m t o a c t i n g o u t t h e f u l l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n a s M a n T h i n k i n g a n d A l o n e . T h e s a m e p r a c t i c a 1 - m i n d e d n e s s a n d i n a b i l i t y t o i m a g i n a t i v e l y e s c a p e h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s t h a t l e d H a r p u r t o i m p u g n E m e r s o n ' s s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l i d i o s y n c r a s i e s , c a u s e d h i m s e r i o u s l y t o q u e s t i o n E m e r s o n ' c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e O v e r - S o u l . H e d e p l o r e d h i s " m y s t i c i s m " o r " T r a n s c e n d e n t t r a s h , " E m e r s o n ' s a t t e m p t t o e x p l o r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s d e p t h s t h a t s e e m e d t o H a r p u r t o b e a r n o r e l a t i o n s h i p 290 w i t h t h e h e r e a n d n o w . A s a n o t h e r n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A u s t r a l i a n p o e t , H e n r y H a l l o r a n , p u t i t , H a r p u r w a n t e d o n l y " L i f e a s i t i s . . . . ' H a r p u r r e g a r d e d E m e r s o n ' s O v e r S o u l , h o w e v e r , a s o n l y a t e m p o r a r y a b e r r a t i o n , m u c h l i k e h i s o w n s h o r t - t e r m l a p s e s i n t o b o u t s o f i n - t e m p e r a n c e : . . . h o w d r u n k h e m u s t h a v e g o t t e n ( n a t u r a l l y s o s t r o n g - h e a d e d a s h e i s ) u p o n t h e l u n a r v i n t a g e o f S w e d e n b o r g , a n d o t h e r s o f t h e i 1 1 u m i n a t e , b e f o r e c o m m i t t i n g h i m s e l f t o t h a t p e r i l o u s e s s a y - - t h e O v e r S o u l ? 2 9 2 454 I n t e r e s t i n g l y , Harpur's p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i o n t o Emerson's n o t i o n f o c u s s e d o n . i t s b l a t a n t d i s r e g a r d o f i n d i v i d u a l autonomy. He d i d n ' t s i n g l e out i t s e t h e r e a l n a t u r e — r a t h e r the f a c t t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o Emerson's i d e a , "we have no r a t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l i t y . " How c o u l d men, w i t h t h e i r s o u l s thus t h r e a t e n e d w i t h e t e r n a l a b s o r p t i o n i n t o the mass, become e s t a b l i s h e d as Governments i n t h e m s e l v e s ? Emerson's Over-Soul t h r e a t e n e d Harpur's p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n . He would have none o f i t , and d i s m i s s e d the hazardous concept as 293 "Emerson a t the Worst." The s e r e n e s i d e o f Emerson's c h a r a c t e r t h a t Harpur not o n l y a c c e p t e d , but c e l e b r a t e d , i n v o l v e d h i s a b s o l u t e commitment t o , and p r o f o u n d i n s i g h t i n t o N a t u r e . He r e g a r d e d Emerson's major e s s a y o f t h a t t i t l e as one o f h i s f i n e s t l i t e r a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n s ( " I t i s as i f he had ensconced h i m s e l f b o d i l y i n t o the h e a r t o f the G r e a t Mother. . u 2 ^ ) . And no w o n d e r " N a t u r e " (18 3 6 ) s u p p l i e s Harpur wi t h more than ample j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r h i s chosen v o c a t i o n , p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e and a t t i t u d e towards the language o f p o e t r y i t s e l f . How the A u s t r a l i a n , i n h i s bush e n v i r o n m e n t , must have warmed t o c h a p t e r IV ("Language") o f the e s s a y , i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h i t s c o m p e l l i n g e x p r e s s i o n o f b e l i e f i n the bard o f the w i l d e r n e s s t u r n e d n a t i o n a l p r o p h e t and namer i n the l a n d : The p o e t , the o r a t o r , bred i n the woods, whose senses have been n o u r i s h e d by t h e i r f a i r and a p p e a s i n g changes, y e a r a f t e r y e a r , w i t h o u t d e s i g n and w i t h o u t h e e d , - - s h a l l not l o s e t h e i r l e s s o n a l t o g e t h e r , i n the r o a r o f c i t i e s o r the b r o i l o f p o l i t i c s . Long h e r e a f t e r , a m i d s t a g i t a t i o n and t e r r o r i n n a t i o n a l c o u n c i 1 s , - - i n the hour o f r e v o l u t i o n , - - 455 t h e s e s o l e m n i m a g e s s h a l l r e a p p e a r i n t h e i r m o r n i n g l u s t r e , a s f i t s y m b o l s a n d w o r d s o f t h e t h o u g h t s w h i c h t h e p a s s i n g e v e n t s s h a l l a w a k e n . A t t h e c a l l o f a n o b l e s e n t i m e n t , a g a i n t h e w o o d s w a v e , t h e p i n e s m u r m u r , t h e r i v e r r o l l s a n d s h i n e s , a n d t h e c a t t l e l o w u p o n t h e m o u n t a i n s , a s h e s a w a n d h e a r d t h e m i n h i s i n f a n c y . A n d w i t h t h e s e f o r m s , t h e s p e l l s o f p e r s u a s i o n , t h e k e y s o f p o w e r a r e p u t i n t o h i s h a n d s . 2 9 5 T h e p a s s a g e a l m o s t r e a d s a s a b i o g r a p h y o f H a r p u r , w i t h t h e s o l e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t n o t e v e n l a r g e h e l p i n g s o f n a t i o n a l p r i d e , p o e t i c a m b i t i o n a n d h a r d w o r k c o u l d s h a p e H a r p u r , s o e a r l y i n h i s c o u n t r y ' s l i t e r a r y l i f e , i n t o a p o e t a b l e t o f a i t h f u l l y r e c o r d t h e m u s i c o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n w o o d s i n l a n g u a g e r e c o g n i z a b l y i n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e u n i q u e s o u t h e r n l a n d s c a p e . I n h i s p o e t r y t h e r e o c c u r r e d a c o n s t a n t b a t t l e b e t w e e n N e w - W o r l d i d e a s a n d O l d - W o r l d v e r s e f o r m s a n d l a n g u a g e . A s a p o l i t i c a l t h i n k e r a n d l i t e r a r y t h e o r i s t , H a r p u r w a s d e s t i n e d t o b e c l o s e t o h i s A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t r y m e n m o s t o f h i s l i f e . A s a p r a c t i s i n g p o e t , h o w e v e r , h e w o u l d a c h i e v e t h i s i d e a l p o s i t i o n b u t r a r e l y . CHAPTER VI ENDNOTES ' The t i t l e o f c h a p t e r VI a l l u d e s t o a passage i n D a n i e l Henry Deniehy's " F i r s t N o m i n a t i o n Speech f o r A r g y l e " (I856), r e p r i n t e d i n E.A. M a r t i n , The L i f e and Speeches o f D a n i e l Henry Deniehy (Melbourne: George R o b e r t s o n , 1884), p. 58. See below, s e c t i o n b). G e o f f r e y S e r l e , From D e s e r t s the P r o p h e t s Come (Melbourne: Heinemann, 1973), pp. 58-9- •3 See Green, Hi s t o r y , I, 137"8. k S e r l e , p. 55- 5 See, f o r example, I n g l i s , pp. 275~6. I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, when n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Americans l o o k e d t o England and Europe, many s t i l l f e l t t h e i r own c o u n t r y t o be c u l t u r a l l y i n f e r i o r . See, f o r example, P h i l i p Rahv, ed. , D i s c o v e r y o f Europe (New York: Doubleday, I960); C u s h i n g S t r o u t , The American Image o f the Old World (New York: Harper S Row, 1963). 6 S i n n e t , p. 23. 7 See, f o r example, N a d e l , A u s t r a l i a ' s C o l o n i a l C u l t u r e , pp. 68-9, 74. g U n l i k e A m e r i c a , whose r e p u t e d V i k i n g s e t t l e m e n t prompted W i l l i a m G i l m o r e Simms t o a c c l a i m American a n t i q u i t y . See Simms, 457 "The Epochs and Events i n American H i s t o r y , " i n Views and Reviews i n American L i t e r a t u r e , H i s t o r y and F i c t i o n (New York: W i l e y and Putnam, 1845). Q David B l a i r , "Sydney i n 1850: M o r a l s and Manners," Centenn i a 1 Magazi ne, I, No. 10 (May 1889) , 689, quoted i n Ken S t e w a r t , "The C o l o n i a l L i t e r a t u r e i n Sydney and M e l b o u r n e , " New L i t e r a t u r e Review, No. 6 (1979), 11. ^ See Gohdes, Amer i c a n L i t e r a t u r e i n N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , pp. 11-12. 1 1 See F r a n c e s D e v l i n G l a s s , " D a n i e l Henry Deniehy (1828-65): a Study of an A u s t r a l i a n Man o f L e t t e r s , " D i s s . A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y 1974, p. 245. 1 2 Quoted i n Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I, 405- 13 Emerson, J o u r n a l s , V, 288-9. 14 The s e c t i o n t i t l e comes from John Dunmore Lang's l e t t e r t o E a r l Grey, November 14, 1849, i n which he t h r e a t e n s the S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r the C o l o n i e s t h a t u n l e s s c o n c e s s i o n s a r e made, t o "use a v u l g a r but v e r y e x p r e s s i v e p h r a s e , which I t r u s t your l o r d s h i p w i l l e x c u s e , [the A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i e s ] w i l l now 'go f o r the whole hog,' o r f o r n o t h i n g a t a 11." R e p r i n t e d i n A r c h i b a l d G i l c h r i s t , ed., John Dunmore Lang, .11'.".,'. (Melbourne: Jedgarm P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1951), p. 459. ' 5 Deniehy t o John Dunmore Lang, June 6, 1854 ( ? ) , quoted i n C y r i l P e a r l , B r i 1 1 i a n t Dan Deniehy: a F o r g o t t e n Genius (Melbourne: Thomas N e l s o n , 1972), p. 35- 458 16 A d r i a n M i t c h e l l , ed., C h a r l e s Harpur (Melbourne: Sun Books, 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 9 1 . 1 7 G o l l a n , R a d i c a l and Working C l a s s P o l i t i c s , pp. 9 ~10 . 18 G i l c h r i s t , John Dunmore Lang ( 1 9 5 1 ) . 19 J.B. H i r s t has p o i n t e d out t h a t , l e s s than a decade a f t e r h i s d e a t h , p u b l i c e f f o r t s t o honour Lang c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r e d h i s r e p u b l i c a n i s m . See J.B. H i r s t , "The P i o n e e r Legend," Hi s t o r i c a i S t u d i e s , X V I I I , No. 2 ( O c t . ' / 1 9 7 8 ) , 3 2 8 ; R.J. McDonald, " R e p u b l i c a n i s m i n the F i f t i e s , " JRAHS, L, P t . 4 (Oct. 1 9 6 4 ) , 262-76. - - . 20 For more d e t a i l e d b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n , see ADB, I I , 7 6 - 8 3 ; G i l c h r i s t , f o r e w o r d ; D a v i d S. M a c m i l l a n , John Dunmore Lang (Melbourne: O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ) . 21 Lang's p r e o c c u p a t i o n s i n c l u d e d r e p u b l i c a n i s m , i m m i g r a t i o n , e d u c a t i o n , a n t i - t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and v o l u n t a r y i s m i n r e l i g i o n . 22 See c h a p t e r I, s e c t i o n c ) , on the " S c o t t i s h M a r t y r s " i n Botany Bay. 23 Quoted i n M e i k l e , S c o t l a n d and the French R e v o l u t i o n , p. 121. 24 See Macmi11 an, p. 3• 2 5 John Dunmore Lang, Poems: Sacred and S e c u l a r (Sydney: W i l l i a m Maddock, 1 8 7 3 ) , p. 106. W h i l e Lang's "Anthem" i s c o n s t r u c t e d i n such a way as t o e n a b l e i t t o be sung t o t h e t u n e o f "God Save the K i n g , " the c o n t e n t c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l s t h a t i n American poems such as Timothy Dwight's " C o l u m b i a " ( 1 7 7 7 ) , J o e l Barlow's The Columbiad (1807) and numerous poems by P h i l i p Freneau (such as "American L i b e r t y , " "A P o l i t i c a l L i t a n y , " and "America I n d e p e n d e n t " ) . 459 26 Lang, Poems, p. 107. 27 Lang, Poems, p. 154. 28 Quoted i n M a c m i l l a n , p. 10. Lang used the same passage, twenty y e a r s l a t e r , i n h i s Freedom and Independence f o r t h e Golden Lands o f A u s t r a 1 i a (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, 1852), p. 269. 29 See c h a p t e r I I I, s e c t i o n b). 30 Quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 224. I was unable t o o b t a i n a copy o f Lang's second e d i t i o n (1837) when w r i t i n g the t h e s i s . 3 ' Quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 226. 32 Lang r e f e r s t o Democracy i n America as an " a d m i r a b l e work," and he l a b e l s T o c q u e v i l l e h i m s e l f " t h e a b l e s t European w r i t e r who has y e t w r i t t e n on the s u b j e c t [of A m e r i c a and her i n s t i t u t i o n s ] . " See John Dunmore Lang, R e l i g i o n and E d u c a t i o n i n A m e r i c a (London: Thomas Ward, 1840) , pp. 11, 271. 33 Between 1840 and 1841, Lang v i s i t e d M a s s a c h u s e t t s , C o n n e c t i c u t , Rhode I s l a n d , New Y o r k , New J e r s e y , P e n n s y l v a n i a , Delaware, M a r y l a n d , V i r g i n i a , N o r t h and South C a r o l i n a . See Lang, R e l i g i o n and E d u c a t i o n i n A m e r i c a , p. 9. 34 Lang, p. 10. 35 Lang, p. 1. 36 Lang makes s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o James O t i s ' The R i g h t s o f the B r i t i s h C o l o n i e s A s s e r t e d and Proved (1765) i n h i s l a t e r Freedom and Independence (1852), p. v i . 460 3 7 Lang, R e l i g i o n and E d u c a t i o n , p. 2 6 1 . See a l s o , John Dunmore Lang, The Comi ng Event; o r , the Un i t e d P r o v i nces o f A u s t r a l i a (Sydney: D.L. Welch, n.d [ 1 8 5 0 ] ), p. 6 . Lang, p. 3 6 4 . 3 9 ^ Lang, p. 3 9 - 40 L e t t e r s t o Edward C a r r i n g t o n ( J a n u a r y 16, 1 7 8 7) and R i c h a r d P r i c e ( J a n u a r y 8 , 1 7 8 9 ) , i n J e f f e r s o n , P a p e r s , IX, 4 9 ; XIV, 420. ^ Lang, p. 4 2 . 4 2 Lang, p. 3 0 6 . 4 3 See Lang, p. 2 1 7 . 4 4 Lang, pp. 424-5- 4 5 Lang, p. 4 1 9 - 46 Lang, pp. 4 5 4 - 5 - See a l s o , f o r example, Freedom and In- dependence, p. 2 8 7 . 4 7 Lang, p. 4 6 5 . 48 In 1 8 6 3 , Lang would p u b l i c l y blame both the N o r t h ( " i t s long and g u i l t y c o m p l i c i t y i n t h a t p e c u l i a r s i n o f the n a t i o n " ) and the South ( " i t s d i r e c t maintenance and s u p p o r t o f the hated i n s t i t u t i o n 1 o f s l a v e r y ) f o r the C i v i l War. See G i l c h r i s t , p. 6 6 8 . 4 9 3 Lang, p. 2 9 9 - 5 0 See Lang, pp. 2 7 1 , 2 9 6 ; G i l c h r i s t , p. 2 7 1 . 5 1 Lang, p. 2 9 9 - 5 2 Lang, pp. 1 5 0 - 2 , 2 5 6 . For more on Van Buren, see Freedom and Independence, p. 1 6 7 - 5 3 Lang, p. 2 9 4 . 461 ^ Lang, p. 13- 5 5 Lang, p. 373- 5 6 Lang, pp. 109, 294, 378-9, 426-7. 5 7 Lang, p. 109. rO Quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 347- 59 Quoted i n T u r n e r , The A u s t r a l i a n Dream, pp. 32-4. Lang, Freedom and Independence, pp. 163~4. I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g , h e r e , t h a t n e w s l e t t e r No. 3 (May, 1980) o f the " A u s t r a l i a : B i c e n t e n n i a l H i s t o r y (1788-1988)1' p r o j e c t , l i s t s as a " c e n t r a l theme" f o r the " H i s t o r i c a l Geography" s e c t i o n o f the p r o j e c t the " l o n g - s t a n d i n g A u s t r a l i a n i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h the yeoman f a r m e r . . . ." 61 See s e c t i o n above on John West, Chapter IV, s e c t i o n a). 62 Quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 364. 63 Quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 364. 64 See C l a r k , Hi s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a , I I I , 444-5- ^ 5 Quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 457. F r a n k l i n would become a f a v o u r i t e s o u r c e f o r Lang. In Freedom and Independence (1852), Lang's major r e p u b l i c a n t r e a t i s e , he r e f e r s t o F r a n k l i n c o n s t a n t l y , t a k i n g c a r e t o i d e n t i f y t h e i r common p u r s u i t . In 18501s A u s t r a l i a (and E n g l a n d ) , F r a n k l i n e v i d e n t l y had s u f f i c i e n t p r e s t i g e t h a t he c o u l d be used as Lang's p r i n c i p a l model and i n s p i r a t i o n . See Freedom and Independence, pp. i x - x , 35-7, 39, 339- 66 See M o r i s o n , O x f o r d H i s t o r y o f American P e o p l e , p. 210. 67 Quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 459- 68 Quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 460. D e s p i t e the " b l o t " o f s l a v e r y , 462 T a y l o r ' s e l e c t i o n t o the P r e s i d e n c y i n 1844 was i n d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r two o f A m e r i c a ' s f i n e s t l i t e r a r y works: N a t h a n i e l Hawthorne's The S c a r l e t L e t t e r (1850) and Walt Whitman's Leaves o f Grass (1855). See M o r r i s o n , p. 568. 6 9 P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , J u l y 13, 1850. 7 0 The l e c t u r e s were d e l i v e r e d A p r i l 11, 16, 23, 1850- The f i r s t and second l e c t u r e s were combined and p u b l i s h e d as The Coming Event (1850). See McDonald, p. 262. 7 ^ P a i n e , Common Sense, pp. 91-2. The emphasis i s mine.' 7 2 Lang, pp. 5, 8, 27, 30. 73 For example, Lang, p. 7; P a i n e , Common Sense, p. 90. 7 4 See Lang, p. 5; P a i n e , Common Sense, i n t r o d u c t i o n , pp. 63-4. 7 5 Lang, p. 9- See a l s o , p. 7- 7 ^ P a i n e , R i g h t s o f Man, pp. 183_4. See a l s o , pp. 90-1; Common Sense, p. 98. 7 7 C o n s c i o u s o f the importance o f the t i t l e , the " U n i t e d S t a t e s of A m e r i c a , " Lang d e c l a r e d a t the end o f h i s f i r s t l e c t u r e : " . . . I a n t i c i p a t e t h a t the U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s o f A u s t r a l i a - - f o r I would d e c i d e d l y p r e f e r t h a t name t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s , both because i t i s e q u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e , and because i t would p r e v e n t a l l a m b i g u i t y , showing t h a t we had no c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the shop o v e r the w a y - - w i l l , e r e l o n g , be the g r e a t l e a d i n g power o f the S o u t h e r n Hemisphere, and w i l l one day e x e r c i s e an i n f l u e n c e o v e r the c i v i l i s e d w o r l d not i n f e r i o r t o t h a t even o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s " (p. 16). See a l s o , pp. 27, 37; Freedom and Independence, pp. 253, 262-3. 463 78 See Lang, pp. 10-13,.31— 2; P a i n e , Common Sense, pp. 86~7• 79 Lang, p. 19- 80 Lang, p. 33- C o n s c i o u s o f h i s a u d i e n c e , Lang c o n c l u d e d h i s second l e c t u r e c r a f t i l y , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t "I would not f o r a l l the w o r l d t h a t t h a t coming e v e n t , w h i c h , I c o n f e s s , I l o o k and l o n g f o r w i t h a l l my h e a r t , s h o u l d c o s t our Mother dear one s i n g l e t h r o e , one moment's agony, I w i s h not a man from England t o be shot on the o c c a s i o n , nor a s i n g l e s i x p e n c e o f E n g l i s h money t o be l o s t . I w i s h the i n t e r e s t i n g e v e n t t o t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t a s i n g l e c r y on the p a r t o f the p a r e n t , o r the s l i g h t e s t s t r u g g l e on the p a r t o f the c h i l d " (p. 38). 81 P a i n e , Common Sense, pp. 71"5. 8? See Lang, pp. 14-15, 26-30. 83 Lang, p. 37- See a l s o , p. 16. 84 John Dunmore Lang, The Moral and R e l i g i o u s A s p e c t o f the F u t u r e A m e r i c a o f the S o u t h e r n Hemisphere (New York: James Van Norden, 1840), pp. 5-6. 85 See C l a r k , I I I , 445. For a summary statement o f J e f f e r s o n ' s p r i n c i p l e s , see, f o r example, h i s I n a u g u r a l A d d r e s s (March 4, 1801), i n R i c h a r d s o n , I, 321-4. 86 See l e t t e r t o John D i c k i n s o n (March 6, 1801), i n J e f f e r s o n , L i f e and S e l e c t e d Wr i t i ngs, p. 561. 87 Lang, Freedom and Independence, p. x. 88 Lang, p. 64. See a l s o , Coming Event, p. 64. 89 Lang, pp. 6 4 - 5 . 464 90 Lang, pp. v i , i x - x , 15, 35~ 4 0 , 339- 91 Lang, p. 339- 9 2 Lang, p. 361. See a l s o , pp. 203-4, 211, 220, 259-60. 9 3 See McDonald, pp. 267, 275- 94 Quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 567. Lang uses Channing as a s o u r c e i n Freedom and Independence, p. 266. 95 See Lang, R e l i g i o n and E d u c a t i o n , p. 373- 96 See G i l c h r i s t , p. 561; I n g l i s , p. 219. 97 Empi r e , December 12, 1854, quoted i n G i l c h r i s t , p. 581. 9 8 Lang, Coming Event, p. 36. 99 Lang's " D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence," i n G e o f f r e y S e r l e , The Golden Age (Melbourne: Melbourne U n i v . P r e s s , 1963), a p p e n d i x 6. 1 ^ See G i l c h r i s t , p. i x ; McDonald, pp. 271-2. 1 0 1 McDonald, p. 273- 102 Lang, Freedom and Independence, p. 339. 1 03 \ Lang, p. 259- 104 Over Deniehy s g r a v e , i n Waverly Cemetery, i s the f o l l o w i n g t r i b u t e : The Vehement V o i c e Of The S o u t h , Is Loud Where The J o u r n a l i s t L i e s ; But Calm Hath Encompassed H i s Mouth, And Sweet Is The Peace In H i s Eyes. See ADB, IV, 46. 1 0 5 Deniehy, "On the C o n s t i t u t i o n B i l l , " i n A.L. McLeod, ed., A u s t r a l i a Speaks (Sydney: Wentworth P r e s s , 1969), P- 30. McLeod's 465 e x t r a c t uses the f i r s t person " I " (compared w i t h the t h i r d person "he" o f o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t i n Sydney Morning H e r a l d , August 16, 1853)- See H i r s t , "The P i o n e e r Legend," p. 328. G l a s s , "Deniehy: A u s t r a l i a n Man o f L e t t e r s , " pp. i x , x i i i . •j Qg Deniehy i n Freeman 1 s J o u r n a l , 1865, quoted i n B a r t o n , '. L i t e r a t u r e o f New South Wales, p. 60. 109 Deniehy, "John M i t c h e l l [ s i c Mi t c h e l ] as a L i t e r a r y Man," Freeman's Journa1 , September 15, 1858. R e p r i n t e d i n B a r t o n , Poets and P r o s e W r i t e r s , pp. 109-113. ^ ® Deniehy t o John Dunmore Lang, June 6, 1854 ( ? ) , quoted i n P e a r l , p. 35. Deniehy, " F i r s t N o m i n a t i o n Speech f o r A r g y l e " ( I 8 5 6 ) , quoted i n M a r t i n , L i f e and Speeches o f Deniehy, p. 58. I 1 2 Thomas P a i n e , The Complete W r i t i n g s o f Thomas P a i n e , ed. P h i l i p S. Foner (New York: C i t a d e l P r e s s , 1945), I, 50. II 3 See " C a t a l o g u e " o f Deniehy's b o o k s - - M i t c h e l 1 L i b r a r y 018 2D--item 308. 114 Deniehy, "John M i t c h e l l [ s i c Mi t c h e l ] as a L i t e r a r y Man," Freeman's J o u r n a 1 , September 15, I858. ^ 5 Deniehy, "A famous man was H a r r y F l o o d , " S o u t h e r n C r o s s , October 15, 1859, p. 2. Quoted i n Robert E. S p i l l e r , e t . a l . L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s , r e v . ed. (New York: M a c m i l l a n , 1959), p. 198. ^ 7 B a r t o n , P o e t s and P r o s e W r i t e r s , p. 148. 466 118 G l a s s , a p p e n d i x D, p. 371. 119 "Mr. Deniehy's L e c t u r e b e f o r e t h e A u s t r a l i a n League," p P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , March 18, 18$4. 1 20 In h i s " A u s t r a l i a n League" l e c t u r e (March 18, 1854), f o r example, Deniehy quoted from F r a n k l i n ' s " s q u i b s and j e u x d ' e s p r i t " t o . i 1 1 u s t r a t e "a p a r a l l e l s t a t e o f government p r o f l i g a c y i n the N o r t h American c o l o n i e s b e f o r e the R e v o l u t i o n , t o t h a t p r e v a i l i n g i n A u s t r a l i a a t t h i s moment." T h i s was p r o b a b l y the r e s u l t o f Lang's i n f l u e n c e . 1 ? 1 See Deniehy's " C a t a l o g u e ; " iterns 93, 114, 139, 145, 150, 152, 164, 166, 167, 168, 197, 245, 257, 266, 280, 297, 298, 302, 305, 308, 309, 313, 320, 358, 366, 374, 379, 380, 390, 391, 399, 400, 408, 438, 450, 689, 704. 1 22 Deniehy, "A Legend o f Newtown," Sent i n e i , November 5, 1845; Age ( S y d n e y ) , November 8, 1845. 123 Quoted i n McLeod, p. 30. 124 Channing, i n t r o d u c t o r y remarks t o " E s s a y s , D i s c o u r s e s , e t c . i n Works, p. 61. 1 2 5 G l a s s , p. 198. 126 Deniehy, " A u s t r a l i a n League" l e c t u r e , P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , March 18, 1854. 1 27 Deniehy, Review o f The B u s h r a n g e r s , A P l a y i n F i ve A c t s , and Other Poems by C h a r l e s Harpur, Emp i r e , A p r i l 22, 1853- G l a s s , p. 198. 1 29 Quoted i n Parke Godwin, George W i l l i a m C u r t i s (New York: H a r p e r , 1893), p. 6. 4 6 7 1 3 0 Theodore P a r k e r , "Thoughts on Labour" ( 1 8 4 8 ) , quoted i n Robert E. C o l l i n s , Theodore P a r k e r : American T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t (Metuchen, New J e r s e y : Scarecrow P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 5 ~ 6 . 1 31 Channing, "On the E l e v a t i o n o f the L a b o u r i n g C l a s s e s , " l e c t u r e I, Works, p. 8 3 . See a l s o , l e c t u r e I I , i n which Channing e x p r e s s e s h i s d e s i r e f o r the l a b o u r e r t o be "a s t u d e n t , a t h i n k e r , an i n t e l l e c t u a l man . . ." (Works, p. 9 2 ) . 1 3 2 See d i s c u s s i o n o f J e f f e r s o n ' s f r a m i n g o f the D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence i n Nye and Grabo, American Thought and W r i t i n g , pp. 5 0 ~ 5 8 . 1 3 3 Quoted i n McLeod, pp. 2 7 _ 8 . -See a l s o , J e f f e r s o n , " O p i n i o n upon the q u e s t i o n whether the P r e s i d e n t s h o u l d v e t o the B i l l , d e c l a r i n g t h a t the s e a t o f government s h a l l be t r a n s f e r r e d t o the Potomac, i n the y e a r 1 7 9 0 , " J u l y 1 5 , 1 7 9 0 , quoted i n J e f f e r s o n , S e l e c t e d Wr i t i ngs, p. 3 1 6 . 1 3 4 J See P a i n e , R i g h t s o f Man, pp. 9 0 , 9 2 , 1 6 6 . 1 3 5 See, f o r example, Deniehy's "The Peerage and Baronetage of New South Wales," P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , November 5 , 1 8 5 3 ; " I n the e a r l y p a r t o f the r e i g n o f George I I I . . . "[The E v i l s of P a t r o n a g e ] , G o u l b u r n H e r a l d , J u l y 2 2 , 1 8 5 4 ; " P l a c e and P a t r o n a g e , " Goulburn H e r a l d , September 2 9 , 1 8 5 5 ; " I n s u p p o r t o f Murray's ant i - p r i mogen i:ture B i l l , " Sydney Morning H e r a l d , J u l y 3 , 1 858. 1 3 6 See Deniehy, "John M i t c h e l l " [ s i c Mi t c h e l ] a r t i c l e , i n B a r t o n , Poets and P r o s e W r i t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y pp. 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 . 1 3 7 Deniehy, " R e b e l l i o n a t B a l l a r a t , " G o u l b u r n H e r a l d , December 1 6 , 1 8 5 4 . Compare t h i s w i t h John Dunmore Lang's r e a c t i o n (see above, 4 6 8 s e c t i o n a) 1 3 8 Compare Deniehy, quoted i n McLeod, p. 3 1 , w i t h P a i n e , R i g h t s o f Man, p. 9 4 . 1 3 9 Deniehy, "The M e e t i n g a t the C i r c u s , " P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , June 6 , 1 8 5 4 . 1 4 0 Deniehy, "The S o l i c i t o r - G e n e r a l ' s Proposed War Tax," G o u l b u r n Hera 1 d , September 2 , 1 8 5 4 . 1 4 1 See above, f o o t n o t e 122. 1 4 2 Deniehy, "Address t o Secure Lang's R e t u r n f o r the C i t y , " P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , A p r i l 2 9 , 1 8 5 4 . 1 4 3 L e t t e r s t o James Madison (December 2 8 , 1 7 9 4 ) and Mann Page (August 3 0 , 1 7 9 5 ) , i n J e f f e r s o n , S e l e c t e d W r i t i n g s , pp. 5 2 9 , 5 3 4 . 1 4 4 Quoted i n McLeod, p. 2 9 . 1 4 5 C u r t i s , "The Duty o f the American S c h o l a r t o P o l i t i c s and the Times," i n George W i l l i a m C u r t i s , O r a t i o n s and A d d r e s s e s o f George W i 1 1 i a m C u r t i s , ed. C h a r l e s E l i o t N o r t o n (New York: Harper & B r o t h e r s , 1 8 9 4 ) , 1 , 5 . 1 4 6 On May 25, 1 8 5 4 , the Kansas-Nebraska B i l l passed the Senate w i t h a c l e a r m a j o r i t y . A c c o r d i n g t o the terms o f the b i l l , the f u t u r e s t a t u s o f K a n s a s — w h e t h e r f r e e o r s l a v e — w o u l d be up t o the i n h a b i t a n t s o f t e r r i t o r y i t s e l f . S o u t h e r n s l a v e h o l d e r s and N o r t h e r n a n t i - s l a v e r y men e n t e r e d a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y i n m a s s i v e numbers. So much b l o o d was shed t h a t the a r e a was soon c a l l e d " B l e e d i n g Kansas." See M o r i s o n , pp. 5 8 9 - 9 3 - 469 1 Z)7 See Deniehy's " L e c t u r e b e f o r e the A u s t r a l i a n League," P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , March 18, 1854; "Address t o Secure Lang's R e t u r n f o r the C i t y , " P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , A p r i l 29, 1854; "New C o n s t i t u t i o n B i l l M e e t i n g i n G o u l b u r n , " G o u l b u r n H e r a l d , November 25, 1854. 148 Deniehy t o M i s s I r o n s i d e , May 25, 1854, quoted i n P e a r l , p. 31- 1 49 Deniehy t o John Dunmore Lang, June 6, 1854 ( ? ) , quoted i n P e a r l , p. 35- Deniehy t o John A r m s t r o n g , J a n u a r y 1, 1856, quoted i n B.T. Dowd, " D a n i e l Henry Deniehy: G i f t e d A u s t r a l i a n O r a t o r , S c h o l a r and L i t e r a r y C r i t i c , " JRAHS, X X X I I I , P t . 2 (1947), 71. ^ J e f f e r s o n ' s " e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s " of government, as o u t - l i n e d i n h i s I n a u g u r a l A d d r e s s (March 4, 1801), c l o s e l y resembled D e n i e h y ' s . See above, f o o t n o t e 85. 1 52 J e f f e r s o n , "Response t o the A d d r e s s o f Welcome" from the Mayor o f A l e x a n d r i a (March 11, 1790), i n P a p e r s , XVI, 225- 1 53 Deniehy t o John A r m s t r o n g , J a n u a r y 1, 1856, quoted i n Dowd, p. 71. 1 54 Q u o t e d ! i n McLeod, p. 30. See a l s o , " E l e c t i o n e e r i n g i n West Syd. ," Sydney Morning H e r a l d , May 28, 1859. ^ 5 See, f o r example', J e f f e r s o n ' s l e t t e r t o John Adams (October 28, 1813), i n J e f f e r s o n , S e l e c t e d W r i t i n g s , pp. 632-4; W i l l i a m W i r t , S k e t c h e s o f the L i f e and C h a r a c t e r o f P a t r i c k Henry ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J.S. W i n s t o n , 1817. 470 ' R a l p h Waldo Emerson, "The D i v i n i t y School A d d r e s s , " i n The C o l l e c t e d Works o f Ralph Waldo Emerson, I (Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s : B e l k n a p P r e s s , H a r v a r d , 1971), 77"8, h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as Col 1ected Works. As o n l y two volumes o f t h e C o l l e c t e d Works have thus f a r been p u b l i s h e d , q u o t a t i o n s from works y e t t o be c o l 1ected w i l l be taken from Works o f Ralph Waldo Emerson ( E d i n b u r g h : W.P. Nimmo, Hay & M i t c h e l l , 1906), h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as Works. Channing, "Remarks on N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e , " Works, p. 135- 1 58 Deniehy, " F r e d e r i c k R o b e r t s o n ' s L e c t u r e s , " S o u t h e r n Cross> November 12, 1859, quoted i n M a r t i n , p. 154. 159 Deniehy, "Mr. Frank Fowler's M a g a z i n e , " Freeman's J o u r n a 1 , J u l y 11, 1857. R e p r i n t e d i n B a r t o n , Poets and P r o s e W r i t e r s , p. 113- 1 60 Deniehy, "Mr. Frank Fowler's Magazine," i n B a r t o n , p. 114. l 6 l Channing, "Remarks on N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e , " Works, p. 134; O r e s t e s A. Brownson, "American L i t e r a t u r e " (1839)> i n The Works o f O r e s t e s A. Brownson, c o l l . by Henry F. Brownson ( D e t r o i t , 1882-1902; r p t . New York: AMS P r e s s , 1966), XIX, 27. 1 62 Deniehy, " A u s t r a l i a n League" l e c t u r e , People's A d v o c a t e , March 18, 1854. 163 Deniehy, "Address t o Secure Lang's R e t u r n f o r the C i t y , " P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , A p r i l 29, 1854. 164 Deniehy, " A u s t r a l i a n N a t i v e - B o r n Poets I I , " Sydney Morn i ng Hera I d , October 10, 1864. I t can, o f c o u r s e , be argued t h a t Deniehy i s here v o i c i n g i d e a s f a s h i o n a b l e a t t h e t i m e , r a t h e r than s p e c i f i c a l l y American ones ( w i t n e s s the p o p u l a r i t y , i n England and A m e r i c a , of 471 Samuel S m i l e s ' S e l f - H e l p (London: J . Murray, 1859)). T h i s can be c o u n t e r e d , however, by c i t i n g the a c t u a l v o c a b u l a r y Deniehy u s e s , d e r i v e d as i t o b v i o u s l y i s from Channing and Emerson. 1 C h a n n i n g , " S e l f - C u l t u r e , " Works, p. 65. Channing, Works, p. 70. 167 Quoted i n B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e i n New South Wales, p. 60. 168 Deniehy, "Mr. N i c h o l l ' s G a l l e r y a t Wool loomoo l o o , " Empi r e , November 19, 1851 - See a l s o , F. D e v l i n G l a s s , "D.H. Deniehy as a C r i t i c o f C o l o n i a l L i t e r a t u r e , " A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s , IX, No. 3 (May 1980), 330. 169 Walt Whitman, P r e f a c e , 1855, t o F i r s t Issue o f Leaves o f G r a s s , i n P r o s e Works 1892, ed. F l o y d S t o v a l l , II (New York: New York U n i v . P r e s s , 1964), 435~7. Whitman's thought i n the 1855 P r e f a c e seems t o d e v e l o p through the r h e t o r i c he uses. C a r r i e d away by language, i d e a s o c c u r t o him. Whether t h i s i s a l s o t r u e o f Deniehy i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y , s i nee .we a r e f o r c e d l a r g e l y t o r e l y on contemporary newspaper a c c o u n t s . 1 7 < ^ Deniehy, " N a t i v e - B o r n A u s t r a l i a n P o e t s , No. I , " Sydney Morning H e r a l d , September 29, 1864. 1 7 1 See C e c i l W. S a l i e r , "The L i f e and W r i t i n g s of C h a r l e s H a r p u r , " JRAHS, X X X I I , P t . 2 (1946), 94. 1 72 Deniehy, Review o f The B u s h r a n g e r s , A P l a y i n F i v e A c t s , and Other Poems by C h a r l e s H a r p u r , Emp i r e , A p r i l 22, 18 5 3; "The P o e t r y o f C h a r l e s H a r p u r , " Sydney Morning H e r a l d , November 27, 1857- 472 1 73 G l a s s , "Deniehy as a C r i t i c , " p. 332. 174 See G l a s s , "Deniehy as a C r i t i c , " pp. 332-3- 1 7 5 Ralph Waldo Emerson, "The New P o e t r y , " The D i a l , O c t o b e r , 1840. R e p r i n t e d i n P e r r y M i l l e r , The T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t s : An A n t h o l o g y (Cambridge: H a r v a r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1950), pp. 375~8l . 1 76 Brownson, "American L i t e r a t u r e " (1839), Works, XIX, 28. ' 7 7 Deniehy, "The P o e t r y o f C h a r l e s H a r p u r , " Sydney Morning H e r a l d , November 24, 1857. 178 " C o r r e s p o n d e n t , " i n Sydney Morning H e r a l d , November 27, 1857• I 79 Deniehy, l e t t e r t o the e d i t o r , Sydney Morning H e r a l d , November 28, 1857- 1 80 Channing, "Remarks on N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e , " Works, p. 135- See a l s o , p. 134. l 8 l G l a s s , "Deniehy: A u s t r a l i a n Man o f L e t t e r s , " p. 46; W i l l i a m J . Sowder, Emerson's Impact on the B r i t i s h I s l e s and Canada ( C h a r l o t t e s - v i l l e , V i r g i n i a : U n i v . P r e s s o f V i r g i n i a , 1966), pp. 200-202. 182 Emerson, "Uses o f Great Men," i n R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Men (1850), Works, p. 715; Deniehy, " F i r s t N o m i n a t i o n Speech f o r A r g y l e " (I856), quoted i n M a r t i n , p. 57- 1 g o See, f o r example, Deniehy, " L e g i s l a t i v e Advancement o f Knowledge," G o u l b u r n H e r a l d , August 5, 1854; L a y i n g o f the f o u n d a t i o n s t o n e a t the G o u l b u r n M e c h a n i c s ' I n s t i t u t e , G o u l b u r n H e r a l d , J a n u a r y 6, I858. For more on t h e s e a d d r e s s e s , see G l a s s , "Deniehy: A u s t r a l i a n Man o f L e t t e r s , " pp. 46-7- 473 184 Deniehy, "Mr. Frank F o w l e r ' s Magazine," i n B a r t o n , P o e t s and P r o s e Wr i t e r s , p. 115- 1 85 See Deniehy, " A u s t r a l i a n N a t i v e - B o r n Poets I I , " Sydney Morning H e r a l d , October 10, 1864. 186 Emerson, "Uses o f G r e a t Men," i n R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Men (1850), Works, p. 716. In r e c e n t decades, both American and A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s have once a g a i n seen the need t o s t r e s s the " l o c a l " i n t h e i r work. C h a r l e s O l s o n , W i l l i a m C a r l o s W i l l i a m s and J o n a t h a n W i l l i a m s i n A m e r i c a , and Les Murray and Bruce Dawe i n A u s t r a l i a , a r e perhaps the b e s t examples. 187 Deniehy t o Henry P a r k e s , December 16, 1854, quoted i n Dowd, p. 69. 188 Deniehy, " F i r s t N o m i n a t i o n Speech," quoted i n M a r t i n , p. 57. 1 89 P a r k e r , quoted i n C o l l i n s , p. 11. 190 Deniehy, " F r e d e r i c k R o b e r t s o n ' s L e c t u r e s , S o u t h e r n C r o s s , November 12, 1859- 191 Channing, Works, p. 93- See a l s o , " S e l f - C u l t u r e , " Works, pp. 65, 69, 76; P a r k e r , quoted i n C o l l i n s , p. 109. 1 92 Deniehy, L a y i n g o f t h e F o u n d a t i o n S t o n e , G o u l b u r n H e r a l d , J a n u a r y 6, I858. I t s h o u l d be mentioned here t h a t the " M e c h a n i c s ' I n s t i t u t e " was an E n g l i s h i n v e n t i o n ; the "Lyceum" o r "Chautauqua" was an American i m i t a t i o n . In E n g l a n d , the I n s t i t u t e s were i n t r o d u c e d t o improve the l o t o f the lower c l a s s e s , w h i l e i n America the Lyceums were i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e an informed p o p u l a c e . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t w h i l e he a c c e p t e d the term " M e c h a n i c s ' I n s t i t u t e , " Deniehy f o r e s a w 474 t h i s body f u l f i l l i n g an American f u n c t i o n . 193 Channing, quoted i n Brown, p. 98. 194 Quoted i n McLeod, p. 30. 195 Deniehy, "An I m p r o v i s a t i o n , " People's A d v o c a t e , F e b r u a r y 18, 1854. 196 Brownson, "American L i t e r a t u r e " (1839), i n Works, XIX, 35- See a l s o , Channing, "On the E l e v a t i o n o f the L a b o u r i n g C l a s s e s , " l e c t u r e I I , Works, p. 94. 197 Deniehy, "Mr. R.H. H o r i i e ' s Book on A u s t r a l i a , " S o u t h e r n C r o s s , December 31, 1859. 198 For a d i s c u s s i o n o f American a t t i t u d e s t o s l a v e r y , see A l b e r t K. Weinberg, M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y ( B a l t i m o r e : Johns Hopkins P r e s s , 1935)- 199 See, f o r example, Channing's " S l a v e r y " (1835), "The A b o l i t i o n i s t s " (1836), "A L e t t e r t o the Hon. Henry C l a y " (1837), "Remarks on the S l a v e r y Q u e s t i o n " (1839), " E m a n c i p a t i o n " (1840) and "The Duty o f the F r e e S t a t e s " (1842), i n Works, pp. 488-629; Robert C. A l b r e c h t , Theodore P a r k e r (New York: Twayne, 1971), pp. 91-122. 2 ^ Deniehy t o Henry P a r k e s , November ( ? ) , I856, quoted i n P e a r l , p. 55. 201 A r t h u r A l p h o n s e E k i r c h , The Idea o f P r o g r e s s i n A m e r i c a , 1815-1860 (New York: P e t e r S m i t h , 1951), p. 38. 202 Brownson, "Young A m e r i c a , " New York Mi r r o r , XX (October 22, 1842), 338, quoted i n E k i r c h , p. 52. See a l s o , E k i r c h on Whitman (p. 52), Channing (pp. 150-3), P a r k e r (pp. 153-5), F u l l e r (p. 157), Emerson (pp. 157-62) and Thoreau (pp. 162-3)- 475 203 D e n i e h y , R e v i e w o f T h e B u s h r a n g e r s , Empi r e , A p r i l 2 2 , 1853- 204 D e n i e h y , In s u p p o r t o f t h e F r e e S e l e c t i o n C l a u s e , S y d n e y M o r n i n g H e r a l d , O c t o b e r 2 7 , i 8 6 0 . D e n i e h y ' s i d e a , h e r e , m u s t be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n n o t i o n o f " M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y " i n o n e i m p o r t a n t s e n s e . W h i l e he i n t e n d e d h i s s o u t h e r n U t o p i a t o s e r v e a s a model t o a t t r a c t t h e w o r l d , t h e A m e r i c a n c o n c e p t o f " M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y , " a s A l b e r t K. W e i n b e r g h a s shown i n M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y , was t o i n s t r u c t t h e w o r l d . G l a s s , " D e n i e h y : A u s t r a l i a n Man o f L e t t e r s , " p . 2 5 3 - 205 „,_„_ „ 206 . , . . . See below, c o n c l u s i o n . 207 George R i p l e y t o Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1840, quoted i n George H o c h f i e l d , ed., S e l e c t e d W r i t i n g s of the American T r a n s c e n d e n t a 1 i s t s (New York: New American L i b r a r y , 1966), p. 373- 208 L e t t e r t o John Adams ( A p r i l 8, 1816), i n J e f f e r s o n , S e l e c t e d Wr i t i ngs , p. 667. 2°9 c k , , • See below, c o n c l u s i o n . 210 See Deniehy, " F r e d e r i c k R o b e r t s o n ' s L e c t u r e s , " S o u t h e r n C r o s s , November 12, 1859; " L o n g f e l l o w ' s Recent Poems. 'The C o u r t s h i p o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h , "' S o u t h e r n C r o s s , December 17, 1859; "Washington I r v i n g , " S o u t h e r n C r o s s , F e b r u a r y 11, i860; "George Sand," r e p r i n t e d i n B a r t o n , Poets and P r o s e W r i t e r s , pp. l 4 0 r l . See a l s o B a r t o n , pp. 101, 103-6, 131-2; M a r t i n , pp. 154-5, 177"9, 188, 217. 211 Deniehy, " R o b e r t s o n ' s L e c t u r e s , " 1859-212 Channing, "Remarks on N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e , " Works, p. 138. 476 213 C h a r l e s Harpur, Poems (Melbourne: George R o b e r t s o n , 1883). 214 In 1851, two y e a r s b e f o r e Harpur p u b l i s h e d h i s The Bushrangers and Other Poems, he had i n t e n d e d t o p u b l i s h a volume o f poems, many o f them s t a u n c h l y r e p u b l i c a n , t o be e n t i t l e d The W i l d Bee o f A u s t r a l i a . See S a l i e r , p. 93- 215 Harpur, "To an Echo on the Banks o f the H u n t e r , " A u s t r a 1 as i an C h r o n i c l e , March 14, 1843, r e p r i n t e d i n Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800- 1850," I I I , 41. 216 See C.W. S a l i e r , "Harpur and h i s E d i t o r , " S o u t h e r 1y, X I I , No. 1 (1951), 47-54. 21 7 Harpur, Thoughts: A S e r i e s of Sonnets (Sydney: W.A. Duncan, 1845); The B u s h r a n g e r s , a P l a y i n F i v e A c t s , and Other Poems (Sydney: W.R. P i d d i n g t o n , 1853); Poems (Melbourne: George R o b e r t s o n , 1883); S e l e c t e d Poems o f C h a r l e s Harpur, ed. Kenneth H. G i f f o r d and Donald F. H a l l (Melbourne: J.C. Stephens, 1944); A d r i a n M i t c h e l l , ed., C h a r l e s Harpur (Melbourne: Sun Books, 1973). 218 J u d i t h W r i g h t makes the same p o i n t i n W r i g h t , C h a r l e s Harpur (Melbourne: O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1977), p. 44. 219 Weekly R e g i s t e r , September 27, 1845. See Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I I I , 342. 220 See, f o r example, W r i g h t , C h a r l e s Harpur (1977); E l i z a b e t h P e r k i n s , "Emerson and C h a r l e s H a r p u r , " A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s , V I , No. 1 (May 1973), 82-88; P e r k i n s , "The R e l i g i o u s F a i t h o f C h a r l e s H a r p u r , " Quadrant, X X I I I , No. 143 (June 1979), 29~35; V i j a y M i s h r a , "The L i t e r a r y R e p u t a t i o n o f C h a r l e s Harpur: 1868-1900,'1 S o u t h e r l y , 477 XXXVI, No. 1 (1976), 432-40; M i s h r a , " C h a r l e s Harpur's R e p u t a t i o n 1853-1858: the Y e a r s o f C o n t r o v e r s y , " A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s , V I I I , No. 4 (October 1978), 446-56. 221 The o n l y c r i t i c who has g i v e n Harpur's f i g h t i n g s i d e any p r o l o n g e d a t t e n t i o n i s h i s b i o g r a p h e r , J . N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , i n h i s C h a r l e s Harpur, an A u s t r a 1 i a n (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1962). 222 T h i s t o p i c a l o n e , l o o k i n g a t Americans such as Emerson, Thoreau, Whitman, Hawthorne and M e l v i l l e , would be w o r t h a l o n g e s s a y , i f not a t h e s i s . 223 Emerson, " S e 1 f - R e l i anee," i n E s s a y s : F i r s t Ser i es (1841), C o l l e c t e d Works, I I , 47. 224 See N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , p. 14. 225 See N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , p. 23; C l a r k , H i s t o r y o f A u s t r a l i a , M l , 457. 226 See P e r k i n s , " R e l i g i o u s F a i t h , " 29"35- 227 Harpur, p r o s e p r e f a c e t o " F i n a l i t y , " Empi r e , June 30, 1851, quoted i n Roe, Quest f o r A u t h o r i t y , p. 148. 228 Harpur, Poems, p. x i i i . 229 I t seems Harpur a l s o had a d m i r a t i o n f o r the " f a t h e r " o f t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n - - h e named one o f h i s sons"Washington." See N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , p. 168. See a l s o , p. 152. 2 3 0 J e f f e r s o n , P a p e r s , XVI, 225. 2 3 1 See Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I I I , 52. 232 -See N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , p. 82; Harpur, "Edmund B u r k e , " quoted i n M i t c h e l l , p. 151. 478 233 Harpur, "Tree o f L i b e r t y , " quoted i n T u r n e r , The A u s t r a 1 i a n Dream, pp. 50-1. 234 Harpur, "The E m i g r a n t ' s V i s i o n , " Poems, p. 199. 235 Emerson, " P o l i t i c s , " i n E s s a y s : Second S e r i e s (1844), Works, p. 207. As E l i z a b e t h P e r k i n s i n "Emerson and C h a r l e s H a r p u r " (1973) has shown, Harpur a c q u i r e d a copy o f Emerson's E i g h t Essays (London: Tweedie, 1852) i n 1855. The a c t u a l t e x t , i n which Harpur marked the passages he l i k e d and d i s l i k e d , i s i n the M i t c h e l l L i b r a r y . "I w i l l r e f e r t o the marked Tweedie t e x t t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s e c t i o n . T h i s passage from " P o l i t i c s , " f o r example, Harpur endorsed i n h i s t e x t . 2 3 6 Harpur, "Words," i n M i t c h e l l , p. 94. 237 Harpur, P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , December 8, 1849, quoted i n Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I I I , 88. 9 38 Harpur,"Note t o R e p u b l i c a n L y r i c , " i n M i t c h e l l , p. 148. 239 Quoted i n N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , p. 194. 240 Harpur, i n P e o p l e ' s A d v o c a t e , J a n u a r y 7, 1854. 241 See above, f o o t n o t e 214. 242 Harpur, i n a war song f o r the A u s t r a l i a n League (1853), quoted i n J . N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , "A C u r r e n c y Lad P o e t , " Quad r a n t , VII (1963), 23. See a l s o , "Never Mind," i n M i t c h e l l , p. 82. 243 P a i n e , R i g h t s o f Man, p. I69. 244 Harpur, Sydney C h r o n i c l e , December 23, 1847. 245 Harpur o f t e n used the term " r i g h t s o f man." See, f o r example, Harpur, quoted i n N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , " C u r r e n c y Lad P o e t , " p. 23; C h a r l e s Harpur, an A u s t r a l i a n , p. 192. For more on Harpur's s u p p o r t 479 o f n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements, see "On the E a s t e r I l l u m i n a t i o n o f St P e t e r ' s a t Rome" ( M i t c h e l l , p. 8 8 ) ; "John H e k i " (Poems, p. 244). 246 Harpur, quoted i n M i t c h e l l , p. x v i . See a l s o , "Bush J u s t i c e , 1 p. 1 0 1 . 247 Harpur d i d not hate England i n the way t h a t Thomas P a i n e d i d . See N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , C h a r l e s H a r p u r , p. 5; P a i n e , Common Sense, pp. 7 1 - 8 l . 248 See Harpur, i n M i t c h e l l , pp. 79, 92, 96; G o l l a n , R a d i c a l and Working C l a s s P o l i t i c s , p. 17; Roe, Quest f o r A u t h o r i t y , p. 75- 249 Harpur, quoted i n N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , C h a r l e s Harpur, p. 138. See a l s o Harpur, "The New Land O r d e r s , " i n M i t c h e l l , p. 146. I t i s worth m e n t i o n i n g t h a t Harpur's s e n t i m e n t s here c l o s e l y resemble t h o s e o f Emerson; i n h i s F o r t u n e o f the R e p u b l i c . See Emerson, Works, pp. 959-71. 250 Harpur, "A C o n f e s s i o n , " i n M i t c h e l l , p. 140. 251 Whitman, D e m o c r a t i c V i s t a s ( 1 871), i n P r o s e Works 1892, M , 369-70. 252 Harpur, "To the L y r e o f A u s t r a l i a " ( w r i t t e n i n 1835), quoted i n S a l i e r , p. 92. Between September and December, 1842, Harpur p u b l i s h e d . e i g h t p o e m s - - i n c l u d i n g " L y r e " and " A u s t r a l i a Huzza!"-- w h i c h he l a b e l l e d h i s " A u s t r a l i a n L y r i c s . " 253 Emerson, "The P o e t , " i n E s s a y s : Second S e r i e s ( 1 8 4 4 ) , Works, p. 133- Harpur, i n h i s Tweedie t e x t o f Emerson's e s s a y s , marked w i t h o b v i o u s a p p r o v a l a s e c t i o n from "The P o e t " where Emerson s t a t e s t h a t " p o e t r y was a l l w r i t t e n b e f o r e time was, and whenever we a r e 480 so f i n e l y o r g a n i s e d t h a t we can p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h a t r e g i o n where the a i r i s m u s i c , we hear t h o s e p r i m a l w a r b l i n g s , and a t t e m p t t o w r i t e them down. .... The men o f more d e l i c a t e ear w r i t e down t h e s e cadences more f a i t h f u l l y , and t h o s e t r a n s c r i p t s , though i m p e r f e c t , become the songs o f the n a t i o n s " (Works, p. 134). Harpur agreed w i t h Emerson's i d e a t h a t the t r u e poet o b s e r v e d the e s s e n c e o f t h i n g s , the r e a l name, but he seems t o have e x p e r i e n c e d t h e s e moments o f p o e t i c i n s i g h t o n l y r a r e l y . 254 Harpur, " C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the C o c k a t o o , " i n M i t c h e l l , pp. 168-9. See a l s o "A Storm i n the M o u n t a i n s " and "The Kangaroo Hunt," i n which Harpur, i n . l o n g p r o s e n o t e s , d i s c u s s e s t h e A u s t r a l i a n l o c u s t and s e v e r a l A u s t r a l i a n b i r d s ( M i t c h e l l , p. 56; Normington- R a w l i n g , "A C u r r e n c y Lad P o e t , " pp. 16-18). 255 See N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , C h a r l e s Harpur, p. 274. 256 See W r i g h t , pp. 15, 30-1; N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , C h a r l e s Harpur, pp. 21, 316. 257 P a i n e , Common Sense, p. 120; Emerson, "The Young A m e r i c a n " ( F e b r u a r y 7, 1844), i n Col 1ected Works, I, 230. 258 In a p r o s e note t o h i s long poem, "The Temple o f Infamy" (1847), Harpur d e c l a r e d t h a t America had become a l a n d o f "go-ahead s e l f i s h n e s s . " I t was "unworthy o f the g r a v e s o f a Washington, a Henry and a Channing!" (quoted i n N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , C h a r l e s Harpur, p. 152). Harpur must have d e e p l y r e s e n t e d the i n f l u x i n t o 1850' s A u s t r a l i a o f p r o f i t - m i n d e d Americans such as George F r a n c i s T r a i n , who f l a u n t e d Young A m e r i c a ' s economic r a p a c i t y . 48] 259 Q u o t e d ! i n S a l i e r , pp. 93-4. See a l s o , "The E m i g r a n t ' s V i s i o n , ' Poems, pp. 197-9. 260 R.W.B. L e w i s , The American Adam ( C h i c a g o : U n i v . o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1955), p. 5- 261 Harpur, "To the L y r e o f A u s t r a l i a , " quoted i n S a l i e r , p. 92. 262 "The Dream by the F o u n t a i n " f i r s t appeared i n Duncan's A u s t r a l a s i a n C h r o n i c l e , June 10, 1843. See N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , C h a r l e s H a r p u r , p. 94; Webby, " L i t e r a t u r e : 1800-1850," I I I , 40. Harpur, i n M i t c h e l l , pp. 85-6. 264 B a r t o n , L i t e r a t u r e i n New South Wales, p. 99. Henry K e n d a l l , on the o t h e r hand, c l e a r l y approved o f Harpur's pose. The l a s t s t a n z a of K e n d a l l ' s poem, "To C h a r l e s H a r p u r " (1862), i n d i c a t e s h i s p o s i t i o n : I would s i t a t your f e e t , f o r I f e e l I am one o f a g l o r i o u s band That e v e r w i l l own you and h o l d you t h e i r C h i e f , And a Monarch of Song i n the l a n d ! ( P o e t i c a l Works, p. 45) K e n d a l l d e t e r m i n e d t o r e p r i n t and p u b l i c i z e Harpur's b o a s t . 2 6 5 Weekly R e g i s t e r , J u l y 26,11845. 266 M a i t l a n d M e r c u r y , June 3, 1846, quoted i n N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , C h a r l e s Harpur, p. 114. 267 See above, f o o t n o t e 235- 268 Emerson, "The P o e t , " i n E s s a y s : Second S e r i e s (1844), i n Works, p. 135. Harpur marked t h i s pasage a p p r o v i n g l y i n h i s Tweedie t e x t . 482 269 Emerson, "The American S c h o l a r " ( 1 8 3 7 ) , i n Col 1ected Works, I , 62. 270 Emerson, "The P o e t , " i n Works, p. 133- 271 Harpur's t h r e e a r t i c l e s on Emerson appeared i n the Sydney Times, A p r i l 23, A p r i l 30, May 7, 1864. T h i s e x t r a c t comes from the t h i r d a r t i c l e , May 7, 1864, p. 3- 272 Emerson, F o r t u n e o f the R e p u b l i c , i n Works, p. 969- 273 See "Mr. Harpur's L e c t u r e , " Empi r e , October 3, 1859 - 2 7 4 Harpur, " E p i t a p h , " i n M i t c h e l l , p. 176. 275 See P e r k i n s , "Emerson and C h a r l e s H a r p u r , " p. 84; J o r d e n s , pp. 62-3. Harpur, i n h i s Tweedie t e x t , c l e a r l y showed' h i s d i s a g r e e - ment w i t h Emerson's s t a t e m e n t t h a t "Men o f c h a r a c t e r l i k e t o hear o f t h e i r f a u l t s . . . ." See Emerson's " C h a r a c t e r , " i n E s s a y s : Second S e r i e s (1844), Works, p. 167. 276 T h i s passage, from Emerson's "The P o e t , " Harpur marked w i t h t h r e e heavy c r o s s e s o f d i s a p p r o v a l i n h i s Tweedie t e x t . 277 See, f o r example, Harpur i n M i t c h e l l , pp. 127, 132, 175- Emerson, " S e l f - R e l i a n c e , " i n E s s a y s : F i r s t S e r i e s (1841), Col 1ected Works, I I , 29. 279 Harpur, "To the A m e r i c a n , Emerson," i n M i t c h e l l , p. 89. 280 Harpur, Empi r e , June 30, 1851, quoted i n Roe, Quest f o r A u t h o r i t y , pp. 148-9. See a l s o , N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , C h a r l e s Harpur, p. 161. 281 Emerson, " C h a r a c t e r , " i n Works, p. 167- 483 282 Harpur, "Monodies" I I , Poems, p. 173- Emerson, " N o m i n a l i s t and R e a l i s t , " i n E s s a y s : Second S e r i e s (1844), Works, p. 217- T h i s passage i s marked w i t h heavy c r o s s e s i n Harpur's Tweedie t e x t . 284 Harpur, Sydney Times, A p r i l 23, 1864. "True g r e a t n e s s i n man," f o r Harpur, depended on the " q u a l i t i e s o f j u s t i c e , h o n e s t y and f r a t e r n a l f a i t h and hope, i n h o l y a l l i a n c e w i t h g e n i u s , o r the h i g h e s t o r d e r o f t a l e n t . . . ." (quoted i n N o r m i n g t o n - R a w l i n g , C h a r l e s Harpur, p. 167). 285 Emerson, " P o l i t i c s , " i n Works, p. 202. T h i s passage i s marked w i t h heavy c r o s s e s i n Harpur's Tweedie t e x t . 286 Emerson, " N o m i n a l i s t and R e a l i s t , " i n Works, p. 213; "Manners, 1 i n E s s a y s : Second S e r i e s (1844), i n Works, pp. 181-2. Both passages a r e marked i n Harpur's Tweedie t e x t , the f i r s t a p p r o v i n g l y , the second w i t h c r o s s e s o f d i s a p p r o v a l . 287 Harpur, "On Tennyson," i n M i t c h e l l , p. 126. 289 288 M i t c h e l 1 , p. 126 Henry David Thoreau, " S p r i n g , " i n Wa1 den (1854), i n The W r i t i n g s o f Henry D a v i d Thoreau, II ( B o s t o n : Houghton, M i f f l i n , 1893), 472. 290 Harpur, Sydney Times, A p r i l 23, 1864. See a l s o , "Emerson," i n M i t c h e l l , p i 175; "Emerson a t the Worst," r e p r i n t e d i n P e r k i n s , "Emerson and C h a r l e s H a r p u r , " p. 83. 291 Henry H a l l o r a n , "The Bards' C o l l o q u y , " r e p r i n t e d i n B a r t o n , Poets and P r o s e W r i t e r s , p. 213. 484 292 Harpur, Sydney Times, A p r i l 30, 1864, p. 3. 293 See P e r k i n s , "Emerson and C h a r l e s H a r p u r , " p. 83. 294 Harpur, Sydney Times, May 7, 1864, p. 3- 2 9 5 Emerson, " N a t u r e " (1836) , i n C o l l e c t e d Works, I, 21. CONCLUSION We have no r e c o r d s o f a bygone shame, No r e d - w r i t h i s t o r i e s o f woe t o weep: God s e t our land i n summer seas a s l e e p T i l l H i s f a i r morning f o r her waking came. John F a r r e l l , "No," i n How He Died and Other Poems, ( 1 8 8 / T T 1 Between Harpur's death i n 1868 and Bernard 0'Dowd's " P o e t r y M i l i t a n t " a d d r e s s i n 1909, the l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n o f i n t e r a c t i o n between A u s t r a l i a n and American w r i t e r s , so i m p o r t a n t t o Lang, Deniehy and Harpur i n the m i d d l e decades o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , d e v e l o p e d e x t e n s i v e l y . However, d e s p i t e the w e a l t h o f documents now a v a i l a b l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n m a n u s c r i p t and newspaper form, A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a r y s c h o l a r s have as a r u l e i g n o r e d the c o n n e c t i o n . More work i s needed t o c l a r i f y the p a r a l l e l s between Harpur's g e n e r a t i o n o f c u r r e n c y 2 l a d s and the g e n e r a t i o n i n " r e v o l t " t h a t f o l l o w e d . For when many A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c a n s , U t o p i a n s , S i n g 1 e - T a x e r s , s o c i a l i s t s and bush- men t u r n e d , i n the 1880's and '90's, t o i n d i v i d u a l American w r i t e r s as a s o u r c e o f p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and l i t e r a r y i n s p i r a t i o n , they m e r e l y r e p e a t e d a l a r g e r p a t t e r n as o l d as the c o l o n y i t s e l f . They 486 c o n s o l i d a t e d an A u s t r a l i a n t r a d i t i o n . To put i t t h i s way, however, i s t o c l a r i f y a s i t u a t i o n which a t the time was b a r e l y comprehended. 0 1 Dowd 1 s g e n e r a t i o n , i n f a c t , 3 knew l i t t l e o f Harpur's - - p a r t l y because o f a p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h i t s own e r a ; p a r t l y because o f i g n o r a n c e and poor s c h o l a r s h i p ; and p a r t l y because some o f i t s more a r t i c u l a t e spokesmen, i n c l u d i n g O'Dowd h i m s e l f , c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e i r f a t h e r s ' g e n e r a t i o n had f a i l e d t o f o l l o w t r u l y d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s . As we have seen, i f A u s t r a l i a n s o f the 1880 1 s remembered Lang, Deniehy and Harpur a t a l l , they remembered them f o r the wrong r e a s o n s ; Lang 1 s works were out o f p r i n t , w h i l e the w r i t i n g s o f Harpur and Deniehy became a v a i l a b l e i n l 8 8 3 _ 4 , i n 4 t e x t s which v i r t u a l l y i g n o r e d t h e i r c o m b a t i v e and p r o p h e t i c s i d e s . I n a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n abounded. In F e b r u a r y , 1889, f o r example, Henry Lawson e u l o g i s e d P e t e r L a l o r , the l e a d e r o f the Eureka S t o c k a d e , i n the poem "Eureka (A F r a g m e n t ) . " He demanded t h a t miners i n the a f t e r 1i f e R o l l up and g i v e him welcome such as o n l y d i g g e r s c a n , For w e l l he b a t t l e d f o r the r i g h t s o f miner and o f man.5 Lawson might not have been so f l a t t e r i n g had'.he known t h a t s h o r t l y a f t e r L a l o r was e l e c t e d t o the V i c t o r i a n L e g i s l a t i v e Assembly i n I 8 5 6 ( l e s s than two y e a r s a f t e r E u r e k a ) , he not o n l y a c c e p t e d o f f i c i a l p a t r o n a g e , but s u p p o r t e d a p l u r a l p r o p e r t y f r a n c h i s e and was un- accountably: absent when the House v o t e d on the p r i n c i p l e o f manhood s u f f r a g e . 6 Lawson's c o n t e m p o r a r y , B e r n a r d O'Dowd, was one o f the 487 few who were a b l e t o g r a s p the e s s e n c e of what had happened s i n c e the g r a n t i n g o f c o l o n i a l s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t i n 1856- "Our f a t h e r s , " 01Dowd a s s e r t e d i n an a r t i c l e on Walt Whitman (1899), came from l a n d s where the l a b o u r e r who worked w i t h h i s hands was t r e a t e d as d i r t by e v e r y o n e , t i t l e d or n o t , who d i d n ' t work a t a l l . They knew a l l t h i s , and l o a t h e d i t , and y e t , when they came out h e r e , they a l l o w e d the germs o f the v e r y same s o r t o f t h i n g t o get r o o t i n the v i r g i n s o i l o f t h i s c o u n t r y u n t i l we f i n d the e l e c t o f t h e p e o p l e t h r o w i n g o f f t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e t o the p e o p l e who .have r a i s e d them and t r u s t e d them, f o r the sake o f a r i b a n d o r a s t a r . . . . . [When] i n the f i f t i e s we got u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e and a g l o r i o u s c o n s i t u t i o n , one would have thought t h a t a f r e e p e o p l e , i n a brand new c o u n t r y , would have done something t o s e p a r a t e the few good laws from the l e p r o u s ones, and have p a r t e d w i t h the l a t t e r f o r e v e r . But no; they were E n g l i s h , and t h e r e f o r e good. And a c c o r d i n g l y , the whole o f the u n j u s t laws o f d i s t r e s s f o r r e n t , the c o m p l i c a t e d f e u d a l b a r b a r i s m s o f r e a l p r o p e r t y law, the anomalous and c r u e l laws which s n a t c h the c h i l d from the i n n o c e n t mother i n c a s e s o f s e p a r a t i o n , the v i l e law which e n a b l e s j u d g e s t o t e l l j u r i e s t h a t a poor man's d a u g h t e r ' s honour i s worth l e s s i n the eyes o f the law than t h a t o f a r i c h man's d a u g h t e r , the infamous d o c t r i n e o f the " s t a t i o n i n l i f e " - - a l l t h e s e t h i n g s and many more, c r u e l i n o p e r a t i o n and a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c i n n a t u r e , were meekly t o l e r a t e d by our a l l e g e d democracy, and a r e t o the p r e s e n t day.7 A p p a r e n t l y i g n o r a n t o f the s t a u n c h r e p u b l i c a n and U t o p i a n w r i t i n g s o f some o f i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s , 0'Dowd's g e n e r a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d t o c r e a t e anew, r e j e c t i n g the h y p o c r i s i e s o f the p a s t . In each o f the d i v e r s e paths which A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s f o l l o w e d i n the l880's, '90's and e a r l y 1 900'.'s, American thought a g a i n f i g u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y . But i n the a f t e r m a t h o f the C i v i l War, most A u s t r a l i a n s l o o k e d a t A m e r i c a — a s Lang, Deniehy and Harpur e a r l i e r h a d — w i t h no i l l u s i o n s about i t s i n f a l l i b i l i t y . America a f t e r the C i v i l War came 4 8 8 t o s y m b o l i z e i n d u s t r i a l r u t h 1 e s s n e s s . I n d e e d , b y 1901, a s o n e h i s t o r i a n h a s p u t i t , t o A u s t r a l i a n s " t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . . . w a s n o t t h e l a n d o f t h e f r e e a n d t h e h o m e o f t h e b r a v e , b u t t h e l a n d o f t h e w a g e s l a v e g a n d t h e h o m e o f t r u s t s , c o r p o r a t i o n s , a n d m i l l i o n a i r e s . " A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s a n d t h i n k e r s , p e r u s i n g t h e i r o p t i o n s c a r e f u l l y a n d s e e i n g t h e i r c o u n t r y a s u n i q u e l y c o n d u c i v e t o s o c i a l e x p e r i m e n t , b e g a n t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n o n i n d i v i d u a l A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s . T h e y w e r e n ' t i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d f i n a n c i a l l e a d e r s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b u t l o o k e d t o t h e m u c h - m a l i g n e d s e e r s , s o c i a l r e f o r m e r s a n d p o e t s . M o r e a n d m o r e A u s t r a l i a n s i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y c o n - s i d e r e d s o c i a l i s m t o b e t h e n e w C h r i s t i a n i t y . P r o p h e t s , t h e r e f o r e , h a d t o b e f o u n d f o r a s o c i e t y f o r t u n a t e e n o u g h t o b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o l e a r n f r o m O l d a n d N e w W o r l d m i s t a k e s . A d i s p a r a t e group o f A m e r i c a n s a n d t h e i r e m p h a t i c a l l y d e m o c r a t i c w r i t i n g s g a i n e d p r o m i n e n c e o n t h e A u s t r a l i a n s t a g e i n t h i s a t m o s p h e r e o f p r o t e s t , l a b o u r d e m a n d s a n d U t o p i a n s p e c u l a t i o n : r e p u b l i c a n s i n t h e l 8 8 0 ' s o n c e m o r e c o n s u l t e d T h o m a s P a i n e ' s r e v o l u t i o n a r y w r i t i n g s a n d p u b l i c i z e d t h e A m e r i c a n D e c l a r a t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , e v i d e n t l y u n a w a r e o f t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y ' s r a d i c a l p a s t ; S i n g 1 e - T a x e r s l o o k e d t o H e n r y G e o r g e , t h e h i g h p r o p h e t o f t h e i r m o v e m e n t , a n d h i s P r o g r e s s a n d P o v e r t y (1879) a n d S o c i a 1 P r o b l e m s (1884); i d e a l i s t s w i t h U t o p i a n t h o u g h t s o n t h e i r m i n d s r e a d E d w a r d B e l l a m y ' s L o o k i n g B a c k w a r d : 2000-1887 (1888) a n d I g n a t i u s D o n n e l l y ' s C a e s a r ' s C o l u m n (1890) , a n d s o u g h t d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t A m e r i c a n U t o p i a n c o m m u n i t i e s s u c h a s I c a r i a ( e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1848 b y E t i e n n e C a b e t ) ; s o c i a l i s t s a n d b u s h m e n e a g e r l y d i s c u s s e d a n d 489 d i s t r i b u t e d not o n l y the works o f George, B e l l a m y and D o n n e l l y , but o t h e r r e f o r m i s t l i t e r a t u r e such as Laurence G r o n l u n d ' s The C o o p e r a t i v e Commonwea1th (1884), Henry Demarest L l o y d ' s Wealth A g a i n s t Commonwealth (1,894) and the pamphlets o f D a n i e l de Leon, J a c k London, Eugene Debs, V i n c e n t S t . John and E.A. Trautmann; w h i l e the hardy band o f A u s t r a l i a n " r e g e n e r a t e d Democrats and r a v i n g W h i t m a n i c s , " t o use 0'Dowd's p h r a s e , unashamedly e x a l t e d t h e i r W a l t ' s Leaves of G r a s s , a t t i m e s p a u s i n g long enough t o r e f l e c t on the t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m o f Emerson and Thoreau g as w e l l . I n s p i r i t e d by the b r e a d t h o f American w r i t e r s a v a i l a b l e (and one s h o u l d add t h a t Mark Twain and B r e t H a r t e had a keen l o c a l f o l l o w i n g , w h i l e Poe, L o n g f e l l o w , W h i t t i e r , L o w e l l , J o a q u i n M i l l e r , Holmes and John Hay were a l s o r e a d ^ ) , A u s t r a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d assumed a v i t a l i t y , sense of r e b e l l i o n and l i t e r a r y c a t h o l i c i t y w h i c h would not reappear u n t i l the l a t e 1960 1 s and e a r l y '70's. What l e d A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s i n the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o c o n s u l t t h e i r American c o u n t e r p a r t s ? The answer s e r v e s t o u n d e r l i n e the c l o s e , though a t the time u n d e t e c t e d t i e s between Harpur's g e n e r a t i o n and O'Dowd's. When Lang c o n t e m p l a t e d A u s t r a l i a as " t h e f u t u r e America o f the S o u t h e r n Hemisphere," he acknowledged the p o l i t i c a l c r e d e n t i a l s o f F r a n k l i n , O t i s and P a t r i c k H e n r y . ^ When Deniehy f o r m u l a t e d the framework o f h i s i d e a l A u s t r a l i a n r e p u b l i c and i t s l i t e r a t u r e , he went t o J e f f e r s o n , Channing, Emerson, P a r k e r and Brownson f o r h e l p . When Harpur asked: 490 Why p i l e we s t o n e on s t o n e , t o r a i s e J a i l , Fane, o r P u b l i c H a l l ; - - w h y p l a n F o r t r e s s o r Tower f o r f u t u r e days; Yet l e a v e u n b u i l t , t o wrong o r g u i l t , The n o b l e r p i l e - - t h e Mind o f Man?' 2 --he gave l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n t o h i s s e a r c h f o r "a N a t i o n ' s t h i nk i ng power"; Emerson s u p p l i e d him w i t h the i n s p i r a t i o n f o r an e f f e c t i v e answer. S i m i l a r l y , i n the l a s t decades o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , when A u s t r a l i a n s s e a r c h e d once a g a i n f o r a more t h o u g h t f u l and humane s o c i a l o r d e r , t h e i r r e c o g n i t i o n o f the e x p e r i e n c e and, above a l l , wisdom o f c e r t a i n American r e b e l l i o u s t h i n k e r s s t i m u l a t e d the A u s t r a l i a n / American l i t e r a r y c o n n e c t i o n i n t o new l i f e . With Deniehy's dream o f a r e p u b l i c o f yeoman-farmers i n s h r e d s ( f o r the p a s t o r a l i s t s and s q u a t t e r s had s u c c e s s f u l l y d e f i e d government e f f o r t s t o e s t a b l i s h communities o f s m a l l - s c a l e f a r m e r s ) , A u s t r a l i a n s began c h a n g i n g t h e i r p r i o r i t i e s , s t r e s s i n g the " u n i o n movement as a g a i n s t the t r a d e s 1 3 u n i o n . " They r e g a r d e d Labour's s t r u g g l e a s u n o r e than j u s t a p o l i t i c a l i s s u e ; i t i l l u m i n a t e d the much l a r g e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t i o n o f human d e s t i n y . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s new emphasis, l i v e l y i n t e r a c t i o n between A u s t r a l i a n s and Americans took p l a c e . John F a r r e l 1 (1851-1904), f o r example, i n i t i a t e d a long c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h Henry George; O'Dowd and h i s Melbourne group o f " p e r s o n a l mates" began a b r i e f but f r u i t f u l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h Walt Whitman; S i n g l e - T a x Leagues, B e l l a m y C l u b s and d e b a t i n g s o c i e t i e s d e d i c a t e d t o the d i s c u s s i o n o f Leaves o f G r a s s , m u l t i p l i e d t h r o u g h o u t A u s t r a l i a ; and Henry George and Mark Twain o. 491 both made e x t e n s i v e l e c t u r e t o u r s o f A u s t r a l i a i n the l890's.'H Three a s p e c t s o f t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n need t o be mentioned; a l l d e s e r v e c l o s e s t u d y . F i r s t l y , the works, o f A u s t r a l i a n s such as F a r r e l l and W i l l i a m Lane (1861-1917) suggest t h a t t h i s g e n e r a t i o n , l i k e the p r e v i o u s one, responded warmly t o the e g a l i t a r i a n tone o f t h e i r American c o u n t e r p a r t s - - i n such a way as t o r e c a l l Deniehy's s p e c i a l r e g a r d f o r Emerson's a b i l i t y t o t a l k " w i t h you as an equal i n e v e r y s e n s e . " ' 5 Of Henry George, Lane d e c l a r e d , e c h o i n g L i n c o l n , t h a t he "wrote i n the language o f the p e o p l e f o r the p e o p l e and w i t h a f o r c e and 16 f i r e t h a t o n l y one o f the p e o p l e c o u l d f e e l . . . ." S e c o n d l y , d e s p i t e t h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the d e m o c r a t i c v a l u e s o f the American w r i t e r , and d e s p i t e c o n s t a n t e x p r e s s i o n s o f d i s g u s t f o r n a t i o n a l and l i t e r a r y s u b s e r v i e n c e , some o f the more prominent w r i t e r s o f 0'Dowd's g e n e r a t i o n d i s p l a y a c u r i o u s tendency t o h e r o - w o r s h i p . Frank C o t t o n , a contemporary o f F a r r e l l and 0'Dowd, v o i c e d a t y p i c a l A u s t r a l i a n r e a c t i o n t o Henry George when he d e s c r i b e d him as a " h e r o , sage, and 'The Prophet o f San F r a n c i s c o ' . . . ."'7 Poems of the p e r i o d d e p i c t e d George i n s i m i l a r l y u n c r i t i c a l language. F a r r e l l , f o r example, p u b l i s h e d two sonnets d e d i c a t e d t o him, the f i r s t of which b e g i n s : Seer o f the new g r e a t dawn! whose s t r o n g v o i c e r i n g s A c r o s s d r e a r wastes of l i f e where L i f e grows p a l e And c r i e s " A r i s e ! " t o wan-cheeked men who w a i l Beneath the i r o n f e e t o f men-made k i n g s . Speak! and l e t l i g h t , as from an a n g e l ' s w i n g s , F l o o d t h i s dark w o r l d . . . J 492 Edward B e l l a m y , t o o , was p o p u l a r l y p e r c e i v e d i n r e v e r e n t , indeed d i v i n e terms. Lane p u b l i c l y acknowledged him as h i s m a s t e r , on one o c c a s i o n r h e t o r i c a l l y i n q u i r i n g ( i n h i s paper, the W o r k e r ) : I f J e s u s i s not w i t h the Labour Movement, where i s he? Is t h e r e not i n 'Looking Backward' the C h r i s t - s p i r i t b r e a t h i n g ? ' - ' O'Dowd and h i s Melbourne group o f p l a s t e r e r s , d r a p e r s and boot-shop a s s i s t a n t s p r a i s e d Walt Whitman i n even more e x p l i c i t p h r a s e s o f v e n e r a t i o n . The o p e n i n g s a l u t a t i o n s o f 0'Dowd's l e t t e r s t o Whitman b e s t r e f l e c t t h e i r a t t i t u d e . One l e t t e r b e g i n s "Dear W a l t , my b e l o v e d 20 m a s t e r , my f r i e n d , my bard my p r o p h e t and a p o s t l e . " T h i r d l y , t h e dream o f A u s t r a l i a - a s a b e t t e r A m e r i c a , the l o c a t i o n f o r mankind's l a s t chance, not o n l y r e s u r f a c e d i n the l a s t decades o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i t a t times dominated the t h o u g h t s o f some o f A u s t r a l i a ' s l e a d i n g w r i t e r s . In 1859, C h a r l e s Harpur e x h o r t e d a l l A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s t o come t o r e c a l l the p a s t , enchant the p r e s e n t , and r e a l i s e the f u t u r e - - r e s t o r e the l o s t , renew the changed, e n r i c h the poor, and r e u n i t e , by an i m m o r t a l i s i n g p i c t u r e - p o w e r , the l i v i n g and the d e a d . 2 ' Though a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y unaware o f Harpur's hopes f o r the f u t u r e , members o f 0'Dowd's g e n e r a t i o n took up the c h a l l e n g e t o e s t a b l i s h an i d e a l community--0'Dowd h i m s e l f , as we s h a l l see, even e c h o i n g Harpur's a c t u a l words. R e m i n i s c e n t of Young American spokesmen e a r l i e r i n the c e n t u r y , the u l t r a - n a t i o n a l i s t Bui 1et i n (1887) d e c l a r e d 493 t h a t " i t i s d e m o n s t r a b l e t h a t the i n t e l l e c t o f the [ A u s t r a l i a n ] p e o p l e i s f r e e r , s t r o n g e r and more o r i g i n a l than i n the a g e - o l d s t a t e s o f Europe, and even o f A m e r i c a . To s o l v e the problems o v e r which the o p p r e s s e d masses o f n o r t h e r n n a t i o n s a r e now p o r i n g i n 22 v a i n i s the d e s t i n y of A u s t r a l i a . . . ." A u s t r a l i a n e x p r e s s i o n o f what R.W.B. Lewis has termed the "Adamic myth" was p a r t i c u l a r l y 23 common a t t h i s t i m e . Thomas Heney ( 1 8 6 2 - 1 9 2 8 ) , f o r example, p r o p h e s i e d t h a t from a m o t h e r - c i t y s h a l l go f o r t h T r i b e a f t e r t r i b e o f her most v a l e d - sons. Whether t h e i r s t e p s i n c l i n e t o s o u t h o r n o r t h Or where the w e s t e r n w i l d t h e i r coming shuns, A new w o r l d w a i t s them and a f u t u r e w a i t s . . . .2** John F a r r e l l 1 s c o n c e p t o f the dream was c o l o u r e d by an even more e x c i t e d a n t i c i p a t i o n o f the f u t u r e . He p r o j e c t e d t h a t 'Here w i l l we found a m a n l i e r E n g l i s h r a c e -- A w o r l d - l i k e n a t i o n , s t r o n g and k i n d and f r e e , Whose name t h r o u g h a l l the a f t e r t i m e , s h a l l be High among names, u n s u l l i e d by d i s g r a c e . . . . And, w i t h f a i r Peace's w h i t e , pure f l a g u n f u r l e d , Our c h i l d r e n s h a l l , upon t h i s new-won s h o r e -- Warmed by a l l sorrows t h a t have gone b e f o r e -- B u i l d up the g l o r y o f a grand New World. " 2 5 As F a r r e l l saw i t , A u s t r a l i a now c o n s t i t u t e d the n a t i o n o f innocence and u n l i m i t e d p o t e n t i a l . The c o u n t r y w i t h a m a n i f e s t d e s t i n y . In h i s f i r s t f i v e books (1 9 0 3 - 1 B e r n a r d 0'Dowd f r e q u e n t l y gave h i s A u s t r a l i a n v e r s i o n o f the "Adamic myth." H i s f i r s t book, Dawnward? ( 1 9 0 3 ) , b e g i n s w i t h the poem " A u s t r a l i a , " i n which he a s k s : 494 '-Last s e a - t h i ng dredged by s a i l o r Time from Space, A r e you a_ d r i f t S a r g a s s o , where the West 1n ha 1cyon ca1m r e b u i 1 d s her f a t a l n e s t ? Or Delos o f a_ comi ng Sun-God 1 s r a c e ? 2 / The l a s t l i n e emphasizes 0 1 Dowd 1 s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o c l i n g t o the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a b r i g h t f u t u r e f o r h i s c o u n t r y d e s p i t e the h a r d s h i p and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s o f the p r e v i o u s decade, w i t h i t s s e v e r e drought (1890-2) and c r u c i a l worker d e f e a t s a t the hands o f government and landed i n t e r e s t s . But h i s v i s i o n was g r a d u a l l y d a r k e n i n g . Behind the f a c a d e o f o p t i m i s t i c r h e t o r i c i n h i s long m e d i t a t i v e poem, The Bush (1912), one senses growing r e s i g n a t i o n . For decades, i d e a l i s t i c A u s t r a l i a n s had f a i t h f u l l y h e l d t o the b e l i e f t h a t the new e r a was t h e i r s a l o n e t o i n a u g u r a t e . However, O'Dowd summed up the f e e l i n g p r e v a l e n t i n the y e a r s j u s t p r i o r t o the o u t b r e a k o f World War I when he b i t t e r l y a p p r a i s e d the p r e s e n t and p o s i t e d what he c a l l e d " H y - B r a s i l " i n the a g a i n - d i s t a n t f u t u r e : Where i s A u s t r a l i a , s i n g e r , do you know? These s o r d i d farms and j o y l e s s f a c t o r i e s , M e p h i t i c mines and l a n e s of p a l l i d woe? Those u g l y towns and c i t i e s such as t h e s e W i t h i n c e n s e s i c k t o a l l unworthy power, And a l l o l d s i n i n f u l l m a l i g n a n t f l o w e r ? No! t o her bourn her c h i l d r e n s t i l l a r e f a r i n g : She i s a Temple t h a t we a r e t o b u i l d : For her the ages have been long p r e p a r i n g : She i s a prophecy t o be f u l f i l l e d ! 2 ^ In D e m o c r a t i c V i s t a s ( 1 871), a d i s i l l u s i o n e d Whitman a t t a c k e d the v a l u e s o f contemporary A m e r i c a , p u b l i c i z i n g the gap between the r e a l and h i s i d e a l A m e r i c a : "Today, ahead, though d i m l y y e t , we see, 495 i n v i s t a s , a c o p i o u s , sane, g i g a n t i c o f f s p r i n g . For our New World I c o n s i d e r f a r l e s s i m p o r t a n t f o r what i t has done, and what i t i s , 29 than f o r the r e s u l t s t o come." So too O'Dowd, l i k e Harpur b e f o r e him, s t r u g g l e d t o come t o terms w i t h h i s e q u a l l y f o r m i d a b l e c o n c e p t s o f p r e s e n t and f u t u r e A u s t r a l i a . In " P o e t r y M i l i t a n t " (1909), he s t r e s s e d the need f o r the A u s t r a l i a n poet o f the f u t u r e t o be o r i g i n a l , a s e e r and "an Answerer, as Whitman c a l l s him, of the r e a l q u e s t i o n s 30 o f h i s age. . . ." W r i t t e n about the same time as The Bush and b e g i n n i n g w i t h the a s s e r t i o n t h a t he l i v e d " i n a community h y p n o t i z e d 31 by c o m m e r c i a l i s m , " the a d d r e s s i s s e m i n a l . Not o n l y does i t l i n k him c l o s e l y w i t h Harpur, whose 1859 l e c t u r e , "The N a t u r e and O f f i c e o f P o e t r y , " d e a l t w i t h a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l themes, but i t seems a f i t t i n g s y m b o l i c c o n c l u s i o n t o a p e r i o d o f w i d e s p r e a d a c t i v i t y between A u s t r a l i a n and American w r i t e r s . Throughout the d i s c o u r s e , O'Dowd r e c a l l s 32 Whitman's s e n t i m e n t s . Indeed, he c o n c l u d e s by q u o t i n g the l a s t two s t a n z a s o f "Song o f the Answerer": The words o f the t r u e poems g i v e you more than poems, They g i v e you t o form f o r y o u r s e l f poems, r e l i g i o n s , p o l i t i c s , war, peace, b e h a v i o u r , h i s t o r i e s , e s s a y s , d a i l y l i f e , and e v e r y t h i n g e l s e , They b a l a n c e r a n k s , c o l o u r s , r a c e s , c r e e d s , and the s e x e s , They do not seek b e a u t y , they a r e sought, F o r e v e r t o u c h i n g them, o r c l o s e upon them f o l l o w s b e a u t y , l o n g i n g , f a i n , l o v e - s i c k . They p r e p a r e f o r d e a t h , y e t a r e they not the f i n i s h , but r a t h e r the o u t s e t ; They b r i n g none t o h i s o r her t e r m i n u s , o r t o be c o n t e n t and fu11; Whom they t a k e , they t a k e i n t o space, t o b e h o l d the b i r t h o f s t a r s , t o l e a r n one o f the meanings, To l a u n c h o f f w i t h a b s o l u t e f a i t h , t o sweep through the c e a s e - l e s s r i n g s , and never be q u i e t again.33 From a t l e a s t as e a r l y as 1870 t o the b e g i n n i n g o f World War I, Whitman e x e r t e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r s - - a m o n g them, O'Dowd, Thomas Bury, W i l l i a m Gay, F r a n c i s Adams, Thomas Heney 34 and John Le Gay B r e r e t o n . A l l a p p r e c i a t e d h i s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m , 35 s p i r i t e d n a t i o n a l i s m , humanism and i r r e p r e s s i b l e o p t i m i s m . Whitman was, f o r many A u s t r a l i a n s , the g r e a t Democrat. In J u l y , 1883, the Bu11et i n l a b e l l e d him "more than a w r i t e r o f m y s t i c runes--he i s a g r e a t - h e a r t e d man, who l o v e s h i s c o u n t r y and h i s countrymen, and the 36 whole w o r l d , w i t h an undying l o v e . " But perhaps John Le Gay B r e r e t o n (1871-1933) g r a s p e d the n a t u r e o f the A u s t r a l i a n response t o Whitman more a b l y than any o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s when he s a i d t h a t the American 37 poet was " t h o r o u g h l y imbued w i t h the p r i n c i p l e o f UNIONISM. . . ." In the A u s t r a l i a n i m a g i n a t i o n Whitman c r o s s e d b a r r i e r s , f o r he was a c e l e b r a t e d poet w i t h a p r o f o u n d s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l awareness. O'Dowd made a number o f s p e c i f i c c l a i m s f o r him: he a s s e r t e d , most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h a t the w r i t i n g s o f h i s American "Comrade" encouraged the w o r l d - w i d e f o u n d i n g o f "an i n t e r n a l b r o t h e r h o o d movement"; he f e l t t h a t Whitman, more than any o t h e r p o e t , d i g n i f i e d " t h e common average man"; and he c e l e b r a t e d Whitman's n o t i o n o f the g r e a t e s t 38 c i t y h a v i n g the g r e a t e s t men and women. As O'Dowd put i t i n one o f h i s e a r l y l e c t u r e s (1891?) : Walt Whitman i s c e r t a i n l y f o r e m o s t among t h o s e whose aim i s t o b u i l d up the masses by b u i l d i n g up grand i n d i v i d u a l s , not o n l y grand moral and i n t e l l e c t u a l [ b e i n g s ] , but superb p h y s i c a l beings.39 497 In l a t e r y e a r s , a f t e r Whitman's d e a t h i n 1892, O'Dowd g a i n e d a more mature p e r s p e c t i v e on h i s own p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the American poet and on the d e s i r a b l e e x t e n t o f Whitman's e f f e c t on A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y and l i t e r a t u r e . He m a i n t a i n e d i n 1899 t h a t " w h i l e I don't say t h a t we must t a k e him as an A u s t r a l i a n B i b l e , I do say t h a t our hope o f d e m o c r a t i c s a l v a t i o n l i e s i n our e v o l v i n g f o r o u r s e l v e s and i n o u r s e l v e s an a t t i t u d e o f mind i n V i c t o r i a n m a t t e r s something s i m i l a r t o t h a t w h i c h i n s p i r e d Whitman i n h i s t r e a t m e n t o f American 40 m a t t e r s . " The exuberance and heat o f y o u t h had begun t o d i s a p p e a r . O'Dowd had grown more p r a g m a t i c , more c o n s c i o u s l y d o c t r i n a l , which was a p i t y because some e x t r a o r d i n a r y l i t e r a t u r e came out o f t h a t s h o r t but i n t o x i c a t i n g meeting. between A u s t r a l i a n y o u t h and i n n o c e n c e , and American age and e x p e r i e n c e , when O'Dowd and Whitman e n e r g e t i c a l l y compared notes i n the l a s t two y e a r s o f Whitman's l i f e . In t h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , the A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n r e a l l y blossoms. In h i s f i r s t l e t t e r (March 3, 1890) O'Dowd d e l i c a t e l y c h i d e d Whitman f o r c o n f i n i n g h i s "'Come, I w i l l make the c o n t i n e n t i n d i s s o l u b l e ' 41 t o A m e r i c a . " Whitman responded w i t h customary warmth, w i s h i n g " t o hear e v e r y t h i n g & a n y t h i n g a b ' t you a l l -- and ab't the A u s t r a l i a n bush S b i r d s and l i f e S t o i l & i d i o s y n c r a s i e s t h e r e -- £ how i t l o o k s -- and a l l the sheep work &c: you p l e a s e me more than you know by 42 g i v i n g such t h i n g s f u l l y -- w r i t e o f t e n as you f e e l t o £ can. . . ." And O'Dowd d i d w r i t e f r e q u e n t l y , t o u c h i n g on a wide v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s . The h i g h p o i n t i n the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e u n d o u b t e d l y o c c u r r e d when O'Dowd-- 498 the young poet's s e n s i b i l i t y r i s i n g t o the c h a l l e n g e o f a r t i c u l a t i n g the s t r a n g e and wondrous a f f i n i t y he f e l t w i t h h i s m e n t o i — g r a s p e d the s p e c i a l n a t u r e o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p by a c c l a i m i n g Whitman's ab i 1 i t y t o make t h o s e g r e a t [ A u s t r a l i a n ] gum t r e e s a r r a y themselves i n such new meanings f o r us. Our a m y g d a l i n e ( E u c a l y p t u s Amygdalina) once was your redwoods r i v a l , now each t o w e r i n g o v e r ; i t s n a t i v e f o r e s t w a f t s c o m r a d e - g r e e t i n g s t o the o t h e r , j o i n i n g i n t r e e - f a s h i o n "hands a c r o s s the sea.n i>3 Whitman, i n t u r n , d e l i g h t e d t h a t h i s " m i s s i v e s " had " s t r u c k deep" i n t o the h e a r t s of e n t h u s i a s t i c A u s t r a l i a n democrats, responded i n n o w - f a m i l i a r terms by s a y i n g : "I w r i t e t o you as an e l d e r b r o t h e r 44 might t o the young b r o ' s & s i s t e r s . . . ." The s t a t e m e n t i s ; r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ; he sums up a c e n t u r y o f A u s t r a l i a n / A m e r i c a n i n t e r - a c t i o n , s t r e s s i n g e q u a l i t y and the i n t i m a c y o f f a m i l y . Whitman l e f t a s u b s t a n t i a l l e g a c y t o O'Dowd and h i s "mates" i n the s o u t h . To be reminded o f i t , they o n l y had t o l o o k a t the t i t l e - p a g e o f any o f the e d i t i o n s o f Leaves o f Grass from the 1876 v e r s i o n t o the f i n a l " d e a t h - b e d " e d i t i o n (1891-2). S i g n i n g h i s name f o r the w o r l d , Whitman beckoned: Come, s a i d my Sou 1, Such v e r s e s f o r my Body l e t us w r i t e , ( f o r we a r e one,) That s h o u l d I a f t e r d e a t h i n v i s i b l y r e t u r n , Or, l o n g , l o n g hence, i n o t h e r s p h e r e s , There t o some group o f mates the c h a n t s resuming, ( T a l l y i n g E a r t h ' s s o i l , t r e e s , w i n d s , tumultuous waves,) Ever w i t h p l e a s ' d s m i l e I may' keep on, Ever and e v e r y e t the v e r s e s owning. . . .̂ 5 The v e r y language seemed u n c o n s c i o u s l y d i r e c t e d a t h i s A u s t r a l i a n b r o t h e r h o o d . CONCLUSION ENDNOTES ' John F a r r e l l , "No," i n How He D i e d and Other Poems (Sydney: T u r n e r and Henderson, 1887), p. 29. 2 See H.M. Green, H i s t o r y , I, 498-510. 3 B e r n a r d O'Dowd (1866-1953). 4 See above, c h a p t e r V.l i 5 Henry Lawson, "Eureka (A F r a g m e n t ) , " i n Poems (Sydney: John F e r g u s o n , 1979), P- 10. See I n g l i s , The A u s t r a l i a n C o l o n i s t s , pp. 205_6. 7 Bernard O'Dowd, "Walt Whitman: H i s Meaning t o V i c t o r i a n s - Democracy v. F e u d a l i s m , " The T o c s i n , A p r i l 13, 1899, r e p r i n t e d i n A.L. McLeod, ed., Walt Whitman i n A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d (Sydney: Wentworth P r e s s , 1964), pp. 110-111. Ruth Megaw, "The American Image i n A u s t r a l i a , " i n P a c i f i c C i rc1e 2, ed. Norman Harper ( S t . L u c i a , Queensland: U n i v . o f Queens- l a n d P r e s s , 1972), p. 73- • 9 See, f o r example, L.G. Churchward, "The American I n f l u e n c e on the A u s t r a l i a n Labour Movement," H i s t o r i c a l S t u d i e s , V, No. 19 (Nov. 1952), 258-77; Robin G o l l a n , "American P o p u l i s m and A u s t r a l i a n U t o p i a n i s m , " Labour H i s t o r y , No. 9 (Nov. 1965), 15"21; F. P i c a r d , 500 "Henry George and the Labour S p l i t o f 1891," H i s t o r i c a l S t u d i e s , V I , No. 21 (Nov. 1953), 45-63; B. M a n s f i e l d , "The Background t o R a d i c a l R e p u b l i c a n i s m i n New South Wales i n the E i g h t e e n - E i g h t i e s , " H i s t o r i c a l S t u d i e s , V, No. 20 (May 1953), 338-48; Gavin S o u t e r , A P e c u l i a r P e o p l e : A u s t r a l i a n s i n Paraguay (Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1968), pp. 16-19; Robin G o l l a n , "The A u s t r a l i a n Impact," i n Edward B e l l a m y A b r o a d , ed. S y l v i a E. Bowman (New York: Twayne, 1962), pp. 119-36; McLeod, passim. ^ See, f o r example, Grace Diana Ai1 wood-Keel, "Homespun E x o t i c : A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e , 1880-1910: A Study o f W r i t i n g i n A u s t r a l i a i n the ' N a t i o n a l i s t P e r i o d , ' w i t h P a r t i c u l a r Emphasis on Overseas I n f l u e n c e , " D i s s . U n i v . o f Sydney 1978, pp. 88-9, 287, 361-2, 374, 389-92; Coleman 0. Parsons,' "Mark Twain i n A u s t r a l i a , " A n t i o c h Review, X X I , No. 4 ( W i n t e r 1961.-2), 455-68; Joseph Furphy [Tom C o l l i n s ] , R i g b y ' s Romance (Broken H i l l , 1905-6; r p t . Sydney: Angus and R o b e r t s o n , 1946), pp. 8, 21, 70, 95, 129, 148, 210, 249; Lucy F r o s t , " T a k i n g Yankee D r o l l e r i e s S e r i o u s l y : B r e t H a r t e and Mark Twain," i n Amer i can S t u d i e s Down Under, ed. Norman Harper ( S t . L u c i a , Queensland: U n i v . o f Queensland P r e s s , 1976), pp. 126-42. 1 1 Lang, F u t u r e Amer i c a , p. 3- 1 2 Harpur, " F i n a l i t y , " i n M i t c h e l l , p. 77- 1 3 G o l l a n , " A u s t r a l i a n Impact," p. 123. 14 1 See C h a r l e s A l b r o B a r k e r , Henry George (New York: O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1965), Pp. 545"8, 674; McLeod, pp. 18-39; Churchward, "American I n f l u e n c e on the A u s t r a l i a n Labour Movement," pp. 259-61 ; 501 K e e l , p. 366; Henry George J r . , T h e L i f e of Henry George ( T o r o n t o : P o o l e P u b l i s h i n g , 1900), pp. 522-42; P a r s o n s , pp. 455-68. ' 5 Deniehy, " F r e d e r i c k R o b e r t s o n ' s L e c t u r e s , " S o u t h e r n C r o s s , November 12, 1859. 16 Lane, i n Boomerang, December 21, 1889, quoted i n P i c a r d , p. 47. See a l s o , s e c t i o n s on B e l l a m y and Gronlund i n Churchward, p. 259; G o l l a n , " A u s t r a l i a n Impact," p. 125; G o l l a n , "American P o p u l i s m , 1 p. 21. 17 Quoted i n P i c a r d , p. 48. 18 F a r r e l l , How He D i e d , p. 135. 19 Lang, i n Worker, August 7, 1890, quoted i n G o l l a n , " A u s t r a l i a n Impact," p. 132. 20 O'Dowd t o Whitman, March 12, 1890, quoted i n McLeod, p. 19. 21 See "Mr. Harpur's L e c t u r e , " Empi r e , October 3, 1859 - 2 2 " A u s t r a l i a ' s D e s t i n y , " B u i l e t i n , V I I I , No. 407 (Nov. 19, 1887) , 4. The e d i t o r i a l b e g i n s : " A u s t r a l i a i s a land o f u n l i m i t e d p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . Not a l o n e i n t h e f i n i t e space o f human i n t e r e s t which i n d u s t r y and commerce can measure, but i n the m a t t e r a l s o o f t h o s e h i g h e r and n o b l e r o b j e c t s i n which the a b s o l u t e h a p p i n e s s and r e l a t i v e freedom o f the human f a m i l y a r e c o m p r i s e d . " 23 See L e w i s , American Adam, p. 1. 24 Thomas Heney, "Ode i n Commemoration o f the Commencement o f the A u s t r a l i a n Epos," i n F o r t u n a t e Days (Sydney: T u r n e r and Henderson, 1886), p. 17. 502 2 5 F a r r e l l , "No," i n How He D i e d , pp. 3 2 - 3 - 26 0 1 Dowd 1 s f i r s t f i v e books were Dawnward? (Sydney: B u l l e t i n Newspaper Co., 1 9 0 3 ) ; The S i l e n t Land and o t h e r V e r s e s (Melbourne: L o t h i a n , 1 9 0 6 ) ; Dominions of the Boundary (Melbourne: L o t h i a n , 1 9 0 7 ) ; The Seven Deadly S i n s , a S e r i e s o f S o n n e t s , and o t h e r V e r s e s (Melbourne: L o t h i a n , 1 9 0 9 ) ; The Bush (Melbourne: L o t h i a n , 1 9 1 2 ) . 27 O'Dowd, " A u s t r a l i a , " i n The Poems o f Bernard O'Dowd (Melbourne: L o t h i a n , 1 9 4 1 ) , p. 3 5 . See a l s o , "Our Land," i n Poems, pp. 257~9- O'Dowd, "The Bush," i n Poems, p. 208. 2 9 Whitman, D e m o c r a t i c V i s t a s (1 8 7 1 ), i n P r o s e Works 1892, I I , 362. 30 O'Dowd, " P o e t r y M i l i t a n t , " i n Poems, p. 4 . 31 O'Dowd, i n Poems, p. 4 . 3 2 See Poems, pp. 4 , 9 , 28, 3 1 - 2 . 33 Quoted i n Poems, pp. 3 1 - 2. See Whitman, Leaves o f G r a s s , I, 143. 34 See, f o r example, Henry K e n d a l l , "Notes upon Men and Books-- Walt Whitman," Freeman's J o u r n a 1 , December 16, 1871, quoted i n L e o n i e Kramer and A.D. Hope, Kenda11 (Melbourne: Sun Books, 1 9 7 3 ) , PP- 9 6 - 1 0 3 ; McLeod, p a s s i m ; J o n e s , Rad i c a i Cous i ns; A i l w o o d - K e e l , pp. 4 6 9 - 8 5 ; E l l i o t t and M i t c h e l l , B a r d s , pp. 1 1 9 - 2 0 ; W i l l i a m Gay, Wa1t Whi tman: The Poet o f Democracy (Melbourne:.. E.A. P e t h e r i c k , 1 8 9 3 ) ; W i l l i a m Gay, Complete P o e t i c a l Works (Melbourne: L o t h i a n , 1 9 1 1 ) ; F r a n c i s W.L. Adams, Songs o f the Army of the N i g h t (Sydney: A u t h o r , 1 8 8 7 ) ; John Le Gay B r e r e t o n , The Song o f B r o t h e r h o o d , and Other V e r s e s (London: G. Al 1 en, 1896). 503 35 See, f o r example, McLeod, pp. 9-10, 19, 22, 25, 46, 71-2, 105. 3 6 B u i l e t i n , J u l y 14, 1883, quoted i n A i l w o o d - K e e l , * p . 469. 37 B r e r e t o n , " H i n t s on Walt Whitman's 'Leaves o f G r a s s , ' " Hermes, J u l y 25, August 14, 1894, quoted i n McLeod, p. 70. Quoted i n McLeod, pp. 23, 30, 42. See a l s o , pp. 28, 32, 97. 39 O'Dowd, "The D e m o c r a t i c Idea i n Whitman's Works" (1891?), quoted i n McLeod, p. 42. 40 O'Dowd, "Walt Whitman: H i s Meaning t o V i c t o r i a n s - - D e m o c r a c y v. F e u d a l i sm," Toes i n , A p r i l 13, 1899, quoted i n McLeod, p. 113. See a l s o , p. 141. 41 O'Dowd t o Whitman, March 12, 1890, quoted i n McLeod, p. 20. 42 Whitman t o O'Dowd, October 3, 1890, quoted i n McLeod, p. 26. 43 O'Dowd t o Whitman, September 1, 1890, quoted i n McLeod, p. 24. 44 Whitman t o O'Dowd, October 3, 1890, quoted i n McLeod, p. 27. 45 Whi tman, Leaves o f G r a s s , I I I , opp. 650. 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