THE PEOPLE'S VOICE: 
THE ROLE OF AUDIENCE IN 

THE POPULAR POEMS OF LONGFELLOW AND TENNYSON 

By 

AVRIL DIANE TORRENCE 

B.A., Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y , 1981 
M. A., The U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o , 1983 

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF 

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

i n 

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES 

(The Department o f E n g l i s h ) 

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g 

t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d 

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA 

October 1991 

©Avril Diane T o r r e n c e , 1991 



In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced 

degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it 

freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive 

copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my 

department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or 

publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written 

permission. 

Department of & Ll S H 

The University of British Columbia 
Vancouver, Canada 

Date Z>£. JO 

DE-6 (2/88) 



ABSTRACT 

A t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e i r p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h 

c e n t u r y , a v a s t t r a n s a t l a n t i c r e a d e r s h i p c o n f e r r e d on 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson t h e t i t l e "The P e o p l e ' s P o e t . " 

T h i s e x a m i n a t i o n o f A n g l o - A m e r i c a n V i c t o r i a n p o e t r y a t t e m p t s 

t o a c c o u n t f o r t h a t phenomenon. 

A p o e t i c work i s f i r s t d e f i n e d as an a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e 

t h a t o c c u r s w i t h i n a t r i a n g u l a r m a t r i x o f t e x t , a u t h o r , and 

r e a d e r . As r e c e p t i o n t h e o r i s t Hans R o b e r t J a u s s c o n t e n d s , 

b o t h t h e c r e a t o r ' s and t h e r e c e p t o r ' s a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s 

a r e f i l t e r e d t h r o u g h a h i s t o r i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d " h o r i z o n o f 

e x p e c t a t i o n s " t h a t g o v e r n s p o p u l a r a p p e a l . 

A h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n and p r o m o t i o n o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o e t r y p r o v i d e s e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e 

f o r how and why t h e i r p o e t i c t e x t s a p p e a l e d t o a w i d e s p r e a d 

r e a d e r s h i p . T h i s a c c o u n t i s f o l l o w e d by an a n a l y s i s o f t h e 

c l a s s and gender o f V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s o f p o e t r y t h a t c o n s i d e r s 

t h e r o l e o f "consumers" i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f b o t h p o e t r y and 

p o e t i c p e r s o n a e as c o m m o d i t i e s f o r p u b l i c c o n s u m p t i o n . 

The development o f each p o e t ' s v o i c e i s t h e n examined i n a 

c o n t e x t o f a gendered " s e p a r a t e - s p h e r e " i d e o l o g y t o e x p l a i n 

how b o t h L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's a d o p t i o n o f " f e m i n i n e " 

cadences i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e v o i c e s i n f l u e n c e d t h e n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y r e c e p t i o n o f t h e i r work. 



The f i n a l two c h a p t e r s a n a l y z e s e l e c t t e x t s — l y r i c and 

n a r r a t i v e — t o d e t e r m i n e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r p o p u l a r a p p e a l i n 

r e l a t i o n t o t h e l e v e l o f a c t i v e r e a d e r engagement i n t h e 

p o e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . Through a f f e c t i v e l y r i c i s m , as i n 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s "Psalm o f L i f e " and Tennyson's "Break, b r e a k , 

b r e a k , " t h e s e p o e t s demanded t h a t t h e i r r e a d e r s l i s t e n ; 

t h r o u g h s e n t i m e n t t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o d o m e s t i c a l l e g o r y , as i n 

M i l e s S t a n d i s h and Enoch Arden. t h e s e p o e t s demanded f u r t h e r 

t h a t t h e y f e e l . 

W h i l e b o t h V i c t o r i a n p o e t s were l a t e r d e c a n o n i z e d by t h e i r 

modern s u c c e s s o r s , contemporary c r i t i c s , m a i n l y academic, have 

r e s t o r e d Tennyson t o t h e l i t e r a r y canon w h i l e r e l e g a t i n g 

L o n g f e l l o w t o a s e c o n d - r a t e s c h o o l r o o m s t a t u s . The c o n c l u s i o n 

s p e c u l a t e s on t h e p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s u n d e r l y i n g t h e d i s p a r a t e 

r e p u t a t i o n s a s s i g n e d t o t h e two p o e t s , b o t h o f whom, d u r i n g 

t h e i r l i f e t i m e s , s h a r e d e q u a l l y t h e fame and f o r t u n e t h a t 

a t t e n d e d t h e i r r o l e as "The P e o p l e ' s V o i c e . " 



i v 

CONTENTS 

A b s t r a c t i i 

Acknowledgements v 

I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 

One: " F o o t p r i n t s on t h e Sands o f Time": The Emergence 
o f P o p u l a r P o e t r y , i n t h e V i c t o r i a n P e r i o d .... 42 

1. P o e t r y and P o p u l a r C u l t u r e 42 
2. P o e t s and T h e i r B i b l i o g r a p h i e s : L o n g f e l l o w 49 
3. P o e t s and T h e i r B i b l i o g r a p h i e s : Tennyson ... 78 
4. Caveat L e c t o r : The Reader and t h e P o e t 135 

Two: The B i r t h and A d o l e s c e n c e o f t h e P o e t i c V o i c e : 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s "New" England i n A m e r i c a 184 

Three: Tennyson and t h e B i r t h o f a Legend 247 

F o u r : Tennyson and t h e A d o l e s c e n c e o f a V o i c e 3 07 

F i v e : The N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y P o p u l a r L y r i c 405 

S i x : The N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y P o p u l a r N a r r a t i v e Poem . 468 

C o n c l u s i o n 54 3 

Works C i t e d 563 

A p p e n d i c e s 589 



V 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

L i v i n g n e a r l y a t h o u s a n d m i l e s from Vancouver and t e a c h i n g 
c o l l e g e f u l l t i m e , I have had t o r e l y on many p e o p l e i n many 
d i f f e r e n t ways o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f w r i t i n g t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . 
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o t a l l o f them can be acknowledged by name. 
However, I do w i s h t o t h a n k t h o s e who a s s i s t e d i n t h e f i n a l 
s t a g e s . 

I am g r a t e f u l t o each member o f my f a m i l y and each f r i e n d and 
c o l l e a g u e who has encouraged me t o c o n t i n u e my s c h o l a r l y 
p u r s u i t s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , E m i l y gave me e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t and a 
much-needed second home i n Vancouver. When I t u r n e d my home i n 
C a l g a r y i n t o a w o r k p l a c e , my f r i e n d , c o l l e a g u e , and roommate, 
J a n e , worked a s s i d u o u s l y t o o f f e r v a l u a b l e c r i t i c i s m and a d v i c e 
b u t , more i m p o r t a n t l y , c a r e and c o m f o r t . My h e a r t ' s companion, 
N e i l , made even t h e most m e n i a l o f c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d t a s k s w o r t h 
d o i n g . 

I a l s o want t o t h a n k each member o f my committee, Dr Fredeman, 
Dr Q u a r t e r m a i n , and Dr Johnson who o f f e r e d u n i q u e encouragements 
and a s s i s t a n c e . I am e s p e c i a l l y i n d e b t e d to. Dr Fredeman f o r 
b e i n g a t h o r o u g h r e a d e r , a g r a c i o u s s c h o l a r , and a most generous 
h o s t . 

T h i s work i s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e memory o f my mother. 



1 

INTRODUCTION 

C r i t i c s "cannot s t o p w i t h s t u d y i n g p o e t r y , [ t h e y ] must a l s o 
s t u d y p o e t i c s . . . . Theory, w h i c h i s e x p e c t a t i o n , a l w a y s 
d e t e r m i n e s c r i t i c i s m , and n e v e r more t h a n when i t i s 
u n c o n s c i o u s . The r e p u t e d c o n d i t i o n o f n o - t h e o r y i n t h e 
c r i t i c ' s mind i s i l l u s o r y , and a dangerous t h i n g i n t h i s 
o c c u p a t i o n , w h i c h demands t h e utmost g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , 
i n c l u d i n g p e r f e c t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . " — John Crowe Ransom 
(The W o r l d ' s Body 173-4) 

The t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y , however 

i m p e r f e c t l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s i n Ransom's t e r m s , a r e grounded i n 

t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t a l i t e r a r y work i s an a c t i v i t y , a " d o i n g " 

i n v o l v i n g a t r i a n g u l a r m a t r i x c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e t e x t , t h e 

a u t h o r , and t h e r e a d e r r a t h e r t h a n an autonomous " b e i n g " u n t o 

i t s e l f , d i v o r c e d from a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n o r t h e r e c e p t i o n o f 

i t s r e a d e r s . Any s t u d y o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o p u l a r 

v e r s e must t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t b o t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n and r e c e p t i o n 

o f t h e i r p o e t r y i f t h e i r " p o p u l a r i t y " i s t o be p r o p e r l y 

u n d e r s t o o d . 

W h i l e a poem may c r e a t e a t y p e o f meaning s o l e l y t h r o u g h 

r e f e r e n c e t o i t s e l f — i t s imagery, s t r u c t u r e , rhyme, and rhythm 

— a s an autonomous p r e s e n t a t i o n as "poem" on a page, 

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s k i n d i s s u e s , a t b e s t , from o n l y t h e f i r s t 

l e g , t h e t e x t , o f t h e t r i a n g u l a r m a t r i x . More i m p o r t a n t l y , 

s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l t e x t u a l r e a d i n g s assume a u n i v e r s a l i t y o f 

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n based on t h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e words i n 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s "A P s a l m o f L i f e " mean t o d a y e x a c t l y what t h e y 

d i d i n 1839, and f o r any c l a s s , gender, o r n a t i o n a l i t y o f 



2 

r e a d e r s . The a r r o g a n c e o f such an a s s u m p t i o n need n o t be 

a d d r e s s e d h e r e ; what s h o u l d be mentioned i s t h e way i n w h i c h a 

poem's presumed autonomy and u n i v e r s a l i t y o f r e c e p t i o n have 

l e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y canons w h i c h have, i n many 

c a s e s , s e r i o u s l y d i s t o r t e d t h e l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d . By 

r e j e c t i n g f o r s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n p o e t r y w h i c h seems not t o 

c o n f o r m t o p r e s c r i b e d n o t i o n s o f autonomous s i g n i f i c a n c e , 

c r i t i c s o f t e n e s t a b l i s h l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i e s a t odds w i t h t h e 

l i v e d s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f t h e p e r i o d s t h e s e 

h i s t o r i e s a r e d e s i g n e d t o " r e f l e c t . " The p r o b l e m l i e s n o t so 

much w i t h t h e c a n o n i z e d t e x t s t h e m s e l v e s , n o r even i n t h e 

methods u s e d t o s t u d y them, b u t r a t h e r i n t h e subsequent c l a i m 

t h a t c a n o n i z e d t e x t s w i t h autonomous meaning r e p r e s e n t 

l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y . 

S i m i l a r l y , W.K. Wimsatt's h y p o s t a t i z i n g o f t h e poem as 

v e r b a l i c o n , i n h i s work o f t h e same name, has l e d t o a h a s t y 

d i s r e g a r d f o r a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n as a r e c o g n i z a b l e f e a t u r e i n 

t h e l i t e r a r y work. S i n c e p r o f e s s i o n a l , s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l 

f o r c e s a f f e c t an a u t h o r ' s c h o i c e s o f m a t e r i a l and t e c h n i q u e 

and n e c e s s a r i l y d e t e r m i n e , t o some e x t e n t , t h e l i t e r a r y 

r e s u l t , r e a d i n g s t h a t i g n o r e t h e a u t h o r r e i n f o r c e t h e i d e a o f 

l i t e r a t u r e as a h i s t o r i c a l . I n t h e c a s e o f L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson, b o t h t h e " a f f e c t i v e f a l l a c y " and t h e " i n t e n t i o n a l 

f a l l a c y " have had d e l e t e r i o u s consequences f o r a f u l l 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r most p o p u l a r poems, w h i c h a r e r e g a r d e d 



3 

as l i t t l e more t h a n o u t r i g h t p a n d e r i n g s t o t h e supposedly-

p u e r i l e l i t e r a r y t a s t e s o f t h e V i c t o r i a n m i d d l e c l a s s e s . 

The t y p e o f c r i t i c i s m t h a t c o n t i n u e s t o d i s t o r t s t u d e n t s ' 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Tennyson and e s p e c i a l l y o f L o n g f e l l o w as 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t s stems l a r g e l y from I.A. R i c h a r d s ' s 

P r a c t i c a l C r i t i c i s m . 1 W h i l e l i t e r a r y judgment i t s e l f i s not 

a l w a y s and a b s o l u t e l y an i n v a l i d e n t e r p r i s e , i m p o s i n g 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a e s t h e t i c s on n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t r y so 

as t o v a l i d a t e i t s i n c l u s i o n o r e x c l u s i o n from s e r i o u s 

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e v e r e l y l i m i t s s t u d e n t s ' a b i l i t i e s t o 

u n d e r s t a n d l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y as e v o l v i n g o u t o f and a l o n g w i t h 

s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l f o r c e s . Moreover, i n h i s a t t e m p t t o 

e s t a b l i s h a p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f 

l i t e r a t u r e , R i c h a r d s p l a c e s undue emphasis on t h e t e x t as an 

i s o l a t e d t e c h n i c a l a r t i f a c t , and t o o r e a d i l y d i s r e g a r d s t h e 

v a r i e t y o f r e a d e r s ' r e s p o n s e s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t 

o f meaning. F o r R i c h a r d s , p o e t r y must n o t be v i o l a t e d by 

i d i o s y n c r a t i c p e r s o n a l " i n t r u s i o n s " ; r e s p o n s e s "must be 

g e n u i n e and r e l e v a n t , and must r e s p e c t t h e l i b e r t y and 

autonomy o f t h e poem" ( 2 7 7 ) . A g a i n , t h i s emphasis on p o e t i c 

autonomy does l i t t l e t o e x p l a i n a p o p u l a r i t y so p r o f o u n d t h a t 

r e a d e r s were w i l l i n g t o exchange L o n g f e l l o w ' s o r Tennyson's 

1 R i c h a r d s ' s e x p e r i m e n t w i t h s t u d e n t r e s p o n s e s t o 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s " I n t h e C h u r c h y a r d a t Cambridge" p r o d u c e d a 92% 
r e j e c t i o n v o t e ; L o n g f e l l o w ' s poem was by f a r t h e most d i s l i k e d 
o f t h e works t h e y c r i t i c i z e d ( 1 6 3 ) . 



4 

work f o r t h e B i b l e w i t h no l o s s o f h e r m e n e u t i c v a l u e . S e r i o u s 

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p o p u l a r poems must, o f n e c e s s i t y , e n t a i l 

e x p l i c a t i o n o f t h e m a n i f o l d f e a t u r e s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e c o n t e x t s 

o u t o f w h i c h and i n t o w h i c h l i t e r a r y t e x t s move and o p e r a t e . 

A f u r t h e r o b j e c t i o n t o R i c h a r d s ' s P r a c t i c a l C r i t i c i s m i s 

i t s u n s t a t e d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t o n l y c r i t i c i s m o f t h e k i n d he 

d e m o n s t r a t e s i s " p r a c t i c a l , " t h a t i s , i n t h e sense o f t h e term 

a p p a r e n t l y n o t i n t e n d e d by R i c h a r d s b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s i m p l i c i t , 

" u s e f u l o r a v a i l a b l e i n p r a c t i c e " t o r e a d e r s (OED). The 

i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t r e a d i n g s w h i c h s t r a y from t h e t e x t t o t r y 

t o a c c o u n t h i s t o r i c a l l y f o r r e a d e r s and a u t h o r s a r e 

" i m p r a c t i c a l " and, more s e r i o u s l y , n o t " u s e f u l " t o a c r i t i c a l 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i t e r a t u r e . A l t h o u g h R i c h a r d s does n o t 

o v e r t l y e x p r e s s t h e above meaning i n h i s use o f t h e t e r m , 

subsequent a p p l i c a t i o n s o f " p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m " have r e n d e r e d 

i t i n e v i t a b l e . As a p p l i e d by R i c h a r d s ' s f o l l o w e r s , h i s t o r i c a l 

d i s c u s s i o n s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l , s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l 

c i r c u m s t a n c e s a f f e c t i n g a poem's p r o d u c t i o n by i t s a u t h o r o r 

o f t h e i m p a c t v a r i o u s a u d i e n c e s have had upon i t s o r i g i n a l 

i n c e p t i o n and subsequent r e c e p t i o n o v e r t i m e a r e i r r e l e v a n t . 

A d m i t t e d l y , t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f a c t u a l e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t 

r e a d i n g s w h i c h t r y t o a c c o u n t e q u a l l y f o r i n c e p t i o n and 

r e c e p t i o n as c o - p r o d u c e r s o f t h e l i t e r a r y work w i l l o f t e n 

d i c t a t e t h e " p r a c t i c a l i t y " o f such e n t e r p r i s e s . Moreover, 

c r i t i c s ' own b i a s e s w i l l , t o some d e g r e e , d e t e r m i n e t h e 

f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l s deemed r e l e v a n t and w i l l , t o a g r e a t e r 



5 

d e g r e e , a f f e c t t h e u s e s t o w h i c h t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i s p u t . 

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e s h o r t c o m i n g s s h o u l d n o t d i s s u a d e c r i t i c s 

from a t t e m p t i n g t o p r e s e n t t h e f u l l e s t p o s s i b l e r e a d i n g s 

a v a i l a b l e t o them. On t h e c o n t r a r y , i f c r i t i c s t h o u g h t o f 

" p r a c t i c a l " c r i t i c i s m i n a d i f f e r e n t sense as r e a d i n g s w h i c h 

a r e w h o l l y p r a c t i c a l o r a v a i l a b l e , t h e n a s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l 

r e a d i n g o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n and t h e r e c e p t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

and Tennyson's p o p u l a r p o e t r y would be e n t i r e l y c o n s i s t e n t 

w i t h t h e u t i l i t a r i a n n a t u r e o f p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m as i t i s 

more g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d . 

A t t h e same t i m e , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h i s s t u d y 

o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o p u l a r p o e t r y i s n o t e x a c t l y 

s t a b l e o r f i x e d because i t i s a s i t e o f c o n f l u e n c e and 

c o n f l i c t i n v o l v i n g d i v e r g e n t c u l t u r a l t h e o r i e s more t h a n i t i s 

formed by one s p e c i f i c l i t e r a r y t h e o r y p e r s e . These i n c l u d e 

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l approaches t o l i t e r a t u r e , v a r i o u s forms o f 

r e c e p t i o n t h e o r y , and d i v e r s e s t r a i n s o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e 

t h e o r y from b o t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and B r i t a i n . T o g e t h e r , 

t h e s e t h e o r i e s a l o n e m i g h t have c o n s t i t u t e d a s u f f i c i e n t b a s i s 

f o r s p e c u l a t i o n about p o e t i c p o p u l a r i t y i n g e n e r a l were i t n o t 

t h a t , f o r t h e most p a r t , t h e o r i s t s i n each o f t h e s e t h r e e 

a r e a s t e n d t o d i s r e g a r d t h e g e n d e r - s p e c i f i c r o l e o f women 

w i t h i n t h e t r i a n g u l a r m a t r i x o f t h e t e x t , t h e a u t h o r , and i t s 

r e a d e r s . To s t u d y t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson, 

i g n o r i n g t h e i n h e r e n t d i f f e r e n c e s between women and men, b o t h 

as members o f a h i s t o r i c a l l y s i t u a t e d r e a d i n g a u d i e n c e , and as 



6 

p a r t i c i p a n t s i n p o p u l a r c u l t u r e i n h i b i t s any a c c u r a t e 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how p o e t r y t h a t i s " c r i t i c a l l y " d i s d a i n e d i n 

t h i s c e n t u r y was n o n e t h e l e s s f u n d a m e n t a l t o n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

c u l t u r a l f u l f i l m e n t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , f e m i n i s t t h e o r i e s t h a t 

s i t u a t e l i t e r a t u r e w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l m i l i e u 

i n f o r m i n g A n g l o - A m e r i c a n , n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y women's 

e x p e r i e n c e s as w r i t e r s and r e a d e r s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y 

t o a v o i d what m i g h t o t h e r w i s e have p r o d u c e d t o o narrow a 

t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p o e t i c p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e 

V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d . A l t h o u g h s e e m i n g l y d i s p a r a t e , a l l o f t h e s e 

t h e o r i e s — i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f f e m i n i s t s — d o c o n v e r g e a t p o i n t s 

where t h e a c t i v i t y o f r e c e p t o r s becomes t h e f o c u s o f 

d i s c o u r s e s i n v o l v i n g t h e c r e a t i o n o f meaning and, f o r p o p u l a r 

c u l t u r a l t h e o r i s t s , i n v o l v i n g t h e degree t o w h i c h t h e p o p u l a c e 

p a r t i c i p a t e s i n , r a t h e r t h a n m e r e l y a c c e p t s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n 

o f i t s c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s by an e l i t e c u l t u r e . 

Phenomenology p l a y s a l e s s e r r o l e t h a n o t h e r t h e o r i e s i n 

t h i s c a s e because o f i t s t e n d e n c y t o d e h i s t o r i c i z e t h e r e a d i n g 

s u b j e c t and p r i v i l e g e t h e t e x t as o b j e c t i v e phenomenon. Works 

s u c h as George P o u l e t ' s "Phenomenology o f R e a d i n g " and 

Wolfgang I s e r ' s "The R e a d i n g P r o c e s s : A P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l 

A p p r o a c h , " o r h i s f u l l - l e n g t h s t u d y , The A c t o r R e a d i n g : a  

Theory o f A e s t h e t i c Response, w h i l e t h e y o b v i o u s l y c o n c e r n 

r e a d e r s , c o n c e n t r a t e on p r o c e s s e s o f r e a d i n g w h i c h r e q u i r e t h e 

s u s p e n s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t i v i t y and s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e 

c o n v o l u t i o n s o f t h e t e x t . Hence any p o t e n t i a l " r o l e " f o r t h e 



7 

a u d i e n c e t o p l a y i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f meaning i s m i n i m i z e d . 

J a n i c e Radway's "Phenomenology, L i n g u i s t i c s , and P o p u l a r 

L i t e r a t u r e , " on t h e o t h e r hand, does make some c o n c e s s i o n s t o 

t h e phenomenon o f d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f r e a d i n g a c t i v i t y i n an 

a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n why c e r t a i n t e x t s a r e p o p u l a r and o t h e r s 

a r e n o t . But Radway a l s o g r a n t s o b j e c t i v e a u t h o r i t y t o t e x t s , 

t o what M e r l e a u - P o n t y i n t h e Phenomenology o f P e r c e p t i o n 

d e f i n e s as two s e p a r a t e u s e s o f l a n g u a g e : c r e a t i v e and 

e m p i r i c a l (Radway 3 0 ) . She s p e c u l a t e s t h a t e l i t e ( c r e a t i v e ) 

l i t e r a t u r e "deforms" r e a d e r e x p e c t a t i o n w h i l e p o p u l a r 

( e m p i r i c a l ) l i t e r a t u r e , because i t i s c o n v e n t i o n a l , can be 

p e n e t r a t e d and i s t h e r e f o r e t r a n s p a r e n t o r r e f e r e n t i a l . Such 

a d i c h o t o m y n o t o n l y f a i l s t o a c c o u n t f o r t e x t s t h a t , 

s e e m i n g l y d e f o r m a t i v e , a c h i e v e enormous p o p u l a r i t y ( o r v i c e 

v e r s a ) , b u t a l s o d i s r e g a r d s r e a d e r s whose l e v e l s o f l i t e r a r y 

e x p e c t a t i o n d i f f e r a c c o r d i n g t o h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f 

c l a s s , gender, and l i t e r a r y awareness, b u t who n o n e t h e l e s s 

a s s i s t o r h i n d e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a t e x t becoming p o p u l a r . 

Thus, when Radway l a t e r a p p l i e s h e r t h e o r y o f c r e a t i v e v e r s u s 

e m p i r i c a l t e x t s i n one o f t h e o n l y t h e o r e t i c a l a r t i c l e s on 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r p o e t r y , e n t i t l e d " V e r s e 

2 M e r l e a u - P o n t y ' s c o n c e p t o f " d e f o r m i n g " language i n 
o r d e r t o a c h i e v e c r e a t i v i t y p a r a l l e l s t h e R u s s i a n f o r m a l i s t 
V i c t o r S h k l o v s k y ' s n o t i o n o f " d e f a m i l i a r i z a t i o n " i n " A r t as 
T e c h n i q u e . " That c r e a t i v i t y i n h e r e s i n d i s r u p t e d r a t h e r t h a n 
r e w a r d e d e x p e c t a t i o n i s f a m i l i a r as w e l l t o New C r i t i c s who 
a s c r i b e v a l u e t o n e g a t i v e a e s t h e t i c s , t h a t i s l i t e r a t u r e a l i e n 
t o t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l communities from w h i c h i t d e r i v e s . 



8 

and P o p u l a r P o e t r y , " she c o n f l a t e s p o e t s as d i s t i n c t as L y d i a 

S i g o u r n e y and W i l l i a m C u l l e n B r y a n t as s u p p l i e r s o f r e a d e r s ' 

demands, w i t h l i t t l e o r no c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e u n i q u e r o l e s 

t h a t each p o e t p l a y e d i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f v a r i o u s r e a d e r 

e x p e c t a t i o n s . The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t , s t r u c t u r a l l y , 

i d e a t i o n a l l y , o r t e c h n i c a l l y , t h e s e p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o e t s 

were, a l b e i t i n d i f f e r e n t ways, " c r e a t i v e l y " i n t r o d u c i n g 

p o e t i c forms and c o n c e p t s new t o t h e i r f l e d g l i n g A m e r i c a n 

a u d i e n c e s does n o t u s u a l l y e n t e r i n t o d i s c u s s i o n s , even o f 

p o p u l a r f o r m s , t h a t p r i v i l e g e t h e t e x t o v e r t h e i n t e r a c t i v e 

p r o c e s s o f t e x t and r e a d e r . 

R e c e p t i o n t h e o r y , t o some e x t e n t , c o u n t e r s t h e d i c h o t o m y 

t h a t p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s such as Radway pose t h r o u g h a h i s t o r i c a l 

r e v a l u a t i o n o f r e a d e r s . I n t h i s a r e a , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l work o f 

Hans R o b e r t J a u s s has been most i n f l u e n t i a l . A v a i l a b l e t o 

Wolfgang I s e r , b e s i d e s b e i n g a p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t , i s a l s o 
f e l t t o be one o f N o r t h A m e r i c a ' s l e a d i n g r e c e p t i o n t h e o r i s t s . 
As s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , a t h o r o u g h e x p l i c a t i o n o f I s e r ' s t h e o r y 
o f r e a d i n g i s found i n h i s The A c t o f R e a d i n g : A Theory o f  
A e s t h e t i c Response. However, t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t two r e a s o n s 
why, when a p p l i e d t o I s e r , " r e c e p t i o n t h e o r i s t " seems t o be a 
misnomer: h i s p a r a d i g m o f t h e " i m p l i e d r e a d e r " i n t h e t e x t 
e f f e c t i v e l y removes t h e r e a d e r from t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t o f 
h e r o r h i s l i t e r a r y e x p e r i e n c e ; and h i s f o c u s on a n e g a t i v e 
a e s t h e t i c s , t h e " n e g a t i o n " o f e l e m e n t s w h i c h t h e r e a d e r must 
t h e n s e a r c h f o r t o s u p p l y meaning, e s s e n t i a l l y e l i m i n a t e s t h e 
p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e a d e r s a t i s f a c t i o n h a v i n g a p o s i t i v e v a l u e . 
Hence, what I s e r would c a l l " l i g h t " r e a d i n g — t h e p o p u l a r — i s 
c a s t o f f as p a s s i v e c o n s u m p t i o n , o r worse, u n e n j o y a b l e . 
R e c e p t i o n , f o r I s e r , i s a v e r y l i m i t e d , e l i t i s t phenomenon. 
R o b e r t H o l u b has l e v e l l e d s i m i l a r c r i t i c i s m s a g a i n s t I s e r i n 
h i s R e c e p t i o n Theory: A C r i t i c a l I n t r o d u c t i o n ( 9 4 - 9 ) . 
A d d i t i o n a l l y , one o f t h e problems w i t h I s e r ' s work f o r a s t u d y 
s u c h as t h i s o f p o p u l a r p o e t r y i s t h a t he d e a l s a l m o s t 
e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h f i c t i o n , d r a w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s about r e a d e r s 
based on l e v e l s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i t h n a r r a t i v e s . H i s work 



9 

N o r t h A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s i n 1974 i n a s e m i n a l e s s a y , " L i t e r a r y 

H i s t o r y as a C h a l l e n g e t o L i t e r a r y Theory," J a u s s ' s work t a k e s 

up t h e " u n r e s o l v e d d i s p u t e between t h e M a r x i s t and f o r m a l i s t 

s c h o o l s " ( 1 1 ) ; i t p o s i t s r e a d e r a c t i v i t y o v e r t i m e , a 
4 

h i s t o r i c a l v i e w o f a work's " h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s " ( 1 6 ) , 

as a p o t e n t i a l b r i d g e between t h e s e o p p o s i n g s c h o o l s . J a u s s 

v i e w s r e a d e r s n o t as s o l i t a r y , p a s s i v e r e c e p t o r s o f t e x t s , but 

r a t h e r as p a r t i c i p a n t s i n an e v e r - c h a n g i n g , s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l l y 

and a e s t h e t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d a u d i e n c e t h a t , t h r o u g h 

i s , t h e r e f o r e , l e s s u s e f u l t h a n t h a t o f J a u s s , who r a n g e s 
w i d e l y among v a r i o u s g e n r e s and c u l t u r a l forms i n t h e o r i z i n g 
about s i t e s o f a e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e . 

4 A key p h r a s e i n J a u s s ' s e a r l y work, " h o r i z o n o f 
e x p e c t a t i o n s " i s n e v e r a c t u a l l y d e f i n e d . I t d e r i v e s from a 
v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s f a m i l i a r t o German p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s , 
i n p a r t i c u l a r Hans Gadamer ( h i m s e l f i n f l u e n c e d p r i m a r i l y by 
H e i d e g g e r ) , J a u s s ' s t e a c h e r and e a r l y mentor. Gadamer had 
d e f i n e d " h o r i z o n " as " t h e range o f v i s i o n t h a t i n c l u d e s 
e v e r y t h i n g t h a t can be seen from a p a r t i c u l a r v a n t a g e p o i n t . " 
F o r J a u s s , " h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s " "would appear t o r e f e r t o 
an i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e system o r s t r u c t u r e o f e x p e c t a t i o n s , a 
'system o f r e f e r e n c e s ' o r a m i n d - s e t t h a t a h y p o t h e t i c a l 
i n d i v i d u a l m i g h t b r i n g t o any t e x t " (Holub 5 9 ) . A t t h e same 
t i m e , however, s u c h an h o r i z o n i s s u p p o s e d l y c a p a b l e o f b e i n g 
o b j e c t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e d on s e v e r a l f r o n t s . The l i t e r a r y 
h o r i z o n i s s e l f - d e f i n e d ' by t h e t e x t ' s own a d a p t a t i o n t o 
c o n v e n t i o n s o f g e n r e , s t y l e and form; t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y h o r i z o n 
i s d e t e r m i n e d by i m p l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e t e x t and 
f a m i l i a r works i n t h e l i t e r a r y - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t ; and t h e 
a u d i e n c e ' s i d e o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n i s measured i n t h e d i s t a n c e 
between t h e p o e t i c and p r a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e language as 
i t i s made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e r e a d e r i n t h e r e a d i n g p r o c e s s 
( J a u s s " L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y " 1 5 ) . The o r i g i n a l t e x t p a r t i c i p a t e s 
i n i t s f u t u r e s i g n i f i c a n c e by l a t e r becoming a p r i m a r y f e a t u r e 
i n t h e i n i t i a l l i t e r a r y h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s f u t u r e 
a u d i e n c e s employ when t h e y d e t e r m i n e t h e meaning o f t h e t e x t 
w i t h i n t h e i r own p r e s e n t h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s . 



10 

i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h l i t e r a r y t e x t s , a s s i s t s i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f 

s u c c e s s i v e meanings: " H i s t o r y o f l i t e r a t u r e i s a p r o c e s s o f 

a e s t h e t i c r e c e p t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e i n 

r e a l i z a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y t e x t s on t h e p a r t o f t h e r e c e p t i v e 

r e a d e r , t h e r e f l e c t i v e c r i t i c and t h e a u t h o r i n h i s c o n t i n u e d 

c r e a t i v i t y " (14) . I n a subsequent work, A e s t h e t i c E x p e r i e n c e  

and L i t e r a r y H e r m e n e u t i c s (1982) , J a u s s m a i n t a i n s t h a t 

" p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e cannot be d e f i n e d i n i t s a e s t h e t i c and 

s o c i a l f u n c t i o n u n l e s s i t i s seen w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e 

h i g h e s t l e v e l s o f l i t e r a r y a r t " ( x x x i i ) . T h i s " s e e i n g " i s an 

a c t i v i t y b e l o n g i n g t o r e a d e r s ; hence, L o n g f e l l o w ' s and 

Tennyson's most p o p u l a r poems need t o be r e a d w i t h i n a c o n t e x t 

t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n as i n t e g r a l t o t h e s e 

poems' s i g n i f i c a n c e , w i t h i n t h e p o e t s ' l i v e s as w e l l as i n 

t h o s e o f l a t e - t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s . 

J a u s s ' s c h a l l e n g e t o l i t e r a r y t h e o r y t o i n t e g r a t e r e a d e r s 

w i t h i n a h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e i s 

p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o r e c e n t c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e 

l i m i t i n g e f f e c t s o f a e s t h e t i c i s m upon t h e A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y 

c a n o n . 5 R u s s e l l R e i s i n g , i n The U n u s a b l e P a s t : T h e o r i e s and 

5 Of t h e many s c h o l a r s t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e h i s t o r y 
o f A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y canon f o r m a t i o n , two seem t o be most 
i n f l u e n t i a l : Sacvan B e r k o v i t c h and G e r a l d G r a f f . B e r k o v i t c h ' s 
r e c e n t e d i t o r s h i p o f two c o l l e c t i o n s o f e s s a y s has spawned 
much c r i t i c a l d e b a t e about t h e "American i d e o l o g y " t h a t 
i n f o r m s t h e canon: R e c o n s t r u c t i n g A m e r i c a n L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y 
(1986) and I d e o l o g y and C l a s s i c A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e (1986). 
H i s own e s s a y i n C r i t i c a l I n g u i r y , "The P r o b l e m o f I d e o l o g y i n 
A m e r i c a n L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y " (1986), p r o v i d e s an o v e r v i e w o f 
c o m p e t i n g i d e o l o g i e s o f A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e , and o u t l i n e s t h e 
p l u r a l i s t a p p r o a c h t h a t , as e d i t o r , he has f o l l o w e d i n t h e 



11 

S t u d i e s o f A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e (1986), i s one among many 

l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s who e x p r e s s c o n c e r n f o r t h e n a r r o w n e s s o f 

t h e A m e r i c a n canon and t h e ways i n w h i c h A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y 

t h e o r i s t s have d i s c o u r a g e d r e a d e r s from " v i e w i n g l i t e r a t u r e as 

a form o f s o c i a l knowledge o r b e h a v i o u r " d e s p i t e a r e c e n t 

t r e n d w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t s o c i a l and i d e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m i s 

on t h e r i s e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( 6 ) . I f i t i s , t h e n t h i s 

r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's poems w i t h i n a 

s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t o f r e a d e r s and w r i t e r s m i g h t be seen, 

t o some e x t e n t , t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s t r e n d . 

Y e t R e i s i n g ' s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e a h i s t o r i c i s m o f A m e r i c a n 

l i t e r a r y t h e o r y r a i s e s o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s because, even w h i l e 

R e i s i n g e n d o r s e s " p l u r a l i t y " as a s o l u t i o n t o a r e s t r i c t e d 

A m e r i c a n canon, he does so by u n d e r s c o r i n g once a g a i n t h e 

b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n between " a e s t h e t i c " and " s o c i a l " t e x t s . 

That i s , he s t i l l s e e s A m e r i c a n t h e o r y a s , on t h e one hand, 

f o r t h c o m i n g f i v e volume New Cambridge H i s t o r y o f A m e r i c a n  
L i t e r a t u r e . As B e r k o v i t c h c o n f e s s e s , when i t comes t o 
a n a l y z i n g n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y i t " w i l l be a 
major p r o b l e m o f t h e new l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y t o e x p l a i n t h e 
p a r a d o x o f an a n t a g o n i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e t h a t i s somehow a l s o 
c u l t u r a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " ( 6 4 2 ) . G r a f f has a l s o c o n s i d e r e d 
t h e "problem" o f A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s , b u t from t h e 
p e r s p e c t i v e o f i t s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n as p a r t o f A m e r i c a n 
u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l a . H i s c h a p t e r , "The P r o m i s e o f A m e r i c a n 
L i t e r a t u r e S t u d i e s , " i n P r o f e s s i n g L i t e r a t u r e (1987) examines 
t h e c o n f l i c t between i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h e s t o A m e r i c a n 
l i t e r a t u r e and t h e New C r i t i c i s m , w i t h t h e f i e l d e v e n t u a l l y 
won by t h e l a t t e r . He ends w i t h a r e q u e s t t r a n s m i t t e d v i a 
James K i n c a i d t h a t A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e i n s t r u c t o r s "'reexamine 
how [ t h e y ] s i t u a t e [ t h e m ] s e l v e s ' i n r e f e r e n c e t o l i t e r a r y 
t e x t s " t o a v o i d t h e a t t e n u a t i o n and t h e p a t t e r n e d i s o l a t i o n o f 
c o m p e t i n g t h e o r i e s t h a t G r a f f a r g u e s have weakened t h e s t u d y 
o f l i t e r a t u r e i n A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s ( 2 6 2 ) . 



a e s t h e t i c p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h l a n g u a g e , s t y l e and form 

( F o r m a l i s m — N e w C r i t i c i s m — S t r u c t u r a l i s m — D e c o n s t r u c t i o n ) 

p i t t e d a g a i n s t , on t h e o t h e r , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t e x t s as 

e x p r e s s i o n s o f s o c i a l r e a l i t y , o f t e n m i m e t i c , f o r t h e p u r p o s e s 

o f i d e o l o g i c a l c r i t i q u e ( M a r x i s m ) . S u i t e d t o n e i t h e r t h e 

a e s t h e t i c n o r t h e s o c i a l v i e w , t h e s c h o o l r o o m p o e t s i n 

A m e r i c a — o f w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w was t h e most r e v e r e d , w i t h 

Tennyson as h i s B r i t i s h c o u n t e r p a r t — s u p p o s e d l y had t h e i r say 

i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y and, a c c o r d i n g t o R e i s i n g , have 

ample v o i c e now b u t o n l y as bases f o r o p p o s i t i o n : 

Many a u t h o r s and t e x t s have e i t h e r been e x p e l l e d o r 
n e v e r g r a n t e d a d m i s s i o n i n t o t h e A m e r i c a n canon, 
though t h e y have p l a y e d s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e s i n t h e 
development o f A m e r i c a n w r i t i n g . . . . [ T ] h i s i s 
e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f t h e s o c i a l r e a l i s t t r a d i t i o n i n 
A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . The s o - c a l l e d s c h o o l - r o o m 
p o e t s , t o c i t e an example o f a d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e , a t 
l e a s t p r o v i d e d an enemy f o r a d v o c a t e s o f l i t e r a r y 
r e a l i s m , n a t u r a l i s m , and modernism and a r e t h u s 
p r e s e n t , i f o n l y as a n t i t h e s e s t o t h e t r a d i t i o n , i n 
subsequent w r i t e r s . (237) 

D i s m i s s i n g s c h o o l r o o m p o e t r y as c o n s i s t e n t l y " o t h e r " t o 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y t r a d i t i o n a l forms o f l i t e r a t u r e i n A m e r i c a , 

R e i s i n g u n w i t t i n g l y p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e v e r y p r a c t i c e o f 

e x c l u s i v i t y he a c c u s e s A m e r i c a n t h e o r i s t s o f d e f e n d i n g . 

S i n c e t h e g e n t e e l t r a d i t i o n — t o use S a n t a y a n a ' s t e r m — 

conforms n e i t h e r t o t h e s o c i a l - r e a l i s t t r a d i t i o n t h a t R e i s i n g 

wants i n s t i t u t e d i n t h e canon, n o r t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d ' 

t r a d i t i o n i n w h i c h a e s t h e t i c i s m has come t o d o m i n a t e , g e n t e e l 

p o e t s can o n l y occupy t h e m a r g i n s o f l i t e r a r y r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . 

T h e i r t e x t s e x i s t i n A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y o n l y i n so f a r 



as s e r i o u s , r e s p e c t a b l e l i t e r a t u r e can be made t o seem 

e v e r y t h i n g t h a t t h e y a r e n o t . F o r a M a r x i s t c r i t i c l i k e 

G r a n v i l l e H i c k s , t h e " g r e a t t r a d i t i o n , " t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f 

p o l i t i c s , b u s i n e s s , and l a b o u r i n i t s p r o g r e s s i v e i m p u l s e , 

r e j e c t e d t h e 

g e n t e e l l i t t e r a t e u r s . w i t h t h e i r c o r r e c t s o n n e t s and 
t h e i r p o l i t e e s s a y s , . . . [who] p r e s e r v e d t h e i r 
r e a d e r s from s o r d i d c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e f a c t s o f t h e 
f i e r c e i n d u s t r i a l s t r u g g l e ; [and who] somehow made 
t h o s e f a c t s v a n i s h and t h e r e a l w o r l d y i e l d t o a 
w o r l d o f r e s p e c t a b l e , s e n t i m e n t a l , l i l y - w h i t e l a d i e s 
and gentlemen. (The G r e a t T r a d i t i o n (193 3) 30, q t d . 
i n R e i s i n g 1 5 ) . 

F o r s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t r e a d e r s o f t h e 193 0s, t h o s e 

i n f l u e n c e d by t h e a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s o f New C r i t i c a l 

methods, h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s such as 

" t h e f a c t s o f t h e f i e r c e i n d u s t r i a l s t r u g g l e " were e x t r i n s i c 

t o l i t e r a r y s t u d y . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e g e n t e e l t r a d i t i o n , and 

L o n g f e l l o w i n p a r t i c u l a r , were once a g a i n r e j e c t e d , o n l y t h i s 

t i m e t h r o u g h t h e r i g o u r s o f a t e c h n i c a l s c r u t i n y under w h i c h 

t h e p o e t r y s i m p l y c o u l d n o t h o l d up. Doubly d i s m i s s e d , 

g e n t e e l l i t e r a t u r e i s e i t h e r c o n f o r m i s t when i t s h o u l d be 

c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l i n i t s v i s i o n o f r e a l i t y , o r l a c k i n g i n t h e 

a m b i g u i t y and t e c h n i c a l p l a y t h a t g i v e s l i f e t o a l l g r e a t a r t . 

I n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c e n t u r y , t h e p o e t r y o f L o n g f e l l o w 

and T e n n y s o n — s o p o p u l a r i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y — f e l l from 

t h e h e i g h t s o f c r i t i c a l r e s p e c t a b i l i t y t o t h e d e p t h s . Through 

an i n i t i a l h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f b o t h 

p o e t s , t h i s s t u d y t r i e s t o a c c o u n t c r i t i c a l l y and 



t h e o r e t i c a l l y f o r t h a t phenomenon. The c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i o -

economic c o n t e x t s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

p r o d u c t i o n o f b o t h p o e t s ' t e x t s i s f a r e a s i e r t o e x p l a i n t h a n 

r e a s o n s f o r t h e p o p u l a r r e c e p t i o n o f t h e i r work o r , f o r t h a t 

m a t t e r , i t s subsequent r e j e c t i o n . I n t h i s l a t t e r i n s t a n c e , 

v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r c u l t u r e , from 

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and B r i t a i n , have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r o c e s s 

o f d e f i n i n g what m i g h t be c a l l e d , f o r want o f a b e t t e r t e r m , 

" V i c t o r i a n p o p u l a r p o e t r y . " S i m p l y d e f i n i n g " t h e p o p u l a r " 

o c c u p i e s t h e e n e r g i e s o f a s u b s t a n t i a l number o f t h e o r i s t s on 

b o t h s i d e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c s i n c e i t means so many d i f f e r e n t 

t h i n g s t o so many p e o p l e . The f o l l o w i n g summary o f r e l e v a n t 

c a t e g o r i e s o f i n t e r e s t and t h e i r major e x p l i c a t o r s i s i n t e n d e d 

o n l y as an o u t l i n e o f t h e work i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r 

c u l t u r e t h a t has i n f l u e n c e d t h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l a t i o n 

between t e x t s and r e c e p t i o n t h a t made L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson 

e q u a l l y " p o e t s o f t h e p e o p l e " i n t h e i r l i f e t i m e s . 

One o f t h e t h i n g s i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s t o anyone s t u d y i n g 

t h e o r i e s o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e i s t h e g r e a t d i s t i n c t i o n between 

t h e o r i s t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h o s e i n B r i t a i n . B r i e f l y 
\ 

p u t , A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r c u l t u r e s c h o l a r s t e n d t o p r o d u c e 

d e s c r i p t i v e s o c i a l h i s t o r i e s documenting t h e g r o w i n g 

phenomenon o f "mass" c u l t u r e i n t h e i r own c o u n t r y , w h i l e most 

B r i t i s h s c h o l a r s o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e w r i t e from t h e l e f t i n 

t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s o f t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e s o f t h r e e d i s t i n c t 

y e t o v e r l a p p i n g v a r i a n t s o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e : " f o l k c u l t u r e , " 



" w o r k i n g - c l a s s (sometimes r a d i c a l ) c u l t u r e , " and "mass 

c u l t u r e . " U n d e r l y i n g t h e s e t r a n s a t l a n t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n 

s c h o l a r s h i p i s an i m p l i c i t awareness o f d i s t i n c t , s o c i o -

p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f t h e " p e o p l e " : t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s as a 

r e p u b l i c a n democracy dominated by t h e s e e m i n g l y homogeneous 

w i l l o f t h e m i d d l e c l a s s , and B r i t a i n as f r a c t u r e d by c l a s s 

t e n s i o n s l i n k e d t o a r e s i d u a l , p r e - i n d u s t r i a l d e f e r e n c e t o 

f i g u r e s o f a u t h o r i t y . 

The s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n who seems t o have had t h e g r e a t e s t 

i n f l u e n c e i n s t u d i e s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r 

c u l t u r e i s R u s s e l l Nye, b o t h i n h i s The Unembarrassed Muse:  

The P o p u l a r A r t s i n A m e r i c a and i n h i s S o c i e t y and C u l t u r e i n  

A m e r i c a (1830-1860). And w h i l e Nye's work i s an i n v a l u a b l e 

h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , 

and t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t s w i t h i n w h i c h l i t e r a t u r e was 

p r o d u c e d and consumed, he seems n o t t o have q u e s t i o n e d t h e 

v a l u e judgements o f l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e , 

l i k e F r a n k L u t h e r M o t t , James H a r t , and C a r l Bode, i n t h e i r 

a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y and s e n t i m e n t a l i t y i n 

l i t e r a t u r e g u a r a n t e e d p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 

A l l q u e s t i o n s o f l i t e r a r y t a s t e a s i d e , f o r now, t h e s e s c h o l a r s 

do n o t r e c o g n i z e e s s e n t i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s among t h e v a r i o u s 

g e n r e s t h e y document as " p o p u l a r " s i n c e p r e s u m a b l y t h e pap 

t h a t f e e d s t h e masses i s as f o r m l e s s and as t a s t e l e s s as t h e 

a u d i e n c e s t o w h i c h i t i s s e r v e d . The p a s s i v e v o i c e i s 

d e l i b e r a t e h e r e s i n c e , i n t h e s e s c h o l a r s ' v i e w s , t h e masses 



a r e o n l y e v e r t h e p a s s i v e r e c i p i e n t s o f p r e p a c k a g e d 

i d e o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t s ; t h e y p r e s u m a b l y t a k e no a c t i v e r o l e i n 

t h e c r e a t i o n o f meaning. I n a manner f a r d i f f e r e n t from 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s o f " s e r i o u s " l i t e r a t u r e , b u t w i t h 

s i m i l a r r e s u l t s , A m e r i c a n s c h o l a r s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

p o p u l a r c u l t u r e d i s p l a y t h e same t e n d e n c y t o v i e w t h e p r e v i o u s 

c e n t u r y t h r o u g h a t t i t u d e s d e r i v e d i n t h i s one. Thus i n t h e 

c a s e o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e , i t i s s t u d i e d 

as i f i t were e q u a l t o t h e H a r l e q u i n romances o f t o d a y , o r 

worse s t i l l , t h e s e r i a l i z e d melodramas o f r a d i o and, l a t e r , o f 

t e l e v i s i o n . The p o p u l a r i t y o f a n t e b e l l u m l i t e r a t u r e and, more 

r e m o t e l y , o f i t s p o e t r y has y e t t o be c o n s i d e r e d from a 

t h e o r e t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a e s t h e t i c s t h a t 

r e c o g n i z e s i s s u e s o f n a t i o n a l i t y and gender as c e n t r a l t o 

A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s ' c o n c e r n s as t h e y p u r c h a s e d t e x t s t h a t would 

u l t i m a t e l y become n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y " b e s t s e l l e r s . " 6 

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , i t i s n o t p o p u l a r c u l t u r e s c h o l a r s p e r se 

who a r e b e g i n n i n g t o r e c o n s i d e r t h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e v a l u e o f 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e i n A m e r i c a , b u t r a t h e r 

f e m i n i s t r e a d e r - r e s p o n s e t h e o r i s t s t r y i n g t o c o r r e c t p a r t o f 

6 The p e r i o d i c a l p r o d u c e d by A m e r i c a ' s " P o p u l a r C u l t u r e 
A s s o c i a t i o n , " J o u r n a l o f P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , has o c c a s i o n a l l y 
p r i n t e d a r t i c l e s t h a t c a l l f o r a f a r more t h e o r e t i c a l l y based 
s t u d y o f t h e f i e l d . D a v i d Madden's "The N e c e s s i t y f o r an 
A e s t h e t i c s o f P o p u l a r C u l t u r e " and Hayden W h i t e ' s 
" S t r u c t u r a l i s m and P o p u l a r C u l t u r e " a r e two examples from t h e 
e a r l y 197 0s, b u t t h e i r c a l l seems n e v e r t o have been s e r i o u s l y 
answered. The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f s c h o l a r s o f A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r 
c u l t u r e t o d a y appear t o be p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y 
phenomena. 



t h e i m b a l a n c e n o t e d e a r l i e r i n t h e A m e r i c a n canon. N i n a 

Baym's N o v e l s , R e a d e r s , and R e v i e w e r s : Responses t o F i c t i o n i n  

A n t e b e l l u m A m e r i c a , and Jane Tompkins's " S e n t i m e n t a l Power: 

U n c l e Tom's C a b i n and t h e P o l i t i c s o f L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y " a r e 

s t u d i e s t h a t see t h e c r i t i c a l s c o r n i n t h i s c e n t u r y f o r 

p o p u l a r f i c t i o n by n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y women as p a r t o f a 

l a r g e r , i d e o l o g i c a l a t t e m p t by a p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e t o 

d i m i n i s h p o l i t i c a l l y t h e m o r a l a u t h o r i t y o f women by 

r e l e g a t i n g t h e t e x t s t h a t t h e y r e a d , w r o t e , and r e v i e w e d t o 

t h e m a r g i n s o f l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y . I n r e i n s t a t i n g t h e 

" s e n t i m e n t a l " as a n o n - p e j o r a t i v e l i t e r a r y t e r m i n s t u d i e s o f 

f i c t i o n , and r e i n v e s t i n g i t w i t h a p o t e n t i a l l y s u b v e r s i v e 

p o l i t i c a l f o r c e , Baym's and Tompkins's work s u g g e s t s 

i n t e r e s t i n g new ways t o reexamine a l s o t h e r o l e o f p o e t s and, 

more i n t e r e s t i n g l y s t i l l , o f male p o e t s s u c h as L o n g f e l l o w 

whose p o p u l a r i t y has f o r so l o n g been t h o u g h t t o have been 

d e r i v e d from a s u c c e s s f u l a d m i x t u r e o f s e n t i m e n t and 

c o n v e n t i o n . 

S u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from A m e r i c a n a n a l y s e s o f c u l t u r e 

f o r t h e m i l l i o n s , t h e o r i e s o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e i n n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y B r i t a i n t e n d f a r more t o v a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s o f " t h e 

p e o p l e " as t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s a l l i e d c o l l e c t i v e l y by f o r c e s o f 

r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e r u l i n g e l i t e , be i t a r i s i n g upper 

m i d d l e c l a s s o r i t s c u l t u r a l b y - p r o d u c t , t h e c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n 

o f a e s t h e t i c s t h a t a p p a r e n t l y f o l l o w e d i n i t s wake. F o r 

s c h o l a r s such as R o b e r t S t o r c h , D a v i d V i n c e n t , and Morag 



18 

S h i a c h , who a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n f o l k c u l t u r e , t h e p e o p l e ' s 

r e s i s t a n c e can t a k e t h e form e i t h e r o f r e t a i n i n g t r a d i t i o n a l 

forms s u c h as o r a l p o e t r y o r o f m o d i f y i n g them t o i n c r e a s i n g l y 

u r b a n ways o f l i f e . B r o a d s h e e t p u b l i c a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s l y o r a l 

poems, f o r example, stemmed t h e i r c o m p l e t e e r o s i o n . 

Two t h e o r i s t s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l e i s u r e i n r e l a t i o n t o 

w o r k i n g - c l a s s p o p u l a r c u l t u r e , Hugh Cunningham and P e t e r 

B a i l e y , f o c u s on v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s i n u r b a n c e n t r e s : t h e y 

examine a c o n f u s e d c u l t u r a l t e r r a i n where p r e v i o u s f o l k 

t r a d i t i o n s compete f o r t h e working-man's f r e e t i m e w i t h 

r a d i c a l p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s p r o v i s i o n s 

f o r p u b l i c forms o f " r a t i o n a l r e c r e a t i o n " i n c l u d i n g a t h l e t i c 

a c t i v i t i e s , and e v e n i n g e n t e r t a i n m e n t a t t h e pubs and m u s i c 

h a l l s o f p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s 

s t u d y , t h e i r r e f l e c t i o n s on r a t i o n a l r e c r e a t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r 

s u g g e s t p o i n t s o f e n t r y f o r c o n s i d e r i n g why a t l e a s t some o f 

Tennyson's poems e n t e r e d t h e homes and h e a r t s o f t h e w o r k i n g 

c l a s s ; y e t , Cunningham and B a i l e y do l i t t l e t o e x p l a i n t h e 

l e i s u r e o c c u p a t i o n s o f p e o p l e o t h e r t h a n w o r k i n g - c l a s s men. 

Indeed, B a i l e y h i m s e l f r e g r e t s t h e l a c k o f a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o 

t h e m i d d l e c l a s s among h i s t o r i a n s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

l e i s u r e and, more r e g r e t t a b l y s t i l l , t h e i r gender b i a s e s : 

" A n o t h e r acknowledged s h o r t c o m i n g i n t h e new h i s t o r y o f 

l e i s u r e i s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n on i t s more p u b l i c , 

a s s o c i a t i o n a l , v i s i b l e and a c c e s s i b l e forms t o t h e e x c l u s i o n 

o f t h e p r i v a t e , p e r s o n a l , and i n f o r m a l . T h i s i n t u r n has 



r e i n f o r c e d t h e n e g l e c t o f women and t h e q u e s t i o n o f gender i n 

l e i s u r e " (17-18) . A p o p u l a r p o e t r y consumed i n t h e p r i v a c y o f 

one's home y e t a l l e g e d l y s u p p o r t i v e o f p u b l i c c o n f o r m i t y i n 

t h e f a c e o f V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y ' s m o r a l i m p e r a t i v e s seems 

i d e a l l y s u i t e d as one t y p e o f p r i m a r y s o u r c e m a t e r i a l t o 

encourage t h e s t u d y o f l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t c o u l d and d i d 

c r o s s c l a s s and gender b o u n d a r i e s . 

Many t h e o r i s t s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y , w o r k i n g - c l a s s p o p u l a r 

c u l t u r e t a k e E. P. Thompson's s t u d y , The Making o f t h e E n g l i s h  

W o r k i n g C l a s s , as a h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e , and 

r e e x a m i n e h i s c o n c l u s i o n s i n l i g h t o f t h e r e c e n t M a r x i s t 

r e d e f i n i t i o n o f "dominant i d e o l o g y " n o t as c o e r c i v e b u t as 

"hegemonic." C o i n e d by A n t o n i o G r a m s c i d u r i n g h i s 

i m p r i s o n m e n t i n F a s c i s t I t a l y , "hegemony" i s now a common t e r m 

t o d e s c r i b e s o c i a l dominance s i n c e i t a l l e g e d l y a v o i d s t h e 

economic m a t e r i a l i s t r e s t r i c t i o n s s p e c i f i c t o p r e v i o u s M a r x i s t 

c l a s s a n a l y s e s o f dominant i d e o l o g y . G r a m s c i ' s use o f 

"hegemony," l o o s e l y d e f i n e d , d e s i g n a t e s an e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f 

l e a d e r s h i p d i s t i n c t from o b v i o u s l y c o e r c i v e forms o f 

d o m i n a t i o n ; i t t h u s i n c l u d e s m u l t i p l e forms o f c o n s e n t t o and 

d i s s e n t w i t h i n s t r u c t u r e s o f economic, i n t e l l e c t u a l , and m o r a l 

power. 

I n g e n e r a l , however, p o e t r y does n o t e n t e r i n t o G r a m s c i a n -

based d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e p o p u l a r s i n c e t h e u s u a l " s t r u c t u r e " 

i n w h i c h i t made i t s m a r k — t h e h o m e — i s n o t o r d i n a r i l y t h o u g h t 

o f as a s i t e o f p o l i t i c a l n e g o t i a t i o n . C h a p t e r s l i k e S t u a r t 



H a l l ' s " P o p u l a r C u l t u r e and t h e S t a t e , " and C o l i n M e r c e r ' s 

" C o m p l i c i t P l e a s u r e s " i n t h e "Themes and I s s u e s " s e c t i o n o f 

P o p u l a r C u l t u r e and S o c i a l R e l a t i o n s , w h i l e t h e y go a l o n g way 

i n a n a l y z i n g t h e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h e s t a t e 

and p o p u l a c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n s c r i b e d i n p u b l i c a t i o n s o f 

t h e p o p u l a r p r e s s , p r o v i d e l i t t l e room f o r s p e c u l a t i o n about 

how l i t e r a t u r e n o t a t t h e c e n t r e o f d a i l y p u b l i c s c r u t i n y a l s o 

c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s t a t e ' s hegemonic c o n t r o l and, more 

i n t e r e s t i n g l y , how and when i t d i d n o t . G r a m s c i ' s awareness 

o f " p o p u l a r b e l i e f " as c o n s t i t u t i v e o f hegemonic " n a t i o n a l i s m " 

and " p a t r i o t i s m " a c t u a l l y i s q u i t e u s e f u l i n t r y i n g t o e x p l a i n 

t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson as v o i c e s 

o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n s . That t h e s e v o i c e s m i g h t be h e a r d 

i n p r i v a t e a r e n a s r a t h e r t h a n p u b l i c ones does n o t n e g a t e 

t h e i r power t o sway p o p u l a r b e l i e f e s p e c i a l l y as t e c h n o l o g i c a l 

improvements i n p u b l i c a t i o n methods i n c r e a s e d t h e i r p o t e n t i a l 

f o r e v e r l a r g e r r e a d i n g a u d i e n c e s . 7 

L i t e r a t u r e seldom forms a p a r t o f M a r x i s t t h e o r i e s o f 

B r i t i s h p o p u l a r c u l t u r e s i n c e i t p r e s u m a b l y f a l l s o u t s i d e o f 

t h e p u r v i e w s o f t h e p o p u l a r because i t i s u s u a l l y t h o u g h t o f 

7 S e l e c t i o n s from G r a m s c i ' s P r i s o n Notebooks appear i n 
C u l t u r e , I d e o l o g y and S o c i a l P r o c e s s e d i t e d by Tony B e n n e t t e t 
a l , f o l l o w e d by C h a n t a l M o u f f e ' s a n a l y s i s o f G r a m s c i ' s 
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o M a r x i s t s o c i a l i s t d i s c o u r s e . R o b e r t Gray's 
" B o u r g e o i s Hegemony i n V i c t o r i a n B r i t a i n " i n t h e same volume 
i s e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g as an a p p l i c a t i o n o f G r a m s c i a n 
s o c i a l t h e o r y t o t h e economic and c u l t u r a l m i l i e u t h a t 
Tennyson and, by l i t e r a r y a s s o c i a t i o n , L o n g f e l l o w would have 
i n h a b i t e d . 



21 

as p r i v a t e r a t h e r t h a n p u b l i c , i n d i v i d u a l i s t r a t h e r t h a n 

c o l l e c t i v e . N o n e t h e l e s s , Leo L o w e n t h a l ' s s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f 

t h e r e l a t i o n between mass p r o d u c t i o n and t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f 

l i t e r a t u r e , L i t e r a t u r e . P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , and S o c i e t y , s u g g e s t s 

p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r a r e v a l u a t i o n o f Tennyson's p o e t r y as a 

p o p u l a r g e n r e i n i t s own r i g h t . 8 One o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t 

f e a t u r e s o f L o w e n t h a l ' s work i s h i s s u r v e y o f t h e d i s p u t e 

between " a r t " and " e n t e r t a i n m e n t " t h a t he a r g u e s began as 

e a r l y as t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n B r i t a i n and c u l m i n a t e d i n 

t h e e i g h t e e n t h t h r o u g h p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s about t a s t e and 

a e s t h e t i c v a l u e . 9 U n f o r t u n a t e l y , L o w e n t h a l d i s r e g a r d s t h e 

S t u d i e s l i k e Amy C r u s e ' s The V i c t o r i a n s and T h e i r  
R e a d i n g . R i c h a r d A l t i c k ' s The E n g l i s h Common Reader. M a r j o r i e 
P l a n t ' s The E n g l i s h Book T r a d e , and V i c t o r Neuburg's P o p u l a r  
L i t e r a t u r e : A H i s t o r y and a Guide from t h e B e g i n n i n g o f  
P r i n t i n g t o t h e Year 1897 a r e o f c o u r s e i n v a l u a b l e as s o u r c e s 
f o r any d i s c u s s i o n o f p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e V i c t o r i a n 
p e r i o d . But because t h e s e works a r e more e m p i r i c a l t h a n 
t h e o r e t i c a l , t h e y have been l e f t out i n t h i s summary o f 
a n a l y s e s o f B r i t i s h p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . T h e i r f i n d i n g s , however, 
have been most u s e f u l e l s e w h e r e i n t h e t h e s i s . 

9 . 
D i s t i n c t i o n s between " p o p u l a r " c u l t u r e and " h i g h " 

c u l t u r e based upon t a s t e do n o t form p a r t o f t h i s s t u d y o f 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o p u l a r p o e t r y a l t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y 
t a s t e has, s i n c e t h e e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , g e n e r a l l y 
g u i d e d c r i t i c a l o p i n i o n , e i t h e r e x p l i c i t l y o r i m p l i c i t l y . 
B a s i c a l l y , however, t a s t e has dominated t h e c r i t i q u e o f 
p o p u l a r c u l t u r e i n A m e r i c a w h i c h i s , as H e r b e r t Gans p o i n t s 
o u t , about two hundred y e a r s o l d ( 1 9 ) , and as such i s f a r t o o 
v a s t t o summarize h e r e . I n h i s P o p u l a r C u l t u r e and H i g h  
C u l t u r e : An A n a l y s i s and E v a l u a t i o n o f T a s t e , Gans p r o v i d e s a 
t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e major f i g u r e s l e a d i n g t h e c r i t i q u e 
a g a i n s t p o p u l a r c u l t u r e ; t h e i r work i s c o n t a i n e d i n two b a s i c 
a n t h o l o g i e s o f mass c u l t u r e t h e o r y : B e r n a r d Rosenberg and 
D a v i d M. W h i t e , eds., Mass C u l t u r e : The P o p u l a r A r t s i n  
A m e r i c a and Norman J a c o b s , ed., C u l t u r e f o r t h e M i l l i o n s . As 
a c o u n t e r t o t h e p e j o r a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n s s u p p l i e d by mass 
c u l t u r e c r i t i c s i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , Gans p u t s f o r w a r d 



22 

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a l t o g e t h e r , p r e f e r r i n g i n s t e a d t o a p p l y t h e 

r e s u l t s o f h i s s t u d y o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d e f i n i t i o n s o f h i g h 

and low c u l t u r e o n l y t o p o p u l a r forms o f l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e 

e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y i t s e l f and t o p o p u l a r b i o g r a p h y i n t h e 

t w e n t i e t h . T h i s f a i l u r e t o c o n s i d e r forms o f n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e i s most u n f o r t u n a t e f o r two 

r e a s o n s : 1) many o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t he makes about 

a e s t h e t i c t a s t e i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y s u g g e s t i n t e r e s t i n g 

p a r a l l e l s w i t h t h e n i n e t e e n t h ; and 2) t h e s p l i t between low 

brow and h i g h brow c u l t u r e s was d e f i n e d and r e d e f i n e d d u r i n g 

t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e e v e n t u a l chasm t h a t 

s e p a r a t e s t h e two c u l t u r e s t o d a y . That d i s t i n c t i o n s were n o t 

c l e a r l y demarcated i n t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y i s y e t a n o t h e r 

r e a s o n t o c o n s i d e r p o e t r y as a p o t e n t i a l l y p o p u l a r c u l t u r a l 

form i n V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d . 

I n s h o r t , t h e p o p u l a r poems o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson have 

y e t t o be t h o u g h t o f t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n ways t h a t m i g h t a c c o u n t 

e q u a l l y f o r t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r r e c e p t i o n 

h i s " t a s t e c u l t u r e " t h e o r y ; t h a t i s " p o p u l a r c u l t u r e i s , l i k e 
h i g h c u l t u r e , a t a s t e c u l t u r e , chosen by p e o p l e who l a c k t h e 
economic and e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f t h e d e v o t e e s o f h i g h 
c u l t u r e " ( x ) . S u p p o s e d l y f r e e d o f t h e v a l u e judgements o f h i s 
p r e d e c e s s o r s , by r e s t r i c t i n g h i s argument t o a e s t h e t i c 
s t a n d a r d s w i t h i n v a r i o u s s u b s t r a t a o f " t a s t e c u l t u r e s , " Gans 
n e v e r t h e l e s s e s t a b l i s h e s a h i e r a r c h y o f t a s t e i n w h i c h t h e 
l o w e r o r d e r s would, under i d e a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , n a t u r a l l y and 
n e c e s s a r i l y a s p i r e upward. T h i s s t u d y o f L o n g f e l l o w and 
Tennyson, where p o s s i b l e , a v o i d s v a l u e judgements a l t o g e t h e r , 
and l o o k s s t r i c t l y a t t h e l i t e r a r y phenomenon o f v e r s e w h i c h 
was b o t h " p o p u l a r " and t h o u g h t o f as " p o e t r y " i n t h e 
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y by e d u c a t e d and non-educated, e l i t e and 
w o r k i n g c l a s s e s a l i k e . 



i n b o t h t h e i r own and each o t h e r ' s c o u n t r i e s , and f o r t h e i r 

c u l t u r a l v a l u e as examples o f a " s e r i o u s " l i t e r a t u r e t h a t was 

n o n e t h e l e s s r e a d by t h e masses. V a r i o u s d i s c o u r s e s on 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r c u l t u r e have h e r e a l l o w e d f o r an 

e x a m i n a t i o n o f how t h e work o f t h e s e two p o e t s i s i n t e r s e c t e d 

by s e v e r a l o v e r l a p p i n g d e b a t e s : s e n t i m e n t v e r s u s i n t e l l e c t , 

f e m a l e v e r s u s male p r o d u c e r s and consumers o f c u l t u r e , 

c o n s u m p t i v e v e r s u s p r o d u c t i v e methods o f r e a d i n g , o r a l v e r s u s 

w r i t t e n c u l t u r e s , w o r k i n g - c l a s s v e r s u s m i d d l e - c l a s s forms o f 

r a t i o n a l r e c r e a t i o n , e n t e r t a i n m e n t v e r s u s e n l i g h t e n m e n t , 

c o l l e c t i v e v e r s u s i n d i v i d u a l i s t r e s p o n s e s t o c u l t u r e . F u r t h e r 

b i n a r i e s c o u l d be added t o t h i s l i s t b u t t h e t r e n d i s c l e a r . 

What may n o t be as c l e a r i s how t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c i s m — 

o f b o t h s e r i o u s and p o p u l a r c u l t u r e — t h a t a s c r i b e s " v a l u e " 

o n l y t o t h o s e terms above on t h e r i g h t has e f f e c t i v e l y 

s i l e n c e d a p o e t r y t h a t a c h i e v e d p o p u l a r i t y t h r o u g h i t s 

d i s r e g a r d o f b o u n d a r i e s and r e a c h e d a c l a s s l e s s m u l t i t u d e o f 

women and men: n o t because i t was an u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d 

monotone, b u t because i t was n o t . 

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e a s o n s f o r t h i s s t u d y o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o p u l a r p o e t r y , t h e p r a c t i c a l 

r e a s o n s f o r a s t u d y o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson t o g e t h e r as 

p o e t s o f t h e p e o p l e , r a t h e r t h a n i n i s o l a t i o n , a r e t h e m s e l v e s 

e q u a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . They a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h r e e : 1) t o 

d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t , i n t h e i r l i f e t i m e s , L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson 

were r e a d by t h e i r A m e r i c a n and B r i t i s h a u d i e n c e s w i t h an 



awareness o f t h e p o p u l a r i t y and n a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s o f 

b o t h p o e t s ; 2) t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r enormous p o p u l a r i t y 

t h r o u g h a d i a c h r o n i c e x a m i n a t i o n o f c o m p a r a t i v e i n f l u e n c e and 

a u d i e n c e a p p e a l ; and, f i n a l l y , 3) t o a n a l y z e t h e c o n s t i t u e n t 

f a c t o r s t h a t d e t e r m i n e d L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 

s i m u l t a n e o u s d e c l i n e i n p o p u l a r i t y , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r s t h a t 

have r e c e n t l y r e s t o r e d Tennyson t o t h e pantheon o f p o e t i c 

fame, an e l e v a t i o n n o t e x t e n d e d t o L o n g f e l l o w . 

C o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s o f p o e t s who were c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a r e , 

o f c o u r s e , n o t w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t i n E n g l i s h s t u d i e s , stemming 

p e r h a p s from Johnson's L i v e s o f t h e P o e t s , b u t c e r t a i n l y 

g a i n i n g i n c u r r e n c y t h r o u g h F.R. L e a v i s ' s s t u d y o f t h e 

r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f Wordsworth and S h e l l e y i n R e v a l u a t i o n s :  

T r a d i t i o n and Development i n E n g l i s h P o e t r y (166-75, 192-99). 

F o r t h e most p a r t , however, such c o m p a r i s o n s a r e seldom 

t r a n s a t l a n t i c , g o v e r n e d i n s t e a d by a p r o x i m i t y o f p l a c e o r 

n a t i o n a l i t y i n t h e i r s e l e c t i o n o f p o e t s t o be v i e w e d 

l e g i t i m a t e l y t h r o u g h a s i n g l e l e n s . R e c e n t l y , however, t h e 

f i e l d o f v i s i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e i n t h e 

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y has broadened, so t h a t one m i g h t e x p e c t t o 

f i n d a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson among 

t h o s e s t u d i e s a t t e m p t i n g t o d e t e r m i n e how l a r g e a r o l e B r i t a i n , 



25 

p l a y e d i n f o r m i n g a n a t i o n a l A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . 1 0 Y e t 

t h e s e s t u d i e s adhere t o a c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e o f i d e n t i f y i n g t h e 

e s o t e r i c i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n p o e t r y , and t h e r e f o r e 

l o c a t e s t r a i n s o f B r i t i s h r o m a n t i c i s m i n t h e work o f p o e t s 

s u c h as Poe, Emerson, and Whitman. N e e d l e s s t o s a y , e x o t e r i c 

p o e t s s u c h as L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson do n o t f a l l w i t h i n t h e 

p u r v i e w s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s . A t t h e same t i m e , o f s t u d i e s o f 

Tennyson's r o l e as a n a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , o n l y E i d s o n ' s 

Tennyson i n A m e r i c a (1943) and a 1987 M e m o r i a l A d d r e s s by 

B a r b a r a R. C l a r k , "Tennyson A c r o s s t h e A t l a n t i c , " a c t u a l l y 

d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Tennyson i n t h e New W o r l d . And 

a l t h o u g h E i d s o n d i s c u s s e s Tennyson's pronounced sway o v e r 

A m e r i c a n p o e t a s t e r s and p o e t s s u c h as L o w e l l and B a y a r d 

T a y l o r , he s a y s s u r p r i s i n g l y l i t t l e about Tennyson's i n f l u e n c e 

on L o n g f e l l o w . 

E i d s o n ' s r e l a t i v e n e g l e c t o f t h e A m e r i c a n b a r d i s c u r i o u s , 

e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e many o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 

c o n t e m p o r a r i e s and immediate d e s c e n d a n t s c o n s i s t e n t l y r e a d 

t h e i r work i n ways t h a t acknowledged them as c o u n t e r p a r t s . 

P a r t o f t h e n a t u r a l c o u p l i n g o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson as 

p o e t s o f t h e p e o p l e stemmed from t h e f a c t t h a t L o n g f e l l o w 

( a f t e r 1846) and Tennyson s h a r e d t h e same p u b l i s h e r i n 

1 0 R e c e n t examples o f t h i s k i n d i n c l u d e Stephen Spender's 
Love-Hate R e l a t i o n s : A Study o f A n g l o - A m e r i c a n S e n s i b i l i t i e s 
( 1 9 7 4 ) , B e n j a m i n L e a s e ' s A n g l o - A m e r i c a n E n c o u n t e r s : E n g l a n d  
and t h e R i s e o f A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e (1981), and L i n d e n Peach's 
B r i t i s h I n f l u e n c e on t h e B i r t h o f A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e (1982). 



A m e r i c a — t h e B o s t o n f i r m o f T i c k n o r and F i e l d s . And t h e s e 

p u b l i s h e r s e n s u r e d t h a t " [ e ] v e r y t a s t e and e v e r y p o c k e t b o o k 

was r e a c h e d " f o r b o t h o f t h e i r p o e t s (Tryon " N a t i o n a l i s m " 

3 0 5 ) . The c a r e e r s o f t h e p o e t s t h e m s e l v e s , moreover, e x h i b i t 

some s u r p r i s i n g l y s i m i l a r t r e n d s . 

S i n c e L o n g f e l l o w worked p r i m a r i l y as a p r o f e s s o r o f Modern 

Languages, f i r s t a t Bowdoin C o l l e g e and t h e n a t H a r v a r d 

U n i v e r s i t y , h i s l i f e o b v i o u s l y seems more v o c a t i o n a l l y v a r i e d 

t h a n Tennyson's. B u t , i n g e n e r a l , t h e r e a r e many 

s i m i l a r i t i e s . F o r L o n g f e l l o w , as f o r Tennyson, c o l l e g e 

a s s o c i a t i o n s s p a r k e d h i s d e s i r e t o p u r s u e p o e t r y as a 

v o c a t i o n ; and i n t h e 183 0s, he e x p e r i e n c e d a p o e t i c h i a t u s 

s i m i l a r t o Tennyson's s o - c a l l e d " t e n y e a r s ' s i l e n c e . " F o r 

b o t h p o e t s , t h i s h i a t u s c o i n c i d e d w i t h d e a t h and d e s p a i r : t h e 

d e a t h s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s f i r s t w i f e Mary, and Tennyson's b e l o v e d 

f r i e n d A r t h u r H a l l a m . The n e x t p e r i o d ( s l i g h t l y e a r l i e r f o r 

L o n g f e l l o w t h a n f o r Tennyson) sees b o t h p o e t s p r e o c c u p i e d by a 

p r i v a t e - p u b l i c d e b a t e about p o e t i c v o i c e w h i l e , a t t h e same 

t i m e , engaged i n p r o l o n g e d u n r e q u i t e d l o v e a f f a i r s w h i c h 

e v e n t u a l l y met w i t h s u c c e s s : f o r L o n g f e l l o w , i n 1843, and f o r 

Tennyson, i n 1850. W h i l e L o n g f e l l o w was, t h r o u g h j o u r n a l 

e s s a y s , p r e p a r i n g h i m s e l f and h i s a u d i e n c e f o r t h e p o e t ' s f i t 

p l a c e w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f A m e r i c a n n a t i o n a l i s m , Tennyson was 

s t r u g g l i n g w i t h a s i m i l a r p r o b l e m i n t h e n a r r a t i v e l y woven 

l y r i c s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y became I n Memoriam (1850). 



I n b r i e f , a p a r t from e x t e n d e d p r o j e c t s — L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

C h r i s t u s and Tennyson's I d y l l s — b o t h p o e t s ' work can be 

c l a s s i f i e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y by dominant p o e t i c forms: 1) e a r l y 

s u c c e s s t h r o u g h s k i l f u l use o f v a r i o u s l y r i c a l v o i c e s ; 2) a 

m i d d l e p e r i o d t h a t s e c u r e d each p o e t ' s p o p u l a r i t y t h r o u g h a 

c o n s i s t e n t i n t e r e s t i n t h e l o n g , e s s e n t i a l l y n a r r a t i v e poem; 

and 3) a f i n a l p e r i o d t h a t r e p r e s e n t s a c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t t o 

l e g i t i m i z e p o e t i c drama, i n w h i c h n e i t h e r p o e t had much 

s u c c e s s . W h i l e s c h e m a t i z e d c o m p a r i s o n s a r e u n a v o i d a b l y 

g e n e r a l , and b o t h p o e t s c o n t i n u e d t o w r i t e l y r i c poems o f 

v a r i o u s t y p e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r l i v e s , t h e s e p a r a l l e l s a r e 

n e v e r t h e l e s s v a l i d . 

Y e t d e s p i t e t h e contemporary r e c o g n i t i o n o f s i m i l a r i t i e s 

and d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e p o e t s , and t h e p a r a l l e l s n o t e d 

above, p r e s e n t s c h o l a r s have y e t t o c o n s i d e r L o n g f e l l o w i n 

r e l a t i o n t o Tennyson even though an abundance o f s c h o l a r s h i p 

e x i s t s p o i n t i n g out t h e A m e r i c a n p o e t ' s dependence on European 

l i t e r a t u r e s . But E n g l i s h i n f l u e n c e i s u s u a l l y n o t t h e i s s u e 

when i t comes t o L o n g f e l l o w . W h i l e no one would d i s c o u n t t h e 

p o t e n t i a l i n L o n g f e l l o w f o r dependence on European models, h i s 

" s o u r c e s " s h o u l d , a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y , i n c l u d e Tennyson's p o e t r y 

as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e V i c t o r i a n v e r s e a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e A m e r i c a n 

p o e t ' s s u c c e s s was and can s t i l l be s y n c h r o n i c a l l y measured. 

Recent p u b l i c a t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s L e t t e r s (1967-82), a l o n g 

w i t h e x i s t i n g r e f e r e n c e s i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s L i f e , f u l l y document 



28 

t h e power Tennyson's work e x e r c i s e d o v e r h i s A m e r i c a n 

c o u n t e r p a r t . 1 1 

A t t h e same t i m e , t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e A m e r i c a n p o e t ' s 

i n o r d i n a t e p o p u l a r i t y upon t h e p o e t r y o f t h e Queen's a p p o i n t e d 

spokesman f o r t h e age t h a t was t o b e a r h e r name have y e t t o be 

f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d . I n h i s l i f e t i m e , L o n g f e l l o w a c h i e v e d t h e 

d e m o n s t r a b l e s u c c e s s t h a t comes w i t h a p p e a l i n g t o a m a s s i v e 

r e a d i n g p u b l i c . As s u c h , he embodied t h e p o e t t h a t Tennyson 

b o t h d i d and d i d n o t want t o become, t h e p o e t who w r o t e f o r 

" t h e h e r d d—m'em."1 2 Tennyson's own s o l i c i t a t i o n o f fame and 

f o r t u n e was, a t b e s t , a m b i v a l e n t . Though sometimes c h a r g e d 

w i t h an envy o f t h e " b e s t s e l l e r s , " Tennyson r e c o g n i z e d i n 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s work a p o e t i c c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e masses t h a t , i f 

he were t o a c h i e v e anywhere n e a r t h e same k i n d o f p o p u l a r i t y , 

h i s own p o e t r y would have t o adopt. H i s most s u c c e s s f u l 

1 1 U n f o r t u n a t e l y , L o n g f e l l o w ' s J o u r n a l s t h e m s e l v e s a r e as 
y e t u n a v a i l a b l e though t h e y have been p r o m i s e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n 
by J . C h e s l e y Matthews f o r some t i m e . A t p r e s e n t , t h e y a r e 
h e l d a t Houghton L i b r a r y , H a r v a r d . Samuel L o n g f e l l o w ' s L i f e , 
n o t u n l i k e H a l l a m Tennyson's Memoir, i s a h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e , 
p i o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e t y p e o f p o e t a c l o s e r e l a t i v e 
would w i s h t o commit t o p u b l i c memory. 

1 2 T h i s p h r a s e i s used i n a l e t t e r t o F i t z G e r a l d i n 1842 
( L e t t e r s I 2 0 4 ) . Tennyson's r e s p o n s e t o A m e r i c a and A m e r i c a n s 
g e n e r a l l y i s ambiguous and changes t h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r , 
though o v e r a l l he seems t o have been most f r i e n d l y t o c e r t a i n 
i n d i v i d u a l A m e r i c a n s , s u c h as L o n g f e l l o w , g r a t e f u l f o r h i s 
wide f o l l o w i n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , y e t s c e p t i c a l and even 
c r i t i c a l o f A m e r i c a n s ' a p p a r e n t l a c k o f s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l 
r e f i n e m e n t (see M a r t i n 565). Tennyson, e s p e c i a l l y i n l a t e r 
l i f e , e x h i b i t e d a r e c l u s e ' s f i x a t i o n w i t h p u b l i c s p e c t a c l e , 
and was o b s e s s e d ( o f t e n w i t h good reason) by a u t o g r a p h 
s e e k e r s , many o f whom were A m e r i c a n t o u r i s t s ( C h a r l e s Tennyson 
339-40). 



s i n g l e volumes, I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g (1859) and Enoch Arden 

(1864), have y e t t o be a s s e s s e d i n terms w h i c h r e c o g n i z e 

L o n g f e l l o w as t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y barometer o f p o p u l a r 

p o e t i c s u c c e s s . 

Why L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson a p p e a l e d so e f f o r t l e s s l y t o a 

mass r e a d e r s h i p i s a q u e s t i o n w h i c h , i f d e a l t w i t h a t a l l by 

l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s , i s more o f t e n assumed t h a n e x p l i c i t l y 

examined. G e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e o f t e n advanced t o e x p l a i n 

t h e phenomenon o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o p u l a r i t y as t i e d t o a c h i l d -

l i k e p o e t i c s i m p l i c i t y t h a t p r e s u m a b l y a p p e a l e d t o an A m e r i c a 

t h a t , i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , was e n t e r i n g i t s a d o l e s c e n c e 

(see B l a n k e n s h i p 336-38). The ways i n w h i c h Samuel 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s L i f e — a p o r t r a y a l d e v o t e d t o t h e s i m p l i s t i c m o r a l 

p u r i t y o f a t e a c h e r - c u m - p r e a c h e r i n t h e f i g u r e o f t h e p o e t — 

have h e l p e d t o produce and t o p e r p e t u a t e t h e above o b s e r v a t i o n 

have y e t t o be c h a l l e n g e d i n a manner t h a t would do more t h a n 

m e r e l y s u g g e s t t h a t L o n g f e l l o w d i d n o t f i t h i s b r o t h e r ' s 
13 

p e r c e p t i o n o f him. 
R e a d e r - r e c e p t i o n t h e o r y , o f t h e k i n d p r o p o s e d by J a u s s , 

s u g g e s t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r new i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l 

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y o v e r t i m e , f u r t h e r i n g , i n 

t u r n , an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n 

a u d i e n c e as more t h a n s i m p l y " a d o l e s c e n t . " Moreover, a n a l y s i s 

1 3 H a l l a m Tennyson's Memoir o f h i s f a t h e r , on t h e o t h e r 
hand, has been c h a l l e n g e d by s e v e r a l c r i t i c s and b i o g r a p h e r s 
i n t h i s c e n t u r y . These c h a l l e n g e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 
t h r e e . 



o f a s i m i l a r i t y i n method between L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson adds 

a t r a n s a t l a n t i c d i m e n s i o n t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a u d i e n c e , 

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f w h i c h i s o n l y b e g i n n i n g t o be r e a l i z e d . 

C r i t i c s have y e t t o a n a l y z e Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y i n r e l a t i o n 

t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s ; t h i s n e g l e c t seems t o d e r i v e from a sense 

t h a t s u c h an a n a l y s i s m i g h t undermine t h e c r i t i c a l r e p u t a t i o n 

t h a t Tennyson has o n l y r e c e n t l y r e c l a i m e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , 

Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y was acknowledged by h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s 

i n ways s i m i l a r t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s a s , f o r example, when t h e 

L a u r e a t e f i r s t won t h e t i t l e "Poet o f t h e P e o p l e " from c r i t i c s 

a f t e r t h e g r e a t s u c c e s s i n 1864 o f Enoch A r d e n ( C h a r l e s 

Tennyson 3 5 4 ) . 

Though t h i s s t u d y d e v o t e s much o f i t s a t t e n t i o n t o 

L o n g f e l l o w as a p o p u l a r p o e t , w i t h Tennyson as h i s 

c o u n t e r p a r t , i t s p r i m a r y i n t e n t i o n i s t o d e v e l o p a new 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r o l e o f t h e p u b l i c p o e t , w h i c h Tennyson 

a l s o was. C o n f i n e d t o a c o n t r a s t between p r i v a t e and p u b l i c 

m o t i v a t i o n s , t h e t e n s i o n s i n Tennyson's p o e t r y have been 

r e s t r i c t e d by most c r i t i c s t o t h o s e p r e s e n t i n an e a r l y , 

f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d a s , f o r example, i n "The P a l a c e o f A r t . " 

D u r i n g t h e 1840s, Tennyson worked a t a l i g n i n g , i f n o t 

c o n f l a t i n g , p r i v a t e and p u b l i c c o n c e r n s , w i t h I n Memoriam 

(1850) as t h e s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t o f t h i s e f f o r t . Y e t no sooner 

had he a c h i e v e d p u b l i c l a u r e l s t h a n new and e q u a l l y f o r m i d a b l e 

t e n s i o n s a r o s e , stemming from h i s p o p u l a r i t y , t h a t were no 



l e s s c h a l l e n g i n g t o h i s s t a t u s as a p u b l i c spokesman t h a n h i s 

e a r l i e r p r i v a t e s e l f had been. 

Tennyson's s t r u g g l e now between a p u b l i c v o i c e and a 

p o t e n t i a l l y p o p u l a r one t u r n e d on whether he was g o i n g t o 

speak t o h i s age o r f o r i t . The d i s p a r a t e poems i n Tennyson's 

f i r s t f u l l volume a f t e r t h e l a u r e a t e s h i p , Maud and O t h e r Poems 

(1855), may be seen as a b a t t l e g r o u n d f o r j u s t such a 

s t r u g g l e : Tennyson as a p u b l i c p o e t was c o u n t e r e d , by t h e 

v o i c e , a l b e i t h i s own, o f t h e p o p u l a r p o e t . I n a famous 

l e t t e r , an anonymous r e a d e r i m m e d i a t e l y w r o t e t o e x p r e s s h i s 

h a t r e d f o r t h e L a u r e a t e ' s new p o e t r y : 

S I R , — I used t o w o r s h i p you, b u t now I h a t e you. I 
l o a t h e and d e t e s t you. You b e a s t ! So you've t a k e n 
t o i m i t a t i n g L o n g f e l l o w . 

Yours i n a v e r s i o n * * *. 
(Memoir 3 3 8 ) 1 4 

A c c o u n t s o f Tennyson's r e s p o n s e t o t h i s i n d i c t m e n t v a r y . H i s 

son s u g g e s t s he t o o k i t humorously, w h i l e S i r C h a r l e s 

m a i n t a i n s t h a t i t was p a r t o f h i s "morbid i r r i t a t i o n about t h e 

c r i t i c i s m s " t h a t Maud had engendered ( 2 8 9 ) . Whatever h i s 

Two c l a r i f i c a t i o n s need t o be made h e r e . F i r s t , t h e 
one-volume Memoir has been used t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y f o r 
c o n v e n i e n c e and easy c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e . Second, n o t e s o f t e n 
i n c l u d e f u r t h e r remarks i n t h e same v e i n o r p o i n t o u t 
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s . F o r i n s t a n c e , Tennyson 
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s l e t t e r was w r i t t e n by a c l e r i c a l p o e t and 
a c q u a i n t a n c e , A r c h e r Gurney, whom R o s s e t t i d e s c r i b e d as a 
"poor moke o f a f e l l o w " f o r b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y m a l i g n e d by 
Tennyson as i t s a u t h o r (see L e t t e r s I I 119, n. 2) However, 
s e v e r a l months l a t e r he w r o t e t o Gurney c o n f e s s i n g h i s b e l i e f 
and a p o l o g i z i n g f o r i t ; whether he s i n c e r e l y f e l t he had been 
m i s t a k e n seems d o u b t f u l , though, s i n c e t h e o v e r a l l t o n e o f h i s 
l e t t e r t o Gurney sounds a n o n e t h e l e s s a c c u s a t o r y n o t e (see 
L e t t e r s I I 137-8). 



a c t u a l r e s p o n s e , Tennyson's f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s l e t t e r 

s u g g e s t t h a t t h e l i n k i n g o f h i s p o e t r y w i t h L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

a f f e c t e d h i s sense o f h i m s e l f as a p o e t a t a t i m e when h i s 

awareness o f h i s r e a d i n g p u b l i c seemed t o be a t odds w i t h h i s 

p r i v a t e b e l i e f i n h i s p o e t i c s u c c e s s . 

I n a l a r g e r s e n s e , Tennyson's c o n f l i c t m i r r o r e d t h e p r i m a r y 

d e b a t e o f V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d i t s e l f : t h e s t r u g g l e o v e r t h e 

e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s would empower t h o s e below 

them t h r o u g h e x t e n s i o n o f p o l i t i c a l f r a n c h i s e . The p u b l i c 

p o e t , w e l l accustomed t o s p e a k i n g t o h i s a u d i e n c e , c o u l d a l l o w 

t h e i r v o i c e s t o be h e a r d b u t o n l y t h r o u g h h i m s e l f as t h e i r 

c o n d u i t . The p o p u l a r p o e t , on t h e o t h e r hand, speaks f o r h i s 

a u d i e n c e by a d a p t i n g t h e form and c o n t e n t o f h i s p o e t r y t o t h e 

t e n o r o f h i s a u d i e n c e ' s needs and d e s i r e s , t h e r e b y 

e n f r a n c h i s i n g them as c o - p r o d u c e r s o f h i s t e x t s . And s i n c e 

t h e p o l i t i c a l c h a l l e n g e t o B r i t a i n ' s c e n t u r i e s - o l d t r a d i t i o n 

o f p u b l i c w e a l was now coming from t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w i t h i t s 

newly c o n s t i t u t e d democracy, i t seems o n l y f i t t i n g t h a t a 

s i m i l a r c h a l l e n g e t o B r i t a i n ' s t r a d i t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c p o e t 

s h o u l d a l s o come from A m e r i c a , t h r o u g h L o n g f e l l o w , t h e f i g u r e 

o f t h e p o p u l a r p o e t . 

O b v i o u s l y , L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson assumed t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e 

r o l e s as p o e t s o f t h e p e o p l e u n i q u e l y , i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e 

p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g i e s o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n s . Y e t by and 

l a r g e t h e y b o t h r e a c h e d o u t s i d e o s t e n s i b l y p o l i t i c a l a r e n a s 

f o r t h e i r p o e t r y , t o a s h a r e d p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h women as 



theme and, l i k e l y , as a u d i e n c e . The m i d d l e p e r i o d o f each 

p o e t ' s c a r e e r i s dominated by a f e m a l e - c e n t r e d p o e t r y w h i c h , 

i f n o t l i k e E v a n g e l i n e (1847) o r The P r i n c e s s (1847) e x p r e s s l y 

d e v o t e d t o women, sought t o i n t e r p r e t l i f e a c c o r d i n g t o 

d o m e s t i c p a t t e r n s o f l o v e , f a m i l i a l r e l a t i o n s , and t h e s i m p l e 

p l e a s u r e s o f t h e h e a r t h , w i t h w h i c h women were i n t i m a t e l y 

f a m i l i a r . Long r e c o g n i z e d as a major g e n r e i n t h e Tennyson 

canon, t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l has n o t been g i v e n much a t t e n t i o n i n 

L o n g f e l l o w c r i t i c i s m . M i l e s S t a n d i s h . f o r example, i s more 

o f t e n a n a l y z e d f o r i t s b o o k i s h i n f l u e n c e s t h a n f o r any 

i n t r i n s i c p o e t i c m e r i t o r f o r i t s r e c e p t i o n among i t s 

c o n t e m p o r a r y r e a d e r s . T h i s f a i l u r e t o r e c o g n i z e t h e 

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s canon, 

e s p e c i a l l y as i t r e l a t e s t o t h e r e c e p t i o n o f h i s p o e t r y by an 

i n c r e a s i n g l y f e m a l e a u d i e n c e , a t f i r s t g l a n c e a p p e a r s n o t t o 

have a f f e c t e d Tennyson s t u d i e s . 

As W. E. Fredeman c o n t e n d s , Tennyson " i s t h e d o m e s t i c p o e t 

p a r e x c e l l e n c e i n E n g l i s h " (365). And a few c r i t i c s o t h e r 

t h a n Fredeman, i n h i s "'Sphere o f Common D u t i e s ' " a r t i c l e , 

have c o n s i d e r e d Tennyson's use o f t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l i n some 

d e p t h : V a l e r i e P i t t i n Tennyson L a u r e a t e , P a t r i c k S c o t t i n h i s 

s h o r t monograph on Enoch Arden, and H e r b e r t T u c k e r i n h i s " I n 

E n g l a n d " c h a p t e r o f Tennyson and t h e Doom o f R o m a n t i c i s m . The 

number o f examples i s s m a l l , however, compared t o t h e 

c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l i n Tennyson's canon, and t o 

i t s enormous p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Of book-



l e n g t h s t u d i e s , D o n a l d H a i r ' s r e c e n t Domestic and H e r o i c i n  

Tennyson's P o e t r y seems t o make up f o r t h i s r e l a t i v e s h o r t f a l l 

i n Tennyson s c h o l a r s h i p . Y e t H a i r , a l t h o u g h r e c o g n i z i n g 

Tennyson's n o t i o n o f t h e home as a g u a r a n t o r o f s o c i a l 

s t a b i l i t y , n e v e r t h e l e s s v i e w s t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l as V i c t o r i a n 

d o m e s t i c i z a t i o n o f v a r i o u s r o m a n t i c and h e r o i c a r c h e t y p a l 

p a t t e r n s . Seen i n t h i s l i g h t , Tennyson's d o m e s t i c i d y l 

becomes s i m p l y a r e s e t t i n g o f t r a d i t i o n a l p o e t i c forms i n 

d o m e s t i c c o n t e x t s and n o t a s p e c i f i c p o e t i c form shaped by t h e 

d o m e s t i c i n t e r e s t s o f Tennyson's a u d i e n c e o f f r i e n d s , e d i t o r s , 

c r i t i c s , f e l l o w w r i t e r s ( i n c l u d i n g women), and g e n e r a l p u b l i c . 

C r i t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e d o m e s t i c 

i d y l w i t h i n a V i c t o r i a n c o n t e x t can o n l y be enhanced by a 

s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e a u d i e n c e t h a t h e l p e d i t t o 

a c h i e v e s u c h prominence, an a u d i e n c e i n c r e a s i n g l y made up o f 

women. P a t t e e ' s The F e m i n i n e F i f t i e s and D o u g l a s ' s The  

F e m i n i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n C u l t u r e a r e j u s t two examples o f 

s t u d i e s d e v o t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e enormous power women 

e x e r t e d w i t h i n t h e l i t e r a r y and c l e r i c a l l i f e o f a n t e b e l l u m 

A m e r i c a . I n B r i t a i n , works such as S a r a Delamont and L o r n a 

D u f f i n ' s (eds.) The N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y Woman: Her C u l t u r a l and  

P h y s i c a l W o r l d and The Woman Q u e s t i o n : S o c i e t y and L i t e r a t u r e  

i n B r i t a i n and A m e r i c a , 1837-1883 ( E l i z a b e t h H e l s i n g e r e t a l ) 

e x p l o r e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h V i c t o r i a n women p l a y e d 

r e c o g n i z a b l e r o l e s i n s h a p i n g t h e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e d . 

These s o c i o - c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i e s p o i n t t h e way t o w a r d a 



r e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e c u l t u r a l m i l i e u t h a t L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson i n h a b i t e d , b o t h i n f l u e n c e d s p e c i f i c a l l y by women. 

T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p e j o r a t i v e l y 

" f e m i n i n e " cadences i n t h e p e o p l e ' s v o i c e o f t h e s e p o e t s i s , 

i f b r o u g h t f o r w a r d a t a l l , l i k e l y t o be d e r i s i v e r a t h e r t h a n 

e s p e c i a l l y p e r s p i c a c i o u s . And i n many r e s p e c t s , i t i s t h i s 

f e m i n i n e element i n b o t h L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o e t r y , 

i n i t s c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e s o - c a l l e d i n f a n t i l i s m o f 

V i c t o r i a n s e n t i m e n t , t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s e p o e t s ' e v e n t u a l 

d e c l i n e i n p o p u l a r i t y b e g i n n i n g i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y 

and s p u r r e d on by t h e advent o f New C r i t i c i s m i n t h e e a r l y 

t w e n t i e t h . By 1932, L o n g f e l l o w had been r e l e g a t e d f o r e v e r t o 

t h e c l a s s r o o m s o f "wretched s c h o o l c h i l d r e n " ( L e w i s o h n 65) , t h e 

p e r i p h e r y o f c r i t i c a l r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . H i s c u r r e n c y can be 

d e t e r m i n e d a t a g l a n c e by h i s p l a c e m e n t w i t h i n A m e r i c a n  

L i t e r a r y S c h o l a r s h i p ; An A n n u a l (see Woodress) where works on 

L o n g f e l l o w a r e m e n t i o n e d i n t h e s u b - s e c t i o n " P o p u l a r W r i t e r s 

o f t h e M i d c e n t u r y " a l o n g w i t h t h o s e on o t h e r " F i r e s i d e P o e t s " 

and f e m a l e n o v e l i s t s l i k e Stowe, A l c o t t , and K i r k l a n d . I n 

c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n , Poe has a s e c t i o n o f h i s own and Whitman 

and D i c k i n s o n s h a r e a s e c t i o n . 

Tennyson can be s a i d t o have s u f f e r e d i n i t i a l l y a s i m i l a r 

d e c l i n e i n r e p u t a t i o n under t h e New C r i t i c i s m ; y e t , i r o n i c a l l y 

t h i s same l i t e r a r y p e r s p e c t i v e has c o n t r i b u t e d t o Tennyson's 

u l t i m a t e r e s t o r a t i o n t o t h e E n g l i s h canon. H a r o l d N i c o l s o n ' s 

s e p a r a t i o n o f Tennyson t h e b a r d from Tennyson t h e p o e t , w i t h 



t 

36 

d i s d a i n f o r t h e f o r m e r and v a l o r i z a t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r , 

o s t e n s i b l y began t h e b i f u r c a t i o n p r o c e s s by w h i c h Tennyson 

o v e r t i m e r e g a i n e d h i s c r i t i c a l s t a t u r e . Because he saw t h e 

p u b l i c b a r d as h a v i n g been u n d u l y i n f l u e n c e d by women, 

N i c o l s o n f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o s i l e n c e Tennyson's " V i c t o r i a n " 

f e m i n i n e v o i c e t o r e i n v i g o r a t e t h e p o e t ' s weakened r e p u t a t i o n ; 

i n so d o i n g he h e l p e d t o r e c a s t him as a modern p o e t a t odds 

w i t h h i s age, a r e c a s t i n g t h a t has c o n t i n u e d , i n v a r i o u s 

f o r m s , t o t h i s d a y . 1 5 

A c t u a l l y , A.C. B r a d l e y ' s e a r l i e r l e c t u r e The R e a c t i o n  
A g a i n s t Tennyson (1917) began t h e p r o c e s s o f s e p a r a t i n g 
Tennyson as a l y r i c R o m a n t i c i s t from Tennyson as a V i c t o r i a n 
p o e t i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e m o r a l i t y o f t h e i d y l ( d o m e s t i c and 
A r t h u r i a n ) . N i c o l s o n ' s f u r t h e r b i f u r c a t i o n o f t h e p o e t a l o n g 
s i m i l a r l i n e s m e r e l y l i n k e d t h e m o r b i d , m e l a n c h o l i c p r i v a t e 
p o e t t o Tennyson's s o - c a l l e d "Romantic" l y r i c v o i c e . What 
f o l l o w e d was a f u r t h e r i n g o f t h e s p l i t between Tennyson's 
p u b l i c V i c t o r i a n i s m on t h e one hand and h i s p r i v a t e ( t o 
N i c o l s o n ) Romantic i m p u l s e s , on t h e o t h e r . The f o r m e r was 
e l a b o r a t e d on i n t h e f i r s t s c h o l a r l y , y e t s e v e r e l y c r i t i c a l , 
f u l l l e n g t h s t u d y o f Tennyson by P.F. Baum, Tennyson S i x t y  
Y e a r s A f t e r (1948). W h i l e Baum's argument d i d much t o r e v i v e 
Tennyson's p o e t r y f o r c r i t i c a l c o n t e m p l a t i o n ( a l b e i t 
n e g a t i v e l y ) , i t u l t i m a t e l y s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e p u b l i c ( t o Baum, 
' p o p u l a r ' ) v s p r i v a t e d i v i s i o n i n Tennyson s t u d i e s t h a t has 
c o n t i n u e d t o t h i s day. Arguments a g a i n s t Baum, i f t h e y were 
t o c h a l l e n g e s u c c e s s f u l l y h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Tennyson as a 
p o e t l i m i t e d by h i s p u b l i c a c c e p t a n c e o f V i c t o r i a n 
s e n t i m e n t a l i t y , would have t o p r o v e Tennyson's c u r r e n c y as a 
p o e t by e q u a t i n g h i s p o e t r y w i t h t h a t o f a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y , 
o s t e n s i b l y p r i v a t e s e n s i b i l i t y . I m p l i c i t l y r e l i a n t on 
N i c o l s o n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , A . J . C a r r ' s e s s a y , "Tennyson as a 
Modern P o e t , " t r a n s f o r m s what N i c o l s o n had c a s t i n Tennyson as 
Romantic i n t o a f o r e s h a d o w i n g o f m o d e r n i t y : p r i v a t e moodiness 
i n c o n f l i c t w i t h p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , w i t h c o n f l i c t 
i t s e l f as t h e u l t i m a t e symbol o f a modern c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 
C h a p t e r t h r e e examines t h e p r i v a t e v s p u b l i c s p l i t i n Tennyson 
b i o g r a p h y and c r i t i c i s m i n d e p t h . 



But i t i s n o t enough t o r e s t o r e r e s p e c t a b i l i t y t o Tennyson 

by a t t e m p t i n g t o t r a n s f o r m him i n t o a modern p o e t : h i s major 

modes, e s p e c i a l l y t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l , b e l o n g t o t h e 

s e n s i b i l i t i e s o f a n o t h e r e r a , and t h e y , r a t h e r t h a n any 

r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s m o d e r n i t y , a c c o u n t e d f o r h i s u n i v e r s a l 

p o p u l a r i t y among V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s . E q u a l l y , L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p o p u l a r v o i c e needs t o be r e e x a m i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e 

L a u r e a t e ' s i f t h e f e a t u r e s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r 

p o e t r y s p e c i f i c t o E n g l a n d and A m e r i c a a r e t o be e x p r e s s l y 

u n d e r s t o o d . 

O b v i o u s l y , a s t u d y o f t h i s k i n d c a n n o t p o s s i b l y hope t o 

p r o v i d e c l o s e a n a l y s e s o f a l l o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 

most p o p u l a r poems; even i f s u c h a l i s t c o u l d be c o m p i l e d 

c o n c l u s i v e l y from t h e s a l e s r e c o r d s o f t h e s u c c e s s f u l volumes 

i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and E n g l a n d , t h e l i s t i t s e l f would be 

unmanageably l o n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , though i t i s f a i r t o say t h a t 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson b o t h o r i g i n a l l y a c h i e v e d p o e t i c 

a c c l a i m t h r o u g h t h e i r e a r l y l y r i c poems, i t i s e q u a l l y t r u e 

f o r b o t h p o e t s t h a t t h e l o n g poem s e c u r e d t h e i r n a t i o n a l and 

i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n s . And t h e l o n g poem r a r e l y l e n d s 

i t s e l f t o c l o s e a n a l y s i s . Tennyson's most p o p u l a r p o e m s — t h e 

E n g l i s h I d y l s , I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g (1859), and Enoch A r d e n — 

t e n d n o t t o be j u d g e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r a p p e a l t o 

Tennyson's age, b u t r a t h e r on how c l o s e l y t h e y a p p r o x i m a t e t h e 

c l o s e s c r u t i n i z i n g t a s t e s o f our own, o f t e n w i t h d i s p a r a g i n g 



38 

r e s u l t s . 1 6 F i n a l l y , because Tennyson c o n t i n u e d t o e x p e r i m e n t 

w i t h v e r s e forms t h a t a c h i e v e d w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t d e g r e e s o f 

p u b l i c a c c e p t a n c e , b o t h i n h i s day and o u r s , any f u l l 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e L a u r e a t e as a p u b l i c p o e t must a c c o u n t 

e q u a l l y f o r h i s s u c c e s s e s and r e l a t i v e f a i l u r e s i n a p e r i o d o f 

g e n e r a l l y acknowledged p o p u l a r a p p e a l . Such an a c c o u n t i s 

enhanced by a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f t h e most p o p u l a r p o e t o f 

t h e day, L o n g f e l l o w , s i n c e p o e t i c c o m p a r i s o n s encourage a f a r 

g r e a t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e impact o f a u d i e n c e upon 

p o p u l a r i t y t h a n does an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o e t r y i n i s o l a t i o n 

from i t s r e c e p t i o n . 

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e f i r s t f o u r c h a p t e r s o f t h i s s t u d y p r o v i d e 

a h i s t o r i c a l framework f o r c h a p t e r s f i v e and s i x f o c u s e d on 

s e l e c t poems from m i d - c e n t u r y when, a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e i r 

c a r e e r s , L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson p u b l i s h e d t h e i r major work, 

f u l l y c o g n i z a n t o f t h e i r p u b l i c l y s a n c t i o n e d r o l e s as n a t i o n a l 

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . C h a p t e r one d e f i n e s V i c t o r i a n p o p u l a r p o e t r y 

L i m i t e d t o pre-1855 poems, T u c k e r ' s most r e c e n t 
a t t e m p t i n h i s " I n E n g l a n d " c h a p t e r o f Tennyson and t h e Doom  
o f R o m a n t i c i s m , f o r a l l h i s p r o f e s s e d i n t e n t i o n s t o r e m a i n 
t r u e t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e l e v a n c e o f t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l s as a 
p o p u l a r V i c t o r i a n form, c a n n o t h e l p b u t expose h i s "modern" 
( l a r g e l y New C r i t i c a l ) a e s t h e t i c b i a s a g a i n s t t h e s e poems 
p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e he h i m s e l f acknowledges t h a t h i s c r i t i c a l 
e x e g e s i s i s d r i v e n by t h e a s s u m p t i o n " t h a t good p o e t r y 
embodies c o n f l i c t s . a n d works t h r o u g h r e s i s t a n c e s " ( 7 8 ) . When 
t h e poems do n o t c o n t a i n c o n f l i c t o r pose r e s i s t a n c e — 
a c c o r d i n g t o T u c k e r — T e n n y s o n i s m e r e l y b e n d i n g h i s t a l e n t s t o 
h i s p u b l i c i n t h e " a r t i c u l a t i o n o f an a c c e p t a b l e w o r l d " ( 2 7 4 ) , 
and t h e poems a r e r e a d as " c a r e e r making" r a t h e r t h a n 
l i t e r a r y . " I n E x t r e m i s , " T u c k e r ' s c h a p t e r on Tennyson's e a r l y 
d r a m a t i c monologues, d e m o n s t r a t e s T u c k e r ' s d e c i d e d p r e f e r e n c e 
f o r what he r e c a s t s as modern, c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l v e r s e . 



i n e m p i r i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m s . C h a p t e r s two, t h r e e , and 

f o u r d i s c u s s t h e u n d e r l y i n g b i o g r a p h i c a l and c u l t u r a l r e a s o n s 

f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n , on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c , o f what 

m i g h t be c a l l e d B a r d i c v o i c e s t h a t a p p e a l e d t h e m a t i c a l l y t o a 

p o p u l a r r e a d e r s h i p , i n c r e a s i n g l y f e m a l e , c o n d i t i o n e d t o 

d o m e s t i c v a l u e s o f home and f a m i l y — l o v e and d u t y . 1 7 C h a p t e r 

f i v e l o o k s a t p o p u l a r l y r i c s w h i l e c h a p t e r s i x examines 

p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e poems. I n t h e s e two c h a p t e r s , t h e r o l e o f 

t h e a u d i e n c e i s b r o u g h t t o b e a r upon an u n d e r s t a n d i n g , 

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and a p p l i c a t i o n o f s e l e c t e d p o p u l a r poems o f 

m i d - c e n t u r y by L o n g f e l l o w and T e n n y s o n . 1 8 F i n a l l y , t h e 

c o n c l u s i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e d e c l i n e o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson 

r e s p e c t i v e l y as p o e t s o f t h e p e o p l e , and q u e s t i o n s some o f t h e 

To some e x t e n t , such an a n a l y s i s must acknowledge t h e 
p o e t r y o f t h e p o p u l a r f e m a l e p o e t s o f t h e d a y — M r s . Hemans i n 
E n g l a n d and Mrs. S i g o u r n e y , commonly c a l l e d " t h e Mrs. Hemans 
o f A m e r i c a " — i f o n l y t o p r o v i d e a background o f w i d e s p r e a d 
p o p u l a r i t y g a i n e d t h r o u g h o v e r t s e n t i m e n t a l i z a t i o n a g a i n s t 
w h i c h t h e use o f s e n t i m e n t by t h e i r male c o n t e m p o r a r i e s may be 
v i e w e d . 

U n d e r s t a n d i n g , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n a r e t h e 
t h r e e f a c e t s o f h e r m e n e u t i c r e a d i n g d e s c r i b e d as s u c c e s s i v e 
l e v e l s by J a u s s i n h i s e s s a y "The P o e t i c T e x t w i t h i n t h e 
Change o f H o r i z o n s o f R e a d i n g : The Example o f B a u d e l a i r e ' s 
' S p l e e n I I ' " i n Toward an A e s t h e t i c o f R e c e p t i o n (139-85). 
U n d e r s t a n d i n g i n v o l v e s an a e s t h e t i c r e a d i n g o f p o e t i c 
s t r u c t u r e s (a l a r g e l y s u b j e c t i v e e n t e r p r i s e ) ; i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 
r e q u i r e s r e t r a n s l a t i o n ( s u b j e c t i v e ) o f t h e o r i g i n a l a e s t h e t i c 
t e x t i n t o t h e h o r i z o n f o r a subsequent d i a l e c t i c a l r e a d i n g 
( o b j e c t i v e ) i n w h i c h t h e t e x t poses q u e s t i o n s t h a t 
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a t t e m p t s t o answer, t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g f o r t h e 
r e a d e r ' s p a r t i n t h e g e n e s i s o f t h e a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t ; 
a p p l i c a t i o n demands a t h i r d g e n e r a l l y o b j e c t i v e r e a d i n g i n 
w h i c h t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t p r o v i d e s a h o r i z o n o f 
e x p e c t a t i o n s t h r o u g h w h i c h meaning i s c r e a t e d . 



r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r p r e s e n t l i t e r a r y s t a t u s . The u l t i m a t e aim, 

however, i s n o t t o r e s t o r e e i t h e r L o n g f e l l o w ' s o r Tennyson's 

p o p u l a r p o e t r y t o t h e i r e s t a b l i s h e d A m e r i c a n o r B r i t i s h canons 

p e r s e . Nor i s i t , i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n , t o q u e s t i o n t h e 

a u t h o r i t y o f canon f o r m a t i o n i t s e l f as a c r i t i c a l endeavour. 

R a t h e r , t h e f i n a l p a r a g r a p h s o f t h i s s t u d y examine t h e 

s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s t h a t e x c l u d e d L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson from 

u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l a as t h e y e x i s t e d w i t h i n a h o r i z o n o f 

e x p e c t a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between " p o p u l a r " and 

" r e s p e c t a b l e " l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h i s c e n t u r y . 

There a r e , o f c o u r s e , i n h e r e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a s t u d y i n 

r e a d e r - r e c e p t i o n h i s t o r y . As J a u s s h i m s e l f a d m i t s o f a l l 

a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e , " [ w ] h e t h e r t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p a s t 

v i e w e r , t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y o f t h e t e x t , can be de f a c t o 

r e c o v e r e d . . . c o u l d o n l y be c o n f i r m e d by ( u s u a l l y l a c k i n g ) 

documents d e t a i l i n g t h e s p e c i f i c s e n s o r y p e r c e p t i o n o f p a s t 

p e r i o d s " ( A e s t h e t i c E x p e r i e n c e 6 4 ) . The p a u c i t y o f 

d o c u m e n t a t i o n about L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's c o n t e m p o r a r y 

r e a d e r s h i p , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o women, i s an o b v i o u s 

d i f f i c u l t y w i t h w h i c h t h i s s t u d y has had t o c o n t e n d . E x t a n t 

d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson, 

from t h e s e r i o u s t o t h e g l i b , from t h e i m i t a t i v e t o t h e 

p a r o d i c , does however shed v a l u a b l e l i g h t on t h e p r o d u c t i o n 

and r e c e p t i o n o f a much m a l i g n e d body o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

p o e t r y . W h i l e t o o easy g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about one c u l t u r e 

based on a n o t h e r — e s p e c i a l l y two s e p a r a t e d by an o c e a n — i s a 



p i t f a l l t o be a v o i d e d , r e c e n t t r a n s a t l a n t i c c o m p a r a t i v e 

s c h o l a r s h i p , w h i c h i s b r o a d e n i n g t h e h o r i z o n s o f l i t e r a r y 

r e s e a r c h , l e n d s a d i s t i n c t t i m e l i n e s s t o an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e 

two most p o p u l a r p o e t s o f t h e age, whose p o e t r y b o t h r e f l e c t e d 

and i n f l u e n c e d t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e i r own and each o t h e r ' s 

c o u n t r i e s . That t h e y c o n t i n u e t o do s o , a l t h o u g h i n ways 

g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e i r o r i g i n a l i m p a c t , a t t e s t s t o t h e 

t r u l y h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i r most r e v e r e d poems. 



42 

CHAPTER ONE 

'FOOTPRINTS ON THE SANDS OF TIME' 
THE EMERGENCE OF POPULAR POETRY IN THE VICTORIAN PERIOD 

P r o b a b l y no p o e t who has e v e r l i v e d e n j o y e d more fame d u r i n g 
h i s l i f e t i m e t h a n d i d Tennyson. 

— J o h n E i d s o n 1943 (149) 

L o n g f e l l o w . . . a t t r a c t e d d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e a number o f 
r e a d e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d u n e q u a l l e d by any p o e t i n h i s 
day. 

— C l a r e n c e Ghodes 1944 
(American L i t e r a t u r e 99) 

Poetry and Popular Culture 

A l t h o u g h fame and w i d e s p r e a d r e a d e r s h i p a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l , 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson appear t o have s h a r e d e q u a l l y t h e 

V i c t o r i a n t i t l e o f t h e " P e o p l e ' s P o e t . " S e c t i o n s two and 

t h r e e o f t h i s c h a p t e r d i s c u s s t h i s c l a i m based on e m p i r i c a l 

e v i d e n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f v a r i o u s t e x t s i n 

r e l a t i o n t o t h e t r a n s a t l a n t i c p r o d u c t i o n and p u b l i c a t i o n o f 

t h e two p o e t s ' works. B u t , because an a u t h o r ' s p o p u l a r i t y 

a l s o stems from t h e r e a d e r s ' i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t e x t s , whether 

a c t u a l l y p u r c h a s e d o r n o t , any e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f p o p u l a r 

p o e t r y needs t o be supplemented by a t h e o r e t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n 

o f V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s as p o p u l a r i z e r s . S e c t i o n f o u r i s a two-

p a r t s t u d y o f A m e r i c a n and B r i t i s h a u d i e n c e s : as consumers 

w i t h i n a s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t t h a t a l l o w e d f o r book 

c o n s u m p t i o n , and as consumers and c o - p r o d u c e r s o f n a t i o n a l 

c u l t u r e , w i t h t h e p o e t s t h e m s e l v e s as c o m m o d i t i e s f o r p u b l i c 

p e r u s a l and p u r c h a s e . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n Western c u l t u r a l 



43 

h i s t o r y , t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s i n book p r o d u c t i o n and 

advances i n l i t e r a c y and e d u c a t i o n c o i n c i d e d t o p r o d u c e p o e t i c 

t e x t s t h a t c o u l d be, and i n d e e d were, r e a d by an A n g l o -

A m e r i c a n a u d i e n c e t h a t was n o t r e s t r i c t e d by n a t i o n a l , c l a s s , 

o r gender b o u n d a r i e s o r d i s t i n c t i o n s . 

The p u b l i c a t i o n and s a l e s h i s t o r i e s o f L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson have been p a i n s - s t a k i n g l y r e s e a r c h e d and documented 

i n t h i s c e n t u r y , b u t , however s u g g e s t i v e l y c o n v i n c i n g t h e 

f a c t u a l d e t a i l s may seem i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e r e l a t i v e 

p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e two p o e t s , t h e y a r e n o t by t h e m s e l v e s 

s u f f i c i e n t t o v a l i d a t e L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's t r u e 

p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e i r own o r each o t h e r ' s c o u n t r y . Of c o u r s e , 

t h e f a c t s a r e n e i t h e r c o m p l e t e n o r w h o l l y a c c u r a t e . F o r t h i s 

r e a s o n , s t a t i s t i c a l e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o p r o d u c t i o n and s a l e s 

f i g u r e s i s used i n t h i s c h a p t e r and i n t h e a p p e n d i c e s on 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson ( I & I I ) w i t h t h e c a v e a t s t h a t t h e 

numbers a r e m e r e l y t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e e s t i m a t e s d e r i v e d by 

c o m p a r i n g s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s ; and, t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 

o f t h o s e numbers t e n d s t o be more s p e c u l a t i v e more t h a n 

c o n c l u s i v e . 1 They a r e , however, based on s t a t i s t i c a l e v i d e n c e 

1 Where p o s s i b l e , o b v i o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s among d i f f e r e n t 
s o u r c e s a r e n o t e d i n t h e t e x t o r i n a f o o t n o t e . A n o t h e r 
d i f f i c u l t y w i t h w h i c h t h i s c h a p t e r has had t o c o n t e n d i s 
t e r m i n o l o g y : e d i t i o n s , i m p r e s s i o n s , r e p r i n t s , i s s u e s , and so 
f o r t h . N i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p u b l i s h e r s t e n d e d t o use " e d i t i o n " 
f o r a l m o s t any new p r i n t - r u n s , even i f t h e t y p e - s e t had n o t 
changed. G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , u n l e s s a new e d i t i o n ( i n t h e 
modern sense) i s b e i n g r e f e r r e d t o , e d i t i o n i s u s e d h e r e i n 
t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y sense t o i n d i c a t e a new r e l e a s e o f 
however many c o p i e s t o t h e p u b l i c . 



m a r s h a l l e d , f o r L o n g f e l l o w , by W. S. T r y o n and W i l l i a m C h a r v a t 

i n The C o s t Books o f T i c k n o r and F i e l d s and, f o r Tennyson, by 

June Hagen i n Tennyson and H i s P u b l i s h e r s , supplemented i n 

each c a s e by p e r i p h e r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s — b i o g r a p h i e s , l e t t e r s , 

b i b l i o g r a p h i e s , and p u b l i s h i n g h i s t o r i e s . The p r o b l e m a t i c 

n a t u r e o f s t a t i s t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s w e l l i n d i c a t e d by t h e 

s e e m i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y c l a i m s made by E i d s o n and Ghodes f o r 

t h e g r e a t e r p o p u l a r i t y o f Tennyson and L o n g f e l l o w i n t h e 

e p i g r a p h s t o t h i s c h a p t e r . On b a l a n c e , Ghodes's c l a i m , based 

on s u r v i v i n g d o c u m e n t a t i o n , would seem t o be more f i r m l y 

grounded, b u t T r y o n and C h a r v a t ' s r e s e a r c h e s , based on t h e 

T i c k n o r and F i e l d s c o s t books, i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between 

t h e p r o d u c t i o n , m a r k e t i n g , and s a l e s o f L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson i n A m e r i c a , o f f e r c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t b o t h p o e t s 

s o l d e q u a l l y w e l l i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The west t o e a s t 

c o u n t e r p a r t t o T r y o n ' s " N a t i o n a l i s m and I n t e r n a t i o n a l 

C o p y r i g h t , " a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson i n 

A m e r i c a , and C h a r v a t ' s two e s s a y s on L o n g f e l l o w i n The  

P r o f e s s i o n o f A u t h o r s h i p i n A m e r i c a , i s f o u n d i n t h e works o f 

C l a r e n c e Ghodes who, i n " L o n g f e l l o w and h i s A u t h o r i z e d B r i t i s h 

P u b l i s h e r s " (1940) and an a n a l y s i s o f t h e i m p a c t o f 

u n a u t h o r i z e d e d i t i o n s , cheap r e p r i n t s , and v a r i o u s s o r t s o f 

p i r a t e d e x t r a c t s o f A m e r i c a n t e x t s i n E n g l a n d , t r a c e s t h e 

p o p u l a r i t y o f L o n g f e l l o w i n E n g l a n d . 

Comparable B r i t i s h r e c o r d s f o r Tennyson a r e f a r l e s s 

c o m p l e t e . The l a c u n a i s u n f o r t u n a t e , b u t even t h e f u l l e s t 



s a l e s r e c o r d s would n o t p r o v i d e an adequate e m p i r i c a l b a s i s on 

w h i c h t o p r o v e o r d i s p r o v e p o p u l a r i t y . S a l e s f i g u r e s a l o n e — 

e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e l i m i t e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and E n g l a n d — d o 

n o t r e f l e c t a c c u r a t e l y enough t h e numbers o f t e x t s t h a t may 

have been r e a d : n o t o n l y do t h e y f a i l t o a c c o u n t f o r s a l e s i n 

t r a n s l a t i o n s and i n t h e c o l o n i e s , p i r a t e d e d i t i o n s , 

p u b l i c a t i o n i n newspapers and magazines, a n t h o l o g i e s and 

g i f t b o o k s , b u t t h e y a l s o e x c l u d e b o r r o w i n g s from l i b r a r i e s . 

L i t e r a r y and s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s a l i k e r e l y on documented 

a c c o u n t s o f a u t h o r s ' contemporary a c c e p t a n c e t o adduce t h e i r 

p o p u l a r i t y w i t h i n a g i v e n s o c i a l c o n t e x t , w h i c h may r a n g e from 

p u b l i c r e v i e w s t h r o u g h s e m i - p u b l i c l e t t e r s and a n e c d o t e s o f 

l e a d i n g p u b l i c f i g u r e s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n j o u r n a l s , d i a r i e s , 

memoirs, and t h e l i k e , t o t h e somewhat more p r i v a t e r e s p o n s e s 

o f t h e members o f t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c who, f o r t h e i r u n i q u e o r 

t e l l i n g q u a l i t y , make i t i n t o p r i n t i n d i r e c t l y i n a v a r i e t y o f 

p u b l i c s o u r c e s documenting t h e " l i f e and t i m e s " o f a g i v e n 

f i g u r e . As h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e o f a more o r l e s s " f a c t u a l " 

k i n d , s u c h a c c o u n t s a r e h e r e added t o e x i s t i n g s t a t i s t i c a l 

p r o o f s as e q u a l l y u s e f u l e m p i r i c a l gages o f p o p u l a r i t y . The 

use o f t h e s e a c c o u n t s , however, n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e s a c e r t a i n 

d e g r e e o f c a u t i o n , s i n c e t h e i r e v i d e n t i a l r e l i a b i l i t y i s 

c o n d i t i o n e d by a t l e a s t t h r e e f a c t o r s : t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f 

t h e s e a c c o u n t s o v e r t i m e ; t h e u n d e r l y i n g m o t i v e s o f t h e 

s p e a k e r s o r w r i t e r s o f them; and t h e s u b j e c t i v e r a t i o n a l e ( o r 



2 b i a s ) o f s c h o l a r s i n s e l e c t i n g t h e i r d o c u m e n t a t i o n . Because 

e v i d e n c e o f t h i s s o r t i s b e s t employed q u a l i t a t i v e l y r a t h e r 

t h a n q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , t h i s c h a p t e r perhaps r i s k s some 

i n a c c u r a c y i n i t s use o f c o n t e m p o r a r y v o i c e s ; y e t , t h e 

i n t e n t i o n i s t o h e a r them as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f p o p u l a r o p i n i o n 

r a t h e r t h a n as a u t h o r i t a t i v e . 

I n s h o r t , t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f e v i d e n c e mean t h a t V i c t o r i a n 

p o p u l a r p o e t r y c a n n o t o n l y be d e f i n e d e m p i r i c a l l y . " P o p u l a r " 

c o n c e p t u a l i z e s a r e l a t i o n s h i p among a r t i s t s , t h e i r work, and 

t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r y a u d i e n c e s . 3 The p o p u l a r i t y o f a p o e t ' s 

work must t h e r e f o r e be s t u d i e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y as w e l l as 

e m p i r i c a l l y , n o t s i m p l y a c c e p t e d as an o b j e c t i v e measure o f 

t h e p o e t ' s p o s i t i o n i n a g i v e n s o c i e t y . V a r i o u s f e a t u r e s o f 

t h e p o e t ' s work must be a n a l y s e d so as t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l i k e l y 

d e g r e e o f p o p u l a r i t y and r e a s o n s f o r i t even when t h e 

Where p o s s i b l e , a t t e m p t s have been made t o use p r i m a r y 
s o u r c e s f o r a c c o u n t s from l e t t e r s , memoirs, and so on. 
E x c e r p t s from r e v i e w s , however, have been t a k e n from 
c o l l e c t i o n s o f r e p r i n t s o r from s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s . 

A t l e a s t two a s p e c t s o f " p o p u l a r " a r e n o t s t a t e d 
d i r e c t l y i n t h e g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n t h a t f o l l o w s . F i r s t , i n t h e 
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y p o p u l a r i s used p r i m a r i l y t o d e s c r i b e 
dynamic a c t i v i t i e s — s p o r t s f o r e x a m p l e — r a t h e r t h a n s t a t i c 
a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n s . Y e t i t i s a l s o used t o d e s c r i b e a v a r i e t y 
o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t s ( i n c l u d i n g s p o r t s , f i l m s , m u s i c , e t c . ) , and 
as s u c h has l i n k s t o t h e ways i n w h i c h a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n s a l s o 
i n d u c e d i f f e r i n g l e v e l s o f " a c t i v i t y " on t h e p a r t o f t h o s e 
whom t h e y a r e d e s i g n e d t o engage. Second, a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n s 
may a c h i e v e t h e i r p o p u l a r i t y among a u d i e n c e s h i s t o r i c a l l y and 
g e o g r a p h i c a l l y d i s t a n t from t h o s e f o r whom t h e y were 
o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d . On t h e p r o b l e m a t i c n a t u r e o f t h e terms 
" p o p u l a r " and " t h e p e o p l e " see Tony B e n n e t t ' s "The P o l i t i c s o f 
'the P o p u l a r ' and P o p u l a r C u l t u r e " i n P o p u l a r C u l t u r e and  
S o c i a l R e l a t i o n s ( 6 - 2 1 ) . 



47 

e m p i r i c a l d a t a t o v e r i f y t h e work's p o p u l a r i t y a r e 

u n a v a i l a b l e . 

I n t h i s c e n t u r y , p o e t r y r a r e l y forms a p a r t o f t h e o r e t i c a l 

d i s c u s s i o n s o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . Even i f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e 

t h e o r i s t s r e c o g n i z e p o e t r y as a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r 

medium, t h e y do so o n l y i n a l i m i t e d f a s h i o n . H i s t o r i a n s o f 

p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e i n A m e r i c a , f o r example, u s u a l l y f o c u s 

t h e i r a t t e n t i o n s on t h e n o v e l , i n an a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y 

e m p i r i c a l a c c o u n t i n g o f t h e " b e s t s e l l e r " phenomenon. And 

s i n c e s a l e s o f p o e t r y c o u l d h a r d l y be s a i d t o match s a l e s o f 

n o v e l s s u c h as U n c l e Tom's C a b i n — s a l e s t h a t L o n g f e l l o w 

h i m s e l f n o t e d r e a c h e d a m i l l i o n c o p i e s w i t h i n t h e f i r s t y e a r 

o f i t s p u b l i c a t i o n — L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson a c c o u n t f o r v e r y 

l i t t l e i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r 

l i t e r a t u r e . 4 On t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e A t l a n t i c , s t u d i e s o f 

p o p u l a r c u l t u r e i n V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d seldom i n v o l v e " l i t e r a t e " 

a c t i v i t i e s a t a l l , d e s i g n e d as t h e y a r e t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e 

n e w l y - c r e a t e d l e i s u r e p a s t i m e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y as a 

W r i t i n g i n h i s j o u r n a l f o r Feb. 24, 1853, L o n g f e l l o w 
a l s o remarked w i t h some envy o f H a r r i e t Beecher Stowe t h a t a t 
"one s t e p she has r e a c h e d t h e t o p o f t h e s t a i r c a s e up w h i c h 
t h e r e s t o f us c l i m b on our knees y e a r a f t e r y e a r . Never was 
t h e r e s u c h a l i t e r a r y coup de main as t h i s " ( L i f e I I 233). 
But L o n g f e l l o w knew f u l l w e l l t h a t p o e t r y was n o t f i c t i o n . Of 
s t u d i e s d e v o t e d t o p o p u l a r c u l t u r e , R u s s e l l Nye's "Rhymes f o r 
E v e r y b o d y " i n The Unembarrassed Muse: The P o p u l a r A r t s i n  
A m e r i c a (88-137) i s an e x c e p t i o n t o t h e r u l e t h a t because o f 
enormous s a l e s o n l y f i c t i o n w a r r a n t s s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n as 
p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e s i n c e Nye a t t e m p t s more t h a n an e m p i r i c a l 
s t u d y o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r A m e r i c a n p o e t r y . Nye's 
work i s d i s c u s s e d below. 



48 

phenomenon o f i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m . I f and when p o p u l a r 

l i t e r a t u r e does e n t e r i n t o s u c h d i s c u s s i o n s , i t does so 

p r i m a r i l y i n a n a l y s e s o f t h e magazine o r newspaper t r a d e ; 

s e n t i m e n t a l romances even f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o make t h e i r mark 

i n s t u d i e s o f V i c t o r i a n p o p u l a r c u l t u r e i n B r i t a i n . 5 

T h i s o v e r l o o k i n g o f b o t h t h e " b e s t s e l l e r i s m " o f p o e t r y and 

t h e f e a t u r e s t h a t i t s h a r e s w i t h t h e l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s o f 

V i c t o r i a n B r i t a i n stem p r e d o m i n a n t l y from an e l i t i s t 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y d e f i n i t i o n o f p o e t r y as " h i g h c u l t u r e " : 

p o e t r y i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , a e s t h e t i c a l l y and e m o t i o n a l l y 

s t i m u l a t i n g t o a s e l e c t c l a s s o f r e a d e r s e d u c a t e d t o 

a p p r e c i a t e i t s s u b t l e a p p e a l . By t h e same t o k e n , t h e 

e x p e r i e n c e o f p o e t r y i s t h o u g h t o f as an i n d i v i d u a l one 

5 A l t h o u g h p u b l i s h e d more t h a n t w e n t y y e a r s ago, The  
H i s t o r y o f P o p u l a r C u l t u r e ( C a n t o r n and Werthman eds.) i s 
s t i l l an o b v i o u s r e c o r d o f t h e e x c l u s i o n o f p o e t r y from 
s t u d i e s o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . T h i s mammoth a n t h o l o g y o f b r i e f 
e s s a y s on s o c i a l i s s u e s a f f e c t i n g t h e r i s e o f v a r i o u s c u l t u r a l 
a c t i v i t i e s o v e r t i m e does n o t i n c l u d e p o e t r y even among t h o s e 
a c t i v i t i e s d i s c u s s e d i n " D i v e r t i n g and I m p r o v i n g t h e M i n d " i n 
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y B r i t a i n and A m e r i c a (480-97). B r i t i s h 
p o p u l a r c u l t u r e s c h o l a r s who do s t u d y l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e Leo 
L o w e n t h a l , i n h i s L i t e r a t u r e , P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , and S o c i e t y 
( 1 9 6 1 ) , V i c t o r E. Neuburg, i n h i s P o p u l a r L i t e r a t u r e , A  
H i s t o r y and a Guide (1977) , and D a v i d V i n c e n t i n h i s r e c e n t 
L i t e r a c y and P o p u l a r C u l t u r e (1989). L o w e n t h a l ' s s o c i o l o g i c a l 
s t u d y i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y l i m i t e d t o changes i n p r e - n i n e t e e n t h 
c e n t u r y p o p u l a r t a s t e , w h i l e Neuburg's h i s t o r y o f v a r i o u s 
l i t e r a t u r e s p u b l i s h e d f o r t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s c o n c e r n s i t s e l f 
w i t h p o e t r y o n l y i n t h e forms o f s t r e e t b a l l a d s , cheap 
r e p r i n t s o f " c l a s s i c s , " o r as p a r t o f an o r a l t r a d i t i o n . 1 The 
f o c u s o f V i n c e n t ' s work i s a l s o t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s , i n t h i s 
c a s e , t h e ways i n w h i c h l i t e r a c y , e d u c a t i o n , and s o c i o -
economic c o n d i t i o n s a f f e c t e d t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f work w r i t t e n by 
and f o r t h e l a b o u r i n g c l a s s e s . As s u c h , t h e s e s t u d i e s s e r v e 
as i n t e r e s t i n g bases f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e p o p u l a r p o e t r y o f 
B r i t a i n ' s m i d d l e c l a s s e s . 



t 

49 

e l i c i t i n g p r i v a t e ( a l t h o u g h — p a r a d o x i c a l l y — s u p p o s e d l y 

u n i v e r s a l ) a p p r o v a l r a t h e r t h a n c o l l e c t i v e a s s e n t by an e n t i r e 

community o f r e a d e r s . Judged by t h e s e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y 

s t a n d a r d s , V i c t o r i a n " p o p u l a r p o e t r y " c a n c e l s i t s e l f out as a 

c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n t e r m s . Indeed, many l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s 

choose t o c a l l n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t r y r e a d on a mass s c a l e 

" p o p u l a r v e r s e " i n s t e a d , e s p e c i a l l y when d e a l i n g w i t h l y r i c s 

by f e m a l e p o e t s such as F e l i c i a Hemans.6 Y e t s u c h o v e r -

d e t e r m i n i s t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s i n v a r i a b l y n e g l e c t works w h i c h 

s i m p l y do n o t f i t t h e scheme: L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 

t r u l y p o p u l a r poems a r e c a s e s i n p o i n t . 

Poets and Their Bibliographies: Longfellow 

A l t h o u g h c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson emerged 

w i t h i n t h e i r own c o u n t r i e s as u n i q u e " p o e t s o f t h e p e o p l e " n o t 

j u s t because o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between A m e r i c a ' s and 

B r i t a i n ' s a u d i e n c e s . R a t h e r , t h e p u b l i c a t i o n methods and 

m a r k e t i n g o f l i t e r a t u r e s p e c i f i c t o A m e r i c a and B r i t a i n a l s o 

a s s u r e d each p o e t a d i f f e r e n t , t h o u g h no l e s s r e m a r k a b l e , 

P e t e r T r i n d e r ' s r e c e n t s t u d y , Mrs Hemans. i s t y p i c a l . 
He c o n t e n d s t h a t " t h e c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n w i l l a l w a y s be a t what 
p o i n t s can we d i s t i n g u i s h h e r v e r s e by t h e name o f p o e t r y , " 
t h a t i s , i n h i s t e r m s , a " s e l f - c o n t a i n e d e x p e r i e n c e s u i 
g e n e r i s " ; he adds t h a t t h e r e " i s a d i v i d i n g l i n e between t h e 
c o n v e n i e n t terms v e r s e and p o e t r y . . . . I t a k e t h i s l i n e t o 
be a d i s t i n c t i o n i n k i n d . " D e f i n i n g h i s c a t e g o r i e s f u r t h e r 
s t i l l , T r i n d e r u l t i m a t e l y c o n t e n d s t h a t Mrs Hemans was n o t , 
however, one o f t h e " i n t e r m i n a b l e p o e t a s t e r s " ( 7 - 8 ) . O n l y i n 
t h i s c e n t u r y have s u c h r i g i d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s become e n t r e n c h e d 
i n c r i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e ; a l t h o u g h t h e terms t h e m s e l v e s were used 
by n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s , t h e y r a r e l y c a r r i e d such p r e s e t 
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f v a l u e upon a s c a l e t h a t t h e r e a d i n g p u b l i c 
would u n a n i m o u s l y r e c o g n i z e and s u p p o r t . 



s u c c e s s . These t r a n s a t l a n t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n 

o f t h e p h y s i c a l t e x t and i t s subsequent p o p u l a r i z a t i o n 

r e s u l t e d i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s managing t o a c h i e v e a more immediate, 

and t h u s p o t e n t i a l l y more w i d e s p r e a d , n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

p o p u l a r i t y t h a n Tennyson d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n 

p o e t began h i s p o e t i c c a r e e r p r o p e r a l m o s t a decade l a t e r t h a n 

Tennyson: i n 183 9 w i t h V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t a f t e r Tennyson had 

a l r e a d y p u b l i s h e d b o t h Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l (183 0) and Poems 

(1833). I n c o n t r a s t t o Tennyson's r e l u c t a n t p r o m o t i o n o f 

h i m s e l f ( e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f h i s c a r e e r ) , 

L o n g f e l l o w was f u l l y p r e p a r e d t o p l a y b o t h businessman and 

p o e t t o e n s u r e t h a t h i s "wares" r e a c h e d t h e i r l a r g e s t p o s s i b l e 

market. 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s e n t e r p r i s i n g n a t u r e f i r s t r e v e a l s i t s e l f i n 

s e l f - p r o m o t i o n . From t h e l a t e 1820s and even i n t o t h e 1850s, 

he p u b l i s h e d i n p e r i o d i c a l s and a n n u a l s many i s o l a t e d l y r i c s , 

b a l l a d s , e s s a y s and o t h e r s h o r t p i e c e s d e s i g n e d f o r w i d e s p r e a d 

a u d i e n c e a p p e a l . I n The P r o f e s s i o n o f A u t h o r s h i p i n A m e r i c a , 

C h a r v a t a l l e g e s o f L o n g f e l l o w t h a t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " i t 

i s d o u b t f u l whether any o t h e r p o e t o f t h e c e n t u r y was so 

r e s o u r c e f u l i n b r i n g i n g h i s work b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c i n so many 

forms and on so many p r i c e l e v e l s . " He f u r t h e r p o i n t s o u t 

t h a t L o n g f e l l o w chose t h r e e d i f f e r e n t media: s i n g l e 

p u b l i c a t i o n i n a newspaper, magazine o r a n n u a l ; c o l l e c t i o n i n 

a s m a l l volume; r e a s s e m b l y o f s m a l l volumes i n a " c o l l e c t e d " 

e d i t i o n ( 1 5 7 ) . The f i r s t o f t h e s e b r o u g h t h i s name b e f o r e t h e 



p u b l i c ; t h e second and t h i r d e n s u r e d t h a t i t would r e m a i n 

t h e r e . 

As c h a p t e r two d e m o n s t r a t e s , L o n g f e l l o w o r i g i n a l l y began 

h i s c a r e e r as a p o e t i n t h e 1820s w i t h an i n t e n s e d e s i r e t o be 

famous y e t w i t h a d i s c o u r a g i n g awareness t h a t t h e " b u s i n e s s " 

o f A m e r i c a was a n y t h i n g b u t l i t e r a r y . However, a v a r i e t y o f 

p e r i o d i c a l s i n t h e 1820s, 30s, and 4 0 s — i n p a r t i c u l a r t h o s e 

t a r g e t t e d a t women—were a t t r a c t i n g l a r g e r e a d e r s h i p s as were 

t h e l a v i s h l y p r o d u c e d a n n u a l s and g i f t b o o k s o f t h e same 

p e r i o d . By u s i n g such forms o f p u b l i c a t i o n as a means o f 

p u t t i n g h i m s e l f a t t h e f o r e f r o n t o f p o e t i c l i t e r a t u r e i n 

A m e r i c a , L o n g f e l l o w r e c e i v e d t h e i r g e n e r a l l y modest payments 

e s s e n t i a l l y t o a d v e r t i s e h i m s e l f and h i s c r a f t . 

Throughout h i s e a r l y c a r e e r , L o n g f e l l o w chose v a r i o u s means 

t o e f f e c t a r e a d e r s h i p f o r p o e t r y w r i t t e n by and f o r 

A m e r i c a n s . A t e i g h t e e n , he began a s e r i e s o f c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o 

B o s t o n ' s U n i t e d S t a t e s L i t e r a r y G a z e t t e (1824-26): f o u r t e e n 

poems and f i v e a r t i c l e s ( d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r t w o ) . I n h i s 

New York Review and Anthenaeum Magazine (Aug 1825), W i l l i a m 

C u l l e n B r y a n t p r a i s e d t h e s e " b e a u t i f u l " poems by t h e as y e t 

unknown H.W.L. ( q t d . i n L o r i n g H a r t 6 3 ) . They were r e p r o d u c e d 

i n t h e volume M i s c e l l a n e o u s Poems S e l e c t e d from t h e U n i t e d  

Sta-fces L i t e r a r y G a z e t t e (1825), and a g a i n drew h i g h p r a i s e , 

t h i s t i m e from t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n Review (Apr 182 6 ) . A l t h o u g h 

a s s u r e d o f an a u s p i c i o u s p o e t i c b e g i n n i n g , L o n g f e l l o w 

n e v e r t h e l e s s changed h i s l i t e r a r y c o u r s e i n 1829. N e a r i n g t h e 



end o f h i s f i r s t European t o u r , he was c o n v i n c e d t h a t he had 

p u t f o r w a r d h i s p o e t r y t o o e a r l y . Upon h i s r e t u r n t o A m e r i c a , 

t h e r e f o r e , L o n g f e l l o w t h e p r o f e s s o r p u b l i s h e d t r a n s l a t i o n s and 

grammar t e x t s w h i l e L o n g f e l l o w t h e p o e t c o n t i n u e d t o 

d i s s e m i n a t e i n t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s h i s i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g an 

a u t o c h t h o n o u s A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e , t h i s t i m e i n p r o s e — a 

r e v i e w o f a new e d i t i o n o f S i d n e y ' s Defense o f Poesy ( N o r t h  

A m e r i c a n Review 1832) ( d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r t w o ) . Thus, 

a l t h o u g h L o n g f e l l o w d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e any p o e t r y t o t h e 

p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s i n t h e e a r l y 183 0s, he encouraged h i s r e a d e r s 

i n p r o s e t o seek o u t A m e r i c a n p o e t s f o r r e a s o n s t h a t l a t e r i n 

t h e decade h i s own p o e t r y would answer. 

L o n g f e l l o w c o n t i n u e d t o work as a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c and 

e s s a y i s t i n v e i l e d forms i n h i s s k e t c h book, Outre-Mer 

( p u b l i s h e d i n pamphlets i n 1833 and 1834, 2 volumes 1835), and 

i n t h e n o v e l s H y p e r i o n (1839) and Kavanaqh (1849) .. He resumed 

work as p o e t i n t h e mid-1830s a f t e r h i s r e t u r n from a second 

European t o u r . E v e n t u a l l y , he a l l o w e d L e w i s G a y l o r d C l a r k t o 

p u b l i s h "The Reaper and t h e F l o w e r s " (1837) and t h e n "A Psalm 

o f L i f e " (1838) i n h i s New York K n i c k e r b o c k e r magazine. I n so 

d o i n g , L o n g f e l l o w broadened h i s p o t e n t i a l a u d i e n c e s i n c e New 

York was a l r e a d y b e g i n n i n g t o s u r p a s s B o s t o n as t h e c e n t r e f o r 

p e r i o d i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n . 

Lawrance Thompson c o n t e n d s t h a t , by 1842, because "New York 

p e r i o d i c a l s o f f e r e d f a r more o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e a u t h o r t h a n 

t h o s e i n B o s t o n , [ L o n g f e l l o w ] s e n t most o f h i s p i e c e s t o t h e 



New W o r l d , Colman's M o n t h l y M i s c e l l a n y , t h e New York M i r r o r , 

t h e L a d i e s Companion, and t h e K n i c k e r b o c k e r " (307) . As 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s e x p o s u r e i n c r e a s e d w i t h t h e s u c c e s s o f V o i c e s o f  

t h e N i g h t (1839), h i s r e c o r d e d income documented i n A p p e n d i x 

I-B d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t he commanded i n c r e a s i n g l y h i g h e r p r i c e s 

f o r i n d i v i d u a l poems f o r p e r i o d i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n . W r i t i n g t o 

h i s f a t h e r on 29 December 1839, L o n g f e l l o w remarks on t h e 

immediate p o p u l a r i t y o f V o i c e s , and adds t h a t he now g e t s "a 

good d e a l o f p r a i s e and c o n s t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s t o w r i t e f o r 

p e r i o d i c a l s , a t [ h i s ] own p r i c e " ( L i f e I 338) , d e s p i t e a slump 

i n A m e r i c a n magazine i n d u s t r y i n t h e e a r l y 1840s. 

Buoyed by h i s f i r s t volume's i n s t a n t a n e o u s s u c c e s s , 

L o n g f e l l o w n o t e d i n h i s j o u r n a l a d e s i r e t o c r e a t e a "new 

s e n s a t i o n " among a "new s e t o f c r i t i c s " by p u b l i s h i n g h i s 

" B a l l a d o f t h e Schooner Hesperus" as a b r o a d s i d e , " p r i n t e d on 

a s h e e t and s o l d l i k e V a r s e s w i t h a c o a r s e p i c t u r e on i t . " 

L o n g f e l l o w i n t e n d e d h i s " n a t i o n a l b a l l a d " t o work upon " t h e 

p e o p l e ' s f e e l i n g s " ( L i f e I 342-3) i n a f o r m a t b e s t s u i t e d t o 

t h e masses' t a s t e s . W h i l e t h i s b r o a d s i d e scheme n e v e r 

m a t e r i a l i z e d , "Hesperus" d i d r e a c h i t s mass a u d i e n c e i n t h e 

n e x t b e s t form: P a r k Benjamin's New W o r l d magazine ( J a n 1840), 

w h i c h C h a r v a t r e f e r s t o as a c r u d e "mammoth newspaper" o f t h e 

t i m e w i t h a p o t e n t i a l w e e k l y c i r c u l a t i o n o f 39,000 ( P r o f e s s i o n 

124-5). A l t h o u g h Benjamin's $25 payment t o L o n g f e l l o w may 

seem modest t o d a y , i t was g r a n t e d a t a t i m e when most p o e t s 

r e c e i v e d o n l y about $5 p e r poem. D o u b t l e s s , L o n g f e l l o w c o u l d 



w e l l have c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p l y such p o e t r y t o cheap mass-

c i r c u l a t i o n p a p e r s b u t , as C h a r v a t a r g u e s , t h e s e p a p e r s ' r a p i d 

e x p a n s i o n g e n e r a t e d s u c h f i e r c e c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e 1840s t h a t 

s t a n d a r d s q u i c k l y l o w e r e d , and L o n g f e l l o w soon r e a l i z e d t h a t a 

newspaper a u d i e n c e was n o t t h e one t o w h i c h h i s work would 

b e s t be p i t c h e d . I n s t e a d , he sought and r e a c h e d "an a u d i e n c e 

t h a t i n c l u d e d a l l l e v e l s e x c e p t t h e two e x t r e m e s — t h e s t o r y 

p a p e r r e a d e r s a t t h e v e r y bottom and t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s ( t h e 

T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s ) a t t h e t o p " ( P r o f e s s i o n 127). W h i l e 

r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t h i s was a p o t e n t i a l l y w i d e s p r e a d , m i d d l e -

c l a s s a u d i e n c e , L o n g f e l l o w n e v e r d i d f u l l y abandon t h e i d e a o f 

a b r o a d s i d e b a l l a d f o r t h e masses. I n 1863, he f i n a l l y 

s u c c e e d e d w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f one o f h i s most p o p u l a r 

s e n t i m e n t a l b a l l a d s , "The S h i p o f S t a t e . " 

C l e a r l y , L o n g f e l l o w was a p o e t a t t u n e d t o d i v e r s e A m e r i c a n 

r e a d e r s , y e t he d i d n o t r e s p o n d i n q u a n t i t y t o t h e i r needs by 

becoming a p r o l i f i c w r i t e r o f poems f o r t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s . 

W h i l e he m i g h t s t r i k e h a r d monetary b a r g a i n s — f o r example w i t h 

George Graham o f Graham's Magazine, f o r $50 a poem i n exchange 

f o r Graham's monopoly on L o n g f e l l o w ' s work f o r p e r i o d i c a l s 

( 1 8 4 3 - 4 8 ) — h e a c t u a l l y c o n t r i b u t e d on a v e r a g e o n l y t h r e e poems 

a y e a r t o p e r i o d i c a l s and a n n u a l s from 1840-52 i n c l u s i v e , so 

t h a t such s u b m i s s i o n s c o n s t i t u t e d l e s s t h a n 10% o f h i s t o t a l 

l i t e r a r y income f o r t h i s p e r i o d ( C h a r v a t P r o f e s s i o n 157). By 

t h e same t o k e n , however, L o n g f e l l o w d i d r e c e i v e some 

n o t e w o r t h y payments f o r l a t e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s . I n June 1857, 



f o r example, he pronounced i n h i s j o u r n a l t h a t he had "had t h e 

o f f e r o f one t h o u s a n d d o l l a r s f o r t e n poems o f any l e n g t h from 

t h e New Y o r k L e d g e r . D e c l i n e d . I do n o t w i s h t o w r i t e f o r 

any newspaper" ( L i f e I I 300). W h i l e he would n o t , a t an 

e d i t o r ' s r e q u e s t , w r i t e f o r t h e New York L e d g e r o r f o r any 

newspaper on a r e g u l a r b a s i s , i n 1874 he c o u l d h a r d l y d e c l i n e 

t h e L e d g e r ' s o f f e r o f $3,000 f o r "The Hanging o f t h e Crane," 

n o r d e c l i n e "Keramos" i n 1877 t o H a r p e r s magazine when t h e y 

o f f e r e d him $1,000 f o r t h e ode. P e r i o d i c b u t s t e a d y 

c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o F i e l d s ' s A t l a n t i c M o n t h l y i n t h e l a t e 1850s 

and 1860s, a v e r a g i n g $50 and t h e n l a t e r $150 a poem, e n s u r e d 

t h a t L o n g f e l l o w was a l s o r e a d , a t l e a s t on an o c c a s i o n a l 

b a s i s , by B o s t o n ' s l i t e r a t i . New York and B o s t o n , t h e masses 

and t h e c u l t u r e d e l i t e a l i k e were p e r s i s t e n t l y reminded o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s c o n t i n u e d p r o d u c t i v i t y even though t h e s a l e s o f 

h i s new p o e t i c volumes began t o d e c l i n e i n t h e 1860s. I n 

s h o r t , L o n g f e l l o w p r o d u c e d poems f o r t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s n o t 

o n l y t o e x a c t a l i v e l i h o o d , b u t e q u a l l y t o e s t a b l i s h , enhance, 

and, u l t i m a t e l y , p r o l o n g h i s r e p u t a t i o n among a v a r i e t y o f 

r e a d e r s . 

S i m i l a r l y , t h r o u g h o c c a s i o n a l s u b m i s s i o n s t o a n n u a l s and 

g i f t books, L o n g f e l l o w a l s o e n s u r e d t h a t h i s name was known 

among a d e c i d e d l y f e m a l e a u d i e n c e . I n A m e r i c a n L i t e r a r y  

A n n u a l s and G i f t Books, R a l p h Thompson a r g u e s t h a t t h e 

" e v o l u t i o n o f t h e a n n u a l i n t o a d e c o r a t i v e l i t e r a r y p e r i o d i c a l 

was t h e r e s u l t o f an i n c r e a s i n g r e g a r d f o r f e m i n i n e t a s t e " 



( 3 ) , and t h a t " n e a r l y e v e r y A m e r i c a n w r i t e r was p r e s s e d i n t o 

s e r v i c e " ; o n l y M e l v i l l e , Thoreau, and Whitman escaped ( 2 3 ) . 

Of B r i t i s h w r i t e r s , F e l i c i a Hemans was t h e most f r e q u e n t l y 

r e p r i n t e d , w h i l e L y d i a S i g o u r n e y — d u b b e d " A m e r i c a ' s Mrs 

H e m a n s " — v i r t u a l l y made h e r l i v i n g by s u b m i s s i o n s t o 

p e r i o d i c a l s , a n n u a l s , and g i f t b o o k s . 7 U n l i k e i n B r i t a i n , 

a n n u a l s were t a k e n more s e r i o u s l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , and 

t h e i r c o n t e n t s were o f t e n s u b j e c t t o l e n g t h y r e v i e w s i n 

i m p o r t a n t p e r i o d i c a l s ( 1 8 - 1 9 ) . But t h e t e x t s L o n g f e l l o w 

s u b m i t t e d t o t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s were n o t among h i s b e s t known 

works n o r l i k e l y t o w i n him l a s t i n g fame. To t h e s e a n n u a l s 

L o n g f e l l o w c o n t r i b u t e d b o t h poems and p r o s e : "The Song o f t h e 

B i r d s " and "The B u r i a l o f t h e M i n n i s i n k " appeared i n t h e 

A t l a n t i c S o u v e n i r i n 1827, as d i d "The S p i r i t o f P o e t r y " t h e 

f o l l o w i n g y e a r ; and t h r e e s t o r i e s — " T h e I n d i a n Summer," "The 

B a l d E a g l e , " and "An E v e n i n g i n Autumn" were p r i n t e d i n 1832 

and 1833 r e s p e c t i v e l y i n The Token; L o n g f e l l o w ' s P h i B e t a 

Kappa poem, " T r u t h , " was r e p r i n t e d i n The B o s t o n Book (1836). 

C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o The Token and t o The B o s t o n Book c o n t i n u e d 

i n t o t h e 1840s; o t h e r p o p u l a r a n n u a l s i n t h e 40s such as The 

7 Hemans was t h e most p o p u l a r E n g l i s h a u t h o r i n A m e r i c a n 
a n n u a l s and g i f t b o o k s . James D. H a r t n o t e s t h a t a " c o u n t made 
by P r o f e s s o r B r a d f o r d A. Booth shows t h a t s e v e n t y - f i v e o f h e r 
poems a p p e a r e d i n t h e s e a n t h o l o g i e s between 1825 and 1865, as 
a g a i n s t a mere s e v e n t e e n by Tennyson" ( 1 3 3 ) . Of A m e r i c a n 
p o e t s , S i g o u r n e y was by f a r t h e most p o p u l a r i n a n n u a l s , 
g i f t b o o k s , and magazines combined; H a r t m a i n t a i n s t h a t she 
p u b l i s h e d as many as 2,000 poems i n t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s , l a t e r 
c o l l e c t e d i n as many as 65 volumes o f p o e t r y (13 3 ) . 



L i b e r t y B e l l o f t h e M a s s a c h u s e t t s A n t i - S l a v e r y S o c i e t y , The  

G i f t , and The O p a l a l s o c o n t a i n e d o c c a s i o n a l t e x t s by 

L o n g f e l l o w . L o n g f e l l o w ' s works were a l s o s o l i c i t e d i n t h e 

1850s f o r i n c l u s i o n i n s p e c i a l a n t h o l o g i e s l i k e Garden Walks  

w i t h t h e P o e t s (1852), Autumn Leaves (1853), and The Harp and  

t h e C r o s s : A C o l l e c t i o n o f R e l i g i o u s P o e t r y (1857). 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s u s u a l payment f o r such poems was $50 p e r 

s u b m i s s i o n . From t h i s e v i d e n c e , i t would seem t h a t w h i l e 

L o n g f e l l o w was n o t p r e p a r e d t o a l l o w h i s work t o become a 

s t a p l e o f t h e f u g i t i v e p r e s s — n e i t h e r p e r i o d i c a l s nor g i f t -

a n n u a l s — h e was more t h a n w i l l i n g t o c a p i t a l i z e on t h e 

p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e s e media t o enhance h i s own r e p u t a t i o n as a 

w r i t e r by i n c r e a s i n g h i s r e a d e r s h i p , p a r t i c u l a r l y among 

m i d d l e - c l a s s women, who were g i f t - a n n u a l s ' p r i n c i p a l 

consumers. To assume, however, t h a t i n c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e s e 

volumes he was m e r e l y p a n d e r i n g t o t h e " S i g o u r n e y - l i k e " t a s t e 

o f t h e i r a u d i e n c e i g n o r e s b o t h L o n g f e l l o w ' s p r o m o t i o n a l 

r e a s o n s f o r p u b l i s h i n g i n them and h i s i n t e n t i o n t o c o n v e r t 

t h e i r a u d i e n c e t o become r e a d e r s o f h i s f a r more l u c r a t i v e 

s i n g l e volumes. I n t h i s e n t e r p r i s e , he was a i d e d by an 

e q u a l l y e n t e r p r i s i n g p u b l i s h e r and subsequent f r i e n d , James T 

F i e l d s . 

A l t h o u g h T i c k n o r and F i e l d s d i d n o t become L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p u b l i s h e r s u n t i l 1846, L o n g f e l l o w ' s e a r l y p u b l i s h i n g v e n t u r e s 

a r e marked by an e n t e r p r i s e t h a t t h e y would l i k e l y have 

a d m i r e d . A p p e n d i x I c o n t a i n s f i r s t an o u t l i n e o f f o r m a t , 



58 

p r i c e s , and volume o f s a l e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and, second, 

a r e c o r d o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s income from a l l p u b l i c a t i o n s , 1839-

65. D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , L o n g f e l l o w r e a c h e d t h e peak o f h i s 

p o p u l a r i t y i n A m e r i c a w i t h t h e s a l e o f o v e r 50,000 c o p i e s o f 

Hiawatha ( 1 8 5 5 ) . 8 I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t L o n g f e l l o w and h i s 

p u b l i s h e r s were p r e p a r e d t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h f o r m a t s , p r i c e s , 

and numbers t o t r y t o r e a c h as d i v e r s e a market as p o s s i b l e . 

What i s n o t o b v i o u s , however, i s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h 

L o n g f e l l o w a c t e d as a p a r t n e r i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f h i s work, 

e s p e c i a l l y from 1845 t o 1865 when he owned and c o n t r o l l e d t h e 

use o f t h e s t e r e o t y p e p l a t e s o f h i s books, i n c l u d i n g t h o s e 

p r e v i o u s t o 1845 w h i c h he had p u r c h a s e d o u t r i g h t from John 

Owen. 

C h a r v a t d i s c u s s e s t h e f i n a n c i a l advantages t h a t L o n g f e l l o w 

e n j o y e d because o f t h e above arrangement t h a t , i n s h o r t , 

y i e l d e d on a v e r a g e a n e t r o y a l t y o f 18 1/4% i n s t e a d o f t h e 

c u s t o m a r y 10% o f t h e t i m e t h r o u g h payments t h a t were due when 

t h e c o p i e s were p r i n t e d and n o t a t t h e t i m e t h e y were s o l d 

( " L o n g f e l l o w " 159, 160). Y e t C h a r v a t m e n t i o n s o n l y i n p a s s i n g 

one o f t h e more h i d d e n advantages o f such an arrangement: 

L o n g f e l l o w c o u l d d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e f o r m a t o f h i s t e x t s i n 

t h e c h o i c e o f p r i n t e r and t y p o g r a p h e r , and i n t h e numbers t o 

8 The i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e c o n c e r n i n g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n 
and s a l e s o f L o n g f e l l o w volumes i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a p p e a r s 
p r i m a r i l y i n " L o n g f e l l o w ' s income," c h a p t e r n i n e o f C h a r v a t ' s 
The P r o f e s s i o n o f A u t h o r s h i p i n A m e r i c a , 1800-1870 and T r y o n ' s 
" N a t i o n a l i s m and I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o p y r i g h t " a r t i c l e . 



be p r i n t e d . W h i l e t h i s e n t a i l e d s o i l i n g h i s hands i n t h e i n k 

and d i r t o f p r i n t i n g and p u b l i c a t i o n — a n a c t i v i t y most 

A m e r i c a n V i c t o r i a n w r i t e r s chose t o a v o i d r a t h e r t h a n embrace 

— L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n d u s t r y c o u l d a l l o w him t o a n t i c i p a t e and 

r e s p o n d t o t h e needs o f what he f e l t h i s a u d i e n c e t o be i n 

ways d e n i e d t o t h o s e a u t h o r s who a l l o w e d p u b l i s h e r s n e a r 

a b s o l u t e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r t e x t s . Shrewd, i n d u s t r i o u s , and 

w i l l i n g t o t a k e r i s k s , L o n g f e l l o w s h o u l d be c r e d i t e d n o t o n l y 

f o r h i s p e r f o r m a n c e a t c e n t r e s t a g e as t h e w r i t e r o f some o f 

t h e most t r e a s u r e d v e r s e s i n t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e , b u t a l s o 

f o r h i s work b e h i n d t h e s c e n e s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f h i s t e x t s . 

Indeed, even b e f o r e L o n g f e l l o w owned and c o n t r o l l e d t h e use 

o f h i s s t e r e o t y p e p l a t e s , he had t r i e d t o work o u t 

arrangements w i t h h i s p u b l i s h e r s t h a t y i e l d e d g r e a t e r p r o f i t 

f o r h i m s e l f once h i s books p r o v e d s u c c e s s f u l , and t h a t a l l o w e d 

him t o work w i t h o t h e r p u b l i s h e r s i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m a t s f o r 

d i f f e r e n t m a r k e t s . V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t (1839) and B a l l a d s 

(1841), f o r example, p u b l i s h e d by Owen under s t a n d a r d 

arrangements o f f l a t payment f o r c o p y r i g h t and s h a r e d p r o f i t 

w i t h t h e p u b l i s h e r , y i e l d e d an a v e r a g e o f o n l y 8% r o y a l t y on 

t h e r e t a i l p r i c e . But once L o n g f e l l o w n e g o t i a t e d a new 

c o n t r a c t i n F e b r u a r y 1842, t h e s e volumes y i e l d e d 13 1/2%, as 

would The S p a n i s h S t u d e n t (1843). 

A c c o r d i n g t o F r a n k L u t h e r M o t t ' s c a l c u l a t i o n s , L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t was t h e f i r s t A m e r i c a n volume o f p o e t r y t o 



60 

become a b e s t - s e l l e r . 9 A p a r t from Edgar A l l a n Poe and 

M a r g a r e t F u l l e r ( b o t h d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r t w o ) , e a r l y 

r e v i e w e r s p r a i s e d L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t i c t a l e n t , d u b b i n g him an 

A m e r i c a n p o e t o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r . L o n g f e l l o w ' s c a r e e r was so 

f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t even a c r i t i c a l l y d i s c l a i m e d t e x t such 

as Poems on S l a v e r y (1842) , a l t h o u g h i t s o l d p o o r l y , d i d 

l i t t l e t o damage h i s g r o w i n g r e p u t a t i o n . 

W i t h E v a n g e l i n e (1847), L o n g f e l l o w e n l i s t e d T i c k n o r and 

F i e l d s as h i s p u b l i s h e r s ; t h e i r b u s i n e s s acumen added t o 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s own shrewdness e s t a b l i s h e d him as a p o e t o f no 

mean a c c o u n t . I n s e l e c t i n g f o r m a t s , T i c k n o r and F i e l d s s e l f -

c o n s c i o u s l y p a t t e r n e d t h e i r volumes on t h e " s t y l e o f Moxon's 

p o e t s " ; i n f a c t , F i e l d s was f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o by h i s 

c o n t e m p o r a r i e s as " t h e A m e r i c a n Moxon" (Tryon P a r n a s s u s 177). 

T r y o n c l a i m s t h a t T i c k n o r "employed t h e b e s t b i n d e r s , t h e b e s t 

p r i n t e r s , and p u r c h a s e d t h e b e s t p a p e r , n o t from a e s t h e t i c 

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , b u t because he b e l i e v e d i t was f i n a n c i a l l y 

u n w i s e t o c u t c o r n e r s " ( P a r n a s s u s 161). Thus was b o r n t h e 

9 I n G o l d e n M u l t i t i u d e s . L u t h e r M o t t d e f i n e s b e s t s e l l e r 
as a t e x t t h a t , o v e r t h e h i s t o r y o f i t s s a l e , was p u r c h a s e d by 
what would have been 1% o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e 
c o n t i n e n t a l U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e decade i n w h i c h t h e t e x t was 
o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d ; t h u s f o r a " t e x t p u b l i s h e d i n t h e 1830s, 
l i k e V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t , t h i s would e q u a l 125,000 o r more 
c o p i e s . I n 1871, S. A u s t i n A l l i b o n e n o t e d i n h i s C r i t i c a l  
D i c t i o n a r y o f E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e and B r i t i s h and A m e r i c a n  
A u t h o r s t h a t V o i c e s had s o l d more t h a n f o r t y - t h r e e t h o u s a n d 
c o p i e s by 1860 ( q t d . i n L o r i n g H a r t 73) p r e s u m a b l y i n a l l i t s 
v a r i o u s r e p r i n t s . The f i g u r e s i n a p p e n d i x one, on t h e o t h e r 
hand, r e f e r j u s t t o s a l e s o f e d i t i o n s and r e p r i n t s o f t h e 
Owen's f i r s t e d i t i o n o f V o i c e s as a s i n g l e volume. 



T i c k n o r and F i e l d s t r a d e e d i t i o n : " c h o c o l a t e - b r o w n c o v e r s , 

stamped i n b l i n d w i t h t h e d e l i c a t e , l a c y , a c a n t h u s p a t t e r n s 

f r o n t and back" ( 1 7 7 ) . T h i s was t h e f o r m a t i n w h i c h 

E v a n g e l i n e was p u b l i s h e d and, as an i n d i v i d u a l volume, i t s o l d 

b e t t e r t h a n any o t h e r s t o d a t e : 14,425 c o p i e s by 1864 ( C h a r v a t 

P r o f e s s i o n 160). Even L o n g f e l l o w seemed s u r p r i s e d by i t s 

s u c c e s s , n o t i n g i n November 1847 t h a t " E v a n g e l i n e goes on 

b r a v e l y . I have r e c e i v e d g r e a t e r and warmer commendations 

t h a n on any p r e v i o u s volume. The p u b l i c t a k e s more k i n d l y t o 

hexameters t h a n I c o u l d have i m a g i n e d " ( L i f e I I 9 6 ) ; he l a t e r 

remarked on s a l e s o f one t h o u s a n d a month s i n c e i t s 

p u b l i c a t i o n ( L i f e I I 112). The L o n g f e l l o w — F i e l d s a s s o c i a t i o n 

o f n e a r l y t w e n t y f i v e y e a r s had b e g u n . 1 0 

But w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f H i a w a t h a , n o t e d below, 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n h i s i n d i v i d u a l 

volumes a c t u a l l y y i e l d e d t h e g r e a t e s t f i n a n c i a l r e w a r d s . 

C h a r v a t a l l e g e s t h a t , even though t h e s a l e s were somewhat 

s m a l l e r t h a n t h o s e o f i n d i v i d u a l volumes, t h e c o l l e c t e d 

e d i t i o n s t o 1850 b r o u g h t him a l m o s t d o u b l e t h e r e t u r n s : 

E x p e r i e n c e e a r l y showed L o n g f e l l o w t h a t t h e 
t e c h n i q u e o f t h i s form was w o r t h w a t c h i n g . On t h e 
one hand, s e v e r a l l e v e l s o f market c o u l d be r e a c h e d 
by v a r i a t i o n s o f p r i c e ; on t h e o t h e r hand, each 

1 0 A f t e r T i c k n o r d i e d i n t h e s p r i n g o f 18 64, F i e l d s 
r e t a i n e d T i c k n o r and F i e l d s as t h e firm''s name. I n 1871, 
F i e l d s s o l d h i s i n t e r e s t i n T i c k n o r and F i e l d s t o James 
Osgood; t h e company became James R. Osgood and Company, owned 
j o i n t l y by James Osgood, John C l a r k , and B e n j a m i n T i c k n o r . I n 
1878, t h e y amalgamated w i t h R i v e r s i d e P r e s s t o become 
Houghton, Osgood and Company. L o n g f e l l o w c o n t i n u e d w i t h t h e 
f i r m t h r o u g h o u t i t s changes u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n 1882. 



c o l l e c t i o n c o u l d be s t r a t e g i c a l l y outmoded t h r o u g h 
t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f new s e p a r a t e volumes o f v e r s e and 
t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t h e s e i n new c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s . 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s f i r s t v e n t u r e , t h e de l u x e i l l u s t r a t e d 
e d i t i o n a t $3.50, was b r o u g h t o u t on t h e i n i t i a t i v e 
o f t h e p u b l i s h e r s , Carey and H a r t ; b u t t h e f i f t y -
c e n t , p a p e r - c o v e r e d H a r p e r c o l l e c t i o n o f 184 6 was 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s i d e a [as was t h e t w e l v e and o n e - h a l f 
c e n t R e d d i n g e d i t i o n o f V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t ] . . . . 
E a r l y i n 1849 he f r e s h e n e d up t h e [ H a r p e r ] 
c o l l e c t i o n c o m m e r c i a l l y by a d d i n g t o i t new d o u b l e -
column p l a t e s o f E v a n g e l i n e f r a i s i n g t h e r e t a i l 
p r i c e from f i f t y t o s i x t y - t w o c e n t s . The whole 
o p e r a t i o n c o s t him about $340 f o r p l a t e s , b u t h i s 
n e t r o y a l t y f o r t o t a l H a r p e r s a l e s o f 6,000 a v e r a g e d 
16 p e r c e n t . (162-3) 

H a v i n g l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n h i m s e l f f o r h i s e a r l y s a l e s i n b o t h 

t h e e x p e n s i v e i l l u s t r a t e d market and t h e cheap book market, 

L o n g f e l l o w h e r e a f t e r t u r n e d t o T i c k n o r and F i e l d s t o s u p p l y 

t h e r a n g e o f h i s r e a d e r s w i t h t h e volumes b e s t s u i t e d t o t h e i r 

t a s t e s and p o c k e t b o o k s . I n i t i a l l y , t h i s was done t h r o u g h t h e 

t r a d e C o l l e c t e d E d i t i o n o f 1850. But w i t h subsequent r e p r i n t s 

and new e d i t i o n s o f t h i s t e x t , T i c k n o r and F i e l d s e x p e r i m e n t e d 

w i t h v a r i o u s f o r m a t s and p r i c e s f o r c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s , 

r a n g i n g from 50 c e n t s t o e i g h t d o l l a r s . 

Of h i s s i n g l e volumes, Hiawatha was L o n g f e l l o w ' s a l l - t i m e , 

most p o p u l a r t e x t : w i t h i n a month o f i t s p u b l i c a t i o n i n 10 

November 1855, 11,000 c o p i e s had been p r i n t e d , and f o u r months 

l a t e r , 30,000 had been s o l d (James H a r t 129-30). I n f a c t , 

4,000 o f t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f 5,000 had been s o l d even b e f o r e 

p u b l i c a t i o n ( L i f e I I 2 6 3 ) . A l r e a d y by 6 December, w h a t e v e r 

t h e damage t h e c r i t i c a l p r e s s a t t e m p t e d t o i n f l i c t , L o n g f e l l o w 

c o u l d l o o k upon c r i t i c i s m c a s u a l l y , and s h r u g i t o f f : "The 



p u b l i s h e r s a r e g o i n g t o p u t t o p r e s s t h e n i n t h and t e n t h 

t h o u s a n d o f H i a w a t h . C r i t i c s may a s s a i l as t h e y p l e a s e , eppur  

s i muove" ( L i f e I I 2 6 9 ) . 1 1 The r e m a r k a b l e d o u b l i n g o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p u b l i c a t i o n e a r n i n g s i n 1855 a l s o a t t e s t s t o t h e 

i n s t a n t p o p u l a r i t y o f Hiawatha (see A p p e n d i x I - B ) . 

By 1856, i t was c l e a r t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e p u t a t i o n was more 

t h a n s e c u r e , and T i c k n o r and F i e l d s f o l l o w e d up an e x p e r i m e n t 

w i t h Tennyson's poems ( d i s c u s s e d below) by a d d i n g L o n g f e l l o w 

t o t h e i r l i s t o f a u t h o r s f o r t h e i r " B l u e and G o l d " c o l l e c t e d 

e d i t i o n s : each was "a s m a l l handy volume, p r i n t e d i n e a s y t o 

r e a d t y p e on t h i n b u t good p a p e r " (Tryon P a r n a s s u s 2 2 9 ) . A t a 

c o s t o f $1.75 t h e t e x t s were e x p e n s i v e , y e t s o l d e x c e e d i n g l y 

w e l l : 40,000 by 1864. F o r t h e s e r i e s o v e r a l l , t h e "demand 

exceeded a l l e x p e c t a t i o n s " : 41 t i t l e s i n 57 volumes; t h e " B l u e 

and G o l d " soon began t o be i m i t a t e d by f i r m s i n New Y o r k and 

P h i l a d e l p h i a ( 2 2 9 ) . T h e i r a t t r a c t i v e c o v e r s , g i l t stamp, and 

g i l t edges, however, were n o t u n i q u e t o t h i s e d i t i o n s i n c e 

H i a w a t h a a c t u a l l y had a l r e a d y appeared i n a s i m i l a r d e s i g n i n 

r e d as w e l l as t h e s t a n d a r d brown, and The C o u r t s h i p o f M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h was t o appear i n p u r p l e . But t h e i r 3 2mo s i z e made 

them v e r y handy and c e r t a i n l y t h e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f each 

1 1 U n f o r t u n a t e l y , space does n o t a l l o w f o r a d i s c u s s i o n 
o f t h e c r i t i c a l r e s p o n s e s t o H i a w a t h a ; s u f f i c e t o say t h a t 
t h e r e were s e v e r a l n e g a t i v e v o i c e s among r e v i e w e r s and 
f r i e n d s . L o n g f e l l o w was most s t u n g by c h a r g e s o f h i s h a v i n g 
borrowed h i s t r o c h a i c hexameters from t h e K a l e v a l a , even 
t h o u g h many p e o p l e f e l t t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s meter and s t y l e had 
c a p t u r e d what was c o n s i d e r e d a t t h a t t i m e t o be t h e 
" i n f a n t i l e " c h a r a c t e r o f I n d i a n p e o p l e . 



p r o d u c t i t s e l f and t h e d e s i r e t o c o l l e c t t h e c o m p l e t e b l u e and 

g o l d " s e t " w o u l d have enhanced L o n g f e l l o w ' s s a l e s . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s subsequent s e p a r a t e volumes, M i l e s S t a n d i s h 

(1857) and T a l e s o f a Wayside I n n (1863), f u r t h e r e d h i s 
• • • 12 

r e p u t a t i o n a l t h o u g h n e i t h e r r e a c h e d t h e numbers o f H i a w a t h a . 

M i l e s S t a n d i s h . however, had a r e m a r k a b l e i n i t i a l s a l e : two 

10,000-copy p r i n t r u n s made up t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n ; upon 

p u b l i c a t i o n , 16 O c t o b e r , 5,000 s o l d i m m e d i a t e l y i n B o s t o n 

a l o n e ; and by t h e 2 3 r d L o n g f e l l o w was n o t i n g i n h i s j o u r n a l , 

" i n a l l an army o f t w e n t y - f i v e t h o u s a n d i n one week. F i e l d s 

t e l l s me t h a t i n London t e n t h o u s a n d were s o l d t h e f i r s t day" 

( L i f e I I 326, 327). But such r e m a r k a b l e s a l e s were n o t t o 

l a s t . 

A p p a r e n t l y by 1860, t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f new L o n g f e l l o w t e x t s 

was b e g i n n i n g t o wane. C h a r v a t e x p l a i n s L o n g f e l l o w ' s d e c l i n e 

i n p o p u l a r i t y w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f a d e p r e s s e d , C i v i l 

War economy, and i t s subsequent impact on t h e p u b l i s h i n g 

i n d u s t r y ( P r o f e s s i o n 164). I n a d d i t i o n , T r y o n r e g i s t e r s t h e 

f i n a n c i a l e f f e c t s o f t h e war i n T i c k n o r and F i e l d s ' s o v e r a l l 
1 2 I n h i s own r e c o r d s f o r 1857, L o n g f e l l o w n o t e s h i s 

s a l e s r e c o r d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o d a t e : " V o i c e s o f t h e 
N i g h t 43,550; B a l l a d s e t c . 40,470; S p a n i s h S t u d e n t 38,400; 
B e l f r y o f Bruges 38,300; E v a n g e l i n e 35,850; S e a s i d e . . . 30,000; 
G o l d e n Legend 17,188; Hiawatha 50,000; Outre-Mer 7,500; 
H y p e r i o n 14,550; Kavanagh 10,500" ( L i f e I I 295). P r e s u m a b l y , 
t h e s e f i g u r e s embrace s a l e s w i t h i n c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s (as t h e 
s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e i r numbers s u g g e s t s ) ; t h e s a l e s f i g u r e s f o r 
t h e f i n a l t h r e e p r o s e works t h e r e f o r e appear s i g n i f i c a n t l y 
l o w e r s i n c e i n 1857 t h e s e had n o t y e t been i n c l u d e d i n 
c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s . 



r e d u c t i o n i n p o e t i c o u t p u t : from 59,560 volumes i n 1860 t o 

o n l y 19,105 i n 1861 ( P a r n a s s u s 253). A l t h o u g h p r o s p e r i t y 

w o u l d r e t u r n t o t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i s h i n g i n d u s t r y i n g e n e r a l by 

1863, b o t h p o e t r y and L o n g f e l l o w became permanent v i c t i m s o f 

t h e d e p r e s s e d market s p a r k e d by t h e war. P o s t - w a r l i t e r a r y 

t a s t e s had changed: m i d d l e - c l a s s A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s had 

w h o l e h e a r t e d l y embraced t h e n o v e l , and p o e t r y was n e v e r t o 

r e c o v e r i t s f o r m e r s t a t u r e . 

I n d e e d , F i e l d s ' s d e c i s i o n i n 1865 t o i s s u e a cheap, 

s e l e c t e d e d i t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y as H o u s e h o l d Poems i s 

i t s e l f a t e l l i n g s i g n t h a t t h e market f o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y 

was c h a n g i n g . 1 3 By 1865, L o n g f e l l o w had n e g o t i a t e d a new 

c o n t r a c t w i t h F i e l d s t o be p a i d an a v e r a g e y i e l d each y e a r 

r a t h e r t h a n i n v o l v e h i m s e l f , as p r e v i o u s l y , i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n 

o f h i s work; and by 1875, h i s c o n t r a c t had been r e n e g o t i a t e d 

t o a f l a t sum o f $4,000 p e r annum f o r a l l h i s o l d books 

( C h a r v a t P r o f e s s i o n 112-13). Even though by 1869 L o n g f e l l o w 

had s o l d o v e r o n e - t h i r d o f a m i l l i o n c o p i e s o f h i s works, and 

i n t h e e a r l y 1870s h i s c o l l e c t e d works were s e l l i n g about 

15,000 c o p i e s a y e a r , t h e p u b l i s h e r s , i n a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t 

t o d i s p o s e o f a t o t a l p r i n t i n g o f 6,000 c o p i e s o f t h e newly 

1 3 L o n g f e l l o w ' s own o u t p u t was a l s o c h a n g i n g , e s p e c i a l l y 
because o f t h e t r a g i c d e a t h by f i r e o f h i s second w i f e i n 
1861, and h i s a t t e m p t t o b u r y h i s g r i e f p r i m a r i l y i n h i s 
t r a n s l a t i o n o f Dante. A l t h o u g h he k e p t w o r k i n g on o r i g i n a l 
t e x t s s u c h as T a l e s o f a Wayside I n n , even t h e s e poems have 
t h e r i n g o f p r o s e p i e c e s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a v a r i e t y o f v e r s e 
forms r a t h e r t h a n c r e a t i v e p o e t i c work. 



c o m p l e t e d C h r i s t u s (1871), i s s u e d t h e work i n no l e s s t h a n s i x 

d i f f e r e n t f o r m a t s t o s u i t e v e r y p o c k e t book ( C h a r v a t 

P r o f e s s i o n 150). The s h i f t s i n t a s t e among r e a d e r s f o l l o w i n g 

t h e C i v i l War meant t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e p u t a t i o n had now t o be 

s u s t a i n e d by two d i s t i n c t new a u d i e n c e s : young p e o p l e , because 

o f A m e r i c a ' s b u r g e o n i n g need f o r d o m e s t i c p o e t r y w i t h i n i t s 

n e w l y - e s t a b l i s h e d p u b l i c s c h o o l s , and an e x p a n s i v e f o r e i g n 

market. 

The above a c c o u n t o f s a l e s f i g u r e s d u r i n g L o n g f e l l o w ' s peak 

y e a r s c a n n o t by i t s e l f convey t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h , a t t h e 

h e i g h t o f i t s p o p u l a r i t y , L o n g f e l l o w ' s work had t o u c h e d p e o p l e 

f r o m a l l c l a s s e s . H i s s t a t u s as A m e r i c a ' s n a t i o n a l b a r d i s 

r e g i s t e r e d i n t h e i n n u m e r a b l e l a u d a t o r y v o i c e s o f h i s e d u c a t e d 

c o n t e m p o r a r i e s documented t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y . L e s s o f t e n 

h e a r d , however, a r e t h e v o i c e s o f t h e l o w e r c l a s s . I n t h e 

r e m i n i s c e n c e s g a t h e r e d f o r Samuel L o n g f e l l o w ' s L i f e o f h i s 

b r o t h e r , an unnamed woman r e c o u n t s t h e f o l l o w i n g i n c i d e n t i n 

New Y o r k : s e e i n g a crowd g a t h e r e d o u t s i d e o f a j e w e l l e r ' s 

window, she was s t r u c k by a " v o i c e i n u n m i s t a k a b l e brogue 

s a y i n g , 'Shure, and t h a t ' s f o r H i a w a t h a . ' The s p e a k e r was a 

r a g g e d I r i s h l a b o r e r , unshaven and u n s h o r n . She l o o k e d , and 

saw a s i l v e r b o a t w i t h t h e f i g u r e o f an I n d i a n s t a n d i n g i n t h e 

prow. 'That must be,' c o n t i n u e d t h e s p e a k e r , ' f o r a 

p r i s i n t a t i o n t o t h e p o e t L o n g f e l l o w ; t h i m two l i n e s c u t on t h e 

s i d e o f t h e b o a t i s from h i s p o e t h r y ' " ( q t d . i n L i f e I I I 352). 



The woman f u r t h e r remarked, " [ t ] h a t i s fame," t o h e r 

companion. 

T h i s a n e c d o t e c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

c o m p o s i t i o n a l t a c t i c s , c o u p l e d w i t h t h o s e o f h i s p u b l i s h e r i n 

m a r k e t i n g h i s p o e t r y , had been s u c c e s s f u l i n r e a c h i n g t h e 

g r e a t "unwashed" among A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s . I n a b i d t o enhance 

s a l e s , T i c k n o r and F i e l d s u s e d t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s t o t h e i r 

own and L o n g f e l l o w ' s advantage by s e n d i n g volumes f o r r e v i e w 

t o t h o s e magazines i n w h i c h t h e i r f i r m most f r e q u e n t l y 

a d v e r t i s e d , t h u s i n d i r e c t l y e n s u r i n g f a v o u r a b l e r e v i e w s . 

" P u f f i n g , " as i t was c a l l e d , was a common c o v e r t p r a c t i c e i n 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A n g l o - A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s . T r y o n 

m a i n t a i n s t h a t " L o n g f e l l o w , Hawthorne, W h i t t i e r , and Holmes 

r e v i e w e d each o t h e r ' s v o l u m e s — a l l p u b l i s h e d by F i e l d s — 

f r e q u e n t l y and w i t h sympathy" ( P a r n a s s u s 199). But i n 1855, 

T i c k n o r and F i e l d s made t h e m i s t a k e o f making t h e p r a c t i c e o f 

p u f f i n g o v e r t by w r i t i n g t o t h e T r a v e l l e r a f t e r an 

u n f a v o u r a b l e n o t i c e o f H i a w a t h a , and w i t h d r a w i n g t h e i r 

b u s i n e s s from t h e p a p e r . I n r e s p o n s e , t h e e d i t o r s o f t h e 

T r a v e l l e r p r i n t e d t h e p u b l i s h e r s ' l e t t e r v e r b a t i m i n t h e i r 

p a p e r . Thus ensued a c o n t r o v e r s y t h a t r a g e d f o r months 

i n v o l v i n g s e v e r a l p u b l i s h i n g f i r m s , p e r i o d i c a l s , and r e v i e w e r s 

( C h a r v a t P r o f e s s i o n 181-5). W h i l e L o n g f e l l o w r e m a i n e d s i l e n t 

t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s , and t h e c o n t r o v e r s y d i d 

l i t t l e i f a n y t h i n g t o dampen t h e s a l e s o f H i a w a t h a , one o f t h e 



68 

l e s s h o n o u r a b l e means by w h i c h p u b l i s h e r s marketed t h e i r wares 

was b r o u g h t t o l i g h t . 

One m i g h t t h i n k t h a t r e v e a l i n g t h e s e means m i g h t have 

l e s s e n e d p u b l i s h e r s ' w i l l i n g n e s s t o c o n t i n u e w i t h s i m i l a r 

p r a c t i c e s , b u t s u c h was n o t t h e c a s e w i t h F i e l d s . A f t e r 

T i c k n o r ' s d e a t h i n 1864, F i e l d s a c q u i r e d The N o r t h A m e r i c a n  

Review. And, a c c o r d i n g t o T r y o n , j u s t as h i s p u b l i s h i n g f i r m 

was about t o i s s u e a new seven volume e d i t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p r o s e and p o e t r y , F i e l d s t o l d C h a r l e s N o r t o n t h a t i t was a 

good t i m e f o r a f e a t u r e a r t i c l e i n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n on 

L o n g f e l l o w ( P a r n a s s u s 288) . I n t h e end, w r i t e r s somewhat l e s s 

p o p u l a r t h a n L o n g f e l l o w — H o l m e s , B a y a r d T a y l o r , W h i t t i e r , 

E m e r s o n — a l l r e c o g n i z e d t h a t F i e l d s had "made" them ( P a r n a s s u s 

323). The e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l s p i r i t t h a t m o t i v a t e d F i e l d s t o 

t a k e p u b l i s h i n g r i s k s a l s o prompted him t o t a k e s u c h t y p e s o f 

m a r k e t i n g r i s k s , t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s and o t h e r w r i t e r s ' u l t i m a t e 

b e n e f i t . 

More t h a n F i e l d s , L o n g f e l l o w ' s p u b l i s h e r s i n E n g l a n d had 

t h e f i n a n c i a l o p p o r t u n i t y and m o t i v a t i o n t o t a k e even g r e a t e r 

r i s k s . P r i o r t o t h e passage o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o p y r i g h t 

a c t i n 1891, L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y r e a c h e d E n g l i s h a u d i e n c e s 

o u t s i d e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h u n p a i d r e p r i n t s i n 

B r i t i s h p e r i o d i c a l s and i n i n n u m e r a b l e p i r a t e d e d i t i o n s 

c o s t i n g a s h i l l i n g o r l e s s , a f f o r d a b l e t o even t h e l o w e s t 



l e v e l s o f t h e r e a d i n g c l a s s e s . Y e t d e s p i t e t h e a d v a n t a g e s 

t h a t p i r a t i n g o f f e r e d p u b l i s h e r s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , 

s e v e r a l B r i t i s h f i r m s a c t u a l l y made c o n t r a c t s w i t h L o n g f e l l o w 

— n o t a l w a y s k e p t h o w e v e r — t o o b t a i n advance r e l e a s e o f h i s 

work i n E n g l a n d so as t o s e c u r e t h e market on i n i t i a l s a l e s . 1 5 

The a u t h o r i z e d s a l e s n o t e d by t h e R o u t l e d g e f i r m a l o n e 

( r e c o r d s from 1858-1900 t h a t a r e t h e m s e l v e s i n c o m p l e t e ) t e l l 

an amazing s t o r y o f 716,000 c o p i e s among 3 2 d i f f e r e n t t i t l e s 

i n c l u d i n g t r a n s l a t i o n s , p r o s e works, p o e t r y , and v a r i o u s 

s e l e c t e d e d i t i o n s . R o u t l e d g e ' s c o l l e c t e d P o e t i c a l Works, f o r 

example, s o l d 390,000 c o p i e s w h i l e t i t l e s s u c h as H i a w a t h a , 

37,000 c o p i e s , and T a l e s o f a Wayside I n n . 33,000 c o p i e s , s o l d 

t h e b e s t among h i s i n d i v i d u a l volumes o f p o e t r y , and h i s t e x t 

o f Dante's D i v i n e Comedy. 39,000 c o p i e s , t h e b e s t among h i s 

t r a n s l a t i o n s (Ghodes " L o n g f e l l o w " 1179). Of c o u r s e , one o f 

t h e r e a s o n s f o r such p o p u l a r i t y i n E n g l a n d was t h e p r a c t i c e by 

Among magazine e d i t o r s , T h a c k e r a y was i n d e e d t h e 
e x c e p t i o n when he w r o t e t o L o n g f e l l o w i n November 1859, t o ask 
"Has H i a w a t h a e v e r a s p a r e s h a f t i n h i s q u i v e r , w h i c h he can 
s h o o t a c r o s s t h e A t l a n t i c ? How p r o u d I s h o u l d be i f I c o u l d 
have a c o n t r i b u t i o n o r two from you f o r our C o r n h i l l magazine" 
( q t d . i n L i f e I I 346). Ghodes e x p l a i n s t h a t even i n t h o s e 
magazines who announced L o n g f e l l o w as a c o n t r i b u t o r , h i s poems 
were u s u a l l y p i r a t e d (American L i t e r a t u r e 50-55). 

1 5 C l a r e n c e Ghodes's " L o n g f e l l o w and h i s A u t h o r i z e d 
P u b l i s h e r s " examines v a r i o u s f i r m s ' s t r a t e g i e s t o s e c u r e and 
m a i n t a i n c o n t r a c t s w i t h L o n g f e l l o w , w h i l e h i s l a t e r s t u d y , 
A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e i n N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , w i t h i t s 
c h a p t e r on L o n g f e l l o w (99-171), adds i n f o r m a t i o n about p i r a t e d 
c o p i e s t o h i s o r i g i n a l work and a n a l y z e s v a r i o u s c r i t i c a l 
r e s p o n s e s t o L o n g f e l l o w i n B r i t i s h p e r i o d i c a l s t o d e t e r m i n e 
r e a s o n s f o r t h e A m e r i c a n p o e t ' s enormous p o p u l a r i t y i n 
E n g l a n d . 



B r i t i s h p u b l i s h e r s o f t a r g e t t i n g b o t h u p p e r - m i d d l e and l o w e r 

c l a s s r e a d e r s t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t l y p r i c e d e d i t i o n s , u s u a l l y 

b o t h a f i v e s h i l l i n g e d i t i o n and a one s h i l l i n g r e p r i n t . 

B e f o r e L o n g f e l l o w i n 1858 a c c e p t e d R o u t l e d g e ( w e l l known 

f o r h i s " R a i l w a y l i b r a r i e s " s e r i e s ) as h i s a u t h o r i z e d B r i t i s h 

p u b l i s h e r , t h e A m e r i c a n p o e t had been r e p r e s e n t e d by s e v e r a l 

d i f f e r e n t f i r m s . A f t e r a r a t h e r u n p r o f i t a b l e a t t e m p t w i t h 

O u t r e Mer, B e n t l e y p u b l i s h e d L o n g f e l l o w ' s e a r l y poems i n h i s 

M i s c e l l a n y f o r 1839. I n 1843, Tennyson's p u b l i s h e r , Edward 

Moxon, " a r r a n g e d f o r an e d i t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s poems from 

s h e e t s p r i n t e d i n P h i l a d e l p h i a " (Ghodes A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e 

105-6). P r e s u m a b l y , he p r i n t e d 250 c o p i e s each o f B a l l a d s and 

t h e S p a n i s h S t u d e n t i n t h a t y e a r ( L i f e I I 1 3 ) . I n 1849, 

r e c e i v i n g i n i t i a l payments o f $100 p e r volume, L o n g f e l l o w 

began t o have h i s work p u b l i s h e d by John W a l k e r o f L i v e r p o o l . 

C o m p l i c a t i o n s i n e v i t a b l y ensued and by 1851, W a l k e r , D a v i d 

Bogue, and George R o u t l e d g e were a l l b i d d i n g f o r t h e r i g h t s t o 

p u b l i s h The G o l d e n Legend, e v e n t u a l l y p u b l i s h e d by Bogue. 

Bogue a l s o p u b l i s h e d Hiawatha i n 1855, d e s p i t e R o u t l e d g e ' s 

c o n t i n u e d a t t e m p t s t o p e r s u a d e L o n g f e l l o w o v e r t o h i s f i r m 

t h r o u g h h i s i n s i s t e n c e t h a t he would be b e t t e r a b l e t h a n h i s 

c o m p e t i t o r s t o promote L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y . The s u c c e s s o f 

H i a w a t h a — 2 , 2 5 0 c o p i e s o f a f i v e - s h i l l i n g e d i t i o n and 15,000 

o f a o n e - s h i l l i n g i s s u e i n l e s s t h a n a y e a r — c o u l d o n l y have 

f u r t h e r c o n v i n c e d R o u t l e d g e t o c o n t i n u e t o p r e s s f o r t h e 

r i g h t s t o L o n g f e l l o w i n E n g l a n d . Y e t w i t h Bogue's d e a t h i n 



1856, L o n g f e l l o w l o y a l l y a u t h o r i z e d W. K e n t , Bogue's 

p u r c h a s e r , t o p u b l i s h h i s upcoming M i l e s S t a n d i s h . H a v i n g 

f a i l e d t o w i n L o n g f e l l o w o v e r because o f a b o t c h e d scheme t o 

o b t a i n B r i t i s h c o p y r i g h t on t h e volume, however, Kent was 

r e p l a c e d i n 1858 f i n a l l y by R o u t l e d g e , who r e m a i n e d 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s a u t h o r i z e d B r i t i s h p u b l i s h e r f o r t h e r e s t o f h i s 

c a r e e r (Ghodes " L o n g f e l l o w " 1166-73). The number o f 

a u t h o r i z e d c o p i e s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s poems, t h a t i s t h o s e 

p u b l i s h e d by R o u t l e d g e , t o t a l l e d 716,000 by t h e t u r n o f t h e 

c e n t u r y (1179). 

The s c r a m b l e t o o b t a i n a u t h o r i z a t i o n from L o n g f e l l o w , and 

s i m i l a r l y t o s e c u r e a t y p e o f c o p y r i g h t , a r e t h e m s e l v e s 

measures o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o p u l a r i t y s i n c e p u b l i s h e r s 

r e c o g n i z e d v e r y w e l l t h e p r o f i t s t o be s n a t c h e d from t h e i r 

p i r a t e c o m p e t i t o r s i f t h e y c o u l d m o n o p o l i z e advance s a l e s . 

Ghodes c i t e s a M a c m i l l a n p a r t n e r ' s a s s u r a n c e t o a group o f 

A m e r i c a n a u t h o r s and p u b l i s h e r s i n 1867 t h a t , d u r i n g t h e 

t w e n t y y e a r s p r e v i o u s , L o n g f e l l o w had l i k e l y been d e p r i v e d o f 

more t h a n $250,000 i n r o y a l t i e s ( " L o n g f e l l o w " 1175); i n d e e d , 

o f t h e p i r a t e s , "one p u b l i s h e r a l o n e d i s p o s e d o f 410,919 

c o p i e s o f t h e p o e t ' s work between 1865 and 1900" (1179) . 

"More t h a n s e v e n t y d i f f e r e n t B r i t i s h p u b l i s h e r s b r o u g h t out 

one o r more volumes by t h e p o e t i n t h e y e a r s p r i o r t o 1901"; 

t h e s e e d i t i o n s o r i s s u e s t o t a l l e d 94 i n t h e 1850s, 44 i n t h e 

1860s, 52 i n t h e 1870s, 55 i n t h e 1880s, and 36 i n t h e 1890s. 

And as Ghodes f u r t h e r r e m a r k s , i n " p r i c e s t h e books i n d i c a t e 



t h e wide r a n g e o f t h e p e o p l e who r e a d them, f o r t h e y r a n from 

s h i l l i n g o r even s i x p e n n y volumes t o e l a b o r a t e d l y i l l u s t r a t e d 

C h r i s t m a s books c o s t i n g a good r o u n d sum" (American 107), 

l i k e l y a g u i n e a o r more. Of c o u r s e , c o s t s t o t h e p u b l i s h e r 

were m i n i m a l s i n c e t h e r e were no payments t o t h e p o e t , and 

l i t t l e o r no a d v e r t i s i n g needed t o be done t o s e c u r e s a l e s 

s i n c e p i r a t e d poems and volumes a c t e d as t h e i r own 

a d v e r t i s i n g . 

Y e t i n s p i t e o f l o s t r o y a l t i e s and payments, L o n g f e l l o w 

a c c e p t e d r a t h e r t h a n begrudged u n a u t h o r i z e d p u b l i c a t i o n . As 

he p o i n t e d o u t t o Emma M a r s h a l l , a B r i t i s h a u t h o r c o m p l a i n i n g 

o f u n a u t h o r i z e d A m e r i c a n r e p r i n t s : " I have had twenty-two 

p u b l i s h e r s i n E n g l a n d and S c o t l a n d , and o n l y f o u r o f them e v e r 

t o o k t h e s l i g h t e s t n o t i c e o f my e x i s t e n c e , even so f a r as t o 

send me a copy o f t h e books. S h a l l we c a l l t h a t ' c h i v a l r y , ' — 

o r t h e o t h e r word? Some good comes o f i t , a f t e r a l l ; f o r i t 

i s an a d v e r t i s e m e n t , and s u r e l y h e l p s what f o l l o w s . I t g i v e s 

you t h o u s a n d s o f r e a d e r s i n s t e a d o f hundreds" ( L i f e I I I 2 65-

6 6 ) . C e r t a i n l y , L o n g f e l l o w was p r e p a r e d t o see t h e b r i g h t 

s i d e h e r e , b u t he d i d n o t do so by a c c e p t i n g w h a t e v e r h i s 

a u t h o r i z e d p u b l i s h e r s wanted, o r by i g n o r i n g l o b b i e s f o r 

i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o p y r i g h t l e g i s l a t i o n . On t h e c o n t r a r y , h i s 

e p i s t o l a r y d e b a t e s w i t h B r i t i s h p u b l i s h e r s a r e l e g i o n and w e l l 

documented by Ghodes's s t u d i e s and by F. A. Mumby i n The House  

o f R o u t l e d g e : 1834-1934. Moreover, L o n g f e l l o w a p p e a l e d t o h i s 

c l o s e f r i e n d and w e l l known r a d i c a l R e p u b l i c a n Congressman 



C h a r l e s Sumner i n 1867, j u s t a f t e r t h e C i v i l War, t h a t he "not 

l e t t h e m a t t e r o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o p y r i g h t f a d e o u t o f s i g h t . " 

He d i d so on t h e p r e t e x t o f a s s i s t i n g none o t h e r t h a n 

Tennyson, who had w r i t t e n t o L o n g f e l l o w u r g i n g t h a t now t h a t 

t h e war had p a s s e d "We E n g l i s h and A m e r i c a n s s h o u l d be 

b r o t h e r s as none o t h e r among n a t i o n s can be; and some o f us, 

come what may, w i l l a l w a y s be so, I t r u s t " ( L e t t e r s - L o n g f e l l o w 

V 108, L e t t e r s - T e n n y s o n I I 4 4 8 ) . And w h i l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l 

c o p y r i g h t l e g i s l a t i o n was s t a l l e d f o r more t h a n two decades, 

i n t h e l a t e 1860s, 70s and 80s, L o n g f e l l o w ' s w o r l d w i d e 

r e p u t a t i o n grew a t a f a s t e r r a t e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s f o r e i g n a u d i e n c e , o f c o u r s e , was e s t a b l i s h e d 

e a r l y and was g r e a t e s t i n B r i t a i n . F e l l o w A m e r i c a n s 

t r a v e l l i n g o r r e s i d i n g t e m p o r a r i l y i n E n g l a n d , s u c h as F i e l d s 

and Hawthorne, seldom f a i l e d t o i n f o r m L o n g f e l l o w o f t h e 

i m p r e s s i o n s he made a c r o s s t h e A t l a n t i c . A f t e r m e e t i n g w i t h 

Bogue ( t h e n L o n g f e l l o w ' s a u t h o r i z e d B r i t i s h p u b l i s h e r ) i n 

November 1851, F i e l d s w r o t e t o L o n g f e l l o w as f o l l o w s : " I f i n d 

y o u r w r i t i n g s a l l o v e r E n g l a n d . A t t h e houses o f a l l s o r t s of 

p e o p l e , h i g h c h u r c h & no c h u r c h , y o u r name i s r e v e r e n c e d . A t 

O x f o r d a few days ago I had t h e p l e a s u r e o f m e e t i n g many o f 

y o u r warm a d m i r e r s and as I came d i r e c t from y o u r p u b l i s h i n g 

o f f i c e and c o u l d speak o f y o u r fame i n y o u r own l a n d I was 

l i s t e n e d t o w i t h i n t e r e s t " ( q t d . i n Ghodes " L o n g f e l l o w " 117 0 ) . 

I n May 1855, Hawthorne w r o t e from L i v e r p o o l : "No o t h e r p o e t 

has a n y t h i n g l i k e y o u r vogue. D i d you h e a r how t h e Harrow 



s c h o o l - b o y s , a few months ago, d e c i d e d by a f o r m a l v o t e (as I 

u n d e r s t a n d ) t h a t you a r e t h e f i r s t p o e t o f t h e age? I make 

g r e a t p l a y a t d i n n e r - t a b l e s by means o f you. E v e r y l a d y — 

e s p e c i a l l y t h e younger o n e s — e n t e r s on t h e t o p i c w i t h 

e n t h u s i a s m " ( q t d . i n L i f e I I 258). A y e a r l a t e r , Hawthorne 

w r o t e a g a i n i n t h e same v e i n , s t a t i n g t h a t L o n g f e l l o w 

c o n t i n u e d t o be spoken o f " w i t h t h e h i g h e s t i n t e r e s t and 

a d m i r a t i o n " a t p a r t i e s he a t t e n d e d i n E n g l a n d ( q t d . i n L i f e 

I I 276) . H i g h c h u r c h , no c h u r c h , O x f o r d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , 

Harrow p u b l i c s c h o o l boys, l a d i e s a t p a r t i e s — i t seems t h a t 

L o n g f e l l o w i n t h e 1850s had a f o l l o w i n g t h a t c r o s s e d 

r e l i g i o u s , c l a s s , and gender b o u n d a r i e s . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s f i n a l c r o s s i n g o f t h e A t l a n t i c i n 1868 b r o u g h t 

a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l i s m o f h i s B r i t i s h 

a u d i e n c e ; and o f t h e m u l t i p l e r e a s o n s f o r t h e r a p i d e x p a n s i o n 

o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o p u l a r i t y was t h e t i m i n g o f h i s c e l e b r a t e d 

j o u r n e y t o E n g l a n d . F o l l o w i n g t h e end o f t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l 

War i n 1865, and t h e passage o f t h e second Reform B i l l i n 

B r i t a i n i n 18 67, s o c i a l b o u n d a r i e s and c l a s s - s p e c i f i c 

a l l e g i e n c e s i n b o t h c o u n t r i e s were weakening t o s u c h an e x t e n t 

t h a t a d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t and l a i s s e z - f a i r e 

c a p i t a l i s t economies worked hand i n g l o v e t o make L o n g f e l l o w 

t h e most w i d e l y r e a d p o e t i n B r i t a i n . E n g l a n d ' s p r e v i o u s 

c l a s s - b a s e d h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d R e p u b l i c a n A m e r i c a — t h a t had 

r e a c h e d a c u t e p r o p o r t i o n s d u r i n g t h e C i v i l War when E n g l a n d 

a i d e d t h e S o u t h ' s s l a v e economy by c o n t i n u i n g t o t r a d e w i t h 



t h e C o n f e d e r a t e S t a t e s — g r a d u a l l y gave way i n t h e l a t e 18 60s 

t o a c c e p t a n c e and even a d m i r a t i o n f o r A m e r i c a ' s p o l i t i c a l and 

e d u c a t i o n a l systems t h a t c o u l d accommodate t h e masses. S i n c e 

p r e v i o u s l y d i s e n f r a n c h i z e d groups i n E n g l a n d — p o l i t i c a l and 

r e l i g i o u s r a d i c a l s , women, and t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s — h a d been 

more l i k e l y t o be A m e r i c a n s y m p a t h i z e r s i n any c a s e , as t h e y 

became empowered s o c i a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y t h e i r i n f l u e n c e s 

were f e l t i n a number o f o t h e r a r e a s , n o t t h e l e a s t o f w h i c h 

was as p u r c h a s e r s o f "cheap" l i t e r a t u r e . 

A w r i t e r f o r The Times h e r a l d e d L o n g f e l l o w ' s j o u r n e y t o 

E n g l a n d as f o l l o w s : 

A g u e s t i s a p p r o a c h i n g our s h o r e s , o r has a l r e a d y 
l a n d e d whose name i s a h o u s e h o l d word t o t h e E n g l i s h 
p e o p l e . No p o e t o f our own o r o f any o t h e r l a n d i s 
so w i d e l y known and a p p r e c i a t e d by s t r a n g e l y v a r i o u s 
c l a s s e s o f s o c i e t y . . . . He i s n o t l e s s t h e p o e t 
o f t h e p e o p l e t h a n a chosen companion o f t h e 
c u l t u r e d and r e f i n e d ; and h i s words a r e i n t h e 
mouths o f t h o u s a n d s t o whom our own Tennyson i s o n l y 
p a r t i a l l y f a m i l i a r , and t o whom B r o w n i n g i s an 
unknown name. 

(June 1868 q t d . i n Ghodes A m e r i c a n 101) 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s enormous p o p u l a r i t y g e n e r a t e d a r e v e r e n c e t h a t 

even t h e Queen and h e r L a u r e a t e acknowledged and h e l p e d t o 

f u r t h e r . F o r example, d u r i n g L o n g f e l l o w ' s v i s i t w i t h Queen 

V i c t o r i a , she o b s e r v e d a g r e a t s t i r among h e r d o m e s t i c 

s e r v a n t s w h i c h she l a t e r r e c o r d e d i n h e r j o u r n a l : 

The A m e r i c a n P o e t L o n g f e l l o w has been h e r e . I 
n o t i c e d an u n u s u a l i n t e r e s t among t h e a t t e n d a n t s and 
s e r v a n t s . I c o u l d s c a r c e l y c r e d i t t h a t t h e y so 
g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d who he was. When he t o o k 
l e a v e , t h e y c o n c e a l e d t h e m s e l v e s i n p l a c e s from 
w h i c h t h e y c o u l d g e t a good l o o k a t him as he 
p a s s e d . I have s i n c e i n q u i r e d among them, and am 
s u r p r i s e d and p l e a s e d t o f i n d t h a t many o f h i s poems 



76 

a r e f a m i l i a r t o them. No o t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d p e r s o n 
has come h e r e t h a t has e x c i t e d so p e c u l i a r an 
i n t e r e s t . Such p o e t s wear a crown t h a t i s 
u n p e r i s h a b l e . 

( q t d . i n W i l l i a m s 20) 

W h i l e i n E n g l a n d , L o n g f e l l o w was g i v e n a u n i q u e honour f o r an 

A m e r i c a n by b e i n g r o y a l l y t r e a t e d by Tennyson. C o n t r a r y t o 

h i s g e n e r a l l y p r i v a t e r e s p o n s e s t o h i s n e i g h b o u r s , Tennyson 

h o s t e d a n e i g h b o u r h o o d t e a p a r t y o f some 40 o r 50 p e o p l e f o r 

L o n g f e l l o w on 16 J u l y d u r i n g h i s v i s i t t o F r e s h w a t e r , 15 t o 19 

J u l y 1868 (Memoir 4 6 3 ) . 1 6 The h o n o r a r y d e g r e e s awarded 

L o n g f e l l o w from O x f o r d and Cambridge a l s o c o n f i r m e d t h e 

A m e r i c a n L a u r e a t e ' s achievement among t h e c u l t u r e d e l i t e . 

Y e t i t i s r e a l l y as a " m i d d l e - c l a s s " w r i t e r t h a t L o n g f e l l o w 

i s f e l t t o have made h i s mark, even i n E n g l a n d . A c c o r d i n g t o 

Ghodes, " e a r l i e r t h a n any o t h e r n a t i o n i n t h e w o r l d t h e U n i t e d 

S t a t e s p r o d u c e d a l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h was e n t i r e l y t h e p r o d u c t o f 

t h e g r e a t m i d d l e c l a s s " (American L i t e r a t u r e 1 1 ) . The 

'enormous i m p a c t o f t h i s A m e r i c a n m i d d l e - c l a s s p r o d u c t i n 

J . E. S a i t ' s b r i e f n o t e on Tennyson and L o n g f e l l o w ' s 
a c q u a i n t a n c e i n c l u d e s an i n t e r e s t i n g j o u r n a l e n t r y by one o f 
t h e n e i g h b o u r s , T i n y C o t t o n , who d e s c r i b e s t h e e m o t i o n a l s t i r 
L o n g f e l l o w i n s p i r e d i n t h e women p r e s e n t , and how she h e r s e l f 
f e l t t o r n i n a l l e g i a n c e between L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson, t h e 
l a t t e r r e f e r r e d t o as "our b a r d " f o r whom i t was "our 
p r i v i l e g e " t o pour t e a ( 1 8 7 - 8 ) . The A m e r i c a n and t h e B r i t i s h 
p o e t s became f r i e n d s as a r e s u l t o f t h i s m e e t i n g , s e n t one 
a n o t h e r poems, and m a i n t a i n e d an o c c a s i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e 
u n t i l t h e i r d e a t h s . I n a d d i t i o n , I r v i n g T. R i c h a r d s has 
p u b l i s h e d p r e v i o u s l y u n p u b l i s h e d e x t r a c t s from L o n g f e l l o w ' s 
j o u r n a l t h a t document h i s t h r e e p r e v i o u s t r i p s t o E n g l a n d : 
1829, 1835, and 1842. On none o f t h e s e o c c a s i o n s d i d he meet 
Tennyson a l t h o u g h he met many o t h e r w r i t e r s , among them 
D i c k e n s and C a r l y l e . 



77 

E n g l a n d was b o t h f e a r e d and welcomed by p e o p l e o f a l l c l a s s e s , 

y e t i t c o u l d n e v e r be d e n i e d . Near t h e end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y , t h e I l l u s t r a t e d London News r e f l e c t e d : 

P e r h a p s t h e most e n t i r e l y p o p u l a r books i n p r o s e and 
p o e t r y w h i c h have been r e a d by t h e masses o f t h e 
E n g l i s h p e o p l e d u r i n g t h e l a s t f i f t y y e a r s have come 
t o us from A m e r i c a — t h e poems o f L o n g f e l l o w and 
" U n c l e Tom's C a b i n , " b o t h l a r g e l y t e n d i n g t o make 
our m i d d l e c l a s s e s s t r o n g l y s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e S t a r s 
and S t r i p e s . C e r t a i n i t i s t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s s a l e s 
i n t h i s c o u n t r y have f a r exceeded t h o s e o f any one 
o f our own p o e t s . ( J a n 1896, q t d . i n Ghodes A m e r i c a n  
L i t e r a t u r e 101) 

How L o n g f e l l o w s p e c i f i c a l l y came t o r e p r e s e n t t h e p o e t i c v o i c e 

o f an amorphous, w i d e - r a n g i n g m i d d l e c l a s s i s d e a l t w i t h 

t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y . F o r t h e moment, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o 

c o n t i n u e w i t h e v i d e n c e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s s t a t u r e w o r l d w i d e . 

Even more a s t o u n d i n g t h a n s u c c e s s i n E n g l a n d was 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n t h a t a c c r u e d from 

i n n u m e r a b l e t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e s u c c e s s f u l T i c k n o r and F i e l d s 

t r a d e e d i t i o n s . A l t h o u g h amply r e c o r d e d by many, no one 

p r o v i d e s a more comprehensive t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t t h a n 

does F i e l d s h i m s e l f n o t l o n g b e f o r e he d i e d i n A p r i l 1881: 

I remember how i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y i n t h e y e a r 18 3 9 'The 
V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t ' sped t r i u m p h a n t l y on i t s way. 
A t p r e s e n t h i s c u r r e n c y i n Europe i s a l m o s t 
u n p a r a l l e l e d . T w e n t y - f o u r p u b l i s h i n g houses i n 
E n g l a n d have i s s u e d t h e whole o r a p a r t o f h i s 
works. Many o f h i s poems have been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o 
R u s s i a n and Hebrew. ' E v a n g e l i n e ' has been 
t r a n s l a t e d t h r e e t i m e s i n t o German, and 'Hiawatha' 
has n o t o n l y gone i n t o n e a r l y a l l t h e modern 
l a n g u a g e s , b u t can now be r e a d i n L a t i n . I have 
seen t r a n s l a t i o n s o f a l l L o n g f e l l o w ' s p r i n c i p a l 
works i n p r o s e and p o e t r y , i n F r e n c h , I t a l i a n , 
German, S p a n i s h , P o r t u g e s e , Dutch, Swedish, and 
D a n i s h . The Emperor o f B r a z i l has h i m s e l f 
t r a n s l a t e d and p u b l i s h e d 'Robert o f S i c i l y , ' one o f 



78 

t h e poems i n ' T a l e s o f a Wayside I n n , ' i n t o h i s 
n a t i v e tongue, and i n C h i n a t h e y use a f a n w h i c h has 
become immensely p o p u l a r on a c c o u n t o f t h e 'Psalm o f 
L i f e ' b e i n g p r i n t e d on i t i n t h e language o f t h e 
C e l e s t i a l Empire. P r o f e s s o r K n e e l a n d , who went t o 
t h e n a t i o n a l m i l l e n i a l c e l e b r a t i o n i n I c e l a n d , t o l d 
me t h a t when he was l e a v i n g t h a t f a r a w a y l a n d , on 
t h e v e r g e a l m o s t o f t h e A r c t i c C i r c l e , t h e p e o p l e 
s a i d t o him: ' T e l l L o n g f e l l o w t h a t we l o v e him; t e l l 
him t h a t we r e a d and r e j o i c e i n h i s poems; t e l l him 
t h a t I c e l a n d knows him by h e a r t . ' To-day t h e r e i s 
n o t d i s p u t i n g t h e f a c t t h a t L o n g f e l l o w i s more 
p o p u l a r t h a n any o t h e r l i v i n g p o e t ; t h a t h i s books 
a r e more w i d e l y c i r c u l a t e d , command g r e a t e r 
a t t e n t i o n , and b r i n g more c o p y r i g h t money t h a n t h o s e 
o f any o t h e r a u t h o r , n o t e x c e p t i n g Tennyson, now 
w r i t i n g E n g l i s h V e r s e . 

( q t d . i n A n n i e F i e l d s 17-18, added emphasis) 

T r a n s l a t i o n s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s work e v e n t u a l l y numbered 708 i n 

t w e n t y - f o u r d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s ( C h a r v a t P r o f e s s i o n 150). 

A l t h o u g h by t h e 193 0s L o n g f e l l o w may have been r e l e g a t e d by 

Ludwig L e w i s o h n t o c l a s s r o o m s o f " w r e t c h e d s c h o o l c h i l d r e n , " 

a t t h e end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h i s poems were b e i n g 

r e a d w o r l d w i d e , by a l l c l a s s e s and a l l ages. 

Poets and Their Bibliographies: Tennyson 

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s a l e s r e c o r d s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s o n l y 

s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t o r , t h o s e o f T e n n y s o n — i n E n g l a n d , A m e r i c a , o r 

i n t r a n s l a t i o n — a r e n o t anywhere n e a r so c o m p l e t e as t h e y a r e 

f o r L o n g f e l l o w . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e g r e t t a b l e s i n c e i n 

"not e x c e p t i n g " Tennyson i n t h e remarks above, F i e l d s a l l u d e s 

t o a p e r v a s i v e c o u p l i n g o f t h e two p o e t s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h 

c e n t u r y i n t h e h e a r t s and minds o f c r i t i c s , f r i e n d s , and t h e 

p u b l i c a t l a r g e i n b o t h A m e r i c a and B r i t a i n , p e r h a p s even 

a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . T h i s easy c o u p l i n g may s u r p r i s e many l a t e 



t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s o f b o t h p o e t s i f t h e y d i v o r c e p o e t i c 

t e x t s from t h e i r means o f p r o d u c t i o n and c i t e s o f r e c e p t i o n . 

However, L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's " e q u a l " p o p u l a r i t y as 

p o e t s o f t h e p e o p l e d e r i v e d from t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s , i n 

p a r t i c u l a r , where L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's poems were 

r e p r i n t e d and c r i t i c i z e d j o i n t l y i n each o t h e r ' s c o u n t r i e s , 

n o t o n l y because o f a l a c k o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o p y r i g h t , b u t 

because o f each c o u n t r y ' s need t o d e f i n e i t s e l f a g a i n s t t h e 

o t h e r d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . E q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t i s t h e 

f a c t t h a t t h e i r p u b l i s h e r s o f t e n p r o d u c e d v e r y s i m i l a r l o o k i n g 

v o l u m e s — e s p e c i a l l y i n A m e r i c a where L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson 

s h a r e d t h e same p u b l i s h e r — a n d marketed t h e s e volumes t o 

s i m i l a r enough a u d i e n c e s so t h a t s u b s t i t u t i o n o f one f o r t h e 

o t h e r i n r e a d e r s ' minds became common. The i n t r i n s i c 

d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two p o e t s ' work n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e y 

a c h i e v e d t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s u c c e s s e s w i t h i n c o n t e x t s o f 

p r o d u c t i o n t h a t u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o a r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r 

r e c e p t i o n f o r b o t h p o e t s . Throughout t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson i n d e e d s h a r e d t h e t i t l e "The P e o p l e ' s 

P o e t . " 

U n l i k e L o n g f e l l o w ' s , t h e h i s t o r y o f Tennyson's r e p u t a t i o n 

as a p o e t i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s p u b l i c a t i o n methods does not 

f o l l o w a c l e a r p r o g r e s s i o n upward t o i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r 

h e i g h t s o f p o p u l a r i t y b e f o r e i t s d e c l i n e . Moreover, 

Tennyson's r e p u t a t i o n i s chequered by t h e e f f e c t s o f n e g a t i v e 

r e v i e w s t o w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w was by and l a r g e i n d i f f e r e n t . 



80 

Tennyson's c a r e e r t h u s d i v i d e s i n t o d i s t i n c t p h a s e s , 

d r a m a t i c a l l y b i f u r c a t e d by t h e a l m o s t o v e r n i g h t s u c c e s s o f I n 

Memoriam. From 1827-1850, t h e p r o g r e s s o f Tennyson's p o e t i c 

c a r e e r was a t b e s t s p o r a d i c . H i s e a r l y volumes i n t h e 183 0s 

met w i t h c r i t i c a l s c o r n a t t h e hands o f r e v i e w e r s s u c h as 

W i l s o n and C r o k e r ; b u t t h e a p p r e n t i c e y e a r s o f what u s e d t o be 

c a l l e d t h e "Ten Y e a r s ' S i l e n c e , " d u r i n g w h i c h he p u b l i s h e d 

l i t t l e , c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e new and r e v i s e d Poems o f 1842, w h i c h 

e s t a b l i s h e d h i s p o e t i c r e p u t a t i o n and won him an i n c r e a s i n g l y 

w i d e a u d i e n c e , b o t h i n E n g l a n d and A m e r i c a . W i t h t h e 

p u b l i c a t i o n o f I n Memoriam i n 1850, Tennyson was v i r t u a l l y t h e 

o n l y c o n t e n d e r w o r t h y t o assume t h e m a n t l e o f Wordsworth's 

l a u r e a t e s h i p . A f t e r w a r d , h i s fame c o n t i n u e d more o r l e s s 

unchecked u n t i l t h e mid-1870s when, f o l l o w i n g h i s s h i f t t o 

drama, h i s r e p u t a t i o n began a g r a d u a l d e c l i n e . 1850, 

t h e r e f o r e , i s a c o n v e n i e n t t r a n s i t i o n a l d a t e t o l a u n c h an 

a n a l y s i s o f h i s p u b l i c a t i o n h i s t o r y . 

Tennyson's e a r l y p u b l i s h i n g c a r e e r c o u l d n o t have been more 

d i f f e r e n t from L o n g f e l l o w ' s . Most Tennyson s c h o l a r s a g r e e 

t h a t when i t came t o p r o m o t i n g h i s work Tennyson was a t b e s t 

r e l u c t a n t and sometimes p l a i n l y o b s t r u c t i v e o f o t h e r s who 

would do i t f o r him. F o r example, had i t n o t been f o r A r t h u r 

H a l l a m ' s i n i t i a t i v e i n s e n d i n g Tennyson's "Sombre V a l l e y " 

s o n n e t i n J u l y 1831 t o Edward Moxon f o r h i s newly e s t a b l i s h e d 

E n g l i s h m a n ' s M a g a z i n e — - a f t e r Tennyson had f a i l e d t o comply 

w i t h H a l l a m ' s r e q u e s t t h a t he h i m s e l f s u b m i t poems t o t h a t 



81 

j o u r n a l — M o x o n , who was about t o l a u n c h h i s own c a r e e r as a 

book p u b l i s h e r , may n e v e r have t a k e n an i n t e r e s t i n 
17 

Tennyson. 
D u r i n g t h e f i r s t two decades o f h i s c a r e e r , Tennyson v i e w e d 

s u b m i s s i o n t o p e r i o d i c a l s and a n n u a l s i n a manner 

d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o t h a t o f h i s A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r p a r t , 

Tennyson's i n i t i a l f a i l u r e t o comply w i t h H a l l a m ' s r e q u e s t t o 

send o u t poems f o r p e r i o d i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n l a t e r became 

o u t r i g h t r e f u s a l . By t h e e a r l y 1 8 4 0 s — a f t e r Tennyson had 

s u f f e r e d a f i n a n c i a l c o l l a p s e t h r o u g h a m i s p l a c e d i n v e s t m e n t — 

h i s f r i e n d s began t o s u g g e s t t h a t he " w r i t e s h o r t p o p u l a r 

poems f o r t h e magazines and newspapers" t o ease h i s economic 

d i f f i c u l t i e s . But Tennyson's r e p l y was f i r m : " I w r i t e o n l y 

what I f e e l . . . and w i l l n e v e r w r i t e a n y t h i n g e l s e " ( q t d . i n 

1 7 H a l l a m was even p r e p a r e d t o e n l i s t a t y p e o f b u s i n e s s 
agent o f h i s own, C h a r l e s M e r i v a l e , t o work o u t r e g u l a r 
payments f o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s and d i s c o v e r what r o y a l t i e s Moxon 
w o u l d pay f o r a f u l l volume (see Hagen 18-20). 



82 

C h a r l e s Tennyson 182) . Presumably, t h e e a r l y Tennyson f e l t 

t h a t h i s p o e t r y demanded volume p u b l i c a t i o n o r none a t a l l . 1 8 

Tennyson v o i c e d s i m i l a r n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e s t o numerous 

f r i e n d s ' a t t e m p t s t o g e t him t o s u b m i t poems t o a n n u a l s and 

g i f t b o o k s , p e r h a p s because c o n t r i b u t o r s were u n p a i d . The l i s t 

o f e a r l y poems a n t h o l o g i z e d i n t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s i s b r i e f and 

no poem was e x t r a c t e d from Tennyson w i t h o u t some g r u m b l i n g : 

"No More," " A n a c r e o n t i c s , " and "Where i s t h e G i a n t o f t h e Sun" 

f o r The Gem (1831); "There a r e t h r e e t h i n g s " f o r t h e Y o r k s h i r e  

L i t e r a r y A n n u a l (183 2 ) ; "Me my own F a t e " f o r F r i e n d s h i p ' s  

O f f e r i n g (183 2 ) ; "Check e v e r y o u t f l a s h , e v e r y r u d e r s a l l y " f o r 

F r i e n d s h i p ' s O f f e r i n g (1833), r e p r i n t e d from t h e E n g l i s h m a n ' s  

Magazine (Aug 1831); " S t Agnes Eve" f o r The Keepsake ( 1 8 3 7 ) ; 

and "0 t h a t t w e r e p o s s i b l e " f o r The T r i b u t e ( i 8 3 7 ) . U n l i k e 

L o n g f e l l o w , Tennyson d i d n o t r e g a r d s u c h p u b l i c a t i o n s as a 

c o n v e n i e n t means o f advance a d v e r t i s i n g . On t h e c o n t r a r y , he 

r e g r e t t e d h a v i n g e v e r a l l o w e d h i m s e l f t o be c o e r c e d by f r i e n d s 

t o s u b m i t work t o p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t he f e l t were b e n e a t h him. 

Tennyson was, however, p r o v o k e d i n t o p e r i o d i c a l 
p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1846. The F e b r u a r y and March i s s u e s o f Punch 
c o n t a i n e d "The New Timon, and t h e New P o e t s " and " A f t e r -
Thought," s a t i r i c r e s p o n s e s t o B u l w e r L y t t o n ' s a t t a c k on 
Tennyson i n The New Timon (1845-6) ( d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 
f o u r ) . A p p a r e n t l y , t h e f i r s t poem was n e v e r i n t e n d e d f o r 
p u b l i c a t i o n ; John F o r s t e r , annoyed a t B u l w e r L y t t o n ' s r e f u s a l 
t o a d m i t h i s a u t h o r s h i p o f The New Timon. had s e n t Tennyson's 
v e r s e s t o Punch, and t h e y appeared under t h e s i g n a t u r e 
" A l c i b i a d e s . " R e g r e t t i n g t h i s poem's p u b l i c a t i o n , Tennyson 
p u b l i s h e d t h e second under t h e same s i g n a t u r e as a means t o 
end t h e s e "pigmy wars," w h i c h i t d i d do. T h i s e p i s o d e f u r t h e r 
c o n f i r m s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e a r l y Tennyson o n l y e v e r p u b l i s h e d 
i n t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s when prompted o r p r o v o k e d by o t h e r s . 



83 

On 3 August 1832, f o r i n s t a n c e , he r e p l i e d c r a n k i l y t o 

B r o o k f i e l d ' s r e q u e s t f o r s u b m i s s i o n s t o The Y o r k s h i r e : "Have 

I n o t f o r s w o r n a l l a n n u a l s p r o v i n c i a l and m e t r o p o l i t a n — I have 

been so beGemmed and b e - A m u l e t t e d and b e - f o r g e t - m e - n o t - t e d 

t h a t I have g i v e n a l l t h e s e t h i n g s up . . . . [ S ] e r i o u s l y , 

B r o o k f i e l d , I have a v e r y s t r o n g o b j e c t i o n t o a p p e a r i n g i n 

a n n u a l s and i t i s o n l y because you ask me t h a t I have s e n t you 

t h e f o l l o w i n g s o n n e t ["There a r e t h r e e t h i n g s " ] . . ." ( L e t t e r s 
19 

I 63) . A subsequent r e q u e s t from B r o o k f i e l d — t h i s t i m e f o r 

Lady Emmeline S t u a r t W o r t l e y ' s K e e p s a k e — r e s u l t e d i n a 

s i m i l a r , c r o t c h e t y r e p l y . Tennyson w r i t e s , "had t h e r e been 

any p r o s p e c t o f f i l t h y l u c r e , o r p e r h a p s had t h e l a d y h e r s e l f 

wooed me w i t h h e r f a i r e y e s , I m i g h t have s e n t s o m e t h i n g w h i c h 

would have f i l l e d a l a r g e r space i n h e r a n n u a l . . . ," and he 

r e m i n d s B r o o k f i e l d o f h i s " i n s t i n c t i v e h a t r e d t o w a r d a n n u a l s " 

( L e t t e r s I 144) . I n t h i s l e t t e r , Tennyson's grounds a g a i n s t 

a n n u a l s b e g i n t o s u g g e s t t h e m s e l v e s : a n n u a l s a r e f i l l e d w i t h 

amusing t r i f l e s f o r t h e l e i s u r e d , a r i s t o c r a t i c c l a s s ( t h a t i s , 
• • 20 

t h o s e who do n o t d e i g n t o t o u c h ' f i l t h y l u c r e ' ) . 
1 9 I n a n o t e t o t h i s l e t t e r , C e c i l Lang adds t h a t 

Tennyson a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t p u b l i s h i n Samuel H a l l ' s Amulet. 
20 • . . . 

R i c h a r d A l t i c k e x p l a i n s t h a t i n E n g l a n d " t h e w e l l - t o -
do c l a s s [were] e n t e r t a i n e d a t t h e C h r i s t m a s s e a s o n and f o r 
months t h e r e a f t e r , by g i f t - b o o k s — t h e 'keepsakes' and ' p a r l o r 
albums' whose a n n u a l i s s u e , i n t h e i r p e r i o d o f g r e a t e s t vogue 
d u r i n g t h e 1820's and 1830's, had e n r i c h e d p u b l i s h e r s , 
p r i n t e r s , b i n d e r s , w r i t e r s , and i l l u s t r a t o r s . . . . These 
a n n u a l s , i m p o r t a n t though t h e y a r e i n Regency and e a r l y 
V i c t o r i a n l i t e r a r y and c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y , were p r i c e d t o o h i g h 
t o a f f e c t t h e mass a u d i e n c e " (Common Reader 3 6 2 ) . 



84 

T h i s c l a s s - b a s e d a t t i t u d e i s e x p r e s s e d d i r e c t l y on 21 

December 1836, i n Tennyson's s a r c a s t i c r e s p o n s e t o R i c h a r d 

Monckton M i l n e s ' s r e q u e s t t h a t he "be a good boy" and s u p p l y 

" s o m e t h i n g p r e t t y c o n s i d e r a b l e " f o r t h e M a r q u i s o f 

Northampton's p h i l a n t h r o p i c v e n t u r e , The T r i b u t e ( M i l n e s q t d . 

i n Memoir 131-2); Tennyson r e p l i e s : 

That you had p r o m i s e d t h e M a r q u i s I would w r i t e f o r 
him s o m e t h i n g e x c e e d i n g t h e a v e r a g e l e n g t h o f a n n u a l 
c o m p o s i t i o n s — t h a t you had p r o m i s e d him I would 
w r i t e a t a l l — I t o o k t h i s f o r one o f t h o s e e l e g a n t 
f i c t i o n s w i t h w h i c h you amuse y o u r A u n t s o f 
e v e n i n g s , b e f o r e you g e t i n t o t h e s m a l l h o u r s , when 
dreams a r e t r u e . Three summers back, p r o v o k t by t h e 
i n c i v i l i t y o f E d i t o r s , I swore an o a t h , t h a t I would 
n e v e r a g a i n have t o do w i t h t h e i r v a p i d b o o k s — a n d I 
b r o k e i t i n t h e sweet f a c e o f Heaven when I w r o t e 
f o r Lady (what's h e r name?) W o r t l e y : b u t t h e n h e r 
s i s t e r w r o t e t o B r o o k f i e l d and s a i d she (Lady W) was 
b e a u t i f u l — s o I c o u l d n ' t h e l p i t : b u t whether t h e 
M a r q u i s be b e a u t i f u l o f n o t I d o n ' t mind much. I f 
he be, l e t him g i v e God t h a n k s and make no b o a s t . 

To w r i t e f o r p e o p l e w i t h p r e f i x e s t o t h e i r names 
i s t o m i l k h e - g o a t s : t h e r e i s n e i t h e r honour n o r 
p r o f i t : up t o t h i s moment I have n o t even seen t h e 
Keepsake: n o t t h a t I c a r e t o see i t , b u t t h e want o f 
c i v i l i t y d e c i d e d me n o t b r e a k mine o a t h a g a i n f o r 
man o r woman. And how s h o u l d s u c h a modest man, as 
I , see my s m a l l name i n c o l l o c a t i o n w i t h t h e g r e a t 
ones o f Southey, Wordsworth, R. M. M. e t c . and n o t 
f e e l m y s e l f a b a r n d o o r f o w l among p e a c o c k s ? 

( L e t t e r s I 146) 

The above l e t t e r i s q u o t e d a t l e n g t h h e r e t o i l l u s t r a t e f u l l y 

why Tennyson found a n n u a l s v a p i d : t h e y were g o t up by "he-

g o a t s " t h r o u g h c o n t r i b u t i o n s by " p e a c o c k s , " Tennyson's 

a d m i r a t i o n f o r Wordsworth and company n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . ' The 

" b a r n d o o r f o w l " — t h a t can s e r v e some u t i l i t a r i a n p u r p o s e — 

s a r c a s t i c a l l y b e l i e v e s h i m s e l f unworthy t o p u b l i s h i n an 

a n n u a l . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , M i l n e s a c c u s e d Tennyson o f 



85 

" i n s u l t i n g i r o n y , " and t h r e a t e n e d t o p u b l i s h h i s own 

m a n u s c r i p t copy o f "Anacaona" s h o u l d t h e p o e t r e f u s e him. 

P i n n e d i n t h i s way, Tennyson a c q u i e s c e d s i n c e he c l a i m e d t h a t 

he would "not be backward i n d o i n g a r e a l l y c h a r i t a b l e deed" 

( L e t t e r s I 148), a l t h o u g h n o t b e f o r e he c h i d e d M i l n e s a t some 

f u r t h e r l e n g t h . Out o f a sense o f p h i l a n t h r o p i c d u t y , 

Tennyson e v e n t u a l l y s u b m i t t e d what would become t h e seed poem 

f o r Maud: "Oh! t h a t 'twere p o s s i b l e . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s 

exchange w i t h M i l n e s ended Tennyson's c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o a n n u a l s 

f o r o v e r a decade. 

A t f i r s t g l a n c e , Tennyson's i n i t i a l r e l u c t a n c e t o p u b l i s h 

i n t h e " p o p u l a r " p r e s s o r t o c u l t i v a t e r e a d e r s o f a n n u a l s 

seems t o c o n t r a d i c t h i s l a t e r p o p u l a r i t y . And, i n d e e d , a f t e r 

18 50 when Tennyson f e l t h i s r e p u t a t i o n was s e c u r e , he d i d 

c o n t r i b u t e t o s e v e r a l a n n u a l s i n c l u d i n g The M a n c h e s t e r  

Anthenaeum Album (1850), F r a n c e s Powers's The Keepsake (1851), 

and A d e l a i d e P r o c t e r ' s The V i c t o r i a R e q i a (1861). He a l s o 

p u b l i s h e d more t h a n f i f t y poems i n v a r i o u s newspapers and 

p e r i o d i c a l s . 2 1 To e x p l a i n s u c h a c o n t r a d i c t i o n , many 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s c h o l a r s i n v o k e a now f a m i l i a r p a r a d i g m o f 

two T e n n y s o n s — t h e Romantic and V i c t o r i a n . They 

2 1 I n B r i t a i n , t h e Anthenaeum, Contemporary Review, 
C o r n h i l l Magazine, C o u r t J o u r n a l , D a i l y T e l e g r a p h , Examiner, 
F r a s e r ' s M a g a z i n e , Good Words, M a c m i l l a n ' s Magazine , New  
Review, N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y . P a l l M a l l G a z e t t e . Punch, and The 
Times; and i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e A t l a n t i c M o n t h l y , E v e r y  
S a t u r d a y , New York L e d g e r , S t . N i c h o l a s , and Youth's Companion 
(see Wise I 301-63). 



86 

s i m p l i s t i c a l l y r e f e r t o Tennyson's p r e - L a u r e a t e c a r e e r as t h a t 

o f a r o m a n t i c a r t i s t who, a l i e n a t e d from h i s a u d i e n c e , sought 

e x c l u s i v e l y p o e t i c t r u t h and t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t d e i g n t o 

p u b l i s h i n t h e p o p u l a r p r e s s . A l t h o u g h Raymond W i l l i a m s does 

n o t use him as an example, t h e e a r l y Tennyson i s f r e q u e n t l y 

seen by o t h e r s as a r o m a n t i c a r t i s t who " w i l l n o t a c c e p t t h e 

market q u o t a t i o n o f p o p u l a r i t y " ( C u l t u r e 3 4 ) . Of t h o s e 

c r i t i c s who a n a l y s e s p e c i f i c a l l y Tennyson's r e l a t i o n t o h i s 

a u d i e n c e i n t h e 183 0s, M a r i o n Shaw, i n "Tennyson and h i s 

P u b l i c 1827-1859," and P a u l J a m i e s o n , i n "Tennyson and h i s 
22 

A u d i e n c e i n 1832," v i e w Tennyson i n t h i s way. 
Many r e a s o n s , some a c c u r a t e , some f a n c i f u l , have been 

advanced by modern c r i t i c s t o e x p l a i n Tennyson's r e l u c t a n c e i n 

t h e 1830s t o p u b l i s h h i s poems s e p a r a t e l y . One r e a s o n t h a t 

seems t o have been o v e r l o o k e d , however, c o n c e r n s Tennyson's 

g r o w i n g awareness o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between h i s a r t and h i s 

a u d i e n c e , an e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t r u n s d i r e c t l y c o u n t e r t o any 

a t t e m p t on h i s p a r t t o i s o l a t e h i m s e l f from h i s r e a d e r s . 2 3 

2 2 Numerous o t h e r t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s c o u l d be 
added t o t h o s e who v i e w t h e e a r l y Tennyson as Romantic 
s u p e r s e d e d by a l a t e r , V i c t o r i a n , Tennyson. The most 
i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e a r e d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r s t h r e e and f o u r i n 
an a n a l y s i s o f t h e two Tennysons l e g e n d t h a t has come t o 
dominate c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n t h i s c e n t u r y . 

23 • 
The e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t f o l l o w s summarizes a l e n g t h y 

a n a l y s i s i n c h a p t e r f o u r o f H a l l a m ' s key r o l e i n d e f i n i n g f o r 
Tennyson t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n between a e s t h e t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n and 
m o r a l r e s p o n s i b l i t y . The d i s c u s s i o n o f Tennyson's volume 
p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t a p p e a r s i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s r e s t r i c t e d t o 
s a l e s , m a r k e t i n g , and r e v i e w s . Reviews, however, a r e o n l y 
d e a l t w i t h b r i e f l y h e r e because i n c h a p t e r f o u r t h e more 
i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e a r e examined i n some d e t a i l i n r e l a t i o n t o 



87 

Most c r i t i c s acknowledge t h a t Tennyson was s c r u p u l o u s l y 

c a r e f u l about what he i n c l u d e d i n h i s s i n g l e volumes and 

c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s : t h e two-volume Poems (1842), c o n t a i n i n g 

one volume o f new and one volume o f r e v i s e d e a r l i e r poems, i s 

t h e b e s t i n s t a n c e i n p o i n t . T h i s a t t e n t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t 

Tennyson v i e w e d h i s volumes as c o m p l e t e e n t i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n 

m e r e l y c o l l e c t i o n s o f i s o l a t e d poems, and he had a v a l i d 

r e a s o n f o r d o i n g so. I n s t e a d o f c o n s i d e r i n g h i s p o e t i c r o l e 

as one r o m a n t i c a l l y remote from h i s r e a d e r s , T e n n y s o n — e v e n a t 

t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s c a r e e r — f e l t t h a t h i s s o c i a l 

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o h i s p u b l i c was t o c o n v i n c e h i s r e a d e r s o f a 

m o r a l i m p e r a t i v e u n d e r l y i n g a e s t h e t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n . Such a 

g r a n d p u r p o s e c o u l d n e v e r be c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e b r e v i t y o f 

i s o l a t e d l y r i c s s i n c e i t would demand o f h i s r e a d e r s 

o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r r e f l e c t i o n , c o n t e m p l a t i o n and c o m p a r i s o n s 

among d i s p a r a t e y e t c o n n e c t e d poems. I f s u c h a p u r p o s e were 

t o be a c h i e v e d a t a l l , t h e n i t c o u l d o n l y be so w i t h i n a 

c o m p l e t e volume. C o n s e q u e n t l y , Tennyson began h i s p u b l i s h i n g 

c a r e e r w i t h volumes o f p o e t r y i n s t e a d o f i n d i v i d u a l poems so 

t h a t he c o u l d p e r s u a d e h i s r e a d e r s o f h i s l a r g e r c l a i m f o r 

p o e t r y as a e s t h e t i c m o r a l i s m r a t h e r t h a n r i s k b e i n g m i s r e a d i n 

poems i s o l a t e d from one a n o t h e r . That he f a i l e d t o g a r n e r 

s y m p a t h e t i c r e a d e r s had f a r more t o do w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f t h e 

B r i t i s h p u b l i s h i n g i n d u s t r y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c r i t i c a l p r e s s 

t h e development o f Tennyson's p o e t i c v o i c e . 



88 

i n t h e 1830s t h a n i t d i d w i t h Tennyson, h i s p o e t i c s , o r h i s 

p u b l i c a t i o n methods. Once Tennyson f e l t t h a t h i s p o e t i c aims 

had been s e c u r e d ( e v i n c e d i n h i s e n l a r g e d r e a d e r s h i p o f t h e 

1 8 5 0 s ) , he o f t e n c o n s e n t e d , as has been shown, t o t h e s e p a r a t e 

p u b l i c a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l poems, knowing t h a t t h e y c o u l d be 

r e a d as i f t h r o u g h a f i l t e r o f t h e l i t e r a r y e x p e c t a t i o n s 

e s t a b l i s h e d by h i s p r e v i o u s f u l l - l e n g t h volumes. 

As t h o s e w i t h B r o o k f i e l d and M i l n e s , d e b a t e s between 

Tennyson and h i s f r i e n d s a l s o ensued i n t h e 183 0s o v e r t h e 

p u b l i c a t i o n o f h i s f i r s t two volumes: Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l 

(183 0) and Poems (183 3) (see A p p e n d i x I I ) . P r i o r t o t h e s e two 

volumes, Tennyson's p o e t r y had appeared anonymously i n 1827 

w i t h t h a t o f h i s b r o t h e r s , C h a r l e s and F r e d e r i c k , i n Poems by  

Two B r o t h e r s . T h i s " e a r l y r o t " — a s Tennyson l a t e r c a l l e d i t — 

was o f f e r e d a t f i v e s h i l l i n g s and a p p a r e n t l y s o l d b a d l y . 2 4 A 

second c o l l a b o r a t i v e e f f o r t , w i t h A r t h u r Henry H a l l a m , 

e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n Tennyson's f i r s t i n d e p e n d e n t volume 

once H a l l a m r e l u c t a n t l y w i t h d r e w h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n s under 

p r e s s u r e from h i s f a t h e r . P u b l i s h e d i n June 183 0, by 

2 4 Hagan s p e c u l a t e s t h a t t h e p u b l i s h e r s J . and J . J a c k s o n 
may have p r i n t e d as many as 800 a l t h o u g h r e c o r d s a r e n o t 
a v a i l a b l e . That t h e y p r i n t e d f a r t o o many, however, i s c l e a r 
from t h e " c o n s i d e r a b l e s t o c k o f r e m a i n d e r s " d i s c o v e r e d i n 1870 
i n t h e p r i n t e r ' s warehouse (see Hagen 7 ) . Y e t i n 18 65, i n an 
a t t e m p t t o c a p i t a l i z e on t h e L a u r e a t e ' s p o p u l a r i t y , J a c k s o n 
a p p a r e n t l y b l a c k m a i l e d Tennyson by t h r e a t e n i n g t o p u b l i s h a t 
l e a s t 10,000 c o p i e s o f Poems by Two B r o t h e r s , w h i c h he avowed 
would b r i n g him £1000 p r o f i t . How much Tennyson p a i d t o 
J a c k s o n i s n o t known, b u t t h e book was n o t r e p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 
t h e E v e r s l e y e d i t i o n (see Lang L e t t e r s I I 391 n . l ) . 



89 

E f f i n g h a m W i l s o n , Poems. C h i e f l y L y r i c a l was l i k e l y seen 

t h r o u g h t h e p r e s s by H a l l a m ; t h u s began a w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p 

w i t h H a l l a m as b u s i n e s s agent and Tennyson as a r t i s t t h a t 

l a s t e d u n t i l H a l l a m ' s d e a t h i n September 1833. A l t h o u g h t h e 

p r e c i s e number o f c o p i e s s o l d i s n o t known, Tennyson 

a p p a r e n t l y s t i l l owed W i l s o n e l e v e n pounds i n 183 3 f o r t h e 

p u b l i c a t i o n o f Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t — i f an 

arrangement o f h a l f - s h a r e s o f c o s t s and p r o f i t s had been 

s t r u c k — t h e volume had n o t s o l d w e l l (see Hagen 1 5 ) . A g a i n , 

i t was H a l l a m who was p r e p a r e d t o h a n d l e t h e d i s p u t e s 

c o n c e r n i n g t h i s d e b t . 

As C h r i s t o p h e r R i c k s a r g u e s , "what Tennyson g r a t e f u l l y 

l o v e d i n H a l l a m was n o t l i m i t e d t o t h e g r a n d l y p l a t o n i c 

m a r r i a g e o f t r u e minds, b u t i n c l u d e d t h e shrewd and generous 

p r a c t i c a l i t i e s w i t h w h i c h H a l l a m f u r t h e r e d t h e p u b l i c a t i o n and 

p r o m o t i o n o f Tennyson's poems" ( 6 9 ) . W h i l e L o n g f e l l o w chose 

t o manage b o t h t h e p r a c t i c a l and t h e p o e t i c a s p e c t s o f h i s 

c a r e e r , t h e e a r l y Tennyson w i s e l y r e l i n q u i s h e d t h e f o r m e r 

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o H a l l a m , l i m i t i n g h i m s e l f t o t h e p o e t r y . 

F o l l o w i n g p u b l i c a t i o n o f Poems. C h i e f l y L y r i c a l . H a l l a m 

f u n c t i o n e d as b o t h agent and r e v i e w e r t o promote h i s f r i e n d ' s 

work: he s e c u r e d a f a v o u r a b l e t w o - p a r t r e v i e w from L e i g h Hunt, 

e d i t o r o f The T a t l e r (Feb and Mar 1831); he s e n t t h e s o n n e t , 

"Sombre V a l l e y , " w i t h o u t Tennyson's p e r m i s s i o n t o Moxon's 

E n g l i s h m a n ' s Magazine (see above p. 8 0 ) ; and he t r i e d t o 

a r r a n g e t h r o u g h M e r i v a l e f o r c o n t i n u e d Tennyson c o n t r i b u t i o n s 



( w i t h payment) t o t h e E n g l i s h m a n ' s Magazine (Aug 1831). Most 

i m p o r t a n t l y , however, he w r o t e h i s r e v i e w - e s s a y "On Some o f 

t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Modern P o e t r y , and on t h e L y r i c a l Poems 

o f A l f r e d Tennyson" f o r t h e same August i s s u e o f t h e 

E n g l i s h m a n ' s Magazine i n w h i c h Tennyson's s o n n e t appeared. 

A l t h o u g h t h e E n g l i s h m a n ' s Magazine f a i l e d b e f o r e t h e end o f 

t h e y e a r — s o t h a t f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s were i m p o s s i b l e — 

H a l l a m ' s d e a l i n g s w i t h Moxon e s t a b l i s h e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p 

between Tennyson and Moxon's p u b l i s h i n g f i r m t h a t w o u l d l a s t 

t w e n t y - e i g h t y e a r s . A g a i n , u n l i k e L o n g f e l l o w who engaged i n 

c o n s i d e r a b l e s e l f - p r o m o t i o n t h r o u g h p e r i o d i c a l s and a n n u a l s , 

Tennyson had c l o s e f r i e n d s such as H a l l a m do h i s p r o m o t i o n f o r 

him. Tennyson's p r e f e r r e d method o f advance n o t i c e was t h e 

c i r c u l a t i o n o f v a r i o u s m a n u s c r i p t s ( o f t e n v i a Hallam) among 

h i s Cambridge f r i e n d s so as t o r e c e i v e d i r e c t l y , o r i n d i r e c t l y 

t h r o u g h H a l l a m , immediate r e s p o n s e s and c r i t i c i s m o f h i s 

p o e t r y . E v e n t u a l l y , h i s c i r c l e o f f r i e n d s widened t o i n c l u d e 

Moxon, and by t h e e a r l y f a l l o f 1832 H a l l a m had c o m p l e t e d t h e 

arrangements f o r Moxon's p u b l i c a t i o n o f Tennyson's Poems. 

I n h i s r e f u s a l t o i n c l u d e "The L o v e r ' s T a l e " i n Poems, 

Tennyson overcame h i s r e t i c e n c e i n d e a l i n g d i r e c t l y w i t h h i s 

p u b l i s h e r . H a l l a m had been p r e s s u r i n g Tennyson t o keep t h e 

poem i n h i s new volume, b u t Tennyson was adamantly a g a i n s t i t . 

On 20 November 1832, Tennyson w r o t e t o Moxon e x p l a i n i n g t h a t 

"The L o v e r ' s T a l e " was " t o o f u l l o f f a u l t s " f o r i n c l u s i o n and 

t h a t , a l t h o u g h Tennyson t h o u g h t i t m i g h t be p o p u l a r , i t 



s p o i l e d what he c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e e f f e c t o f t h e whole. 

C e c i l Lang and Edgar Shannon i n c l u d e i n t h i s l e t t e r a t e l l i n g 

c a n c e l l a t i o n o f Tennyson's: " p o p u l a r i t y i s n o t what I am 

p a r t i c u l a r l y a n x i o u s f o r " ( L e t t e r s I 8 4 ) . I n b o t h h i s 

a c t i o n s and words, Tennyson r e v e a l s e a r l y h i s a r t i s t i c 

i n t e g r i t y : p r o v i d e d h i s work appeared b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c i n a 

manner a c c e p t a b l e t o h i s p o e t i c s e n s i b i l i t y , Tennyson had no 

d e s i r e o r need t o s o i l h i s own hands i n t h e b u s i n e s s o f 

p u b l i c a t i o n — f o r p o p u l a r i t y o r p r o f i t . But when i n d o u b t , 

Tennyson a c t e d f o r h i m s e l f and was n o t t o be swayed by any 

amount o f s p e c i a l p l e a d i n g on t h e p a r t o f f r i e n d s o r 

p u b l i s h e r . 2 5 

I n December, 450 c o p i e s o f Poems were p u b l i s h e d a t a c o s t 

o f s i x s h i l l i n g s . A c c o r d i n g t o S i r C h a r l e s Tennyson, a f t e r 

two y e a r s , o n l y 300 had been d i s p o s e d o f ( 1 3 7 ) . Most Tennyson 

s c h o l a r s a g r e e w i t h S i r C h a r l e s t h a t C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h ' s 

n e g a t i v e r e v i e w o f Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l , Tennyson's e p i g r a m 

i n r e p l y t o him i n Poems, and John C r o k e r ' s s c a t h i n g r e v i e w o f 

Tennyson i n t h e Q u a r t e r l y — a p e r i o d i c a l g u i d i n g " t h e t a s t e o f 

t h o u s a n d s o f r e a d e r s , " and s e t t i n g " t h e t o n e f o r t h e m a j o r i t y 

2 5 Tennyson's s t u b b o r n n e s s a l s o c r e a t e d what S i r C h a r l e s 
r e f e r s t o as "one o f t h e w o r s t m i s t a k e s t h e p o e t made i n t h e 
whole o f h i s c a r e e r " (13 0 ) . H a l l a m had c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t 
i n c l u d i n g i n Poems an epigram condemning C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h who 
had c r i t i c i z e d Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l t h e y e a r b e f o r e . But 
Tennyson i n s i s t e d t h a t i t r e m a i n ; he t h u s p r o v o k e d t h e 
s u b s e q u e n t and more v i t r i o l i c anger o f John C r o k e r i n h i s 
r e v i e w o f Poems. 



92 

o f c r i t i c s " — i r r e t r i e v a b l y i n j u r e d t h e s a l e s o f Poems (13 5-7). 

But t h e p o o r s a l e s may a l s o have been due i n p a r t t o 

Tennyson's c h o i c e o f p u b l i s h e r , s i n c e i t was Moxon's 

c o n s e r v a t i v e b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s t h a t r e s u l t e d i n d i r e c t l y i n 

t h e c r i t i c a l r e v i e w s h a v i n g s u c h a p r o f o u n d e f f e c t on 

Tennyson's s a l e s . 

H a v i n g o n l y r e c e n t l y l a u n c h e d h i s c a r e e r , i n 183 2, Moxon 

had y e t t o c u l t i v a t e t h e f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h i m p o r t a n t e d i t o r s 

and c r i t i c s (a d e f i c i e n c y he l a t e r remedied) t h a t would h e l p 

g u a r a n t e e f a v o u r a b l e r e v i e w s t o o f f s e t any n e g a t i v e ones. 

H a r o l d Merriman, moreover, a r g u e s t h a t Moxon's m a r k e t i n g 

s t r a t e g i e s a c t u a l l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e n e g a t i v e t o n e o f t h e 

r e v i e w s , w h i c h i n t u r n a f f e c t e d s a l e s . R a t h e r t h a n spend 

l a r g e sums f o r a d v e r t i s e m e n t s i n p e r i o d i c a l s , Moxon chose 

i n s t e a d t o i n c l u d e f l y l e a f pages o f book n o t i c e s i n h i s 

p u b l i s h e d volumes. Merriman c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h i s "narrow 

p u r s e " c o n s e r v a t i v i s m , e s p e c i a l l y when i t came t o a d v e r t i s i n g , 

meant t h a t Moxon was o f t e n f o r c e d t o send h i s volumes f o r 

r e v i e w t o " t h e v e r y j o u r n a l s he was m e a g e r l y p a t r o n i z i n g " 

( 7 9 ) . Moxon's p r a c t i c e may have r e d u c e d t h e s u s p i c i o n o f 

" p u f f i n g " among a u t h o r s , p u b l i s h e r s , e d i t o r s , and r e v i e w e r s — a 

c h a r g e t h a t F i e l d s and L o n g f e l l o w had t o e n d u r e — b u t what i t 

meant f o r t h e p o e t s whom Moxon p u b l i s h e d was t h a t t h e 

p r o m o t i o n o f t h e i r work was u n d u l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e a r e n a o f 

c r i t i c a l r e v i e w s and t h e i r r e a d e r s . The e a r l y Tennyson had, 

t h e r e f o r e , t o r e l y a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y upon u n s y m p a t h e t i c 



r e v i e w s t o b u i l d h i s a u d i e n c e s i n c e he h i m s e l f was u n w i l l i n g 

t o s e l f - a d v e r t i s e t h r o u g h p o e t i c s u b m i s s i o n s t o p e r i o d i c a l s , 

and Moxon was u n p r e p a r e d t o do much a d v e r t i s i n g f o r him. 

N o n e t h e l e s s , Moxon's b u s i n e s s r e t i c e n c e need n o t be 

c o n s t r u e d as n i g g a r d l y . Moxon's m o t i v e s must be seen w i t h i n 

t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f t h e B r i t i s h p u b l i s h e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f 

h i s r o l e i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s w r i t e r s and h i s market. Hagen 

a l l e g e s t h a t Tennyson l i k e l y p u b l i s h e d w i t h Moxon a t f i r s t 

under a c o n s e r v a t i v e , h a l f - s h a r e s arrangement t h a t was B r i t i s h 

s t a n d a r d f o r t h e t i m e ; t h a t i s , t h e p u b l i s h e r assumed a l l 

c o s t s o f p r i n t i n g , s t e r e o t y p i n g , p u b l i s h i n g , and a d v e r t i s i n g . 

Once t h e s e had been p a i d back t o him from i n i t i a l s a l e s , t h e 

p u b l i s h e r and t h e p o e t s h a r e d e q u a l l y any r e m a i n i n g p r o f i t s 

( 2 7 ) . A t a t i m e when Moxon was j u s t b e g i n n i n g t o e s t a b l i s h 

h i s c a r e e r , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t he sought t o m i n i m i z e 

h i s advance c o s t s . H a r d l y w e a l t h y h i m s e l f and t h e r e f o r e 

s u b j e c t t o w h a t e v e r b u s i n e s s methods h i s p u b l i s h e r c o u l d 

a f f o r d , Tennyson e x e r c i s e d f a r l e s s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e e a r l y 

p u b l i c a t i o n o f h i s work t h a n d i d L o n g f e l l o w who a f t e r 1845 

owned t h e s t e r e o t y p e p l a t e s t o h i s volumes. Tennyson c o u l d 

not d i r e c t Moxon; he had t o r e l y f a r more on Moxon's 

assessment o f t h e market t h a n L o n g f e l l o w d i d on T i c k n o r and 

F i e l d s . 

I n terms o f p r o d u c t , however, Moxon's e d i t i o n s were 

p r a c t i c a l and a e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g . A t f i r s t , t h e y were i n 

d r a b p a p e r b o a r d s . But w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f The P r i n c e s s 



94 

(1847), Moxon e s t a b l i s h e d h i s t r a d e - e d i t i o n : c l e a r - c u t , w e l l -

s p a c e d t y p e ; s i m p l e , d i g n i f i e d t i t l e pages u s u a l l y w i t h o u t 

r u l i n g s o r ornaments; s i m p l e , s u b s t a n t i a l b i n d i n g i n p l a i n 

g r e e n - c l o t h b l i n d - s t a m p e d b o a r d s w i t h g i l t l e t t e r i n g on t h e 

s p i n e (see Merriman 7 6-7). B o t h h i s p r o m o t i o n and h i s 

p r o d u c t s r e s u l t e d from Moxon's p e r c e p t i o n o f h i m s e l f as a 

q u a l i t y p u b l i s h e r . 

Merriman summarizes Moxon's c h a r a c t e r i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s 

b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e as f o l l o w s : 

The g e n e r a l t e n d e n c i e s o f Moxon's c a r e e r i n b u s i n e s s 
by t h i s t i m e [1832] . . . have been f a i r l y w e l l s e t . 
He i s t o be a l i t e r a r y - m i n d e d p u b l i s h e r , n o t m e r e l y 
a c o m m e r c i a l maker o f books. H i s p r i n t i n g , b i n d i n g , 
and g e n e r a l book make-up a r e t o be s i m p l e and 
t a s t e f u l . Moxon books a r e t o be c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d , 
so t h a t h i s i m p r i n t s h a l l be a symbol o f q u a l i t y . 
He p r e f e r s t o i s s u e volumes o f p o e t r y . H i s p l a c e o f 
b u s i n e s s i s t o be a l i t e r a r y c e n t e r . . . . He 
w o u l d l i k e t o become a p a t r o n - p u b l i s h e r and p o s s e s s 
a s a l o n w h i c h l i t e r a r y gentlemen s h o u l d f r e q u e n t . 
He i s a g e n i a l man, who has t i m e f o r a c h a t o r f o r 
s e r i o u s c o n v e r s a t i o n . H i s " a u t h o r s " a r e t o be h i s 
f r i e n d s , and he a l w a y s t h e i r f r i e n d . He w i l l spend 
a good d e a l o f t i m e a t b r e a k f a s t s and l u n c h e o n s o f 
l i t e r a r y men, and i n r e t u r n w i l l g i v e s i m i l a r 
e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n h i s own house. H i s b u s i n e s s 
methods a r e t o be c o n s e r v a t i v e . There s h a l l be no 
d i s p l a y , no b o l d a d v e r t i s i n g o r n o i s y p u b l i c i t y . 
W e l l - b r e d p e o p l e a r e t o say "Moxon has j u s t 
p u b l i s h e d . . . ," and t h a t w i l l be a recommendation 
o f h i s books. Y e t he has "a Y o r k s h i r e head," w h i c h 
d o e s n ' t l o s e i t s e l f i n t h e c l o u d s . He w i l l d r i v e 
good b a r g a i n s , i n a f i r m , q u i e t way; whenever 
a d v i s a b l e , an a u t h o r w i l l f i n a n c e h i s own book. 

(43-4) 

V a r i o u s s t a n d b y s o f t h e p u b l i s h i n g t r a d e - — f i c t i o n , r e l i g i o u s 

books, t e x t b o o k s , g u i d e b o o k s , and c o o k b o o k s — M o x o n r e f u s e d t o 

t a k e up, p r e f e r r i n g t o t h i n k o f h i m s e l f s t r i c t l y as a l i t e r a r y 



p u b l i s h e r . 2 6 T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f h i m s e l f meant t h a t Moxon was 

g e n e r a l l y p r e p a r e d t o t a k e r i s k s o n l y i n terms o f q u a l i t y 

r a t h e r t h a n t o gamble on h i s market t h r o u g h r i s k s o f q u a n t i t y 

f o l l o w e d up by a g g r e s s i v e m a r k e t i n g . 

Thus, when c o n s i d e r i n g r e a s o n s f o r Tennyson's f a i l u r e t o 

g a i n as w i d e s p r e a d an a u d i e n c e i n E n g l a n d as d i d L o n g f e l l o w , 

l i t e r a r y s c h o l a r s must be c a r e f u l n o t t o c o n f i n e t h e i r s t u d i e s 

s t r i c t l y t o t h e p o e t r y i t s e l f o r t o t h e i m p a c t o f n e g a t i v e 

r e v i e w s , s e p a r a t e from t h e t e x t s ' p u b l i c a t i o n and p r o m o t i o n . 

I t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t , as a p r o d u c t f o r p u r c h a s e , a 

L o n g f e l l o w o n e - s h i l l i n g volume i s n o t a Tennyson f i v e - s h i l l i n g 

Moxon's c h a r a c t e r and b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e were n o t 
i d i o s y n c r a t i c . R a t h e r , l i k e many a s p i r i n g men o f b u s i n e s s i n 
V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d , he was i n f l u e n c e d by an a r t i s t o c r a t i c 
hegemony t h a t s c o r n e d v u l g a r e n t e r p r i s e , and sought t o b r i n g 
c a p i t a l i s t s i n t o l i n e t h r o u g h p r o m o t i o n o f t h e i d e a l o f t h e 
"gentleman." Hence, Moxon's " a s p i r a t i o n s " were n o t so much 
economic as t h e y were s o c i a l o r c u l t u r a l . B o t h t h e 
a r i s t o c r a c y ' s r e f u s a l t o be made s o c i a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e t o 
i n d u s t r i a l and c o m m e r c i a l c a p i t a l i s m , and i t s c o - o p t i n g o f t h e 
upper m i d d l e c l a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e s t r e n g t h o f i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e 
t h e " C l a r e n d o n n i n e " p u b l i c s c h o o l s , form t h e b a s i s f o r M a r t i n 
J . Weimer's E n g l i s h C u l t u r e and t h e D e c l i n e o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l  
S p i r i t , 1850-1980. Weimer a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a s o n s f o r 
E n g l a n d ' s f a i l u r e i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t o a c h i e v e economic 
e q u a l i t y w i t h o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s l i k e t h e U n i t e d 
S t a t e s and Germany was n o t p u r e l y economic b u t i d e o l o g i c a l , 
and c a n be h i s t o r i c a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h 
c e n t u r y . H i s s t u d y s u g g e s t s , i n a r e l a t e d way, t h a t t h e 
o b v i o u s c o n t r a s t s between T i c k n o r and F i e l d s ' s p u b l i c a t i o n and 
p r o m o t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w and Moxon's o f T e n n y s o n — a n d each 
p o e t ' s subsequent r e p u t a t i o n — s t e m from t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c 
e t h o s s p e c i f i c t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t o E n g l a n d . Indeed, 
Tennyson's g r e a t e r p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h a n i n 
E n g l a n d r e s u l t s as much from F i e l d s ' s "American" 
e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l s p i r i t g u i d i n g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n and p r o m o t i o n 
o f Tennyson's t e x t s as i t does from any p r e d i l e c t i o n on t h e 
p a r t o f A m e r i c a n a u d i e n c e s f o r t h e p o e t r y i t s e l f . 



e d i t i o n , b u t what i s n o t so o b v i o u s a r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e 

p e r s o n a l i t y and b u s i n e s s e t h o s o f p u b l i s h e r s , between men l i k e 

Edward Moxon and James F i e l d s , o r George R o u t l e d g e f o r t h a t 

m a t t e r , t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e p o e t ' s work 

among a s e l e c t c l a s s o f r e a d e r s . U n l i k e F i e l d s and R o u t l e d g e , 

who were f a r more l i k e l y t o t a k e p u b l i c a t i o n r i s k s w i t h t h e 

number o f c o p i e s , Moxon i n t h e e a r l y 183 0s h e l d back, a l m o s t 

w i t h a " l e t ' s w a i t and s e e " a t t i t u d e . 

A decade l a t e r , i t was Tennyson who h e l d back. From 18 3 3 

t o 1842, he e n t e r e d h i s s o - c a l l e d "Ten Y e a r s ' S i l e n c e , " a 

p e r i o d i n h i s p u b l i c a t i o n h i s t o r y t h a t has o c c a s i o n e d 

e x p l a n a t i o n s t o o numerous and t o o d e t a i l e d t o a c c o u n t f o r 
27 

h e r e . The consensus v i e w i s t h a t Tennyson was s c o r n e d i n t o 

s i l e n c e by c r i t i c s , and b u l l i e d i n t o p u b l i c a t i o n once more by 

a n x i o u s A m e r i c a n s . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i s w h o l l y 

t r u e , o f c o u r s e , s i n c e t h e r e a l i t y o f Tennyson's l i f e i n 

r e l a t i o n t o h i s work was f a r more c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n any 

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s can p o s s i b l y e x p l a i n . However, d e s p i t e h i s 

o b v i o u s f i n a n c i a l and p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s f o r d o i n g s o , Tennyson 

c l e a r l y d i d n o t f e e l under any p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e s s u r e t o 
2 7 Some o f t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e d e a l t w i t h i n b o t h 

c h a p t e r s t h r e e and f o u r . J o y c e Green's "Tennyson's 
Development D u r i n g t h e 'Ten Y e a r s ' S i l e n c e ' (1832-1842)," 
Edgar Shannon J r . ' s Tennyson and t h e R e v i e w e r s , and t h e 
r e l e v a n t poems o f t h e p e r i o d need t o be r e a d a g a i n s t one 
a n o t h e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r e c i s e c o r r e l a t i o n between n e g a t i v e 
c r i t i c i s m by r e v i e w e r s i n t h e e a r l y 1830s and Tennyson's 
p r e f e r e n c e f o r s u b s t a n t i a l r e v i s i o n o f h i s poems r a t h e r t h a n 
f u r t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n a t t h i s t i m e . 



p u b l i s h f o r a l m o s t a decade; Edward F i t z g e r a l d d e s c r i b e d 

Tennyson i n 1838 as " s t u r d i l y i n d i f f e r e n t t o fame" ( q t d . i n 

M a r t i n 2 4 5 ) . Hagen, f o r example, a s k s h e r r e a d e r s t o c o n s i d e r 

t h e f o l l o w i n g s e t o f f a c t s : "Tennyson l o s t m a n u s c r i p t s ; 

e n t e r e d i n t o p u b l i s h i n g r e l u c t a n t l y , a l m o s t dragged i n by h i s 

f r i e n d s ; p u b l i s h e d two o f h i s f i r s t f o u r books anonymously 

(Poems by Two B r o t h e r s and I n M e m o r i a m ) — y e t i n s i s t e d t h a t he 

wanted fame and p r o f i t o n l y from p o e t r y . " She t h e n s p e c u l a t e s 

on t h e c a u s e s f o r what a p p e a r s t o be a l a c k o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e 

and c o n c l u d e s t h a t Tennyson d i d n o t doubt h i s a b i l i t i e s as a 

p o e t ; what he q u e s t i o n e d was " h i s a b i l i t y t o p l e a s e a wide 

a u d i e n c e , a q u e s t i o n i n g o n l y r e a s o n a b l e a f t e r h i s s m a l l s a l e s " 

( 4 9 ) . T h i s q u e s t i o n i n g o f h i s work i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s 

a u d i e n c e t o o k p l a c e i n t h e 183 0s; h i s s u b s t a n t i a l r e v i s i o n o f 

o l d poems and development o f new g e n r e s were t h e s u c c e s s f u l 

r e s u l t s o f t h i s e f f o r t . I t was an e f f o r t t h a t , o f n e c e s s i t y , 

t o o k a g r e a t d e a l o f t i m e . 2 8 

By 1840, Tennyson was a g a i n r e a d y t o p u b l i s h , t h i s t i m e 

w i t h some measure o f s u c c e s s . Edward F i t z G e r a l d ( F i t z ) , who 

a f t e r H a l l a m ' s d e a t h i n 1833 had p a r t l y t a k e n on h i s r o l e as 

Tennyson's l i t e r a r y a d v i s e r , had been u r g i n g Tennyson t o 

p u b l i s h t h r o u g h o u t t h e l a t e 183 0s. C a j o l e d and badgered i n t o 

p u b l i c a t i o n by F i t z a t e v e r y s t e p , Tennyson e v e n t u a l l y 

2 8 Tennyson's d e v e l o p i n g p o e t i c v o i c e and t h e r e v i s i o n 
and f o r m a t i o n o f new g e n r e s t h a t he engaged i n a t t h i s t i m e , 
and t h e i r r e s u l t s , a r e d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h i n c h a p t e r f o u r . 



98 

succumbed t o p r e s s u r e from t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and b r o u g h t h i s 

poems b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c once more. Moxon f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d 

t h e two-volume Poems on 14 May 1842 a t a r e t a i l c o s t o f t w e l v e 

s h i l l i n g s . The f i n a n c i a l arrangement a t t h i s t i m e was t h a t 

Moxon w o u l d b e a r t h e c o s t s o f p r o d u c t i o n and t a k e o n e - t h i r d o f 

t h e p r o f i t s w h i l e Tennyson t o o k t w o - t h i r d s (Hagen 6 6 ) . The 

f i r s t volume c o n t a i n e d b o t h a r e v i s e d s e l e c t i o n o f t h e 

p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d p o e m s — t w e n t y t h r e e o f t h e f i f t y s i x from 

t h e 1830 volume and s i x t e e n o f t h e t h i r t y o f 1 8 3 2 — a n d seven 

new poems. The second volume c o n t a i n e d t w e n t y seven new poems 

( l y r i c s and t h e new E n g l i s h I d y l s ) , one r e p r i n t e d and one 

r e v i s e d poem. A l t h o u g h e n t h u s i a s t i c i n g e n e r a l about 

Tennyson's h a v i n g p u b l i s h e d , F i t z was c e r t a i n l y l e s s 

e n t h u s i a s t i c about t h e p r o d u c t . W r i t i n g t o F r e d e r i c k P o l l o c k 

i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n , he c o m p l a i n e d : " I t i s a p i t y he 

d i d n o t p u b l i s h t h e new volume s e p a r a t e l y . The o t h e r w i l l 

d r a g i t down. And why r e p r i n t t h e Merman, t h e Mermaid, and 

t h o s e e v e r l a s t i n g E l e a n o r s , I s a b e l s , — w h i c h a l w a y s were, and 

a r e , and must be a n u i s a n c e . . . . E v e r y woman t h i n k s 

h e r s e l f t h e o r i g i n a l o f one o f t h a t s t u p i d G a l l e r y o f 

B e a u t i e s " ( q t d . i n Hagan 6 2 ) . S e v e r a l months l a t e r , however, 

F i t z had t o a d m i t t o Tennyson's b r o t h e r , F r e d e r i c k , t h a t t h e 

book had " s o l d w e l l , " p a r t i c u l a r l y a t Cambridge ( q t d . i n Hagen 

63) . 

S e l l i n g w e l l i n m i d - V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d c o u l d h a r d l y be 

t h o u g h t o f as t o p p i n g t h e b e s t - s e l l e r l i s t . P e r h a p s Moxon was 



99 

b e i n g t o o c o n s e r v a t i v e when he p r i n t e d o n l y 800 c o p i e s . Y e t 

when one c o n s i d e r s Tennyson's p r e v i o u s s a l e s , t h e p o e t ' s 

absence from t h e market f o r many y e a r s , and a s i g n i f i c a n t 

slump i n t h e book t r a d e d u r i n g t h e l a t e 183 0s, Moxon's v e n t u r e 

may even appear e x t r a v a g a n t . By September, 500 c o p i e s had 

been s o l d ; a c c o r d i n g t o Moxon's b r o t h e r , W i l l i a m , Tennyson had 

made a " s e n s a t i o n " (see L e t t e r s I 209-10, Hagen 201 n.21). 

P r i n t r u n s and s a l e s i n c r e a s e d g r a d u a l l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e 184 0s 

(see a p p e n d i x I) and by t h e 5 t h e d i t i o n , Poems had become one 
• • • 30 

volume a t n i n e s h i l l i n g s . 
Whether Tennyson's modest s u c c e s s c o u l d now be a t t r i b u t e d 

t o f a v o u r a b l e r e v i e w s , however, i s a s u b j e c t o f c o n t i n u e d 

c o n t r o v e r s y . S i r C h a r l e s i m p l i e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g remarks 

t h a t p e r h a p s Tennyson j u s t happened t o p u b l i s h a t an o p p o r t u n e 

t i m e : 
I n f a c t , t h e moment c o u l d h a r d l y have been more 
p r o p i t i o u s f o r t h e making o f a new r e p u t a t i o n . 
Wordsworth had p u b l i s h e d no new book s i n c e 1835; 
Moore had w r i t t e n no v e r s e s i n c e 1822; Crabbe had 
d i e d i n 1832 and C o l e r i d g e i n 1834. Mrs. Hemans and 
"L.E.L." had a l s o p a s s e d away, and Samuel Rogers had 
l o n g been r e g a r d e d as t h e r e l i c o f an e a r l i e r age. 
Southey had w r i t t e n no new v e r s e f o r some y e a r s , 

By t h e 1840s, Moxon had expanded h i s t r a d e somewhat 
from t h a t n o t e d e a r l i e r by Merriman. Hagen remarks t h a t i n 
a d d i t i o n t o h i s l i s t o f " P o e t i c a l Works," Moxon had added a 
" D r a m a t i c L i b r a r y " and "Cheap E d i t i o n s o f P o p u l a r Works" 
( f i c t i o n , e s s a y s , t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s , and some more p o e t r y ) 
( 6 4 ) . P e r h a p s i t was t h e s e l a t t e r works t h a t a l l o w e d Moxon 
some l a t i t u d e i n p u b l i s h i n g p o e t r y t h a t he admired. 

3 0 Hagen c l a i m s t h a t t h e f i f t h e d i t i o n o f 1848 i s 
" i l l u s t r a t e d by 30 v i g n e t t e s on e n g r a v e d s t e e l " (66) , b u t Wise 
makes no m e n t i o n o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n h i s B i b l i o g r a p h y ( I 91-
2) . 



100 

C a m p b e l l had o u t l i v e d h i s vogue, and b o t h were near 
t h e i r d e a t h s . (192) 

E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t ' s Seraphim (1838) and R o b e r t Browning's 

S o r d e l l o (1840) and B e l l s and Pomegranates (1841-6) were t h e 

o n l y c o n t e m p o r a r y B r i t i s h volumes o f p o e t r y l i k e l y t o a t t r a c t 

t h e a t t e n t i o n , o f Tennyson's r e a d e r s , u n l e s s one c o n s i d e r s t h e 

u b i q u i t o u s P r o v e r b i a l P h i l o s o p h y (1838-42) by M a r t i n F a r q u h a r 

Tupper. A t t h i s t i m e , Tennyson t r u l y had no r i v a l s i n h i s own 

c o u n t r y ; he a p p a r e n t l y had o n l y t h e c o n t i n u e d d i s a p p r o v a l o f 

r e v i e w e r s t o w o r r y about. 

S i r C h a r l e s c o n c l u d e s t h a t i n t h e 1840s Tennyson's c r i t i c a l 

r e c e p t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o be hampered by " t h e s p e l l o f C r o k e r and 

C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h " ( 1 9 6 ) . I f Thomas Lounsbury i s t o be 

b e l i e v e d , t h e n p r o f e s s i o n a l c r i t i c i s m " f o l l o w e d and f o l l o w e d 

r e l u c t a n t l y , and a l m o s t p r o t e s t i n g l y , p o p u l a r a p p r e c i a t i o n . 

Tennyson's r e p u t a t i o n advanced a g a i n s t a s u l l e n o p p o s i t i o n 

w h i c h i n s i n u a t e d a d e p r e c i a t o r y e s t i m a t e w h i c h a t l a s t [ i n 

1842] i t d i d n o t v e n t u r e t o p r o c l a i m o p e n l y " (417 q t d . i n 

Shannon 6 2 ) . Shannon a r g u e s a g a i n s t L o u n s b u r y , c o n c l u d i n g 

t h a t " t h e s t o r y o f c r i t i c a l n e g l e c t and p o p u l a r a c c l a i m i n t h e 

f a c e o f r e c a l c i t r a n t r e v i e w e r s i s a myth" ( 7 9 ) . Y e t t a k e n as 

a whole, t h e e i g h t e e n r e v i e w s o f Poems t h a t Shannon u s e s as 

e v i d e n c e f o r h i s o p i n i o n do n o t e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y e n d o r s e 

Tennyson's l a t e s t work (see Shannon 60-96). On t h e c o n t r a r y , 

t h e s e r e v i e w e r s ' p r a i s e i s m i l d a t b e s t , and t h e y d e v o t e 

c o n s i d e r a b l e energy t o p r e s c r i b i n g t o Tennyson t h e d i r e c t i o n s 



t h a t h i s p o e t r y s h o u l d t a k e i n t h e f u t u r e . I n t h e end, b o t h 

Shannon and Lounsbury a r e r i g h t : t h e p o p u l a r a p p e a l o f 

Tennyson's new volumes meant t h a t v i t r i o l i c c r i t i c s c o u l d no 

l o n g e r use t h e i r r e v i e w s t o " s i l e n c e " Tennyson as a p o e t , 

however opposed t o h i s work t h e y m i g h t a c t u a l l y be. Y e t t h e i r 

a m b i v a l e n c e and muted r e p r o a c h s u r f a c e between t h e l i n e s i n 

t h e i r g e n e r a l l y c a u t i o u s approaches t o h i s v e r s e , t h e i r 

u n d e r c u t t i n g o f p r a i s e w i t h blame, and t h e i r p a t e r n a l i s t i c 

t o n e s . I f Tennyson had i n d e e d l a i d " t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f fame" 

w i t h t h e 1842 Poems. as Shannon c l a i m s , t h e n r e v i e w e r s had 

c e r t a i n l y n o t h e l p e d t o b u i l d a s o l i d f o u n d a t i o n f o r i t t o 

r e s t upon. 

Nor was Tennyson p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n h a v i n g 

r e v i e w e r s do s o . He may have a l l o w e d f r i e n d s t o a s s i s t him t o 

a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , y e t u l t i m a t e l y Tennyson w o u l d e s t a b l i s h h i s 

own f o u n d a t i o n . I n t h e e a r l y 1840s, t h e e n t h u s i a s m o f 

l i t e r a r y f r i e n d s and a c q u a i n t a n c e s s u c h as S p e d d i n g , R o g e r s , 

C a r l y l e , and D i c k e n s , buoyed Tennyson's s p i r i t s i n t h e f a c e o f 

a c u t e f i n a n c i a l and p e r s o n a l d i s t r e s s . R i c h a r d H e n g i s t 

Home's and E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t Browning's c o l l e c t i o n o f 

c r i t i c a l e s s a y s , A New S p i r i t o f t h e Age (1844), a l s o buoyed 

Tennyson's s p i r i t s w i t h i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f him as "a t r u e p o e t 

o f t h e h i g h e s t c l a s s o f g e n i u s " ( q t d . i n Shannon 8 2 ) . As f o r 

h i s p e c u n i a r y t r o u b l e s , t h e s e were somewhat r e l i e v e d i n 1845 

when Henry H a l l a m ( A r t h u r ' s f a t h e r ) s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d 

t h e government t o g r a n t Tennyson a C i v i l L i s t p e n s i o n £2 00 p e r 



102 

annum. A l t h o u g h t h i s p e n s i o n c a u s e d a b r i e f s p e l l o f 

c o n t r o v e r s y , Tennyson's c l a i m t o t h e p e n s i o n was e v e n t u a l l y 

e n d o r s e d p u b l i c l y . Once Tennyson's volumes began t o s e l l i n 

t h e 1840s and h i s p u b l i c s t a t u r e i n c r e a s e d , Moxon, i n t u r n , 

would have t o r e s p o n d t o a u d i e n c e demand and t a k e some r i s k s . 

Tennyson, meanwhile, c o u l d now t u r n h i s a t t e n t i o n s w i t h o u t 

f u r t h e r f i n a n c i a l w o r r y t o c o m p l e t i n g a p r o j e c t t h a t had 

o c c u p i e d h i s a t t e n t i o n s f o r a t l e a s t a decade: The P r i n c e s s 

(1847). The P r i n c e s s "had s e e m i n g l y t a k e n more t h a n two and a 

h a l f y e a r s i n c o n t i n u o u s c o m p o s i t i o n , and p e r h a p s as l o n g as 

e i g h t y e a r s i n t h e g e s t a t i o n " ( K i l l h a m P r i n c e s s 1 4 ) . Once i n 

p r o o f s t a g e , Tennyson a l s o t o o k what was f o r Moxon ah 

a g o n i z i n g l y l o n g t i m e o v e r r e v i s i o n s so t h a t t h e book j u s t 

m i s s e d t h e C h r i s t m a s t r a d e . I t was p u b l i s h e d on 25 December 

1847, a t a c o s t o f f i v e s h i l l i n g s i n Moxon's t r a d e - e d i t i o n . 

The f i r s t p r i n t i n g o f 1500 c o p i e s s o l d o u t a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y 

so t h a t a second e d i t i o n o f 1500 was needed by t h e s p r i n g o f 

1848; a t h i r d e d i t i o n o f 1500 appeared e a r l y i n 1850; Moxon 

i n c r e a s e d t h e r u n t o 2000 f o r t h e f o u r t h e d i t i o n i n t h e s p r i n g 

o f 1851; and t h e f i f t h e d i t i o n , a l s o 2000 c o p i e s , was t h e 

f i r s t t o t a k e more t h a n a y e a r t o s e l l o u t (Shannon 118, Hagen 

7 9 ) . Hagen a l l e g e s t h a t t h e r e a f t e r " s a l e s h e l d s t e a d y a t 

about 1000 a y e a r , " and t h a t by 1848 Tennyson's a n n u a l income 



was £500 (79) . I n r e l a t i v e t e r m s , Tennyson's poem a c h i e v e d 

c o n s i d e r a b l e p u b l i c s u c c e s s . 3 1 

T h i s s u c c e s s o f The P r i n c e s s a g a i n c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e 

p u z z l e m e n t and even d i s a p p o i n t m e n t o f many r e v i e w e r s . The 

medley o f v o i c e s i n t h e poem seemed a l m o s t a p a r o d i c r e s p o n s e 

t o r e v i e w e r s ' demands f o r a l o n g poem o f t o p i c a l i n t e r e s t . 

And Tennyson's m o c k - h e r o i c t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y i s s u e 

o f women's e d u c a t i o n r e m a i n s as c r y p t i c t o d a y f o r Tennyson 

s c h o l a r s as i t was f o r h i s m i d - V i c t o r i a n c r i t i c s ( d i s c u s s e d i n 

c h a p t e r f o u r ) . I n s p i t e o f t h e poem's i n c o n g r u i t i e s , Shannon 

c u r i o u s l y m a i n t a i n s o f The P r i n c e s s t h a t " [ s ] e l d o m has a poem 

owed so much t o c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a r y d o c t r i n e " (92) . Y e t 

Shannon r e a d s i n t h e e a r l y r e v i e w s o f t h e poem i s o l a t e d n o t e s 

o f " a p p r e c i a t i o n " as e v i d e n c e f o r t h e above c l a i m w i t h o u t 

r e g i s t e r i n g f u l l y enough t h e c h o r u s a g a i n s t Tennyson f o r 

h a v i n g f a i l e d t o l i v e up t o t h e c r i t i c s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s . John 

F o r s t e r ' s remarks m i g h t be t h o u g h t o f as t y p i c a l : The P r i n c e s s 

3 1 A l t i c k g a t h e r s t o g e t h e r from s e v e r a l s o u r c e s r e c o r d s 
o f p o e t r y s a l e s t h a t p r o v i d e u s e f u l r e l a t i v e measures o f 
Tennyson's s u c c e s s e s . These works' s a l e s were, however, b u i l t 
up o v e r g e n e r a t i o n s w h i l e Tennyson's volumes t e n d e d t o have a 
f a r more immediate p o p u l a r i t y : R o b e r t P o l l o c k ' s The Course o f  
Time s o l d 78,000 between 1827 and 1869; John K e b l e ' s The  
C h r i s t i a n Y e a r s o l d 379,000 from 1827 t o 1873; and M a r t i n 
Tupper's P r o v e r b i a l P h i l o s o p h y p a s s e d t h e 200,000 mark i n 
1866, t w e n t y e i g h t y e a r s a f t e r t h e f i r s t s e r i e s had appeared 
( W r i t e r s , Readers and O c c a s i o n s 340). A l t h o u g h t h e s e f i g u r e s 
seem i n o r d i n a t e l y h i g h when compared w i t h t h o s e o f Tennyson, 
i t must be remembered t h a t Tennyson had t h e advantage o f 
c o m b i n i n g h i s i n d i v i d u a l volumes i n t o c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s 
whereas t h e above a u t h o r s had o n l y t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l volumes 
(many r e v i s e d a n n u a l l y ) t o market. 



" i s y e t o n l y an omen f o r t h e f u t u r e . I t s g l o r i o u s p r o m i s e has 

y e t t o be f u l f i l l e d " (Examiner J a n 1848 q t d . i n Shannon 115). 

As w i t h t h e 1842 Poems, r e v i e w e r s u n e q u i v o c a l l y gave t o 

Tennyson an o b v i o u s p o e t i c t a l e n t , y e t t h e y a l m o s t u n a n i m o u s l y 

r e f u s e d t o c o n f i r m h i s m a t u r a t i o n as E n g l a n d ' s p o e t i c v o i c e . 

The p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f f r i e n d s and t h e n e g a t i v e i m p a c t 

o f r e v i e w e r s upon Tennyson's e a r l y development and s u c c e s s as 

V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d ' s f o r e m o s t p o e t d u r i n g t h e 1830s and 1840s 

have been e x t e n s i v e l y documented by Tennyson b i o g r a p h e r s and 

s c h o l a r s . L e s s f r e q u e n t l y a c c o u n t e d f o r , however, i s 

Tennyson's r e c e p t i o n by t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e , e s p e c i a l l y by 

t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s and by women. F o r d e s p i t e t h e c r i t i c a l 

d o u b t s t h a t r e v i e w e r s m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e 184 0s, w i t h 

t h e 1842 Poems t h e p u b l i c had i n f a c t begun w h o l e h e a r t e d l y t o 

a c c e p t Tennyson as t h e p o e t i c spokesman o f t h e V i c t o r i a n age. 

The p u b l i c ' s i n t e r e s t s were o f t e n r e g i s t e r e d i n ways o t h e r 

t h a n i n t h e p u r c h a s e o f t e x t s . I f mentioned a t a l l by 

Tennyson s c h o l a r s , Tennyson's a p p e a l among t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s 

i s most f r e q u e n t l y conveyed i n t h e h i g h p r a i s e g i v e n t o 

Tennyson's " d e m o c r a t i c s p i r i t " by C h a r l e s K i n g s l e y ' s t a i l o r 

h e r o o f A l t o n L o c k e (1850): 

Why i s i t t h a t t h e l a t e s t p o e t has g e n e r a l l y t h e 
g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e minds o f t h e young? 
S u r e l y n o t f o r t h e mere charm o f n o v e l t y ? The 
r e a s o n i s t h a t he, l i v i n g amid t h e same hopes, t h e 
same t e m p t a t i o n s , t h e same s p h e r e o f o b s e r v a t i o n as 
t h e y , g i v e s u t t e r a n c e and outward form t o t h e v e r y 
q u e s t i o n s w h i c h , vague and w o r d l e s s , have been 
e x e r c i s i n g t h e i r h e a r t s . And what endeared Tennyson 
e s p e c i a l l y t o me, t h e w o r k i n g man, was, as I 
a f t e r w a r d s d i s c o v e r e d , t h e a l t o g e t h e r d e m o c r a t i c 



t e n d e n c y o f h i s poems . . . . [ T ] h e r e i s i n A l f r e d 
Tennyson an element e s p e c i a l l y d e m o c r a t i c , t r u l y 
l e v e l l i n g ; n o t h i s p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n s , about w h i c h I 
know n o t h i n g and c a r e l e s s , b u t h i s h a n d l i n g o f t h e 
t r i v i a l e v e r y d a y s i g h t s and sounds o f n a t u r e . 

(107-8) 

Of c o u r s e , K i n g s l e y ' s A l t o n Locke i s an i d e a l i z e d p o r t r a y a l o f 

w o r k i n g - c l a s s e x i s t e n c e , as t h e s t a t i s t i c s on e d u c a t i o n l e v e l s 

and l i t e r a c y i n B r i t a i n ( d i s c u s s e d below) r e v e a l . Y e t among 

t h o s e members o f t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s who c o u l d r e a d i n t h e 

1840s, Tennyson was b e g i n n i n g t o have a s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t . 

F o r example, Shannon m e n t i o n s t h a t , a p a r t from t h e many 

s t a n d a r d p e r i o d i c a l s , t h e Weekly D i s p a t c h a l s o r e v i e w e d 

Tennyson's 1842 volume. I t s a r t i c l e " i s n o t e w o r t h y f o r e a r l y 

b r i n g i n g Tennyson t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f an e x t e n s i v e c l a s s o f 

r e a d e r s f a r removed from t h o s e o f t h e M o r n i n g P o s t . The 

Weekly D i s p a t c h was a r a d i c a l paper a d d r e s s e d t o ' a r t i s a n s and 

o p e r a t i v e s ' and d e d i c a t e d t o t h e d e n u n c i a t i o n o f abuses . . . 

[T]he p a p e r had a c i r c u l a t i o n o f o v e r 6 6 , 0 0 0 — a v a s t f i g u r e 

f o r 1842 and t r i p l e t h a t o f t h e Sunday Times, i t s n e a r e s t 

w e e k l y c o m p e t i t o r i n numbers o f r e a d e r s " ( 6 9 ) . Tennyson's 

p o e t r y a l s o r e a c h e d a w o r k i n g - c l a s s r a d i c a l a u d i e n c e t h r o u g h 

l e c t u r e s . E a r l y i n 1845, W.J. Fox l e c t u r e d on Tennyson i n h i s 

s e r i e s " L i v i n g P o e t s ; and T h e i r S e r v i c e s t o t h e Cause o f 

P o l i t i c a l Freedom and Human P r o g r e s s " f o r t h e Working Men's 

A s s o c i a t i o n o f H o l b o r n (Shannon 8 3 ) . The above e v i d e n c e 

s u g g e s t s t h a t Tennyson's w o r k i n g - c l a s s r e a d e r s h i p o f t h e 184 0s 



106 

f o u n d i n h i s p o e t r y s u p p o r t f o r a d e m o c r a t i c r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f 

B r i t a i n ' s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l systems. 

An i n c i d e n t i n 1849, m a r k i n g h i s r e p u t a t i o n among t h e 

w o r k i n g c l a s s , b r o u g h t Tennyson " t h e h i g h e s t honour [he had] 

y e t r e c e i v e d " ( L e t t e r s I 309). E l i z a b e t h G a s k e l l had w r i t t e n 

t o John F o r s t e r about a f o r m e r L a n c a s h i r e handloom weaver, 

w r i t e r , and d e v o t e d a d m i r e r o f Tennyson's, Samuel Bamford. 

Bamford was so d e d i c a t e d t o Tennyson's work t h a t he c o u l d 

r e c i t e as many as t w e l v e poems s i m p l y from h a v i n g h e a r d them. 

He was, however, t o o p o o r t o a f f o r d h i s own copy o f Poems. A t 

G a s k e l l ' s r e q u e s t , F o r s t e r asked Tennyson t o f o r w a r d a copy o f 

t h e book t o Bamford as a g i f t , w h i c h Tennyson i m m e d i a t e l y 

a s k e d Moxon t o do, t o Bamford's i n f i n i t e d e l i g h t ( L e t t e r s I 

307-9). T h i s e p i s o d e i l l u s t r a t e s n o t o n l y Tennyson's a p p e a l 

t o t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s , b u t a l s o t h e p o e t ' s own p l e a s u r e i n 
32 

b e i n g a b l e t o a t t r a c t t h i s c l a s s o f r e a d e r s . 

3 2 Bamford's d e v o t i o n t o Tennyson a l s o r e v e a l s a l o v e f o r 
l e t t e r s and f o r p o e t r y t o o f r e q u e n t l y o v e r l o o k e d i n a n a l y s e s 
o f w o r k i n g - c l a s s l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s . A l t h o u g h r a t h e r 
u n s y s t e m a t i c i n h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n , V i c t o r Neuburg does p r o v i d e 
some e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e V i c t o r i a n w o r k i n g c l a s s e s had a f a r 
g r e a t e r penchant f o r r e a d i n g and p u r c h a s e d f a r more t e x t s o f 
v a r i o u s s o r t s and i n g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y t h a n R i c h a r d A l t i c k 
a l l o w s i n e i t h e r o f h i s s t u d i e s . Neuburg's h i s t o r y o f t h e 
many p u b l i s h e r s o f "cheap" books f o r t h i s d i v e r s e a u d i e n c e , 
w h i c h forms p a r t o f h i s c h a p t e r on n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r 
l i t e r a t u r e (148-234), p r o v i d e s a comprehensive b a c k g r o u n d o f 
t h e p u b l i s h i n g a r e n a a l o n g s i d e w h i c h a o n e - s h i l l i n g c o l l e c t i o n 
o f p o e t r y w o u l d have t o make i t s mark: b r o a d s i d e s , s t r e e t 
b a l l a d s , j e s t b o o k s , chapbooks, s e n s a t i o n a l n o v e l s , romances, 
and penny l i b r a r i e s o f t h e " c l a s s i c s . " A l t e r n a t i v e l y , D a v i d 
V i n c e n t ' s c h a p t e r on " I m a g i n a t i o n " i n L i t e r a c y and P o p u l a r  
C u l t u r e d i s c u s s e s t h e s h e e r p l e a s u r e o f s e r i o u s l i t e r a r y 
r e a d i n g a p p a r e n t i n w o r k i n g c l a s s a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s and memoirs 
from n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y B r i t a i n . None o f t h e s e m e n t i o n s 



107 

G a s k e l l ' s r e q u e s t i s r a r e among a c c o u n t s o f Tennyson's 

f e m a l e r e a d e r s h i p f o r , a p a r t from Tennyson's w i f e , f a m i l y 

members and, o f c o u r s e , Queen V i c t o r i a , Tennyson's f e m a l e 

r e a d e r s — a s r e a d e r s — a r e seldom mentioned by h i s b i o g r a p h e r s . 

Such n e g l e c t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e g r e t t a b l e i n s t u d i e s o f 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t s and c u l t u r e because, w i t h t h e 

i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e n o v e l , women were b e i n g 

c o u n s e l l e d by many f e m a l e s o c i a l r e f o r m e r s t o t u r n t h e i r 

b e t t e r minds away from t h e r e a l i s m o f f i c t i o n t o w a r d t h e 

i d e a l i s m o f p o e t r y . M a r i a Grey and E m i l y S h i r r e f f , i n 

Thoughts on S e l f - C u l t u r e (1851), o u t l i n e t h e o p p o s i n g 

arguments w i t h an o b v i o u s p r e f e r e n c e f o r p o e t r y : 

The g r a n d c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e p o e t a r e t r u e i n i d e a l 
b e a u t y ; t h e n o v e l i s t ' s p i c t u r e s o f r e a l l i f e a r e 
f a l s e , because n e c e s s a r i l y c o v e r e d w i t h an u n r e a l 
g l o s s . The o b j e c t o f t h e p o e t and a r t i s t i s t o 
embody t h e i r own l o f t y v i e w o f t h e t r u l y b e a u t i f u l ; 
t h a t o f t h e n o v e l i s t , t o p r e s e n t us w i t h an 
i m i t a t i o n o f a l l we see around u s , and t h e r e f o r e t o 
m i n g l e w i t h t h e b e a u t i f u l a l l t h a t g e n e r a l l y 
d e t r a c t s from i t i n r e a l l i f e . . . . The p o e t , i n 
s h o r t , e l e v a t e s t h e t h o u g h t s , w h i l e t h e n o v e l i s t 
e x c i t e s t h e f e e l i n g s , and t h i s one d i f f e r e n c e 
s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p r e s s e s how a d m i r a b l e i s t h e one and 
how p e r n i c i o u s t h e o t h e r k i n d o f r e a d i n g f o r women. 

( q t d . i n H e l s i n g e r I I I 27) 

Tennyson was more t h a n a b l e t o p r o v i d e " l o f t y v i e w s o f b e a u t y " 

f o r t h i s f e m a l e r e a d e r s h i p ; whether g r e a t numbers o f women saw 

them o r n o t i s l e s s c e r t a i n . 

Tennyson, however, s i n c e cheap l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d o n l y be 
p r o d u c e d f o r u n c o p y r i g h t e d a u t h o r s ; as V i n c e n t p o i n t s o u t , t h e 
s t a n d a r d r e p e r t o i r e o f l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e i n s h i l l i n g 
e d i t i o n s o n l y c o n t a i n e d "up t o and i n c l u d i n g t h e R o m a n t i c s " 
(209) . 



108 

When t h e y a r e d i s c u s s e d a t a l l by Tennyson's b i o g r a p h e r s , 

women a r e seen more as a d m i r e r s o f Tennyson's p e r s o n and 

c h a r a c t e r t h a n as s e r i o u s r e a d e r s and c r i t i c - f r i e n d s . 

Moreover, t h e s e women a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e c o r d e d o n l y as t h e 

w i v e s o f men w i t h whom Tennyson was f a m i l i a r : H e l e n and 

W i l l i a m A l l i n g h a m , M a r i a n and G r a n v i l l e B r a d l e y , Jane and 

W i l l i a m B r o o k f i e l d , Mary and W i l l i a m H o w i t t , and E m i l y and 

C o v e n t r y Patmore t o name a few. Even t h o s e women who a r e 

h e a r d as i n d i v i d u a l s by Tennyson's b i o g r a p h e r s — J a n e C a r l y l e , 

A n n i e T h a c k e r a y , Fanny Kemble, and E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t Browning 

— t h e two f o r m e r women a l s o s u p p o s e d l y c o n f l a t e d t h e i r 

i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e p o e t ' s work w i t h t h e i r e s t i m a t i o n s o f h i s 

p e r s o n , making o f him e i t h e r a s u b s t i t u t e husband i n Jane 
• • 33 

C a r l y l e ' s c a s e o r a s u b s t i t u t e f a t h e r i n A n n i e T h a c k e r a y ' s . 
Even though E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t Browning i s o f t e n v i e w e d i n 

a s i m i l a r w a y — e s p e c i a l l y i n h e r e a r l y l e t t e r s t o Mary R u s s e l l 

M i t f o r d — b e c a u s e she was a p o e t and n o t j u s t an " a d m i r e r , " h e r 

c r i t i c i s m , o f Tennyson's work d e s e r v e s e x a m i n a t i o n . R o b e r t 

M a r t i n , f o r i n s t a n c e , u s e s B a r r e t t Browning's v o i c e t h r o u g h o u t 

The U n q u i e t H e a r t , t o make i t appear as i f E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t 

echoed h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y male c r i t i c s i n h e r d i s d a i n f o r t h e 

3 3 Fanny Kemble's f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Tennyson, as i t was 
w i t h L o n g f e l l o w , was l i f e l o n g and s i n c e r e . Y e t M a r t i n , who 
q u o t e s s e v e r a l o f Kemble's r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f Tennyson, 
u n d e r c u t s h e r p r a i s e o f t h e p o e t and g e n e r a l l y p o r t r a y s h e r as 
t o o e f f u s i v e i n h e r " w o r s h i p . " As i t seems f o r M a r t i n , 
Kemble's e x t r a o r d i n a r y a c t i n g a b i l i t y d i s q u a l i f i e s h e r as an 
a c c u r a t e a c c o u n t a n t o f Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y . 



r a r e f i e d atmosphere o f Tennyson's poems. I n a c t u a l i t y , h e r 

d i s l i k e stems from h e r own d e c i d e d p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e power o f 

" o r d i n a r y f o r m s . " M a r t i n q u o t e s from E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t ' s 

l e t t e r t o M i t f o r d , December 1842, i n w h i c h she c l a i m s t h a t 

Tennyson "has n o t f l e s h and b l o o d enough t o be s e n s u a l — h i s 

forms a r e t o o o b v i o u s l y on t h e s u r f a c e t o wear p u l s e s . H i s 

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f b e a u t y . . . i s r a t h e r t h e fantasma o f 

b e a u t y , t h a n t h e t h i n g . You can no more t o u c h o r c l a s p i t , 

t h a n b e a u t y i n a dream. I t i s n o t t h e l e s s b e a u t i f u l f o r 

t h a t ; b u t l e s s s e n s u a l i t i s " ( M i l l e r E l i z a b t h B a r r e t t 152, 

q t d . i n M a r t i n 2 6 7 ) . Her awareness o f Tennyson's l a c k o f 

s e n s u a l i t y i n h i s p o e t r y i s p r e s e n t e d as a commonplace 

c r i t i c a l r e s p o n s e . I n a d d i t i o n , she l a t e r a p p a r e n t l y 

c r i t i c i z e d Tennyson's rumoured poem The P r i n c e s s , b e f o r e i t s 

a p p e a r a n c e , i n a s i m i l a r way, by a s k i n g R o b e r t i f t h e w o r l d 

were n o t " t o o o l d & f o n d o f steam, f o r b l a n k v e r s e poems, i n 

e v e r so many books, t o be w r i t t e n on t h e f a i r i e s " ( L e t t e r s o f  

RB and EBB I 441 q t d . i n M a r t i n 301). However, i n an e a r l i e r 

l e t t e r o f May 1842 t o M i t f o r d , w h i c h M a r t i n does n o t i n c l u d e 

i n h i s b i o g r a p h y , B a r r e t t comments on t h e E n g l i s h I d y l s o f 

1842; and i n t h i s c a s e , h e r v i e w s a r e a u n i q u e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f 

h e r awareness o f m u l t i p l e p o e t i c e f f e c t s . She r e m a r k s : " t h e r e 

i s l e s s o f t h e q u a i n t p e c u l i a r i t y , more i n d i v i d u a l i t y , more 

power i n t h e sense o f n e r v o u s u t t e r a n c e , more t h o u g h t under 

t h e o b v i o u s o r d i n a r y f o r m s , and l e s s o f t h a t h i g h i d e a l i t y 

w h i c h d i s t i n g u s h e d t h e o l d Tennyson l y r i c s " ( M i l l e r 117). She 



t h e n e x p r e s s e s h e r d e l i g h t t h a t , i n h i s n o t e t o "Dora," 

Tennyson had acknowledged h i s d e b t t o "a p a s t o r a l o f M i s s 

M i t f o r d ' s " ( 1 1 8 ) . Because documents o f V i c t o r i a n women's 

r e s p o n s e s t o Tennyson's p o e t r y a r e s c a r c e , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o 

draw any f i r m c o n c l u s i o n s from B a r r e t t ' s v a r i e d r e m a r k s . 

N e v e r t h e l e s s , when p u t i n t o a c o n t e x t o f h e r own and o t h e r 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y f e m a l e p o e t s ' marked c o n c e r n f o r " o r d i n a r y " 

forms and c o n t e m p o r a r y i s s u e s i n t h e i r work, t h e s t i n g i n 

B a r r e t t ' s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e f a n t a s t i c i n Tennyson's v e r s e i s 

a m e l i o r a t e d ; i n s t e a d , h e r v i e w s a r e r e a d as p a r t o f a much 

more complex o v e r v i e w o f V i c t o r i a n p o e t i c s t h a n has h i t h e r t o 

been g r a n t e d h e r . 

W i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f I n Memoriam i n 1850, c r i t i c i s m by 

e i t h e r gender v i r t u a l l y s t o p p e d . Tennyson had t u r n e d h i s 

a t t e n t i o n s away from t h e f a n t a s t i c t o w a r d t h e i m m e d i a t e — h i s 

two decade a p p r e n t i c e s h i p had ended. A t t h e same t i m e , he 

a d o p t e d a f a r more p r a c t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o p u b l i s h i n g t h a n 

p r e v i o u s l y . W i t h I n Memoriam, he r e n e g o t i a t e d h i s b u s i n e s s 

arrangements w i t h Moxon. A c c o r d i n g t o S i r C h a r l e s , Tennyson 

"made a new arrangement w i t h Moxon under w h i c h he p a i d a l l t h e 

expenses and gave t h e p u b l i s h e r o n e - t h i r d o f t h e p r o f i t s and 5 

p e r c e n t on g r o s s s a l e s , k e e p i n g t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e p r o f i t s 

f o r h i m s e l f . I n t h i s way, he r e t a i n e d f i r m e r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e 

p r i n t i n g and p u b l i s h i n g arrangements and, o f c o u r s e , s t o o d t o 

b e n e f i t more by t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e book, though he t o o k a l l 

t h e r i s k o f l o s s " ( 2 4 7 - 8 ) . As S i r C h a r l e s adds, t h i s 



r e n e g o t i a t e d c o n t r a c t d e m o n s t r a t e s Tennyson's " i n c r e a s e d 

c o n f i d e n c e " and "sound b u s i n e s s i n s t i n c t " ( 2 4 8 ) . Tennyson 

a l s o r e c e i v e d a £300 advance from Moxon f o r I n Memoriam. A l l 

o f t h e s e new terms l i k e l y stemmed from t h e s t e a d y s a l e s o f t h e 

1842 Poems and t h e r a p i d s a l e s o f The P r i n c e s s t h a t were 

b e g i n n i n g t o make Tennyson's p o e t r y seem l i k e a v e r y sound 

i n v e s t m e n t i n d e e d . 

The s a l e s o f I n Memoriam q u i c k l y exceeded even t h o s e o f The  

P r i n c e s s . Moxon p u b l i s h e d 1500 c o p i e s i n l a t e May, 

anonymously ( a t Tennyson's r e q u e s t ) , i n p u r p l e - c l o t h b o a r d s , 

f o r s i x s h i l l i n g s . These s o l d o u t i n s t a n t l y so t h a t , by J u l y , 

Moxon p r i n t e d 1500 more and t h e n 2000 more by August t o make a 

t o t a l f i r s t - e d i t i o n r u n o f 5000. B r i s k s a l e s r e q u i r e d 3000 

more c o p i e s by C h r i s t m a s and a n o t h e r 5000 by November 1851. 

T h e r e a f t e r , " t h e poem s o l d a t a s t e a d y r a t e and r e m a i n e d 

p o p u l a r as a s i n g l e volume even a f t e r v a r i o u s m u l t i - v o l u m e 

c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s o f Tennyson's p o e t r y became a v a i l a b l e " 

(Hagen 8 5 ) . Moxon's advance and t h e p o t e n t i a l f i n a n c i a l 

s e c u r i t y t h a t h i s new volume p r o m i s e d meant t h a t Tennyson 

c o u l d f i n a l l y r e a c t i v a t e a l o n g - d e f e r r e d romance w i t h E m i l y 

S e l l w o o d : t h e y were m a r r i e d i n June 1850. 

O t h e r t h a n i n s a l e s f i g u r e s , e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a p p e a l o f I n 

Memoriam abounds i n documented a c c o u n t s o f r e s p o n s e s t o t h e 

poem. P r i n c e A l b e r t ' s p a r t i c u l a r r e g a r d f o r t h e e l e g y i s s a i d 

t o have s e c u r e d t h e l a u r e a t e s h i p f o r Tennyson (Memoir 2 8 0 ) . 

Tennyson became p o e t L a u r e a t e i n November 1850. And, a t l o n g 



112 

l a s t , t h e r e c e p t i o n by t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s was, as Shannon 

o b s e r v e s , " i n g e n e r a l e x t r e m e l y l a u d a t o r y . " ( 1 4 2 ) . A l t h o u g h 

t h e r e c e p t i o n o f I n Memoriam i s d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r f o u r o f 

t h i s s t u d y , S i r C h a r l e s , a t t h i s p o i n t , summarizes w e l l t h e 

g e n e r a l V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t Tennyson's 

p o p u l a r e l e g y was a b l e t o meet: 

[ C r i t i c s ] had n o t f o r s e e n . . . t h e a p p e a l w h i c h t h e 
warm humanity o f t h e poem would make t o t h e A n g l o -
Saxon r a c e . I t was n o t o n l y t h a t I n Memoriam d e a l t 
w i t h a u n i v e r s a l e x p e r i e n c e — t h e g r i e f o f p e r s o n a l 
l o s s w h i c h comes t o a l l s e n s i t i v e men and women w i t h 
g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r i n t e n s i t y a t some t i m e o r o t h e r 
d u r i n g t h e i r l i v e s . I t was n o t o n l y t h e h u m i l i t y 
and s i n c e r i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e p o e t r e c o r d e d h i s 
passage from d e s p a i r t o a f i n a l c o n v i c t i o n o f 
p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y and a b e l i e f i n . . . [God]. 
The message o f l o v e and hope was r e i n f o r c e d w i t h so 
many t o u c h e s o f e x q u i s i t e p a t h o s . . . . (252) 

Queen V i c t o r i a ' s r e s p o n s e s t o t h e poem, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t h e 

t h e d e a t h o f P r i n c e A l b e r t i n 1861, a r e p e r h a p s t h e b e s t known 

example o f t h e e l e g y ' s p a t h e t i c e f f e c t . The Duke o f A r g y l l 

had w r i t t e n t o Tennyson on h e r b e h a l f , e x p l a i n i n g t h a t I n 

Memoriam c o m f o r t e d h e r t o such a degree t h a t "she had 

s u b s t i t u t e d 'widow' f o r 'widower' and 'her' f o r ' h i s ' i n t h e 

l i n e s 'Tears o f a widower.'" ( C h a r l e s Tennyson 336). Tennyson 

had i n d e e d r e a c h e d t h e " p i n n a c l e o f s u c c e s s " (Shannon's t e r m ) . 

As L a u r e a t e , Tennyson would have t o n e g o t i a t e a b a l a n c e 

among h i s p r i v a t e i m p u l s e s , p r o f e s s i o n a l aims, p o e t i c 

s e n s i b i l i t y , p o p u l a r s u c c e s s , and newly a c q u i r e d p u b l i c 

r e s p o n s i b l i t i e s . I r o n i c a l l y , t h e v e r y t e x t on w h i c h (as a 

s e p a r a t e volume) h i s name n e v e r appeared b r o u g h t him such 



p u b l i c s u c c e s s t h a t he c o u l d n e v e r a g a i n hope f o r anonymity as 

an a u t h o r . H i s " I " would now a l w a y s be " t h e v o i c e o f t h e 

human r a c e s p e a k i n g t h r o ' him" (see Memoir 255) a t l e a s t a t 

some l e v e l . 3 4 T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y a p p a r e n t i n t h e s i n g l e poems 

on war and p a t r i o t i s m f o r t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s t h a t Tennyson 

now c o m f o r t a b l y p u b l i s h e d i n t h e 1850s: " F o r t h e Penny-Wise" 

i n F r a s e r ' s Magazine (Feb 1852); s e v e r a l i n The Examiner: 

" B r i t o n s Guard Your Own" (Jan 1851), "The T h i r d o f F e b r u a r y , 

1852" (Feb 1852), "Hands a l l Round" (Feb 1852), and "The 

Charge o f t h e L i g h t B r i g a d e " (Dec 1854); and "The War 

[ R i f l e m e n Form]" i n The Times (May 1859). These poems would 

t h e n be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o h i s l a t e s t volume. 

S i m i l a r l y , Tennyson p u b l i s h e d " l a u r e a t e " poems i n r e s p o n s e 

t o t h o s e o c c a s i o n s — b i r t h s , m a r r i a g e s , and d e a t h s — a f f e c t i n g 

n o b l e p e r s o n a g e s . The most p o p u l a r o f t h e s e was h i s famous 

Ode on t h e Death o f t h e Duke o f W e l l i n g t o n . "The poem 

appeared i n s l a t e - c o l o r e d paper w r a p p e r s , a t one s h i l l i n g p e r 

copy, on 15 November, two days b e f o r e t h e Duke's f u n e r a l " 

(Hagen 8 8 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o Hagen, " a l l 10,000 c o p i e s were 

q u i c k l y t a k e n up by t h e memento-hunting n a t i o n . A second 

e d i t i o n was i s s u e d i n e a r l y 1853, w i t h t h e poem f i r s t 

3 4 M a r t h a Nord's u n p u b l i s h e d d i s s e r t a t i o n , "A P e o p l e ' s 
V o i c e : The R h e t o r i c a l A r t o f Tennyson's P o e t r y " i s a 
r h e t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f Tennyson's p o e t i c s t r a t e g i e s e v i d e n t 
p r i m a r i l y i n h i s p u b l i c , p o s t - L a u r e a t e p o e t r y . V a l e r i e P i t t ' s 
Tennyson L a u r e a t e t h o r o u g h l y d i s c u s s e s t h e compromises 
Tennyson a l l e g e d l y had t o make between h i s p r i v a t e a r t and h i s 
p u b l i c demands. 



114 

a p p e a r i n g i n a volume i n Maud and O t h e r Poems ( 1 8 5 5 ) " ( 8 8 - 9 ) . 

F o r t h i s poem, Tennyson r e c e i v e d £200 from Moxon. 

Y e t Tennyson was a l s o p r e p a r e d t o r e l e a s e p u b l i c poems 

w i t h o u t r o y a l t y i n t h o s e i n s t a n c e s when he t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y 

would be o f b e n e f i t t o t h e i r r e a d e r s . S i r C h a r l e s r e c o r d s 

t h a t a c h a p l a i n s e r v i n g i n t h e Crimea w r o t e t o E n g l a n d t o 

r e q u e s t t h a t he be s e n t "out c o p i e s o f "The Charge o f t h e 

L i g h t B r i g a d e " on p r i n t e d s l i p s f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n among t h e 

s o l d i e r s . I t was, s a i d t h e w r i t e r , t h e g r e a t e s t f a v o u r i t e o f 

t h e men. ' H a l f a r e s i n g i n g i t and a l l want t o have i t i n 

b l a c k and w h i t e , so as t o r e a d what has so t a k e n them.'" 

( 2 8 8 ) . The r e q u e s t e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h e d Tennyson and he a c t e d 

i m m e d i a t e l y by h a v i n g John F o r s t e r a r r a n g e t o have 1,000 and 

t h e n a l a t e r 1,000 p r i n t e d t o send t o t h e c h a p l a i n , who was 

c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e poem a c t e d as a t y p e o f t o n i c t o t h e 

s u f f e r e r s (see L e t t e r s I I 117-18, 132-3). 

Such may have been t h e impact o f "The Charge o f t h e L i g h t 

B r i g a d e , " b u t t h e volume i n w h i c h i t l a t e r appeared, Maud and  

O t h e r Poems (1855) g e n e r a t e d no s u c h p o p u l a r a c c l a i m . The 

t i t l e poem, Tennyson's f i r s t e x t e n d e d t e x t s i n c e I n Memoriam 

and t h e l a u r e a t e s h i p , p r e s e n t e d V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s w i t h y e t 

a n o t h e r new g e n r e : m u l t i p l e v o i c e s such as The P r i n c e s s had 

u s e d , o n l y i n t h i s c a s e , c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a c o n t e m p o r a r y 

monodrama o f a s i n g l e "mad" s p e a k e r . Few o f Tennyson's 

a d m i r i n g f r i e n d s , c r i t i c s , o r r e a d e r s i n g e n e r a l c o u l d 

u n d e r s t a n d Maud. " [ P ] o o r Maud was r e c e i v e d w i t h a l m o s t 



115 

u n i v e r s a l r e p r o b a t i o n " a c c o r d i n g t o S i r C h a r l e s (286) ; and 

Shannon's a r t i c l e on t h e r e v i e w s o f Maud c e r t a i n l y s u p p o r t s 

t h i s v i e w . One c a n n o t say w i t h t h e same c e r t a i n t y , however, 

t h a t s a l e s o f t h e volume s u f f e r e d t h e r e b y . As Hagen n o t e s , 

Moxon's o r i g i n a l l y h i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e volume's s u c c e s s 

" a r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e s i z e o f t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n — 1 0 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s 

s e l l i n g a t f i v e s h i l l i n g s each" ( 9 5 ) . 3 S A t f i r s t , s a l e s were 

e x c e l l e n t ; Moxon w r o t e t o E m i l y Tennyson s h o r t l y a f t e r 

p u b l i c a t i o n t o s a y t h a t he had a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d o r d e r s f o r 

3,000 and had p r i n t e d o f f 2,000 more (Hagen 9 5 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e 

p r e c i s e number o f c o p i e s o f each e d i t i o n i s n o t known, Maud 

r e a c h e d n i n e t e e n e d i t i o n s by 1884, a r e m a r k a b l e achievement 

f o r a s u p p o s e d l y u n p o p u l a r t e x t . 

Moreover, i n 1854 Moxon had, a g a i n s t Tennyson's 

i n c l i n a t i o n , l a u n c h e d a p r o j e c t f o r a l a v i s h l y i l l u s t r a t e d 

e d i t i o n o f Tennyson's 1842 poems. Had t h e s a l e s o f Maud been 

d r a s t i c a l l y h u r t by n e g a t i v e r e v i e w s , Moxon m i g h t have 

r e c o n s i d e r e d g o i n g ahead w i t h t h i s new, h i g h l y e x p e n s i v e 

p r o j e c t . S i n c e he d i d n o t do t h i s , one can o n l y c o n c l u d e 

t h a t , w h i l e Tennyson may have been p e r s o n a l l y s t u n g by i n t e n s e 

c r i t i c i s m o f h i s "pet b a n t l i n g " as he l a t e r c a l l e d t h e poem, 

3 5 Hagen's use o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t e r m , " e d i t i o n , " 
i s s l i g h t l y m i s l e a d i n g h e r e because i t makes i t seem as i f 
10,000 c o p i e s were r e l e a s e d a t once. More t h a n l i k e l y , 10,000 
were p r i n t e d b u t bound and r e l e a s e d g r a d u a l l y . She a l s o 
f o l l o w s Wise i n t h i n k i n g t h a t a "second e d i t i o n was r e q u i r e d 
b e f o r e t h e end o f t h e y e a r " ( 9 5 ) . T h i s e d i t i o n has y e t t o be' 
d i s c o v e r e d . The e x t a n t second e d i t i o n appeared i n 1856. 



116 

he and h i s p u b l i s h e r s u f f e r e d no f i n a n c i a l s t i n g because o f 

Tennyson's most r e c e n t volume. They were, however, t o l o s e a 

g r e a t d e a l o f money on Moxon's I l l u s t r a t e d E d i t i o n v e n t u r e . 

Moxon p e r s u a d e d Tennyson t o p u t a s i d e h i s a e s t h e t i c 

p r e f e r e n c e f o r s i m p l i c i t y and h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t p o e t r y was 

damaged by i l l u s t r a t i o n s . 3 6 He had a s s u r e d Tennyson t h a t he 

c o u l d make a t l e a s t £2,000 by an i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n , and t h a t 

t h e p u b l i s h i n g f i r m would b e a r t h e advance c o s t s ; t h e y would 

t h e n s h a r e p r o f i t s a c c o r d i n g t o a t w o - t h i r d s o n e - t h i r d 

arrangement. But t h e r e were t o be no p r o f i t s o f t h e k i n d 

Moxon e n v i s i o n e d . The t e x t i t s e l f was an e l a b o r a t e , one-

volume e d i t i o n o f t h e 1842 Poems. I t c o n t a i n e d f i f t y - f o u r 

woodcuts drawn by e i g h t d i f f e r e n t a r t i s t s , t h e most famous o f 

whom were t h e P r e - R a p h a e l i t e s : Dante G a b r i e l R o s s e t t i , W i l l i a m 

Holman Hunt, and John E v e r e t t M i l l a i s who, t o g e t h e r , s u p p l i e d 

W h i l e t h e volume was i n p r o g r e s s , Tennyson f r e q u e n t l y 
f o u n d f a u l t w i t h i t s v a r i o u s i l l u s t r a t i o n s . He even t o o k t h e 
a r t i s t s t h e m s e l v e s t o t a s k o c c a s i o n a l l y , f o r example, when he 
i n v e i g h e d a g a i n s t W i l l i a m Holman Hunt f o r c r e a t i n g a l a d y o f 
S h a l o t t whose h a i r , i n Tennyson's v i e w , l o o k e d as i f were 
" f l y i n g a l l about t h e shop" ( q t d . i n L a y a r d 4 1 ) . I n Tennyson  
and h i s P r e - R a p h a e l i t e I l l u s t r a t o r s (1894), George Somes 
L a y a r d r e m a r k s , i n b r i e f , t h a t " M i l l a i s has r e a l i z e d , Holman 
Hunt has i d e a l i z e d , and R o s s e t t i has s u b l i m a t e d o r 
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i z e d , t h e s u b j e c t s w h i c h t h e y have r e s p e c t i v e l y 
i l l u s t r a t e d " ( 9 ) . L a y a r d o c c a s i o n a l l y a s s e s s e s t h e i m p a c t o f 
i l l u s t r a t i o n s upon r e a d e r r e c e p t i o n a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , w i t h 
Holman Hunt's i n c l u s i o n o f a c r u c i f i x b e s i d e t h e l a d y o f 
S h a l l o t ' s m i r r o r w h i c h , i n L a y a r d ' s v i e w , h e l p e d t o l a b e l 
Tennyson a C h r i s t i a n p o e t (42) . I l l u s t r a t i o n s , l i k e m u s i c a l 
s e t t i n g s and p a r o d i e s ( d i s c u s s e d b e l o w ) , a r e a l s o methods o f 
p o p u l a r i z i n g . A f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i r i n f l u e n c e has n o t 
been a t t e m p t e d h e r e , however, because o f Tennyson's p r o f e s s e d 
d i s l i k e o f i l l u s t r a t e d t e x t s and h i s pronounced a p p r e c i a t i o n 
f o r p o e t i c sound. 



117 

t h i r t y o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s . But t r o u b l e s w i t h a r t i s t s and 

e n g r a v e r s p l a g u e d p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e volume so t h a t i t m i s s e d 

t h e i n t e n d e d C h r i s t m a s t r a d e i n 1856, and was n o t p u b l i s h e d 

u n t i l May 1857. Moxon was c e r t a i n l y c o n f i d e n t o f i t s s u c c e s s : 

he p r i n t e d 10,000 a t 31s 6d p e r copy, a p r i c e t h a t a l m o s t 
37 

c e r t a i n l y p u t i t o u t o f r e a c h o f most o f Tennyson's r e a d e r s . 

Hagen s t a t e s t h a t s a l e s were v e r y p o o r : " I n 1863, o n l y s i x 

y e a r s a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n , 5000 u n s o l d c o p i e s [ s h e e t s ? ] were 

r e m a i n d e r e d t o R o u t l e d g e . . . . [ 0 ] f t h e o t h e r 5000, Moxon 

had a c t u a l l y s o l d o n l y 2210" ( 1 0 6 ) . By p u b l i s h i n g s u c h a 

l a r g e e d i t i o n , Moxon had c l e a r l y m i s r e a d t h e upper end o f t h e 

market f o r Tennyson's p o e t r y . I n w a n t i n g t o keep h i s volumes 

l o w - p r i c e d and s i m p l y d e s i g n e d , Tennyson seemed more aware 

t h a t h i s p o e t r y p r i m a r i l y a p p e a l e d t o t h e m i d d l e c l a s s e s . 

Edward Moxon d i e d a y e a r l a t e r , i n June 1858; i n i t i a l l y , 

Tennyson r e m a i n e d l o y a l t o t h e Moxon f i r m ( h a n d l e d a t f i r s t by 

B r a d b u r y and Evans, t h e n l a t e r by J . B e r t r a n d P a y n e ) , b u t when 

d i s a g r e e m e n t s a r o s e , he went t o A l e x a n d e r S t r a h a n (1869-73). 

When S t r a h a n ' s b u s i n e s s f a i l e d i n 1873, he t u r n e d t o Henry 
3 7 As f o r t h e t e x t ' s f o r m a t , Hagen a l l e g e s t h a t i t was "a 

t h i c k book bound i n b r i g h t b l u e s i l k - l i k e c l o t h w i t h g i l d e d 
edges and w i t h a g i l t u r n on t h e c o v e r " ( 1 0 2 ) . Wise, however, 
d e s c r i b e s i t as "dark g r e e n c l o t h b o a r d s , t h e back and s i d e s 
ornamented w i t h d e s i g n s i n ' b l i n d ' and g o l d " ( I 9 7 ) . The 
s i n g l e copy o f t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n t h a t I have seen i s bound i n 
b l u e - c l o t h b o a r d s , t h e f r o n t and back c o v e r s b l i n d - s t a m p e d 
w i t h a g i l t u r n over-stamped, w i t h p l a i n edges and g i l t 
l e t t e r i n g on t h e s p i n e . D i s c o u n t i n g h e r b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l 
i n a c c u r a c i e s , i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e Moxon i l l u s t r a t e d Tennyson, 
Hagen makes i t more d e c o r a t i v e t h a n i t a c t u a l l y was. 



118 

K i n g (1874-8) and l a t e r t o C h a r l e s Kegan P a u l (1879-83) a f t e r 

t r o u b l e s ensued w i t h K i n g . A f t e r h i s f i v e - y e a r c o n t r a c t w i t h 

P a u l came t o an end, Tennyson s e c u r e d h i s f i n a l p u b l i s h e r : 

A l e x a n d e r M a c m i l l a n (1884-92). 

Tennyson's f i r s t v e n t u r e w i t h t h e new management o f t h e 

Moxon f i r m was h i s f o u r f e m a l e i d y l l s o f " t h e F a l s e and t h e 

T r u e " : I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g i n 1859. Tennyson's s e l f - c o n f i d e n t 

r e t u r n t o A r t h u r i a n m a t e r i a l , a f t e r he had l a i d a s i d e t h e 

"Morte d ' A r t h u r " i n 1842, may w e l l have been prompted by t h e 

d i s a p p o i n t m e n t he e x p e r i e n c e d i n m e e t i n g t h e demands f o r 

c o n t e m p o r a r y t o p i c s t h a t he had a t t e m p t e d t o do i n Maud. 

Whatever t h e r e a s o n , t h e I d y l l s was a " s t a r t l i n g s u c c e s s . " A t 

a c o s t o f 7 s h i l l i n g s , "no l e s s t h a n 40,000 c o p i e s were 

p r i n t e d and 10,000 s o l d i n 6 weeks. Indeed, so g r e a t was t h e 

demand t h a t a second e d i t i o n had t o be i s s u e d w i t h i n s i x 

months" ( S i r C h a r l e s Tennyson t y p e s c r i p t q t d . i n Hagen 110). 

I n h i s r e v i e w o f t h e I d y l l s ( Q u a r t e r l y Review Oct 1859), 

W i l l i a m G l a d s t o n e ' s e f f u s i v e p r a i s e f o r Tennyson's " c r o w n i n g " 

a c h i e v e m e n t i n d i c a t e s t h e s t a t u r e Tennyson had r e a c h e d by t h e 

l a t e 1850s: 

. . . we do n o t d e s p a i r o f s e e i n g Mr. Tennyson 
a c h i e v e on t h e b a s i s he has chosen t h e s t r u c t u r e o f 
a f u l l - f o r m e d e p i c . . . . [ I ] f he can keep t h e l e v e l 
he has g a i n e d , s u c h a work w i l l be t h e g r e a t e s t , and 
by f a r t h e g r e a t e s t p o e t i c a l c r e a t i o n , t h a t , whether 
i n o u r own o r i n f o r e i g n p o e t r y , t h e n i n e t e e n t h 
c e n t u r y has p r o d u c e d . I n t h e f a c e o f a l l c r i t i c s , 
t h e L a u r e a t e o f E n g l a n d has now r e a c h e d a p o s i t i o n 
w h i c h a t once imposes and i n s t i l s r e s p e c t . 

(Jump 260) 



119 

Tennyson's s a l e s would n e v e r a g a i n have t o s u f f e r as a r e s u l t 

o f t h e c r i t i c a l p r e s s ; h i s r e p u t a t i o n was f i n a l l y s e c u r e . 

Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y can a l s o be measured i n v a r i o u s 

p u b l i c a t i o n o f f e r s made t o him a t t h i s t i m e . F o r i n s t a n c e , 

George S m i t h ( o f S m i t h E l d e r ) o f f e r e d him 5,000 g u i n e a s i n 

1860 f o r a volume t h e same l e n g t h as t h e I d y l l s ; and S m i t h 

wanted o n l y a t h r e e - y e a r c o n t r a c t . A c c o r d i n g t o S i r C h a r l e s , 

no o t h e r p o e t up t o t h a t t i m e had e v e r r e c e i v e d s u c h a h i g h 

o f f e r ( 3 2 2 ) . Magazine e d i t o r s a l s o began t o make o v e r t u r e s . 

The e d i t o r o f Once a Week o f f e r e d Tennyson £100 f o r "The 

Grandmother's A p o l o g y " ( J u l y 1859); A l e x a n d e r M a c m i l l a n gave 

Tennyson £300 f o r "Sea Dreams," w h i c h appeared i n M a c m i l l a n ' s  

Magazine ( J a n 1860); and T h a c k e r a y s e c u r e d Tennyson's 

" T i t h o n u s " f o r £50 f o r h i s C o r n h i l l Magazine (Feb 1860). 

A l t h o u g h t h e s e amounts do n o t compare t o some o f t h e payments 

t h a t Tennyson r e c e i v e d from t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r p e r i o d i c a l 

p u b l i c a t i o n , t h a t t h e y were p r o f f e r e d a t a l l and by s u c h h i g h 

p r o f i l e j o u r n a l s s u g g e s t t h e s t r e n g t h o f Tennyson's g r o w i n g 

r e p u t a t i o n . 

U l t i m a t e l y , i t was t h e i n s t a n t s u c c e s s o f Enoch Arden and  

O t h e r Poems i n 1864 t h a t d e t e r m i n e d Tennyson as a "poet o f t h e 

p e o p l e " t h e a p p e l l a t i o n h a v i n g been bestowed upon him by 

r e v i e w e r s o f t h i s t e x t . Tennyson and h i s p u b l i s h e r s f e l t 

c o n f i d e n t s i n c e t h e f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n i n August 1864 a p p a r e n t l y 

was 60,000 c o p i e s a t a c o s t o f s i x s h i l l i n g s . A c c o r d i n g t o 

Hagen, 17,000 s o l d on t h e f i r s t day and 40,000 by November 



12 0 

( 1 1 2 ) . H a l l a m w r i t e s t h a t t h e e n t i r e 60,000 were s o l d " i n a 

v e r y s h o r t t i m e " (Memoir 421). As t h e Times o b s e r v e d , even 

t h o u g h t h e s a t i r i s t s might c r y t h a t " t h e most u n s a l e a b l e o f 

wares i s a volume o f p o e t r y , t h e L a u r e a t e i s s u e s a l i t t l e 

book, w h i c h , a l t h o u g h t h i s i s f o r p u b l i s h e r s t h e dead s e a s o n 

o f t h e y e a r , goes o f f l i k e a p r a i r i e on f i r e " ( q t d . i n S c o t t 

Enoch Arden 1 ) . The volume a p p e a l e d t o t h e e n t i r e s p e c t r u m o f 

Tennyson's r e a d e r s . R e v i e w e r s were l a v i s h i n t h e i r p r a i s e : 

one f e l t t h a t "no s i m p l e t a l e was e v e r so n o b l y t o l d " 

(Chambers); a n o t h e r c l a i m e d t h a t "No o t h e r o f h i s poems can 

r e a c h above i t " (The Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w ) ; and s t i l l a n o t h e r 

t h o u g h t Enoch Arden t o be "as h o l y as an a n g e l ' s dream" 

( l a b o u r p a p e r , t h e B r i t i s h C o n v e r s a t i o n a l i s t ) ( S c o t t Enoch  

A r d e n 2 ) . Even p o e t s as d i f f e r e n t as Browning and Swinburne 

e x p r e s s e d t h e i r a p p r o b a t i o n (see S c o t t Enoch Arden 2 ) . That 

Enoch Arden t o u c h e d t h e masses i s c o n f i r m e d by H a l l a m ' s 

r e t e l l i n g o f j u s t one o f s u p p o s e d l y many s t o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g 

t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e poem upon t h e "uneducated": an o l d , poor 

woman had e a r l i e r h e a r d p a r t o f t h e poem from a woman 

d i s t r i b u t i n g r e l i g i o u s t r a c t s a t a l a r g e m e e t i n g . The p o o r 

woman was now t h a n k f u l f o r h e r t r a c t , b u t added t h a t she would 

" g i v e a n y t h i n g f o r t h a t o t h e r b e a u t i f u l t r a c t w h i c h you r e a d 

t ' o t h e r day (a s e n t i m e n t w h i c h was echoed by t h e o t h e r s ) , i t 

d i d me a power o f good" (Memoir 423). The r e a s o n s f o r t h e 

enormous s u c c e s s o f t h e p o e t r y o f Enoch Arden a r e d e a l t w i t h 

a t l e n g t h i n c h a p t e r s i x . F o r t h e moment, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o 



121 

c o n s i d e r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between Tennyson's r e s p o n s e s t o h i s 

now w i d e - r a n g i n g a u d i e n c e and t h o s e o f h i s B r i t i s h p u b l i s h e r . 

As d e m o n s t r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t Tennyson's p u b l i s h i n g h i s t o r y t o 

d a t e , t h e p o e t d i d h i s b e s t t o a v o i d l a v i s h p r o d u c t i o n s — 

a n n u a l s , g i f t books, o r i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n s o f h i s work. H i s 

a e s t h e t i c t a s t e s were s i m p l e and p r a c t i c a l , and h i s volumes 

had been m o d e r a t e l y p r i c e d i n k e e p i n g w i t h h i s e s t i m a t i o n o f 

h i s a u d i e n c e . S i r C h a r l e s n o t e s t h a t once c o n v i n c e d o f h i s 

e f f e c t upon t h e masses, Tennyson p r o p o s e d t o Payne (now 

managing t h e Moxon f i r m ) t h a t t h e y " i s s u e a s e l e c t i o n o f t h e 

more p o p u l a r o f h i s poems i n s i x p e n n y p a r t s , h o p i n g t h a t t h e s e 

would r e a c h t h e w o r k i n g men o f E n g l a n d , t o whom he d e d i c a t e d 

t h e s e l e c t i o n s " ( 3 5 4 ) . But a c c o r d i n g t o Hagen, t h e scheme was 

n o t l u c r a t i v e enough f o r Payne, who i n s t e a d i s s u e d a f i v e 

s h i l l i n g S e l e c t i o n from t h e Works o f A l f r e d Tennyson i n 

Moxon's M i n i a t u r e P o e t s s e r i e s i n 1865 ( 1 1 4 ) . D e s p i t e i t s 

f i n a n c i a l s u c c e s s , t h e e d i t i o n b r o u g h t Tennyson i n t o d i s p u t e 

w i t h p u b l i s h e r s o v e r i t s " o r n a m e n t a l s t y l e . " S i m i l a r l y , Payne 

had e n l i s t e d G u s t a v e Dore t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e 1859 I d y l l s ; t h e 

" V i v i e n " and " G u i n e v e r e " volumes appeared f o r t h e C h r i s t m a s 

t r a d e i n 1867, p r i c e d a t one, t h r e e , and f i v e g u i n e a s (Hagen 

113). Payne a l s o i s s u e d Enoch A r d e n , i l l u s t r a t e d by A r t h u r 

Hughes, i n 18 66. Thus w h i l e Tennyson's i n c l i n a t i o n s seemed t o 

be t o w a r d a p o p u l a r , mass a u d i e n c e , Payne c o n c e i v e d o f h i m s e l f 



122 

and h i s p o e t ' s work i n a g r a n d s t y l e . 3 8 Such d i s c o r d between 

them e v e n t u a l l y caused Tennyson t o seek a new p u b l i s h e r . 

I n 1869, Tennyson f o u n d i n A l e x a n d e r S t r a h a n ( f o u n d e r o f 

Good Words e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1860) a p u b l i s h e r w i t h v i e w s s i m i l a r 

t o h i s own. S t r a h a n b e l i e v e d t h a t h i s r o l e was n o t o n l y t o 

make money, b u t t o d e v e l o p a t a s t e f o r t h e r e a d i n g o f 

l i t e r a t u r e by a l l c l a s s e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s . He 

p r e d i c t e d t h a t 

[ i ] f t h e n , we would g e n e r a t e a t a s t e f o r r e a d i n g , we 
must, as our o n l y chance o f s u c c e e s , . . . [ f ] u r n i s h 
t h e p e o p l e l i b e r a l l y w i t h l i t e r a t u r e — n o t w r i t t e n 
e x p r e s s l y f o r them as a c l a s s , b u t f o r a l l a l i k e — 
and t h e b e s t o f i t s k i n d . . . . We s h a l l f i n d t h a t 
i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f our b e s t a u t h o r s we p o s s e s s a l l 
we r e q u i r e t o s t r i k e our g r a p p l i n g - i r o n i n t o t h e 
w o r k i n g p e o p l e ' s s o u l , and c h a i n them, w i l l i n g 
f o l l o w e r s , t o t h e c a r o f a d v a n c i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n . 

( q t d . i n Hagen 122) 

A l t h o u g h h i s metaphor seems r a t h e r v i o l e n t , h i s s o c i a l i s t i c 

c u l t u r a l i n t e n t i o n s c o n c u r r e d w i t h Tennyson's. Thus t o g e t h e r 

t h e y p l a n n e d a one-volume e d i t i o n , t h e f i r s t c o l l e c t e d 

Tennyson's c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a mass a u d i e n c e a t t h i s 
t i m e i s a l s o e v i n c e d i n h i s s e v e r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e 
p o p u l a r p r e s s : "The S p i t e f u l L e t t e r " (Once a Week J a n 18 6 8 ) , 
"The V i c t i m " (Good Words J a n 1868), "Wages" ( M a c m i l l a n ' s  
Magazine Feb 1868), and "1865-1866" (Good Words Mar 1868). 
" L u c r e t i u s " appeared i n May i n M a c m i l l a n ' s . I n A m e r i c a 
T i c k n o r and F i e l d s s e c u r e d f o r t h e i r p e r i o d i c a l s "The V i c t i m " 
( A t l a n t i c M o n t h l y (Feb 1868), "1865-1866" ( E v e r y S a t u r d a y Feb 
1868),and " L u c r e t i u s " ( E v e r y S a t u r d a y May 1868). Hagen 
b e l i e v e s t h a t Tennyson may have p u b l i s h e d t h e s e s e v e r a l poems 
i n p e r i o d i c a l s r a t h e r t h a n g e t up a new volume because o f 
annoyances w i t h h i s p u b l i s h e r (115). A l t h o u g h payment was 
o f t e n l u c r a t i v e (£700 from Good Words f o r "The V i c t i m " ) E m i l y 
Tennyson p r e v a i l e d upon Tennyson t o t h i n k r a t h e r o f volume 
p u b l i c a t i o n t h a n g e t c a u g h t i n t r y i n g t o s a t i s f y t h e 
c o n f l i c t i n g t a s t e s o f p e r i o d i c a l s (Hagen 115-6) . 



123 

e d i t i o n , a t a moderate p r i c e . W h i l e S t r a h a n ' s b u s i n e s s f a i l e d 

b e f o r e t h e scheme c o u l d m a t e r i a l i z e ( i t was f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d 

by Kegan P a u l i n 1878), S t r a h a n ' s u n o r t h o d o x v i e w s a l s o drew 

s u s p i c i o n from a p u b l i s h i n g i n d u s t r y t h a t i n t h e 1870s s t i l l 

c l e a r l y demarcated i t s c l a s s - b a s e d a l l e g i a n c e s (see S u t h e r l a n d 

174-5, Hagen 122). I n a t t e m p t i n g t o r e a c h a l a r g e p u b l i c a t 

t h i s t i m e , S t r a h a n and Tennyson were l i k e l y r e a c t i n g t o 

s e v e r a l c o n v e r g e n t f o r c e s : p i r a t e d c o m p e t i t i o n from t h e U n i t e d 

S t a t e s — e s p e c i a l l y from L o n g f e l l o w ; Tennyson's own 

d e m o n s t r a b l e a p p e a l t o a " c l a s s l e s s " A m e r i c a n r e a d i n g p u b l i c ; 

and an a r t f o r a r t ' s sake movement t h a t , i n Tennyson's v i e w , 

was t h r e a t e n i n g t o remove p o e t r y from an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f 

common, e v e r y d a y l i f e . 

I f i n o f f e r i n g cheap e d i t i o n s , Tennyson c o u l d m a i n t a i n t h e 

q u a l i t y o f h i s p o e t r y and S t r a h a n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t , 

t h e n t h e p o e t ' s work c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y f u l f i l a l i t e r a r y and 

c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e f a r d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f p u r e a e s t h e t i c i s m . 

Such a scheme was n o t t o be; a e s t h e t i c i s m d i d , e v e n t u a l l y , 

t o p p l e Tennyson from h i s t h r o n e as s a c e r v a t e s . T h i s i s n o t 

t o s u g g e s t t h a t Tennyson i m m e d i a t e l y d e c l i n e d i n p o p u l a r i t y i n 

t h e 1860s and 1870s, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e he r e m a i n e d L a u r e a t e 

u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n 1892; h i s p o p u l a r i t y on t h i s s c o r e i f 

n o t h i n g e l s e was a l m o s t a s s u r e d . Y e t s a l e s o f new volumes i n 

t h e 1870s and 1880s had now t o be supplemented by r e p r i n t s o f 

o l d f o r newly a c q u i r e d cheap markets and f o r e i g n m a r k e t s i n 



124 

o r d e r t h a t Tennyson's p u b l i s h e r s c o u l d c o n t i n u e t o p r o f i t from 

h i s p o e t r y . 

The p u b l i c a t i o n h i s t o r y o f Tennyson's p o e t r y c l e a r l y 

i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e methods o f 

p r o d u c t i o n , p u b l i c a t i o n , and p r o m o t i o n and r e s u l t i n g 

p o p u l a r i t y : i n s h o r t , how and by whom Tennyson's p o e t r y came 

t o be r e a d . F o r a p o e t l i k e Tennyson, whose work p r e v i o u s t o 

1850 r e c e i v e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y n e g a t i v e r e v i e w s , Moxon's m i n i m a l 

p r o m o t i o n c o u l d v e r y w e l l have r e s t r i c t e d t h e e a r l y Tennyson's 

r e a d e r s h i p t o an e d u c a t e d e l i t e ( f o r example, r e a d e r s o f 

r e v i e w s ) . Once Tennyson's p o e t r y began t o be r e a d by a f a r 

more h e t e r o g e n e o u s p u b l i c i n t h e 1840s ( t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e 

w o r k i n g c l a s s e s and women), Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y i n c r e a s e d . 

But i t d i d so o n l y g r a d u a l l y s i n c e n e i t h e r Moxon n o r Tennyson 

was p r e p a r e d t o t a k e p u b l i s h i n g r i s k s d i r e c t e d a t t h i s new 

market a t t h i s t i m e . 3 9 The c r i t i c a l p r e s s c o n t i n u e d as a 

s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e i n t h e 1850s and even 1860s, by e n d o r s i n g I n 

3 9 P o e t s l i k e Browning who f a i l e d t o a c h i e v e immediate 
c r i t i c a l a c c l a i m were t o s u f f e r t h e most from Moxon's 
c o n s e r v a t i v e b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s . I n a l e t t e r t o E l i z a b e t h 
B a r r e t t i n August 1846, Browning c o m p l a i n s o f Moxon's 
s l o w n e s s , l a c k o f a d v e r t i s i n g , and l a c k o f e n t e r p r i s e and 
adds, " I f one o f h i s books can o n l y c o n t r i v e t o pay i t s 
e x p e n s e s , you may be s u r e t h a t a more e n t e r p r i s i n g b r o t h e r o f 
t h e c r a f t would have s e n t i t i n t o a second o r t h i r d e d i t i o n " 
( q t d . i n Merriman 8 0 ) . As Merriman p o i n t s o u t , however, 
Moxon's meager a d v e r t i s i n g may w e l l have been l i n k e d t o h i s 
b e l i e f i n t h e poor s a l e a b i l i t y o f work l i k e B r o w n i n g ' s , and t o 
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e B r i t i s h t a x on a d v e r t i s i n g was, u n t i l 1853, 
q u i t e heavy. Thus Moxon, a l t h o u g h n i g g a r d l y i n g e n e r a l , 
s e l e c t i v e l y promoted p o p u l a r w r i t e r s l i k e H a r r i e t M a r t i n e a u 
(though n e v e r n o i s i l y ) because t o do so was a f i n a n c i a l 
u n d e r t a k i n g t h a t would pay e a s i l y f o r i t s e l f . 



125 

Memoriam and t h e r e b y e n h a n c i n g i t s s a l e s , by c a s t i g a t i n g Maud, 

by r e t u r n i n g i t s f a v o u r t o I d y l l s and, e s p e c i a l l y , by l a u d i n g 

Enoch Arden. W i t h t h e enormous s u c c e s s o f I n Memoriam, 

Tennyson seemed t o want t o l e a v e t h e r e v i e w s b e h i n d and 

e s t a b l i s h new ground amid a more p o p u l a r a u d i e n c e t h a n 

p r e v i o u s l y . However, i n t h i s he was t h w a r t e d by t h e 

c o n s e r v a t i v i s m o f t h e p u b l i s h i n g i n d u s t r y and by p u b l i s h e r s ' 

s u p p o s e d l y l u c r a t i v e schemes t o i s s u e l a v i s h , h i g h - p r i c e d 

volumes. By t h e t i m e Tennyson's p o e t r y began t o r e a c h a cheap 

market i n t h e 1870s, i t s a p p e a l had l e s s e n e d among t h e 

e d u c a t e d e l i t e . Y e a r s e a r l i e r , w i t h Enoch Arden. Tennyson had 

r e a c h e d t h e apex o f h i s c a r e e r as a p o p u l a r p o e t by t o u c h i n g 

t h e h e a r t s o f a l l c l a s s e s , men and women a l i k e . 

I n s h o r t , Tennyson's p o e t r y had b a s i c a l l y t o s e l l i t s e l f i n 

B r i t a i n (and o f t e n a g a i n s t f o r m i d a b l e odds) w h i l e L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

i n A m e r i c a was marketed and s o l d f o r h i m — b y h i m s e l f and by 

h i s e n t e r p r i s i n g p u b l i s h e r s . As a p o t e n t i a l c h a l l e n g e t o 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o p u l a r i t y , Tennyson's t e x t s r e c e i v e d p r o m o t i o n 

i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s i m i l a r t o t h a t w h i c h t h e A m e r i c a n b a r d 

e n j o y e d . A l t h o u g h t h e f i r s t A m e r i c a n e d i t i o n o f Tennyson's 

p o e t r y d i d n o t appear u n t i l 1842, New E n g l a n d ' s l i t e r a t i had 

a c c e s s t o t h e 1833 Poems t h r o u g h Emerson, t h r o u g h b o t h B r i t i s h 

and A m e r i c a n r e v i e w s , and t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s o f i n f l u e n t i a l 

women. Edward E v e r e t t H a l e , f o r example, c o u l d n o t remember 

"whether i t was L o n g f e l l o w o r Emerson who i n t r o d u c e d Tennyson 



12 6 

i n c o l l e g e " i n t h e 1830s ( q t d . i n E i d s o n 6 ) . 4 0 Of c o u r s e , 

awareness o f Tennyson's p o e t r y i n t h e 183 0s a l s o d e r i v e d from 

i t s e x t e n s i v e q u o t a t i o n i n t h e B r i t i s h r e v i e w s r e c a s t f o r 

A m e r i c a n a u d i e n c e s , w i t h much o f t h e i r v i t r i o l d i l u t e d ( E i d s o n 

1 2 ) . As e a r l y as J a n u a r y 1838, one o f Tennyson's f i r s t 

A m e r i c a n c r i t i c s , John S u l l i v a n Dwight o f The C h r i s t i a n  

Examiner, r e c o g n i z e d t r a i t s i n Tennyson's e a r l y p o e t r y t h a t 

would come t o dominate A m e r i c a n c r i t i c a l r e v i e w s : h i s poems 

"charm by t h e i r m e l o d i o u s sound" ( q t d . i n E i d s o n 29) and, i n 

t h e f e m a l e p o r t r a i t s , Tennyson c r e a t e s a " g a l l e r y o f l o v e l y 

l a d i e s , w h i c h a l l b u t b r e a t h e from t h e c a n v a s " ( q t d . 3 0 ) . I n 

h i s r e v i e w o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t (1839) f o r 

B u r t o n ' s Gentleman's Magazine (Feb 1840), Poe f u r t h e r p i q u e d 

t h e g r o w i n g A m e r i c a n i n t e r e s t i n t h e E n g l i s h b a r d . By 

c h a r g i n g L o n g f e l l o w w i t h p l a g i a r i s m , c l a i m i n g t h a t he had 

s t o l e n t h e i d e a o f t h e " M i d n i g h t Mass f o r t h e D y i n g Y e a r " from 

Tennyson's "The Death o f t h e O l d Y e a r " (Poe 6 7 5 - 9 ) 4 1 , Poe's 

I t l i k e l y was Emerson s i n c e i t was he who had 
t r a v e l l e d t o E n g l a n d and had r e t u r n e d w i t h Tennyson's 1833 
Poems. L i k e o t h e r s i n New E n g l a n d , however, L o n g f e l l o w was 
aware o f Tennyson's p o e t r y i n t h e 1830s. I n O c t o b e r 1837 he 
w r i t e s t o Fanny A p p l e t o n d r a w i n g on examples from "The L o t u s 
E a t e r s " and " R o s a l i n d " : " D i d you e v e r r e a d T e n n i s o n ' s [ s i c ] 
Poems? He i s t o o q u a i n t , and a t t i m e s so w o n d e r o u s l y 
b e a u t i f u l i n h i s e x p r e s s i o n , t h a t even t h e n i c e s t e a r can ask 
no r i c h e r m e l o d y : — a n d t h e most l i v e l y i m a g i n a t i o n no l o v e l i e r 
p i c t u r e n o r more t r u e " ( L e t t e r s I I 4 8 ) . 

4 1 L o n g f e l l o w , o f c o u r s e , d e n i e d t h i s c h a r g e by c l a i m i n g 
t h a t he had n e v e r seen Tennyson's poem, w h i c h l i k e l y i s n o t 
t r u e g i v e n t h a t e l s e w h e r e i n h i s l e t t e r s he q u o t e s from t h e 
same 183 3 volume c o n t a i n i n g "Death o f t h e O l d Y e a r " (see 
l e t t e r t o Samuel Ward L e t t e r s I I 215). However, Poe's c h a r g e 
i s i t s e l f n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y sound s i n c e t h e i d e a o r theme o f a 



127 

a t t e m p t s t o d i s c r e d i t L o n g f e l l o w may a c t u a l l y have enhanced 

b o t h p o e t s ' r e p u t a t i o n s , and now i n r e l a t i o n t o one a n o t h e r . 

I n a d d i t i o n , E i d s o n s u g g e s t s t h a t r e v i e w s o f Tennyson's 

e a r l y p o e t r y i n t h e c r i t i c a l p r e s s h e l p e d t o c r e a t e an 

a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r Tennyson among A m e r i c a n women even i n advance 

o f p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1842: M a r g a r e t F u l l e r p r a i s e d Tennyson 

h i g h l y i n The D i a l , J u l y 1841; i n s o c i a l c i r c l e s , Fanny Kemble 

d i d much t o make t h e E n g l i s h p o e t known i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ; 

and Fanny A p p l e t o n ( l a t e r L o n g f e l l o w ' s second w i f e ) f i l l e d h e r 

l e t t e r s t o Kemble w i t h q u o t a t i o n s from Tennyson ( 8 ) . Thus 

E i d s o n c o n c l u d e s t h a t Tennyson " g a i n e d f a v o u r i n t h e eyes o f a 

p e c u l i a r c l a s s o f s e n t i m e n t a l i s t s . Young l a d i e s were known t o 

copy [ h i s poems] e n t i r e and l e a r n them by h e a r t " ( 8 ) . D e s p i t e 

E i d s o n ' s p e j o r a t i v e use o f " s e n t i m e n t a l i s t s " t o d e s c r i b e 

Tennyson's f e m a l e r e a d e r s , i t i s c l e a r t h a t Tennyson made an 

e a r l y and l a s t i n g i m p r e s s i o n n o t j u s t among male s c h o l a r s and 

c r i t i c s , b u t a l s o among d i v e r s e A m e r i c a n women w h i c h added 

g r e a t l y t o h i s p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . 

The f a v o u r a b l e r e p u t a t i o n t h a t Tennyson g a i n e d i n A m e r i c a 

i n t h e 1830s prompted a s c h o l a r l y f r i e n d o f Emerson's, C h a r l e s 

S t e a r n s Wheeler, t o a p p e a l t o Tennyson on C h r i s t m a s day, 184 0, 

f o r t h e r i g h t t o e d i t h i s poems f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n what 

d y i n g y e a r i s n o t e x a c t l y new t o e i t h e r Tennyson o r 
L o n g f e l l o w , and t h e s t y l e s and t o n e s o f t h e i r poems a r e 
c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t . Poe's a n t a g o n i s m t o w a r d L o n g f e l l o w 
i n c r e a s e d r a t h e r t h a n l e s s e n e d , however, and c h a r g e s o f 
p l a g i a r i s m became more f r e q u e n t ; f o r a c o m p l e t e d i s c u s s i o n see 
c h a p t e r two. 



128 

Tennyson r e f e r r e d t o as " t h a t l a n d o f t h e f r e e men" (Memoir 

149). Tennyson's r e p l y t o Wheeler i s a c a r e f u l l y worded 

r e j e c t i o n : s e n s i t i v e t o t h e honour bestowed on him by A m e r i c a n 

f a v o u r , Tennyson n o n e t h e l e s s i m p l i e s t h a t , w i t h o u t an 

i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o p y r i g h t , he i s i n no l e g a l p o s i t i o n t o deny 

Wheeler. He r e q u e s t s , however, t h a t Wheeler w a i t f o r t h e 

p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e new two volume E n g l i s h e d i t i o n o f h i s 

poems, whereupon he "can t h e n o f c o u r s e do as [he] c h o o s e [ s ] 

w i t h them" ( L e t t e r s I 187). A c c o r d i n g t o E i d s o n , Wheeler 

worked a s s i d u o u s l y as a t y p e o f A m e r i c a n agent f o r Tennyson 

once t h e 1842 Poems r e a c h e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s by t r y i n g t o 

s e c u r e f o r him t h e " b e s t p o s s i b l e d e a l " ; Wheeler f i n a l l y 

s e t t l e d on W. D. T i c k n o r ( j o i n e d i n 1845 by F i e l d s ) as 

p u b l i s h e r . 

Wheeler c o u l d n o t have made a more f i t t i n g c h o i c e f o r 

Tennyson a t t h e t i m e . T i c k n o r ' s r e s p o n s e t o Tennyson's 

p o t e n t i a l a u d i e n c e was t o pay Tennyson $150 i n l i e u o f 

c o p y r i g h t f o r t h e 1842 Poems. T i c k n o r saw t h e v a l u e and 

p r e s t i g e t h a t Tennyson c o u l d b r i n g t o h i s f i r m , and was 

p r e p a r e d t o pay Tennyson i n r e t u r n so as t o s e c u r e advance 

s a l e s o f h i s volumes i n A m e r i c a . A l t h o u g h E i d s o n c l a i m s t h a t 

T i c k n o r i s s u e d a f i r s t e d i t i o n o f t h e 1842 Poems, p e r h a p s as 

many as 1500 t o 2000 c o p i e s (37-8) , T r y o n m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h i s 

was a " s m a l l e d i t i o n made up o f o n l y 1,000 c o p i e s " 

( " N a t i o n a l i s m " 3 0 5 ) , and s i n c e T r y o n r a t h e r ' t h a n E i d s o n had 

a c c e s s t o t h e c o s t books o f T i c k n o r and F i e l d s , h i s f i g u r e s 



129 

a r e l i k e l y more a c c u r a t e . T i c k n o r ' s w i l l i n g n e s s t o pay 

Tennyson and t o t a k e a moderate r i s k w i t h t h e number o f 

c o p i e s , a t a t i m e when most A m e r i c a n p u b l i s h e r s were making 

t h e i r f o r t u n e s p i r a t i n g a n y t h i n g B r i t i s h , seems u n u s u a l l y b o l d 

and g e n e r o u s . But h i s s t r a t e g y was rewarded, f o r , d u r i n g t h e 

n e x t q u a r t e r c e n t u r y , Tennyson remained l o y a l t o T i c k n o r and 

F i e l d s who c o n t i n u e d as h i s A m e r i c a n p u b l i s h e r s under t h e same 

o r s i m i l a r agreements u n t i l 1870. I n f a c t , from 1864 u n t i l 

1870, t e x t s p u b l i s h e d by T i c k n o r and F i e l d s ( l a t e r F i e l d s and 

Osgood) p r i n t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g Tennyson c e r t i f i c a t e : " I t i s my 

w i s h t h a t w i t h M e s s r s . T i c k n o r and F i e l d s a l o n e t h e r i g h t o f 

p u b l i s h i n g my books i n A m e r i c a s h o u l d r e s t . " 

As T r y o n p o i n t s o u t i n h i s c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson i n A m e r i c a , " N a t i o n a l i s m and 

I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o p y r i g h t , " s a l e s o f t h e 1842 volume were s l o w 

b u t s t e a d y d u r i n g t h e 1840s. Then, i n t h e 1850s, T i c k n o r and 

F i e l d s 

s o u g h t , by t h e c r e a t i o n o f new f o r m a t s , t o a r o u s e 
i n t e r e s t and, by e s t a b l i s h i n g a p r i c e r a n g e from 
f i f t y c e n t s f o r a pamphlet t o t e n d o l l a r s f o r a de 
l u x e i l l u s t r a t e d one, t o s t i m u l a t e s a l e s . They 
succeeded. Between 1842 and 1870 no l e s s t h a n 13 0 
s e p a r a t e i s s u e s o f t h e c o l l e c t e d poems t o t a l i n g 
206,044 c o p i e s ( i n 267,948 volumes) were p u b l i s h e d . 
E v e r y t a s t e and p o c k e t b o o k was r e a c h e d , and by 18 6 5 
t h e p u b l i s h e r s c o u l d c o u n t on an a n n u a l s a l e o f 
between 25,000 and 3 0,000 c o p i e s o f t h e i r v a r i o u s 
Tennysons. (Tryon " N a t i o n a l i s m " 305) 

The f i g u r e s i n Appendix I i n d i c a t e , however, t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

s a l e s i n A m e r i c a were n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n j u r e d by c o m p e t i t i o n 

w i t h Tennyson d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t Tennyson's volumes s o l d 



130 

f o r s e v e n t y - f i v e c e n t s w h i l e L o n g f e l l o w ' s were p r i c e d a t one 

d o l l a r . From a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1840 t o 1870, " i n c l u d i n g a l l t h e 

v a r i o u s p o e t i c a l works o f t h e two a u t h o r s , whether i n 

c o l l e c t e d o r s e p a r a t e f o r m a t s , t h e s a l e s o f Tennyson amounted 

t o 400,770 c o p i e s ; o f L o n g f e l l o w , 374,786 c o p i e s " (Tryon 

" N a t i o n a l i s m " 308-9). Tennyson's h i g h e r f i g u r e s a r e a l s o t h e 

r e s u l t o f s a l e s o f 118,230 i n 1865 ( 3 0 9 ) , a r e g i s t e r o f t h e 

enormous s u c c e s s o f Enoch Arden i n A m e r i c a . T r y o n c o n c l u d e s 

t h a t a l t h o u g h o t h e r A m e r i c a n a u t h o r s may have s u f f e r e d from 

f o r e i g n c o m p e t i t i o n , L o n g f e l l o w c l e a r l y d i d n o t : "when 

A m e r i c a n s w r o t e as w e l l as E n g l i s h m e n , t h e y s o l d as w e l l as 

E n g l i s h m e n " ( " N a t i o n a l i s m " 3 0 9 ) . 

I n f a c t , Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s may 

a c t u a l l y have enhanced L o n g f e l l o w ' s s a l e s and v i c e v e r s a . By 

b e i n g f r e q u e n t l y compared t o one a n o t h e r i n t h e c r i t i c a l 

p r e s s , L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's works became f a m i l i a r t o 

r e a d e r s whose h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s i n c l u d e d knowledge o f 

b o t h . T i c k n o r and F i e l d s ' s " B l u e and G o l d " e d i t i o n s a r e a 

c a s e i n p o i n t . The f i r m d e c i d e d i n 1856 t o l a u n c h t h i s 

e l a b o r a t e l y d e s i g n e d , e x p e n s i v e s e r i e s w i t h Tennyson's 

c o l l e c t e d poems. The t h o u s a n d c o p i e s were e x h a u s t e d a l m o s t 

i m m e d i a t e l y (Tryon P a r n a s s u s 2 2 9 ) ; T i c k n o r and F i e l d s knew 

t h a t t h e y had a s u c c e s s . They t h e n i s s u e d L o n g f e l l o w i n t h e 

same s e r i e s . 

As E i d s o n p o i n t s o u t , American a u d i e n c e s r e s p o n d e d t o 

Tennyson's work o f t e n i n ways o p p o s i t e t o t h o s e o f B r i t i s h 



131 

r e a d e r s : g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e o c c u r r e d much e a r l i e r i n A m e r i c a 

t h a n i n E n g l a n d , and i t i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n t h e 1840s 

w i t h t h e 1842 Poems and The P r i n c e s s (1847). I n t e r e s t i n g l y , 

however, t h e A m e r i c a n r e c e p t i o n o f I n Memoriam (1850) was 

mixed, even though i n E n g l a n d t h e poem had r e c e i v e d a l m o s t 

i n s t a n t , unanimous a p p r o v a l . Readers i n New E n g l a n d and 

c r i t i c s i n r e l i g i o u s p e r i o d i c a l s a p p l a u d e d i t s sonorous 

e m o t i o n a l i s m . Fanny A p p l e t o n L o n g f e l l o w ' s l e t t e r t o Emmeline 

Wadsworth e x p r e s s e s t h i s v i e w : "Henry i s f e a s t i n g upon i t w i t h 

eyes f u l l o f t e a r s , and a t Nahant, w i t h t h e m e l a n c h o l y sea 

c h i m i n g i n as m u s i c t o t h e d i r g e - l i k e words, I s h a l l sadden 

m y s e l f w i t h i t t o a j o y p u r e r t h a n j o y i t s e l f . The p i e c e s 

were e v i d e n t l y w r i t t e n a t d i f f e r e n t i n t e r v a l s , and t h e r e i s a 

h i g h e r t o n e and a deeper f e e l i n g i n them t h a n i n a n y t h i n g he 

has w r i t t e n , wedded t o t h e most p e r f e c t melody" ( 1 7 1 ) . 

Readers i n New Y o r k , on t h e o t h e r hand, d i s t r u s t e d Tennyson's 

s u b j e c t m a t t e r and e x p r e s s i o n , as seen i n Brownson's c o n c e r n 

f o r t h e " e x a g g e r a t e d degree o f s e n t i m e n t between two grown 

men" (Brownson's Q u a r t e r l y q t d . i n E i d s o n 8 0 ) . S i m i l a r l y , i n 

a l e t t e r t o L o n g f e l l o w , May 1850, F e l t o n t r a n s c r i b e s a 

d i s c u s s i o n he had w i t h a S c o t t i s h woman c o n c e r n i n g t h e poem; 

h i s remarks about t h e p e r c e i v e d e f f e m i n a c y o f t h e e l e g y echo 

t h e New Y o r k r e v i e w s : " P a r t s o f i t a r e v e r y sweet: b u t i t i s 

t o o l o n g drawn: t o o e f f e m i n a t e : mushy and womanish f o r a manly 

f r i e n d s h i p . " The woman a p p a r e n t l y a g r e e d ( q t d . i n E i d s o n 81-

2 ) . Once I n Memoriam r e c e i v e d w i d e s p r e a d a p p l a u s e i n B r i t a i n , 



132 

" d e f i n i t e d i s a p p r o v a l became a l m o s t t a b o o " a c c o r d i n g t o E i d s o n 

( 8 6 ) . N o n e t h e l e s s , u n t i l t h e n e a r l y c o m p l e t e a p p r o b a t i o n o f 

Enoch Arden i n 1864, Tennyson's A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r i t y seemed t o 

r e s t more on i n d i v i d u a l l y r i c s and songs from t h e 1842 Poems 

and The P r i n c e s s t h a n h i s l o n g e r p o e m s — I n Memoriam, Maud, and 

t h e I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g ( 1 8 5 9 ) — a n d , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , s i n c e 

u n t i l L o n g f e l l o w ' s E v a n g e l i n e (1847), and Hiawatha (1855), t h e 

l y r i c had been t h e contemporary p o e t i c g e n r e most f a m i l i a r t o 

A m e r i c a n a u d i e n c e s . 

Not s u r p r i s i n g l y t o o , L o n g f e l l o w m a i n t a i n e d a c a r e f u l watch 

on Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y i n A m e r i c a , r e c o r d i n g h i s 

o b s e r v a t i o n s i n h i s j o u r n a l . On 25 F e b r u a r y 1848, f o r 

example, L o n g f e l l o w n o t e s t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f a second e d i t i o n 

o f The P r i n c e s s , " t h e f i r s t , one t h o u s a n d c o p i e s , h a v i n g s o l d 

w i t h i n a few weeks" ( L i f e I I 109). A t t h e same t i m e , he 

r e g i s t e r s h i s s u c c e s s w i t h E v a n g e l i n e i n t h e same y e a r , 

s o m e t h i n g he a l w a y s d i d w i t h h i s own p o e t r y . L i k e w i s e , when 

I n Memoriam f i r s t appeared i n A m e r i c a , L o n g f e l l o w f e l t 

c o m p e l l e d t o "meddle" i n i t s p u b l i c a t i o n t o e n s u r e Tennyson's 

anonymity, r e m a r k i n g i n a l e t t e r t o F i e l d s on h i s f a s c i n a t i o n 

w i t h t h e poem t o such an e x t e n t t h a t , i r o n i c a l l y , he c l a i m e d 

t o be "as much i n t e r e s t e d i n i t as i f [he] had w r i t t e n i t " 

( L e t t e r s I I I 262-3). F i e l d s obeyed and t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f 

I n Memoriam appeared w i t h o u t Tennyson's name. 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s c o n c e r n f o r Tennyson's r e p u t a t i o n was g e n u i n e ; 

he i n no way begrudged h i s B r i t i s h c o u n t e r p a r t t h e s t a t u r e he 



133 

had a c h i e v e d i n A m e r i c a . On t h e c o n t r a r y , he d i d much t o 

e n s u r e t h a t Tennyson knew o f t h e i m p a c t t h a t he made i n t h e 

U n i t e d S t a t e s , as t h e f o l l o w i n g l e t t e r o f August 1856 t o 

Thomas A p p l e t o n , t h e n t r a v e l l i n g i n E n g l a n d , i n d i c a t e s : 

I f you go t o t h e I s l e o f Wight you must n o t f a i l t o 
v i s i t Tennyson. You can t e l l him many t h i n g s about 
h i s fame i n t h i s c o u n t r y , w h i c h i t w i l l p l e a s e him 
t o know. He i s t h e o n l y E n g l i s h p o e t , e x c e p t 
Wordsworth, t h a t Emerson m e n t i o n s w i t h any r e s p e c t . 
The r e s t a r e n o t h i n g — l e s s t h a n n o t h i n g . But 
Wordsworth's Ode on ' I m o r t a l i t y ' i s t h e h i g h - w a t e r 
mark, t h a t t h e i n t e l l e c t has r e a c h e d i n t h i s 
c e n t u r y . 

( L e t t e r s I I I 551) 

The a d m i r a t i o n t h a t L o n g f e l l o w e x p r e s s e d f o r Tennyson, h i s 

work, and h i s r e p u t a t i o n i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e A m e r i c a n 

p o e t ' s l i f e as each s u c c e s s i v e volume c r o s s e d t h e A t l a n t i c . 

I t c o n t i n u e d u n a b a t e d even a f t e r Tennyson had t u r n e d t o drama 

i n t h e m i d - l 8 7 0 s , by w h i c h t i m e L o n g f e l l o w had met Tennyson, 

so t h a t he no l o n g e r had t o r e l y on e m i s s a r i e s t o speak f o r 

him. W r i t i n g t o Tennyson i n December 1876, L o n g f e l l o w 

e x p r e s s e s h i s d e l i g h t i n H a r o l d as "a v o i c e o u t o f t h e P a s t , 

s o n o r o u s , s t r a n g e , s e m i - b a r b a r i c . " He t h e n adds, " I w i s h you 

knew, I w i s h you c o u l d p o s s i b l y know, t h e power o f y o u r p o e t r y 

i n t h i s c o u n t r y . I t would make y o u r h e a r t go f o r t h t o w a r d s 

t h e t h i r t y o r f o r t y m i l l i o n o f E n g l i s h on t h i s s i d e o f t h e 

A t l a n t i c " ( L e t t e r s V I 2 1 1 ) . 4 2 

L o n g f e l l o w v o i c e d h i s e n t h u s i a s m f o r Tennyson by 
w r i t i n g him a s o n n e t , "Wapentake t o A l f r e d Tennyson," as a 
C h r i s t m a s g r e e t i n g f o r 1877: 



134 

I t would have been s t r a n g e i n d e e d i f by t h e mid-1870s 

Tennyson d i d n o t know o f h i s p o p u l a r i t y i n A m e r i c a . I n t h e 

e a r l y 1860s, a c c o r d i n g t o C h a r l e s Tennyson, Tennyson had 

r e f u s e d an o f f e r o f £20,000 f o r a r e a d i n g and l e c t u r e t o u r i n 

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . 4 3 F u r t h e r m o r e , i n November 1871, he had 

a c c e p t e d an o f f e r from t h e New York Ledger o f £1,000 f o r any 

poem o f t h r e e s t a n z a s ; Tennyson p r o m p t l y r e p l i e d w i t h " E n g l a n d 

and A m e r i c a i n 1782" ( C h a r l e s Tennyson 39 6-7) . More 

g e n e r a l l y , Tennyson's a n x i e t y about A m e r i c a n p i r a c y even i n t o 

t h e 1880s (Hagen 180), and t h e c o n s t a n t f l o o d o f A m e r i c a n 

v i s i t o r s t o F a r r i n g f o r d a r e two f u r t h e r p r o o f s t h a t Tennyson's 

fame i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e q u a l l e d t h a t o f h i s most a d m i r i n g 

P o e t l I come t o t o u c h t h y l a n c e w i t h mine, 
Not as a k n i g h t who on t h e l i s t e d f i e l d 
Of t o u r n e y t o u c h e d h i s a d v e r s a r y ' s s h i e l d 
I n t o k e n o f d e f i a n c e , b u t i n s i g n 

Of homage t o t h e m a s t e r y , w h i c h i s t h i n e 
I n E n g l i s h song; n o r w i l l I keep c o n c e a l e d , 
And v o i c e l e s s as a r i v u l e t f r o s t - c o n g e a l e d , 
My a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h y v e r s e d i v i n e . 

Not o f t h e h o w l i n g d e r v i s h e s o f song, 
Who c r a z e t h e b r a i n w i t h t h e i r d e l i r i o u s dance, 
A r t t h o u , O sweet h i s t o r i a n o f t h e h e a r t ! 

T h e r e f o r e t o t h e e t h e l a u r e l - l e a v e s b e l o n g , 
To t h e e our l o v e and our a l l e g i a n c e , 
F o r t h y a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e p o e t ' s a r t . 

(see H i l e n L e t t e r s V I 317) 

H a l l a m f i r s t p u b l i s h e d t h i s s o n n e t i n t h e Memoir (603) 
t o g e t h e r w i t h Tennyson's c o r d i a l r e p l y (see Lang L e t t e r s I I I 
151) . 

4 3 Hagen a l l e g e s t h a t Tennyson had two o f f e r s , t h e f i r s t 
i n 1861 p r o v i d i n g £3000 f o r an a l l - e x p e n s e s - p a i d r e a d i n g and 
l e c t u r i n g t o u r ; and t h e second i n 1863 f o r £10,000. Tennyson 
r e f u s e d b o t h . 



135 

c o u n t e r p a r t and c o m p e t i t o r , L o n g f e l l o w . Thus, Tennyson and 

L o n g f e l l o w s h a r e d j o i n t l y , i n t h e i r own and i n each o t h e r ' s 

c o u n t r i e s , t h e t i t l e o f " p e o p l e ' s p o e t " — w i t h a l l o f i t s 

a t t e n d a n t p l e a s u r e s and a n x i e t i e s . 

Caveat Lector: Readers and Poets 

The t i t l e and p u b l i c r e s p e c t t h a t a t t e n d e d i t , however, 

v a r i e d enormously f o r t h e s e two p o e t s , i n p a r t owing t o 

d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e v i e w s o f t h e r o l e o f t h e 

p o e t , and i n p a r t stemming from s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t i n c t i o n s 

between t h e A m e r i c a n and B r i t i s h r e a d i n g p u b l i c s . The 

a t t i t u d e s o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o e t ' s 

s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h i n c h a p t e r s two and 

f o u r ) b e t r a y d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e 

i d e o l o g i e s , dominated as t h e y were e i t h e r by t h e f u t u r e o r by 

t h e p a s t . That i s , even though L o n g f e l l o w drew upon a 

h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e — l a r g e l y E u r o p e a n — h e worked p r i m a r i l y 

t o e s t a b l i s h and m a i n t a i n t h e A m e r i c a n p o e t ' s r o l e as an agent 

o f c u l t u r a l u n i f o r m i t y , i n t e g r a l t o t h e n a t i o n ' s f u t u r e s o c i a l 

s t a b i l i t y . Tennyson, on t h e o t h e r hand, t o o k h i s l e a d from 

t h e p a s t , from t h e d e s i r e o f B r i t i s h r o m a n t i c s t o p r e s e r v e a l l 

t h a t was b e s t i n t h e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l v a l u e s o f p r e -

c a p i t a l i s t B r i t a i n . F o r L o n g f e l l o w , p o p u l a r p o e t r y t e n d e d t o 

be v a l i d a t e d as a means o f p r o m o t i n g n a t i o n a l i s t i d e o l o g y , 

whereas i n E n g l a n d i t came t o be s c o r n e d as t h e f a i l e d 

p r o d u c t s o f an e r o d i n g e l i t e c u l t u r e u n a b l e t o m a i n t a i n i t s 

hegemony i n t h e f a c e o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n and consumer 



13 6 

demands. P u t more s i m p l y , L o n g f e l l o w was o p t i m i s t i c w h i l e 

Tennyson was l a r g e l y p e s s i m i s t i c about t h e r o l e o f l i t e r a t u r e 

i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e m a r k e t p l a c e . 

A t t h e same t i m e , however, b o t h L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson 

w o u l d l i k e l y have a g r e e d i n p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e a r t i s t ' s 

m i s s i o n i s t o promote a m o r a l l y and s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e 

c i t i z e n r y by u s i n g whatever a e t h e s t i c r e s o u r c e s i n t h e i r power 

t o e f f e c t t h i s end. Y e t i n p r a c t i c e , Tennyson d i v e r g e s from 

L o n g f e l l o w a t t h e p r e c i s e moment when t h e p o e t f e e l s t h a t he 

i s no l o n g e r s p e a k i n g t o h i s a u d i e n c e b u t i s a l l o w i n g i t t o 

d i c t a t e t o him. P o p u l a r p o e t r y , t h e r e f o r e , must be u n d e r s t o o d 

n o t s i m p l y by a n a l y s i n g t h e p o p u l a r t e x t s and volumes as 

above. The r e c e p t o r s o f t h e p o e t r y must a l s o be examined 

s i n c e p o p u l a r i t y i s g e n e r a t e d as much from t h e consuming 

p u b l i c as i t i s from t h e commodity i n q u e s t i o n . Through an 

u n w i t t i n g consumer metaphor, Shannon r e v e a l s v e r y c l e a r l y t h e 

r e a d e r ' s r o l e i n t h e r e l a t i o n between p r o d u c t and p u r c h a s e : he 

d e s c r i b e s t h e c r i t i c a l r e a c t i o n t o The P r i n c e s s as t h a t " o f a 

d i s s a t i s f i e d s h o p p e r — ' I t ' s v e r y n i c e , b u t n o t e x a c t l y what I 

had i n mind.'" ( 1 1 6 ) . What n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s h o p p e r s o f 

p o e t r y d i d have i n mind, however, i s n o t e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d . 

I n a b u r g e o n i n g c a p i t a l i s t e c o n o m y — w h e t h e r A m e r i c a o r 

B r i t a i n - — t h e r e a d i n g p u b l i c can be d e s c r i b e d i n consumer 

t e r m s . Y e t , t h i s consumer r o l e s h o u l d n o t be l i m i t e d t o a 

m a t e r i a l i s t i c a n a l y s i s : i n p u r c h a s i n g l i t e r a r y t e x t s , r e a d e r s 

do n o t s i m p l y a c q u i r e commodities f o r use o r c o n s u m p t i o n as 



t h e y do o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t s . Volumes o f p o e t r y a r e much 

more t h a n a t t r a c t i v e l y d e s i g n e d a r t i f a c t s w i t h i n one's 

a f f o r d a b l e p r i c e r a n g e ; and, a l t h o u g h m a t e r i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s 

o f t h i s k i n d c e r t a i n l y do i n f l u e n c e t h e p u r c h a s e r , when b u y i n g 

p o e t r y , r e a d e r s l o o k beyond t h e p h y s i c a l o b j e c t t o an assumed 

l i t e r a r y e x p e r i e n c e . And t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h r e a d e r s a r e 

a l l o w e d , by chance o r by t h e p o e t ' s d e s i g n , t o be more 

p r o d u c e r s t h a n consumers o f p o e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s w i l l h e l p t o 

d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e l i t e r a t u r e may be c o n s i d e r e d 

" s e r i o u s " o r " p o p u l a r , " and t h e p o i n t i t o c c u p i e s on a 

c u l t u r a l s c a l e r a n g i n g from h i g h t o low. T h i s s c a l e i t s e l f i s 

n e c e s s a r i l y a s l i d i n g one s i n c e a poem o r volume t h a t 

i n i t i a l l y demanded " a c t i v e " r e a d e r s h i p may, o v e r t i m e , become 

so f a m i l i a r i z e d by subsequent a u d i e n c e s t h a t a c t i v e 

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f 

t h e s e t e x t s ' r e a d e r s . 

O b v i o u s l y , one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t m a t e r i a l i s t i c 

d e t e r m i n e r s o f s u c c e s s on a mass s c a l e i s f o r p o e t s t o have a t 

t h e i r d i s p o s a l t h e means o f p r o d u c t i o n t o accommodate a 

p o t e n t i a l l y mass r e a d e r s h i p . I n The Unembarassed Muse, 

R u s s e l l Nye o u t l i n e s s e v e r a l improvements i n t h e m e c h a n i z a t i o n 

o f p r i n t i n g and book m a n u f a c t u r e i n A m e r i c a t h a t , t h r o u g h o u t 

t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y , e n s u r e d t h e new p o s s i b i l i t y f o r 

w i d e s p r e a d d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e : improved p a p e r making 

p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r y , s t e r e o t y p i n g i n 1811, 

e l e c t r o t y p i n g i n 1841, c a s t - p l a t e i n 1813, c l o t h b i n d i n g s i n 



138 

1812, improved b o o k b i n d i n g m a c h i n e r y i n 1823, f o l d i n g and 

s e w i n g machines i n t h e 1850s, a b a c k i n g machine i n 1870, and a 

g a t h e r i n g machine i n 1900 (24) . Moreover, he n o t e s t h a t t h e 

f i r s t r e v o l u t i o n i n cheap p u b l i s h i n g came i n t h e 1840s w i t h 

t h e use o f newspaper p r e s s e s f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f books; 

p r i n t e d on n e w s p r i n t , t h e y were i n i t i a l l y exempt from t a x e s , 

c h a r g e d l o w e r p o s t a l r a t e s , and d e l i v e r e d t o r e a d e r s ' homes. 

Even a f t e r t h e P o s t O f f i c e l e v i e d book r a t e s on them i n 1843, 

t h e l o w - p r i c e d , mass-produced book was an i n s t a n t s u c c e s s t h a t 
44 

s t u c k ( 2 4 ) . I n S o c i e t y and C u l t u r e i n A m e r i c a , Nye 

e s t i m a t e s t h a t g r o s s a n n u a l s a l e s o f books were i n 182 0 — 

$2,500,000, i n 1850—$12,500,000, and by 1860 — $20,000,000; 

and, because o f d e c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s , t w e n t y t i m e s more 

t i t l e s were b e i n g p u b l i s h e d a n n u a l l y i n 1860 t h a n i n 1820 

( 7 6 ) . Nye a l s o r e c o r d s s i m i l a r l y r e m a r k a b l e i n c r e a s e s i n 

magazines and newspapers, i n e f f e c t more t h a n s i x t i m e s t h e 

number p u b l i s h e d i n 1860 t h a n i n 1820. By 1860, A m e r i c a was 

p u b l i s h i n g 575 monthly magazines, 271 w e e k l i e s , and 372 d a i l y 

newspapers ( 7 6 ) . T h i s a c c e l e r a t e d book, magazine, and 

newspaper p r o d u c t i o n r e c i p r o c a l l y h e l p e d t o p r o d u c e and s u p p l y 

A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s ' v o r a c i o u s a p p e t i t e s . 

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l means o f p r o d u c i n g mass 

q u a n t i t i e s o f l i t e r a t u r e , n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a a l s o had 
4 4 The most s u b s t a n t i a l s u c c e s s e s o f t h i s k i n d were t h e 

dime n o v e l s m a r k e t t e d by B e a d l e and Adams; Nye e s t i m a t e s s a l e s 
o f 4,000,000 between 1861-66 a l o n e . 



139 

a r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n , low i l l i t e r a c y r a t e s , and a 

" r e l a t i v e l y c l a s s l e s s h a b i t o f r e a d i n g " (Nye Unembarassed Muse 

23) t o s u p p o r t s u c h p r o d u c t i o n . Between 1790 and 1830, t h e 

A m e r i c a n p u b l i c d o u b l e d i n s i z e , r e d o u b l i n g a g a i n by 1860 t o 

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 m i l l i o n . J u s t b e f o r e t h e C i v i l War, 

i l l i t e r a c y l e v e l s among w h i t e a d u l t s r a n g e d from as low as .03 

i n t h e N o r t h e a s t t o as h i g h as .19 i n t h e Southwest w i t h a 

n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f .07 i n 1860 and .09 i n 1 8 7 0 . 4 5 S i n c e t h e 

1820s, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had had a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l , w h i t e male 

s u f f r a g e w h i c h A r t h u r E k i r c h a r g u e s a i d e d and a b e t t e d t h e 

c r e a t i o n o f a " p r o p e r m a t e r i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l s e t t i n g f o r 

t h e mass r e c e p t i o n o f t h e i d e a o f p r o g r e s s " ( 3 6 ) . I f A m e r i c a 

were t o p r o s p e r , t h e i d e o l o g y o f p r o g r e s s demanded t h a t i t s 

c i t i z e n s be d e m o c r a t i c a l l y and u n i f o r m l y e d u c a t e d . Hence, a 

c o u n t r y t h a t i n 1800 had no p u b l i c s c h o o l s , by 1860 had a 

s y s t e m o f e l e m e n t a r y and s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s i n e v e r y s t a t e (Nye 

S o c i e t y and C u l t u r e 377) . As t h e s e c r e t a r y t o t h e 

M a s s a c h u s e t t s S t a t e B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n remarked, he was 

" c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e dangers o f an i l l i t e r a t e b u t e n f r a n c h i s e d 

democracy o u t w e i g h e d t h e t a x a t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p o r t f r e e 

s c h o o l s " ( q t d . i n B r a n c h 304). Beyond j u s t s c h o o l s , however, 

v a r i o u s o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s s p r a n g up i n s u p p o r t o f t h e b e l i e f 

4 5 These f i g u r e s a r e from Lee S o l t o w and Edward S t e v e n s , 
The R i s e o f L i t e r a c y and t h e Common S c h o o l i n t h e U n i t e d  
S t a t e s ( 1 5 5 ) ; t h e r i s e o f 2% between.1860 and 1870 may be due 
t o t h e d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n s asked i n 1870 t o d e t e r m i n e 
i l l i t e r a c y . 



140 

t h a t a b r o a d d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f knowledge would g u a r a n t e e s o c i a l 

s t a b i l i t y : t h e i n t e r d e n o m i n a t i o n a l A m e r i c a n Sunday S c h o o l 

U n i o n (1824-60); f o l l o w i n g t h e B r i t i s h l e a d , hundreds o f 

mechanics and workingmen's i n s t i t u t e s ; t h e A m e r i c a n Lyceum 

A s s o c i a t i o n ( e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1831); s u b s c r i p t i o n l i b r a r i e s ; 

c i r c u l a t i n g l i b r a r i e s ; and p u b l i c l i b r a r i e s s u c h as t h e B o s t o n 

P u b l i c L i b r a r y ( e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1848) (Nye S o c i e t y and C u l t u r e 

358-66). One o f t h e p e r h a p s u n f o r s e e n r e s u l t s o f t h e p u b l i c ' s 

d i v e r s e means o f a c c e s s t o l e a r n i n g and t o l i t e r a t u r e was t h a t 

women were a b l e t o o f f s e t some o f t h e p o t e n t i a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s 

i n c u r r e d i n t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y by a " p o l i t e " 

e d u c a t i o n and by c o n t i n u e d b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t f e m a l e a t t e n d a n c e 

a t a l l male u n i v e r s i t i e s . 

The c u l t u r a l p o s i t i o n o f women i n a n t e b e l l u m A m e r i c a has 

a l w a y s been a s u b j e c t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o v e r s y . 4 6 T h e i r 

T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s t u d i e s o f t h e c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e o f 
women i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a t a k e t h e i r l e a d from 
Douglas B r a n c h ' s The S e n t i m e n t a l Y e a r s , 1836-1860 (1934) i n 
w h i c h B r a n c h ' s g e n e r a l d i s d a i n f o r t h e p e r i o d becomes o u t r i g h t 
s a r c a s m i n " L i t e r a t u r e : The Scene" (97-124) when he d i s c u s s e s 
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f women, e s p e c i a l l y F e l i c i a Hemans. F r e d L e w i s 
P a t t e e r e d r e s s e s t h e b a l a n c e somewhat i n The F e m i n i n e F i f t i e s 
( 1 9 4 0 ) , e s s e n t i a l l y a d e s c r i p t i v e l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e 
p o p u l a r e f f e c t s o f t h e s u p p o s e d l y s o f t , p o l i s h e d t a s t e s o f 
women upon t h e consumers and p r o d u c e r s o f m i d - n i n e t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y l i t e r a t u r e and c u l t u r e . Though n o t i t s e l f e s p e c i a l l y 
d i s p a r a g i n g o f t h i s phenomenon, P a t t e e ' s a n a l y s i s g e n e r a t e d 
s e v e r a l subsequent s t u d i e s : George Boas's "The Romantic Lady" 
(63-88) and E l i z a b e t h Winslow's "Books f o r t h e Lady Reader, 
1820-1860" (89-109) i n R o m a n t i c i s m i n A m e r i c a (1948) ; and 
c h a p t e r s i n books about p o p u l a r l i t e r a r y t a s t e s u c h as James 
H a r t ' s "The S p i r i t o f P o e t r y " (125-39) i n The P o p u l a r Book 
(1950) and C a r l Bode's "The S e n t i m e n t a l Muse" (188-200) i n The  
Anatomy o f A m e r i c a n P o p u l a r C u l t u r e . 1840-1861 (1959). These 
s t u d i e s j u x t a p o s e t h e " s i m p l e , homely" v e r s e s o f F e l i c i a 
Hemans, L y d i a S i g o u r n e y , and o t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s t o A n n u a l s and 



141 

p a r t i c u l a r i n f l u e n c e , as w r i t e r s and as r e a d e r s , upon t h e 

n a t i o n ' s " b e l l e s l e t t r e s " o f t h e 1840s-60s, g e n e r a t e d a range 

o f c o n t e m p o r a r y r e s p o n s e s from s c o r n t o e u l o g y ( d e p e n d i n g upon 

t h e s y m p a t h i e s o f t h e o b s e r v o r ) , a range t h a t c o n t i n u e s t o be 

h e a r d t o d a y . The q u a n t i t y o f r e a c t i o n s and t h e i r p a s s i o n 

n o n e t h e l e s s s u g g e s t t h a t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n A m e r i c a n 

h i s t o r y women were a c o g e n t , w i d e s p r e a d f o r c e i n s o c i a l and 

c u l t u r a l l i f e . C e r t a i n l y many women t h e m s e l v e s f e l t s o , as 

e v i n c e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e l e c t i o n s from t h e p r o c e e d i n g s o f 

t h e 18 50 Woman's R i g h t s C o n v e n t i o n h e l d i n Ohio: 

I t i s t h e women who r e a d . I t i s t h e women who a r e 
t h e t r i b u n a l o f any q u e s t i o n a s i d e from p o l i t i c s o r 
b u s i n e s s . I t i s t h e women who g i v e o r w i t h o l d a 
l i t e r a r y r e p u t a t i o n . I t i s t h e women who c o n t r o l 
c l e r g y m e n and c h u r c h e s , p a t r o n i z e and i n f l u e n c e t h e 
A r t s , and e x e r c i s e u l t i m a t e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e P r e s s . 

G i f t b o o k s w i t h t h o s e o f p o p u l a r p o e t s l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , 
Tennyson, and W h i t t i e r , w i t h r e g r e t t a b l e consequences f o r t h e 
e n d u r i n g v a l u e o f t h e l a t t e r . Most i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s 
sequence, however, i s Ann D o u g l a s ' s The F e m i n i z a t i o n o f  
A m e r i c a n C u l t u r e (1977) i n w h i c h she i n d i r e c t l y h o l d s women 
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r own " f e m i n i z a t i o n " t h r o u g h s u b m i s s i o n t o 
t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t o f t h e " f e m i n i n e , " and d i r e c t l y 
c r i t i c i z e s t h e s e n t i m e n t a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s f e m i n i n e i d e a l 
( d o m e s t i c i t y , l o v e , n u r t u r e ) as c a l c u l a t e d n o t t o i n t e r f e r e 
w i t h m a s c u l i n e g o a l s : economic e x p a n s i o n , u r b a n i z a t i o n and 
i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ( 1 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e , a l t h o u g h women a r e a l l e g e d 
t o have s u p e r f i c i a l l y g a i n e d power t h r o u g h t h e i r f e m i n i z i n g 
i n f l u e n c e upon c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s — l i t e r a t u r e , r e l i g i o n , 
and o t h e r s — m a l e hegemony was t h e r e b y a l l o w e d t o r e a s s e r t 
i t s e l f i n l a i s s e z - f a i r e i n d u s t r i a l e x p a n s i o n , t o D o u g l a s ' s 
c o n s i d e r a b l e r e g r e t and even o u t r a g e . The e x t e n t t o w h i c h 
f e m a l e w r i t e r s and r e a d e r s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a f f e c t e d 
t h e p o p u l a r p o e t r y o f b o t h L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson i s 
c o n s i d e r e d from a v a r i e t y o f a n g l e s t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y 
s i n c e t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y a u d i e n c e w h i c h t h e " P e o p l e ' s P o e t " 
a d d r e s s e d c o u l d , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n h i s t o r y , be s a i d t o 
c o n s i s t o f women i n numbers l a r g e enough t o have a s i g n i f i c a n t 
impact on t h e c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s o f t h e age. 



. . . . [ I ] n r e l i g i o n , i n t a s t e , i n g e n e r a l 
e l e v a t i o n o f s e n t i m e n t and i n c o n s i s t e n c y o f 
s t a n d a r d o f o p i n i o n , t h e women o f A m e r i c a a r e 
s u p e r i o r t o t h e men. ( q t d . i n P a t t e e 93) 

How A m e r i c a n women came t o f e e l t h e i r power so s t r o n g l y , i n 

t h e f a c e o f t h e i r o b v i o u s economic and p o l i t i c a l 

d i s e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t , i s open t o d e b a t e . 

One r e a s o n i s t h a t , u n l i k e t h e i r B r i t i s h c o u n t e r p a r t s , 

t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n women were n e a r l y 

as l i t e r a t e as men. Lee S o l t o w ' s and Edward S t e v e n s ' s 

r e s e a r c h on i l l i t e r a c y , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n d i c a t e s o n l y a minor 

sex d i f f e r e n t i a l , more o b v i o u s i n t h e South t h a n t h e N o r t h : 

"The magnitude o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e v a r i e d from an i l l i t e r a c y 

r a t e o f .09 f o r women i n 1860 compared w i t h .07 f o r men. I n 

1870 t h e r a t e s f o r women and men, r e p e c t i v e l y , were .10 and 

.09. D i f f e r e n c e s were a c c e n t u a t e d i n t h e S o u t h , where t h e 

i l l i t e r a c y r a t e i n 1860 was .15 f o r women compared w i t h .11 

f o r men. I n t h e N o r t h t h e comparable r a t e s were .06 f o r women 

and .04 f o r men" ( 1 5 6 ) . The r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l s g e n e r a l l y 

and t h e c o m p a r a t i v e e q u a l i t y o f men's and women's l i t e r a c y i n 

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s u g g e s t h i g h e d u c a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s f o r b o t h 

s e x e s . 4 7 B a r b a r a Solomon p o i n t s o u t t h a t , d e s p i t e c o n t i n u e d 

c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e e d u c a t i o n o f g i r l s i n t h e e a r l y 

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , " c o l o n i a l p r e c e d e n t s d i d e x i s t f o r t h e 

4 7 I n h e r h i s t o r y o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n f o r women i n t h e 
U n i t e d S t a t e s , B a r b a r a Solomon n o t e s t h a t t h e 107 women's 
s c h o o l s o p e r a t i n g between 1830 and 1870 c o v e r e d most o f t h e 
s u b j e c t s t a u g h t i n j u n i o r and s e n i o r y e a r s a t men's c o l l e g e s 
( 2 3 ) . 



i n s t r u c t i o n o f g i r l s a t t h e e l e m e n t a r y and s e c o n d a r y l e v e l s . " 

Once p u b l i c academies were c h a r t e r e d i n t h e l a t e e i g h t e e n t h 

c e n t u r y , a "few a d m i t t e d g i r l s on an e q u a l b a s i s , whereas 

o t h e r s l e t them use t h e same f a c i l i t i e s a t d i f f e r e n t h o u r s . " 

By m i d - c e n t u r y , "more t h a n a q u a r t e r o f a m i l l i o n s t u d e n t s 

were e n r o l l e d i n o v e r 6,000 academies" ( 1 5 ) . Of t h e s e q u a r t e r 

m i l l i o n s t u d e n t s , a g r e a t many were g i r l s and women s i n c e 

t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e c e n t u r y an " i n f o r m a l , 

u n p l a n n e d p r o c e s s [had] e v o l v e d : g i r l s n o t o n l y a t t e n d e d 

d i s t r i c t s c h o o l s b u t t a u g h t i n them; t h e n some u s e d t h e money 

t h e y e a r n e d t o a t t e n d academies, where t h e y s t u d i e d and 

t a u g h t . I n t i m e some opened s c h o o l s o f t h e i r own" ( 1 7 ) . 

Advances i n t h e e d u c a t i o n o f g i r l s and women were 

p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e i n New E n g l a n d . L o n g f e l l o w , f o r 

example, had a t t e n d e d a c o e d u c a t i o n a l academy i n P o r t l a n d from 

1814 t o 1821. As e a r l y as December 1829, L o n g f e l l o w d r a f t e d a 

p r o s p e c t u s f o r a new f e m a l e h i g h s c h o o l i n P o r t l a n d t h a t came 

i n t o b e i n g s e v e r a l months l a t e r (see L e t t e r s I 328-9). 

A c c o r d i n g t o L o n g f e l l o w , by 1849, women were b e g i n n i n g t o 

a p p e a l t o H a r v a r d f o r a d m i s s i o n t o u n i v e r s i t y a l o n g w i t h men 

( L i f e I I 138). D e n i e d a d m i s s i o n a t t h a t t i m e , d u r i n g t h e 

w i n t e r o f 1852-53, "unknown 'damsels'" as L o n g f e l l o w c a l l e d 

them, " i l l i c i t l y a t t e n d [ e d ] h i s l e c t u r e s " a t H a r v a r d . 

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , he does n o t n o t e i n h i s j o u r n a l what measures, 

i f any, he t o o k a g a i n s t t h e s e women ( L i f e I I 2 3 7 ) . By 1878, 

when L o n g f e l l o w was asked by Mrs P h e l p s t o c o n s i d e r t h e 



e f f e c t s o f c o e d u c a t i o n , i t had a l r e a d y become an a c c e p t e d 

s t a n d a r d i n b o t h p r i v a t e and p u b l i c u n i v e r s i t i e s (Solomon 4 7 ) . 

As Nye m a i n t a i n s , t h e " s w i f t growth o f t h e huge market o f 

e d u c a t e d , l i t e r a t e women p r o m i s e d g r e a t r e w a r d s f o r w r i t e r s 

who c o u l d s a t i s f y i t " ( S o c i e t y 9 8 ) . I n h e r s t u d y N o v e l s ,  

R e a d e r s , and R e v i e w e r s ; Responses t o F i c t i o n i n A n t e b e l l u m  

A m e r i c a , N i n a Baym i d e n t i f i e s s e v e r a l n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

m o n t h l i e s w i t h l a r g e c i r c u l a t i o n s t h a t were t a r g e t t e d 

e s p e c i a l l y a t women: Godev's Lady's Book, P e t e r s o n ' s Magazine, 

Graham's Magazine , The L a d i e s ' R e p o s i t o r y , and S a r t a i n ' s U n i o n  

Magazine . W e e k l i e s s u c h as The Home J o u r n a l and The New Y o r k  

Ledger a l s o a p p e a l e d t o women ( 1 5 - 1 7 ) . As Baym's s t u d y 

i n d i c a t e s , women's i n f l u e n c e s as r e a d e r s i n a n t e b e l l u m A m e r i c a 

a r e b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e i n c r e d i b l e number o f n o v e l s 

w r i t t e n by women i n t h e p e r i o d , and by t h e s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n 
48 

t h e s e works r e c e i v e d i n t h e c r i t i c a l p r e s s . 
I n s h o r t , t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

A m e r i c a n r e a d i n g p u b l i c changed c o n s i d e r a b l y between t h e wars. 

By 1860, A m e r i c a ' s " c l a s s l e s s " h a b i t o f r e a d i n g (Nye's term) 

had a l s o c r o s s e d gender b o u n d a r i e s . As L o n g f e l l o w i n t h e 

18 2 0s l o o k e d t o w a r d a c a r e e r as an eminent p o e t , he would have 

t o c o n s i d e r how b e s t t o market h i s p r o d u c t i n r e l a t i o n t o 

consumers who i n d e e d were r a p i d l y becoming " t h e masses." I n 

48 • • 
H e l s m g e r and h e r c o - w r i t e r s ' c h a p t e r on " ' P o e t e s s e s ' 

and 'Lady N o v e l i s t s ' " documents t h e t r a n s a t l a n t i c 
p r o l i f e r a t i o n and a p p e a l o f women's w r i t i n g a t m i d - c e n t u r y 
( I I I 26-78). 



c o n t r a s t , changes t o B r i t a i n ' s r e a d i n g p u b l i c o c c u r r e d much 

more s l o w l y , f r u s t r a t e d as t h e y were by an a r i s t o c r a t i c 

i d e o l o g y t h a t c o n t i n u e d t o e x e r t r e s i d u a l c u l t u r a l f o r c e i n a 

w o r l d e c o n o m i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h e r i s i n g power o f t h e 

m i d d l e c l a s s e s . 

R i c h a r d A l t i c k ' s The E n g l i s h Common Reader, Raymond 

W i l l i a m s ' s The Long R e v o l u t i o n , and D a v i d V i n c e n t ' s L i t e r a c y  

and P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , when r e a d t o g e t h e r , p r o v i d e a 

c o m p r e h e n s i v e o v e r v i e w o f t h e c h a n g i n g shape o f t h e B r i t i s h 

p u b l i s h i n g i n d u s t r y and t h e V i c t o r i a n r e a d i n g p u b l i c . When 

Tennyson a p p e a r e d upon t h e scene, t h e E n g l i s h book t r a d e had 

been d e c l i n i n g f o r t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y 

because o f t h e e x t r e m e l y h i g h p r i c e s c h a r g e d t o c o v e r c o s t s , a 

s h o r t a g e o f paper (and paper t a x e s ) , and an a n t i q u a t e d 

t e c h n o l o g y ( A l t i c k 2 60-62). V a r i o u s schemes f o r cheap books 

were t r i e d i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s b u t t e c h n o l o g y had y e t t o 

improve t o meet r e a d e r s ' demands. I n t h e 183 0s, s e v e r a l 

improvements i n book m a n u f a c t u r e d i d o c c u r t o a l l o w f o r 

c h e a p e r c o s t s : machine-produced p a p e r , b o a r d s and c l o t h 

b i n d i n g s , and t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f what a r e o x y m o r o n i c a l l y 

known t o d a y as " p e r f e c t b i n d i n g s , " u s i n g g l u e r a t h e r t h a n 

s t i t c h i n g t o b i n d t h e g a t h e r i n g s ( 2 7 8 ) . I n g e n e r a l , however, 

B r i t a i n l a g g e d f a r b e h i n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n terms o f i t s 

t e c h n o l o g y . F o r example, i t was n o t u n t i l t h e 18 60s t h a t t h e 

A m e r i c a n h i g h - s p e e d Hoe p r i n t i n g p r e s s used f o r newspapers was 

used i n E n g l a n d f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f paper-bound books; and 



t y p e s e t s f o r books c o n t i n u e d t o be composed by hand u n t i l t h e 

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e Monotype machine i n t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h 

c e n t u r y ( 3 0 6 - 7 ) . I n sum, t e c h n o l o g y i n B r i t a i n f a i l e d t o keep 

pace w i t h advances i n t h e " t h r e e g r e a t r e q u i s i t e s o f a mass 

r e a d i n g p u b l i c — l i t e r a c y , l e i s u r e , and a l i t t l e p o c k e t money" 

( A l t i c k 3 0 6 ) . T h i s l a p s e meant t h a t u n l e s s a p u b l i s h e r c o u l d 

r e d u c e c o s t s t h r o u g h o t h e r m e a n s — f o r example, by p i r a t i n g 

A m e r i c a n t e x t s o r i s s u i n g r e p r i n t s r a t h e r t h a n new e d i t i o n s — 

r e t a i l p r i c e s would be h i g h e r i n B r i t a i n t h a n i n t h e U n i t e d 

S t a t e s . 

The r e q u i s i t e s t h a t A l t i c k i d e n t i f i e s above were a c h i e v e d 

by t h e masses i n B r i t a i n o n l y by t h e 1890s, and a g a i n nowhere 

n e a r as r a p i d l y as i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n 1801 B r i t a i n had 

an a p p r o x i m a t e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f 11 m i l l i o n ; by 1901 i t had 

more t h a n t r i p l e d : t o 37 m i l l i o n ( e x c l u d i n g I r e l a n d ) . Y e t , as 

A l t i c k a r g u e s , t h e s e a g g r e g a t e f i g u r e s must be s u d i v i d e d t o 

i d e n t i f y changes t o c l a s s s t r u c t u r e s and t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l and 

g e o g r a p h i c a l demographics o f B r i t i s h s o c i e t y t o a c h i e v e an 

adequate p r o f i l e o f V i c t o r i a n B r i t a i n ' s r e a d i n g a u d i e n c e . I n 

b r o a d t e r m s , 75% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1800s b e l o n g e d 

t o t h e l o w e r - m i d d l e o r l o w e r c l a s s e s : a r t i s a n s , m e c h a n i c s , 

s e r v a n t s . But c e r t a i n o c c u p a t i o n a l groups i n c r e a s e d 

s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n t h e p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g t o A l t i c k , t h e new 

mass a u d i e n c e was t o be r e c r u i t e d from t h e i n c r e a s i n g numbers 

o f s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , s m a l l s h o p k e e p e r s , c l e r k s , and b e t t e r 

grade o f d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s . By 1861, t h e d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t 



p o p u l a t i o n had grown t o more t h a n a m i l l i o n , and p r e s u m a b l y 

t h e s e w o r k e r s had t h e e d u c a t i o n i f n o t t h e t i m e t o r e a d ( 8 3 ) . 

Queen V i c t o r i a ' s o b s e r v a t i o n o f h e r own d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s ' 

n o t i c e o f L o n g f e l l o w , mentioned above, c o n f i r m s t h e i r p l a c e 

w i t h i n t h e a u d i e n c e f o r p o p u l a r p o e t r y . The segment o f t h e 

m i d d l e c l a s s p r o p e r t h a t grew most r a p i d l y was t h a t o f 

p h y s i c i a n s , t e a c h e r s , c i v i l s e r v a n t s , and o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s : 

from 1851 t o 1881 i t i n c r e a s e d by 80%, from a p o p u l a t i o n o f 

357,000 t o 647,000. By 1855, t h e I n d i a n C i v i l S e r v i c e exam 

i n c l u d e d " E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e " as one o f i t s s u b j e c t s . As one 

o f t h e i r e x a m i n e r s e x p l a i n e d , c a n d i d a t e s were t o be n o t o n l y 

f a m i l i a r w i t h h i s t o r i c a l works, b u t w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y works as 

w e l l , t h o s e o f " S i r W a l t e r S c o t t and Tennyson" f o r example 

( A l t i c k 183-4). Presumably, Tennyson's p o p u l a r a u d i e n c e 

w o u l d be drawn from t h e s e p r o f e s s i o n a l r a n k s . 

P o t e n t i a l advances i n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c m o b i l i t y , i n c r e a s e d 

numbers o f s e m i - e d u c a t e d w o r k e r s , and a b r o a d e n i n g 

p r o f e s s i o n a l base combined w i t h p o l i t i c a l u n r e s t i n t h e 

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o produce a s h a r p e n i n g o f c l a s s 

c o n s c i o u s n e s s and s o c i a l t e n s i o n s . These, i n t u r n , a f f e c t e d 

t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r l i t e r a c y and e d u c a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o t h e 

l o w e r c l a s s e s . I n h i s s t u d y o f " L i t e r a c y and E d u c a t i o n i n 

E n g l a n d , " Lawrence Stone c l a i m s t h a t i n " t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h 

c e n t u r y , t h e s t a n d a r d o f l i t e r a c y i n E n g l a n d (and France) was 

n o t m e r e l y low by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h S c o t l a n d and New E n g l a n d , 

b u t a l s o . . . w i t h P r u s s i a , S w i t z e r l a n d , H o l l a n d , and p a r t s 



148 

o f t h e A u s t r i a n Empire" (129). A c o n f u s e d , mismanaged 

e d u c a t i o n system i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e c e n t u r y d i d l i t t l e 

t o i n c r e a s e t h e a g g r e g a t e numbers o f l i t e r a t e a d u l t s l e t a l o n e 

p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r s o f l i t e r a t u r e . I n 1841, i n E n g l a n d and 

Wales, 67.3% o f a d u l t males were l i t e r a t e ( t h a t i s , t h e y c o u l d 

s i g n t h e i r names t o a m a r r i a g e r e g i s t e r ) , w h i l e o n l y 51.1% o f 

a d u l t f e m a l e s were. However, by 1871 t h e f i g u r e f o r males had 

i n c r e a s e d t o 80.6% w h i l e f o r women i t was 73.2%.; and by 1900, 

t h e f i g u r e s f o r men and women were n e a r l y e q u a l : 97.2% and 

96.8% r e s p e c t i v e l y ( A l t i c k 171). Over t h e f i f t y - n i n e y e a r 

p e r i o d , men had i n c r e a s e d t h e i r l i t e r a c y l e v e l by 

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s w h i l e t h e r a t e f o r women 

had r i s e n by n e a r l y 46 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s . I n h i s s t u d y o f 

L i t e r a c y and P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , V i n c e n t b r e a k s t h e s e f i g u r e s 

down f u r t h e r by g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n , o c c u p a t i o n , and age. 

H i s maps o f E n g l a n d r e v e a l t h a t , d u r i n g t h e f i n a l decades o f 

t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , women i n c r e a s i n g l y exceeded men i n t h e 

s o u t h e r n d i s t r i c t s i n terms o f l e v e l s o f l i t e r a c y (25) . What 

A l t i c k n o t e s above as a g r o w i n g demand f o r d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s , 

s c h o l a r s s u c h as W. B. Stephens and V i n c e n t s u g g e s t had a 

s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on t h e l i t e r a c y l e v e l s o f g i r l s and women 

i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y (see V i n c e n t 104). 

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , i n c r e a s e s i n t h e l e v e l s 

o f l i t e r a c y , f o r men o r women, l i k e l y had v e r y l i t t l e t o do 

w i t h any s t r u c t u r e d e d u c a t i o n s i n c e B r i t a i n d i d n o t have a 

s t a t e - f u n d e d e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l system u n t i l t h e passage o f W. 



149 

E. F o r s t e r ' s N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A c t i n 1870, and even t h e n i t 

was n o t f u l l y - o p e r a t i o n a l u n t i l t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . As 

A l t i c k e x p l a i n s , a d e b a t e i n t h e 1790s between Andrew B e l l (an 

A n g l i c a n ) and J o s e p h L a n c a s t e r (a Quaker) o v e r t h e p r o p e r 

e d u c a t i o n o f t h e p o o r gave r i s e t o two d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed 

s o c i e t i e s t h a t would c o n t r o l e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n f o r a l m o s t a 

hundred y e a r s : "The B r i t i s h and F o r e i g n S c h o o l S o c i e t y " 

( d i s s e n t e r s ) and "The N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r P r o m o t i n g t h e 

E d u c a t i o n o f t h e Poor i n t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f t h e E s t a b l i s h e d 

Church t h r o u g h o u t E n g l a n d " ( A n g l i c a n s ) ( 1 4 4 - 5 ) . These 

s o c i e t i e s , i n t h e i r b i d s f o r e d u c a t i o n a l supremacy, t h w a r t e d 

any p o s s i b l e c o n j o i n i n g o f d e n o m i n a t i o n s , even a t t h e l o c a l 

l e v e l . C o n s e q u e n t l y , e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n i n V i c t o r i a n 

E n g l a n d c o n s i s t e d o f a h a p h a z a r d system o f s c h o o l s t h a t were 

e i t h e r c h a r i t a b l y funded, p r i v a t e l y owned, o r 

p h i l a n t h r o p i c a l l y endowed. The m a j o r i t y o f s c h o o l s chose t o 

employ a cheap, e f f i c i e n t system o f m o n i t o r s r a t h e r t h a n t o 

h i r e s u f f i c i e n t t e a c h e r s f o r t h e work, and l e a r n i n g was 

p r i m a r i l y by r o t e . I n A l t i c k ' s v i e w , i t was e x a c t l y t h e k i n d 

o f e d u c a t i o n t o d i s c o u r a g e any enjoyment o f r e a d i n g (149-50). 

A l t h o u g h P a r l i a m e n t a p p o i n t e d a Committee o f C o u n c i l t o 

i n s p e c t s c h o o l s i n 1839, v e r y l i t t l e change o t h e r t h a n 

i n c r e a s e d government f u n d i n g t o t h e two S o c i e t i e s o c c u r r e d i n 

t h e e a r l y 184 0s because o f t h e i r d e n o m i n a t i o n a l d e a d l o c k and a 

p o l i t i c a l m i s t r u s t o v e r t h e s o c i a l v a l u e o f e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e 

l o w e r c l a s s e s . However, by 1843 P a r l i a m e n t had i n p l a c e 



150 

i n s p e c t o r s t o examine l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n a t t h e S o c i e t i e s ' 

s c h o o l s and t o make recommendations t o t h e government f o r 
49 

improvements. A t f i r s t , t h e government r e s p o n d e d p o s i t i v e l y 

t o t h e a d v i c e o f i n s p e c t o r s s u c h as Matthew A r n o l d , so t h a t 

t h e 1850s w i t n e s s e d an u n p a r a l l e l e d e x p a n s i o n o f s c h o o l s and 

t e a c h e r s c o l l e g e s and a much needed e n l a r g e m e n t o f t h e 

c u r r i c u l u m ; by 1859, government s p e n d i n g i n e d u c a t i o n had 

r e a c h e d o v e r £800,000 (see T h o l f s e n 2 4 ) . However, s u c h 

p r o g r e s s was n o t t o l a s t . A l a r m e d by t h e f u n d i n g i n c r e a s e s 

f o r an e d u c a t i o n t h a t most members o f p a r l i a m e n t f e l t t h e 

l o w e r c l a s s e s n e i t h e r needed n o r d e s e r v e d , t h e government 

p a s s e d a R e v i s e d Code i n 1862 t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y i n s t i t u t e d a 

payment by r e s u l t s p o l i c y . S c h o o l i n s p e c t o r s had now t o 

c o n f i n e t h e m s e l v e s m e r e l y t o t h e i n s p e c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s and 

t h e t e s t i n g o f s t u d e n t s i n r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , and a r i t h m e t i c . 

As Matthew A r n o l d p r e d i c t e d i n h i s pamphlet "The Twice R e v i s e d 

Code," r o t e l e a r n i n g i n c r e a s e d because i t p r o d u c e d t h e e a s i e s t 

and most f i n a n c i a l l y r e w a r d i n g r e s u l t s (see S m i t h and 

S u m m e r f i e l d 157-97). 
49 

The r e p o r t s o f S i r James K a y - S h u t t l e w o r t h (1840s) and 
Matthew A r n o l d (18 50s) a r e some o f t h e b e s t known documents i n 
t h e h i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h e d u c a t i o n . B o t h men a r g u e d f o r 
a d e q u a t e l y f u n d e d t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c o l l e g e s and g r e a t e r 
r e m u n e r a t i o n f o r t e a c h e r s t o encourage systems o f e d u c a t i o n 
l e s s r e l i a n t on r o t e l e a r n i n g . See T r y g v e T h o l f s e n ' s S i r  
James K a y - S h u t t l e w o r t h on P o p u l a r E d u c a t i o n and P e t e r S m i t h 
and G e o f f r e y S u m m e r f i e l d ' s Matthew A r n o l d and t h e E d u c a t i o n o f  
t h e New O r d e r . 



151 

The o r i g i n a t o r o f t h e R e v i s e d Code, R o b e r t Lowe, e x p r e s s e d 

an e l i t i s t a t t i t u d e o f c u l t u r a l dominance t h a t had, 

t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h w a r t e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n 

o f e g a l i t a r i a n e d u c a t i o n : "The l o w e r c l a s s e s ought t o be 

e d u c a t e d t o d i s c h a r g e t h e d u t i e s c a s t upon them. They s h o u l d 

a l s o be e d u c a t e d t h a t t h e y may a p p r e c i a t e and d e f e r t o a 

h i g h e r c u l t i v a t i o n when t h e y meet i t , and t h e h i g h e r c l a s s e s 

ought t o be e d u c a t e d i n a v e r y d i f f e r e n t manner, i n o r d e r t h a t 

t h e y may e x h i b i t i t t o t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s t h a t h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n 

t o w h i c h , i f i t were shown t o them, t h e y would bow down and 

d e f e r " ( q t d . i n A l t i c k 156-7). However, p o l i t i c a l changes i n 

t h e 18 60s, e s p e c i a l l y t h e 18 67 Reform B i l l , r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e 

e d u c a t i o n system be r e s t r u c t u r e d on f a r more d e m o c r a t i c 

p r i n c i p l e s t h a n p r e v i o u s l y . F o r s t e r ' s N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A c t 

o f 1870 e s t a b l i s h e d s c h o o l b o a r d s t h r o u g h o u t B r i t a i n t o e n s u r e 

s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n ; t h e p r o c e s s o f r e f o r m had begun. 

W h i l e s t a t e - f u n d e d i n s t i t u t i o n s were l o c k e d i n an 

i d e o l o g i c a l d e b a t e , t h e w o r k i n g - c l a s s segment o f t h e V i c t o r i a n 

r e a d i n g p u b l i c sought d i v e r s e a l t e r n a t i v e methods o f l e a r n i n g . 

C h i l d r e n who worked i n f a c t o r i e s c o u l d r e c e i v e i n s t r u c t i o n i n 

r e a d i n g a t Sunday s c h o o l s o r , a f t e r t h e passage o f The F a c t o r y 

A c t o f 1833, f o r two h o u r s p e r day by law a t t h e f a c t o r i e s 

( A l t i c k 148). A l t h o u g h m i n i m a l and o f t e n c o n d u c t e d under 

d e p l o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , t h i s e a r l y e x p o s u r e t o l e a r n i n g c o u l d 

v e r y w e l l l e a d t o o t h e r a d u l t forms o f e d u c a t i o n . Through t h e ' 

c l a s s e s , l e c t u r e s , and l i b r a r i e s o f M e c h a n i c s ' I n s t i t u t e s 



152 

( e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e 182 0s) a d u l t w o r k e r s had a c c e s s t o 

s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e . 5 0 However, by m i d - c e n t u r y , t h e o r i g i n a l 

s c i e n t i f i c p u r p o s e o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t e s had been a l l b u t 

abandoned. P o p u l a r l e c t u r e s on h i s t o r y , t r a v e l , b i o g r a p h y , 

m u s i c , and l i t e r a t u r e meant t h a t p e o p l e came t o be e n t e r t a i n e d 

more t h a n t h e y d i d e n l i g h t e n e d ( A l t i c k 2 0 1 - 2 ) . F i n a l l y , a d u l t 

w o r k e r s a t t e n d e d e v e n i n g s c h o o l s , p r i v a t e o r p h i l a n t h r o p i c , t o 

g a i n a r u d i m e n t a r y l e v e l o f r e a d i n g . Y e t , as A l t i c k 

c o n c l u d e s , t h e r e s u l t s a t t h e s e s c h o o l s were q u e s t i o n a b l e : "Of 

t h e 12,400 men and women a t t e n d i n g about a hundred s c h o o l s i n 

1832, o n l y 3,148 were a c c o u n t e d a b l e t o r e a d as a r e s u l t o f 

t h e i r s c h o o l i n g " ( 1 4 9 ) . I n t h e end, i t seems t h a t w h a t e v e r 

e d u c a t i o n t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s d i d r e c e i v e , t h e b u l k o f i t 

w o u l d have t o be s e l f - s t y l e d . Indeed, V i n c e n t m a i n t a i n s t h a t 

i t was t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s f a m i l y ' s own d r i v e f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l 

development t h a t a c t u a l l y was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r improvements i n 

l i t e r a c y r a t e s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( 5 4 ) . 

A l t i c k and W i l l i a m s b o t h remark on t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e 
I n s t i t u t e s t o r e a c h t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s f o r w h i c h t h e y were 
o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d . By t h e 1840s, t h e y were a t t e n d e d m o s t l y 
by a r t i s a n s and p r o f e s s i o n a l s who had l e s s b o n e - w e a r y i n g 
l a b o u r t o engage i n f o r 12 o r 14 h o u r s b e f o r e coming t o a 
l e c t u r e . A l s o , employers were o f t e n p a t r o n s so t h a t employees 
became s u s p i c i o u s o f m o t i v e s . L i t t l e o r no " e n t e r t a i n i n g " 
l i t e r a t u r e s were a l l o w e d , and p o l i t i c a l t o p i c s were g e n e r a l l y 
f o r b i d d e n . I n s h o r t , a t o o o b v i o u s d i d a c t i c p u r p o s e t o s c h o o l 
t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s i n a m i d d l e - c l a s s i d e o l o g y o f s c i e n t i f i c 
m a t e r i a l i s m and s e l f - h e l p p r e v e n t e d t h e M e c h a n i c s I n s t i t u t e s 
from becoming p o p u l a r w i t h t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s ( A l t i c k 188-
212, W i l l i a m s Long 143-4). 



153 

More t h a n even t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s , g i r l s and women o f t h e 

m i d d l e and upper c l a s s e s had t o r e l y on u n s y s t e m a t i c 

i n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e i r e d u c a t i o n s . As S a r a Delamont p o i n t s out 

i n h e r two a r t i c l e s , "The C o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n L a d i e s E d u c a t i o n " 

(134-63) and "The Domestic I d e o l o g y and Women's E d u c a t i o n " 

(164-87), e d u c a t i o n f o r g i r l s and women was l a c e d w i t h 

t e n s i o n s o f c l a s s and gender c o n c e r n i n g t h e r o l e s o f women i n 

s o c i e t y . I f t h e y c o u l d keep o u t o f t h e f a c t o r i e s , and i f t h e y 

were a l l o w e d t o a t t e n d s c h o o l , g i r l s from w o r k i n g - c l a s s 

f a m i l i e s o f t e n r e c e i v e d a b e t t e r b a s i c e d u c a t i o n t h a n t h e i r 

c o u n t e r p a r t s o f b e t t e r c l a s s e s . Delamont r e v e a l s t h a t t h e 

c o n t e n t o f w o r k i n g - c l a s s e d u c a t i o n "was h a r d l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d 

by s e x w h i l e t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e upper, and t h e emerging 

m i d d l e c l a s s e s was h i g h l y sex s p e c i f i c . . ." ( 1 6 4 ) . 

Moreover, Stone p o i n t s o u t t h a t i n r u r a l a r e a s , because boys 

l e f t s c h o o l e a r l i e r t h a n g i r l s t o work as farm l a b o u r e r s ( a t 

10 r a t h e r t h a n 14 o r 1 5 ) , " g i r l s were i n some c o u n t r y 

d i s t r i c t s more l i t e r a t e t h a n boys" ( 1 1 6 - 7 ) . B r i t i s h g i r l s o f 

t h e u p p e r - m i d d l e and m i d d l e c l a s s e s , i f e d u c a t e d a t a l l , 

g e n e r a l l y had t o r e l y on g o v e r n e s s e s o r b o a r d i n g s c h o o l s t o 

i n s t r u c t them i n g e n d e r - s p e c i f i c s u b j e c t s s u c h as f i n e a r t s , 

m u s i c , and, i n some c a s e s , f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s . The p u r p o s e , as 

Delamont d e s c r i b e s i t , was t o c r e a t e a " g e n t e e l y got-up 

m a r i o n e t t e , " i d e a l l y s u i t e d f o r m a r r i a g e ( 1 3 8 ) . Such abuses 

were w e l l known by t h e 1840s, y e t r e f o r m o f f e m a l e e d u c a t i o n 

i n V i c t o r i a n B r i t i a n p r o c e e d e d s l o w l y because i t was hampered 



154 

by a d o u b l e c o n f o r m i t y : t o t h e " l a d y " as a s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t 

and t o t h e c l a s s i c a l l y e d u c a t e d gentleman as h e r o n l y 

a l t e r n a t i v e . D i s p u t e s r a g i n g o v e r t h e v a l u e o f a c l a s s i c s -

based e d u c a t i o n f o r young men, i n t u r n , s p i l l e d o v e r i n t o t h e 

dilemma o f how b e s t women s h o u l d be e d u c a t e d . However, " t h e 

p l i g h t o f E n g l a n d ' s 25,000 g o v e r n e s s e s " n e c e s s i t a t e d immediate 

changes a c c o r d i n g t o P h i l i p p a L e v i n e ( 5 0 ) . Two women's 

c o l l e g e s were founded i n t h e l a t e 1840s i n r e s p o n s e : F. D. 

M a u r i c e ' s Queen's C o l l e g e (1848) and E l i z a b e t h R e i d ' s B e d f o r d 

C o l l e g e (1849). A c c o r d i n g t o L e v i n e , b o t h p r o v i d e d a 

t h o r o u g h , b a s i c e d u c a t i o n ( 5 6 ) . I n t h e c u r r i c u l a o f P r i n c e s s 

I d a ' s u n i v e r s i t y o f women i n The P r i n c e s s , Tennyson c l e a r l y 

o u t l i n e s t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e above e d u c a t i o n a l d e b a t e . That 

he c o u l d c o u n t women among t h e poem's r e a d e r s , however, was i n 

no way t h e r e s u l t o f any g u a r a n t e e d o r s y s t e m a t i c e d u c a t i o n 

p r o v i d e d f o r them. S e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n , as Maggie T u l l i v e r i n 

E l i o t ' s M i l l on t h e F l o s s d i s c o v e r s , would have t o amend t h e 

d e f e c t s i n a m e r e l y p o l i t e e d u c a t i o n . 

An e x p e n s i v e book t r a d e and an i n a d e q u a t e e d u c a t i o n system 

may a c t u a l l y have a s s i s t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l a s p i r a n t s ( i n c l u d i n g 

women), f o r i t encouraged r e a d e r s t o seek f u l f i l m e n t and 

r a t i o n a l r e c r e a t i o n t h r o u g h two o t h e r means: t h e p o p u l a r 

p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s and c i r c u l a t i n g l i b r a r i e s . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e 

p o p u l a r i n c l u d e s b o t h t h e r a d i c a l "pauper" p r e s s d e v e l o p e d 

a f t e r i n c r e a s e s t o t h e Stamp d u t i e s i n 1815 and 1819 and t h e 

" r e s p e c t a b l e " p r e s s . W i l l i a m s m a i n t a i n s t h a t because o f 



155 

p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s and c e n s o r s h i p , t h e r a d i c a l p r e s s emerged 

as a p o l i t i c a l f o r c e d i s t i n c t from t h e c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s o f 

t h e r e s p e c t a b l e p r e s s ("Long 185-6) . V i n c e n t a l s o a r g u e s t h a t 

t h e r a d i c a l p r e s s was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t r a n s f o r m i n g an 

e s s e n t i a l l y o r a l c u l t u r e i n t o a w r i t t e n one i n t h e e a r l y 

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y (242) . A l t h o u g h s e e m i n g l y u n c o n n e c t e d t o 

Tennyson's development as a p o p u l a r p o e t , b o t h o f t h e s e two 

changes i n t h e c u l t u r a l h a b i t s o f t h e l i t e r a t e w o r k i n g c l a s s 

meant t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y was t h e r e f o r Tennyson's p o e t r y t o 

a p p e a l e i t h e r t o p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l i s m o r s y m p a t h i e s f o r an 

o r a l t r a d i t i o n i n p o e t r y among w o r k i n g c l a s s r e a d e r s . 

E v i d e n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y shows t h a t Tennyson managed t o 

do j u s t t h a t . 

The r e s p e c t a b l e p r e s s , on t h e o t h e r hand, dominated t h e 

c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y o f t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s e s and, t h r o u g h 

o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h as C h a r l e s K n i g h t ' s S o c i e t y f o r t h e 

D i f f u s i o n o f U s e f u l Knowledge, a l s o worked t o c o n t r o l t h e 

c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n o f t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s . The s u b s t a n t i a l 

i n c r e a s e s i n t h e number o f p e r i o d i c a l s and i n t h e i r 

c i r c u l a t i o n f i g u r e s a t t e s t t o t h e r a p i d development o f a 

m i d d l e t o l o w e r - m i d d l e c l a s s r e a d i n g a u d i e n c e i n t h e f i r s t 

h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I n t h e e a r l y 1800s, q u a r t e r l y 

r e v i e w s c o u l d e x p e c t a c i r c u l a t i o n o f 5,000 t o 10,000, 

m o n t h l i e s l e s s t h a n 5,000, w e e k l i e s l e s s t h a n 10,000, and 

d a i l y newspapers between 2,000 and 5,000 ( A l t i c k 392). By 

m i d - c e n t u r y , w h i l e t h e f i g u r e s f o r q u a r t e r l y r e v i e w s had 



156 

r e m a i n e d v i r t u a l l y unchanged, and m o n t h l i e s had i n c r e a s e d o n l y 

m a r g i n a l l y , a t l e a s t a h a l f - d o z e n w e e k l y newspapers and cheap 

m i s c e l l a n i e s had a t t a i n e d a c i r c u l a t i o n o f more t h a n 100,000. 

" I n 1858 t h e s a l e o f t h r e e f i c t i o n p a p e r s , t h e F a m i l y H e r a l d , 

t h e London J o u r n a l , and C a s s e l l ' s F a m i l y Paper was s a i d t o 

t o t a l 895,000, and W i l k i e C o l l i n s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e 

f o r s u c h p e r i o d i c a l s was a t l e a s t t h r e e m i l l i o n " ( A l t i c k 3 5 7 ) . 

Moreover, t h e Times i n c r e a s e d i t s d a i l y c i r c u l a t i o n from j u s t 

under 6,000 i n 1822 t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60,000 by 1860, sometimes 

a t t a i n i n g c i r c u l a t i o n s o f up t o 108,000 ( 3 9 2 - 4 ) . C l e a r l y t h e 

s o c i o - e c o n o m i c p r o f i l e o f B r i t a i n ' s r e a d e r s o f t h e p o p u l a r 

p r e s s had changed m a r k e d l y i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e c e n t u r y . 

The r e s p e c t a b l e p r e s s a l s o a t t e m p t e d t o r e a c h t h e w o r k i n g 

c l a s s e s i n t h e 183 0s t h r o u g h low p r i c e s , as i n W i l l i a m 

Chamber's Chamber's J o u r n a l (a 3 h a l f - p e n n y w e e k l y ) , and w i t h 

e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e n t i o n s , as i n C h a r l e s K n i g h t ' s Penny Magazine. 

However, as b o t h A l t i c k and W i l l i a m s n o t e , t h e s e magazines 

l i k e l y were bought by t h e m i d d l e and l o w e r - m i d d l e c l a s s e s who 

were s t a r v e d f o r a f f o r d a b l e r e a d i n g ; W i l l i a m s f u r t h e r adds 

t h e y more l i k e l y a p p e a l e d t o h o u s e h o l d s w i t h £200-300 p e r 

annum, h o u s e h o l d s t h a t would have had d i f f i c u l t y a f f o r d i n g a 

7d. t a x e d d a i l y paper (Long 190). I n s h o r t , w h i l e Tennyson's 

p o t e n t i a l m i d d l e - c l a s s a u d i e n c e was r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g downward 

t o i n c l u d e s k i l l e d w o r k e r s and shop k e e p e r s , wages and p r i c e s 

n o n e t h e l e s s r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l t o o n l y t h e 

c h e a p e s t o f p e r i o d i c a l s . A f i v e - s h i l l i n g volume o f p o e t r y , 



157 

f o r t h e s e f a m i l i e s , would have been out o f t h e q u e s t i o n as 

a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n an e x c e p t i o n a l p u r c h a s e . 

The p o p u l a r p r e s s a l s o r e s p o n d e d t o a new a u d i e n c e o f 

women. T h e i r a g g r e g a t e i n c r e a s e i n numbers and i m p o r t a n c e as 

r e a d e r s d u r i n g t h e V i c t o r i a n age can be measured a t a g l a n c e 

i n t h e c i t a t i o n s l i s t e d i n B a r b a r a Kanner's b i b l i o g r a p h y o f 

"The Women i n E n g l a n d i n a C e n t u r y o f S o c i a l Change, 1815-

1914" ( B r a n c a S u f f e r 178-81). E i g h t y - e i g h t i n d i v i d u a l 

l i s t i n g s , from pamphlets and a r t i c l e s t o m u l t i - v o l u m e works, 

r e f l e c t c o n c e r n f o r women's n a t u r e and t h e i r s o c i a l r o l e s . 

The r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a r i t y o f m i d d l e - c l a s s women's 

magazines and t h e i r c i r c u l a t i o n f i g u r e s s u g g e s t a s i m i l a r r i s e 

i n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f women as r e a d e r s and consumers. C y n t h i a 

White n o t e s as one example t h a t Samuel Beeton's Englishwoman's  

D o m e s t i c Magazine ( e s t . 1852), a two-penny m o n t h l y , had w i t h i n 

two y e a r s r e a c h e d a s a l e o f 25,000 c o p i e s a month t h a t w o u l d 

i n c r e a s e t o 50,000 by 1860 ( 4 6 ) . Of c o u r s e , women e x e r c i s e d 

t h e g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e as r e a d e r s and w r i t e r s o f n o v e l s . 

A l t i c k a r g u e s t h a t s i n c e Pamela i n t h e 1740s "women p l a y e d an 

i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e E n g l i s h r e a d i n g a u d i e n c e " 

( 4 5 ) . E l i z a b e t h H e l s i n g e r and h e r c o - w r i t e r s ' e x a m i n a t i o n o f 

" ' P o e t e s s e s ' and 'Lady N o v e l i s t s ' " a t t e s t s t o t h e w i d e s p r e a d 

i n f l u e n c e o f women w r i t e r s i n t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y by 

a n a l y s i n g t h e r e v i e w s t h e i r work r e c e i v e d i n t h e c r i t i c a l 

p r e s s ( I I I 26-78). I n "The Lady N o v e l i s t s " ( W e s t m i n s t e r  

Review 1852) George Lewes h e r a l d s t h e r i s e o f women's 



158 

l i t e r a t u r e f o r " i t p r o m i s e s woman's v i e w o f l i f e , woman's 

e x p e r i e n c e : i n o t h e r words, a new element." He a s s e r t s t h a t 

"men and women have d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s , c o n s e q u e n t l y 

d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s . To know l i f e you must have b o t h s i d e s 

d e p i c t e d " ( q t d . i n H e l s i n g e r I I I 5 6 ) . That Tennyson h i m s e l f 

a t t e m p t e d t h r o u g h o u t h i s p o e t r y t o d e p i c t " b o t h s i d e s " 

c o n f i r m s h i s awareness o f women as i n t e g r a l t o h i s r e a d i n g 

a u d i e n c e . 

V a r i o u s l i b r a r i e s p r o v i d e d a c o u n t e r t o t h e p r o h i b i t i v e 

c o s t s o f Tennyson's t e x t s f o r many r e a d e r s . E a r l y l i b r a r i e s 

f o r t h e w e a l t h y may have c h a r g e d from two t o f i v e g u i n e a s 

s u b s c r i p t i o n f e e s , b u t by 1830, as A l t i c k n o t e s , i n London and 

i n p r o v i n c i a l towns, l i b r a r i e s c h a r g i n g r e n t a l f e e s o f a penny 

a volume were v e r y numerous ( 2 1 7 ) . Book c l u b s and i n f o r m a l 

o r g a n i z a t i o n s among n e i g h b o u r i n g f a m i l i e s o r c o - w o r k e r s a l s o 

bought and exchanged books; a c o r r e s p o n d e n t i n t h e M o n t h l y  

Magazine i n 1821 c l a i m e d t h a t t h e r e were "not l e s s t h a n 6,500 

o f t h e s e u s e f u l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f v a r i o u s d e g r e e s . . . 

[ s e r v i n g ] above 30,000 f a m i l i e s " ( q t d . i n A l t i c k 218-19). 

P a r i s h l i b r a r i e s and " i t i n e r a t i n g l i b r a r i e s " ( t h a t moved from 

v i l l a g e t o v i l l a g e ) s e r v e d t h e needs o f v i l l a g e r s . Readers 

c o n n e c t e d t o a u n i o n o r c l u b might have t h e i r needs met by t h e 

boxes o f books t h a t c i r c u l a t e d among groups such as t h e U n i o n 

o f M e c h a n i c s ' I n s t i t u t e s , t h e Sunday S c h o o l U n i o n , t h e Working 

Men's C l u b and I n s t i t u t e U n i o n , and t h e N a t i o n a l L i b e r a l C l u b 

( A l t i c k 2 2 2 ) . C h a r l e s Edward Mudie, however, managed t o t u r n 



159 

t h e c i r c u l a t i n g l i b r a r y i n t o an e f f i c i e n t b u s i n e s s i n t h e 

1850s by c h a r g i n g o n l y one g u i n e a f o r a y e a r ' s s u b s c r i p t i o n 

and s e t t i n g up b r a n c h l i b r a r i e s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f London. 

H i s volume o f p u r c h a s e s r e f l e c t s t h e s i z e o f h i s c l i e n t e l e : 

960,000 new volumes between 1853 and 1862 ( A l t i c k 2 9 6 ) . As 

e v i d e n c e o f Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y , Amy C r u s e n o t e s t h a t i n t h e 

1860s Mudie p u r c h a s e d 2,500 c o p i e s o f Enoch A r d e n , 2,400 o f 

M a c a u l a y ' s H i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d ( V o l s 3 & 4 ) , and 2,000 o f 

E l i o t ' s The M i l l on t h e F l o s s (315-16). The l i b r a r y o b v i o u s l y 

was one way i n w h i c h Tennyson's p o e t r y c o u l d be r e a d i f n o t 

p u r c h a s e d . 5 1 

I n e f f e c t , t h e l a c k o f a s t a n d a r d i z e d e d u c a t i o n a l system i n 

B r i t a i n and t h e d i v e r s e means by w h i c h e d u c a t o r s and p e o p l e 

d e s i r o u s o f knowledge s a t i s f i e d t h e i r d e s i r e s c r e a t e d a t r u l y 

h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e a d i n g p u b l i c i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y . When 

Tennyson and Moxon chose t o i s s u e a new volume, t h e c l a s s , 

age, o r gender o f i t s p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r s c l e a r l y c o u l d n o t be 

d e t e r m i n e d i n advance. What i s c l e a r from t h e a v a i l a b l e 

s t a t i s t i c s on l i t e r a c y i s t h a t a r e m a r k a b l e i n c r e a s e i n 

women's l e v e l s o f l i t e r a c y c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e p e r i o d o f 

Tennyson's g r e a t e s t p o p u l a r i t y . That t h e r e was a c a u s a l l i n k 

5 1 P a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e c i r c u l a t i n g l i b r a r y may a l s o have 
c o n t r i b u t e d t o s m a l l e d i t i o n s and i n o r d i n a t e l y h i g h p r i c e s f o r 
t h e i n d i v i d u a l consumer. They were a ready-made market f o r 
books t h a t were e a s i l y s u p p l i e d , o f t e n a t a d i s c o u n t , so t h a t 
n e i t h e r t h e p u b l i s h e r s nor t h e l i b r a r i e s had any need t o 
r e d u c e r e t a i l p r i c e s (see A l t i c k 295-7). 



160 

between t h e s e two a c h i e v e m e n t s , however, i s i m p o s s i b l e t o 

d e t e r m i n e . 

U l t i m a t e l y , any p r o f i l e o f A m e r i c a n and B r i t i s h r e a d e r s as 

consumers o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o e t r y f a l l s s h o r t o f 

r e p r e s e n t i n g f u l l y t h e degree t o w h i c h r e a d e r s c o l l e c t i v e l y 

c o l l a b o r a t e i n c r e a t i n g t h e l i t e r a r y e x p e r i e n c e t h e y 

a n t i c i p a t e when p u r c h a s i n g a volume o f poems. As consumers o f 

p h y s i c a l p o e t i c t e x t s , p u r c h a s e r s o f p o e t r y c l e a r l y added, a t 

l e a s t s t a t i s t i c a l l y , t o t h e r e p u t a t i o n s L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson e n j o y e d as p o p u l a r p o e t s . A t t h e same t i m e , by t h e 

v e r y e x e r c i s e o f t h e i r a e s t h e t i c t a s t e as r e a d e r s i n 

p u r c h a s i n g t h e volumes, t h e y s h a r e d i n t h e r e f l e c t e d s t a t u s 

t h e p o e t s t h e m s e l v e s had a c h i e v e d . I n o t h e r words, t h e 

p o p u l a r i t y o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o e t r y c a n n o t be 

a c c o u n t e d f o r i n i s o l a t i o n from V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y ' s c r e a t i o n 

and r e c r e a t i o n o f t h e s e p o e t s ' work as c o m m o d i t i e s a v a i l a b l e 

f o r p u r c h a s e , a c o l l e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s e men as v o i c e s 

o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n s . 

Two o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s , b o t h i n v o l v i n g t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f 

r e a d e r s o r a u d i e n c e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a c r e a t i v e m i l i e u , 

enhanced t h e p o s i t i o n s o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson as v o i c e s o f 

t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n s . T h i s c r e a t i v e m i l i e u i s p e o p l e d 

p r e d o m i n a n t l y by m u s i c i a n s and p a r o d i s t s , t h e s i n c e r e and t h e 

s u s p e c t b o r r o w e r s o f a v o i c e and o f a p o e t r y so r e c o g n i z a b l y 

p o p u l a r t h a t i t can be added t o , a l t e r e d , and even mocked 

w i t h o u t l o s s t o t h e i n t r i n s i c w o r t h o f t h e o r i g i n a l . A l t h o u g h 



m u s i c sometimes a l i g n e d i t s e l f w i t h p a r o d y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h 

c e n t u r y , as i n t h e comic o p e r a s o f G i l b e r t and S u l l i v a n , 

g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g m u s i c a l r e s p o n s e s t o t h e p o e t r y o f 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson i n d i c a t e a s i n c e r e r e g i s t e r o f b o t h 

t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e s e p o e t s a t t h e t i m e and t h e a t t e m p t t o 

f u r t h e r t h a t p o p u l a r i t y t h r o u g h s e t t i n g t h e i r b e s t - l o v e d 

v e r s e s t o m u s i c . The l u r e o f t h e p i a n o - f o r t e as a p r i v a t e , 

d o m e s t i c symbol o f m i d d l e - c l a s s p r o s p e r i t y , and t h e i n c r e a s i n g 

p u b l i c r e s p e c t f o r s o l o f e m a l e v o i c e s , s u c h as t h a t o f Jenny 

L i n d , t o g e t h e r c r e a t e d an i d e a l c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e 

r e c a s t i n g o f t h e V i c t o r i a n s ' f a v o u r i t e l y r i c s i n t o songs f o r 

p i a n o accompaniment. 5 2 

I n h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y o f M u s i c a l S e t t i n g s o f A m e r i c a n P o e t r y , 

M i c h a e l H o v l a n d n o t e s 1,223 d i f f e r e n t e n t r i e s f o r L o n g f e l l o w , 

t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f w h i c h were w r i t t e n i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h 

r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y (177-244). Whitman's 

p o e t r y r a n k s second w i t h 640 e n t r i e s a l t h o u g h t h e m a j o r i t y o f 

t h e s e were w r i t t e n a f t e r W o r l d War I I . Of L o n g f e l l o w ' s poems 

p u t t o m u s i c , t h e f i v e most p o p u l a r were t h e s e r e n a d e , " S t a r s 

o f t h e summer n i g h t , " from The S p a n i s h S t u d e n t ( 8 9 ) , v a r i o u s 

l y r i c s from Hiawatha ( 5 2 ) , "The Warning" from Poems on S l a v e r y 

( 4 1 ) , t h e song "Good N i g h t " from The S p a n i s h S t u d e n t ( 4 1 ) , and 

5 2 Charmenz L e n h a r t ' s M u s i c a l I n f l u e n c e on A m e r i c a n  
P o e t r y p r o v i d e s an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e r i s i n g a e s t h e t i c 
p o p u l a r i t y o f m u s i c i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a , w h i l e Dave 
R u s s e l l t r a c e s t h i s development as a s o c i a l phenomenon i n 
E n g l a n d i n h i s P o p u l a r M u s i c i n E n g l a n d , 1840-1914: A S o c i a l  
H i s t o r y . 



162 

"A P s a l m o f L i f e " from V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t ( 4 0 ) . Samuel 

C o l e r i d g e - T a y l o r p r o d u c e d t h r e e s u c c e s i v e c h o r a l - o r c h e s t r a l 

p i e c e s a t t h e end o f t h e c e n t u r y : Hiawatha's Wedding F e a s t 

(1898), Death o f Minnehaha (1899) , and H i a w a t h a ' s D e p a r t u r e 

(1900) ; and h i s p r o d u c t i o n s i n d i c a t e a d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s f o r t y - f i v e y e a r o l d poem i n t o e v e r b r o a d e n i n g 

c i r c l e s o f A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f 

t h i s c e n t u r y . However, no s o o n e r had L o n g f e l l o w been borrowed 

f o r mass e n t e r t a i n m e n t p u r p o s e s t h a n p o p u l a r t a s t e i n m u s i c 

changed t h r o u g h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f i r s t t h e phonograph and 

t h e n t h e r a d i o . Of w e l l o v e r a t h o u s a n d songs, p e r h a p s o n l y 

" I Heard t h e B e l l s on C h r i s t m a s Day" t o d a y r e t a i n s s o m e t h i n g 

o f i t s o r i g i n a l p l a c e as a f a v o u r i t e . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t 

even Beethoven w r o t e s e t t i n g s f o r t h r e e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s poems 

— " T h e B u i l d i n g o f t h e S h i p , " "A Day o f S u n s h i n e " and "To t h e 

R i v e r C h a r l e s " — t h e "music" o f L o n g f e l l o w i s r a r e l y h e a r d any 

l o n g e r . 

S i m i l a r l y , m u s i c a l s e t t i n g s o f Tennyson's p o e t r y a l s o l o s t 

t h e i r a p p e a l i n t h i s c e n t u r y a l t h o u g h somewhat l a t e r t h a n 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s . 5 3 B r y a n Gooch and D a v i d T h a t c h e r , i n t h e i r 

c a t a l o g u e o f t h e M u s i c a l S e t t i n g s o f E a r l y and M i d - V i c t o r i a n  

L i t e r a t u r e , r e c o r d 437 e n t r i e s f o r Tennyson (509-629). 

A l t h o u g h Tennyson had f a r fewer poems s e t t o m u s i c t h a n h i s 

5 3 A p p a r e n t l y , R i c h a r d S t r a u s s ' s p i a n o accompaniment f o r 
a r e c i t a l o f Enoch Arden c o n t i n u e s t o a p p e a l t o a u d i e n c e s . 
I t s r e c e n t p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 
a t t e s t s t o i t s l a s t i n g p o p u l a r i t y . 



A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r p a r t , t h i s does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t , as 

a p o e t , Tennyson was p r o p o r t i o n a l l y l e s s p o p u l a r t h a n 

L o n g f e l l o w . Tennyson a c t u a l l y had a much s m a l l e r c o r p u s o f 

s h o r t l y r i c poems a v a i l a b l e f o r p o t e n t i a l use as songs t h a n 

L o n g f e l l o w . Hence, f a v o u r i t e Tennyson l y r i c s a r e s e t t o m u s i c 

more f r e q u e n t l y t h a n L o n g f e l l o w ' s poems, w i t h many o f t h e s e 

s e t t i n g s o c c u r i n g i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h i s c e n t u r y r a t h e r 

t h a n i n t h e l a s t : v a r i o u s l y r i c s from I n Memoriam ( 1 0 7 ) , 

" C r o s s i n g t h e B a r " from Demeter and O t h e r Poems (83) , "Break, 

B r e a k , B r e a k " from t h e 1842 Poems ( 7 2 ) , v a r i o u s l y r i c s from 

Maud ( 5 9 ) , and an a s t o u n d i n g 222 s e t t i n g s o f l y r i c s from The  

P r i n c e s s : w i t h "Sweet and Low" ( 4 9 ) , "Tears I d l e T e a r s " ( 3 8 ) , 

"The S p l e n d o u r F a l l s on C a s t l e W a l l s " ( 2 8 ) , and "Now S l e e p s 

t h e C r i m s o n P e t a l " (23) as t h e most p o p u l a r . These f i g u r e s 

and t h e i r l a t e r d a t e s o f r e l e a s e s u g g e s t t h a t w h i l e fewer 

Tennyson l y r i c s were s e t t o m u s i c , i n d i v i d u a l Tennyson poems 

g e n e r a t e d g r e a t e r m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t , and f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f 

t i m e t h a n t h o s e by L o n g f e l l o w . A c o l l e c t i o n o f Tennyson's 

p o e t r y e n t i t l e d Songs by L o r d Tennyson was p u b l i s h e d j u s t 

a f t e r t h e p o e t ' s d e a t h i n 1892, c o n t a i n i n g t w e n t y two o f E m i l y 

Tennyson's own c o m p o s i t i o n s . 

O b v i o u s l y , s h e e r numbers o f m u s i c a l s e t t i n g s o f V i c t o r i a n 

p o e t r y a r e n o t , i n and o f t h e m s e l v e s , u n q u a l i f i e d i n d i c a t o r s 

o f p o p u l a r i t y . C h r i s t i n a R o s s e t t i had 758 m u s i c a l s e t t i n g s o f 

h e r poems, and R o b e r t Browning had 680, m o s t " o f t e n composed i n 

t h i s c e n t u r y , y e t no one would argue t h a t e i t h e r o f t h e s e two 



V i c t o r i a n p o e t s approached L o n g f e l l o w o r Tennyson i n terms o f 

p o p u l a r i t y . I n t h e end, one can o n l y s p e c u l a t e on t h e e x t e n t 

t o w h i c h m u s i c a l s e t t i n g s a c t u a l l y h e l p e d promote t h e p o e t r y 

o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson, and t h e r e b y i n c r e a s e s a l e s and 

o v e r a l l p o p u l a r i t y . 

The a d d i t i o n o f m u s i c t o p o e t r y r e i n f o r c e s t h e r h y t h m i c and 

t o n a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e i r p o e t r y . M u s i c a l s e t t i n g s may have 

p r o l o n g e d L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's r e p u t a t i o n s as l y r i c 

p o e t s even though b o t h p o e t s by t h e 1850s had t u r n e d t h e i r 

p r i m a r y a t t e n t i o n s f i r s t t o n a r r a t i v e and l a t e r t o d r a m a t i c 

p o e t r y . On a more p r a c t i c a l l e v e l , t h e s e t t i n g s l i k e l y added 

t o t h e a p p e a l o f t h e p o e t r y among t h e many mothers and 

d a u g h t e r s who p r o v i d e d home e n t e r t a i n m e n t f o r t h e i r f a m i l i e s . 

The p o p u l a r p o e t was t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a c u l t u r a l commodity 

a v a i l a b l e f o r w i d e s p r e a d p u b l i c p u r c h a s e , y e t d e s i g n e d f o r 

p r i v a t e use w i t h i n t h e home by f e m a l e r e a d e r s and s i n g e r s , 

t h e r e b y h e l p i n g t o c o l l a p s e d i v i s i o n s between t h e s o - c a l l e d 

male p u b l i c and f e m a l e p r i v a t e s p h e r e s o f V i c t o r i a n l i f e . 5 4 

L o n g f e l l o w a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d t h a t h i s own meters were not 

s u i t a b l e f o r music (Ghodes A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e 1 0 3 ) ; i f t h e y 

were n o t , t h e y c e r t a i n l y were s u i t a b l e f o r p a r o d y . Many 

5 4 Of c o u r s e , t h e work o f f e m a l e l y r i c p o e t s i n t h e 
V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d was a l s o s e t t o music. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , 
H o v l a n d does n o t m e n t i o n i n h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y t h e most p o p u l a r 
f e m a l e p o e t i n A m e r i c a , L y d i a S i g o u r n e y . Gooch's and 
T h a t c h e r ' s r e c e n t c a t a l o g u e o f t h e M u s i c a l S e t t i n g s o f B r i t i s h  
Romantic L i t e r a t u r e n o t e s 617 e n t r i e s f o r F e l i c i a Hemans, and 
t h e i r V i c t o r i a n c a t a l o g u e r e c o r d s 339 e n t r i e s f o r E l i z a b e t h 
B a r r e t t Browning. 



L o n g f e l l o w p a r o d i e s came from B r i t i s h w i t s , p e r h a p s t h e b e s t 

known b e i n g t h e s m a l l s h i l l i n g volume, Drop o' W a t h e r — a  

London Legend by H a r r y Wandsworth S h o r t f e l l o w , p u b l i s h e d i n 

1856 by none o t h e r t h a n R o u t l e d g e and Company who l i k e l y were 

h o p i n g t o enhance t h e p i r a t e d p r o f i t s t h e y were a l r e a d y making 

from t h e o r i g i n a l , Hiawatha (1855). I n t h e 1850s, B a y a r d 

T a y l o r formed and p u b l i s h e d h i s D i v e r s i o n s o f t h e Echo C l u b ; 

t a l e n t e d women s u c h as Phoebe Cary mimicked w r i t e r s o f t h e 

day, i n c l u d i n g L o n g f e l l o w , i n h e r Poems and P a r o d i e s (18 6 6 ) , 

and L o n g f e l l o w p a r o d y c o n t e s t s were l a u n c h e d by v a r i o u s 

p o p u l a r magazines such as t h e W o r l d i n 1879 and t h e T r u t h i n 

1880. 

I t i s from what Ghodes r e f e r s t o as an i n i t i a l l y "bad 

m i s t a k e " t h a t so many o f t h e s e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a r o d i e s o f 

L o n g f e l l o w (and Tennyson too) a r e e x t a n t t o d a y . I n 1884, 

W a l t e r H a m i l t o n had c a l l e d f o r s u b m i s s i o n s t o h i s j o u r n a l , 

P a r o d i e s o f t h e Works o f E n g l i s h & A m e r i c a n A u t h o r s ; 

u n f o r t u n a t e l y , he began w i t h Tennyson and L o n g f e l l o w , and t h u s 

had u l t i m a t e l y t o p u t h i s e n t i r e p l a n on h o l d w h i l e o l d and 

new p a r o d i e s f l o o d e d i n . By t h e t i m e he was done, he had 

f i l l e d t h e b e t t e r p a r t o f two volumes. A c c o r d i n g t o 

H a m i l t o n ' s c o l l e c t i o n , t h e most p o p u l a r L o n g f e l l o w poems f o r 

p a r o d y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i n c l u d e " E x c e l s i o r " ( 4 6 ) , 

Hiawatha (31) , and "A P s a l m o f L i f e " (24) a l t h o u g h e l s e w h e r e 

H a m i l t o n avows t h a t " ' E x c e l s i o r ' s e r v e d as a model f o r 

hundreds o f p a r o d i e s " ( I 8 0 ) . S i n c e o n l y t h o s e poems 



166 

s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l - k n o w n t o t h e i r a u d i e n c e s t o be i m m e d i a t e l y 

r e c o g n i z a b l e as bases f o r p a r o d y can p o s s i b l y be mimicked, t h e 

q u a n t i t y o f L o n g f e l l o w p a r o d i e s i s f u r t h e r t e s t i m o n y t o h i s 

p o e t r y ' s w i d e s p r e a d p o p u l a r i t y . 

Y e t w i t h a l l o f t h i s mocking o f A m e r i c a ' s most famous p o e t , 

H a m i l t o n m a i n t a i n s t h a t " i t i s d o u b t f u l whether one u n k i n d l y 

worded, o r s p i t e f u l b u r l e s q u e was e v e r penned about L o n g f e l l o w 

o r h i s works" ( I 6 5 ) . R a t h e r , t h e p a r o d i e s appear t o be 

a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f s t y l e , 

l a n g u a g e , and i d e a , and n o t d i r e c t e d a t L o n g f e l l o w p e r s o n a l l y 

o r p r o f e s s i o n a l l y . One m i g h t c o n c l u d e t h a t , s i n c e 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s v e r s e c o n t a i n s a w e a l t h o f s t y l i s t i c 

i d i o s y n c r a c i e s f o r p o t e n t i a l r i d i c u l e , p a r o d i s t s had no need 

t o t u r n t o t h e p o e t f o r f u r t h e r s u b j e c t m a t t e r . S t i l l , 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s own r e a c t i o n t o p a r o d i e s o f Hiawatha may be 

c o u n t e d as a barometer o f t h e i r b i t e : e i t h e r he was v e r y 

t h i c k - s k i n n e d o r t h e y were f a i r l y p a i n l e s s . H i s remark t h a t 

"Hiawatha p a r o d i e s come i n from a l l q u a r t e r s , — e v e n from 

C a l i f o r n i a " ( L i f e I I 272) sounds more f a s c i n a t e d t h a n i t does 

c o n c e r n e d . 

H a m i l t o n ' s c l a i m t h a t " i m i t a t i o n i s t h e s i n c e r e s t form o f 

f l a t t e r y " ( I 1) may be t r u e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y and 

r e p u t a t i o n , b u t Tennyson p a r o d i e s l i k e l y i s s u e d from f a r 

d i f f e r e n t m o t i v e s . A c c o r d i n g t o H a m i l t o n ' s r e c o r d s , a l m o s t as 

many n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a r o d i e s o f Tennyson's poems e x i s t as 

t h o s e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s ; t h e f a v o u r i t e s i n c l u d e "The May Queen" 



( 3 8 ) , "The Charge o f t h e L i g h t B r i g a d e " ( 3 0 ) , "The Brook" 

( 2 5 ) , "Break, Break, Break" ( 1 9 ) , and " L o c k s l e y H a l l " ( 1 9 ) . 

J e l l e Postma's s t u d y o f Tennyson as Seen by h i s P a r o d i s t s 

a r g u e s c o n v i n c i n g l y t h a t t h e o n l y compliment t h a t Tennyson's 

i m i t a t o r s e v e r i n t e n d e d t o pay him was t o show t h a t t h e y 

supposed Tennyson " t o e n j o y a s u f f i c i e n t amount o f p o p u l a r i t y , 

and t o p o s s e s s some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s making him e m i n e n t l y f i t 

t o be [ t h e i r ] v i c t i m " ( 1 3 ) . U n l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , Tennyson 

h i m s e l f — t h e p o e t and t h e man—was o f t e n s u b j e c t t o p u b l i c , 

p a r o d i c s c o r n e s p e c i a l l y on t h o s e o c c a s i o n s when he a c c e p t e d 

p o l i t i c a l p a t r o n a g e . A l t h o u g h Tennyson's a c c e p t a n c e o f a 

c i v i l l i s t p e n s i o n i n 1845 d i d c r e a t e a c r i t i c a l s t i r i n t h e 

magazines, h i s work was n o t y e t s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l known t o 

g e n e r a t e many p a r o d i e s as a r e s u l t . But by 1850, when he 

became p o e t L a u r e a t e , and c e r t a i n l y l a t e r , i n 1883, when he 

f i n a l l y a c c e p t e d a Baronecy, Tennyson's supposed w i l l i n g n e s s 

t o p l a y p o e t i c handmaid t o t h e Queen became t h e s u b j e c t o f 

many b u r l e s q u e s r e c a s t as s t y l i s t i c p a r o d i e s o f h i s poems, n o t 

a l l o f them q u i t e so p o l i t e as t h o s e t h a t mock t h e A m e r i c a n 

p o e t . L o n g f e l l o w (and h i s p o e t r y ) had t h e l u x u r y o f 

b e l o n g i n g t o a c o u n t r y l e s s dominated by c l a s s t e n s i o n s and 

l e s s i n c l i n e d t o s e l f - r i d i c u l e t h a n B r i t a i n . The U n i t e d 

S t a t e s , i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , was f a r t o o l i t e r a l - m i n d e d 

and f a r t o o c h a r g e d w i t h i t s own s e l f - i m p o r t a n c e t o r i s k 

s e r i o u s l y u n d e r m i n i n g i t s e l f as a n a t i o n by p a r o d y i n g t h e 

i d e o l o g y r a t h e r t h a n j u s t t h e s t y l e o f i t s n a t i o n a l p o e t . 



168 

B r i t a i n , on t h e o t h e r hand, had a l o n g h i s t o r y o f p o l i t i c a l 

s a t i r e t h a t c o u l d j u s t as e a s i l y be a p p l i e d t o p o e t r y when t h e 

need a r o s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e p o e t i n q u e s t i o n seemed t o be 

h y p o c r i t i c a l l y a c c e p t i n g a s t a t i o n i n l i f e c o n t r a r y t o t h e 

e g a l i t a r i a n s e n t i m e n t s e x p r e s s e d e l s e w h e r e i n h i s p o e t r y . 

P a r o d i e s o f Tennyson t h u s f r e q u e n t l y b e l i t t l e d t h e a t t i t u d e s 

and p o s t u r e s assumed by Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n s p e a k e r s so as t o 

expose an a l l e g e d i n s i n c e r i t y a t t h e c o r e o f t h e L a u r e a t e ' s 

s o c i a l s t r u g g l e between doubt and f a i t h . 

Y e t d e s p i t e t h e i r p o t e n t i a l l y damaging e f f e c t s , p a r o d i e s o f 

Tennyson l i k e l y added t o r a t h e r t h a n d e t r a c t e d from h i s 

o v e r a l l p o p u l a r i t y . I n "Tennyson i n P a r o d y and J e s t , " George 

0. M a r s h a l l c o n t e n d s t h a t even a p a r o d y d e v a s t a t i n g l y c r i t i c a l 

o f i t s o r i g i n a l i s n o n e t h e l e s s "a compliment t o i t , o r t o t h e 

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e a u t h o r , f o r one does n o t p a r o d y t h e unknown" 

( 6 ) , and f u r t h e r adds t h a t he can t h i n k o f no Tennyson p a r o d y 

t h a t has d e s t r o y e d s e r i o u s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f i t s o r i g i n a l ( 7 ) . 

However, M a r s h a l l l a t e r r e v e a l s t h a t , a t t h e o u t s e t , c e r t a i n 

k i n d s o f poems s h o u l d be e x c u s e d from s e r i o u s a p p r e c i a t i o n i n 

any c a s e and a r e t h e r e f o r e q u i t e j u s t i f i a b l y l a u g h e d a t : 

Tennyson's " m i l k - s o p " p o e t r y s u c h as t h a t f o u n d i n "The May 

Queen," and a l l o t h e r works dominated by h i s " p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r 

t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l " ( 8 - 9 ) . Y e t t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o t h i n k 

t h a t p a r o d i e s o f t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l s any more t h a n t h o s e o f 

o t h e r Tennyson g e n r e s would have damaged t h e L a u r e a t e ' s p o e t i c 

p r e s t i g e . Even " m i l k - s o p " p a r o d i e s would enhance a w r i t e r ' s 



c u r r e n t c r i t i c a l a c c l a i m by d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p u b l i c 

r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l . And, as t h e above d i s c u s s i o n o f 

s a l e s c o n c l u d e s , Tennyson's d o m e s t i c n a r r a t i v e poems f u r t h e r e d 

r a t h e r t h a n h i n d e r e d h i s g r o w i n g r e p u t a t i o n . 

R a t h e r t h a n encourage p a s s i v e c o n s u m p t i o n o f p o p u l a r t e x t s , 

b o t h m u s i c a l s e t t i n g s and p a r o d i e s a c t u a l l y demand a 

w i d e s p r e a d y e t a c t i v e a u d i e n c e f o r t h e i r o r i g i n a l s i n o r d e r t o 

be s u c c e s s f u l t h e m s e l v e s . I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e s e a r t i s t i c forms 

c r e a t i v e l y r e c r e a t e t h e v o i c e s o f p o p u l a r p o e t s by e c h o i n g i n 

new ways t h e p u b l i c s e n t i m e n t s t o w a r d them. These c r e a t i v e 

forms t h u s work s y m b i o t i c a l l y as two d i f f e r e n t modes o f 

r e c e p t i o n t o p o p u l a r t e x t s t h a t a c t i v e l y a t t e m p t t o i n t e r p r e t , 

t r a n s f o r m , and r e t r a n s m i t o r i g i n a l works. C o n t r a r y t o 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y o p i n i o n s about p o p u l a r p o e t r y i n t h e 

V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d , such p o e t r y a c t u a l l y encouraged a c t i v e 

i n v o l v e m e n t on t h e p a r t o f i t s r e a d e r s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y t h e o r e t i c a l b i a s t h a t u s u a l l y d e f i n e s r e a d e r 

" a c t i v i t y " s t r i c t l y , as i n t e l l e c t u a l s c r u t i n y r e n d e r s 

a c t i v i t i e s s u c h as m u s i c a l s e t t i n g s o r p a r o d i e s n e g l i g i b l e 

r e g i s t e r s o f contemporary i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n s t e a d , c r i t i c a l 

r e v i e w s c o n t a i n e d i n j o u r n a l s , magazines, and newspapers a r e 

a l o n e t h o u g h t t o i l l u s t r a t e contemporary p u b l i c o p i n i o n . T h i s 

p r i v i l e g i n g o f r e v i e w s has l e d t o a d i s t o r t e d p i c t u r e o f t h e 

c u r r e n c y o f p o p u l a r p o e t s i n p a r t i c u l a r s i n c e one o f t h e 

p r i m a r y f e a t u r e s o f any r e v i e w i s t o c o n t r o l f u t u r e o p i n i o n 

r a t h e r t h a n r e s p o n d f u l l y t o t h e p r e s e n t c u l t u r a l s t a t u s o f 



170 

p o e t s o r t e x t s i n q u e s t i o n . Nowhere i s t h i s more e v i d e n t t h a n 

i n t h e c r i t i c a l p r e s s o f t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d . 

N i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v i e w e r s promoted t h e p r o p e r p o e t i c 

p e r s o n a as much as t h e p o e t r y i n o r d e r t o g e n e r a t e consumer 

a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e most r e c e n t volume 

o f p o e t r y , and t h e s o c i a l s t a t u s c o n f e r r e d by i t s p u r c h a s e . 

As C h a r v a t o u t l i n e s i n h i s s t u d y o f The O r i g i n s o f A m e r i c a n  

C r i t i c a l Thought 1810-1825. i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e 

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , r e l i g i o n and l a w — t h e most common 

p r o f e s s i o n s o f A m e r i c a ' s f o r t y most i m p o r t a n t c r i t i c s — 

c o n v e r g e d t o c r e a t e a s p e c i e s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l c r i t i c i s m whose 

b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s summarized below, dominated c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e 

u n t i l t h e C i v i l War: 

1. The c r i t i c was t o be " t h e watchdog o f s o c i e t y " ( 8 - 9 ) . 

2. L i t e r a t u r e must n o t condone r e b e l l i o n o f any k i n d a g a i n s t 
t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i a l and economic o r d e r ( 9 - 1 3 ) . 

3. L i t e r a t u r e must n o t c r e a t e a n y t h i n g d e r o g a t o r y , i m p l i c i t l y 
o r e x p l i c i t y , t o r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s and m o r a l s t a n d a r d s ( 1 3 - 1 7 ) . 

4. L i t e r a t u r e s h o u l d be o p t i m i s t i c : i t s h o u l d n o t condone 
p h i l o s o p h i c a l p e s s i m i s m o r s k e p t i c i s m ( 1 7 - 2 1 ) . 

5. L i t e r a t u r e s h o u l d d e a l w i t h t h e i n t e l l i g i b l e , n o t t h e 
m y s t i c a l o r o b s c u r e ( 2 1 - 3 ) . 

6. L i t e r a t u r e s h o u l d be s o c i a l i n p o i n t o f v i e w , n o t 
e g o c e n t r i c ( 2 3 - 6 ) . 

Stemming as t h e y d i d from t h e c r i t i c s ' own e d u c a t i o n a l and 

o c c u p a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g , t h e i r j u d i c i a l , m o r a l , and 

p a t e r n a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e s n o t o n l y a f f e c t e d t h e n a t u r e o f p o e t r y 

w r i t t e n i n t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b u t d e t e r m i n e d 



171 

r e a d e r s ' c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e m s e l v e s — i n r e l a t i o n t o b o t h 

c r i t i c i s m and l i t e r a t u r e — a s c h i l d r e n o r p u p i l s who r e q u i r e d 

m o r a l and s o c i a l g u i d a n c e . A l t h o u g h t h e Young A m e r i c a 

movement was t o c h a l l e n g e t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l e l i t i s m o f t h i s 

e s s e n t i a l l y New E n g l a n d l i t e r a t i , and t o encourage a 

d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e 1830s and 40s, t h e 

g r i d l o c k o f m o r a l c o n s e r v a t i v i s m t h a t New E n g l a n d ' s c r i t i c s 

m a i n t a i n e d o v e r t h e r e c e p t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 

r e s t o f t h e c o u n t r y e n s u r e d t h a t whatever p o p u l a r s u c c e s s a 

p o e t s u c h as L o n g f e l l o w might a c h i e v e would come o n l y t h r o u g h 

h i s c a r e f u l o b s e r v a n c e o f s o c i a l v a l u e s e n d o r s e d by A m e r i c a ' s 

p r o f e s s i o n a l c l a s s e s . 

Because c r i t i c s used e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S c o t t i s h 

r h e t o r i c i a n s t o promote, i n t h e o r y , t h e a e s t h e t i c means by 

w h i c h l i t e r a t u r e , i n p r a c t i c e , s h o u l d a p p e a l t o t h e masses 

and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , t o t h e i r g r o w i n g sense o f n a t i o n a l i s m , 

a n t e b e l l u m p o e t r y was i n e v i t a b l y drawn i n t o d i s c u s s i o n s about 

" t a s t e " and t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a u n i v e r s a l m o r a l i t y (see 

C h a r v a t 27-58). Thus Wordsworth came t o be f a v o u r e d as t h e 

c r i t i c s ' Romantic p o e t , d e s p i t e Byron's e a r l y p o p u l a r a p p e a l , 

s i n c e he a l l e g e d l y w r o t e o f "common l i f e " i n t h e " r e a l 

language o f men" and c o u l d t h e r e b y a p p e a l t o A m e r i c a ' s g r o w i n g 

d e m o c r a t i c s y m p a t h i e s w i t h l i t t l e o r no l o s s t o t h e d i d a c t i c 

p o t e n c y o f v e r s e . A c c o r d i n g t o C h a r v a t , t h e s h i f t from 

s t a t i c , e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r u l e s o f decorum t o W o r d s w o r t h i a n 

r o m a n t i c i s m , a l s o meant "a r e a d j u s t m e n t between t h e a r t i s t and 



172 

h i s a u d i e n c e , a w i l l i n g n e s s t o see t h i n g s t h r o u g h t h e eyes o f 

p o e t s who no l o n g e r w o u l d see o n l y what t h e y were supposed t o 

s e e " (92) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d o c t r i n e o f 

a s s o c i a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o e x e r t r e s i d u a l p r e s s u r e t o r e s t r i c t 

i n d i v i d u a l i s m and e n s u r e t h a t , u n t i l t h e C i v i l War, p o e t r y 

w o u l d a t t e m p t t o e x a c t o n l y u n i v e r s a l s e n t i m e n t s from i t s 

r e a d e r s . E i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i d e a l s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d s t y l e s o f 

p o e t r y s i n c e r h e t o r i c and o r a t o r y t o o k s u c h a p r o m i n e n t p l a c e 

i n t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l system. As t h e e d i t o r f o r t h e U n i t e d  

S t a t e s L i t e r a r y G a z e t t e remarked i n 1826, t h e " a r t o f p u b l i c 

a d d r e s s . . . o c c u p i e s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d p l a c e among t h e 

d e p a r t m e n t s o f our l i t e r a t u r e , and c o n t r i b u t e s g r e a t l y t o form 

t h e t a s t e , g u i d e t h e o p i n i o n s , and i n c r e a s e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o f 

our p e o p l e " ( q t d . i n Nye S o c i e t y 136). Of n e c e s s i t y , 

L o n g f e l l o w would have t o d e v e l o p h i s p o e t i c v o i c e w i t h i n and 

a g a i n s t t h e c o n f i n e s o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a e s t h e t i c s as 

d i c t a t e d t o him from v a r i o u s e d u c a t i o n a l , p e r i o d i c a l , and 

l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s . 

I n a s i m i l a r way, i n f l u e n t i a l f a m i l y members and f r i e n d s 

had t h e f i n a l say i n h e l p i n g t o f a s h i o n t h e p o e t — t h r o u g h 

r e m i n i s c e n c e s , memoirs, b i o g r a p h i e s , and t h e l i k e — i n t o a 

commodity f o r p u r c h a s e e q u a l t o i f n o t g r e a t e r t h a n t h e p o e t r y 

i t s e l f . L o n g f e l l o w ' s b r o t h e r Samuel's L i f e o f Henry Wadsworth  

L o n g f e l l o w (1886) i m m o r t a l i z e d L o n g f e l l o w as a p o e t o f immense 

p i e t y and openness, one whom a l l r e a d e r s c o u l d l o v i n g l y 



173 

embrace as a f a m i l i a r f r i e n d . 5 5 A n n i e F i e l d s ' s A u t h o r s and  

F r i e n d s (1897) d i d t h e same. T r y o n a l l e g e s t h a t F i e l d s r e l i e d 

h e a v i l y upon h i s w i f e , A n n i e , t o j u d g e t h e w o r t h o f p r o p o s e d 

m a n u s c r i p t s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n by h i s f i r m . " I t was t h e woman's 

p o i n t o f v i e w , he s a i d , w h i c h he f o u n d o f v a l u e . I t was n o t 

l o n g b e f o r e w r i t e r s d i s c o v e r e d t h i s power b e h i n d t h e t h r o n e 

and t h e r e were f r e q u e n t a p p e a l s t o h e r t o s e c u r e a f a v o r a b l e 

o p i n i o n on a m a n u s c r i p t . . . " ( P a r n a s s u s 272). A l t h o u g h 

L o n g f e l l o w had n e v e r t o c o n c e r n h i m s e l f w i t h A n n i e ' s h i g h 

o p i n i o n o f him and h i s work, as A n n i e ' s own A u t h o r s and  

F r i e n d s more t h a n c o n f i r m s , h e r i m p r e s s i o n s o f L o n g f e l l o w 

p r o v i d e a g l i m p s e o f t h e c r i t e r i a by w h i c h p o e t s came t o be 

w o r t h y t o s t a n d b e s i d e L o n g f e l l o w by s h a r i n g h i s p u b l i s h e r . 

She f e l t t h a t L o n g f e l l o w had been c h a r g e d w i t h " t h e energy o f 

a s o u l l o o k i n g f o r l a r g e r e x p a n s i o n ; a s p i r i t t r u e t o i t s e l f 

and i t s own p r o m p t i n g , f i n d i n g i t s way by l a b o r and l o v e t o 

t h e f r e e use and development o f t h e power w i t h i n him" ( 4 - 5 ) . 

O b v i o u s l y w a n t i n g , i n 1897, t o c o u n t e r a g r o w i n g r e a c t i o n 

a g a i n s t L o n g f e l l o w t h a t d e f i n e d him as o v e r l y s c h o l a r l y , 

d i d a c t i c , and i m i t a t i v e , i n h e r f o c u s upon t h e p o e t ' s s o u l and 

s p i r i t , A n n i e i n d i r e c t l y r e v e a l s t h e v a l u e o f A m e r i c a n 

V i c t o r i a n p o e t r y t o be t h a t o f a s e c u l a r i z e d r e l i g i o n o f 

d o m e s t i c i t y w i t h L o n g f e l l o w as i t s c h i e f m i n i s t e r . Hence, t h e 

e x e m p l a r y f e a t u r e s o f t h e man i n c l u d e : t h e " s e n s i t i v e n e s s o f 

5 5 Samuel L o n g f e l l o w ' s L i f e o f h i s b r o t h e r i s a n a l y s e d i n 
c h a p t e r two. 



174 

h i s n a t u r e " ( 7 ) ; " t h e eager a c t i v i t y o f h i s mind" ( 1 0 ) ; h i s 

" s i n g l e n e s s o f aim and s t r e n g t h o f c h a r a c t e r " ( 1 5 ) ; an 

" e s p e c i a l l o v e o f home and a l l d o m e s t i c i t i e s " ( 1 9 ) ; and t h e 

" t e n d e r n e s s , sweetness, and c a l m " w i t h w h i c h he f i l l e d h i s own 

home (2 6 ) . A n n i e s t r e n g t h e n s t h i s d o m e s t i c v i e w o f t h e 

A m e r i c a n b a r d by q u o t i n g from one o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s many 

a d m i r e r s and a c q u a i n t a n c e s , W i l l i a m W i n t e r : L o n g f e l l o w 

" a r o u s e d [a] mixed f e e l i n g o f m i n g l e d t e n d e r n e s s and 

r e v e r e n c e " f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s , n o t t h e l e a s t o f w h i c h were 

h i s " d i g n i t y and g r a c e , " t h e " b e a u t i f u l r e f i n e m e n t o f h i s 

c o u n t e n a n c e , " and h i s v o i c e w h i c h "was s o f t , sweet, and 

m u s i c a l , and l i k e h i s f a c e , . . . had t h e i n n a t e charm o f 

t r a n q u i l i t y " ( q t d . 2 8 ) . To most t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s o f 

L o n g f e l l o w , t h e above p o r t r a i t c a r r i e s few s u r p r i s e s . What i t 

r e v e a l s , however, i s t h e p r o f o u n d way i n w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w t h e 

man became i n e x t r i c a b l y t i e d t o L o n g f e l l o w t h e p o e t i n l a t e -

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o p i n i o n . I t i s as i f by t h e end o f t h e 

c e n t u r y t h e f i g u r e o f L o n g f e l l o w h i m s e l f had s u r p a s s e d h i s 

p o e t r y as t h e p r i m a r y commodity f o r p u b l i c p u r c h a s e by 

A m e r i c a n a u d i e n c e s as t h e y became more and more i n t r i g u e d by 

t h e p r i v a t e v i e w s and s e n t i m e n t s o f t h i s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y 

p u b l i c p o e t . 

R e v i e w e r s and i n f l u e n t i a l f a m i l y members and f r i e n d s a l s o 

e x e r t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e i n V i c t o r i a n B r i t a i n . I n 

V i c t o r i a n S c r u t i n i e s : Reviews o f P o e t r y , 1830-1870, I s o b e l 

A r m s t r o n g o u t l i n e s t h e f e a t u r e s o f c r i t i c i s m s h a r e d by t h e 



175 

m a j o r i t y o f V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d ' s j o u r n a l i s t s and r e v i e w e r s . 

Her r e s u l t s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e l i s t e d by C h a r v a t above. I n 

a b b r e v i a t e d form, h e r summary i s as f o l l o w s : 

1. t h e r e f u s a l t o r e g a r d poems as s e l f - c o n t a i n e d e n t i t i e s , 
s e a l e d o f f from m o r a l c o n t e x t s and s o c i a l i s s u e s ; 

2. t h e absence o f a s p e c i a l i z e d o r t e c h n i c a l c r i t i c a l 
v o c a b u l a r y c a p a b l e o f a r t i c u l a t i n g t h e f o r m a l and a e s t h e t i c 
q u a l i t i e s o f a poem; 

3. a p e r c e p t i o n o f p o e t r y as p r a g m a t i c : a l l u s i o n s t o human, 
s o c i a l , and h i s t o r i c a l i s s u e s , t o t h e r e a d e r ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n 
w i t h and r e s p o n s e t o t h e p o e t i c s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , and t h e 
c h a r a c t e r s and emotions i n a poem; 

4. a r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t p o e t r y be p r o d u c t i v e o f sympathy: a 
m o r a l f a c u l t y s h a r e d among p o e t s and r e a d e r s e n a b l i n g p e o p l e 
t h r o u g h e m o t i o n a l t r a n s f e r e n c e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n s 
and f e e l i n g s o f o t h e r p e r s o n s . 

5. d i s d a i n f o r o b v i o u s d i d a c t i c i s m : p o e t r y s h o u l d s u g g e s t 
r a t h e r t h a n impose i t s e l f on t h e r e a d e r ; 

6. t h e terms o f d i s c u s s i o n i n c l u d e d f i t s u b j e c t s f o r p o e t r y 
and t h e f u n c t i o n i t h e l d f o r t h e r e a d e r . (4-14) 

C l e a r l y , A r m s t r o n g ' s r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e V i c t o r i a n 

c r i t i c a l m i l i e u i n w h i c h Tennyson was t o make h i s mark was 

d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f p o e t r y l a t e r 

espoused by t h e New C r i t i c i s m , and opposed a l s o t o t h e t e n e t s 

o f R o m a n t i c i s m upon w h i c h c r i t i c s such as I..A. R i c h a r d s 

d e r i v e d t h e i r m o d e r n i s t t h e o r i e s . 5 6 As A r m s t r o n g c l a i m s o f 

V i c t o r i a n c r i t i c i s m , " i t i s a l m o s t as i f C o l e r i d g e had n e v e r 

5 6 One o f t h e most r e c e n t a r t i c l e s t h a t l i n k s R i c h a r d s ' s 
p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m t o R o m a n t i c i s m i s Ann E. B e r t h o f f ' s 
" C o l e r i d g e , I.A. R i c h a r d s , and t h e I m a g i n a t i o n " i n a 
c o l l e c t i o n o f e s s a y s e n t i t l e d The E d u c a t i o n a l Legacy o f  
R o m a n t i c i s m . 



176 

been" ( 1 4 ) . A r m s t r o n g echoes Shannon's Tennyson and t h e  

R e v i e w e r s i n w h i c h t h e r e v i e w s o f Poems (1842) "had b r o u g h t 

o u t f i v e p o i n t s c o n c e r n i n g p o e t r y i n g e n e r a l o r Tennyson i n 

p a r t i c u l a r " : 

1. modern p o e t r y must i d e a l i z e and m i r r o r c o n t e m p o r a r y l i f e 
and t h o u g h t ; 

2. t h e h i g h e s t t y p e o f p o e t r y must be c o n c e r n e d w i t h human 
e x i s t e n c e ; 

3. t h e p o e t ' s p r i m a r y d u t y i s t o t e a c h ; 

4. Tennyson's p o e t r y must d i s p l a y more human sympathy; 

5. Tennyson, i f he i s t o e s t a b l i s h h i s c l a i m t o g r e a t n e s s , 
must w r i t e a l o n g p o e m — a s u s t a i n e d work on a s i n g l e theme. 
(Shannon 92) 

U n l i k e r e v i e w e r s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , r e v i e w e r s i n B r i t a i n 

were f a r more s o c i a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s . As 

i n d i c a t e d above i n Tennyson's r e a c t i o n s t o h i s r e v i e w e r s ( a l s o 

d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r f o u r ) , j o u r n a l s o f t e n s t r e n g h t e n e d c l a s s 

and p o l i t i c a l a l l e g i a n c e s by u s i n g a p o e t ' s most r e c e n t volume 

as f o d d e r i n t h e i r i n t e r n e c i n e wars. As a consequence, 

recommendations t o " t e a c h " o r t o " d i s p l a y human sympathy" 

would mean d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t o d i f f e r e n t r e v i e w e r s . Tennyson 

c o u l d r e l y f a r l e s s t h a n L o n g f e l l o w on any i d e o l o g i c a l harmony 

among h i s a u d i e n c e o f c r i t i c s . 

I r o n i c a l l y , however, Tennyson d i d manage t o a p p e a l t o some 

i n t r i n s i c , homogeneous, i d e o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s o f h i s d i v e r s e 

r e a d e r s . The n a r r a t o r ' s r e s p o n s e t o E v e r a r d H a l l ' s r e a d i n g o f 

t h e "Morte D ' A r t h u r " m i g h t 'well s u f f i c e as a d e s c r i p t i o n o f 

how Tennyson's p o e t r y t o u c h e d t h e h e a r t s o f r e a d e r s as 



177 

s o c i a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y d i s t i n c t as Samuel Bamford was from 

Queen V i c t o r i a , as an o l d , uneducated v i l l a g e woman was from 

R o b e r t Browning: " i t was t h e t o n e w i t h w h i c h he r e a d — / 

P e r h a p s some modern t o u c h e s h e r e and t h e r e / Redeemed i t from 

t h e c h a r g e o f n o t h i n g n e s s — / Or e l s e we l o v e d t h e man, and 

p r i z e d h i s work; / I know n o t " (276-80). Once r e v i e w e r s p u t 

a s i d e t h e i r p o l i t i c a l s t r i f e , and h e a r d c l e a r l y t h e t o n e o f 

Tennyson's p e o p l e ' s v o i c e , t h e y t o o came under h i s s p e l l . 

W i t h o u t q u e s t i o n , V i c t o r i a n B r i t a i n l o v e d Tennyson t h e man 

as much as t h e y l o v e d h i s work. I n h i s l i f e o f C a r l y l e , James 

Froude remarked o f t h e p e r i o d 1842-1850 t h a t p e o p l e were 

" d e t e r m i n e d t o have done w i t h i n s i n c e r i t y , t o f i n d ground 

under t h e i r f e e t , t o l e t t h e u n c e r t a i n r e m a i n u n c e r t a i n , b u t 

t o l e a r n how much and what we h o n e s t l y r e g a r d as t r u e , and t o 

b e l i e v e t h a t and l i v e by i t . Tennyson became t h e v o i c e o f 

t h i s f e e l i n g i n p o e t r y , C a r l y l e i n what was c a l l e d p r o s e 

. . . . We r e a d [Tennyson's poems], and t h e y became p a r t o f 

our minds, t h e e x p r e s s i o n i n e x q u i s i t e l a n g u a g e , o f t h e 

f e e l i n g s w h i c h were w o r k i n g i n o u r s e l v e s " ( 4 1 8 - 9 ) . As a 

commodity f o r p u b l i c p u r c h a s e , Tennyson's "market v a l u e " 

i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f t e r he became L a u r e a t e . I n s h o r t , 

Tennyson became f a s h i o n a b l e . 

The c u r r e n c y o f h i s p o e t r y d e c r e a s e d among t h e e d u c a t e d 

c l a s s e s a l m o s t i n d i r e c t c o r r e l a t i o n t o t h e p o p u l a r i z i n g o f 

Tennyson t h e man embodied i n Tennyson t h e p o e t . T h i s p r o c e s s 

i n c l u d e d works such as W i l l i a m H o w i t t ' s Homes and Haunts o f 



178 

t h e Most Eminent B r i t i s h P o e t s (1857) and G. C. N a p i e r ' s Homes  

and Haunts o f A l f r e d L o r d Tennyson (1892). D u r i n g h i s l i f e , 

Tennyson's fame spawned a f l o o d o f a u t o g r a p h s e e k e r s , v i s i t o r s 

w i t h n o t e books, and p h o t o g r a p h e r s s u c h as J u l i a M a r g a r e t 

Cameron a l l h o p i n g , i n some way, t o i m m o r t a l i z e Tennyson. 

A f t e r d e a t h , i n n u m e r a b l e " r e m i n i s c e n c e s " were p u b l i s h e d i n t h e 

1890s and e a r l y 1900s i n o r d e r t o make permanent h i s e v a n s c e n t 

g e n i u s . H i s son H a l l a m ' s A l f r e d Tennyson, A Memoir (1897) was 

t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c V i c t o r i a n b i o g r a p h y : a p a s t i c h e o f s t o r i e s , 

l e t t e r s , poems, and r e m i n i s c e n c e s o f o t h e r s d e s i g n e d t o 

s e c u r e i t s p u b l i c ' s s y m p a t h i e s f o r t h i s s u p p o s e d l y most p u b l i c 

o f men. 5 7 Thus was g e n e r a t e d a new commodity f o r r e a d e r s ' 

p e r u s a l and p u r c h a s e , one w h i c h r e f l e c t e d t h e m s e l v e s back t o 

t h e m s e l v e s as i f h e l d w i t h i n a m i r r o r . 5 8 

I n many r e s p e c t s , Tennyson as a new c o m m o d i t y — t h e 

V i c t o r i a n p o e t a t one w i t h h i s p o e t r y — w a s n o t s i n g u l a r . F o r 

d e s p i t e t h e i r many d i f f e r e n c e s i n terms o f p u b l i s h i n g and 

H a l l a m ' s Memoir i s c o n s i d e r e d a t l e n g t h i n c h a p t e r 
t h r e e . 

5 8 However, t h e m i r r o r was a l r e a d y c r a c k i n g by t h e 18 60s. 
P o e t s s u c h as John A d d i n g t o n Symonds had l o o k e d i n t o i t and no 
l o n g e r saw t h e m s e l v e s . He w r o t e t o Mrs C l o u g h i n 18 68 as 
f o l l o w s : "Have you o b s e r v e d t h a t we a r e g o i n g t o have an 
i n s u r r e c t i o n a g a i n s t Tennyson . . . . I have s y m p a t h i z e d w i t h 
t h i s r e v o l t , h a v i n g been a s l a v e as a boy, and s p o i l t my t a s t e 
and s t y l e by a b s u r d r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e f a u l t s o f o u r g r e a t 
p o e t " ( S c h u e l l e r I 825) . Reasons f o r t h e " r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t 
Tennyson" a r e i n c l u d e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y . A l s o , see P. G. 
S c o t t ' s "John A d d i n g t o n Symonds and t h e R e a c t i o n A g a i n s t 
Tennyson." 



p r o m o t i o n o f t h e i r work, by t h e l a t e 1840s, L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson came t o be a d m i r e d i n B r i t a i n and A m e r i c a i n ways 

t h a t s u g g e s t t h a t f o r many p e o p l e t h e y e x i s t e d c o - e q u a l l y upon 

t h e i r r e a d e r s ' h o r i z o n s o f e x p e c t a t i o n , r e a d e r s t h e m s e l v e s who 

c r o s s e d c l a s s , gender, and i d e o l o g i c a l b o u n d a r i e s . 

W a l t e r Cameron's L o n g f e l l o w Among h i s C o n t e m p o r a r i e s , f o r 

example, i s an e x h a u s t i v e c a t a l o g u e o f r e p r i n t s o f r e v i e w s , 

r e m i n i s c e n c e s , and s t o r i e s o f L o n g f e l l o w . Here, Tennyson i s 

c i t e d t h i r t y t h r e e t i m e s whereas Goethe, who has a l w a y s been 

r e c o g n i z e d as an i n f l u e n c e upon L o n g f e l l o w , i s m e n t i o n e d o n l y 

s e v e n t e e n t i m e s . I n B r i t a i n , Ebenezer E l l i o t t ( t h e Corn-Law 

rhymer) remarked i n a l e t t e r t o Samuel S m i l e s t h a t " L o n g f e l l o w 

i s i n d e e d a p o e t , and he has done what [ E l l i o t t ] deemed an 

i m p o s s i b i l i t y ; he has w r i t t e n E n g l i s h hexameters, g i v i n g our 

m i g h t y l y r e a new s t r i n g ! When Tennyson d i e s , he s h o u l d r e a d 

E v a n g e l i n e t o Homer" ( q t d . i n Ghodes A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e 118). 

And i n a more s c h o l a r l y t r e a t m e n t — a n a r t i c l e on L o n g f e l l o w i n 

t h e D u b l i n U n i v e r s i t y Magazine (Apr 1 8 5 0 ) — t h e c r i t i c b r o u g h t 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson t o g e t h e r a l t h o u g h he f e l t Tennyson t o 

p o s s e s s more " q u a i n t n e s s and v a r i e d power" t h a n L o n g f e l l o w 

(see Ghodes A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e 112) . 

That Tennyson h i m s e l f r e c o g n i z e d how p o p u l a r o p i n i o n 

e q u a t e d him w i t h L o n g f e l l o w i s shown i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t o r y 

deemed " a p o c r y p h a l " by Ghodes, b u t w h i c h o t h e r s l i k e M a r t i n 

have t a k e n as r e v e a l i n g Tennyson's u n c o u t h , r u s t i c manners 

( 2 4 0 ) . C h a r l e s H. B r o o k f i e l d i n Random R e m i n i s c e n c e s w r i t e s : 



180 

My f a t h e r was d i n i n g one n i g h t a t t h e O x f o r d and 
Cambridge C l u b w i t h George V e n a b l e s , F r a n k 
L u s h i n g t o n , Tennyson, and two o r t h r e e o t h e r s . 
A f t e r d i n n e r t h e p o e t i n s i s t e d on p u t t i n g h i s f e e t 
on t h e t a b l e , t i l t i n g back h i s c h a i r more Americano. 
There were s t r a n g e r s i n t h e room, and he was 
e x p o s t u l a t e d w i t h f o r h i s u n c o u t h n e s s , b u t i n v a i n . 
"Do p u t down y o u r f e e t ! " p l e a d e d h i s h o s t . "Why 
s h o u l d I ? " r e t o r t e d Tennyson. "I'm v e r y c o m f o r t a b l e 
as I am." "Everyone's s t a r i n g a t you," s a i d 
a n o t h e r . " L e t 'em s t a r e , " r e p l i e d t h e p o e t 
p l a c i d l y . " A l f r e d , " s a i d my f a t h e r , " p e o p l e w i l l 
t h i n k y o u ' r e L o n g f e l l o w . " Down went t h e f e e t . 

( q t d . i n Ghodes 1 1 9 ) 5 9 

Whether Tennyson's prompt r e a c t i o n was due more t o h i s d e s i r e 

n o t t o be t h o u g h t o f as A m e r i c a n t h a n h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o be 

m i s t a k e n f o r t h e p o p u l a r A m e r i c a n p o e t i s u n c e r t a i n . What i s 

c e r t a i n , however, i s t h a t Tennyson's immediate c i r c l e 

p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e l i n k between t h e two p o e t s was f a m i l i a r 

enough t o use i n a way t h a t c a l l e d f o r no f u r t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n . 

S i m i l a r l y i n A m e r i c a , L o n g f e l l o w was t h e "American Tennyson" 

(Tryon " N a t i o n a l i s m " 3 0 4 ) . T h i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n t h e 

1850s. I n A p r i l 1853 w h i l e a t t e n d i n g a " w r e t c h e d p l a y " o f 

f a s h i o n a b l e l i f e i n New York, L o n g f e l l o w was a s t o n i s h e d t o 

h e a r t h e f e m a l e s t a r ask o f h e r m i l l i n e r w h i c h she p r e f e r r e d : 

" L o n g f e l l o w o r Tennyson" ( L i f e I I 243). E i d s o n n o t e s t h a t 

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n 1855, when Hiawatha and Maud came b e f o r e 

A m e r i c a n a u d i e n c e s a t t h e same t i m e , i n subsequent r e v i e w s 

M a r t i n q u o t e s t h e same s t o r y as h a v i n g been c i t e d i n 
Jane B r o o k f i e l d ' s " E a r l y R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f Tennyson" ( M a r t i n 
240) . 



181 

Tennyson was f r e q u e n t l y compared t o L o n g f e l l o w , u s u a l l y t o t h e 

L a u r e a t e ' s d i s a d v a n t a g e (138-41). 

Y e t by t h e l a t e 1850s, r e v i e w e r s i n E n g l a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r 

had come t o make c r i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s between t h e two p o e t s . 

The r e v i e w e r o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h f o r t h e Chamber's J o u r n a l (Nov 

1858) m i g h t be t h o u g h t o f as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h o s e E n g l i s h 

r e a d e r s who had begun t o r e a c t a g a i n s t t h e p o p u l a r c o n j o i n i n g 

o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson: 

No m i s s a t a b o a r d i n g - s c h o o l e v e r y e t had t h e 
headache i n consequence o f a t o o e a r n e s t a p p l i c a t i o n 
t o t h e pages o f Mr. L o n g f e l l o w . He i s , f o r a t r u e 
p o e t — and we do n o t deny him t h a t t i t l e — t h e 
most s u p e r f i c i a l t h i n k e r p o s s i b l e . There i s a g u l f 
between h i s mind and Mr. Tennyson's i n t h i s 
r e s p e c t — a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e o f t e n v u l g a r l y c l a s s e d 
t o g e t h e r — f a r b r o a d e r t h a n t h e s e p a r a t i n g 
A t l a n t i c , ( r p t d i n Cameron 61) 

E c h o i n g t h e s e s e n t i m e n t s , s e v e r a l o f Tennyson's f r i e n d s began 

t o q u e s t i o n t h e p o p u l a r l i n k i n g o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson. 

I n a l e t t e r t o Mrs Tennyson i n J a n u a r y 1859, Thomas Woolner 

d e s c r i b e s m e e t i n g a M i s s Waugh (who l a t e r m a r r i e d W. Holman 

Hunt i n 1865), and remarks t h a t he " c o n v e r t e d h e r t o Browning 

and a l m o s t — o f c o u r s e n o t q u i t e — b u t a l m o s t made h e r l o o k w i t h 

s u s p i c i o n upon t h a t s c h o o l g i r l p o e t L o n g f e l l o w ; Tennyson was 

h e r e s t a b l i s h e d p o e t , b u t she l o o k e d w i t h a g e n t l e eye upon 

t h e Yankee and c o u l d make n e i t h e r head nor t a i l o f R o b e r t . . 

." (Amy Woolner 159). Growing t e n s i o n s i n t h e l a t e 1850s 

between B r i t a i n and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o v e r a b o l i t i o n , and 

t h r e a t s o f B r i t a i n b e i n g drawn i n t o A m e r i c a ' s C i v i l War c o u l d 

v e r y e a s i l y have g e n e r a t e d c a u s t i c remarks t o w a r d L o n g f e l l o w 



182 

as A m e r i c a ' s n a t i o n a l b a r d . Moreover, t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o 

b o a r d i n g - s c h o o l m i s s e s and s c h o o l g i r l p o e t s s u r e l y echo 

B u l w e r - L y t t o n ' s infamous " S c h o o l - M i s s - A l f r e d " l a b e l t h a t he 

had p i n n e d on Tennyson i n 1845 (see c h a p t e r f o u r ) , and a r e a 

means o f v i n d i c a t i n g Tennyson from t h i s e a r l i e r c h a r g e as w e l l 

as a f a i r l y a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e o f a l a r g e segment o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e a d e r s h i p i n B r i t a i n . 

Y e t d i s p a r a g e m e n t o f t h e p o e t r y need n o t t h e r e b y f o l l o w 

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s c h o o l g i r l s as i t s r e a d e r s . G e o r g i n a 

Macdonald, a s t u d e n t o f W i l l i a m F u l f o r d ' s and l a t e r w i f e o f 

B u r n e - J o n e s , i d e n t i f i e s t h e " v a l u e " t h a t F u l f o r d p l a c e d on 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y i n h e r r e c o l l e c t i o n t h a t F u l f o r d " f e d " h i s 

s t u d e n t s " w i t h L o n g f e l l o w f i r s t o f a l l as t h e f o o d s u i t e d t o 

our y e a r s and so b r o u g h t us g r a d u a l l y i n t o a c o n d i t i o n more o r 

l e s s f i t f o r t h e r e v e l a t i o n b e f o r e i n t r o d u c i n g us t o h i s p r i m e 

h e r o , Tennyson" ( q t d . i n C r u s e 240). Indeed, as " E n g l i s h 

L i t e r a t u r e " was becoming e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e 1870s as a s u b j e c t 

f o r s t u d y i n t h e s c h o o l system, Matthew A r n o l d had recommended 

t h a t Mrs Hemans's "The Graves o f a H o u s e h o l d " and "The Homes 

o f E n g l a n d " be used w i t h s c h o o l c h i l d r e n because t h e y have 

" r e a l m e r i t s o f e x p r e s s i o n and s e n t i m e n t [ t h a t ] t h e c h i l d r e n 

can f e e l " ( q t d . i n A l t i c k 161). The e d u c a t i o n a l v a l u e o f 

p o e t r y as a h u m a n i z i n g i n f l u e n c e , n o t j u s t f o r t h e young b u t 

f o r a l l ages o f r e a d e r s , was a s t r o n g i d e o l o g i c a l f o r c e i n t h e 

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i n b o t h A m e r i c a and B r i t a i n . I t must be 



183 

t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i f t h e t r a n s a t l a n t i c p o p u l a r i t y o f 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson i s t o be f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d . 

As a c u l t u r a l commodity, V i c t o r i a n p o e t r y — i f i t were t o be 

p o p u l a r — w o u l d have t o embrace t h e s p i r i t o f t h e age, y e t 

n e i t h e r r e f l e c t i t n o r d i r e c t i t i n a t o o o b v i o u s o r d i d a c t i c 

way. T h i s e n t a i l e d on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c a l e v e l o f 

a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n commensurate w i t h each i n d i v i d u a l 

r e a d e r ' s u n i q u e l i t e r a r y h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h i s 

p a r t i c i p a t i o n would n o n e t h e l e s s a c t i v a t e r e a d e r s t o c r e a t e 

c o l l e c t i v e s y m p a t h i e s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e t e x t and t o i t s age. 

I n t h i s way, p o p u l a r p o e t r y embraced t h e p a r a d o x e s o f t h e 

V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d i t s e l f , and nowhere more t h a n i n i t s a b i l i t y 

t o e l i c i t p r i v a t e r e s p o n s e s w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f n a t i o n a l , 

p u b l i c a s s e n t . The p o p u l a r must t h e r e f o r e n o t be c o n s i d e r e d 

as t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f t h e p r i v a t e , o r t h e debased c o u s i n o f t h e 

p u b l i c . R a t h e r , t h e p o p u l a r i s a s i t e o f c o n f l u e n c e w h e r e i n 

i n d i v i d u a l s ' p r i v a t e c h o i c e s a r i s e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e hegemony 

o f s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d p u b l i c s e n t i m e n t s . 



184 

CHAPTER TWO 

THE BIRTH AND ADOLESCENCE OP THE POETIC VOICE: 
LONGFELLOW'S "NEW" ENGLAND IN AMERICA 

I most e a g e r l y a s p i r e a f t e r f u t u r e eminence i n l i t e r a t u r e . . 
. . S u r e l y t h e r e was n e v e r a b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e 
e x e r t i o n o f l i t e r a r y t a l e n t i n our c o u n t r y , t h a n i s now 
o f f e r e d . . . . [ N a t u r e ] has a t any r a t e g i v e n me a v e r y 
s t r o n g p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r l i t e r a r y p u r s u i t s , and I am a l m o s t 
c o n f i d e n t i n b e l i e v i n g t h a t , i f I can e v e r r i s e i n t h e w o r l d , 
i t must be by t h e e x e r c i s e o f my t a l e n t s i n t h e w i d e f i e l d o f 
l i t e r a t u r e . 

— L o n g f e l l o w t o h i s f a t h e r 
(5 Dec 1824, L e t t e r s I 94-5) 

Hans R o b e r t J a u s s a r g u e s t h a t l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y i s b e s t 

u n d e r s t o o d t h r o u g h c l o s e a n a l y s i s o f an a u t h o r ' s t e x t s i n 

r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r v a r i o u s changes w i t h i n a c h a n g i n g h o r i z o n o f 

e x p e c t a t i o n s . R e c e p t i o n t h e o r y o f t h i s k i n d i s n o t r e s t r i c t e d 

t o r e a d e r s a l o n e , however, s i n c e a u t h o r s t h e m s e l v e s — i n t h e 

v e r y a c t o f w r i t i n g and r e v i s i n g — a r e t h e i r own r e a d e r s , and 

t h e y a s s e s s t h e i r work a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r own e x p e c t a t i o n s : o f 

t h e g e n r e , o f t h e i r t e x t s ' r e l a t i o n t o f a m i l i a r works w i t h i n 

t h e l i t e r a r y - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , and o f t h e c o n t r a s t between 

t h e l i t e r a r y language o f t h e t e x t and t h e p r a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n 

o f language w i t h i n t h e l i v e d r e a l i t y o f t h e t i m e ( " L i t e r a r y 

H i s t o r y " 1 8 ) . Hence, t h i s method o f a n a l y s i s "not o n l y 

f o l l o w s t h e fame, image, and i n f l u e n c e o f a w r i t e r b u t a l s o 

examines t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s and changes i n h i s 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g " (23) . I t p l a c e s a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n w i t h i n a 

m u l t i - f a c e t e d c o n t e x t o f t h e w r i t e r ' s p e r s o n a l , p r o f e s s i o n a l , 

and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l aims b e f o r e i t " f o l l o w s " t h e a u t h o r i n t o 



185 

r e a l m s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e r e c e p t i o n o f h e r o r h i s work. A 

s t u d y o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 

p o p u l a r p o e t r y must t h e r e f o r e f i r s t be p r e c e d e d by a n a l y s e s o f 

t h e p o e t s t h e m s e l v e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n , f o r each 

p o e t , o f a p o e t i c v o i c e e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e m u l t i p l e m o t i v a t i o n s 

d e s c r i b e d above. That i s , b e f o r e t h e impact o f t h e p o e t r y can 

be c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d , t h e i m p a c t o f f o r c e s g o v e r n i n g i t s 

i n c e p t i o n must f i r s t be examined. 

Because t h e f o c u s o f t h i s s t u d y i s on L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson as p o e t s o f t h e p e o p l e , r e a s o n d i c t a t e s t h a t any 

b i o g r a p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n w h i c h i s l a i d s h o u l d t r a c e t h e s o c i a l 

and p r o f e s s i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e p o e t s ' c h a r a c t e r s r a t h e r 

t h a n , as i n many c o n v e n t i o n a l b i o g r a p h i e s , t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l 

o r p s y c h o - f a m i l i a l f o r c e s o f p e r s o n a l development. T h i s 

s t r a t e g y may seem m e r e l y a c o n v e n i e n t means o f s i d e - s t e p p i n g , 

on t h e one hand, t h e d e a r t h o f m a t e r i a l d e s c r i b i n g 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p e r s o n a l l i f e and, on t h e o t h e r , t h e p e r p l e x i t y 

s u r r o u n d i n g t h e degree t o w h i c h Tennyson was i n f l u e n c e d by an 

a n c e s t r a l l i n e a g e dominated by m o r b i d i t y , d e p r e s s i o n , and even 

i n s a n i t y — t h e T e n n y s o n i a n " b l a c k - b l o o d . " 1 The s e a r c h f o r 

p r i v a t e c a u s e s f o r a V i c t o r i a n p o e t r y w h i c h , o f n e c e s s i t y , 

encouraged p u b l i c , e x o t e r i c b e h a v i o u r i s u l t i m a t e l y wrong-

headed s i n c e i t o f t e n l e a d s t o u n p r o f i t a b l e d e r i s i o n when t h e 

1 R o b e r t B e r n a r d M a r t i n ' s b i o g r a p h y Tennyson: The U n q u i e t  
H e a r t and Ann C o l l e y ' s b i o c r i t i c a l Tennyson and Madness a r e 
t h e most r e c e n t s t u d i e s o f t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f Tennyson. 



186 

p o e t r y seems n o t t o r i n g t r u e t o p r e c o n c e i v e d n o t i o n s o f 

p s y c h o l o g i c a l temperament. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , p s y c h o l o g y p l a y s 

a l i m i t e d r o l e i n t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l s k e t c h e s h e r e and i n 

c h a p t e r s t h r e e and f o u r . 

The d i f f e r e n c e s o f c h a r a c t e r i n t h e e a r l y L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson a r e a c t u a l l y q u i t e s u r p r i s i n g when j u x t a p o s e d w i t h 

t h e many p a r a l l e l s t h a t may be drawn i n t h e p o e t s ' l a t e r 
2 • . . . 

p r o f e s s i o n a l c a r e e r s . Y e t , i n g e n e r a l , t h e s e d i s p a r i t i e s a r e 

a f u n c t i o n o f p l a c e i n i t s e f f e c t upon t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e 

i n d i v i d u a l t h r o u g h u p b r i n g i n g and f a m i l y i n f l u e n c e . . Each 

p o e t ' s s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y and subsequent v o c a t i o n 

d e v e l o p e d o u t o f a c o n s c i o u s awareness o f h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h i n 

a s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c l a s s shaped by t h e l a r g e r f o r c e s o f n a t i o n a l 

i d e n t i t y . L o n g f e l l o w was, q u i t e s i m p l y , an A m e r i c a n w h i l e 

Tennyson was an E n g l i s h m a n . 

To c l a i m t h a t , s i n c e L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson were b o t h b o r n 

i n t o what i s p e r v a s i v e l y known i n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y as t h e 
B l i s s Carman's c o n f l a t i o n o f t h e two p o e t s i n t h e e a r l y 

p a r t o f t h i s c e n t u r y b e t r a y s a p r e v a i l i n g l a t e n i n e t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y a s s u m p t i o n — u t t e r l y f a l s e one m i g h t a d d — a b o u t t h e 
e s s e n t i a l sameness o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson as p o e t s o f t h e 
p e o p l e . Carman a l l e g e s t h a t " [ b ] o t h were g e n t l e b o r n ; b o t h 
were c o l l e g e b r e d ; b o t h were happy i n t h e i r f r i e n d s , t h e i r 
homes; b o t h were p e r m i t t e d by f o r t u n e t o be exempt from 
p o v e r t y and d i s t r e s s f u l c a r e s w h i c h have h a r a s s e d so many 
p o e t s and d i s s i p a t e d t h e i r powers; b o t h were s e r e n e and 
moderate g e n t l e m e n , g r e a t l y and w i d e l y b e l o v e d ; and b o t h had 
l o n g unbroken c a r e e r s o f w o r l d l y and a r t i s t i c p r o s p e r i t y , 
crowned a t l a s t w i t h m e m o r i a l s i n t h e g r e a t E n g l i s h Abbey" 
(The P o e t r y o f L i f e (1905) r p t W a l t e r 313). O n l y t h e l a s t 
p h r a s e , t h a t each i s honoured a t W e s t m i n s t e r Abbey, i s t r u e 
and, r e m a r k a b l y , Carman s a y s n o t h i n g about t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n 
h a v i n g been c o n f e r r e d upon an A m e r i c a n p o e t . 



187 

" b o u r g e o i s i e , " t h e y may be s a i d t o s h a r e t h e same i d e o l o g y 

would be an e g r e g i o u s example o f m i s t e r m e d and m i s a p p l i e d 

s o c i a l h i s t o r y . F o r n o t o n l y d i d t h e b o u r g e o i s i e as s u c h have 

no commonly s h a r e d s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b u t , 

more i m p o r t a n t l y , s h o u l d t h e r e e x i s t any s i m i l a r i t y between an 

A m e r i c a n and a B r i t i s h f a m i l y ' s s t a t u s i t would l i k e l y be o n l y 

monetary and would n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d t o s i m i l a r i d e o l o g i e s . 

I n h i s two volume s t u d y , The B o u r g e o i s E x p e r i e n c e : V i c t o r i a t o 

F r e u d , s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n P e t e r Gay a r g u e s t h a t " b o u r g e o i s i e " 

was v i e w e d as a F r e n c h l o a n word i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , 

and was seldom used by E n g l i s h p e o p l e , who p r e f e r r e d " m i d d l e 
• 3 • • 

c l a s s e s " i n s t e a d . " M i d d l e c l a s s e s " i s t h u s used h e r e s i n c e 

i t s o b v i o u s E n g l i s h p l u r a l i t y u n d e r s c o r e s t h e t r u l y 

h e t e r o g e n e o u s n a t u r e o f t h i s s o c i a l group: " t h e most d r a m a t i c 

s o c i a l a s p e c t o f t h e b o u r g e o i s e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h 

c e n t u r y was t h e economic, s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l i n e q u a l i t y 

t h a t p r e v a i l e d w i t h i n t h e b o u r g e o i s i e i t s e l f ; i t s h i e r a r c h i c a l 

d i v i s i o n s were more t e l l i n g t h a n any c l a s s s o l i d a r i t y — e x c e p t 

when o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e s were b r o u g h t t o b e a r by a r a d i c a l i z e d 

r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n o r a m i l i t a n t l a b o u r movement" (Gay I 2 4 ) . 

The d i v e r s e c o m p o s i t i o n o f m i d d l e c l a s s c u l t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y as 

i t i s i n t h i s c a s e s e p a r a t e d by an ocean o f d i s t i n c t p o l i t i c a l 

t i e s and a l l e g i a n c e s , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t d e t e r m i n e d t h e 
3 Gay n o t e s t h a t " b o u r g e o i s i e " was, however, u s e d w i t h i n 

s o c i a l i s t d i s c o u r s e , t h e most o b v i o u s example b e i n g E n g e l s ' s 
C o n d i t i o n o f t h e Working C l a s s i n E n g l a n d (1844). 



188 

d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e e a r l y L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson. 

I r o n i c a l l y , however, o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e s from s i m i l a r though not 

p r e c i s e l y t h e same k i n d o f p o l i t i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l f o r c e s 

as t h o s e d e s c r i b e d above by Gay a s s i s t e d i n t h e f o r g i n g o f a 

s h a r e d v o c a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y t h a t i n t h e m i d - c a r e e r o f 

L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson m i g h t , f o r a l l i t s g e n e r a l i t y , be 

d e s c r i b e d as t h e p o e t i c v o i c e o f t h e m i d d l e c l a s s e s . 

F o r L o n g f e l l o w a t l e a s t , t h i s m i d d l e - c l a s s v o i c e 

e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f e a r l y as an i n t e r a c t i v e complex o f 

r e f l e c t i o n and r e j e c t i o n o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y f e m i n i n e 

c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s . I n p a r t , t h e " f e m i n i z e d " v i e w o f t h e 

A m e r i c a n b a r d can be a t t r i b u t e d t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s b r o t h e r 

Samuel, who, i n h i s L i f e o f Henry Wadsworth L o n g f e l l o w (188 6) , 

i m m o r t a l i z e d a p i o u s , " g e n t l e " p o e t . B l u n t l y p u t , " t h e t o t a l 

e f f e c t i s a m i s l e a d i n g , e m a s c u l a t e d , l a t e V i c t o r i a n v e r s i o n o f 

t h e t r u t h , a s c i s s o r - s i l h o u e t t e , w i t h o u t c o l o u r " ( x i x ) 

a c c o r d i n g t o Lawrance Thompson, t h e o n l y s e r i o u s c h a l l e n g e r t o 

Samuel's L i f e . Y e t t h e a b s o l u t e sway o f t h e L i f e o v e r even 

t h o s e c r i t i c s l i k e Edward Wagenknecht—who c l a i m t o be exempt 

from t h e V i c t o r i a n - b a s h i n g t e n d e n c i e s o f t h e 192 0s t o 4 0 s — 

bespeaks a l i n g e r i n g c r i t i c a l a c c e p t a n c e o f an e f f e t e 

L o n g f e l l o w , e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s p r e - c o l l e g e y e a r s . 

F o r most b i o g r a p h e r s o f L o n g f e l l o w , t h e g e n t l e n e s s o f t h e 

p o e t ' s n a t u r e can be d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f 

h i s mother, Z i l p a h Wadsworth. And, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 

b i o g r a p h e r ' s c r i t i c a l o u t l o o k , t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s were e i t h e r 



189 

m a i n t a i n e d and deepened t h r o u g h o u t L o n g f e l l o w ' s l i f e by h i s 

r o m a n t i c t i e s t o b o t h Mary S t o r e r , h i s f i r s t w i f e , and Fanny 

A p p l e t o n , h i s second, o r c o n s i s t e n t l y a t odds w i t h an 

i n h e r i t e d "Yankee shrewdness" o f h i s l a w y e r / c o n g r e s s m a n 

f a t h e r , Stephen L o n g f e l l o w . The f i r s t o f t h e s e v i e w s p l a c e s 

t h e young L o n g f e l l o w s q u a r e l y w i t h i n a f e m a l e - c e n t r e d 

V i c t o r i a n A m e r i c a s u c h as t h e one d e s c r i b e d i n Ann D o u g l a s ' s 

The F e m i n i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n C u l t u r e . T h i s A m e r i c a , and t h e 

young L o n g f e l l o w w i t h i n i t , i s examined f i r s t , b e f o r e 

c o n s i d e r i n g p o s s i b l e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t o , o r even w i t h i n , t h a t 

w o r l d . 

B o r n 27 F e b r u a r y 1807 i n P o r t l a n d , Maine, i n t o a 

f i n a n c i a l l y c o m f o r t a b l e U n i t a r i a n f a m i l y , L o n g f e l l o w 

e x p e r i e n c e d e a r l y l i f e w i t h i n t h e c l o i s t e r e d s e c u r i t y o f home 

and h e a r t h . The second o f e i g h t c h i l d r e n , he was shaped by 

p r o v i n c i a l d o m e s t i c i t y : m o r a l v i r t u e embodied i n and 

m a i n t a i n e d by a s t r o n g m a t r i a r c h ; p r o f e s s i o n a l v o c a t i o n 

m a n i f e s t e d i n and d e t e r m i n e d by an e q u a l l y s t r o n g though o f t e n 

a b s e n t p a t r i a r c h ; and e a r l y e d u c a t i o n i n p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s , 

e x p e r i e n t i a l l y broadened i n c o l l e g e by t h e " a s s i s t a n c e " o f an 

o l d e r b r o t h e r . I n t h i s v i e w o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s u p b r i n g i n g , t h e 

p o e t ' s mother as a f o r m a t i v e i n f l u e n c e r e i g n s supreme. Edward 

H i r s h f o c u s e s on Z i l p a h ' s c r e a t i o n f o r h e r s e l f and h e r f a m i l y 

o f a r e l i g i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d i d e a l i s m and a l i f e - l o n g h a t r e d o f 

war ( 6 ) . 'For H i r s h , L o n g f e l l o w ' s mother a s s i s t e d i n t h e 

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c h i l d h o o d A r c a d i a t o w h i c h h e r son would, 



190 

i n l a t e r l i f e , h a r k e n back i n h i s p o e t r y and a t t e m p t t o 

r e c a p t u r e . And, d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t L o n g f e l l o w r e c e i v e d a 

f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e home b e g i n n i n g as e a r l y as age 

t h r e e a t Ma'am F e l l o w s dame s c h o o l , Wagenknecht m a i n t a i n s t h a t 

"though L o n g f e l l o w was an e x c e l l e n t s t u d e n t from t h e 

b e g i n n i n g , one c a n n o t h e l p b u t f e e l t h a t t h e s c h o o l s he 

a t t e n d e d were o f l e s s i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e e a r n e s t b u t 

b e n e v o l e n t i n f l u e n c e o f h i s home, where P u r i t a n highmindedness 

s u r v i v e d , s h o r n o f a l l i t s e a r l y h a r d n e s s and f a n a t i c i s m " 

( F u l l L e n g t h 2 ) . 

B o t h H i r s h and Wagenknecht a p p a r e n t l y a c c e p t Samuel's 

s p e c u l a t i o n upon h i s b r o t h e r ' s e a r l y l i f e as d e t e r m i n e d by a 

r e c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s own. N e i t h e r man q u e s t i o n s t h e 

n o s t a l g i c a l l y i n d u c e d r o s e c o l o u r i n g i n t h e l e n s e s o f Samuel's 

g l a s s e s when Samuel w r i t e s o f t h e i r mother's i n f l u e n c e upon 

t h e p o e t : "From h e r must have come t o h e r son t h e i m a g i n a t i v e 

and r o m a n t i c s i d e o f h i s n a t u r e . . . . F u l l o f a t e n d e r , 

s i m p l e , u n q u e s t i o n i n g p i e t y , she was a l o v e r o f c h u r c h and 

sermon and hymn; a devout and c o n s t a n t r e a d e r o f t h e B i b l e , 

e s p e c i a l l y o f i t s Psalms . . . . [She] was an u n t i r i n g 

a d v o c a t e o f peace" ( L i f e I 4 ) . And, a t f i r s t g l a n c e , Andrew 

H i l e n s ' s r e c e n t L e t t e r s o f Henry Wadsworth L o n g f e l l o w seem t o 

s u p p o r t t h i s p i o u s p o r t r a i t w h e r e i n , once L o n g f e l l o w i s a t 

c o l l e g e , he engages i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f p o e t i c s e n t i m e n t w i t h 

h i s mother, i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h d o m e s t i c c o n c e r n s and r e l i g i o u s 



4 

191 

m o r a l i s m o f a m a r k e d l y s o f t and g e n t l e k i n d . 4 The known image 

o f Z i l p a h L o n g f e l l o w , from t h e above b i o g r a p h e r s , t h u s a p p e a r s 

t o f i t n e a t l y i n t o t h e l a r g e r v i e w o f e a r l y A m e r i c a o u t l i n e d 

by D o u g l a s , a w o r l d i n w h i c h p a t r i a r c h a l C a l v i n i s m had been 

d e f e a t e d by t h e a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l s e n t i m e n t a l i s m o f women 

( 1 2 ) , and a m u l t i t u d e o f s o c i a l f o r c e s were making i t c l e a r 

t h a t "women were t o c u l t i v a t e d o m e s t i c p i e t y b e h i n d c l o s e d 

d o o r s w h i l e t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s were t o f a c e , and i f 

p o s s i b l e conquer, t h e c o m p e t i t i v e w o r l d o f commerce" ( 5 7 ) . 5 

4 I n " L e a r n i n g about Manhood: Gender I d e a l s and t h e 
M i d d l e - c l a s s F a m i l y i n N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y A m e r i c a , " E. Anthony 
Rotundo examines t h e f a m i l y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f young men t o 
d e m o n s t r a t e how V i c t o r i a n mothers p r i m a r i l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e 
m o r a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e " C h r i s t i a n Gentleman," w h i l e f a t h e r s 
h e l p e d t o f o s t e r t h e " M a s c u l i n e A c h i e v e r . " However, he goes 
on t o n o t e t h a t " t h e r e was n o t h i n g e x c l u s i v e about e i t h e r one 
o f t h e s e t e a c h i n g r o l e s . Women t e n d e d t o supplement t h e i r 
husband's [ s i c ] a t t e m p t s t o t e a c h t h e v a l u e s o f achievement 
and s u c c e s s and men h e l p e d t o s u p p o r t t h e i r w i v e s ' e f f o r t s t o 
t e a c h m o r a l i t y and C h r i s t i a n p i e t y " ( 4 5 ) . 

5 The s p l i t between t h e " d o m e s t i c " w o r l d o f women and t h e 
" c a p i t a l i s t i c " w o r l d o f men i s b e s t c a t a l o g u e d i n B a r b a r a 
W e l t e r ' s "The C u l t o f True Womanhood," w h e r e i n she p r o v i d e s 
c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t a t i o n f o r p u b l i c a c c e p t a n c e o f t h i s 
c u l t u r a l d i v i s i o n i n A m e r i c a . Glenna Matthews's J u s t a  
H o u s e w i f e a r g u e s t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f women as m o r a l 
a u t h o r i t i e s w i t h i n t h e home i n i t i a l l y l e d t o t h e s o c i a l 
a c c e p t a n c e o f d o m e s t i c v a l u e s w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l 
c o n t e x t o f t h e M o r a l Reform S o c i e t y . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e 
e n e r v a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f d o m e s t i c i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e more 
o v e r t l y p o l i t i c a l m o v e m e n t — n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n 
f e m i n i s m — i s d i s c u s s e d i n Ann D o u g l a s ' s s t u d y as w e l l as i n 
C a r r o l l Smith-Rosenberg's D i s o r d e r l y Conduct. E q u a l l y 
r e l e v a n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f gender s p e c i f i c s p h e r e s o f i n f l u e n c e 
g e n e r a l l y form a t l e a s t p a r t o f most n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s o c i a l 
h i s t o r i e s ; Volume I I o f Gay's B o u r g e o i s E x p e r i e n c e (291-7) i s 
a n e u t r a l example, w h i l e an a c e r b i c a t t i t u d e t o w a r d women's 
r o l e s o f w h a t e v e r k i n d m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e o f 
t h e v i e w s e x p r e s s e d i n E. Douglas B r a n c h ' s The S e n t i m e n t a l  
Y e a r s . C h a l l e n g e t o u n q u a l i f i e d a c c e p t a n c e o f V i c t o r i a n 
A m e r i c a ' s f e m i n i n e s e n t i m e n t a l i s m , and t o women's r o l e s as 



The most v i g o r o u s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e argument t h a t 

L o n g f e l l o w was, from an e a r l y age, molded by f e m i n i n e 

s e n t i m e n t o f t h e k i n d d e s c r i b e d by Douglas i s t o be f o u n d i n 

Thompson's Young L o n g f e l l o w . H i s c o r r e c t i v e s come from two 

s o u r c e s : e x t e r n a l l y , from t h e busy c o m m e r c i a l l i f e o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s s e a p o r t home o f P o r t l a n d and, i n t e r n a l l y , from 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s l i n e a g e on h i s mother's s i d e . Thompson s t r e s s e s 

t h e m e r c a n t i l e s h i p p i n g i n t e r e s t s o f p o s t - R e v o l u t i o n a r y 

P o r t l a n d as a d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e on t h e young L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

i m p r e s s i o n a b l e mind. The v i g o u r o f t h e s e a p o r t was a l s o 

embodied i n Z i l p a h ' s f a t h e r , G e n e r a l P e l e g W a d s w o r t h — a l o c a l 

r e v o l u t i o n a r y h e r o and l a t e r congressman (as was L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

f a t h e r f o r a t e r m ) — w h o e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f a m i l y i n P o r t l a n d ' s 

p u b l i c eye as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f s p i r i t e d and courageous, 

endeavour ( 4 - 8 ) . 

Newton A r v i n and C e c i l B. W i l l i a m s b o t h f o l l o w Thompson's 

l e a d by c o u n t e r i n g t h e p o p u l a r image o f L o n g f e l l o w as u n d u l y 

i n f l u e n c e d by an o v e r - p r o t e c t i v e , d o m e s t i c u p b r i n g i n g . A r v i n 

e n d o r s e s Thompson's v i e w o f P o r t l a n d as a hub o f c o m m e r c i a l 

e n t e r p r i s e and o f t h e W a d s w o r t h - L o n g f e l l o w f a m i l y as p o l i t i c a l 

magnates i n t h e l o c a l community. Though p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d 

n e c e s s a r i l y weak and i n e f f e c t u a l i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e 
development o f t h e n a t i o n as a whole has r e c e n t l y come from a 
t r a n s - a t l a n t i c p e r s p e c t i v e p r o v i d e d i n E l i z a b e t h H e l s i n g e r ' s 
and o t h e r s ' t h r e e volume e d i t i o n o f e s s a y s t h a t make 
s u b s t a n t i a l use o f p r i m a r y s o u r c e s t o d i s c u s s The Woman  
Q u e s t i o n : S o c i e t y and L i t e r a t u r e i n B r i t a i n and A m e r i c a , 1837-
1883 . 



193 

w i t h L o n g f e l l o w i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s p o e t r y r a t h e r t h a n w i t h h i s 

e a r l y l i f e , W i l l i a m s n o n e t h e l e s s i n i t i a l l y f o c u s e s on Stephen 

L o n g f e l l o w t o s u g g e s t t h a t he p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n 

i n s t i l l i n g w i t h i n h i s young son a "Yankee shrewdness" t h a t 

would, t h r o u g h o u t t h e p o e t ' s l i f e , d e t e r m i n e L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

e v e r - p r e s e n t awareness o f h i s w r i t i n g w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f 

v o c a t i o n a l n e c e s s i t i e s — w i t h w o r l d - w i d e p o p u l a r i t y as t h e 

r e w a r d . I n s h o r t , f o r t h e s e b i o g r a p h e r s , t h e m a s c u l i n e w o r l d 

o f commerce, s t r e n g t h e n e d when n e c e s s a r y by p o l i t i c s and 

m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s , p l a y s j u s t as g r e a t a r o l e , i f n o t g r e a t e r , 

i n d e f i n i n g t h e young L o n g f e l l o w ' s c h a r a c t e r as t h e g e n e r a l l y 

a c c e p t e d f e m i n i n e c l o i s t e r o f h e a r t h and home. 

F o r Thompson and, t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e , A r v i n and W i l l i a m s , 

t h e most n o t e w o r t h y f e a t u r e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s mother i s h e r 

f i r m n e s s o f m o r a l c h a r a c t e r t h a t g i v e s h e r a s t r o n g - m i n d e d n e s s 

e q u a l t o t h e e b u l l i e n c e o f h e r f a t h e r ( 8 ) . What i s known o f 

Z i l p a h ' s c h a r a c t e r , however, i s d e c i d e d l y ambiguous and i s 

nowhere more e v i d e n t t h a n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g l e t t e r she w r i t e s 

t o h e r o f t e n a b s e n t husband, a l e t t e r w h i c h Thompson c o n t e n d s 

i l l u s t r a t e s " t h e p a t i e n t d e v o t i o n [ w i t h which] Z i l p a h t e n d e d 

h e r modest though c a p a b l e husband t o w a r d w i d e r h o r i z o n s w i t h 

h e r shrewd u n d e r s t a n d i n g " (12) . 

I t h i n k my d e a r husband you w i l l be a b l e t o p a s s a 
month from home v e r y p l e a s a n t l y , p r o v i d e d we s h o u l d 
a l l c o n t i n u e p r e t t y w e l l . The T h e a t r e w i l l occupy 
many o f y o u r e v e n i n g s , and a t t e n t i o n t o y o u r f r i e n d s 
and mine w i l l I hope a g r e e a b l y b e g u i l e t h e 
r e m a i n d e r . I t i s good f o r us a l l , e s p e c i a l l y f o r 
Gentlemen, o c c a s i o n a l l y t o s t e p beyond our own 
narrow s p h e r e and e n l a r g e our a f f e c t i o n s & i d e a s by 



an i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h p o l i s h e d s o c i e t y . Now as I am 
so e n t i r e l y s h u t o u t from t h e w o r l d , you must be my 
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , and e n j o y t h e p l e a s u r e s , and f u l f i l 
t h e d u t i e s o f l i f e f o r me as w e l l as f o r y o u r s e l f . 
. . I have w r i t t e n i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e c h i l d r e n ; 
w r i t i n g , c h a t t i n g , l a u g h i n g , c r y i n g . Amid s u c h 
c o n f u s i o n o f sounds who c o u l d w r i t e w i t h much 
c o n n e c t i o n . ( q t d . i n Thompson 12) 

C l e a r l y , c o n f l i c t i n g i m p u l s e s u n d e r l a y Z i l p a h ' s "shrewd 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , " b u t t h e s e a r e n o t emphasized by Thompson. 

U s i n g e x c e r p t s from l e t t e r s s i m i l a r t o t h e above, Thompson 

a r g u e s f o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s mother as a woman o f "courage and 

u n s e l f i s h n e s s " w i t h c o n s t a n t " d e l i g h t i n h e r c h i l d r e n " (12-

1 3 ) . I n a c t u a l f a c t , i n a l m o s t e v e r y l e t t e r he q u o t e s , Z i l p a h 

j u x t a p o s e s h e r husband's s t i m u l a t i n g s o c i a l s e t w i t h t h e 

"narrow [ y e t h a r r i e d ] s p h e r e " o f home and c h i l d r e n . Her 

i m p l i c i t envy and even c r i t i c i s m o f t h e "gentleman's" l i f e 

t h a t so f r e q u e n t l y l e a v e s h e r a l o n e , w i t h t h e f u l l 

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s e v e r a l c h i l d r e n and an e n t i r e h o u s e h o l d , 

a r e o b v i o u s t h r o u g h o u t . A f t e r a l l , as she p o i n t s o u t , t h e 

f r i e n d s h e r husband w i l l see a r e a l s o h e r f r i e n d s ; and 

a l t h o u g h she t a k e s an o b v i o u s p l e a s u r e i n c o n t e m p l a t i n g h i s 

" w i d e n i n g s p h e r e , " h e r i n t e r e s t seems as much a s e l f -

g r a t i f y i n g v i c a r i o u s n e s s as i t does u n s e l f i s h p r o m o t i o n o f h e r 

husband. The e x t e n t t o w h i c h Z i l p a h h e r s e l f was aware o f 

c o n f l i c t i n g m o t i v a t i o n s i n l e t t e r s s u c h as t h e one above 

c a n n o t n o t be known. What i s known, however, i s t h a t i n a 

s h o r t t i m e t o come a g r e a t many m i d d l e - c l a s s women would 

c o n s c i o u s l y seek " l e g i t i m a t e l y " t o widen t h e i r p r o p e r s p h e r e s 



f o r t h e m s e l v e s by t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e i r p r i v a t e d o m e s t i c 

o c c u p a t i o n s i n t o any number o f p u b l i c c a u s e s t a k e n up by t h e 

M o r a l Reform S o c i e t y ( e s t a b l i s h e d n a t i o n a l l y i n 18 3 7 ) . They 

would no l o n g e r have t o l i v e e x c i t i n g l i v e s v i c a r i o u s l y 

t h r o u g h t h e i r men. I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e " f e m i n i n e " i n f l u e n c e s 

embodied i n t h e mother a t work upon t h e young p o e t , t h e n , 

Z i l p a h s h o u l d r i g h t f u l l y be d e s c r i b e d i n h e r t r u e c o m p l e x i t y , 

w i t h a "shrewdness" o f c h a r a c t e r s u f f i c i e n t t o a l l o w f o r h e r 

p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r o l e s o c i e t y had a l l o t t e d h e r and f o r 

r e f l e c t i v e comment upon i t s l i m i t a t i o n s . 

Inasmuch as s u c h a complex v i e w o f Z i l p a h has n o t been 

a t t e m p t e d , n e i t h e r has t h e n e a t l y b i f u r c a t e d v i s i o n o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s w o r l d — f e m a l e o r male-dominated a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 

p r e d i l e c t i o n s o f h i s b i o g r a p h e r s — b e e n s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e d . 

L i k e w i s e , t h e p o e t and h i s p o e t r y have been s u b s e q u e n t l y 

j u d g e d , o f t e n a p p a r e n t l y u n c o n s c i o u s l y , by s i m i l a r l y 

g e n d e r i z e d p e r c e p t i o n s w i t h n e g a t i v e o r p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s 

d e p e n d i n g upon t h e c r i t i c a l b i a s e s o f t h e s c h o l a r o r c r i t i c i n 

q u e s t i o n . To d a t e , l i t t l e o r no c o n s i d e r a t i o n from a l i t e r a r y 

h i s t o r i c a l o r c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e has been g i v e n t o t h e ways 

i n w h i c h t h e s o - c a l l e d f e m i n i n e and m a s c u l i n e s p h e r e s may have 

m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c e d one a n o t h e r i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s w o r l d o r , f o r 

t h a t m a t t e r , i n L o n g f e l l o w h i m s e l f . 

S o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a , however, 

a r e b e g i n n i n g t o t r a c e t h e ways i n w h i c h t h e s h i f t from a 

f a m i l y - c e n t r e d d o m e s t i c economy t o a c o m m e r c i a l and i n d u s t r i a l 



196 

c a p i t a l i s m h e l p e d t o d e f i n e t h e newly e s t a b l i s h e d m i d d l e - c l a s s 

home, f a m i l y l i f e , and hence t h e r o l e o f women i n t h e 

t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d o f t h e l a t e e i g h t e e n t h and e a r l y 

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . B r o a d l y p u t , t h e r e m o v a l o f m a t e r i a l 

p r o d u c t i v i t y from t h e home n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f 

c o m m e r c i a l m a r k e t - p l a c e v a l u e s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s p i r i t u a l 

and m o r a l v a l u e s p r a c t i s e d p r e v i o u s l y by t h e community a t 

l a r g e . The l a t t e r t h u s became c o n f i n e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f 

home and f a m i l y and f e l l t o t h e management o f t h e now non-

p r o d u c t i v e f e m a l e members o f t h e h o u s e h o l d , w h i l e i n d u s t r i a l 

c a p i t a l i s m g e n e r a t e d an e v e r i n c r e a s i n g s t o r e o f p r o d u c t s t h a t 

h e l p e d t o u n d e r s c o r e women's r i g h t f u l p l a c e w i t h i n t h e home. 

C a r o l l Smith-Rosenberg, f o r example, a r g u e s t h a t i n i t i a l 

economic d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t women e n t e r i n g t h e newly 

e s t a b l i s h e d i n d u s t r i a l w o r k f o r c e a c t u a l l y a s s i s t e d t h e 

development o f a " c o n f i n i n g i d e o l o g y " t h a t e r e c t e d " t h e 

n o n p r o d u c t i v e woman i n t o a symbol o f b o u r g e o i s c l a s s hegemony; 

t h e new b o u r g e o i s men o f t h e 1820s, 1830s and 1840s f o r m u l a t e d 

t h e C u l t o f True Womanhood, w h i c h p r e s c r i b e d a f e m a l e r o l e 

bounded by k i t c h e n and n u r s e r y , o v e r l a i d w i t h p i e t y and 

p u r i t y , and crowned w i t h s u b s e r v i e n c e " ( 1 3 ) . I n a c t u a l i t y , 

t h e True Womanhood t o w h i c h Smith-Rosenberg r e f e r s was a v 

phenomenon c r e a t e d n o t j u s t by b o u r g e o i s men b u t , as W e l t e r 

p o i n t s o u t , by women and c l e r g y m e n i n " t h e women's magazines, 

g i f t a n n u a l s , and r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y " ( 1 5 1 ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , w r i t i n g i n 1841, Mrs. A . J . 



Graves u s e s r e l i g i o u s r h e t o r i c t o p r o v i d e a c a p i t a l i s t 

r a t i o n a l e f o r a f e m a l e - g o v e r n e d d o m e s t i c m o r a l i t y : 

... . our homes s h a l l be made a t t r a c t i v e by t h e pure 
and s a t i s f y i n g enjoyments w h i c h r e l i g i o n , i n t e l l e c t , 
and t h e s o c i a l a f f e c t i o n s have g a t h e r e d a r o u n d them. 
Then . . . when o u r husbands, and our sons go f o r t h 
i n t o t h e busy and t u r b u l e n t w o r l d , we may f e e l 
s e c u r e t h a t t h e y w i l l w a l k u n h u r t amid i t s s n a r e s 
and t e m p t a t i o n s . T h e i r h e a r t s w i l l be a t home, 
where t h e i r t r e a s u r e i s ; and t h e y w i l l r e j o i c e t o 
r e t u r n t o i t s s a n c t u a r y o f r e s t , t h e r e t o r e f r e s h 
t h e i r w e a r i e d s p i r i t s , and renew t h e i r s t r e n g t h f o r 
t h e t o i l s and c o n f l i c t s o f l i f e . 

( q t d . i n Ewen 126). 

T h i s i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f a b u r g e o n i n g c a p i t a l i s t economy and 

t h e s p i r i t u a l s a n c t u a r y o f t h e home a l s o was, d e s p i t e i t s 

imposed l i m i t a t i o n s , empowering t o women. C i t i n g S a r a h H a l e , 

e d i t o r o f t h e v e r y e a r l y L a d i e s Magazine (1828) , Douglas makes 

c l e a r t h e economic means by w h i c h m i d d l e - c l a s s women's m o r a l 

a u t h o r i t y was g u a r a n t e e d : " A u t h o r i t y o v e r men must . . . n e v e r 

be u s u r p e d ; b u t s t i l l women may, i f t h e y w i l l , e x e r t t h e i r 

t a l e n t s , and [by] t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s n a t u r e has f u r n i s h e d , 

o b t a i n an i n f l u e n c e i n s o c i e t y t h a t w i l l be paramount t o 

a u t h o r i t y . They may e n j o y t h e l u x u r i e s o f w e a l t h , w i t h o u t 

e n d u r i n g t h e l a b o r s t o a c q u i r e i t ; and t h e h o n o r s o f o f f i c e , 

w i t h o u t f e e l i n g i t s c a r e s , and t h e g l o r y o f v i c t o r y , w i t h o u t 

s u f f e r i n g t h e dangers o f t h e b a t t l e " ( q t d . 7 3 ) . Douglas 

h e r s e l f , however, s e e s women n o t as h a v i n g been empowered by 

" t h e l u x u r i e s o f w e a l t h , " t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f l a i s s e z - f a i r e 

c a p i t a l i s m , b u t r a t h e r c o - o p t e d i n t o t h e s p e c i f i c r o l e s o f 

s a i n t and consumer, an a c t u a l e n f e e b l e m e n t f o r women w h i c h , i n 



198 

D o u g l a s ' s v i e w , had a p e r n i c i o u s i n f l u e n c e on n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e as a whole by i n f u s i n g f e m i n i n e 

s e n t i m e n t a l i t y i n t o r e l i g i o n , l i t e r a t u r e , t h e o l o g y , and 

h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s w h i l e men were o t h e r w i s e engaged i n t h e 

b u s i n e s s o f making money. 

C l e a r l y , whether o r n o t one v i e w s d o m e s t i c a l l y - b a s e d m o r a l 

a u t h o r i t y as empowering o r e n f e e b l i n g , t h e r o l e s o f women t o 

w h i c h s u c h a u t h o r i t y was a s c r i b e d and t h e c a p i t a l i s t r o l e s o f 

men i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a were so i n t e g r a t e d t h a t any 

a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e one w i t h o u t t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e 

o t h e r l e a d s t o u n j u s t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f an a m a z i n g l y complex 

s o c i e t y . T h i s s o c i e t y was shaped by a d i a l e c t i c between, on 

t h e one hand, t h e s p i r i t u a l y e t n o n - p r o d u c t i v e and t h e r e f o r e 

s u p p o s e d l y e n e r v a t i n g r e a l m o f women and, on t h e o t h e r , t h e 

c a p i t a l i s t i c , p r o d u c t i v e , and t h e r e f o r e s u p p o s e d l y 

i n v i g o r a t i n g r e a l m o f men. I n f a c t , d u r i n g h i s l a t e t e e n s , 

L o n g f e l l o w was m o t i v a t e d by a s i m i l a r d i a l e c t i c when, a t 

Bowdoin C o l l e g e (1822-25) , he t r i e d t o e s t a b l i s h f o r h i m s e l f 

h i s i d e n t i t y as a p o e t w h i l e n e a r l y a l l t h e e v i d e n c e around 

him p o i n t e d t o t h e p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n o f p o e t r y as an 

e m a s c u l a t i n g e n t e r p r i s e . 

I n h i s commencement o r a t i o n a t Bowdoin C o l l e g e , "Our N a t i v e 

W r i t e r s " (182 5 ) , L o n g f e l l o w c r i t i c i z e d " t h e p r e v a l e n t modes o f 

t h i n k i n g w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e [ h i s ] c o u n t r y and [ h i s ] t i m e s " : 

We a r e a p l a i n p e o p l e , t h a t have had n o t h i n g t o do 
w i t h t h e mere p l e a s u r e s and l u x u r i e s o f l i f e : and 
hence t h e r e has s p r u n g up w i t h i n us a q u i c k 
s i g h t e d n e s s t o t h e f a i l i n g s o f l i t e r a r y men, and an 



a v e r s i o n t o e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s n o t p r a c t i c a l , 
o p e r a t i v e , and t h o r o u g h g o i n g . But i f we would e v e r 
have a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , our n a t i v e w r i t e r s must 
be p a t r o n i z e d . ( q t d . i n H i g g i n s o n 82) 

And i n t h e y e a r s t o come, L o n g f e l l o w was t o denounce d i r e c t l y 

what he f e l t t o be t h e p u b l i c ' s m i s c o n c e p t i o n " t h a t l i t e r a t u r e 

b e g e t s an e f f e m i n a t e and c r a v e n s p i r i t " (Review o f S i d n e y ' s 

"Defense o f Poesy" (1832) i n Works [Davos P r e s s ] 365). 

The dilemma t h a t L o n g f e l l o w f a c e d i n t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h 

h i m s e l f as a male p o e t i n a f i e l d p u b l i c l y c o n c e i v e d o f as 

e f f e m i n a t e had as much t o do w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e g r e a t 

m a j o r i t y o f p o e t s i n e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a were 

women as w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c u l t u r e p e r c e i v e d p o e t r y as 

m e r e l y a f e m i n i n e e n t e r p r i s e . E m i l y S t i p e s Watts p o i n t s o u t 

t h a t from 1800 t o 1850 o v e r e i g h t y f e m a l e p o e t s i n t h e U n i t e d 

S t a t e s (not c o u n t i n g e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t s s t i l l p u b l i s h i n g 

i n t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) p u b l i s h e d a t l e a s t one volume o f 

v e r s e o r were b e i n g p u b l i s h e d r e g u l a r l y i n t h e a n t h o l o g i e s , 

and t h a t t h e "number o f women who p u b l i s h e d o n l y i n j o u r n a l s 

(most w i t h a wide d i s t r i b u t i o n ) [was] a t l e a s t t w i c e t h a t 

number" (65) . She adds t h a t i t "was a c t u a l l y e a s i e r and more 

' r e s p e c t a b l e ' f o r women t o p u b l i s h p o e t r y t h a n i t was f o r men" 

s i n c e p o e t r y was g e n e r a l l y c o n f i n e d t o p u b l i c a t i o n w i t h i n 

p e r i o d i c a l s w h i c h , as Watts m a i n t a i n s , " l a r g e l y a p p e a l e d t o 

t h e new m i d d l e - c l a s s women r e a d e r s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e 

f i r s t A m e r i c a n p o e t who c o u l d a c t u a l l y be c a l l e d a p o e t by 

p r o f e s s i o n , who a c t u a l l y made enough money t o s u p p o r t h e r s e l f 



200 

and h e r f a m i l y was p r o b a b l y L y d i a Hunt S i g o u r n e y " ( 6 7 ) . I f 

L o n g f e l l o w were t o choose f o r h i m s e l f t h e p r o f e s s i o n o f 

a u t h o r s h i p — t o use C h a r v a t ' s t e r m — a s h i s s o l e p r o f e s s i o n , he 

would have t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e themes, s u b j e c t m a t t e r , 

and t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e b e s t - s e l l i n g f e m a l e p o e t s o f t h e day, 

and c r e a t e f o r h i m s e l f a p o e t i c v o i c e w i t h i n t h a t c o n t e x t . 

And t h i s i s e x a c t l y what he d i d . 

Thus i t i s s u r p r i s i n g t o r e a d i n H i l e n ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o 

Volume I o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s L e t t e r s t h a t " t h e y c o n t a i n few 

s t a t e m e n t s o f p o e t i c a l a m b i t i o n and o n l y o c c a s i o n a l a l l u s i o n s 

t o p o e t i c t h e o r y , and h i s comments on t h e p o e t r y o f o t h e r s a r e 

r a r e l y marked by c r i t i c a l p e r c e p t i o n " ( 4 ) . H i l e n ' s v i e w o f 

t h e e a r l y L o n g f e l l o w i s m i s l e a d i n g i n t h e extreme. F o r 

t h r o u g h o u t h i s c o l l e g e l e t t e r s , L o n g f e l l o w f r e q u e n t l y 

d i s c o u r s e d upon p o e t r y and l i t e r a r y t o p i c s w i t h h i s mother, 

s i s t e r s , and male and f e m a l e f r i e n d s a l i k e ; he s p e n t c l o s e t o 

a y e a r i n an e p i s t o l a r y d e b a t e w i t h h i s f a t h e r o v e r t h e v a l u e 

o f a " m e r e l y l i t e r a r y " c a r e e r . I n f a c t , d u r i n g t h i s exchange 

w i t h h i s f a t h e r , L o n g f e l l o w made m a n i f e s t h i s p e r s o n a l 

commitment t o l i t e r a t u r e d e s p i t e h i s f a t h e r ' s s c e p t i c i s m about 

t h e s o c i a l and p r a c t i c a l v a l u e o f l i t e r a t u r e as a p r o f e s s i o n . 

A c c o r d i n g t o one o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s c o l l e g e c l a s s m a t e s , J.W. 

B r a d b u r y , i n a c l a s s d e f i n e d by a m b i t i o n and " s t r u g g l e f o r 

r a n k i n s c h o l a r s h i p . . . . L o n g f e l l o w s t o o d j u s t l y among t h e 

f i r s t " ( q t d . i n L i f e I 27-8). G i v e n h i s r a n k , h i s q u e s t i o n i n g 

o f how b e s t t o use h i s e d u c a t i o n and o b v i o u s a b i l i t i e s assumed 



paramount i m p o r t a n c e as L o n g f e l l o w approached g r a d u a t i o n . As 

b e f i t t e d h i s s o c i a l p o s i t i o n and e d u c a t i o n , L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

o b v i o u s c a r e e r o p t i o n s were p r o f e s s i o n a l : t h e law, c l e r g y , o r 

m e d i c i n e . But as e a r l y as March 1824, a t age s e v e n t e e n , he 

began t o a l l u d e t o t h e a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n o f 

w r i t i n g , f e a r i n g t h a t h i s f a t h e r would n o t approve ( L e t t e r s I 

8 3 ) . L o n g f e l l o w was r i g h t . I n t h e n e x t month, he had g e n t l y 

t o admonish h i s f a t h e r f o r c h o o s i n g law as a c a r e e r f o r him: 

" I n t h i n k i n g t o make a l a w y e r o f me, I f e a r you t h o u g h t more 

p a r t i a l l y t h a n j u s t l y . . . . I h a r d l y t h i n k N a t u r e d e s i g n e d 

me f o r t h e b a r , o r t h e p u l p i t , o r t h e d i s s e c t i n g room" 

( L e t t e r s I 8 9 ) . These s e n t i m e n t s a r e r e i t e r a t e d more s t r o n g l y 

i n a l e t t e r t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s f r i e n d , George Washington W e l l s : 

" I c a n n o t make a l a w y e r o f any eminence because I have n o t a 

t a l e n t f o r argument, I am n o t good enough f o r a m i n i s t e r , — a n d 

as t o P h y s i c , I u t t e r l y and a b s o l u t e l y d e t e s t i t . ..." 

( L e t t e r s I 9 3 ) . Y e t , as Thompson p o i n t s o u t , " f i l i a l r e s p e c t 

and o b e d i e n c e " p r e v a i l e d , and L o n g f e l l o w r e l u c t a n t l y a g r e e d t o 

a c a r e e r i n law ( 5 4 ) . 

N e v e r t h e l e s s , L o n g f e l l o w was bent on f i r s t t e s t i n g h i s 

m e t t l e as a p r o f e s s i o n a l w r i t e r . By t h e end o f J a n u a r y 1825, 

he had s u c c e e d e d i n c o n v i n c i n g h i s f a t h e r t o a l l o w him t o 

s t u d y " g e n e r a l l i t e r a t u r e f o r one y e a r a t Cambridge" ( L e t t e r s 

I 103) and t o engage i n w r i t i n g p o e t r y and e s s a y s f o r 

p e r i o d i c a l s b e f o r e assuming h i s l e g a l t r a i n i n g . A l t h o u g h t h e 

y e a r a t Cambridge n e v e r came about, preempted as i t was by t h e 



202 

o f f e r o f C h a i r o f Modern Languages a t Bowdoin C o l l e g e , 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e a s o n i n g w i t h h i s f a t h e r b e t r a y s t h e young 

p o e t ' s s e l f - c o n f i d e n t a s s u m p t i o n o f h i s f u t u r e preeminence as 

a w r i t e r . A f t e r p r o p o s i n g a y e a r o f s t u d y i n H i s t o r y , " t h e 

b e s t a u t h o r s i n p o l i t e l i t e r a t u r e , " and I t a l i a n , he adds t h e 

f o l l o w i n g : 

A f t e r l e a v i n g Cambridge, I would a t t a c h m y s e l f t o 
some l i t e r a r y p e r i o d i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n . . . . [T]he 
f a c t i s . . . I most e a g e r l y a s p i r e a f t e r f u t u r e 
eminence i n l i t e r a t u r e . . . . S u r e l y t h e r e was 
n e v e r a b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e e x e r t i o n o f 
l i t e r a r y t a l e n t i n our c o u n t r y , t h a n i s now o f f e r e d . 
[ N a t u r e ] has a t any r a t e g i v e n me a v e r y s t r o n g 
p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r l i t e r a r y p u r s u i t s , and I am 
a l m o s t c o n f i d e n t i n b e l i e v i n g t h a t , i f I can e v e r 
r i s e i n t h e w o r l d , i t must be by t h e e x e r c i s e o f my 
t a l e n t s i n t h e wide f i e l d o f l i t e r a t u r e . 

(5 Dec 1824, L e t t e r s I 94-5) 

L o n g f e l l o w c o n t i n u e d t o a t t e m p t t o p e r s u a d e h i s f a t h e r o f 

h i s n a t u r a l l i t e r a r y a b i l i t i e s by c i t i n g s e v e r a l e x p r e s s i o n s 

o f a p p r o b a t i o n by T h e o p h i l u s P a r s o n s , e d i t o r o f t h e U n i t e d  

S t a t e s L i t e r a r y G a z e t t e t o w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w had, by P a r s o n s ' s 

i n v i t a t i o n , become a r e g u l a r c o n t r i b u t o r . 6 P a r s o n s was " w e l l -

s a t i s f i e d " t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s " l i t e r a r y t a l e n t s [were] o f no 

o r d i n a r y c h a r a c t e r " ( P a r s o n s q t d . by L o n g f e l l o w i n L e t t e r s I 

9 5 ) . H a v i n g f a i l e d t o r e c e i v e an immediate answer from h i s 

° From Nov. 15, 1824 t o Nov. 15, 1825, L o n g f e l l o w 
c o n t r i b u t e d s e v e n t e e n poems f o r t h e semi-monthly G a z e t t e a l o n g 
w i t h known p o e t s s u c h as B r y a n t t o whom one o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s 
poems was f a l s e l y a t t r i b u t e d ( t o t h e g r e a t d e l i g h t o f t h e 
younger p o e t ) . F i v e o f t h e s e L o n g f e l l o w r e p r i n t e d i n V o i c e s  
o f t h e N i g h t . L o n g f e l l o w a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d s e v e r a l s h o r t 
e s s a y s , t h e most i m p o r t a n t o f w h i c h a r e t h e f i v e t h a t make up 
h i s "Lay Monk" s e r i e s a p p e a r i n g i n 1825. 



f a t h e r c o n c e r n i n g h i s Cambridge p l a n , L o n g f e l l o w w r o t e a g a i n 

a t t h e end o f December and, once more, used P a r s o n s ' s h i g h 

r e g a r d f o r h i s p o e t r y as e v i d e n c e o f an i n n a t e p o e t i c a l 

a b i l i t y . Here, L o n g f e l l o w p o s i t s t h a t , a f t e r h i s y e a r o f 

s t u d y i n g B e l l e s L e t t r e s , i t would n o t " r e q u i r e a s p i r i t o f 

p r o p h e c y t o p r e d i c t w i t h some degree o f c e r t a i n t y what k i n d o f 

f i g u r e " he would have commenced " t o make i n t h e l i t e r a r y 

w o r l d , " f o r , a f t e r a l l , he i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t he " w i l l be 

eminent i n s o m e t h i n g " ( L e t t e r s I 9 8 - 9 ) . 

G i v e n t h a t L o n g f e l l o w was o n l y e i g h t e e n , and t h a t he had 

n e c e s s a r i l y t o a p p e a l t o h i s f a t h e r i f he w i s h e d t o f u r t h e r 

h i s e d u c a t i o n , h i s f i n a l d e f e r e n c e t o h i s f a t h e r ' s d e c i s i o n t o 

g r a n t him o n l y one y e a r a t Cambridge does n o t seem e x c e s s i v e l y 

s u b s e r v i e n t . On t h e c o n t r a r y , L o n g f e l l o w ' s managing a t t h i s 

t i m e t o s e c u r e a l i m i t e d l i t e r a r y e d u c a t i o n c o u p l e d w i t h 

p r a c t i c a l l i t e r a r y e x p e r i e n c e d i s p l a y s h i s s e l f - a s s u r a n c e and 

d e t e r m i n a t i o n as a w r i t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e h i s f a t h e r had 

warned him t h a t " t h e r e [was] n o t w e a l t h enough i n t h i s c o u n t r y 

t o a f f o r d s u f f i c i e n t encouragement and p a t r o n a g e t o m e r e l y 

l i t e r a r y men" ( q t d . i n L i f e I 5 5 - 6 ) . P a r s o n s , i n d e p e n d e n t l y 

o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s f a t h e r , had echoed a s i m i l a r v i e w . L o n g f e l l o w 

h i m s e l f was f o r c e d t o admit t h a t "most o f our l i t e r a r y men, 

t h u s f a r , have n o t been p r o f e s s e d l y so, u n t i l t h e y have 

s t u d i e d and e n t e r e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f T h e o l o g y , Law, o r 

M e d i c i n e " ( L e t t e r s I 9 5 ) . These v i e w s o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y 

market f o r l i t e r a r y t a l e n t a r e c o r r o b o r a t e d by C h a r v a t i n h i s 



204 

s t u d y o f The O r i g i n s o f American C r i t i c a l Thought: 1810-1835, 

i n w h i c h he n o t e s t h a t l e s s t h a n h a l f a dozen men (women a r e 

n o t c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s c o n t e x t ) d e v o t e d t h e i r l i v e s t o 

l i t e r a t u r e i n t h i s p e r i o d ; none made a l i v i n g a t i t ( 5 ) . 

L o n g f e l l o w , f o r a l l h i s l i t e r a r y a m b i t i o n s , was n o t p r e p a r e d 

t o s t a r v e i n o r d e r t o r e a l i z e them. 

The law was t h e r e f o r e t o " s u p p o r t [ h i s ] r e a l e x i s t e n c e , 

l i t e r a t u r e an i d e a l one" ( L e t t e r s I 104). I n o t h e r words, 

L o n g f e l l o w would do h i s utmost t o s u s t a i n a d u a l l i f e by 

f o l l o w i n g h i s f a t h e r i n t o t h e " r e a l " m a s c u l i n e w o r l d o f 

p r o f e s s i o n a l (and l i k e l y p o l i t i c a l ) a c t i v i t y t h r o u g h h i s 

s o c i a l l y r e s p e c t a b l e r o l e as a l a w y e r , w h i l e p r o v i d i n g 

s a n c t u a r y and r e p o s e f o r h i m s e l f i n t h e s o c i a l l y d u b i o u s 

" i d e a l " w o r l d o f p o e t r y , dominated as i t was by women. 

W i l l i a m s o p e n l y commends L o n g f e l l o w ' s "yankee shrewdness," 

i n h e r i t e d no doubt from h i s f a t h e r , he adds, i n r e c o g n i z i n g 

t h a t t h e c l i m a t e was n o t r i g h t f o r a s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g l i t e r a r y 

c a r e e r i n e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a ( 4 1 ) . Y e t 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s shrewdness o f v i s i o n may j u s t as r e a d i l y be 

a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s mother's i n f l u e n c e , c o n d i t i o n e d as she was, 

t o a c c e p t t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h e r " r e a l " l i f e o f home and 

f a m i l y w h i l e i m a g i n a t i v e l y p r o j e c t i n g h e r s e l f i n t o an " i d e a l " 

m a s c u l i n e w o r l d o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y . 

I n s h o r t , two o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s most f i r m l y h e l d a s s u m p t i o n s 

about h i m s e l f — a n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n t o w a r d a l i t e r a r y f u t u r e 

and a c a p a c i t y f o r eminence r e g a r d l e s s o f p r o f e s s i o n — s u g g e s t 



t h a t h i s c h a r a c t e r was e q u a l l y shaped by two f o r c e s : a f e m a l e -

i n h e r i t e d i m a g i n a t i o n r e s t r i c t e d , as were women, by r e l i g i o u s 

m o r a l i s m , and a m a l e - i n h e r i t e d d r i v e f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l 

r e c o g n i t i o n . As L o n g f e l l o w l o o k s t o a f u t u r e A m e r i c a o f 

i n c r e a s i n g l i t e r a c y and w i d e s p r e a d e d u c a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y 

among women, he sees h i m s e l f as a b l e t o a t t a i n l i t e r a r y 

eminence w i t h i n t h a t c o n t e x t . L o n g f e l l o w ' s a m b i t i o n s i n t h i s 

r e g a r d n o t o n l y s u r f a c e i n t h e above l e t t e r s t o h i s f a t h e r , 

b u t s p e c i f i c a l l y appear i n h i s l e t t e r s t o h i s s i s t e r s and 

l a t e r t o C a r o l i n e Doane, a f i r s t c o u s i n once removed. E v i d e n t 

i n t h e s e l e t t e r s a r e t h e u n d e r l y i n g r e a s o n s f o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d c o n v i c t i o n t h a t " [ s ] u r e l y t h e r e was n e v e r a 

b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e e x e r t i o n o f l i t e r a r y t a l e n t i n our 

c o u n t r y , t h a n i s now o f f e r e d . " 

I n 1824, a t t h e same t i m e t h a t he i s a n x i o u s l y p e r s u a d i n g 

h i s f a t h e r a g a i n s t making a l a w y e r o f him, and p e t i t i o n i n g f o r 

an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a y e a r ' s e d u c a t i o n a t Cambridge, L o n g f e l l o w 

d i s p a r a g e s t h e " m u l t i t u d e o f w e e k l y and s e m i - w e e k l y j o u r n a l s , " 

i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e p r o p o s e d "'Wreath,' a l i t e r a r y Museum f o r 

t h e L a d i e s . " He adds t h a t h i s s i s t e r , E l i z a b e t h , has vowed t o 

him t h a t she w i l l n o t r e a d i t " ' i f i t i s composed o f such 

t r a s h as u s u a l l y f i l l s t h e l a d i e s M a g a z i n e s . They pay b u t a 

poor compliment t o t h e l a d i e s t o t h i n k t h a t t h e y can be 

p l e a s e d w i t h such n o n s e n c e ' [ s i c ] " ( L e t t e r s I 8 4 - 5 ) . By t h e 

end o f t h a t y e a r , L o n g f e l l o w had become a r e g u l a r c o n t r i b u t o r , 

i n b o t h p o e t r y and p r o s e , t o t h e more r e p u t a b l e U n i t e d S t a t e s 



206 

L i t e r a r y G a z e t t e . I n t h e meantime, however, L o n g f e l l o w p a i d 

c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o s o - c a l l e d "women's l i t e r a t u r e . " I n f a c t , 

he once remarked t o h i s s i s t e r , Anne, 24 O c t o b e r 1824: "Do you 

know who w r o t e t h a t r i d i c u l o u s , l i f e l e s s , l i t t l e p i e c e o f 

P o e t r y i n t h e 'Wreath' s i g n e d 'H'? [ L o n g f e l l o w a t t h a t t i m e 

u s u a l l y s i g n e d h i s work 'HWL'.] I am a f r a i d f o l k s w i l l t h i n k 

t h a t I w r o t e i t , and t h a t I am i n t h e h a b i t o f w r i t i n g f o r t h e 

puny p a p e r ! " ( L e t t e r s I 9 2 ) . C l e a r l y , as L o n g f e l l o w was 

e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s own p l a c e w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g l i t e r a r y 

community, he c l e a r l y saw h i m s e l f as c o m p e t i n g , on some l e v e l , 

f o r t h a t p l a c e w i t h women. 

H i s l e t t e r s o f 1825 t o C a r o l i n e Doane a l s o b e t r a y a 

f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h t h e p o e t r y o f t h e f e m a l e p o e t s o f t h e t i m e , 

and i t s r e c e p t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r o f t h e enormously p o p u l a r 
• • 7 • 

B r i t i s h p o e t s , L.E.L. and Mrs Hemans. A c c o r d i n g t o 

I n The V i c t o r i a n s and t h e i r R e a d i n g , Amy C r u s e n o t e s 
t h a t a l t h o u g h F e l i c i a Hemans d i e d i n 1835 a l l " t h r o u g h t h e 
e a r l y y e a r s o f V i c t o r i a ' s r e i g n she was r e a d and p r a i s e d and 
a l m o s t r e v e r e n c e d . E v e r y young l a d y [ i n c l u d i n g F l o r e n c e 
N i g h t i n g a l e and Mary Ann Evans] had a copy o f h e r poems, and 
i n e v e r y s c h o o l r o o m t h e y were r e a d and l e a r n t by h e a r t . . . . 
Not o n l y t h e l a d i e s , b u t o l d e r p e o p l e t o o , o f c u l t i v a t e d 
t a s t e s p r a i s e d Mrs. Hemans . . . ; and Wordsworth lamented h e r 
d e a t h w i t h h i g h e u l o g y " (178). The t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y e d i t o r 
o f Hemans's p o e t r y , Donald H. Reiman, c l a i m s t h a t "whatever 
f i n a l judgment a w a i t s h e r p o e t r y , [she] has t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f 
h a v i n g a c h i e v e d w i d e r r e c o g n i t i o n and p o p u l a r i t y among h e r 
c o n t e m p o r a r i e s t h a n has any o t h e r woman p o e t i n E n g l i s h . " He 
p o i n t s o u t t h e i n n u m e r a b l e e d i t i o n s o f Hemans's w o r k — f r o m 
1808 t o 1 9 0 0 — a n d t h e n adds t h a t a l t h o u g h "some have m e n t i o n e d 
L.E.L. ( L a e t i t i a E l i z a b e t h Landon) as h a v i n g had a l a r g e r 
r e a d e r s h i p , such a judgment must be r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e p e r i o d 
between 1824 and 1835 when l i t e r a r y a n n u a l s were i n t h e i r 
heyday" ( v ) . 



L o n g f e l l o w , " M i s s L e t i t i a [ s i c ] E l i s a b e t h Landon (L.E.L.) has 

w r i t t e n c e r t a i n l y some v e r y b e a u t i f u l p o e t r y , b u t she i s 

r a t h e r t o o c a r e l e s s . She can no more compose w i t h Mrs. Hemans 

t h e n [ s i c ] P e r c i v a l can w i t h B r y a n t " ( L e t t e r s I 13 2-3*) . I n 

subsequent remarks c o n c e r n i n g L.E.L., L o n g f e l l o w a d m i r e s t h e 

"beauty i n h e r i d e a s " and t h e " e l e g a n c e i n h e r l a n g u a g e , " b u t 

he a l s o c r i t i c i z e s h e r e f f u s i v e n e s s w h i c h , i n h i s mind, 

f r e q u e n t l y r e s u l t s i n a r t l e s s s t r u c t u r e s and i m i t a t i v e n e s s 

( L e t t e r s I 141-2). 

As f o r Mrs Hemans, L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n i t i a l l y h i g h r e g a r d f o r 

h e r began t o wane. A d m i t t i n g t h a t she " p o s s e s s e s g r e a t g e n i u s 

and g r e a t power o v e r l a n g u a g e , " he c r i t i c a l l y adds t h a t " o f 

l a t e , by h e r own c a r e l e s s n e s s , she has f a l l e n s h o r t o f h e r own 

e x c e l l e n c e . Moreover, she has i n t r o d u c e d t o modern p o e t r y a 

hop, s k i p , and jump k i n d o f measure, w h i c h has had, i n my 

humble o p i n i o n , a v e r y d e l e t e r i o u s i n f l u e n c e i n our own 

c o u n t r y " ( L e t t e r s I 139). N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e o v e r a l l i m p o r t a n c e 

o f Mrs Hemans i n A m e r i c a s h o u l d n o t be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d : "No 

o t h e r p o e t was so c h e r i s h e d by A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s , no o t h e r 

spoken w i t h s u c h unanimous r e s p e c t " (Branch 107). No o t h e r , 

t h a t i s , u n t i l L o n g f e l l o w . 

Where a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e q u a l i t i e s o f v e r s e t h a t s e c u r e d Mrs 

Hemans h e r p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o 

s i m i l a r t e n d e n c i e s i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s work (see c h a p t e r f i v e ) . 

A t t h i s p o i n t , however, i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o n o t e t h a t 

L o n g f e l l o w was t a k i n g an a c t i v e i n t e r e s t i n women's p o e t r y 



208 

p r e c i s e l y a t t h e same t i m e t h a t he was c r e a t i n g h i s own 

f l e d g l i n g p o e t i c i d e n t i t y . A l t h o u g h i t can be a r g u e d t h a t i n 

t h e s e l e t t e r s L o n g f e l l o w was m e r e l y r e s p o n d i n g t o h i s f e m a l e 

c o r r e s p o n d e n t ' s e n t h u s i a s m f o r women's p o e t r y o f t h e t i m e , 

w i t h o u t a c c e s s t o C a r o l i n e Doane's l e t t e r s , i t seems e q u a l l y 

a r g u a b l e t h a t much o f h i s c o n c e r n f o r t h e s e women's work was 

i n i t i a t e d by L o n g f e l l o w h i m s e l f . L o n g f e l l o w , a t t h i s t i m e , i s 

e v i d e n t l y f o r m i n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f A m e r i c a n p o e t r y , and h i s 

p l a c e w i t h i n i t , n o t s t r i c t l y by what he deems i t s h o u l d 

become b u t by what i s : a p o e t r y f a s h i o n e d , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , 

by " s c r i b b l i n g women" (Hawthorne's term) and f e m a l e r e a d e r s . 

I r o n i c a l l y , s i m i l a r c r i t i c i s m s r e g a r d i n g " e f f u s i v e n e s s " and 

" c a r e l e s s n e s s " had been l e v e l l e d a g a i n s t L o n g f e l l o w ' s own 

p o e t r y b o t h by h i s f a t h e r and by P a r s o n s a t p r e c i s e l y t h i s 

same t i m e . I n t h e d e c i s i v e y e a r o f 1825, w h i l e L o n g f e l l o w was 

p l a g u e d by t h e q u e s t i o n o f what p r o f e s s i o n he s h o u l d p u r s u e — 

and, i f l i t e r a r y , what q u a l i t y o f l i t e r a t u r e was c u r r e n t l y 

b e i n g w r i t t e n and r e a d i n A m e r i c a — h e was a l s o u n d e r s t a n d a b l y 

a n x i o u s about t h e q u a l i t y and r e c e p t i o n o f h i s own p u b l i s h e d 

poems. And i t i s t h e p e r s o n a l (Stephen L o n g f e l l o w ) and 

p r o f e s s i o n a l ( T h e o p h i l u s P a r s o n s ) male a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e s , and 

n o t h i s mother, s i s t e r s , o r c o u s i n , who i n f l u e n c e d h i s v i e w s 

i n t h i s r e g a r d . 

I n t h e same l e t t e r t o h i s f a t h e r i n w h i c h he o u t l i n e s i n 

d e t a i l t h e p o t e n t i a l expenses o f a y e a r ' s s t u d y a t Cambridge, 

and h i g h l i g h t s h i s c o n t i n u e d endeavours t o e x a c t payment f o r 



w r i t i n g s he had s u b m i t t e d t o t h e A m e r i c a n M o n t h l y Magazine , 

L o n g f e l l o w b e g i n s by g r a c i o u s l y a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f 

t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t i c i s m t h a t h i s f a t h e r had made o f h i s 

p o e t r y : "You s h o u l d make i t a r u l e n e v e r t o send an e f f u s i o n 

o f t h e moment t o t h e p r e s s , t i l l t h e a r d o r and t h e f e e l i n g s , 

w i t h w h i c h i t was w r i t t e n , have s u b s i d e d " (see L e t t e r s I 108 

n o t e 2 ) . H i s son r e p l i e d : "Your good a d v i c e I s h a l l h e r e a f t e r 

f o l l o w , and have t h e r e f o r e s e n t no p o e t r y f o r t h e n e x t number 

o f t h e G a z e t t e , — t h o u g h I have a p i e c e w r i t t e n f o r t h a t 

p u r p o s e . Your o p i n i o n upon my w r i t i n g c o i n c i d e s i n a g r e a t 

measure w i t h t h a t o f Mr. P a r s o n s , t h e e d i t o r o f t h e U n i t e d 

S t a t e s L i t e r a r y G a z e t t e , who s a y s t h a t I must use more c a r e , 

o r r a t h e r , t h a t i t w i l l be f o r my own advantage t o use more 

c a r e , t h a n my communications g e n e r a l l y e x h i b i t ( L e t t e r s I 

106) . 9 P a r s o n s , f o r h i s p a r t , had a d o p t e d a p a t e r n a l t o n e i n 

h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h t h e young p o e t , e v e r a n x i o u s t o 

encourage L o n g f e l l o w i n ways t h a t would advance h i s r e p u t a t i o n 

and, one m i g h t add, t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f P a r s o n s ' s G a z e t t e . 

O b v i o u s l y , L o n g f e l l o w would be most s e n s i t i v e t o t h o s e same 

8 These c o n t r i b u t i o n s have been i d e n t i f i e d as a poem, "To 
t h e N o v i c e o f t h e Convent o f t h e V i s i t a t i o n , " a d r a m a t i c 
s k e t c h i n v e r s e , "The Poor S t u d e n t , " and an e s s a y , "Youth and 
O l d Age." L o n g f e l l o w n e v e r d i d r e c e i v e payment f o r t h e s e 
s u b m i s s i o n s ( L i f e I 4 1 ) . 

9 C r i t i c i s m o f y o u t h f u l p r e c o c i t y as a d e t r i m e n t t o 
"manly" v e r s e forms p a r t o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s l a t e r v i e w o f t h e 
impediments t o n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e o u t l i n e d i n h i s r e v i e w 
a r t i c l e o f t h e new e d i t i o n o f S i d n e y ' s "Defense o f Poesy," 
d i s c u s s e d below. 



c r i t i c i s m s t h a t he h i m s e l f had so a d e p t l y a p p l i e d t o L.E.L and 

Mrs Hemans; t h u s i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o d i s c o v e r t h a t , by and 

l a r g e , L o n g f e l l o w ' s " p u b l i s h e d " p o e t i c p r o d u c t i v i t y dropped 

o f f a t t h i s t i m e and d i d n o t e f f e c t i v e l y resume u n t i l t h e l a t e 

183 0s w i t h t h e a l m o s t o v e r n i g h t s u c c e s s o f V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t 

i n 1839. 

A d m i t t e d l y , t h e p e r i o d l e a d i n g up t o t h i s achievement i n 

p o e t r y was h a r d l y c o n d u c i v e t o c r e a t i v i t y , marked as i t was by 

many p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l u p h e a v a l s f o r t h e young p o e t : 

h i s f i r s t European t o u r (1825-29) i n p r e p a r a t i o n t o become t h e 

f i r s t C h a i r o f Modern Languages a t Bowdoin C o l l e g e (18 2 9 ) ; 

m a r r i a g e t o Mary S t o r e r P o t t e r (1831); a second European t o u r , 

d u r i n g w h i c h Mary d i e d (183 5-3 6 ) ; and a p p o i n t m e n t as S m i t h 

P r o f e s s o r o f Modern Languages, H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y (183 6 ) . 

What i s c o n s i s t e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r i o d , however, i s 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a 

p e r s o n a l p o e t i c s , t h e development o f w h i c h can be t r a c e d i n 

h i s p u b l i s h e d p r o s e — n o t p o e t r y — o f t h e t i m e : h i s Bowdoin 

C o l l e g e commencement o r a t i o n , "Our N a t i v e W r i t e r s " (1825); h i s 

"Lay Monk E s s a y s , " i n c l u d i n g "The L i t e r a r y S p i r i t o f Our 

C o u n t r y , " (March-Oct 1825); h i s r e v i e w o f t h e new e d i t i o n o f 

S i d n e y ' s "Defense o f Poesy" (1832); and v a r i o u s p a s s a g e s i n 

h i s I r v i n g e s q U e ' ' t a l e — O u t r e Mer (1835) and p r o s e romance, 

H y p e r i o n (1839). As no o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n o f t h e t i m e c o u l d 

have, work w i t h i n t h e newly e s t a b l i s h e d f i e l d o f Modern 

Languages must have seemed t o L o n g f e l l o w a f o r t u i t o u s 



211 

o p p o r t u n i t y t o f u s e a n e c e s s a r y , r e s p e c t a b l e l i v e l i h o o d — a 

" r e a l " l i f e — w i t h h i s " i d e a l " p u r s u i t o f l i t e r a t u r e . That 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p r o s e works o f t h e 1820s and 1830s a d o p t e d an 

i n s t r u c t i o n a l t o n e i s t h u s n o t s u r p r i s i n g g i v e n t h a t he n o t 

o n l y was s c h o o l i n g h i s a u d i e n c e b u t was a l s o g u i d i n g h i m s e l f 

i n t h e f i t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p o e t and h i s a u d i e n c e , 

between t h e l i f e o f t h e mind and p r a c t i c a l endeavour. The 

f i n a l r e s u l t o f t h i s p r o s a i c e n t e r p r i s e , Kavanagh (1849), a 

l a r g e l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l , c o n t a i n s L o n g f e l l o w ' s l a s t 

p u b l i s h e d pronouncements i n p r o s e c o n c e r n i n g t h e v a l u e o f 

l i t e r a t u r e , and p o e t r y i n p a r t i c u l a r , t o i t s n a t i o n . Thus, 

even w h i l e L o n g f e l l o w a t c o l l e g e was p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h h i s own 

p r i v a t e c o n f l i c t o f t h e r e a l v e r s u s i d e a l l i f e , d e s c r i b e d 

above i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s r o l e as a p o t e n t i a l c o n t e m p o r a r y o f 

f e m a l e p o e t s , he was a l s o p r e p a r i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e 

o n g o i n g p u b l i c d e b a t e o v e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s p e c i f i c a l l y 

A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . 

I r o n i c a l l y , many o f t h e terms used i n t h i s d e b a t e r e v e a l 

f o r L o n g f e l l o w a t l e a s t , i f n o t f o r many o f t h e w r i t e r s who 

p a r t i c i p a t e d , n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a ' s d e s i r e t o e s t a b l i s h 

a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e as a m a s c u l i n i s t e n t e r p r i s e , t h e 

b r e a k i n g f r e e o f a d o u b l e yoke: from t h e s u f f o c a t i n g 

i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e "mother" c o u n t r y , E n g l a n d , and from t h e 

e q u a l l y s t u l t i f y i n g p u b l i c m i s c o n c e p t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e as a 

w o r t h l e s s l y " f e m i n i n e " e n t e r p r i s e . As Benjamin Spencer 

d e m o n s t r a t e s i n h i s s t u d y o f A m e r i c a ' s Quest f o r N a t i o n a l i t y , 



212 

r e s i s t a n c e t o B r i t i s h c u l t u r e was " u n d o u b t e d l y most i n t e n s e i n 

t h e e a r l y decades o f t h e c e n t u r y d u r i n g t h e ' l i t e r a r y war,' 

b u t even t h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e o f t h e c e n t u r y major w r i t e r s 

t h r o u g h o u t t h e l a n d r e i t e r a t e d Simms's c h a r g e t h a t E n g l a n d 

m a i n t a i n e d such a ' p e r n i c i o u s i n f l u e n c e . . . o v e r our m e n t a l 

and m o r a l c h a r a c t e r ' t h a t 'we a r e e m a s c u l a t e d and e n s l a v e d ' " 

( 8 5 ) . The l a c k o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o p y r i g h t law was one 

o b v i o u s c o m m e r c i a l r e a s o n f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d sway o f B r i t i s h 

o p i n i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . But f e a r i n g more t h a n a mere 

p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f B r i t i s h t e x t s , A m e r i c a n c r i t i c s a l s o w o r r i e d 

t h a t c i s a t l a n t i c l i t e r a t u r e might be w a n t i n g i n t h e s t r e n g t h 

and v i g o u r needed t o compete e f f e c t i v e l y f o r p u b l i c 

r e c o g n i t i o n w i t h a c e n t u r i e s - o l d B r i t i s h t r a d i t i o n . Hence t h e 

l i t e r a t i o f a n t e b e l l u m A m e r i c a s e t t o work t o e s t a b l i s h an 

i d e n t i f i a b l y v i r i l e n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e . 

I n t h i s endeavour, L o n g f e l l o w ' s e a r l y v o i c e was c l e a r l y 

h e a r d , b u t i t became d i f f u s e d o v e r t i m e as h i s t r a v e l s i n 

Europe m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t what he l a t e r f e l t t o be A m e r i c a ' s 

c h a u v i n i s t a t t i t u d e . A t t h e o u t s e t , t h e young p o e t ' s p e r s o n a l 

and p r o f e s s i o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s d e s c r i b e d above shaped h i s 

e a r l y s e l f - a w a r e n e s s o f what h i s r o l e c o u l d be i n t h e c r e a t i o n 

and m a i n t e n a n c e o f a d i s t i n c t l y A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . Y e t , 

H e r b e r t Gorman a r g u e s t h a t w h i l e L o n g f e l l o w " u n d o u b t e d l y 

b e l i e v e d i n h i s h e a r t t h a t he was an A m e r i c a n , and so f a r as 

b i r t h and t r a d i t i o n go he was one, . . . he had no c o n c e p t i o n 

o f t h e d u t i e s — a n d t h e r e were d u t i e s — t h a t d e v o l v e d upon t h e 



213 

A m e r i c a n l i t t e r a t e u r i n t h o s e y e a r s o f s c a n t y c u l t u r e when t h e 

b a s i s o f a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was b e i n g formed" ( v i i - i x ) . 

A c c o r d i n g t o Gorman, who i m p l i e s r a t h e r t h a n s t a t e s d i r e c t l y 

t h e s e " d u t i e s , " o n l y F u l l e r , Poe, and Whitman a t t h a t t i m e 

u n d e r s t o o d t h e r e q u i s i t e d u t i e s o f t r u e A m e r i c a n s i n t e r e s t e d 

i n f o s t e r i n g n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e . 

Gorman's e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e above a u t h o r s as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 

A m e r i c a n s seems t o d e r i v e more from t h e i r a c t i v e d e n u n c i a t i o n 

o f L o n g f e l l o w t h a n from any d i s c e r n a b l e f e a t u r e s i n t h e i r own 

w r i t i n g t h a t would l i n k them w i t h one a n o t h e r as s p o k e s p e r s o n s 

f o r a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . 1 0 G r a n t e d , F u l l e r , Poe and Whitman 

a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s and i n d i f f e r e n t ways spoke t o A m e r i c a ' s 

p o s t War-of-1812 need t o c r e a t e a l i t e r a t u r e as r e s o l u t e l y a t 

odds w i t h E n g l a n d as t h e c o u n t r y i t s e l f had so r e c e n t l y been. 

B u t , i n t h e i r own ways, a l m o s t e v e r y a n t e b e l l u m w r i t e r argued 

f o r a d i s t i n c t i v e l y n a t i o n a l v o i c e i n l i t e r a t u r e (see Spencer 

7 7 ) , n o t t h e l e a s t o f whom was Emerson (not m e n t i o n e d i n t h i s 

c o n t e x t by Gorman) who, i n h i s "American S c h o l a r " (1837), 

added g r e a t l y t o h i s c o u n t r y ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p o e t ' s 

n a t i o n a l commitment. I n t h i s r e g a r d , Emerson's i n f l u e n c e 

1 0 W h i l e b o t h F u l l e r and Poe p u b l i s h e d s h a r p l y c r i t i c a l 
r e v i e w s o f L o n g f e l l o w , Whitman's p u b l i c s t a n c e t o w a r d t h e b a r d 
was, f o r t h e most p a r t , h i g h l y l a u d a t o r y . Each o f t h e s e 
c r i t i c s , a l o n g w i t h Emerson, i s d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h below 
because i n t h e i r own ways t h e y a s s i s t e d i n t h e development o f 
an A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e a t odds w i t h r a t h e r t h a n a l i g n e d w i t h 
t h e k i n d o f p o e t r y L o n g f e l l o w was e v e n t u a l l y t o w r i t e . S i n c e 
o t h e r l e a d i n g p o e t - c r i t i c s o f t h e " s c h o o l r o o m " s u c h as B r y a n t 
o r L o w e l l have g e n e r a l l y been t h o u g h t o f as s i m i l a r t o 
L o n g f e l l o w i n s e n t i m e n t , t h e i r work i s n o t d i s c u s s e d . 



214 

s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y g i v e n t h a t L o n g f e l l o w 

a t t e n d e d s e v e r a l o f Emerson's l e c t u r e s and m a i n t a i n e d f r i e n d l y 

r e l a t i o n s w i t h him t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e . 1 1 T h e r e f o r e , a b r i e f 

s u r v e y o f v a r i o u s v o i c e s — i n c l u d i n g E m e r s o n ' s — w i t h i n t h e 

o n g o i n g d e b a t e between a n a t i v e and a f o r e i g n - d o m i n a t e d 

l i t e r a t u r e i s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h a l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i c a l 

c o n t e x t t h a t would a l l o w f o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s f i n a l a d o p t i o n o f what he f e l t t o be a 

u n i v e r s a l i s t - A m e r i c a n v o i c e i n h i s p o e t r y . 

The war o f words t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e War o f 1812 was no l e s s 

p o l i t i c a l l y c h a r g e d t h a n i t s m i l i t a r y c o u n t e r p a r t . 1 2 

F e d e r a l i s t l e a n i n g j o u r n a l s and r e v i e w s s q u a r e d o f f a g a i n s t 

u p s t a r t D e m o c r a t i c " r a g s " whose w r i t e r s were d e s c r i b e d as 

h e r o i c a l l y as t h e i r n a v a l p r e d e c e s s o r s . The N o r t h A m e r i c a n 

From t h e m a t e r i a l s w h i c h a r e a v a i l a b l e i n t h e v a r i o u s 
b i o g r a p h i e s , Samuel's L i f e , and t h e L e t t e r s , I have f o u n d no 
e v i d e n c e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t L o n g f e l l o w e i t h e r h e a r d Emerson's 
"American S c h o l a r " as a P h i B e t a Kappa A d d r e s s (Cambridge, 
Aug. 1837) o r r e a d i t i n subsequent p u b l i c a t i o n s . However, 
L o n g f e l l o w was S m i t h P r o f e s s o r a t H a r v a r d a t t h e t i m e , and he 
r e c o r d s i n h i s j o u r n a l h i s a t t e n d a n c e a t n e a r l y a l l o f 
Emerson's subsequent l e c t u r e s , w i t h c o n s i s t e n t comment and 
p r a i s e f o r t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p h i l o s o p h e r . The l i k e l i h o o d o f 
h i s h a v i n g no knowledge o f "The A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r " i s v e r y 
s l i m . 

12 • 
From t h e R e v o l u t i o n u n t i l t h e war o f 1812, 

u n i v e r s a l i s t s e n t i m e n t s , d e r i v e d from a c o m b i n a t i o n o f 
n e o c l a s s i c a l c r i t i c s and S c o t t i s h common-sense p h i l o s o p h e r s 
and r h e t o r i c i a n s — e s p e c i a l l y L o r d Kames and Hugh B l a i r — 
r e i g n e d i n A m e r i c a w i t h o u t w i d e s p r e a d r e s i s t a n c e . A m e r i c a n 
l i t e r a t u r e between t h e wars, i f seen as d i s t i n c t from B r i t i s h , 
was so o n l y t o A m e r i c a n s i n i t s a b i l i t y t o become f o r them 
" t h e p e r f e c t e d o r g a n o f u n i v e r s a l t a s t e " (Spencer 37, added 
e m p h a s i s ) . 



215 

Review o f 1815, f o r example, d e s p i t e i t s avowed i n t e n t i o n t o 

" f o s t e r A m e r i c a n g e n i u s , and, by i n d e p e n d e n t c r i t i c i s m , 

i n s t r u c t and g u i d e t h e p u b l i c t a s t e " (N.Am.Rev, q t d . i n 

Spencer 63) was a c t u a l l y p r e p a r e d , a c c o r d i n g t o John 

M c C l o s k e y , t o " w a i t f o r d e c i s i o n on [a t e x t ' s ] m e r i t s o r 

d e m e r i t s from t h e h i g h e r a u t h o r i t i e s o f London" (N.Am.Rev. 

q t d . i n M c C l o s k e y 262). Meanwhile, D e m o c r a t i c magazines l i k e 

N i l e s ' R e g i s t e r , t h e A n a l e c t i c and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , The P o r t i c o 

used r e c e n t n a v a l v i c t o r i e s o v e r B r i t a i n as a n a l o g u e s t o 

i n s p i r e A m e r i c a ' s c a s t i n g o f f o f " t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l homage she 

had p a i d so l o n g t o t h e mother c o u n t r y . . . " (McCloskey 264). 

I n what r e a d s as a l a r g e l y s e l f - s e r v i n g e n t e r p r i s e , The  

P o r t i c o (1816-18) t r i e s t o d i s p e l t h e b e l i e f t h a t l i t e r a t u r e 

i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h w e a l t h , i n d u s t r y , t r a d e , m e r c a n t i l i s m , 

and l a b o r — t h e c o r n e r s t o n e s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a : 

"The h a b i t o f r e a d i n g must become i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h t h e wants 

o f t h e p e o p l e , and e v e r y man must deem a book as n e c e s s a r y t o 

h i s h a p p i n e s s as a d i n n e r o r an e s t a t e " ( q t d . 2 66) . A t t h e 

same t i m e t h a t The P o r t i c o was e n c o u r a g i n g i n t h e g e n e r a l 

p o p u l a c e a t a s t e f o r l i t e r a t u r e , i t was s o l i c i t i n g 

c o n t r i b u t i o n s from young n a t i v e w r i t e r s t h r o u g h p r o m i s e s o f 

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e n a t i o n ' s c h a r a c t e r and 

v i s i o n s o f fame as b u r g e o n i n g and as e x p a n s i v e as A m e r i c a 

i t s e l f ( 2 6 6 - 7 ) . 

A l t h o u g h no r e c o r d e d e v i d e n c e e x i s t s t o p r o v e t h a t 

L o n g f e l l o w had any i n t e r e s t i n e a r l y D e m o c r a t i c magazines, i t 



i s known t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l i s t s e n t i m e n t s e x p r e s s e d i n them 

were n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h e i r c o v e r s b u t were h e a r d as w e l l 

w i t h i n t h e c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s o f New E n g l a n d . One 

i n f l u e n t i a l v o i c e i n 1819, t h a t o f P r o f e s s o r Thomas C. Upham 

o f Bowdoin C o l l e g e , b e a r s a f u l l h e a r i n g i f o n l y f o r Upham's 

i m p o r t a n c e t o L o n g f e l l o w as a t y p e o f p o e t i c mentor from 182 3-

25. I n h i s A m e r i c a n S k e t c h e s , Upham m a i n t a i n e d t h a t even 

t h o u g h Europeans c o u l d r i d i c u l e t h e name and p r o s p e c t s o f h i s 

c o u n t r y , none c o u l d deny 

t h a t an ample and most i n t e r e s t i n g f i e l d i s open f o r 
l i t e r a r y s p e c u l a t i o n s and e x e r t i o n s . The c h a r a c t e r 
and c i v i l h a b i t s , t h e p i e t y and magnanimity o f t h e 
f i r s t s e t t l e r s , t h e s u f f e r i n g s and d e v o t e d n e s s o f 
t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , who p e n e t r a t e d i n t o d r e a r y f o r e s t s 
and abodes o f s a v a g e s ; t h e s o c i e t i e s o f 
C h r i s t i a n i z e d I n d i a n s ; t h e c h a r a c t e r o f c e l e b r a t e d 
c h i e f s ; t h e a d v e n t u r e r s o f t h e f i r s t e x p l o r e r s o f 
t h i s c o u n t r y ; t h e s e c l u s i o n , d e v o t i o n s , and 
s u f f e r i n g s o f f r o n t i e r v i l l a g e s , a r e e n c h a n t i n g 
t o p i c s as w e l l f o r t h e p e n c i l o f t h e l i m n e r as t h e 
l y r e o f t h e b a r d . . . . 

( q t d . i n C u r t i 2 50) 

W i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f f r o n t i e r v i l l a g e s , t h e above 

l i s t r e a d s l i k e a c a t a l o g u e o f t o p i c s from w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w 

was l a t e r t o s e l e c t h i s most n a t i o n a l i s t i c themes. 

A y e a r l a t e r , c h a l l e n g e d by t h e o f t - q u o t e d s t a t e m e n t , "Who 

r e a d s an A m e r i c a n book?" by Rev. Sydney S m i t h ( E d i n b u r g h  

Review, 1820), A m e r i c a n s were c a l l e d i n t o y e t a n o t h e r "War o f 

Independence" w i t h B r i t a i n . A l t h o u g h a p a c i f i s t i n a c t u a l 

w a r f a r e , i n t h i s war, L o n g f e l l o w assumed a c t i v e d u t y . 

C h o o s i n g t o speak on "Our N a t i v e W r i t e r s " f o r h i s commencement 

o r a t i o n i n 1825, and e c h o i n g s e v e r a l o f Upham's c l a i m s , t h e 



217 

young p o e t s t a t e d h i s own o p t i m i s t i c b e l i e f t h a t i n A m e r i c a 

" [ e ] v e r y r o c k s h a l l become a c h r o n i c l e o f s t o r i e d a l l u s i o n s ; 

and t h e tomb o f t h e I n d i a n p r o p h e t be as h a l l o w e d as t h e 

s e p u l c h r e s o f a n c i e n t k i n g s " ( q t d . i n Higgonson 3 3 ) . He 

c o n t i n u e s i n t h i s y o u t h f u l , p r o p h e t i c v e i n by f o r e c a s t i n g h i s 

hopes f o r "a l i t e r a t u r e a s s o c i a t e d and l i n k e d i n w i t h t h e 

g r a n d and b e a u t i f u l s c e n e r y o f our c o u n t r y , — w i t h our 

i n s t i t u t i o n s , our manners, our customs" ( 3 1 ) , t h e r e p e a t e d 

" o u r " p r o m i s i n g t h a t i t would be o n l y a m a t t e r o f t i m e b e f o r e 

t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t h e p a r e n t by t h e c h i l d r e n . That o v e r t h r o w 

would have t o be d e l a y e d however. As L o n g f e l l o w h i m s e l f 

a d m i t s , A m e r i c a "cannot y e t throw o f f [ i t s ] l i t e r a r y 

a l l e g i a n c e t o O l d E n g l a n d " (31) because i t has no sympathy f o r 

c r e a t i v e g e n i u s . 

A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s were u n a b l e t o e x e r c i s e t h e n e c e s s a r y 

d e v o t i o n t h a t g e n i u s r e q u i r e s , a c c o r d i n g t o L o n g f e l l o w , 

because " p l a i n p e o p l e , " t h e r e a d i n g p u b l i c , m i s t a k e n l y 

p e r c e i v e d l i t e r a r y works as "mere p l e a s u r e s and l u x u r i e s o f 

l i f e " (32) . That t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c was t o blame f o r t h e 

l a c k o f a t r u l y n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i s c l e a r l y o u t l i n e d i n 

"The L i t e r a r y S p i r i t o f Our C o u n t r y , " a p u b l i s h e d e s s a y 

r e p e a t i n g t h e themes o f h i s commencement o r a t i o n . He a r g u e s 

t h a t " t h e c h i e f cause w h i c h has r e t a r d e d t h e p r o g r e s s o f 

p o e t r y i n A m e r i c a i s t h e want o f t h a t e x c l u s i v e c u l t i v a t i o n 

w h i c h so n o b l e a b r a n c h o f l i t e r a t u r e would seem t o r e q u i r e " ; 

he goes on t o c l a i m t h a t t h i s "want" i s a c t u a l l y t h e r e s u l t o f 



218 

t h e more s e r i o u s "want o f a r i c h and abundant p a t r o n a g e . I t 

i s t h e f e a r o f p o v e r t y t h a t d e t e r s many g i f t e d and p o e t i c 

minds from coming f o r w a r d i n t o t h e a r e n a , and w i p i n g away a l l 

r e p r o a c h from [American] l i t e r a t u r e " (Works I I [Davos] 372). 

P r e s u m a b l y , t h e r e p r o a c h t o w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w r e f e r s i s t h a t o f 

a p r e s e n t - d a y l i t e r a r y e f f e t i s m s i n c e he adds t h a t w i t h ample 

p a t r o n a g e , "minds o f t h e f i n e s t mould w i l l be a c t i v e t o 

i n v i g o r a t e o u r l i t e r a t u r e " (372) . B e f o r e t h i s i n v i g o r a t i o n 

c o u l d t a k e p l a c e , however, r e a d e r s and w r i t e r s a l i k e would 

have t o d i s c a r d " t h e d e l i c a t e l y f i n i s h e d model o f E n g l i s h 

t a s t e " w h i c h e x e r c i s e d a p e r v a s i v e and i n j u r i o u s i n f l u e n c e on 

A m e r i c a n l e t t e r s . I n i t s s t e a d , t h e m a g n i f i c e n t s u b l i m i t y o f 

t h e n a t i o n ' s c l i m a t e and n a t u r a l s c e n e r y s h o u l d " g i v e s t r e n g t h 

and v i g o r t o [ t h e American] i n t e l l e c t , " ' a n d t h e c o u n t r y ' s 

s c a r c i t y o f t r a d i t i o n a l , c l a s s i c a l a l l u s i o n s be one day 

overcome by t h e n a t u r a l l y h e r o i c c l a s s i c i s m i n h e r e n t i n t h e 

" g l o r y o f b a t t l e s , and . . . t h e v o i c e o f e l o q u e n c e " b e l o n g i n g 

t o A m e r i c a ' s " f a s t p e r i s h i n g " N a t i v e I n d i a n s (370-72). 

( H i a w a t h a , a t t h i s p o i n t , seems o n l y a few y e a r s away.) F o r 

t h e young L o n g f e l l o w , A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s needed t o l a u n c h and 

m a i n t a i n a v i g o r o u s campaign a g a i n s t n o t o n l y t h e p e r c e i v e d 

e n f e e b l e m e n t o f l i t e r a r y p u r s u i t i t s e l f , b u t t h e a c t u a l 

e n f e e b l e m e n t t h a t was a f f e c t i n g A m e r i c a n w r i t i n g because o f 

i t s e m u l a t i o n o f i t s B r i t i s h p a r e n t . 

I f , i n d i s p l a y i n g p a s s i o n f o r h i s c o u n t r y ' s i n n a t e p o e t i c a l 

e n e r g i e s and r e j e c t i n g a n t e b e l l u m A m e r i c a ' s " d e l i c a t e " 



219 

s e n s i b i l i t y i n h e r i t e d from E n g l a n d , t h e e a r l y L o n g f e l l o w 

s o u n d s — t o o u r t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y e a r s — m o r e l i k e Whitman t h a n 

he does h i m s e l f , t h e c o n f u s i o n stems from a t l e a s t two 

s o u r c e s : 1) L o n g f e l l o w d i d n o t r e m a i n committed t o a s t r i c t l y 

n a t i o n a l i s t v i e w , b u t r a t h e r , o v e r t i m e , i n c o r p o r a t e d European 

s e n s i b i l i t i e s i n t o h i s own t o p r o d u c e , i n t h e end, a mixed 

v i e w as s e e m i n g l y e f f e t e as t h e " d e l i c a t e " E n g l i s h t a s t e he 

o r i g i n a l l y condemned; and 2) so few c r i t i c s ( w i t h Thompson as 

a n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n ) have been w i l l i n g t o g r a n t t h e young 

L o n g f e l l o w any o p p o r t u n i t y t o speak o u t f o r h i m s e l f a g a i n s t 

t h e i n s i p i d , l a t e - V i c t o r i a n c r e a t i o n o f h i s b r o t h e r t h a t 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s e a r l y e s s a y s a r e n o t o n l y d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n , 

b u t seldom i f e v e r r e f e r r e d t o . The r e s u l t i s t h a t t h e v o i c e 

o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s n a t i o n a l i s m r i n g s f a l s e t o o u r p r e j u d i c e d 

e a r s . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p e r s o n a l p o e t i c s were s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r e d by 

h i s f i r s t and l o n g e s t o f f o u r j o u r n e y s t o Europe (1825-29). 

L e t t e r s and j o u r n a l n o t e s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d r e v e a l 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t s t o l e a r n n o t o n l y t h e 

l a n g u a g e s o f t h e c o u n t r i e s he i n h a b i t e d — F r a n c e , S p a i n , I t a l y , 

and G e r m a n y — b u t t h e l i t e r a t u r e s as w e l l , e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e 

t r o u b a d o u r p o e t s o f F r a n c e and t h e Sturm und Drang w r i t e r s o f 

Germany. One key r e s u l t o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e 'of m u l t i p l e 

n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e s was L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e 

weakness o f h i s own. N e a r i n g t h e end o f h i s t r a v e l s , 28 March 



220 

1829, he w r o t e t o h i s s i s t e r t o e x p l a i n h i s l o s s o f p o e t i c 

v o i c e : 

My p o e t i c c a r e e r i s f i n i s h e d . S i n c e I l e f t A m e r i c a 
I have h a r d l y p u t two l i n e s t o g e t h e r . I may i n d e e d 
s a y t h a t my muse has been s e n t t o t h e House o f 
C o r r e c t i o n — a n d h e r l a s t o f f s p r i n g were l a i d a t t h e 
d o o r o f one o f t h o s e F o u n d l i n g h o s p i t a l s f o r poor 
p o e t r y — a New Y e a r ' s ' s o u v e n i r ' 1 3 . . . . [N]o s o f t 
p o e t i c r a y has i r r a d i a t e d my h e a r t s i n c e t h e Goths 
and V a n d a l s c r o s s e d t h e R u b i c o n o f t h e f r o n t e n t r y , 
and t u r n e d t h e sanctum s a n c t o r u m o f t h e ' L i t t l e 
Room' i n t o a c h i n a c l o s e t . 

( L e t t e r s I 305) 

The image o f a c h i n a c l o s e t t o r e p l a c e h i s p o e t i c s a n c t u a r y 

s u g g e s t s t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e c e n t e x p o s u r e t o i m p a s s i o n e d 

Europeans had r e v e a l e d h i s p o e t r y t o him f o r what i t was: 

a r t f u l , d e l i c a t e c r a f t w o r k , n o t h i n g more. 

A j o u r n a l e n t r y w r i t t e n s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e above l e t t e r 

s u g g e s t s t h e c h a n n e l i n t o w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y 

r e d i r e c t h i s v e r s e now t h a t he f o u n d i t w a n t i n g : p o p u l a r 

c u l t u r e . N o t i n g t h e p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e o f B y r o n upon t h e 

t a s t e o f t h e age, L o n g f e l l o w n e v e r t h e l e s s r e j e c t s B y r o n ' s 

"upper a i r " and " t h u n d e r o f h i s w h e e l s " f o r t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f 

Wordsworth who "drove t o P a r n a s s u s by t h e l o w e r r o a d , g o t 

sometimes l o s t i n t h e bushes and l o w l a n d f o g s , and was much 

A c c o r d i n g t o H i l e n , " S o u v e n i r " l i k e l y r e f e r s t o 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n s "The Song o f t h e B i r d s " and t h e 
" B u r i a l o f t h e M i n n i s i n k " p u b l i s h e d i n The A t l a n t i c S o u v e n i r ;  
a C h r i s t m a s and New Y e a r ' s O f f e r i n g ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1827) and 
t o "The S p i r i t o f P o e t r y " p u b l i s h e d i n The S o u v e n i r f o r t h e 
f o l l o w i n g y e a r ( L e t t e r s I 3 08 n . 5 ) . The p o p u l a r i t y o f s u c h 
A n n u a l s and G i f t b o o k s , and L o n g f e l l o w ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o them, 
i s d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r one. 



221 

m o l e s t e d by m o s q u i t o c r i t i c s . " " I n o u r own c o u n t r y , " 

L o n g f e l l o w adds, " t h e Wordsworth s c h o o l has e v i d e n t l y had t h e 

upper hand. H i s s i m p l e a u s t e r i t y and r e p u b l i c a n p r i n c i p l e i n 

p o e t r y were i n u n i s o n w i t h our m o r a l and p o l i t i c a l c r e e d . Our 

modes o f t h o u g h t were s o b e r and p r a c t i c a l . So, i n most 
14 

i n s t a n c e s , were h i s " ( e n t r y o f May 1829 q t d . i n L i f e I 169). 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s f r e q u e n t t r a v e l s o u t s i d e o f t h e European 

u n i v e r s i t i e s ' i n t e l l e c t u a l l y e l i t e c i r c l e s i n o r d e r t o 

e x p e r i e n c e d o m e s t i c l i f e i n t h e v i l l a g e s s u p p o r t e d h i s g r o w i n g 

i n c l i n a t i o n , i m p l i e d above, t o become a v o i c e f o r h i s own 

n a t i o n ' s s i m p l e f o l k . 

Such a p r o j e c t , however, became i n t i m a t e l y t i e d t o h i s r o l e 

as a P r o f e s s o r o f Modern Languages ( i n i t i a l l y a t Bowdoin 

C o l l e g e and l a t e r a t Harvard) once he r e t u r n e d t o A m e r i c a i n 

1829 and d i s c o v e r e d t h a t A m e r i c a ' s s i m p l e f o l k , t o w h i c h he 

w o u l d a d d r e s s h i m s e l f , r e p r e s e n t e d a l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l 

body as d i v e r s e as t h e European t e x t s he had h i m s e l f so 

r e c e n t l y a c q u i r e d . F o r European i m m i g r a t i o n was as r a p i d l y 

c h a n g i n g t h e v i s i b l e e t h n i c c a s t o f A m e r i c a as European 

p h i l o s o p h y was a l t e r i n g i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l i d e o l o g y . F o r 

L o n g f e l l o w , an A m e r i c a n n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e would t h e r e f o r e 
1 4 L o n g f e l l o w ' s p r e f e r e n c e f o r Wordsworth o v e r B y r o n 

became a common s e n t i m e n t i n A m e r i c a i n t h e 183 0s, and 
L o n g f e l l o w h i m s e l f may w e l l have been an i n f l u e n c e i n t h i s 
r e g a r d s i n c e i n h i s r e v i e w o f S i d n e y ' s "Defense o f Poesy" 
( d i s c u s s e d below) he c r i t i c i z e s a t some l e n g t h t h e m u l t i t u d e 
o f B y r o n i c i m i t a t o r s i n A m e r i c a , and p o i n t s o u t t h e s i m p l i c i t y 
o f Wordsworth's d i c t i o n as more i n k e e p i n g w i t h A m e r i c a n 
e x p e r i e n c e , though i t t o o was s u b j e c t t o p u e r i l e i m i t a t i o n . 



have t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a m u l t i - e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n , 

u n s c h o o l e d i n t h e E n g l i s h t r a d i t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e , o f t e n 

f o r c e d by n e c e s s i t y i n t o w h o l l y p r a c t i c a l as opposed t o 

i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s by s h e e r want o f t h e E n g l i s h language i f 

n o t by s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c l a s s . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s f i r s t p u b l i c r e s p o n s e t o h i s newly a d o p t e d 

r o l e as i n s t r u c t o r o f and as a p o t e n t i a l v o i c e f o r A m e r i c a ' s 

m i d d l e c l a s s e s was t o merge h i s v a r i o u s i n t e r e s t s i n t o t h e 

s i n g l e a t t e m p t t o t e a c h t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a c e t h a t a l o v e o f 

l i t e r a t u r e was e n t i r e l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n d o c t r i n e 

o f p r a c t i c a l u t i l i t y . I n h i s r e v i e w a r t i c l e o f S i d n e y ' s 

"Defense o f Poesy," p u b l i s h e d i n 1832 i n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n  

Review, L o n g f e l l o w ' s e a r l i e r c o n c e r n f o r t h e p u b l i c ' s 

m i s c o n c e p t i o n o f p o e t r y as e f f e m i n a t e nonsense i s l i n k e d t o a 

d e s i r e t o i n s t r u c t h i s r e a d e r s i n t h e s p e c i f i c ways i n w h i c h 

t h i s c o n c e p t i o n i s f a u l t y . Moreover, L o n g f e l l o w ' s r o l e as a . 

p r o f e s s o r o f Modern Languages r e v e a l s i t s e l f i n t h e examples 

chosen from European l i t e r a t u r e s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f 

c l i m a t e upon a n a t i o n ' s v e r s e , and t o s u g g e s t t h e p o t e n t i a l 

f o r a n a t i o n a l u n i q u e n e s s i n p o e t r y based on a s s o c i a t i v e 

p r i n c i p l e s o f t h i s k i n d . These p r i n c i p l e s t h e m s e l v e s 

L o n g f e l l o w a d o p t e d from Madame de S t a e l and t h e S c h l e g e l s , 

F r e d e r i c k i n p a r t i c u l a r ; y e t , he p u t them t o a s p e c i f i c a l l y 

A m e r i c a n use as many o f h i s f e l l o w l i t e r a t i would a l s o d o . 1 5 

1 5 I n h i s r e v i e w , L o n g f e l l o w q u o t e s F r e d e r i c k S c h l e g e l : 
" I f we c o n s i d e r l i t e r a t u r e i n i t s w i d e s t s e n s e , as t h e v o i c e 
w h i c h g i v e s e x p r e s s i o n t o human i n t e l l e c t , — a s t h e a g g r e g a t e 



Here, L o n g f e l l o w d i s p a r a g e s t h e m a s c u l i n e " s p i r i t o f t h e 

age" i n i t s c l a m o u r i n g a f t e r " b a r e , brawny, m u s c u l a r u t i l i t y , " 

i t s v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n "schemes f o r g a i n , " and t h e 

a c q u i s i t i v e push westward o f A m e r i c a ' s " r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g 

p o p u l a t i o n " (Works [Davos] I 360) . F o r him, a n a t i o n ' s 

g r e a t n e s s l i e s n o t i n i t s c o m m e r c i a l and t e r r i t o r i a l 

c o n q u e s t s , b u t i n i t s "moral and i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e e m i n e n c e " 

(3 6 1 ) , m i s t a k e n l y t h o u g h t i n A m e r i c a t o be a t odds w i t h 

p r a c t i c a l endeavour. A more s e r i o u s m i s c o n c e p t i o n i s r e v e a l e d 

i n t h e p u b l i c ' s n o t i o n t h a t " p o e t r y and nonsense a r e 

c o n v e r t i b l e t e r m s ; t h a t l i t e r a t u r e b e g e t s an e f f e m i n a t e and 

c r a v e n s p i r i t . . . [ t h a t ] i n t e l l e c t . . . [ i s t o ] d i s p l a y a 

r o u g h and n a t u r a l e n e r g y , — s t r e n g t h , s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s t r e n g t h , 

u n t u t o r e d i n t h e r u l e s o f a r t , and unadorned by e l e g a n t and 

c o u r t l y e r u d i t i o n " (365). A m e r i c a needs t o l e a r n from S i d n e y 

t h a t t h e s o - c a l l e d " o r n a m e n t a l a r t s , " n o t t h e l e a s t o f w h i c h 

i s p o e t r y , a c t u a l l y s e r v e a u t i l i t a r i a n f u n c t i o n as 

i n s t r u m e n t s " f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f s o c i e t y , and 

a d v a n c i n g t h e g r e a t p u r p o s e o f human h a p p i n e s s " ( 3 6 8 ) . 

L o n g f e l l o w goes on t o show t h a t he wants b o t h t o " s o o t h e " 

t h o s e whose "mind and body a r e worn down by t h e s e v e r i t y o f 

mass o f symbols, i n w h i c h t h e s p i r i t o f an age o r t h e 
c h a r a c t e r o f a n a t i o n i s shadowed f o r t h , t h e n i n d e e d a g r e a t 
and v a r i o u s l i t e r a t u r e i s , w i t h o u t a doubt, t h e most v a l u a b l e 
p o s s e s s i o n o f w h i c h any n a t i o n can b o a s t " ( L e c . V I I L e c t u r e s  
on t h e H i s t o r y o f L i t e r a t u r e Works [Davos] I q t d . 377). F o r 
t h e p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e o f Madame de S t a e l , see C h a r v a t 
O r i g i n s , 63. 



224 

d a i l y t o i l " and " i n s p i r e a l o v e o f heaven and v i r t u e " (3 68-9). 

Throughout t h e r e v i e w , p o e t r y i t s e l f — b e i t t h e p a s t o r a l v e r s e 

o f b u c o l i c l i f e o r t h e h e r o i c romance o f p a s t a g e s — i s t h u s 

p o r t r a y e d as a s a n c t u a r y from t h e h u s t l e and b u s t l e o f 

l a b o r i o u s a c t i v i t y , a s a n c t u a r y n o t u n l i k e t h e d o m e s t i c , 

s p i r i t u a l p a r a d i s e a woman was t o p r o v i d e f o r h e r over-worked 

husband. 

A c t i v i t y p r o v i d e s o n l y t h e e x t e r n a l f a c t s o f a n a t i o n ' s 

h i s t o r y w h i l e t h e " t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s o f a p e o p l e " t h a t a r e 

t h e p r e r o g a t i v e s o f p o e t r y become " t h e s p i r i t o f t h e age 

i t s e l f , — e m b o d i e d i n t h e forms o f language, and s p e a k i n g i n a 

v o i c e t h a t i s a u d i b l e t o t h e e x t e r n a l as w e l l as t h e i n t e r n a l 

s e n s e " ( 3 7 5 - 6 ) . I t f o l l o w s t h a t L o n g f e l l o w s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e 

e x p r e s s c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s d a i n f o r t h e numerous A m e r i c a n p o e t s 

who have " i m b i b e d t h e d e g e n e r a t e s p i r i t o f modern E n g l i s h 

p o e t r y " by becoming " t u r g i d and e x t r a v a g a n t " mimics o f B y r o n 

(388-90) s i n c e i m i t a t i o n , and poor i m i t a t i o n a t t h a t , 

f r u s t r a t e s t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e ' s a b i l i t i e s t o e x p r e s s " t h e i r 

own f e e l i n g s and i m p r e s s i o n s from what t h e y see around them" 

(emphasis added 387). C o n v i n c e d t h a t i m i t a t i v e v e r s e 

r e i n f o r c e s i t s e l f by " t h e i n d i s c r e e t and i n d i s c r i m i n a t e p r a i s e 

o f f r i e n d s , " t h e c r i t i c a l " p u f f e r y " common a t t h e t i m e , 

L o n g f e l l o w c o m p l e t e s h i s d i s c u s s i o n w i t h a comment t h a t sounds 

s t r a n g e l y l i k e s e l f - c r i t i c i s m : he c l a i m s t h a t a n o t h e r 

" c i r c u m s t a n c e w h i c h t e n d s t o g i v e an e f f e m i n a t e and unmanly 

c h a r a c t e r t o our l i t e r a t u r e , i s t h e p r e c o c i t y o f our w r i t e r s . 



225 

Premature e x h i b i t i o n s o f t a l e n t a r e an u n s t a b l e f o u n d a t i o n t o 

b u i l d a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e upon" (391). G u i l t y h i m s e l f o f a 

t o o e a r l y , t o o e a s y e f f u s i o n — a c r i t i c i s m he had a d r o i t l y 

l e v e l l e d a t L . E . L . — L o n g f e l l o w now i n s i s t s t h a t A m e r i c a ' s 

l i t e r a t u r e c a n n o t a f f o r d such unmanly p r e c o c i t y i f i t i s t o 

combat s u c c e s s f u l l y t h e i n s i d i o u s i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e mother 

c o u n t r y . 

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e v i e w o f S i d n e y ' s 

"Defense" c a n n o t be o v e r s t r e s s e d . Not o n l y does i t e s t a b l i s h 

t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e o f m o r a l u s e f u l n e s s upon w h i c h 

L o n g f e l l o w was t o base h i s p o e t i c v o i c e , b u t i t a l s o b e t r a y s 

h i s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e r e c e p t i o n o f p o e t r y i n A m e r i c a as 

d o m i n a t e d , i f n o t by women t h e m s e l v e s , t h e n c e r t a i n l y by a 

p u b l i c a t t i t u d e t h a t c o n f i n e d p o e t r y t o a f e m i n i n e a r e n a . As 

s u c h , L o n g f e l l o w ' s v i e w s were d e r i v e d from and s h a r e d by 

s e v e r a l w e l l - k n o w n and l e s s e r - k n o w n a u t h o r s o f t h e t i m e . 

James Fenimore Cooper, f o r example, had used h i s t r a n s a t l a n t i c 

e x p e r i e n c e s t o c a s t i g a t e t h e e d u c a t e d c l a s s e s o f A m e r i c a i n 

t h e i r c o n t i n u e d d e f e r e n c e t o E n g l a n d ; a c c o r d i n g t o Spencer, 

Cooper " m a i n t a i n e d t h a t u n l e s s a 'manly, i n d e p e n d e n t 

l i t e r a t u r e ' i n harmony w i t h A m e r i c a n f a c t s were f o r t h c o m i n g , 

t h e v e r y ' s a f e t y ' o f t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s was i n danger" ( q t d . 

i n Spencer 7 8 ) . I n c o n t r a s t , Dr Channing, i n h i s "Remarks on 

N a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e " (1830), argued t h a t even w h i l e A m e r i c a 

must seek t o d e f i n e i t s s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and s p i r i t u a l 

h a r v e s t s i n ways unembarrassed by t h e outworn g u i s e s o f t h e 



226 

O l d W o r l d , she must do so t h r o u g h t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f an 

i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e who would, i n t u r n , f r e e l y s h a r e t h e i r 

d i s c o v e r i e s w i t h t h o s e l e s s g i f t e d t h a n t h e m s e l v e s (see C u r t i 

249-50). A l t h o u g h Cooper and Channing would l i k e l y have seen 

t h e m s e l v e s as embarking upon a s i m i l a r c o u r s e — o n e w h i c h would 

e s t a b l i s h and p r o t e c t A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e t h r o u g h n a t i o n a l 

l i t e r a t u r e — t h e y c l e a r l y d i v e r g e on c l a s s l i n e s . 

I n p r i n c i p l e , L o n g f e l l o w e v e n t u a l l y came t o s h a r e 

Channing's b e l i e f i n t h e v a l u e o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l n o b i l i t y t o 

l e a d t h e masses; however, i n h i s p o e t i c p r a c t i c e he d e f e r r e d 

t o t h e commonality when n e c e s s a r y t o s e c u r e a r e a d e r s h i p l a r g e 

enough t o make t h e m o r a l u s e f u l n e s s o f h i s l e a d e r s h i p r o l e a 

c o g e n t f o r c e i n A m e r i c a . Thus, a f u l l p i c t u r e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d h i s p u b l i c a t t h i s t i m e demands a b a l a n c i n g o f 

t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l e r u d i t i o n he d i s p l a y s i n 

h i s 1832 r e v i e w w i t h t h e a r t l e s s n a i v e t e t h a t he a d o p t s t o 

n a r r a t e h i s I r v i n g e s q u e t a l e s o f Outre-Mer: A P i l g r i m a g e  

Beyond t h e Sea p u b l i s h e d o n l y t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r . 

Throughout t h i s t e x t , L o n g f e l l o w r e t e l l s as r e f l e c t i o n s o f 

v a r i o u s c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s t h e s t o r i e s and poems g a t h e r e d 

from h i s f i r s t European t o u r . And he does so w i t h an 

e x c i t e m e n t d e s i g n e d t o i n d u c e i n h i s r e a d e r s a s i m i l a r 

o p t i m i s m f o r t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e i r own c o u n t r y : "How 

u n i v e r s a l i s t h e l o v e o f p o e t r y 1 E v e r y n a t i o n has i t s p o p u l a r 

songs, t h e o f f s p r i n g o f a c r e d u l o u s s i m p l i c i t y and u n s c h o o l e d 

f a n c y " ( 3 5 6 ) . S e v e r a l examples o f p e a s a n t s ' p o e t r y f o l l o w , 



capped by t h e b e l i e f t h a t " p e a s a n t — s e r f — s l a v e — a l l , a l l have 

t h e i r b a l l a d s and t r a d i t i o n a r y songs. M u s i c i s t h e u n i v e r s a l 

language o f m a n k i n d — p o e t r y t h e i r u n i v e r s a l p a s t i m e and 

d e l i g h t " ( 3 5 7 ) . F i l l e d w i t h v i g n e t t e s , p a s t i c h e s , and 

s p l a s h e s o f l o c a l c o l o u r , Outre-Mer r e p r e s e n t s an e c l e c t i c 

" s o m e t h i n g - f o r - e v e r y o n e " r e f l e c t i o n o f d i v e r s e c u l t u r e s , an 

i d e a l b l e n d o f European c o n t e n t and an A m e r i c a n form made 

p o p u l a r by I r v i n g ' s S k e t c h e s . 

Y e t amid t h i s l i g h t - h e a r t e d s i m p l i c i t y , t h e w r i t e r s o f New 

E n g l a n d had a l s o been p r e p a r i n g t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c i n t h e 

1830s t o a c c e p t an i n t e l l e c t u a l l y and s p i r i t u a l l y c h a r g e d 

n a t i o n a l l i t e r a r y i d e n t i t y , as Channing a t t e s t s and Emerson 

s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o n f i r m s i n h i s t r e n c h a n t a d d r e s s on "The 

A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r " i n 1837.. Spencer m a i n t a i n s t h a t " t h e 

c r e a t i o n o f a w o r t h y n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was t o t h e 

T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s a p r i m e d e s i d e r a t u m . . . . [T]he f i r s t 

m e e t i n g o f t h e c l u b on O c t o b e r t h e t h i r d [183 6] was g i v e n o v e r 

t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t o p i c : 'American G e n i u s — t h e Causes 

w h i c h H i n d e r i t s Growth and g i v e us no F i r s t - R a t e 

P r o d u c t i o n s ' " ( 1 5 8 ) . Moreover, Emerson's P h i B e t a Kappa 

a d d r e s s n o t o n l y f o l l o w e d from c u r r e n t t r a n s c e n d e n t a l 

c o n c e r n s , b u t echoed as w e l l s i m i l a r themes i n a number o f P h i  

B e t a Kappa speeches o f p r e v i o u s y e a r s . Y e t i t i s n o t so much 

i n what Emerson had t o say as i n how he chose t o say i t t h a t 

h i s preeminence as a l i t e r a r y n a t i o n a l i s t r e v e a l s i t s e l f ; f o r 

Emerson i s n o t h i n g i f n o t f o r c e f u l l y e l o q u e n t , a p e r f e c t 



228 

example h i m s e l f o f t h e n a t i o n a l v o i c e he was h o p i n g t o 

i n s p i r e . » 

W h i l e Emerson a p p l a u d s A m e r i c a ' s embryonic l i t e r a r y r e s p e c t 

f o r n a t u r e , he a l s o c h a l l e n g e s t h e p o p u l a r adherence t o and 

m i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s c h o l a r as a b o o k i s h pedant. As a s t r o n g 

p r o p o n e n t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l man, he t h u s d i s p a r a g e s t h e 

" s l u g g i s h and p e r v e r t e d mind o f t h e m u l t i t u d e " t h a t i s e a s i l y 

g u l l e d by dogma r a t h e r t h a n e x c i t e d by i n d i v i d u a l t h i n k i n g 

( 5 6 ) . Of e q u a l c o n c e r n t o Emerson, as i t was t o L o n g f e l l o w , 

i s t h e p u b l i c ' s m i s c o n c e p t i o n o f l i t e r a r y men as e m a s c u l a t e : 

" I have h e a r d i t s a i d , " n o t e s Emerson, " t h a t t h e c l e r g y , — w h o 

a r e a l w a y s more u n i v e r s a l l y t h a n any o t h e r c l a s s , t h e s c h o l a r s 

o f t h e i r d a y , — a r e a d d r e s s e d as women: t h a t t h e r o u g h , 

spontaneous c o n v e r s a t i o n o f men t h e y do n o t h e a r , b u t o n l y a 

m i n c i n g and d i l u t e d s p e e c h " ( 5 9 ) . F u r t h e r , l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , 

Emerson goes on t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t , i n f a c t , t r u e s c h o l a r s h i p 

(as Emerson d e f i n e s l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y ) i s n o t i n d e p e n d e n t o f 

" a c t i o n , " o f l i f e as i t i s l i v e d by men; r a t h e r , i t i s t h r o u g h 

engagement w i t h t h e r e a l w o r l d t h a t s c h o l a r s i n f u s e power i n t o 

t h e i r words ( 6 0 ) . Hence w i t h s e l f - t r u s t as h i s o v e r r i d i n g 

p r i n c i p l e , Emerson d e s c r i b e s t h e " d u t i e s " s c h o l a r s must obey 

i f t h e y a r e t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e i r p u b l i c image as b o o k i s h , 

e f f e m i n a t e i d l e r s : t h e y must seek " t o c h e e r , t o r a i s e , t o 

g u i d e men" and " d e f e r n e v e r t o t h e p o p u l a r c r y " (63) ; t h e y 

must d i s p l a y p e r s o n a l freedom and b r a v e r y even i n t h e f a c e o f 

p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o v e r s y , and f e e l shame i f t r a n q u i l l i t y b r e e d s a 



229 

sense o f s e l f as a p r o t e c t e d c l a s s — " l i k e c h i l d r e n and women" 

( 6 4 ) ; t h e y each must become h e r o i c i n and o f t h e m s e l v e s ; and, 

f i n a l l y , t h e y must work a g a i n s t t h e l u r e o f money t o e s t a b l i s h 

" t h e g r a d u a l d o m e s t i c a t i o n o f t h e i d e a o f C u l t u r e " ( 6 5 ) . 

F o r Emerson, as f o r many o t h e r s c h o l a r s and c r i t i c s b e f o r e 

and a f t e r him, t h e s c h o l a r ' s d u t i e s must conform t o A m e r i c a ' s 

new s p i r i t , a t one w i t h " t h e n e a r , t h e low, [and] t h e common 

[ s i n c e ] [ t ] h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e p o o r , t h e f e e l i n g s o f t h e 

c h i l d , t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e s t r e e t , t h e meaning o f h o u s e h o l d 

l i f e a r e t h e t o p i c s o f t h e t i m e " and s u b l i m i t y r e s i d e s t h e r e i n 

( 6 7 ) . 1 6 A m e r i c a has " l i s t e n e d t o o l o n g t o t h e c o u r t l y muses 

The most o b v i o u s p r o p o n e n t s o f A m e r i c a ' s l i t e r a t u r e as 
t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f common humanity were o f c o u r s e t h e l e a d i n g 
l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s o f t h e Young A m e r i c a movement: C o r n e l i u s 
Mathews, E v e r t A. D u y c k i n c k , W i l l i a m A. J o n e s , John 
0 ' S u l l i v a n , and P a r k e Godwin. Members o f t h e l i b e r a l and 
r a d i c a l w i n g o f t h e D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y ( t h e L o c o f o c o s ) , t h e y 
p u b l i s h e d i n many New York p e r i o d i c a l s from 1835-50, n o t t h e 
l e a s t o f w h i c h was t h e i r c h i e f o r g a n , t h e D e m o c r a t i c Review. 
T h e i r work i s n o t d e a l t w i t h s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t h i s s u r v e y f o r 
a l t h o u g h L o n g f e l l o w p r i v a t e l y s c o r n e d what he c a l l e d t h e 
" L o c o - f o c o p o l i t i c o - l i t e r a r y system" o f Young A m e r i c a , he was 
c o n t e n t t o l e t L e w i s G a y l o r d C l a r k , t h e e d i t o r o f t h e 
K n i c k e r b o c k e r ( t o w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w c o n t r i b u t e d ) , r a i l t h e 
c o n s e r v a t i v e l i n e a g a i n s t Young A m e r i c a . L o n g f e l l o w e n d o r s e d 
C l a r k , r a t h e r t h a n o p e n l y denounce t h e movement h i m s e l f . 
However, each o f t h e c r i t i c s who a r e h i g h l i g h t e d i n t h i s 
s u r v e y — E m e r s o n , Poe, F u l l e r , and W h i t m a n — d i d have d i r e c t 
c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h members o f t h e Young A m e r i c a group e i t h e r as 
c o n t r i b u t o r s t o o r r e c i p i e n t s o f t h e i r g e n e r a l aims t o 
d e m o c r a t i z e A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e a l t h o u g h , o t h e r t h a n Whitman, 
t h e y d i d n o t o v e r t l y s h a r e t h e i r p o l i t i c s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , 
L o n g f e l l o w t o o must be seen as a p a r t i c i p a n t i n Young 
A m e r i c a ' s g e n e r a l c a u s e , though he d i s a g r e e d s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e 
p a r t i c u l a r methods and h a s t e by w h i c h w r i t e r s and c r i t i c s were 
t o e n d o r s e t h e o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n as t h e v o i c e o f A m e r i c a . John 
S t a f f o r d ' s "The L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m o f Young A m e r i c a " i s a 
t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c s , p e o p l e , and t h e o r i e s o f 
Young A m e r i c a i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e s t h a t 
a s s i s t e d i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e movement. P e r r y M i l l e r ' s 



o f Europe." Her "freemen a r e s u s p e c t e d o f b e i n g t i m i d , 

i m i t a t i v e , tame, d e c e n t , i n d o l e n t , c o m p l a i s a n t " ( 6 9 ) . Though 

l e s s f o r c e f u l t h a n Emerson's c o n c r e t e c o n t r a s t between 

A m e r i c a n v i t a l i t y and i m i t a t i v e e n e r v a t i o n , L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p r e f e r e n c e f o r Wordsworth o v e r B y r o n , n o t e d above, a l s o 

d e n o t e s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f an i n h e r e n t l y p o e t i c energy i n t h e 

"common" language o f A m e r i c a . 

S u p p o r t f o r common, e v e r y d a y l i f e as t h e l o c u s f o r a 

n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was a f a m i l i a r theme among A m e r i c a n 

l i t e r a t i . The e x t e n t t o w h i c h p o e t s s h o u l d i m b i b e t h e c u l t u r e 

o f t h o s e t h e y s u p p o s e d l y were t o t e a c h , however, g e n e r a t e d 

d i s p u t e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s among s p e a k i n g t o , 

s p e a k i n g f o r , s p e a k i n g w i t h , o r s p e a k i n g as one o f t h e 

commonality. I n h i s p r o s e romance, H y p e r i o n (1839), w r i t t e n 

a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f h i s f i r s t w i f e i n H o l l a n d d u r i n g h i s second 

European t o u r (1835-36), L o n g f e l l o w t r i e s t o r e s o l v e any 

d i s p u t e s by a r g u i n g t h a t a l l v o i c e s come from w i t h i n . I n t h e 

German Baron who becomes a mentor t o t h e W e r t h e r - l i k e h e r o , 

P a u l Flemming, L o n g f e l l o w echoes t h e i n w a r d g l a n c e and 

i n d i v i d u a l i s m o f Emerson's s c h o l a r . R e s p o n d i n g t o Flemming's 

need t o l o c a t e a s o u r c e f o r p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n , t h e Baron 

s t a t e s : 

G l o r i o u s i n d e e d i s t h e w o r l d o f God around u s , b u t 
more g l o r i o u s t h e w o r l d o f God w i t h i n u s . There 

a c c o u n t o f t h e p e r i o d i c a l wars between New York and B o s t o n , i n 
The Raven and t h e Whale, a l s o p r o v i d e s an h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t 
f o r t h e p o l i t i c s o f p e r i o d i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n i n m i d - n i n e t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y A m e r i c a . 



231 

l i e s t h e Land o f Song; t h e r e l i e s t h e p o e t ' s n a t i v e 
l a n d . . . t h e many homes and h o u s e h o l d s , each a 
l i t t l e w o r l d i n i t s e l f , r e v o l v i n g round i t s 
f i r e s i d e , as a c e n t r a l sun; a l l forms o f human j o y 
and s u f f e r i n g b r o u g h t i n t o t h a t narrow c o m p a s s ; — a n d 
t o be i n t h i s , and be a p a r t o f t h i s ; a c t i n g , 
t h i n k i n g , r e j o i c i n g , s o r r o w i n g w i t h h i s f e l l o w - m e n ; 
s u c h , s u c h would be t h e p o e t ' s l i f e . (48) 

T h i s f u s i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l v i s i o n w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l mundane 

image o f d o m e s t i c i t y made s u b l i m e by i t s l i n k t o God and t o 

a l l humanity s u g g e s t s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Emerson, whose l e c t u r e s 

L o n g f e l l o w was r e l i g i o u s l y a t t e n d i n g w h i l e w r i t i n g H y p e r i o n . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e c e n t s t u d y o f German p h i l o s o p h y and romance i s 

a l s o a p p a r e n t h e r e . H i s e p i g r a p h f o r H y p e r i o n , d i s c o v e r e d i n 

a c h a p e l a t S t . G i l g e n w h i l e he was d e s u l t o r i l y w a n d e r i n g i n 

Germany a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f h i s w i f e i n November 1835, becomes 

f o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s P a u l Flemming a t y p e o f " E v e r l a s t i n g Yea" 

l a u n c h i n g him, l i k e C a r l y l e ' s T e u f e l s d r o c k h , i n t o a l i f e o f 

a c t i o n and r e a l i t y : 

Look n o t m o u r n f u l l y i n t o t h e P a s t . I t comes n o t 
back a g a i n . W i s e l y improve t h e f u t u r e . I t i s -
t h i n e . Go f o r t h t o meet t h e Shadowy F u t u r e w i t h o u t 
f e a r , and w i t h a manly h e a r t . (1) 

Though o b v i o u s l y n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y i n d e b t e d e i t h e r t o Emerson 

o r C a r l y l e f o r t h e above s e n t i m e n t s — b e l o n g i n g as t h e y do t o a 

t r a n s a t l a n t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r Goethe and German r o m a n c e — 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s c r e a t i o n o f a p u b l i c , p o e t i c i d e n t i t y a t t h i s 

same t i m e ( r e v e a l e d i n V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t ) n e v e r t h e l e s s i s 

i n s p i r e d by a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a r y atmosphere c h a r g e d w i t h 

r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e e v e r y d a y , s u s p i c i o n o f i n f l a t e d d i c t i o n t h a t 



232 

smacks o f B r i t i s h i m i t a t i o n and b o o k i s h u n r e a l i t y , and f a i t h 

i n l i t e r a t u r e ' s r o l e i n t h e improvement o f h u m a n i t y . 1 7 

I r o n i c a l l y , L o n g f e l l o w ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d volume o f p o e t r y 

e l i c i t e d n e g a t i v e c r i t i c i s m i n p r e c i s e l y t h o s e a r e a s where he 

had p u b l i c l y a t t e m p t e d t o e s t a b l i s h a r o l e f o r h i m s e l f . H i s 

w i l l i n g n e s s t o echo E n g l i s h s e n s i b i l i t y when a p p r o p r i a t e t o 

t h e s e n t i m e n t s he was e x p r e s s i n g s p a r k e d a h e a t e d d e b a t e o v e r 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s i m i t a t i v e n e s s and o v e r h i s t r u e v a l u e as an 

A m e r i c a n b a r d . T h i s d e b a t e was i g n i t e d by Edgar A l l a n Poe who 

f a n n e d t h e f l a m e s c o n s i s t e n t l y u n t i l j u s t p r i o r t o h i s d e a t h 

i n 1 8 4 7 1 8 , and was s u s t a i n e d by M a r g a r e t F u l l e r among o t h e r s . 

O b v i o u s l y , Poe's s p e c i f i c r e v i e w s o f L o n g f e l l o w c a n n o t be 

s e p a r a t e d e n t i r e l y from h i s c e r t a i n b e l i e f i n L o n g f e l l o w as a 

Where a p p r o p r i a t e , s p e c i f i c poems from t h i s and 
s e v e r a l o t h e r L o n g f e l l o w volumes w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l . 
F o r t h e moment, i t i s enough t o n o t e t h a t V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t 
c o n t a i n e d L o n g f e l l o w ' s most famous l y r i c poem, "A Psalm o f 
L i f e , " i n w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r u r g e s e a r n e s t endeavour as a 
c o u n t e r t o d e s p a i r (see c h a p t e r f i v e ) . 

1 8 Poe's o r i g i n a l c h a r g e o f p l a g i a r i s m (mentioned i n 
c h a p t e r one) became a p r o l o n g e d harangue a g a i n s t L o n g e l l o w . 
Poe's p u b l i s h e d c r i t i c i s m on L o n g f e l l o w o c c u p i e s more t h a n one 
hundred pages o f Thompson's e d i t i o n o f Poe's E s s a y s and  
R e v i e w s , more t h a n f i f t y p e r c e n t o f t h o s e pages stemming from 
r e p e r c u s s i o n s and subsequent a c c u s a t i o n s d e r i v e d from Poe's 
i n i t i a l c h a r g e , and c o v e r i n g a p e r i o d o f f i v e y e a r s . Poe's 
f i n a l judgment o f L o n g f e l l o w i n 1845 as "not o n l y a s e r v i l e 
i m i t a t o r , b u t a most i n s o l e n t l i t e r a r y t h i e f " (777) had n e v e r 
been a g g r a v a t e d by any d i r e c t p u b l i c r e s p o n s e from L o n g f e l l o w 
h i m s e l f . I r o n i c a l l y , t h i s may have a c t u a l l y p r o v o k e d Poe a l l 
t h e more s i n c e i t seemed t h a t h e r e , as e l s e w h e r e , L o n g f e l l o w 
a l l o w e d h i s f r i e n d s t o speak f o r him p u b l i c l y , as he h i m s e l f 
had s u p p o s e d l y been c o n t e n t i n h i s p o e t r y t o speak t h e v o i c e s 
o f o t h e r s as i f t h e y were h i s own. 



233 

s e l f - s e r v i n g p l a g i a r i s t . H i s low e s t i m a t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p o e t i c p r i n c i p l e s , and t h e r e f o r e h i s w o r t h as p o e t o f t h e 

A m e r i c a n p e o p l e , however, e q u a l l y d e r i v e from Poe's own p o e t i c 

p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h he was d e v e l o p i n g a t t h e same t i m e t h a t he 

was w r i t i n g h i s v i t r i o l i c r e v i e w s o f t h i s p a r a d i g m a t i c New 

E n g l a n d b a r d . 

I n "The P h i l o s o p h y o f C o m p o s i t i o n " (Graham's Magazine Apr 

1846), Poe p r o v i d e s an a n a l y t i c e x p l a n a t i o n f o r "The Raven" i n 

w h i c h he d e s c r i b e s s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s o f h i s poem, and hence a l l 

t r u e poems: u n i t y o f i m p r e s s i o n , u n i v e r s a l s e n t i m e n t , 

h e i g h t e n e d t o n e , sonorous l y r i c i s m , v a r i a t i o n o f images and 

p a t t e r n s , o r i g i n a l v e r s e form, a s t r u c t u r e as f i t t i n g as a 

frame i s t o a p i c t u r e , e f f e c t i v e use o f c o n t r a s t , p l a u s i b i l i t y 

o f scene and s u b t l e s u g g e s t i v e n e s s ( i n E s s a y s and Reviews 13-

2 5 ) . H i s " P o e t i c P r i n c i p l e , " p u b l i s h e d p o s t h u m o u s l y f o u r 

y e a r s l a t e r , i m p l i e s many o f t h e same p r i n c i p l e s . T h i s 

a r t i c l e a l s o a c h i e v e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l n o t o r i e t y t h r o u g h Poe's 

d u a l c l a i m s t h a t "a l o n g poem does n o t e x i s t " ( 7 1 ) , and t h a t a 

poem s h o u l d be " w r i t t e n s o l e l y f o r t h e poem's s a k e " ( 7 6 ) . The 

l a t t e r c l a i m , because o f i t s i n f l u e n c e on B a u d e l a i r e , h e l p e d 

t o l a u n c h an e n t i r e " a r t - f o r - a r t ' s - s a k e " movement, a movement 

t h a t c o u l d n o t be more d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p o e t r y t h a n Poe a p p a r e n t l y was h i m s e l f . 

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , however, t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e r h y t h m i c a l 

c r e a t i o n o f b e a u t y a t work i n a l l p o e t r y , Poe u s e s 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s Proem t o The W a i f , "The Day i s Done," i n h i s 



234 

" P o e t i c P r i n c i p l e " e s s a y , r e m a r k i n g f a v o u r a b l y upon t h e p o e t ' s 

c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o t o n e . Indeed, " p a r a d o x i c a l " b e s t 

d e s c r i b e s t h e work o f an e n t i r e h o s t o f L o n g f e l l o w c r i t i c s , 

n o t t h e l e a s t o f whom were Poe, F u l l e r and Whitman, s i n c e 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s , t h e e l e g a n c e , and t h e b e a u t y o f 

h i s v e r s e c o u l d seldom i f e v e r be d e n i e d even by t h o s e who, 

l i k e Poe, would most l i k e t o d i s m i s s him e n t i r e l y . Thus, 

w h i l e L o n g f e l l o w i s d i s p a r a g e d t h r o u g h o u t Poe's r e v i e w s f o r 

h i s l a c k o f u n i t y and h i s o v e r t m o r a l d i d a c t i c i s m (not t o 

m e n t i o n h i s i m i t a t i v e n e s s ) Poe concedes t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

" a r t i s t i c a l s k i l l i s g r e a t , and h i s i d e a l i t y h i g h " ( 6 8 2 ) . He 

even commends t h o s e poems o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e 

Poe's own n o t i o n s o f a e s t h e t i c p u r i t y . A t odds a b s o l u t e l y 

w i t h L o n g f e l l o w o v e r t h e "purpose" o f p o e t r y and i t s r e l a t i o n 

t o i t s a u d i e n c e , however, Poe c o u l d n e v e r e x p r e s s a n y t h i n g but 

q u a l i f i e d p r a i s e f o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s work. More i m p o r t a n t l y , he 

d i d n o t l i v e l o n g enough t o w i t n e s s L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n o r d i n a t e 

p o p u l a r i t y a c h i e v e d i n t h e l a t e 1840s and 1850s t h r o u g h h i s 

s u c c e s s f u l use o f t h e " l o n g poem." 

By t h e t i m e M a r g a r e t F u l l e r p u b l i s h e d h e r "American 

L i t e r a t u r e , i t s P o s i t i o n i n t h e P r e s e n t Time and P r o s p e c t s f o r 

t h e F u t u r e " (1846), A m e r i c a had a l r e a d y s h i f t e d i t s l i t e r a r y 

t a s t e s away from a dependence on E n g l a n d and E n g l i s h models 

t o w a r d Europe, more s p e c i f i c a l l y Germany, i n a d e l i b e r a t e 

a t t e m p t t o c u t t h e apron s t r i n g s o f i t s mother c o u n t r y . 

A c c o r d i n g t o F u l l e r , E n g l a n d had become " u n c o n g e n i a l and 



235 

i n j u r i o u s t o our c o n s t i t u t i o n . . . . [She] does n o t s u i t a 

mixed r a c e c o n t i n u a l l y e n r i c h e d w i t h new b l o o d from o t h e r 

s t o c k s t h e most u n l i k e t h a t o f our f i r s t d e s c e n t " ( 3 5 9 ) . 

Though c r i t i c a l o f t h e easy f e l i c i t y e v i d e n t i n i m i t a t o r s o f 

Europe, w i t h L o n g f e l l o w as a p r o t o t y p e , F u l l e r n e v e r t h e l e s s 

a c c o r d s t h e s e w r i t e r s a t l e a s t s e c o n d a r y s t a t u s as " c o l o n i s t s 

and u s e f u l s c h o o l m a s t e r s t o our p e o p l e i n a t r a n s i t i o n s t a t e " 

( 3 5 8 ) . I n F u l l e r ' s o p i n i o n , A m e r i c a n a u t h o r s weaken t h e i r 

p r i m a r y p o t e n t i a l s by r e l y i n g on European models and p a n d e r i n g 

t o t h e c o u n t r y ' s e t h n i c a l l y d i v e r s e r e a d e r s as a means o f 

s e c u r i n g a l i v e l i h o o d . She r e c o g n i z e s , however, t h a t t h e o n l y 

way t o f r e e w r i t e r s o f " t h e l u r e s o f money o r c e l e b r i t y " i s t o 

t a k e l i t e r a t u r e o u t o f t h e m a r k e t - p l a c e by i n s t i l l i n g a sense 

o f what c o n s t i t u t e s " t r u e " l i t e r a t u r e i n e d u c a t e d r e a d e r s — 

j u d i c i o u s c o n s u m e r s — a r e c o g n i t i o n w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w h i m s e l f 

had d i s p l a y e d t h r o u g h o u t h i s e a r l y e s s a y s . Such a p r o j e c t , 

F u l l e r adds ( i n e v i d e n t s u p p o r t o f Emerson), must be t a k e n up 

by c a p a b l e e d i t o r s who a r e w i l l i n g t o l e a d t h e i r p u b l i c r a t h e r 

t h a n f e a r i t s c e n s u r e : " t h e work o f d i f f u s i o n . . . l i e s i n 

t h e j o u r n a l s w h i c h monthly, w e e k l y , d a i l y send t h e i r messages 

t o e v e r y c o r n e r o f t h i s g r e a t l a n d and form a t p r e s e n t t h e 

o n l y e f f i c i e n t i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o f t h e 

p e o p l e " ( 3 7 0 ) . 

A s s e s s i n g major A m e r i c a n p o e t s o f t h e p e r i o d — a m o n g o t h e r 

l i t e r a t i — F u l l e r p o l i t e l y d i s m i s s e s B r y a n t f o r h i s l a c k o f 

r e a l i t y , H a l l e c k and W i l l i s f o r t h e i r e x c l u s i v i s m w i t h i n t h e 



236 

s o c i e t y s e t , Dana f o r t h e s c a r c i t y o f h i s work, and L o w e l l f o r 

b e i n g " a b s o l u t e l y w a n t i n g i n t h e t r u e s p i r i t and t o n e o f 

poesy" ( 3 6 5 - 6 ) . E v e r l o y a l t o h e r f e l l o w t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t , 

F u l l e r m a i n t a i n s t h a t o n l y Emerson d e s e r v e s " h i g h e s t r a n k " o f 

t h e t r u e p o e t s i n c e o n l y he d e m o n s t r a t e s o r i g i n a l g e n i u s . She 

r e s e r v e s h e r most e x t e n s i v e remarks, p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e , 

f o r L o n g f e l l o w . She p r a i s e s h i s t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s (non-

m e c h a n i c a l p h r a s i n g and e l e g a n c e ) and h i s l o v e o f t h e 

b e a u t i f u l , y e t s u p p o r t s Poe i n t h e c l a i m t h a t u l t i m a t e l y 

L o n g f e l l o w i s " a r t i f i c i a l and i m i t a t i v e . He borrows 

i n c e s s a n t l y , and mixes what he borrows so t h a t i t does n o t 

appear t o b e s t advantage" (365) . To F u l l e r , L o n g f e l l o w i s , a t 

b e s t , a s e c o n d a r y p o e t . 

I n an a p p e n d i x t o h e r o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e , F u l l e r p r o v i d e s h e r 

r e v i e w s o f Hawthorne, B r o c k d e n Brown, and L o n g f e l l o w t o 

i l l u s t r a t e s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e f e a t u r e s o f h e r p r e v i o u s argument. 

W h i l e l a u d i n g e v i d e n c e o f o r i g i n a l i t y i n t h e two p r o s e 

w r i t e r s , F u l l e r i s u n d u l y c r i t i c a l i n h e r o p i n i o n s o f 

L o n g f e l l o w l a r g e l y because, as she h e r s e l f a d m i t s , " t h e 

e x a g g e r a t e d p r a i s e s t h a t have been bestowed upon him" have 

r a i s e d him t o a s t a t u r e above h i s t r u e a b i l i t i e s as a p o e t 

( 3 8 2 ) . H i s p o e t r y l a c k s g e n u i n e v i s i o n and spontaneous 

e x p r e s s i o n , p r o v i n g i n h e r mind t h a t L o n g f e l l o w i s o f t h e 

p o e t i c " m i d d l e c l a s s , composed o f men o f l i t t l e o r i g i n a l 

p o e t i c power, b u t o f much p o e t i c t a s t e and s e n s i b i l i t y " ( 3 8 2 ) , 

a h y b r i d o f t h e i n s p i r e d p o e t and t h e e l e g a n t v e r s i f i e r . She 



t h e n comments a s t u t e l y upon L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n c l i n a t i o n t o borrow 

"as d e r i v e d from an a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e e l e g a n t l i t e r a t u r e 

o f many n a t i o n s " (384) w h i c h , though common t o a l l e d u c a t e d 

p o e t s , i n L o n g f e l l o w had been i n a d e q u a t e l y a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o 

h i s own l i f e . F u l l e r c o n c l u d e s h e r r e v i e w w i t h an i n t e r e s t i n g 

p a r a d o x . She s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e a s o n f o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s b e i n g 

o v e r - r a t e d i n A m e r i c a i s t h a t t h e n a t i o n ' s r e a d e r s a r e 

i n s u f f i c i e n t l y e d u c a t e d i n f o r e i g n l i t e r a t u r e s t o r e c o g n i z e 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s l a c k o f o r i g i n a l i t y . I r o n i c a l l y , however, 

L o n g f e l l o w w i l l be t h e w r i t e r who w i l l do t h e d u t y o f 

" p r o m o t i n g a t a s t e f o r t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e s e f o r e i g n l a n d s 

b e f o r e h i s r e a d e r s a r e aware o f i t " (386) . 

F u l l e r ' s e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e o f A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e and 

o f L o n g f e l l o w w i t h i n t h a t c o n t e x t c l e a r l y o u t l i n e what were 

f o r h e r t h e d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s o f t h e p o e t ' s c o n c e r n f o r t h e 

e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y o f h i s r e a d e r s , a c o n c e r n w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w 

h i m s e l f h i n t e d a t i n h i s e a r l y e s s a y s and d i s p l a y e d i n h i s 

e a r l y p u b l i s h e d volumes. R e i s i n g n o t e s i n h i s a n a l y s i s o f 

t r e n d s i n A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s , t h a t t h e t r o u b l e s o m e 

q u e s t i o n o f "what i s an A m e r i c a n a u t h o r " i s n e c e s s a r i l y 

p r e c e d e d by "what i s an A m e r i c a n ? " I n r e s p o n s e , R e i s i n g 

q u o t e s C r e v e c o e u r ' s L e t t e r s from an A m e r i c a n Farmer (1782) 

w h i c h a r g u e s t h a t A m e r i c a n s have a r i s e n from a "promiscuous 

b r e e d " o f " E n g l i s h , S c o t c h , I r i s h , F r e n c h , Dutch, Germans, and 

Swedes" ( q t d . 1 8 ) . F i f t y - f i v e y e a r s l a t e r , i n a j o u r n a l e n t r y 

o f 6 J a n u a r y 1847, L o n g f e l l o w echoes C r e v e c o e u r ' s v i e w o f t h e 



238 

d i v e r s e c u l t u r e s i n f o r m i n g A m e r i c a n i d e n t i t y . L o n g f e l l o w 

d e t e r m i n e s t h a t A m e r i c a n " n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e " i s t h e 

e x p r e s s i o n o f a n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r t h a t i s "a c o m p o s i t e one, 

e m b r a c i n g F r e n c h , S p a n i s h , I r i s h , E n g l i s h , S c o t c h and German 

p e c u l i a r i t i e s . Whoever has w i t h i n h i m s e l f most o f t h e s e i s 

t r u l y o u r n a t i o n a l w r i t e r . I n o t h e r words, whoever i s t h e 

most u n i v e r s a l i s a l s o t h e most n a t i o n a l " ( L i f e I I 7 4 ) . 

Concerned about t h e p o t e n t i a l r e c e p t i o n o f E v a n g e l i n e , 

L o n g f e l l o w h e r e p r e d i c t a b l y c o n n e c t s l i t e r a t u r e t o i t s 

a u d i e n c e ; t h a t i s , l i t e r a t u r e ' s n a t i o n a l v a l u e i s d e t e r m i n e d 

by t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h i t s u p p o s e d l y r e s p o n d s t o t h e 

h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s . T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t 

l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d n o t i n s t r u c t an a u d i e n c e i n a s i n g l e m o r a l 

p o i n t o f v i e w , as L o n g f e l l o w most o f t e n d i d , b u t r a t h e r t h a t 

i t s s u b j e c t m a t t e r and s t y l e must f i n d t o u c h s t o n e s among a 

d i v e r s i t y o f r e a d e r s t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h i t s n a t i o n a l i s t i c 

g o a l s . I n s h o r t , as t h e r e a d e r s a r e , so t h e w r i t i n g must be: 

o f m u l t i p l e e t h n i c backgrounds, eager t o t e s t t h e l e g i t i m a c y 

o f c u l t u r a l a t t i t u d e s i n t h e "new" w o r l d . 

P u b l i c l y , L o n g f e l l o w ' s s u p p o r t f o r a m u l t i - e t h n i c as 

opposed t o a c h a u v i n i s t n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e appeared i n 

Kavanagh (1849) t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e o f t h e s c h o o l m a s t e r - p o e t , 

C h u r c h i l l . 1 9 Here, t h e a s p i r i n g p o e t i s approached by a Mr 

1 9 The exchange C h u r c h i l l has w i t h Hathaway i n Kavanagh 
i s based upon a s i m i l a r d i s c o u r s e L o n g f e l l o w c o n d u c t e d i n 
l e t t e r s w i t h A l e x a n d e r H. S m i t h who was t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h an 
A m e r i c a n " P o e t ' s Magazine" (which n e v e r d i d m a t e r i a l i z e ) w h i l e 
i m p l o r i n g L o n g f e l l o w t o c o n t r i b u t e . To S m i t h , L o n g f e l l o w 



Hathaway who r e q u e s t s t h a t C h u r c h i l l become a c o n t r i b u t o r t o 

t h e f l e d g l i n g N i a g a r a , a new magazine d e v o t e d t o n a t i o n a l 

A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . The n a t i o n a l i s m v e r s u s u n i v e r s a l i s m 

d e b a t e ensues s i n c e Hathaway wants a l i t e r a t u r e "commensurate 

w i t h our mountains and r i v e r s , — c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h N i a g a r a , t h e 

A l l e g h a n i e s , and t h e G r e a t L a k e s " (535). But t o C h u r c h i l l , 

l i t e r a t u r e i s more "an image o f t h e s p i r i t u a l w o r l d t h a n t h e 

p h y s i c a l " ( 5 3 6 ) , so much so t h a t a l l " t h a t i s b e s t i n t h e 

g r e a t p o e t s o f a l l c o u n t r i e s i s n o t what i s n a t i o n a l i n them, 

b u t what i s u n i v e r s a l " (537) . Hence, when Hathaway i n v e i g h s 

a g a i n s t B r i t i s h t e n d e n c i e s i n A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e , C h u r c h i l l 

c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i v e r s a l i s t s e n t i m e n t s : "our 

l i t e r a t u r e can be s t r i c t l y n a t i o n a l o n l y i n s o f a r as our 

c h a r a c t e r and modes o f t h o u g h t d i f f e r from t h o s e o f o t h e r 

n a t i o n s . Now, as we a r e v e r y l i k e t h e E n g l i s h , — a r e , i n f a c t , 

E n g l i s h under a d i f f e r e n t s k y , — I do n o t see how our 

l i t e r a t u r e can be v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h e i r s " ( 5 3 7 ) . A m e r i c a n 

l i t e r a t u r e t o C h u r c h i l l i s t h e r e f o r e n o t an " i m i t a t i o n " o f 

E n g l i s h , b u t a " c o n t i n u a t i o n " o f i t ; i f l e f t t o grow 

n a t u r a l l y , A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e w i l l t a k e on an o r g a n i c shape 

o f i t s own t h a t w i l l , u l t i m a t e l y , r e f l e c t t h e m u l t i p l e n a t i o n s 

from w h i c h a c o m p o s i t e A m e r i c a w i l l have been d e r i v e d . 

r e p l i e d t h a t a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was n o t a mere r e p l i c a o f 
n a t i o n ' s p h y s i c a l p r e s e n c e , b u t r a t h e r " t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f 
n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r and modes o f t h o u g h t ; and as our c h a r a c t e r 
and modes o f t h o u g h t do n o t d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y from t h o s e o f 
E n g l a n d , our l i t e r a t u r e c a n n o t " ( L e t t e r s I I I 4 0 ) . See S t e v e n 
A l l a b a c k ' s " V o i c e s o f L o n g f e l l o w : Kavanagh as A u t o b i o g r a p h y . " 



240 

A c c o r d i n g t o C h u r c h i l l , as " t h e b l o o d o f a l l n a t i o n s i s 

m i n g l i n g w i t h our own, so w i l l t h e i r t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s 

f i n a l l y m i n g l e i n our l i t e r a t u r e . We s h a l l draw from t h e 

Germans t e n d e r n e s s ; from t h e S p a n i a r d s , p a s s i o n ; from t h e 

F r e n c h , v i v a c i t y , t o m i n g l e more and more w i t h o u r E n g l i s h 

s o l i d s e n s e " ( 5 3 8 - 9 ) . Though f a r more p r e s c r i p t i v e t h a n 

L o n g f e l l o w h i m s e l f , as q u o t e d above, C h u r c h i l l n o n e t h e l e s s 

d e s c r i b e s a m u l t i - e t h n i c l i t e r a t e A m e r i c a t h a t L o n g f e l l o w , t h e 

P r o f e s s o r o f Modern Languages, a s p i r e d t o c r e a t e , b o t h i n t h e 

c l a s s r o o m and i n h i s w r i t i n g . 

S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n t e n t i o n t o r o o t A m e r i c a ' s 

n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i n i t s a u d i e n c e — i n a l l i t s c o m m o n a l i t y 

and e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y — r a t h e r t h a n impose i t from above was 

r e a l l y no d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e aims o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r y 

c r i t i c s . The d i f f e r e n c e s l a y , however, i n t h e methods by 

w h i c h he i n t e n d e d t o i n s t r u c t h i s a u d i e n c e i n a t a s t e f o r 

d i s c o v e r y o f t h e p o e t i c i n t h e common p l a c e . A c c o r d i n g t o Poe 

and t o F u l l e r (and Emerson t o o a l t h o u g h he n e v e r p u b l i c l y 

s t a t e d as much), L o n g f e l l o w t o o r e a d i l y c a t e r e d t o p o p u l a r 

t a s t e by p r o v i d i n g h i s r e a d e r s w i t h B r i t i s h o r European 

i m i t a t i o n s i n an a t t e m p t t o s e c u r e a r e a d e r s h i p l a r g e enough 

t o a l l o w h i s m o r a l i s m t o have t h e p e r v a s i v e impact he d e s i r e d . 

Whitman, however, g e n e r a l l y a p p l a u d e d as u n i q u e l y A m e r i c a n 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s sympathy f o r common humanity. I n h i s e a r l y 

e s s a y s and c r i t i c i s m o f t h e 1840s, Whitman a c t u a l l y echoes 

some o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s own e a r l y p r o s e . He g r a t e f u l l y 



a p p r e c i a t e s , f o r example, E n g l a n d ' s g e n i u s w h i c h " A m e r i c a i s 

t o add t o r a t h e r t h a n i m i t a t e " ("Independent A m e r i c a n 

L i t e r a t u r e " G a t h e r i n g 240). A y e a r e a r l i e r , i n h i s r e v i e w o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s The B e l f r y o f Bruges and o t h e r Poems (1845), 

Whitman had a g r e e d w i t h Poe and F u l l e r by c l a i m i n g t h a t 

L o n g f e l l o w was " g i f t e d by God w i t h a s p e c i a l f a c u l t y o f 

d r e s s i n g b e a u t i f u l t h o u g h t s i n b e a u t i f u l words." He c o u l d n o t 

d i f f e r more from them, however, i n h i s b e l i e f t h a t t h e 

" c o u n t r y i s n o t h a l f j u s t t o t h i s e l o q u e n t w r i t e r ; an honor 

and a g l o r y as he i s t o t h e A m e r i c a n name—and d e s e r v i n g t o 

s t a n d on t h e same p l a t f o r m w i t h B r y a n t and Wordsworth" 

( " L o n g f e l l o w ' s 'Poems' G a t h e r i n g 297). Whitman had d i s c o v e r e d 

i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s work a l o v e f o r t h e commonplace c o m p a t i b l e 

w i t h h i s o w n — n o t n e c e s s a r i l y e x p r e s s e d i n s i m i l a r t e r m s , b u t 

no l e s s A m e r i c a n . 

As were Poe's and F u l l e r ' s b e f o r e , Whitman's l a t e r 

r e s p o n s e s t o L o n g f e l l o w were governed by h i s own p o e t i c s , 

c l e a r l y o u t l i n e d i n h i s 1855 " P r e f a c e " t o Leaves o f G r a s s 

( P r o s e Works I I 434-58). I n t h i s work, Whitman's d e m o c r a t i c 

s p i r i t , i m b i b e d p a r t l y though n o t e x c l u s i v e l y from a s s o c i a t i o n 

w i t h Young A m e r i c a n s and t h e D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y , s u r p r i s i n g l y i s 

n o t a t odds w i t h L o n g f e l l o w b u t i s i n many ways s u p p o r t i v e o f 

some o f t h e o l d e r p o e t ' s s e n t i m e n t s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , Whitman's 

b e l i e f i n t h e common p e o p l e as an unrhymed poem p a r a l l e l s 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s O u t r e Mer. F u r t h e r m o r e , Whitman's endorsement o f 

c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y would have a p p e a l e d t o t h e L o n g f e l l o w o f 



0 

242 

t h e f o r t i e s : "The A m e r i c a n p o e t s a r e t o e n c l o s e o l d and new 

f o r A m e r i c a i s t h e r a c e o f r a c e s . Of them a b a r d i s t o be 

commensurate w i t h a p e o p l e . To him o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s a r r i v e as 

c o n t r i b u t i o n s . . . . [H]e g i v e s them r e c e p t i o n f o r t h e i r sake 

and h i s own s a k e " (Whitman 437) . However, Whitman f e l t t h a t 

i n o r d e r t o speak t o h i s r e a d e r s he had t o be e q u a l w i t h them, 

e q u a l l y immersed w i t h i n t h e poem o f e v e r y day l i f e t o w h i c h he 

g i v e s v o i c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , when he c a s t i g a t e s m o r a l i s m i n 

p o e t r y , he draws a d i v i d i n g l i n e between h i m s e l f and 

L o n g f e l l o w w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p o e t ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h i s 

a u d i e n c e . Whereas L o n g f e l l o w f e l t a b s o l u t e l y t h a t i t was h i s 

d u t y t o i n s t r u c t h i s r e a d e r s m o r a l l y and a e s t h e t i c a l l y , 

Whitman f e l t j u s t as s t r o n g l y t h a t i t was h i s d u t y t o r e f l e c t 

and t o a r t i c u l a t e an u n d e l i n e a t e d s t r a t a o f i n t e r e s t s t h a t 

made up Whitman's c o m p o s i t e A m e r i c a . 

U l t i m a t e l y , Whitman's comments upon t h e d e a t h o f L o n g f e l l o w 

s u g g e s t t h e a c t u a l e f f e c t L o n g f e l l o w had had upon n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e : p a r a d o x i c a l . W h i l e Whitman condemns 

t h e s t y l e and form o f t h e age i n w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w had l i v e d , 

an age a d d i c t e d , " a l m o s t t o a s i c k n e s s , " t o v e r b a l melody, 

L o n g f e l l o w must a l w a y s be a p p l a u d e d f o r e m p h a s i z i n g what was 

d e a r e s t t o t h e g e n e r a l human h e a r t and t a s t e ( i n Specimen Days  

P r o s e Works I 284). More i m p o r t a n t l y , L o n g f e l l o w p r o v i d e d 

m i d d l e - c l a s s r e a d e r s w i t h a s a n c t u a r y from c o m m e r c i a l 

c a p i t a l i s m : 

He i s c e r t a i n l y t h e s o r t o f b a r d and c o u n t e r - a c t a n t 
most needed f o r our m a t e r i a l i s t i c , s e l f - a s s e r t i v e , 



243 

money-worshipping, Anglo-Saxon r a c e s , and e s p e c i a l l y 
f o r t h e p r e s e n t age i n A m e r i c a — a n age t y r a n n i c a l l y 
r e g u l a t e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r , t h e 
merchant, t h e f i n a n c i e r , t h e p o l i t i c i a n , and t h e day 
w o r k m a n — f o r whom and among whom he comes as a p o e t 
o f melody, c o u r t e s y , d e f e r e n c e — p o e t o f t h e mellow 
t w i l i g h t o f t h e p a s t i n I t a l y , Germany, S p a i n , and 
i n N o r t h e r n E u r o p e — p o e t o f a l l s y m p a t h e t i c 
g e n t l e n e s s — a n d u n i v e r s a l p o e t o f women and young 
p e o p l e . I s h o u l d have t o t h i n k l o n g i f I were a s k ' d 
t o name t h e man who has done more, and i n more 
v a l u a b l e d i r e c t i o n s f o r A m e r i c a . (285) 

Whitman's e u l o g y r e s o u n d s w i t h i r o n y on t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y 
•a 

e a r s , c o n d i t i o n e d as t h e y a r e t o b e l i e v e t h a t Whitman and 

L o n g f e l l o w were a n t i t h e t i c a l t o one a n o t h e r ' s p o e t i c p u r p o s e s , 

and t o b e l i e v e t h a t Whitman's p r e s e n t e x a l t e d s t a t u s as t h e 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n b a r d came about from a d e p o s i n g o f 

L o n g f e l l o w i n w h i c h Whitman h i m s e l f had a hand. Y e t t h e above 

words a r e a s i n c e r e e x p r e s s i o n o f a p p r e c i a t i o n from a younger 

p o e t f o r one who'had gone b e f o r e him, who had h e l p e d t o f o s t e r 

a c u l t u r a l awareness i n a n a t i o n i l l - d i s p o s e d t o p a t r o n i z e 

a n y t h i n g b u t t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f w e a l t h and p r o p e r t y , an 

awareness w i t h o u t w h i c h Whitman's own fame i n t h i s c e n t u r y 

c o u l d n e v e r have come about. 

I n t h e end, t h e c r e a t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t i c v o i c e as 

t h a t o f a "new" m i d d l e - c l a s s A m e r i c a must be seen i n i t s 

v a r i e d c o m p l e x i t y as an o r g a n i c p r o c e s s , i n v o l v i n g p e r s o n a l 

and p r o f e s s i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e s and i m p u l s e s r e l a t e d t o t h e 

l a r g e r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s g o v e r n i n g t h e 

n a s c e n t g r o w t h o f l i t e r a t u r e as a r e p u t a b l e p r o f e s s i o n and not 

as a p a s t i m e . C l e a r l y , t h e e r r o n e o u s . t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y v i e w 



o f a f e m i n i n e d o m e s t i c c u l t u r e s e p a r a t e d from i t s c o u n t e r p a r t , 

a m a s c u l i n e dominated c o m m e r c i a l c a p i t a l i s m , has done much t o 

compromise any s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s p e c i f i c a l l y A m e r i c a n 

l i t e r a t u r e . L o n g f e l l o w ' s e a r l y c o n v i c t i o n t h a t he would be 

eminent i n t h e f i e l d o f l i t e r a t u r e was as much m o t i v a t e d by a 

s o - c a l l e d male need t o a s s e r t h i m s e l f i n a p u b l i c s p h e r e as i t 

was c o n d i t i o n e d by h i s p r i v a t e awareness o f t h e i n h e r e n t power 

and b e a u t y o f t h e f e m a l e s a n c t u a r y o f t h e home, and o f t h e 

ways i n w h i c h t h e i m a g i n a t i v e s a n c t u a r y o f h i s v e r s e c o u l d 

r e p l i c a t e t h e peace and s e r e n i t y t h e r e i n t o a c h i e v e p o p u l a r 

s u c c e s s on a s c a l e w i t h L.E.L. and F e l i c i a Hemans. 

A t f i r s t , L o n g f e l l o w had p a r t i c i p a t e d f o r c e f u l l y i n t h e 

c r e a t i o n o f a l i t e r a t u r e a t odds w i t h f e m i n i n e d e l i c a c y w h i c h 

he, l i k e many o t h e r s , i n i t i a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o f a l s e r o m a n t i c 

s e n t i m e n t s borrowed from E n g l a n d . H i s subsequent j o u r n e y s t o 

Europe, however, l e d him t o supplement h i s e a r l i e r b e l i e f i n 

an A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e o f e x t e r n a l n a t u r e and h e r o i c endeavour 

w i t h a p r o f e s s e d a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e l i v e s o f common humanity 

as an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e s p i r i t o f a n a t i o n . Europe, i n t u r n , 

broadened L o n g f e l l o w ' s n a t i o n a l i s t c l a i m s i n t o a u n i v e r s a l i s t 

commitment t o a m u l t i - e t h n i c r e a d e r s h i p d e s i r o u s o f f i n d i n g 

i t s own v a r i o u s needs met i n v e r s e . I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e 

T r a n s c e n d e n t a l Emerson and F u l l e r m i g h t have e n d o r s e d t h e 

m o r a l u s e f u l n e s s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y , were i t n o t f o r t h e 

f a c t t h a t , i n p r a c t i c e , L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t i c methods l a c k e d 



s u b t l e t y . S i m i l a r l y , Poe s c o r n e d L o n g f e l l o w ' s supposed 

b o r r o w i n g f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n . Of t h o s e 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s who r e m a i n c r e d i b l e t o d a y , o n l y 

W h i t m a n — p e r h a p s because o f t h e e x t e n t o f h i s e x p o s u r e t o 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s v e r s e — c a m e t o u n d e r s t a n d L o n g f e l l o w f u l l y , i n 

p a r t i c u l a r h i s r o l e i n t h e c r e a t i n g an i d e n t i f i a b l y A m e r i c a n 

l i t e r a t u r e . And, i r o n i c a l l y , Whitman's e u l o g y h a r k e n s back t o 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s e a r l i e r endeavour t o expose t h e consequences o f 

A m e r i c a ' s u n h e a l t h y p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h " b a r e , brawny, 

m u s c u l a r , u t i l i t y " : i m a g i n a t i v e and s p i r i t u a l e n e r v a t i o n . 

P a r a d o x i c a l as i t may seem, L o n g f e l l o w u l t i m a t e l y was t o 

combat what he p e r c e i v e d as an e n f e e b l e d A m e r i c a w i t h what t h e 

g e n e r a l A m e r i c a n p u b l i c i n t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y saw as 

an e n f e e b l e d v o i c e : t h e v o i c e o f women i n t h e i r l i m i t e d 

c a p a c i t i e s as d o m e s t i c , m o r a l p r o t e c t o r s o f t h e n a t i o n ' s s o u l . 

Thus, L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o p u l a r i t y grew a l o n g w i t h t h e p e r v a s i v e 

f o r c e o f a f e m a l e - c e n t r e d d o m e s t i c m o r a l i t y r e a c h i n g outward 

t o i n h a b i t e v e r w i d e n i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l and r e l i g i o u s c i r c l e s . 

That n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n s a r e now b e g i n n i n g 

t o r e c o n s i d e r f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e s as n o t n e c e s s a r i l y n e g a t i v e 

s u g g e s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t , i n t u r n , t h e p r e s e n t 

a s s u m p t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e c u r r e n t r e c e p t i o n o f n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y 'American p o e t r y may broaden t o i n c l u d e f e m i n i n e 

v o i c e s , i n c l u d i n g L o n g f e l l o w ' s , as i n t e g r a l t o t h e h i s t o r y o f 

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' c u l t u r a l development. 



C l e a r l y , Gorman's e v a l u a t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e l a t i v e 

weakness as a s p o k e s p e r s o n f o r A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e i s s u e s from 

a modern m a s c u l i n i s t m i s r e a d i n g o f A m e r i c a n " V i c t o r i a n i s m " as 

p e j o r a t i v e l y f e m i n i n e , g i v i n g l i t t l e o r no c r e d e n c e t o t h e 

m u l t i p l e ways i n w h i c h f e m a l e and male s p h e r e s o f i n f l u e n c e 

r e i n f o r c e d and even i n t e r s e c t e d one a n o t h e r . C r i t i c a l 

p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t L o n g f e l l o w ' s " f e m i n i n e " b r a n d o f A m e r i c a n i s m 

as i n s i p i d b o r r o w i n g s f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f m o r a l d i d a c t i c i s m 

d i s r e g a r d s c o m p l e t e l y t h e p o e t ' s p r e s c i e n t awareness o f h i s 

audience,, and o f t h e m o r a l a u t h o r i t y women's v o i c e s c a r r i e d i n 

a n t e b e l l u m A m e r i c a . T h i s c r i t i c a l l y b i a s e d v i e w o f L o n g f e l l o w 

p e r s i s t s t o d a y d e s p i t e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t impact L o n g f e l l o w had 

i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y upon t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l 

A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t e . L o n g f e l l o w 

c r e a t e d an i d e n t i f i a b l y A m e r i c a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i t h i n h i s 

r e a d e r s , and an awareness o f A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 

w o r l d . N e i t h e r p e r c e p t i o n had such p e n e t r a t i n g o r p e r v a s i v e 

f o r c e i n Western l i t e r a t u r e b e f o r e h i s t i m e . Gorman and 

c r i t i c s ( s u c h as O d e l l Shepherd) who f o l l o w e d him may o b j e c t 

t o t h e s p e c i f i c t y p e o f A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e t h a t L o n g f e l l o w 

r e p r e s e n t e d and p r o j e c t e d w o r l d w i d e , b u t t h e y s e r i o u s l y 

d i s t o r t t h e l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d i n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t 

L o n g f e l l o w d i d n o t see h i m s e l f as d u t i f u l l y bound t o t h e 

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . Indeed, he d e v o t e d 

h i s l i f e t o i t . 



247 

CHAPTER THREE 

TENNYSON AND THE BIRTH OP A LEGEND 

A l f r e d and I o f t e n t o o k l o n g r a m b l e s t o g e t h e r , and on one 
p a r t i c u l a r a f t e r n o o n , when we were i n t h e home f i e l d s t a l k i n g 
o f our r e s p e c t i v e f u t u r e s , he s a i d most e m p h a t i c a l l y , " W e l l , 
A r t h u r , I mean t o be famous." (From h i s e a r l i e s t y e a r s , he 
f e l t t h a t he was a p o e t , and e a r n e s t l y t r a i n e d h i m s e l f t o be 
w o r t h y o f h i s v o c a t i o n . ) 

— A r t h u r Tennyson (Memoir 14) 

One t u r n s now from L o n g f e l l o w , away from t h e manly h e r o i c s 

o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' s n a t i o n a l l i t e r a r y d e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g t h e 

s h a r e an a p p a r e n t l y e f f e t e New E n g l a n d was t o have i n t h e 

f u t u r e p o e t i c v o i c e o f v i r i l e A m e r i c a . The g l a n c e now i s 

backward upon t h e mother c o u n t r y , on t h e b i r t h and g r o w t h 

t h e r e o f a p o e t who, a p a r t from b e i n g an i n s p i r a t i o n t o 

L o n g f e l l o w , was t o be t h e o f f i c i a l v o i c e o f V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d 

— Q u e e n and c o u n t r y — A l f r e d Tennyson. T h i s g l a n c e a p p e a r s , a t 

f i r s t , d i r e c t e d away from t h e f u t u r e t o w a r d t h e p a s t , away 

from what a young c o u n t r y might become, what y o u t h f u l 

p a t r i o t i s m e q u a l l y y o u t h f u l p o e t s might i n s p i r e , t o w a r d t h e 

" o l d " c o u n t r y : s t e e p e d i n t r a d i t i o n , u l t r a - c o n s c i o u s o f i t s 

s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l power as a n a t i o n , l a d e n w i t h c r i t i c s and 

r e v i e w e r s a n x i o u s t o promote t h o s e p o e t s who would b e s t 

c a p t u r e t h i s a u g u s t n a t i o n ' s h i s t o r y . Y e t Tennyson, f o r a l l 

h i s a l l e g e d c o n s e r v a t i s m , appeared i n 1830 as a t r u l y new 

p o e t i c v o i c e w i t h i n t h i s o l d E n g l a n d . 



248 

Moreover, t h i s i n i t i a l backward g l a n c e i s a t once 

r e f r a c t e d , f o r s c h o l a r s t o d a y as i t was e q u a l l y f o r Tennyson 

and many o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , by a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l 

i n E n g l a n d t h a t would f o r e v e r t r a n s f o r m e v e n t s i n t h e p a s t 

i n t o a u g u r i e s o f t h e f u t u r e : t h e b i r t h and r a p i d g r o w t h o f 

i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m . As Tennyson d e v e l o p e d h i s p o e t i c 

v o i c e , h e — l i k e t h e n a t i o n he came t o r e p r e s e n t — s h a p e d and 

r e s h a p e d t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e mid and l a t e 

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , p a r t i c i p a t i n g even beyond t h e g r a v e i n 

"ye' o l d E n g l a n d ' s " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a v i r i l e "New" E n g l a n d 

o f i m p e r i a l d i m e n s i o n s by t h e end o f Queen V i c t o r i a ' s r e i g n . 

The e x a c t n a t u r e o f Tennyson's p a r t i c i p a t i o n , however, was, 

i s , and l i k e l y w i l l f o r e v e r be open t o d e b a t e . 

A l t h o u g h h i s p o e t i c v o i c e u s h e r e d i n new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r 

t h e f u t u r e o f p o e t r y , Tennyson came t o e x p r e s s t h e r e i n an 

e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e v i s i o n . He p r o p h e s i e d t h e d i r e m o r a l 

consequences o f an i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t had, i n t h e p a s t 

c e n t u r y , f u e l l e d major s o c i o - e c o n o m i c changes, and would 

c o n t i n u e t o d r i v e h i s n a t i o n ' s f u t u r e . 1 J u s t as L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

1 The t e r m " i n d i v i d u a l i s m " i s used g u a r d e d l y h e r e . "You 
ask me why though i l l a t ease," f o r example, e n d o r s e s " s i n g l e 
t h o u g h t " and t h e v o i c e o f " i n d i v i d u a l freedom." I n h i s l o n g 
l i f e t i m e , Tennyson n e v e r r e s c i n d e d t h e s e b e l i e f s . However, 
a c t i o n s ( r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y t h o u g h t s o r v o i c e s ) w h i c h 
s a c r i f i c e d t h e h a p p i n e s s o f even one o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l f o r t h e 
b e n e f i t o f one's s e l f i n c u r r e d h i s w r a t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h a t 
b e n e f i t was monetary. I t i s t h i s " i n d i v i d u a l i s t " b e h a v i o u r 
r a t h e r t h a n an i n d i v i d u a l i s t m e t a p h y s i c s t h a t i s r e f e r r e d t o 
h e r e . 



New E n g l a n d v o i c e i n t h i s c e n t u r y has come t o r e p r e s e n t 

p u b l i c l y an e n f e e b l e d p a s t , t i e d t o t h e f e m i n i n e s e n s i b i l i t i e s 

o f a s u p p o s e d l y aged mother c o u n t r y , so Tennyson's new v o i c e 

o f o l d E n g l a n d has, i n p a r t , been shown by t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y 

s c h o l a r s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e an outmoded way o f l i f e even w i t h i n 

h i s own p e r i o d . T h i s l i f e i s l i n k e d t o t h e f o r c e s o f 

s t a b i l i t y i n h e r e n t i n a f a m i l y - c e n t r e d d o m e s t i c i t y a t once and 

s e e m i n g l y f o r e v e r c u t o f f from a w o r l d dominated by 

p r o g r e s s i v e s o c i a l change and m a t e r i a l p r o s p e r i t y . Tennyson's 

w o r l d v i e w has t h u s n o t o n l y been seen i n t h i s c e n t u r y as 

" o l d " w i t h i n an E n g l a n d a n x i o u s t o announce i t s newly c r e a t e d 

s o u r c e s o f w e a l t h and power, b u t seen as e s s e n t i a l l y f e m i n i n e 

as w e l l , d e t e r m i n e d as i t was by t h e p r i v a t e m o r a l and 

s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t y g r a n t e d by t h e f e m a l e p r e s e n c e w i t h i n t h e 

f a m i l y r a t h e r t h a n by a male-dominated p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y 

s a n c t i o n e d by economic s t a t u s . I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e w o r l d t h a t 

Tennyson i n h a b i t e d was a w o r l d n o t u n l i k e L o n g f e l l o w ' s . 

Y e t as w i t h L o n g f e l l o w ' s A m e r i c a , new s o c i a l h i s t o r i e s o f 

t h e s o - c a l l e d s e p a r a t e s p h e r e s o f f e m a l e and male a c t i o n i n 

V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d r e v e a l them t o have been m u t u a l l y s u p p o r t i v e 

and i n t e r l i n k e d . Recent s t u d i e s o f t h e p r e - s u f f r a g e t t e 

f e m i n i s t movement i n E n g l a n d , f o r example, document t h e ways 

i n w h i c h women, bent on p r o v i d i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r t h e m s e l v e s 

o t h e r t h a n h e a r t h and home, o p e r a t e d — n e c e s s a r i l y y e t 

p a r a d o x i c a l l y — a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i c t a t e s o f t h e a c c e p t e d 

i d e o l o g y o f d o m e s t i c i t y as a woman's p r o p e r s p h e r e o f i n t e r e s t 



250 

and i n f l u e n c e . 2 I n E n g l a n d , however, u n l i k e A m e r i c a , whatever 

m i x i n g o f g e n d e r i z e d r o l e s c o u l d and d i d o c c u r was f u r t h e r 

c o m p l i c a t e d by o f t e n v i o l e n t a c t i o n s and r e a c t i o n s a c c o r d i n g 

t o c l a s s - b a s e d i d e o l o g i e s . T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t A m e r i c a 

was w i t h o u t c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , n o r even t h a t L o n g f e l l o w 

h i m s e l f was unaware o f c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s , b u t r a t h e r t h a t t h e 

A m e r i c a n n a t i o n ' s o f f i c i a l i d e o l o g y o f d e m o c r a t i c e q u a l i t y 

among men made d i r e c t r e f l e c t i o n upon c l a s s a l e s s p r o m i n e n t 

2 S t u d i e s i n t h i s v e i n i n c l u d e S a r a Delamont and L o r n a 
D u f f i n ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o The N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y Woman: Her  
C u l t u r a l and P h y s i c a l W o r l d , B a r b a r a T a y l o r ' s Eve and t h e New  
J e r u s a l e m : S o c i a l i s m and Feminism i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , 
P h i l i p p a L e v i n e ' s V i c t o r i a n Feminism, 1850-1900, and Mary 
Maynard's " P r i v i l e g e and P a t r i a r c h y : F e m i n i s t Thought i n t h e 
N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y . " A r e l a t e d work, d e a l i n g w i t h women o f 
l e s s p u b l i c s t a t u r e t h a n t h o s e i n t h e above s t u d i e s , i s 
P a t r i c i a B r a n c a ' s S i l e n t S i s t e r h o o d : M i d d l e c l a s s Women i n t h e  
V i c t o r i a n Home. R a t h e r t h a n d i s p a r a g e t h e V i c t o r i a n woman's 
a c c e p t a n c e o f a male v i e w o f woman as s t r i c t l y " t h e a n g e l i n 
t h e house," as many p r e v i o u s s o c i a l h i s t o r i e s ( f e m i n i s t and 
n o n - f e m i n i s t ) have done, t h e s e s t u d i e s t r y t o e x p l a i n b o t h t h e 
p e r v a s i v e s o c i a l f o r c e o f t h e d o m e s t i c i d e o l o g y and t h e many 
r e a s o n s why women s p e c i f i c a l l y c o u l d see t h e m s e l v e s as 
o c c a s i o n a l l y empowered by i t . They come c l o s e r t o 
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y t h a n 
s c h o l a r s l i k e K a t h e r i n e Moore, f o r example, who i n V i c t o r i a n  
Wives f o c u s e s l a r g e l y upon t h e l e g a l and m o r a l s t r i c t u r e s 
a g a i n s t f e m a l e independence i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o t h e 
e x c l u s i o n o f t h e ways i n w h i c h V i c t o r i a n women t u r n e d t h e s e 
a p p a r e n t s o c i a l l i m i t a t i o n s t o t h e i r advantage. The 
r e s t r i c t i o n s imposed upon V i c t o r i a n women s h o u l d be seen by 
women—and m e n — a s a b h o r r e n t t o d a y , b u t t h a t t h e y were n o t 
c o n s i s t e n t l y nor even a t a l l p e r v a s i v e l y seen t h a t way by 
women t h e m s e l v e s does n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y l e a d t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n 
t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f V i c t o r i a n women were dupes o f s o c i e t y . 
R a t h e r , women's c o m p l i c i t y i n . t h e c r e a t i o n o f a V i c t o r i a n 
d o m e s t i c i d e o l o g y must be seen, i n p a r t , as a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s 
p r o m o t i o n o f t h o s e m o r a l i d e a l s and b e l i e f s t h a t n i n e t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y women f e l t t o be l a c k i n g w i t h i n t h e i r b u r g e o n i n g 
c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . 



f e a t u r e o f c r i t i c a l and p o e t i c d i s c o u r s e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s 

t h a n i n E n g l a n d . The added d i m e n s i o n o f c l a s s a n a l y s i s i n 

Tennyson's p o p u l a r p o e t r y makes h i s work i n f i n i t e l y more 

complex t h a n h i s A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r p a r t ' s , hence d i s t i n c t from 

and more i n t e r e s t i n g t h a n L o n g f e l l o w ' s f o r t h e t w e n t i e t h -

c e n t u r y s c h o l a r , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f any t e c h n i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y o f 

t h e E n g l i s h b a r d . Thus, even though Tennyson t o o was a p o e t 

p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h " f e m i n i n e " d o m e s t i c themes s i m i l a r t o t h o s e 

o f L o n g f e l l o w , he was o v e r t l y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c 

r o o t s i n f l u e n c i n g c o n c e p t i o n s o f gender i n h i s c o u n t r y i n a 

way t h a t L o n g f e l l o w a p p e a r s n e v e r t o have c o n s i d e r e d . 

I n t u r n i n g t o Tennyson's E n g l a n d , and t h e p o e t ' s p l a c e i n 

i t , one u l t i m a t e l y s e e s a w o r l d w h i c h , i n 1855, A r n o l d 

e n i g m a t i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d as "two w o r l d s , one dead / The 

o t h e r p o w e r l e s s t o be b o r n " ("Stanzas From t h e Grande 

C h a r t r e u s e " ) . I n e f f e c t , Tennyson was b o r n i n t o t h e f o r m e r , 

t h e dead o r d y i n g w o r l d o f a r i s t o c r a t i c p r i v i l e g e , a r u r a l 

a g r a r i a n economy, and a r e l i g i o u s m o r a l i t y i n v e s t e d i n l o c a l 

c h u r c h a u t h o r i t i e s . C o i n c i d e n t a l l y — y e t s i g n i f i c a n t l y and 

p e r h a p s even s y m b o l i c a l l y — t h a t w o r l d d i e d f o r Tennyson w i t h 

A r t h u r H a l l a m i n 1833. Tennyson, n e a r t h e end o f I n Memoriam, 

had f i n a l l y a s k e d t o l e t i t d i e , "The y e a r i s d y i n g i n t h e 

n i g h t ; / R i n g o u t , w i l d b e l l s , and l e t him d i e " (CVI 3-4), so 

t h a t he m i g h t g i v e b i r t h t o a new v o i c e b o r n o u t o f g r i e f and 

l o s s t o speak "Beyond t h e second b i r t h o f Death" (XLV 903). 



252 

As t h e p e o p l e ' s v o i c e , t h e l a u r e a t e s h i p h a v i n g been 

bestowed upon him subsequent t o t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f I n Memoriam 

i n 1850, Tennyson would have t o spend t h e second h a l f o f t h e 

c e n t u r y g r a p p l i n g w i t h t h e second h a l f o f A r n o l d ' s e q u a t i o n : 

t h e " o t h e r " w o r l d dominated by m i d d l e - c l a s s w e a l t h , u r b a n 

i n d u s t r i a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g , and seeming m o r a l d i s s i p a t i o n . F o r 

Tennyson a t l e a s t , such a p r o j e c t demanded r e s u r r e c t i o n o f a l l 

t h a t he v a l u e d i n h i s " o l d " E n g l a n d r e i n f u s e d i n t o h i s p r e s e n t 

"new" one. T h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n can be t r a c e d i n Tennyson's 

r e c r e a t i o n o f A r t h u r H a l l a m i n t h e f i g u r e o f t h e "once and 

f u t u r e " K i n g A r t h u r . Once ( r e ) c r e a t e d , however, K i n g A r t h u r 

and a l l he r e p r e s e n t e d a l s o would have t o d i e i n o r d e r f o r 

E n g l a n d t o be b o r n anew once a g a i n : as K i n g A r t h u r h i m s e l f 

r e m a r k s , "'The o l d o r d e r c h a n g e t h , y i e l d i n g p l a c e t o new, / 

And God f u l f i l s h i m s e l f i n many ways, / L e s t one good custom 

s h o u l d c o r r u p t t h e w o r l d . ' " ("The P a s s i n g o f A r t h u r " 407-10). 

T h i s f u l f i l m e n t t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e subsequent a c t o f 

r e c r e a t i o n t h a t r e a d e r s u n d e r t a k e as t h e y e x p e r i e n c e 

Tennyson's work and t h e r e b y t h e "New" E n g l a n d t h e p o e t 

p r o f f e r s y e t does n o t p r o v i d e . I n t h i s s e n s e , Tennyson's 

a t t e m p t t o c r e a t e a "New" E n g l a n d out o f t h e o l d must be seen 

as f o r e v e r e m b r y o n i c , i n A r n o l d ' s p e s s i m i s t i c terms " p o w e r l e s s 

t o be b o r n , " d e v o i d o f t r u e "power" and p u r p o s e . Y e t i n a 

more o p t i m i s t i c s e n s e , one t o w h i c h Tennyson h i m s e l f would 

l i k e l y have s u b s c r i b e d , i t was Camelot: " ' b u i l t / To m u s i c , 

t h e r e f o r e n e v e r b u i l t a t a l l , / And t h e r e f o r e b u i l t f o r e v e r ' " 



("Gareth and L y n e t t e , " 272-4). I n s o f a r as such a v i s i o n was 

d i f f i c u l t t o s u s t a i n , i t was t h a t much more d i f f i c u l t t o 

r e a c h . 

Tennyson's e a r l y l i f e r e v e a l s t h a t t h e p e r s o n a l and 

p r o f e s s i o n a l d i f f i c u l t y o f coming t o terms w i t h a s e e m i n g l y 

f r a c t u r e d l i f e w i t h i n a f r a c t u r e d E n g l a n d i n f u s e d i n 

Tennyson's v e r s e a t e n s i o n t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s a p p e a r s n e v e r t o 

have h e l d . A l t h o u g h L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson were t o s h a r e 

many o f t h e same l i t e r a r y p r e o c c u p a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e i r c o l l e g e 

y e a r s , t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e boyhood " e d u c a t i o n s " a t home c o u l d n o t 

have been more d i s s i m i l a r . L o n g f e l l o w ' s s e d a t e , l a r g e l y 

p r e d i c t a b l e f a m i l y l i f e and e a r l y e d u c a t i o n i n P o r t l a n d , f o r 

a l l i t s b u s t l i n g s e a p o r t , p r o v i d e d a f i n a n c i a l and d o m e s t i c 

s e c u r i t y t h a t Tennyson was n e v e r t o know u n t i l he e s t a b l i s h e d 

i t f o r h i m s e l f f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a t C h a p e l House, Twickenham, 

i n 1851. I n c o n t r a s t , Tennyson's l i f e as a boy i n Somersby 

(1809-1821) has been v a r i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d by h i s s e v e r a l 

b i o g r a p h e r s i n t h i s c e n t u r y as "overcrowded, h u d d l e d and even 

i n s a n i t a r y " ( N i c o l s o n 3 3 ) ; "a l i t t l e w o r l d o f t h e i r own" w i t h 

l i f e "rough and t h e atmosphere o f t e n s t o r m y " ( C h a r l e s Tennyson 

2 6 ) ; and o v e r r u n w i t h " c h i l d r e n h a r d l y t r a i n e d i n any o f t h e 

normal modes o f s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r " ( M a r t i n 1 8 ) . Even i n t h e s e 

s h o r t e x t r a c t s i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e " a b n o r m a l l y " p r i v a t e , 

s e l f - i n c l u s i v e w o r l d o f t h e e a r l y p o e t has. come t o dominate 

modern u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e a t Somersby. To Tennyson's l a t e 

V i c t o r i a n b i o g r a p h e r , h i s son H a l l a m , however, Somersby was a 



254 

p u b l i c l y s a n c t i o n e d , p e r f e c t p i c t u r e o f d o m e s t i c b l i s s , t h e 

f i r s t c h a p t e r i n H a l l a m ' s m y t h i c c r e a t i o n . 

H a l l a m ' s A l f r e d L o r d Tennyson: A Memoir by h i s Son e x h i b i t s 

many o f t h e same e l i s i o n s and p a r t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t 

Samuel L o n g f e l l o w ' s L i f e o f h i s b r o t h e r d o e s . 3 I n b o t h c a s e s , 

t h e p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l — a s boy o r m a n — s e p a r a t e from an 

i n i t i a l l y s e l f - p r o f e s s e d and l a t e r p u b l i c l y a c c l a i m e d v o c a t i o n 

as a p o e t i s s u p p r e s s e d . The v e r y e a r l y y e a r s o f boyhood a r e 

t h e r e f o r e h a s t i l y d e a l t w i t h i n b o t h b i o g r a p h i e s so as t o 

f o c u s a t t e n t i o n p r i m a r i l y on t h e p o e t i n t h e man. I n t h e c a s e 

o f t h e Memoir, H a l l a m , a s s i s t e d by t h e c o - e d i t o r s o f 

Tennyson's p r i v a t e documents and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , Henry 

S i d g w i c k and F r a n c i s T u r n e r P a l g r a v e , p u r p o s e l y d e s i g n e d t h i s 

l i f e o f h i s f a t h e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e eminent p o e t ' s " s t r o n g l y 

e x p r e s s e d d e s i r e t h a t h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and p r i v a t e l i f e s h o u l d 

o n l y be s t u d i e d t h r o u g h h i s poems" ( C h a r l e s Tennyson v i i ) . 4 

Hence, w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s made a v a i l a b l e t o him i n 

1949, S i r C h a r l e s Tennyson f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o f i l l i n t h e gaps 

c r e a t e d by H a l l a m ' s a c c o u n t o f h i s f a t h e r ' s l i f e , b u t o n l y 

3 To Tennyson s c h o l a r s , t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f H a l l a m ' s 
Memoir a r e so w e l l known as n o t t o b e a r r e p e a t i n g . However, a 
c o n v e n i e n t s h o r t l i s t does appear i n Lang and Shannon's 
i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e L e t t e r s ( I x x ) . I t c o n s i s t s p r i m a r i l y o f 
i n s t a n c e s o f f a m i l y i n s t a b i l i t y and/or madness. A t h o r o u g h 
a c c o u n t o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e Memoir i s now a v a i l a b l e i n 
P h i l i p L. E l l i o t t ' s The Making o f t h e Memoir. 

4 S i r C h a r l e s Tennyson s u g g e s t s i n a d d i t i o n t h a t 
Tennyson's i n j u n c t i o n was a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d "morbid 
r e a c t i o n t o t h e p e c u l i a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f h i s e a r l y l i f e " 
( v i i ) . These c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h below. 



i n s o f a r as t h e y c o u l d be f i l l e d by " f a c t s and o b v i o u s 

i n f e r e n c e s " and n o t by " e x e r c i s e o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n " ( v i i i ) . 

That he f u l f i l s t h i s p u r p o s e as w e l l as he does has made 

A l f r e d Tennyson i n d i s p e n s a b l e as t h e s t a n d a r d b i o g r a p h y o f 

Tennyson's e a r l y l i f e a l t h o u g h S i r C h a r l e s m o d e s t l y a d m i t s 

t h a t t h e "Memoir must a l w a y s r e m a i n t h e s t a n d a r d l i f e o f 

Tennyson . . . " ( v i i i ) . 

Y e t what S i r C h a r l e s Tennyson o v e r l o o k s i n p o i n t i n g out 

Tennyson's d e s i r e t o have h i s l i f e d e m o n s t r a t e d p u b l i c l y 

r a t h e r t h a n p r i v a t e l y — t h r o u g h h i s work r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h 

h i s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s — i s t h e genre o f V i c t o r i a n b i o g r a p h y 

i t s e l f , w h i c h i s dominated by t h e sense t h a t a man's 

p e r s o n a l i t y a c t u a l l y was a t one w i t h how he was v i e w e d i n t h e 

w o r l d . The b i f u r c a t i o n o f t h e p r i v a t e p o e t and t h e p u b l i c 

b a r d t h a t began i n 1923 w i t h H a r o l d N i c o l s o n ' s i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c 

a c c o u n t o f Tennyson as y e t h e l d no s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e l a t e 

V i c t o r i a n , d e c i d e d l y p r e - F r e u d i a n , b i o g r a p h e r . Exposure and 

a n a l y s i s o f f a m i l y i n f l u e n c e i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e 

p o e t i c p s y c h e h e l d no c o m p e l l i n g i n t e r e s t f o r a p u b l i c w i s h i n g 

t o know t h e man who had g i v e n them i n s p i r a t i o n a l v e r s e t o 

w h i c h t h e y c o u l d a l l c o l l e c t i v e l y a s s e n t . W i t h o u t p u t t i n g t o o 

b o l d a f a c e on i t , any i d i o s y n c r a t i c p r i v a t e l i f e s i m p l y d i d 

n o t e x i s t o r , a t t h e v e r y l e a s t , was so e f f e c t i v e l y s u p p r e s s e d 

t h a t i t was t h o u g h t n o t t o e x i s t . What i s a t i s s u e h e r e i s 

H a l l a m ' s f a b r i c a t i o n o f a m y t h i c Tennyson, l a t e r t o become a 

s u b s t a n t i a l f e a t u r e upon t h e h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s e a r l y 



t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s would keep i n v i e w when t r y i n g t o 

u n d e r s t a n d t h e L a u r e a t e and h i s work. A l l subsequent s c h o l a r s 

w o u l d have t o acknowledge, e i t h e r o v e r t l y o r c o v e r t l y , H a l l a m 

as head o f t h e f a m i l y o f Tennyson b i o g r a p h y , and choose e i t h e r 

t o a c c e p t o r r e b e l a g a i n s t h i s a u t h o r i t y . S i n c e N i c o l s o n ' s 

b i o g r a p h y , most have chosen t o r e b e l . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e y 

r e b e l a g a i n s t t h e m a t r i a r c h a l c a s t o f H a l l a m ' s v i s i o n o f 

Tennyson i n t h e Memoir and n o t — a s H a r o l d Bloom's A n x i e t y o f  

I n f l u e n c e might s u p p o s e — a dominant p a t r i a r c h . 

Born 6 August 18 09, f o u r t h o f t w e l v e c h i l d r e n , "most o f 

them more o r l e s s t r u e p o e t s , " T e n n y s o n — a s r e a d by h i s s o n — 

a p p e a r s t o have i n h a l e d p o e t i c s p i r i t w i t h h i s f i r s t b r e a t h . 

I n t h e p r e f a c e t o t h e Memoir, H a l l a m c o n t e n d s t h a t even i n 

boyhood h i s f a t h e r "had f e l t t h e magic o f M e r l i n — t h a t s p i r i t 

o f p o e t r y — w h i c h bade him know h i s power and f o l l o w t h r o u g h o u t 

h i s work a p u r e and h i g h i d e a l , w i t h a s i m p l e and s i n g l e 

d e v o t e d n e s s and d e s i r e t o e n n o b l e t h e l i f e o f t h e w o r l d . . . " 

( v i i i ) . From t h e s t a r t , H a l l a m c o n n e c t s i m a g i n a t i o n and 

p o e t r y t o p u b l i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; t h e above p r e f a t o r y s t a t e m e n t 

e f f e c t i v e l y c a p t u r e s t h e essence o f t h e Memoir i n t h a t t h e 

p r i v a t e p e r s o n (even i n boyhood) i s p o r t r a y e d as a t one w i t h 

t h e p u b l i c p o e t . 

Readers o f t h e Memoir a r e i n v i t e d i n t o t h e p r i v a t e homes a t 

Somersby, Twickenham, F a r r i n g f o r d , and t h e l i k e o n l y i n s o f a r 

as t h e s e homes s y m b o l i z e p u b l i c l y t h e p r i v a t e peace o f 

d o m e s t i c i t y t h a t anyone c o u l d p a r t a k e o f t h r o u g h f i t and 



p r o p e r r e v e r e n c e f o r "Him who i s i n v i s i b l e " ( v i i i ) . S i n c e 

V i c t o r i a n r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f and p r a c t i c e r e a d i l y m a n i f e s t e d 

i t s e l f i n t h e s p e c i a l s a n c t u a r y o f women, H a l l a m n o t 

s u r p r i s i n g l y i n v e s t s even t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o u n t r y s i d e o f 

Somersby w i t h an a u r a o f f e m i n i n e d o m e s t i c harmony. H a l l a m 

d e s c r i b e s h i s own j o u r n e y t h e r e i n 1892 as f o l l o w s : " i n a l a n d 

o f q u i e t v i l l a g e s , l a r g e f i e l d s , g r a y h i l l s i d e s , and n o b l e 

t a l l - t o w e r e d c h u r c h e s , on t h e l o w e r s l o p e o f a L i n c o l n s h i r e 

w o l d , t h e p a s t o r a l hamlet o f Somersby n e s t l e s , embosomed i n 

t r e e s " ( 1 ) . The p r o t e c t i v e embrace o f embosoming t r e e s s h o u l d 

n o t be o v e r l o o k e d . Subsequent d e s c r i p t i o n s o f f a m i l y l i f e 

a r i s e o u t o f H a l l a m ' s and h i s f a t h e r ' s n o s t a l g i a t h a t t r i g g e r s 

f e l i c i t o u s v i s u a l memories o f h i s f a t h e r ' s c h i l d h o o d mixed 

s k i l f u l l y w i t h Tennyson's own v o i c e and poems t h a t s u p p o s e d l y 

" r e f l e c t " t h i s p a s t . Such i s t h e p u r p o r t e d d e s i g n o f t h e 

Memoir: a p a s t i c h e o f v o i c e s , w i t h H a l l a m ' s h e a r d r a r e l y 

( x i i ) . Y e t t h e r e a d e r ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Somersby i s 

d i s t i n c t l y c o n t r o l l e d by H a l l a m and, as s u c h , i s a k i n t o e n t r y 

i n t o an i n n e r , womb-like s a n c t u a r y f a s h i o n e d j o i n t l y by t h e 

minds o f H a l l a m and h i s f a t h e r i n 1892, and t h e e a r l i e r p o e t ' s 

mind a t work b e h i n d t h e v a r i o u s l y c i t e d poems. The e n c l o s u r e 

a f f o r d e d by t h e s e minds o p e r a t i n g t o g e t h e r i n harmony 

e f f e c t i v e l y d e n i e s any s u b s t a n t i v e v a l u e t o t h e w o r l d o u t s i d e 

o f t h e p r i v a t e , y e t p u b l i c l y s a n c t i o n e d , e n c l a v e o f t h e 

Tennyson f a m i l y . 



258 

E n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d a r e t h u s o f t e n 

t h r e a t e n i n g , s y m b o l i c i n s t a n c e s o f s o c i a l l y condoned v i o l e n c e : 

t h e Rev. J . W a i t e — " a tempestuous, f l o g g i n g m a s t e r " o f t h e 

s c h o o l a t L o u t h Tennyson went t o when he was seven ( 5 ) ; t h e 

h o r r i f i c — a n d g r a t u i t o u s — s t o r y t o l d by Tennyson's grandmother 

about a young woman who was p u b l i c l y s t r a n g l e d and b u r n t for. 

p o i s o n i n g h e r husband ( 5 - 6 ) ; and t h e "rough independence" o f 

s e r v a n t s and L i c o l n s h i r e l a b o u r e r s (12) . To be s u r e , t h e r e 

was v i o l e n c e enough i n t h e Tennysons' own p r i v a t e home, 

v i o l e n c e w h i c h H a l l a m e l i d e s by r e f e r r i n g o n l y t o Tennyson's 

f a t h e r ' s " u n k i n d n e s s and i n j u s t i c e " and " f i t s o f despondency" 

( 1 2 - 1 3 ) . But r a t h e r t h a n e x p l a i n any e f f e c t t h i s v i o l e n c e may 

have had upon t h e Tennyson c h i l d r e n , H a l l a m chooses i n s t e a d t o 

f o c u s on t h e p o s i t i v e , d e m o n s t r a b l y m a s c u l i n e power o f t h e 

R e c t o r : " t h e d o m i n a t i n g f o r c e o f [ h i s ] i n t e l l e c t " ( 1 3 ) . 

By f o c u s i n g on t h e R e c t o r ' s m a s c u l i n e i n t e l l e c t , H a l l a m 

a v o i d s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l l y damaging impact o f 

Tennyson's f a t h e r upon h i s c h i l d r e n ' s c h a r a c t e r s : c h a r a c t e r 

and m o r a l development become t h e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e p r i v i l e g e o f 

women i n k e e p i n g w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l V i c t o r i a n n o t i o n s o f 

women's a p p r o p r i a t e s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e . 5 These women i n 

5 Rotundo's s t u d y " L e a r n i n g about Manhood: Gender I d e a l s 
and t h e M i d d l e - c l a s s F a m i l y i n N i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a " 
s u g g e s t s t h a t a c l o s e s t u d y o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between sons and 
f a m i l i e s i n V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d a l s o might y i e l d i n t e r e s t i n g 
r e s u l t s . A t p r e s e n t , some o f t h e most p r o v o c a t i v e s t u d i e s o f 
t h e development o f t h e m a s c u l i n e c h a r a c t e r i n V i c t o r i a n 
E n g l a n d i n c l u d e J e f f r e y Weeks's Sex, P o l i t i c s and S o c i e t y : t h e  
R e g u l a t i o n o f S e x u a l i t y S i n c e 1800 and J e f f r e y R i c h a r d s ' s 
" ' P a s s i n g t h e Love o f Women': Manly Love and V i c t o r i a n 



Tennyson's e a r l y l i f e can t h e r e b y be p o r t r a y e d m e r e l y i n 

b r i e f , a b s t r a c t ways s i n c e t h e i r c o n c r e t e " r e a l i t y " would 

s u p p o s e d l y be s u p p l i e d by H a l l a m ' s V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e : "A 

Dream o f F a i r Women" young and o l d s e r v i n g as a p o s i t i v e 

c o u n t e r t o a c t u a l male anger and a g g r e s s i o n t h a t i s i n t i m a t e d 

b u t n e v e r d i s c u s s e d . A l s o i n t i m a t e d b u t n e v e r d i s c u s s e d a r e 

women's encouragement and p o s i t i v e p r a c t i c a l endorsements o f 

t h e young Tennyson's e a r l y awareness o f h i m s e l f as a p o e t . 

F o r example, w h i l e h i s mother's mother was o c c u p i e d i n s t o r y -

t e l l i n g when Tennyson s t a y e d w i t h h e r a t L o u t h , h i s f a t h e r ' s 

mother was c o n v i n c e d t h a t " A l f r e d ' s p o e t r y a l l comes from me 

[Mary T u r n e r T e n n y s o n ] " ( 1 0 ) . Tennyson a l s o f u l f i l l e d an 

o b l i g a t i o n a t t w e l v e t o w r i t e \ t o h i s aunt M a r i a n n e F y t c h e ( h i s 

mother's s i s t e r ) c o n c e r n i n g h i s r e a d i n g — t h e r e b y p r o d u c i n g a 

l o n g e x p l i c a t i o n o f Samson A g o n i s t e s ( 6 - 8 ) . H a l l a m adds i n a 

f o o t n o t e t h a t Tennyson's p a t e r n a l Aunt and l a t e r b e n e f a c t o r , 

E l i z a b e t h Tennyson R u s s e l l , " d a b b l e d i n p o e t r y " t h a t b r o u g h t 

h e r g r e a t p r a i s e from h e r b o t h e r , a l s o a p o e t ( 9 - 1 0 ) . A 

c o u r t l y b i l l e t d'eux o f s o r t s t o Tennyson's s i s t e r s ' 

g o v e r n e s s , h i s " D u l c i n e a , " i s p r o d u c e d t o show t h e l i t e r a r y 

p r e c o c i t y o f an a d o l e s c e n t d e v o t e d t o books, p o e t r y and, 

S o c i e t y . " Eve K o s o f s k y - S e d g w i c k ' s Between Men: E n g l i s h  
L i t e r a t u r e and Male H o m o s o c i a l D e s i r e i s a l s o v a l u a b l e i n 
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s o - c a l l e d f e m i n i z a t i o n o f men 
as i t e x i s t s w i t h i n l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e 
" s e p a r a t e s p h e r e i d e o l o g y " n o t j u s t as i t a f f e c t e d women b u t 
as i t a f f e c t e d men c o n t i n u e s t o dominate c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g 
about t h e g e n d e r i z a t i o n o f men i n t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d . 



260 

c o i n c i d e n t a l l y , women. C l e a r l y , t h e s e women's i n f l u e n c e s were 

n o t s i m p l y m o r a l , nor was " i n t e l l e c t " t h e e x c l u s i v e p r i v i l e g e 

o f Tennyson's f a t h e r . 

Of c o u r s e , o f t h e s e women i n Tennyson's e a r l y l i f e , h i s 

mother r e c e i v e s t h e most e x t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t a l t h o u g h , one 

m i g h t add, o f a y e t s u r p r i s i n g l y s h o r t and a b s t r a c t k i n d . 

H a l l a m p r e s e n t s E l i z a b e t h Tennyson l i t e r a r i l y , t h a t i s , 

e x c e r p t e d from t h e l a s t f o u r l i n e s o f " I s a b e l " (183 0 ) , c a u g h t 

w i t h i n a m a t r i x o f language making memory. Through H a l l a m ' s 

s e l e c t i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e vague images o f " g r e a t c h a r i t y " 

and " f i n i s h ' d c h a s t e n ' d p u r i t y " from t h e " I s a b e l " poem, 

Tennyson's mother becomes a c o n c e p t r a t h e r t h a n a woman. I n 

i t s a c t u a l e n t i r e t y , " I s a b e l " c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l s p e c i f i c 

c o n c r e t e images t h a t d i s p l a y h e r o v e r t p u r i t y o f c h a r a c t e r and 

c o v e r t m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r h e r husband. 6 Y e t because, i n 

h e r g r a n d s o n ' s o p i n i o n , E l i z a b e t h " d e v o t e d h e r s e l f e n t i r e l y t o 

h e r husband and h e r c h i l d r e n , " i f she i s d e s c r i b e d c o n c r e t e l y 

t h e n i t can o n l y be i n t h o s e i n s t a n c e s i n w h i c h she i s shown 

Most o f t h e v i s u a l images i n t h e poem, w h i l e 
n o n e t h e l e s s m e t a p h o r i c , a r e d e c i d e d l y d e t a i l e d and t o t h e 
p o i n t : "A c l e a r s t r e a m f l o w i n g w i t h a muddy one, / T i l l i n i t s 
onward c u r r e n t a b s o r b s / W i t h s w i f t e r movement and i n p u r e r 
l i g h t / The vexed e d d i e s o f i t s wayward b r o t h e r " (30-33) 
d e s c r i b e s E l i z a b e t h ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h h e r husband. Moreover, 
s t a t e m e n t s o f f a c t s u c h as "The i n t u i t i v e d e c i s i o n o f a b r i g h t 
/ A n d thorough-edged i n t e l l e c t t o p a r t / E r r o r from c r i m e " and 
"A h a t e o f g o s s i p p a r l a n c e " p o r t r a y d i r e c t l y Tennyson's 
mother's s t r e n g t h o f c h a r a c t e r and p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y , and 
p e r h a p s i m p l i c i t l y c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e l a c k o f s u c h i n t h e 
"wayward" husband. These l i n e s o f t h e poem a r e e x c l u d e d from 
E l i z a b e t h Tennyson's p o r t r a y a l i n t h e Memoir. 



c r e a t i n g a home f o r h e r f a m i l y : h e r sense o f humour, f o r 

example, making " t h e room a p a r a d i s e f o r t h e c h i l d r e n . They 

i n h e r i t e d h e r l o v e o f a n i m a l s , " w h i c h i n Tennyson became " t h e 

t r u e p o e t ' s l o v e " ( 1 5 ) . H a l l a m ' s p o r t r a y a l o f t h e women i n 

Tennyson's e a r l y l i f e , i n p a r t i c u l a r h i s mother, i s one 

f e a t u r e o f Tennyson's l i f e t h a t seems n e v e r t o have been 

s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e d even i n t h i s c e n t u r y . 

I n a s e n s e , t h e v e r y d e s i g n o f t h e Memoir t o use 

r e m i n i s c e n c e s (Tennyson's and o t h e r s ) and p u b l i s h e d poems 

p r o d u c e s t h e vague, u n r e a l q u a l i t y t h a t H a l l a m a s s i g n s t o 

women i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f h i s f a t h e r ' s l i f e . Because he 

e l e c t s n o t t o f o c u s on h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e d e t a i l s o f 

p e r s o n a l l i f e , deeds, o r e v e n t s ( f o r example, i n f o r m a t i o n 

c o n t a i n e d i n e i t h e r E l i z a b e t h R u s s e l l ' s o r E l i z a b e t h 

Tennyson's l e t t e r s ) , H a l l a m can t h e r e b y r e a d i l y p o r t r a y t h e 

p r i v a t e l i f e o f t h e Tennysons as a model o f p u b l i c 

r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . I t a p p a r e n t l y c o n t a i n e d o n l y t h o s e f e a t u r e s 

t o w h i c h any h o m e - l o v i n g , m i d d l e - c l a s s V i c t o r i a n c o u l d 

s u b s c r i b e . Women i n t h e Memoir a r e t h u s used t o d e m o n s t r a t e 

t h a t l i f e a t Somersby was n o t i n any way i d i o s y n c r a t i c i n 

terms o f i t s p o t e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e upon t h e development o f 

c h a r a c t e r i n t h e young p o e t . 

H a l l a m s u c c e s s f u l l y a v o i d s d i s c u s s i o n o f p r i v a t e 

i d i o s y n c r a s i e s — i n t h i s c a s e Tennyson's f a t h e r ' s w o r l d o f 

v i o l e n t f i t s — b y l i m i t i n g t h e R e c t o r ' s i n f l u e n c e t o a s t r i c t l y 

m a l e - s a n c t i o n e d i n t e l l e c t u a l and e d u c a t i o n a l r e a l m . I n 



262 

H a l l a m ' s v i e w , t h e R e c t o r p o s s e s s e d a m a n i f e s t l y s u p e r i o r 

i n t e l l e c t t o any i n h i s p a r i s h w h i c h added t o h i s h a v i n g "no 

r e a l c a l l i n g f o r t h e m i n i s t r y " ( 1 1 ) . I f Tennyson i s t h o u g h t , 

l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , t o have i n h e r i t e d t h e s p i r i t o f p o e t r y from 

h i s mother, u n l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , he s u p p o s e d l y l e a r n e d t h e 

t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e o f p o e t i c a r t from h i s f a t h e r who "'was a 

p o e t and c o u l d w r i t e r e g u l a r metre v e r y s k i l f u l l y ' " (Tennyson 

q t d . 9 ) . H a l l a m s t r e s s e s t h e s e l f - a c q u i r e d c l a s s i c a l 

e d u c a t i o n t h a t George Tennyson i m p a r t e d t o h i s s o n s , t h e " r u n 

o f t h e i r f a t h e r ' s e x c e l l e n t l i b r a r y , " and t h e " g e n i a l i t y and 

b r i l l i a n t c o n v e r s a t i o n " t h a t made t h e R e c t o r a much i n v i t e d 

g u e s t f o r s o c i a l o c c a s i o n s ( 1 3 ) . I n t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , one sees 

c l e a r l y t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e B r i t i s h t r a d i t i o n o f 

l i t e r a t u r e and c l a s s i c a l t r a i n i n g as n e c e s s a r y t o a man's 

p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n and t h e y o u t h f u l A m e r i c a ' s s c o r n o f 

l i t e r a t u r e as i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e e d u c a t i o n o f f u t u r e male 

p r o f e s s i o n a l s . These t r a n s a t l a n t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p u b l i c 

p e r c e p t i o n o f p o e t r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d t h e development o f 

t h e e a r l y p o e t r y o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson s i n c e t h e 

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p o e t i c v o i c e t a k e s p l a c e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t 

o f an assumed a u d i e n c e . That t h e s e a u d i e n c e s were so v a s t l y 

d i f f e r e n t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f each p o e t ' s c a r e e r makes t h e 

s i m i l a r i t i e s o f t h e i r l a t e r p o e t r y a l l t h e more i n t e r e s t i n g 

from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e changes i n t h e i r r e a d e r s h i p and 

how t h e y r e s p o n d e d t o them. 



263 

U n l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , as a c h i l d Tennyson was e d u c a t e d o u t s i d e 

t h e home f o r o n l y a b r i e f p e r i o d (1815-20). A p p a r e n t l y 

l a c k i n g a temperament t o w i t h s t a n d t h e r e g i m e n t e d punishment 

and r o t e l e a r n i n g a t L o u t h s c h o o l , Tennyson had r e t u r n e d home 

w i t h h i s e l d e r b r o t h e r C h a r l e s t o be e d u c a t e d by t h e R e c t o r 

f o r seven y e a r s . Throughout t h i s p e r i o d , p o e t r y seems t o have 

c o m p l e t e l y o c c u p i e d t h e Tennyson c h i l d r e n . 7 I t was s u f f u s e d 

by i m i t a t i o n o f and l i b e r a l q u o t a t i o n from a v a r i e t y o f 

p r e c u r s o r s , n o t t h e l e a s t o f whom, f o r A l f r e d , was B y r o n , who 

had a l s o been an i n s p i r a t i o n on L o n g f e l l o w i n A m e r i c a . On 

h e a r i n g o f B y r o n ' s d e a t h i n A p r i l 1824, T e n n y s o n — a g e 

f o u r t e e n — i s s a i d t o have c a r v e d t h e words, "Byron i s dead," 

upon a r o c k , and t o have f e l t t h e whole w o r l d d a r k e n ( 3 ) . H i s 

r e s p o n s e has s e r v e d s i n c e as a f e a t u r e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f 

Tennyson's p r e c o c i o u s a w a r e n e s s — w h i c h he seems t o have s h a r e d 

e q u a l l y w i t h h i s s i s t e r s and b r o t h e r s — o f t h e r o l e o f t h e p o e t 

and t h e p u b l i c c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e b a r d as a c u l t u r a l emblem. 

Poems by Two B r o t h e r s , p u b l i s h e d i n 1827 b e f o r e C h a r l e s 
and A l f r e d l e f t f o r Cambridge, and c o n t a i n i n g poems by 
C h a r l e s , F r e d e r i c k , and A l f r e d was t h e s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t o f 
t h e Tennyson b r o t h e r s ' a d o l e s c e n t f a c i l i t y i n v e r s e . H e r b e r t 
T u c k e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Romantic p r e c u r s o r s 
upon t h i s volume i n Tennyson and t h e Doom o f R o m a n t i c i s m i s 
t h e most r e c e n t a n a l y s i s o f Tennyson's e a r l y i n d e b t e d n e s s t o 
t h e themes and s t y l i s t i c d e v i c e s o f major Romantic p o e t s , 
t h o u g h t h e s e a r e , as T u c k e r a d m i t s and as o t h e r s c h o l a r s 
b e f o r e him have r e a d i l y acknowledged, much more a r t i s t i c a l l y 
h a n d l e d i n t h e poems o f h i s w h i c h Tennyson d i d n o t p u b l i s h a t 
t h i s t i m e : The D e v i l and t h e Lady, " Armageddon," and "The 
Coach o f Death." Tennyson h i m s e l f t h o u g h t o f h i s 
c o n t r i b u t i o n s as " e a r l y r o t " and most a g r e e w i t h C h r i s t o p h e r 
R i c k s t h a t t h e p o e t was " r i g h t never t o i n c l u d e any o f i t i n 
h i s a u t h o r i z e d body o f work" (Tennyson 2 0 ) . 



No doubt B y r o n ' s i n o r d i n a t e p o p u l a r i t y , e q u a l l y e v i d e n t i n 

A m e r i c a , f u e l l e d Tennyson's despondency o v e r t h e l o s s o f t h i s 

p r e c u r s o r p o e t . F o r Tennyson h i m s e l f , l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , had 

from " ' h i s e a r l i e s t y e a r s . . . f e l t t h a t he was a p o e t and 

e a r n e s t l y t r a i n e d h i m s e l f t o be w o r t h y o f h i s v o c a t i o n ' , " 

a c c o r d i n g t o h i s younger b r o t h e r , A r t h u r , who a l s o r e c o r d s 

A l f r e d as c l a i m i n g " ' W e l l , A r t h u r , I mean t o be famous'" ( 1 4 ) . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s " I w i l l be eminent" sounds a s i m i l a r n o t e . I n 

b o t h o f t h e s e young men's l i v e s a v e r y e a r l y p e r s o n a l 

commitment t o p u b l i c s t a t u r e always r e i g n e d supreme. 

F o r Tennyson, a t l e a s t , eminence as a p o e t was i n c l u d e d i n 

h i s r e a l m o f p r o f e s s i o n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s . Indeed, h i s f a t h e r 

f o r m a l l y encouraged him. The R e c t o r f e l t t h a t i f " ' A l f r e d 

d i e , one o f our g r e a t e s t p o e t s w i l l have gone'" ( 1 0 ) . Thus, 

Tennyson's r a t h e r h i s t r i o n i c r e a c t i o n t o B y r o n ' s u n t i m e l y 

d e a t h i s as much a lament f o r t h e l o s s o f a p o e t i c v o i c e t h a t 

he h i m s e l f was wont t o emulate as i t was f o r t h e l o s s o f a 

p o e t i c v o i c e f o r a l l E n g l a n d , a r o l e w h i c h he h i m s e l f had 

p r e c o c i o u s l y , y e t c l e a r l y n o t d i s c r e e t l y , c o v e t e d . I n t h i s 

c a s e , Tennyson's f a t h e r , u n l i k e L o n g f e l l o w ' s , a c t i v e l y 

a s s i s t e d h i s sons, A l f r e d i n p a r t i c u l a r , i n t h e i r s c h o l a r l y 

and l i t e r a r y p u r s u i t s . The R e c t o r gave l i t t l e o r no s e r i o u s 

a t t e n t i o n t o t h e l a c k o f a p o t e n t i a l u t i l i t a r i a n v a l u e such 

p u r s u i t s m i g h t y i e l d . 8 I n s h o r t , e v e r y t h i n g Tennyson's f a t h e r 

8 S i r C h a r l e s Tennyson does r e l a t e t h a t t h e R e c t o r used 
t o say o f h i s s o n s ' w r i t i n g s t h a t t h e y "'would n e v e r g e t b r e a d 
by s u c h s t u f f " y e t t h e c o n t r a r y i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r t e x t s t h a t 



p r o v i d e d , o t h e r t h a n f i n a n c i a l c a p i t a l (of w h i c h w i t h such a 

l a r g e f a m i l y he had l i t t l e t o spare) seemed t o augur t h e 

p u b l i c s u c c e s s o f h i s f o u r t h c h i l d , i f n o t t h e o t h e r s , 

e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s e x c e p t what H a l l a m l e a v e s o u t o f t h e 

Memoir: t h e Tennysons' a c t u a l p r i v a t e l i f e . 

H a l l a m p r o v i d e s o n l y two u n c o n n e c t e d r e f e r e n c e s t o a l i f e 

w i t h i n t h e Tennyson home t h a t would seem i n any way 

e x t r a o r d i n a r y , a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n e x a c t l y t h e t y p e t o 

encourage V i c t o r i a n p o e t i c s e n t i m e n t i n a h e a l t h y and p o s i t i v e 

way. I n t h e f i r s t r e f e r e n c e , H a l l a m m e n t i o n s t h e f a c t t h a t 

Tennyson's g r a n d f a t h e r had d i s i n h e r i t e d h i s e l d e s t s o n — f o r 

r e a s o n s u n s p e c i f i e d — i n f a v o u r o f t h e younger son, and 

promoted George Tennyson i n t h e c l e r g y i n s t e a d . To H a l l a m , 

s u c h a f l o u t i n g o f t h e r i g h t s o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e p r o d u c e d m e r e l y 

"a f e e l i n g o f i n j u s t i c e i n h i s [ g r a n d f a t h e r ' s ] mind w h i c h 

descended t o h i s s o n s " (11) . I n t h e second r e f e r e n c e , H a l l a m 

a l l u d e s t o " u n k i n d n e s s and i n j u s t i c e " on t h e p a r t o f t h e 

R e c t o r w h i c h p l a y e d upon t h e s e n s i t i v e n e r v e s o f t h e young 

p o e t t o s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t he more t h a n once, " s c a r e d by h i s 

f a t h e r ' s f i t s o f despondency, went o u t t h r o u g h t h e b l a c k n i g h t 

he d i d show r e v e a l s t h a t he i n no way p r o h i b i t e d t h e i r c h o i c e 
o f p u r s u i t s ( 3 1 ) . Tennyson's g r a n d f a t h e r , t h e e l d e r George 
Tennyson, however, was d e c i d e d l y more m a t e r i a l i s t i c t h a n h i s 
son and a c t i v e l y d i s p a r a g e d A l f r e d ' s c h o i c e o f v o c a t i o n . 
A f t e r t h e R e c t o r ' s d e a t h i n 1831, Tennyson's g r a n d f a t h e r 
s t r o v e t o have t h e young p o e t , a l o n g w i t h F r e d e r i c k and 
C h a r l e s , e n t e r t h e Church. Tennyson f o r t u n a t e l y managed t o 
a v o i d t h e f a t e t h a t b e f e l l h i s f a t h e r t h r o u g h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n 
o f Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l and i t s subsequent p r o m o t i o n by h i s 
f r i e n d s ( C h a r l e s Tennyson 105-18). 



and t h r e w h i m s e l f on a g r a v e i n a c h u r c h y a r d , p r a y i n g t o be 
q 

b e n e a t h t h e sod h i m s e l f " (12-13) . H a l l a m n e v e r s u g g e s t s any 

o s t e n s i b l e r e a s o n s f o r t h e R e c t o r ' s b l a c k moods, and r e a d e r s 

a r e f o r c e d t o c o n c l u d e t h a t h i s h i g h s t r u n g temperament 

f o l l o w e d as a n a t u r a l consequence o f t h e R e c t o r ' s a p p a r e n t l y 

a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n s . H a l l a m 

r e f u s e s t o s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e r e may have been any c o r r e l a t i o n 

— e i t h e r as c a u s e , consequence o r b o t h — b e t w e e n h i s g r e a t 

g r a n d f a t h e r ' s d e c i s i o n n o t t o p a s s on t h e Tennyson e s t a t e t o 

h i s e l d e s t son and George Tennyson's c h a r a c t e r d e f e c t s . 

Moreover, any l a s t i n g e f f e c t t h a t e i t h e r t h e R e c t o r ' s 

d i s i n h e r i t a n c e o r b l a c k moodiness may have had upon t h e 

c h a r a c t e r development o f A l f r e d Tennyson i s q u i e t l y d i s m i s s e d 

C l e a r l y , f o r H a l l a m t o d i s c u s s t h o s e a s p e c t s o f t h e Tennysons 

p r i v a t e l i f e t h a t would have d i s p e l l e d t h e myth and 

compromised t h e V i c t o r i a n p u b l i c ' s p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e t o t h e 

L a u r e a t e , would have been o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n i n 1897. Or so 

H a l l a m b e l i e v e d . 

I n a r e a l s e n s e , t h e Memoir c r e a t e d , b o t h i n and o f i t s e l f 

and i n t h e v a r i o u s r e a c t i o n s t o i t , t h e Tennyson o f t o d a y 

because, whether c o n s c i o u s l y o r n o t , an a u d i e n c e ' s 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p o e t i c t e x t s i s g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by who t h e 

p o e t i s b e l i e v e d t o have been. I n t h i s c a s e , H a l l a m ' s 

e v a s i v e n e s s c o u p l e d w i t h a l l u s i v e n e s s i n v i t e d r e a d e r s o f t h e 
9 C h a r l e s Tennyson c l a i m s t h a t such v i o l e n t f i t s on t h e 

p a r t o f t h e R e c t o r were g r e a t l y a g g r a v a t e d by a l c o h o l ( 4 8 ) . 



267 

Memoir t o f i l l i n t h e gaps and i n d e t e r m i n a c i e s i n Tennyson's 

e a r l y l i f e i n s u b j e c t i v e , i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c ways, e s p e c i a l l y 

when, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r e r o g a t i v e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l Tennyson 

s c h o l a r / t h e e a r l y l i f e c o u l d be used t o e x p l a i n seeming 

c o n f l i c t s i n Tennyson's subsequent p o e t r y and c a r e e r . Hence, 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e r e a d i n g s o f Tennyson's l i f e f a l l i n t o 

t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , each o f them i n some way a r e s p o n s e t o t h e 

Tennyson myth c r e a t e d by t h e p o e t ' s son. As s u c h , t h e y t o o 

a r e among t h e p r e s e t a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h e l a t e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y 

Tennyson s c h o l a r . 

The f i r s t , b a s i c a l l y o b j e c t i v e s u p p l e m e n t a r y v i e w , b e l o n g s 

e x c l u s i v e l y t o S i r C h a r l e s Tennyson's A l f r e d T e n n y s o n . 1 0 

D e s p i t e h i s t e n d e n c y t o p s y c h o l o g i z e f a c t s and e v i d e n c e , S i r 

C h a r l e s c l a i m s t o be i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n p r o v i d i n g a f u l l and 

j u s t e s t i m a t e o f a v a r i a b l e Tennyson, made p o s s i b l e because o f 

h i t h e r t o unknown "hundreds o f l e t t e r s exchanged between t h e 

p o e t ' s f a t h e r , g r a n d f a t h e r and t h e i r immediate f a m i l y and 

f r i e n d s " ( v i i ) . The p o e t ' s g r a n d s o n t h u s p r o v i d e s d e t a i l e d 

f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g George Tennyson's temper and 

1 0 Most b i o c r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s o f Tennyson's l i f e and work 
acknowledge t h e i r enormous d e b t t o S i r C h a r l e s A l f r e d Tennyson 
as t h e " d e f i n i t i v e " b i o g r a p h y (Henderson x i ) . Indeed, 
Henderson's Tennyson, P o e t and P r o p h e t (1978) adds v e r y l i t t l e 
t o t h e l i f e t h a t S i r C h a r l e s had so c a r e f u l l y f i l l e d i n . 
R i c k s ' s p r e f a t o r y remarks i n h i s s t u d y o f Tennyson (197 2) 
r e m a i n as t r u e t o d a y as t h e y d i d t w e n t y y e a r s ago: A l f r e d  
Tennyson i s "compact, humane, w i d e - r a n g i n g , and u n s u p e r s e d e d " 
( x ) , d e s p i t e t h e most r e c e n t a t t e m p t by M a r t i n i n t h e U n q u i e t  
H e a r t (1980) t o i n j e c t l i f e i n t o t h e Tennyson l e g e n d . See 
n o t e 11. 



268 

d i s i n h e r i t a n c e w h i c h i s l a t e r used i n two ways: 1) as a 

p r e t e x t f o r some, n o t a l l , o f t h e p e r s o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s 

Tennyson had as a young p o e t i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a p u b l i c l y 

s a n c t i o n e d l i f e f o r h i m s e l f ; and 2) as a p r e t e x t f o r 

Tennyson's p u b l i c endorsement o f d o m e s t i c s t a b i l i t y as a 

g u a r a n t o r o f s o c i a l harmony. 

The second v i e w i s " p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d " i n t h e sense t h a t 

i t s a d h e r e n t s — t h e major b i o g r a p h e r s , H a r o l d N i c o l s o n and 

R o b e r t B e r n a r d M a r t i n — d i r e c t t h e i r a t t e n t i o n s t o a p r i v a t e , 

m o r b i d l y s e n s i t i v e p o e t a t odds w i t h and p r o f o u n d l y 

d e b i l i t a t e d by t h e i d e o l o g y o f p u b l i c c o n f o r m i t y i n t h e 

V i c t o r i a n a g e . 1 1 

The t h i r d v i e w , w h i l e s u b s c r i b i n g t o t h e p r i v a t e - p u b l i c 

s p l i t o f t h o s e who h o l d t h e second v i e w , n e v e r t h e l e s s p r e s e n t s 

t h e p o e t as a c c e p t i n g a n d — t o a d e g r e e — e v e n b e n e f i t t i n g from 

t h e v a l u e s o f h i s V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e r a t h e r t h a n f i g h t i n g 

them. H e l d p r i m a r i l y by V a l e r i e P i t t ( a l t h o u g h Joanna 

1 1 Of t h e two b i o g r a p h i e s , M a r t i n ' s i s t h e more 
s u b s t a n t i a l and t h e more p e r n i c i o u s f o r two r e a s o n s : 1) M a r t i n 
advances a p s u e d o - s c i e n t i f i c ( t h e r e f o r e , s e e m i n g l y v a l i d ) 
t h e o r y o f e p i l e p s y t o p r o v e t h a t Tennyson's f a m i l y and t h e 
p o e t w i t h i n i t were " d i s f u n c t i o n a l " i n t h e modern s e n s e ; and 
2) as J a c k K o l b c o n c l u d e s i n " P o r t r a i t s o f Tennyson," h i s 
r e v i e w a r t i c l e o f The U n q u i e t H e a r t , t h e b i o g r a p h y i n 1983 was 
a l r e a d y b e g i n n i n g t o be a c c e p t e d by t h e g e n e r a l a u d i e n c e as 
" t h e v e r s i o n o f t h e L a u r e a t e f o r our t i m e s " (19 0 ) . K o l b 
p o i n t s o u t t h e b i o g r a p h y ' s many f l a w s t h a t o f t e n r e s u l t from 
one o f two p e t t h e o r i e s o f M a r t i n t h a t he works i n wherever 
p o s s i b l e : T e n n y s o n i a n e p i l e p s y and t h e p o e t ' s c u p i d i t y . 
R e g r e t t a b l y , M a r t i n does n o t seem t o l i k e Tennyson v e r y much, 
as K o l b s u g g e s t s ( 1 8 1 ) , and t h i s d i s d a i n has r e s u l t e d i n a 
f r e q u e n t l y d i s t o r t e d p o r t r a i t o f t h e p o e t . 



R i c h a r d s o n s h a r e s some f e a t u r e s w i t h h e r ) , t h i s v i e w s h o u l d be 

t h o u g h t o f as " p u b l i c l y - f o c u s e d " i n i t s e s s e n t i a l o p p o s i t i o n 

t o t h e second v i e w . 

N e i t h e r t h e p r i v a t e l y n o r p u b l i c l y f o c u s s e d a p p r o a c h e s , 

a l t h o u g h o s t e n s i b l y d e s i g n e d t o c o r r e c t t h e V i c t o r i a n myopia 

p r e s e n t i n t h e Memoir, has y e t t o a n a l y z e f u l l y t h e complex 

i n t e r a c t i o n , even i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e , o f t h e p r i v a t e and t h e 

p u b l i c i n b o t h t h e man and t h e p o e t , a n e c e s s a r y c o n f l u e n c e 

t h a t d e t e r m i n e d t h e major work o f someone who c o u l d so r e a d i l y 

assume t h a t i n h i s most a g o n i z i n g l y p r i v a t e moments, t h e " ' I ' 

i s n o t a l w a y s t h e a u t h o r s p e a k i n g o f h i m s e l f , b u t t h e v o i c e o f 

t h e human r a c e s p e a k i n g t h r o u g h him" (Tennyson q t d . i n Memoir 

255). I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p u b l i c / p r i v a t e d i c h o t o m y t h a t i s 

t h o u g h t t o have i n f l u e n c e d t h e development o f Tennyson's 

p o e t i c v o i c e has y e t t o be c o n s i d e r e d w i t h i n i t s own c o n t e x t 

o f a gender and c l a s s - b a s e d V i c t o r i a n i d e o l o g y o f a c c e p t a b l e 

p u b l i c l i f e . I n s h o r t , Tennyson's e a r l y l i f e has n o t been 

r e a d i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s g r o w i n g awareness o f h i s own V i c t o r i a n 

a u d i e n c e r a t h e r t h a n i n r e a c t i o n t o p r e v i o u s " m i s r e a d i n g s . " 

Of t h e t h r e e v i e w s b r i e f l y n o t e d above, o n l y S i r C h a r l e s 

Tennyson's comes c l o s e t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g Tennyson as a young 

man and l a t e r as an i n c r e a s i n g l y r e s p e c t e d p o e t w i t h i n a 

s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l m i l i e u t h a t h e l d no r e a d y made r e g a r d f o r t h e 
12 

p r i v a t e / p u b l i c d i v i s i o n predominant i n t h i s c e n t u r y . 

1 2 C h a r l e s Tennyson's v i e w s i n t h i s r e g a r d , w h i l e e v i d e n t 
i n h i s b i o g r a p h y , a r e emphasized f u r t h e r i n h i s monograph 
Tennyson and h i s Times, i n w h i c h t h e p o e t ' s p u b l i c and p r i v a t e 



270 

However, A l f r e d T e n n y s o n — a s a supplement t o t h e M e m o i r — f a l l s 

h e i r t o a d i v i s i o n o f a r e l a t e d though somewhat d i f f e r e n t 

k i n d : t h e r i g i d b i f u r c a t i o n o f f e m a l e and male w o r l d s . 

Whereas H a l l a m was c o n t e n t m e r e l y t o image women a b s t r a c t l y 

w i t h i n a d o m e s t i c c o n t e x t s u g g e s t i v e o f p u b l i c r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , 

S i r C h a r l e s does add a f u l l e r and p r i v a t e d i m e n s i o n t o t h e s e 

women's l i v e s . Y e t because o f h i s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h what he 

s e e s as t h e " m a s c u l i n e " i n f l u e n c e o f w e a l t h and p r o p e r t y 

g o v e r n i n g t h e Tennysons' l i v e s , he f o c u s e s e x c l u s i v e l y on men 

as a g e n t s ( n e g a t i v e and p o s i t i v e ) i n Tennyson's d e v e l o p i n g 

p r o f e s s i o n as a p o e t . He does n o t s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r women's 

l i v e s w i t h i n t h i s c o n t e x t and so g i v e s s h o r t s h r i f t t o 

E l i z a b e t h R u s s e l l ' s p a t r o n a g e o f h e r nephew. As s u c h , h i s 

b i o g r a p h y s u g g e s t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s w h i c h he does n o t e x p l o r e : 

t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h two women i n p a r t i c u l a r , E l i z a b e t h R u s s e l l 

and E l i z a b e t h Tennyson, a f f e c t e d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l n o t j u s t t h e 

p e r s o n a l l i f e o f t h e young p o e t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a l t h o u g h 

A l f r e d Tennyson s h o u l d be seen as a p r i v a t e supplement t o t h e 

o s t e n s i b l y p u b l i c Memoir, i t n e v e r t h e l e s s d i s p l a y s some o f t h e 

same l i m i t a t i o n s t h e e a r l i e r work does w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s 

t r e a t m e n t o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f women i n Tennyson's l i f e . As 

s u c h , t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t c o m p l e t e a c c e p t a n c e 

o f S i r C h a r l e s ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f " t h e human sympathy" w h i c h 

V i c t o r i a n i s m i s shown c l e a r l y w i t h i n i t s s p e c i f i c s o c i o -
economic c o n t e x t . 



271 

d i d i n d e e d i n s p i r e Tennyson's work "more and more as t h e y e a r s 

went by" ( A l f r e d Tennyson 541) . 

The f i r s t c h a p t e r , "1800-1808," e x p l a i n s i n d e t a i l t h e 

e l d e r George Tennyson's d e c i s i o n t o f l y i n t h e f a c e o f 

t r a d i t i o n and a p p o i n t h i s second son, C h a r l e s , as h i s h e i r . 

As a remote d e s c e n d a n t o f Baron d ' E y n c o u r t . a n d t h e r e c e n t l y 

w e a l t h y Tennyson f a m i l y , t h e e v e r w o r l d l y George Tennyson ( t h e 

e l d e r ) seems t o have been e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e 

p r o m o t i o n o f h i s f a m i l y i n s o c i e t y : " i t became h i s c h i e f aim 

i n l i f e t o e n s u r e , so f a r as he c o u l d , t h a t t h e Tennyson name 

s h o u l d be w o r t h i l y u p h e l d by t h o s e t o whom he i n t e n d e d t o hand 

on t h e Bayons e s t a t e " and o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s (5). When t h e 

e l d e s t son George ( t h e p o e t ' s f a t h e r ) was o n l y t w e l v e , h i s 

f a t h e r d e c i d e d t h a t he s h o u l d a c c e p t t h e r o l e t r a d i t i o n a l l y 

a l l o t t e d t o t h e younger son and go i n t o t h e C h u r c h ; S i r 

C h a r l e s s u g g e s t s that h i s b e i n g " d i f f i c u l t t o d e a l w i t h " was 

t h e l i k e l y c a u s e . George Tennyson, t h e son, s u f f e r e d from "a 

h i g h l y n e r v o u s temperament" and an " e x c e s s i v e s e n s i t i v i t y and 

i n t o l e r a n c e o f d i s c i p l i n e , " w h i c h caused him t o be " f r e q u e n t l y 

i n t r o u b l e f o r i d l e n e s s and i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n " a t s c h o o l d e s p i t e 

h i s " c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e l l e c t u a l power" ( 6 ) . He was, q u i t e 

s i m p l y , i l l - s u i t e d t e m p e r a m e n t a l l y t o t h e s o c i a l l y p r o m i n e n t 

l i f e t h e e l d e r Tennyson p l a n n e d f o r h i s h e i r . 

W h i l e he n e v e r s t a t e s so e x p l i c i t l y , S i r C h a r l e s p r o v i d e s 

examples o f "model" l i v e s — p r o d u c t s o f i n d u s t r y — t o w h i c h 

George Tennyson S e n i o r c o u l d and d i d s u b s c r i b e : o f A l f r e d ' s 



f u t u r e u n c l e , M a j o r Matthew R u s s e l l ( E l i z a b e t h ' s h u s b a n d ) , and 

o f t h e younger b r o t h e r and e v e n t u a l h e i r , C h a r l e s Tennyson 

[ d ' E y n c o u r t ] . M a j o r Matthew R u s s e l l was t h e "son o f W i l l i a m 

R u s s e l l a w e a l t h y c o a l owner" who i s d e s c r i b e d as an " e a r l y 

example o f t h e s e l f - m a d e i n d u s t r i a l i s t . Though t o t h e end o f 

h i s [ W i l l i a m ' s ] l i f e he w r o t e l i k e an i l l i t e r a t e l a b o u r e r , he 

had amassed a s u f f i c i e n t f o r t u n e t o e n a b l e him t o p u r c h a s e 

B r a n c e p e t h C a s t l e , t h e a n c i e n t home o f t h e N e v i l l e s " and 

manage s e v e r a l p o c k e t boroughs i n t h e Whig i n t e r e s t ( 6 - 7 ) . 

That i n t e l l e c t u a l acumen i s no g u a r a n t o r o f w e a l t h o r 

p o l i t i c a l p r e s t i g e i s t h e u n d e r l y i n g message h e r e . Nor even 

any l o n g e r i s i n d u s t r y as S i r C h a r l e s goes on t o d e s c r i b e how 

Matthew R u s s e l l was t r a i n e d i n a m e r e l y " o r n a m e n t a l c a r e e r " i n 

t h e M i l i t i a , and t o r e v e a l how he l i v e d o u t h i s s h o r t l i f e a t 

B r a n c e p e t h as a t y p e o f j o v i a l e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s q u i r e (7 

and 19) . 1 3 

The second o f S i r C h a r l e s ' s models, George's b r o t h e r 

C h a r l e s , " e a r l y showed a marked a b i l i t y and, as he was 

i n d u s t r i o u s and a m b i t i o u s , e v e r y y e a r c o n f i r m e d h i s f a t h e r ' s 

s t r o n g p r e j u d i c e i n h i s f a v o u r " ( 7 ) . C h a r l e s Tennyson 

a p p a r e n t l y had a " b r i l l i a n t c a r e e r " : Cambridge, law, an 

1 3 R a l p h Rader s u g g e s t s t h a t Matthew R u s s e l l and 
B r a n c e p e t h C a s t l e may w e l l have s e r v e d as p a r t i a l models f o r 
t h e s p e a k e r ' s s c o r n i n Maud when he s n e e r s a t Maud's c o u r t e r : 
t h e "new-made l o r d " whose " o l d g r a n d f a t h e r has l a t e l y d i e d " 
and l e f t a f o r t u n e i n c o a l mines, a l l o w i n g him t o o b t a i n a 
"bought c o m m i s s i o n " and l i v e i n a "gew-gaw" c a s t l e , "new as 
h i s t i t l e , " " b u i l t l a s t y e a r " (Maud q t d . Rader 9 1 ) . 



e v e n t u a l l y f o r t u n a t e m a r r i a g e , and p o l i t i c a l advancement 

( a l b e i t t i n g e d w i t h a n x i e t y - p r o d u c i n g R a d i c a l i s m ) . By 

c o n t r a s t i n g George's f o r c e d e n t r y i n t o t h e s e c l u d e d , c o u n t r y 

l i f e o f a p a r i s h R e c t o r ( t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e o f t h e g e n t r y ' s 

younger son) w i t h t h e p a t e r n a l l y advanced p r e s t i g i o u s 

l i v e l i h o o d s o f George's b r o t h e r - i n - l a w and b r o t h e r , S i r 

C h a r l e s i n t i m a t e s r a t h e r t h a n e x p l o r e s a s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l 

cause and consequence o f f a m i l i a l and s o c i a l d i s u n i t y . 

D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y o f t e n e x h i b i t e d p u b l i c l y 

acknowledged i n f e r i o r i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t i e s , t h e r i s i n g 

m i d d l e c l a s s e s were a s s u m i n g — t h r o u g h s h e e r " i n d u s t r y " ( i n a l l 

s e n s e s o f t h e t e r m ) — t h e l a n d e d w e a l t h and s t a t u s p r e v i o u s l y 

h e l d by t h e a r i s t o c r a c y . I n t h e s p e c i f i c c a s e o f George 

Tennyson and h i s f a m i l y , t h e n , t h e y appear i n t h e i r s e c l u d e d 

c o u n t r y p a r i s h as i f r e l e g a t e d t o an outmoded way o f l i f e 

w h i l e t h e busy w o r l d o f commerce and p o l i t i c s p a s s e s them by. 

As S i r C h a r l e s p u t s i t " t h e r e was no s h o p p i n g c e n t r e n e a r e r 

t h a n S p i l s b y , seven m i l e s t o t h e s o u t h e a s t " ( 1 0 ) , h i s 

somewhat p r o l e p t i c use o f " s h o p p i n g c e n t r e " u n d e r s c o r i n g t h e 

i n c r e a s i n g l y modern s o c i e t y t h a t t h e Somersby Tennysons were 

c u t o f f ^ f r o m t h r o u g h George Tennyson's d i s i n h e r i t a n c e . 

Through a g a r i s h d e c k i n g out o f home and f a m i l y , each o f 

t h e s e p r o d u c t s o f i n d u s t r y — M a t t h e w R u s s e l l and C h a r l e s 

Tennyson [ d ' E y n c o u r t ] ( t o whom t h e Somersby Tennysons would 

n e c e s s a r i l y compare t h e m s e l v e s ) — e v e n t u a l l y became r i d i c u l o u s 

emblems o f m i d d l e - c l a s s , a r i s t o c r a t i c m i m i c r y f r e q u e n t l y 



274 

r a i l e d a t by c r i t i c s o f V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y , n o t t h e l e a s t o f 

whom was A l f r e d T e n n y s o n . 1 4 The s o c i a l consequences o f h i s 

g r a n d f a t h e r ' s a c t i o n s s u r e l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o Tennyson's own 

f r e q u e n t c a s t i g a t i o n o f t h e c a s h nexus and p s e u d o - a r i s t o c r a t i c 

o s t e n t a t i o n o f t h e m i d d l e c l a s s e s i n h i s p o e t r y , a p o i n t w h i c h 

S i r C h a r l e s a g a i n i n t i m a t e s b u t n e v e r r e a l l y e x p l o r e s . 

To h i s c r e d i t , S i r C h a r l e s does n o t d w e l l on t h e s p e c i f i c 

a n i m o s i t i e s among t h e Tennyson f a m i l y members t h a t were 

g e n e r a t e d by t h e r e s u l t i n g i m b a l a n c e i n d e s e r v e d f o r t u n e s and 

p r o s p e c t s . 1 5 Y e t i n d o w n p l a y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s among t h e e l d e r 

Tennysons, he a l s o under v a l u e s t h e p o s i t i v e f i n a n c i a l and 

p r o f e s s i o n a l encouragement E l i z a b e t h Tennyson R u s s e l l gave t o 

h e r nephew. S i r C h a r l e s mentions m e r e l y t h a t " [ p ] o o r Mrs 

R u s s e l l , " t h e u n j u s t l y c r i t i c i z e d s i s t e r and r e c e n t widow o f 

M a j o r R u s s e l l , was "always r e a d y t o h e l p w i t h money" when t h e 

Tennyson's r e l a t i v e s a r e m e r e l y two e g r e g i o u s examples 
o f f a m i l i e s t h a t succumbed t o v a r i o u s mechanisms o f s o c i a l 
a b s o r p t i o n : " t h e z e a l f o r work, i n v e n t i v e n e s s , m a t e r i a l 
p r o d u c t i o n , and money making gave way w i t h i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t 
c l a s s t o t h e more a r i s t o c r a t i c i n t e r e s t s o f c u l t i v a t e d s t y l e , 
t h e p u r s u i t s o f l e i s u r e , and p o l i t i c a l s e r v i c e " (Weiner 1 3 ) . 
I t became a s o u r c e o f comedy and c o n s t e r n a t i o n how w e l l t h e s e 
new a r i s t o c r a t s c o u l d outdo t h e o l d i n terms o f a r i s t o c r a t i c 
p r e t e n s i o n s . 

1 5 M a r t i n ' s b i o g r a p h y , however, t a k e s t h e e x p o s u r e o f t h e 
Tennysons' f a m i l i a l s t r i f e a l m o s t as i t s mandate; he uses 
dozens o f l e t t e r s among f a m i l y members t o expose A l f r e d 
Tennyson as h a r b o u r i n g a . l i f e - l o n g r e s e n t m e n t t o w a r d t h e 
Tennyson [ d ' E y n c o u r t ] f a m i l y made m a n i f e s t i n 1883 when t h e 
L a u r e a t e f i n a l l y a c c e p t e d a peerage. A c c o r d i n g t o M a r t i n , 
Tennyson i n h i s f i r s t c h o i c e o f " L o r d d ' E y n c o u r t " showed "how 
l i t t l e he had f o r g o t t e n a l l t h e i n j u r i e s o f h i s y o u t h , f o r he 
wanted t o t a k e t h e t i t l e t h a t had e l u d e d h i s u n c l e " ( 5 4 3 ) . 



275 

Somersby Tennysons needed i t ( 3 0 ) . What he n e g l e c t s t o add i s 

t h a t i n t h e c a s e o f A l f r e d , h i s Aunt R u s s e l l g r a n t e d him an 

a n n u i t y o f £100 i n 1827, making p o s s i b l e h i s e d u c a t i o n a t 

Cambridge and c o n t i n u i n g w e l l i n t o h i s m a r r i e d l i f e ( M a r t i n 4, 

48, 6 0 ) . As M a r t i n would have i t , Mrs R u s s e l l ' s s p o n s o r s h i p 

o f h e r nephew was prompted by h e r r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t A l f r e d 

" c o u l d n o t go on f o r l o n g i n t h e R e c t o r y w i t h h i s f a t h e r " 

( 4 8 ) , a r e s p o n s e s o l e l y t o t h e n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n a l atmosphere 

o f Somersby, w h i c h d i s r e g a r d s t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l r e s p e c t t h a t 

she had f o r A l f r e d . 

N e i t h e r o f t h e above b i o g r a p h e r s c o n s i d e r s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f 

" f a c t s " such as t h e f o l l o w i n g . E l i z a b e t h R u s s e l l had a 

documented t a l e n t f o r p o e t r y h e r s e l f ; i n 1823 she had become 

widow t o a l a r g e f o r t u n e and was now i n a p o s i t i o n t o use h e r 

w e a l t h as she saw f i t ; and i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1827 Poems by Two  

B r o t h e r s had been p r i v a t e l y r e l e a s e d , d e m o n s t r a t i n g an o b v i o u s 

p o e t i c t a l e n t i n A l f r e d and C h a r l e s t h a t would need t o be 

f u r t h e r e d o u t s i d e t h e Somersby R e c t o r y l i b r a r y i f i t were t o 

mature beyond s k i l f u l i m i t a t i o n . I n s h o r t , beyond h e r p r i v a t e 

r e a s o n s f o r s u p p o r t i n g A l f r e d ' s e d u c a t i o n , E l i z a b e t h R u s s e l l 

c o u l d r e a d i l y have f e l t t h a t i n o r d e r t o promote h e r nephew's 

a b i l i t i e s he would have t o e n t e r p u b l i c l i f e . 1 6 The f i n a n c i a l 

1 6 R i c k s q u o t e s an exchange o f l e t t e r s between E l i z a b e t h 
R u s s e l l and h e r f a t h e r (Tennyson's g r a n d f a t h e r ) t h a t 
d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t she was w i l l i n g t o pay a d d i t i o n a l sums f o r a 
m a t h e m a t i c s t u t o r f o r h e r nephew so t h a t he m i g h t e n t e r 
c o l l e g e ( 9 ) . 



b a r t h a t had c o n f i n e d A l f r e d ' s e d u c a t i o n t o Somersby would 

have t o be removed i f h e r nephew and h i s p o e t r y were t o mix 

w i t h i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l e l i t e o f O x b r i d g e t h a t 

d i c t a t e d t h e h i g h c u l t u r e o f p o e t r y a t t h a t t i m e . T h i s i s 

n o t , o f c o u r s e , t o deny t h a t A l f r e d h i m s e l f would n o t have 

wanted p r i v a t e l y t o f l e e an u n b e a r a b l e s i t u a t i o n a t home, but 

r a t h e r t h a t t h e r e a s o n s f o r h i s r e m o v a l t o Cambridge a r e more 

complex t h a n , as M a r t i n would have i t , t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f e a r 

and a n x i e t y t h a t t h e R e c t o r ' s " i l l n e s s " caused i n h i s son. 

I n s p i t e o f M a r t i n ' s a t t e m p t s t o p r o v e e p i l e p s y as t h e 

s o u r c e o f t h e R e c t o r ' s f i t s , h i s i l l n e s s has n e v e r been 

c o n c l u s i v e l y d e t e r m i n e d . S i r C h a r l e s u s e s v a r i o u s terms 

t h r o u g h o u t h i s b i o g r a p h y r a n g i n g from s i m p l e " i l l h e a l t h " t o 

"moods o f m o r b i d i n t r o s p e c t i o n and i r r i t a b i l i t y , dangerous t o 

h i m s e l f and v e r y d i s t r e s s i n g t o o t h e r s " ( 1 4 ) , moods w h i c h S i r 

C h a r l e s l a t e r a d m i t s were g r e a t l y e x a c e r b a t e d by a l c o h o l ( 4 6 ) . 

O n l y once does he m e n t i o n t h a t t h e R e c t o r i n 18 2 4 began t o 

e x p e r i e n c e s e i z u r e s t h a t " h i s f r i e n d s f e a r e d m i g h t be 

e p i l e p t i c " ( 4 6 ) ; and e p i l e p s y as a p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f t h e 

T e n n y s o n i a n " b l a c k b l o o d " t h a t p l a g u e d t h e e n t i r e f a m i l y i s 

n e v e r c o n s i d e r e d . More t o t h e p o i n t , S i r C h a r l e s a r g u e s t h a t 

t h e outward e f f e c t o f Tennyson's f a t h e r ' s i l l n e s s was t o p u t 

t h e young p o e t i n a " p o s i t i o n o f d i v i d e d l o y a l t y " w i t h r e s p e c t 

t o h i s f a t h e r and h i s mother ( 4 8 ) . 

E l i z a b e t h Tennyson i s d e s c r i b e d by S i r C h a r l e s , i n terms 

v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e used o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s mother, as "a woman 



o f e x c e p t i o n a l s i m p l i c i t y and charm and o f a p r o f o u n d , 

i n s t i n c t i v e , and u n q u e s t i o n i n g E v a n g e l i c a l p o s i t i o n , w h i c h 

c o n t r a s t e d s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e more m a t t e r - o f - f a c t a t t i t u d e o f 

h e r husband . . .1 1 ( 1 4 ) . S i m i l a r t o Z i l p a h L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p r o m o t i o n o f p o e t r y w i t h i n h e r f a m i l y , Mrs Tennyson would r e a d 

a l o u d t o h e r c h i l d r e n from t h e e v e r p o p u l a r Mrs Hemans and 

B e a t t i e ' s C a l e n d a r ( 1 4 - 1 5 ) . S i r C h a r l e s i m p l i e s t h a t 

E l i z a b e t h Tennyson's p i e t y (and no doubt h e r c h o i c e o f r e a d i n g 

m a t e r i a l ) had a p e r n i c i o u s i n f l u e n c e on t h e young p o e t t h a t 

added t o t h e p r i v a t e s u f f e r i n g Tennyson f e l t a t t h e hands o f 

h i s f a t h e r (48) . L i k e Mrs R u s s e l l , she t o o i s d e s c r i b e d as 

" [ p ] o o r E l i z a b e t h " o n l y i n t h i s c a s e t h e e p i t h e t s e r v e s as 

much a g a i n s t h e r as i t does i n sympathy f o r h e r . S i r C h a r l e s 

s u g g e s t s t h a t E l i z a b e t h l a c k e d t h e shrewdness t o r e a l i z e t h a t 

i n e n c o u r a g i n g h e r s o n s ' p o e t i c t a l e n t s , "no doubt she s p o i l e d 

them as w e l l . . . and t h i s , as t h e y grew up, became a s o u r c e 

o f s e r i o u s t r o u b l e w i t h h e r moody and e r r a t i c husband . . . " 

( 1 4 - 1 5 ) . 

L i k e H a l l a m Tennyson b e f o r e him, S i r C h a r l e s a l s o c o n f i n e s 

Tennyson's mother t o l i n e s a p p a r e n t l y d e s i g n e d t o c o n s e c r a t e 

h e r ( 2 2 2 ) , i n t h i s c a s e t h o s e i n The P r i n c e s s t h a t t h e P r i n c e 

u s e s t o d e s c r i b e h i s mother t o P r i n c e s s I d a as p a r t o f h i s 

p e r s u a s i o n t o have h e r marry him: 

Not l e a r n e d , save i n g r a c i o u s h o u s e h o l d ways, 
Not p e r f e c t , nay, b u t f u l l o f t e n d e r wants, 
No a n g e l , b u t a d e a r e r b e i n g , a l l d i p t 
I n a n g e l i n s t i n c t s , b r e a t h i n g P a r a d i s e , 
I n t e r p r e t e r between t h e Gods and men, . . . 

Happy he 



278 

W i t h s u c h a mother! F a i t h i n womankind 
B e a t s w i t h h i s b l o o d , and t r u s t i n a l l t h i n g s h i g h 
Comes easy t o him. ( V I I 299-303, 308-11) 

A g a i n l i k e H a l l a m , S i r C h a r l e s e l i d e s e x a c t l y t h o s e l i n e s i n 

t h e poem t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e h e r a u t h o r i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o men: 

t h e mother i n The P r i n c e s s i s n o t s i m p l y p u r e i n and o f 

h e r s e l f ; r a t h e r , she i s so i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e men who 

" p e r f o r c e / Swayed t o h e r from t h e i r o r b i t s as t h e y moved" 

( V I I 3 0 6 - 7 ) , a r e l a t i o n t h a t S i r C h a r l e s chooses n o t t o 

i n c l u d e . 

More s e r i o u s l y , S i r C h a r l e s does n o t d i r e c t l y quote 

Tennyson's mother's l e t t e r s t o t h e e l d e r George Tennyson w h i c h 

d e m o n s t r a t e h e r s t r e n g t h o f c h a r a c t e r . I n one s u c h l e t t e r , 

she a s k s t o have r e t u r n e d t o h e r h e r own p o n i e s and c h a i s e f o r 

h e r s e l f and h e r d a u g h t e r s t h a t , i n a f i t , h e r husband had 

s e q u e s t e r e d a t h i s f a t h e r ' s . T h e r e i n , she d e s c r i b e s i n no 

u n c e r t a i n terms t h e h e l l t h a t she had endured w h i l e m a r r i e d t o 

h i s son so as t o i n f o r m him o f h e r i n t e n t i o n t o l e a v e t h e 

R e c t o r . 1 7 S i r C h a r l e s o n l y m e n t i o n s t h e s e i n c i d e n t s , and t h e n 

somewhat i n a c c u r a t e l y s i n c e E l i z a b e t h was p r e p a r e d t o , and 

d i d , d i s c u s s h e r s e p a r a t i o n w i t h h e r f a t h e r - i n - l a w h e r s e l f 

r a t h e r t h a n , as S i r C h a r l e s c l a i m s , t h r o u g h h e r b r o t h e r , John 

F y t c h e . H i s f a i l u r e t o quote E l i z a b e t h Tennyson d i r e c t l y 

1 7 These l e t t e r s a r e d a t e d 30 Oct, 1827, 23 Feb, 1829, 27 
Feb, 1829, and ? c. 9 March, 1829 ( L e t t e r s I 14, 26-27, 29-30 
and 3 1 ) . 



279 

a p p e a r s most c u r i o u s i n a b i o g r a p h y t h a t p u r p o r t s t o be based 

on s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e v i d e n c e . 

E l i z a b e t h Tennyson's l e t t e r s t h e m s e l v e s s u g g e s t t h a t she 

d i d n o t a c q u i e s c e n t l y s u b m i t e i t h e r p r i v a t e l y t o an 

u n q u e s t i o n i n g , s i m p l i s t i c E v a n g e l i c a l i s m o r p u b l i c l y t o h e r 

i r r a t i o n a l husband o r h e r d e l i b e r a t e l y b l i n d and o b d u r a t e 

f a t h e r - i n - l a w . R a t h e r , she a c t i v e l y embraced E v a n g e l i c a l i s m 

as a p e r s o n a l l y empowering s p i r i t u a l f o r c e , and r a t i o n a l l y 

c o n s i d e r e d t h e meagre economic and d o m e s t i c o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e 

t o h e r s h o u l d she choose t o l e a v e h e r h u s b a n d . 1 9 F o r example, 

S i r C h a r l e s does i n d e e d sum up t h e c o n t e n t s o f 
E l i z a b e t h Tennyson's l e t t e r s ; y e t , by n o t a l l o w i n g h e r t o 
speak f o r h e r s e l f he d e n i e s h e r a s e l f - a u t h o r i t y t h a t he i s 
more t h a n w i l l i n g t o g r a n t t o h e r husband. I n a d d i t i o n , she 
i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e a g a i n as " [ p ] o o r E l i z a b e t h 
Tennyson," s p e a k i n g i n "moving t e r m s " r a t h e r t h a n as h e r 
l e t t e r i t s e l f d e m o n s t r a t e s , p r o v i d i n g a r a t i o n a l argument f o r 
h e r c h o i c e t o s e p a r a t e ( 6 1 ) . L a t e r , he d e s c r i b e s E l i z a b e t h 
Tennyson's e a r l i e r r e q u e s t f o r t h e r e t u r n o f p o n i e s and c h a i s e 
w h i c h r i g h t f u l l y b e l o n g e d t o h e r as h a v i n g been s p a r k e d o n l y 
by h e r r e s e n t m e n t t o w a r d " t h e measures o f economy" f o r c e d upon 
h e r r a t h e r t h a n , as she h e r s e l f d i s p l a y s , anger a t h a v i n g been 
t r e a t e d w i t h such w i l l f u l l d i s r e s p e c t ( 8 1 ) . 

1 9 As p r o o f o f E l i z a b e t h Tennyson's " s i m p l e p i e t y , " 
b i o g r a p h e r s and c r i t i c s u s u a l l y quote from h e r l e t t e r t o 
Tennyson c o n c e r n i n g t h e 1859 I d y l l s . Here, she l a u d s h e r 
son's s p i r i t o f C h r i s t i a n i t y and, t o h e r , new found use o f 
" t a l e n t s He has g i v e n t h e e , by t a k i n g e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y o f 
e n d e a v o u r i n g t o i m p r e s s t h e p r e c e p t s o f H i s H o l y Word on t h e 
minds o f o t h e r s " (Memoir 380). What s h o u l d be emphasized, 
however, i s t h a t a t age 80, E l i z a b e t h Tennyson had h e r s i g h t s 
s e t a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y i n t h e w o r l d beyond, even as Tennyson's 
own d e c l a r e d f a i t h i n t h e i m m o r t a l i t y o f t h e s o u l i n c r e a s e d i n 
b o t h f r e q u e n c y and v o c i f e r o u s n e s s as he aged. As Tennyson 
h i m s e l f had d e s c r i b e d h i s mother f o u r y e a r s e a r l i e r t o G e r a l d 
Massey: "My mother [ i s ] now between 70 and 80, one who t a k e s 
f a r more i n t e r e s t i n t h e n e x t w o r l d t h a n i n t h i s , and n o t 
g e n e r a l l y g i v e n t o t h e r e a d i n g o f l i t e r a t u r e . . . " ( L e t t e r s 
I I 114). That she was e x c l u s i v e l y s p i r i t u a l r a t h e r t h a n 
p r a c t i c a l i n h e r e a r l i e r y e a r s , however, i s n o t borne o u t i n 



280 

i n h e r l o n g e s t l e t t e r t o George Tennyson, i n w h i c h she 

e x p l a i n s t h e r e a s o n s f o r h e r d e s i r e t o s e p a r a t e from h e r 

husband, she does n o t h e s i t a t e t o p o i n t o u t — a n d p r o v i d e 

e v i d e n c e f o r — t h e s e v e r i t y o f h e r husband's m e n t a l s t a t e . She 

adds, p o s s i b l y w i t h an u n d e r l y i n g a c c u s a t o r y i n t e n t , t h a t h e r 

f a t h e r - i n - l a w has been c o n s i s t e n t l y m i s i n f o r m e d as t o t h e t r u e 

c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e Somersby Tennysons: "Indeed S i r i f t h e 

w e l f a r e o f so many human b e i n g s i s a m a t t e r o f t h e s m a l l e s t 

c o n s i d e r a t i o n , I am s u r e i t can be o n l y want o f i n f o r m a t i o n a t 

many p o i n t s , and m i s - i n f o r m a t i o n on o t h e r s t h a t c o u l d i n d u c e 

you n o t t o c o n c u r most f u l l y i n what I am a t l a s t d e t e r m i n e d 

t o c a r r y i n t o e f f e c t " ( L e t t e r s 29-30). She m a i n t a i n s t h a t i n 

h e r more t h a n t w e n t y y e a r s as t h e v i c t i m o f v i o l e n t 

i n t i m i d a t i o n and d e g r a d i n g e p i t h e t s she has p r o v i d e d ample 

p r o o f t h a t " m a t r i m o n i a l o b l i g a t i o n s were i n [ h e r ] eyes o f f a r 

g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e t h a n mere p e r s o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . " The 

i n c r e a s e d s e v e r i t y o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h o w e v e r — n o w t h a t t h e 

R e c t o r had t a k e n t o k e e p i n g a k n i f e and l o a d e d gun i n h i s 

room, and had t h r e a t e n e d t o use t h e f o r m e r upon h i s e l d e s t 

s o n — h a v e l e f t h e r no c h o i c e b u t t o f l e e . Whatever p u r p o s e 

S i r C h a r l e s may have had f o r n o t q u o t i n g d i r e c t l y Mrs 

Tennyson's r e a s o n s f o r l e a v i n g h e r husband, h i s o m i s s i o n seems 

t o be l i n k e d t o h i s o v e r a l l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f women as p r o v i d e r s 

h e r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h h e r f a t h e r - i n - l a w c o n c e r n i n g h e r 
husband, n o r i n t h a t w i t h h e r b r o t h e r - i n - l a w c o n c e r n i n g h e r 
and h e r c h i l d r e n ' s i n v e s t m e n t i n Dr. Matthew A l l e n ' s wood-
c a r v i n g scheme. 



281 

o f d o m e s t i c peace and s a n c t u a r y f o r t h e i r men. He does n o t 

c o n s i d e r women as e q u a l p a r t n e r s ( E l i z a b e t h R u s s e l l ) w i t h men 

i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l p r o m o t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e L a u r e a t e , o r as 

d e f i a n t d i s s e n t e r s ( E l i z a b e t h Tennyson) t o t h o s e same men when 

t h e p u b l i c l y - s a n c t i o n e d p r i v a t e w o r l d o f d o m e s t i c b l i s s became 

a f r i g h t e n i n g l i e . S i r C h a r l e s ' s l a t e r a l l u s i o n t o Tennyson's 

l i f e a t Cambridge as a r e l i e f from " d o m e s t i c b i c k e r i n g s " (82) 

i m p l i c i t l y c r i t i c i z e s t h e f a c t t h a t , i n h e r l o n g overdue 

d e f i a n c e o f h e r husband, E l i z a b e t h Tennyson was no l o n g e r 

p r e p a r e d t o p r o t e c t h e r c h i l d r e n from t h e i r f a t h e r i n a 

d o m e s t i c s a n c t u a r y o f h e r own making. 

A d m i t t e d l y , S i r C h a r l e s c a n n o t be f a u l t e d f o r t h e narrow 

r o l e he a s s i g n s t h e women i n Tennyson's e a r l y l i f e . Indeed, 

he a l o n e among Tennyson's b i o g r a p h e r s seems t o a c c e p t w i t h o u t 

r e s e r v a t i o n s t h e l a t e r p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e t h a t Tennyson's 

w i f e , E m i l y , had upon h e r husband as a man and as a p o e t . 

R a t h e r , S i r C h a r l e s ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f women i n A l f r e d Tennyson 

i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r o m o t i o n i n t h i s c e n t u r y o f a 

V i c t o r i a n s e p a r a t e s p h e r e i d e o l o g y t h a t has o n l y r e c e n t l y been 

c h a l l e n g e d . That S i r C h a r l e s t h u s f a i l s t o acknowledge 

V i c t o r i a n women as h a v i n g had an i n f l u e n c e beyond t h e a c c e p t e d 

c o n f i n e s o f t h e home i s t h e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g . To h i s 

c r e d i t , he i s o n l y i m p l i c i t l y c r i t i c a l o f f e m a l e i n f l u e n c e i n 

Tennyson's l i f e r a t h e r t h a n , as t h e male b i o g r a p h e r s o f t h e 

" p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d " View, e x p l i c i t l y condemnatory. 



282 

The d i v i s i o n o f male and f e m a l e w o r l d s i n t h e Tennysons' 

l i v e s by t h o s e s c h o l a r s who endorse a p r i v a t e / p u b l i c s p l i t i n 

t h e p o e t becomes p a r a d o x i c a l when r e l a t e d t o b o t h George 

Tennyson's and A l f r e d Tennyson's v o c a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h i n 

g e n e r a l V i c t o r i a n women's a u t h o r i t y m i g h t be c o n f i n e d t o t h e 

s t r i c t l y p r i v a t e d o m e s t i c s p h e r e o f t h e home, i n t h e s p e c i f i c 

c a s e o f t h e Tennysons, s i n c e e v e r y o n e — f e m a l e and male a l i k e 

and sometimes as many as t w e n t y - t h r e e p e o p l e — l i v e d and worked 

w i t h i n t h e home, such a s i m p l i s t i c d i v i s i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e . 

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e p r i v a t e f e m a l e w o r l d i n N i c o l s o n ' s 

" p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d " Tennyson seems t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h 

p u b l i c r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , a r e s p e c t a b i l i t y s u p p o s e d l y a t odds 

w i t h Tennyson's own, t r u l y p r i v a t e , p o e t i c s p i r i t . I n 

N i c o l s o n ' s v i e w , t h e s e c r e t , p r i v a t e w o r l d o f a n c e s t r a l f e u d s 

among men, l e a d i n g t o d i s s i p a t i o n and madness, i s t h e more 

l i k e l y s e a t o f p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n t h a n home and h e a r t h . T h i s 

" r o m a n t i c " v i e w o f p o e t r y has p r e d o m i n a t e d i n Tennyson 

b i o g r a p h y and c r i t i c i s m t h r o u g h o u t t h i s c e n t u r y . 

The b i f u r c a t i o n o f Tennyson's l i f e and p o e t r y i r o n i c a l l y 

began w i t h a b i d n o t t o d i s c r e d i t t h e p o e t ' s a b i l i t i e s b u t 

r a t h e r t o r e s t o r e h i s t a r n i s h e d r e p u t a t i o n i n t h e 192 0s. 

H a r o l d N i c o l s o n ' s s e l f - a c k n o w l e d g e d i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c a c c o u n t o f 

Tennyson: A s p e c t s o f h i s L i f e , C h a r a c t e r , and P o e t r y i n t e n d s 

t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between "Tennyson t h e p o e t " and "Tennyson t h e 

b a r d " so as t o have him mean s o m e t h i n g t o t h e " p r e s e n t 

g e n e r a t i o n " ( 6 ) . F o r c e d i n t o t h i s t y p e o f s u b j e c t i v e -



283 

o b j e c t i v e s p l i t , a c c o r d i n g t o N i c o l s o n , Tennyson chose t h e 

l a t t e r , " t h e e a s i e r and more p r o s p e r o u s c o u r s e : he became t h e 

L a u r e a t e o f h i s age; he s u b o r d i n a t e d t h e [ s u b j e c t i v e ] l y r i c t o 

t h e [ o b j e c t i v e ] i n s t r u c t i o n a l . And h i s p o e t r y t h e r e b y l o s t 

one h a l f o f i t s p o t e n t i a l v a l u e " ( 1 0 ) . N i c o l s o n u n a b a s h e d l y 

c o n t e n d s t h a t i f Tennyson's r e a d e r s were t o be exposed t o " t h e 

b l a c k unhappy m y s t i c o f t h e L i n c o l n s h i r e w o l d s " t h e y would 

t h e r e b y l e a r n anew " t h e s e c r e t o f h i s p r e p o n d e r a t i n g and 

t r i u m p h a n t s t r e n g t h " ( 1 5 ) . Charged w i t h a modern a p p r e c i a t i o n 

f o r a n e g a t i v e a e s t h e t i c — f o r t h e Romantic, B y r o n i c a l i e n as 

p o e t — N i c o l s o n t r i e s t o t o p p l e t h e Tennyson myth o f t h e p u b l i c 

b a r d bequeathed t o him and t o o t h e r modern s c h o l a r s as a t y p e 

o f V i c t o r i a n i n h e r i t a n c e . Modern w r i t e r s must, o f n e c e s s i t y , 

d i s c r e d i t t h e r o l e o f t h e p o e t as p u b l i c v a t e s i f f o r no o t h e r 

r e a s o n t h a n t o make a p l a c e f o r t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r p o e t r y 

w i t h i n t h e i r own s u b j e c t i v i s t v i s i o n s o f t h e w o r l d . Y e t i n 

t h e end, what N i c o l s o n managed t o do was n o t t o d e t h r o n e t h e 

k i n g , b u t t o c r e a t e an a l t e r n a t e kingdom w i t h a p r i v a t e 

Tennyson as monarch so t h a t t h e Tennyson myth now l e g e n d i z e d 

two p o e t s , t h e p u b l i c and t h e p r i v a t e . S u b s e q u e n t l y , and i n 

p a r t i c u l a r w i t h t h e r i s e o f d e c o n s t r u c t i v i s m , t h e most 



284 

e x c i t i n g c r i t i c a l t e r r i t o r y t o s t a k e a c l a i m would be i n t h e 
• 20 

f i s s u r e s between t h e s e two. 
W h i l e N i c o l s o n ' s i n t e n t i o n t o r e s t o r e Tennyson as a 

r e s p e c t e d p o e t was i n d e e d a d m i r a b l e i n 1923, c o n s i d e r i n g t h e 

v e r y low p o i n t t o w h i c h Tennyson had f a l l e n , u l t i m a t e l y he 

damaged Tennyson's o v e r a l l r e p u t a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y by 

i m p l i c i t l y and e x p l i c i t l y condemning t h e d o m e s t i c w o r l d o f 

women and i t s a l l e g e d l y p e r n i c i o u s i n f l u e n c e upon t h e p o e t . 

S u p p o s e d l y , Tennyson t h e p o e t s u f f e r e d e q u a l l y a t t h e hands o f 

" t h e t e n d e r d o m e s t i c atmosphere o f h i s mother's p a r l o r " and 

t h e "moral e a r n e s t n e s s " and " e t h i c a l p u r p o s e " o f t h e A p o s t l e s 

( 1 6 ) . W h i l e N i c o l s o n n e v e r d i r e c t l y c o n f l a t e s t h e s o - c a l l e d 

p r i v a t e f e m a l e s p h e r e w i t h t h e A p o s t l e s ' p u b l i c 

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h e u n d e r l y i n g c o r r e l a t i o n r e m a i n s . 

I n e f f e c t , N i c o l s o n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s o f t e n i n g i n f l u e n c e 

and r e l i g i o u s m o r a l i s m t h a t women emanated o u t w a r d l y from t h e 

home e v e n t u a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d what might have been a v i g o r o u s 

p o e t i n t o a s e n t i m e n t a l b a r d : 

from h i s v e r y e a r l y days Tennyson was i n f l u e n c e d by 
t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y demand f o r c a l m e l e v a t i o n and f o r 
human s e n t i m e n t . H i s mother's f o n d n e s s f o r F e l i c i a 
Hemans c o u l d n o t f a i l t o l e a v e a t r e m u l o u s 
i m p r e s s i o n ; t h e s o c i e t y o f t h e young l a d i e s a t 
H o r n c a s t l e , t h e t y p e o f v e r s e s w h i c h t h e s e young 
l a d i e s e x p e c t e d and r e c e i v e d , i n c r e a s e d , and f o r t h e 
moment j u s t i f i e d , what was, we must a d m i t , an 

E.D.H. Johnson's c h a p t e r on Tennyson i n The A l i e n  
V i s i o n o f V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y (1952) marks a b e g i n n i n g i n 
c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o t h e " t e n s i o n " i n Tennyson's v e r s e 
c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l predominance o f New 
C r i t i c i s m i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . 



285 

i n h e r e n t p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r t h e d a i n t y and t h e 
e l e g a n t . (25) 

E l i z a b e t h Tennyson's r e a d i n g Mrs Hemans and B e a t t i e ' s C a l e n d a r 

t o h e r c h i l d r e n i s d e s c r i b e d by N i c o l s o n as h a v i n g been spoken 

" i n h e r g e n t l e , e x h a u s t e d v o i c e , " c o n s p i r i n g t o p r o d u c e "a 

p l e a s a n t element o f c o n f e d e r a c y " a g a i n s t t h e R e c t o r ( 4 1 ) . 

Young A l f r e d r e t u r n s from L o u t h s c h o o l t o t h e " s o f t p r e s e n c e 

o f h i s mothers and s i s t e r s " because "he was n o t , e x c e p t i n 

p h y s i q u e , a v e r y manly boy," and was u n a b l e t o w i t h s t a n d b e i n g 

b u l l i e d ( 4 4 ) . The e m a s c u l a t i n g atmosphere o f Somersby c o u l d 

n o t be made more e x p l i c i t . 

Once Tennyson e n t e r s t h e a l l male w o r l d o f Cambridge, 

however, N i c o l s o n ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r i v a t e / p u b l i c d i v i s i o n i n 

t h e p o e t o f c o u r s e no l o n g e r c o n c e r n s i t s e l f o v e r t l y w i t h 

women. F o r N i c o l s o n , A r t h u r Henry H a l l a m becomes t h e p i n n a c l e 

o f Tennyson's p r i v a t e w o r l d opposed t o t h e p u b l i c 

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t h e o t h e r A p o s t l e s imposed upon t h e m s e l v e s 

and Tennyson. Love and e m o t i o n a r e now n o t o f a c r a v e n , 

s e n t i m e n t a l k i n d , as above, b u t r a t h e r "no e n e r v a t i n g 

i n f l u e n c e . . . [an] a l l - a b s o r b i n g , p e r s i s t e n t and i n t e n s e l y 

e m o t i o n a l s t i m u l u s " p r o d u c i n g t r u e p o e t r y i n " H a l l a m - i n s p i r e d 

o c c a s i o n s " ( 8 2 - 3 ) . Presumably, m a l e - c e n t r e d p a s s i o n empowers 

" p o e t r y " w h i l e f e m a l e - c e n t r e d emotion e n f e e b l e s " v e r s e . " The 

d o m e s t i c s e n t i m e n t s o f women i n Tennyson's e a r l y l i f e a r e now 

a l l u s i v e l y r e p l a c e d by t h e A p o s t l e s ' " r e l i g i o u s " and 

p o e t i c a l l y e n e r v a t i n g " ' m i s s i o n t o e n l i g h t e n t h e w o r l d upon 



286 

t h i n g s i n t e l l e c t u a l and s p i r i t u a l " 1 ( M e r i v a l e q t d . 7 3 ) . T h i s 

" m i s s i o n " p r o d u c e d i n Tennyson an i n s t r u c t i o n a l m o t i v e t h a t , 

i n N i c o l s o n ' s o p i n i o n , s h a c k l e d t h e p o e t ' s n a t u r a l l y w i l d 

t e n d e n c i e s . 

I n t h e end, N i c o l s o n a s k s t h a t h i s r e a d e r s " f o r g e t t h e 

d e l i c a t e L a u r e a t e o f a c a u t i o u s age; t h e s h a l l o w t h o u g h t , t h e 

v a c a n t compromise; t h e honeyed i d y l l ; t h e c o m p l a c e n t ode" and 

remember o n l y t h e m y s t e r i o u s , h a u n t i n g cadences o f Tennyson's 

i s o l a t e d l y r i c v o i c e (3 03-4). The i m p l i c i t p a i r i n g o f 

d e l i c a t e f e m i n i n i t y and p u b l i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s e v i d e n t i n 

N i c o l s o n ' s c h o i c e o f a d j e c t i v e s . Indeed, many t w e n t i e t h -
21 

c e n t u r y c r i t i c s t o o k N i c o l s o n ' s s u g g e s t i o n t o h e a r t . 

N i c o l s o n i n a u g u r a t e d an i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h Tennyson as an 

e s s e n t i a l l y p r i v a t e p o e t t h a t , i n b i o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s , c o u l d 

o n l y be e x p e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e once S i r C h a r l e s ' s A l f r e d  

Tennyson i n 1949 r e v e a l e d h i t h e r t o unknown, p o t e n t i a l l y 

p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a u s e s f o r t h e w i l d d e s p a i r o f Tennyson's most 

i m p a s s i o n e d l y r i c s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y s c i e n t i f i c 

s p i r i t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y s e r v e d t o h e i g h t e n p u b l i c 

i n t e r e s t i n e m p i r i c a l l y m e a s u r i n g t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l and 

p h y s i o l o g i c a l w o r k i n g s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l human c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 
2 1 Those c r i t i c s who a s c r i b e t o N i c h o l s o n ' s d i c t u m o f 

Tennyson as a g r e a t l y r i c p o e t , w h i l e d e v a l u i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e 
o f t h e p o e t ' s sense o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o h i s age, e s s e n t i a l l y 
f o l l o w e d Baum's d i s p a r a g i n g o f Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n i s m i n 
Tennyson S i x t y Y e a r s A f t e r (1948); t h e y i n c l u d e Jerome H. 
B u c k l e y (1951), A. Dwight C u l l e r (1973), F.E.L.. P r i e s t l e y 
(1973), W. D a v i d Shaw (1976), and H e r b e r t T u c k e r J r . (1988). 



287 

The c o i n c i d e n c e o f t h e s e s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t s p r o d u c e d a 

s p e c i e s o f Tennyson b i o g r a p h y t h a t can o n l y be d e s c r i b e d as 

p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c a l l y o b j e c t i v e i n i t s c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n o f 

i t s s u b j e c t : R o b e r t B e r n a r d M a r t i n ' s Tennyson: The U n q u i e t  

H e a r t . 2 2 Y e t h i s c o n c l u s i o n s a r e h i g h l y s u b j e c t i v e and 

t h e r e f o r e s p e c i o u s d e s p i t e h i s a p p a r e n t l y e m p i r i c a l 

methodology. I n i t s p h y s i o l o g i c a l v i e w o f t h e i m p o s i t i o n s 

h e r e d i t y p l a c e s upon t h e i n d i v i d u a l , M a r t i n ' s b i o g r a p h y o f 

Tennyson a t t e m p t s t o p r o v i d e a t y p e o f s c i e n t i f i c r a t i o n a l f o r 

t h e f i t s o f despondency Tennyson endured. The T e n n y s o n s — a n d 

A l f r e d i n p a r t i c u l a r — w e r e under t h e t h r a l l o f an e p i l e p t i c 

i n h e r i t a n c e so p r o f o u n d t h a t , c o u p l e d w i t h o t h e r m e n t a l and 

Ann C o l l e y ' s Tennyson and Madness (1983) e x t e n d s 
M a r t i n ' s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e Tennysons' " b l a c k - b l o o d e d n e s s " t o 
p l a c e Tennyson h i m s e l f and h i s p o e t r y w i t h i n a h i s t o r i c a l 
c o n t e x t o f d e v e l o p i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s , n o t t h e l e a s t o f 
w h i c h was t h a t by Dr Matthew A l l e n , E s s a y on t h e  
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e Insane (1837), whose a s y l u m i n t h e l a t e 
1830s and e a r l y 1840s A l f r e d v i s i t e d and Septimus r e s i d e d i n . 
Her h i s t o r i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f madness i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y 
i s i n d e e d a d m i r a b l e . However, h e r subsequent p s y c h o - c r i t i c a l 
argument t h a t Tennyson's p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h i n s a n i t y i n h i s 
p o e t r y r e s t e d on t h e p o e t ' s h e r e d i t a r y f e a r s o f i n c i p i e n t 
m a d n e s s — w i t h w r i t i n g as a t y p e o f F r e u d i a n d i s p l a c e m e n t — t o o 
r e a d i l y a c c e p t s M a r t i n ' s t h e o r y o f e p i l e p s y as a p h y s i o l o g i c a l 
cause f o r such p o e t i c i n t e r e s t . Thus, she s u p e r f i c i a l l y 
e q u a t e s Tennyson t h e man w i t h h i s s e v e r a l mad s p e a k e r s — t h e 
l o v e r i n Maud and L u c r e t i u s i n p a r t i c u l a r — w i t h o u t due 
c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r Tennyson's c r e a t i o n o f p e r s o n a , n o t as a 
second s e l f , b u t as a p o e t i c d e v i c e . Because C o l l e y 
e s s e n t i a l l y adheres t o a p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d v i e w o f Tennyson as 
a p o e t , she seems u n a b l e t o t r a n s f e r h e r i n i t i a l , h i s t o r i c a l 
a n a l y s i s o f madness as a p u b l i c p r e o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e V i c t o r i a n 
p e r i o d o v e r t o h e r s t u d y o f Tennyson's mad poems. They r e m a i n 
p r i v a t e , m o t i v a t e d by Tennyson's own m o r b i d i t y r a t h e r t h a n by 
any i n t e r e s t s o f t h e p e r i o d . 



288 

p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t i e s , t h e y were c o n s i s t e n t l y f r u s t r a t e d i n 

t h e i r p r o p e r e n t r y i n t o V i c t o r i a n p u b l i c l i f e . The d r i v i n g 

f o r c e o f M a r t i n ' s U n q u i e t H e a r t i s , as i t s t i t l e s u g g e s t s , t h e 

need t o p r o v e e m p i r i c a l l y t h a t Tennyson h e l d no s e c u r e p l a c e 

a t t h e p u b l i c podium s i n c e h i s p r i v a t e l i f e was f r a u g h t w i t h 

d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h e most i m p o r t a n t b e i n g h i s f e a r o f i n h e r i t e d 

e p i l e p s y . 

N e v e r t h e l e s s , M a r t i n h i m s e l f a d m i t s t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e t o 

p r o v e e p i l e p s y i s e n t i r e l y l a c k i n g . Thus, he employs a method 

o f p r e s e n t a t i o n t h a t u s e s t h e number o f s e e m i n g l y s i m i l a r 

m e n t a l a b e r r a t i o n s i n t h e Tennyson f a m i l y t o g i v e q u a l i t a t i v e 

l e g i t i m a c y t o an o t h e r w i s e u n q u a n t i f i a b l e argument: t h a t t h e 

Tennysons a p p a r e n t l y had a " c o n s t a n t , b r o o d i n g c o n c e r n about 

one d i s e a s e : e p i l e p s y " : 

The f a m i l y l e t t e r s show t h a t b o t h young George 
[ f a t h e r ] and C h a r l e s [ u n c l e ] s u f f e r e d from t i m e t o 
t i m e w i t h some form o f t h e i l l n e s s , t h a t one o f 
C h a r l e s ' s sons [George] was a v i c t i m , and t h a t 
p e r h a p s o l d George h i m s e l f had a t t a c k s o f l e s s 
s e v e r i t y t h a n t h o s e o f h i s d e s c e n d a n t s . One o f 
A l f r e d Tennyson's b r o t h e r s [Edward] was t o t a l l y 
i n s a n e most o f h i s l i f e , a n o t h e r [ S e p t i m u s ] s u f f e r e d 
from some form o f m e n t a l i l l n e s s n e a r l y as 
i n c a p a c i t a t i n g , a t h i r d [ C h a r l e s ] was an opium 
a d d i c t , a f o u r t h [ A r t h u r ] was s e v e r e l y a l c o h o l i c , 
and t h e r e s t o f t h e l a r g e f a m i l y each had a t l e a s t 
one bad m e n t a l breakdown i n a l o n g l i f e . I f t h e r e 
a r e any d e t a i l e d r e c o r d s e x t a n t o f what p r e c i s e l y 
a i l e d them a l l , I have been u n a b l e t o f i n d them, and 
i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o say whether any o f young 
George's c h i l d r e n a c t u a l l y s u f f e r e d from a form o f 
e p i l e p s y . What i s most p r o b a b l e i s t h a t among 
A l f r e d Tennyson's t e n b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s , some had 
a t t a c k s t h a t r e s e m b l e d e p i l e p s y , and t h a t A l f r e d 
e i t h e r had t h e d i s e a s e w h i l e young and r e c o v e r e d 
from i t i n l a t e r l i f e , o r , more p r o b a b l y , m i s t a k e n l y 
f e a r e d as a young man t h a t he had i n h e r i t e d a 



289 

t e n d e n c y t o i t t h a t he m i g h t t r a n s m i t t o any 
o f f s p r i n g o f h i s own. (10) 

M a r t i n c o n t i n u e s , t h e n , by assuming e p i l e p s y as t h e cause o f 

t h e Tennysons' " b l a c k b l o o d " even though he concedes he has no 

f o u n d a t i o n f o r d o i n g so. He e x c u s e s t h e l a c k o f m e d i c a l 

r e c o r d s as owing t o a V i c t o r i a n r e l u c t a n c e t o r e g i s t e r s u c h a 

" ' s h a m e f u l ' d i s e a s e l i k e e p i l e p s y . . . on t h e d e a t h 

c e r t i f i c a t e s o f members o f t h e g e n t l e c l a s s e s . . . " (10) 

s i n c e e p i l e p s y was s u p p o s e d l y t h o u g h t t o have been r e l a t e d t o 

i f n o t c a u s e d by h e i g h t e n e d s e x u a l i t y o f t e n r e s u l t i n g i n 

e x c e s s i v e m a s t u r b a t i o n ( 2 7 - 8 ) . 

M a r t i n ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h e p i l e p s y as t h e p r i v a t e cause 

o f Tennyson's f r a c t u r e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p u b l i c i s made 

m a n i f e s t i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f two r e l a t e d a s p e c t s o f 

Tennyson's l i f e : h i s r o l e as a p o t e n t i a l husband and h i s 

v o c a t i o n as a p o e t . I n each c a s e , Tennyson's a l l e g e d 

r e l u c t a n c e t o p a r t i c i p a t e f u l l y i n what M a r t i n p e r c e i v e s t o 

have been t h e d i c t a t e s o f V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y i s t i e d t o t h e 

p o e t ' s n e u r o l o g i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h e r e b y g i v i n g pseudo-

s c i e n t i f i c c r e d e n c e t o t h e modern t h e o r y o f t h e p r i v a t e 

Tennyson as h a v i n g been a t odds w i t h t h e p u b l i c demands o f h i s 

age. 

I n d i s c u s s i n g Tennyson's l o n g and d i f f i c u l t engagement t o 

E m i l y S e l l w o o d , M a r t i n d i s r e g a r d s t h e m o r a l and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c 

demands o f V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y t h a t s u r r o u n d e d m a r r i a g e i n 

f a v o u r o f t h e p u r e l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r e s s u r e s t h a t Tennyson's 



assumed i n h e r i t e d t e n d e n c y t o e p i l e p s y e x e r t e d . Tennyson 

f i r s t met E m i l y S e l l w o o d i n 1830 t h r o u g h t h e f r i e n d l y 

a s s o c i a t i o n s o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s a l t h o u g h he d i d n o t d e v e l o p an 

e m o t i o n a l a t t a c h m e n t t o h e r u n t i l she was b r i d e s m a i d t o h e r 

s i s t e r , L o u i s a , i n h e r m a r r i a g e t o C h a r l e s Tennyson, 24 May 

1836. I n 1837, t h e S e l l w o o d s r e c o g n i z e d A l f r e d and E m i l y ' s 

engagement. Y e t s i n c e a l m o s t a l l o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f 

A l f r e d and E m i l y was d e s t r o y e d by H a l l a m and h i s c o - e d i t o r s 

a f t e r Tennyson's d e a t h , l i t t l e can r e a l l y be known o f t h e 

p r o b l e m s t h a t k e p t them from m a r r y i n g u n t i l 1850. C e r t a i n l y 

by t h e summer o f 1840, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f u t u r e h a p p i n e s s was 

c a s t i n doubt. I n a l e t t e r t h a t Lang d a t e s as J u l y o r August 

1840, Tennyson r e f e r s t o h i s " v i c e o f o l d " as t h e cause f o r 

h i s f l y i n g from h e r f o r h i s own good and p e r h a p s f o r h e r s 

( L e t t e r s I 182-3). What t h i s " v i c e " may have been i s 

d e b a t a b l e . H a l l a m m e n t i o n s o n l y " [ e ] t e r n a l want o f pence" 

(Memoir 147) as t h e cause f o r t h e l e t t e r s c e a s i n g . S i r 

C h a r l e s adds t h a t Mr S e l l w o o d n o t o n l y d i d n o t approve o f 

Tennyson's a p p a r e n t i n a b i l i t y t o e a r n a d e c e n t l i v i n g , b u t 

l o o k e d a s k a n c e on Tennyson's Bohemian way o f l i f e , r e p l e t e 

w i t h p o r t , t o b a c c o , and q u e s t i o n a b l e r e l i g i o u s o p i n i o n s ( 1 7 9 ) . 

Because Tennyson would n e i t h e r compromise h i s p e r s o n a l 

i n t e g r i t y by a c c e p t i n g h a l f o f h i s mother's a n n u i t y nor damage 

h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n by w r i t i n g s h o r t , p o p u l a r poems 

f o r magazines and newspapers so as t o a f f o r d to* marry, 

a c c o r d i n g t o S i r C h a r l e s , h i s engagement was b r o k e n o f f (182). 



M a r t i n , however, e x t e n d s what S i r C h a r l e s had e a r l i e r 

i n t i m a t e d : t h a t A l f r e d ' s b r o t h e r C h a r l e s ' s a d d i c t i o n t o opium 

and t h e d i s a s t r o u s consequences t h e r e b y imposed upon h i s w i f e 

L o u i s a had made Mr S e l l w o o d s c e p t i c a l o f t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e 

e n t i r e Tennyson f a m i l y ( S i r C h a r l e s 179). Throughout h i s 

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e "Break w i t h E m i l y S e l l w o o d : 1838-1842" (244-

6 0 ) , M a r t i n a r g u e s t h a t Tennyson had no r e a l d e s i r e t o marry 

because o f a f e a r o f h e r e d i t a r y i l l n e s s t h a t k e p t him r e t i c e n t 

i n r e s p o n s e t o E m i l y who a l l e g e d l y had w i s h e d t h e i r engagement 

t o c o n t i n u e . I n l i m i t i n g h i s v i s i o n t o Tennyson's p r i v a t e 

c o n c e r n s , however, M a r t i n f a i l s t o acknowledge r e s t r i c t i o n s 

t h a t E m i l y h e r s e l f , o r most c e r t a i n l y t h e S e l l w o o d s , p u t upon 

t h e i r engagement. A c c o r d i n g t o S i r C h a r l e s , even i n 1850 when 

A l f r e d and E m i l y d i d marry, t h e S e l l w o o d s were s c e p t i c a l , 

" l a r g e l y on r e l i g i o u s g r o u n d s " ( 2 4 1 ) , a s c e p t i c i s m l i k e l y 

stemming from p u b l i c p r e s s u r e f o r c h u r c h a t t e n d a n c e and 

r e l i g i o u s c o n f o r m i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e enormous i n f l u e n c e 

t h a t Mr S e l l w o o d had upon h i s d a u g h t e r r e a d s v e r y much l i k e 

t h a t o f Mr B a r r e t t upon h i s own e q u a l l y i n v a l i d d a u g h t e r , 

E l i z a b e t h , o r l i k e t h e c o n t r o l t h a t J u s t i c e Wightman t r i e d t o 

e x e r c i s e o v e r h i s d a u g h t e r , F r a n c e s Lucy, b e f o r e h e r e v e n t u a l 

m a r r i a g e t o Matthew A r n o l d . A l t h o u g h M a r t i n acknowledges t h a t 

E m i l y S e l l w o o d " i d o l i z e d " h e r f a t h e r , he r e f u s e s t o p l a c e 

A l f r e d ' s and E m i l y ' s b r o k e n engagement w i t h i n a f a i r l y common 

V i c t o r i a n s c e n a r i o o f p a t e r n a l d e l a y o f a d a u g h t e r ' s f u l l 

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a d u l t l i f e . F u r t h e r m o r e , M a r t i n c l a i m s t h a t 



Tennyson's f i n a n c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s were an i n a d e q u a t e r e a s o n 

f o r s e p a r a t i o n s i n c e i n M a r t i n ' s v i e w Tennyson was n e v e r as 

i m p o v e r i s h e d as he made o u t ; he had £100 p e r annum from h i s 

a u n t and t h e i n t e r e s t , p o s s i b l y as much as £500 p e r annum, 

from t h e i n h e r i t a n c e he r e c e i v e d on t h e d e a t h o f h i s 

g r a n d f a t h e r i n 1835 (207 & 247) . A g a i n , however, M a r t i n 

n e g l e c t s t o p l a c e Tennyson w i t h i n a p u b l i c c o n t e x t o f s o c i a l 

p r o p r i e t y t h a t — f a r more t h a n i n d i v i d u a l d e s i r e — d e t e r m i n e d 

t h a t m a r r i a g e s h o u l d o c c u r l a t e i n l i f e o n l y when, as Houghton 

p o i n t s o u t , a man c o u l d " p r o v i d e h i s w i f e w i t h a c a r r i a g e and 

. . . a s s o c i a t e w i t h men o f w e a l t h " ( 3 8 4 ) . I n 1842, J.S. Wade 

e x p l a i n e d : "The i m m o r a l i t y o f m a r r y i n g w i t h o u t t h e means o f 

s u p p o r t i n g a f a m i l y [was] a d o c t r i n e o f r e c e n t p r o m u l g a t i o n " 

( q t d . i n Banks 3 0 ) . W h i l e Tennyson was, a t 41, above t h e 

a v e r a g e male age o f m a r r i a g e (which had r i s e n t o 2 9 ) , and may 

have conformed t o o c l o s e l y t o economic, m o r a l s t r i c t u r e s , 

n o n e t h e l e s s , h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o p o s t p o n e m a r r i a g e u n t i l he 

c o u l d g u a r a n t e e h i s w i f e a s e c u r e f u t u r e was c e r t a i n l y i n 

k e e p i n g w i t h m i d d l e - c l a s s v a l u e s . Moreover, postponement was 

p a r t i c u l a r l y r e a s o n a b l e i n Tennyson's c a s e g i v e n h i s f a m i l y ' s 

p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e p o v e r t y t h a t t h e Somersby Tennysons 

endured t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r l i v e s compared t o t h e i r w e a l t h y 

d ' E y n c o u r t r e l a t i v e s . Indeed, once Tennyson l o s t most o f h i s 

i n h e r i t a n c e t h r o u g h an unsound i n v e s t m e n t i n Dr Matthew 

A l l e n ' s w o o d c a r v i n g scheme (1841-43), h i s r e l u c t a n c e t o marry 

c o u l d o n l y have i n c r e a s e d . 



As c h a p t e r one e x p l a i n s , t h e p r e s s u r e s by f r i e n d s and 

f a m i l y upon Tennyson t o produce a d d i t i o n a l volumes f o r 

p u b l i c a t i o n , t o w r i t e p o e t r y f o r a w i d e r market, and even t o 

supplement w r i t i n g p o e t r y w i t h some form o f " r e a l " employment 

i n c r e a s e d i n t h e 1840s as h i s f i n a n c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s 

worsened. Y e t , Tennyson was u n p r e p a r e d t o compromise h i m s e l f 

as a p o e t i n o r d e r t o g a i n t h e f i n a n c i a l s e c u r i t y he needed t o 

a l l o w him t o marry. Such r e l u c t a n c e , however, need n o t be 

m i s c o n s t r u e d as i t i s by M a r t i n as a p r i v a t e l y m o t i v a t e d f e a r 

o f m a r r y i n g . On t h e c o n t r a r y , Tennyson a p p e a r s more t o have 

been d r i v e n by a sense o f p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o what 

he p e r c e i v e d as h i s a u d i e n c e , and a p e r s o n a l commitment t o 

g i v e h i s r e a d e r s o n l y h i s b e s t work, as t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n 

c h a p t e r f o u r c o n c e r n i n g Tennyson's r e s p o n s e t o c r i t i c i s m i n 

t h e 1830s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s . H i s f i n a l agreement t o p u b l i s h 

t h e 1842 Poems was prompted by s i m i l a r l y p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n c e r n s 

because p u b l i s h e r s i n A m e r i c a were t h r e a t e n i n g t o p u b l i s h t h e 

o r i g i n a l 18 3 3 volume, and Tennyson c o u l d n o t a b i d e h a v i n g 

poems t h a t he had s p e n t a decade r e w o r k i n g appear i n t h e i r 

p r e v i o u s , and t o h i s mind, immature form. 

M a r t i n ' s d i s r e g a r d f o r Tennyson as a p r o s p e c t i v e husband 

w i t h i n h i s s o c i a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n t e x t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g 

s i n c e h i s p u r p o s e i s t o argue f o r a Tennyson a t odds w i t h h i s 

age, n o t a man s e n s i t i v e t o t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s 

o f t h e t i m e . A s i m i l a r l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g i n M a r t i n ' s 

d i s c u s s i o n o f Tennyson as a p o e t , however, i s e n t i r e l y 



u n a c c e p t a b l e s i n c e i t m i s l e a d i n g l y p o r t r a y s Tennyson as 

w o r k i n g s o l e l y from w i t h i n an i s o l a t e d p o e t i c s , d i v o r c e d from 

h i s p u b l i c . M a r t i n c o n t e n d s t h a t Tennyson, i n c o n s t a n t f e a r 

o f e p i l e p s y , used h i s p o e t r y as an "anodyne" t o numb " t h e p a i n 

t h a t h i s h y p o c h o n d r i a b r o u g h t on him. I t was n o t a c u r e , b u t 

i t was c e r t a i n l y an a l l e v i a t i o n " (140) . H e r e i n l i e s M a r t i n ' s 

a p p r o a c h : t h e p u b l i c e x p o s u r e o f g r i e f and l o s s i n I n Memoriam 

i s r e c o n f i g u r e d i n p r i v a t e terms as Tennyson's p e r s o n a l 

t h r e n o d y on h i s own p s y c h o l o g i c a l w h o l e n e s s : 

B u t , f o r t h e u n q u i e t h e a r t and b r a i n , 
A use i n measured language l i e s ; 
The sad mechanic e x e r c i s e , 

L i k e d u l l n a r c o t i c s , numbing p a i n . 
(V 5-8) 

The metaphor o f language as a n a r c o t i c i s n o t a s u r p r i s i n g one 

f o r Tennyson; A l f r e d ' s b r o t h e r C h a r l e s had chosen opium w h i l e 

o t h e r s i n t h e f a m i l y had sought s o l a c e i n a l c o h o l . The 

Tennysons' i n d i v i d u a l r e a s o n s f o r escape from p a i n , however, 

c a n n o t r e a s o n a b l y be c o n f l a t e d . Moreover, v e r s e as a d r u g t o 

numb t h e p a i n o f e x i s t e n c e i s n o t u n i q u e t o Tennyson. As a 

l o v e r o f K e a t s — - i n p a r t i c u l a r because o f H a l l a m ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n 

o f h i s p o e t r y t o h i m — t h i s t r o p e seems e n t i r e l y n a t u r a l t o 

Tennyson's e l e g i a c p u r p o s e : t o s u b s t i t u t e measured language 

f o r t h e l o s s o f t h e a b s e n t o t h e r . 

I n assuming t h a t Tennyson's v e r s e s u p p l i e s t h e same p r i v a t e 

n a r c o t i c f u n c t i o n as v a r i o u s d r u g s d i d f o r t h e o t h e r members 

o f t h e p o e t ' s f a m i l y , M a r t i n e n t r e n c h e s t h e m o d e r n i s t v i e w o f 

Tennyson as t h e t o r t u r e d Romantic p o e t advanced e a r l i e r by 



N i c o l s o n . I n so d o i n g , he s e v e r e l y l i m i t s Tennyson's p o e t r y 

t o a p u r e l y p r i v a t e r e a l m : i n t h e "harmonies and s y m b o l i c 

o r d e r o f t h e poems, he was a b l e t o p e r c e i v e m o m e n t a r i l y some 

k i n d o f u n i t y and wholeness t h a t was a p p l i c a b l e t o h i s own 

l i f e . . . . One o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h p o e t r y t h a t s e r v e s 

so p r i v a t e a p u r p o s e i s t h a t i t i s n o t e s s e n t i a l l y d i r e c t e d t o 

a r e a d i n g p u b l i c , and f o r t h i s r e a s o n Tennyson was o f t e n 

r e l u c t a n t t o p u b l i s h , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h i l e a young man." W i t h 

so p r i v a t e a p o e t i c p u r p o s e , p u b l i c a t i o n would s u p p o s e d l y be 

" s u p e r e r o g a t o r y " (14 0 ) . But i f a n y t h i n g , Tennyson's 

r e l u c t a n c e t o p u b l i s h r e s u l t e d from a s e n s i t i v e awareness o f 

t h e l i t e r a r y demands o f h i s a u d i e n c e , i n c l u d i n g h i s c r i t i c s , 

and a d e s i r e t o e n s u r e c o n s a n g u i n i t y between h i s v o i c e and 

t h e i r s . M a r t i n d i s m i s s e s Tennyson's a c t i v e awareness o f 

h i m s e l f as a p r o f e s s i o n a l p o e t because i t does n o t f i t w i t h 

h i s o v e r r i d i n g t h e o r y o f t h e Tennysons, and o f A l f r e d i n 

p a r t i c u l a r , as b i o l o g i c a l l y i l l - s u i t e d t o t h e i r age. 

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d v i e w s o f Tennyson's 

l i f e and work, p u b l i c l y - f o c u s e d v i e w s n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y t a k e 

Tennyson's i n j u n c t i o n " t o be s t u d i e d t h r o u g h h i s poems" t o 

h e a r t . They i n d e e d see t h e man i n terms o f h i s p o e t r y r a t h e r 

t h a n a t t e m p t i n g b i o g r a p h i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e man as a p r e t e x t 

f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p o e t r y . Beyond t h i s , p u b l i c l y f o c u s e d 

v i e w s a l s o p l a c e t h e p o e t w i t h i n h i s l a r g e r s o c i a l c o n t e x t so 

t h a t r e c e p t i o n becomes i n t r i n s i c t o an o v e r a l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g 

o f t h e p o e t r y . B o t h p u b l i s h e d i n 1962, Joanna R i c h a r d s o n ' s 



296 

The P r e - e m i n e n t V i c t o r i a n : A Study o f Tennyson and V a l e r i e 

P i t t ' s Tennyson L a u r e a t e p r e s e n t a p u b l i c v i e w o f Tennyson 

from w i t h i n a h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f Tennyson s c h o l a r s h i p 

b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d by S i r C h a r l e s ' s s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s t o p r o v i d e 

a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o n t e x t f o r Tennyson's t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y 

r e a d e r s . 2 3 Of t h e two s t u d i e s , R i c h a r d s o n ' s i s t h e l e s s 

s a t i s f y i n g s i n c e as a t y p e o f b i o g r a p h y i t adds v e r y l i t t l e t o 

S i r C h a r l e s ' s A l f r e d Tennyson. Moreover, as a s o c i o l o g i c a l 

a n a l y s i s o f a l i t e r a r y f i g u r e , i t f a l l s f a r s h o r t o f P i t t ' s 

e x t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h Tennyson 

assumed t h e v o i c e o f t h e L a u r e a t e i n r e s p o n s e t o h i s V i c t o r i a n 

p u b l i c . 

R i c h a r d s o n p r o c e e d s a l m o s t as i f t h e p r i v a t e Tennyson had 

n e v e r e x i s t e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , she s t a t e s o n l y t h a t a t 

Cambridge Tennyson " c o n c e i v e d f o r H a l l a m a s u b l i m a t e d p a s s i o n 

t h a t would shape h i s l i f e and work" ( 2 2 ) , b u t f a i l s t o e x p l o r e 

t h e d e p t h o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , even w i t h i n t h e p u b l i c r e a l m 

o f H a l l a m ' s p r o m o t i o n o f Tennyson i n h i s r e v i e w o f Poems,  

C h i e f l y L y r i c a l . F o r R i c h a r d s o n , Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n p r e -

2 3 O t h e r s t u d i e s i n t h i s h i s t o r i c a l v e i n t h a t p r e c e d e d 
R i c h a r d s o n ' s and P i t t ' s , a p a r t from t h o s e p u b l i s h e d n e a r t h e 
t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y i n t h e a f t e r g l o w o f V i c t o r i a n i s m , i n c l u d e 
Shannon's Tennyson and t h e R e v i e w e r s (1952), K i l l h a m ' s 
Tennyson and "The P r i n c e s s " : R e f l e c t i o n s o f an Age (1958) and, 
o f c o u r s e , S i r C h a r l e s ' s S i x Tennyson E s s a y s (1954). H i s 
s h o r t monograph Tennyson and h i s Times, though p u b l i s h e d 
l a t e r , i n 1974, r e p r e s e n t s some o f h i s b e s t work i n p l a c i n g 
Tennyson i n h i s V i c t o r i a n c o n t e x t . R i c h a r d s o n ' s work i s 
d e v o t e d t o p r e c e d e n t s s e t by S i r C h a r l e s and r e l i e s on 
m a t e r i a l l e f t t o h e r by him; The P r e - e m i n e n t V i c t o r i a n i s t h u s 
d e d i c a t e d t o him. 



eminence i s e n t i r e l y p u b l i c and s o c i a l , c o n f e r r e d upon him 

because he s o c i a l i z e d and a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r e c o g n i z a b l y 

c a n o n i z e d . Thus, R i c h a r d s o n ' s s t u d y r e a d s l i k e a V i c t o r i a n 

l i v e s o f t h e ( m o d e r a t e l y ) r i c h and ( c e r t a i n l y ) famous, i n 

w h i c h Tennyson r e i g n e d supreme: t h e Brownings, t h e C a r l y l e s , 

G l a d s t o n e , M i l n e s , and, o f c o u r s e , Queen V i c t o r i a . 

A p p a r e n t l y , Tennyson i s p r e - e m i n e n t as a V i c t o r i a n i n h i s 

a b i l i t y t o m i r r o r t h i s p a s t i c h e . Y e t nowhere does R i c h a r d s o n 

e v e r examine t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h i s a u d i e n c e and what i t 

meant t o a p r o f e s s i o n a l p o e t t o t r y t o s a t i s f y i t s c o n f l i c t i n g 

demands. Nor does she q u e s t i o n V i c t o r i a n i d e o l o g y i t s e l f . 

A c c o r d i n g t o R i c h a r d s o n , " V i c t o r i a n o p i n i o n was much more 

c l e a r l y v o i c e d by t h e c o n s t a n t , overwhelming h o s t o f 

Tennyson's a d m i r e r s " (290) t h a n by h i s d e t r a c t o r s a l t h o u g h t h e 

e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e s e o p i n i o n s on e i t h e r s i d e i s n e v e r an 

i s s u e f o r h e r . Hence, h e r s t u d y l a c k s i n - d e p t h a n a l y s i s and 

i s l i m i t e d t o a c o l l e c t i o n o f a d m i r i n g l e t t e r s , a g r e a t many 

o f them from w o m e n — E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t Browning i n p a r t i c u l a r — 

because u l t i m a t e l y she b e l i e v e s t h a t "Tennyson's muse was 

f e m i n i n e , and gazed towards t h e s t a r s " ( 2 4 3 ) . The c o n f l a t i o n 

o f t h e s e two c o n c e p t s i s n e v e r e x p l a i n e d . 

Even though R i c h a r d s o n ' s p u r p o s e i s t o p a i n t a p u b l i c 

p i c t u r e o f t h e L a u r e a t e , h e r u n q u e s t i o n e d a s s u m p t i o n o f 

V i c t o r i a n l i f e as e s s e n t i a l l y f e m i n i n e and s p i r i t u a l s u g g e s t s 

h e r p a r a d o x i c a l a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e v i e w o f p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d 

s c h o l a r s l i k e N i c o l s o n who see V i c t o r i a n c u l t u r e as 



298 

p e j o r a t i v e l y dominated by women, and ( i n N i c o l s o n ' s case) 

t h e r e f o r e t o be d i s p a r a g e d . That she n o n e t h e l e s s l a u d s t h e 

p e r i o d and t h e L a u r e a t e w i t h i n i t t h r o u g h i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f 

V i c t o r i a n h e r o - w o r s h i p seems t o p l a c e h e r work a l m o s t s i x t y 

y e a r s b e f o r e i t s t i m e , as i f she n e v e r f u l l y a c c o u n t e d f o r 

B r a d l e y ' s R e a c t i o n A g a i n s t Tennyson, w h i c h she l i s t s i n h e r 

b i b l i o g r a p h y . She a s s e r t s Tennyson's pre-eminence as a 

V i c t o r i a n c o m p l e t e l y w i t h i n t h e r e a l m o f t h o s e f e a t u r e s o f t h e 

V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d t h a t m o d e r n i s t s have r e j e c t e d : a r d e n t 

s p i r i t u a l i t y , f e m a l e w o r s h i p , and complacency. She f a i l s t o 

e x p l o r e Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n i s m as a t y p e o f compromise, an 

e x p l o r a t i o n a l r e a d y begun i n 1952 by E.D.H. Johnson i n The  

A l i e n V i s i o n o f V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y , a t e x t w h i c h i s l i s t e d i n 

h e r b i b l i o g r a p h y b u t s e e m i n g l y i g n o r e d i n h e r a n a l y s i s . 

I n c o n t r a s t , P i t t ' s Tennyson L a u r e a t e i s w r i t t e n i n open 

acknowledgement o f and d i r e c t r e s p o n s e t o h e r p r e d e c e s s o r s . 

She i n t e n d s t o r e s c u e Tennyson from " t h e g a r d e n s o f a p r i v a t e 

s e n s i b i l i t y " (x) sown by N i c o l s o n and l a t e r c u l t i v a t e d by many 

o t h e r s so t h a t t h e L a u r e a t e ' s p o e t r y can be e n j o y e d i n t h i s 

c e n t u r y as i t was i n t h e l a s t : i n f u l l , and by a l l c l a s s e s and 

v a r i e t i e s o f r e a d e r s — i n s h o r t , p o p u l a r l y . U n d e r l y i n g P i t t ' s 

a n a l y s i s i s a b e l i e f t h a t now seems a l m o s t a b s u r d t o r e a d e r s 

i n t h e l a t e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y : " p o e t r y i s , f u n d a m e n t a l l y , a 

p u b l i c n o t a p r i v a t e a r t " ( 2 5 0 ) . But u n l i k e many t w e n t i e t h -

c e n t u r y s c h o l a r s , P i t t g l a n c e s backward when r e a d i n g Tennyson, 

g l a n c e s t o an o s t e n s i b l y e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r h e t o r i c a l 



t r a d i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n , as C a r r and a h o s t o f o t h e r t w e n t i e t h -

c e n t u r y r e a d e r s have done, t o Tennyson as a Modern P o e t . She 

a n a l y s e s Tennyson's d u a l i t y as i n w a r d l y d r i v e n , o u t w a r d l y 

e x p r e s s i v e . N o n e t h e l e s s , f o r P i t t t h i s m a r r i a g e o f t h e 

p e r s o n a l and t h e s o c i a l was " i n c o n g r u o u s " and, u l t i m a t e l y , 

i n j u r i o u s t o Tennyson's r e p u t a t i o n i n t h i s c e n t u r y . W h i l e 

P i t t ' s o v e r a l l i n t e n t i o n i s t o r e i n v e s t t h e p u b l i c o f f i c e o f 

L a u r e a t e w i t h p o e t i c v a l u e , h e r f i n a l " E v a l u a t i o n " c h a p t e r 

r e v e a l s t h a t , even f o r h e r , Tennyson's l a c k o f p o e t i c 

v i t a l i t y — a p r i v a t e l y c h a r g e d e m o t i v e e n e r g y — m i l i t a t e s 

a g a i n s t i t s c o m p l e t e a c c e p t a n c e . Thus, she and p r e s u m a b l y 

o t h e r t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s come away w i t h "a sense o f 

p o t e n t i a l i t y w h i c h r e m a i n s i n much, though n o t a l l , o f h i s 

work, o n l y h a l f f u l f i l l e d " ( 2 4 7 ) . The "two Tennysons" l e g e n d 

p r e v a i l s even h e r e i n Tennyson L a u r e a t e , o n l y i n t h i s c a s e 

from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e ' s p u b l i c 

demands r a t h e r t h a n , as w i t h p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d s c h o l a r s , 

d e r i v e d from t h e p o e t ' s own p e r s o n a l m o r b i d i t y . 

To h e r c r e d i t , P i t t ' s f o c u s on t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f 

Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e , and t h e p o e t ' s e q u a l l y v a r i o u s 

r e s p o n s e s t o i t , r e c o n s i d e r a complex r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t had 

p r e v i o u s l y been t o o r e a d i l y d i s m i s s e d a l o n g t h e m o d e r n i s t 

r e a c t i o n a r y l i n e s e s t a b l i s h e d by L y t t o n S t r a c h e y ' s Eminent  

V i c t o r i a n s . 2 4 The V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e ' s "monumental 

2 4 Of t h e s e c o n d a r y s o c i a l h i s t o r i e s upon w h i c h P i t t 
based h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d , o n l y J.H. 
B u c k l e y ' s The V i c t o r i a n Temper (1951) would have d e a l t w i t h 



complacency," "moral s t a g n a t i o n , " " s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t i o n , " and 

" s e l f - d e c e p t i o n " assumed by S t r a c h e y ( P i t t 248) P i t t 

e f f e c t i v e l y d e m o n s t r a t e s as s i m p l i s t i c . I n so d o i n g , she 

r e c a s t s Tennyson as a p u b l i c p o e t i n ways t h a t s u g g e s t t h a t 

t h e L a u r e a t e d i d f a r more t h a n m e r e l y pander t o t h e s u p p o s e d l y 

homogenous demands o f t h e s e l f - s a t i s f i e d m i d d l e c l a s s e s . 

P i t t b e g i n s w i t h an i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r , "The S t a t u s o f 

Tennyson i n C r i t i c i s m , " t h a t c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e s t h e p r i v a t e 

t r e a t m e n t t o w h i c h Tennyson has been s u b j e c t i n t h i s c e n t u r y : 

"Tennyson i s supposed t o be e s c a p i n g t h e t e r r o r s and c o n f l i c t s 

o f a s e n s i t i v e temperament, and t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f h i s own 

i n s i g h t , by r u n n i n g i n t o t h e s h e l t e r o f s t a n d a r d V i c t o r i a n 

m o r a l i t y . T h i s v i e w o f h i s L a u r e a t e s h i p i s as much a r e a c t i o n 

a g a i n s t t h e V i c t o r i a n s as a g a i n s t Tennyson" ( 1 2 ) . To c o u n t e r 

t h i s v i e w , i n l a t e r c h a p t e r s she p u t s f o r t h e s s e n t i a l l y two 

r e l a t e d arguments: 1) t h a t Tennyson was n e v e r an e s c a p i s t i n 

e i t h e r h i s p r i v a t e l i f e o r h i s p u b l i c work, b u t r a t h e r m a r r i e d 

t h e p e r s o n a l w i t h t h e i m p e r s o n a l so as t o p r o d u c e a p o e t r y o f 

s o c i a l d u t y t h a t v i e s w i t h t h e b e s t o f Wordsworth's i n i t s 

a b i l i t y t o communicate " t h e m o r a l o f man's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o man 

i n n a t u r e and t h e common s o c i a l o r d e r " ( 6 5 ) ; and 2) t h a t 

Tennyson i n a s u b s t a n t i a l way. C u r i o u s l y , P i t t does not l i s t 
Houghton's The V i c t o r i a n Frame o f Mind (1957) i n h e r 
b i b l i o g r a p h y even though Houghton's work has assumed a l m o s t 
c a n o n i c a l s t a t u s among V i c t o r i a n s c h o l a r s , and many o f t h e 
c o n c l u s i o n s she makes o f Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e , 
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terms o f i t s s e v e r a l a n x i e t i e s , a g r e e w i t h 
Houghton's c h a p t e r on " A n x i e t y " ( 5 4 - 8 9 ) . 



V i c t o r i a n m o r a l i t y a f f o r d e d no such s h e l t e r t o escape t o i n 

any c a s e s i n c e i t was n o t s t a b l e b u t , i n f a c t , c o n s t a n t l y 

c h a n g i n g t o a c c o u n t f o r a " c r u m b l i n g w o r l d " (a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n 

o f V i c t o r i a n i s m w h i c h has s i n c e become a c c e p t e d by t h o s e 

s c h o l a r s who see Tennyson as a V i c t o r i a n p r e c i s e l y because o f 

h i s awareness o f t h e f r a c t u r e d w o r l d i n w h i c h he l i v e d ) . 

P i t t s e e s Tennyson's achievement i n t h e 1830s and 1840s as 

r e l a t e d t o h i s s k i l f u l use o f p o e t i c symbols, E l i o t ' s 

" o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e s , " t o e x p r e s s e m o t i o n a l and sensuous 

s t a t e s o f awareness t o w h i c h h i s a u d i e n c e would t h e n g i v e 

t h e i r a s s e n t ( 4 7 - 7 7 ) . T h i s t a l e n t c u l m i n a t e s i n I n Memoriam. 

where Tennyson u n i v e r s a l i z e s h i s p e r s o n a l l o s s t h r o u g h s t o c k 

symbols, common-place a n a l o g i e s t h a t i n v i t e d i v e r s e r e a d e r s 

i n t o a "knowledge o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e and h i s theme" ( 1 1 8 ) . 

D e s p i t e h e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n 

a u d i e n c e may have s h a r e d (though n o t u n i f o r m l y ) , P i t t 

n e v e r t h e l e s s seems t o e x p e c t from Tennyson a g i f t f o r s o c i a l 

r e a l i s m l i k e t h a t o f M r s , G a s k e l l t h a t P i t t h e r s e l f 

acknowledges "was n o t o n l y o u t s i d e t h e scope o f Tennyson's 

e x p e r i e n c e , b u t a l i e n t o h i s i m a g i n a t i o n " ( 1 2 9 ) . Because o f 

h e r e x p e c t a t i o n , she a r g u e s t h a t Tennyson's s e c l u s i o n (as a 

c h i l d a t Somersby and as an a d u l t a t F a r r i n g f o r d and A l d w o r t h ) 

l e f t him i g n o r a n t o f t h e volume o f s p e c i f i c s o c i a l and 

p o l i t i c a l l e g i s l a t i o n s and t h e i r p r o f o u n d r a m i f i c a t i o n s t h a t 

a f f e c t e d h i s i n c r e a s i n g l y w i d e s p r e a d a u d i e n c e ( 1 5 1 - 2 ) . 

C o n s e q u e n t l y , she n e c e s s a r i l y v i e w s Tennyson's achievement as 



" l i m i t e d " even w h i l e she a d m i t s t h a t he a l o n e r e p r e s e n t e d t h e 

V i c t o r i a n age because " h i s r e s p o n s e t o t h e mood and c o l o u r o f 

t h e p e r i o d i s f u l l e r and more a l i v e t h a n any o t h e r 

c o n t e m p o r a r y p o e t " ( 1 5 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o P i t t , Tennyson's 

l i m i t a t i o n s as a s o c i a l r e a l i s t were as much a f a c t o r o f 

a u d i e n c e as t h e y were o f a u t h o r s h i p . 

I n t h e d e c i s i v e decades o f t h e t h i r t i e s and f o r t i e s , 

Tennyson a t t e m p t e d t o convey " t h e v a l u e o f t h e w o r l d i n a l l 

i t s a s p e c t s as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e s o l i t a r y mind" ( 1 2 7 ) . P i t t 

a l l e g e s , however, t h a t t h i s " w o r l d " i t s e l f was l i m i t e d t o " t h e 

w o r l d o f i n t e l l i g e n t , c u l t u r e d V i c t o r i a n s o f t h e upper m i d d l e -

c l a s s and n o t t h e s t r u g g l i n g e n e r g e t i c communities o f an 

i n f a n t i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y " (127) and, as s u c h , p r e s c r i b e d t h e 

b o u n d a r i e s o f Tennyson's p u b l i c awareness. As V a t e s , he would 

d i s r e g a r d t h e a p p a r e n t l y s u r f a c e r e a l i t i e s o f s o c i o - e c o n o m i c 

and p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e i n f a v o u r o f t h e deeper " r e a l i t i e s o f 

s p i r i t u a l and m o r a l l i f e " (149) t h a t p r e s u m a b l y p r e o c c u p i e d 

t h e u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s . L a t e r , P i t t s u g g e s t s t h a t Tennyson 

d e r i v e d h i s sense o f p u b l i c v o c a t i o n by r e s p o n d i n g t o a 

s e l e c t , a l b e i t h e t e r o g e n e o u s , i n n e r c i r c l e o f a c q u a i n t a n c e s 

who m i c r o c o s m i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d h i s l a r g e r p u b l i c : F.D. 

M a u r i c e , F i t z g e r a l d , C l o u g h , J o w e t t , Patmore, Ward, and (on 

i t s o u t e r edges) Henry S i d g w i c k (248-49). Tennyson's 

V i c t o r i a n compromise i s t h u s t h o u g h t t o m i r r o r t h a t o f h i s 

f r i e n d s : an outward, q u i e t a c c e p t a n c e o f i d e a l i s m and a b s o l u t e 

v a l u e s (249) even i n t h e f a c e o f i n n e r doubt, w e a r i n e s s , 



u n c e r t a i n t y and d i f f i c u l t y . F o r a c c o r d i n g t o P i t t , " t h e 

V i c t o r i a n s s h a r e d emotions when t h e y d i d n o t s h a r e i d e a s " 

( 2 5 1 ) . 

Hence, because P i t t sees Tennyson as w o r k i n g from w i t h i n a 

s e c l u d e d e n v i r o n m e n t and f o r a l i m i t e d a u d i e n c e , she has 

t r o u b l e d e a l i n g w i t h Tennyson as a " p o p u l a r " p o e t , one who was 

a b l e — a s t h e p e o p l e ' s p o e t — t o t o u c h t h e h e a r t o f t h e masses. 

The p o p u l a r i t y o f I n Memoriam she wants t o a s c r i b e p a r t l y t o 

" l u c k " ( 1 1 6 ) . Tennyson's achievement as a p o p u l a r p o e t i s 

v i t i a t e d by h e r f i n a l c l a i m t h a t , i n h i s p o e t r y g e n e r a l l y , t h e 

" c o i n c i d e n c e o f h i s i n s i g h t s w i t h common symbols was 

a c c i d e n t a l , and on t h e whole t h e V i c t o r i a n p u b l i c 

m i s u n d e r s t o o d him" ( 2 6 9 ) . She adds, however, t h a t such 

m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g was n o t Tennyson's f a u l t . Because h i s 

V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e a t l a r g e i s p e r c e i v e d by h e r as h a v i n g 

l a c k e d commonly h e l d b e l i e f s , no p o e t c o u l d have hoped t o 

a s p i r e c o n s c i o u s l y t o p o p u l a r i t y on a mass s c a l e ( 2 6 7 - 8 ) . 

These c o n c l u s i o n s , however, seem t o b e l i e what P i t t 

m a i n t a i n s a t t h e o u t s e t , t h a t t h o s e p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d s t u d i e s , 

t o w h i c h Tennyson L a u r e a t e i s a r e a c t i o n , c a n n o t "deny t o him 

what he h e l d i n common w i t h h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , r e v e r e n c e f o r 

c h a s t i t y , and i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l c o u n t e r p a r t , i n t e g r i t y , an 

a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e d o m e s t i c c h a r i t i e s , a p a s s i o n a t e r e s p o n s e t o 

p h y s i c a l o r s p i r i t u a l c o u r a g e , and an i n t e n s e , i n s u l a r , and 

i r r i t a b l e a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e o r d e r and v a l u e s o f t h e s o c i e t y o f 

w h i c h he was a member" ( 1 2 ) . But i t s h o u l d be remembered 



304 

t h a t , f o r P i t t , t h i s contemporary a u d i e n c e was a narrow e l i t e 

r a t h e r t h a n t h e V i c t o r i a n p u b l i c as a whole. As s u c h , P i t t 

a l l o w s h e r s t u d y o f Tennyson's b a r d i c r o l e t o be 

o v e r d e t e r m i n e d by h e r t h e o r y t h a t Tennyson may have been t h e 

l a s t i n a t r a d i t i o n o f g r e a t e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r h e t o r i c a l 

p o e t s . Indeed, t h i s i s an e f f e c t i v e c o u n t e r t o t h e h i g h l y 

r o m a n t i c n o t i o n s o f p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d s c h o l a r s who see 

Tennyson engaged i n a m o d e r n i s t s t r u g g l e , b u t i t i s l e s s 

e f f e c t i v e as a s t u d y o f Tennyson as a man and as a p o e t l i v i n g 

and w o r k i n g w i t h i n a b r o a d l y - b a s e d V i c t o r i a n c u l t u r e t h a t d i d 

i n f a c t s h a r e t h e b e l i e f s t h a t she a c c o r d s o n l y t o a s e l e c t 

c l a s s . U l t i m a t e l y , h e r t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p r e d i l e c t i o n s r e v e a l 

t h e m s e l v e s when she, t o o , l i k e t h o s e s c h o l a r s she has t r i e d t o 

combat, laments t h e t o n e o f " c u r i o u s i n n o c e n c e " t h a t , d e s p i t e 

c o n f l i c t s and m o r a l c h a l l e n g e s , dominates Tennyson's l i f e and 

work, and r e g r e t s t h a t t h e V i c t o r i a n p o e t had n e v e r t h e sense 

o f " t r a g i c g u i l t " t h a t makes Shakespeare's work t r u l y g r e a t 

(246) . 

P i t t ' s i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e n e c e s s a r y compromises demanded by 

V i c t o r i a n l i f e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , Tennyson L a u r e a t e i r o n i c a l l y 

does l i t t l e t o e r a s e t h e Tennyson l e g e n d from t h e h o r i z o n o f 

e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t dominates t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y i m p r e s s i o n s o f 

t h e p o e t . I n m o n u m e n t a l i z i n g h i s f a t h e r as t h e V i c t o r i a n 

p o e t - p r i e s t - p r o p h e t i n t h e Memoir, H a l l a m Tennyson e s t a b l i s h e d 

a f o u n d a t i o n a l myth f o r t h e two Tennysons l e g e n d , a myth t h a t 

s c h o l a r s i n t h i s c e n t u r y have r e a l l y been u n a b l e t o d i m i n i s h 



o r r e p l a c e d e s p i t e i n o r d i n a t e e f f o r t s t o do so. S i r C h a r l e s ' s 

f i l l i n g i n o f t h e l a c u n a e o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s l i f e , i n an 

a t t e m p t t o d i m i n i s h t h e o v e r w e e n i n g p i e t y o f H a l l a m ' s 

V i c t o r i a n b i o g r a p h y , n o n e t h e l e s s has a l l o w e d i t s m y t h o l o g i z i n g 

o f women's r o l e s t o s t a n d u n c o r r e c t e d , t h e r e b y s u p p o r t i n g t h e 

m a t r i a r c h a l c a s t o f t h e Tennyson's l i f e and e n t r e n c h i n g t h e 

p o e t ' s supposed a l l e g i a n c e t o " t h e a n g e l i n t h e house." 

B i o g r a p h e r s such as N i c o l s o n and M a r t i n have sought t o r e p l a c e 

t h e p i o u s , p u b l i c p o r t r a i t drawn by t h e son w i t h Tennyson as 

t h e b r o o d i n g m y s t i c and n e u r o t i c . However, i n so d o i n g , t h e y 

have r e v e a l e d t h e i r own s u b j e c t i v e i m p u l s e s more t h a n o u t l i n e d 

t h e s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e i r o b j e c t o f s t u d y . L a s t l y , 

s c h o l a r s o f t h e p u b l i c Tennyson, i f t h e y examine t h e V i c t o r i a n 

i d e o l o g y t h a t Tennyson i s s a i d t o r e p r e s e n t — a s does P i t t — 

have come away d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e c u r i o u s d i s t a n c e t h a t 

seems t o have e x i s t e d between t h e p a s s i o n o f Tennyson's i n n e r 

l i f e and t h e outward e x p r e s s i o n o f b e l i e f t h a t marks h i s 

L a u r e a t e v e r s e . H a l l a m ' s m y t h i c A l f r e d L o r d Tennyson r e m a i n s 

u n t o p p l e d because each s c h o l a r , i n h i s o r h e r own way, w r i t e s 

i n r e a c t i o n t o Tennyson as H a l l a m ' s c r e a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n i n 

r e s p o n s e t o Tennyson as a p r o f e s s i o n a l p o e t w o r k i n g w i t h i n h i s 

own V i c t o r i a n c o n t e x t o f p e r s o n a l , p r o f e s s i o n a l , and s o c i o -

p o l i t i c a l aims. An a n a l y s i s o f Tennyson as t h e p e o p l e ' s v o i c e 

o f V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d , i f i t i s t o do j u s t i c e t o t h e p o e t and 

n o t t o t h e myth, must examine t h e v a r i e t y o f f o r c e s t h a t 

p r o d u c e d changes i n h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g as he worked t o w a r d 



306 

m a r r i a g e , q u i t e l i t e r a l l y h i s own and t h e wedding o f v o i c e s 

t h a t marks t h e p o p u l a r achievement o f I n Memoriam. T h i s 

p e r i o d i n Tennyson's development i s f i g u r a t i v e l y l a b e l l e d 

" a d o l e s c e n c e , " n o t l e a s t because o f t h e c h a n g i n g t e n o r o f 

Tennyson's " s c h o o l m i s s A l f r e d " v o i c e as he approaches 

manhood. 



307 

CHAPTER POUR 

TENNYSON AND THE ADOLESCENCE OF A VOICE 

. . . t h e p o e t l i t t l e u r g e d , 
But w i t h some p r e l u d e o f d i s p a r a g e m e n t , 
Read, mouthing o u t h i s h o l l o w oes and aes, 
Deep c h e s t e d m u s i c . . . . 

— T e n n y s o n ("The E p i c " 48-51) 

One o f t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s i n w r i t i n g about V i c t o r i a n c u l t u r e 

w h i l e l i v i n g i n t h e l a t e - t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i s t h a t t h e 

metaphors used t o d e s c r i b e e x p e r i e n c e a r e i r r e v o c a b l y c o l o u r e d 

by t h e p s y c h o - s e x u a l c o n n o t a t i o n s t h a t a r i s e o u t o f a p o s t -

F r e u d i a n i d e o l o g y . Indeed, Tennyson s c h o l a r s h i p has been 

p r o f o u n d l y a f f e c t e d by t h e d e h i s t o r i c i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s o f 

p s y c h o l o g i c a l and, more r e c e n t l y , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s , 

w h i c h e i t h e r c o n f l a t e Tennyson's development as a p o e t w i t h 

h i s own p r i v a t e ego f o r m a t i o n , o r p o s i t a s e l f - d i v i d e d 

Tennyson as a n e c e s s a r y v i c t i m o f t h e d i s l o c a t i n g f o r c e s o f 

langauge f o r m a t i o n . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s p l a c e s 

Tennyson w i t h i n a h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t t h a t p r o d u c e d changes i n 

h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s development o f h i s p o e t i c v o i c e as an 

a r t i s t i c c o n s t r u c t . I n o t h e r words, he i s n o t seen as a 

p r o f e s s i o n a l p o e t . Y e t i f Tennyson's y o u t h f u l , " I mean t o be 

famous," i s g i v e n any c r e d e n c e w h a t s o e v e r , c l e a r l y t h e p o e t ' s 

awareness o f a u d i e n c e r e c e p t i o n as a d e t e r m i n i n g f e a t u r e i n 

t h e s u c c e s s f u l r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s dream must be t a k e n i n t o 

a c c o u n t when s t u d y i n g t h e m a t u r a t i o n o f Tennyson's p o e t i c 



308 

v o i c e p r i o r t o what Edgar Shannon r e f e r s t o as "The P i n n a c l e 

o f S u c c e s s , " t h e w i d e s p r e a d p o p u l a r i t y o f I n Memoriam. 

The n o t i o n o f a d i s t i n c t i v e p o e t i c v o i c e t h a t d e v e l o p s i n 

a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Tennyson's m a t u r a t i o n as a p s y c h o - s e x u a l 

b e i n g s h o u l d n o t be m i s c o n s t r u e d as a t y p e o f F r e u d i a n 

d i s p l a c e m e n t o f p r i v a t e a n x i e t i e s . I n s t e a d , Tennyson's p o e t i c 

a d o l e s c e n c e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n p u b l i c t e r m s , a d o l e s c e n c e 

b e i n g t h a t p e r i o d i n w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a d u a l l y works 

t o w a r d f u l l a d u l t a c c e p t a n c e as a member o f a s o c i a l and 

p o l i t i c a l community. I n t h i s s t u d y , a d o l e s c e n c e i s u s e d 

m e t a p h o r i c a l l y — n o t b i o l o g i c a l l y , p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y o r even 

s o c i o l o g i c a l l y p e r s e — t o i n d i c a t e t h a t p e r i o d i n Tennyson's 

l i f e , r o u g h l y 1827-50, i n w h i c h he s t r u g g l e d t o c r e a t e a v o i c e 

t h a t w o u l d n o t o n l y echo h i s d i s t i n c t i v e i n d i v i d u a l i t y as a 

new p o e t w i t h i n t h e E n g l i s h l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n , b u t a l s o sound 

h i s a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e l a r g e r c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l p o l i t y o f 

B r i t a i n . That t h i s s t r u g g l e was f o r Tennyson, even as i t was 

f o r L o n g f e l l o w , f r a u g h t w i t h a f e m i n i n e - v e r s u s - m a s c u l i n e 

c o n t r o v e r s y , e n l a r g e n s t h e m e t a p h o r i c scope o f Tennyson's 

p o e t i c a d o l e s c e n c e . 

On i n n u m e r a b l e o c c a s i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e 160 y e a r s t h a t h i s 

poems have s t i r r e d a u d i e n c e s , Tennyson, l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , has 

been l a b e l l e d a " f e m i n i n e " p o e t . The meaning o f s u c h an 

a p p e l l a t i o n has been h i s t o r i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d , r e f e r r i n g t o 

d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . To h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , 

e s p e c i a l l y Edward B u l w e r - L y t t o n , i t d e r o g a t o r i l y s i g n a l l e d a 



309 

t e n d e n c y t o l y r i c a l e f f u s i o n , m e t r i c a l n i c e t i e s , and f a l s e 

e m o t i o n o r s e n t i m e n t a l i t y t h a t assumed even g r e a t e r prominence 

w i t h B u l w e r - L y t t o n ' s s a t i r e o f Tennyson i n c l u d e d i n h i s "The 

New Timon" (1846). Tennyson had been g r a n t e d a C i v i l L i s t 

P e n s i o n o f £200 i n 1845; t h i s " g i f t " r a n k l e d B u l w e r - L y t t o n t o 

s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t he used h i s "New Timon" t o c a s t doubt upon 

Tennyson's m a n l i n e s s : 

L e t S c h o o l - M i s s - A l f r e d v e n t h e r c h a s t e d e l i g h t 
On ' d a r l i n g l i t t l e rooms so warm and b r i g h t ! ' 
Chaunt, 'I'm aweary,' i n i n f e c t i o u s s t r a i n , 
And c a t c h h e r ' b l u e f l y s i n g i n g i ' t h e pane.' 

(pages 51-2) 

A l t h o u g h B u l w e r - L y t t o n ' s infamous " S c h o o l - M i s s - A l f r e d " j i b e , 

among o t h e r s , may have t r i g g e r e d a " t r i u m p h a n t v i n d i c a t i o n o f 

Tennyson" a t t h e t i m e , as M a r t i n c o n t e n d s ( 2 9 8 ) , i t l a b e l l e d 

Tennyson once and f o r a l l as a f e m i n i n e p o e t . 

Indeed, more generous r e a d e r s t h a n B u l w e r - L y t t o n , s u c h as 

W.J. Fox, had v e r y e a r l y d e t e c t e d i n Tennyson's p o e t r y a 

p r e f e r e n c e f o r f e m a l e s u b j e c t m a t t e r d e f i n e d by a K e a t s i a n 

r i c h n e s s o f imagery t h a t c o u l d l e a d t o a f f e c t a t i o n a l t h o u g h 

Fox d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d e r i d e t h i s as " f e m i n i n e . " 1 W h i l e t h e 

1 W. J . Fox's u n s i g n e d r e v i e w o f Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l 
a p p e a r e d i n t h e W e s t m i n s t e r Review, J a n u a r y 18 31 (see Jump 21-
3 3 ) . H i s e f f u s i v e p r a i s e o f Tennyson's a b i l i t y t o e n t e r 
c h a r a c t e r and mood, e s p e c i a l l y o f women, i s n o t e w o r t h y s i n c e 
i t c l e a r l y d e r i v e d from Fox's r a d i c a l p o l i t i c s y e t e s t a b l i s h e d 
a p r e c e d e n t i n T e n n y s o n i a n c r i t i c i s m t h a t c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t 
t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d . From Tennyson's f o c u s on women, Fox 
g e n e r a l i z e s : "Upon what l o v e i s , depends what woman i s , and 
upon what woman i s , depends what t h e w o r l d i s , b o t h i n t h e 
p r e s e n t and i n t h e f u t u r e . There i s n o t a g r e a t e r m o r a l 
n e c e s s i t y t h a n t h a t o f a r e f o r m a t i o n o f f e m a l e e d u c a t i o n " 
( 3 0 ) . From h i s e a r l i e s t work t o h i s f i n a l Death o f Oenone, 
Tennyson worked w i t h i n t h i s m o r a l , s o c i a l i m p e r a t i v e ; and i t 



" f e m i n i n e " l a b e l would f o l l o w Tennyson t h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r , 

s u c h l a b e l l i n g d i d l i t t l e t o damage Tennyson's p o p u l a r 

r e p u t a t i o n i n i t s e a r l y s t a g e s . By t h e 18 60s, however, w i t h 

t h e m o r a l o u t c r y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f Swinburne's 

Poems and B a l l a d s (18 6 6 ) , c r i t i c s began t o condemn, i n no 

u n c e r t a i n t e r m s , any s u g g e s t i o n s o f s e x u a l a m b i g u i t y i n t h e 

p o e t i c v o i c e s o f E n g l a n d ' s male p o e t s . A l f r e d A u s t i n ' s 

r e e v a l u a t i o n o f Tennyson as a " f e m i n i n e " p o e t p a r e x c e l l e n c e 

i n The Temple Bar (1869) , r e p r o d u c e d i n The P o e t r y o f t h e  

P e r i o d (1870 i n Jump 294-311), c r y s t a l l i z e d a c r i t i c a l 

r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t Tennyson's " f e m i n i n e " l u x u r i e s o f language 

and e m o t i o n t h a t had been b u i l d i n g f o r some t i m e , most 

n o t i c e a b l e p e r h a p s i n W a l t e r Bagehot's "Wordsworth, Tennyson, 

and B r o w n i n g ; o r , P u r e , O r n a t e , and G r o t e s q u e A r t i n E n g l i s h 

P o e t r y " (1864). I n a r e l a t e d way, R o b e r t Buchanan's e s s a y 

"The F l e s h l y S c h o o l o f P o e t r y " (1871) though aimed a t 

R o s s e t t i , l a b e l l e d Swinburne a p o e t i c h e r m a p h r o d i t e , and had 

c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r any male p o e t "Who A f f e c t e d an 

E f f e m i n a t e Manner." The s p r e a d i n g homophobia o f t h e l a t e r 

decades o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y c o u l d o n l y s e r v e t o h e i g h t e n 

c r i t i c i s m o f Tennyson's " f e m i n i n e muse" ( A u s t i n ' s term) so 

t h a t by t h e 1920s Tennyson's b a r d i c v o i c e was c a t e g o r i c a l l y 

i s i n h i s f o c u s upon t h e v a l u e o f women i n s o c i e t y , t h a t 
Tennyson may be b e s t t h o u g h t o f as p r e e m i n e n t l y V i c t o r i a n . 



311 

denounced by N i c o l s o n as e m a s c u l a t e and, t h e r e f o r e , t o be 

e x c i s e d . 2 

D e s p i t e changes i n t h e h o r i z o n o f gender e x p e c t a t i o n s 

imposed on male p o e t s , what r e m a i n s c o n s i s t e n t i n most 

c r i t i c s ' v i e w s o f Tennyson i s t h e f e m i n i n e l a b e l i t s e l f , 

i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e c o n n o t a t i o n s s u c h n o m e n c l a t u r e m i g h t 

c a r r y . A c c o r d i n g t o a m i d - t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s y m p a t h i z e r such 

as P i t t , " f e m i n i n e " d e s i g n a t e s s o m e t h i n g a t t h e h e a r t o f 

Tennyson's c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s , s o m e t h i n g n o t t o be d e n i g r a t e d 

b u t u n d e r s t o o d and a p p r e c i a t e d : " H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f 

e x p e r i e n c e was s l o w i n f o r m i n g i t s e l f , moving n o t by t h e 

arrangement o f n e a t c o n c e p t u a l c o u n t e r s , b u t i n a l o n g o r g a n i c 

g r o w t h . H i s m e n t a l l i f e was, i f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n be a d m i t t e d , 

f e m i n i n e n o t m a s c u l i n e , c o n t e m p l a t i v e , n o t a c t i v e " ( 8 ) . 

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , P i t t n e v e r e x p l a i n s why an o r g a n i c , 

c o n t e m p l a t i v e mind s h o u l d be deemed " f e m i n i n e . " Moreover, o f 

t h o s e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s who do q u e s t i o n Tennyson's 

" f e m i n i n e " p o e t i c v o i c e few c o n s i d e r i t o u t s i d e o f t h e c o n t e x t 

2 J e f f r e y Weeks's c h a p t e r on "The C o n s t r u c t i o n o f 
H o m o s e x u a l i t y " (96-121) e x p l a i n s how, p r i o r t o t h e 1870s, t h e 
g e n e r a l p u b l i c had no c l e a r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l 
t y p e , "homosexual," a l t h o u g h v a r i o u s laws and forms o f 
p e r s e c u t i o n s had e x i s t e d t o c o n t r o l "sodomy." I n t h e l a t t e r 
p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , however, l e g a l and m e d i c a l 
i n t e r e s t s a c c o r d w i t h a p u b l i c c o n c e r n f o r " s o c i a l p u r i t y , " 
and t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f s e x u a l i t y i n g e n e r a l , c r e a t i n g n o t o n l y 
o u t b u r s t s o f "moral p a n i c " s u c h as t h o s e f o l l o w i n g t h e W i l d e 
t r i a l s , b u t " d e f i n i t e n e s s and s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o t h e 
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f h o m o s e x u a l i t y " ( H a v e l o c k E l l i s q t d 1 0 3 ) ; i n 
o t h e r words, t h e homosexual, as a s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t , came i n t o 
b e i n g a t t h i s t i m e . 



312 

o f t h e p o e t ' s own s e x u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , p r e s e n t 

c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f Tennyson's f e m a l e muse o f t e n 

i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y i n v o l v e t h e s t a n d a r d b i o g r a p h i c a l 

d e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h Tennyson may o r may n o t 

have engaged i n homosexual a c t i v i t i e s w i t h H a l l a m , even as i t 

d i d i n t h e 1830s f o l l o w i n g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f "O D a r l i n g Room" 

(1832) and, more m a r k e d l y l a t e r , f o l l o w i n g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f 

I n Memoriam. 3 That i s , Tennyson's v o i c e has seldom been 

3 V a r i o u s c r i t i c s have t r i e d t o answer d i r e c t l y t h e 
q u e s t i o n R i c k s posed t o h i m s e l f and h i s r e a d e r s i n 1972: " I s 
Tennyson's l o v e f o r H a l l a m a homosexual l o v e " (215)? R i c k s ' s 
answer i s "no," and he t r i e s " t o say why" (216) by c i t i n g 
b i o g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e o f Tennyson's l a c k o f a n x i e t y c o n c e r n i n g 
h i s s e x u a l i t y . I n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o The L e t t e r s o f A r t h u r  
Henry H a l l a m , J a c k K o l b c o n f i d e n t l y a s s e r t s t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n 
o f Tennyson's and H a l l a m ' s f r i e n d s h i p as homosexual i s p u t 
" f i n a l l y t o r e s t " by H a l l a m ' s l e t t e r s ( 1 7 ) . However, K o l b ' s 
a s s e r t i o n has been i g n o r e d by s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s i n t h e 1980s. 
U s i n g J e f f r e y Weeks's s o c i o l o g i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f 
homosexual e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , A l a n 
S i n f i e l d , . f o r example, d e f i n e s Tennyson's r e l a t i o n t o H a l l a m 
as " t h e h i g h l y i n d i v i d u a l i z e d , t h e d e e p l y e m o t i o n a l , sometimes 
even s e x u a l , r e l a t i o n between two i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e 
o t h e r w i s e n o t r e g a r d e d , o r do n o t r e g a r d t h e m s e l v e s , as 
' d e v i a n t ' " (Weeks q t d . S i n f i e l d 131). S i n f i e l d f u r t h e r 
e x p l a i n s t h e s e x u a l s i t e o f s t r u g g l e i n Tennyson's l i f e and 
p o e t r y w i t h i n i t s " c h a n g i n g c l a s s and power r e l a t i o n s " (13 2 ) . 
T a k i n g a d e c o n s t r u c t i v i s t a p p r o a c h t o I n Memoriam, C h r i s t o p h e r 
C r a f t a r g u e s t h a t " R i c k s ' e x t e n d e d 'defense (so t o speak) o f 
Tennyson' a g a i n s t i m p u t a t i o n s o f h o m o s e x u a l i t y r e m a i n s 
s y m p a t h e t i c t o c e r t a i n T e n n y s o n i a n n o t i o n s o f an o r d e r l y and 
c o n v e n t i o n a l androgyny . . . " ( 8 7 ) , an androgyny w h i c h C r a f t 
s e e s i n I n Memoriam as f r a u g h t w i t h a n x i e t i e s o f gender 
i n v e r s i o n t h a t c r e a t e a m b i v a l e n c e a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e 
s i g n i f i e r and e n s u r e " t h e i n t r a c t a b l e c i r c u l a t i o n o f male 
homosexual d e s i r e " (94) i n t h e poem. H a l l a m ' s d e a t h e n s u r e d 
t h a t homosexual " t o u c h i n g " c o u l d r e m a i n "always a l r e a d y . . . 
e x i l e d t o a r e a l m beyond t o u c h " ( 9 8 ) , and t h e r e f o r e beyond 
r e a l i z a t i o n though n o t n e c e s s a r i l y beyond d e s i r e . Most 
r e c e n t l y , R i c h a r d D e l l a m o r a l o o k s a t M a s c u l i n e D e s i r e from t h e 
p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e s e x u a l p o l i t i c s o f V i c t o r i a n a e s t h e t i c i s m . 
I n h i s c h a p t e r on Tennyson, he comes c l o s e s t t o a p p r e c i a t i n g 
Tennyson's ambiguous s e x u a l v o i c i n g n o t as e v i d e n c e o f t h e 



313 

t h o u g h t o f as a p r o d u c t o f d e s i g n r a t h e r t h a n as a b i o l o g i c a l 

o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l a c c i d e n t . What needs t o be examined i s 

Tennyson's awareness o f s o - c a l l e d e f f e m i n a c y as an a e s t h e t i c 

c o n s t r u c t d e s i g n e d t o engage t h e p r i v a t e s y m p a t h i e s o f an 

i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e f e m a l e r e a d e r s h i p y e t w i t h i n a c o n t e x t t h a t 

would appease t h e p u b l i c demands o f h i s male c r i t i c s . I n t h i s 

way, Tennyson's p r i v a t e - p u b l i c , female-male c o n f l i c t p a r a l l e l s 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s s t r u g g l e t o meet t h e demands o f h i s own n a t i o n ' s 

i n c r e a s i n g l y m a s c u l i n i s t c r i t i c s w h i l e s t i l l a p p e a l i n g t o t h e 

f e m i n i n e s y m p a t h i e s o f h i s g e n e r a l p u b l i c . Such a p a r a l l e l , 

however, i s i n Tennyson's c a s e f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by s o c i o -

economic s t r i c t u r e s g o v e r n i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f men and 

women, making c l a s s an a d d i t i o n a l l y i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e 

g o v e r n i n g t h e development o f Tennyson as t h e p o e t i c v o i c e o f 

V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d . 

I n i t i a l l y , t h e p i v o t a l f o r c e i n t h e s t r u g g l e t o c r e a t e 

Tennyson's p o e t i c v o i c e was n o t t h e p o e t h i m s e l f b u t r a t h e r 

A r t h u r Henry H a l l a m . A f t e r moving t o Cambridge i n 1827, 

Tennyson t h e p o e t saw h i s a u d i e n c e broaden from f a m i l y and 

p o e t ' s h o m o s e x u a l i t y ( c l o s e t o r o t h e r w i s e ) , b u t r a t h e r w i t h i n 
a c o n t e x t o f c o n s t r u c t e d a e s t h e t i c s : Tennyson's own as w e l l as 
t h o s e o f s e v e r a l A p o s t l e s , some o f whom were known homosexuals 
(16-3 0 ) . D e l l a m o r a ' s f u r t h e r c o n c e p t i o n o f two d i s t i n c t s e t s 
o f r e a d e r s o f I n Memoriam seems t o f o l l o w P i t t ' s r e a l i z a t i o n 
o f t h e p o e t ' s i n n e r and o u t e r c i r c l e s o f r e a d e r s h i p , w h i l e h i s 
d i s c u s s i o n o f Tennyson's gender c o n s t r u c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o 
t h e s e a u d i e n c e s i s u n i q u e a l t h o u g h u n f o r t u n a t e l y b r i e f (3 5-
40) . The e n t i c i n g power o f Tennyson's androgynous v o i c e makes 
i t u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e i s s u e o f t h e p o e t ' s p o t e n t i a l 
h o m o s e x u a l i t y w i l l e v e r t r u l y be p u t t o r e s t . 



314 

i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s t o Cambridge dons and s c h o l a r s , d i r e c t e d i n 

t h i s by t h e l e a d e r s h i p r o l e p l a y e d by t h e A p o s t l e s d e b a t i n g 

s o c i e t y . Tennyson, t h e man, a l s o d e v e l o p e d t h e most p r o f o u n d <-

e m o t i o n a l a t t a c h m e n t o f h i s l i f e : t h e l o v e and c o m p a n i o n s h i p — 

s h o r t - l i v e d as i t w a s — o f f e l l o w A p o s t l e , A r t h u r H a l l a m . 

H a l l a m was t o be f o r Tennyson a b r i d g e between t h e p u b l i c p o e t 

and t h e p r i v a t e man; t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p i n t h e 

i n i t i a l development o f Tennyson as t h e " p e o p l e ' s v o i c e " o f 

V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d c a n n o t be o v e r s t r e s s e d . I n h i s i n t e r e s t i n 

immediate Romantic p r e c u r s o r s , H a l l a m showed Tennyson how h i s 

own c l a s s i c a l e r u d i t i o n g l e a n e d from t h e p r i v a t e l i b r a r y o f 

t h e Somersby R e c t o r y c o u l d r e i n s c r i b e i t s e l f w i t h i n a 

c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c a l and s p i r i t u a l c o n t e x t . He t h u s 

s u g g e s t e d t o Tennyson h i s p l a c e w i t h i n a l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n , 

e x t e n d i n g i n t o t h e p r e s e n t t h r o u g h t h e i n c l u s i o n o f K e a t s and 

S h e l l e y . He a l s o gave Tennyson p r a c t i c a l a i d i n r e s p o n s e t o 

T r e n c h ' s A p o s t o l i c i n j u n c t i o n : "Tennyson, we c a n n o t l i v e i n 

A r t . " By t a k i n g on an a g e n t ' s r o l e i n t h e e a r l y 1830s, he 

e n s u r e d t h a t Tennyson was p u b l i s h e d and promoted. He showed 

t h e p o e t how t o make p r i v a t e s u f f e r i n g a p u b l i c v i r t u e . W h i l e 

a l i v e , he c h a n n e l l e d Tennyson's p o e t i c v o i c e ; once dead, he 

f o r c e d Tennyson t o do t h i s f o r h i m s e l f . 

H a l l a m ' s r o l e i n Tennyson's c a r e e r , however, needs t o be 

seen w i t h i n a l a r g e r c o n t e x t : t h e f r i e n d l y i n t e l l e c t u a l and 

p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p p o r t t h a t Tennyson and H a l l a m b o t h b e n e f i t t e d 

from when, i n 1829, t h e y j o i n e d t h e Cambridge C o n v e r s a z i o n e 



315 

S o c i e t y more commonly known as t h e A p o s t l e s . The i m p o r t a n c e 

o f t h i s s o c i e t y i n t h e development o f Tennyson's c r e a t i v e 

temperament has r a r e l y gone u n n o t i c e d by h i s s e v e r a l 

b i o g r a p h e r s . S i n c e N i c o l s o n ' s damning p o r t r a i t o f t h e group, 

however, i t s e f f e c t s have u s u a l l y been t h o u g h t o f as 

d e l e t e r i o u s , t o g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g r e e s d e p e n d i n g on how 

t e n a c i o u s l y t h e s c h o l a r i n q u e s t i o n c l i n g s t o Tennyson's 

" g e n i u s " as e s s e n t i a l l y p r i v a t e . Tennyson i s t h o u g h t t o have 

a c q u i r e d h i s sense o f p u b l i c o r s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a t t h i s 

t i m e a l m o s t as i f i t were f o r c e d upon him as an i n e l u c t a b l e 

d e s t i n y . And t h e A p o s t l e s were t o blame, o r so t h e s t o r y 

goes. 

As P e t e r A l l e n i n h i s h i s t o r y o f The Cambridge A p o s t l e s 

a r g u e s , F.D. M a u r i c e — n o t j u s t t h e man b u t h i s p r e s e n c e — 

r e i g n e d o v e r t h e A p o s t l e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e 1820s and 30s. 

L e a d e r o f a s e l f - s t y l e d subgroup o f A p o s t l e s known as 

" m y s t i c s , " M a u r i c e e s t a b l i s h e d a s p i r i t u a l , q u a s i -

p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e i r i d e n t i t y as a g r o u p . 4 S e l f -

I n t h e l a t e 182 0s, t h e m y s t i c s c o n s i s t e d o f M a u r i c e , 
John S t e r l i n g , John Kemble, W i l l i a m Donne, R i c h a r d T r e n c h , and 
J o s e p h B l a k e s l e y . A l l e n c l a i m s t h a t M a u r i c e ' s b e l i e f s d e r i v e d 
from h i s f a m i l y ' s U n i t a r i a n i s m and p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a l i s m 
f r a u g h t w i t h i n t e r n e c i n e b a t t l e s w i t h h i s s i s t e r s o v e r 
E v a n g e l i c a l i s m ' s p r o m o t i o n o f a p e r s o n a l God ( 5 6 - 7 2 ) . The 
p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l i s m w h i c h M a u r i c e e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h e d was a 
t y p e o f compromise: " H i s f a m i l y ' s p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a l i s m , w i t h 
w h i c h he had a l w a y s been i n sympathy, demanded commitment t o 
s o c i a l r e f o r m . H i s s i s t e r s ' and mother's r e l i g i o u s z e a l , 
w h i c h he c o u l d n o t i g n o r e , demanded t h e p u r s u i t o f p e r s o n a l 
s a l v a t i o n and c o n c e r n f o r t h e s o u l s o f o t h e r s . By i d e n t i f y i n g 
t h e s o u l o r e s s e n t i a l s e l f w i t h C o l e r i d g e ' s ' r e a s o n ' , M a u r i c e 
f o u n d i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l i s m an a l l y , p e r h a p s a 
r e p l a c e m e n t , f o r e v a n g e l i c a l f a i t h " (79) . The C a l v i n i s t -



316 

s c r u t i n y became a t e s t o f " r e l i g i o u s " f a i t h , w i t h l i b e r a l 

a c c e p t a n c e o f one a n o t h e r ' s v i e w s seldom v i o l a t e d ( 7 1 - 5 ) . 

A l l e n r e f e r s t o s e v e r a l t e n e t s o f " A p o s t o l i c T h e o l o g y " : a 

s t r o n g , a n t i - B e n t h a m i t e o b j e c t i o n t o m a t e r i a l i s m ; b e l i e f i n 

man's i n n a t e e x p e r i e n c e o f God; s t r u g g l e f o r s e l f - k n o w l e d g e ; 

an a p p a r e n t d i s r e g a r d f o r s o c i a l r e f o r m s i n c e i t d e a l t m e r e l y 

w i t h " m a t e r i a l " p r o b l e m s ; and t h e p r o m o t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e as a 

v e h i c l e f o r s p i r i t u a l and t h e r e f o r e s o c i a l s a l v a t i o n (see esp. 

7 5 - 8 6 ) . 5 The a s s u r a n c e w i t h w h i c h v a r i o u s members h e l d and 

i n s p i r e d f a i t h o f M a u r i c e ' s s i s t e r s was a common r e a c t i o n a r y 
r e s p o n s e t o g r o w i n g r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a n c e and o u t r i g h t d i s s e n t 
i n t h e e a r l y 1800s. Tennyson was made d i r e c t l y aware o f t h i s 
r e l i g i o u s r e a c t i o n a r i s m t h r o u g h t h e r i g i d C a l v i n i s m o f h i s 
aunt Mary Bourne, w h i c h she r e p e a t e d l y i n f l i c t e d upon t h e 
"damned" Tennyson c h i l d r e n (Memoir 12-13). Tennyson's 
r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a n c e seems t o have d e v e l o p e d g r a d u a l l y , l i k e 
M a u r i c e ' s , o u t o f f a m i l y c i r c u m s t a n c e s p r i o r t o Cambridge 
r a t h e r t h a n h a v i n g been t a k e n on t h e r e a f t e r as an A p o s t o l i c 
c r e e d . B o t h M a u r i c e and Tennyson c o n t r a s t s h a r p l y w i t h 
L o n g f e l l o w who, as a U n i t a r i a n i n a f a r more l i b e r a l A m e r i c a , 
n e v e r had t o q u e s t i o n t h e l i b e r a l i s m o f h i s r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . 
T h e r e f o r e , r e l i g i o u s s t r u g g l e s — a n d t h e v a r i o u s t e n s i o n s and 
a m b i g u i t i e s t h a t c o m p r o m i s e - s o l u t i o n s c o u l d g i v e r i s e t o — a r e 
v i r t u a l l y a b s e n t from L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y , o f t e n making i t 
l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a n Tennyson's t o modern and post-modern 
r e a d e r s . 

5 These e s s e n t i a l l y s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f s o f t h e 1820s had 
some p e r h a p s u n e x p e c t e d e x p e r i e n t i a l consequences i n t h e 
183 0s. D e l l a m o r a a l l e g e s t h a t t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e group, t h e 
members' f e e l i n g s o f s h a r e d m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y t h a t a b s e n t e d 
them from t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n s and p r o s c r i p t i o n s o f s o c i e t y , and 
t h e l i b e r a l a c c e p t a n c e o f a wide range o f v i e w s may a c t u a l l y 
have f o s t e r e d an i n t e l l e c t u a l and e m o t i o n a l v e n t u r i n g t h a t 
i n c l u d e d s e x u a l n o n c o n f o r m i t y f o r such members as A r t h u r 
B u l l e r , R i c h a r d Monckton M i l n e s , James S p e d d i n g , Henry 
L u s h i n g t o n , and George V e n a b l e s a l l o f whom were f r i e n d s o f 
H a l l a m and Tennyson, some more than, o t h e r s ( 1 9 - 2 8 ) . H a l l a m ' s 
b r i e f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h M i l n e s i n 1829 and H a l l a m ' s own w r i t i n g s 
o f t h e p e r i o d i n d i c a t e t h a t b o t h "Tennyson and H a l l a m were 
w e l l aware t h a t sex o c c u r s between men" (see 24-30). 



317 

espoused t h e s e b e l i e f s u n d o u b t e d l y l e f t t h e S o c i e t y open t o 

c h a r g e s o f e l i t i s m — c h a r g e s w h i c h members u s u a l l y d i d l i t t l e 

t o d i s p e l and may a c t u a l l y have encouraged. A l l e n , though 

c r i t i c a l , n o n e t h e l e s s l i n k s t h e A p o s t l e s ' e l i t i s m t o t h e i r 

m y s t i c a l adherence t o C o l e r i d g e ' s t h e o r i e s o f noumenal as 

opposed t o phenomenal e x i s t e n c e ( 8 1 ) . I n 1828, M a u r i c e had 

a r g u e d t h a t t r u e s o c i a l r e f o r m e r s were t h o s e who "though i n 

t h e age, a r e n o t o f i t , who p a r t a k e n o t o f i t s s p i r i t , w o r s h i p 

n o t i t s i d o l s , b u t who have p r o p o s e d t o t h e m s e l v e s a more 

s u b l i m e i d e a o f i n t e l l e c t u a l e x c e l l e n c e and m o r a l p u r i t y t h a n 

any i t w i l l s u p p l y them w i t h . . . ." S o c i a l r e f o r m e r s were 

t o l i f t up t h e minds o f t h o s e below them t o t h e i r same e x a l t e d 

s t a n d a r d ( q t d . 8 1 ) . To t h i s end, M a u r i c e used t h e p r i n t e d 

word as a form o f s p i r i t u a l e d u c a t i o n . The A p o s t l e s ' 

" m y s t i c a l " i d e a s were promoted i n two magazines w h i c h he and 

John S t e r l i n g owned and e d i t e d i n 1828-9: t h e L i t e r a r y  

C h r o n i c l e and t h e Athenaeum ( 7 5 - 6 ) . I n t h e c o n f u s e d y e a r s 

j u s t b e f o r e t h e passage o f t h e f i r s t Reform B i l l , S t e r l i n g 

summed up t h e r e a s o n s f o r h i s " m y s t i c " f a i t h i n s p i r i t u a l 

r e f o r m v i a e d u c a t i o n o v e r t h e s o c i a l o r p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m 

demanded a t t h e t i m e . He a r g u e s t h a t a "change o f 

i n s t i t u t i o n s i s n e c e s s a r y ; and t h i s change c a n n o t t a k e p l a c e 

w i t h o u t an a l t e r a t i o n i n t h e mind o f t h e c o u n t r y . To t h i s 

r e f o r m o f t h o u g h t and f e e l i n g , i t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t E n g l a n d 

w i l l a r r i v e , u n t i l she has been t a u g h t by much s o r r o w , been 

d i s c i p l i n e d i n t o wisdom by s u f f e r i n g , and l e a r n t t o l i s t e n t o 



318 

t h e v o i c e s o f t e a c h e r s , o f such men as Wordsworth and 

C o l e r i d g e " ( q t d . 8 0 ) . I n 1827, Tennyson a p p e a r s t o have had 

much t o l e a r n h i m s e l f i f he were e v e r t o f u l f i l t h e m i s s i o n 

t h a t t h e " m y s t i c s " d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e p o e t i c v o i c e . 

D e s p i t e t h e A p o s t l e s ' e n t h u s i a s t i c s u p p o r t f o r Tennyson i n 

t h e 1830s and 40s as t h e i r p o e t - p r o p h e t ( e v i d e n t t h r o u g h o u t 

t h e i r p e r s o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ) , Tennyson n e v e r d i d a c t u a l l y 

assume t h e r o l e o f p o e t as e d u c a t o r , a t l e a s t n o t i n t h e way 

t h a t S t e r l i n g d e s c r i b e s i t . Shannon r e m a r k s , w i t h some 

o b v i o u s p u z z l e m e n t , t h a t e x c e p t f o r "The P a l a c e o f A r t " and 

"Oenone," " t h e poems o f 1833, t h e f r u i t o f t h e Cambridge 

p e r i o d , a r e s t r a n g e l y l a c k i n g i n t r a c e s o f t h e A p o s t l e s ' 

c r e e d " ( 5 0 ) . T h i s may be because Tennyson n e v e r r e a l l y was as 

a r d e n t an A p o s t l e as most t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s and 

b i o g r a p h e r s have t r i e d t o make him o u t t o be. H a l l a m was t h e 

t r u e A p o s t l e . 

When Tennyson f i r s t a r r i v e d a t Cambridge, he seems t o have 

k e p t t o h i m s e l f , s o c i a l i z i n g p r i m a r i l y w i t h o n l y h i s b r o t h e r s . 

As A l l e n r e m a r k s , t h e " t h r e e Tennyson b r o t h e r s - F r e d e r i c k , 

C h a r l e s and A l f r e d - were n o t a b l e o d d i t i e s i n t h e 

u n d e r g r a d u a t e w o r l d , b o t h f o r t h e i r b e h a v i o u r and t h e i r 

r e p u t a t i o n as p o e t s " (13 3 ) . A c c e p t a n c e i n t o u n d e r g r a d u a t e 

l i f e a t Cambridge, f o r A l f r e d , was f r u s t r a t e d by an 

u n w i l l i n g n e s s , p e r h a p s even an i n a b i l i t y t o e x p r e s s h i m s e l f i n 

p r o s e . I n t h i s way, he d i f f e r s m a r k e d l y from L o n g f e l l o w who 

d e l i b e r a t e l y v o i c e d h i s p o e t i c c r e d o s t h r o u g h o u t h i s c o l l e g e 



y e a r s i n s e v e r a l p r o s e e s s a y s and f i c t i o n d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 

two. But Tennyson i s perhaps u n i q u e as a p o e t i n t h a t 

" [ w ] r i t i n g p r o s e was u n p l e a s a n t t o him, and he spoke f o r t h e 

most p a r t i n s u c c i n c t , i s o l a t e d r a t h e r awkwardly p h r a s e d 

s e n t e n c e s . I n r e f r e s h i n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e s m o o t h l y p r o f i c i e n t 

r h e t o r i c and easy, w i t a c h i e v e d by so many o f t h e A p o s t l e s , 

Tennyson's c o n v e r s a t i o n was a l m o s t c h i l d l i k e i n i t s 

d i r e c t n e s s , u n p r e t e n t i o u s n e s s , and s i m p l e d e l i g h t i n humour" 

( A l l e n 133). 

I n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n , H a l l a m was w i d e l y known a t Cambridge 

f o r h i s s k i l f u l o r a t o r y . The p a p e r s t h a t he p r e s e n t e d t o t h e 

A p o s t l e s s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n c e r n r e c e p t i o n as a r h e t o r i c a l 

p r i n c i p l e , e x a m i n i n g t h e a f f e c t i v e means by w h i c h p e o p l e 

d e v e l o p m o r a l (hence r e l i g i o u s ) s e n t i m e n t . 6 I n h i s 

v a l o r i z a t i o n o f human s y m p a t h y — o r l o v e — a s a b a s i s f o r 

m o r a l i t y , H a l l a m ' s b e l i e f s echo S h e l l e y ' s c o n c e p t o f f r e e 

l o v e . Y e t , i n h i s e s s a y "On C i c e r o " H a l l a m , u n l i k e S h e l l e y , 

u l t i m a t e l y e n d o r s e s t h e " C h r i s t i a n f a i t h [as] t h e n e c e s s a r y 

complement o f a sound e t h i c a l system" ( q t d . i n A l l e n 157), and 

t h u s appends a r e l i g i o u s l y c o n s e r v a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n t o a 

6 The e s s a y s i n q u e s t i o n a r e 1. a n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e t o 
t h e q u e s t i o n " I s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an i n t e l l i g e n t f i r s t Cause 
d e d u c i b l e from t h e phenomena o f t h e U n i v e r s e ? " (Dec 1829) 2. 
"On Sympathy" (Dec 1830) 3. "On C i c e r o " (May 1831). They a r e 
d i s c u s s e d by A l l e n as p a r t o f a d e v e l o p i n g t h e o r y t h a t H a l l a m 
e x p r e s s e d p o e t i c a l l y as " t h e p u r e atmosphere o f F e e l i n g " t o 
c o u n t e r i n t e l l e c t u a l and r e l i g i o u s doubt. Tennyson's " ' I 
c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d : I l o v e . ' " ( I n Memoriam XCVII 36) seems t o 
d e r i v e from a s i m i l a r b e l i e f i n f e e l i n g as a w e l l s p r i n g o f 
m o r a l i t y . 



p o t e n t i a l l y r a d i c a l t h e o r y . N o n e t h e l e s s , " f e e l i n g " r e m a i n s 

t h e g u i d i n g f o r c e i n H a l l a m ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y . I t a p p e a r s i n 

subsequent work: h i s pamphlet on Dante, where t h e "work o f 

i n t e l l e c t " i s s a i d t o be " p o s t e r i o r t o t h e work o f f e e l i n g , " 

and a l a t e r e s s a y i n w h i c h l o v e i s " a t once t h e base and 

p y r a m i d i c a l p o i n t o f t h e e n t i r e u n i v e r s e " ( q t d . 157). I n t h i s 

p e r i o d o f p e r s o n a l and p u b l i c q u e s t i o n i n g o f t h e r e l e v a n c e o f 

r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e , H a l l a m a n c h o r s h i s f a i t h i n a God o f l o v e 

as t h e exemplar t o whom human b e i n g s a s p i r e i n t h e i r 

t r a n s i t o r y p a s s i o n s f o r one a n o t h e r . 

Through h i s own s e a r c h f o r m o r a l and r e l i g i o u s v a l u e i n t h e 

e x p e r i e n c e o f i n t e n s e e m o t i o n , H a l l a m a c t e d as a model f o r 

Tennyson t h r o u g h whom t h e p o e t c o u l d see s e e m i n g l y p r i v a t e 

v i c e t u r n e d t o p u b l i c v i r t u e . A c c o r d i n g t o R i c k s , Tennyson's 

" m e l a n c h o l i a ( w i t h i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o what he had seen o f h i s 

f a t h e r ' s m e l a n c h o l i a ) found i n H a l l a m t h e deeper r e a s s u r a n c e 

n o t o f s e r e n i t y b u t o f s i m i l a r s u f f e r i n g , d o u b t s , and 

m o r b i d i t i e s w h i c h y e t were n o t i g n o b l e " ( 3 8 - 9 ) — n o t i g n o b l e 

because H a l l a m had managed t o t u r n s u f f e r i n g i n t o a n e c e s s a r y 

m o r a l i m p e r a t i v e . Hence, as A l l e n a r g u e s , t h e e m o t i o n a l 

i n t i m a c y e v i d e n t between Tennyson and H a l l a m s h o u l d be v i e w e d 

as h a v i n g t a k e n p l a c e w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f m o r a l v a l u e t h a t 

each a s c r i b e d t o t h e p h y s i c a l s e n s a t i o n o f f e e l i n g s a c t i n g 

upon t h e p e r s o n : 

w h i l e t h e s e f e e l i n g s a r e a l l t o o o f t e n s u b j u g a t e d t o 
t h e s e x u a l p a s s i o n s , p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d (as P l a t o 
u n d e r s t o o d them) t h e y a r e n o t s e x u a l b u t m o r a l and 
f i n d t h e i r u l t i m a t e meaning i n r e l i g i o u s t e r m s . F o r 



321 

H a l l a m , t h e n , homosexual f e e l i n g s w o u l d have been 
m e r e l y p a r t o f t h e l a r g e r p r o b l e m o f r e c o n c i l i n g h i s 
e x p e r i e n c e o f human l o v e w i t h t h e o r t h o d o x f a i t h he 
w i s h e d t o p r o f e s s . H i s ' g r a p p l i n g s w i t h A t h e i s m ' , 
t h e ' s p e c t r e s o f t h e mind'[which] he f a c e d b e f o r e he 
'came a t l e n g t h / To f i n d a s t r o n g e r f a i t h h i s own', 
had t o do w i t h d i s c o v e r i n g a l i n k between h i s 
d e e p e s t emotions and t h e v i s i o n o f P r o v i d e n t i a l l o v e 
t h a t he saw as c e n t r a l t o h i s f a i t h . ( 1 5 8 ) 7 

The development o f H a l l a m ' s p h i l o s o p h i c a l b e l i e f has been 

b r i e f l y m e n t i o n e d h e r e because i t b e a r s d i r e c t l y upon 

Tennyson's a d o l e s c e n t development o f h i s p o e t i c v o i c e . T i e d 

more t o H a l l a m t h a n t o any o t h e r Cambridge a s s o c i a t e , Tennyson 

had d i f f i c u l t y as an a c t i v e member o f t h e A p o s t l e s . "He was 

7 A l l e n a l s o a t t r i b u t e s Tennyson's l a t e r f a i t h i n emotion 
t o M a u r i c e ' s " L e t t e r s t o a Quaker" w h i c h began a p p e a r i n g i n 
1837, t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n o f one o f h i s most i m p o r t a n t books, 
The Kingdom o f C h r i s t (1839, 1842) . A l l e n summarizes 
M a u r i c e ' s work by e x p l a i n i n g how M a u r i c e had examined t h e 
t e a c h i n g s o f v a r i o u s groups t h a t make up C h r i s t i a n i t y and t h e n 
t r i e d t o show how each c o n t a i n s an i m p o r t a n t element o f 
r e l i g i o u s t r u t h ; how t h e r e l i g i o u s "systems" d e r i v e d from 
t h e s e t e a c h i n g s have f a l s i f i e d them by c l a i m i n g t o be i n 
p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e whole t r u t h ; and how t h e p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f 
t h e s e r i v a l v i e w s can be seen t o be complementary t o one 
a n o t h e r and t o f i n d t h e i r n a t u r a l f u l f i l m e n t , f o r E n g l i s h 
p e o p l e , i n t h e Church o f E n g l a n d . "But by t h e Church o f 
E n g l a n d he meant t h e Church as he would have i t be, n o t as i t 
was . . . . He a r g u e d t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e 
o f s p i r i t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , f o r b e t t e r o r worse, i s d e r i v e d 
from h i s e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e f a m i l y , and t h a t 'human 
r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e n o t a r t i f i c i a l t y p e s o f s o m e t h i n g d i v i n e , 
b u t a r e a c t u a l l y t h e means and t h e o n l y means, t h r o u g h w h i c h 
man ascends t o any knowledge o f t h e d i v i n e ' . The m i s s i o n o f 
t h e Church i s t o a s s i s t i n t h e development o f t h e u n i v e r s a l 
s o c i e t y o r u n i v e r s a l f a m i l y t h a t C h r i s t has p l a n n e d f o r man, 
and t o s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e c o n t e n d i n g f o r c e s t h a t have 
h i t h e r t o p r e v e n t e d t h e f a m i l y , t h e n a t i o n and humanity from 
a c h i e v i n g t h e d i v i n e g o a l o f s p i r i t u a l u n i t y t h a t has been s e t 
f o r them ( A l l e n 173). Tennyson's a c c e p t a n c e o f M a u r i c e ' s 
f a i t h i n l o v e and f a m i l y i s perhaps b e s t e x p r e s s e d i n E m i l y 
and A l f r e d ' s r e q u e s t t h a t , a l o n g w i t h Henry H a l l a m ( A r t h u r ' s 
f a t h e r ) , M a u r i c e a c t as g o d f a t h e r t o t h e i r f i r s t son, H a l l a m , 
b o r n 11 August 1852 ( M a r t i n 366-67). 



322 

e l e c t e d on 31 O c t o b e r 1829 and a t t e n d e d t h e m e e t i n g o f t h a t 

d a t e b u t f a i l e d t o a t t e n d t h e n e x t two and was f i n e d f i v e 

s h i l l i n g s f o r t h e o f f e n c e . The punishment does n o t seem t o 

have encouraged him t o conform t o A p o s t o l i c e x p e c t a t i o n s . 

F u r t h e r a b s e n t e e i s m o c c u r r e d , and when h i s t u r n t o d e l i v e r a 

p a p e r came around he had n o t c o m p l e t e d t h e t a s k and had t o 

r e s i g n from t h e S o c i e t y " ( A l l e n 133). Thus he was a member 

f o r fewer t h a n f o u r months and a t t e n d e d no more t h a n f i v e 

m e e t i n g s . I f Tennyson i s t o be r e g a r d e d as an A p o s t l e a t a l l , 

t h e n , he can o n l y be seen as a t y p e o f member e m e r i t u s , n o t as 

a bona f i d e h o n o r a r y member s i n c e he n e v e r gave a p a p e r . T h i s 

r e q u i r e m e n t was o v e r l o o k e d i n 1856, b u t Tennyson n o n e t h e l e s s 

n e v e r a t t e n d e d m e e t i n g s o r any o f t h e A p o s t l e s ' a n n u a l d i n n e r s 

t h e r e a f t e r ( 1 3 4 - 5 ) . I n s h o r t , as A l l e n r e m a r k s , t h e e v i d e n c e 

s u g g e s t s t h a t "Tennyson c a r e d a g r e a t d e a l l e s s about t h e 

S o c i e t y t h a n i t s o t h e r members d i d about him . . . . Much t o 

t h e p u z z l e m e n t o f t h o s e A p o s t l e s [ e s p e c i a l l y B l a k e s l e y ] who 

f e l t t h a t t h e y knew b e t t e r t h a n he how h i s t a l e n t s s h o u l d be 

employed, Tennyson was q u i t e p e r s i s t e n t i n d o i n g t h i n g s h i s 

own way" (13 5) . 

Tennyson a p p e a r s t o have had g r e a t r e l u c t a n c e i n p r o m o t i n g 

h i m s e l f as a member o f t h e A p o s t l e s i n any p r e s c r i b e d o r 

r e g u l a t o r y way a l t h o u g h he c e r t a i n l y sought t h e i r company 

s o c i a l l y . To i n d i v i d u a l A p o s t l e s o r t o s m a l l groups o f them, 

Tennyson would o f t e n r e c i t e poems i n p r o g r e s s . I t seems as i f 

Tennyson r e c o g n i z e d v e r y e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r t h a t what o r a t o r y 



323 

he had t o o f f e r was n o t s t r i c t l y r h e t o r i c a l ; t h a t i s , t h e 

a p p e a l s he c o u l d make were n o t g o i n g t o be t o h i s a u d i e n c e ' s 

i n t e l l e c t , b u t r a t h e r t o t h e i r e m o t i o n a l c a p a c i t y f o r human 

sympathy. I n t h i s way, Tennyson can be seen as t h e p o e t i c 

r e g i s t e r o f H a l l a m ' s p r o s a i c t h e o r y o f t h e m o r a l power o f 

f e e l i n g s . 

The e s s a y t h a t Tennyson f a i l e d t o d e l i v e r a t t h e A p o s t l e s ' 

m e e t i n g i s a c a s e i n p o i n t . D o r o t h y Mermin has examined what 

r e m a i n s o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t e s s a y on " G h o s t s " t h a t Tennyson 

i n t e n d e d t o r e a d , and a r g u e s t h a t i t does n o t r e a l l y f o c u s on 

g h o s t s as s u c h b u t r a t h e r on " t h e immense power o f a 

s t o r y t e l l e r o v e r h i s l i s t e n e r s " ( 1 7 ) . Tennyson d e s c r i b e s t h e 

s t o r y t e l l e r ' s power as c o n t r o l o v e r " t h e inmost r e c e s s e s o f 

t h e human mind" o f each o f h i s a u d i t o r s , a t y p e o f d e s p o t i s m 

t o w h i c h t h e y w i l l i n g l y s u b m i t . A c c o r d i n g t o Tennyson, t h i s 

d e s p o t i s m o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e v o i c e : " h i s v o i c e a l o n e l i k e a 

m o u n t a i n s t r e a m on a s t i l l n i g h t f i l l s up & o c c u p i e s t h e 

s i l e n c e : he s t a n d s as i t were on a v a n t a g e - g r o u n d he becomes 

t h e m i n i s t e r & expounder o f human s y m p a t h i e s : h i s words f i n d 

t h e h e a r t l i k e t h e a r r o w s o f t r u t h " ( q t d . 17-18). Mermin goes 

on t o e x p l a i n t h a t Tennyson's s h i f t from l y r i c p o e t r y t o a 

p o e t r y t h a t i n c l u d e d a u d i t o r s ( t h e d r a m a t i c monologue) was h i s 

p r i m a r y method o f r e c o n c i l i n g t h e p r i v a t e / p u b l i c t e n s i o n t o 

w h i c h V i c t o r i a n p o e t s who p a i d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i r c r i t i c s as 

t h e i r p r i m a r y a u d i e n c e had n e c e s s a r i l y t o s u b m i t . Y e t 

Mermin's a n a l y s i s o f Tennyson's use o f t h e d r a m a t i c monologue 



324 

as a u n i q u e s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r i v a t e / p u b l i c dilemma, r a t h e r 

t h a n s i m p l y as one o f s e v e r a l s o l u t i o n s t h a t Tennyson sought 

t o p r o d u c e a r a n g e o f p u b l i c s y m p a t h i e s , m i n i m i z e s t h e 

f u n c t i o n o f t h e sound o f t h e p o e t i c v o i c e i t s e l f as an 

e l i c i t o r o f r e a d e r s ' e m o t i o n s . Hence, w i t h l a t e r poems s u c h 

as "The H o l y G r a i l , " she sees Tennyson's methods o f p o e t i c 

r e s o l u t i o n becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y p r i v a t e , c u t o f f from t h e 

s o c i a l w o r l d t h a t i s now seen as a n t a g o n i s t i c t o t h e w o r l d and 

e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . 

I n a l l f a i r n e s s , Mermin i s — a s t h e t i t l e o f h e r s t u d y 

s u g g e s t s — c o n c e r n e d w i t h The A u d i e n c e i n t h e Poem and n o t w i t h 

t h e a u d i e n c e o u t s i d e o f i t . However, as Tennyson's comments 

i n " G h o s t s " i m p l y , t h e power o f t h e v o i c e i s n o t r e g i s t e r e d 

s o l e l y upon s i l e n t , p a s s i v e a u d i t o r s : t h e s e f i g u r e s w i t h i n a c t 

as c o n d u i t s t o t h e w o r l d o f a c t i v e l i s t e n e r s o u t s i d e t h e poems 

t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e r e a l m o f "human s y m p a t h i e s . " I n a d d i t i o n , 

many s p e a k e r s w i t h i n poems, r a t h e r t h a n a s i n g l e s p e a k e r as i n 

t h e d r a m a t i c monologue, a l l o w f o r d i f f e r i n g r e s p o n s e s . 

Tennyson's e a r l i e s t v o c a t i o n poems s u g g e s t t h i s p o e t i c 

r e a c h i n g outward ( t h r o u g h r e f e r e n c e t o v a r i o u s sound d e v i c e s ) 

t o w a r d as e x p a n s i v e an e x t e r n a l a u d i e n c e as p o s s i b l e . I n "To 

Poesy" (comp. 1828) he a s k s t h a t t h e Mind's " t r u m p e t - t o n g u e d 

a e r i a l melody / May blow a l a r u m l o u d t o e v e r y w i n d , / And 

s t a r t l e t h e d u l l e a r s o f human k i n d " ( 3 - 5 ) . The s p e a k e r o f 

"The I d e a l i s t " (comp. 1829) i n v i t e s h i s a u d i e n c e i n , "Come 

l i s t e n a l l who c a n " ( 3 ) , e x p l a i n i n g t h a t h i s s i n g l e v o i c e i s 



325 

t h e v o i c e o f m u l t i t u d i n o u s p e o p l e s o f a l l r a c e s . By 183 0, t h e 

i d e a l i s t has become "The P o e t " who, w i t h s i m i l a r h i g h - m i n d e d 

i d e a l i s m , e x p e c t s t o sow and c u l t i v a t e t r u t h and freedom 

t h r o u g h seeds i m a g i n e d as a u d i t o r y d e v i c e s : " e c h o i n g f e e t , " 

" v i e w l e s s a r r o w s o f h i s t h o u g h t s . . . // L i k e I n d i a n r e e d s 

blown f r o m h i s s i l v e r t o n g u e , " and " v a g r a n t m e l o d i e s " l i k e n e d 

t o " a r r o w - s e e d s " (9, 11-13, 17, 1 9 ) . I n s h o r t , t h e sounds o f 

t h e p o e t ' s words a r e t o " f i n d t h e h e a r t l i k e a r r o w s o f t r u t h , " 

as he had e a r l i e r m a i n t a i n e d i n " G h o s t s , " and a r e t o sow t h e r e 

t h e e m o t i v e r e s p o n s e r e q u i s i t e t o shake t h e w o r l d from i t s 

m o r a l complacency. 

Even w h i l e e n r a p t u r e d w i t h t h e power o f language t o e f f e c t 

s o c i a l change, however, Tennyson was e q u a l l y s c e p t i c a l : 

"Supposed C o n f e s s i o n s o f a Second-Rate S e n s i t i v e M i n d , " and 

t h e p a i r e d poems " N o t h i n g W i l l D i e , " " A l l T h i n g s W i l l D i e " 

work t h r o u g h a q u e s t i o n i n g , d i a l e c t i c a l v o i c e t h a t a s k s o f i t s 

r e a d e r s f a r more a c t i v e c o n t e m p l a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a p a s s i v e 

s u b m i s s i o n as f e r t i l e ground f o r t h e i m p l a n t a t i o n o f i d e a s . 

Hence o t h e r e a r l y v o c a t i o n poems such as "The P o e t ' s Mind" and 

"The M y s t i c " p e s s i m i s t i c a l l y c o n t e n d t h a t t h e p o e t i s n o t 

l i k e l y t o e f f e c t changes upon e a r t h , b u t r a t h e r n e c e s s a r i l y 

works a t a h e i g h t e n e d remove from humanity, t h e " v a n t a g e -

g r o u n d " o f t h e " G h o s t s " e s s a y . Thus1 p o e t r y — i f i t i s t o have 

an i m p a c t — w i l l do so o n l y , as i n "The D y i n g Swan," t h r o u g h a 

"music s t r a n g e and m a n i f o l d " t h a t h a r k e n s t o a m u s i c known 

a l r e a d y t o i t s r e c i p i e n t s , a m u s i c t h a t can r e v e r b e r a t e e v e r 



326 

o u t w a r d i n m e l l i f l u o u s s t r e a m s , e v e n t u a l l y t o e n v e l o p a l l o f 

n a t u r e i n " e d d y i n g song" (42) . F o r Tennyson's l a r g e c l a i m s 

f o r p o e t r y t o be r e a l i z e d , a u d i t o r s o u t s i d e h i s t e x t s would 

have t o l e n d t h e i r own v o i c e s t o them, a c o n c l u s i o n f a r 

d i f f e r e n t from S h e l l e y ' s s e l f - p r o m o t i o n as p r o p h e t o r 

"unacknowledged l e g i s l a t o r . " 

I n Tennyson's e a r l y p o e t r y , H a l l a m , i n h i s r o l e as a 

c o n d u i t t o t h e w o r l d o u t s i d e o f t h e p o e t ' s i m a g i n a t i o n , became 

f o r Tennyson a t y p e o f a u d i t o r e x t r a o r d i n a i r e s i n c e H a l l a m 

c o u l d r e l a y back t o h i s f r i e n d n o t o n l y t h e c u r r e n t and f l o w 

o f e a r l y V i c t o r i a n c u l t u r e , b u t a l s o Tennyson's p l a c e w i t h i n 

p a s t p o e t i c t r a d i t i o n . B o t h t a s k s he u n d e r t o o k most 

a s s i d u o u s l y i n h i s r e v i e w o f Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l (183 0) i n 

E n g l i s h m a n ' s Magazine (Aug 1831). Y e t H a l l a m ' s r o l e as a 

r e a d e r o f Tennyson's a u d i e n c e i s seldom m e n t i o n e d by 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s ; i n s t e a d , H a l l a m i s t h o u g h t o f more 

as a w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d , b u t m i s g u i d e d r e a d e r o f Tennyson's 

e a r l y p o e t i c w o r t h t h a n as an a s t u t e o b s e r v e r o f t h e e a r l y 
• 8 

V i c t o r i a n r e a d i n g p u b l i c . 

O b v i o u s l y , Shannon pays c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o H a l l a m ' s 
r o l e as one o f Tennyson's e a r l i e s t r e v i e w e r s , y e t he g i v e s him 
no s p e c i a l s t a t u s as s u c h . I s o b e l A r m s t r o n g ' s V i c t o r i a n  
S c r u t i n i e s a l i g n s H a l l a m w i t h Fox t o e x p l a i n t h e 
v o c i f e r o u s n e s s o f W i l s o n ' s condemnation, and i n so d o i n g 
weakens t h e u n i q u e power o f H a l l a m ' s r e v i e w . June Hagen 
e x p l a i n s H a l l a m ' s r o l e as an e a r l y a g e n t , w o r k i n g t o see 
Tennyson p u b l i s h e d and promoted, y e t because h e r work c o n c e r n s 
Tennyson's p u b l i s h i n g p r a c t i c e s r a t h e r t h a n h i s p o e t r y as 
s u c h , she does n o t d e v e l o p H a l l a m ' s r o l e as Tennyson's i d e a l 
r e a d e r ( 1 5 - 2 0 ) . H. M. McLuhan i s n o t a b l e s i n c e i n h i s 
"Tennyson and P i c t u r e s q u e P o e t r y " he s e e s H a l l a m ' s 1831 
r e v i e w , and i t s p r o m o t i o n o f a e s t h e t i c , s e n s a t i o n a l e f f e c t as 



Of Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l , and more s p e c i f i c a l l y o f i t s 

weaknesses, I a n J a c k o b s e r v e s t h a t "Tennyson had n o t y e t 

e s c a p e d from t h e t r o u b l e d womb o f t h e r e c t o r y " (12 0 ) . J a c k 

f u r t h e r c h a r g e s t h a t Tennyson's r e l i a n c e on sound d e v i c e s 

makes h i s l y r i c s " t o o ' p o e t i c a l ' " t o be poems, and compares 

them f a v o u r a b l y o n l y i n terms o f t h e i r g r e a t e r m e t r i c a l 

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n t o " o r d i n a r y Album v e r s e o f t h e day," a s p e c i e s 

o f p o e t r y w r i t t e n a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y f o r and by women ( 1 2 1 ) . 

J a c k ' s a l l u s i o n s t o a " f e m a l e " w o r l d a r e s t a n d a r d i n s l i g h t s 

a g a i n s t Tennyson's e a r l y p o e t r y . 9 A l t h o u g h J a c k can r e a d i l y 

i d e n t i f y Tennyson's f e m a l e w o r l d , he c a s u a l l y d i s m i s s e s women 

from t h e i n t e r a c t i v e r e l a t i o n o f The P o e t and H i s A u d i e n c e . 

I n a d d i t i o n , J a c k may r e c o g n i z e t h e i n h e r e n t l y o r a l q u a l i t y o f 

Tennyson's p o e t r y , b u t he does n o t d i s c u s s Tennyson's 

m u s i c a l i t y as one o f t h e p r i m a r y means by w h i c h t h e p o e t had 

hoped t o a c h i e v e p o e t i c s u c c e s s . I n s t e a d , J a c k c o n c l u d e s t h a t 

a t t h i s t i m e ""Tennyson had no c l e a r i d e a o f t h e a u d i e n c e f o r 

w h i c h he was w r i t i n g " (121). But by assuming t h a t t h e 

a u d i e n c e whom Tennyson had hoped t o a t t r a c t o u t s i d e o f h i s 

c o t e r i e o f f a m i l y and f r i e n d s would n e c e s s a r i l y be u n i f o r m i n 

paramount i n Tennyson's e a r l y development as a p o e t . But 
McLuhan t a k e s a v i s u a l a p p r o a c h t o Tennyson's p o e t r y , and so 
does n o t h e a r H a l l a m ' s remarks on sound n o t e d below as t h e key 
i n f l u e n c e i n t h e f o s t e r i n g o f a e s t h e t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n and hence 
m o r a l r e s p o n s e . 

9 M a r t i n , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n w r i t i n g o f Poems, C h i e f l y  
L y r i c a l i d e n t i f i e s " t h e mawkish s e n t i m e n t a l i t y about such 
m a t t e r s as motherhood and c h i l d r e n ' s p r a y e r s " as "one o f t h e 
p e r s i s t e n t f a i l u r e s o f h i s v e r s e " ( 1 0 7 ) . 



328 

e i t h e r p r a i s e o r condemnation, J a c k r e l i e s t o o h e a v i l y on t h e 

a l l - m a l e n e g a t i v e c r i t i c a l p r e s s f o r h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f whom 

Tennyson's p o t e n t i a l f i r s t r e a d e r s may have been. 

H a l l a m ' s r e v i e w , a r e v i e w w h i c h J a c k p r a i s e s as "a s k i l f u l 

p i e c e o f r h e t o r i c " d e s i g n e d t o b o o s t Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y , 

c l e a r l y l i n k s Tennyson t o t h o s e p o e t s o f s e n s a t i o n s u c h as 

S h e l l e y and K e a t s who work a c t i v e l y t o p r o v o k e s e n s a t i o n a l , 

e m o t i v e r e s p o n s e s i n t h e i r a u d i e n c e s . I n so d o i n g , H a l l a m 

a t t e m p t s a m e t a p h y s i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n between a e s t h e t i c i s m and 

a f f e c t i o n , an a s s o c i a t i o n d e r i v e d from t h e t h e o r i e s he 

d e v e l o p e d i n t h e e s s a y s d e s c r i b e d above. He t h e n wonders how 

s u c h p o e t s c o u l d e v e r be p o p u l a r s i n c e t h e y had e x p e r i e n c e d 

l i f e as a " r i c h e r and ampler t a l e t h a n most men c o u l d 

u n d e r s t a n d , and [ t h e y had] c o n s t a n t l y e x p r e s s e d , because t h e y 

c o n s t a n t l y f e l t , s e n t i m e n t s o f e x q u i s i t e p l e a s u r e o r p a i n 

w h i c h most men were n o t p e r m i t t e d t o e x p e r i e n c e " ( 3 8 ) . L a t e r , 

i n c o m p a r i n g Tennyson f a v o u r a b l y t o Dante and P e t r a r c h , H a l l a m 

e x p l a i n s t h e a e s t h e t i c r e a l i z a t i o n o f s e n t i m e n t when he w r i t e s 

t h a t a l l p o e t s o f s e n s a t i o n "produce t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e i r 

e f f e c t by sound." He c o n t i n u e s : 

There a r e i n n u m e r a b l e shades o f f i n e e m o t i o n i n t h e 
human h e a r t , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e s e n s e s a r e keen and 
v i g i l a n t , w h i c h a r e t o o s u b t l e and t o o r a p i d t o 
a d m i t o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g p h r a s e s . The u n d e r s t a n d i n g 
t a k e s no d e f i n i t e n o t e o f them; how t h e n can t h e y 
l e a v e s i g n a t u r e s i n language? Y e t t h e y e x i s t ; i n 
p l e n i t u d e o f b e i n g and b e a u t y t h e y e x i s t ; and i n 
m u s i c t h e y f i n d a medium t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y p a s s 
from h e a r t t o h e a r t . The t o n e becomes t h e s i g n o f 
t h e f e e l i n g ; and t h e y r e c i p r o c a l l y s u g g e s t each 
o t h e r . (Jump 45) 



329 

Such i s t h e i n t e n t i o n and t h e e f f e c t o f poems l i k e "The B a l l a d 

o f O r i a n a " : t h e i n s p i r i n g o f sympathy t h r o u g h t h e s e n s a t i o n o f 

sound. 

E l s e w h e r e i n h i s r e v i e w , H a l l a m i d e n t i f i e s f e a t u r e s he had 

p r a i s e d i n Tennyson's e a r l y p o e t r y , f e a t u r e s w h i c h r e a d i l y 

c o r r e s p o n d e d b o t h w i t h h i s own e s s a y s on t h e m o r a l v a l u e o f 

s y m p a t h e t i c e m o t i o n and w i t h Tennyson's i n c o m p l e t e e s s a y on 

" G h o s t s . " These i n c l u d e : l u x u r i a n t i m a g i n a t i o n , c a p t u r i n g o f 

c h a r a c t e r s ' moods, v i v i d l y p i c t u r e s q u e d e l i n e a t i o n s o f o b j e c t s 

f u s e d w i t h s t r o n g e m o t i o n , m e t r i c a l v a r i a t i o n s t o s u i t moods, 

and e l e v a t e d h a b i t s o f t h o u g h t (42) . A t t h e o u t s e t , H a l l a m 

c l a i m s t h a t s u c h f e a t u r e s , a l t h o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l l y c a p a b l e o f 

e l i c i t i n g u n i v e r s a l sympathy, have i n r e a l i t y s u b j e c t e d p o e t s 

o f s e n s a t i o n t o c r i t i c a l s c o r n , and would do l i k e w i s e t o 

T e n n y s o n . 1 0 

I n "The R o l e and Treatment o f Emotion i n V i c t o r i a n 
C r i t i c i s m o f P o e t r y , " I s o b e l A r m s t r o n g wonders why c r i t i c s ' 
and p o e t s ' endorsement o f f e e l i n g and e m o t i o n as r e q u i s t e t o 
e f f e c t i v e p o e t r y d i d n o t l e a d p o e t s t o " d e v e l o p a n o t i o n o f 
t h e e p i p h a n y w h i c h seems, f o r many t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s , 
t o be o f f e r e d by symbol" ( 4 ) . A r m s t r o n g ' s l i m i t e d v i e w t h a t 
r e v i e w e r s c o n f l a t e d " s e e i n g p r o p e r l y w i t h f e e l i n g p r o p e r l y " (4 
added emphasis) u n a v o i d a b l y l e a d s h e r t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f 
e m o t i o n t h a t i s t i e d t o t h e v i s u a l and, t h e r e f o r e , c o g n i t i v e 
r e s p o n s e s o f t h e m i n d — i . e . symbolism. Her emphasis on t h e 
v i s u a l i s a l s o a p p a r e n t i n V i c t o r i a n S c r u t i n i e s , where she 
a l l e g e s t h a t V i c t o r i a n c r i t i c s ' " v o c a b u l a r y i s borrowed m a i n l y 
f r o m p a i n t i n g and d r a w i n g " ( 2 7 ) . W h i l e o b v i o u s l y Tennyson was 
p r a i s e d f o r h i s p i c t u r e s q u e imagery and h i s a t t e n t i o n t o 
v i s u a l d e t a i l , t h e power o f t h e " i n e x p r e s s i b l e " t o e l i c i t 
e m o t i v e r e s p o n s e s i n h i s r e a d e r s d e r i v e d e q u a l l y from h i s 
s k i l f u l use o f sound d e v i c e s a c t i n g a d d i t i o n a l l y upon t h e 
v i s c e r a r a t h e r t h a n j u s t t h e mind. S e n s i t i v i t y t o w a r d sound 
was e q u a l l y i f n o t more i m p o r t a n t t o Tennyson's c o n t e m p o r a r y 
c r i t i c s : H a l l a m , W i l s o n , S t e r l i n g , K i n g s l e y and G l a d s t o n e . 
A r m s t r o n g ' s q u e r y about t h e l a c k o f V i c t o r i a n t h e o r i e s o f 



A l t h o u g h t h r o u g h o u t h i s r e v i e w H a l l a m u s e s "men" as a 

synonym f o r " t h e p u b l i c , " i t i s t e m p t i n g t o t h i n k t h a t he had 

an i n f o r m e d i m p r e s s i o n o f Tennyson's most s y m p a t h e t i c a u d i e n c e 

as p e o p l e o t h e r t h a n t h e common h e r d o f men. O b v i o u s l y , he 

saw h i m s e l f as Tennyson's i d e a l r e a d e r . Y e t i n a f i n a l , 

f a c e t i o u s l y s e l f - d e p r e c a t i n g move, he a l l e g e s t h a t i n 

p r o m o t i n g Tennyson he m i g h t be t h o u g h t t o have p l a y e d one o f 

two r o l e s : " t h e p a r t o f a f a s h i o n a b l e l a d y , who d e l u d e s h e r 

r e f r a c t o r y mate i n t o d o i n g what she chooses by p r e t e n d i n g t o 

w i s h t h e e x a c t c o n t r a r y , o r o f a c u n n i n g pedagogue, who 

p r a c t i s e s a s i m i l a r manoeuvre on some s e l f - w i l l e d 

F l i b b e r t i g i b b e t o f t h e s c h o o l - r o o m " (49) . A l t h o u g h H a l l a m 

goes on t o deny b o t h m i s p e r c e p t i o n s , t h e " f a s h i o n a b l e l a d y " 

and " c u n n i n g pedagogue" n o n e t h e l e s s r e m a i n as two extreme 

v a r i a t i o n s , f e m a l e and male, o f t h e h i g h l y m o r a l " f e e l i n g 

h e a r t s and i m a g i n a t i v e tempers" t h a t H a l l a m a s c r i b e s t o 

Tennyson's i d e a l r e a d e r s . H a l l a m t h u s a l l u d e s t o t h e most 

l i k e l y venues f o r Tennyson's e a r l y p o p u l a r i t y : t h e f e m a l e 

p a r l o u r and t h e male u n i v e r s i t y s c h o o l r o o m . I t was n o t t o be 

f o u n d , as H a l l a m w e l l knew, i n t h e male-dominated c r i t i c a l 

p r e s s . 

s y m b o l i s m t h u s seems t o r e s u l t from a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y 
p r i v i l e g i n g o f t h e v i s u a l i m a g i n a t i o n and i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m , and 
does n o t f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f V i c t o r i a n p o e t r y ' s 
a f f e c t i v e v i g o u r . T h i s f o c u s on t h e v i s u a l i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t 
A r m s t r o n g s h a r e s w i t h C a r o l C h r i s t , whose work i s d i s c u s s e d 
below. 



331 

The immediate e f f e c t o f H a l l a m ' s a t t e m p t t o promote h i s 

f r i e n d was t o i n c r e a s e c r i t i c a l h o s t i l i t y r a t h e r t h a n t o 

l e s s e n i t . By May 1832, H a l l a m ' s r e v i e w had i n c i t e d t h e i r e 

o f J o h n W i l s o n ( " C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h " ) , a c r i t i c who m i g h t have 

seen h i s s t y l e o f c r i t i c i s m as " p e d e s t r i a n " i n c o n t r a s t t o 

what he d e s c r i b e s as t h e "superhuman—nay, s u p e r n a t u r a l — 

p o m p o s i t y " o f Tennyson's r e v i e w e r i n The E n g l i s h m a n ' s  

Magazine. N o r t h a r g u e s t h a t H a l l a m had " i n c a p a c i t a t e d t h e 

whole work f o r l i v i n g one day l o n g e r i n t h i s unceremonious 

w o r l d . The s o l e m n i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e c r i t i c approached t h e 

o b j e c t o f h i s a d o r a t i o n , and t h e s a n c t i t y w i t h w h i c h he l a i d 

h i s o f f e r i n g s on t h e s h r i n e , were t o o much f o r our i r r e l i g i o u s 

age. The E s s a y 'on t h e g e n i u s o f A l f r e d Tennyson' awoke a 

g e n e r a l g u f f a w , and i t e x p i r e d i n c o n v u l s i o n s " ( u n s i g n e d 

r e v i e w Blackwood's E d i n b u r g h Magazine q t d . Jump 5 1 ) . S e t t i n g 

h i m s e l f up as a f i t t e r g u i d e t o Tennyson's " g e n i u s " t h a n 

H a l l a m , N o r t h a t t e m p t s t o "save him from h i s w o r s t enemies, 

h i s f r i e n d s " ( 5 1 ) . M i s t a k e n l y , N o r t h had i n c l u d e d Fox among 

t h i s group o f f r i e n d s , and c h a r g e d Fox w i t h w r i t i n g " s u p e r -

h y p e r b o l i c a l u l t r a - e x t r a v a g a n c e o f o u t r a g e o u s Cockney 

e u l o g i s t i c f o o l i s h n e s s . . . " ( 5 4 ) . But b o t h Jump and Shannon 

n o t e t h a t t h e v i t r i o l i c t e n o r o f N o r t h ' s r e v i e w comes as much 

from h i s T o r y d i s t r u s t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l i s m a s s o c i a t e d 

w i t h t h e magazines f o r w h i c h Fox and H a l l a m had w r i t t e n as i t 

does from any extreme d i s l i k e o f Tennyson's e a r l y p o e t r y (Jump 

2, Shannon 8 ) . F o r , on t h e c o n t r a r y , N o r t h a c t u a l l y p r a i s e s 



332 

Tennyson's " f i n e m u s i c " and h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e " p u r i t y o f 

t h e f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r " ( 5 9 ) . Moreover, as Shannon f u r t h e r 

r e m a r k s , N o r t h ' s v i t u p e r a t i v e s t y l e was common among c r i t i c s 

o f t h e p e r i o d ( 8 ) . S t y l e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , N o r t h ' s r e v i e w had 

a s e r i o u s e f f e c t on T e n n y s o n — a n e f f e c t w h i c h H a l l a m worked t o 

c o u n t e r by a r g u i n g t h a t s u c h e x p o s u r e was u l t i m a t e l y 

b e n e f i c i a l t o h i s f r i e n d ' s r e p u t a t i o n (see C h a r l e s Tennyson 

121, Shannon 8-9). 

By c a s t i g a t i n g t h e p o e t as one o f t h e "Cockney S c h o o l " (of 

K e a t s , S h e l l e y and Lamb), N o r t h p i n n e d on Tennyson a l a b e l 

t h a t would s t i c k . F o l l o w i n g h i s n e x t volume o f Poems (18 3 2 

l a b e l l e d 1833), t h e L i t e r a r y G a z e t t e (Dec 1832), i m m e d i a t e l y 

c a s t Tennyson w i t h Lamb (who had r e c e n t l y been p i l l o r i e d ) as 

one o f t h e "Baa-Lamb S c h o o l " t h a t c o u l d n o t b r o o k c r i t i c i s m 

( M a r t i n 166). Two r e v i e w s i n p a r t i c u l a r b e a r f u r t h e r 

m e n t i o n i n g : Edward B u l w e r ' s i n t h e New M o n t h l y o f J a n u a r y 18 3 3 

(Shannon 17, M a r t i n 168-9), and John W i l s o n C r o k e r ' s infamous 

r e v i e w i n t h e Q u a r t e r l y Review o f A p r i l 1833 (Jump 66-83, 

Shannon 19-21, M a r t i n 169-73). 

As M a r t i n p o i n t s o u t , B u l w e r ' s c r i t i c i s m o f Tennyson's muse 

as one "wasted i n a f f e c t a t i o n " i s s u r e l y i r o n i c s i n c e no one 

knew more o f a f f e c t a t i o n t h a n B u l w e r , t h e d a n d i f i e d p r a c t i o n e r 

o f S i l v e r F o r k n o v e l s (168). Yet i n h i s r e v i e w o f Poems, 

B u l w e r seemed d e t e r m i n e d t o f u r t h e r a b u r g e o n i n g t r a d i t i o n i n 

Tennyson c r i t i c i s m , o f f e r i n g such c h a r g e s as " e f f e m i n a c i e s " o f 

t h e Cockney s c h o o l , a "want o f a l l m a n l i n e s s i n l o v e . . . 



[and] an eunuch s t r a i n " ( q t d . i n M a r t i n 169). And w h i l e 

M a r t i n l i n k s B u l w e r ' s c e n s u r e t o h i s p e r s o n a l t i e s w i t h t h e 

d ' E y n c o u r t Tennysons and t h e i r d i s l i k e o f t h e Somersby 

Tennysons, n o n e t h e l e s s , what Bulwer had t o say was n o t u n i q u e . 

N o r t h had a l r e a d y condemned H a l l a m ' s a s s o c i a t i n g Tennyson w i t h 

K e a t s , and C r o k e r was t o admit i n J a n u a r y t h a t he wanted t o 

"make a n o t h e r K e a t s o f him [ T e n n y s o n ] " ( q t d . i n M a r t i n 169). 

He p r o c e e d e d t o do so i n A p r i l t h r o u g h s a t i r i c , h y p e r b o l i c 

p r a i s e and by f o c u s i n g , l i k e Bulwer b e f o r e him, upon "0 

D a r l i n g Room," l e a v i n g i n t h e minds o f h i s r e a d e r s q u e s t i o n s 

about t h e vague s e x u a l c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e "two c o u c h e s " i n 

t h e poem. He s u g g e s t s , i n t h e end, t h a t Tennyson r e g a i n h i s 

" h e a l t h " t h r o u g h t h e sound m e d i c i n a l t o n i c a d m i n i s t e r e d by 

c r i t i c s s u c h as C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h and h i m s e l f , and n o t t o 

r e s o r t t o t h e i n f a n t i l e nausea o f "To C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h " (Jump 

8 2 - 3 ) . Though he d i d n o t manage t o s i l e n c e Tennyson f o r e v e r , 

as S h e l l e y t h o u g h t he had done w i t h K e a t s , C r o k e r d i d 

a p p a r e n t l y s u c c e e d i n g e n e r a t i n g a decade o f T e n n y s o n i a n 

s i l e n c e . 

D u r i n g t h i s decade o f seeming s i l e n c e (1832-42) , however, 

Tennyson was a c t i v e l y v o i c i n g h i s r e c i p r o c a l h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d 

h i s c r i t i c s . A l t h o u g h he was n o t t o r e p e a t t h e m i s t a k e o f "To 

C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h " and a l l o w h i s anger t o appear i n p r i n t , he 

n o n e t h e l e s s d i d n o t — a s many Tennyson s c h o l a r s s u g g e s t — 

succumb t o t h e p r e s s u r e s o f h i s h o s t i l e l y d i r e c t i v e c r i t i c s . 

R a t h e r , he sought a v a r i e t y o f v o i c e forms by w h i c h t o r e a c h 



334 

what he s e n s e d t o be a f a r more h e t e r o g e n e o u s a u d i e n c e t h a n 

t h e c r i t i c a l p r e s s had a l l o w e d him. I n "What Thor S a i d t o t h e 

B a r d B e f o r e D i n n e r " (comp. 1833), f o r example, Tennyson p o s i t s 

a d e c i d e d l y male "hammer o f i r o n rhyme" as one p o t e n t i a l 

s o l u t i o n t o c o u n t e r t h e c h a r g e s o f e f f e m i n a c y p l a c e d upon h i s 

work. T h i s "rhyme-hammer" i s h e a r d a few y e a r s l a t e r i n t h e 

a n g r y d e c l a m a t i o n s o f t h e s p e a k e r i n " L o c k s l e y H a l l " who r a i l s 

a g a i n s t t h e i n c o n s t a n c y o f women, c u r s e s " s o c i a l wants," and 

w i t h a r o a r t o match t h e wind t h a t p r e s a g e s i t s f i n a l s t o r m , 

e x i t s t h e poem i n a t h u n d e r o u s r a g e . 1 1 I n " P o e t s and C r i t i c s " 

(comp. 183 3-4), on t h e o t h e r hand, Tennyson c a l m l y 

acknowledges t h a t "Minds on t h i s round e a r t h o f o u r s / V a r y 

l i k e t h e l e a v e s and f l o w e r s " ( 3 - 4 ) , and so r e s o l v e s t o h o l d 

f a s t and a l l o w h i s p o e t r y , t h r o u g h t i m e , t o work i t s w i l l 

e v e n t u a l l y upon an e a r l y V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e o f d i v e r s e 

c o m p o s i t i o n . T h i s b r i e f poem s u c c i n c t l y e x p l a i n s one r e a s o n 

f o r Tennyson's a p p a r e n t s i l e n c e : he was p r e p a r e d t o w a i t , even 

f o r as l o n g as a decade, f o r h i s p u b l i c t o h e a r h i s p o e t r y as 

1 1 I t s h o u l d be n o t e d , however, t h a t Tennyson's 
u n p u b l i s h e d poem "The F l i g h t , " s e e m i n g l y a f e m a l e companion 
poem t o " L o c k s l e y H a l l , " R i c k s d a t e s a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same 
t i m e p e r i o d , 1836-7. I t t o o i s w r i t t e n i n open t r o c h a i c 
c o u p l e t s . Here, t h e s p e a k e r i n s i s t s upon h e r u n d y i n g d e v o t i o n 
t o h e r p o t e n t i a l l y s h i p w r e c k e d l o v e r "Edwin," and c u r s e s t h e 
f a t h e r t h a t "pays h i s d e b t " w i t h h e r by wedding h e r t o a man 
she l o a t h e s ; he i s a " t y r a n t v a s s a l o f a t y r a n t v i c e " ( 2 5 ) . 
E v i d e n t l y b o t h sexes can c u r s e i n Tennyson's p o e t r y though 
p e r h a p s o n l y t h e male i s a l l o w e d t o do so i n p u b l i c h e a r i n g . 



335 

h e a r t f e l t e m o t i o n b e f o r e he would p u t h i s work f o r w a r d 

a g a i n . 1 2 

C h a p t e r t h r e e has a l r e a d y i d e n t i f i e d s e v e r a l b i o g r a p h i c a l 

r e a s o n s f o r t h e s t a l l i n Tennyson's p o e t i c g r o w t h d u r i n g t h e 

183 0s and e a r l y 4 0s: t h e d e a t h o f h i s f a t h e r , v a r i o u s 

i l l n e s s e s and a d d i c t i o n s among t h e members o f Tennyson's 

immediate f a m i l y , t h e d e a t h o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , economic 

h a r d s h i p s and m i s p l a c e d i n v e s t m e n t s , and t h e preempted 

c o u r t s h i p o f E m i l y S e l l w o o d . Two o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s e s , 

however, need t o be a c c o u n t e d f o r s p e c i f i c a l l y as i n f l u e n c i n g 

t h e m a t u r a t i o n o f Tennyson's v o i c e s i n c e t h e y c r e a t e a t e n o r 

o f f r u s t r a t e d d e s i r e and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s so 

much o f t h e p o e t r y t h a t Tennyson w r o t e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d : t h e 

S e v e r a l y e a r s ago, P a u l F. J a m i e s o n a r g u e d t h a t 
Tennyson's e a r l y c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s a u d i e n c e was i n f l u e n c e d by 
an A p o s t o l i c f a i t h i n Wordsworth's c r e d o t h a t p o e t s must 
i n i t i a l l y c r e a t e t h e t a s t e by w h i c h t h e i r work w i l l l a t e r be 
e n j o y e d ( 4 1 1 ) . J a m i e s o n r e a d s t h i s p o e t i c m o t i v a t i o n i n "Mine 
be t h e s t r e n g t h , " Tennyson's p r e f a t o r y s o n n e t t o h i s 1832 
Poems, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e s u p p o r t o f Tennyson's c o t e r i e o f 
Cambridge a s s o c i a t e s p r o v i d e d Tennyson w i t h t h e c o n f i d e n t 
b e l i e f t h a t he and t h e y would e v e n t u a l l y s u c c e e d i n a t t r a c t i n g 
even P h i l i s t i n e r e a d e r s . Y e t Tennyson's e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h 
a v a r i e t y o f v e r s e forms i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n 
o f Poems s u g g e s t s t h a t r a t h e r t h a n e x p e c t h i s r e a d e r s t o r e a c h 
t h e O l y m p i a n h e i g h t s from w h i c h t h e A p o s t l e s l o o k e d down upon 
t h e w o r l d , he w o u l d — " L i k e some b r o a d r i v e r r u s h i n g down 
a l o n e " — a d d h i s c u r r e n t s even t o t h o s e o f " u n c o n g e n i a l 
s p i r i t s " i n t h e hopes o f e v e n t u a l l y m i x i n g w i t h them. 
Tennyson d i d n o t , as J a m i e s o n c o n c l u d e s , a d d r e s s o n l y t h e 
"young men o f Cambridge" i n h i s e a r l y poems; r a t h e r , t h e y 
formed an i n n e r c i r c l e i n w h i c h h i s poems, l i k e p e b b l e s 
dropped i n t o a p o o l , g e n e r a t e d c o n c e n t r i c r i n g s o f 
r e v e r b e r a t i o n . 



3 3 6 

d e a t h o f H a l l a m i n 1833, and h i s f a i l e d romance w i t h Rosa 

B a r i n g i n 1834-6. 

I n seeming t o c r e a t e o f H a l l a m ' s d e a t h a t y p e o f f e l i x  

c u l p a . r e a d e r s seldom f a i l t o comment on t h e i n t e n s e e m o t i o n a l 

power t h i s c r u c i a l e v e n t g e n e r a t e d i n Tennyson's p o e t r y . 

M o r e o v e r , H a l l a m ' s d e a t h p r o v i d e d Tennyson w i t h t h e s u b j e c t s 

f o r b o t h o f h i s most memorable l o n g poems: I n Memoriam, i n 

w h i c h H a l l a m i s e v e n t u a l l y a l l o w e d t o d i e , and The I d y l l s o f  

t h e K i n g f i n w h i c h he i s a l l e g o r i c a l l y b r o u g h t back t o l i f e . 

Of t h e many s c h o l a r s who w r i t e o f t h e i m p a c t o f H a l l a m ' s l o s s 

on Tennyson, t h e man, none has p u t i t i n more c l e a r l y t h a n 

R i c k s : " t h e e s s e n t i a l f a c t i s s i m p l y t h a t A l f r e d Tennyson and 

h i s s i s t e r l o v e d and needed A r t h u r H a l l a m and were l o v e d and 

needed by him. I t was i n t e g r a l t o t h a t l o v e (as t o a l l l o v e ) 

t h a t t h e y had so much t o o f f e r H a l l a m ; h e r e was somebody whom 

t h e Somersby T e n n y s o n s — s o i n c e s s a n t l y i n need o f s u p p o r t — 

c o u l d s u p p o r t , whether i n h i s b i t t e r n e s s o f f r u s t r a t i o n o r h i s 

e n e r g y o f i n v o l v e m e n t . The r e c i p r o c i t y o f l o v e e n a b l e d H a l l a m 

t o s u p p o r t them t o o " ( 1 1 5 ) . W i t h t h i s r e c i p r o c i t y o f p r i v a t e 

e a r t h l y l o v e s u d d e n l y removed, Tennyson, t h e p o e t , was f o r c e d 

g r a d u a l l y t o t r a n s f o r m h i s own p e r s o n a l a f f e c t i o n i n t o a f a r 

more p u b l i c — s i n c e f a r more d i f f u s e — f a i t h i n t h e power o f 

H a l l a m ' s s p i r i t u a l p r e s e n c e t o engender i n many o t h e r s t h e 

human sympathy t h a t , w h i l e l i v i n g , H a l l a m had i n s p i r e d i n h i s 

f r i e n d s . Tennyson's f i n a l a c c e p t a n c e o f such d i f f u s i o n , as 

w i t n e s s e d i n I n Memoriam, i s t e s t i m o n y t o t h e p o e t ' s r e f u s a l 



t o be s i l e n c e d by H a l l a m ' s d e a t h , b u t t o make o f i t a c r e a t i v e 

womb o u t o f w h i c h h i s u n i q u e p o e t i c v o i c e would i s s u e f o r t h 

beyond " t h e second b i r t h o f Death" (XLV 1 6 ) . That i t s 

g e s t a t i o n t o o k s e v e n t e e n y e a r s i s t h e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g 

g i v e n t h e e n o r m i t y o f t h e t a s k o f a l t e r i n g , by way o f language 

a l o n e , what was now v a c a n c y i n t o a p r o f o u n d c o n f i r m a t i o n o f 

p r e s e n c e . 

A f t e r H a l l a m ' s d e a t h i n 1833, Tennyson, as R a l p h Rader 

p o s i t s , a t t e m p t e d t o " r e d i r e c t t h e e m o t i o n a l e n e r g i e s w h i c h , 

[were] once a b s o r b e d i n H a l l a m , [and] were now w i t h o u t a 

l i v i n g o b j e c t " ( 2 9 ) , i n t o an i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h Rosa B a r i n g . 

Here a g a i n , t h e l i v i n g o b j e c t o f Tennyson's l o v e and a f f e c t i o n 

would be l o s t t o him, b u t n o t b e f o r e he was made p r o f o u n d l y 

aware o f a c t u a l s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a r r i e r s t h a t f r u s t r a t e t h e 

p r a c t i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f a s y m p a t h e t i c r e c i p r o c i t y o f human 

e m o t i o n , a r e c i p r o c i t y t h a t Tennyson a t Cambridge had 

i d e a l i s t i c a l l y f e l t would l e n d c o h e s i o n t o h i s f r a c t u r e d 

w o r l d . 

Tennyson's a f f e c t i o n s were, i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h H a l l a m ' s 

t h e o r i e s o f t h e m o r a l v a l u e o f r e s p o n s i v e e m o t i o n , i n i t i a l l y 

a c t i v a t e d by Rosa B a r i n g ' s a e s t h e t i c b e a u t y , t h e s o u r c e f o r 

t h e f e m a l e p o r t r a i t i n "The G a r d e n e r ' s Daughter" (comp. 183 3-

4 ) , about 'which Tennyson m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e c e n t r a l 

d e s c r i p t i o n o f Rose, t h e g i r l , had t o be " f u l l and r i c h " s i n c e 

t h e s p e a k e r was a p a i n t e r whose p e n c i l was g u i d e d by Love t h e 



338 

" i d e a l A r t i s t " (25) (Memoir 1 6 4 ) . 1 3 But any p e r s o n a l emotion 

i n Tennyson's poem i s c l e a r l y s u b o r d i n a t e t o i t s d e s i g n , w h i c h 

i s t o frame t h e f e m a l e f i g u r e as s t a t i c o b j e c t w i t h i n a garden 

s u r r o u n d e d by a male w o r l d o f sound and a c t i o n . As "News from 

t h e humming c i t y comes t o i t / I n sound o f f u n e r a l o r o f 

m a r r i a g e b e l l s " (3 5-6), t h e g a r d e n and i t s p r e t t y inmate 

r e c e i v e s y m b o l i c i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e passage o f l i f e and d e a t h . 

L i k e w i s e , t h e g a r d e n e r ' s d a u g h t e r i s s i l e n c e d by t h e abundance 

o f d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s o f t h e i d e a l A r t i s t , Love. The o n l y 

sound she makes i s r e c a p t u r e d v i s u a l l y by t h e p a i n t e r when he 

d e s c r i b e s h e r " s i l v e r f r a g m e n t s o f a b r o k e n v o i c e " (229) t h a t 

f a l t e r i n g l y u t t e r " ' I am t h i n e ' " (23 0 ) . 

Tennyson's poem i s s i m i l a r t o Browning's f a r more famous 

"My L a s t Duchess" i n i t s use o f a v e i l e d p o r t r a i t whose v e i l 

t h e s p e a k e r c o n t r o l s , and whose image t h e s p e a k e r more t h a n 

f l e s h e s o u t f o r "you" ( i n t h i s case t h e r e a d e r / v i e w e r ) t h r o u g h 

h i s m o n o l o g i c , v i s u a l r e c a s t i n g o f t h e woman. Y e t i n c o n t r a s t 

t o Browning's duke, Tennyson's p a i n t e r r e f u s e s t o l e t i n t h e 

l i g h t o f day upon t h e " s e c r e t b r i d a l - c h a m b e r s o f t h e h e a r t " 

( 2 4 5 ) . I n s t e a d , he g i v e s vague h i n t s o f e v e n t s w h i c h l i k e l y 

1 3 Rader a l l e g e s t h a t i t s "Rose" was p a t t e r n e d a f t e r Rosa 
B a r i n g , and b i o g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t she may have 
been. R i c k s a l s o n o t e s s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s from t h e "Gardener's 
D a u g h t e r " i n t h e T r i n i t y M a n u s c r i p t s t h a t a l l u d e more 
o b v i o u s l y t h a n does t h e p u b l i s h e d poem t o Tennyson's 
d i s a p p o i n t m e n t i n h i s a f f a i r w i t h Rosa B a r i n g . That Tennyson 
s h o u l d choose n o t t o i n c l u d e t h e s e l i n e s i n d i c a t e s h i s d e s i r e 
t o u n i v e r s a l i z e h i s p r i v a t e e x p e r i e n c e by k e e p i n g o n l y t h o s e 
a t t i t u d e s and emotions w i t h w h i c h h i s a u d i e n c e m i g h t r e a d i l y 
sympathize'. 



f o l l o w e d t h e i r m a r r i a g e . I n so d o i n g , Tennyson b r i n g s h i s 

r e a d e r s t o t h a t p r e c i s e moment a t w h i c h t h e v e i l i s t o be 

l i f t e d from t h e p a i n t i n g so t h a t Rose may be seen i n a l l h e r 

g l o r y . . . o n l y t o s t o p . F o r u l t i m a t e l y i t i s n o t t h e v e i l 

on t h i s p a i n t i n g o f Rose t h a t i s t o be r a i s e d a t a l l : " r a i s e 

t h y s o u l ; make t h i n e h e a r t r e a d y w i t h t h i n e e y e s " (267-8 

emphasis added) t h e s p e a k e r - p a i n t e r commands o f h i s v i e w e r s 

( r e a d e r s ) . And presumably each o f Tennyson's male r e a d e r s who 

has e v e r l o v e d , r e g a r d l e s s o f h i s age, i s t o see i n t h a t 

n o n e x i s t e n t p a i n t i n g " t h e i d o l o f [ h i s ] y o u t h , " o r " t h e 

d a r l i n g o f [ h i s ] manhood," o r , a l a s , " t h e most b l e s s e d memory 

o f [ h i s ] age" ( 2 7 1 - 3 ) . 

Tennyson's s t r a t e g y t o use h i s own l o v e f o r Rosa as t h e 

s o u r c e f o r t h e p a i n t e r ' s l o v e t h a t , i n t u r n , i s u l t i m a t e l y 

d e f l e c t e d o n t o h i s v i e w e r s , p r e s a g e s t h e s t r a t e g i e s o f I n 

Memoriam. The e a r l i e r poem a l s o employs a s p e a k e r who i s n o t 

h i m s e l f a l o n e b u t t h e whole w o r l d s p e a k i n g t h r o u g h him. The 

d e s i g n o f "The G a r d e n e r ' s Daughter" t o engage i t s r e c i p i e n t s 

becomes more a p p a r e n t i f c o n t r a s t e d w i t h an e a r l i e r companion 

poem, "The M i l l e r ' s Daughter" (comp. 1832). L i k e t h e 

g a r d e n e r ' s d a u g h t e r , t h e m i l l e r ' s d a u g h t e r , A l i c e , i s a l s o 

remembered by a n o s t a l g i c husband, b u t i n t h e e a r l i e r poem t h e 

w i f e i s s t i l l l i v i n g , and he a d d r e s s e s h i s r e t r o s p e c t i v e t o 

h e r . The s p e a k e r , i n t h i s c a s e n o t a p a i n t e r but s o m e t h i n g o f 

a p o e t a s t e r , a l s o c l a i m s t h a t "Love" compels him (187-94) t o 

r e c r e a t e h i s i n i t i a l wooing. Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , g i v e n h i s 



340 

o c c u p a t i o n , he r e l i e s on songs t o e x p r e s s t h i s l o v e , and A l i c e 

i s a s k e d t o s i n g back t o him h i s l o v e songs. As Rose 

u l t i m a t e l y becomes t h e p a i n t e r ' s c a n v a s , so A l i c e becomes t h e 

p o e t - s i n g e r ' s echo. The s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e 

two d a u g h t e r poems i s t h a t w h i l e "The G a r d e n e r ' s Daughter" 

w i t h h o l d s c l o s u r e and s e e k s i t s c o m p l e t i o n from i t s a u d i e n c e , 

"The M i l l e r ' s Daughter" i s an e n t i r e l y s e l f - c o n t a i n e d 

m e d i t a t i o n o f i t s s p e a k e r . He a s k s o f A l i c e : "Look t h r o u g h 

mine eyes w i t h t h i n e . True w i f e / Round my t r u e h e a r t t h i n e 

arms e n t w i n e / My o t h e r d e a r e r l i f e i n l i f e , / Look t h r o u g h my 

v e r y s o u l w i t h t h i n e ! " (215-18). The assonance, i n t e r n a l 

rhyme, and r e p e t i t i o n r e i n f o r c e t h r o u g h sound what t h e s p e a k e r 

m a i n t a i n s : t h a t she and he a r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e : "Two s p i r i t s 

t o one e q u a l mind" (236). I n such a t i g h t l y c l o s e d system o f 

f e l i c i t o u s r e c i p r o c i t y o n l y t h e m e l o d i o u s v e r s e engages t h e 

h e a r t f e l t sympathy o f t h e a u d i e n c e , and t h e n a t an a l m o s t 

e n t i r e l y e m o t i o n a l r a t h e r t h a n i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l . 

By t h e t i m e Tennyson had begun t o rework "The G a r d e n e r ' s 

D a u g h t e r " i n 1834, H a l l a m — f i g u r e d as t h e s p e a k e r ' s p a i n t e r 

companion, E u s t a c e , i n t h a t poem—had d i e d , and Rosa B a r i n g 

was on h e r way t o becoming f i r s t l o v e d and t h e n d e s p i s e d as 

t h e supposed p r o t o t y p e o f t h e "femme f a t a l e " o f Tennyson's 

" m a r r i a g e - h i n d e r i n g Mammon" poems: " L o c k s l e y H a l l , " "The 

F l i g h t , " "Edwin M o r r i s , " Maud, and "Aylmer's F i e l d . " 1 4 I n 

1 4 R a l p h Rader's s t u d y o f t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l g e n e s i s o f 
Maud i s t h e f u l l e s t t r e a t m e n t o f Rosa B a r i n g ' s i n f l u e n c e upon 
Tennyson's p o e t r y . Rader makes much o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e germ 



September 1834, Tennyson began s e v e r a l c o n v e n t i o n a l l y r i c s t o 

o r about Rosa w h i c h , i f t a k e n as a s e r i e s and a t f a c e v a l u e , 

seem t o r e c o r d , as M a r t i n s u g g e s t s , Tennyson's " i n f a t u a t i o n 

w i t h h e r , t h e n t h e s l o w r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t she d i d n o t l o v e him, 

t h a t h e r a t t r a c t i o n s were o n l y o f t h e s u r f a c e , and t h a t h e r 

w e a l t h and p o s i t i o n s t o o d between them as l o v e r s " ( 2 1 6 ) . Yet 

t h e poems above, and Tennyson's s o n n e t s o f f o r s a k e n l o v e 

(183 6) t h a t owe so much o f t h e i r f u r y and t h e i r s o r r o w t o t h e 

i m p o s i t i o n s o f c l a s s and w e a l t h upon t h e freedom o f l o v e r s , 

d e r i v e e q u a l l y from Tennyson's f r e q u e n t e x p o s u r e t o t h i s 

" s t o c k s i t u a t i o n " i n h i s own f a m i l y : H a l l a m was p r e v e n t e d from 

m a r r y i n g A l f r e d ' s s i s t e r E m i l y ; A l f r e d ' s b r o t h e r C h a r l e s was 

s e p a r a t e d from t h e f a m i l y g o v e r n e s s and l a t e r M i s s B u r t o n ; and 

F r e d e r i c k was u n a b l e t o marry C h a r l o t t e B e l l i n g h a m o r h i s 

c o u s i n J u l i a Tennyson d ' E y n c o u r t ( M a r t i n 217-18). Of 

m a r r i a g e s c o n t r a c t e d f o r w e a l t h and t i t l e , unhappy examples 

abound among Tennyson's r e l a t i v e s so t h a t Rosa B a r i n g need not 

be t h e s o l e c a t a l y s t f o r t h e p o e t ' s c a u s t i c v i e w o f women who 

were bought and s o l d as commodities upon t h e V i c t o r i a n 

m a r r i a g e market. I t i s c l e a r i n a poem l i k e "The F l i g h t " t h a t 

Tennyson h i m s e l f (as opposed t o h i s j i l t e d - l o v e r s p e a k e r s ) d i d 

f o r Maud, t h e "0 t h a t 'twere p o s s i b l e " l y r i c , d e r i v e s from t h e 
same p e r i o d i n w h i c h Tennyson was engaged i n an a l l e g e d l y 
t r a u m a t i c , u n r e q u i t e d a f f a i r w i t h Rosa. Hence, Rader does n o t 
v i e w Tennyson's f r u s t r a t e d m a r r i a g e poems w i t h i n t h e i r a l l t o o 
common V i c t o r i a n s o c i a l c o n t e x t o f t h e commodifying o f l o v e ; 
i n s t e a d , he i n c l i n e s t o t h e p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d v i e w , and sees 
Tennyson's l o v e p o e t r y as a r i s i n g out o f t h e p o e t ' s own 
f r u s t r a t e d p s y c h o - s e x u a l d e s i r e s . 



342 

n o t condemn women s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h e p r i d e t h a t k e p t them a t 

a haughty d i s t a n c e from t h e i r s i n c e r e l o v e r s . R a t h e r he 

condemned t h e i r f a m i l i e s who were p r e p a r e d t o use t h e i r s i n g l e 

women t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r own p r o p e r t y and p r e s t i g e . 1 5 

C o n s e q u e n t l y , what b e g i n s w i t h "The M i l l e r ' s D a u g h t e r " i n t h e 

e a r l y 1830s as a b u c o l i c s e r i e s o f d o m e s t i c p o r t r a i t poems 

s e t t i n g f o r t h , i n a s t i l t e d f a s h i o n , t h e l o v e o f a male 

s p e a k e r f o r a b e a u t i f u l young woman, ends i n 184 2 w i t h 

d o m e s t i c c o m p l i c a t i o n s and t h e a n t i - f a m i l y v i t r i o l o f t h e 

d r a m a t i c " L o c k s l e y H a l l " . S i m i l a r a n t i - d o m e s t i c themes a r e 

t a k e n up l a t e r i n "Edwin M o r r i s " (1851), Maud (1855), and 

"Aylmer's F i e l d " (18 6 4 ) . As Tennyson g r a d u a l l y became aware 

o f t h e a l l - t o o - r e a l s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a r r i e r s t h a t c o u l d 

f r u s t r a t e h i s and H a l l a m ' s i d e a l i s t i c hope f o r human sympathy 

1 5 I n "Tennyson on Women's R i g h t s , " C a t h e r i n e B. 
S t e v e n s o n q u o t e s from a notebook k e p t by H a l l a m Tennyson as a 
s c h o o l b o y (1866-72) t h a t r e c o r d s h i s f a t h e r ' s l a t e r v i e w s on 
v a r i o u s i s s u e s , s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e r i g h t s o f women. I n r e s p o n s e 
t o t h e " M a r r i e d Women's P r o p e r t y A c t " (1870), f o r example, 
Tennyson i s r e c o r d e d as b e i n g s t r o n g l y i n f a v o u r o f i t : " A f t e r 
m a r r i a g e , i t i s s c a n d a l o u s t h a t a woman i s n o t a l l o w e d t o keep 
h e r m o n e y . . . . . Then whatever she e a r n s , she ought t o be 
a l l o w e d t o keep" ( q t d . 2 3 ) . Tennyson was a l s o i n f a v o u r o f 
p o l i t i c a l e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t f o r s i n g l e women a l t h o u g h n o t f o r 
m a r r i e d women s e e m i n g l y because o f p r o p e r t y and common laws 
t h a t bound m a r r i e d c o u p l e s t o g e t h e r . S u p p o s e d l y f o r Tennyson, 
t h e combined e n t i t l e m e n t t o one's own p r o p e r t y and t h e r i g h t 
t o v o t e ( i f s i n g l e ) "might ma[ke] h e r more wary about 
m a r r y i n g " ( 2 4 ) , s i n c e economic and p o l i t i c a l s e l f -
d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r s i n g l e women c o u l d p r e v e n t i l l - c o n t r a c t e d 
m a r r i a g e s b e i n g f o r c e d upon them by t h e i r f a m i l i e s . 
O b v i o u s l y , Tennyson's v i e w s on women, p r o p e r t y and m a r r i a g e 
d i d n o t change much i n f o r t y y e a r s ; what changed was V i c t o r i a n 
s o c i e t y ' s g r a d u a l a c c e p t a n c e o f l e g a l r e f o r m as a means o f 
d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e i s s u e s , changes o f w h i c h Tennyson k e p t w e l l 
a b r e a s t . 



343 

as a s a l v a t i o n f o r humankind, he began t o i n c o r p o r a t e r e a l 

l i f e i s s u e s i n t o h i s p o e t r y . Moreover, he acknowledged 

c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e day i n ways t h a t would a l l o w f o r 

p a r t i c i p a t i o n by h i s r e a d e r s i n t h e dilemmas posed. 

D e s p i t e h i s enormous p e r s o n a l l o s s e s d u r i n g t h e 183 0s 

decade o f a l l e g e d " s i l e n c e , " Tennyson was p r o f e s s i o n a l l y 

engaged i n two d i s t i n c t a c t i v i t i e s : t h e c r e a t i o n o f a new mode 

o f p o e t r y , t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l , and s u b s t a n t i a l r e v i s i o n t o 

p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d l y r i c s , b o t h n a r r a t i v e and d r a m a t i c . 

W h i l e s e e m i n g l y d i s p a r a t e i n b o t h form and i n t e n t , s e v e r a l o f 

Tennyson's d o m e s t i c i d y l s and r e v i s e d l y r i c poems, such as 

"The Lady o f S h a l o t t , " s h a r e a common s t r u c t u r a l d e v i c e t h a t 

w o u l d come t o dominate Tennyson's p o e t i c p r a c t i c e : t h e use o f 

p e r i p h e r a l a c t i v i t y e i t h e r p a r a l l e l t o o r i n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e 

c e n t r a l a c t i o n , s e r v i n g as a t y p e o f window o r frame t h r o u g h 

w h i c h t h e r e a d e r ' s gaze upon t h e c e n t r e i s f i l t e r e d . Of t h e 

i d y l s , t h e "Morte d ' A r t h u r " i s t h e most o b v i o u s example o f 

Tennyson's use o f a frame as a p o e t i c d e v i c e . Here, t h e p o e t ' s 

c o n s c i o u s engagement w i t h h i s r e a d i n g p u b l i c i s e v i d e n t s i n c e 

h i s frames o f t e n a l l u d e t o i f n o t a c t u a l l y comment d i r e c t l y 

upon c o n t e m p o r a r y e v e n t s and s i t u a t i o n s f a m i l i a r t o h i s 

V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e , e x a c t l y t h e k i n d o f p o e t i c s u b j e c t m a t t e r 

t h a t Tennyson's c r i t i c s had r e q u e s t e d o f him. Nowhere i s t h i s 

more e v i d e n t t h a n i n t h e medley o f v o i c e s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y 

became The P r i n c e s s . 



Y e t Tennyson's i n i t i a l d e c i s i o n t o use a p e r i p h e r y t o draw 

s h a r p e r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c e n t r e does n o t seem t o have a r i s e n 

s o l e l y o u t o f a r e s p o n s e t o c r i t i c i s m ; r a t h e r , i t stems from 

t h e g r a d u a l p o e t i c e x p a n s i o n o f h i s e a r l y f i x e d " p o r t r a i t s " o f 

women i n 18 3 2 i n t o s h o r t n a r r a t i v e poems o r i d y l l s ( l a t e r 

c l a s s e d as one '1' i d y l s t o d i s t i n g u i s h them from t h e I d y l l s  

o f t h e K i n g ) . I n t h e " E n g l i s h I d y l s " o f 1842, p o r t r a i t s o f 

women as d i s t i n c t as C l a r i b e l , L i l i a n , I s a b e l , M a d e l i n e , 

A d e l i n e , M a r i o n ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) , L i s e t t e ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) , 

E l e a n o r e , R o s a l i n d , M a r g a r e t , and K a t e f u r n i s h a g a l l e r y o f 

male r e s p o n s e s t o v a r i e t i e s o f f e m a l e n e s s . I n a s e n s e , t h e y 

s e r v e as a V i c t o r i a n c o n t r a s t t o Tennyson's "Dream o f F a i r 

Women," women who a r e a l l o w e d t o d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s and t e l l 

t h e i r own s t o r i e s . U n l i k e "The Dream o f F a i r Women," 

Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n p o r t r a i t s a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s p e a k e r ' s 

gaze. C o n c e n t r a t e d , d i r e c t , and u n s w e r v i n g i n i t s d e s i r e t o 

f i x t h e woman upon t h e page, t h e gaze r e n d e r s h e r a s t a t i c 

o b j e c t o f male c o n t e m p l a t i o n and o f t e n f r u s t r a t e d d e s i r e . 1 6 

T h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e i n o t h e r f e m a l e - c e n t r e d poems o f 1832. 

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h o s e above, t h e f o l l o w i n g group shows Tennyson 

1 6 W h i l e s e v e r a l o f Tennyson's male c r i t i c s p r a i s e d t h e s e 
" b e a u t i e s , " many o t h e r s t o o k extreme d i s l i k e t o Tennyson's 
g a l l e r y . The A m e r i c a n c r i t i c , F. M. F i n c h i n h i s " F r o l i c w i t h 
Tennyson" i n t h e Y a l e L i t e r a r y Magazine (Jan 1849) i s a t y p i c a l 
i n h i s use o f an u n u s u a l metaphor, b u t h i s i n t e n t t o c r i t i c i z e 
Tennyson's " u n n a t u r a l " p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h women i s common. 
A c c o r d i n g t o F i n c h , l i k e a s k i l f u l " a n g l e r " Tennyson had 
hooked women " t o h i s l i n e s , and d r a w i n g them o u t o f t h e i r 
n a t u r a l e l e m e n t s had d i s p l a y e d them t o us f l o u n d e r i n g u n e a s i l y 
i n t h e b a s k e t o f S c i e n c e and L i t e r a t u r e " ( q t d . i n E i d s o n 6 3 ) . 



t e n t a t i v e l y w o r k i n g out methods o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g f e m a l e 

b e h a v i o u r t h r o u g h t h e v o i c i n g o f f e m a l e mood and c h a r a c t e r i n 

a c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n s t a t i c p o r t r a i t u r e : t h e two M a r i a n a poems, 

"The Lady o f S h a l o t t , " " F a t i m a , " "Oenone," "The S i s t e r s , " and 

"The May Queen." W h i l e m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t i n t e c h n i q u e , 

s t r u c t u r e , and s e t t i n g , t h e s e poems s h a r e t h e theme o f pent-up 

e m o t i o n stemming from u n r e q u i t e d l o v e o f t e n l e a d i n g t o d e a t h . 

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , Tennyson combined t h i s theme w i t h h i s use o f 

"The M i l l e r ' s Daughter" as a model f o r t h e 1842 i d y l s t o 

c r e a t e poems w h i c h seldom a c h i e v e i t s i d y l l i c b l i s s , b u t 

r a t h e r i n t e n s i f y t h e dilemma o f f r u s t r a t e d l o v e so c e n t r a l t o 

Tennyson's p e r c e p t i o n o f women i n t h e 183 0s and 184 0s. 

I n t h i s development, "Dora" seems a t r a n s i t i o n poem: a 

s i m p l e n a r r a t i v e t h a t i s l e s s t e c h n i c a l l y c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n t h e 

i d y l s t o f o l l o w , y e t as t h e m a t i c a l l y complex as t h e b e s t o f 

Tennyson's poems o f l o v e and m a r r i a g e . The r e c i p r o c i t y o f 

l o v e h e a r d i n "The M i l l e r ' s Daughter" r e s u l t s from a language 

bond so s t r o n g t h a t t h e husband can c l a i m o f A l i c e " L i k e mine 

own l i f e t o me t h o u a r t " (19 6) ; t h u s she s i n g s h i s words, h i s 

l a n g u a g e . To f u r t h e r s y m b o l i z e t h i s bond, theme and t e c h n i q u e 

a r e a l s o i n harmony. For i n Tennyson's p o e t r y , d o m e s t i c 

p r o b l e m s g e n e r a l l y m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s t h e m a t i c a l l y i n a 

d i s c o r d a n c e o f v o i c e and i d e a . As H a l l a m had a r g u e d i n h i s 

r e v i e w o f Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l , w i t h a p o e t o f s e n s a t i o n 

" t h e t o n e becomes a s i g n o f t h e f e e l i n g . . . . They 

r e c i p r o c a l l y s u g g e s t each o t h e r " (above 328). I n Tennyson's 



d o m e s t i c i d y l s , and i n d e e d t h r o u g h o u t h i s p o e t r y , when t h e 

spoken language bonds t h a t s y m b o l i z e o b l i g a t i o n s o f e i t h e r 

l o v e o r d u t y (among l o v e r s , f a m i l y members o r n e i g h b o u r i n g 

f a m i l i e s ) a r e b r o k e n , t h e n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e n a r r a t i v e 

f r a c t u r e s , and t h e s o l e a u t h o r i t y t h a t might o t h e r w i s e be 

g r a n t e d by a s t r o n g , n a r r a t i v e v o i c e i s d i f f u s e d . I n t h e 

d o m e s t i c i d y l s , e i t h e r one o r b o t h o f two c a u s e s l e a d s t o such 

b r e a k a g e s : l o v e i s w i t h d r a w n i n f a v o u r o f a n o t h e r s u i t o r , o r , 

more s e r i o u s l y , money r e p l a c e s language as a medium o f 

exchange, r e s u l t i n g i n a c a s h nexus r a t h e r t h a n a l o v e 

c o n t r a c t . 

The t h e m a t i c c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n "Dora," f o r example, b e g i n 

even b e f o r e t h e poem's n a r r a t i v e p r o p e r w i t h t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n 

o f " h a r d words" spoken between f a r m e r A l l a n and h i s b r o t h e r . 

T h i s r e s u l t s i n A l l a n f e e l i n g o b l i g e d t o t a k e i n h i s b r o t h e r ' s 

c h i l d , Dora, as h i s own d a u g h t e r , and make h e r l i f e s e c u r e 

t h r o u g h m a r r i a g e t o h i s son, W i l l i a m , as recompense f o r h i s 

h a r s h t r e a t m e n t o f h e r f a t h e r . Throughout t h e poem, A l l a n 

a c t s as t h e a b s o l u t e p a t r i a r c h , a t t e m p t i n g t o c o n t r o l t h e 

l i v e s and f o r t u n e s o f o t h e r s t o a c h i e v e h i s own ends: t h r o u g h 

t h e m a r r i a g e o f Dora and W i l l i a m , a r e f o r g i n g o f t h e f a m i l y 

bond he had e a r l i e r b r o k e n ; and t h r o u g h h i s son's p r o v i s i o n o f 

a g r a n d c h i l d , a s s u r a n c e t h a t h i s f a m i l y s h o u l d r e m a i n s t r o n g 

t o g e t h e r d e s p i t e e a r l i e r d i s p u t e s . He t r i e s t o e f f e c t t h e s e 

ends t h r o u g h d i c t a t o r i a l language: " I n my t i m e a f a t h e r ' s word 

was law, / And so i t s h a l l be now f o r me" ( 2 5 - 6 ) . By r e f u s i n g 



t o l i s t e n , A l l a n ' s son W i l l i a m c h a l l e n g e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l 

a u t h o r i t y o f p a t r i a r c h a l law as an abuse o f language and s e t s 

i n p l a c e t h e s t r u c t u r e s by w h i c h i t w i l l be o v e r t h r o w n . 

T h e r e a f t e r , s i m i l a r d i c t u m s t o s i l e n c e Dora b i n d h e r f o r a 

t i m e t o h e r u n c l e ' s w i l l u n t i l a s t r o n g e r b o n d — m a t e r n a l l o v e 

f o r W i l l i a m ' s c h i l d b o t h b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e c h i l d i s g i v e n 

t o A l l a n — c a u s e s h e r t o r e p u d i a t e h e r u n c l e , and work t o 

r e p l a c e t h e v o i c e o f t h e d i c t a t o r w i t h t h e language o f s h a r e d 

human l o v e and s e n t i m e n t t h a t she e x p r e s s e s w i t h W i l l i a m ' s 

w i f e Mary, a woman who m i g h t o t h e r w i s e have been c o n s i d e r e d 

h e r r i v a l . Thus t h e f i n a l scene o f A l l a n ' s r e p e n t a n c e i s 

prompted by Mary s p e a k i n g f o r Dora. Here, as i n "The M i l l e r ' s 

Daughter," t h e two women r e c i p r o c a t e each o t h e r ' s e m o t i o n s . 

T h e i r r e c i p r o c i t y c h a l l e n g e s A l l a n t o echo h i s son's p e n i t e n c e 

f o r f i l i a l d i s o b e d i e n c e by a d m i t t i n g h i s g u i l t ; A l l a n , i n 

t u r n , must ask f o r g i v e n e s s o f h i s own f a t h e r — G o d . 

I n one s e n s e , "Dora" c l o s e s w i t h a d o m e s t i c harmony s i m i l a r 

t o t h e one e x p r e s s e d i n "The M i l l e r ' s Daughter." T h i s harmony 

i s s y m b o l i z e d by t h e f o u r c h a r a c t e r s l i v i n g o u t t h e i r l i v e s 

t o g e t h e r under a s i n g l e r o o f . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , Tennyson keeps 

t o t h e c h e e r f u l t o n e o f h i s s o u r c e , Mary R u s s e l l M i t f o r d ' s 

s t o r y , Dora C r e s s w e l l ( R i c k s Poems I I 6 7 ) . Y e t a m e l a n c h o l i c , 

d i s c o r d a n t n o t e r e v e r b e r a t e s i n t h e l a s t l i n e ' o f Tennyson's 

poem: "Dora l i v e d u n m a r r i e d t i l l h e r d e a t h " ( 1 6 7 ) . I t i s 

p r e c i s e l y t h i s p l a y i n g out t o t h e d e a t h o f t h e t r i a l s o f 



348 

l o v e ' s m a r t y r s t h a t w i l l come t o dominate Tennyson's v e r s e . 

"Dora" t h u s ends where Tennyson's l a t e r i d y l s o f t e n b e g i n . 

A l t h o u g h t h e i d y l s s h a r e a p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h u n r e q u i t e d 

l o v e , t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s — o n e s w h i c h r e g i s t e r a u d i b l y 

r a t h e r t h a n i d e a t i o n a l l y . That i s , t h e v o i c e s o f t h e u n l o v e d 

a r e h e a r d upon a t o n a l s p e c t r u m t h a t r a n g e s from t h e w i s t f u l , 

t o t h e m o u r n f u l , t h r o u g h t o t h e i r a t e . "Edwin M o r r i s , " 

w r i t t e n i n 1839 though n o t p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1851, r e g i s t e r s 

d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s i n a medley n o t u n l i k e i t s more sonorous 

s u c c e s s o r , The P r i n c e s s , as Tennyson t r i e s m u l t i p l e p o e t i c 

r e s p o n s e s t o t h e same o r s i m i l a r s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s a f f e c t i n g 

l o v e , m a r r i a g e , f a m i l y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and p r o p e r t y . S i n c e 

s i m p l i s t i c s o l u t i o n s t o t h e s e complex i s s u e s were becoming 

i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o s s i b l e , t h e poem's v e r y s t r u c t u r e r e p l i c a t e d 

t h e d i v e r s i t y o f o p i n i o n Tennyson knew h i s a u d i e n c e l i k e l y 

h e l d . 

"Edwin M o r r i s " r e c o l l e c t s p r e v i o u s e v e n t s o f l o v e g a i n e d 

and l o s t w i t h i n a framework o f t h e p r e s e n t f o r r e a s o n s s i m i l a r 

t o Wordsworth's i n h i s poem " T i n t e r n Abbey": as an o a s i s o f 

memory a m i d s t t h e " d u s t and d r o u t h / Of c i t y l i f e " ("Edwin 

M o r r i s " 3-4). I n Tennyson's c a s e , however, t h e woman as l o v e r 

i s not r e c o l l e c t e d f o r h e r a t t a c h m e n t t o r e j u v e n a t i n g n a t u r e 

as i s D o r o t h y Wordsworth. L e t t y i n "Edwin M o r r i s " i s r e c a l l e d 

by t h e p a i n t e r - s p e a k e r as p a r t o f a memory f a r more human t h a n 

d i v i n e : "She seems a p a r t o f t h o s e f r e s h days t o me; / F o r i n 

t h e d u s t and d r o u t h o f London l i f e / She moves among my 



v i s i o n s o f t h e l a k e " (142-4). Tennyson's use o f p a s t o r a l 

c o n v e n t i o n s i n h i s i d y l s ( i n t h i s c a s e , t h e o p p o s i t i o n between 

town and c o u n t r y ) a r e u s u a l l y n o t , as Donald H a i r s u g g e s t s , 

echoes o f T h e o c r i t u s . R a t h e r , t h e y a r e b u t f a i n t t r a c e s o f a 

t r a d i t i o n a l p o e t r y whose b u c o l i c v i s i o n o f t h e w o r l d can no 

l o n g e r c a p t u r e t h e t e n s i o n s a t work i n Tennyson's s o c i e t y . 

The form t h a t Tennyson's i d y l s t a k e t h u s r e s u l t s n o t from t h e 

p o e t ' s r e w o r k i n g o f a c l a s s i c a l form t o s u i t V i c t o r i a n needs, 

b u t from t h e i r b e i n g s e t f i r m l y w i t h i n t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f h i s 

t i m e . 

The t r i o o f male v o i c e s i n "Edwin M o r r i s " used t o 

a r t i c u l a t e t h e v a l u e o f woman t o man i s a c a s e i n p o i n t . 

These men a r e n o t p a s t o r a l i n n o c e n t s , s h e p h e r d s , o r d r o v e r s . 

I n t h e n a r r a t i v e p r o p e r , Edwin M o r r i s and Edward B u l l , f u l l y 

grown men w i t h a n t i t h e t i c a l v i e w s o f l o v e , t r y t o shape t h e 

o p i n i o n o f t h e t h i r d , soon t o be j i l t e d , young l o v e r . And t h e 

l o v e r h i m s e l f l i s t e n s t o b o t h , c r i t i c a l o f each man's 

e x c e s s e s . D e s p i t e h i s age, Edwin M o r r i s r e c i t e s a n a i v e 

p a s t o r a l t o l o v e t h a t s w e e t l y oozes s e n t i m e n t from h i s " f u l l -

c e l l e d honeycomb o f e l o q u e n c e " ( 2 6 ) . The s p e a k e r r e s p o n d s t o 

him " h a l f - s a r d o n i c a l l y " because he s e n s e s i n M o r r i s ' s language 

a " t o u c h o f s o m e t h i n g f a l s e , some s e l f - c o n c e i t " (74) , a 

s u p e r e r o g a t o r y emotion. C o n v e r s e l y t h e c u r a t e , Edward B u l l , 

p i t c h e s h i s " p i p e t o o low" (52) f o r t h e s p e a k e r , c l e a r l y 

d e p i c t i n g women as mere human b r e e d e r s . B o t h t h e a r t i f i c i a l 

and t h e g r o s s a r e r e j e c t e d . I n t h e i r p l a c e , t h e s p e a k e r t e l l s 



h i s own s t o r y i n w h i c h t h e p o e t i c d i s p o s i t i o n he s h a r e s w i t h 

Edwin i s tempered by t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e " r e n t r o l l C u p i d " t h a t 

c a u s e d him t o l o s e L e t t y , a f o r c e p e r h a p s as g r o s s as t h e 

C u r a t e ' s y e t f a r more w i d e l y a c c e p t e d s o c i a l l y and t h e r e f o r e 

more i n s i d i o u s . Y e t t h e l o v e r h e r e does n o t r a n t as Maud's 

l o v e r w i l l l a t e r do a g a i n s t t h e " l u s t o f g a i n , i n t h e s p i r i t 

o f C a i n " (Maud I 23) o r as L e o l i n w i l l a g a i n s t " f i l t h y 

m a r r i a g e - h i n d e r i n g Mammon" ("Aylmer's F i e l d " 3 74) . R a t h e r , he 

a l l o w s t h e p r e s e n t moment w i t h i n t h e frame t o q u a l i f y t h e p a s t 

by q u e s t i o n i n g h i s p r e v i o u s judgement o f L e t t y . Then, by 

l e t t i n g h i s p a i n t e r l y i m a g i n a t i o n t a k e o v e r , w i t h t h e a z u r e 

b r u s h o f n o s t a l g i a , he r e c a p t u r e s h e r i n a summer l a n d s c a p e o f 

b l i s s f u l q u i e t u d e . 

Through t h e i r use o f an i m a g i n a t i v e language t h a t can, 

d e s p i t e b a r r i e r s o f t i m e and p l a c e , r e f o r g e i n t h e mind t h o s e 

bonds t h a t have been b r o k e n i n r e a l i t y , o r can c a s t women i n t o 

images o f t h e m s e l v e s , Tennyson's male s p e a k e r s i n t h e i d y l s 

c r e a t e a v a r i e t y o f moods a p p r o p r i a t e n o t o n l y t o t h e i r own 

c h a r a c t e r s , b u t t o t h e d i f f e r i n g s e n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e 

h e t e r o g e n e o u s V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e . Through s u c h d i v e r s i t y , 

Tennyson t h e r e b y encourages m a n i f o l d r e s p o n s e s among h i s 

c o n t e m p o r a r i e s : a c c e p t a n c e , r e j e c t i o n , o r c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t h e 

a r r a y o f p o t e n t i a l a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e i s s u e s o f l o v e , 

m a r r i a g e , p r o p e r t y , and d u t y . 

I n c o n t r a s t , Tennyson's f e m a l e j i l t e d - l o v e r s a r e l i m i t e d i n 

t h e i r r e s p o n s e s because o f t h e i r gender. T h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s , 



i n t u r n , d e v o l v e d upon Tennyson h i m s e l f . H i s use o f f e m a l e 

s u b j e c t s was n o t w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o v e r s y i n t h e 

V i c t o r i a n c r i t i c a l p r e s s . A c c o r d i n g t o C a r o l C h r i s t , i n h e r 

a n a l y s i s o f "The F e m i n i n e S u b j e c t i n V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y , " 

" c o n c e r n w i t h t h e gender o f p o e t i c s e n s i b i l i t y , l i k e gender 

c o n c e r n s o f a l l k i n d s , becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y a c u t e i n t h e 

V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d , and Tennyson, [as A u s t i n had a s s e r t e d i n h i s 

Temple Bar a r t i c l e o f 18 69] i s t h e V i c t o r i a n p o e t most 

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f e m i n i z a t i o n o f p o e t r y " (385-86). As i n 

h e r p r e v i o u s work i n V i c t o r i a n p o e t r y , The F i n e r O p t i c , C h r i s t 

a t t r i b u t e s Tennyson's p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h women a l s o t o h i s 

"gaze." She v i e w s t h i s male gaze as u n a u t h o r i z e d , a t y p e o f 

" e r o t i c t h e f t t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e male i n c o r p o r a t e s a power he 

l o c a t e s i n t h e f e m a l e " (386). Commenting on numerous e a r l y 

l y r i c s t h a t use t h e f e m i n i n e s u b j e c t as a c o n t r o l l i n g 

p r i n c i p l e , C h r i s t c o n c l u d e s ( a l o n g l i n e s s i m i l a r t o h e r 

e a r l i e r a r t i c l e , " V i c t o r i a n M a s c u l i n i t y and t h e A n g e l i n t h e 

House" t h a t " t h e o r g a n i z i n g power o f t h e f e m a l e s u b j e c t 

s a t i s f i e s a d r i v e t o w a r d f e m i n i n e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , w h i l e t h e 

e f f a c e m e n t o f t h e n a r r a t o r h i d e s t h e gaze t h a t i s i t s v e h i c l e " 

( 3 9 1 ) . F o r C h r i s t , problems ensue i n l a t e r n a r r a t i v e poems, 

s u c h as Maud o r t h e I d y l l s , when t h e gaze i s f r a c t u r e d because 

Tennyson's h e r o e s t r y t o imbue " t h e power o f c i v i l i z i n g s e l f 

and w o r l d t o t h e image t h e y c o n s t r u c t o f t h e i r b e l o v e d " woman, 

a power w h i c h t h e image as a " f r a g i l e p o e t i c i z a t i o n " c a n n o t 

s u s t a i n ( 3 9 1 ) . C h r i s t c o n c l u d e s t h a t d a n g e r s t o h i s 



352 

r e p u t a t i o n u l t i m a t e l y b e s e t t h e male p o e t who " a s s o c i a t e s b o t h 

w i t h t h e d i r e c t gaze a t t h e woman and w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e 

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t o w h i c h he f r e q u e n t l y r e s o r t s t o a v o i d such a 

gaze. L o o k i n g a t t h e woman, t h e p o e t can l o s e name and fame; 

l o o k i n g as a woman, he d i e s " ( 3 9 5 ) . A u s t i n ' s a n x i e t y about 

Tennyson's " f e m i n i n e muse" i s , f o r C h r i s t , t y p i c a l o f t h e 

V i c t o r i a n f e a r s o f b o t h sexes "about w h i c h gender p o s s e s s e s 

t h e power o f a u t h o r s h i p " (399) . 

W h i l e C h r i s t i n h i n d s i g h t a c c u r a t e l y a s s e s s e s t h e n e g a t i v e 

consequences t h a t Tennyson s u f f e r e d i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h i s 

c e n t u r y because o f h i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f women's " v i e w s , " h e r 

f o c u s on t h e v i s u a l gaze t e n d s t o l i m i t t h e means by w h i c h 

Tennyson t r a n s f o r m e d h i s s t a t i c p o r t r a i t s o f women i n t o 

complex p o e t i c n a r r a t i v e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , C h r i s t can o n l y 

c o n c l u d e t h a t Tennyson's v i s i o n i s t h e r e f o r e f r a c t u r e d i n 

l o n g e r , i n t r i c a t e l y p l o t t e d works s i n c e t h e eye's f i e l d i s 

n e c e s s a r i l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d by what i t can t a k e i n a t once. 

T r y i n g t o be b o t h s u b j e c t and o b j e c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , v i s i o n 

n e c e s s a r i l y f a l t e r s . However, Tennyson's a d o p t i o n o f t h e 

" f e m i n i n e " i n s u b j e c t m a t t e r and i n form was i n no way 

r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e v i s u a l . As many n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s 

had n o t e d , Tennyson's t i e s t o t h e f e m i n i n e a l s o d e v e l o p e d i n 

terms o f sound and language and n o t j u s t t h r o u g h v i s u a l 

imagery. Had C h r i s t added t o h e r s t u d y Tennyson's 

a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e f e m a l e v o i c e , she m i g h t have more f u l l y 

e x p l a i n e d how Tennyson c o u l d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y speak about women, 



353 

speak t o women, and speak w i t h a woman's v o i c e , and n o t l o s e 

any e s s e n t i a l a e s t h e t i c power s i n c e v a l u e would be i n s c r i b e d 

i n t e r a c t i v e l y between t h e t e x t and an a u d i e n c e t h a t would 

i n c l u d e women. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e s o - c a l l e d f r a c t u r i n g o f a 

poem w o u l d be a d e l i b e r a t e way o f b r i n g i n g a c h o r u s o f v o i c e s 

i n t o p l a y a l l a t once. 

Tennyson's t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e e m i n g l y v i s u a l 

m a s t e r p i e c e , "The Lady o f S h a l o t t , " d e m o n s t r a t e s w e l l t h e 

p o e t ' s awareness o f f a r more t h a n j u s t v i s u a l r e c e p t i o n as a 

d e t e r m i n e r o f meaning. I t s r e v i s e d e n d i n g i l l u s t r a t e s 

Tennyson's m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e d e f l e c t e d v o i c e and n o t j u s t 

t h e d e f l e c t e d gaze as a p o e t i c method o f d i v e s t i n g t h e l y r i c 

s p e a k e r o f s o l e a u t h o r i t y , t h e r e b y e n h a n c i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r 
17 

a u d i e n c e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e dilemma h i s l y r i c evokes. 

The p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e 1842 poem i s due, i n p a r t , t o t h e range 

o f i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h e l y r i c a l l o w e d ; t h i s i s 

e v i d e n t i n t h e number and d i v e r s i t y o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e 

l a d y o f S h a l o t t t h a t appeared i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 
Of many c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s o f "The Lady o f S h a l o t t , " 

L i o n e l S t e v e n s o n ' s "'The h i g h b o r n maiden' symbol i n Tennyson" 
i s l i k e l y t h e b e s t known as S t e v e n s o n a t t e m p t s t o p l a c e t h e 
l a d y p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , as one "anima" a m i d s t many i n Tennyson's 
g a l l e r y o f u n r e q u i t e d f e m a l e l o v e r s . K a r e n Hodder's "The Lady 
o f S h a l o t t i n A r t and L i t e r a t u r e " i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g 
as an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y v i e w o f how and why Tennyson and 
V i c t o r i a n a r t i s t s came t o v i e w t h i s m e d i e v a l l a d y as a s t r o n g 
symbol o f t h e V i c t o r i a n woman. 

1 8 A c a t a l o g u e o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s and e s s a y s a n a l y z i n g t h e 
more i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e was r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d subsequent t o 
an e x h i b i t i o n a t Brown U n i v e r s i t y e n t i t l e d L a d i e s o f S h a l o t t :  
A V i c t o r i a n M a s t e r p i e c e and I t s C o n t e x t s (1985); t h e e s s a y s i n 
t h e volume f o c u s p r i m a r i l y on work by t h e P r e - R a p h a e l i t e s , 



354 

And w h i l e Tennyson may have o b j e c t e d t o such an i l l u s t r a t i o n 

as W i l l i a m Holman Hunt's, he had n o n e t h e l e s s t o a c c e p t , as 

R u s k i n reminded him i n a l e t t e r , 24 J u l y 1857, t h a t good 

p i c t u r e s would n e v e r be i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f h i s poems: " t h e y a r e 

a l w a y s a n o t h e r poem, s u b o r d i n a t e b u t w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e 

p o e t ' s c o n c e p t i o n , and s e r v e c h i e f l y t o show t h e r e a d e r how 

v a r i o u s l y t h e same v e r s e s may a f f e c t v a r i o u s minds" (XXXIV 

264-5). The same may have been t r u e o f v o c a l i z a t i o n s o f h i s 

poems a l t h o u g h w i t h o u t a c t u a l r e c o r d i n g s o f d i v e r s e r e a d i n g s , 

one can o n l y s p e c u l a t e on t h e a u d i t o r y i m p a c t o f "The Lady o f 

S h a l o t t . " 

As a p r o t o t y p e o f f e m i n i n e e m o t i o n a l postponement, t h e 18 3 2 

l a d y o f S h a l o t t u n k n o w i n g l y i s s u b j e c t t o a c u r s e : i n e s s e n c e , 

t h i s i s t h e c o n t r o l o f h e r p e r s o n by t h e n a r r a t o r who l i m i t s 

h e r s o l e l y t o a n a r r a t i v e o f t h e p e r p e t u a l weaver t h a t , i n 
19 

t u r n , c o n f i n e s h e r t o s t a t i c s e l f - i m a g i n g t h r o u g h a r t . That 

e s p e c i a l l y W i l l i a m Holman Hunt's famous 1857 Moxon 
i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e l a d y ' s entrapment w i t h i n t h e s k e i n s o f h e r 
unwound web once she d i s o b e y s t h e i n j u n c t i o n s o f t h e c u r s e 
upon h e r . 

19 . . . . 
I n Love and t h e Woman Q u e s t i o n i n V i c t o r i a n  

L i t e r a t u r e : The A r t o f S e l f - P o s t p o n e m e n t , K a t h l e e n B l a k e 
s t u d i e s v a r i e t i e s o f f e m a l e s e l f - p o s t p o n e m e n t : " f e m i n i n e , " 
" f e m i n i s t , " and a r t i s t i c . I n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , she a r g u e s 
t h a t C h r i s t i n a R o s s e t t i was an exemplar o f f e m i n i n e "hope 
d e f e r r e d , " and t h a t a g a i n and a g a i n h e r p o e t r y c o n c e r n s f e m a l e 
f i g u r e s who deny e a r t h l y f u l f i l m e n t as i f w a i t i n g p a t i e n t l y 
f o r s p i r i t u a l wholeness t o a r r i v e t h r o u g h d e a t h as a form o f 
s e x u a l y e t s y m b o l i c a l l y immaculate u n i t y w i t h God t h e 
p a t r i a r c h ( 3 - 2 5 ) . Her work on R o s s e t t i s u g g e s t s i n t e r e s t i n g 
p a r a l l e l s w i t h s e v e r a l o f Tennyson's e a r l y l y r i c s about women 
who w a i t , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , f o r l o v e and d e a t h : " M a r i a n n a , " 
" M a r i a n n a i n t h e S o u t h , " " O r i a n a , " ( t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e o f t h e 
male l o v e r ) , " F a t i m a , " "Oenone," "The May Queen," " S t Agnes' 



355 

she was p o r t r a y e d s t r i c t l y as an a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t , as p a r t o f 

t h e e l a b o r a t e t a p e s t r y t h a t she weaves, i s e v i d e n t i n p h r a s e s 

t h a t Tennyson d e l e t e d from t h e 1842 e d i t i o n . The 1832 l a d y 

was d i s p l a y e d i n r e g a l p o s t u r e : "A p e a r l g a r l a n d winds h e r 

head: / She l e a n e t h on a v e l v e t bed, / F u l l r o y a l l y 

a p p a r e l l e d " ( 2 4 - 6 ) . Moreover, she was once b o t h web and 

m i r r o r : " B e f o r e h e r hangs a m i r r o r c l e a r , / R e f l e c t i n g t o w e r e d 

Camelot, / And, as t h e mazy web she w h i r l s " ( 4 9 - 5 1 ) . F i n a l l y , 

b e f o r e l e a v i n g h e r t o w e r , "A c l o u d w h i t e crown o f p e a r l she 

d i g h t . / A l l r a i m e n t e d i n snowy w h i t e / That l o o s e l y f l e w , 

( h e r zone i n s i g h t , / C l a s p e d w i t h one b l i n d i n g diamond 

b r i g h t , ) " ( d e l e t e d l i n e s i n p a r t I V ) . The 1832 poem may 

o s t e n s i b l y p o s i t t h a t h e r d e a t h r e s u l t s from h e r a s s u m p t i o n o f 

agency, and a r e f u s a l t o e x i s t any l o n g e r as t h e p a s s i v e 

i m p r i n t o f . a w o r l d t h a t i s p a s s i n g h e r by, b u t t h e c o n c l u d i n g 

l i n e s n o n e t h e l e s s r e t a i n t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e l a d y i s s t i l l 

t o be v i s u a l l y gazed upon as an a r t i s t i c c o n s t r u c t o f t h e 

c u r s e ' s d e s i g n i n g : 

Eve," "The Day Dream," "Rosamund's Bower," and, most 
c o m p l e t e l y , "The Lady o f S h a l o t t . " Tennyson's use o f 
" f e m i n i n e postponement" a c h i e v e s i t s a p o t h e o s i s i n I n Memoriam 
i n w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r b o t h images H a l l a m as an a b s e n t l o v e r and 
i d e n t i f i e s him w i t h C h r i s t ; t h e i r r e u n i f i c a t i o n he, a t f i r s t , 
d e s i r e s i n a p h y s i c a l , e r o t i c way t h a t becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y 
s p i r i t u a l i z e d as t h e poem p r o g r e s s e s . I n Memoriam i s 
d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h below. 



They c r o s s e d t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r s t a r s t h e y b l e s t , 
K n i g h t , m i n s t r e l , abbot, s q u i r e and g u e s t . 
There l a y a parchment on h e r b r e a s t , 
That p u z z l e d them more t h a n a l l t h e r e s t , 
The w e l l f e d w i t s a t Camelot. 
'The web was woven c u r i o u s l y 
The charm i s b r o k e n u t t e r l y . 
Draw n e a r and f e a r n o t — t h i s i s I , 
The Ladv o f S h a l o t t . ' (163-71) 

I n t h e s e l i n e s , t h e r e c i p i e n t s o f t h e l a d y as an a e s t h e t i c 

c r e a t i o n a r e i d e n t i f i e d as a mixed group o f members o f t h e 

c o u r t , w i t h c u r i o u s a l l e g i a n c e s t o C a t h o l i c i s m ( c r o s s e d 

t h e m s e l v e s ) , astronomy ( s t a r s t h e y b l e s t ) , and e p i c u r e a n i s m 

( w e l l - f e d ) . They c o l l e c t i v e l y come upon t h e l a d y as a crowd, 

p u z z l e d more by t h e parchment t h a n " a l l t h e r e s t " (which has 

no a n t e c e d e n t , b u t presumably r e f e r s t o h e r f a n t a s t i c pose and 

r a i m e n t s ) , y e t a r e t h e m s e l v e s d e n i e d any r e a l r e s p o n s e . They 

a r e d i r e c t e d i n how e x a c t l y t o v i e w h e r and h e r s i t u a t i o n 

t h r o u g h h e r parchment's d e c l a r a t i v e s and i m p e r a t i v e s , c r y p t i c 

as t h e y a r e . I n t h i s way, she r e m a i n s an a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t , a 

s t a t i c , s e l f - a r t i c u l a t i n g r e g i s t e r o f t h e powers o f t h e charm; 

h e r parchment t e x t m e r e l y r e p l a c e s t h e p r e v i o u s t e x t i l e 

r e g i s t e r o f h e r l i f e . She i s d e n i e d any t r u e agency o r 

s u b j e c t i v i t y t o a f f e c t h e r immediate a u d i e n c e i n any i n t e g r a l 

way s i n c e t h e group r e a c t s s i m p l y w i t h s u p e r s t i t i o u s g e s t u r e s 

as i f i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e embodiment o f t h e c u r s e i t s e l f 

r a t h e r t h a n a dead woman. 

I n t h e 1842 v e r s i o n o f t h e poem, however, s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s 

a r e a l t e r e d t o f i t w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t c o n c l u s i o n 

t h a t g r a n t s agency t o b o t h t h e l a d y and h e r Camelot r e c e p t o r s , 



u l t i m a t e l y l i m i t e d t o L a n c e l o t h i m s e l f . The agency g r a n t e d t o 

t h e poem's p a r t i c i p a n t s t h e r e b y l i b e r a t e s Tennyson's a u d i e n c e 

as w e l l t o r e a c t t o i t s e n i g m a t i c dilemma i n a l e s s s t r u c t u r e d 

way t h a n p r e v i o u s l y . The r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e l a d y ' s b e j e w e l l e d 

appearance a r e e i t h e r removed a l t o g e t h e r o r r e p l a c e d by 

q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g h e r c o r p o r e a l i t y : "But who h a t h seen h e r 

wave h e r hand? / Or a t t h e casement seen h e r s t a n d ? / Or i s 

she known i n a l l t h e l a n d [ ? ] " ( 2 4 - 6 ) . These a n t i c i p a t e t h e 

q u e s t i o n s t h a t open t h e new f i n a l s t a n z a . The l a d y i s a l s o 

now g r a n t e d p h y s i c a l b e i n g and s u b j e c t i v i t y t h r o u g h t h e s e 

q u e s t i o n s ( a l b e i t i n c o n c l u s i v e l y ) . 

I n t h e 183 2 poem, she had been unaware o f t h e charm t h a t 

i m p r i s o n e d h e r w i t h i n i t s web; t h u s h e r c h o i c e t o abandon i t s 

d e s i g n f o r t h a t o f Camelot r e a d a l m o s t as a t y p e o f n a i v e 

s u b s t i t u t i o n o f one g l i t t e r y t e x t f o r a n o t h e r , one now f i l l e d 

w i t h t h e " r e d c l o a k s o f market g i r l s " ( 5 3 ) , t h e " l o n g - h a i r e d 

page i n c r i m s o n c l a d " ( 5 8 ) , and, o f c o u r s e , t h e s h i n i n g g o l d 

and s i l v e r o f L a n c e l o t h i m s e l f . Once t h e l a d y i s s h o r n o f h e r 

own f i n e r y i n 1842, however, h e r " r e d - c r o s s k n i g h t " and h i s 

armour b l a z e more b r i g h t l y i n c o n t r a s t , and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e 

o f L a n c e l o t as h e r v i s u a l a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t i n P a r t I I I o f t h e 

poem, w h i c h remained unchanged, i s t h e r e b y enhanced. 

C o n s e q u e n t l y , h e r i m p u l s e t o b r e a k f r e e o f t h e c u r s e — w h i c h i n 

t h i s v e r s i o n she a c t u a l l y o v e r h e a r s ( 3 9 - 4 1 ) — n o w r e s u l t s from 

a c l e a r l y s e l f - d e t e r m i n e d w i s h t o assume an a c t i v e 

s u b j e c t i v i t y w i t h L a n c e l o t as h e r d e s i r e d o b j e c t . Newly added 



358 

images o f t r a f f i c on t h e r i v e r r e i n f o r c e t h e t e n s i o n between 

t h e l a d y ' s s t a t i c c l o i s t e r and t h e dynamic human a c t i v i t y t h a t 

t h e a r t o f h e r loom f i x e s so t h a t , when she does make t h e 

c h o i c e t o f l e e such s t a s i s , r e a d e r s s h a r e w i t h h e r a p r o f o u n d 

sense o f t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f h e r c h o i c e and t h e i n e l u c t a b l e 

doom t h a t such a d e c i s i o n e n t a i l s . 

Because t h e l a d y i n 1842 i s shown t o be more aware t h a n i n 

t h e e a r l i e r v e r s i o n t h a t a " c u r s e i s on h e r i f she s t a y / To 

l o o k down t o Camelot" (40-41) , t h e new e n d i n g t o t h e poem 

p e r f o r c e q u e s t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n g i v e s answers f o r t h e l a d y ' s 

p e r p l e x i n g d e s i r e t o abandon h e r s e l f t o h e r f u t u r e 

d e s t r u c t i o n . Once dead, she no l o n g e r d i r e c t s t h e gaze o f h e r 

a u d i e n c e t h r o u g h any t y p e o f c o n t r o l l e d n a r r a t i v e , b u t a l l o w s 

f o r i t s d i f f u s i o n t h r o u g h p o t e n t i a l l y autonomous r e s p o n s e s t o 

t h e q u e s t i o n s o f who she i s and what h e r d e a t h s i g n i f i e s : 

Who i s t h i s ? and what i s h e r e ? 
And i n t h e l i g h t e d p a l a c e n e a r 
D i e d t h e sound o f r o y a l c h e e r ; 
And t h e y c r o s s e d t h e m s e l v e s f o r f e a r , 

A l l t h e k n i g h t s a t Camelot: 
But L a n c e l o t mused a l i t t l e s p a c e ; 
He s a i d , 'She has a l o v e l y f a c e ; 
God i n h i s mercy l e n d h e r g r a c e , 

The l a d y o f S h a l o t t . ' (163-71) 

The i n t e r r o g a t i v e s . t h a t b e g i n t h e s t a n z a a r e n e v e r r e a l l y 

answered; r a t h e r , t h e y a r e d e s i g n e d t o engage t h e l a d y ' s 

immediate a u d i e n c e i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f h e r s i t u a t i o n . They 

s e r v e t h e a d d i t i o n a l p u r p o s e , however, o f d r a w i n g Tennyson's 

own r e a d e r s as a whole i n t o r e f l e c t i o n upon h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , 

and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t t h e y may h o l d f o r t h e m s e l v e s i n 



359 

t h e i r own l i v e s . W i t h t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e parchment t e x t t h a t 

had e a r l i e r d i r e c t e d t h e r e a d i n g o f h e r s i t u a t i o n , t h e 

p o t e n t i a l f o r p e r s o n a l i z e d r e s p o n s e s i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y 

i n c r e a s e d . Y e t Tennyson does n o t a l l o w t h e s e r e s p o n s e s t o be 

c o m p l e t e l y random. I n s t e a d , h i s r e a d e r s a r e g i v e n d i f f e r e n t 

a l t e r n a t i v e s as t h e poem narrows s p a t i a l l y t o w a r d L a n c e l o t 

a l o n e : t h e p a l a c e ' s seeming i n d i f f e r e n c e g i v e s way t o t h e 

k n i g h t s who a l m o s t r e f l e x i v e l y e n a c t a group r e a c t i o n by 

c r o s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f d e a t h . I n c o n t r a s t , 

L a n c e l o t ' s p e r s o n a l i z e d musing narrows t h e f i e l d o f v i s i o n 

t h a t much f u r t h e r by d w e l l i n g upon t h e l a d y ' s p h y s i c a l i t y . A t 

f i r s t , h i s "'She has a l o v e l y f a c e ' " seems a r a t h e r g l i b 

r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e l f - s a c r i f i c i a l d e a t h she has e l e c t e d f o r h i s 

s a k e . However, as a s u b s t i t u t e v o i c e t e x t f o r t h e e a r l i e r 

parchment, L a n c e l o t ' s comment upon t h e l a d y ' s f a c e a l l u s i v e l y 

c o n t a i n s t h e new t e n s i o n s Tennyson added t o t h e 1842 poem. I t 

s u g g e s t s t h e l a d y ' s own s u b j e c t i v e , c a r n a l r e a l i t y y e t 

t r a n s f o r m s h e r a t t h e same t i m e , because o f L a n c e l o t ' s s t u d i e d 

g a z e , i n t o a f e m a l e a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t o f h i s c o n t e m p l a t i o n i f 

n o t a c t u a l d e s i r e . And a g a i n , unaware o f h i s r o l e i n t h e 

s a c r i f i c e she has made, L a n c e l o t t h e n c a l l s upon God t o be h e r 

g r a c i o u s r e c e i v e r , an i r o n i c d i s p l a c e m e n t o f h i m s e l f as t h e 

l o c u s o f h e r d e s i r e , as t h e agent o f h e r r e d e m p t i o n from a 

l i f e o f e n f o r c e d i l l u s i o n imposed upon h e r by t h e charm. 

Whereas t h e 1832 poem had e l i c i t e d v a r i o u s C h r i s t i a n and 

pagan r e a c t i o n s o n l y t o s i l e n c e them t h r o u g h t h e s u p e r i o r 



360 

n a r r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e r e l i g i o u s l y n e u t r a l parchment, t h i s 

new e n d i n g a p p e a r s a t f i r s t more s p e c i f i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n . I t 

c h a n n e l s i t s r e s p o n s e s upward t o w a r d God who i s a s k e d " t o l e n d 

h e r g r a c e " s i n c e He i s t h e u l t i m a t e s e a t o f f u l f i l m e n t o f a l l 

l i f e n a r r a t i v e s . Y e t by h a v i n g L a n c e l o t — t h e o b j e c t o f t h e 

l a d y ' s own a e s t h e t i c gaze and human d e s i r e — v o i c e t h i s p r a y e r , 

even w h i l e r e m a r k i n g upon t h e p h y s i c a l b e a u t y o f h e r f a c e , 

Tennyson d e n i e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r u n e q u i v o c a l c h a n n e l l i n g 

upward. The a u d i e n c e , l i k e L a n c e l o t , i s drawn back t o e a r t h 

t h r o u g h t h e s o u n d i n g o f h i s v o i c e and, i n t u r n , reminded o f 

t h e i n e s c a p a b l e r e s t r i c t i o n s imposed upon t h e f u l l enjoyment 

o f e a r t h ' s p l e a s u r e s . F o r Tennyson's f e m a l e r e a d e r s , t h e s e 

were t h e m s e l v e s C h r i s t i a n , s p e c i f i c a l l y P a u l i n e , i n j u n c t i o n s 

t h a t s e r v e d t o e n t r e n c h t h e f e m a l e as an a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t o f 

male d e s i r e t h r o u g h t h e d e n i a l o f f e m a l e agency i n l o v e 

r e l a t i o n s . 

I n Tennyson's poem, as i n a g r e a t many poems w r i t t e n by 

V i c t o r i a n women—most n o t a b l y C h r i s t i n a R o s s e t t i and E m i l y 

D i c k i n s o n — G o d t h u s becomes a s p i r i t u a l succedaneum f o r an 

e a r t h l y male l o v e r . 2 0 But t h e major d i s t i n c t i o n between "The 

20 
I n h i s r e c e n t a r t i c l e , "'Descend,and Touch, and 

E n t e r ' : Tennyson's S t r a n g e Manner o f A d d r e s s , " C h r i s t o p h e r 
C r a f t u s e s "succedaneum" t o d e s c r i b e t h e r o l e o f C h r i s t i n I n 
Memoriam, a s u b s t i t u t e l o v e r ' f o r w h i c h H a l l a m i s t h e g r e a t 
o r i g i n a l : "Tennyson would m a s t e r h i s u n c o n v e n t i o n a l 
[homosexual?] d e s i r e f o r H a l l a m by f i g u r i n g i t as a s u b s p e c i e s 
o f a v e r y c o n v e n t i o n a l d e s i r e f o r 'the S t r o n g Son o f God'" 
( 8 9 ) . W h i l e "succedaneum" i s i t s e l f a u s e f u l t e r m f o r a b r u p t 
c l o s u r e s i n Tennyson's p o e t r y , such as t h e use o f God i n t h e 
"The Lady o f S h a l l o t " o r t h e Crimean War i n Maud, C h r i s t i n I n 
Memoriam seems a more i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e 



Lady o f S h a l o t t " and comparable poems w r i t t e n by women 

i n v o l v e s t h e s h i f t i n g r o l e s o f s u b j e c t and o b j e c t p l a y e d out 

between t h e l a d y and h e r l o v e r - G o d . As K a t h l e e n B l a k e n o t e s , 

R o s s e t t i a l m o s t a l w a y s images h e r women w i t h o u t agency 

t h e m s e l v e s , w a i t i n g p a t i e n t l y f o r e a r t h l y f u l f i l m e n t t h r o u g h 

s p i r i t u a l s u b m i s s i o n t o a d e c i d e d l y male G o d . 2 1 A l t h o u g h 

B l a k e seldom r e f e r s t o t h e e r o t i c q u a l i t y o f R o s s e t t i ' s v e r s e , 

t h e f e t i s h i z a t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s f u l f i l m e n t would l i k e l y have 

c a r r i e d an e r o t i c p o t e n t i a l f o r i n d i v i d u a l V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s , 

i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e i n n u m e r a b l e women, who w e r e — t h r o u g h w a i t i n g 

f o r p o t e n t i a l , a b s e n t o r even dead l o v e r s and h u s b a n d s — l o c k e d 

i n t o s t a t i c p o s t u r e s o f c o n t i n u a l e m o t i o n a l and s e x u a l 

poem as a whole t h a t a s s o c i a t e s t h e a b s e n t H a l l a m w i t h C h r i s t 
as l o g o s , a language o f s p i r i t u a l p o e t i c s t h a t t h e p o e t woos 
t h r o u g h o u t t h e poem t o e n a b l e him t o a r t i c u l a t e t h e magnitude 
o f h i s l o s s . Succedaneum s e r v e s w e l l t o d e s c r i b e d i s p l a c e d 
e r o t i c i s m , b u t I n Memoriam a r i s e s out o f a f a r more complex 
s e r i e s o f d o u b t s t h a n C r a f t seems p r e p a r e d t o e n t e r t a i n . 

2 1 A v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s i m i l a r i t y i n mood between 
Tennyson's poems o f f e m i n i n e s e l f - p o s t p o n e m e n t and t h o s e o f 
C h r i s t i n a R o s s e t t i may be found i n t h e s t r i k i n g sameness o f 
p o s t u r e and d e s i g n t h a t D. G. R o s s e t t i e f f e c t s between h i s 
1857 " M a r i a n n a i n t h e S o u t h " and h i s c o v e r i l l u s t r a t i o n , "The 
l o n g h o u r s go and come and go" f o r h i s s i s t e r ' s P r i n c e ' s  
P r o g r e s s and O t h e r Poems (1866). (See t h e c a t a l o g u e o f t h e 
e x h i b i t i o n h e l d by t h e Dept. o f A r t , Brown U n i v e r s i t y , 14 8 and 
151) . 



362 

22 d e f e r r a l . E m i l y D i c k i n s o n ' s s p e a k e r s , on t h e o t h e r hand, 

f r e q u e n t l y v e n t u r e o u t o f t h e i r e n c l o s e d spaces t o become 

a g e n t s r a t h e r t h a n mere r e c e i v e r s o f a d i s p l a c e d e r o t i c i s m 

t h r o u g h s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s v e n t u r i n g , however, i s 

u s u a l l y s y m b o l i c , d i s p l a c e d i n t o a t y p e o f g i v e and t a k e 

f l i r t a t i o n w i t h " t h e Word" ( l o g o s , God i n c a r n a t e ) o f h e r own 

c r e a t i o n , a p o e t i c a u t o e r o t i c i s m t h a t s u b s t i t u t e s h e r s e l f -

g e n e r a t e d t e x t s f o r t h e a b s e n t O t h e r . I n t h i s way, 

D i c k i n s o n ' s s p e a k e r s r e s e m b l e t h e p r e - l a p s a r i a n l a d y o f 

S h a l o t t ; b e f o r e h e r s u b j e c t i v e gaze happened t o f a l l upon 

L a n c e l o t as t h e o b j e c t o f h e r d e s i r e , she had been c o n t e n t 

w i t h d i s p l a c e d f u l f i l m e n t t h r o u g h h e r own a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n . 2 3 

John S t e r l i n g , i n h i s r e v i e w o f Poems (1842) comments 
upon t h e p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e o f Tennyson's poems f o r 
abandoned women i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f " F a t i m a " : "Many w i l l r e a d 
i t as i f i t b e l o n g e d o n l y t o some F a t i m a o r Sappho t o f e e l 
w i t h t h i s e n t i r e n e s s o f abandonment. But t h e r e a r e hundreds 
o f women i n t h e West end o f L o n d o n — a n d i n t h e E a s t end t o o — 
who would f i n d i t o n l y a s t r a i n t h a t n a t u r e had a l r e a d y t a u g h t 
them" ( q t d A r m s t r o n g S c r u t i n i e s 139) . 

23 
The i n t e n s e l y p r i v a t e n a t u r e s o f b o t h R o s s e t t i and 

D i c k i n s o n do r a i s e some q u e s t i o n s about t h e i r use as f e m a l e 
c o u n t e r p a r t s t o Tennyson s i n c e I have a l r e a d y a r g u e d t h a t 
Tennyson's f e m i n i n e muse stems from a p u b l i c awareness o f 
women as p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r s . From t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e 
a r t i c u l a t i o n o f p u b l i c i s s u e s s u r r o u n d i n g women, a c o m p a r i s o n 
between Tennyson and a f e m a l e p o e t — e q u a l l y p o p u l a r and a l s o 
c o n c e r n e d w i t h dichotomous o b j e c t - s u b j e c t , female-male l o v e 
r e l a t i o n s — m i g h t have been made w i t h E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t 
Browning r a t h e r t h a n , as h e r e , e i t h e r R o s s e t t i o r D i c k i n s o n . 
T h i s has, o f c o u r s e , a l r e a d y been done by M a r j o r i e Stone and 
B i n a F r e i w a l d i n t h e i r a n a l y s e s o f The P r i n c e s s and A u r o r a  
L e i g h . But t h e f o c u s h e r e i s on t h e p o e t i c r e n d e r i n g o f 
f e m i n i n e s u b m i s s i o n t o God t h e p a t r i a r c h as a form o f 
d i s p l a c e d s e x u a l i t y . B a r r e t t Browning i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d i n 
t h i s c o n t e x t because, as h e r Sonnets from t h e P o r t u g u e s e 
i m p l y , God i n heaven i s w i l l i n g l y s a c r i f i c e d f o r t h e male l o v e 
o b j e c t p o s s e s s e d on e a r t h r a t h e r t h a n , as i n t h e p o e t r y o f 



363 

Tennyson's p r e - l a p s a r i a n l a d y a l s o h a r k e n s back t o male 

s p e a k e r s such as t h e husband i n "The M i l l e r ' s Daughter" who 

c o m p l e t e s h i s n a r r a t i v e w i t h t h e l o v e songs o f h i s own 

d e s i g n i n g . 

Y e t u n l i k e e i t h e r R o s s e t t i , D i c k i n s o n , o r even t h e e a r l y 

Tennyson, who w r o t e i n near i s o l a t i o n from t h e i r r e a d i n g 

p u b l i c s , t h e Tennyson o f 1842 f e l t a need t o r e s p o n d on some 

l e v e l t o t h e s o c i a l i m p e r a t i v e s demanded by h i s male c r i t i c s . 

He n o t o n l y t r i e d t o meet h i s c r i t i c s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s t h r o u g h a 

new s p e c i e s o f p a s t o r a l poems termed d o m e s t i c i d y l s (as 

d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r ) , b u t a l s o r e v i s e d p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d 

poems f o r s i m i l a r r e a s o n s . The r e v i s i o n s t o "The Lady o f 

S h a l o t t " i l l u s t r a t e t h a t even though Tennyson l e f t h i s 

n a r r a t i v e t h r e a d s v i r t u a l l y u n c h a n g e d — a s he a l s o d i d w i t h 

"The L o t o s E a t e r s , " f o r e x a m p l e — h e a l t e r e d h i s t e x t s i n such 

a way as t o d i v e s t h i s c o n t r o l l i n g n a r r a t o r o f a u t h o r i t y 

t h r o u g h t h e r e i n v e s t m e n t o f agency i n c h a r a c t e r . These 

changes, i n t u r n , c o u l d open up new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r h i s 

h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e a d e r s t o i n v e s t a s p e c t s o f t h e m s e l v e s and 

t h e i r own c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n c e r n s i n t h e dilemmas o f t h o s e poems 

f e m i n i n e s e x u a l d e f e r r a l , t h e o t h e r way around. T h a t , once 
s a c r i f i c e d by B a r r e t t Browning, God's power t o g e n e r a t e f e m a l e 
s u b m i s s i o n i s a t t i m e s r e i n v e s t e d i n h e r e a r t h l y l o v e r , and a t 
o t h e r t i m e s n o t , i s a d i f f e r e n t dilemma from t h e o b j e c t -
s u b j e c t s t r u g g l e d i s c u s s e d h e r e as " f e m i n i n e postponement." 
A l t h o u g h p r i v a t e , R o s s e t t i and D i c k i n s o n more c l o s e l y 
a p p r o x i m a t e Tennyson i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o n j o i n i n g o f 
s e x u a l i t y and s p i r i t u a l i t y t h a n h i s p o p u l a r c o u n t e r p a r t , 
B a r r e t t Browning. 



t h a t s i t u a t e t h e m s e l v e s i n t i m e and space a t an e x o t i c 

d i s t a n c e from V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d . Such an a l l o w a n c e i s r a r e l y , 

i f e v e r , a f f o r d e d t o r e a d e r s o f e i t h e r C h r i s t i n a R o s s e t t i o r 

D i c k i n s o n s i n c e t h e i n t e n s e l y p r i v a t e p o s t u r i n g s o f t h e i r 

s p e a k e r s ' e x p e r i e n c e s t e n d t o f o l d i n upon t h e m s e l v e s , t h e r e b y 

c i r c u m v e n t i n g any s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s by t h e i r 

r e s p e c t i v e r e a d e r s o t h e r t h a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e l f w i t h 

t h e • s p e a k e r . T h e i r poems a r e t h u s r e n d e r e d s t a t i c , s e l f -

a r t i c u l a t i n g o b j e c t s o f a e s t h e t i c d e l i g h t t o be v i e w e d , by 

many, from a d i s t a n c e . T h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e w i t h Tennyson's 

l y r i c s o f 1842. 

The r e v i s e d "Lady o f S h a l o t t , " f o r i n s t a n c e , c o u l d s t i l l 

be r e a d even as i t had been i n 1832 by Tennyson's l a r g e l y 

male, academic a u d i e n c e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h how t o c o u n t e r 

p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t s by t h e p u b l i c t o l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . That 

i s , i t c o u l d be r e a d as t a k i n g p a r t i n an a e s t h e t i c debate 

s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n "The P a l a c e o f A r t " c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e t a c h e d 

r o l e o f t h e a r t i s t i n an i n c r e a s i n g l y m a t e r i a l i s t i c s o c i e t y . 

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s r e a d i n g , and n o t i n p l a c e o f i t , because 

t h e new poem g r a n t s human agency t o b o t h t h e l a d y and L a n c e l o t 

i n 1842, i t c o u l d a l s o t e n t a t i v e l y g e s t u r e t o w a r d an e q u a l l y 

f o r c e f u l c o n c e r n o f t h e 1840s, p a r t i c u l a r l y f e l t by Tennyson's 

f e m a l e r e a d e r s : t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f women as s e x u a l b e i n g s . 

Tennyson u n i t e s male a e s t h e t i c c o n c e r n s w i t h f e m a l e s o c i a l 

i s s u e s . Thereby, he f o l l o w s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n t h a t H a l l a m ' s 

r e v i e w o f Poems, C h i e f l y L y r i c a l had i n d i c a t e d : t o c r e a t e a 



365 

p o e t r y t h a t would make pure a e s t h e s t i c i s m t h e a p o t h e o s i s o f 

humankind's m o r a l r e s p o n s e t o t h e w o r l d . I n "The Lady o f 

S h a l o t t , " r e a d e r s o f b o t h genders a r e c h a l l e n g e d by f e m a l e -

male s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s i n ways t h a t i n v i t e them t o p a r t i c i p a t e 

a c t i v e l y as r e a d i n g s u b j e c t s v i s a v i s Tennyson's poem as 

t h e i r own a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t . What C h r i s t i d e n t i f i e s as a 

p u r e l y male gaze upon a f e m a l e o b j e c t may have been t r u e o f 

t h e 1832 poem, may have h e l d t r u e f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f 

Tennyson's male r e a d e r s i n t h e 1840s, and may-even be t r u e o f 

a g r e a t many r e a d e r s t o d a y . But as Tennyson h i m s e l f was 

aware, h i s r e a d e r s were d i v e r s e , i n b o t h t h e i r i n t e r e s t s and 

t h e i r a e s t h e t i c demands. 

Thus, w i t h t h e s u b t l e s h i f t i n 1842 away from t h e l a d y as a 

v i s u a l a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t t o w a r d h e r s u b j e c t i v e agency as a 

p h y s i c a l b e i n g r e s p o n d i n g t o L a n c e l o t as a male o b j e c t o f 

d e s i r e , Tennyson's a u d i e n c e c o u l d now r e a d i n h e r s i t u a t i o n 

t h e s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t i n h i b i t e d women's f u l l 

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e b u s i n e s s o f l i f e . Tennyson's poem c o u l d 

t h e r e f o r e be r e a d i n 1842 i n a t l e a s t f o u r d i f f e r e n t ways 

d e p e n d i n g on t h e gender a s s u m p t i o n s o f i t s r e a d e r s . 

A r t i c u l a t i n g t h e s e f o u r i s not t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y were t h e 

o n l y ways t o "make s e n s e " o f t h e poem i n 1842, b u t r a t h e r t o 

make c o n s c i o u s t h e v a r i o u s u n c o n s c i o u s r e a d i n g s t h a t 

Tennyson's new poem c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y g e n e r a t e . 

F o r t h o s e men who saw t h e t e x t and t h e l a d y w i t h i n i t as an 

a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t , t h e poem c o u l d s a t i s f y an e r o t i c a e s t h e t i c 



by c h a n n e l l i n g t h e i r male g a z e s : f i r s t , t h r o u g h t h e v i l l a g e r s ; 

second, t h r o u g h t h e k n i g h t s ; and, f i n a l l y , t h r o u g h L a n c e l o t as 

he gazes down upon t h e l a d y ' s f a c e . T h i s f i n a l p o s i t i o n 

u l t i m a t e l y a l l o w e d them t o s e r v e as God by b e s t o w i n g t h e i r own 

g r a c e upon t h e l a d y . F o r t h o s e men who a l i g n e d t h e m s e l v e s 

w i t h t h e l a d y (and many d i d ) , she c o u l d be f o r them a f i g u r e 

o f t h e d i s p l a c e d a l i e n — o f t e n though n o t a l w a y s an a r t i s t — 

whose s u b j e c t i v i t y h o l d s so l o n g as she r e m a i n s d e t a c h e d from 

s o c i e t y , b u t who becomes t h e dead o b j e c t o f o t h e r s ' p o t e n t i a l 

m i s r e a d i n g s once she r e l e a s e s h e r s e l f (her own b e s t t e x t ) i n t o 

t h e w o r l d a t l a r g e . F o r t h o s e women c o n t e n t t o l i v e t h e i r 

l i v e s as c o n f i n e d as t h e l a d y o f S h a l o t t i s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g 

o f t h e p o e m — a s f e m i n i n e o b j e c t s a w a i t i n g f u l f i l m e n t t h r o u g h 

t h e s u b j e c t i v e agency o f a m a n — t h e male p o e t ' s t e x t i t s e l f 

c o u l d s e r v e t h e two p u r p o s e s t h a t i t g r a n t s t o God: 

a e s t h e t i c i z e d e r o t i c i s m and s p i r i t u a l d i s p l a c e m e n t o f any 

a c t i v e f u l f i l m e n t o f c a r n a l d e s i r e s . And f i n a l l y , f o r t h o s e 

women who a l s o l i v e d c o n f i n e d , m a r g i n a l l i v e s b u t were 

b e g i n n i n g t o q u e s t i o n t h e P a u l i n e r e s t r i c t i o n s imposed upon 

them, t h e male p o e t ' s t e x t c o u l d a c t , as L a n c e l o t does f o r t h e 

l a d y , as t h e i r a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t o f d e s i r e t h a t s e d u c t i v e l y 

beckons them out o f t h e i r p a s s i v e l i v e s ("Who i s t h i s ? and 

what i s h e r e ? " ) t o r i s k d e a t h i f needs be t o a c h i e v e agency 

o v e r t h e i r own p e r s o n s . R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e r e a d i n g , t h e l a d y 

(and Tennyson's t e x t ) u l t i m a t e l y s u b m i t s t o t h e l o s s o f a 

p r i v a t e , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d e x i s t e n c e upon p u b l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 



F o r women who assumed agency ( o r f o r Tennyson as a p o e t ) , 

w h i c h was t h e g r e a t e r c u r s e : d e a t h by a r t i s t i c c o n f i n e m e n t o r 

d e a t h by p u b l i c ( m i s ) i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ? T h i s same q u e s t i o n 

Tennyson a t t e m p t s t o answer i n The P r i n c e s s . L i k e h i s h e r o i n e 

P r i n c e s s I d a , he t o o was c a s t i g a t e d by h i s c r i t i c s f o r h i s 

a r t i s t i c i s o l a t i o n from t h e w o r l d . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e 

t e x t s t h a t he gave t h a t w o r l d , p a r a l l e l e d by I d a ' s l e c t u r e s , 

were s u b j e c t t o numerous i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and 

m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . 

A m b i v a l e n t , sometimes even n e g a t i v e echoes o f t h e r e v i e w s 

o f t h e 1830s c o n t i n u e d i n t o t h e 1840s. C r i t i c s such as 

F r a n c i s Garden ( Jump 98-102) and L e i g h Hunt (Jump 12 6-3 6) 

r e s t a t e t h e d e r o g a t o r y argument t h a t Tennyson i s an e f f e t e 

i m i t a t o r o f K e a t s i n h i s detachment from t h e w o r l d even w h i l e 

t h e y remark on t h e b e a u t i e s t h a t b o t h p o e t s ' v e r s e s o f f e r t o 

t h e human s p i r i t . Hunt, i n p a r t i c u l a r , d i s p a r a g e s Tennyson's 

" l i t e r a r y dandyism," " f i n e - g e n t l e m a n i s m , " and "rhyming f i n e -

l a d y i s m " ( 1 2 7 ) ; he r e s e r v e s p r a i s e o n l y f o r t h o s e poems l i k e 

"The Two V o i c e s " t h a t a l l e g e d l y c o n t a i n a " g e n u i n e , C h r i s t i a n , 

manly and p o e t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y " (13 6 ) . These gendered l i t e r a r y 

terms were by now commonplace i n r e v i e w s o f Tennyson's p o e t r y . 

S e c o n d l y , even among t h o s e c r i t i c s ( s e v e r a l o f whom Tennyson 

c o u n t e d as h i s f r i e n d s ) i n c l i n e d t o compliment him f o r t h e 

l u x u r i o u s language o f h i s f e m a l e g a l l e r y , many sowed t h e i r 

p r a i s e o f t h e p o e t ' s l y r i c i s m i n t h e hope t h a t i t would r e a p a 

much l a r g e r p o e t i c h a r v e s t . S p e d d i n g , f o r example, a s k s t h a t 



368 

Tennyson become a v a t e s s a c e r (Jump 146) and c a l l s f o r a 

" s u b j e c t l a r g e enough t o t a k e t h e e n t i r e i m p r e s s o f h i s mind" 

(Jump 1 5 2 ) . 2 4 And d e s p i t e generous p r a i s e e l s e w h e r e i n t h e i r 

r e v i e w s , S t e r l i n g and M i l n e s u l t i m a t e l y c a u t i o n a g a i n s t 

d i d a c t i c i s m by p o i n t i n g o u t m o r a l s t h a t " o b t r u d e d " ( S t e r l i n g 

Jump 125), and by g e n t l y r e m i n d i n g Tennyson t h a t he i s " t o 

t e a c h s t i l l more t h a n he d e l i g h t s , and t o s u g g e s t more t h a n he 

t e a c h e s " ( M i l n e s Jump 138). P a r a d o x i c a l l y , The P r i n c e s s 

managed t o conform t o t h e s e d i v e r s e d i r e c t i v e s . 

Even w h i l e i t encompassed a much l a r g e r scope t h a n any o f 

Tennyson's p r e v i o u s poems, i t d i d n o t s a c r i f i c e t h e p o e t ' s 

h i g h l y p r a i s e d l y r i c a l power. I t a d d r e s s e d an i m p o r t a n t 

c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n c e r n , y e t i n such a way t h a t t h e p o e t ' s 

a b i l i t y t o t o u c h t h e human s p i r i t was i n no way l e s s e n e d . 

F i n a l l y , i t o b v i o u s l y d i d n o t t e a c h a l e s s o n d i d a c t i c a l l y 

s i n c e w h a t e v e r m o r a l i t may have i n c l u d e d was s u g g e s t e d a t 

b e s t o n l y t o be undermined e l s e w h e r e i n t h e poem. I t i s 

h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i n a l l t h i s c o n f u s i o n , Tennyson's l o n g 

poem, whether i n r e a c t i o n o r n o t t o h i s c r i t i c s ' demands, was 

a s e l f - a c c l a i m e d Medley t h a t p u r p o r t e d l y c o n t a i n e d seven 

d i f f e r e n t male v o i c e s . 

2 4 U n l i k e what was t o come i n t h e 1860s, however, c r i t i c s 
who c h a s t i z e d Tennyson i n t h e 1840s f o r a s t i l l t o o f e m i n i n e 
v o i c e c o u l d o p t i m i s t i c a l l y p r e d i c t what would be i n t h e i r 
minds a b r i g h t e r p o e t i c f u t u r e , i e . a l o n g poem ( p r e f e r a b l y 
e p i c ) t h a t , i n i t s manly c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y 
e v e n t s , would p r e s e n t i t s arguments w i t h enough f o r c e f u l 
r e a l i s m t o s e t t l e t h e gender debate once and f o r a l l . 



369 

John K i l l h a m ' s e x h a u s t i v e s t u d y Tennyson and 'The  

P r i n c e s s ' : R e f l e c t i o n s o f an Age" (1958) c o n t a i n s a f u l l and 

c o n v i n c i n g h i s t o r i c a l r a t i o n a l e f o r Tennyson's p u b l i c l y 

m o t i v a t e d c o n c e r n w i t h f e m i n i s t i s s u e s d u r i n g t h e w r i t i n g o f 

t h e poem i n t h e 183 0s and 40s. As K i l l h a m a r g u e s , Tennyson 

w o u l d h a v e — t h r o u g h t h e p r o t r a c t e d d i s c o u r s e o f t h e A p o s t l e s 

and o t h e r a s s o c i a t e s — b e e n aware o f t h e S o c i a l i s t d e b a t e i n 

t h e 18 3 0s o v e r t h e r o l e o f women i n s o c i e t y , 2 5 and i n t h e 

184 0s o f t h e more s p e c i f i c c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t 

o f a f e m a l e c o l l e g e , a p r o j e c t begun by F.D. M a u r i c e i n 1843 

t h a t was e v e n t u a l l y r e a l i z e d i n t h e f o u n d i n g o f Queen's 

C o l l e g e i n 1848. I n a d d i t i o n t o s e t t i n g f o r t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l 

" f a c t s " o f w h i c h Tennyson would l i k e l y have been i n f o r m e d , 

K i l l h a m d e v o t e s t h e l a s t t h i r d o f h i s s t u d y t o t h e " f a i r y t a l e " 

s o u r c e s t h a t m i g h t a l s o have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p o e t ' s mock-

K i l l h a m ' s d i s s c u s s i o n o f t h e d i s t i n c t e a r l y 
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y forms o f S o c i a l i s m , o f t h e S a i n t S i m o n i a n s , 
F o u r i e r , and Owen, and t h e i r d i f f e r e n t a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h 
f e m i n i s m appear i n h i s C h a p t e r s I I and I I I , w h i l e t h e v a r i o u s 
r e s p o n s e s o f t h e A p o s t l e s a r e shown i n C h a p t e r IV. K i l l h a m 
b e l i e v e s t h a t a l t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y n o t S t S i m o n i a n h i m s e l f , 
Tennyson may have d e r i v e d some o f h i s c o n v i c t i o n s about t h e 
e n n o b l i n g i n f l u e n c e o f women from t h i s d i s c o u r s e . Y e t A l l e n , 
f o r example, a r g u e s t h a t t o t h e A p o s t l e s t h e S t S i m o n i a n s ' s 
r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a s "must have seemed a demonic p a r o d y o f 
t h e i r own" (12 5 ) . L a t e r on, he q u o t e s a l e t t e r from H a l l a m t o 
Donne ( J a n 1832) i n w h i c h H a l l a m denounces t h o s e " p r o p h e t s o f 
a f a l s e F u t u r e " and d e r i d e s t h e F r e n c h f o r i m b i b i n g t h e i r 
p o i s o n ( 1 4 7 ) . W h i l e i t would be a m i s t a k e t o c o n f l a t e 
H a l l a m ' s v i e w s w i t h Tennyson's, A p o s t o l i c c o n s e r v a t i v i s m i n 
g e n e r a l may e a s i l y be seen t o u n d e r l i e r e j e c t i o n o f 
r e v o l u t i o n a r y change o f any s o r t i n The P r i n c e s s . F o r an 
a n a l y s i s o f t h e a m b i g u i t y and even c o n f l i c t between S o c i a l i s m 
and i t s p r o m o t i o n o f f e m i n i s t c a u s e s see B a r b a r a T a y l o r ' s Eve  
and t h e New J e r u s a l e m (1983). 



h e r o i c method and t h e e x o t i c s e t t i n g o f t h e romance. These 

i n c l u d e Tennyson's l a t e r r e a d i n g o f P e r s i a n p o e t r y i n t h e 

1840s and e a r l i e r r e a d i n g o f S i r W a l t e r S c o t t , t h e A r a b i a n 

N i g h t s , and t h e P e r s i a n T a l e s , w h e r e i n romance, f e m a l e 

c o l l e g e s , and d e a t h p e n a l t i e s f o r male i n t r u d e r s p r e d o m i n a t e 

(177-229). 

Y e t Tennyson's " s o u r c e s " were n o t e x c l u s i v e l y remote o r 

m e r e l y l i t e r a r y . A c c o r d i n g t o K i l l h a m , t h i s e x o t i c romance 

a l s o c o u p l e s t o p i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y w i t h 

i s s u e s o f f e m a l e e m a n c i p a t i o n . Based on h i s r e a d i n g o f 

Chambers's V e s t i g e s o f C r e a t i o n (1844), Tennyson w i s h e d t o 

s u g g e s t , i n K i l l h a m ' s v i e w , t h a t " t h e f u t u r e o f t h e r a c e t u r n s 

on a l l o w i n g women t o r e a l i z e t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s 

w i t h o u t j e o p a r d i z i n g t h e m a r r i a g e r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i c h i s 

v i e w e d as an e s s e n t i a l i n s t r u m e n t i n f o r w a r d i n g human 

development" ( K i l l h a m 232). " F u t u r e " i s t h e o p e r a t i v e word, 

f o r K i l l h a m sees i n The P r i n c e s s Tennyson's d u t y as a p o e t t o 

o u t l i n e t h e c h o i c e s s o c i e t y must make a f f e c t i n g i t s own 

d e s t i n y , i n o r d e r t o f u r t h e r an e v o l u t i o n a r y d o c t r i n e " t h a t we 

s h o u l d l i v e our l i v e s so as t o ' t y p e ' i n them t h e q u a l i t i e s we 

d e s i r e t o see g e n e r a l l y p r e v a i l i n t h e f a r f u t u r e " (264) . I n 

t h i s c a s e , K i l l h a m seems t o s u g g e s t a meaning f o r " t y p e " as i t 

i s used by t h e P r i n c e t o i n s c r i b e h i s c o n v i c t i o n o f gender 

e q u a l i t y ( V I I 239-79) upon h i s r e l u c t a n t b r i d e t o be: "'Dear, 

b u t l e t us t y p e them now / I n our own l i v e s . . .'" ( V I I 281-

2 ) . The t y p e s e t o f t h e l i n e s t h e m s e l v e s upon t h e pages i s 



c l e a r l y meant t o r e i n f o r c e t h e P r i n c e ' s use o f t h i s metaphor. 

However, as K i l l h a m h i m s e l f i s w e l l aware, Tennyson was 

w r i t i n g I n Memoriam s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h The P r i n c e s s , and i n t h e 

e l e g y " t y p e " does n o t h o l d p o s i t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s f o r t h e 

f u t u r e (a p o i n t w h i c h K i l l h a m does n o t m e n t i o n ) : "So c a r e f u l 

o f t h e t y p e she seems / So c a r e l e s s o f t h e s i n g l e l i f e " (LV 7-

8 ) . T h i s i s N a t u r e ' s p l a n a t f i r s t , y e t t h i s t o o i s 

i m m e d i a t e l y c a s t i n doubt: "'So c a r e f u l o f t h e t y p e ? ' b u t no. 

/ From s c a r p e d c l i f f and q u a r r i e d s t o n e / She c r i e s , 'A 

t h o u s a n d t y p e s a r e gone: / I c a r e f o r n o t h i n g , a l l s h a l l g o " 1 

(LVI 1-4). The P r i n c e ' s dream v i s i o n o f gender e q u a l i t y , even 

i f t y p e d i n t h e p r e s e n t , must be c o n s i d e r e d as p o t e n t i a l l y 

among t h e t h o u s a n d s t h a t w i l l be d e s t r o y e d i n t h e f u t u r e . 

P r e s u m a b l y , t h e P r i n c e i s n o t aware o f h i s d e l u s i o n when he 

c o n f i d e n t l y o u t l i n e s t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f h i s and I d a ' s f u t u r e : 

'For woman i s n o t u n d e v e l o p t man, 
But d i v e r s e : c o u l d we make h e r as t h e man, 
Sweet Love were s l a i n : h i s d e a r e s t bond i s t h i s , 
Not l i k e t o l i k e , b u t l i k e i n d i f f e r e n c e . 
Y e t i n t h e l o n g y e a r s l i k e r must t h e y grow; 
The man be more o f woman, she o f man; 
He g a i n i n sweetness and i n m o r a l h e i g h t , 
Nor l o s e t h e w r e s t l i n g thews t h a t throw t h e w o r l d ; 
She m e n t a l b r e a d t h , nor f a i l i n c h i l d w a r d c a r e , 
Nor l o s e t h e c h i l d l i k e i n t h e l a r g e r mind; 
T i l l a t l a s t she s e t h e r s e l f t o man, 
L i k e p e r f e c t m u s i c u n t o n o b l e words;' 

( V I I 259-70) 

' . . . s e e i n g e i t h e r sex a l o n e 
I s h a l f i t s e l f , and i n t r u e m a r r i a g e l i e s 
Nor e q u a l , nor u n e q u a l : each f u l f i l s 
D e f e c t i n each, and a l w a y s t h o u g h t i n t h o u g h t , 
Purpose i n p u r p o s e , w i l l i n w i l l , t h e y grow, 
The s i n g l e pure and p e r f e c t a n i m a l , 
The t w o - c e l l e d h e a r t b e a t i n g , w i t h one f u l l s t r o k e , 



3 7,2 

L i f e . ' ( V I I 283-89) 

I d a , however, r e c o g n i z e s t h e P r i n c e ' s hopes as c h i m e r i c a l , 

e v i d e n t i n h e r i n i t i a l r e s p o n s e t o t h e P r i n c e ' s v i s i o n as "'A 

dream / That once was mine'" ( V I I 290-91). L a t e r , i n h e r 

c o n c l u d i n g remarks about h i s a t t e m p t t o r e c a s t h e r i n t h e t y p e 

o f h i s mother, she adds: " ' I t seems you l o v e t o c h e a t y o u r s e l f 

w i t h words: / T h i s mother i s y o u r model. I have h e a r d / Of 

y o u r s t r a n g e d o u b t s : t h e y w e l l might be: I seem / A mockery t o 

my own s e l f . Never, P r i n c e ; / You c a n n o t l o v e me.'" ( V I I 314-

1 8 ) . A l t h o u g h I d a ' s h e s i t a n c e t o marry a p p e a r s t o a r i s e from 

a sense o f u n w o r t h i n e s s now t h a t h e r f e m i n i s t cause has 

f a i l e d , h e r f r a n k a d m i s s i o n t h a t t h e P r i n c e ' s m a t e r n a l s u b l i m e 

i s p a r t l e x i c a l t r i c k e r y and p a r t w i l d i m a g i n i n g s , o f w h i c h 

h e r r e a l s e l f p l a y s no p a r t , d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t , u n l i k e h e r 

p a r t n e r , she i s p r e p a r e d t o d i v i d e t h e shadow from t h e 

s u b s t a n c e . Of h e r newly d i v i d e d s e l f , she i s aware t h a t h e r 

p r e v i o u s , s u p p o s e d l y emancipated s e l f i s now mocked by h e r 

s u b m i s s i o n t o male w i l l , w h i l e h e r f o r m e r e m a n c i p a t o r y cause 

t o e d u c a t e women was marred by h e r own p e r s o n a l d e s i r e f o r 

power ( V I I 220-23). Such r e a l i s t i c awareness i n t h e f a c e o f 

d e f e a t s u g g e s t s n o t t h a t t h e P r i n c e s s w i l l a u t o m a t i c a l l y s t e p 

i n t o t h e P r i n c e ' s dream o f h e r as h i s s u r r o g a t e mother o f a 

new r a c e , as K i l l h a m s u g g e s t s , b u t r a t h e r t h a t h e r h i g h f l o w n 

i d e a l i s m has been tempered by t h e r e a l i t y o f human weakness 

and s e l f - c o r r u p t i o n . That Tennyson makes h i s P r i n c e s s b o t h a 

s c h o l a r and a p o e t and, u l t i m a t e l y , a s c r i b e s h e r f a i l u r e t o 



p r i d e , s u g g e s t s a l i n k between I d a and h e r f e m a l e p r e c u r s o r 

a r t i s t i n "The P a l a c e o f A r t " and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , between 

I d a and Tennyson h i m s e l f . And, l i k e h e r p o e t - c r e a t o r , I d a 

does n o t y i e l d d i r e c t l y t o t h e clamour o f male v o i c e s t h a t 

t e l l h e r what she s h o u l d be. 

T h i s l i n k between I d a and Tennyson f l i e s i n t h e f a c e o f 

most t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t would have 

Tennyson a t one w i t h t h e P r i n c e . Y e t n e i t h e r t h e P r i n c e nor 

I d a s h o u l d be a l l i e d e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h t h e p o e t . The P r i n c e ' s 

i d e a l i s t i c v i s i o n i s shown t o be as e v a n e s c e n t as I d a ' s , a 

t r u m p e t i n g o f a power t o change t h e f u t u r e t h a t c l e a r l y 

n e i t h e r p o s s e s s e s . Indeed, Tennyson i n c r e a s e d h i s r e a d e r s ' 

d o u b t s about t h e P r i n c e ' s a b i l i t i e s i n t h e 1851 f o u r t h e d i t i o n 

when, t h r o u g h r e v i s i o n s t h a t most t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s 

f i n d t r o u b l e s o m e , he h i g h l i g h t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e 

P r i n c e ' s " w e i r d s e i z u r e s " t o p e r p l e x f u r t h e r t h e c o n f l a t i o n o f 

dream and r e a l i t y a p p a r e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e poem. By i n c r e a s i n g 

t h e s i g n s o f t h e P r i n c e ' s p o w e r l e s s n e s s , Tennyson c o u l d a l s o 

s t r e n g t h e n t h e f o r c e o f I d a ' s r e l u c t a n c e t o a c q u i e s c e t o h e r 

P r i n c e , d e s p i t e t h e P r i n c e ' s f i n a l a s s u r a n c e t h a t s i n c e h i s 

"doubts a r e dead," she s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e " t r u s t t o " him ( V I I 

327, 345). Of w i l d dreams i n g e n e r a l , and P r i n c e s s I d a ' s and 

t h e P r i n c e ' s i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e c o n t r o l l i n g n a r r a t o r i n t h e 

1850 e d i t i o n r e a s s u r e s h i s companions t h a t t h e s e , l i k e t h e 

r e v o l u t i o n a r y dreams o f e q u a l i t y i n F r a n c e , "Are b u t t h e 

n e e d f u l p r e l u d e s o f t h e t r u t h ' " ( C o n c l u s i o n 7 3 - 4 ) . Y e t dreams 



a r e n o t t h e t r u t h — t h e y cannot become r e a l i t y m e r e l y by 

i n d i v i d u a l w i l l . To a t t e m p t t o do so i s t o u s u r p t h e power o f 

t h e "hand t h a t g u i d e s " ( 7 9 ) , t o l a c k t h e p a t i e n c e t h a t n a t u r a l 

e v o l u t i o n demands and, f o o l i s h l y , t o d e s i r e permanence from a 

shadow c a s t as a t y p e upon e t e r n i t y when a l l t y p e s s h a l l 

— e v e n t u a l l y — g o . 

The u n i o n t h a t t h e P r i n c e p r o p h e s i e s , i t s " t y p e " as i t 

were, t o end t h e romance n e v e r a c t u a l l y t a k e s p l a c e . T h i s 

wedding i s d e l i b e r a t e l y w i t h h e l d from t h e c e n t r a l n a r r a t i v e . 2 6 

I n 1850, Tennyson f u r t h e r emphasized t h i s i n c o n c l u s i v e n e s s by 

r e v i s i n g t h e frame n a r r a t i v e , making t h e f i r s t r e s p o n s e from a 

member o f t h e immediate a u d i e n c e a r e s o u n d i n g " ' I w i s h she had 

n o t y i e l d e d ! ' " ( C o n c l u s i o n 5 ) . The emphatic n a t u r e o f t h i s 

r e s p o n s e once more q u e s t i o n s i f n o t n e g a t e s I d a ' s n e c e s s a r y 

s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e P r i n c e ' s v i s i o n . Moreover, t h e P r i n c e s s ' s 

and t h e P r i n c e ' s Utopian dreams (and t h e f o r m e r ' s c r u s h i n g 

d e f e a t ) , j u x t a p o s e d w i t h one a n o t h e r and r e a d i n terms o f 

I d a ' s r e s p o n s e s , work t o u n d e r s c o r e Tennyson's c o n s c i o u s 

awareness t h a t even t h e v i s i o n a r y w o r l d s o f h i s own c r e a t i o n 

would n e c e s s a r i l y a c h i e v e r e a l i z a t i o n o n l y w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t 

o f t h e i r r e c e p t i o n . 

2 6 The f a i r y t a l e wedding t h a t s h o u l d u n i t e I d a w i t h h e r 
P r i n c e does t a k e p l a c e i n I n Memoriam where T e n n y s o n — h i m s e l f 
now t h e n a r r a t o r — d o e s n o t w i t h h o l d c l o s u r e from h i s r e a d e r s 
b u t g i v e s away t h e b r i d e i n t h e t e x t and i n r e a l i t y . I n t h i s 
c a s e t h e shadow, p o e t i c language, i s a t one w i t h s u b s t a n c e , 
h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h . 



375 

That t h i s r e c e p t i o n was, i n t h e c a s e o f The P r i n c e s s , 

c o m p l i c a t e d by gender i s h i g h l i g h t e d by y e t a n o t h e r 1850 

r e v i s i o n t o t h e frame n a r r a t i v e . The c o n t r o l l i n g n a r r a t o r now 

a d m i t s t h a t t h e romance s p a r k e d a f e u d between t h e m o c k - h e r o i c 

w i s h e s o f t h e men and t h e t r u e - h e r o i c o f t h e women. H i s 

" s t r a n g e d i a g o n a l " s o l u t i o n t o p l e a s e b o t h by moving between 

them sounds a s i m i l a r n o t e t o Browning's much l a t e r " A r t may 

t e l l a t r u t h / O b l i q u e l y " (The R i n g and t h e Book) a l t h o u g h 

mockery a l i g n s i t s e l f f a r l e s s e a s i l y w i t h t r u t h t h a n does 

Browning's doubt about t h e s i n c e r i t y o f human t e s t i m o n y . I n 

b o t h c a s e s , however, t h e r e l a t i v i t y o f meaning based on an 

a u d i e n c e ' s p e r c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i s a t s t a k e . 

Why Tennyson chose t o combine mock h e r o i c s w i t h an e a r n e s t 

f e m i n i s t cause c o n t i n u e s t o p l a g u e r e a d e r s t o d a y even as i t 

d i d i n 1847. C r i t i c s such as F. E. L. P r i e s t l e y have sought a 

s i m p l e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s q u e s t i o n by c o n f l a t i n g Tennyson's 

p u r p o s e w i t h t h a t o f t h e c o n t r o l l i n g n a r r a t o r i n t h e poem. 

However, i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e whether Tennyson h i m s e l f e v e r 

p e r c e i v e d h i s a u d i e n c e i n such a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d f a s h i o n as 

P r i e s t l e y does when he r e c a s t s t h e s p e c t r u m o f Tennyson's 

r e a d e r s i n t h e gendered r o l e s a s s i g n e d t o them i n t h e frame 

n a r r a t i v e : 

To many men, t h e s t r u g g l e f o r f e m a l e e m a n c i p a t i o n 
was p u r e l y and s i m p l y comic: t o many women, d e e p l y 
and f i e r c e l y t r a g i c . B o t h e x t r e m e s , o f 
f a c e t i o u s n e s s and o f e a r n e s t n e s s , made f o r t i g h t l y 
s h u t minds. As Tennyson knew, a comic t r e a t m e n t 
would d e l i g h t t h e men, i n f u r i a t e t h e women, and 
c o n f i r m b o t h s e t s o f p r e j u d i c e ; a solemn one would 
p l e a s e t h e women and d i s g u s t t h e men. H i s d i f f i c u l t 



t a s k i s t o p e r s u a d e b o t h s i d e s , t o w r i t e s o m e t h i n g 
w h i c h b o t h s i d e s w i l l r e a d and w h i c h w i l l moderate 
b o t h extremes. (80) 

L i k e many t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e s p o n s e s t o The P r i n c e s s , 

P r i e s t l e y ' s a r i s e s o u t o f a common a s s u m p t i o n t h a t Tennyson's 

V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s would have e i t h e r r i g i d l y demarcated t h e 

s e p a r a t e s p h e r e s o f f e m a l e and male b e h a v i o u r , o r c h a l l e n g e d 

t h e s e "norms" i n a d i r e c t and o b v i o u s f a s h i o n . He a l l o w s no 

scope w h a t e v e r f o r b o t h genders t o doubt o r q u e s t i o n s o c i a l 

b o u n d a r i e s i n a s i m u l t a n e o u s l y l i g h t - h e a r t e d and s e r i o u s 

f a s h i o n , a c t i o n s a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h o s e o f P r i e s t l e y ' s " t i g h t l y 

s h u t minds." Y e t c e r t a i n l y K i l l h a m ' s m e t i c u l o u s r e c o r d i n g o f 

d i v e r s e c o n t e m p o r a r y r e s p o n s e s t o t h e "woman q u e s t i o n " i n h i s 

h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y o f The P r i n c e s s s h o u l d , i f n o t h i n g e l s e , 

i n v a l i d a t e any p o s s i b i l i t y f o r h o m o g e n e i t y — e i t h e r f e m i n i s t o r 

male r e a c t i o n a r y — a m o n g Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s . 

Moreover, i n h e r assessment o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y f e m i n i s t 

i d e o l o g y , Mary Maynard argues t h a t f o r most V i c t o r i a n women 

" m a r r i a g e and motherhood were s t i l l r e g a r d e d as n o r m a l " ; 

however, women q u e s t i o n e d f e m a l e s u b o r d i n a t i o n i n m a r r i a g e i n 

f a v o u r o f e g a l i t a r i a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s based on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f 

complementary d i f f e r e n c e s (230). Her c l o s e s c r u t i n y o f 

V i c t o r i a n women's magazines d e m o n s t r a t e s many p a r a l l e l s w i t h 

t h e P r i n c e ' s dream o f " l i k e i n d i f f e r e n c e " ( V I I 262). Any 

r i g i d gender d i s t i n c t i o n s would, i n any c a s e , be undermined by 

t h e P r i n c e ' s b e l i e f t h a t " i n t h e l o n g y e a r s l i k e r must t h e y 

grow" ( V I I 263). F i n a l l y , answers t o t h e poem's dichotomous 



p u r p o s e need n o t be found j u s t i n t h e f i c t i o n a l a u d i e n c e 

d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r o l o g u e and c o n c l u s i o n , b u t a l s o i n one o f 

Tennyson's own a c t u a l a u d i e n c e s i n t h e 1840s and 50s c o m p r i s e d 

l a r g e l y o f A p o s t l e s . 

S p e a k i n g o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e S o c i e t y , Henry S i d g w i c k 

n o t e d t h a t one o f i t s most a t t r a c t i v e q u a l i t i e s was a p u r s u i t 

o f t r u t h f r e e d o f a c o n s i s t e n t g r a v i t y o f t r e a t m e n t : "The 

g r a v e s t s u b j e c t s were c o n t i n u a l l y d e b a t e d , b u t g r a v i t y o f 

t r e a t m e n t , as I have s a i d , was n o t imposed, though s i n c e r i t y 

was. I n f a c t i t was r a t h e r a p o i n t o f t h e a p o s t o l i c mind t o 

u n d e r s t a n d how much s u g g e s t i o n and i n s t r u c t i o n may be d e r i v e d 

from what i s i n form a j e s t — e v e n i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e g r a v e s t 

m a t t e r s " ( q t d . i n A l l e n 6 ) . I n t h e 1847 c o n c l u s i o n , 

Tennyson's n a r r a t o r had a c t u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o t h e romance as 

h a v i n g e v o l v e d " w i t h l e s s and l e s s o f j e s t " t o w a r d a s e r i o u s 

end.. M a u r i c e ' s a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f 

Queen's C o l l e g e f o r women i n 1848 might have c o n v i n c e d 

Tennyson t o enhance t h e s e r i o u s t o n e g i v e n t o f e m a l e 

e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m i n t h e poem, and t h e r e b y l i n k i t more 

d i r e c t l y t o t h e " e a r n e s t " demands o f t h e women i n t h e frame 

n a r r a t i v e . Y e t t h e A p o s t l e s , i n g e n e r a l , seem t o have 

promoted among t h e m s e l v e s a l i g h t - h e a r t e d s c e p t i c i s m w i t h 

w h i c h t o temper any t e n d e n c i e s t h e y may have had as a group 

(and c e r t a i n l y d i d have on o c c a s i o n ) t o d i s p l a y a t o o e a r n e s t , 

even p r i g g i s h s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s , a s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s 

d i s p l a y e d o n l y t o o w e l l by b o t h t h e P r i n c e and I d a a l i k e . 



378 

T h i s A p o s t o l i c d u a l i s m , w h i c h has n o t h i n g w h a t s o e v e r t o do 

w i t h t h e s e x o f i t s a d h e r e n t s , c o u l d have i n f l u e n c e d Tennyson 

i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a " s t r a n g e d i a g o n a l " t r e a t m e n t i n The  

P r i n c e s s l o n g b e f o r e he had h i s c o n t r o l l i n g n a r r a t o r a t t r i b u t e 

i t t o gender d i f f e r e n c e s i n 1850. 

O b v i o u s l y t h e s o c i a l r o l e o f women i n t h e f u t u r e i s t h e 

p r i m a r y c o n c e r n o f t h e poem. Y e t , more i m p o r t a n t l y , Tennyson 

wants t o make h i s r e a d e r s aware o f t h e d u a l i n f l u e n c e o f 

i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i o n and of- a language m o t i v a t e d by p e r s o n a l 

d e s i r e i n s h a p i n g contemporary s o c i a l e v e n t s . Hence, t h e 

romance i n The P r i n c e s s i s a medley o f s e v e r a l v o i c e s . These 

a r e j u x t a p o s e d by t h e i r degr ees o f adherence e i t h e r t o p r i v a t e 

o r t o p u b l i c m o t i v a t i o n s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , no one v o i c e h o l d s 

a b s o l u t e a u t h o r i t y . The poem i s a s e r i e s o f p e r c e p t i o n s and 

m i s p e r c e p t i o n s i n w h i c h Utopian v i s i o n s a r e n o t t h e e x c l u s i v e 

p u r v i e w o f women, nor a r e s c e p t i c i s m o r mockery t h e p r i v i l e g e d 

male r e s p o n s e . F o r example, t h e P r i n c e ' s d e s i r e t o ' " c l e a r 

away t h e p a r a s i t i c forms / That seem t o keep h e r up b u t d r a g 

h e r down'" ( V I I 253-4) echoes I d a ' s e a r l i e r l e c t u r e s about 

m i s p e r c e p t i o n . And h i s i d e a l o f "'Not l i k e t o l i k e , b u t l i k e 

i n d i f f e r e n c e ' " ( V I I 262) i n h i s p e r f e c t u n i o n o f man and 

woman was, as I d a c l a i m e d , p a r t o f h e r own dream. Y e t , 

a l t h o u g h t h e i r words and t h e i r dreams appear s i m i l a r , t h e 

P r i n c e ' s e s p o u s i n g o f f e m a l e e q u a l i t y does n o t a r i s e o u t of a 

p u b l i c d e c l a r a t i o n o f p u r p o s e , as I d a ' s d i d a t t h e women's 

u n i v e r s i t y , b u t from a d e l i b e r a t e , p r i v a t e l y m o t i v a t e d a t t e m p t 



t o a c h i e v e h i s own ends and p e r s u a d e I d a t o marry him. 

Because t h e P r i n c e ' s t r u e m o t i v e s a r e h e l d i n abeyance, h i s 

dream n o t b e i n g r e a l i z e d a t t h e end o f t h e poem, t h e 

i n d i v i d u a l r e a d e r i s t h u s c h a l l e n g e d t o a s c r i b e s o c i a l o r 

p u b l i c v a l u e where and how she o r he p r i v a t e l y sees f i t . 

Tennyson's r e a d e r s i n t h i s c a s e a r e g r a n t e d i n d i v i d u a l 

autonomy and do n o t , n e c e s s a r i l y , s p l i t a l o n g t h e gender l i n e s 

p r o p o s e d by e i t h e r t h e n a r r a t o r o r P r i e s t l e y . 

I n f a c t , t h e poem's p r i n c i p a l a u d i t o r , L i l i a , r e m a i n s 

s i l e n t . S i n c e , a f t e r h e a r i n g t h e f a n t a s y , she a s k s h e r 

b o o k i s h a u n t t o " ' t e l l us what we a r e ' , " t h e i m p o r t o f t h e 

P r i n c e ' s v i s i o n i s a g a i n weakened, g i v e n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t 

a l t e r n a t e n a r r a t i v e s o f women's l i v e s abound. Indeed i n 1847, 

L i l i a ' s aunt had l a u n c h e d i n t o an i n t e r r u p t e d " t r e a t i s e " 

s a t i r i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d by t h e n a r r a t o r as comparable t o 

h i e r o g l y p h s — a x i o m s "graven on r o c k . " T h i s metaphor o f p a s t 

ages now swept away ( e c h o i n g I n Memoriam) a g a i n r a i s e s some 

doubt as t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f any " s t o r y " h o l d i n g t r u e f o r 

v e r y l o n g . I n t h e p r o l o g u e , h e r aunt had been c a p a b l e o f 

t a k i n g even " t h i s f a i r day f o r t e x t . " She c r e a t e s from t h e 

i s o l a t e d e x p e r i e n c e o f S i r W a l t e r ' s o p e n i n g up o f h i s b a r o n i a l 

manor t o t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s a s o c i o - e c o n o m i c p r o p h e c y 

a n a l o g o u s t o I d a ' s f e m i n i s t dream: "An u n i v e r s a l c u l t u r e f o r 

t h e crowd" ( 1 0 8 - 9 ) . Among such a company o f i d e a l i s t s , 

r e a l i t y i s h a r d t o l o c a t e ; one dream may j u s t as e a s i l y be 

s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e n e x t . Hence, meaning i s f o r c e d t o r e s i d e 



380 

more i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s p o n s e t o a s p e c i f i c v i s i o n , t h a n 

i n any v i s i o n i t s e l f . 

However, dream and v i s i o n a p p a r e n t l y f a i l e d t o g e n e r a t e t h e 

" d r i f t " o f t h e poem t h a t Tennyson had hoped h i s p u b l i c would 

c a t c h . C o n s e q u e n t l y , he i n c l u d e d s i x rhymed, i n t e r c a l a r y 

songs i n t h e t h i r d e d i t i o n (1850), sung i n t h e s o f t l i n n e t 

v o i c e s o f t h e women, s u p p o s e d l y t o emphasize t h a t t h e " c h i l d 

i s t h e l i n k t h r o ' t h e p a r t s " (Tennyson q t d . i n Memoir 212). 

I n a c t u a l i t y , t h e women's songs p r o v i d e a s t i l l , l y r i c c h o r u s 

t o t h e d r a m a t i c a c t i o n o f t h e male n a r r a t i v e , more t h a n t h e y 

comment d i r e c t l y upon t h e r o l e o f t h e c h i l d . 2 7 As w i t h Maud's 

v o i c e , t h e y can a c t as m a r t i a l songs by i n t e r r e l a t i n g sensuous 

a l l u r e (song t h r e e ) and d o m e s t i c i t y (song f o u r ) w i t h male 

"As t h r o u g h t h e l a n d a t eve" speaks o f a f a l l i n g o u t 
between a husband and w i f e t h a t i s r e s o l v e d i n t e a r s upon 
t h e i r l o s t c h i l d ' s g r a v e . The l u l l a b y "Sweet and low" s i n g s 
o f a f a m i l i a r V i c t o r i a n scene o f a mother and babe a w a i t i n g 
t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e husband from o v e r s e a s . But d o m e s t i c i t y i s 
soon r e p l a c e d by a c a l l t o arms as The P r i n c e s s g r a d u a l l y 
moves t o t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . "The s p l e n d o u r f a l l s on c a s t l e 
w a l l s " seems t o be a l l echo, as a b u g l e sounds and r e s o u n d s 
i n t o a " d y i n g " s t i l l n e s s , s u g g e s t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e a t h 
t o t h e l o v e r who answers i t s c a l l . I n L i l i a ' s s i n g i n g o f t h e 
f o u r t h , "Thy v o i c e i s h e a r d , " a scene o f b l i s s f u l d o m e s t i c i t y 
now becomes t h e b u g l e c a l l t h a t i n c i t e s h e r o i c a c t i o n . The 
a r r i v a l o f t h e husband, a n t i c i p a t e d i n song two, i s c o m p l e t e d 
i n song f i v e , "Home t h e y b r o u g h t h e r w a r r i o r dead," i n w h i c h 
t h e husband, (now w a r r i o r ) i s b r o u g h t home dead, and t h e w i f e 
f a i l s t o r e s p o n d u n t i l she r e a l i z e s t h a t she now has o n l y h e r 
c h i l d t o l i v e f o r . F i n a l l y , "Ask me no more" b e a r s d i r e c t l y 
upon I d a ' s i n d e t e r m i n a t e f a t e as t h e s p e a k e r i m p l o r e s "Ask me 
no more" t o y i e l d . C l e a r l y , i f t h e c h i l d and d o m e s t i c scenes 
a r e used i n t h e s e songs, t h e y a r e f o r s y m b o l i c p u r p o s e s t o 
a l l u d e t o t h e c o n f u s i o n o f d o m e s t i c i t y and w a r f a r e , t h e a c t i o n 
o f t h e romance, r a t h e r t h a n t o g e n e r a t e i d e o l o g i c a l s u p p o r t 
s o l e l y f o r m a t e r n a l i s m o r d o m e s t i c i t y . 



381 

w a r f a r e and, i n song s i x , i n c r e a s e t h e sense o f doubt t h a t 

p r e v a i l s a t t h e end o f t h e romance. D e s p i t e how much Tennyson 

may have i n t e n d e d t o c r i t i c i z e as u n n a t u r a l women's d e s i r e s t o 

" l o s e t h e c h i l d " and, l a t e r , t o have i t r e s t o r e d t o them 

t h r o u g h t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f t h e i r t r u e m a t e r n a l n a t u r e s (an 

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n g i v e n i n The Memoir (208-9) i n H a l l a m ' s v o i c e 

r a t h e r t h a n h i s f a t h e r ' s ) , t h e songs w h i c h he added do n o t 

r e i n f o r c e t h i s message. On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e i r sombre t o n e s , 

m e l a n c h o l y r e f r a i n s , and f r e q u e n t r e c o u r s e t o images o f d e a t h 

i m p l y t h a t a woman's l i f e o f f a m i l y and c h i l d r e n i s b e s e t w i t h 

r e a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , and t h a t t h e m a r r i a g e t o w h i c h t h e s i n g e r 

o f t h e s i x t h song must y i e l d may i n d e e d be t o "a h o l l o w cheek 

o r f a d e d eye" and n o t t o a h e r o i c P r i n c e o f a new g o l d e n age. 

These women's songs p r o v i d e a d e c i d e d l y s e r i o u s c o u n t e r p o i n t 

t o a p r e v i o u s l y l i g h t - h e a r t e d medley, and s u g g e s t t h a t 

w h a t e v e r c h o i c e s a r e made f o r t h e f u t u r e , t h e y must n o t be 

made w i t h o u t an awareness o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l r e p e r c u s s i o n s . 

The l y r i c s ' i n d i v i d u a l p o p u l a r i t y as songs s e t t o m u s i c i n t h e 

V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , once a g a i n , Tennyson's 

a d d i t i o n s open up r a t h e r t h a n i n v o k e c l o s u r e upon an . a l r e a d y 

c o m p l i c a t e d a r r a y o f v o i c e s . 

A l t h o u g h t h e many r e s p o n s e s t o The P r i n c e s s ( b o t h b e f o r e 

and a f t e r r e v i s i o n s ) c a t a l o g u e d by Shannon i n Tennyson and t h e  

R e v i e w e r s (97-140) , on t h e whole, a p p l a u d Tennyson's " t h o u g h t , 

f e e l i n g and e x p r e s s i o n , " t h e i r o b v i o u s d i s a g r e e m e n t as t o t h e 

i m p o r t o f t h e poem does i n d e e d s u g g e s t t h a t i t e l i c i t e d t h e 



382 

autonomous, d i v e r g e n t r e a c t i o n s and, i n s e v e r a l c a s e s , out and 

o u t c o n f u s i o n t h a t i t had p r o v o k e d (see esp. t h e r e v i e w s i n 

The Athenaeum and t h e A t l a s q t d . 123). L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e a c t i o n 

t o t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n might be c o n s i d e r e d t y p i c a l : o f h i s w i f e 

Fanny's r e a d i n g , h i s r e p l y was " S t r a n g e enough! a u n i v e r s i t y 

o f women! A g e n t l e s a t i r e , i n t h e e a s i e s t and most f l o w i n g 

b l a n k v e r s e , w i t h two d e l i c i o u s unrhymed songs, and many 

e x q u i s i t e p a s s a g e s . I went t o bed a f t e r i t , w i t h d e l i g h t f u l 

m u s i c r i n g i n g i n my e a r s ; y e t h a l f d i s a p p o i n t e d i n t h e poem, 

though n o t knowing why. There i s a d i s c o r d a n t n o t e somewhere" 

( L i f e I I 106) . The A m e r i c a n p o e t ' s p u z z l e m e n t was n o t 
• 28 

u n i q u e . Shannon m a i n t a i n s t h a t "[h]owever much some 

r e v i e w e r s l i k e d The P r i n c e s s , t h e y r e i t e r a t e d a now f a m i l i a r 

c o m p l a i n t . Once more, i n s t e a d o f p r o p h e s y i n g , Tennyson was 

m e r e l y s i n g i n g . He had d i s r e g a r d e d t h e i r a d v i c e and b e t r a y e d 

t h e i r t r u s t " (114-5) . Indeed, t h r o u g h r e v i s i o n , Tennyson had 

d e l i b e r a t e l y evaded t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y demanded o f him t o 

p r o v i d e h i s r e a d e r s w i t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l , a n d — i n V i c t o r i a n 

t e r m s — u n e q u i v o c a l t r u t h : a t l e a s t i n t h i s poem. 

I t t h e r e f o r e seems v e r y odd t o d i s c o v e r t h a t , w i t h s p e c i f i c 

r e g a r d t o Tennyson's p o t e n t i a l l y s u b v e r s i v e c o n f u s i o n o f 
2 8 The r e s p o n s e among women, i n p a r t i c u l a r , was mixed and 

c o n t r a d i c t o r y . I n a v a r i e t y o f t e x t s p u b l i s h e d f o r and about 
women i n t h e 1850s and 60s, ( e x c e r p t s d i s c u s s e d i n The Woman  
Q u e s t i o n — L i t e r a r y I s s u e s ) , The P r i n c e s s i s w i d e l y q u o t e d i n 
s u p p o r t o f b o t h f e m i n i s t c a u s e s and n o n - f e m i n i s t ( f e m i n i n e ) 
v a l u e s . The P r i n c e ' s v i s i o n o f men becoming more f e m i n i n e and 
women more m a s c u l i n e i s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y n e g l e c t e d ( H e l s i n g e r 
I I I 9 4 - 6 ) . 



383 

gender r o l e s , most o f Tennyson's t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s 

p e r c e i v e t h e p o e t as u n e q u i v o c a l l y a t one w i t h h i s h e r o P r i n c e 

( d e s p i t e h i s poem b e i n g t o l d by seven d i f f e r e n t male v o i c e s ) . 

They t h e r e b y a c c e p t w i t h o u t h e s i t a t i o n t h e P r i n c e ' s dream o f 

gender e q u a l i t y as Tennyson's own. The e a r l i e r m a l e - f e m a l e 

gender c o n f u s i o n , and i t s e r u p t i o n i n t o w a r f a r e , a r e e i t h e r 

l i n k e d by p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d c r i t i c s t o Tennyson's own 

p e r s o n a l , s e x u a l c o n f l i c t s , o r a r e f e l t by p u b l i c l y - f o c u s e d 

c r i t i c s t o be t h e p o e t ' s r e m o n s t r a n c e o f "abnormal" gender 

r o l e s , r e c t i f i e d t h r o u g h a p r o p e r s e x u a l a l i g n m e n t i n 

m a r r i a g e . 

I n h i s p r i v a t e l y - f o c u s e d s t u d y o f T e n n y s o n i a n Love (1969), 

G e r h a r d J o s e p h sees The P r i n c e s s as a t r a n s i t i o n a l poem i n 

Tennyson's c a r e e r t h a t marks h i s p s y c h i c a l s t r u g g l e between 

sense ( m a s c u l i n e ) and s o u l ( f e m i n i n e ) r e t r a n s c r i b e d i n t h e 

N o r t h (male a g g r e s s i o n ) - S o u t h ( f e m a l e p a s s i o n ) c o n f l i c t 

between t h e P r i n c e ' s and P r i n c e s s ' s f a m i l y s e a t s (90-101). 

A c c o r d i n g t o Johnson, u n t i l The P r i n c e s s , Tennyson had 

c o n c e n t r a t e d h i s e n e r g i e s i n f e m a l e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l 

p r o t a g o n i s t s (94) , b u t now i n t h e P r i n c e , "Tennyson f o r t h e 

f i r s t t i m e p r e s e n t s h i s r e a d e r s w i t h a male l o v e r who 

c o n v i n c i n g l y d r a m a t i z e s h i s own s e a r c h f o r p s y c h i c i n t e g r a t i o n 

and s t a b i l i t y " (93-4) . The movement t o w a r d m a r r i a g e , i n t h e 

poem and i n Tennyson's l i f e , i s t h u s r e a d as a m e d i a t i o n 

between o p p o s i n g and d i s r u p t i v e s e x u a l i m p u l s e s . J o s e p h ' s 

argument seems t o have a r i s e n from t h e s i m i l a r v i e w p r e s e n t e d 



384 

two y e a r s e a r l i e r by W e n d e l l S t a c y Johnson i n h i s Sex and  

M a r r i a g e i n V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y a l t h o u g h no m e n t i o n i s made o f 

t h i s s t u d y i n J o s e p h ' s b i b l i o g r a p h y . F o r Johnson, t h e s o u l -

sense d i c h o t o m y i s n o t m e r e l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l b u t t a k e s on a 

s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n as w e l l i n terms o f Tennyson's p r i v a t e 

compromise w i t h p u b l i c a c c e p t a n c e : "The i d e a o f m a r r i a g e means 

f o r Tennyson an escape from shadows and s o l i p s i s m t o t h e 

l o n g e d - f o r r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f i m p u l s e and s o c i a l o r d e r t h r o u g h 

a u n i o n o f s p i r i t and f l e s h , o f t h e c r e a t i v e s e l f and t h e 

r e s p o n s i v e m i l i e u , o f woman and man" (183) . The gender terms 

o f t h e P r i n c e ' s r e s o l v e t o marry a r e c l e a r l y g r a n t e d a p p r o v a l 

by t h e s e male c r i t i c s . 

I n c o n t r a s t , p u b l i c l y - f o c u s e d c r i t i c s i n t e r e s t e d i n gender 

t e n d t o l o o k more c l o s e l y a t t h e c r o s s g e n d e r i n g o f t h e 

P r i n c e , r a t h e r t h a n g r a n t s p e c i a l s t a t u s t o h i s f i n a l v i s i o n 

o f s e x u a l harmony. C a r o l C h r i s t ' s " V i c t o r i a n M a s c u l i n i t y and 

t h e A n g e l i n t h e House" (1977) i s t h e most s a t i s f y i n g o f t h o s e 

s t u d i e s o f The P r i n c e s s t h a t see t h e poem a r i s i n g o u t o f 

Tennyson's own p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s e t o t h e s o c i a l / s e x u a l 

c o n f l i c t s o f h i s a g e . 2 9 C h r i s t a s s e r t s t h a t Tennyson, a l o n g 

w i t h C o v e n t r y Patmore, e x p r e s s e s i n h i s p o e t r y a " f e a r and 

d i s t r u s t o f male a c t i o n and s e x u a l i t y " (159) a s s o c i a t e d as i t 

was w i t h t h e c r a s s n e s s o f t h e m a r k e t p l a c e and P h i l i s t i n e 

2 9 A l a n S i n f i e l d , i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e " F e m i n i n e and 
M a s c u l i n e " i n A l f r e d Tennyson (127-53) draws s e v e r a l o f h i s 
arguments from C h r i s t , as w e l l as from T e r r y E a g l e t o n . 



385 

b e h a v i o u r (146). Hence, Tennyson i d e n t i f i e s w i t h and 

i d e a l i z e s "women's p a s s i v i t y and a s e x u a l i t y " ( 1 4 7 ) . "Both t h e 

f e a r o f a c t i o n and t h e p a t t e r n o f f e m i n i n e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and 

i d e a l i z a t i o n a r e ways o f r e s p o n d i n g t o a w o r l d i n w h i c h a c t i o n 

has l o s t i t s r e l i g i o u s i m p e r a t i v e and seems t o have g a i n e d 

meaning o n l y from a M a l t h u s i a n and D a r w i n i a n m a r k e t p l a c e " 

( 1 5 8 ) . C h r i s t t h u s sees t h e f e m i n i z a t i o n o f t h e P r i n c e as 

l i n k e d t o Tennyson's own p s y c h o - s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y i n V i c t o r i a n 

s o c i e t y . 

But u n l i k e C h r i s t , most p u b l i c l y - f o c u s e d c r i t i c s a r e n o t 

s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y i n c l i n e d t o r a t i o n a l i z e Tennyson's a p p a r e n t 

a d o p t i o n o f a f e m i n i n e s e n s i b i l i t y i n The P r i n c e s s . T e r r y 

E a g l e t o n a r g u e s f o r a c o n c l u s i o n s i m i l a r t o C h r i s t ' s i n h i s 

"Tennyson: P o l i t i c s and S e x u a l i t y i n The P r i n c e s s and I n 

Memoriam" (1978). That i s , t h e p o e t ' s a d o p t i o n o f t h e 

, f e m i n i n e was i n r e s p o n s e t o a b u r g e o n i n g (male) c a p i t a l i s t 

economy. But w h i l e C h r i s t c o n t e n d s t h a t Tennyson was 

m o t i v a t e d by " f e a r , " E a g l e t o n c l a i m s t h a t t h e p o e t c o m p l i e d 

w i t h a c a p i t a l i s t hegemony: a " b r u t a l l y e x p l i c i t dominance 

f a i l s t o s e c u r e t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f r u l i n g - c l a s s hegemony." 

T h e r e f o r e , t h e " ' c i v i l i z i n g ' v a l u e s o f 'sweetness' and 'moral 

n o b i l i t y ' w h i c h a r e p a r a d i g m a t i c a l l y ' f e m i n i n e ' " a r e e n l i s t e d 

t o s e r v e hegemonic c o n t r o l (97, see a l s o S i n f i e l d 135). Diane 

Long H o e v e l e r t a k e s a s i m i l a r v i e w , though l i b e r a l - f e m i n i s t as 

opposed t o E a g l e t o n ' s M a r x i s t . She f i n d s t h a t t h e androgynous 

i d e a l t o w a r d w h i c h t h e poem t e n d s may l i b e r a t e t h e s e x e s from 



386 

r e s t r i c t i v e n o t i o n s o f s o c i a l r o l e s , b u t " i t a l s o c o n f i r m s t h e 

image o f woman as s e x u a l 'Other,' t h e e t e r n a l F e m i n i n e whose 

s o l e f u n c t i o n i s t o complement t h e dominant m a s c u l i n e f i g u r e " 

( 1 ) . H o e v e l e r t h u s c r i t i c i z e s Tennyson f o r a l l o w i n g t h e 

p o t e n t i a l l y d e s t a b i l i z i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e male e f f e m i n a t e t o 

be drawn i n t o i t s p r o p e r hegemonic e x p r e s s i o n i n androgynous 

u n i o n a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h m a r r i a g e ( 8 - 9 ) . 

More f u l l y t h a n t h e above mentioned c r i t i c s , Eve K o s o f s k y -

Sedgwick s i t u a t e s t h e romance n a r r a t i v e w i t h i n t h e gender and 

c l a s s i m p l i c a t i o n s r e v e a l e d i n t h e poem's frame n a r r a t i v e o f a 

male h o m o s o c i a l d i s c o u r s e . For Sedgwick, "one i m p o r t a n t 

f e a t u r e o f t h e myth propounded i n The P r i n c e s s ' s i n n e r 

n a r r a t i v e i s t h a t i t t r a c e s t h e o r i g i n o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

b o u r g e o i s gender arrangements d i r e c t l y back t o t h e f e u d a l 

a r i s t o c r a c y " ( 1 2 1 ) . Because t h e frame n a r r a t i v e "seems a l m o s t 

t o r e p r e s e n t a s i m p l e p r o j e c t i o n i n t o t h e p r e s e n t o f t h e i n n e r 

n a r r a t i v e ' s f a n t a s y o f a f e u d a l p a s t " ( 1 2 5 ) , Sedgwick 

c r i t i c i z e s The P r i n c e s s i n a t l e a s t two ways: i t p e r m i t s a 

v i e w o f m i d d l e - c l a s s V i c t o r i a n f a m i l y t h a t d e n i e s any r e l a t i o n 

between i t s s t r u c t u r e and i t s economic f u n c t i o n s ( t h a t i s , a 

wage system f o r males and d o m e s t i c s e r v i t u d e f o r f e m a l e s ) , and 

i t o b s c u r e s h i s t o r y by g l a m o u r i z i n g and d e h i s t o r i s i z i n g (124). 

Sedgwick m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e poem r e i n f o r c e s a r i s t o c r a t i c 

p a t r o n a g e by a l i g n i n g i t w i t h s o c i a l p r o g r e s s , and a l s o 

e n d o r s e s a n c i e n t p r i v i l e g e and c o n n o i s s e u r s h i p as a p r e f e r r e d 

method o f modern s c i e n c e : 



387 

The a s s e r t i o n t h a t s c i e n c e , o r t e c h n o l o g y , i s t h e 
l e g i t i m a t e o f f s p r i n g o f p a t r o n a g e and 
c o n n o i s s e u r s h i p , t h a t a l l t h e s e p u r s u i t s a r e 
harmonious, d i s i n t e r e s t e d , and n a t i o n a l l y u n i f y i n g , 
t h a t t h e r a i s o n d ' e t r e o f t h e g r e a t landowners i s t o 
e x e c u t e most i m p a r t i a l l y a n a t i o n a l consensus i n 
f a v o u r o f t h e s e o b v i o u s d e s i d e r a t a — t h e frame 
n a r r a t i v e assumes t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s w i t h a 
c o n f i d e n c e t h a t i s a l m o s t a s s a u l t i v e . (125) 

Sedgwick d i s p a r a g e s what she sees as a v i s i o n o f s o c i a l change 

as one "from t h e t o p down" (12 6 ) . I d a t h e r e f o r e f a l l s because 

she s t e p s o u t s i d e o f h e r f i t r o l e and assumes a f e u d a l - b a r o n ' s 

a t t i t u d e a t h e r s c h o o l : "A f e m i n i s m based on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r 

n o s t a l g i a w i l l be w i t h o u t f a i t h o r f o r t i t u d e , a s i s t e r h o o d 

w a i t i n g t o be s u b v e r t e d " (127). 

U l t i m a t e l y , however, Sedgwick a r g u e s t h a t The P r i n c e s s b o t h 

e n d o r s e s "an a r i s t o c r a t i c i d e o l o g y — a i m e d a t an a r i s t o c r a t i c 

and a b o u r g e o i s a u d i e n c e , b u t [ i s ] embodied t h r o u g h a s p e a k e r 

whose r e l a t i o n t o p a t r o n a g e i s n o t t h a t o f t h e p a t r o n b u t o f 

t h e p a t r o n i z e d " ( 1 3 3 ) . From t h e v i e w o f t h o s e who e n j o y e d 

hegemonic p r i v i l e g e , t h e " p o e t ' s work and women's work f e l l i n 

t h e same o r n a m e n t a l , a n g e l i c , and n e g l i g i b l e c l a s s " ( 1 3 3 ) . 

Sedgwick's c o n c l u s i o n s a r e somewhat p u z z l i n g . On t h e one 

hand, she a p p e a r s t o c r i t i c i z e Tennyson f o r t h e poem's s u p p o r t 

f o r an a r i s t o c r a t i c i d e o l o g y ; on t h e o t h e r , she c l a i m s f i n a l l y 

t h a t t h e p o e t ' s work, l i k e women's work, i s m e r e l y o r n a m e n t a l 

and t h u s , p r e s u m a b l y , o f l i t t l e s o c i a l consequence. T h i s 

c o n f u s i o n seems t o stem from t h e p r e v i o u s l y mentioned t e n d e n c y 

o f Tennyson s c h o l a r s t o c o n f l a t e t h e p o e t and h i s poem. I n 

s u c h r e a d i n g s , Tennyson h i m s e l f seems t o become as p r i v a t e l y 



388 

c o n f u s e d and as p u b l i c l y t r o u b l e d as t h e many s p e a k e r s who a r e 

a l l o w e d v o i c e w i t h i n t h e medley, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e P r i n c e . 

S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s who f o c u s on t h e p o t e n t i a l l y s u b v e r s i v e 

q u a l i t i e s o f c r o s s - g e n d e r i n g i n The P r i n c e s s a l s o s e a r c h t h e 

poem f o r d e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d , V i c t o r i a n 

gender norms. To them, t h e a p p a r e n t l a c k o f s u b v e r s i o n i n t h e 

P r i n c e ' s m a r r i a g e s o l u t i o n o f t e n p r o v e s d i s a p p o i n t i n g . 

M a r j o r i e S t o n e , f o r example, d i s c u s s e s t h e d i a l e c t i c between 

g e n r e s u b v e r s i o n and gender i n v e r s i o n by c o m p a r i n g The  

P r i n c e s s t o A u r o r a L e i g h . Tennyson's medley i s shown t o be 

d e c i d e d l y more c o n s e r v a t i v e t h a n B a r r e t t ' s Browning's " n o v e l -

poem." Stone c l a i m s t h a t Tennyson makes a " t r a v e s t y o f 

p a r o d y , [ t h a t ] l i k e t h e t r a v e s t y o f t r a n s v e s t i s m , can o f t e n be 

i n h e r e n t l y c o n s e r v a t i v e i n i t s e f f e c t f o r a l l i t s show o f 

s u b v e r s i v e n e s s " (115). A c c o r d i n g t o Rod Edmond, t h e marked 

s t r a i n o f androgyny e x p r e s s e d as t r a n s v e s t i s m i s f o r c e d t o 

y i e l d t o a c o n f l i c t i v e d i s c o u r s e on t h e f a m i l y , gender, and 

m a r r i a g e s i t u a t e d w i t h i n p i c t o r i a l as w e l l as p o e t i c 

n a r r a t i v e s o f t h e p e r i o d (126). B i n a F r e i w a l d a l s o o f f e r s a 

f e m i n i s t - d e c o n s t r u c t i v i s t p e r s p e c t i v e i n h e r r e c e n t s t u d y 

"Tennyson's P r i n c e s s : I s There a T e x t i n t h i s Woman." By 

e x a m i n i n g The P r i n c e s s as "a s i t e o f c o n f l i c t i n g d i s c o u r s e s , " 

she s u g g e s t s Tennyson's i d e o l o g i c a l m o t i v a t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g i t s 

" r e s o l u t i o n o f c o n f l i c t u a l f o r c e s " ( 4 6 0 ) . A l i g n i n g Tennyson 

w i t h h i s c o n t r o l l i n g n a r r a t o r , F r e i w a l d a r g u e s t h a t t h e 

f e m i n i s t a s p i r a t i o n s i n t h e p o e m — t h a t p i t I d a ' s w i l l a g a i n s t 



389 

t h a t o f t h e P r i n c e — a r e s u c c e s s f u l l y c r u s h e d by " t h e i r o n hand 

o f a hegemonic i d i o m " i n I d a ' s f i n a l s u b m i s s i o n t o m a t e r n a l i s m 

as t h e n e c e s s a r y consequence o f a t o u c h e d f e m i n i n e h e a r t 

(473) . F o r F r i e w a l d , t h e f i n a l , p u z z l e d r e s p o n s e o f L i l i a , 

" Y o u — t e l l us who we a r e " ( C o n c l u s i o n 3 4 ) , t o t h e n e a t c l o s u r e 

e n f o r c e d on t h e romance e f f e c t i v e l y s i l e n c e s t h e e a r l i e r 

o p p o s i t i o n I d a had g e n e r a t e d t o t h e male n a r r a t i v e , a 

n a r r a t i v e t h a t I d a , and presumably h e r f e m a l e r e a d e r s , w i l l 

now have t o l i v e as t h e s t o r y o f t h e i r l i v e s . 

However, F r i e w a l d ' s c o n f l a t i o n o f t h e n a r r a t o r ' s " i r o n 

hand" w i t h t h a t o f Tennyson h i m s e l f (475) d i s r e g a r d s h i s 

a c t i v e p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m and, i r o n i c a l l y , c a s t s Tennyson i n a 

p a s s i v e , " f e m i n i n e " r o l e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g d e b a t e d by V i c t o r i a n 

s c h o l a r s : i n e f f e c t , women as dupes o f t h e i r s o c i e t y . I n 

F r i e w a l d ' s and o t h e r s c h o l a r s ' v i e w s , Tennyson i s so c l e a r l y 

s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e V i c t o r i a n male-dominated i d e o l o g y t h a t any 

q u e s t i o n o f h i s f e m a l e s y m p a t h i e s s i m p l y does n o t a r i s e . Y e t 

n e i t h e r he, nor h i s f e m a l e r e a d e r s , u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y saw 

t h e m s e l v e s as v i c t i m i z e d by p a t r i a r c h a l hegemony (even as 

t h e y , n e c e s s a r i l y , l i v e d w i t h i n i t ) . D i s r e g a r d f o r t h e 

c o m p l e x i t y o f V i c t o r i a n l i f e and Tennyson's development as a 

p o e t w i t h i n t h a t c o n t e x t c o n t i n u e s t o e n t r a p Tennyson and h i s 

work i n a gendered, p r i v a t e - p u b l i c dichotomy. Once e n t r a p p e d , 

Tennyson's p o e t r y i s r e a d as e v i d e n c e f o r one's own 

s u b j e c t i v i s t v i e w s o f a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y V i c t o r i a n 



390 

i n h e r i t a n c e r a t h e r t h a n as a complex r e s p o n s e t o an e q u a l l y 

complex s o c i e t y i n i t s own r i g h t . 

T h i s dilemma c o n c e r n i n g Tennyson as a V i c t o r i a n spokesman 

f o r gender r o l e s and s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r was and c o n t i n u e s t o be 

even more a c u t e i n I n Memoriam t h a n i n The P r i n c e s s . That t h e 

d e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g Tennyson's gender s t i l l r a g e s a l m o s t 150 

y e a r s l a t e r among h i s r e a d e r s a t t e s t s t o t h e power o f 

Tennyson's androgynous v o i c e . 

The i s s u e o f Tennyson's p o t e n t i a l h o m o s e x u a l i t y as an 

i n f l u e n c e i n h i s c r e a t i o n o f I n Memoriam c o n c e r n s s e v e r a l 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s . G e n e r a l l y , r e a d e r s q u e s t i o n 

Tennyson's s e x u a l i t y , u s i n g e i t h e r gender s u b v e r s i o n i n The  

P r i n c e s s , s e x u a l i n v e r s i o n i n I n Memoriam, o r b o t h as t h e 

l o c u s c l a s s i c u s o f t h e i r arguments. A t l e a s t t h r e e c r i t i c s , 

however, t r a n s f o r m t h i s i s s u e o f s e x u a l v o i c i n g i n I n Memoriam 

i n t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f p o e t i c m o t i v e s , t h e p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n o f 

l o v e , and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o a u d i e n c e e x p e c t a t i o n s : A l l e n 

S i n f i e l d , Timothy P e l t a s o n , and R i c h a r d D e l l a m o r a . T h e i r work 

has opened up Tennyson c r i t i c i s m t o a new n e g o t i a t i o n between 

t h e p u b l i c and t h e p r i v a t e t h a t a l l o w s f o r q u e s t i o n s o f 

r e a d e r s h i p and gender. 

I n h i s " F e m i n i n e and M a s c u l i n e " s e c t i o n o f h i s book on 

Tennyson (127-53), S i n f i e l d adds t o t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e 

argument i n two ways. F i r s t , he c o m p l i c a t e s t h e r e l a t i o n 

between t h e p o e t and s o c i e t y ' s dominant i d e o l o g y — s i n c e 

"meaning i s a l w a y s n e g o t i a t e d i n t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f r e c e p t i o n " 



(13 6 ) — b y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t Tennyson a l m o s t u n c o n s c i o u s l y c a s t 

h i m s e l f as an " e f f e m i n a t e " w r i t e r i n t h e eyes o f h i s 

c o n t e m p o r a r y c r i t i c s , t h e r e b y making Tennyson's f e m i n i n e l a b e l 

a c o n d i t i o n o f r e c e p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n . 

Reviews m e n t i o n e d by S i n f i e l d i n c l u d e t h o s e by C r o k e r (Jump 

66-83) and B u l w e r - L y t t o n (see M a r t i n 168-73) t h a t p u t Tennyson 

i n t h e " a f f e c t e d " Cockney s c h o o l ; K i n g s l e y ' s l a u d a t o r y 1850 

r e v i e w , u n d e r s c o r e d t h r o u g h o u t by h i s C h r i s t i a n m a n l i n e s s 

(Jump 172-85); t h e anonymous r e v i e w i n The Times (1851) 

( p o s s i b l y by Manley Hopkins) t h a t d i s p a r a g e d Tennyson's 

"amatory t e n d e r n e s s " i n v e r s e s l i k e l y t o be g i v e n a " f e m i n i n e 

a p p l i c a t i o n " (see Shannon 156-8); and Bagehot's f i n a l 

c r i t i c i s m o f Tennyson's " o r n a t e " p o e t r y as u n d u l y i n f l u e n c e d 

by women, who " e v e r p r e f e r a d e l i c a t e u n r e a l i t y t o a t r u e o r 

f i r m a r t " ( L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s I I 380-81). I n m e n t i o n i n g t h e s e 

c r i t i q u e s , S i n f i e l d t o o r e a d i l y c o n c l u d e s , however, t h a t 

Tennyson r i s k e d m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n by e x p r e s s i n g " t h e f i n e r 

f e e l i n g s and v e r b a l a r t s , not t h e m a s c u l i n e c o n c e r n s o f 

u t i l i t a r i a n i s m , p o l i t i c a l economy and m a c h i n e r y . " He adds 

t h a t " t h i s was i n p a r t t h e r o l e a l l o c a t e d t o p o e t r y w i t h i n t h e 

d e v e l o p i n g b o u r g e o i s hegemony: even as p o e t r y was pushed t o 

t h e m a r g i n s , so i t was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e ( a l l e g e d l y ) 

f e m i n i n e " ( 1 3 8 ) . Y e t S i n f i e l d p r o l e p t i c a l l y d e s i g n a t e s t h e 

e n t e r p r i s e o f p o e t r y as e f f e m i n a t e and t h e r e f o r e m a r g i n a l i z e d 

i n t h e 1840s and 50s. Such m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n d i d n o t r e a l l y 

o c c u r i n f u l l f o r c e i n E n g l a n d u n t i l a decade o r two l a t e r i n 



392 

t h e c o i n c i d e n c e o f s u f f r a g e t t e demands, homophobia, and t h e 

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s e x u a l a e s t h e t i c i s m spearheaded by 

Swinburne i n t h e 18 6 0 s . 3 0 

Second, S i n f i e l d examines common "modes o f l o v e w r i t i n g " i n 

I n Memoriam t o i m p l y r a t h e r t h a n s t a t e o u t r i g h t t h a t Tennyson 

may have h a r b o u r e d s e x u a l f e e l i n g s f o r H a l l a m f i l t e r e d t h r o u g h 

g e n r e s a c c e p t a b l e t o h i s V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e (143-53). A g a i n , 

S i n f i e l d d i s r e g a r d s Tennyson's immediate c o n t e x t o f w o r k i n g as 

a p r o f e s s i o n a l p o e t r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e demands o f a 

h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e a d e r s h i p (even w h i l e he c l a i m s t o be c o n c e r n e d 

about r e c e p t i o n ) . Here, he p r o v i d e s a p s y c h o - b i o g r a p h i c a l 

e x p l a n a t i o n f o r Tennyson's " d i s t u r b a n c e o f customary gender 

c a t e g o r i e s " i n h i s work. A n a l y z e d i n t h i s way, t h e p o e t i s 

r e v e a l e d n o t t o have "'homosexual t e n d e n c i e s ' — t h a t would 

e n a b l e us t o p i g e o n - h o l e him"; however, S i n f i e l d c o n c l u d e s o f 

Tennyson's androgyny t h a t " t h e r e i s no p r o p e r f i t t o be 

a c h i e v e d w i t h r e c e i v e d d i s c o u r s e s " (145). U l t i m a t e l y , 

S i n f i e l d ' s a n a l y s i s o f Tennyson's s e x u a l a m b i g u i t y i n r e l a t i o n 

R i c h a r d Monckton M i l n e s ' s r e v i e w o f t h e 1842 Poems, 
f o r example, p l a c e s p o e t r y a t t h e c e n t r e o f s o c i a l and 
c u l t u r a l l i f e : " P o e t r y i s s u r e l y now more r e s p e c t a b l e t h a n i t 
has e v e r been b e f o r e i n t h i s c o u n t r y ; no man, o f w h a t e v e r 
g r a v i t y o f s t a t i o n o r c h a r a c t e r , would be ashamed o f h a v i n g 
w r i t t e n good v e r s e . . . . Among t h e l a r g e and i n t e l l i g e n t 
m i d d l e c l a s s e s o f t h i s c o u n t r y t h e r e i s much p o e t r y r e a d and 
e n j o y e d " (Jump 137). I n c h a p t e r two o f t h i s s t u d y , however, 
m a r g i n a l i z e d e f f e m i n a c y i s shown t o be t h e p r e v a i l i n g a t t i t u d e 
t o w a r d p o e t r y i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a a l t h o u g h , as 
c h a p t e r one d e m o n s t r a t e s , s a l e s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 
p o e t r y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s were n o t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d by i t . 



393 

t o h i s a u d i e n c e i s c o n f u s i n g s i n c e he appears t o want i t b o t h 

ways and a l l ways s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . 

S e e i n g Tennyson f a r more as a p r o f e s s i o n a l , p o e t t h a n does 

S i n f i e l d , P e l t a s o n — i n h i s f o c u s upon t h e language and 

s t r u c t u r e o f I n Memoriam r a t h e r t h a n i t s s e x u a l c o n n o t a t i o n s 

p e r s e — p o i n t s o u t one o f t h e p r i m a r y means by w h i c h Tennyson 

managed t o make p u b l i c h i s i n t e n s e l y p r i v a t e e m o t i o n s : s e l f -

r e f l e x i v i t y , t h a t i s , by h a v i n g t h e poem q u e s t i o n and 

i n t e r p r e t i t s e l f even as i t was b e i n g composed and, 

p r e s u m a b l y , r e a d ( 4 1 - 5 ) . Tennyson's words, l i k e "widow's 

weeds," a r e t h u s worn d e l i b e r a t e l y as a " s h a r e d human 

c o n v e n t i o n " (43) d e s i g n a t i n g t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t as a member o f a 

community ( 4 4 ) . P e l t a s o n , however, does n o t e x p l o r e f u l l y t h e 

s h i f t i n g gender p o s i t i o n s t h a t t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t assumes as he 

p u t s on t h e s e widow's weeds and t a k e s them o f f f o r t h o s e o f 

t h e widower. 

A l t h o u g h i n b a s i c agreement w i t h P e l t a s o n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , 

D e l l a m o r a a r g u e s t h a t i t f a l l s s h o r t i n two ways. P e l t a s o n 

f a i l s t o e x p l o r e f u l l y h i s own metaphor o f "widow's weeds" and 

t h e language o f g r i e f , t h a t i s , t o c o n s i d e r what p r i v a t e 

e m o t i o n s t h e p o e t ' s widow's weeds would " h a l f r e v e a l / And 

h a l f c o n c e a l " (V 3-4, D e l l a m o r a 3 5 ) . He a l s o n e g l e c t s t o 

s p e c i f y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e community t h a t Tennyson e n t e r e d w i t h 

t h i s poem. A c c o r d i n g t o D e l l a m o r a , Tennyson's emotions a r e 

n o t s e x u a l f e e l i n g s as such b u t r a t h e r an " a f f e c t i v e i n t i m a c y 

t h a t so f a r exceeds normal e x p e r i e n c e , p e r h a p s e s p e c i a l l y t h e 



e x p e r i e n c e i n r e l a t i o n s between men and women, t h a t t h e bond 

becomes s o m e t h i n g f o r t h e e l e c t t o c o n c e a l from t h e eyes o f 

t h e mundane" ( 3 5 ) . Thus Tennyson's i n n e r c i r c l e o f r e a d e r s 

a r e , f o r D e l l a m o r a , an e l e c t group o f " l o v i n g f r i e n d s " — t h e 

A p o s t l e s — w h i l e t h e o u t e r c i r c l e a r e " t h o s e who, t o u n d e r s t a n d 

Tennyson a t a l l , w i l l have t o u n d e r s t a n d him i n widow's weeds, 

i . e . i n terms w h i c h r e s t r i c t d e v o t i o n l i k e Tennyson's t o 

r e l a t i o n s between t h e s e x e s " ( 3 5 ) . D e l l a m o r a f u r t h e r n o t e s 

t h a t , c l o t h e d i n widow's weeds, Tennyson can speak b o t h t o and 

from women. Wearing, " c o a r s e s t c l o t h e s a g a i n s t t h e c o l d , " he 

can speak b o t h t o and from t h e l a b o u r i n g c l a s s e s . Because 

gender d i f f e r e n c e s and c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s a r e f a s h i o n e d by 

human b e i n g s and hence s u s c e p t i b l e t o c h a n g e — j u s t as c l o t h e s 

a r e — t h e " r h e t o r i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f p o e t i c a d d r e s s a l s o means 

t h a t — w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f communicating w i t h a c o n v e n t i o n a l 

p u b l i c — p o e t r y may u t t e r a s h i f t i n g c o n g e r i e s o f v o i c e s — o f 

w o r k e r s , o f women, o f l o v e r s " ( 3 5 ) . Y e t D e l l a m o r a seems 

u l t i m a t e l y t o f a v o u r p r i v a t e " i n t i m a c y " ("the s p e c i a l n e s s o f 

'manly l o v e ' " (36)) and i t s p o t e n t i a l a u d i e n c e more t h a n he 

does t h e p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n o f h e t e r o s e x u a l l o v e r e l a t i o n s 3 1 . 

C o n s e q u e n t l y , he r e a d s t h e s h i f t i n g c o n g e r i e s o f v o i c e s , 

e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e o f d o m e s t i c i t y , as o v e r d e t e r m i n e d and t h e r e b y 

3 1 T h i s i s e v i d e n t i n t h e language t h a t D e l l a m o r a u s e s ; 
f o r example, once he has e s t a b l i s h e d t h e c l o t h e s - l a n g u a g e 
metaphor, w h i c h I n Memoriam does i n d e e d p l a y w i t h , he l a t e r 
d i s p a r a g e s i t t h r o u g h such p h r a s e s as " t h e g a r b o f m a r r i a g e 
and f a m i l y " ( 3 5 ) . D e l l a m o r a ' s own s u b j e c t i v e p r e f e r e n c e s a r e 
m a n i f e s t i n h i s c h o i c e o f words l i k e " g a r b . " 



395 

t e n d i n g t o u n d e r c u t Tennyson's commitment t o h i s p u b l i c and, 

i n d i r e c t l y , t o r e i n s c r i b e t h e p o e t i c power o f p r i v a t e emotion. 

D e s p i t e e f f o r t s by t h e above s c h o l a r s t o i n c l u d e r e c e p t i o n 

as a d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r i n Tennyson's c r e a t i o n o f a p o e t i c 

v o i c e d u r i n g t h e 183 0s and 40s, t h e candour o f t h a t v o i c e 

c o n t i n u e s t o be c a s t i n t o doubt by v a r i o u s post-modern 

p e r s p e c t i v e s . B e l e a g u e r e d by a p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d i c h o t o m y t h a t 

n o w — i n post-modern f a s h i o n — m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f as language 

a g a i n s t i t s e l f , Tennyson's p u b l i c g u i s e f o r h i s a l l e g e d l y 

p r i v a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h H a l l a m has, i n a n a l y s e s o f I n 

Memoriam. become t h e f o c a l p o i n t f o r r e v e a l i n g Tennyson's 

s e x u a l i t y as a s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t and a s s e s s i n g i t s a t t e n d a n t 

s c h i s m a t i c e f f e c t s upon h i s p o e t i c v o i c e . I n t h e above v i e w s , 

H a l l a m n e c e s s a r i l y b e l o n g s t o a p r i v a t e , h o m o s o c i a l s p h e r e 

u n a f f e c t e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f women i n any s u b s t a n t i a l way. 

Indeed, Tennyson's many f e m a l e p e r s o n a e a r e o f t e n r e a d as t h e 

p o e t ' s s u r r o g a t e means o f e x p r e s s i n g male-male d e s i r e . 

The s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t f o r Tennyson's development as 

a p r o f e s s i o n a l p o e t — o n e t h a t i n c l u d e s H a l l a m as a s u b s t a n t i a l 

f i g u r e r a t h e r t h a n e x c l u d e s him as a s t r i c t l y p r i v a t e f a c t o r 

i n Tennyson's l i f e — n e e d s t o be c o n s i d e r e d . H a l l a m ' s 

p r a g m a t i c r o l e as Tennyson's promoter, t h a t he assumed w h i l e 

a l i v e , has a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d . What has y e t t o be 

examined a r e t h e r e s o n a n c e s o f h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l b e l i e f s t h a t , 

a f t e r h i s d e a t h , echo t h r o u g h o u t I n Memoriam. These cause 

Tennyson t o v o i c e a s p i r i t u a l , d i s e m b o d i e d l o v e f o r h i s f r i e n d 



t h a t goes f a r beyond t h e f a c t t h a t he i s now dead and 

t h e r e f o r e o u t o f p h y s i c a l r e a c h . 

I n t h e e a r l y 1830s, H a l l a m had made i t p o s s i b l e f o r a v e r y 

p r i v a t e Tennyson t o p a r t i c i p a t e v i c a r i o u s l y i n s o c i e t y as a 

p u b l i c v o i c e , s i m i l a r t o a V i c t o r i a n husband's p r o v i d i n g a 

v i c a r i o u s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s o c i e t y f o r h i s s h e l t e r e d w i f e , 

a l o n g t h e l i n e s s u g g e s t e d by L o n g f e l l o w ' s mother's l e t t e r s t o 

h e r husband. I n I n Memoriam, Tennyson l a t e r chose v a r i o u s 

c o n v e n t i o n a l f a m i l i a l r o l e s t o s y m b o l i z e h i s and H a l l a m ' s 

f r i e n d s h i p , b o t h w i t h i n and a g a i n s t a gendered, s e p a r a t e -

s p h e r e i d e o l o g y t h a t l i m i t e d V i c t o r i a n women's l i v e s t o 

p r i v a t e s p i r i t u a l c o n c e r n s w i t h i n t h e home w h i l e men's l i v e s 

c o u l d be e x p e r i e n c e d f u l l y i n a p u b l i c r e a l m . I n d o i n g so, hi 

a p p e a l e d t o t h e emotions o f h i s h e t e r o g e n e o u s a u d i e n c e i n a 
32 

d e l i b e r a t e l y a f f e c t i v e way. 
I n t h e f i r s t v e r y g e n t l e poem Tennyson composed f o r I n 

Memoriam, H a l l a m and t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t s h a r e s e v e r a l gendered 

r o l e s : "My f r i e n d , t h e b r o t h e r o f my l o v e ; // My A r t h u r , whom 

I s h a l l n o t see / T i l l a l l my widowed r a c e be r u n ; / Dear as 

t h e mother t o t h e son, / More t h a n my b r o t h e r s a r e t o me" (IX 

16-20) . These l i n e s e x p r e s s a power r e l a t i o n i n w h i c h H a l l a m 

c l e a r l y has s u p e r i o r a l t h o u g h n o t e x c l u s i v e l y male s t a t u s as 

3 2 Indeed, Queen V i c t o r i a h e r s e l f had t o l d Tennyson t h a t 
"'Next t o t h e B i b l e ' I n Memoriam' i s my c o m f o r t ' " as she 
c o n s o l e d h e r s e l f o v e r t h e d e a t h o f P r i n c e A l b e r t (Memoir 406) 
she was a l s o known t o have a l t e r e d t h e gender pronouns i n h e r 
e d i t i o n so as t o i d e n t i f y d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t i n 
t h e poem ( C h a r l e s Tennyson 336) . 



f r i e n d , b r o t h e r , husband, and even mother. E a r l y i n t h e poem, 

t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t a l s o assumes a male r o l e i n r e l a t i o n t o 

H a l l a m as a l o s t f e m a l e , e a r t h l y l o v e : "A happy l o v e r who has 

come / To l o o k on h e r t h a t l o v e s him w e l l " ( V I I I ) and "Tears 

o f t h e widower, when he sees / A l a t e - l o s t form t h a t s l e e p 

r e v e a l s " ( X I I I ) . The s p e a k e r - p o e t can t h u s be b o t h widow and 

widower. 

Through t h e use o f f a m i l i a r d o m e s t i c imagery, Tennyson 

p e r s o n i f i e s Sorrow and c o n n e c t s h e r t o h i s d u a l , m a l e - f e m a l e 

d e p i c t i o n o f H a l l a m . I n t h e f i r s t t h i r d o f t h e poem, Sorrow 

i s p e r s o n i f i e d as an e r o t i c i z e d f e m a l e o b j e c t o f d r e a d and 

d e s i r e ( I I I , XVI, XXXIX, X L V I I I , see M a r i o n Shaw A l f r e d 152-

3) . By S e c t i o n L I X , however, she i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o an image 

o f t h e d u t i f u l w i f e and l i n k e d back t o H a l l a m t h r o u g h echoes 

o f t h o s e words used t o d e f i n e him e l s e w h e r e : "My b o s o m - f r i e n d " 

and " t h o u a r t mine": 

0 Sorrow, w i l t t h o u l i v e w i t h me 
No c a s u a l m i s t r e s s , b u t a w i f e , 
My b o s o m - f r i e n d and h a l f o f l i f e ; 
As I c o n f e s s i t needs must be; 

0 Sorrow, w i l t t h o u r u l e my b l o o d , 
Be sometimes l o v e l y l i k e a b r i d e , 
And p u t my h a r s h e r moods a s i d e , 
I f t h o u w i l t have me w i s e and good. 

My c e n t r e d p a s s i o n c a n n o t move, 
Nor w i l l i t l e s s e n from t o d a y ; 
But I ' l l have l e a v e a t t i m e s t o p l a y 
As w i t h t h e c r e a t u r e o f my l o v e ; 

And s e t t h e e f o r t h , f o r t h o u a r t mine, 
W i t h so much hope f o r y e a r s t o 'come, 
T h a t , howso'er I know t h e e , some 
C o u l d h a r d l y t e l l what name were t h i n e . 

(1-16) 



398 

R a t h e r t h a n i n e a r l i e r s e c t i o n s i n w h i c h he i s a mere l o v e r o f 

Sorrow and t h e r e f o r e s u b j e c t t o h e r c a p r i c e s , h e r e t h e 

s p e a k e r - p o e t assumes a male m a s t e r y o v e r h e r i n m a r r i a g e . 

T h i s m a s t e r y p r e f i g u r e s h i s f i n a l a s s u m p t i o n o f a s t r o n g v o i c e 

o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h t o r e p l a c e t h e doubt t h a t H a l l a m ' s d e a t h 

had g e n e r a t e d : "Dear h e a v e n l y f r i e n d t h a t c a n s t n o t d i e , / 

Mine, mine, f o r e v e r , e v e r mine" (CXXIX 7-8) sounds a 

c o n f i d e n t n o t e v e r y l i k e t h a t o f t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t / h u s b a n d who 

now s e c u r e l y p o s s e s s e s Sorrow as h i s w i f e . 

Y e t o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e poem d e l i b e r a t e l y c a s t t h e 

s p e a k e r - p o e t , n o t H a l l a m , i n t h e f e m a l e r o l e . I n t h e l i n e s 

below, s/he seems b e g r u d g i n g l y s u b s e r v i e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o 

H a l l a m : 

He p a s t ; a s o u l o f n o b l e r t o n e 
My s p i r i t l o v e d and l o v e s him y e t , 
L i k e some poor g i r l whose h e a r t i s s e t 
On one whose r a n k exceeds h e r own. 

He m i x i n g w i t h h i s p r o p e r s p h e r e , 
She f i n d s t h e baseness o f h e r l o t , 
H a l f j e a l o u s o f she knows n o t what, 
And e n v y i n g a l l t h a t meet him t h e r e . 

The l i t t l e v i l l a g e l o o k s f o r l o r n ; 
She s i g h s amid h e r narrow days, 
Moving about t h e h o u s e h o l d ways, 
I n t h a t d a r k house where she was b o r n . 

(LX 1-12) 

The " h o u s e h o l d ways" o f f e m a l e d o m e s t i c i t y r e c u r i n S e c t i o n 

XCVII when Tennyson a g a i n uses t h e woman's r o l e t o s u g g e s t t h e 

i n e q u a l i t y o f h i s and H a l l a m ' s f r i e n d s h i p : "She knows b u t 

m a t t e r s o f t h e house, / And he, he knows a t h o u s a n d t h i n g s " 

( 3 1 - 2 ) . Sounding a n o t e s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n Z i l p a h 



L o n g f e l l o w ' s l e t t e r s t o h e r f r e q u e n t l y a b s e n t , p u b l i c l y 

s t i m u l a t e d husband, t h e o c c a s i o n a l l y f e m a l e v o i c e o f t h e 

s p e a k e r - p o e t o f I n Memoriam a l s o bespeaks c o n f u s e d j e a l o u s y 

and a sense o f i n f e r i o r i t y . I n Tennyson's c a s e , t h e s p e a k e r -

p o e t ' s s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n d e r i v e s as w e l l from an a c u t e 

awareness o f c l a s s , and h i s (her) own s o c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y i n 

r e l a t i o n t o H a l l a m "whose r a n k exceeds h e r own," i n 

a r i s t o c r a t i c u p b r i n g i n g and e d u c a t i o n (see a l s o X L I I ) . 

However, such f e e l i n g s c o u l d a l s o be m i n g l e d , f o r Tennyson 

even as t h e y were f o r Z i l p a h L o n g f e l l o w , w i t h v i c a r i o u s 

s a t i s f a c t i o n i n t h e d e m o n s t r a b l e p u b l i c s u c c e s s e s o f h i s (her) 

p a r t n e r : 

W h i l e I , t h y n e a r e s t , s a t a p a r t , 
And f e l t t h e t r i u m p h was as mine; 
And l o v e d them more, t h a t t h e y were t h i n e , 
The g r a c e f u l t a c t , t h e C h r i s t i a n a r t ; 
Nor mine t h e sweetness o r t h e s k i l l , 
But mine t h e l o v e t h a t w i l l n o t t i r e , . 
And, b o r n o f l o v e , t h e vague d e s i r e 
That s p u r s an i m i t a t i v e w i l l . 

(CX 13-20) 

By a d o p t i n g b o t h male and f e m a l e p e r s o n a e i n r e l a t i o n t o 

H a l l a m , Tennyson's s p e a k e r - p o e t f r u s t r a t e s p u b l i c e x p e c t a t i o n s 

o f t h e l y r i c v o i c e as t h a t o f a s i n g l e s e l f . R a t h e r , Tennyson 

t r i e s i n I n Memoriam t o a c h i e v e f u l l v o i c e t h r o u g h m a r r i a g e 

w i t h — i n t h i s c a s e — a n a l t e r n a t e l y f e m a l e and male " o t h e r " . 

As a metaphor f o r s h a r e d language, m a r r i a g e i m p l i e s a u n i o n 

o f v o i c e , o f t h e dead H a l l a m w i t h h i s l i v e s p e a k e r - p o e t 

f r i e n d . As E r i c G r i f f i t h s has r e c e n t l y n o t e d , t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t 



400 

g i v e s v o i c e t o H a l l a m ' s dead l e t t e r s (XCV) and h i s now l o n g 

s i l e n t spoken v o i c e (LXXXIX) by i n c o r p o r a t i n g q u o t a t i o n s from 

H a l l a m d i r e c t l y i n t o h i s t e x t . "The p r i n t e d v o i c e i s s h a r e d 

between them, w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n (though t h e i n v e r t e d commas 

p r e s e r v e t h e i r d i s t i n c t i d e n t i t i e s ) ; t h e y a r e composed as one, 

become one now i n t h e f a c t t h a t each e q u a l l y needs t o draw on 

a r e a d e r ' s b r e a t h f o r c o n t i n u e d l i f e " (166-70). But what 

G r i f f i t h s does n o t e x p l a i n i s j u s t why Tennyson i m a g i n e d t h i s 
33 

oneness o f v o i c e i n terms o f m a r r i a g e . 
F o r i n s t a n c e , j u s t p r i o r t o t h e c l i m a x , t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t 

had a s k e d t h a t H a l l a m "Descend, and t o u c h , and e n t e r " him, i n 

a l i n e t h a t had o r i g i n a l l y r e a d "Stoop s o u l and t o u c h me; wed 

me" ( X C I I I 1 ) . Of c o u r s e , m a r r i a g e i s a c e n t r a l metaphor 

t h r o u g h o u t t h e poem, as t h e above a n a l y s i s o f r o l e s i n d i c a t e s . 

T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t G r i f f i t h s i g n o r e s t h e a n a l o g y 
between m a r r i a g e and p o e t i c r e c e p t i o n as s u c h , b u t t h a t h i s 
i n t e r e s t s i n t h i s r e g a r d c o n c e r n t h e Brownings r a t h e r t h a n 
Tennyson. I n s p e a k i n g o f b o t h E l i z a b e t h ' s and R o b e r t ' s l o v e 
p o e t r y o f t h e i d e a l and t h e r e a l , G r i f f i t h s n o t e s t h e 
s w i f t n e s s w i t h w h i c h t h e i d e a l becomes t h e r e a l and v i c e  
v e r s a . He f u r t h e r compares t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o t h e 
a l t e r a t i o n o f speech i n t o w r i t i n g , t h e "changes i n t h e l i f e o f 
a poem, as i t moves from spoken u t t e r a n c e o f t h e p o e t t o 
w r i t t e n t e x t and t h e n t o p r i n t e d book [so as t o ] c o n d u c t a 
c o u r t s h i p i n and o f t h e language, from t h e f i r s t i m p u l s e s o f 
s t i l l u n f o r m u l a t e d d e s i r e t o t h e i n t i m a t e d e c l a r a t i o n s o f 
l o v e r s t o each o t h e r and t h e n t o a r e s t r i c t e d c i r c l e o f f a m i l y 
and f r i e n d s , and f i n a l l y t o t h e p u b l i c avowal o f an a t t a c h m e n t 
t h a t i s t o l a s t i n t h e ceremony o f m a r r i a g e " ( 1 9 2 ) . 
Tennyson's deployment o f s i m i l a r s t r a t e g i e s o f r e a d e r 
i n v o l v e m e n t a r e more complex t h a n t h o s e o f t h e Brownings s i n c e 
h e t e r o s e x u a l m a r r i a g e i n h i s p o e t r y i s o f t e n f r u s t r a t e d 
t h r o u g h gender o r c l a s s d i s r u p t i o n s , as i n The P r i n c e s s o r 
Maud, o r made t o seem an e a r t h l y s u b s t i t u t e f o r a s p i r i t u a l , 
a s e x u a l u n i o n as i n I n Memoriam. 



And a m a r r i a g e o f minds m e t a p h o r i c a l l y c h a l l e n g e s t h e s i l e n c e 

o f doubt t h a t i s , a t t h e c l i m a x o f I n Memoriam, f i n a l l y b r o k e n 

when "word by word, and l i n e by l i n e , / The dead man t o u c h e d 

[him] from t h e p a s t " (XCV 33-4). Once t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t i s 

i n f u s e d w i t h H a l l a m ' s s p i r i t , he i s t h e r e b y a b l e t o g i v e v o i c e 

t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t a l l o f n a t u r e p a r t i c i p a t e s i n one 

" b o u n d l e s s day" o f m i x t E a s t and West, l i f e and d e a t h (XCV 61-

4 ) . Thus, a p u b l i c d e c l a r a t i o n o f h i s unbounded f a i t h — t h e 

development and c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e " E p i t h a l a m i u m " — i s made 

p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h a p r i v a t e , t r a n c e - i n d u c e d s u b m i s s i o n t o a 

s p i r i t u a l power much g r e a t e r t h a n and e x t e r n a l t o t h e s e l f . 

H a l l a m ' s f e m a l e n e s s has, by t h i s p o i n t , become a b s t r a c t e d i n t o 

t h a t o f a s p i r i t u a l i n t e r m e d i a r y between t h e male s p e a k e r and 

t h e heaven i n w h i c h H a l l a m now s u p p o s e d l y r e s i d e s . L i k e 

C h r i s t , he now r e p r e s e n t s "manhood f u s e d w i t h f e m a l e g r a c e " 

(CIX 1 7 ) . I n s u b m i t t i n g t o t h i s i n t e r m e d i a r y , t h e s p e a k e r -

p o e t may be t h o u g h t t o assume a t y p i c a l f e m a l e s t a n c e . But 

t h e s e x u a l d u a l i s m i n t h e C h r i s t - l i k e H a l l a m i m p l i e s t h a t t h e 

r e c i p i e n t can adopt e i t h e r gender. To c l o s e t h e poem, 

however, t h e s p e a k e r - p o e t h i m s e l f r e v e r t s t o t h e v o i c e o f a 

m a l e - a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s own a u d i e n c e . T h i s 

i s now p o s s i b l e because o f t h e s p i r i t u a l empowerment he 

r e c e i v e s from t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y and h i s p u b l i c e n u n c i a t i o n o f 

h i s own s p i r i t u a l f a i t h . 

U l t i m a t e l y , H a l l a m ' s d e a t h r e q u i r e d t h a t Tennyson commingle 

male and f e m a l e v o i c e s w i t h i n a u n i f i e d s e l f . I n so d o i n g , 



402 

Tennyson's androgynous v o i c e was b o r n . Because t h i s v o i c e 

r e f u s e d a d e f i n i t i v e gender, i t was p o t e n t i a l l y a v a i l a b l e f o r 

any r e a d e r t o wed, i n e f f e c t , t o do as Tennyson had done w i t h 

H a l l a m : t o a l l o w t h e a b s e n t v o i c e — h e r e now T e n n y s o n ' s ^ — t o 

"descend, and t o u c h , and e n t e r , " t o speak t h r o u g h h e r o r him, 

j u s t as Queen V i c t o r i a had done when she a l t e r e d t h e gender o f 

t h e v o i c e s i n t h e poem. 3 4 Thus, t h e m a r r i a g e t h a t n e v e r t a k e s 

p l a c e i n The P r i n c e s s i s reworked i n t o I n Memoriam i n two 

ways. F i r s t l y , t h e " E p i t h a l a m i u m " c e l e b r a t e s C e c i l i a 

Tennyson's and Edmund L u s h i n g t o n ' s u n i o n as a s y m b o l i c 

c o n t i n u a t i o n o f l i f e made p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h an a c c e p t a n c e o f 

m a t e r i a l d e a t h and a r e s o l u t e f a i t h i n s p i r i t u a l a f t e r l i f e . 

The medley o f v o i c e s i n I n Memoriam adopted by t h e s p e a k e r -

p o e t u l t i m a t e l y narrows t o j u s t t h a t o f t h e a c t u a l a u t h o r 

h i m s e l f as he n o t o n l y c o n f i r m s h i s r e a l i t y by g i v i n g away h i s 

own s i s t e r i n m a r r i a g e w i t h i n t h i s poem, b u t a l s o s u b m i s s i v e l y 

a c c e p t s t h r o u g h f a i t h what he cannot r e a l i z e on e a r t h . T h i s 

t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s o f The P r i n c e s s were u n a b l e ( i n t h e c a s e o f 

t h e P r i n c e ) o r u n w i l l i n g ( i n t h e c a s e o f P r i n c e s s Ida) t o do. 

3 4 I n one o f many b r i e f , u n p u b l i s h e d poems,"On one who 
A f f e c t e d an E f f e m i n a t e Manner" Tennyson remarks on e x a c t l y t h e 
k i n d o f androgyny d e s c r i b e d h e r e . I t does n o t f u s e male and 
f e m a l e p r i n c i p l e s i n t o a t y p e o f h y b r i d , b u t r a t h e r s u g g e s t s a 
" m e e t i n g " o f o p p o s i t e s : 

W h i l e man and woman s t i l l a r e i n c o m p l e t e , 
I p r i z e t h a t s o u l where man and woman meet, 
Which t y p e s a l l N a t u r e ' s male and f e m a l e p l a n , 
But, f r i e n d , man-woman i s n o t woman-man. 

( R i c k s Poems I I I 217-18) 



S e c o n d l y , t h e wedding t h a t ends I n Memoriam a l s o s y m b o l i z e s 

t h e u n i t i n g o f t h e p o e t i c t e x t i t s e l f w i t h i t s r e a d e r s : 

p e r s o n a l s u f f e r i n g w i t h a c u l t u r e ' s l o s s o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h ; a 

p r i v a t e , f e m a l e - c e n t r e d d o m e s t i c i t y w i t h male-dominated p u b l i c 

e n t e r p r i s e ; and a v o i c e t h a t s h i f t s i n gender w i t h s y m p a t h e t i c 

l i s t e n e r s o f b o t h s e x e s . F o r Tennyson, t h e s e r e a d e r s numbered 

i n t h e t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s . 

The a p p r o a c h t a k e n h e r e t o w a r d Tennyson's "man-woman" 

p o s t u r e i s n o t t h e p s y c h o - s o c i a l q u e s t i o n i n g most c r i t i c s 

adopt when a n a l y z i n g t h e p o e t ' s a l l e g e d s e x u a l c o n f u s i o n . 

A l t h o u g h much r e c e n t work i n t h i s v e i n has c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s 

d i s c u s s i o n o f Tennyson's f i n a l a d o p t i o n o f a s e x u a l l y 

ambiguous v o i c e i n I n Memoriam, Tennyson i s v i e w e d h e r e as i n 

a p e r i o d o f p o e t i c a d o l e s c e n c e . He worked w i t h i n and a g a i n s t 

c o n v e n t i o n a l gender r o l e s known t o h i s V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e so 

as t o e s t a b l i s h p r o f e s s i o n a l l y a v a r i t o n a l p o e t i c v o i c e t o 

echo h i s r e a d e r s ' h e t e r o g e n e i t y . A t t u n e d t o Tennyson's 

p h y s i c a l v o i c e i t s e l f , F r a n c i s B e r r y s e v e r a l y e a r s ago 

d e s c r i b e d t h e p o e t ' s androgyny i n t h i s way: 

Tennyson's w o n d e r f u l o r g a n , f o r a l l i t s 'deep-
c h e s t e d n e s s ' , i t s murmuringness, i t s s o n o r i t y . . . 
i n c l u d e d a v o i c e o f f e m a l e t i m b r e and r a n g e , c a p a b l e 
b o t h o f e x p r e s s i n g t h e ' p i e r c i n g w a i l ' o f t h e t h r e e 
Queens ( i n The P a s s i n g o f A r t h u r ) and t h e more 
subdued c o m p l a i n t s o f young women o r maidens who 
have been d e s e r t e d , such as C l a r i b e l , L i l i a n , 
I s a b e l , M a r i a n a , M a d e l e i n e , o r A d e l i n e . But as t h e 
comprehensive v o i c e o f t h e man Tennyson deepened 
w i t h age, so d i d t h e woman's v o i c e i t i n c l u d e d , and 
t h e v o i c e s o f Oenone, E l e a n o r e and, i n t h e I d y l l s , 
o f E n i d , E l a i n e , and G u i n e v e r e a r e l o w e r and l e s s 
g i r l i s h t h a n t h o s e o f t h e e a r l i e r h e r o i n e s . And we 
have o n l y t o r e f l e c t on t h i s i n c l u d e d f e m a l e v o i c e 



404 

t o u n d e r s t a n d a l i t t l e more t h a t s t r a n g e work', The  
P r i n c e s s . I n t o t h a t 'Medley' o f women's v o i c e s , o f 
men's w h i l e masquerading as women, and o f women's 
a s p i r a t i o n s , he smuggled most o f t h e h e a r t - f e l t 
l y r i c s he e v e r w r o t e , i n c l u d i n g "Now s l e e p s t h e 
c r i m s o n p e t a l , now t h e w h i t e ' , 'The s p l e n d o u r f a l l s 
on c a s t l e w a l l s ' , and ' T e a r s , i d l e t e a r s , I know n o t 
what t h e y mean'. (And l e t us t a k e a s t a n d on t h i s 
a t once, and say t h a t Tennyson's i n c a p a c i t y — h o w e v e r 
he t r i e d , i n L o c k s l e y H a l l and e l s e w h e r e — t o g i v e 
h i s v o i c e t h e s h a r p o r h a r s h edge o f c r u e l o r 
v i n d i c t i v e anger o f a h a r d man was t o h i s honour. 
I t i s t o our own l o s s when we m i s t a k e , as we o f t e n 
m i s t a k e , g e n t l e n e s s f o r s o f t n e s s . ) (60) 

P e r h a p s a r e v a l u a t i o n o f g e n t l e n e s s , f r e e from t h e d i s p a r a g i n g 

c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e s e n t i m e n t a l , needs t o o c c u r b e f o r e t h e 

power w i t h i n t h e androgynous v o i c e . o f Tennyson's p o p u l a r 

p o e t r y can t r u l y be h e a r d . C h a p t e r f i v e , i n i t s d i s c u s s i o n o f 

t h e p o p u l a r l y r i c , works t o w a r d t h i s end. 



405 

CHAPTER FIVE 

THE NINETEENTH-CENTURY POPULAR LYRIC 

H i s and n o t h i s , a r e t h e l a y s 
He s i n g s ; and t h e i r fame 

I s h i s , and n o t h i s ; and t h e p r a i s e 
And t h e p r i d e o f a name. 

— L o n g f e l l o w 
("The P o e t and H i s Songs" 
" L ' e n v o i " t o U l t i m a T h u l e 21-4) 

A l t h o u g h a d e f i n i t i o n o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r p o e t r y 

based on e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e and t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s has been 

a t t e m p t e d i n c h a p t e r one, t h e phenomenon o f p o p u l a r i t y i t s e l f 

as a f e a t u r e o f r e c e p t i o n a t work i n " p o p u l a r " l y r i c s has y e t 

t o be examined. S e l e c t i o n s from t h e b e s t - l o v e d poems o f Mrs 

Hemans, L o n g f e l l o w , and Tennyson a r e o b v i o u s c h o i c e s f o r 

c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s s i n c e each p o e t a c h i e v e d p o e t i c s u c c e s s 

t h r o u g h a p p e a l t o t h e d o m e s t i c and r e l i g i o u s s e n t i m e n t s o f 

t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a u d i e n c e s b u t i n g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t ways. 

T h i s c h a p t e r e x p l o r e s p o e t i c p o p u l a r i t y by q u e s t i o n i n g whether 

t h e r e a r e f e a t u r e s w i t h i n poems t h e m s e l v e s t h a t d e s i g n a t e 

a p p e a l t o a w i d e s p r e a d r e a d e r s h i p — p o p u l a r i t y as a t e x t u a l 

phenomenon—or i f a p p e a l i s p u r e l y a f u n c t i o n o f r e c e p t i o n — 

r e a d e r s o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n a s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t t h a t p r e -

d i s p o s e s them t o a p p l y f a m i l i a r t h e m a t i c c o n t e n t t o poems t h a t 

do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s u g g e s t such c o n t e n t when removed from t h e 

c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e y o r i g i n a l l y appear. I n t h e end, i t i s 

o n l y by p l a c i n g " p o p u l a r " t e x t s t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f 

r e c e p t i o n , t o supplement a n a l y s i s o f e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e and 



406 

t h e o r e t i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s , t h a t t h e p o e t i c p o p u l a r i t y s p e c i f i c 

t o L o n g f e l l o w and t o Tennyson can be u n d e r s t o o d . 

W i t h o u t q u e s t i o n , L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson b o t h e s t a b l i s h e d 

t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n s t h r o u g h an e a r l y , s k i l f u l use o f t h e l y r i c . 

Reason d i c t a t e s , t h e n , t h a t s i n c e any d e f i n i t i o n o f p o p u l a r 

p o e t r y w o u l d have t o d e m o n s t r a t e where and how t h e groundwork 

was l a i d f o r t h e s e p o e t s ' contemporary fame, a n a l y s i s o f 

p o p u l a r i t y s h o u l d . f o c u s on examples o f t h e i r e a r l i e s t w i d e l y -

r e a d l y r i c s t h e m s e l v e s . As perhaps t h e s i n g l e most famous 

l y r i c s o f b o t h V i c t o r i a n p o e t s , L o n g f e l l o w ' s "A P s a l m o f L i f e " 

(1839) and Tennyson's "Break, Break, Break" (1842) s e r v e t h i s 

p u r p o s e w e l l . 1 Y e t such a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y must a l s o t a k e 

i n t o a c c o u n t L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's most s u c c e s s f u l 

p r e c u r s o r : Mrs Hemans. A l t h o u g h w r i t t e n p r i o r t o t h e 

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's r e p u t a t i o n s , 

Hemans's p o e t r y a c t u a l l y g a i n e d i t s l a r g e s t r e a d e r s h i p a f t e r 

h e r d e a t h i n 1835 i n t h e decades i n w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson were b o t h emerging as p o e t s o f t h e p e o p l e . Hemans's 

m a n i f e s t p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d t h u s makes h e r 

work an o b v i o u s barometer o f p o e t i c s u c c e s s on a mass s c a l e . 

D o u g l a s B r a n c h c o n t e n d s t h a t o f s i n g l e poems n o t even t h e 

f i r s t " N i g h t " o f Edward Young's N i g h t Thoughts s p a r k e d more 

i m i t a t i v e p o e t r y i n A m e r i c a t h a n Hemans's "The Graves o f a 

H o u s e h o l d " ( 1 0 7 ) . C h a p t e r s two and t h r e e have d e m o n s t r a t e d 

1 See A p p e n d i x I I I f o r t h e t e x t s o f t h e s e poems and 
Hemans's "Graves o f a H o u s e h o l d . " 



t h e e a r l y e x p o s u r e o f b o t h L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson t o Hemans's 

work as i t was t r a n s m i t t e d o r a l l y w i t h i n t h e e v e r p o p u l a r 

d o m e s t i c r e a d i n g c i r c l e p r e s i d e d o v e r by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e 

mothers. As s u c h , t h e g e n t l e cadences o f Hemans's r e l i g i o u s 

h o m i l i e s i n v e r s e , o f t h e Domestic A f f e c t i o n s and R e c o r d s o f  

Woman i n p a r t i c u l a r , p r o v i d e an o b v i o u s , as y e t u n s t u d i e d , 

v o i c e by w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's i n i t i a l p o p u l a r i t y 
2 

can and s h o u l d be measured. 
As a t e n t a t i v e w o r k i n g d e f i n i t i o n , " p o p u l a r p o e t r y " c o u l d 

be u s e d t o d e s c r i b e p o e t i c t e x t s t h a t s a t i s f y c o m p l e t e l y t h e i r 

c o n t e m p o r a r y a u d i e n c e ' s h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s and, as a 

consequence, s e l l i n mass q u a n t i t i e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e t o t a l 

l i t e r a t e p o p u l a t i o n . 3 The a u d i e n c e ' s h o r i z o n i n c l u d e s , as 

2 B y r o n m i g h t j u s t as w e l l have been chosen o v e r Hemans 
i n terms o f b o t h p o p u l a r i t y and e a r l y i n f l u e n c e on t h e young 
L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson. But B y r o n had n o t t h e same k i n d o f 
l a s t i n g i n f l u e n c e as Hemans. That i s , f o r b o t h L o n g f e l l o w and 
Tennyson (as f o r many o t h e r s ) t h e B y r o n i c was more o f an 
a d o p t e d f a s h i o n i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y 
t h a t p o e t s w r o t e t h e m s e l v e s o u t o f . B y r o n ' s w i d e s p r e a d a p p e a l 
was g e n e r a l l y c o n f i n e d t o t h e Regency, f o r by t h e 1830s t h e 
m a j o r i t y o f V i c t o r i a n s had f o l l o w e d C a r l y l e ' s i n j u n c t i o n t o 
" c l o s e t h y B y r o n " and had adopted an a t t i t u d e o f m o r a l 
p u r p o s e f u l n e s s . I n t h i s a t t i t u d e , Hemans t r u l y e x c e l l e d , and 
she d i d so t h r o u g h more t h a n t h i r t y f o u r " C o l l e c t e d " o r 
"Complete" e d i t i o n s from h e r d e a t h i n 1835 u n t i l 1920 (see 
T r i n d e r 6 0 ) . 

3 W i t h any d e f i n i t i o n , a d d i t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s a r e 
g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e d . I n t h i s c a s e , "mass" as an a d j e c t i v e i s 
u s e d b o t h t o d e s c r i b e g r e a t q u a n t i t y and, i n c l a s s s p e c i f i c 
t e r m s , t o d e s c r i b e " t h e p o p u l a c e o r ' l o w e r o r d e r s ' " i n t h e 
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a c t i n g as "a m u l t i t u d e o f p e r s o n s m e n t a l l y 
v i e w e d as f o r m i n g an a g g r e g a t e i n w h i c h t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y i s 
l o s t " (OED). These d e f i n i t i o n s a r e t a k e n from t h e noun 
"masses" s i n c e i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e a d j e c t i v e was 
u s e d s i m p l y as an e x p r e s s i o n o f s h e e r numbers and d i d n o t 
c a r r y t h e " l o w e r c l a s s " c o n n o t a t i o n s common i n t h e use o f t h e 



408 

J a u s s s u g g e s t s , t h r e e o v e r l a p p i n g s t r a t a o f e x p e c t a t i o n : 1) 

t h e l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s o f genre, s t y l e and form; 2) t h e 

i m p l i c i t r e l a t i o n s t o f a m i l i a r works w i t h i n t h e l i t e r a r y -

h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t ; and 3) i d e o l o g i c a l s u p p o s i t i o n s based on 

t h e a u d i e n c e ' s p r e c o n c e i v e d d i s t i n c t i o n s between t h e i r 

p r a c t i c a l w o r l d and t h e w o r l d o f t h e p o e t i c t e x t . However, i f 

" p o p u l a r " i s d e f i n e d as t h a t w h i c h w h o l l y s a t i s f i e s , t h e n t h e 

d e f i n i t i o n ' s l i m i t a t i o n s become i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t . F o r t h e 

s i n g l e - m o s t c r u c i a l f e a t u r e o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f p o p u l a r 

p o e t r y i s l e f t untouched: i n e f f e c t , whether t h e a u d i e n c e ' s 

s a t i s f a c t i o n i s i n s u r e d b e f o r e h a n d t h r o u g h c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s 

i n h e r e n t i n t h e p o e t i c t e x t i t s e l f o r whether i t i s e n t i r e l y 

s u p p l i e d by i t s r e a d e r s . O n l y an a n a l y s i s o f e m p i r i c a l l y 

p r o v e n p o p u l a r poems t h e m s e l v e s can e s t a b l i s h whether l e v e l s 

o f r e a d e r a c t i v i t y might a s s i s t i n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s made 

between t h e v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s o f " s e r i o u s " p o e t r y , " p o p u l a r " 

p o e t r y , " p o p u l a r " v e r s e , and so f o r t h , d i s t i n c t i o n s w h i c h a r e 

t h e m s e l v e s t i e d t o t h e s u b j e c t i v e awareness o f " v a l u e " 

s p e c i f i c t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e a d e r . 

A t f i r s t g l a n c e , L o u i s e R o s e n b l a t t ' s The Reader, t h e T e x t ,  

t h e Poem (based on a " t r a n s a c t i o n a l t h e o r y " o f r e a d i n g ) , seems 

t o o f f e r an a p p r o p r i a t e t h e o r e t i c a l model f o r a s s e s s i n g v a l u e 

from a r e a d e r l y p e r s p e c t i v e s i n c e she works t o e s t a b l i s h 

d i s t i n c t i o n s n o t i n t e x t s t h e m s e l v e s b u t r a t h e r i n p r o c e s s e s 

e x p r e s s i o n t o d a y . 



o f r e a d i n g . F o r R o s e n b l a t t , a e s t h e t i c r e a d i n g s g e n e r a t e 

a e s t h e t i c t e x t s — p o e m s o r o t h e r " l i t e r a r y " g e n r e s ; g o a l 

c e n t r e d , " e f f e r e n t " r e a d i n g s g e n e r a t e i m m e d i a t e l y a c c e s s i b l e 

meanings f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s . Her s t u d y , w h i l e c e r t a i n l y 

an e n g a g i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h e a c t i v i t y o f r e a d i n g i t s e l f , does 

l i t t l e t o e x p l a i n , however, how V i c t o r i a n t e x t s c o u l d g e n e r a t e 

d i f f e r i n g d e g r e e s o f a e s t h e t i c i n v o l v e m e n t i n h e t e r o g e n e o u s 

a u d i e n c e s t h a t n o n e t h e l e s s s h a r e d s i m i l a r l i t e r a r y and 

i d e o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s , and c o u l d t h e r e b y a c h i e v e w i d e s p r e a d 

p o p u l a r i t y by s a t i s f y i n g b o t h " a e s t h e t i c " and " e f f e r e n t " 

e x p e c t a t i o n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . The l y r i c poems o f Hemans, 

L o n g f e l l o w , and Tennyson managed t o do j u s t t h a t . 

Hemans's "Graves o f a H o u s e h o l d " (1828) p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l 

v a n t a g e p o i n t on t h e h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s i n f o r m i n g t h e 

c u l t u r e i n w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's subsequent 

l y r i c a l s u c c e s s e s f i r s t appeared. As s u c h , h e r poem s h o u l d be 

" v a l u e d " a c c o r d i n g l y . P e t e r T r i n d e r a r g u e s t h a t V i c t o r i a n 

s c h o l a r s s i m p l y c a n n o t i g n o r e Hemans's " c o n t r i b u t i o n i n 

h e l p i n g t o c r e a t e t h e p o p u l a r l i t e r a r y t a s t e o f t h e n e x t 

hundred y e a r s [ i . e . u n t i l a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1890]" ( 6 0 ) . But t h e 

e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h a t c o n t r i b u t i o n i s open t o d e b a t e . What 

D o n a l d Reiman d e s c r i b e s as e v i d e n c e o f a c u l t u r a l l a g — 

Hemans's e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y n e a t n e s s and p o l i s h o f 

v e r s i f i c a t i o n and c l a r i t y o f s y n t a x and d i c t i o n ( x i ) — T r i n d e r 

d e s c r i b e s as a t y p i c a l l y n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a t t r i b u t e i n h i s 

e y e s : h e r m e t h o d i c a l i n s t i n c t was a " k i n d o f a r t i s t i c 



410 

e x t e n s i o n o f t h e e f f i c i e n t h o u s e w i f e ' s u r g e t o see e v e r y t h i n g 

p u t i n i t s p r o p e r p l a c e " ( 5 8 ) . T h i s " d o m e s t i c t i d i n e s s " as a 

metaphor f o r Hemans's o b v i o u s f a c i l i t y w i t h r e g u l a r metre, 

p o l i t e d i c t i o n , and u n i f i e d s t r u c t u r e s u g g e s t s T r i n d e r ' s 

i m p l i c i t c o n t e n t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n : d o m e s t i c a f f e c t i o n s s i m p l y do 

n o t t o d a y c o n s t i t u t e f i t m a t e r i a l f o r p o e t r y howsoever t h e y 

may be p r e s e n t e d . 4 Y e t i f t h e f o r m - v e r s u s - c o n t e n t d i v i s i o n 

t h a t so r e a d i l y r e d u c e s Hemans's work t o mere p o l i s h e d v e r s e 

can be d i s p e n s e d w i t h , h e r t e x t s can be a p p r e c i a t e d as t h e y 

m i g h t have been r e a d by h e r a u d i e n c e , r e a d as c o m f o r t a b l e s a f e 

havens from w h i c h more a d v e n t u r o u s p o e t s t h a n h e r s e l f c o u l d 

v e n t u r e o u t . 

O b v i o u s l y r e c r e a t i o n o f a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a d i n g 

e x p e r i e n c e i s i m p o s s i b l e . What can be measured o b j e c t i v e l y , 

however, i s t h e degree t o w h i c h "Graves o f a H o u s e h o l d " i n and 

o f i t s e l f s a t i s f i e s known e x p e c t a t i o n s among i t s c o n t e m p o r a r y 

r e a d e r s . W i t h i n a l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t , f o r example, Hemans's 

poem i s a b s o l u t e l y c o n v e n t i o n a l . She employs a common measure 

hymn s t a n z a w i t h u n v a r y i n g i a m b i c s t h r o u g h o u t i n c a r e f u l 

4 Hemans's V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s , however, c l e a r l y r e g a r d e d 
h e r as t h e b e s t example o f f e m a l e g e n i u s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e 
S c o t t i s h c r i t i c George G i l f i l l a n , Hemans was " e v e r a 'deep, 
m a j e s t i c a l , and h i g h - s o u l e d woman'—the c a l m m i s t r e s s o f t h e 
h i g h e s t and s t o r m i e s t o f h e r e m o t i o n s . " He honoured h e r i n 
1847 n o t as t h e b e s t b u t as " t h e most f e m i n i n e w r i t e r o f t h e 
age" (see H e l s i n g e r I I I 28-30). Her s t u d i e d c o n t r o l , i n t h i s 
c a s e , i s n o t d e r i d e d as d o m e s t i c t i d i n e s s , b u t r a t h e r i s 
l a u d e d as a p u b l i c c u r t a i l m e n t o f i n t e n s e , p r i v a t e e m o t i o n . 



r e c r e a t i o n o f a w i d e l y a c c e p t e d and h i g h l y v a l u e d l y r i c f o r m . 5 

She e s t a b l i s h e s s t r u c t u r a l decorum t h r o u g h a b a l a n c e d symmetry 

o f p i c t u r i n g t h e h o u s e h o l d o f h e r t i t l e i n t h e f i r s t two 

s t a n z a s . The r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n , "Where a r e t h o s e dreamers 

now?" p r o v i d e s a n e c e s s a r y t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e g r a v e s o f t h e 

n e x t f o u r s t a n z a s , and t h e f i n a l two s t a n z a s r e t u r n t o t h e 

home. I n s t r u c t u r e as i n form, "Graves o f a H o u s e h o l d " i s 

e n t i r e l y r e g u l a r so as t o p r o v i d e r e a s s u r a n c e o f p a t t e r n and 

d e s i g n t o c o u n t e r t h e p e r p l e x i t i e s w h i c h t h e g r a v e s o f t h e 

t i t l e and t h e embedded q u e s t i o n a r e c o n t r i v e d t o i n c i t e . 

T h e m a t i c a l l y , Hemans's poems s h a r e a p o e t i c c o n c e r n w i t h 

t h e b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n o f d e a t h and l i f e common t o poems o f a l l 

ages, and t o t h e two s e l e c t e d l y r i c s o f L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson i n p a r t i c u l a r . A t l e a s t two a s p e c t s o f V i c t o r i a n 

l i f e , however, i r r e v o c a b l y t i e d t h i s p o e t i c p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h 

d e a t h t o r e a d e r s ' l i v e d r e a l i t i e s : t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f 

m o r t a l i t y e s p e c i a l l y among c h i l d r e n and women, and r e l i g i o u s 

doubt c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f God and a f t e r l i f e t h a t was 

b e g i n n i n g t o c o l o u r a l l a s p e c t s o f d a i l y e x i s t e n c e . C a r l y l e 

a p p r o p r i a t e l y combined t h e s e two f e a t u r e s o f d e a t h i n h i s 

5 Hemans u s e s a b a l l a d q u a t r a i n o f a l t e r n a t i n g 4 and 3 
s t r e s s i a m b i c l i n e s . Hymnals had been v e r y p o p u l a r t h r o u g h o u t 
t h e s e v e n t e e n t h and e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y among 
E v a n g e l i c a l s such as John and C h a r l e s Wesley. Noted p o e t s 
s u c h as M i l t o n , Dryden, Cowper, and B l a k e a l s o w r o t e hymns, 
Cowper p e r h a p s h a v i n g had t h e l a r g e s t i n f l u e n c e upon Hemans 
h e r s e l f . I n h e r a r t i c l e , "Books f o r t h e Lady Reader, 1820-
1860," O l a Winslow a l s o n o t e s t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f I s a a c W a t t s ' s 
D i v i n e and M o r a l Songs as s u i t a b l e Sunday r e a d i n g a l o n g s i d e 
Hemans's works ( 9 2 ) . 



412 

" C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " e s s a y when he d e s c r i b e s t h o s e who 

e x p e r i e n c e d r e l i g i o u s doubt as l i k e l y t o become " s t u p e f i e d i n 

t h a t f e a r f u l l o n e l i n e s s , as o f a s i l e n c e d b a t t l e - f i e l d " and t o 

f l y back t o t h e c h u r c h "as a c h i l d m i g h t t o i t s s l a i n mother's 

bosom, and c l i n g t h e r e " ( q t d . i n Houghton 9 7 ) . However, 

Hemans, a l o n g w i t h L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson a f t e r h e r , 

p e r c e i v e d t h a t i f mother c h u r c h had indeed.been s l a i n by 

s c e p t i c i s m , i n d i v i d u a l l i v i n g mothers c o u l d s t i l l s y m b o l i z e 

God's p e r s i s t e n t v i t a l i t y on e a r t h . A t t h e v e r y l e a s t , t h e 

d o m e s t i c havens o v e r w h i c h t h e y l o v i n g l y p r e s i d e d c o u l d 

p r o v i d e an e m o t i o n a l s h e l t e r t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h no 

l o n g e r a f f o r d e d i t s p u b l i c . 6 To t h i s end, Hemans's poems i n 

t u r n became s u b s t i t u t e s a n c t u a r i e s i n t o w h i c h h e r r e a d e r s 

c o u l d e n t e r s e c u r e i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t f o r a l l o f them 

t h e "same f o n d mother" p o e t would assuage t h e i r f e a r s . 

6 Though L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson do n o t a c t u a l l y d w e l l 
s p e c i f i c a l l y upon t h e d o m e s t i c s e t t i n g i n t h e l y r i c s s e l e c t e d 
f o r a n a l y s i s i n t h i s c h a p t e r , t h a t t h e y d i d do so i n v a r y i n g 
d e g r e e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r c a r e e r s i s e v i d e n t p r i m a r i l y i n 
l y r i c s o f L o n g f e l l o w such as t h e famous " C h i l d r e n ' s Hour" o r 
"The Hanging o f t h e Crane," and i n i d y l s o f Tennyson such as 
t h e e a r l y "May Queen" and h i s b e s t s e l l i n g s i n g l e poem o f t h e 
c e n t u r y , "Enoch A r d e n . " Moreover, t h e l y r i c s s e l e c t e d h e r e 
a l l u d e t o t h e e m o t i o n a l s e c u r i t y o f d o m e s t i c i t y t h r o u g h an 
i n t e n s i t y o f f e e l i n g i n t h e " h e a r t " o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s "Psalm" 
and t h r o u g h Tennyson's " t e n d e r g r a c e o f a day now dead" 
a l l u s i v e l y g r a n t e d an e t e r n a l r e t u r n i n t h e "haven" o f t h e sea 
as a f i n a l r e s t i n g p l a c e . The power o f t h e d o m e s t i c t o evoke 
an e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e was s u r e l y n o t l o s t upon p o e t s who, i n 
poems s e e m i n g l y p l a c e d o u t s i d e o f t h e s p a t i a l c o n t e x t o f t h e 
home, n o n e t h e l e s s c o n c e i v e d o f p o e t r y i t s e l f as a r e f u g e from 
t h e h a r d s h i p o f l i f e . 



413 

A s e c u r i t y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g among r e a d e r s o f "The Graves o f 

a H o u s e h o l d " i s t h u s p r o v i d e d f o r w i t h i n t h e t e x t i t s e l f 

t h r o u g h t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e poem's s t r u c t u r a l u n i t y and i t s 

imagery. E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e p o e t i c e x p e r i e n c e t a k e s p l a c e 

t h r o u g h f a m i l i a r s p a t i a l terms w h e r e i n r e a d e r s a r e i n i t i a l l y 

i n v i t e d i n t o t h e u n i f i e d i n n e r s a n c t u a r y o f t h e home i n o r d e r 

t o v i e w t h e d i v e r s e , s c a t t e r e d g r a v e s from w i t h i n t h e s a f e t y 

o f t h e mother's c o n s c i o u s n e s s . She, a c c o r d i n g l y , e n v i s i o n s 

t h e s e g r a v e s w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f a c t i v i t i e s f a m i l i a r t o 

V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s even i f t h e l o c a l e s a r e a p p a r e n t l y e x o t i c : 

Western e x p a n s i o n and c o l o n i a l s e t t l e m e n t , merchant s h i p p i n g , 

European w a r f a r e , and f o r e i g n t r a v e l . Thus t h e c h i l d r e n ' s 

dead b o d i e s " l i e , " " s l e e p " and " r e s t " p e a c e f u l l y i n t h e i r 

g r a v e s , t h e i r mother's i m a g i n a t i o n p r o t e c t i n g them t h r o u g h 

language and imagery from t h e l i k e l y v i o l e n c e o f t h e i r a c t u a l 

d e a t h s . 

S t a n z a seven p r o v i d e s t h e n e c e s s a r y r e t u r n t o t h e home, 

" t h e one home w i t h g l e e " o f s t a n z a one c o n v e n i e n t l y r h y m i n g 

w i t h "Beneath t h e same g r e e n t r e e " o f s t a n z a seven so as t o 

r e i n f o r c e t h r o u g h sound what i s a p p a r e n t i n s t r u c t u r e . Y e t 

t h e r e t u r n h e r e r e l i e s on a c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e t h a t a l l o w s f o r 

t h e poem's c l o s u r e . I n s t a n z a s one and two, d o m e s t i c l i f e 

seems an e n t i r e e n t i t y u n t o i t s e l f , t h e use o f " t h e y " w i t h i n 

"one home" s u g g e s t i n g complete u n i t y . S t a n z a s e v e n , however, 

i n t r o d u c e s a s i g n i f i c a n t absence i n t h e d o m e s t i c image: t h e 

c h i l d r e n ' s v o i c e s had " m i n g l e d as t h e y p r a y ' d / Around one 



414 

p a r e n t knee" o f t h e mother, t h e f a t h e r f i g u r e d e c i d e d l y 

a b s e n t . 7 Innocuous i n h e r s e l f p e r h a p s , t h i s "one p a r e n t " o f 

s t a n z a seven seems t o i n v i t e a p a r t n e r i n t h e r e a d e r ; absence 

p r o v o k e s t h e need t o f i l l up v a c a n c y and c l o s e up t h i s gap. 

Y e t Hemans does n o t end h e r poem a t s t a n z a s e v e n . Not 

c o n t e n t t o l e t h e r r e a d e r s c o m p l e t e t h e poem as t h e y see f i t , 

she a l s o w i l l n o t a l l o w t h e c o n t r o l l i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e 

f o n d mother o f h e r poem, h e r one p a r e n t , t o m i n g l e r e c k l e s s l y 

w i t h r e a d e r s ' minds o v e r w h i c h Hemans h e r s e l f has no c o n t r o l . 

R a t h e r , i n t h e f i n a l two l i n e s , t h e s p e a k i n g v o i c e o f t h e poem 

s h i f t s away from t h e c o n t r o l l i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e mother. 

I t becomes an o b j e c t i v e v o i c e o f e m o t i o n a l r e f l e c t i o n l o o k i n g 

back upon t h e mother's s i t u a t i o n as a c o n c r e t e i n s t a n c e o f an 

a b s t r a c t r e a l i t y w e l l known t o Hemans's r e a d e r s : t h e c o n d i t i o n 

o f absence i t s e l f . The mother becomes now t h e a b s t r a c t 

p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n " l o v e " r e f e r r e d t o as " t h o u " when t h e s p e a k e r 

m o u r n f u l l y ponders " i f t h o u w e r t a l l / And nought beyond." By 

o p e n i n g w i t h " A l a s , " t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e r e b e i n g n o t h i n g 

beyond a mother's l o v e , and t h e r e f o r e n o t h i n g beyond t h e 

" e a r t h " t h a t i s so p i t e o u s l y lamented as a s u b s t i t u t e , Hemans 

Here, t h e r e a d i n g o f t h i s image may be g o v e r n e d , t o t o o 
l a r g e a d e g r e e , by a b i o g r a p h i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Hemans's 
own d o m e s t i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s . A t n i n e t e e n , F e l i c i a Browne 
m a r r i e d C a p t a i n Hemans, b o r e f i v e sons i n s i x y e a r s , o n l y t o 
have h e r husband l e a v e f o r Rome " f o r t h e sake o f h i s h e a l t h " 
s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e b i r t h o f t h e f i f t h i n 1818. (Reiman v i i ) . 
U n t i l h e r own d e a t h i n 183 5, h e r husband r e m a i n e d d e l i b e r a t e l y 
" a b s e n t , " though a b s e n t husbands were a common f e a t u r e o f 
V i c t o r i a n l i f e t o w h i c h Hemans's r e a d e r s would have r e a d i l y 
t e s t i f i e d , and h e r own husband's absence was n o t k e p t s e c r e t . 



415 

i n v i t e s h e r r e a d e r s t o f i l l t h e absence o f t h e f a t h e r w i t h t h e 

p r e s e n c e o f God and t h e a f t e r l i f e "beyond" as t h e unspoken 

c o u n t e r t o t h e n e g a t i v e q u a n t i t y o f t h e "nought beyond" w h i c h 

i s e a r t h . The r e a d e r ' s e a r l i e r p o s i t i o n from w i t h i n t h e 

s a n c t u a r y o f t h e mother's c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t h u s r e i n f o r c e d 

h e r e as t h e mother i s now a d d r e s s e d d i r e c t l y i n t h e second 

p e r s o n " t h o u " as a s p i r i t o f l o v e on e a r t h w i t h w h i c h t h e 

r e a d e r i s a s k e d t o i d e n t i f y . I n o t h e r words, t h e r e a d e r i s 

n o t a l l o w e d t o t a k e t h e r o l e o f God i n r e l a t i o n t o "The Graves 

o f a H o u s e h o l d " and s u p p l y f o r h e r s e l f o r h i m s e l f a f i t 

c o n c l u s i o n o r m o r a l "beyond" t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e poem i t s e l f . 

The r e a d e r must assume t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e c o n t r o l l i n g 

c o n s c i o u s n e s s p r o v i d e d f o r and imbedded w i t h i n t h e poem, i n 

t h i s c a s e t h e f e m a l e a t t i t u d e o f t h e mother. 

Hemans's f i n a l a l l u s i o n t o a s p i r i t o f l o v e beyond e a r t h 

s u p p l i e d i n t h e h e r e a f t e r by God encourages h e r r e a d e r s t o 

c o m p l e t e t h e poem i n s p a t i a l t e r m s . The v a c a n t s p a c e s w i t h i n 

t h e home c r e a t e d by now dead c h i l d r e n may be f i l l e d on e a r t h 

by t h e c r e a t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a l o v i n g mother who e n v i s i o n s 

r e s t f u l g r a v e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e once i n h a b i t e d warm beds; b u t 

t h e harmonious u n i t y o f d o m e s t i c b l i s s can o n l y be r e p l a c e d i n 

e t e r n i t y by r e l i g i o u s f a i t h i n t h e h e r e a f t e r . The h e a v e n l y 

s a n c t u a r y on e a r t h e x i s t s o n l y i n t h e i m a g i n a t i o n s o f r e a d e r s 

who a r e w i l l i n g t o l i s t e n t o t h e a d d r e s s o f " t h o u , " and i n v i t e 

God t o become a superabundant p r e s e n c e w i t h i n a h o u s e h o l d 



416 

p u n c t u a t e d by a b s e n c e s . F o r Hemans, t h e s e r e a d e r s numbered i n 

t h e t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s . 

I n "The Graves o f a H o u s e h o l d , " Hemans a l l u d e s t o b u t does 

n o t answer d i r e c t l y t h e most d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n f a c e d by h e r 

r e a d e r s — w h a t happens a f t e r d e a t h — a n d i n t h e p r o c e s s assuages 

t h e i r f e a r s t h r o u g h t h e r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e hymnal l y r i c , t h e 

g e n t l e n e s s o f h e r d i c t i o n and t h e o v e r a l l harmony o f image and 

s t r u c t u r e . That h e r p o e t r y a p p e a l e d t o c h i l d r e n and was 

v i e w e d as s u b s t i t u t e r e a d i n g f o r t h e B i b l e on Sundays i s 

t h e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g . T h i s poem, f o r example, engenders 

an a t t i t u d e o f s p i r i t u a l peace l i k e t h a t f o s t e r e d t h r o u g h t h e 

V i c t o r i a n i d e a l o f h e a r t h and home; i t becomes i t s e l f a 

s i m i l a r r e f u g e f o r h e r o l d e r r e a d e r s from r e l i g i o u s s c e p t i c i s m 

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c a r e f u l l y m a n i p u l a t e s t h r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e a l l u s i o n t o 

v a c a n c i e s and t h e r e l i g i o u s l y s a n c t i o n e d means by w h i c h t h e y 

s h o u l d be f i l l e d . As s u c h , h e r t e x t may be s a i d t o meet h e r 

r e a d e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s a l m o s t i n and o f i t s e l f . I t r e q u i r e s 

l i t t l e o r no r e a d e r a c t i v i t y i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f meaning o t h e r 

t h a n p a s s i v e l y t o s u b m i t t o t h e c o n t r o l l i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f 

t h e mother w i t h i n t h e poem and t h e n l a t e r t o r e g i s t e r t h e 

a l l u s i o n s i n s t a n z a s seven and e i g h t i n t h e "beyond" o f 

heaven, a c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h t h e poem p o i n t s t o r a t h e r t h a n 

d i d a c t i c a l l y s u p p l i e s . 

8 See n o t e 6 i n c h a p t e r one and n o t e 7 i n c h a p t e r two. 



A t f i r s t g l a n c e , L o n g f e l l o w ' s " h e a r t w i t h i n and God 

o'erhead" o f "A Psalm o f L i f e " a p p e a r s t o i n c i t e an a s s u r a n c e 

i n t h e r e a d e r o f God's u l t i m a t e p r e s e n c e no d i f f e r e n t from 

Hemans's e a r l i e r poem. However, t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e p r o f o u n d . 

They have t o do n o t o n l y w i t h d i s t i n c t i o n s i n s p a t i a l terms o f 

t h e e x a c t p l a c e m e n t o f t h e a u d i e n c e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e poem's 

c o n t r o l l i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s , and t o God as t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o w a r d 

w h i c h t h e poem t e n d s , b u t a l s o w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e sound 

o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s v e r s e . 

W i t h r e s p e c t t o l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s o f p o e t i c sound, t h e 

c l a s s i c a l l y e d u c a t e d L o n g f e l l o w was, n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , f a r and 

away more e x p e r i m e n t a l and more s u c c e s s f u l as a p r o s o d i s t t h a n 

Hemans. I n h i s j u v e n i l e poems, however, L o n g f e l l o w had 

o r i g i n a l l y employed many o f t h e measures common t o h i s p o p u l a r 

f e m a l e p r e c u r s o r w h i c h were i n t h e m s e l v e s t h e most w i d e l y 

known and used i n t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y : f o u r - s t r e s s 

i a m b i c , b l a n k v e r s e , h e r o i c c o u p l e t , and b a l l a d measure. Some 

o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s most p o p u l a r l a t e r poems, l i k e " E x c e l s i o r , " 

were w r i t t e n i n i a m b i c t e t r a m e t e r ( A l l e n 159). C o n v e r s e l y , "A 

P s a l m o f L i f e " would have posed some new and u n e x p e c t e d 

d e l i g h t s f o r i t s f i r s t r e a d e r s . 

W h i l e i t t e n d s t o w a r d a b a l l a d rhythm o f a l t e r n a t i n g 4 and 

( i n t h i s case) 3 1/2 s t r e s s l i n e s s u g g e s t i n g common measure, 

i t s f e e t a r e t r o c h a i c and n o t t h e a n t i c i p a t e d i a m b i c o f such 

q u a t r a i n s , o r o f poems t h a t r e a d e r s would i m m e d i a t e l y i d e n t i f y 

as p s a l m s . T h i s u n u s u a l use o f t r o c h e e s stems from t h e f a c t 



418 

t h a t t h e poem i s n o t i t s e l f spoken by t h e p s a l m i s t b u t r a t h e r 

by t h e h e a r t o f t h e young man. The poem's rhythm i s d e s i g n e d 

t o emulate t h e c o u r s i n g o f i t s l i f e b l o o d and n o t t h e 

" m o u r n f u l numbers" r e a d i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b i b l i c a l p s a l m s . 

Moreover, L o n g f e l l o w h i m s e l f n e v e r i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e "psalm" 

o f t h e t i t l e be u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r t h i s poem a l o n e ; r a t h e r , 

he o r i g i n a l l y t h o u g h t o f p s a l m as a g e n e r i c t i t l e f o r s e v e r a l 

l y r i c s : "The Reaper and t h e F l o w e r s , A P s a l m o f Death," "A 

Second P s a l m o f L i f e , The L i g h t o f S t a r s " and "The F i f t h 

P s a l m — M i d n i g h t Mass f o r t h e D y i n g Y e a r " b e i n g t h e o t h e r t h r e e 

r e p r i n t e d i n V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t w i t h o u t t h e i r h e a d i n g s o r 

s u b t i t l e s . Not o n l y does t h e meter and measure v a r y between 

t h e s e poems, b u t L o n g f e l l o w , u n l i k e Hemans, a l s o a l t e r s h i s 

m e t r i c s t o s u i t h i s themes, w h i c h a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y more 

v a r i o u s t h a n t h o s e f o u n d i n Hemans's many volumes. 

None o f t h e above c o m p a r i s o n s between Hemans's and 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t i c t e c h n i q u e s s h o u l d come as much o f a 

s u r p r i s e t o t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s o f a n t e b e l l u m A m e r i c a n 

p o e t r y w i l l i n g t o g r a n t Hemans h e r enormous t r a n s a t l a n t i c 

p o p u l a r i t y . C h a p t e r two has a l r e a d y d e m o n s t r a t e d how 

L o n g f e l l o w i n i t i a l l y shaped h i s p o e t r y f u l l y c o g n i s a n t o f t h e 

p o p u l a r f e m a l e p o e t s o f t h e day; he l a t e r came t o d i s p a r a g e 

b o t h h i s own e a r l y e f f u s i o n s and t h e "hop, s k i p , and jump" 

measure t h a t Hemans had i n t r o d u c e d i n A m e r i c a . Y e t Hemans's 

e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p e r f e c t i o n i n a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o n t e x t , 

t h a t i s , h e r use o f b a l a n c e and symmetry, p r e c i s e rhyme and 



rhythm, and t h e t h e m a t i c e f f e c t s t h a t s u c h t e c h n i c a l 

r e g u l a r i t y o f sound and s t r u c t u r e c o u l d a c h i e v e were s u r e l y 

n o t l o s t upon h e r male s u c c e s s o r . 

D a n i e l L i t t l e f i e l d , J r . , however, a r g u e s t h a t t h e 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r i t y o f "A Psalm o f L i f e " s h o u l d be 

s o l e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s " a p h o r i z i n g i n t h e t r a d i t i o n 

o f s u c h works as The P r o v e r b s , The New E n g l a n d P r i m e r , and 

Poor R i c h a r d ' s Almanack" ( 4 9 ) . A f t e r s u g g e s t i n g s o u r c e s f o r 

t h e poem's a d d i t i o n a l b o r r o w i n g s from s e v e r a l l i n e s o f Goethe 

and S c h i l l e r , L i t t l e f i e l d goes on t o p o i n t o u t many p a r a l l e l 

i d e a s i n B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n ' s "The Way t o W e a l t h " t o s u p p o r t 

t h e v i e w t h a t L o n g f e l l o w ' s s u c c e s s w i t h t h i s poem, as opposed 

t o t h e l a c k o f s u c c e s s o f o t h e r s i n V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t 

volume, s h o u l d be r e a d s t r i c t l y as a f u n c t i o n o f i t s c o n t e n t 

and n o t i t s t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s ( 4 9 ) . 

Y e t any i d e a s t h a t L o n g f e l l o w a l l e g e d l y borrowed would have 

l i k e l y been t h o u g h t o f a t t h e t i m e as b e i n g s i m p l y i n t h e a i r 

r a t h e r t h a n s p e c i f i c a l l y t i e d t o any p a r t i c u l a r l i t e r a r y 

t e x t s . More s e r i o u s l y , i n r e s t r i c t i n g h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e 

p o p u l a r i t y o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s poem t o i d e a s , L i t t l e f i e l d 

u n w i t t i n g l y f l a w s h i s own argument. He t r i e s t o make a 

s p e c i a l c a s e f o r t h e w i d e s p r e a d a p p e a l o f t h e themes e x p r e s s e d 

i n "A P s a l m o f L i f e " as a p h o r i s m s by c l a i m i n g t h a t t h i s l y r i c 

c o n t a i n s t h e same m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n as and s i m i l a r language t o 

t h e l e s s p o p u l a r " F o o t s t e p s o f A n g e l s , " a l s o i n t h e 1839 



volume (49) . T h i s s i m p l y i s n o t t r u e o f " F o o t s t e p s " as s t a n z a 

seven, f o r example, c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e s : 

W i t h a s l o w and n o i s e l e s s f o o t s t e p 
Comes t h a t messenger d i v i n e , 

Takes t h e v a c a n t c h a i r b e s i d e me, 
Lays h e r g e n t l e hand i n mine. 

Three o f t h e t e n s t a n z a s i n t h i s poem do n o t f o l l o w e x a c t l y 

t h e abab rhyme scheme w h i c h a l t e r n a t e s between f e m i n i n e and 

m a s c u l i n e rhymes, f o u n d i n i t s o t h e r seven s t a n z a s and i n a l l 

n i n e s t a n z a s o f "A Psalm o f L i f e . " And t h e l i n e s a l t e r n a t e 

from t r o c h e e s t o a n a p e s t s i n " F o o t s t e p s o f A n g e l s , " l a c k t h e 

f o r c e f u l n e s s o f t h o s e i n t h e "Psalm," and t h e r e b y c r e a t e a 

s o o t h i n g , p e a c e f u l a u d i t o r y language c o m p l e t e l y i n k e e p i n g 

w i t h t h e " f o o t s t e p s o f a n g e l s " and c o m p l e t e l y u n l i k e t h e 

s t r o n g e x c l a m a t i o n s o f "A Psalm o f L i f e . " The m e t r i c f e e t o f 

"A Psalm o f L i f e " must i n and o f t h e m s e l v e s make t h e i r i m p r i n t 

as t h e " f o o t p r i n t s on t h e sands o f t i m e " o f t h i s s p e c i f i c 

p o e t i c t e x t , i n e f f e c t , t o be t a k e n up a g a i n and a g a i n by 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o t e n t i a l l y s h i p w r e c k e d r e a d e r s , who c o u l d 

t h e r e b y t a k e " h e a r t " as t h e y l i s t e n t o t h e p u l s a t i o n s o f t h e 

" h e a r t " o f t h e young man speak t o them. 

C l e a r l y , t h e s u c c e s s o f "A Psalm o f L i f e " depends on 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s use o f a p o e t i c language and rhythm v e r b a l l y 

e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e i d e a s he needed t o convey t o h i s a u d i e n c e . 

F o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s o r i g i n a l a u d i e n c e was a c t u a l l y made up o f 

a t t e n t i v e l i s t e n e r s . The poem was i n i t i a l l y r e c i t e d by him t o 

h i s H a r v a r d c l a s s a t t h e c l o s e o f a l e c t u r e on Goethe, a l m o s t 



as i f t o p u n c t u a t e by way o f a f i n a l e x c l a m a t i o n mark 

mankind's need t o f a c e doubt r e s o l u t e l y i n t h e l i v i n g p r e s e n t . 

However f a m i l i a r t h e a p h o r i s m s i n "A P s a l m o f L i f e " may have 

been t o h i s n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s , i t i s t h e m e t r i c a l 

f o r c e o f t h e language i t s e l f as i t s t r i v e s b o l d l y a f t e r 

c o n f i r m a t i o n i n a w o r l d o f u n c e r t a i n t i e s t h a t would have 

r e s o u n d e d i n i t s a u d i e n c e ' s e a r s , as i t does i n t h e a p h o r i s m s 

o f Pope. 

To be s u r e , t h e i d e a s a l o n e v o i c e d w i t h i n t h e poem would 

have been and were immensely p o p u l a r s i n c e t h e y were e n t i r e l y 

f a m i l i a r themes i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a : m o r a l 

e a r n e s t n e s s , a b e l i e f i n human p r o g r e s s , and h e r o i c 

i n d i v i d u a l i s m . I t i s o f t e n s a i d by L o n g f e l l o w ' s t w e n t i e t h -

c e n t u r y c r i t i c s , even by t h o s e s y m p a t h e t i c t o h i s p o e t r y i n 

g e n e r a l , t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y o f t h e s e n t i m e n t s e x p r e s s e d 

i n "A P s a l m o f L i f e " have now debased i t s p o e t i c v a l u e , making 

i t "more a rhymed m o r a l i t y t h a n a poem" (Wagenknecht P o e t r y  

and P r o s e 6 2 ) . Y e t t o a p p r e c i a t e f u l l y t h e o r i g i n a l 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e f f e c t o f t h i s poem, i t s n o v e l t y must n o t 

be r e a d s t r i c t l y on t h e l e v e l o f i d e a s , o r even o f imagery, 

f o r even t o i t s f i r s t r e c i p i e n t s t h e "message" o f t h e poem was 

n o t new, as a c l a s s s t u d y i n g Goethe would have o n l y t o o 

r e a d i l y a t t e s t e d . R a t h e r , t h i s p o p u l a r poem s h o u l d be r e a d 

a l o n g l i n e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e r e a d e r s i m m e d i a t e l y g r a n t t o a 

" s e r i o u s " p o e m — a f e l i c i t y o f sound and s e n s e — w h i l e b e a r i n g 

i n mind t h a t t h e poem was o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d f o r an a u d i e n c e 



422 

f a r l e s s s c e p t i c a l t h a n t h o s e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y b u t no 

l e s s d e s i r o u s o f a e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e f o r a l l t h a t . 9 

A t f i r s t g l a n c e , L o n g f e l l o w ' s poem seems m e r e l y l i k e s c o r e s 

o f o t h e r V i c t o r i a n v e r s e s t h a t r e c o r d a s t r u g g l e between l i f e 

and d e a t h , and p o s i t a t r i u m p h a n t f a i t h i n t h e a f t e r l i f e as 

an anodyne t o d o u b t ; t h e r e f o r e , i t seems a poem n o t u n l i k e 

"The Graves o f a H o u s e h o l d . " Y e t whereas t h e v o i c e o f 

Hemans's poem c l e a r l y emanates from w i t h i n t h e s a n c t u a r y o f 

t h e home, t h e s p e a k e r o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s "Psalm" seems, i f 

anywhere, p r e c a r i o u s l y r e s t i n g w i t h i n " t h e b i v o u a c o f l i f e , " a 

t e m p o r a r y encampment upon t h e " w o r l d ' s b r o a d f i e l d o f b a t t l e " 

t h a t forms t h e e x a c t c e n t r e o f t h e poem. Hemans's poem i s 

s t r u c t u r e d i n i t s f i n a l s t a n z a s so as t o prompt a r e t u r n t o 

i t s b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e b y c o m p l e t i n g t h e poem i n as s a f e and 

e n c i r c l i n g a manner as t h e d o m e s t i c haven from w h i c h t h e poem 

i s s u e s . The n i n e s t a n z a s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s l y r i c , however, 

b r e a k i n t o two o p p o s i n g camps w i t h t h e " b i v o u a c o f l i f e " i n 

s t a n z a f i v e a s e c u r e y e t impermanent s h e l t e r from t h e b a t t l e 

waged between t h e p a s s i v e a c c e p t a n c e o f d e a t h i n t h e f i r s t 

9 R i c h a r d R u l a n d ' s " L o n g f e l l o w and t h e Modern Reader" i s 
t y p i c a l . I t d i s r e g a r d s L o n g f e l l o w ' s n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 
a u d i e n c e by a p p l y i n g t h e New C r i t i c a l p r e c e p t o f " o r g a n i c 
w h o l e n e s s " t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s "Psalm." When t h e poem a p p e a r s 
d i s u n i f i e d , R u l a n d c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e "Psalm" f a i l s 
p o e t i c a l l y : " T h i s i s a bad poem b e c a u s e — a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s — 
i t s rhythms a r e t o o j i n g l y f o r t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f i t s 
s e n t i m e n t , i t s t h o u g h t and d i c t i o n a r e s t r a i n e d i n t o e a s y 
rhyme, and i t s metaphors a r e e i t h e r c l i c h e s o r nonsense" ( 6 5 ) . 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s poem s u f f e r s from none o f t h e s e f a i l i n g s i f r e a d 
w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t f o r w h i c h i t was o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d . 



f o u r s t a n z a s and t h e v i g o r o u s a c t i v i t y o f l i f e i n t h e f i n a l 

f o u r - As s u c h , t h e b i v o u a c becomes t h e c e n t r a l s p a t i a l and 

t e m p o r a l image o f t h e poem r e p r e s e n t i n g f o r i t s r e a d e r s j u s t 

what t h e "Psalm" i t s e l f p r o v i d e s : a b r i e f r e s t i n g p l a c e from 

s t r u g g l e . I t i s n o t t h e a p p a r e n t l y permanent s a n c t u a r y Hemans 

a f f o r d s h e r r e a d e r s . 

Y e t , w i t h o u t a doubt, L o n g f e l l o w ' s poem i n s p i r e s a b e l i e f 

i n "God o'erhead" as r e s o l u t e as t h a t o f h i s f e m a l e p r e c u r s o r . 

T h i s f o s t e r i n g o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s "Psalm," 

however, i s more a f u n c t i o n o f t o n e , and t h e c r e a t i o n o f a f i t 

a t t i t u d e i n h i s a u d i e n c e t h a n i t i s a t e x t u a l l y d e v i s e d 

c o n c l u s i o n as i t i s i n Hemans's s t r i c t l y c o n v e n t i o n a l hymn. 

The young man's p u l s a t i n g h e a r t t h a t c o n t r o l s "what" he s a i d 

t o t h e p s a l m i s t , a l s o c o n t r o l s "how." The m a r t i a l "drums" o f 

s t a n z a f i v e echo t h r o u g h o u t i n t h e c o n s i s t e n t o p p o s i t i o n 

between f e m i n i n e and m a s c u l i n e r h y m e s . 1 0 The two s y l l a b l e 

" m o u r n f u l numbers" s l o w t h e pace and p r o v i d e a c o n t r a p u n t a l 

rhythm o f " t h e m u f f l e d drums" o f " f u n e r a l marches" s o u n d i n g 

a g a i n s t t h e a b r u p t m o n o s y l l a b l e s t h a t seem t o r i n g o u t as a 

b u g l e c a l l summoning i t s l i s t e n e r s t o l i f e ' s b a t t l e . 

L o n g f e l l o w t h u s r e c r e a t e s i n sound what h i s l i s t e n e r s 

a n t i c i p a t e i n s e n s e : t h a t even w h i l e p h y s i c a l f o r c e s may d r i v e 

1 0 N e a r i n g t h e end o f h i s l i f e , L o n g f e l l o w was once asked 
h i s o p i n i o n on c o e d u c a t i o n ; he r e s p o n d e d " t h a t l i f e , l i k e 
F r e n c h p o e t r y , i s i m p e r f e c t w i t h o u t t h e f e m i n i n e rhyme" ( L i f e 
I I I 2 7 3 ) . F e m i n i n e rhymes a r e commonplace i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s 
p o e t r y , n o t o n l y a l i k e l y r e s u l t o f h i s l o v e o f F r e n c h l y r i c s , 
b u t o f h i s e a r l y a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r B y r o n as w e l l . 



424 

p e o p l e by c o n s i s t e n c y and r e g u l a r i t y l i k e so many c a t t l e t o 

t h e i r d e a t h s , t h e s p i r i t e d a c t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l h e r o e s 

r e s o u n d i n g l y p r o v e t h a t l i f e i s more t h a n s i m p l y mundane. 

The t e n o r o f t h e young man's s i n g l e h e a r t b u i l d s t o w a r d 

r i n g i n g i m p e r a t i v e s t o i n s p i r e t h o s e o f o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s t o 

wage a p i t c h e d s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e s i l e n c e o f d e a t h . 1 1 

Death's a l l u r e b e g i n s i n s i d i o u s l y i n t h e mind, i n s c e p t i c i s m , 

and t h e b e l i e f t h a t " l i f e i s b u t an empty dream," an e m p t i n e s s 

w h i c h t h e l y r i c i t s e l f w i l l a t t e m p t t o f i l l by p r o p o s i n g a 

more v i t a l l i f e , and c h a r g i n g i t w i t h t h e energy o f l i f e ' s 

b l o o d . Y e t by v o i c i n g b o t h s i d e s o f t h e d i a l e c t i c , t h e h e a r t 

o f t h i s young man a t f i r s t u n w i t t i n g l y j o i n s i n w i t h t h e 

" m o u r n f u l numbers" o f t h e m u l t i t u d e o f " h e a r t s , though s t o u t 

and b r a v e , / S t i l l , l i k e m u f f l e d drums a r e b e a t i n g / F u n e r a l 
12 

marches t o t h e g r a v e . " A l m o s t as a r e a c t i o n , t h e young man 

Of t h e t e n t r a n s l a t i o n s w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w a l s o i n c l u d e d 
i n V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t none seems t o have had more d i r e c t 
b e a r i n g upon h i s own v e r s e s t h a n Johan Gaudenz von S a l i s -
S e e w i s ' s "Song o f t h e S i l e n t Land." The s i l e n t l a n d i s , o f 
c o u r s e , t h e r e g i o n o f d e a t h , and i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s t r a n s l a t i o n 
t h e v o i c e a s k s q u i e t l y f o r one w i t h "a g e n t l e hand" t o l e a d us 
i n t o t h e " b o u n d l e s s r e g i o n s / Of a l l p e r f e c t i o n . " 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s t e n d e r cadences, and m i l d images o f a c c e p t a n c e i n 
"The Reaper and t h e F l o w e r s , A Psalm o f Death" i n s t a n t l y come 
t o mind. However, t h e l i f e p i t t e d a g a i n s t "The S i l e n t Land" 
echoes t h a t o f "A Psalm o f L i f e , " f o r i n i t we f i n d " s h a t t e r e d 
w r e c k s " upon t h e s t r a n d , a w a i t i n g "Who i n L i f e ' s b a t t l e f i r m 
d o t h s t a n d " t o l e a d them t o where t h e " b r o k e n - h e a r t e d " beckon 
from t h e o t h e r s i d e o f d e a t h . B o t h t h e p o w e r f u l Romantic 
a t t r a c t i o n o f e a s e f u l d e a t h and i t s e s s e n t i a l l y V i c t o r i a n 
a d v e r s a r y — t h e e a r n e s t n e s s o f l i f e ' s s t r u g g l e — o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s 
t r a n s l a t i o n f i n d t h e i r way i n t o h i s own s h a r p l y d i v i d e d poem. 

1 2 I n t h i s way, t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f o p p o s i n g a t t r a c t i o n s 
i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s "Psalm" seems t o a n t i c i p a t e Tennyson's "Two 
V o i c e s " p u b l i s h e d i n 1842 (though w r i t t e n much e a r l i e r i n 



425 

p r o d u c e s t h e image o f t h e b a t t l e so t h a t he m i g h t p l a c e 

h i m s e l f v e r y d i s t i n c t l y i n a camp opposed t o t h e p o p u l a c e 

whose h e a r t s w i l l be m u f f l e d , i n e f f e c t among t h e h e r o i c 

i n d i v i d u a l i s t s and a g a i n s t t h o s e d r i v e n i n t o s i l e n c e — t h e 

"dumbness" o f c a t t l e — b y p a s s i v e l y a c t i n g en masse. 

S t a n z a s i x t h u s l a u n c h e s t h e s p e a k e r ' s c o n c e r t e d a t t a c k on 

p a s s i v i t y . " T r u s t no F u t u r e , how'er p l e a s a n t ! " and " A c t , — a c t 

i n t h e l i v i n g p r e s e n t ! " he commands, t h e t e m p o r a l i m p e r a t i v e s 

c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e s p a t i a l i n d i c a t i v e s i n t h e 

same s t a n z a : " H e a r t w i t h i n , and God o'erhead!" ( t h e p a s t o f 

c o u r s e b e i n g a l r e a d y dead and b u r i e d ) . L i f e , a c t i o n , t h e 

l i v i n g p r e s e n t can o n l y be made v i t a l by t h e i n d i v i d u a l who 

d e r i v e s s u s t e n a n c e from a h e a r t w i t h i n made r e a d y " f o r any 

f a t e . " F o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a b s o l u t e " d e s t i n e d end o r way" i s 

unknowable: o v e r s e e n by God, t h e f u t u r e i s i n H i s s a f e -

k e e p i n g ; t h e u l t i m a t e outcome o f t h e b a t t l e i s n o t t o be 

1833) o r t o echo t h e "Supposed C o n f e s s i o n s o f a Second-Rate 
S e n s i t i v e Mind" (1830). L o n g f e l l o w had a c c e s s , however, o n l y 
t o Emerson's copy o f t h e Poems d a t e d 1833, a y e a r b e f o r e h i s 
d e l i v e r y o f t h e "Psalm" t o h i s c l a s s and l a t e r p u b l i c a t i o n i n 
The K n i c k e r b o c k e r o f Oct 1838. The "Psalm" i t s e l f , L o n g f e l l o w 
s a i d , had been w r i t t e n much e a r l i e r " a t a t i m e when [he] was 
r a l l y i n g from d e p r e s s i o n " ( q t d . i n Works 2) f o l l o w i n g t h e 
d e a t h o f h i s f i r s t w i f e , Mary i n Nov 1835, and as such e n a c t s 
a s p i r i t u a l and e m o t i o n a l c r i s i s n o t u n l i k e t h a t g e n e r a t e d by 
Tennyson's l o s s o f H a l l a m . F o r L o n g f e l l o w , a t l e a s t , t h e 
d e c i s i o n t o " a c t i n t h e l i v i n g p r e s e n t " s h o u l d i t s e l f be 
l i n k e d n o t o n l y t o h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Goethe, b u t t o t h e 
motto he appended t o H y p e r i o n ( a l s o p u b l i s h e d i n 1839 and 
d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r t w o ) . L o n g f e l l o w acknowledged and 
p u b l i s h e d t h e s e a n t e c e d e n t s f o r h i s v e r s e as p r o s a i c echoes o f 
h i s p o e t i c s e n t i m e n t s . He d i d n o t a l w a y s , as Poe and o t h e r s 
c h a r g e d , borrow from h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a l t h o u g h he o f t e n may 
have sounded l i k e them. 



426 

a n t i c i p a t e d , however p l e a s a n t l y i m a g i n e d by p e o p l e s t i l l 

w i t h i n t h e b i v o u a c o f l i f e on e a r t h . 

The f i n a l message, as i t were, o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s "Psalm o f 

L i f e " i s u l t i m a t e l y u n r e a l i z a b l e w i t h i n t h e t e x t i n s p a t i a l 

and t e m p o r a l terms and, as a consequence, t h e metaphor t h e 

p o e t chooses t o couch i t i n i s i n t e l l e c t u a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c , f o r 

r e a d e r s t o d a y even as i t was f o r t h o s e o f one hundred and 

f i f t y y e a r s a g o . 1 3 " F o o t p r i n t s on t h e sands o f t i m e " b l e n d s 

s p a t i a l and t e m p o r a l images i n s u c h a way t h a t , when c o u p l e d 

w i t h t h e i d e a s i n s t a n z a e i g h t o f l i f e as a sea w a s h i n g upon a 

s h o r e o f t i m e , w i t h f o o t p r i n t s upon t h a t s h o r e s t i l l v i s i b l e 

t o p o t e n t i a l l y s h i p w r e c k e d b r o t h e r s , t h e e n t i r e image a p p e a r s 

u t t e r l y i n c o n g r u o u s . However, L o n g f e l l o w has u s e d "Time" 

e a r l i e r i n s t a n z a f o u r where "Time i s f l e e t i n g " i n o p p o s i t i o n 

t o " A r t " w h i c h " i s l o n g " t o p u n c t u a t e p r e c i s e l y t h e c o n f l i c t 

between t i m e and space t h a t h i s " f o o t p r i n t s " c r y p t i c a l l y 

The d i f f i c u l t y t h a t " f o o t p r i n t s on t h e sands o f t i m e , 
e t c . " posed f o r i t s contemporary r e a d e r s i s e v i d e n t i n t h e 
f o l l o w i n g , l a r g e l y t y p i c a l , remarks f o u n d i n an e x c e r p t from 
t h e London Review r e p r i n t e d i n t h e E c l e c t i c Magazine LV 2 
(Feb. 1862) 189-91: 

How i s i t t h a t t h e s e f o o t p r i n t s can make any 
permanent i m p r e s s i o n on t h e "sands" o f t i m e — 
how i s i t t h a t t h i s f o r l o r n b r o t h e r s a i l i n g o'er 
t h e solemn main can manage t o see t h e s e p r i n t s 
on t h e s h o r e , o r what i s t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n n e c t i o n 
between s e e i n g them and t a k i n g h e a r t a g a i n , a r e , 
we c o n f e s s , t h i n g s n o t e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d . 

(Cameron 72) 

T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s have been l a r g e l y c o n t e n t t o echo 
t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p u z z l e d r e s p o n s e r a t h e r t h a n seek any v a l i d 
r e a s o n s f o r why L o n g f e l l o w chose t h e images t h a t he d i d . 



convey. G r e a t men's a c t i o n s t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n t h e b i v o u a c o f 

l i f e upon t h e s h i f t i n g sands o f t i m e and, as s u c h , a r e 

f l e e t i n g , impermanent and n o t c a p a b l e o f l a s t i n g i n t o 

e t e r n i t y . The i m p r i n t s upon t h e i r own t i m e t h a t t h e s e men 

l e a v e b e h i n d a r e , a t w o r s t , as t e m p o r a r y as t h e a c t i o n s w h i c h 

b r o u g h t them i n t o b e i n g and, a t b e s t , i n s p i r i n g beyond t h e i r 

mere t e m p o r a l i t y t o anyone by chance exposed t o them and i n 

need o f t h e i n c e n t i v e t o s i m i l a r a c t i o n t h a t t h e y p r o v i d e . 

A r t w h i c h i s l o n g (though n o t permanent e i t h e r ) can, however, 

c a p t u r e t h e o r i g i n a l i m p r e s s o f g r e a t a c t i o n and, as i n t h i s 

poem, f a s h i o n t h e n e c e s s a r y f e e t ( i n t h i s c a s e t r o c h a i c ) t o 

make t h e i r mark upon t h e i r own t i m e ' s f l e e t i n g s h o r e . The 

e v a n e s c e n c e o f sound t h e r e b y g a i n s a " l o n g " t h o u g h s t i l l n o t 

e t e r n a l a f f e c t i v e power t h r o u g h s p a t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n as 

p o e t r y upon t h e page. As James R u s s e l l L o w e l l r e s p o n d e d t o 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s d e t r a c t o r s i n "A F a b l e f o r C r i t i c s " (1848), "You 

may say t h a t he's smooth and a l l t h a t t i l l y o u ' r e h o a r s e , / 

But remember t h a t e l e g a n c e a l s o i s f o r c e ; / A f t e r p o l i s h i n g 

g r a n i t e as much as you w i l l / The h e a r t keeps i t s t o u g h o l d 

p e r s i s t e n c y s t i l l " (1309-12). 

Indeed, L o n g f e l l o w ' s own r e s p o n s e t o t h e a l m o s t i n s t a n t 

p o p u l a r i t y o f t h i s l y r i c , as w e l l as h i s l a t e r comments upon 

p o e t i c p o p u l a r i t y i n g e n e r a l , i n d i c a t e h i s a c u t e awareness o f 

t h e m u s i c a l i t y o f v e r s e as an a f f e c t i v e agent and n e c e s s a r y 

f e a t u r e o f p o e t i c s u c c e s s . I n a j o u r n a l e n t r y o f 2 4 O c t o b e r 

1838, a f t e r t h e l y r i c ' s p u b l i c a t i o n i n The K n i c k e r b o c k e r , 



428 

L o n g f e l l o w n o t e s : "My 'Psalm o f L i f e ' seems t o t a k e e f f e c t 

h e r e and t h e r e . T h i s i s a g r e a t p l e a s u r e , t o see t h e w o r k i n g 

o f i t upon o t h e r minds" ( L i f e I 303). By 1846, L o n g f e l l o w had 

become even more s e n s i t i v e t h a n p r e v i o u s l y t o p o e t r y ' s 

e x c i t e m e n t o f r e a d e r s ' e m o t i o n s . I n 1840, f o r example, he 

p l a n n e d t o c h a r t t h e b a l l a d ' s " v i r g i n s o i l " i n A m e r i c a t h r o u g h 

t h e v e r s e s i n B a l l a d s and o t h e r Poems (1841), i n s p i r e d by "a 

g r e a t n o t i o n o f w o r k i n g upon t h e p e o p l e ' s f e e l i n g s " ( L i f e 1 

342-3). E a r l y i n 1846, L o n g f e l l o w c l e a r l y l i n k e d t h i s i d e a o f 

a n a t i o n ' s " f e e l i n g s " t o p o e t i c m u s i c ; i n a l e t t e r t o W i l l i a m 

C u l l e n B r y a n t he p r a i s e d h i s p r e d e c e s s o r f o r j u s t t h i s 

a s s o c i a t i o n : "The e x q u i s i t e m u s i c o f y o u r v e r s e d w e l l s more 

t h a n e v e r on my e a r ; and more t h a n e v e r am I a f f e c t e d by t h e i r 

d e p t h o f f e e l i n g and s p i r i t u a l i t y . . . ." He c o n t i n u e s by 

a n n o u n c i n g t h a t he l o n g e d t o add h i s " v o i c e t o t h e many w h i c h 

make up t h e v o i c e o f p o e t i c fame" ( L i f e I I 3 1 ) . Working o u t 

f o r h i m s e l f i n h i s j o u r n a l s a p o e t i c d o c t r i n e t h a t i s 

o b v i o u s l y a f f e c t i v e i n i t s d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f p o e t r y 

upon i t s a u d i e n c e , L o n g f e l l o w t h u s s u r m i s e s t h a t R. H. Home's 

v o i c e i n t h e r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d O r i o n (U.S., 1847) w i l l n o t 

l i k e l y become famous; t h e poem "can h a r d l y be p o p u l a r , f o r i t 

comes more from t h e b r a i n t h a n t h e h e a r t ; and r e a d e r s now 

demand p a s s i o n , — a t l e a s t f e e l i n g " ( L i f e I I 7 8 ) . W i t h i n 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s immediate c i r c l e , f r i e n d s s u c h as George H i l l a r d 
ft 

e x p r e s s e d a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e about how p o p u l a r i t y c o u l d be 

d e t e r m i n e d by a p p e a l t o t h e e m o t i o n s . W r i t i n g t o L o n g f e l l o w , 



3 0 December 1849, H i l l a r d p r e d i c t s t h a t " ' R e s i g n a t i o n ' w i l l be 

among t h e most p o p u l a r o f [ L o n g f e l l o w ' s ] poems, and d e s e r v e d l y 

s o ; f o r i t i s f u l l o f t e n d e r n e s s and f e e l i n g , and t o u c h e s w i t h 

a d e l i c a t e hand t h o s e s t o p s whose m u s i c i s t e a r s , — n o t b i t t e r 

t e a r s , b u t t h e s o f t dew t h a t f e r t i l i z e s t h e h e a r t on w h i c h i t 

f a l l s . . . " ( q t d . i n L i f e I I 155). I n e s t i m a t i o n s o f 

a u d i e n c e a p p e a l , i d e a s , e v i d e n t l y , a r e o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e 

t o L o n g f e l l o w and t o many o t h e r s who knew h i s work b e s t . 

Thus, u l t i m a t e l y , t h e "message" o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s "A P s a l m o f 

L i f e " i s h a r d l y t r a n s m i t t e d on t h e l e v e l o f i d e a s a t a l l . I t 

can o n l y be d e f i n e d as a p o e t i c p u r p o s e : t o engender i n h i s 

a u d i e n c e , t h r o u g h t e c h n i c a l c o n t r i v a n c e s o f l a n g u a g e , a 

h e a r t f e l t a c c e p t a n c e o f s t a l w a r t human endeavour even i n t h e 

f a c e o f acknowledged doubt as t o t h e e v e n t u a l outcome o f such 

a c t i v i t y . I n a l e t t e r t o John Dwight o f 10 December 1847, 

L o n g f e l l o w f i r m l y remarks t h a t "what a w r i t e r a s k s o f h i s 

r e a d e r i s n o t so much t o l i k e as t o l i s t e n " ( L i f e I I 101). 

Hence, even i f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s do n o t l i k e t h e i d e a s 

e x p r e s s e d i n "A Psalm o f L i f e , " t h e y can s t i l l l i s t e n w i t h o u t 

p r e j u d i c e t o "what t h e h e a r t o f t h e young man s a i d t o t h e 

p s a l m i s t , " and h e a r a s i n g l e h e a r t b e a t i n g r e s o l u t e l y a g a i n s t 

t h e h e r d ; h e a r t h e s h i f t t o t h e f i r s t p e r s o n p l u r a l as t h a t 

one h e a r t commands o t h e r s t o j o i n i n t h e s t r u g g l e ; and 

f i n a l l y , h e a r a h e a r t r e g i s t e r i n g i t s b e a t as marks upon a 

page i n an a t t e m p t t h r o u g h a r t t o d e f y t h e e t e r n a l s i l e n c e o f 

d e a t h . 



430 

U n l i k e Hemans's h o u s e h o l d p u n c t u a t e d by absences w h i c h she 

i n t e n d s God t o f i l l (and t h e r e b y t o f i l l i n t o e t e r n i t y ) 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s b i v o u a c o f l i f e a f f o r d s o n l y a t e m p o r a r y r e s p i t e 

from a d v e r s i t y . S i n c e t h e b i v o u a c i s grounded i n t h e w o r l d , 

t h e h e a r t can o n l y p o i n t r e a s s u r i n g l y t o God o v e r h e a d and 

o u t s i d e o f t h e poem r a t h e r t h a n i n v i t e Him t o become a s p a t i a l , 

p r e s e n c e w i t h i n i t . I n s t e a d , L o n g f e l l o w i n v i t e s h i s r e a d e r s 

t o s u b m i t t o t h e sound o f t h e r h y t h m i c p u l s a t i o n s o f a 

h e a r t f e l t d e s i r e f o r c e r t a i n t y and i m m o r t a l i t y w h i l e i n t h e 

t h r o e s o f d o u b t , and t h e r e b y t o become r e v i t a l i z e d . Inasmuch 

as t h e achievement o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s poem i s due t o t e c h n i c a l 

d e v i c e s o f t h e t e x t and n o t , f o r t h e most p a r t , s t r i c t l y 

dependent upon a c t i v i t i e s o f r e a d e r s o v e r w h i c h t h e p o e t has 

l i t t l e o r no c o n t r o l , "A Psalm o f L i f e " may be s a i d t o embed 

i t s p o p u l a r i t y w i t h i n i t s e l f , j u s t as "Graves o f a H o u s e h o l d " 

a s k e d l i t t l e more t h a n t h e r e c e p t i v i t y o f i t s o r i g i n a l 

a u d i e n c e . 

However, t h e c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e two poems, 

and between Hemans's and L o n g f e l l o w ' s work i n g e n e r a l , i s t h a t 

w h i l e Hemans meets h e r a u d i e n c e ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s on e v e r y l e v e l , 

p o e t i c a l l y and i d e o l o g i c a l l y , L o n g f e l l o w p l a y s w i t h h i s 

a u d i e n c e ' s p o e t i c e x p e c t a t i o n s even w h i l e r e i n f o r c i n g a 

l a r g e l y a c c e p t e d i d e o l o g i c a l s t a t u s quo. I n f a c t , L o n g f e l l o w 

o f t e n i n o t h e r poems a c t u a l l y m a n i p u l a t e s h i s v e r s e so as t o 

make a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e e a r t h o s e i d e a s w h i c h he deems may 



s p a r k some c o n t r o v e r s y i n t h e minds o f h i s l i s t e n e r s : h i s 

a b o l i t i o n i s t Poems on S l a v e r y (1842) a r e an o b v i o u s example. 

Thus L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o p u l a r i t y , as i n d i c a t e d i n "A P s a l m o f 

L i f e , " depends as much as does Hemans's upon h i s a u d i e n c e ' s 

r e c e p t i v i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e t e c h n i c a l c h a l l e n g e s t h a t he o f t e n 

p o s e s demand, a t t h e o u t s e t , a r e a d e r a c t i v i t y t h a t Hemans's 

more c o n v e n t i o n a l l y r i c s s i m p l y do n o t . A l t h o u g h , l i k e 

Hemans, L o n g f e l l o w seldom v e n t u r e s i n t o u n f a m i l i a r i d e o l o g i c a l 

t e r r a i n w i t h o u t p r o v i d i n g d o m e s t i c r e a s s u r a n c e s a t some p o i n t , 

he does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p l i c a t e s p a t i a l s e c u r i t y t h r o u g h t h e 

s t r u c t u r e o f h i s i n d i v i d u a l poems t h e m s e l v e s . T h e r e f o r e , 

i d e a s w h i c h were t h e m s e l v e s , as L o n g f e l l o w w e l l knew, a l r e a d y 

a c c e p t e d and f a m i l i a r b e f o r e he p u t pen t o p a p e r must 

sometimes a c h i e v e p u b l i c s a n c t i o n o u t s i d e o f r a t h e r t h a n 

a u t h o r i a l l y w i t h i n t h e imagery o f h i s poems. F o r i f a poem i s 

t o r e m a i n p o p u l a r w i t h l a r g e numbers o f p e o p l e beyond i t s 

i n i t i a l r e a d i n g , i t must pose some n o v e l t i e s , i f n o t 

c h a l l e n g e s , f o r i t s a u d i e n c e i n o r d e r t o p r o v o k e i n i t s 

r e c i p i e n t s a d e s i r e t o c o n t r i b u t e a l a s t i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e t o 

t h e poem s u f f i c i e n t t o r e v i t a l i z e i t a g a i n and a g a i n . I n t h i s 

s e n s e , L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o p u l a r i t y stemmed from h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y 

a b i l i t y t o e l i c i t — t h r o u g h t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s as y e t u n f a m i l i a r 

t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s — m o o d s 

w i t h i n h i s a u d i e n c e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e m o r a l s he w i s h e d t o 

convey. I n t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e o f f e l t e m o t i o n n o t as a g i v e n , 

as i n Heman's p o e t r y , b u t as a v i t a l f o r c e w o r k i n g o u t w a r d l y 



432 

from h i s poems t h r o u g h sound upon t h e h e a r t s o f h i s l i s t e n e r s , 

L o n g f e l l o w s e c u r e d h i s s u c c e s s . A s m a l l measure o f t h a t 

s u c c e s s was r e c o r d e d many y e a r s l a t e r i n 1855 by L o n g f e l l o w 

h i m s e l f i n h i s j o u r n a l . He n o t e s t h a t he had been t o l d o f "a 

d y i n g s o l d i e r on t h e f i e l d b e f o r e S e b a s t o p o l [who] was h e a r d 

r e p e a t i n g t h e l i n e " F o o t p r i n t s on t h e sands o f Time" ( L i f e I I 

2 5 5 ) , s m a l l recompense f o r t h e l o s s o f l i f e i n a f u t i l e 

f o r e i g n war, b u t r e a s s u r a n c e t o L o n g f e l l o w t h a t h i s l i n e s 

c o u l d p r o v i d e s o l a c e a t a t i m e o f need. That L o n g f e l l o w i s no 

l o n g e r a b l e t o e l i c i t such moods o r prompt s u c h emotions t o d a y 

i s as much a consequence o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d 

t e c h n i c a l demands p u t upon p o e t r y i n t h i s c e n t u r y as i t i s o f 

any i d e o l o g i c a l changes t h a t m i g h t have made h i s m o r a l 

p o s i t i o n s u n p a l a t a b l e . 

L o n g f e l l o w a c h i e v e d h i s i n i t i a l p o p u l a r i t y t h r o u g h l y r i c s 

t h a t , w h i l e t h e y s u p p o r t e d t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e s t a t u s quo, d i d 

so by i n s p i r i n g i n t h e i r r e a d e r s moods t h a t w o u l d a l l o w them 

t o s u p p o r t e m o t i o n a l l y t h o s e s p e c i f i c i d e a s t h r e a t e n e d by 

p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s doubt. T h i s i s an achievement t h a t 

t h e e a r l y Tennyson seldom matched. F o r w h i l e t h e r e i s no 

q u e s t i o n t h a t , o f t h e two, Tennyson was t h e more s k i l l e d and 

t e c h n i c a l l y v e r s a t i l e p o e t , L o n g f e l l o w ' s p e r s p i c a c i o u s 

awareness o f h i s a u d i e n c e and o f t h e means by w h i c h h i s p o e t r y 

c o u l d b e s t speak t o t h e m a j o r i t y among them was o n l y r a r e l y 

s h a r e d by Tennyson. 



433 

As o u t l i n e d i n c h a p t e r f o u r , Tennyson's o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e s 

i n a d d r e s s i n g h i s a u d i e n c e were vexed by a p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t 

between t h e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e p o e t as a p u b l i c 

f i g u r e , and h i s more g e n e r a l l y p r i v a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o h i s 

a r t . Even i n h i s most s u c c e s s f u l volumes, as f o r example t h e 

two volume Poems (1842), Tennyson seldom r e s o l v e d t h i s 

c o n f l i c t w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l poems. He chose i n s t e a d t o p u t 

f o r w a r d a v a r i e t y o f v e r s e s t h a t , s i n g l y and i n r e l a t i o n t o 

one a n o t h e r , f i l l e d an e n t i r e s p e c t r u m o f h i s own and h i s 

a u d i e n c e ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s : from o f t e n c r y p t i c h i g h l y p e r s o n a l 

s t a t e m e n t s t o m o r a l o r d o m e s t i c p l a t i t u d e s , from complex 

e x p e r i m e n t s i n rhyme and meter t o b l a n k v e r s e . S i n c e t h e 

a u d i e n c e t o whom Tennyson p i t c h e d h i s v o i c e was 

c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y v a r i o u s , t h a t he o n l y g r a d u a l l y a c h i e v e d t h e 

w i d e s p r e a d p o p u l a r i t y o f L o n g f e l l o w , and t h e n t o a l e s s e r 

d e g r e e i n E n g l a n d t h a n i n A m e r i c a , i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g . Indeed 

what i s s u r p r i s i n g i s t h a t any s i n g l e poem o f Tennyson's 

managed t o a c h i e v e a w i d e s p r e a d p o p u l a r i t y . Y e t "Break, 

b r e a k , b r e a k " was j u s t s u c h a poem. 

An i n t e r e s t i n g measure o f i t s p o p u l a r i t y , and t h e 

c o n f l a t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson on 

b o t h s i d e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c , i s f o u n d i n W i l l i a m W i n t e r s ' s 

" R e m i n i s c e n c e s " o f L o n g f e l l o w . W i n t e r s n o t e s t h a t "once 

L o n g f e l l o w drew o u t o f h i s p o c k e t a queer r e q u e s t f o r an 

a u t o g r a p h , s a y i n g , ' t h a t t h e w r i t e r l o v e d p o e t r y i n 'most any 

s t y l e , and would he p l e a s e copy h i s 'Break, b r e a k , b r e a k ! ' f o r 



t h e w r i t e r ? ' " ( q t d . i n L i f e I I I 318). R e a c t i n g t o one o f t h e 

many m u s i c a l s e t t i n g s o f t h e poem, L o n g f e l l o w h i m s e l f was i n 

1863 once b r o u g h t t o t e a r s a t Dempster's p i a n o t h r o u g h t h e 

s i n g i n g o f "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " and was f o r c e d t o l e a v e t h e 

room ( 3 2 1 ) . P o e t i c a l l y i n s p i r e d t e a r s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o 

i m a g i n e t o d a y , b u t what can be a t t e m p t e d i s an a c c o u n t o f how 

Tennyson's poem m i g h t be a b l e t o produce such a v i s c e r a l 

r e s p o n s e i n a f e l l o w p o e t . F o r i f L o n g f e l l o w ' s own v e r s e i s 

a f f e c t i v e i n i t s d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t t o e l i c i t s p e c i f i c 

e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s i n i t s r e a d e r s , t h e n Tennyson's v i b r a n t , 

s y n a e s t h e t i c p o e t r y can o n l y be d e s c r i b e d as " i m p a c t i v e . " I n 

"Break, b r e a k , b r e a k , " t h e p o e t c r e a t e s and r e c r e a t e s s e n s o r y 

e x p e r i e n c e a t i t s t e m p o r a l and s p a t i a l p o i n t o f i m p a c t . The 

Sea's waves, f o r example, would be s i l e n t w i t h o u t t h e s t o n e s 

upon w h i c h t h e y b r e a k . So i n t u r n , sound must j o i n w i t h sense 

t o become symbol, f o r by i t s e l f , t h e s p e a k i n g v o i c e i s 

i n a r t i c u l a t e ; i t o n l y comes i n t o b e i n g i n i t s i m p a c t upon 

r e c i p i e n t s . 

L i k e Hemans, Tennyson i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s p a t i a l v a c a n c y 

o f d e a t h ; t h e t h o u g h t s w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r c a n n o t u t t e r a r e 

u n r e a l i z a b l e i n t h i s w o r l d o f t a n g i b l e o b j e c t s because t h e y 

i n v o l v e absence: "a v a n i s h e d hand" and "a v o i c e t h a t i s s t i l l " 

t o g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e "a day t h a t i s dead." However, r a t h e r 

t h a n f i l l absence as Hemans does t h r o u g h n o m i n a l r e p l a c e m e n t s , 

Tennyson s u g g e s t s s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e as a t e m p o r a l s u b s t i t u t e : 

t h e " t o u c h " o f a hand and t h e "sound" o f a v o i c e r e e n a c t " t h e 



t e n d e r g r a c e o f a day" now dead i n o r d e r t o g r a n t t h i s day 

meaning beyond i t s b r e v i t y t h r o u g h t h e q u a l i t y o f i t s 

a f f e c t i v e power o v e r t h e p e r s o n who remembers t h e o r i g i n a l 

s e n s a t i o n . L i k e L o n g f e l l o w i n "A Psalm o f L i f e , " Tennyson t o o 

w i s h e s t o s p a t i a l i z e sound. Y e t u n l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , whose 

p o e t i c f e e t i n p r i n t a r e v i s u a l l y f i x e d upon t h e s t a t i c page, 

Tennyson d y n a m i c a l l y i m a g i n e s sound as a coming t o g e t h e r o f 

p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s a t a p r e c i s e p o i n t o f i m p a c t , a s e n s o r y 

c r e a t i o n r e p l i c a t e d by t h e f o r c e o f waves s t r i k i n g upon t h e 
14 

eardrums o f t h e poem's l i s t e n e r s . 
As a s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e — a spoken poem—Tennyson's l y r i c 

has an a f f e c t i v e q u a l i t y t h a t i s as d i f f i c u l t t o a r t i c u l a t e as 

t h e " t h o u g h t s " w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r c a n n o t " u t t e r . " Here t o o t h e 

p r o b l e m i s one o f absence. The E n g l i s h language s i m p l y l a c k s 

t h e a d j e c t i v e s n e c e s s a r y t o d e s c r i b e t h e f u l l i m p o r t o f sound 

as a s y n a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . I n t r y i n g t o f i n d words t o g i v e 

t o t h e combined t a c t i l e and a u d i b l e s e n s a t i o n o f t h e spondees 

— " B r e a k , b r e a k , b r e a k " — t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f a language 

d o m i n a t e d by v i s u a l metaphors a r e soon r e a l i z e d . Those words 

w h i c h d e s c r i b e sound, such as " r e s o n a n t " o r " r e s o u n d i n g , " 

h a r d l y c a p t u r e t h e p h y s i c a l s e n s a t i o n o f c o n t a c t n e c e s s a r y t o 

p r o d u c e sound a l t h o u g h " r e v e r b e r a t i n g " comes c l o s e . But t h e s e 

words i n a d e q u a t e l y convey t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s h e a r i n g and f e e l i n g 

1 4 Compare Tennyson's "Dream o f F a i r Women" where t h e 
s p e a k e r o f t h e dream r e c a l l s " H e a r i n g t h e h o l y o r g a n r o l l i n g 
waves / Of sound on r o o f and f l o o r " ( 1 9 1 - 2 ) . 



o f t h e s t r e s s e s e l s e w h e r e i n t h e poem as t h e y seem t o s t r i k e 

t h e many m o n o s y l l a b i c nouns and t h e i r a d j e c t i v e s i n s u c h a way 

as t o d u p l i c a t e t h e a c t i o n o f t h e tongue upon t h e t e e t h as t h e 

r e a d e r u t t e r s t h e poem a l o u d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , Tennyson's 

poem i s r e f e r r e d t o as " i m p a c t i v e " so as t o s u g g e s t t h e t r u l y 

p h y s i c a l q u a l i t y o f sound as an i n f l u e n t i a l f e a t u r e g o v e r n i n g 

t h e a u d i e n c e ' s r e s p o n s e t o "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k . " 

" I m p a c t i v e " a l s o d e s c r i b e s t h e a s t o u n d i n g i d e a t i o n a l impact 

t h e poem was and i s s t i l l a b l e t o g e n e r a t e . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t 

t h a t o u t o f s i x t e e n l i n e s , s i x speak d i r e c t l y o f h o p e l e s s n e s s , 

v a c a n c y , and d e a t h (3-4, 11-12, 15-16), and f o u r s e e m i n g l y o f 

d e s t r u c t i o n ( b r e a k i n g ) (1-2, 13-14), t h e t o n e o f t h e poem i s 

t h o u g h t o f p a r a d o x i c a l l y as u p l i f t i n g . I t s "buoyant 

i m p r e s s i o n s a t t h e c e n t r e , " as W. D a v i d Shaw c a l l s them ( 2 5 9 ) , 

somehow q u a l i t a t i v e l y o u t w e i g h t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e p u l l t o w a r d 

d e s p a i r . And on t h e l e v e l o f i d e a s , "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " 

t o d a y u s u a l l y prompts a f f i r m a t i v e r e s p o n s e s such as t h e 

f o l l o w i n g : "a c e n t r a l meaning i s c r e a t e d about homecoming, j o y 

i n s o l i t u d e , t h e a f f e c t i v e power o f memory, and t h e f a t e o f 

t h e s o u l " (Shaw 287). Shaw's e s s e n t i a l l y p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n 

r e s u l t s , as he h i m s e l f s u g g e s t s , from " e p i p h o r i c i m p l i c a t i o n " 

t h a t a t t r i b u t e s meaning t o t h e images i n t h e poem r a t h e r t h a n 

a n a l y z e s meaning i n t h e images t h e m s e l v e s t a k e n i n i s o l a t i o n 

( 2 8 6 ) . What Shaw does n o t m e n t i o n , however, i s t h a t t h i s 

a c t i v i t y i s p e r f o r m e d e n t i r e l y by i t s r e a d e r s ; i t i s n o t an 

i n h e r e n t f e a t u r e imbedded i n t h e poem. To say as Shaw does, 



f o r example, t h a t " t h e s a i l o r l a d , / [who] s i n g s i n h i s b o a t 

on t h e bay!" d e f i n e s a s t a t e o f " l i b e r a t i o n " i s t o r e p l a c e a 

c o n c r e t e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h e m o t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n r e s p o n s e t o 

an unnameable q u a l i t y i n Tennyson's poem t h a t somehow a s k s 

t h a t t h e i n e x p l i c a b l e be e x p l a i n e d . 

The u l t i m a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t Shaw a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e 

sounds o f t h i s poem, e m i t t e d as u t t e r a n c e s , cannot r e a l l y be 

d i s p u t e d . I t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s t r u e t h a t t h e a u d i b l e , t a c t i l e 

and v i s u a l images o f "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " do n o t i n i s o l a t i o n 

i m p l y e m o t i o n a l s t a t e s ; r a t h e r , t h e y d e f i n e a s e r i e s o f 

p h y s i c a l , e x p e r i e n t i a l f a c e t s o f l i f e . O n l y t h r o u g h t h e 

s o f t e n i n g (of a l l t h r e e senses) o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f o b j e c t s 

and p e o p l e i n i t i a l l y opposed does what i s a t f i r s t seen by 

r e a d e r s as e x p e r i e n t i a l l y d e n i e d t o o r i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e 

s p e a k e r become g r a d u a l l y t r a n s p o s e d t h r o u g h sound i n t o 

e m o t i o n a l a c c e p t a n c e . E m o t i o n a l a c c e p t a n c e o c c u r s a t t h e 

p r e c i s e j u n c t u r e where sound becomes s e n s a t i o n and i s 

t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s e n s e : i n t h e complex i n t e r a c t i o n o f t e x t and 

r e a d e r . 

Through r e p e t i t i o n , t h e a u d i e n c e i s t r i c k e d by sound i n t o 

r e p l a c i n g an i n i t i a l l y f o r c e f u l image w i t h a subsequent s o f t — 

t a c t i l e and a u d i t o r y — o n e . T h i s , i n t u r n , c r e a t e s a 

r e c e p t i v i t y t h a t s u b s t i t u t e s an e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e f o r one 

w h i c h , i n t h e poem, i s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y p h y s i c a l . A v i s u a l 

r e c a s t i n g o f t h e poem t h r o u g h p a i r e d sounds c l e a r l y 

i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s t r a n s f e r e n c e : 



438 

1 Break, b r e a k , b r e a k , 
2 On t h y c o l d g r a y s t o n e s , 0 Sea! 
13 B r e a k , b r e a k , b r e a k , 
14 A t t h e f o o t o f t h y c r a g s , 0 Sea! 

3 And I would t h a t my tongue c o u l d u t t e r 
4 The t h o u g h t s t h a t a r i s e i n me. 
9 And t h e s t a t e l y s h i p s go on 
10 To t h e i r haven under t h e h i l l 

5 O w e l l f o r t h e f i s h e r m a n ' s boy, 
6 That he s h o u t s w i t h h i s s i s t e r a t p l a y ! 
7 O w e l l f o r t h e s a i l o r l a d , 
8 That he s i n g s i n h i s b o a t on t h e bay! 

11 But O f o r t h e t o u c h o f a v a n i s h e d hand, 
12 And t h e sound o f a v o i c e t h a t i s s t i l l ! 
15 But t h e t e n d e r g r a c e o f a day t h a t i s dead 
16 W i l l n e v e r come back t o me. 

The second two l i n e s i n each c a s e echo t h e f i r s t two i n s o f t e r 

t o n e s and images. Heard i n t h i s way, t h e poem r e l i e s on i t s 

l i s t e n e r s t o g e n e r a t e i t s "message." 

Y e t most t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f "Break, 

b r e a k , b r e a k " n e g l e c t t h e i m p a c t i v e sound o f Tennyson's poem 

as a p r o d u c e r o f e m o t i o n a l r a t h e r t h a n i d e a t i o n a l 

s i g n i f i c a n c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y t e n d t o d i f f e r w i d e l y from 

one a n o t h e r because o f r e a d e r s ' c o n f l i c t i n g i d e o l o g i e s and 

t h e o r i e s o f p o e t i c meaning and n o t because o f t h e i n h e r e n t 

d i f f i c u l t y o r o b s c u r i t y o f t h e poem. F o r example, F. E. L. 

P r i e s t l e y , w i t h whom Shaw c o n c u r s , speaks o f t h e s t r o n g 

i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e poem's o p e n i n g l i n e s c r e a t e as n o t j u s t a 

f u n c t i o n o f t o n a l i t y and rhythm b u t o f "vague s y m b o l i c 

s u g g e s t i o n s " ( 1 4 5 ) . He d e f i n e s t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s as a l l u s i o n s 

t o o t h e r images o f t h e sea i n Tennyson's p o e t r y , t h e " g r e a t 

deep" o u t o f w h i c h and i n t o w h i c h l i f e , l i k e waves, a r i s e s and 



s u b s i d e s ( 1 4 5 ) . "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " u n q u e s t i o n a b l y e v i n c e s 

Tennyson's f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h t h e m y s t e r i o u s e t e r n a l v i t a l i t y o f 

t h e ocean. That i t i s a l s o a d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e i n t h i s poem, 

as P r i e s t l e y c o n t e n d s , i s l e s s c e r t a i n . I n h i s v i e w , t h e sea 

o f t h e poem b r e a k s upon " t h e ' c o l d g r a y s t o n e s ' o f d e a t h , . . 

. o b v i o u s l y 'the d e s t r u c t i v e e l e m e n t ' h e r e " (14 6 ) . But i f 

t h e y a r e d e s t r u c t i v e , t h e n t h e s t o n e s pose an i d e a t i o n a l 

p r o b l e m s i n c e t h e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o as "Thy" s t o n e s and "Thy" 

c r a g s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e "Sea." P r i e s t l e y s o l v e s t h i s dilemma 

by a r g u i n g f o r t h e sea as a symbol o f a " u n i f i e d s y s t e m 

c o n t a i n i n g b o t h l i f e and d e a t h , " and goes on t o add t h a t t h e 

" l i n e s t h u s c o n t a i n an a c c e p t a n c e , a l o n g w i t h t h e i r s o r r o w and 

q u e s t i o n i n g " ( 1 4 6 ) . I n s h o r t , P r i e s t l e y has t h e Sea c o n t a i n 

a l l f l u x , a l l o p p o s i t i o n w i t h i n i t s e l f so t h a t , as t h e 

c o n t r o l l i n g symbol, t h e Sea t h e r e b y s u p p o s e d l y h o l d s a l l 

q u e s t i o n s and answers w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e poem i t s e l f : 

a p e r f e c t example o f o r g a n i c w h o l e n e s s . 

I n q u i c k e n i n g t h e poem t o w a r d i t s own r e s o l u t i o n , P r i e s t l e y 

does n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e between t h e wave a c t i o n and t h e 

s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n i n t h e poem o f t h e two d i s t i n c t "Break, 

b r e a k , b r e a k " c o u p l e t s . The f i r s t i s t h e b l e a k , d e s o l a t e 

r o c k f a c e "on" w h i c h t h e s e a ' s waves b r e a k ; t h e s e c o n d , 

however, i s "At t h e f o o t o f t h y c r a g s . " The c r u c i a l 

d i f f e r e n c e i n p r e p o s i t i o n h e r e l e s s e n s t h e second i m p a c t o f 

t h e t i d a l f o r c e and, a l o n g w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t i n r e l a t i o n t o 

t h e r o c k s t h e sea i s l a t e r a t " t h e f o o t " o f t h e c r a g s , 



s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t i d e has r e c e d e d . The a c t i o n o f t h e waves 

i s no l o n g e r as d e s t r u c t i v e as i t seemed t o be a t t h e 

b e g i n n i n g o f t h e poem. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e use o f " t h y " t o 

d e s c r i b e t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f sea and s t o n e s does n o t , as 

P r i e s t l e y m a i n t a i n s , s i m p l y equate t h e s t o n e s w i t h t h e sea so 

t h a t , as p o t e n t i a l l y n e g a t i v e symbols, t h e y can be subsumed by 

t h e l a r g e r c o n t r o l l i n g metaphor o f t h e poem. R a t h e r , t h e 

s t o n e s have a t a n g i b l e p r e s e n c e o f t h e i r own w i t h i n t h e poem 

and, when wedded t o t h e o t h e r w i s e s i l e n t s e a , d e s i g n a t e a 

p o i n t o f r e s o n a n c e i n p h y s i c a l i m p a c t as t h e waves s l a p 

a g a i n s t t h e i r h a r d , i m p e n e t r a b l e s u r f a c e s . R a t h e r t h a n 

d e s t r u c t i v e , t h e s t o n e s a r e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f 

sound as a v i b r a n t symbol o f l i f e . 

So, t o o , Tennyson's r e a d e r s become i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t h e 

c r e a t i o n o f meaning. I n f a c t , t h e poem's "message," as i t 

were, p o i n t s o n l y t o e x p e r i e n c e o r human i n t e r a c t i o n as a 

s u b s t i t u t e f o r v a c a n c y . As a s u b s t i t u t i o n f o r i n a r t i c u l a t e 

t h o u g h t , t h e l y r i c p e r f o r c e r e g i s t e r s i t s i m p a c t upon a human 

a u d i e n c e o u t s i d e o f t h e s t r i c t c o n f i n e s o f t h e v e r s e . The 

s p e a k e r ' s s u p p o s e d l y s i l e n t tongue, f o r example, i s a t h o u g h t 

i t s e l f c o n n e c t e d by "and" t h a t i s c r e a t e d o u t o f t h e o r i g i n a l 

sound image o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e waves upon t h e r o c k s . T i e d 

by sound and r e p e t i t i o n t o i t s mate, t h e a d d i t i o n a l "and" i n 

l i n e n i n e , t h e o r i g i n a l emerging t h o u g h t i s t h e n t r a n s p o s e d 

and r e t u r n e d s a f e l y home i n t h e image o f t h e s h i p s submerging 

s i l e n t l y i n t o t h e ocean beyond t h e h o r i z o n d e s c r i b e d as a 



"haven under t h e h i l l . " What a r i s e s o u t o f s i l e n c e and 

d e s p a i r r e t u r n s as s i l e n t l y b u t w i t h t h e c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e 

t h a t t h e i n i t i a l Sea/me p o i n t o f o r i g i n i s now p i c t u r e d as a 

s a f e p o i n t o f r e t u r n , a s a f e "haven" o r heaven imbued w i t h a l l 

t h e human d o m e s t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s t h a t o n l y r e a d e r s c o n v e r s a n t 

w i t h p o e t r y s u c h as Hemans's Domestic A f f e c t i o n s c o u l d s u p p l y 

i n f u l l . 

The p a i r e d a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e "boy" and " l a d , " a p a r t from 

p r o v i d i n g a y o u t h / i m p l i e d age, v o c a l / s i l e n t , o u t w a r d l y 

v i t a l / i n w a r d l y d e s p a i r i n g c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e s p e a k e r , a l s o work 

w i t h one a n o t h e r t o s o f t e n a g a i n by s u b s t i t u t i o n t h e f o r c e o f 

t h e i n i t i a l image. The a u d i t o r y image o f t h e f i s h e r m a n ' s boy 

a t p l a y w i t h h i s s i s t e r i s t o t h e b r e a k i n g waves a t t h e poem's 

b e g i n n i n g what t h e s i n g i n g o f t h e s a i l o r l a d i n t h e bay i s t o 

t h e s t a t e l y s h i p s t h a t p a s s q u i e t l y o u t o f s i g h t . C l o s e r 

s p a t i a l l y t o t h e s t o n e s t h a n t h e y a r e t o t h e ocean, t h e boy 

and g i r l " s h o u t " t o one a n o t h e r as t h e y i n t e r a c t upon t h e 

s h o r e s e e m i n g l y t i e d , t h r o u g h a named o p p o s i t i o n o f gender, t o 

t h e f o r c e s o f o p p o s i t i o n l i k e t h e sea and s t o n e s t h a t a r e 

e q u a l l y p r o d u c t i v e o f f o r c e f u l sounds. The s a i l o r l a d , on t h e 

o t h e r hand, s e e m i n g l y o l d e r , i s p i c t u r e d i n i s o l a t i o n though 

no l e s s a u d i b l e f o r a l l t h a t . H i s " s i n g i n g , " however, 

s u g g e s t s a more s t r u c t u r e d and subdued p r o d u c t i o n o f sound 

t h a n t h a t o f t h e c h i l d r e n . H i s s p a t i a l l o c a t i o n as a s i n g l e 

v o i c e w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f a "boat upon t h e bay" c a r r i e s a 

p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e a u d i e n c e t o t i e b o t h h i s s i n g i n g t o t h e 



442 

v o i c e o f t h e i s o l a t e d s p e a k e r h i m s e l f , and h i s b o a t i n i t s 

s a f e h a r b o u r t o t h e s h i p s i n t h e i r haven. 

I n t h e t h r e e e x t e r n a l images t h a t t h e s p e a k e r s u b s t i t u t e s 

f o r t h e "day" t h a t has been d e n i e d t o him by d e a t h , Tennyson 

c a r e f u l l y s h i f t s t h e a c t i v i t y from a p u r e l y e x p e r i e n t i a l 

c o n t e x t o f s e n s o r y i m p r e s s i o n t o a v i c a r i o u s i m a g i n a r y 

p r o j e c t i o n o f s e n s a t i o n t h a t cannot be p h y s i c a l l y r e a l i z e d . 

F o r what b e g i n s i n s y n a e s t h e t i c c r a s h i n g ends, b e f o r e i t 

r e t u r n s i n t h e r e f r a i n , i n a q u i e t l y assumed p o i n t o f v i s u a l 

and t a c t i l e i m p a c t when t h e s h i p s r e a c h t h e haven beyond t h e 

c o n f i n e s o f t h e poem i t s e l f . The v a n i s h i n g s h i p s awaken t h e 

s p e a k e r t o t h e l o s s he s u f f e r s i n t h e absence o f a hand once 

s e e m i n g l y t u c k e d as s a f e l y i n h i s own as t h e s h i p s i n t h e i r 

haven. The now s t i l l v o i c e seems t o r e v e r b e r a t e i n t h e h o l l o w 

"O's" o f t h e poem as even w i t h i n t h e s p e a k e r h i m s e l f who, i n 

r e c r e a t i n g t h e s h o u t i n g o f y o u t h f u l v o i c e s and t h e s i n g i n g o f 

t h e l a d i n i s o l a t i o n , b e l i e s t h e s i l e n c e and t h e r e f o r e 

u l t i m a t e d e a t h o f t h e t h o u g h t s he has t u c k e d s a f e l y away 

w i t h i n t h e haven o f h i s memory. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e a l l i t e r a t i v e 

and r h y t h m i c sound p a t t e r n s r e n d e r i n some ways a u d i b l y 

i n d i s t i n c t t h e f o l l o w i n g images: "boat on t h e hay," "haven 

under t h e h i l l , " and "day t h a t i s dead" t h a t by sound 

a s s o c i a t i o n g e n e r a t e t h e s e n s a t i o n o f a s t i l l , s a f e p l a c e o f 

r e s t w i t h i n u n c e r t a i n t y , change, and f l u x . Y e t t h i s 

s e n s a t i o n , i f i t o c c u r s a t a l l , comes about o n l y w i t h i n t h e 

e a r s o f t h e poem's l i s t e n e r s who, i n h e a r i n g s i m i l a r sound 



p a t t e r n s , make a s s o c i a t i o n s i n t h e i r minds and s u b s t i t u t e one 

f o r t h e n e x t . The v a c a n c y o f t h e day now dead i s t h e r e b y n o t 

s i l e n t b u t r a t h e r f i l l e d s y n a e s t h e t i c a l l y by t h e t a c t i l e 

sounds o f t h e images i t echoes. Hence t h e d e a t h i n t h e poem 

i s o f a day d e f i n e d i n a f f e c t i v e e m o t i o n a l terms as t h a t o f 

" t e n d e r g r a c e , " s i n c e any p o t e n t i a l f o r i t s r e c o v e r y w i l l o n l y 

be i n t h o s e r e c i p i e n t s who a l l o w t h e a u d i t o r y r e t u r n s i n t h e 

poem t o a f f e c t them i n an e m o t i o n a l way. 

As t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n i l l u s t r a t e s , " t e n d e r " e m o t i o n a l 

r e s p o n s e s were much more r e a d i l y g r a n t e d by Tennyson's 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s t h a n by t h o s e s c h o o l e d i n t h e New 

C r i t i c i s m . C r i t i c s such as C l e a n t h B r o o k s , f o r i n s t a n c e , 

p r e f e r t o a n a l y z e Tennyson's work i n i d e a t i o n a l t e r m s . I n The  

W e l l Wrought Urn, B r o o k s d e s c r i b e s "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " as 

" t h i n n e r " t h a n " T e a r s , I d l e T e a r s " because f o r him i t r e q u i r e s 

t h a t he " y i e l d c o m f o r t a b l y and e a s i l y t o t h e s t r a i n o f g e n t l e 

m e l a n c h o l y , " s o m e t h i n g w h i c h he does n o t f e e l p o e t r y s h o u l d 

ask o f him. B r o o k s a r g u e s t h a t "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " l a c k s 

d r a m a t i c f o r c e because i t u s e s c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o s e d i c t i o n , i t s 

d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s l a c k r e l e v a n c e , and t h e s p e a k e r ' s 

e x p e r i e n c e r e c e i v e s s u p e r f i c i a l t r e a t m e n t ( 1 7 6 ) . I t does n o t 

f o r him, as a p p a r e n t l y " T e a r s , I d l e T e a r s " does, r e p r e s e n t an 

o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r e i n w h i c h i n t e n s i t y o f e f f e c t comes from t h e 

t o t a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e poem. 

As P h y l l i s R a c k i n has p o i n t e d o u t , however, B r o o k s ' s 

r e a d i n g o f "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " does n o t f u l l y adhere t o t h e 



New C r i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e o f t h e poem as an o r g a n i c whole. 

R a t h e r , B r o o k s a p p e a l s t o an " e x t r a p o e t i c " c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f 

p o e t r y as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e because he 

demands an " i r o n i c c o u n t e r t h r u s t " i n t h e poem, and i n so d o i n g 

he p r e j u d i c e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e o f o r g a n i c u n i t y o f 

t h e v e r y p o e t i c t h e o r y he espouses ( R a c k i n 221-22) . R a c k i n 

adds t h a t because B r o o k s ' s a s s u m p t i o n s as a r e a d e r o f Tennyson 

were so c l o s e t o t h o s e o f B r o o k s ' s own r e a d e r s , most o f h i s 

c o n t e m p o r a r i e s s i m p l y o v e r l o o k e d t h e f a c t t h a t h i s demand f o r 

p s y c h o l o g i z i n g and i r o n y as n e c e s s a r y f e a t u r e s o f p o e t i c 

s u c c e s s were e x t e r n a l t o t h e poem (222) . As a New C r i t i c 

h e r s e l f , R a c k i n t h u s r e - r e a d s "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " t o 

r e i n s c r i b e o r g a n i c u n i t y i n Tennyson's poem. 

A c c o r d i n g t o R a c k i n , Tennyson's l y r i c p u r p o s e i s n o t t o 

q u e s t i o n f a t e o r i r o n i c a l l y examine d e s p a i r ; i n s t e a d , t h e 

poem's imagery, m e t r i c s , and c l i c h e d p h r a s e s s u c c e s s f u l l y 

" e s t a b l i s h t h e c o m p l e t e t y r a n n y o f p h y s i c a l f a c t o v e r t h e 

w o r l d o f t h e p o e t ' s d e s i r e " ( 2 2 7 - 8 ) . I n 1966, R a c k i n ' s 

c r i t i c a l l o o k a t some o f t h e h i d d e n a s s u m p t i o n s o f New 

C r i t i c i s m was p e r s p i c a c i o u s ; r e g r e t t a b l y , however, she s t o p p e d 

s h o r t o f e x a m i n i n g t h e a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g h e r own r e a d i n g 

o f " p h y s i c a l f a c t " as a t y r a n n i c a l f o r c e i n t h e poem. 

R a c k i n ' s r e a d i n g , f o r example, i s d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o 

b o t h t h e p a r a d o x o f a c c e p t a n c e and doubt t h a t P r i e s t l e y c l a i m s 

i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e Sea's s y m b o l i c u n i t y , and t o t h e buoyancy 

t h a t Shaw l a t e r s e n s e s i n t h e poem. The p o t e n t i a l f o r such 



d i s p a r a t e r e a d i n g s n o t o n l y i d e n t i f i e s t h e p r o b l e m a t i c n a t u r e 

o f o r g a n i c u n i t y i n g e n e r a l , b u t a l s o emphasizes t h e enormous 

d e g r e e t o w h i c h Tennyson's "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k , " i n 

p a r t i c u l a r , e x a c t s i t s a f f e c t i v e meaning from i t s a u d i e n c e 

more t h a n i t embeds meaning w i t h i n i t s e l f . 

Indeed, t h e poem s u g g e s t s t h a t i t a l o n e h o l d s no r e a l f i n a l 

answers s i n c e t h e spondees "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " sound a g a i n 

i n l i n e 13 as a c y c l i c a l i n d i c a t o r o f r e t u r n r a t h e r t h a n 

f i n a l i t y even as t h e poem i s s u p p o s e d l y d r a w i n g t o i t s c l o s e . 

Here t h e y p r e s a g e a l e s s a c t i v e l y h o s t i l e ocean, a somewhat 

more subdued sea " a t t h e f o o t o f t h e c r a g s . " So, t o o , t h e 

rhythm seems t o l e n g t h e n and s o f t e n so t h a t t h e f i n a l 

m e l a n c h o l i c lament i n t h e f a c e o f absence draws t h e poem 

s l o w l y t o i t s c l o s e . Y e t t h e s p e a k e r ' s m o u r n f u l " w i l l n e v e r 

come back t o me" b e l i e s i t s own f i n a l i t y and d e s p a i r because 

t h e c y c l i n g back o f t h e sea t h a t began t h e poem a l s o prompts a 

new b e g i n n i n g : i t s waves w i l l a g a i n b r e a k i n c r e s c e n d o s upon 

s t o n e s as new and d i f f e r e n t r e a d e r s g i v e p h y s i c a l v o i c e t o t h e 

waves o f sound t h a t "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " p o s i t s w i t h i n i t s 

narrow compass, c a u s i n g them t o r e v e r b e r a t e o u t w a r d l y i n t o t h e 

u l t i m a t e s i l e n c e o f d e a t h . 

A l t h o u g h as p o p u l a r as any o f Hemans's o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

l y r i c poems r e a d i n t h e 1830s and 1840s, c l e a r l y Tennyson's 

"Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " c o u l d , w i t h i n i t s own c o n f i n e s , a f f o r d 

i t s r e a d e r s few'of t h e r e l i g i o u s a s s u r a n c e s i n t h e a f t e r l i f e 

t h a t e i t h e r o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s ' l y r i c s promoted. L y r i c 



p o p u l a r i t y i n Tennyson's c a s e s i m p l y c a n n o t be d e f i n e d i n 

i d e a t i o n a l terms as v e r s i f y i n g an i d e o l o g i c a l s t a t u s quo. 

R a t h e r , "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k " e x a c t e d i t s measure o f s u c c e s s 

i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y from i t s a u d i e n c e , 

an a u d i e n c e p r e d i s p o s e d t o a t t r i b u t e d o m e s t i c s e n t i m e n t s (and 

t h e e m o t i o n a l a s s u r a n c e s t h a t went a l o n g w i t h t h e t e r r i t o r y ) 

t o images o f v i b r a n t e x p e r i e n t i a l l i f e e s s e n t i a l l y l a c k i n g i n 

any o b v i o u s r e l a t i o n t o t h e s p e a k e r ' s c r y p t i c a l l y v o i c e d 

dilemma. T h i s p r e d i s p o s i t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e a u d i e n c e , 

however, Tennyson t e a s e d i n t o a c t i v i t y t h r o u g h t h e 

m a n i p u l a t i o n o f sound p a t t e r n s i n t h e poem t o g e n e r a t e a 

p h y s i c a l s e n s a t i o n o f p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n a l a c c e p t a n c e i n a poem 

a l m o s t e n t i r e l y g i v e n t o images o f v a c a n c y and d e s p a i r . 

Tennyson's V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s were t h u s r e q u i r e d t o c r e a t e t h e 

"message" o f h i s l y r i c i n a way t h a t Hemans's o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

r a r e l y i f e v e r were e x p e c t e d t o do. That Tennyson e x p e c t e d as 

much from h i s a u d i e n c e i s e v i d e n t i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l y r i c 

i t s e l f i s d e v o t e d , i n p a r t , t o d e s c r i b i n g t h e way i n w h i c h 

sound becomes p h y s i c a l s e n s a t i o n and i n t u r n i n s p i r e s 

s i g n i f i c a t i o n i n t h e minds o f i t s l i s t e n e r s . The p o p u l a r i t y 

o f t h i s l y r i c t h u s r e s t s i n t h e p o e t ' s s k i l f u l c o n t r o l o f 

sound t o e l i c i t a r e a d e r l y a c t i v i t y s u f f i c i e n t t o f i l l t h e 

v a c a n c y o f d e a t h w i t h t h e p r o m i s e o f e t e r n a l l i f e . 

On an i d e a t i o n a l l e v e l , one o f t h e most u n i v e r s a l themes i n 

V i c t o r i a n l i t e r a t u r e o f a l l g e n r e s i s t h e m u l t i f a c e t e d c o n c e p t 

o f d e a t h , doubt, and t h e a f t e r l i f e , u n i v e r s a l a t l e a s t i n i t s 



f r e q u e n c y o f appearance i f n o t i n t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f i t s 

t r e a t m e n t . Death, o f c o u r s e , has been a c o n s t a n t theme i n 

E n g l i s h p o e t r y from i t s e a r l i e s t i n c e p t i o n i n Beowulf and 

A n g l o - S a x o n l a m e n t s . To f i n d Hemans, L o n g f e l l o w , and Tennyson 

s h a r i n g d e a t h as a p o e t i c theme i s t h e r e f o r e n e i t h e r new nor 

s u r p r i s i n g . Y e t , each o f t h e s e p o e t s g e n e r a t e s a d i s t i n c t 

v o i c e from w i t h i n t h e s i l e n c e and v a c a n c y o f d e a t h i n u n i q u e 

ways a c c o r d i n g t o p r i v a t e r e s p o n s e s t o doubt and p u b l i c 

a c c e p t a n c e o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h i n God and t h e h e r e a f t e r . Of 

t h e t h r e e , Hemans i s most c o n v e n t i o n a l i n h e r e s s e n t i a l l y 

" r e s t i n peace" r e s p o n s e t o d e a t h s i n c e she euphemizes 

p h y s i c a l decay o u t o f e x i s t e n c e , and l i n k s h e r a t t e n t i v e 

mother w i t h an e q u a l l y a t t e n t i v e f o r c e w a t c h i n g o v e r h e r 

c h i l d r e n ' s t r a n q u i l s l e e p a f t e r d e a t h . L o n g f e l l o w ' s "God 

o'erhead," w h i l e r e l i a n t on h i s r e a d e r s ' f a i t h i n t h e 

h e r e a f t e r as an a c c e p t e d i m p e r a t i v e o f l i f e , i s n o n e t h e l e s s 

c h a l l e n g e d by t h e p o e t ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n o f doubt as humankind's 

enemy so t h a t l i f e ' s b a t t l e w i l l seem t h a t much more w o r t h t h e 

s t r u g g l e . As Tennyson was t o p u b l i s h l a t e r : "There l i v e s more 

f a i t h i n h o n e s t doubt, / B e l i e v e me, t h a n i n h a l f t h e c r e e d s " 

(IM x c v i 11-12). Of c o u r s e , Tennyson's I n Memoriam i s t h e 

V i c t o r i a n p o e t i c m a n i f e s t o on d e a t h , doubt, and d e s p a i r 

w i t h o u t p a r a l l e l i n i t s d e p t h o f t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s o c i a l and 

p s y c h o l o g i c a l a f t e r s h o c k o f t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e d e a t h o f 

c e r t a i n t y i n b o t h m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l t e r m s . S u r p r i s i n g l y , 

a l t h o u g h L o n g f e l l o w was as p u b l i c l y committed t o t h e s t r u g g l e 



448 

a g a i n s t doubt as h i s E n g l i s h c o u n t e r p a r t , when L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

own p r i v a t e g r i e f and d e s p a i r r e a c h e d i t s d e p t h s w i t h t h e 

d e a t h o f h i s second w i f e Fanny, i t was t o Tennyson r a t h e r t h a n 

h i s own " h e a r t w i t h i n " t h a t he t u r n e d . 

On 9 J u l y 1 8 6 1 — a t t h e h e i g h t o f h i s c a r e e r as t h e most 

p o p u l a r p o e t o f t h e Western w o r l d — L o n g f e l l o w w i t n e s s e d t h e 

t r a g i c d e a t h o f h i s w i f e by f i r e . He d e s t r o y e d h i s j o u r n a l 

e n t r i e s o f t h a t summer, l e a v i n g , as h i s l i f e i t s e l f must have 

seemed, an empty c h a p t e r i n t h i s s c r u p u l o u s l y r e c o r d e d 

c a t a l o g u e . Y e t i t d i d n o t r e m a i n e n t i r e l y empty. Many days 

a f t e r , he f i l l e d t h i s v o i d w i t h t h e p e n u l t i m a t e s t a n z a o f 

Tennyson's "To J . S.": 

S l e e p s w e e t l y , t e n d e r h e a r t , i n peace! 
S l e e p , h o l y s p i r i t , b l e s s e d s o u l ! 
W h i l e t h e s t a r s b u r n , t h e moons i n c r e a s e 
And t h e g r e a t ages onward r o l l . 

( L i f e I I 368) 

And, n e a r i n g t h e f i r s t C h r i s t m a s c h a r g e d w i t h h i s w i f e ' s 

absence, L o n g f e l l o w f i t t i n g l y s e l e c t e d a passage from I n 

Memoriam t o h e l p him b e a r up under t h e i n s c r u t a b i l i t y o f God's 

w i l l : 

Known and unknown; human, d i v i n e ; 
Sweet human hand and l i p s and eye; 
Dear h e a v e n l y f r i e n d , who c a n s t n o t d i e , 
Mine, mine, f o r e v e r , e v e r mine; 

(IM c x x i x 5-8) 
( L i f e I I 371) 

H i m s e l f a p o p u l a r i z e r o f t h e b e l i e f t h a t t o " a c t i n t h e l i v i n g 

P r e s e n t " would m o l l i f y doubt and s o r r o w , L o n g f e l l o w r e v e a l s 

h i m s e l f i n h i s c h o i c e t o a l l o w Tennyson t o a c t f o r him i n t h i s 



449 

p e r i o d o f h i s g r e a t e s t m i s e r y (even as he had a c t e d f o r t h e 

L a u r e a t e e a r l i e r by " m e d d l i n g " i n t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c a t i o n o f 

I n Memoriam). I n so d o i n g he r e v e a l s a p e c u l i a r i t y o f t h e 

V i c t o r i a n p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h d e a t h . 

W h i l e L o n g f e l l o w was p r e p a r e d t o make p u b l i c many l y r i c s 

t h a t would p e r s o n i f y d e a t h ("The Reaper and t h e F l o w e r s , " "The 

Two A n g e l s " ) , s i n g d i r g e s and e l e g i e s f o r unknown dead 

( " M i d n i g h t Mass f o r t h e D y i n g Y e a r , " "The J e w i s h Cemetery a t 

N e w p o r t " ) , and i n c o r p o r a t e d e a t h i n t o l o n g , t h i r d - p e r s o n 

n a r r a t i v e s ( E v a n g e l i n e . H i a w a t h a ) , he r e f u s e d t o t r e a t d e a t h 

from a s u b j e c t i v e p o i n t o f v i e w , even when i t e n t e r e d h i s own 

l i f e i n e x c e e d i n g l y t r a g i c ways t h r o u g h t h e d e a t h o f n o t j u s t 
15 • 

one w i f e b u t two. P o e t i c r e s p o n s e s t o d e a t h were f o r t h e 

p u b l i c t o s h a r e i n , and n o t i n t e n s e l y f e l t , p r i v a t e 

i n d u l g e n c e s . The V i c t o r i a n p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h d e a t h , as 

e x p r e s s e d i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s l i f e and work, seems t o be t i e d t o 

t h e p o e t ' s sense o f s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e o n l y 

t h o s e t e x t s w h i c h would a l l o w r e a d e r s t o s h a r e f u l l y i n 

s t r u g g l e as a f f i r m a t i o n o f l i f e , b i r t h as n a t u r a l r e n e w a l , and 

a b s t r a c t argument as r e a s s u r a n c e i n t h e a f t e r l i f e . P o e t r y 

c o u l d t h u s become a p l a c e o f r e f u g e , an anodyne t o t h e doubt 
1 5 These were, o f c o u r s e o f Mary S t o r e r L o n g f e l l o w and o f 

Fanny A p p l e t o n L o n g f e l l o w . Of t h e l a t t e r , i t i s s a i d t h a t 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s s o n n e t , "The C r o s s o f Snow," w r i t t e n 18 y e a r s 
a f t e r Fanny's d e a t h and k e p t h i d d e n u n t i l a f t e r L o n g f e l l o w ' s 
own, i s t h e p o e t ' s o n l y poem t h a t e v e r d e a l t w i t h h i s l o s s , 
and even t h i s poem a b s t r a c t s Fanny o u t o f any r e a l l i f e , and 
t h e p o e t ' s g r i e f o u t o f any r e a l p a i n . 



and d e s p a i r t h a t was b e g i n n i n g t o c h a r a c t e r i z e a c e n t u r y 

s u f f e r i n g from a d e c l i n i n g f a i t h i n s p i r i t u a l l i f e and an 

i n c r e a s i n g v a l o r i z a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l i s m . 

I n c o n t r a s t , Tennyson's a b i l i t y t o r e c a s t h i s p r i v a t e g r i e f 

i n p u b l i c terms (as seen most n o t a b l y i n I n Memoriam) was an 

a b i l i t y t h a t L o n g f e l l o w e i t h e r l a c k e d o r d e n i e d i n h i m s e l f . 

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , Tennyson c a p t u r e d t h i s V i c t o r i a n s p i r i t o f 

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n ways t h a t would i n t h i s c e n t u r y c a l l i n t o 

q u e s t i o n t h e happy m a r r i a g e o f Tennyson's s u b j e c t i v i s t and 

o b j e c t i v i s t i m p u l s e s . But i n q u e s t i o n i n g Tennyson's supposed 

c o n f l i c t o r t e n s i o n a t t h e c o r e o f some o f h i s most r e v e r e d 

poems, t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s o f t e n n e g l e c t t o c o n s i d e r t h e 

d e g r e e t o w h i c h Tennyson i n v i t e d h i s r e a d e r s i n t o h i s poems 

t h r o u g h t e c h n i c a l p l a y i n o r d e r t o engage them a c t i v e l y i n t h e 

dilemmas t o w h i c h he gave v o i c e . And i t was t h i s t e c h n i c a l 

a b i l i t y t h a t e v e n t u a l l y gave r i s e t o h i s enormous p o p u l a r i t y . 

I f s c h o l a r s t o d a y t r e a t t h e p o p u l a r poems o f L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson w i t h any d e p t h w h a t s o e v e r , t h e y do so by c o m p a r i n g 

t h e p o e t r y ' s c o n t e n t t o s i m i l a r l y p o p u l a r i d e a s e x p r e s s e d i n 

c o n t e m p o r a r y p r o s e m e r e l y as p a r t o f t h e Z e i t g e i s t . 1 6 F o r t h e 

1 6 James H a r t ' s c h a p t e r , "The S p i r i t o f P o e t r y , " i n The  
P o p u l a r Book (125-39) i s perhaps t h e b e s t example from a 
p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e p o i n t o f v i e w , a l t h o u g h H a r t makes a 
p r e l i m i n a r y d i s t i n c t i o n between " a t t i t u d e " and "theme," 
c l a i m i n g t h a t p o p u l a r p o e t r y a g r e e d w i t h f i c t i o n i n t h e f o r m e r 
t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s i n t h e l a t t e r : i n t h e end, t h e " b e l i e f o r 
i d e a t h a t c a l l e d o u t a p r o s e s t a t e m e n t j u s t as s u r e l y evoked a 
p o e t i c p h r a s e " ( 1 2 5 ) . From a " s e r i o u s " l i t e r a t u r e p o i n t o f 
v i e w , John K i l l h a m ' s "Tennyson and V i c t o r i a n S o c i a l V a l u e s " 
a l s o a r g u e s t h a t Tennyson's p o p u l a r i t y d e r i v e d from t h e p o e t ' s 
f i t awareness o f t h e " p o p u l a r t a s t e f o r i d e a l i z e d b e h a v i o u r " 



451 

u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f c r i t i c s — o f p o p u l a r 

o r s e r i o u s l i t e r a t u r e a l i k e — i s t h a t t h e t e c h n i c a l f e a t u r e s o f 

" t r u e " p o e t r y such as p r o s o d y , rhyme, p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e , 

t r o p e s , schemes and so f o r t h a r e so s t a n d a r d o r c o n v e n t i o n a l 

i n t h e p o p u l a r poem as n o t t o b e a r m e n t i o n i n g . C o n s e q u e n t l y , 

s c h o l a r s who n e g l e c t p o e t r y as a p o p u l a r l i t e r a r y genre i n i t s 

own t e c h n i c a l r i g h t (and n o t as mere v e r s i f i e d s e n t i m e n t s more 

a b u n d a n t l y and s u c c e s s f u l l y p r o d u c e d i n f i c t i o n ) a l s o 

d i s r e g a r d t h e m u s i c a l i t y o r t o n a l q u a l i t i e s o f v e r s e as a 

p r i m a r y f e a t u r e o f a poem's p o s i t i v e r e c e p t i o n by i t s 

a u d i e n c e . They f a i l t o c o n s i d e r f u l l y and w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e 

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p h y s i c a l v o i c e i t s e l f as a key f e a t u r e 
17 

o f " t h e p e o p l e ' s v o i c e " e x p r e s s e d i n i t s f a v o u r i t e poems. 
I r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e enormous i n c r e a s e i n p u b l i c a t i o n s i n 

b o t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and B r i t a i n i n t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h 

c e n t u r y , i n m i d - c e n t u r y p o e t r y was s t i l l v e r y much a p a r t o f 

an o r a l c u l t u r e w i t h r e s p e c t t o l i t e r a t u r e consumed by t h e 

e v i d e n t i n n o v e l s by D i c k e n s , Mrs G a s k e l l , George E l i o t and 
o t h e r s , as w e l l as i n e s s a y s by C a r l y l e and R u s k i n . 

1 7 A n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n i s Charmenz L e n h a r t who, i n 
s t u d y i n g t h e M u s i c a l I n f l u e n c e on A m e r i c a n P o e t r y , c o n t e n d s 
t h a t t h e enormous p o p u l a r i t y o f German m u s i c i n p a r t i c u l a r i n 
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a a r o s e from a "merger o f m u s i c and 
p h i l o s o p h y " as p a r t o f t h e R o m a n t i c i s m t h a t g o v e r n e d t h e 
i n c e p t i o n o f p o e t r y o f t h e p e r i o d . L o n g f e l l o w , h i m s e l f a 
f l u t i s t , i s acknowledged h e r e as p o e t i c a l l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h 
sound imagery and f e l i c i t o u s rhythms: " C e r t a i n l y some p a r t o f 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s a p p e a l i s t r a c e a b l e t o t h e easy, s w i n g i n g l i n e he 
a c h i e v e s " ( 1 1 8 ) , L e n h a r t c l a i m s , a l t h o u g h he i s n o t c o n c e r n e d 
t o t r a c e why such a l i n e may have been p e c u l i a r l y a p p e a l i n g 
f o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s a u d i e n c e . 



f a m i l y i n t h e home. To be s u r e , t e c h n o l o g i c a l advances such 

as r a i l w a y t r a n s p o r t and, l a t e r , gas l i g h t i n g ( t o name j u s t 

two) a s s i s t e d t h e development o f r e a d i n g as a p r i v a t e , 

i n d i v i d u a l i z e d , and s i l e n t e x p e r i e n c e by t h e end o f t h e 

c e n t u r y s i n c e each o f t h e s e advances a l l o w e d f o r r e a d i n g by 

t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o t a k e p l a c e a t a l m o s t any p l a c e a t any t i m e . 

But t h e s e changes i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f d a i l y l i f e i m p i n g e d 

l i t t l e upon t h e p o p u l a r p o e t s o f t h e 1840s and 50s who were 

a b u n d a n t l y a w a r e — i n t h e i r own homes as i n t h o s e o f t h e i r 

r e a d e r s — o f t h e t y p i c a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h a new poem was l i k e l y 

t o make i t s p r e s e n c e f e l t : t h e f a m i l y r e a d i n g c i r c l e o f t e n , 

though n o t a l w a y s , dominated by t h e f e m a l e v o i c e o f t h e 

w i f e / m o t h e r . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s l i f e l o n g e x p o s u r e and p r o f e s s e d a t t r a c t i o n t o 

t h e m u l t i p l e sounds o f f e m a l e v o i c e s a r e amply e v i d e n t 

t h r o u g h o u t t h e L i f e . Perhaps t h e most famous o f t h e s e 

b e l o n g e d t o Jenny L i n d and t o Fanny Kemble. A f t e r Jenny 

L i n d ' s f i r s t c o n c e r t i n A m e r i c a i n 1850, L o n g f e l l o w n o t e d i n 

h i s j o u r n a l t h a t she sang i n " c l e a r , l i q u i d , h e a v e n l y sounds" 

( L i f e I I 1 7 8 ) ; he l a t e r came t o h e a r t h a t h e a v e n l y v o i c e i n a 

I n hxs s t u d y o f l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s i n V i c t o r i a n 
B r i t a i n , P e t e r B a i l e y acknowledges t h a t among s c h o l a r s o f 
p o p u l a r c u l t u r e , a t t e n t i o n " t o l i t e r a c y , e d u c a t i o n and t h e 
p o p u l a r p r e s s t e n d s t o o b s c u r e t h e f a c t t h a t p o p u l a r c u l t u r e 
i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y was s t i l l v e r y much an o r a l c u l t u r e 
i n i t s e v e r y d a y t r a n s a c t i o n s and key a r e a s o f i t s l e i s u r e " 
( 1 3 ) . One r e a s o n f o r such a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o t h e p r i n t e d word 
r a t h e r t h a n t h e spoken o r sung i s o b v i o u s : a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y 
v a l o r i z a t i o n o f e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i a b l e e v i d e n c e as 
c o n s t i t u t i v e t r u t h . 



more e a r t h l y s e t t i n g as he and Fanny e n t e r t a i n e d Jenny L i n d a t 

C r a i g i e House. The e f f e c t o f h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n a l v o i c e he 

r e c o r d e d i n oxymoronic terms as a " s o f t w i l d n e s s o f manner and 

sudden pauses i n h e r s p e a k i n g " ( L i f e I I 2 0 7 - 8 ) . A l t h o u g h 

u n d o u b t e d l y commanding a d i f f e r e n t womanly p r e s e n c e t h a n t h e 

s i n g e r , t h e a c t r e s s Fanny Kemble c a p t i v a t e d L o n g f e l l o w a g a i n 

because o f t h e s e n s u a l q u a l i t y o f h e r v o i c e . Her famous 

p u b l i c r e a d i n g o f h i s "The B u i l d i n g o f t h e S h i p " (12 Feb 1850) 

L o n g f e l l o w d e s c r i b e d as a congruence o f e m o t i o n and p i t c h : 

"out upon t h e p l a t f o r m , book i n hand, t r e m b l i n g , p a l p i t a t i n g , 

and weeping, and g i v i n g e v e r y word i t s t r u e w e i g h t and 

emphasis" ( L i f e I I 161). H i s r e s p e c t f u l s o n n e t t o h e r , 

w r i t t e n w h i l e he was r e l i g i o u s l y a t t e n d i n g a l l h e r r e a d i n g s o f 

S h a k e s p e a r e i n B o s t o n i n t h e same w i n t e r o f 1849/50, he r e a d 

t o h e r a t a supper he gave i n h e r honour. T h e r e i n she i s 

d e s c r i b e d i n h e r "Readings from S h a k e s p e a r e " as 

" [ i ] n t e r p r e t i n g by t o n e s t h e wonderous pages"; and h i s 

a p o s t r o p h e t o t h e " s i l e n t " Shakespeare s u r e l y a p p l i e d e q u a l l y 

t o h i m s e l f : "O happy P o e t l by no c r i t i c v e x t l / How must t h y 

l i s t e n i n g s p i r i t now r e j o i c e / To be i n t e r p r e t e d by s u c h a 

v o i c e ! " ( 1 1 2 ) . 

I n and o f t h e m s e l v e s , h i s r e f e r e n c e s t o famous women's 

v o i c e s might p r o v e l i t t l e o t h e r t h a n , as a t y p e o f c e l e b r i t y 

h i m s e l f , L o n g f e l l o w was a t t e n t i v e t o t h e t a l e n t s t h a t made 

o t h e r c e l e b r i t i e s p o p u l a r . But t h e l i s t o f f e m a l e v o i c e s i n 

t h e L i f e i n c l u d e s t h o s e o f s e v e r a l o t h e r l e s s p o p u l a r o r l e s s 



known women: h i s two w i v e s ; "Mrs d a u g h t e r " r e a d i n g a 

d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f U n c l e Tom ( I I 2 6 9 ) ; Mr Tanner's I n d i a n w i f e 

( I I 272) ; "Grace D a r l i n g " and Mrs Barrow ( b o t h r e a d i n g from 

Hiawatha) ( I I 275) ; P r i s c i l l a Green ( I I 3 0 4 ) ; and Mrs H a t c h — 

t h e " t r a n c e medium" ( I I 310). The most i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s c a s e 

i s t h a t o f t h e Quakeress from E n g l a n d , P r i s c i l l a Green, whom 

t h e p o e t had h e a r d i n c h u r c h d u r i n g t h e summer he was w r i t i n g 

M i l e s S t a n d i s h . 1 9 W i t h each m e n t i o n o f t h e s e women i n h i s 

j o u r n a l , L o n g f e l l o w i d e n t i f i e s t h e q u a l i t i e s o f v o i c e t h a t 

most a t t r a c t e d him, h i s e a r w e l l - t u n e d t o rhythm and p i t c h . 

A l t h o u g h L o n g f e l l o w c e r t a i n l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e a f f e c t i v e 

p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f v o i c e and sound as a f e a t u r e o f p o e t i c 

p o p u l a r i t y , as d e m o n s t r a t e d i n "Break, b r e a k , b r e a k , " Tennyson 

i n d e e d had " t h e f i n e s t e a r o f any E n g l i s h P o e t , " W. H. 

Auden's o t h e r c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e p o e t n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . 

U n d o u b t e d l y Tennyson's e a r f o r t h e r e s o n a n c e o f v e r s e stemmed 

from h i s s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e i n c a n t a t o r y a b i l i t y o f t h e human 

v o i c e i t s e l f t o i n d u c e r e v e r i e o r prompt r e s p o n s e s a t a p u r e l y 

e m o t i v e l e v e l . I n o l d age, Tennyson r e c a l l e d t h a t b e f o r e he 

c o u l d r e a d he had h e a r d a v o i c e s p e a k i n g i n t h e w i n d , and t h a t 

" t h e words ' f a r , f a r away' had a l w a y s a s t r a n g e charm" f o r him 

(Memoir 9 ) . Tennyson's s e v e r a l b i o g r a p h i e s a r e r e p l e t e w i t h 

images o f t h e young p o e t and o t h e r s o f h i s f a m i l y w a n d e r i n g 

about t h e L i n c o l n s h i r e c o u n t r y s i d e a t a l l h o u r s r e a d i n g and 

19 . . . . 
P r i s c i l l a ' s v o i c e i s h e a r d i n c h a p t e r s i x . 



t a l k i n g l o u d l y t o t h e m s e l v e s . And h i s p r a c t i c e o f r e c i t i n g 

h i s v e r s e s a l o u d o u t o f d o o r s , even t o I s l e o f Wight f i s h e r m e n 

a t n i g h t i n t h e s t e r n s o f t h e i r b o a t s r e g a r d l e s s o f w e a t h e r , 

c o n t i n u e d i n t o Tennyson's o l d age ( R i c h a r d s o n 142). 

What emerges from t h e s e s e v e r a l p o r t r a i t s o f Tennyson i s 

n o t a v i s u a l image b u t an a u d i t o r y one o f t h e p o e t ' s p r o f o u n d 

a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e sound o f t h e l i n e and t h e rhythm o f v e r s e 

t h a t dominated h i s p o e t i c p r a c t i c e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , v e r y few 

c r i t i c s o f Tennyson a r e p r e p a r e d t o g i v e t h e p o e t ' s a c t u a l 

p h y s i c a l v o i c e t h e f u l l acknowledgement i t d e s e r v e s . F r a n c i s 

B e r r y ' s r e g r e t t a b l y b r i e f c h a p t e r on "The V o i c e o f Tennyson" 

i n h i s P o e t r y and The P h y s i c a l V o i c e (47-65) b e g i n s w i t h t h e 

p a r a d o x i c a l c l a i m t h a t "Tennyson was a w i l l i n g p r i s o n e r o f h i s 

v o i c e , f o r i t was a l a r g e and m a g n i f i c e n t p r i s o n " (48) . He 

goes on t o e x p l a i n b o t h t h e l i m i t a t i o n s and t h e range i n 

t i m b r e and i n p i t c h t h a t Tennyson's envelopment w i t h i n t h e 

sound o f h i s own v o i c e imposed upon h i s work. A r g u i n g a g a i n s t 

B e r r y , E r i c G r i f f i t h s ' s r e c e n t c h a p t e r on "Tennyson's B r e a t h " 

(97-170) i n The P r i n t e d V o i c e o f V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y , d e r i v e s 

from h i s more g e n e r a l t h e s i s about " t h e power o f w r i t i n g t o 

g e n e r a t e f o r i t s e l f a second c o n t e x t o v e r and above, and 

sometimes i n t h e e n t i r e absence o f t h e c o n t e x t o f u t t e r a n c e " 

( 5 1 ) . B r o a d l y p u t , B e r r y ' s s t u d y i s a p o e t - c e n t r e d v i e w , 

w h i l e G r i f f i t h ' s work i s more r e a d e r - c e n t r e d i n i t s c l a i m s 

t h a t p r i n t e d u t t e r a n c e s n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e gaps, o r b r e a t h 

s p a c e s , between t h e v o i c i n g o f i d e a and i t s f e l t i m p a c t upon 



i t s a u d i e n c e . Hence, G r i f f i t h s a p p e a r s more c o n c e r n e d w i t h 

t h e absences o f s o u n d — t h e pauses f o r b r e a t h — i n Tennyson's 

p o e t r y t h a n w i t h t h e a u d i b l e e f f e c t o f t h e words. He s e n s e s 

i n Tennyson's work a deep, m o r a l i m a g i n a t i o n t h a t c a n n o t be 

l e g i t i m a t e l y v o i c e d , a c o n c e r n f o r t h e " s p e e c h l e s s needs t o 

w h i c h o n l y r e t i c e n c e answers"; hence f o r G r i f f i t h s , Tennyson's 

b e s t p o e t r y i s f e l t as an " i n t e r p l a y o f sound and s i l e n c e , 

w i t h d r a m a t i c f e e l i n g f o r t h e c h a r g e d needs i n u t t e r a n c e " 

( 1 0 5 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , when b r e a t h i s r h y t h m i c a l l y r e i n f u s e d 

i n t o t h e p r i n t e d l i n e so as t o t r a n s f o r m i t i n t o u t t e r a n c e , 

t h e p o e t r y a p p r o x i m a t e s Tennyson's o s c i l l a t i o n between 

a s s u r a n c e and doubt i n h i s d e s i r e f o r s p i r i t u a l i m m o r t a l i t y 

( 1 1 6 ) . What m i g h t n o r m a l l y be c o n s i d e r e d as n a r r o w l y 

a e s t h e t i c i s , i n G r i f f i t h s r e a d i n g o f Tennyson's t e x t s , 

broadened i n i t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f " i m a g i n a t i v e a c t i v i t y as a 

form o f c o n d u c t " ( 1 4 2 ) . Indeed, a l t h o u g h G r i f f i t h s does n o t 

quote Tennyson as- h i s own b e s t w i t n e s s , remarks s u c h as t h e 

f o l l o w i n g made by t h e p o e t h i m s e l f r e i n f o r c e t h e n o t i o n t h a t 

i n t h e a c t i v i t y o f r e a d i n g and u t t e r i n g t h e p r i n t e d v o i c e , 

r e a d e r s engage i n p o e t i c a l l y i n s t i g a t e d m o r a l e x e r c i s e s . 

N e a r i n g t h e end o f h i s l i f e , Tennyson a p p a r e n t l y t o l d Edmund 

Gosse t h a t " e v e r y good p o e t has t h e r i g h t , has t h e d u t y , t o 

s t e a l a n y t h i n g t h a t s t r i k e s him i n a bad p o e t and improve i t " ; 

p r e s u m a b l y he meant improvements t o t h e q u a l i t y o f sound i n 

poems t h e m s e l v e s , f o r he went on t o add t h a t i t i s o n l y t h e 

dunces who " f a n c y i t i s t h e t h o u g h t t h a t makes p o e t r y l i v e ; i t 



i s n ' t , i t ' s t h e e x p r e s s i o n , t h e form, b u t we mustn't t e l l them 

s o , t h e y w o u l d n ' t know what we meant" 1 (unpub. mat. q t d . i n 

M a r t i n 5 6 2 ) . 

Tennyson's h e i g h t e n e d awareness o f t h e "charm" o f t h e 

p o e t i c v o i c e was n o t l o s t upon h i s immediate a u d i e n c e even i f 

a t t i m e s h i s l a r g e r p u b l i c f a i l e d t o h e a r h i s poems a c c o r d i n g 

t o t h e d e s i g n s o f t h e i r a u t h o r . F o r Tennyson was n o t e d 

t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e f o r h i s p r i v a t e r e a d i n g s t o f r i e n d s and 

f a m i l y o f work i n p r o g r e s s as w e l l as s e v e r a l p u b l i s h e d poems, 

t h e most common o f w h i c h was Maud, n o t c o i n c i d e n t a l l y t h e most 

m a l i g n e d and l e a s t u n d e r s t o o d o f h i s major works. Of 

Tennyson's v o i c e , Anne T h a c k e r a y once remarked t h a t i t was 

" n o t u n l i k e an ocean's sound; i t f i l l s t h e room, i t ebbs and 

f l o w s away; and when we l e a v e i t i s w i t h a s t r a n g e m u s i c i n 

o u r e a r s , f e e l i n g t h a t we have, f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , p e r h a p s , 

h e a r d what we may have r e a d a hundred t i m e s b e f o r e " ( q t d . i n 
20 

R i c h a r d s o n 142). S e v e r a l o f t h o s e p e o p l e t r e a t e d t o 

Tennyson's r e a d i n g o f a poem i n p r o g r e s s , i n p a r t i c u l a r h i s 

w i f e , E m i l y , p r e f e r r e d t h a t i n o r d e r t o g e t t h e meaning 

s t r a i g h t t h e y have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e a d t h e poem f o r 
2 0 Tennyson and H i s F r i e n d s c o n t a i n s many p e o p l e ' s 

r e s p o n s e s t o h e a r i n g Tennyson r e a d ; i n g e n e r a l , h i s f r i e n d s 
c o n c u r i n d e s c r i b i n g Tennyson's v o i c e as deep c h e s t e d , 
m e l o d i o u s , i n c a n t a t o r y , and ( e n ) c h a n t i n g w i t h a p o w e r f u l 
a f f e c t i v e a b i l i t y t o move i t s l i s t e n e r s . As E m i l y R i t c h i e 
remarks "The r o l l o f h i s g r e a t v o i c e a c t e d sometimes a l m o s t 
l i k e an i n c a n t a t i o n , so t h a t when i t was a new poem he was 
r e a d i n g , t h e power o f r e a l i z i n g i t s a c t u a l n a t u r e was 
s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e wonder a t t h e sound o f t h e t o n e s " ( q t d . 
76) . 



458 

t h e m s e l v e s f i r s t . Of " E l a i n e , " E m i l y w r o t e i n h e r j o u r n a l 

t h a t i t " i s w e l l t o r e a d t h i n g s t o o n e s e l f w i t h o u t t h e glamour 

o f h i s r e a d i n g , w h i c h may b e g u i l e one" (unpub. mat. q t d . i n 

M a r t i n 425) . B e g u i l e m e n t i s c e r t a i n l y one o f t h e s e n s a t i o n s 

f e l t by t h e a u d i e n c e Tennyson i n c l u d e s i n "The E p i c " o f "Morte 

d ' A r t h u r " who " S a t r a p t " because o f " t h e t o n e " w i t h w h i c h 

E v e r a r d H a l l had r e a d t h e poem, and by t h e s p e a k e r who, i n h i s 

dreams, l a t e r merges A r t h u r w i t h a modern g e n t l e m a n , and t h e 

M i d d l e Ages w i t h h i s own. W e l l aware o f t h e i n c a n t a t o r y 

a t t r a c t i o n and even b e g u i l e m e n t o f h i s own v o i c e ' s " h o l l o w oes 

and a e s " ("The E p i c " 5 0 ) , Tennyson t r i e d t o i n f l u e n c e i f n o t 

a c t u a l l y c o n t r o l t h e a u d i t o r y r e c e p t i o n o f h i s poems i n 

p r i v a t e c i r c l e s i n a way t h a t he s i m p l y would n o t do by 

s u b m i t t i n g h i s works t o p u b l i c r e a d i n g s . The v a r i o u s 

r e s o n a n c e s o f h i s own v o i c e were t o make t h e m s e l v e s f e l t upon 

h i s immediate l i s t e n e r s so as t o c r e a t e moods o r s e n t i m e n t s 

w i t h i n w h i c h t h e c o n t e n t o f h i s poems were t o be f e l t as an 

e m o t i v e f o r c e , and n o t as i d e a t i o n a l argument. 

I n n o t i n g b o t h o f t h e s e p o e t s ' s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e m u s i c a l i t y 

o f t h e v o i c e ( p r i m a r i l y f e m a l e f o r L o n g f e l l o w ; h i s own f o r 

Tennyson) a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e must be made t o t h e f a c t t h a t 

b o t h men had e x t r e m e l y poor e y e s i g h t and l i v e d much o f t h e i r 

a d u l t l i v e s w i t h i n t h e r e a l m o f sounds and v o i c e s . F o r 

example, L o n g f e l l o w ' s second w i f e , Fanny, a f t e r h e r m a r r i a g e 

t o t h e p o e t i n 1843 was i m m e d i a t e l y p r e s s e d i n t o s e r v i c e as a 

t y p e o f amanuensis as would be E m i l y S e l l w o o d f o r Tennyson. 



459 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s e y e s i g h t had d e t e r i o r a t e d s e v e r e l y d u r i n g h i s 

honeymoon, o n l y t o be r e g a i n e d f o r f u l l use f o r one o r two 

d a y l i g h t h o u r s by March 1844 and t h e r e a f t e r ( L i f e I I 1 6 ) . F o r 

L o n g f e l l o w , as s i m i l a r l y f o r Tennyson, some o f t h e demand f o r 

o r a l r e a d i n g by h i s w i f e r a t h e r t h a n v i s u a l r e a d i n g by h i m s e l f 

was owing t o s e r i o u s eye t r o u b l e . I n h i s 1934 s e l e c t e d 

e d i t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y , O d e l l Shepard l i n k s t h e p o e t ' s 

s e e m i n g l y s i m p l i s t i c v e r s e t o t h e f a c t t h a t much o f t h e n e a r l y 

b l i n d L o n g f e l l o w ' s e x p o s u r e t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s t i m e came 

t o him v i a t h e eyes and v o i c e o f h i s w i f e . I n so d o i n g , 

Shepard t r i e s t o l e s s e n L o n g f e l l o w ' s c u l p a b i l i t y f o r h i s 

a l l e g e d i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f e t e n e s s . "Her l i t e r a r y t a s t e s as w e l l 

as h i s own may w e l l have been c o n s u l t e d i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f 

books f o r f i r e s i d e r e a d i n g " ( x x x i i i ) , Shepard adds, as i f now 

t o e x c u s e t h e p o e t from t h e c h a r g e s o f e f f e m i n a t e n e s s w h i c h 

Shepard h i m s e l f had p r e v i o u s l y l a i d t h r o u g h o u t h i s 

i n t r o d u c t i o n . 2 1 A p a r t from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e 

t o s u p p o r t Shepard's c l a i m c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t e x t s , 

h i s c h a r g e t h a t i t was o n l y i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l t h a t 

t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Fanny L o n g f e l l o w ' s v o i c e s h o u l d be r e g i s t e r e d 

f u r t h e r c o n f i n e s p o p u l a r p o e t r y and t h e i n f l u e n c e s upon i t 

2 1 -
O b v i o u s l y , no e d i t o r o f M i l t o n ' s would e v e r dream o f 

making such a c l a i m a g a i n s t P a r a d i s e L o s t even though i t was 
r e a d c o n s i s t e n t l y by t h e v o i c e s o f h i s d a u g h t e r s t o t h e b l i n d 
p o e t t h r o u g h o u t i t s c r e a t i o n . Female v o i c e s a r e o n l y f e l t t o 
have a n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e on p o e t s w r i t i n g i n a c e n t u r y i n 
w h i c h women were a t l a s t b e g i n n i n g t o be h e a r d i n g r e a t 
numbers c u l t u r a l l y and, l a t e r , p o l i t i c a l l y . 



w i t h i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f i d e a s , w i t h o u t a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e 

p o t e n t i a l p h y s i c a l e f f e c t o f t h e f e m a l e v o i c e i t s e l f upon 

p o p u l a r n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t r y . 

L i k e w i s e , a l l h i s l i f e Tennyson s u f f e r e d t h e t o r m e n t o f an 

e y e s i g h t t h a t was, a t b e s t , u n r e l i a b l e and, a t w o r s t , 

p o s i t i v e l y d i s t o r t i n g . On as many as s e v e n t e e n o c c a s i o n s , 

M a r t i n m e n t i o n s Tennyson's v i s u a l weakness, and g e n e r a l l y 

a l l u d e s t o what he i n t e r p r e t s as t h e h y p o c h o n d r i a c a l t e n d e n c y 

o f t h e Tennysons t o i n v e n t p h y s i c a l a i l m e n t s f o r p e r s o n a l , 
22 

p s y c h o l o g i c a l , and s o c i a l a b n o r m a l i t i e s . I n any c a s e , i t 

does n o t m a t t e r where Tennyson's impairment may be s a i d t o 

l i e , b u t r a t h e r how t h e p o e t chose t o compensate f o r t h e 

narrowness t h a t r e s t r i c t e d v i s i o n n e c e s s a r i l y imposed upon h i s 

l i f e , and t h e l i f e o f t h e v e r s e he bestowed upon h i s a u d i e n c e . 

I n l a r g e measure, t h i s c o m p e n s a t i o n came t h r o u g h Tennyson's 

a c u t e awareness o f t h e t r u l y p h y s i c a l q u a l i t y o f s o u n d — t h e 

t a c t i l e s e n s a t i o n s o f t h e music o f t h e v o i c e as i t 

r e v e r b e r a t e s i n t h e e a r s o f i t s l i s t e n e r s — a n d t h e e n s u i n g 

v i s c e r a l r e s p o n s e . The p o e t r y ' s i d e a s a r e t h e r e b y e n v e l o p e d 

i n a r e c e p t i v i t y so p r o f o u n d t h a t r e a d e r s c o u l d become p l i a n t 
2 2 See pages 25, 77, 83, 93-4, 121, 129, 139, 358, 379, 

394, 398, 485, 520, 538, 555, 563, and 574. I n t h e summer o f 
18 31 a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f h i s f a t h e r , Tennyson was so c e r t a i n 
t h a t he would l o s e h i s s i g h t t h a t he sought o u t one o f t h e 
b e s t s u r g e o n s i n London, Benjamin B r o d i e , who p r e s c r i b e d a 
" m i l k d i e t , " t h a t somehow was t h o u g h t t o have a i d e d Tennyson's 
r e c o v e r y ( 1 3 9 ) . 



t o t h e p o e t ' s e v e r y i d e a t i o n a l a l l u s i o n as i f i t were a 

demand. 

W h i l e d i f f e r e n t from L o n g f e l l o w ' s , Tennyson's awareness o f 

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p o e t i c m u s i c a l i t y o f t h e v o i c e as a 

means o f a c h i e v i n g p o p u l a r i t y a l s o came t o dominate t h e 

L a u r e a t e ' s p o e t i c p r a c t i c e . The impact o f t h e v o i c e as a 

f e a t u r e o f t h e r e c e p t i o n o f Tennyson's work i s b e s t 

u n d e r s t o o d , f o r example, i n r e l a t i o n t o R o b e r t Browning's 

f a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e a w i d e s p r e a d contemporary r e a d e r s h i p (a 

f a i l u r e w h i c h d i d n o t , i n c i d e n t a l l y , b e f a l l h i s w i f e ) . S i n c e 

most t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s c h o l a r s o f V i c t o r i a n l i t e r a t u r e assume 

t h a t p o e t s a c h i e v e d p o p u l a r i t y t h r o u g h t h e v o i c i n g o f 

c o n v e n t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s and b e l i e f s , w h i l e t h e y o v e r l o o k t h e 

v o i c e i t s e l f , James H a r t ' s f i n a l c o n c e s s i o n t o sound as a 

f e a t u r e o f v e r s e — p o p u l a r o r o t h e r w i s e — c o m e s as a welcome 

s u r p r i s e . Of Browning, H a r t w r i t e s t h a t h i s " v e r s e was o f t e n 

t o o gnomic, t h e language t o o condensed t o y i e l d q u o t a b l e l i n e s 

s u c h as t h e p u b l i c l i k e d . I t was a p o e t r y o f i d e a s r e q u i r i n g 

more t h a n one r e a d i n g f o r s e n s e , and i t was l a c k i n g i n t h e 

o b v i o u s music t h a t most p e o p l e equated w i t h p o e t r y " ( 1 3 1 - 2 ) . 

Y e t even i n t h i s f i n a l c o n c e s s i o n t o sound r a t h e r t h a n s e n s e , 

H a r t n o n e t h e l e s s c o n t i n u e s t o see n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t r y 

from a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y i n t e l l e c t u a l p o i n t o f v i e w , t h a t i s , 

w i t h i t s r e a d i n g p u b l i c s i m p l i s t i c a l l y demanding " q u o t a b l e 

l i n e s " and " o b v i o u s m u s i c . " H a r t does n o t r e g i s t e r a t a l l t h e 

e m o t i v e — a s opposed t o i d e a t i o n a l — d e m a n d s p u t upon t h e 



462 

m u s i c a l i t y o f v e r s e d e s i g n e d t o be r e a d a l o u d by a s i n g l e 

v o i c e w i t h i n a group o f l i s t e n e r s . 

I n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n , W i l l i a m R o s s e t t i ' s comments upon 

Tennyson and Browning r e a d i n g t h e i r work a l o u d on t h e same 

e v e n i n g o f f e r a u n i q u e , though a d m i t t e d l y s i n g u l a r , 

o p p o r t u n i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t r y as i t was 

h e a r d by a member o f i t s own a u d i e n c e . Of Tennyson's r e a d i n g 

o f Maud, R o s s e t t i n o t e d t h a t h i s "grand deep v o i c e sways 

onward w i t h a long-drawn c h a u n t , w h i c h some h e a r e r s m i g h t deem 

monotonous, b u t w h i c h g i v e s n o b l e v a l u e and emphasis t o t h e 

m e t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e and p a u s e s " ( q t d . i n M a r t i n 394). On t h e 

o t h e r hand, Browning's r e a d i n g o f " F r a L i p p o L i p p i " was s a i d 

by R o s s e t t i t o t a k e "much l e s s a c c o u n t o f t h e poem as a 

r h y t h m i c a l whole; h i s d e l i v e r y had more a f f i n i t y t o t h a t o f an 

a c t o r l a y i n g s t r e s s on a l l t h e l i g h t and shade o f t h e 

c o m p o s i t i o n — i t s t o u c h e s o f c h a r a c t e r , i t s c o n v e r s a t i o n a l 

p o i n t s , i t s d r a m a t i c g i v e - a n d - t a k e . I n t h o s e q u a l i t i e s o f 

e l o c u t i o n i n w h i c h Tennyson was s t r o n g , and aimed t o be 

s t r o n g , Browning was c o n t e n t e d l y weak; and v i c e v e r s a " ( q t d . 

i n M a r t i n 3 9 4 ) . F i t t i n g l y , i n r e g i s t e r i n g t h e i m p a c t o f 

Browning's d r a m a t i c v o i c e , R o s s e t t i a u t o m a t i c a l l y u s e s t h e 

v i s u a l image o f " l i g h t and shade" t o d e s c r i b e t h e p o e t i c 

t e n s i o n s o f Browning's r e a d i n g whereas he h e a r s Tennyson's 

v o i c e as an o s c i l l a t i o n o f " m e t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e and p a u s e s . " 

Tennyson once remarked t o W i l l i a m A l l i n g h a m t h a t i f " t h e 

p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e E n g l i s h language were f o r g o t t e n , Browning 



would be h e l d t h e g r e a t e s t o f modern p o e t s , h a v i n g t r e a t e d t h e 

g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s i n a p o w e r f u l manner" ( A l l i n g h a m 

290). L a t e r , Tennyson w i s h e d he c o u l d i n d i c a t e a f i x e d way o f 

p r o n o u n c i n g h i s v e r s e s , f o r " i t d o e s n ' t m a t t e r so much (he 

s a i d ) i n p o e t r y w r i t t e n f o r t h e i n t e l l e c t — a s much o f 

Browning's i s , p e r h a p s ; b u t i n mine i t ' s n e c e s s a r y t o know how 

t o sound i t p r o p e r l y " ( A l l i n g h a m 344) . A l l i n g h a m ' s numerous 

r e f e r e n c e s t h r o u g h o u t h i s D i a r y p o i n t t o Tennyson's 

p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h c l e a r , c o r r e c t p r o n u n c i a t i o n i n d i c a t i n g h i s 

a c u t e awareness o f sound as e l e m e n t a l t o t h e p r o p e r use o f 

l a n g u a g e . P r e s u m a b l y , o n l y Tennyson h i m s e l f knew how t o sound 

t h e language p r o p e r l y , e s p e c i a l l y when i t came t o h i s own 

poems. 

I n h i s b r i e f i n c l u s i o n i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p o p u l a r i t y 

o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t r y , Browning s h o u l d n o t be t h o u g h t 

o f as j u s t a n o t h e r v o i c e i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c h o i r t h a t 

i n c l u d e d Hemans, L o n g f e l l o w , and Tennyson as p o p u l a r s o l o i s t s . 

The more f a m i l i a r Browning, A r n o l d , Tennyson t r i o i n t h i s 

c e n t u r y , i n s t u d i e s such as E. D. H. Johnson's The A l i e n  

V i s i o n o f V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y , more t h a n amply p r o v i d e s scope f o r 

i n - d e p t h c o m p a r i s o n s and c o n t r a s t s among Tennyson and h i s 

" l i t e r a r y " c o u n t e r p a r t s i n i d e a t i o n a l t e r m s . Here, however, 

Tennyson i s t i e d t o h i s B r i t i s h p r e d e c e s s o r , Hemans, and h i s 

A m e r i c a n c o n t e m p o r a r y , L o n g f e l l o w , because t h e L a u r e a t e ' s 

p o p u l a r p o e t r y had an impact upon V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e s s i m i l a r 

t o Hemans's and L o n g f e l l o w ' s . T h i s impact Tennyson owed t o 



t h e e m o t i v e q u a l i t y o f t h e sound o f h i s v e r s e , and n o t because 

he was a p t t o emulate t h e r e a d y a c c e p t a n c e o f f a m i l i a r i d e a s 

and a t t i t u d e s t y p i c a l o f p o e t s more i m m e d i a t e l y p o p u l a r t h a n 

h i m s e l f . I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e a u d i t o r y i m p a c t o f Browning's 

work as a t y p e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l p o t e n c y a f f e c t i n g t h e minds o f 

i t s r e a d e r s , Tennyson's p o e t r y as a v i s c e r a l l y f e l t e m o t i v e 

f o r c e upon i t s l i s t e n e r s was a f o r c e w h i c h Tennyson a l o n e i n 

V i c t o r i a n B r i t a i n u n d e r s t o o d and came t o p e r f e c t . 

U l t i m a t e l y , t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l y r i c 

poems must be seen as a c o n d i t i o n g r a n t e d t o a p o e t ' s work by 

m a n i f o l d r e a d e r s who draw s u p p o r t from t h e t e x t i n q u e s t i o n on 

an e m o t i v e r a t h e r t h a n i d e a t i o n a l l e v e l . Whether t h e r e a r e 

i d e a s p r e s e n t w i t h i n a poem t h a t p r o v i d e e m o t i o n a l a s s u r a n c e 

i n t h e s t a t u s quo, as i n Hemans's "Graves o f a H o u s e h o l d " ; o r 

i d e a s a l l u d e d t o and i n d i r e c t l y s u p p o r t e d t h r o u g h t h e t o n a l 

q u a l i t i e s o f t h e v e r s e , as i n "A Psalm o f L i f e " ; o r i d e a s 

s u p p l i e d by t h e l i s t e n e r s i n a poem s u c h as "Break, b r e a k , 

b r e a k " because t h e l y r i c ' s sounds m a n i p u l a t e i t s r e a d e r s i n t o 

a s c r i b i n g p r e s e n c e where t h e r e i s o n l y v a c a n c y , i s a degree o f 

d i f f e r e n c e t h a t has l i t t l e o r no r e a l b e a r i n g on t h e e m p i r i c a l 

p o p u l a r i t y o f a g i v e n poem. The s o c i a l and h i s t o r i c a l 

c o n d i t i o n s o f V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s w i l l , i f prompted i n t o 

a c t i v i t y by t h e t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s o f sound w i t h i n t h e p o e t r y , 

d e t e r m i n e i d e a t i o n a l c o n t e n t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a u d i e n c e ' s own 

e m o t i o n a l needs when a p o e t , l i k e Tennyson, e i t h e r 

i n t e n t i o n a l l y o r u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y f a i l s t o p r e s c r i b e modes o f 



t h i n k i n g . I n t h e end, t h e "message, 1 1 as i t were, i s l i t t l e 

d i f f e r e n t f o r r e a d e r s o f Hemans, L o n g f e l l o w , o r Tennyson, o r 

e v e n — a t odd m o m e n t s — f o r r e a d e r s o f Browning: "'God's i n h i s 

h e a v e n — / A l l ' s r i g h t w i t h t h e w o r l d " ("Pippa P a s s e s " ) . 

The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p o e t i c v o i c e o v e r mere message as a 

d e t e r m i n i n g f e a t u r e o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r p o e t r y , 

t h e r e f o r e , s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d . T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y 

r e a d e r s ' n e g l e c t o f t h e a f f e c t i v e q u a l i t y o f n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y v e r s e has l e d t o a t o o easy d i s m i s s a l o f t h e most 

p o p u l a r V i c t o r i a n poems as i n s i p i d s e n t i m e n t a l i s m w i t h o u t 

s e r i o u s r e g a r d f o r t h e v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f a c t i v i t y r e a d e r s 

must engage i n t o a c h i e v e e m o t i o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n from t h e 

poems t h e y r e a d o r h e a r — i n t h e company o f o t h e r s o r a l o n e . 

T h i s degree o f a c t i v i t y on t h e p a r t o f l i s t e n e r s was s e l f -

c o n s c i o u s l y a n t i c i p a t e d i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o e t i c 

p r a c t i c e . I t i n f l u e n c e d t h e p h y s i c a l v o i c e t h a t each p o e t 

a d o p t e d f o r h i s poems, l y r i c and n a r r a t i v e a l i k e . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p r i n c i p a l v o i c e s h o u l d t h u s be c o n s i d e r e d as 

" f e m i n i n e " i n t o n e though n o t d e n i g r a t e d f o r t h i s q u a l i t y , nor 

s i m p l i s t i c a l l y c o n f u s e d w i t h seeming " f e m i n i n e " s e n t i m e n t s as 

i t has been by most o f h i s t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s . I t 

spoke e q u a l l y from h i s sense o f m i s s i o n t o c r e a t e i n A m e r i c a 

c u l t u r a l c o h e s i o n o u t o f e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y . Tennyson's v o i c e , 

on t h e o t h e r hand, s h o u l d be t h o u g h t o f as "androgynous," i n 

e f f e c t more v a r i o u s l y p i t c h e d t h a n h i s A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r p a r t ' s 

and t h e r e b y more r e s o n a n t o f t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f h i s r e a d e r s 



i n E n g l a n d t h a n L o n g f e l l o w ' s . These p o e t s ' v o i c e s a r e 

d e s c r i b e d i n gender terms n o t because t h e y a l w a y s o r 

a b s o l u t e l y spoke i n p h y s i c a l ways t h a t s u g g e s t a g e n d e r i z e d 

p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e m s e l v e s as s p e a k e r s o r o f t h e gender b i a s e s 

o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a u d i e n c e s as l i s t e n e r s . R a t h e r , t h e i r 

v o i c e s a r e e i t h e r " f e m i n i n e " o r "androgynous" d e p e n d i n g on t h e 

awareness t h a t each h e l d o f t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e s e p a r a t e 

s p h e r e i d e o l o g y (which g r a n t e d women m o r a l a u t h o r i t y b o t h i n 

and o u t o f t h e home w h i l e men p u r s u e d s o c i a l , economic, and 

p o l i t i c a l power) m i g h t f i n d e x p r e s s i o n d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y 

w i t h i n t h e i r p o e t i c t e x t s . That i s , w h i l e b o t h L o n g f e l l o w and 

Tennyson i d e o l o g i c a l l y s u p p o r t e d a t t i t u d e s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t 

from Hemans's i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t , i n t h e i r r o l e s as w i v e s and 

mothers, women were t h e p u b l i c l y s a n c t i o n e d g u a r d i a n s o f 

s p i r i t u a l p u r i t y , t h e degree t o w h i c h each p o e t spoke d i r e c t l y 

from w i t h i n o r was p r e p a r e d t o q u e s t i o n t h a t i d e o l o g y 

d i f f e r e d . 

E s s e n t i a l l y , L o n g f e l l o w u s u r p e d a " f e m i n i n e " v o i c e i n so 

f a r as he s t r o v e a t t h e o u t s e t o f h i s c a r e e r t o f a s h i o n h i s 

p o e t r y from w i t h i n and a g a i n s t a p o p u l a r f e m a l e t r a d i t i o n . He 

l a t e r r e s h a p e d t h i s t r a d i t i o n t o h i s own ends by w o r k i n g upon 

h i s n a t i o n ' s f e e l i n g s t h r o u g h a p o e t i c m u s i c t h a t c o u l d 

c o n t a i n a l l o f t h e most p o w e r f u l f e a t u r e s o f t h e p h y s i c a l 

f e m a l e v o i c e i t s e l f w i t h o u t t h e " s i n g song" measures t h a t 

p o p u l a r f e m a l e p o e t s had, i n h i s mind, somehow assumed as 

t h e i r own. Tennyson, on t h e o t h e r hand, ( f o r a l l h i s " s c h o o l 



m i s s A l f r e d " q u a l i t i e s ) i n i t i a l l y d e r i v e d h i s p o e t i c v o i c e 

from w i t h i n a male academic t r a d i t i o n o f p o e t i c m u s i c ( K e a t s 

and S h e l l e y t r a n s m i t t e d v i a t h e A p o s t l e s ) . Once drawn t o t h e 

d o m e s t i c s e n t i m e n t s o f women, Tennyson embedded t h o s e 

s e n t i m e n t s i n r o m a n t i c l u x u r i e s o f v e r s e t h a t women, as 

consumers o f p o e t r y , c o u l d r e a d i l y a p p l a u d . U n l i k e 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s , t h e androgynous v o i c e o f Tennyson's l y r i c p o e t r y 

r e m a i n e d h i s own. Y e t i t was v a r i o u s l y m o d u l a t e d t o e l i c i t 

e m o t i v e r e s p o n s e s from many d i f f e r e n t l i s t e n e r s — f e m a l e and 

male a l i k e — w i l l i n g t o g r a n t t h e p o e t t h e l i c e n c e t o move them 

t o s u p p o r t s e n t i m e n t s t h a t Tennyson's h o s t i l e r e v i e w e r s (and 

t h o s e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s o n l y t o o r e a d y t o e x c i s e t h e 

f e m i n i n e from Tennyson's v o i c e ) w i s h e d t h e p o e t n e v e r f e l t 

c o m p e l l e d t o e n t e r t a i n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , Tennyson r a r e l y i f e v e r 

spoke o u t d i r e c t l y and w i t h o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n h i s own v o i c e 

i n s u p p o r t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s t h a t c o n v e n i e n t l y 

r e s t r i c t e d women t o t h e home. R a t h e r , and h e r e i n l i e s h i s 

e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e from more i m m e d i a t e l y and e m p i r i c a l l y 

p o p u l a r p o e t s t h a n h i m s e l f , Tennyson p e r s u a d e d h i s r e a d e r s 

t h r o u g h s h i f t s and changes i n t h e p o e t i c m u s i c o f h i s t e x t s t o 

work a c t i v e l y t h e m s e l v e s , t o s u p p l y t h e i d e o l o g i c a l 

s i g n i f i c a n c e he o b l i q u e l y i n t e n d s b u t seldom g i v e s . S i m i l a r 

d i f f e r e n c e s i n v o i c e and m o t i v e a r e a l s o t r u e o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

and Tennyson's p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e poems, d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t 

c h a p t e r . 



468 

CHAPTER SIX 

THE NINETEENTH-CENTURY POPULAR NARRATIVE POEM 

O l d and y e t e v e r new, and s i m p l e and b e a u t i f u l a l w a y s , 
Love i m m o r t a l and young i n t h e e n d l e s s s u c c e s s i o n o f l o v e r s . 

— L o n g f e l l o w 
( M i l e s S t a n d i s h IX 91-2) 

So t h e s e were wed, and m e r r i l y r a n g t h e b e l l s , 
And m e r r i l y r a n t h e y e a r s , seven happy y e a r s , 

Then came a change, as a l l t h i n g s human change. 
— T e n n y s o n 
(Enoch Arden 80-81, 101) 

Throughout i t s l o n g h i s t o r y , E n g l i s h p o e t r y has been 

p e o p l e d by an e n d l e s s s u c c e s s i o n o f l o v e r s . I f t h e s e l o v e r s 

p r o c e e d t o m a r r i a g e , t h e i r u n i o n has u s u a l l y been f o r t h e 

p u r p o s e s o f t e x t u a l c l o s u r e , a ready-made comic r e s o l u t i o n t o 

t h e m a t i c and s t r u c t u r a l dilemmas. L o n g f e l l o w ' s The C o u r t s h i p  

o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h (1858) and Tennyson's Enoch Arden ( 1 8 6 4 ) — 

p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e poems o f t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d — w o r k w i t h i n 

and a g a i n s t t h i s p r e s e t paradigm. John A l d e n ' s and P r i s c i l l a 

M u l l e n ' s m a r r i a g e i n t h e l a s t book o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h s e c u r e s 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s poem w i t h i n t h i s comic t r a d i t i o n . As s u c h , M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h may be s a i d t o meet e n t i r e l y t h i s f e a t u r e o f i t s 

a u d i e n c e ' s l i t e r a r y h o r i z o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s . However, a 

c o n c u r r e n t f o r c e i n t h e poem i s m a r t i a l n o t m a r i t a l . The 

t i t u l a r h e r o ' s b r u t a l w a r r i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s d e t e r s r e a d e r s ' 

c o m f o r t a b l e s e t t l e m e n t w i t h i n t h i s t e x t . A n a l y s i s o f t h e 

p o p u l a r i t y o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h has t h e r e f o r e t o c o n s i d e r t h e 

poem's p o p u l a r a p p e a l i n r e l a t i o n t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n t r i c a t e 



b a l a n c e between t h e two o p p o s i n g t e n d e n c i e s t o w a r d l o v e and 

t h e d e s t r u c t i o n a t i t s h e a r t . Tennyson's Enoch Arden meets 

i t s a u d i e n c e ' s l i t e r a r y e x p e c t a t i o n s by b e i n g a l s o , i n p a r t , 

d r i v e n by t h e f o r c e s o f l o v e l e a d i n g t o m a r r i a g e . However, 

Tennyson's A n n i e Lee m a r r i e s w i t h i n t h e p o e m — n o t a t i t s e n d — 

and n o t once b u t t w i c e . A l s o n o t m a r i t a l , t h e c o u n t e r v a i l i n g 

winds o f m e r c a n t i l i s m blow s t o r m s i n Enoch Arden. Hence f o r 

i t s t i t u l a r h e r o , f i s h e r m a n and f i r s t husband, t h e poem's 

r e s o l u t i o n i n a second m a r r i a g e i s t h e r e f o r e n o t comic b u t 

p a t h e t i c a l l y t r a g i c . Enoch i s f o r c e d t o l i v e n o t one " d e a t h -

i n - l i f e " b u t two b e f o r e h i s own a c t u a l d e a t h . The p o p u l a r i t y 

o f Tennyson's poem a l s o has, t h e r e f o r e , t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n 

terms o f i t s o p p o s i n g t e n d e n c i e s t o w a r d r e s o l u t i o n and 

d i s s o l u t i o n a t i t s h e a r t . I n b o t h t h e s e poems, t h e o p e r a t i v e 

mood s u r r o u n d i n g t h e l o v e t r i a n g l e s a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r 

p l o t s i s p a t h o s , more p e j o r a t i v e l y known as s e n t i m e n t a l i t y . 

T h i s mood and t h e d o m e s t i c s o l u t i o n s sought t o t h e m a t i c 

dilemmas e n s u r e d a d i f f e r e n t though no l e s s r e m a r k a b l e 

p o p u l a r i t y f o r each poem. 

The s i m i l a r i t i e s o f p l o t and method i n M i l e s S t a n d i s h and 

Enoch Arden make them i d e a l l y s u i t e d f o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e 

t r a n s a t l a n t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e poem. B o t h p l o t s i n v o l v e l o v e t r i a n g l e s i n 

w h i c h t h e d o m e s t i c h e a r t h s o f t h e p r i z e d w o m e n — P r i s c i l l a and 

A n n i e — a r e t h e t h e m a t i c c e n t r e s . The h e r o e s — M i l e s S t a n d i s h 

and Enoch A r d e n — l e a v e t h e i r communities and t r a v e l t o t h e 



" e x o t i c " m a r g i n s , o n l y i n t h e end t o l o s e t h e women t o t h e 

o t h e r m e n — J o h n A l d e n and P h i l i p Ray—who a r e c l o s e r 

s t r u c t u r a l l y t o t h e c e n t r e t h a n t h e y a r e . These h e r o e s r e t u r n 

a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n s as men b r o u g h t back "from t h e dead" w i t h 

t h e p o t e n t i a l t o d i s r u p t d o m e s t i c peace and s t a b i l i t y , 

a l t h o u g h t h i s does n o t e x p l i c i t l y happen i n e i t h e r poem. 

The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e men i s s i m i l a r a l t h o u g h t h e 

women d i f f e r . The t i t u l a r h e r o e s b o t h conform t o a t y p i c a l l y 

m a s c u l i n e i d e a l o f p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h , a c t i v i t y and s t u b b o r n 

r e s o l v e . The " o t h e r " men a r e f i g u r e d i n more f e m i n i n e t e r m s : 

weak, p h y s i c a l l y p a s s i v e , and l o n g s u f f e r i n g i n t h e i r 

a b n e g a t i o n o f s e l f . The women, however, d i f f e r i n r e l a t i o n t o 

t h e r e s p e c t i v e s o c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s upon them. Because 

P r i s c i l l a i s n o t even b e t r o t h e d t o M i l e s S t a n d i s h , she can 

w i t h a c l e a r c o n s c i e n c e a c t i v e l y e x p r e s s h e r d e s i r e s . I t i s 

John A l d e n who assumes t h e b a t t l e between l o v e and d u t y ( i n 

t h i s c a s e t o h i s f r i e n d ) . A n n i e , on t h e o t h e r hand, i s bound 

by h e r f o r m e r m a r r i a g e t o Enoch. The c o n f l i c t between h e r 

l e g a l and m o r a l d u t y t o h e r husband and h e r l o v e f o r P h i l i p 

c o n f i n e s h e r t o s t a s i s f o r most o f t h e poem. 

I n s e t t i n g and mood, M i l e s S t a n d i s h and Enoch A r d e n a l s o 

r e v e a l some s i m i l a r i t i e s ; y e t , t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s h e r e s u g g e s t 

d i v e r g e n c e on n a t i o n a l i s t i c grounds. B o t h poems a r e s e t i n a 

p r e i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d o f s m a l l communities and c o l l e c t i v e 

awareness. Through l u s h d e s c r i p t i o n , b o t h s e t t i n g s o v e r t l y 

r e c a l l e d e n i c i n n o c e n c e ; however, a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n t h e s e 



c o m m u n i t i e s c o v e r t l y t h r e a t e n t h i s i n n o c e n c e a t e v e r y t u r n . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s v i l l a g e o f P l y m o u t h Rock i s more s o c i o l o g i c a l l y 

s i m p l e t h a n Tennyson's f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s i n c e t h i s i s A m e r i c a ' s 

e a r l i e s t w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t . S o c i a l c o n f l i c t s i n t h i s c a s e 

i n v o l v e r e l i g i o n and r a c e as t h e P u r i t a n s d e t e r m i n e t o c o n v e r t 

t h e h e a t h e n I n d i a n s , by t h e g o s p e l o f cannon f i r e i f needs be. 

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , Tennyson's E n g l i s h community i s s t r u c t u r e d on 

c l a s s r e l a t i o n s and t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c f o r c e s t h a t d e t e r m i n e 

f a t e and f o r t u n e . A l t h o u g h d i s s i m i l a r i n t y p e , t h e s o c i a l 

t e n s i o n s i n b o t h poems c o n c l u d e w i t h each h e r o ' s 

r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e x t e r n a l f o r c e s i n f a v o u r o f an i n t e r n a l , 

s p i r i t u a l c o n v e r s i o n t h a t i s b r o u g h t about i n each c a s e by a 

s a c r i f i c e o f s e l f t o e n s u r e t h e d o m e s t i c h a p p i n e s s o f t h e 

l o v e d woman. The u l t i m a t e mood i n M i l e s S t a n d i s h and Enoch  

A r d e n i s s e n t i m e n t a l t r u s t i n t h e i n t r i n s i c goodness o f each 

i n d i v i d u a l and h e r o r h i s r o l e i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e w e l l - b e i n g o f 

t h e community. L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson approached s o c i a l 

i s s u e s from d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s based on t h e p r e o c c u p a t i o n s 

o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n s . However, t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t h e y 

d e r i v e d from t h e s e i s s u e s and t h e t e c h n i q u e s t h e y used t o 

i n v o l v e t h e i r r e a d e r s i n t h o s e c o n c l u s i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y 



472 

s i m i l a r . M i l e s S t a n d i s h and Enoch Arden a r e b o t h d o m e s t i c 

a l l e g o r i e s . 1 

As c h a p t e r one p o i n t s o u t , t h e volumes i n w h i c h t h e t i t l e 

poems a p p e a r e d e n j o y e d g r e a t c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s . F i v e 

t h o u s a n d o f t h e 20,000 c o p i e s p r i n t e d o f t h e A m e r i c a n e d i t i o n 

o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h s o l d i n B o s t o n a l o n e on t h e f i r s t day o f 

p u b l i c a t i o n , 10,000 o f t h e B r i t i s h e d i t i o n i n London. G i v e n 

t h e poem's m a r t i a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r , L o n g f e l l o w f i t t i n g l y n o t e d 

i n h i s j o u r n a l t h a t i n a l l he had s o l d "an army o f t w e n t y - f i v e 

t h o u s a n d i n one week" ( L i f e I I 327) . Enoch A r d e n was even 

more s u c c e s s f u l : 17,000 o f t h e 60,000 B r i t i s h f i r s t e d i t i o n 

s o l d t h e f i r s t day, 40,000 w i t h i n f o u r months, and t h e whole 

60,000 two months l a t e r (Hagen 112). I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , 

Enoch Arden was f a r and away Tennyson's b e s t s e l l i n g volume: 

i n f i v e y e a r s , i t s o l d an amazing 119,028 c o p i e s i n f o r t y - o n e 

p r i n t i n g s ( T r y o n " N a t i o n a l i s m " 397) . Moreover, w h i l e M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h was c r i t i c i z e d f o r i t s hexameter meter, and Enoch  

Arden p r o v o k e d debate c o n c e r n i n g t h e m o r a l i t y o f bigamy, b o t h 

poems g e n e r a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a p p l a u s e from t h e r e v i e w e r s . 2 

1 D o m e s t i c a l l e g o r y i s a t e r m used l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r 
t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r p u r p o s e s u n d e r l y i n g 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's i d y l s as opposed t o t h o s e o f t h e 
m u l t i p l e p o e t i c g e n r e s each drew on. The v a r i o u s f e a t u r e s o f 
d o m e s t i c a l l e g o r y t h e r e f o r e a r e d i s c u s s e d as t h e y o c c u r . 

2 
A l t h o u g h n o t e x p l i c i t l y condemnatory, d i s a p p r o v i n g 

v o i c e s c o u l d be h e a r d i n t h e r e v i e w s o f b o t h poems. As Ghodes 
p o i n t s o u t , B r i t i s h and A m e r i c a n c r i t i c s g e n e r a l l y d i s l i k e d 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s hexameters (American 110). And M i l e s S t a n d i s h 
d i d n o t have t h e n o v e l t y o f E v a n g e l i n e (1847) t o a s s i s t i t on 
t h i s s c o r e . B r i t i s h c r i t i c s were u s u a l l y more a p t t h a n 
A m e r i c a n s t o condemn even w h i l e p r a i s i n g . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e 



473 

Indeed, i n 1970, P a t r i c k S c o t t was more t h a n j u s t i f i e d i n 

naming Enoch A r d e n "A V i c t o r i a n B e s t - S e l l e r " i n h i s a r t i c l e o f 

t h e same name. 

Y e t S c o t t ' s i n d e p t h - t r e a t m e n t o f Enoch Arden as a poem 

and, f u r t h e r s t i l l , as a p o p u l a r poem i s r a r e . I f m e n t i o n e d 

a t a l l by t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Tennyson s c h o l a r s ( o f t e n i t i s 

n e g l e c t e d a l t o g e t h e r ) , Enoch Arden i s u s u a l l y used t o 

i l l u s t r a t e t h e a l l e g e d m e d i o c r i t y o f Tennyson's " p u b l i c " 

v e r s e . 3 The p r o b l e m , i n t h i s c a s e , seems t o stem from two 

s o u r c e s : a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y d i s t a s t e f o r t h e p o e t i c g e n r e o f 

t h e " i d y l " i t s e l f , 4 and a s u s p i c i o n o f poems t h a t g e n e r a t e 

r e v i e w e r f o r Chamber's J o u r n a l (Nov 1858) c a l l s L o n g f e l l o w ' s 
hexameters i n M i l e s S t a n d i s h "baggy, l e n g t h y , u n c o m f o r t a b l e , " 
b u t adds t h a t even though " t h e metre i s f a u l t y . . . t h e s t o r y 
i s n a r r a t e d w i t h a s i m p l i c i t y a l m o s t s e v e r e , and n o t w i t h o u t a 
moderate s p r i n k l i n g o f p o e t i c a l t h o u g h t s " (Cameron 6 1 ) . 
W a l t e r Bagehot's c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e o r n a t e language i n Enoch  
Arden ("Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Browning: o r , P u r e , O r n a t e , 
and G r o t e s q u e A r t i n E n g l i s h P o e t r y " N a t i o n a l Review Nov 18 64 
i n Jump 282-93), were u n u s u a l . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e c o n s i s t e n t 
r e p r i n t i n g o f and r e f e r e n c e t o Bagehot's a r t i c l e , and t o 
G e r a r d Manley H o p k i n s ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e " P a r n a s s i a n " i n 
Tennyson's poem (as opposed t o any " i n s p i r a t i o n " ) have l e d t o 
a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l 
r e c e p t i o n o f Enoch Arden. 

3 E x c e p t i o n s o t h e r t h a n S c o t t ' s i n c l u d e V a l e r i e P i t t ' s 
Tennyson L a u r e a t e , Thomas J . Assad's "On t h e M a j o r Poems i n 
Tennyson's 'Enoch A r d e n ' Volume," W i l l i a m E. Fredeman's "'The 
Sphere o f Common D u t i e s ' : The Domestic S o l u t i o n i n Tennyson's 
P o e t r y , " Douglas F r i c k e ' s "A Study o f Myth and A r c h e t y p e i n 
'Enoch A r d e n ' , " and Donald H a i r ' s The Domestic and H e r o i c i n  
Tennyson's P o e t r y . 

4 Tennyson used e i t h e r a s i n g l e o r d o u b l e "11," i d y l l , t o 
r e f e r t o poems as d i s t i n c t as h i s E n g l i s h ( d o m e s t i c ) i d y l s o f 
1842, t h e I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g , and t h e i d y l l s o f t h e Enoch  
Arden volume, i n c l u d i n g t h e t i t l e poem. F o r t h e E v e r s l e y 
e d i t i o n o f h i s f a t h e r ' s work, H a l l a m Tennyson a d o p t e d t h e 
s i n g l e " 1 " s p e l l i n g f o r t h e E n g l i s h i d y l s t o d i s t i n g u i s h them 



p o p u l a r a c c l a i m . As a s e p a r a t e t e x t , L o n g f e l l o w ' s M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h has n o t borne t h e p a r t i c u l a r b r u n t o f t w e n t i e t h -

c e n t u r y c r i t i c i s m s i m p l y because n e a r l y t h e e n t i r e L o n g f e l l o w 

canon has been i n d i c t e d as "merely p o p u l a r . " W i t h t h e 

e x c e p t i o n o f a h a n d f u l o f l y r i c s and s o n n e t s , L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

w o r k — e s p e c i a l l y h i s n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y — s e l d o m r e c e i v e s s e r i o u s 

s c h o l a r l y a t t e n t i o n . 5 F u l l - l e n g t h s t u d i e s s u c h as Newton 

A r v i n ' s L o n g f e l l o w : H i s L i f e and Work (1962), C e c i l B. 

W i l l i a m s ' s Henry Wadsworth L o n g f e l l o w (1964), Edward H i r s c h ' s 

Henry Wadsworth L o n g f e l l o w (1964), and Edward Wagenknecht's 

Henry Wadsworth L o n g f e l l o w : H i s P o e t r y and P r o s e (1986) 

p e r f o r c e m e n t i o n M i l e s S t a n d i s h , b u t o f t h e s e l a r g e l y 

b i o c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s , none examines t h e methods o f t h e i d y l o f 

A m e r i c a ' s e a r l i e s t s e t t l e r s , i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s p o p u l a r i t y . 

Tennyson's and L o n g f e l l o w ' s i d y l s a p p a r e n t l y f o c u s on such 

mundane s u b j e c t s as l o v e and d o m e s t i c i t y , and i n s u c h a 

m e l o d r a m a t i c f a s h i o n , t h a t b o t h poems have been e f f e c t i v e l y 

b u r i e d as m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y a l l e g e d l y more 

n a i v e t h a n t o d a y ' s . However, i f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 

p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d i s t o be f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d , 

from t h e I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g . The s i n g l e " 1 " s p e l l i n g i s used 
h e r e t o d e s i g n a t e t h e contemporary as opposed t o t h e M e d i e v a l 
poems. 

5 R o b e r t F e r g u s o n ' s " L o n g f e l l o w ' s P o l i t i c a l F e a r s : C i v i c 
A u t h o r i t y and t h e R o l e o f t h e A r t i s t i n Hiawatha and M i l e s  
S t a n d i s h " i s a n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n . 



t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e poem, as a g e n r e , 

needs t o be d i s i n t e r r e d . 

D e f i n i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e poem i s 

more d i f f i c u l t t h a n might f i r s t appear. Once t h e p r e c i s e 

n a t u r e o f t h e p r o d u c t — p o e t i c n a r r a t i v e — i s d e t e r m i n e d , t h a t 

p r o d u c t must t h e n be a n a l y z e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f i t s 

c o n s u m p t i o n — i t s r e c i p i e n t s ' a c t i v i t y and p a s s i v i t y i n t h e 

g e n e r a t i o n o f m e a n i n g — i n o r d e r t o gage t h e l o c u s o f t h e 

poem's p o p u l a r a p p e a l . H i s t o r i c a l o r t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s o f 

n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y w r i t t e n i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a r e r a r e . 

I n d e e d , t h e r e c e n t E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f Hermann F i s c h e r ' s 

R o m a n t i s c h e V e r s e r z a h l u n g i n E n g l a n d (1964 pub. 1991) i s one 

o f a v e r y few s t u d i e s o f t h i s g e n r e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , F i s c h e r 

c o n f i n e s h i m s e l f t o Romantic t e x t s , t h e most p o p u l a r o f t h e s e 

b e i n g S i r W a l t e r S c o t t ' s The Lav o f t h e L a s t M i n s t r e l . 

F i s c h e r c o n t e n d s t h a t a f t e r S c o t t ' s p o p u l a r i t y waned, c r i t i c s 

s u c h as C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h i n t h e e a r l y 1830s j u s t l y d e a l t t h e 

g e n r e i t s " f i n a l blow: t h e r o m a n t i c t a l e i n v e r s e was exposed 

as l i g h t p o e t r y f o r t h e masses, and even i f , up t o t h e end o f 

t h e c e n t u r y , i t was r e p e a t e d l y r e s u r r e c t e d by p o e t s such as 

M a c a u l a y , Matthew A r n o l d , Tennyson, and B r o w n i n g , i t s heyday 

was o v e r — t h e m e t r i c a l romance d i e d w i t h t h e r o m a n t i c 

movement" ( 2 2 0 ) . To F i s c h e r ' s l i s t c o u l d be added P h i l i p 

B a i l e y ( F e s t u s ) , E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t B r o w n i n g , A r t h u r Hugh 

C l o u g h , C o v e n t r y Patmore, C h r i s t i n a R o s s e t t i , W i l l i a m M o r r i s , 

and A l g e r n o n C h a r l e s Swinburne. W i t h a l m o s t a l l V i c t o r i a n 



476 

p o e t s a t t e m p t i n g n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y o f some d e s c r i p t i o n a t some 

p o i n t i n t h e i r c a r e e r s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t t h a t 

w h a t e v e r p o i s o n t h e c r i t i c s had a d m i n i s t e r e d k i l l e d t h e genre 

as " s e r i o u s " p o e t r y . On t h e c o n t r a r y , n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y had 

m e r e l y changed form. 

The o p p o s i t i o n t h a t F i s c h e r o u t l i n e s i n t h e Romantic 

p e r i o d — b e t w e e n t h e l o n g , e p i c - l i k e v e r s e t a l e s o f S c o t t , 

B y r o n , and Southey and t h e l y r i c a l forms o f K e a t s and 

S h e l l e y — c o l l a p s e d i n t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d . Moreover, 

d o m e s t i c s t r a i n s were added t o t h e g e n r e , as b e f i t t e d t h e 

V i c t o r i a n a u d i e n c e s f o r whom n a r r a t i v e poems were w r i t t e n . 

The form now i n c o r p o r a t e d v a r i o u s p o e t i c t y p e s a c c o r d i n g t o 

t h e p r e d i l e c t i o n s o f t h e i r c r e a t o r s : b a l l a d , p a s t o r a l , l y r i c , 

romance, e p i c , drama, and p r o s e . Perhaps t h e p r o d u c t s t h a t 

V i c t o r i a n p o e t s p u b l i s h e d were l e s s " p u r e " t h a n t h o s e o f t h e 

R o m a n t i c s , b u t t h e i r d i v e r s i t y and p r o l i f e r a t i o n a t t e s t t o t h e 

c o n t i n u e d i n t e r e s t t h r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r y — a t a l l c l a s s 

l e v e l s — i n p o e t i c n a r r a t i v e as a u n i q u e g e n r e . 6 

6 Rod Edmonds's A f f a i r s o f t h e H e a r t h i s one o f t h e few 
s t u d i e s o f what Edmonds terms a "new k i n d o f n a r r a t i v e poem 
w h i c h emerged i n t h e 1840s" ( 3 5 ) . Edmonds's d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s 
i l l u s t r a t i v e examples i s as v a r i e d and w i d e - r a n g i n g as h i s 
c h o i c e s : A u r o r a L e i g h , t h e G o b l i n M a r k e t . The B o t h i e o f T o b e r - 
n a - V u o l i c h , The P r i n c e s s and Modern Love, chosen because o f 
t h e i r o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s more t h a n t h e i r a p p a r e n t 
s i m i l a r i t i e s . Edmonds's work i s l e s s s a t i s f y i n g , however, as 
an i n - d e p t h s t u d y o f t h e development o f V i c t o r i a n n a r r a t i v e 
p o e t r y s i n c e h i s p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t i s v i s u a l ; he l o o k s a t 
p o e t r y i n r e l a t i o n t o V i c t o r i a n g e n r e p a i n t i n g and t h e 
i d e o l o g i c a l u n d e r p i n n i n g s o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n s between them. He 
t h e r e f o r e i d e n t i f i e s t h e s e poems as s i g n i f i c a n t commentary 
upon V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f t h e i r 
p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i t h i n and a g a i n s t a g e n r e t r a d i t i o n t h a t 



The s u c c e s s f u l a d m i x t u r e o f p o e t i c t y p e s , r e a d i l y 

c o n f o r m i n g t o p r o t e a n r e a d e r s ' l i t e r a r y e x p e c t a t i o n s , h e l p e d 

t o make b o t h L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's n a r r a t i v e p o e m s — 

t h e i r " i d y l s " — t r u l y p o p u l a r . S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , i d y l s s h o u l d 

f o l l o w p a s t o r a l t r a d i t i o n as s o n g - l i k e , l y r i c a l d e p i c t i o n s o f 

wholesome r u r a l l i f e . The s e v e r a l o t h e r g e n r e s t h a t i n t r u d e 

on b o t h o f t h e s e poems make " i d y l " a c o n v e n i e n t , i f l e s s t h a n 

a c c u r a t e l a b e l , b u t i d y l has t h e advantage o f b e i n g a t e r m 

t h a t b o t h L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson u s e d t o d e s c r i b e M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h and Enoch Arden. 

On 2 December 1857, L o n g f e l l o w n o t e d i n h i s j o u r n a l t h a t he 

had o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n M i l e s S t a n d i s h as a drama "some t i m e 

ago." He had i n f a c t w r i t t e n t h e " f i r s t scene o f The 

C o u r t s h i p o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h " i n December 1856 ( L i f e I I 2 8 9 ) . 

But he d e c i d e d t o b e g i n t h e work a g a i n a y e a r l a t e r . 

" P r i s c i l l a , " as i t was now c a l l e d , was t o be "a k i n d o f 

P u r i t a n P a s t o r a l . " L o n g f e l l o w added: " T h i s , I t h i n k , w i l l be 

a b e t t e r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t t h a n t h e d r a m a t i c one" ( L i f e 

I I 310-11). The n e x t day, L o n g f e l l o w r e f e r r e d t o t h e poem as 

i t was e v e n t u a l l y t o appear: "My poem i s i n h e x a m e t e r s , an 

i d y l o f O l d C o l o n y t i m e s " ( 3 1 1 ) . By March, t h e o r i g i n a l name 

o f " M i l e s S t a n d i s h " had been r e s t o r e d . I n sum, L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

mix o f g e n r e s — d r a m a , p a s t o r a l , and i d y l — a n d h i s s h i f t i n g 

t i t l e — f r o m M i l e s S t a n d i s h t o P r i s c i l l a and back a g a i n — r e v e a l 

r e a c h e s as f a r back as T h e o c r i t u s ' s p a s t o r a l s . 



478 

t h e poem as two s k e i n s woven t o g e t h e r : t h e d r a m a t i c a c t i o n o f 

M i l e s S t a n d i s h ' s a d v e n t u r e s and t h e i d y l l i c romance o f John 

A l d e n and t h e P u r i t a n maid, P r i s c i l l a . 

A l t h o u g h s c h o l a r s have l e s s a c c e s s t o Tennyson's methods o f 

c o m p o s i t i o n (as opposed t o h i s p u r p o r t e d s o u r c e s ) t h a n 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s , r e a d e r s o f Enoch Arden can a l s o r e c o g n i z e i t s 

b l e n d o f a t l e a s t two p o e t i c g e n r e s : t h e h e r o i s m o f e p i c 

p o e t r y and Tennyson's s e l f - s t y l e d d o m e s t i c i d y l o f t h e 1840s. 

L i k e L o n g f e l l o w ' s poem, Tennyson's p o e t i c d u a l i s m i s a l s o 

l i n k e d t o : changes i n t i t l e . E m i l y Tennyson r e f e r r e d t o t h e 

poem as "Enoch A r d e n " i n h e r d i a r y (11 Dec 1861 and 1 Feb 

18 62) , a l t h o u g h Tennyson o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o t h e poem as s i m p l y 

"The F i s h e r m a n , " a t i t l e s u g g e s t e d by Thomas Woolner who had 

p r o v i d e d t h e b r i e f p r o s e n a r r a t i v e t h a t i s t h e p r i n c i p a l 

s o u r c e o f Enoch Arden (Amy Woolner 5 4 ) . I n w r i t i n g t o t h e 

Duke o f A r g y l l i n F e b r u a r y 1862 c o n c e r n i n g h i s o v e r a l l p l a n 

f o r " I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g , " Tennyson remarks t h a t he i s "now 

about [ h i s ] ' F i s h e r m a n , ' w h i c h i s h e r o i c t o o i n i t s way" 

(Memoir 4 0 5 ) . By 1863, Tennyson had a p p a r e n t l y f i x e d on 

"Enoch A r d e n " as t h e t i t l e o f t h e poem; b u t , t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f 

t h e volume's t i t l e p r o v e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l , as an exchange o f 

l e t t e r s between Tennyson and E m i l y i n d i c a t e s . E m i l y p r e f e r r e d 

Enoch Arden and O t h e r Poems; Tennyson wanted a t i t l e 

i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e word " I d y l l s , " p e r h a p s h o p i n g t o d i g n i f y t h e 

l a t e r poem w h i c h , as S i r C h a r l e s s u g g e s t s , he f e a r e d would be 

i n v i d i o u s l y compared w i t h I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g ( 3 5 0 ) . S e v e r a l 



p o s s i b i l i t i e s were a d v a n c e d — " I d y l l s C h i e f l y o f S e v e n t y Y e a r s 

Ago," " I d y l l s o f t h e P e o p l e , " and "Home I d y l l s . " The p r o o f 

t i t l e , " I d y l l s o f t h e H e a r t h , " w h i c h b o t h d i s p l e a s e d E m i l y 

— w h o had named b o t h I n Memoriam and I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g — a n d 

i n s p i r e d T . J . Wise's t i t l e - p a g e f o r g e r y , was f i n a l l y r e t u r n e d 
7 

t o Enoch A r d e n E t c . • 
Two f e a t u r e s o f Tennyson's c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e poem and t h e 

p l a c e i t was t o occupy i n h i s volume a r e s u g g e s t e d by t h e s e 

s h i f t i n g t i t l e s . By c a l l i n g t h e poem "The F i s h e r m a n , " 

Tennyson i d e n t i f i e d h i s i d y l w i t h i t s p r o t a g o n i s t ' s o c c u p a t i o n 

as he had done w i t h "The N o r t h e r n Farmer," a m o n o l o g i c i d y l o f 

r u s t i c l i f e i n t h e same volume. H i s MS. n o t e s i n H a l l a m ' s 

Memoir r e v e a l Tennyson's h i g h r e g a r d f o r " s i m p l e f i s h e r - f o l k " 

(425) a l i f e - l o n g l o v e and r e s p e c t t h e p o e t p a i d them, e v i d e n t 

e l s e w h e r e i n t h e Memoir. By a l t e r i n g i t t o "Enoch A r d e n , " 

however, Tennyson a l s o i d e n t i f i e d t h e i d y l ' s o v e r a l l t r a g e d y 

w i t h t h a t o f i t s h e r o , as he d i d w i t h " T i t h o n u s , " a l s o i n 

Enoch Arden volume. B o t h h e r o e s s u f f e r from " d e a t h - i n - l i f e , " 

one o f Tennyson's most p e r s i s t e n t themes t h r o u g h o u t h i s work. 

The i d y l l i c mixed w i t h t h e h e r o i c a l s o forms t h e b a s i s f o r t h e 

d e b a t e o v e r t h e volume's t i t l e . O b v i o u s l y E m i l y f e l t s t r o n g l y 

7 T h i s exchange o f l e t t e r s a p p e a r s i n C h a r l e s Tennyson 
( 3 5 0 ) , M a r t i n ( 4 5 1 - 2 ) , E m i l y Tennyson's L e t t e r s ( 1 8 0 - 2 ) , 
Tennyson's L e t t e r s ( I I 377) ; t h e f o r g e r y i s d i s c u s s e d i n 
F a n n i e E. R a t c h f o r d ' s " ' I d y l l s o f t h e H e a r t h ' : Wise's F o r g e r y 
o f Enoch A r d e n , " and n o t e d i n W.B. Todd's "Wise, Wrenn, and 
Tennyson's Enoch Arden." and N i c o l a s B a r k e r and John C o l l i n s ' s 
S e q u e l (249-52). 



480 

t h a t t h e " f i s h e r m a n " poem s h o u l d r e c e i v e g r e a t e r prominence 

w h i l e Tennyson f e l t j u s t as s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e e n t i r e 

c o l l e c t i o n s h o u l d t a k e " I d y l l s " ( d e c i d e d l y d o m e s t i c ) as i t s 

t i t l e . The e v e n t u a l r e s u l t i s l e s s i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e 

s u g g e s t i o n s a r i s i n g from t h e d e b a t e . S i m i l a r t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

M i l e s S t a n d i s h (though n o t i d e n t i c a l ) , Tennyson's i d y l , Enoch 

A r d e n , was a l s o t o be composed o f two s k e i n s woven t o g e t h e r : 

t h e e p i c h e r o i s m o f Enoch, and t h e i d y l l i c d o m e s t i c romance o f 

t h e t h r e e major c h a r a c t e r s : Enoch, A n n i e , and P h i l i p . 

I n composing t h e s e poems, L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson a l s o drew 

upon t h e i r own p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d g e n r e s and t h o s e o f t h e i r 

c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . L o n g f e l l o w ' s e a r l i e s t use o f p o e t i c n a r r a t i v e 

began w i t h B a l l a d s and O t h e r Poems (1841) i n h i s d e s i r e t o 

c r e a t e a n a t i o n a l b a l l a d ("The Wreck o f t h e Hesperus") t o work 

"upon t h e p e o p l e ' s f e e l i n g s " ( L i f e I 242-3). H i s i n t e r e s t i n 

drama a l s o began e a r l y w i t h h i s t h r e e - a c t p l a y , The S p a n i s h  

S t u d e n t (1843), and c o n t i n u e d w i t h The G o l d e n Legend ( 1 8 5 1 ) . 8 

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t was L o n g f e l l o w ' s f a c i l i t y w i t h p o e t i c 

n a r r a t i v e , w h i c h a c h i e v e d i t s w i d e s t scope i n E v a n g e l i n e 

(1847), t h a t would e v e n t u a l l y l e a d t o t h e s u c c e s s o f M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h . 

The G o l d e n Legend was t o become p a r t I I o f C h r i s t u s 
(1872), L o n g f e l l o w ' s l i f e - l o n g p r o j e c t : an h i s t o r i c a l drama 
t r a c i n g t h e development o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . The o t h e r p a r t s were 
I — T h e D i v i n e Tragedy (1871), I I I — T h e New E n g l a n d T r a g e d i e s 
(18 6 8 ) , and I V — a p r o j e c t e d h i s t o r y o f t h e M o r a v i a n Nuns w h i c h 
was n e v e r c o m p l e t e d . L a t e r p o e t i c dramas i n c l u d e d "The A b b o t t 
J o a c h i m , " "The Masque o f Pandora," (1872) and t h e posthumous 
" M i c h a e l A n g e l o " (pub. 1884). 



481 

D e c l i n i n g t o t r e a t t h e t a l e o f E v a n g e l i n e i n p r o s e , 

N a t h a n i e l Hawthorne had g i v e n i t t o L o n g f e l l o w ( L i f e I I 7 0-

7 1 ) . E v a n g e l i n e i s a h i s t o r y o f t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e A c a d i a n s 

o v e r l a i d by t h e r o m a n t i c t a l e o f E v a n g e l i n e ' s h e r o i c s e a r c h 

f o r h e r e x i l e d husband. I n e v e n t u a l l y c h o o s i n g d a c t y l i c 

hexameters f o r E v a n g e l i n e , L o n g f e l l o w may have i m p l i e d 

p a r a l l e l s w i t h Greek e p i c p o e t r y . C e r t a i n l y E v a n g e l i n e ' s 

q u e s t i s no l e s s f r a u g h t w i t h danger ( r e a l and s y m b o l i c ) , h e r 

s t r u g g l e between f a i t h and doubt no l e s s t o r t u o u s , and h e r 

f i n a l r o l e as a " S i s t e r o f Mercy" no l e s s d e m o n s t r a t i v e o f h e r 

superhuman c a p a c i t i e s . However, L o n g f e l l o w ' s u n u s u a l 

h e x a m e t e r s — a n awkward meter f o r E n g l i s h p o e t r y — e n g e n d e r a 

more p r o s a i c rhythm and t o n e i n E v a n g e l i n e t h a n t h e b l a n k -

v e r s e o f E n g l i s h e p i c p o e t r y u s u a l l y c a r r i e s . O l i v e r W e n d e l l 

Holmes d e s c r i b e d L o n g f e l l o w ' s meter as f o l l o w s : t h e hexameter 

"marks t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f p r o s e i n t o v e r s e . . .; and t h e 

c o n t i n u o u s n e s s o f t h e n a r r a t i o n i s p e r h a p s more p e r f e c t l y f e l t 

i n t h e s e l o n g r e a c h e s o f s l o w l y u n d u l a t i n g v e r s e t h a n i n t h e 

s h o r t e r measures, s u c h as t h e o c t o s y l l a b i c , w i t h i t s va e t  

v i e n t movement and t h e c l a t t e r i n g c a s t a n e t s o f i t s f r e q u e n t 

rhyme" ( q t d . i n L i f e I I 7 2 ) . 9 That L o n g f e l l o w ' s a u d i e n c e 

r e s p o n d e d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y t o t h i s u n i q u e b l e n d o f h e r o i c 

v e r s e and n a r r a t i v e i s d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e poem's r e m a r k a b l e 

s a l e s (see A p p e n d i x I) and i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s remarks t h a t , l i k e 

The p r o s e - l i k e rhythm o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s hexameters i s 
even more marked i n M i l e s S t a n d i s h . 



482 

i t s p r o t a g o n i s t , " E v a n g e l i n e goes on b r a v e l y . I have r e c e i v e d 

g r e a t e r and warmer commendations t h a n on any p r e v i o u s volume. 

The p u b l i c t a k e s more k i n d l y t o hexameters t h a n I c o u l d have 

i m a g i n e d " ( L i f e I I 9 6 ) . 1 0 U l t i m a t e l y , L o n g f e l l o w had 

Hawthorne t o t h a n k f o r h i s m e t r i c a l e x p e r i m e n t : " T h i s s u c c e s s 

I owe e n t i r e l y t o you, f o r b e i n g w i l l i n g t o f o r e g o t h e 

p l e a s u r e o f w r i t i n g a p r o s e t a l e w h i c h many p e o p l e would have 

t a k e n f o r p o e t r y , t h a t I m i g h t w r i t e a poem w h i c h many p e o p l e 

t a k e f o r p r o s e " ( L i f e I I 9 9 ) . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s own t a l e n t as a p r o s e w r i t e r had been 

e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e 183 0s t h r o u g h h i s s k e t c h book, Outre-Mer 

(183 5) and h i s p r o s e romance. H y p e r i o n (1839). Kavanagh 

(1849) would a l s o be a p r o s e romance. These g i v e ample p r o o f 

t h a t , had he so d e s i r e d , L o n g f e l l o w c o u l d e a s i l y have w r i t t e n 

E v a n g e l i n e as a p r o s e romance. However, i n c h o o s i n g v e r s e — 

p a r t i c u l a r l y v e r s e o f such a d i s t i n c t i v e m e t e r — L o n g f e l l o w 

d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t even i n p o e t i c n a r r a t i v e t h e p e o p l e ' s v o i c e 

S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f E v a n g e l i n e . A r t h u r 
Hugh C l o u g h p u b l i s h e d h i s i d y l l i c B o t h i e o f T o b e r - n a - V u o l i c h 
(1848), a l s o i n hexameters. I n a j o u r n a l e n t r y f o r 7 J a n u a r y , 
1849, L o n g f e l l o w e x p r e s s e s g r e a t a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h i s poem and 
i t s meter ( L i f e I I 130). Tennyson, i n c o n t r a s t , d i s l i k e d 
hexameters i n g e n e r a l and L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n p a r t i c u l a r . / When 
t h e two p o e t s met i n 1868, Tennyson t o l d him so and L o n g f e l l o w 
d e f e n d e d them (see M a r t i n 4 6 9 ) . (See Tennyson's "On 
T r a n s l a t i o n s o f Homer," where he i n v e i g h s a g a i n s t " b a r b a r o u s 
h e x a m e t e r s " ) . Y e t Tennyson d i d o c c a s i o n a l l y w r i t e hexameter 
poems; t h e " N o r t h e r n Farmer" i n t h e Enoch A r d e n volume i s a 
good example o f hexameter c o u p l e t s , " J a c k and t h e B e a n s t a l k " 
and " B l u e b e a r d " o f q u a n t i t a t i v e hexameter poems. 



483 

t h a t made him p o p u l a r would w i n o u t . The b e a u t y o f E v a n g e l i n e 

as a poem i s due t o t h e a f f e c t i v e a p p e a l o f h i s l y r i c i s m . 

By t h e 1850s ( f o l l o w i n g a r e t u r n t o drama w i t h t h e Golden  

L e g e n d) , L o n g f e l l o w was r e a d i n g t h e F i n n i s h K a l e v a l a i n 

p r e p a r a t i o n t o w r i t e h i s own saga o f i n d i g e n o u s A m e r i c a n l i f e 

— T h e Song o f Hiawatha (1855). L o n g f e l l o w a g a i n e x p e r i m e n t e d 

w i t h meter, i n t h i s c a s e an a l m o s t u n v a r i e d t r o c h a i c 

t e t r a m e t e r . A l t h o u g h r i d i c u l o u s l y easy t o p a r o d y — a s 

L o n g f e l l o w and h i s w i f e knew i t would be even b e f o r e he 

p u b l i s h e d — t h e rhythm o f Hiawatha was f e l t by many A m e r i c a n s 

t o " c a p t u r e " t h e e s s e n c e o f I n d i a n l i f e . F o r example, B a y a r d 

T a y l o r , d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e f a c t t h a t sagas a r e g e n e r a l l y w r i t t e n 

i n p r o s e , c l a i m e d t h a t " t h e whole poem f l o a t s i n an atmosphere 

o f t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n summer . . . . I t i s t h e measure i n 

w h i c h a Saga s h o u l d be w r i t t e n , and f i t s i t s e l f w e l l t o t h e 

rhythm o f I n d i a n names and words" ( q t d . i n L i f e I I 264-5). 

Thomas P a r s o n s f e l t t h e measure t o be " m o n o t o n o u s , — a d m i t t e d ; 

b u t i t i s t r u l y I n d i a n . I t i s c h i l d - l i k e , and s u i t e d t o t h e 

savage e a r " ( q t d . i n L i f e I I 2 6 7 ) . Three y e a r s l a t e r , 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t o f I n d i a n s i n 

M i l e s S t a n d i s h , and t h e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d p r o s a i c rhythms o f 

t h e i r v o i c e s , would u n d e r s c o r e t h e s i n g u l a r l y u n c h i l d - l i k e , 

b l o o d y r e a l i t y o f P u r i t a n - n a t i v e c o e x i s t e n c e , a r e a l i s m t h a t 

had come from L o n g f e l l o w ' s o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e poem n o t 

as h e r o i c romance o r saga, b u t as drama. 



484 

W h i l e L o n g f e l l o w was engaged i n w r i t i n g M i l e s S t a n d i s h i n 

i t s d r a m a t i c form ( i n t h e w i n t e r o f 1856-7), he happened upon 

a poem t h a t may have changed h i s t h i n k i n g about c o n t i n u i n g 

M i l e s S t a n d i s h as a drama. He and Fanny were " r e a d i n g e a g e r l y 

Mrs. Browning's new poem A u r o r a L e i g h . R a t h e r a n o v e l i n 

v e r s e t h a n a poem; b u t f u l l o f g l o r i o u s p o e t r y , and w r i t t e n i n 

t h e f r e e s t and most d a s h i n g s t y l e . I t i s v e r y deep, 

i m p a s s i o n e d , s t r o n g and t e n d e r ; e v i d e n t l y an a u t o b i o g r a p h y , — 

n o t o f f a c t s b u t o f f e e l i n g s " ( L i f e I I 290). I n l i g h t o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p e r s i s t e n t emphasis on a poem's g e n e r a t i o n o f 

f e e l i n g s as a marker o f p o e t i c a p p e a l (see c h a p t e r s one and 

f i v e ) , h i s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s q u a l i t y i n A u r o r a L e i g h may 

have caused him t o r e j e c t drama as t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e genre 

f o r M i l e s S t a n d i s h i n f a v o u r o f a more n a r r a t i v e c a s t . But i t 

was p r o b a b l y t h e r e l a t i v e l y low s a l e s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s most 

r e c e n t work, t h e d r a m a t i c Golden Legend (see A p p e n d i x I) 

— t h a t c a u s e d him t o r e c a s t M i l e s S t a n d i s h , w h i c h a p p e a r e d as 

a n i n e - p a r t i d y l w r i t t e n i n unrhymed, d a c t y l i c hexameters. 

The r o u s i n g rhythm o f t h e b a l l a d , d r a m a t i c a c t i o n , t h e 

u n d u l a t i n g meter o f n a r r a t i v e hexameters, and t h e e m o t i o n a l 

f o r c e o f n o v e l i s t i c p o e t r y — e a c h o f t h e s e i n some way 

c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e i d y l o f P u r i t a n l i f e t h a t was e v e n t u a l l y t o 

become M i l e s S t a n d i s h . As a s k i l l e d c r a f t s m a n , L o n g f e l l o w had 

a v a i l a b l e t o him a v a r i e t y o f g e n r e s t h a t c o u l d o n l y enhance 

h i s p o e t r y ' s p o p u l a r i t y . I t c o u l d a p p e a l on a number o f 

d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s t o an i n c r e a s i n g l y d i v e r s e r e a d e r s h i p i n t h e 



485 

l a t e 1850s whose members' l i t e r a r y e d u c a t i o n was even l e s s 

u n i f o r m t h a n t h a t o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s a u d i e n c e i n t h e 1830s. 

I n 1850, L o n g f e l l o w p u b l i s h e d h i s most famous n a t i o n a l 

b a l l a d , "The B u i l d i n g o f t h e S h i p " i n The S e a s i d e and t h e  

F i r e s i d e . I t s w e l l known c o n c l u s i o n , " s a i l on, 0 S h i p o f 

S t a t e ! / S a i l on, 0 U n i o n , s t r o n g and g r e a t ! " , can be seen as 

a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r h i s n a t i o n a l poem a t t h e end o f t h a t 

d e c a d e — M i l e s S t a n d i s h . F o r t h i s s h i p had i t s o r i g i n s i n t h e 

M a y f l o w e r t h a t had s a i l e d t o Plymouth R o c k — " t h e c o r n e r - s t o n e 

o f a n a t i o n " ( M i l e s S t a n d i s h V 7 0 ) . A t f i r s t g l a n c e , M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h does n o t seem a n a t i o n a l poem, does n o t seem t o evoke 

t h e o b v i o u s p a t r i o t i s m t h a t h i s e a r l i e r b a l l a d c o u l d . Y e t i n 

"The B u i l d i n g o f t h e S h i p , " t h e s h i p becomes n o t o n l y t h e 

r e q u i s i t e " s t a u n c h and s t r o n g , " " g o o d l y v e s s e l " o f n a t i o n a l i s m 

b u t a " g e n t l e , l o v i n g , t r u s t i n g w i f e " t o o . I t i s t h i s 

c o n f l a t i o n o f s e e m i n g l y a n t i p o d a l metaphors t h a t M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h borrows from h i s n a t i o n a l b a l l a d . B o t h t h e o b v i o u s 

and t h e l e s s o b v i o u s encouragement o f t h e " U n i o n " o f o p p o s i t e s 

stem from L o n g f e l l o w ' s n a t i o n a l i s t i c i m p u l s e s . 

I n 1858, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was p o i s e d on t h e b r i n k o f a 

C i v i l War t h a t had been f o m e n t i n g f o r a t l e a s t a decade. By 

t h e s p r i n g and summer o f 1856, L o n g f e l l o w ' s remarks i n h i s 

j o u r n a l and h i s l e t t e r s t o h i s c l o s e s t companion, C h a r l e s 

Sumner, r e f u t e any c l a i m s t h a t A m e r i c a ' s n a t i o n a l b a r d was 

p o l i t i c a l l y unaware. R o b e r t F e r g u s o n l i s t s t h e e v e n t s o f t h e 

1850s t h a t t r i g g e r e d n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n s from L o n g f e l l o w : " t h e 



486 

p e r i o d i c l o c a l e n f o r c e m e n t s o f t h e F u g i t i v e S l a v e Laws, debate 

and passage o f t h e Kansas-Nebraska A c t o f 1854, t h e c a n i n g o f 

C h a r l e s Sumner on t h e f l o o r o f t h e Senate on May 22, 1856, by 

South C a r o l i n i a n Congressman P r e s t o n S. B r o o k s , t h e e l e c t i o n 

o f James Buchanan i n November 1856, and t h e e x e c u t i o n o f John 

Brown i n 1859" ( 1 9 0 ) . A l t h o u g h Ferguson's r e a d i n g o f M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y from t h a t o f f e r e d h e r e , h i s 

r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t L o n g f e l l o w d i d n o t s u f f e r from an " a r t i s t i c 

disengagement from c u r r e n t e v e n t s " i s a s t u t e . C a r e f u l r e a d i n g 

o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s poems o f t h e 1850s i n d e e d p r o v e s t h a t t h e 

p o e t ' s " p o l i t i c a l u n h a p p i n e s s e x t e n d e d t o a p e r c e i v e d need and 

hope f o r l a r g e change. The u n i o n was b r e a k i n g a p a r t and 

L o n g f e l l o w was d e e p l y p e s s i m i s t i c about i t s chances f o r 

s u r v i v a l " ( 1 9 1 ) . How L o n g f e l l o w managed i n M i l e s S t a n d i s h t o 

overcome h i s p e s s i m i s m — t o accommodate p o e t i c a l l y f o r t h e s e 

f e a r s y e t s t i l l p r o v i d e hope f o r c h a n g e — i s l i n k e d t o h i s use 

o f i n t e r c o n n e c t e d g e n r e s t o s u p p o r t s t r u c t u r a l l y what h i s poem 

encourages t h e m a t i c a l l y : t h a t i n u n i t y t h e r e i s s t r e n g t h . 

F e r g u s o n b e l i e v e s t h a t L o n g f e l l o w d i d n o t r e a l l y r e s o l v e 

a n y t h i n g i n h i s p o e t r y o f t h e 1850s. R a t h e r t h a n c o n s i d e r 

L o n g f e l l o w as w o r k i n g p u b l i c l y t o r e c o n c i l e i n h i s v e r s e t h e 

w a r r i n g t e n d e n c i e s i n h i s n a t i o n , F e r g u s o n i n t e r p r e t s 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e a c t i o n s t o e v e n t s o f t h e 1850s as p r i v a t e s e l f -

c r i t i c i s m o f h i s i n e f f e c t u a l i t y . He t h e r e f o r e p e r c e i v e s i n 

Hiawatha and M i l e s S t a n d i s h L o n g f e l l o w ' s "masked p r e s e n t a t i o n 

o f p e r s o n a l a n x i e t i e s " o v e r t h e r o l e o f t h e a r t i s t i n s o c i e t y 



487 

( 1 9 5 ) . F e r g u s o n a l l e g e s t h a t i n t h e l a t e r poem, L o n g f e l l o w 

f o u n d h i s v o i c e i n John A l d e n : " t h e t y p e f o r t h e a r t i s t i n 

M i l e s S t a n d i s h [who] r e m a i n s u t t e r l y p a r a l y s e d f o r much o f t h e 

poem, c a u g h t by c o n f l i c t i n g l o y a l t i e s and f e e l i n g s o f 

i r r e l e v a n c e w i t h i n a community endangered by war" (204) . 

However, by l o c a t i n g t h e poem's p r i m a r y c o n c e r n w i t h i n A l d e n , 

F e r g u s o n s h i f t s t o t h e c e n t r e a f i g u r e who i s e s s e n t i a l l y 

m a r g i n a l . A l d e n m e r e l y embodies one o f two a l t e r n a t i v e s i t e s 

o f male c o n f l i c t ; t h e o t h e r , o f c o u r s e , i s M i l e s S t a n d i s h . 

A l d e n ' s b a t t l e i s w i t h words; S t a n d i s h ' s w i t h weapons. One i s 

a "maker o f p h r a s e s " ; t h e o t h e r i s a "maker o f war." The 

s c r i b e l i v e s i n a s t a t i c l y r i c w o r l d o f e l e g a n t language w h i l e 

t h e C a p t a i n l i v e s i n a d r a m a t i c w o r l d o f h e r o i c a c t i o n . I n 

o n l y one f i g u r e , P r i s c i l l a , do t h e b e a u t y o f l y r i c i s m and t h e 

v i t a l i t y o f d r a m a t i c a c t i o n u n i t e . The P u r i t a n maid i s t h e 

poem's c e n t r e . 

These t h r e e f i g u r e s a r e t y p i c a l o f t h e g e n r e s t h e y 

r e p r e s e n t — d r a m a , l y r i c , and v e r s i f i e d p r o s e — a n d i n 

c o n j u n c t i o n , t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e how L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t i c 

s t r u c t u r e s work t o w a r d r e i n f o r c i n g t h e theme o f u n i t y so 

c r i t i c a l t o t h e A m e r i c a n n a t i o n i n t h e 1850s. S i n c e t h e poem 

was o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d as a drama, t h e P u r i t a n C a p t a i n ' s 

r o l e as t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h i s genre s h o u l d p e r h a p s be 

examined f i r s t . The dynamicism o f S t a n d i s h ' s r o l e i s s e l f -

a r t i c u l a t e d ; he i s a p r o c l a i m e d f i g h t e r o f I n d i a n s , a g u a r d i a n 

o f t h e p i l g r i m s ' b o d i e s , as t h e P l y m o u t h E l d e r g u a r d s t h e i r 



488 

s o u l s . Whatever " e l e g a n c e " L o n g f e l l o w ' s hexameters may 

a c h i e v e e l s e w h e r e i n t h e poem, when i t i s t i m e f o r S t a n d i s h t o 

f i g h t , t h e v e r s e becomes as h a r d - h i t t i n g and as f o r c e f u l as 

t h e s k i r m i s h e s i n w h i c h he engages. 

Enraged by t a u n t i n g v e r b a l i n s u l t s from n a t i v e w a r r i o r s , 

S t a n d i s h s t r i k e s back p h y s i c a l l y : 

A l l t h e h o t b l o o d o f h i s r a c e , o f S i r Hugh and o f T h u r s t o n de 
S t a n d i s h , 

B o i l e d and b e a t i n h i s h e a r t , and s w e l l e d i n t h e v e i n s o f h i s 
t e m p l e s , 

Headlong he l e a p e d on t h e b o a s t e r , and, s n a t c h i n g h i s k n i f e 
from i t s s c a b b a r d , 

P l u n g e d i t i n t o h i s h e a r t , and, r e e l i n g backward, t h e savage 
F e l l w i t h h i s f a c e t o t h e s k y , and a f i e n d l i k e f i e r c e n e s s 

upon i t . 
S t r a i g h t t h e r e a r o s e from t h e f o r e s t t h e a w f u l sound o f t h e 

war-whoop, 
And, l i k e a f l u r r y o f snow on t h e w h i s t l i n g wind o f December, 
S w i f t and sudden and keen came a f l i g h t o f f e a t h e r y a r r o w s . 

( V I I 71-8) 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s c o n s i d e r a b l e use o f 11 b" a l l i t e r a t i o n r e g i s t e r s i n 

r e p e a t e d sound t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s e b o a s t s upon S t a n d i s h ' s 

s o r e l y t r i e d p a t i e n c e . When he snaps, t h e movement i s s w i f t 

and d i r e c t . Then, P e c k s u o t ' s r e e l i n g backward w i t h i t s 

a t t e n d a n t d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i s f a c e p r o v i d e s a c a r e f u l l y 

c r a f t e d , m i n u t e pause as t h e a u d i e n c e wonders what w i l l happen 

n e x t . The f o r c e o f t h e d a c t y l — " S t r a i g h t t h e r e a r o s e " — 

s i g n a l s t h e b a t t l e ' s b e g i n n i n g . The subsequent metaphor o f 

snow c o u l d have been i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y s o f t and g e n t l e were i t 

n o t t h a t i t comes upon t h e " w h i s t l i n g wind o f December" t o 

d e s i g n a t e t h e s w i f t r e v e r s a l o f autumn l a n g u o r i n t o f i e r c e 



489 

w i n t e r . The a s y n d e t o n o f l i n e s e v e n t y - e i g h t e n f o r c e s t h e 

r e p e a t e d v o l l e y s o f a r r o w s . The a l l i t e r a t i o n o f "w", " s " , and 

" f " r e p l i c a t e t h e a c t i o n s i n c e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e w a r r i o r s i s 

an o f f - s t a g e , a u d i b l e and k i n e s t h e t i c f o r c e r a t h e r t h a n a 

v i s i b l e one. These sounds and images a l s o h e i g h t e n t h e 

f e e l i n g o f t e r r o r as S t a n d i s h seems ambushed a l m o s t as i f by 

unseen s p e c t r e s r a t h e r t h a n v i s i b l e enemies. 

S t a n d i s h ' s i n d i v i d u a l h e r o i s m a t c e n t r e s t a g e i s t h u s 

enhanced by t h e f o r c e f u l i m p a c t o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s d r a m a t i c 

v e r s e . Y e t no s o o n e r i s t h e a u d i e n c e c h e e r i n g t h e i r m y t h i c 

n a t i o n a l h e r o ( V I I 79-82) t h a n t h e d e a t h k n e l l t o l e g e n d i s 

sounded i n t h e a m b i v a l e n t t o n e s o f f i c t i o n a l r e a l i s m . The 

summing up o f t h i s b a t t l e i s n a r r a t e d i n s l o w , d e l i b e r a t e 

l i n e s t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y dampen t h e e x c i t e d mood and emphasize 

t h e r e a l i t y o f d e a t h . The t r i b e s ' sachem, t h e " b r a v e 

Wattawamat," has been k i l l e d : "Unswerving and s w i f t had a 

b u l l e t / P a s s e d t h r o u g h h i s b r a i n , and he f e l l w i t h b o t h hands 

c l u t c h i n g t h e greensward, / Seeming i n d e a t h t o h o l d back from 

h i s f o e t h e l a n d o f h i s f a t h e r s " ( V I I 8 3 - 5 ) . These l i n e s 

i n t r o d u c e new c o m p l i c a t i o n s : t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e r e b e i n g 

s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g I n d i a n h e r o e s t o o , and q u e s t i o n s about t h e 

" f o e " who a r e now w h i t e and t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p u r i t y o f t h e i r 

s e t t l e m e n t o f n a t i v e l a n d . Thus, t h e drama o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h 

may be e x c i t i n g a d v e n t u r e , b u t L o n g f e l l o w i r o n i c a l l y r e f u s e s 

t o a l l o w i t t o p a s s i n t o myth a t t h i s p o i n t , even though t h e 

poem i s d e r i v e d from l e g e n d . 



W h i l e t h e drama o f M i l e S t a n d i s h l e a d s t o q u e s t i o n s o f a 

p u b l i c ' s c o l l e c t i v e m o t i v e s f o r a c t i o n , John A l d e n ' s l y r i c i s m 

engenders d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r i v a t e u s e s and 

m i s u s e s o f l a n g u a g e . As t h e " e l e g a n t s c h o l a r , / H a v i n g t h e 

g r a c e s o f s p e e c h , and s k i l l i n t h e t u r n i n g o f p h r a s e s " ( I I 89-

9 0 ) , John A l d e n i s t h e m a s t e r o f empty r h e t o r i c , a p o i n t made 

m a n i f e s t i n h i s exchanges w i t h P r i s c i l l a , d i s c u s s e d below. By 

h i m s e l f , however, t h e e m p t i n e s s o f h i s m e t a p h o r i c 

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f r e a l i t y i s r e v e a l e d i n t h e p r o f u s e l y r i c i s m 

t h a t s u r r o u n d s him as i f i t were h i s own p e r s o n a l 

a t m o s p h e r e . 1 1 

The c l e a r e s t i n s t a n c e o f A l d e n as an e l e g a n t v e r s i f i e r 

o c c u r s i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r P r i s c i l l a a s k s h e r famous d i r e c t 

q u e s t i o n : "Why d o n ' t you speak f o r y o u r s e l f , J o h n ? " ( I l l 154). 

When d e s c r i b i n g A l d e n ' s a c t i o n , t h e n a r r a t o r sounds p r o s a i c : 

A l d e n " r u s h e d , " "wandered," "paced," and " b a r e d h i s head t o 

t h e e a s t w i n d " (IV 2-3). But once i n s i d e A l d e n ' s t h o u g h t s , 

t h e n a r r a t o r ' s language l e a d i n g t o A l d e n ' s own i s d e c i d e d l y 

l u x u r i a n t and overdone: 

S l o w l y as o u t o f t h e heavens, w i t h a p o c a l y p t i c a l s p l e n d o u r s , 
Sank t h e c i t y o f God, i n t h e v i s i o n o f John t h e A p o s t l e , 
So, w i t h i t s c l o u d y w a l l s o f c h r y s o l i t e , j a s p e r , and s a p p h i r e , 
Sank t h e b r o a d r e d sun, and o v e r i t s t u r r e t s u p l i f t e d 
Glimmered t h e G o l d e n r e e d o f t h e a n g e l who measured t h e c i t y . 

'Welcome, o w i n d o f t h e E a s t ! ' he e x c l a i m e d i n h i s w i l d 
e x u l t a t i o n . 

'Welcome, 0 w i n d o f t h e E a s t , from t h e c a v e s o f t h e m i s t y 

I n M i l e s S t a n d i s h , each c h a r a c t e r and v o i c e i s so 
i n d i v i d u a l t h a t one can a l m o s t h e a r p r e s a g e s o f P r o k o f i e v ' s 
s c o r e f o r P e t e r and t h e Wolf w h e r e i n each p a r t i s p l a y e d by a 
d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u m e n t . 



A t l a n t i c ! 
B l o w i n g o'er t h e f i e l d s o f d u l s e , and m e a s u r e l e s s meadows o f 

s e a - g r a s s , 
B l o w i n g o'er r o c k y w a s t e s , and t h e g r o t t o e s and g a r d e n s o f 

ocean! 
Lay t h y c o l d , m o i s t hand on my b u r n i n g f o r e h e a d , and wrap me 
C l o s e i n garments o f m i s t , t o a l l a y t h e f e v e r w i t h i n me!' 

(IV 5-15) 

The n a r r a t o r ' s s e l e c t i o n o f a B i b l i c a l metaphor f o r t h e s u n s e t 

m i m i c s A l d e n ' s use o f t h e B i b l e i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g t h i s 

p a s s a g e . I n h i s t o r m e n t o v e r h i s l o v e o f P r i s c i l l a and h i s 

d u t y t o h i s f r i e n d , A l d e n arms h i m s e l f w i t h ready-made 

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f what he p e r c e i v e s t o be p a r a l l e l B i b l i c a l 

e v e n t s so as t o a v o i d t h e use o f a p r e c i s e language t h a t would 

s i g n a l r e a l d e c i s i o n making (IV 16-50). H i s m i s u s e o f a 

P u r i t a n i c a l r e l i a n c e on God's s y m b o l i c t e x t as t r u t h i s 

c o u p l e d w i t h h i s s i m i l a r m i s r e a d i n g o f n a t u r e as s i g n s o f 

d i v i n e o r d i n a n c e . U n l i k e Holmes's i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e meter o f 

E v a n g e l i n e . A l d e n ' s u n d u l a t i n g hexameters do n o t advance t h e 

n a r r a t i v e ; nor a r e t h e y i n t e n d e d t o . 

The e a s t w i n d o f f t h e A t l a n t i c i s l y r i c a l l y r e c o n f i g u r e d as 

a m i n i s t e r i n g a n g e l w h i l e A l d e n s t r u g g l e s i n t h e s t a t i c t h r o e s 

o f a S a t a n i c t e m p t a t i o n (IV 2 8 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , h i s s o - c a l l e d 

r e s o l v e t o r e t u r n t o E n g l a n d comes about from a m i s r e a d i n g o f 

t h e M a y f l o w e r r i d i n g a t a n c h o r — i t presumably i s t h e L o r d ' s 

w i l l f o r him t o r e t u r n r a t h e r t h a n r e m a i n i n P l y m o u t h and 

r e s o l v e h i s c o n f l i c t d i r e c t l y . Throughout t h e poem, A l d e n ' s 

s t u l t i f y i n g i n a b i l i t y t o speak h i s own mind w i t h h i s ' own 

v o i c e — t o b o t h M i l e s S t a n d i s h and P r i s c i l l a — s t e m s from a t o o 



p a s s i v e dependence on t h e e x t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y o f t h e words o f 

t h e g o s p e l . C h r i s t i a n i t y , however, i s n o t r e j e c t e d . R a t h e r , 

t h r o u g h t h e e x p o s u r e o f A l d e n ' s h o l l o w r h e t o r i c , L o n g f e l l o w 

s u g g e s t s t h a t i t i s o n l y i n t h e s i n c e r e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e 

Word i n t o human a c t i o n t h a t war o f any k i n d i s a b a t e d and can, 

p e r h a p s , be p r e v e n t e d a l t o g e t h e r . 

D r a m a t i c a c t i o n f o r i t s own sake and l y r i c u t t e r a n c e f o r 

i t s own b e n e f i t — t h e s e two male g e n r e s a r e r e j e c t e d i n f a v o u r 

o f t h e i r p e r f e c t u n i o n , f o r t h e community's s a k e , w i t h i n t h e 

p u r i t a n maid, P r i s c i l l a . I n h e r v o i c e , L o n g f e l l o w ' s r e a d e r s 

h e a r s t r e n g t h and g e n t l e n e s s , e q u a l l y j u s t i f i a b l e anger and 

compassion. Not j u s t a f i g u r e o u t o f h i s t o r y , P r i s c i l l a had a 

c o n t e m p o r a r y r e a l - l i f e model i n P r i s c i l l a Green whom t h e p o e t 

had h e a r d i n c h u r c h d u r i n g t h e summer he was w r i t i n g M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h . He r e c o r d s i n h i s j o u r n a l t h a t "She spoke w i t h a 

sweet v o i c e and v e r y c l e a r e n u n c i a t i o n ; v e r y d e l i b e r a t e l y , and 

b r e a k i n g now and t h e n i n t o r h y t h m i c c h a n t , i n w h i c h t h e v o i c e 

seemed f l o a t i n g up and down on w i n g s . I was much i n t e r e s t e d 

and c o u l d have l i s t e n e d an hour l o n g e r . I t was a v e r y g r e a t 

p l e a s u r e t o me t o h e a r such a m u s i c a l v o i c e " ( L i f e I I 304). 

As n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , by December 1857, L o n g f e l l o w had changed 

h i s d r a m a t i c M i l e s S t a n d i s h t o " P r i s c i l l a " a " k i n d o f P u r i t a n 

p a s t o r a l " i n n a r r a t i v e hexameters w h i c h he t h i n k s w i l l be a 

b e t t e r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t t h a n h i s e a r l i e r d r a m a t i c 

b l a n k v e r s e . 



P r i s c i l l a i s one among o t h e r s t r o n g - m i n d e d women i n 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y who a c h i e v e t h e t h e m a t i c s t a t u r e o f m y t h i c 

h e r o i s m because o f t h e s i n c e r i t y o f t h e i r u n i o n o f v o i c e and 

a c t i o n . E v a n g e l i n e , an o b v i o u s example, has a l r e a d y been 

m e n t i o n e d . L o n g f e l l o w ' s i d e a l i z e d p o r t r a y a l o f t h e " l a d y w i t h 

t h e lamp," F l o r e n c e N i g h t i n g a l e , i n " S a n t a F i l o m e l a " i s a l s o 

one o f t h i s number and an immediate E n g l i s h c o u n t e r p a r t t o 

P r i s c i l l a s i n c e L o n g f e l l o w was a l s o w r i t i n g about h e r i n t h e 

l a t e 1850s. She i s "A n o b l e t y p e o f good, / H e r o i c womanhood" 

(39-40) whose "speech and song" w i l l be r e c o r d e d i n " E n g l i s h 

a n n a l s " ( 3 4 - 5 ) . Y e t b o t h o f t h e s e women a r e s a i n t l y m a r t y r s 

t o t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f o t h e r s . They do n o t have t h e r e a l i s t i c 

v e r v e o f P r i s c i l l a who, A l f r e d Kreymborg (not w i t h o u t a 

c e r t a i n amount o f o b v i o u s wonder) i n 1929 c a l l e d " I b s e n e s q u e " 

and " t h e f i r s t f e m i n i s t i n A m e r i c a n p o e t r y " ( 1 0 7 ) . As a poem, 

" P r i s c i l l a " manages t o combine b o t h models: one an i d y l o f 

h e r o i c a c t i o n , t h e o t h e r a l y r i c a l ode t o t r u e f e m i n i n e 

v i r t u e . 

L o n g f e l l o w i s n o t r e l u c t a n t t o m y t h o l o g i z e , nor i s he 

r e l u c t a n t t o s p i r i t u a l i z e h i s n a t i o n ' s e a r l i e s t b e g i n n i n g s . 

Y e t t h e r e a l i t y o f compromise and c o n c i l i a t i o n must n o t be 

s a c r i f i c e d e i t h e r t o t h e drama o f w a r f a r e o r t h e h o l l o w 

l y r i c i s m o f w o r d p l a y . Hence, i n h i s p o r t r a y a l o f P r i s c i l l a , 

L o n g f e l l o w t r i e s t o a c h i e v e " t h e e m o t i o n a l f o r c e o f a n o v e l , " 

t h e p a s s i o n and t h e p r o s a i c q u a l i t y t h a t he had a d m i r e d i n 

A u r o r a L e i g h . P r i s c i l l a ' s s t r e n g t h o f v o i c e r e g i s t e r s c l e a r l y 



494 

i n t h e m a t t e r - o f - f a c t t o n e s o f h e r r e a l i s t i c a p p r a i s a l o f h e r 

two l o v e r s and h e r s e l f . 

P r i s c i l l a i s a t f i r s t " s t u n n e d " and " r e n d e r e d . . . 

s p e e c h l e s s " by A l d e n ' s b l u n t d e l i v e r y o f S t a n d i s h ' s m a r r i a g e 

p r o p o s a l . She f e e l s A l d e n ' s "words l i k e a blow" ( I I I 107), 

b u t , u n l i k e h e r companion, she i s a b l e t o r e c o v e r h e r v o i c e t o 

d e l i v e r an i n d i g n a n t speech about S t a n d i s h ' s t y p i c a l l y one-

s i d e d male c o u r t s h i p ( I I I 118-26). U n l i k e S t a n d i s h ' s maxim on 

s e l f - r e l i a n c e t h a t p r o v e s t o be a sham, however, t h e maxim 

w i t h w h i c h P r i s c i l l a p u n c t u a t e s h e r speech r i n g s t r u e i n h e r 

b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d A l d e n : "When one i s t r u l y i n l o v e , one n o t 

o n l y s a y s i t , b u t shows i t " ( I I I 127). 

L a t e r , P r i s c i l l a i d e n t i f i e s f o r A l d e n t h e b a r r i e r s t o t h i s 

i d e a l y o k i n g o f language and a c t i o n t h a t she and o t h e r women 

f e e l a c u t e l y — P a u l i n e i n j u n c t i o n s t h a t deny h e r t h e f r e e use 

o f h e r v o i c e : 

. . . ' f o r i t i s t h e f a t e o f a woman 
Long t o be p a t i e n t and s i l e n t , t o w a i t l i k e a g h o s t t h a t i s 

s p e e c h l e s s , 
T i l l some q u e s t i o n i n g v o i c e d i s s o l v e s t h e s p e l l o f i t s 

s i l e n c e . 
Hence i s t h e i n n e r l i f e o f so many s u f f e r i n g women 
S u n l e s s and s i l e n t and deep, l i k e s u b t e r r a n e a n r i v e r s 

R u n n i n g t h r o u g h c a v e r n s o f d a r k n e s s , unheard, unseen, and 
u n f r u i t f u l , 

C h a f i n g t h e i r c h a n n e l s o f s t o n e w i t h e n d l e s s and p r o f i t l e s s 
murmurs.' (VI 29-35) 

Her d i r e c t speech, s i m p l e metaphors, and r e p e t i t i o n s f o r 

emphasis r e v e a l c l e a r l y t h e s i n c e r e d e p t h o f t h e p a i n and 

f r u s t r a t i o n t h a t she f e e l s . Hence when John A l d e n , " t h e l o v e r 



495 

o f women," g i v e s h e r c l i c h e s o f womanhood i n r e s p o n s e (VI 36-

4 0 ) , P r i s c i l l a j u s t l y r e b u k e s him: 



496 

'Ah, by t h e s e words I can s e e , . . . 
How v e r y l i t t l e you p r i z e me, o r c a r e f o r what I am s a y i n g . 
When from t h e d e p t h s o f my h e a r t , i n p a i n and s e c r e t 

m i s g i v i n g , 
F r a n k l y I speak t o you, a s k i n g f o r sympathy o n l y and k i n d n e s s , 
S t r a i g h t a w a y you t a k e up my words, t h a t a r e p l a i n and d i r e c t 

and i n e a r n e s t , 
T u r n them away from t h e i r meaning, and answer w i t h f l a t t e r i n g 

p h r a s e s . ' (VI 41-6) 

The l o n g l i n e s o f n a r r a t i v e hexameters h e r e a p p r o x i m a t e an 

a n g r y y e t c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d p r o s e rhythm o f a h i g h l y 

r a t i o n a l r e d r e s s . 

U n l i k e A l d e n , P r i s c i l l a t h e n g i v e s a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d 

e s t i m a t e o f h e r companion's c h a r a c t e r . She s t e r n l y r e m i n d s 

him t h a t i f he m e r e l y f l a t t e r s h e r , he i m p l i e s t h a t she i s 

" ' o n l y as one among many, / I f [he] make[s] use o f s u c h common 

and c o m p l i m e n t a r y p h r a s e s / Most men t h i n k so f i n e , i n d e a l i n g 

and s p e a k i n g w i t h women, / But w h i c h women r e j e c t as i n s i p i d , 

i f n o t as i n s u l t i n g ' " (VI 5 1 - 4 ) . I n s h o r t , i f A l d e n ' s words 

do n o t c a r r y t h e i m p o r t o f h i s t h o u g h t s o r t h e s i n c e r i t y o f 

h i s e m o t i o n s , t h e n he abuses h i s r i g h t t o speak t o h e r . Even 

Tennyson's P r i n c e s s I d a c o u l d n o t have b l a s t e d a man more 

f o r c e f u l l y . 

S t r u c t u r a l l y , L o n g f e l l o w ' s i d y l meets t h r e e d i f f e r e n t 

l e v e l s o f g e n r e e x p e c t a t i o n s i n i t s a u d i e n c e : drama, l y r i c , 

and p r o s e ( d i s g u i s e d as v e r s e ) . Y e t u l t i m a t e l y , The C o u r t s h i p  

o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h — i n i t s f u l l t i t l e — c e n t r e s on P r i s c i l l a ' s 

c a r e f u l a r t i c u l a t i o n o f f e m a l e i s o l a t i o n , and t h e r u l e s and 

p r o p e r b e h a v i o u r t h a t g o v e r n l o v e , c o u r t s h i p , and m a r r i a g e . 



W h i l e i t may a t i t s p e r i p h e r y o v e r t l y p o r t r a y S t a n d i s h ' s s a f e -

g u a r d i n g o f A m e r i c a ' s f i r s t s e t t l e r s , t h e poem c o v e r t l y 

i m p l i e s t h a t o n l y t h r o u g h t h e a c t i o n s and r e a c t i o n s o f human 

l o v e c a n one r e a d t h e means by w h i c h t h e s a f e - g u a r d i n g o f t h e 

U n i o n i n t h e 1850s c o u l d t a k e p l a c e . Through a t h o u g h t f u l l y 

c o n s i d e r e d u n i o n o f s i n c e r e language and f i t a c t i o n , t h e 

U n i t e d S t a t e s c o u l d f o r e s t a l l t h e i r d i s s o l u t i o n . A t i t s 

h e a r t , L o n g f e l l o w ' s i d y l i s a d o m e s t i c a l l e g o r y . 

I n i t s e q u a l emphasis on c o n j o i n i n g language and a c t i o n 

Enoch Arden i s a l s o a d o m e s t i c a l l e g o r y . Tennyson melded 

s e v e r a l g e n r e s f o r t h i s i d y l — h i s own and o t h e r s , and, i n so 

d o i n g , c r e a t e d a t e x t w i t h even g r e a t e r i n t r i c a c i e s and an 

even more s u c c e s s f u l r e a c h i n g o u t t o a b r o a d s p e c t r u m o f 

r e a d e r s t h a n M i l e s S t a n d i s h . 

The i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z a b l e genre t h a t Tennyson drew upon 

f o r Enoch A r d e n i s t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l t h a t he i n v e n t e d i n t h e 

E n g l i s h I d y l s f o r t h e 1842 Poems. C h a p t e r f o u r has e x p l a i n e d 

a s p e c t s o f s e v e r a l i d y l s as complementary poems t o Tennyson's 

r e v i s e d l y r i c s f o r t h e same volume. As Fredeman p o i n t s o u t , 

t h e most r e m a r k a b l e f e a t u r e o f t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l s i s t h e i r 

v a r i e t y o f s t y l e and t r e a t m e n t . F o r t h e most p a r t , however, 

he v i e w s them as " i n t e n t i o n a l l y s t a r k , m i l i t a n t l y a n t i -

l y r i c a l . P a r e d o f a l l s u r f a c e d e c o r a t i o n , t h e y a r e marked by 

an a l m o s t t o t a l absence o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , an economy o f 

n a r r a t i o n , . . . s t y l i s t i c s i m p l i c i t y and d i r e c t n e s s " ( 3 6 9 ) . 

I n t h i s f a s h i o n , Tennyson echoed t h e R e n a i s s a n c e I d y l t h a t 



498 

began t o i n c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l commentary v i a a l l e g o r i c a l 

s y m b o l i s m — S p e n s e r ' s Shepherd's C a l e n d a r f o r example. Y e t , i t 

was V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y i t s e l f t h a t f o s t e r e d Tennyson's d i r e c t 

t r e a t m e n t o f s o c i a l abuses, " m a r r i a g e - h i n d e r i n g mammon" b e i n g 

t h e most common. 

S i m p l i c i t y and d i r e c t n e s s , however, were n o t Tennyson's 

u s u a l methods. He p r e f e r r e d t o move " i n a s t r a n g e d i a g o n a l " 

as i n The P r i n c e s s . T h i s Medley i n t e r w e a v e s t h e d o m e s t i c 

frame n a r r a t i v e w i t h t h e m e d i e v a l romance n a r r a t i v e o f 

P r i n c e s s I d a and, l a t e r , w i t h t h e newly added i n t e r c a l a r y 

l y r i c s . Tennyson's n a r r a t i v e l y - w o v e n l y r i c s i n I n Memoriam 

and t h e d r a m a t i c monologue, Maud, r e v e a l t h e p o e t c o n t i n u i n g 

t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h o b l i q u e meaning i n r e l a t i o n t o g e n r e i n t h e 

1850s. But he r e t u r n e d t o t h e i d y l as a f o u n d a t i o n a l genre i n 

t h e 1859 I d y l l s . i n w h i c h he acknowledged t h e i n h e r e n t l y 

n a r r a t i v e t e n o r o f f e m a l e b e h a v i o u r i n l o v e r e l a t i o n s . Once 

wed t o male n a r r a t i v e s o f q u e s t , c o n q u e s t , and m i s a d v e n t u r e , 

however, t h e t w e l v e - b o o k I d y l l s a c h i e v e d i t s e p i c s t a t u r e . 

A t t h i s p o i n t , i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n s i d e r V i c t o r i a n 

c r i t i c s ' demands f o r a " l o n g poem" upon an i m p o r t a n t , t o p i c a l 

i s s u e . I n t h e i r d i f f e r e n t ways, B r i t i s h r e v i e w e r s i n t h e 

1830s and 1840s had been a s k i n g t h e i r p o e t s f o r a n o t h e r 

P a r a d i s e L o s t , a poem o f e p i c sweep and g r a n d e u r t o complement 

what t h e y f e l t t o be t h e a u g u s t n a t u r e o f t h e t i m e s i n w h i c h 

t h e y l i v e d . However, as Aubrey de V e r e p o i n t s o u t i n h i s 

r e v i e w a r t i c l e "Modern P o e t r y and t h e P o e t s " ( E d i n b u r g h Review 



499 

1849 r p t . i n S t a s n y ' s V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y : A C o l l e c t i o n o f E s s a y s 

from t h e P e r i o d ) , t h e t i m e s were h a r d l y p r o p i t i o u s f o r w r i t i n g 

n a t i o n a l p o e t r y o f e p i c s t a t u r e . L i k e Tennyson's The 

P r i n c e s s . w h i c h de V e r e r e v i e w s f o r t h e p u r p o s e , t h e age was 

i t s e l f a "Medley": d i v e r s i t i e s i n p h i l o s o p h y , s o c i e t y , 

p o l i t i c s , a r t , and a r c h i t e c t u r e abounded. D e s p i t e t h i s 

r e c o g n i t i o n , de V e r e c o n c l u d e s w i t h an argument h i n t i n g t h a t , 

t h r o u g h t h e p r i o r e x e r c i s e o f v e r s a t i l e t a l e n t s , Tennyson i s 

i m a g i n a t i v e l y p r e p a r i n g t o w r i t e a n a t i o n a l poem. He adds: 

A g r e a t poem i s a g r e a t a c t i o n ; and r e q u i r e s t h e 
a s s i d u o u s e x e r c i s e o f t h o s e h i g h m o r a l powers w i t h 
w h i c h c r i t i c i s m has no c o n c e r n and a c t i o n m u c h ; — 
c o u r a g e , prudence, e n t e r p r i s e , p a t i e n c e , s e l f -
r e l i a n c e founded on s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , a magnanimous 
s u p e r i o r i t y t o p e t t y o b s t a c l e s , a d i s i n t e r e s t e d 
d e v o t i o n t o a r t f o r i t s own s a k e , and f o r t h a t o f 
a l l w h i c h i t i n t e r p r e t s and communicates. S h o u l d 
Mr. Tennyson d e v o t e h i m s e l f t o a g r e a t work, he has 
a l r e a d y e x h i b i t e d t h e f a c u l t i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r h i s 
s u c c e s s . ( E d i n b u r g h 227 r p t . i n S t a s n y ) 

De V e r e ' s p r a i s e i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e he and Tennyson were 

f r i e n d s , De V e r e had h e a r d p a r t s o f The P r i n c e s s b e f o r e i t was 

p u b l i s h e d , and he knew t h a t t h e p o e t was c o n t e m p l a t i n g The 

I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g i n t h e l a t e 184 0s. Tennyson l a t e r came t o 

s t a y w i t h him i n C u r r a g h , I r e l a n d , i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1848 

( C h a r l e s Tennyson 224-6). S t i l l , de V e r e ' s a r t i c l e and h i s 

f i n a l r e c i p e on how t o w r i t e a g r e a t poem bespeak much o f t h e 

t e n o r o f t h e t i m e s s i n c e he o b v i o u s l y i m p l i e s d e f e c t s i n 

e i t h e r t h e age o r i t s w r i t e r s t h a t m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t e p i c 

p o e t r y . 



500 

F i s c h e r a r g u e s t h a t e a r l i e r i n t h e c e n t u r y t h e " r o m a n t i c 

v e r s e n a r r a t i v e [had] d e t h r o n e d t h e e p i c , i n o r d e r t h a t an 

e p i c t y p e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e age m i g h t be c r e a t e d . That was 

t h e o r i g i n a l aim [ o f Romantic p o e t s ] b u t i n p r a c t i c e t h i s was 

n e v e r a c h i e v e d " ( 2 1 4 ) . F i s c h e r adds, however, t h a t i n t h i s 

a t t e m p t , 

many i m p o r t a n t d i s c o v e r i e s were made: h y b r i d g e n r e s 
o f g r e a t b e a u t y and e x p r e s s i v e n e s s were p r o d u c e d and 
a h i g h e r c l a s s o f l i g h t f i c t i o n i n v e r s e came i n t o 
b e i n g w h i c h d e l i g h t e d t h o u s a n d s because i t was more 
u n d e r s t a n d a b l e and d e a l t w i t h s u b j e c t s w i t h w h i c h i t 
was p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y , by c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e neo-
c l a s s i c a l e p i c i n w h i c h t h e emotions were subdued by 
r e a s o n , t h e w i l l and a c o n t r o l l e d s t y l e , and w i t h 
t h e c l a s s i c e p i c from a remote p e r i o d o f h i s t o r y . 
Another' o f t h e many i m p o r t a n t consequences o f t h i s 
a t t e m p t was t h e development o f t h e s y m b o l i c and 
a l l e g o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y on w h i c h a l l g r e a t r o m a n t i c 
p o e t r y i s based. (214) 

The r e l a t i o n o f l y r i c and a l l e g o r y i s d i s c u s s e d below; f o r t h e 

moment, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o u t l i n e Tennyson's r e a c t i o n t o t h e 

r o m a n t i c v e r s e n a r r a t i v e . 

The e a r l y Tennyson's use o f t h i s genre i s e v i d e n t i n h i s 

l o n g , d i f f u s e " L o v e r ' s T a l e " (comp. 1832). T h i s poem combines 

p a s s a g e s o f l u x u r i a n t d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l w i t h t h e h e r o ' s 

monologues o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l p a i n i n a l o o s e romance n a r r a t i v e 

o f l o v e f o r s a k e n , r e t a k e n , and r e s t o r e d t o i t s r i g h t f u l 

"owner." I n t h i s e a r l y n a r r a t i v e poem, Tennyson p r e s a g e s 

s e v e r a l o f t h e themes o f Enoch A r d e n : t h e l o v e t r i a n g l e 

( J u l i a n ' s dreams o f h a p p i n e s s a r e dashed by C a m i l l a ' s m a r r i a g e 

t o L i o n e l ) ; wedding b e l l s as an i r o n i c h a r b i n g e r o f doom; t h e 

presumed d e a t h o f one o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s ( i n t h i s c a s e 



C a m i l l a i s m i s t a k e n l y entombed and J u l i a n r e s u s c i t a t e s h e r ) ; 

and t h e s e c r e t l i f e ( C a m i l l a l i v e s a t J u l i a n ' s house 

unbeknownst t o a l l u n t i l J u l i a n can f i n d L i o n e l and r e t u r n 

C a m i l l a t o h i m ) . U n l i k e t h e l a t e r poem, "The L o v e r ' s T a l e " 

ends w i t h C a m i l l a and L i o n e l r e u n i t e d i n l a w f u l w e d l o c k , a 

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a l s o , as i n Enoch Arden. comes about because 

o f t h e h e r o ' s s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . Indeed, i t i s t h i s h e r o i c 

martyrdom t h a t m a i n t a i n s t h e l i n k between Tennyson's r o m a n t i c 

n a r r a t i v e poem and t h e e p i c . A l t h o u g h n o t a s e l f - s a c r i f i c e t o 

t h e f u t u r e s t a b i l i t y o f one's community o r n a t i o n , J u l i a n ' s 

f o r e g o i n g o f h i s own p l e a s u r e i n f a v o u r o f C a m i l l a ' s h a p p i n e s s 

i s an e a r l y s t e p i n Tennyson's development t o w a r d h i s g r e a t 

e p i c poem: The I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g . 

Enoch A r d e n i s an i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p i n t h i s p r o c e s s . What 

John D. Rosenberg a s s e r t s o f t h e I d y l l s . c o u l d be s a i d e q u a l l y 

o f Enoch A r d e n : " L i k e e v e r y g r e a t l o n g poem, t h e I d y l l s draws 

on t r a d i t i o n a l forms and i s i t s e l f a new g e n r e . . . . [W]e 

have y e t t o a s s i m i l a t e i n t o our l i t e r a t u r e t h i s poem w h i c h i s 

a t once e p i c and l y r i c , n a r r a t i v e and drama, t r a g e d y and 

romance" (33) . The d i f f i c u l t y i n w r i t i n g about Enoch Arden 

stems from i t s p r o f u s i o n o f g e n r e s r a t h e r t h a n i t s s o - c a l l e d 

s i m p l i c i t y . An e x a m i n a t i o n o f r e a d i n g s o f t h i s " i d y l , " 

r e v e a l s t h a t i t can and has p r o v o k e d r e s p o n s e s i n k e e p i n g w i t h 
12 

each o f t h e above g e n r e s . 

1 2 The d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o l l o w s does n o t i n c l u d e " l y r i c " 
because t h i s g e n r e i s d e a l t w i t h l a t e r i n r e l a t i o n t o 
a l l e g o r y . I t a l s o does n o t m e n t i o n t h e v a r i o u s g e n r e s and 



502 

The e p i c t e n d e n c i e s i n Enoch Arden a r e most c l e a r l y 

p r e s e n t e d i n Douglas F r i c k e ' s a r t i c l e , "A Study o f Myth and 

A r c h e t y p e i n 'Enoch A r d e n ' . " F r i c k e a s s e r t s t h a t " t h e 

movement o f 'Enoch A r d e n ' r e s e m b l e s t h e m y t h i c p a t t e r n o f 

voyage t o an o t h e r w o r l d / u n d e r w o r l d ( P a r a d i s e - H a d e s ) , a 

s y m b o l i c d e a t h , and a subsequent r e b i r t h " ( 1 0 6 ) . T h e r e f o r e , 

Enoch's i s o l a t i o n on t h e "beauteous h a t e f u l i s l e " i s h i s 

d e s c e n t i n t o an " u n d e r w o r l d " , w h i l e h i s r e t u r n — a n d h i s 

s u b s e q u e n t gaze upon A n n i e ' s new home w i t h P h i l i p — i s r e a d as 

h i s r e n e w a l and r e b i r t h . Because a l l e a r t h l y avenues a r e now 

b l o c k e d f o r him, "Enoch c a n n o t be renewed i n l i f e o r on e a r t h , 

b u t o n l y i n d e a t h and i n heaven" ( 1 1 3 ) . From h i s t r a n c e - l i k e 

p r a y e r o f r e s o l v e n o t t o r e v e a l h i s t r u e i d e n t i t y , he emerges 

as a man t r a n s f o r m e d ( 1 1 3 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o F r i c k e , once 

" [ c ] o n d e n s e d i n t o a s i n g l e image, l i f e and d e a t h a r e seen from 

Tennyson's p e r s p e c t i v e as a t i m e l e s s , m y t h i c c y c l e i n w h i c h 

d e a t h i s j u s t a phase from w h i c h new l i f e w i l l s p r o u t " ( 1 1 4 ) . 

F r i c k e ' s o v e r l a y o f myth upon Enoch's a l l - t o o - h u m a n s t r u g g l e 

t e x t s by Tennyson's c o n t e m p o r a r i e s t h a t may have i n f l u e n c e d 
t h e theme and s t r u c t u r e o f Enoch A r d e n . S c o t t has c o v e r e d 
t h i s t o p i c t h o r o u g h l y so t h a t t h e r e i s no need t o r e t r a c e t h i s 
ground. I n b r i e f , however, t h e y a r e : Homer's Odyssey o f t h e 
r e t u r n i n g s a i l o r ; " A u l d R o b i n G r a y " — a b a l l a d by Lady Anne 
B a r n a r d ( 1 7 7 2 ) ; t h e A d v e n t u r e s o f G i l B i a s ( 1 8 0 2 ) ; Crabbe's 
and Wordworth's poems o f humble l i f e ; John Thomas H a i n e s ' s My  
P o l l and My P a r t n e r J o e — a p o p u l a r n a u t i c a l melodrama (183 0s) ; 
"The M a n c h e s t e r M a r r i a g e " — E l i z a b e t h G a s k e l l ' s s h o r t s t o r y 
( 1 8 5 8 ) ; "Homeward B o u n d " — A d e l a i d e P r o c t e r ' s v e r s e monologue 
( 1 8 5 8 ) ; C a s t l e R i c h m o n d — A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e ' s n o v e l ( 1 8 6 1 ) ; Lady  
A u d l e y ' s S e c r e t — E l i z a b e t h Braddon's b e s t - s e l l i n g n o v e l 
(1862) ; and S y l v i a ' s L o v e r s — E l i z a b e t h G a s k e l l ' s n o v e l (1863) 
( S c o t t 4-6). 



503 

w i t h j e a l o u s y and h i s sense o f v i o l a t e d p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y do 

e n t a i l a r e a d e r ' s l e a p o f f a i t h . But t h i s l e a p i s n o t one 

w h i c h r e q u i r e s t o o much s t r e t c h i n g b e f o r e h a n d , s i n c e t h e 

u n d e r w o r l d p a r a d i g m i s a s t a n d a r d l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n . I t i s 

d i f f i c u l t t o b e l i e v e t h a t Tennyson d i d n o t have t h i s m y t h i c 

s t r u c t u r e a t l e a s t p a r t l y i n mind f o r t h i s poem's c r e a t i o n . 

Tennyson's Enoch Arden as p o e t i c i z e d n a r r a t i v e o r v e r s e -

n o v e l l a has been t h e more common i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , however, b o t h 

by c r i t i c a l and n e u t r a l r e a d e r s . I n h i s R e a c t i o n A g a i n s t  

Tennyson, B r a d l e y f o u n d Tennyson t o o e l a b o r a t e i n h i s 

" n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y " ( 1 5 ) . He t h u s began a m o d e r n i s t t r e n d 

f a v o u r i n g Tennyson's l y r i c i s m t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r 

g e n r e s : " h i s s t y l e i s most c o n s t a n t l y and p e r f e c t l y r i g h t when 

he i s . u s i n g l y r i c a l f o r m s " ( 1 4 ) . 1 3 S i n c e t h e 1960s, s e v e r a l 

r e a d e r s have t r i e d t o v a l i d a t e Tennyson's use o f p o e t i c 

n a r r a t i v e . Sometimes, as i n G e r h a r d J o s e p h ' s a n a l y s i s o f 

T e n n y s o n i a n Love, r e a d e r s c a r r y t h e i r n a r r a t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n s 

t o o f a r , and demand o f t h i s p o e t r y a s o c i a l r e a l i s m t h a t o n l y 

n o v e l s can g e n u i n e l y p r o v i d e . J o s e p h c l a i m s t h a t "Tennyson's 

n a r r a t i v e poems [ i n g e n e r a l ] r a r e l y show a b e l i e v a b l e 

impingement o f c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s upon t h e p r i v a t e 

e n t a n g l e m e n t s o f h i s l o v e r s — w h a t he g i v e s us i n s t e a d a r e t h e 

13 
Fredeman a r g u e s t h a t , a f t e r 1842, "Tennyson does n o t 

abandon t h e l y r i c , b u t he u t i l i z e s i t l a r g e l y i n c o n j u n c t i o n 
w i t h o t h e r forms": t h e d e s c r i p t i v e t e x t u r e o f t h e language i n 
I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g ; i n t e r c a l a r y r e l i e f i n The P r i n c e s s o r "The 
B r o o k " ; o r t h e i n t e n s e l y p e r s o n a l emotions w i t h i n t h e drama o f 
Maud o r I n Memoriam ( 3 6 9 ) . 



b r o a d m e l o d r a m a t i c f a m i l i a l o p p o s i t i o n s . . . " ( 1 8 9 ) . But 

t h e b e l i e v a b i l i t y o f s o c i o l o g i c a l dilemmas c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n 

p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y i s s o m e t h i n g p r o v i d e d f o r by i t s 

r e a d e r s more t h a n i t i s by t h e p o e t i c t e x t s t h e m s e l v e s . Hence 

judgements o f t h i s k i n d must be made w i t h i n a h i s t o r i c a l 

c o n t e x t . 

One i s s u e from Enoch Arden i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f 

r e a d e r s i n t h e above d e t e r m i n a t i o n : A n n i e ' s s h o p - k e e p i n g . As 

E l i z a b e t h H e l s i n g e r and h e r c o - a u t h o r s p o i n t o u t i n The Woman  

Q u e s t i o n , f o r many V i c t o r i a n s t h e Woman Q u e s t i o n f o c u s e d on 

t h e d i f f i c u l t i s s u e o f "do we want women t o work o r do we want 

them t o s t a y home? . . . On p e r h a p s no o t h e r i s s u e were t h e 

arguments o f b o t h s i d e s — o f t h o s e who f a v o u r e d women's work, 

and t h o s e who opposed i t — s o i m p o s s i b l y and p a r a d o x i c a l l y 

i n t e r t w i n e d " ( I I 110). F o r m i d d l e - c l a s s women, one o f t h e 

arguments t h a t drew them t o l a b o u r o u t s i d e t h e home was t h e 

i m p l i c i t s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n t h a t a c c r u e d t h r o u g h "work" 

e s p e c i a l l y s t r o n g among t h o s e who m i g h t have " i n t e r n a l i z e d t h e 

work e t h i c t h a t Thomas C a r l y l e had r a i s e d t o t h e s t a t u s o f a 

new r e l i g i o n " ( I I 113). Enoch i s d e f i n i t e l y i n f l u e n c e d by 

t h i s e t h i c , and so he n a t u r a l l y assumes t h a t A n n i e w i l l be 

1 4 J o s e p h does add t h a t " [ p ] e r h a p s n o v e l i s t i c s o c i a l 
r e a l i s m i s n o t what one r e q u i r e s from a p o e t . " However, he 
r e t u r n s t o h i s o r i g i n a l i n t e n t by a l s o a d d i n g t h a t " i n s u c h 
poems on l o v e and m a r r i a g e as C l o u g h ' s The B o t h i e o f T o b e r - n a - 
V u o l i c h . C o v e n t r y Patmore's The A n g e l i n t h e House. E l i z a b e t h 
B a r r e t t Browning's A u r o r a L e i g h , as w e l l as Tennyson's own The  
P r i n c e s s . t h e V i c t o r i a n p o e t seems t o be r e a c h i n g f o r t h e 
n a r r a t i v e range o f t h e n o v e l form" ( 1 8 9 ) . 



t o o . Y e t women f o r c e d i n t o "work" t h r o u g h p o v e r t y a r e 

r e v e a l e d i n p a r l i a m e n t a r y commissions ( B l u e B o o k s ) , and r e c a s t 

i n v a r i o u s f i c t i o n s , as v i c t i m s o f a new economy: needlewomen, 

g o v e r n e s s e s , and f a c t o r y g i r l s ( I I 114-15) . A n n i e ' s b u s i n e s s 

f a i l u r e u l t i m a t e l y t r a n s f o r m s h e r i n t o one o f t h e s e 

i m p o v e r i s h e d v i c t i m s o f a new economic o r d e r t h a t c a u s e s Enoch 

t o a s p i r e t o m a t e r i a l w e a l t h a t t h e expense o f h i s f a m i l y ' s 

e m o t i o n a l s e c u r i t y . 

A l t h o u g h n o t e x p l i c i t i n Enoch A r d e n , t h e m o r a l c o n t r o v e r s y 

c o n c e r n i n g women's work i n c r e a s e s t h e t e n s i o n t h a t Tennyson's 

r e a d e r s m i g h t f e e l i n t h e poem when A n n i e ' s b u s i n e s s f a i l s 

because o f h e r i n e p t i t u d e — " n o t b e i n g b r e d / To b a r t e r " (2 48-

9 ) ; when h e r b u s i n e s s f r e q u e n t l y c a l l s h e r away from a t t e n d i n g 

h e r s i c k c h i l d who e v e n t u a l l y d i e s (260-69); and w h e n — a t l o n g 

l a s t — s h e a g r e e s t o marry P h i l i p , g i v e up h e r u n p r o f i t a b l e 

s h o p k e e p i n g , and r e l i e v e h e r s e l f and h e r c h i l d r e n from p o v e r t y 

and want (503-05). Even though t h e poem i s s e t a hundred 

y e a r s p r e v i o u s t o t h e dilemma s u r r o u n d i n g women's r i g h t t o 

l a b o u r , Tennyson c o u l d v e r y w e l l have s t i r r e d h i s c o n t e m p o r a r y 

r e a d e r s ' a n x i e t i e s by p i t t i n g t h e w o r k i n g "widow's" p o v e r t y 

and m a t e r n a l f a i l i n g s a g a i n s t t h e s e c u r i t y o f h e a r t h and home 

g u a r a n t e e d by m a r r i a g e . 1 5 

1 5 I n 1858, a c o n t r o v e r s y e r u p t e d o v e r t h e " w o r k i n g 
mother" l e d by John S i m o n — a n o t e d h e a l t h r e f o r m e r — w h o i n one 
s t u d y l i n k e d h i g h i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y r a t e s w i t h w o r k i n g mothers. 
The d e b a t e c o n t i n u e d i n t h e 1860s t h r o u g h p a p e r s o f t h e 
N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e P r o m o t i o n o f S o c i a l S c i e n c e (see 
H e l s i n g e r I I 130-33, and 228 n.28). 



F a r from m e l o d r a m a t i c , t h i s scene i m p l i e s a m o r a l l y complex 

s o c i a l r e a l i t y t h a t i t s r e a d e r s would f e e l a l t h o u g h n o t 

n e c e s s a r i l y r e c o g n i z e i d e a t i o n a l l y . The same, o f c o u r s e , 

h o l d s t r u e o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e Deceased W i f e ' s 

S i s t e r ' s B i l l t h a t , by a s s o c i a t i o n , p l a y s a p a r t i n Tennyson's 

e m o t i o n a l a l l o w a n c e f o r bigamy a t t h e end o f t h e poem. 

A l t h o u g h t h e theme was p o p u l a r i n V i c t o r i a n melodrama, t h i s 

f a c t does n o t s u f f i c e t o d i s c r e d i t Tennyson's h a n d l i n g o f 

bigamy. S c h o l a r s s u c h as Hagen and S c o t t do n o t see melodrama 

as c o n t r a r y t o Tennyson's use o f n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s , n o r as 

n e c e s s a r i l y u n i n t e n d e d by t h e p o e t . 1 6 

June Hagen t a k e s a t h e m a t i c a p p r o a c h . She a t t r i b u t e s t h e 

i n c r e d i b l e s u c c e s s o f Enoch Arden t o " t h e p u b l i c ' s 

a p p r e c i a t i o n o f Tennyson's h a n d l i n g o f a theme c u r r e n t i n b o t h 

n o n - r e s p e c t a b l e f i c t i o n , b a l l a d s and p o p u l a r melodrama: t h e 

bigamous m a r r i a g e " ( 1 1 2 ) . To s u p p o r t h e r c l a i m , she p o i n t s t o 

H a l l a m Tennyson's i n c l u s i o n o f p o p u l a r f e m a l e n o v e l i s t s i n h i s 

C e r t a i n l y t h e m o r a l i t y o f bigamy prompted t h e 
s t r o n g e s t n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n s t o Enoch A r d e n . As S c o t t 
e x p l a i n s i n s e c t i o n t h r e e o f h i s s t u d y , A n n i e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l 
c h o i c e t o r e m a r r y u l t i m a t e l y i s j u d g e d by " e m o t i o n a l 
c o m p a s s i o n " (12) C r i t i c s , n a t u r a l l y , were n o t a l w a y s i n c l i n e d 
t o s y m p a t h i z e . Nor s h o u l d one assume t h a t women would 
n e c e s s a r i l y t a k e A n n i e ' s s i d e i n t h e m a t t e r , though t h e y m i g h t 
g e t h o t l y i n v o l v e d i n h e r dilemma. The p u b l i c i t y s u r r o u n d i n g 
t h e poem i s i n shown i n t h e f a c t t h a t M i s s C. H. P a r i s h , f o r 
i n s t a n c e , p u b l i s h e d Enoch Arden ( C o n t i n u e d ) (1866) i n o r d e r t o 
p u n i s h A n n i e and P h i l i p f o r h e r l e g a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n . She 
" g r a s p e d t h e P o e t ' s g o l d e n l y r e " and s i n g s a much i n f e r i o r 
song as post-mortem. I t m o r b i d l y d w e l l s on g o s s i p and on t h e 
c h i l d r e n ' s b e w i l d e r e d gaze upon t h e i r f a t h e r ' s s t i f f e n e d 
c o r p s e and A n n i e ' s agony o f g u i l t . 



m e n t i o n o f h i s f a t h e r ' s " c a t h o l i c " r e a d i n g h a b i t s : M i s s 

Braddon, Mrs O l i p h a n t , Rhoda B r o u g h t o n , and O u i d a " (see Memoir 

7 3 0 ) . S c o t t , on t h e o t h e r hand, i s p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n 

t e c h n i q u e and s t r u c t u r e . S e c t i o n f o u r o f h i s s t u d y o u t l i n e s 

t h r e e f e a t u r e s o f t h e "common n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n " e v i d e n t i n 

Enoch A r d e n : a s e r i e s o f d r a m a t i c s e t p i e c e s , a s h a r e d c o r p u s 

o f g e n e r a l i z e d m o r a l s e n t i m e n t s , and t h e f r e q u e n t use o f 

d r a m a t i c i r o n y ( 1 8 ) . W h i l e i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e s e e l e m e n t s 

f i n d t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n i n f i c t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e s , Tennyson's 

emphasis on t o n e and s e t t i n g o v e r t h e development o f c h a r a c t e r 

i n a c t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t h i s i d y l borrows more from melodrama 

t h a n i t does from f i c t i o n . The " e v e n t s " o f Enoch Arden 

r e g i s t e r s y m b o l i c a l l y a t t h e l e v e l o f mood o r s e n t i m e n t more 

t h a n t h e y do l i n e a r l y as advances o f p l o t o r c h a r a c t e r 

development. Hence, even t h e drama h e r e i s melodrama r a t h e r 

t h a n a d v e n t u r e , s o c i a l r e a l i s m , o r s a t i r e . 1 7 

Fredeman l a b e l s Tennyson's i d y l o f t h e 1840s as a 

" n a r r a t i v e - d r a m a t i c mode," "a c l o s e c o u s i n t o t h e d r a m a t i c 

monologue" ( 3 6 8 ) . But Enoch Arden i s l e s s d r a m a t i c t h a n t h e s e 

e a r l y poems p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e 

l o v e t r i a n g l e seem t o spend most o f t h e i r t i m e i n e n f o r c e d 

i s o l a t i o n from one a n o t h e r . T h e i r p o t e n t i a l f o r d r a m a t i c 

i n t e r a c t i o n i s m i n i m a l . However, t h e key s c e n e s w h i c h i n v o l v e 

1 7 S t i l l , r e a d e r s must be c a r e f u l i n a p p l y i n g n e c e s s a r i l y 
n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s t o melodrama as a g e n r e t o evoke human 
sympathy, as t h e d i s c u s s i o n below c o n c e r n i n g s e n t i m e n t a l i t y 
r e v e a l s . 



508 

d i a l o g u e and/or a c t i o n do r e g i s t e r t h e i r e f f e c t s — a s 

melodrama. The a u d i e n c e i s c a l l e d upon t o s y m p a t h i z e a c t i v e l y 

w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r whose d e s i r e s a r e unheeded: Enoch's 

d e p a r t u r e from t h e v i l l a g e when he d i s r e g a r d s A n n i e ' s p l e a s 

t h a t he r e m a i n ( A n n i e ' s f e a r and f o r e b o d i n g ) ; t h e r e a f t e r , 

P h i l i p ' s i n f r e q u e n t communications w i t h A n n i e and h e r f u t i l e 

p r o l o n g a t i o n o f t h e hope t h a t Enoch i s a l i v e ( P h i l i p ' s 

f r u s t r a t i o n and l o n g i n g f o r h a p p i n e s s ) ; and, f i n a l l y , t h e 

r e t u r n e d Enoch's a c t i o n s as a man who has l o s t h i s i d e n t i t y 

and i s d e n i e d v o i c e as h i s t r u e s e l f u n t i l t h e f i n a l t e l l i n g 

o f h i s t a l e t o M i r i a m Lane (Enoch's a n g u i s h and c a t h a r t i c 

r e l i e f i n h i s r e s u m p t i o n o f v o i c e ) . 

Indeed, Enoch A r d e n seems i d e a l l y s u i t e d f o r s i l e n t f i l m 

s i n c e much o f i t s "drama" o c c u r s i n s t i l l - l i f e p i c t o r i a l s o f 

f r u s t r a t e d d e s i r e and u n v o i c e d needs. S c o t t ' s added "Note on 

t h e [ S i l e n t ] F i l m V e r s i o n s o f 'Enoch A r d e n ' " ( o f w h i c h t h e r e 

were f o u r ) , r e c o r d s n o t o n l y "an e l a b o r a t e r e v e r e n c e f o r 

Tennyson's poem, b u t a l s o t h e development o f new t e c h n i q u e s 

f o r t h e cinema, s p r i n g i n g d i r e c t l y from t h e poem's n a r r a t i v e 

s t r u c t u r e " ( 2 6 ) . Tennyson's i d y l was t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o "An 

E n g l i s h P i c t u r e Poem" (as one r e v i e w e r termed t h e 1914 Neptune 

p r o d u c t i o n ) , a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n made p o s s i b l e because o f 

Tennyson's v i s u a l l y e x a c t d e t a i l s o f s e t t i n g i n b o t h t h e 

f i s h i n g v i l l a g e and Enoch's t r o p i c a l i s l a n d . I t was a l s o made 

p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h what S c o t t d e s c r i b e s as Enoch's " v o y e u r i s m o f 

t h e h e a r t h " ( 1 5 ) — h i s l o o k i n g i n t h r o u g h t h e window a t t h e 



509 

scene o f A n n i e ' s and P h i l i p ' s b l i s s f u l d o m e s t i c i t y . J o s e p h 

summarizes what Enoch sees as key f e a t u r e s o f a V i c t o r i a n 

d o m e s t i c scene p a i n t i n g : 

The c h i l d r e n a r e c a r e f u l l y d i s p o s e d a c c o r d i n g t o 
s i z e , s e x , and t h e demands o f symmetry. P o i s e d i n 
t h e i r i n n o c e n c e , c h a r m i n g l y d e v o t e d t o one a n o t h e r 
and t o t h e i r p a r e n t s , t h e y a r e s t a r c h e d e x e m p l a r s o f 
a harmony t h a t i s s a n c t i o n e d by and p r o o f o f a 
b e n e f i c e n t God. A n n i e , t h e s a t i s f i e d w i f e and a l l -
p r o t e c t i n g mother, o v e r s e e s a domain o f p o l i s h e d 
f u r n i t u r e and g l e a m i n g c u t l e r y . J o h n R u s k i n has 
a p o t h e o s i z e d t h e t y p e . . . . And ' s t o u t , r o s y ' 
P h i l i p i s Tennyson's v e r s i o n o f t h e V i c t o r i a n 
husband p r e s i d i n g o v e r a h e a r t h whose glow p r o v i d e s 
s u f f i c i e n t r e f u g e from a t h r e a t e n i n g u n i v e r s e . 1 8 (4-
5) 

A c c o r d i n g t o R i c h a r d A l t i c k , 

Tennyson's g e n r e s t u d i e s and d o m e s t i c n a r r a t i v e s 
t y p i f i e d t h e c l o s e bond between V i c t o r i a n p o p u l a r 

I n "Of Queens' Gardens" from Sesame and L i l i e s (1865), 
R u s k i n ' s p o r t r a i t o f v i r t u o u s womanhood s t o o d f o r more t h a n a 
c e n t u r y as t h e supposed apex o f V i c t o r i a n f e m a l e m o r a l i t y and 
d o m e s t i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . A f t e r d e p i c t i n g t h e home as a 
" s a c r e d p l a c e , a v e s t a l t e m p l e o f t h e h e a r t h watched o v e r by 
H o u s e h o l d Gods" ( 1 2 2 ) , R u s k i n t h e n e q u a t e s woman w i t h t h i s 
home: "wherever a t r u e w i f e comes, t h i s home i s a l w a y s around 
h e r " ( 1 2 3 ) . F o r u l t i m a t e l y , she i s " e n d u r i n g l y , i n c o r r u p t i b l y 
good; i n s t i n c t i v e l y , i n f a l l i b l y w i s e — w i s e , n o t f o r s e l f -
development, b u t f o r s e l f - r e n u n c i a t i o n : w i s e , n o t t h a t she may 
s e t h e r s e l f above h e r husband, b u t t h a t she many n e v e r f a i l 
from h i s s i d e : w i s e , n o t w i t h t h e narrowness o f i n s o l e n t and 
l o v e l e s s p r i d e , b u t w i t h t h e p a s s i o n a t e g e n t l e n e s s o f an 
i n f i n i t e l y v a r i a b l e , because i n f i n i t e l y a p p l i c a b l e , modesty o f 
s e r v i c e — t h e t r u e c h a n g e f u l n e s s o f woman" ( 1 4 2 ) . I n 1969, 
K a t e M i l l e t c h a l l e n g e d R u s k i n ' s " s e n t i m e n t a l i z e d " v i e w o f 
women as r e i n f o r c i n g i n e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i a l systems and 
f u r t h e r i n g t h e s u b j e c t i o n o f women w i t h i n t h e home. Her 
r e v o l u t i o n a r y work, S e x u a l P o l i t i c s , began an o n g o i n g p r o c e s s 
o f r e t h i n k i n g f e m a l e s o c i a l s t e r e o t y p e s as i n s c r i b e d i n 
Western c u l t u r e ' s a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t s . I n t h i s p r o c e s s , 
H e l s i n g e r and h e r c o - w r i t e r s , i n t u r n , have r e c e n t l y 
c h a l l e n g e d M i l l e t ' s a n a l y s i s o f R u s k i n ' s v i e w s . They argue 
t h a t R u s k i n was f a s h i o n i n g women t o be t h e " n a t i o n ' s m o r a l 
c o n s c i e n c e " ( I 79) as R u s k i n l a t e r expands h e r r o l e i n k e e p i n g 
w i t h t h e l a r g e r , d o m e s t i c p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e s t a t e . 



a r t and l i t e r a t u r e . I n d i f f e r e n t o r b l i n d t o 
a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t s , t h e o r d i n a r y man and woman " r e a d " 
p i c t u r e s , as Lamb s a i d p e o p l e r e a d H o g a r t h ' s . . . . 
The i m p o r t a n t t h i n g was t h a t each e p i s o d e o r s t o r y 
s h o u l d have immediate and u n m i s t a k e a b l e i m p a c t on 
t h e b e h o l d e r . . . . No e x p l i c a t i o n o r 
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was needed: t h e meaning was i n s t a n t l y 
c l e a r . And when a r t i s t s chose, i n s t e a d , t h e 
a l l e g o r i c a l mode, t h e y t o o k p a i n s t h a t t h e l e s s o n be 
s p e l l e d o u t as p l a i n l y as i t was i n P i l g r i m ' s  
P r o g r e s s . 

S u b t l e t y and i n d i r e c t i o n were n o t h i g h l y v a l u e d 
i n V i c t o r i a n a r t , because t h e y d e l a y e d and c o n f u s e d 
r a t h e r t h a n a s s i s t e d t h e b e h o l d e r ' s r e s p o n s e . 

( V i c t o r i a n 277-

" R e a d i n g s " o f t h e key s c e n e s i n Tennyson's " P i c t u r e Poem," 

however, a r e n o t as e a s i l y e x e c u t e d as A l t i c k c l a i m s . As 

J o s e p h h i m s e l f r e c o g n i z e s , t h e above scene must be r e a d "not 

t h r o u g h t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h o s e who e x p e r i e n c e i t b u t 

t h r o u g h t h e eyes [ o f Enoch] a d e s p a i r i n g e x i l e " ( 6 ) . Readers 

a r e t h u s v o y e u r i s t i c a l l y i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e t a b l e a u a t 

once, and must n e g o t i a t e f o r t h e m s e l v e s where t h e y f e e l most 

c o m f o r t a b l e . T h i s i s a l s o t r u e o f o t h e r key s c e n e s i n Enoch  

A r d e n : A n n i e ' s and Enoch's romancing seen t h r o u g h t h e eyes o f 

P h i l i p ; Enoch's d e p a r t u r e seen t h r o u g h t h e eyes o f A n n i e ; and 

Enoch's d e a t h - b e d scene seen t h r o u g h t h e eyes o f M i r i a m Lane. 

R a t h e r t h a n " i n s t a n t l y c l e a r , " t h e meaning o f each o f t h e s e 

Rod Edmonds's A f f a i r s o f t h e H e a r t h b e g i n s w i t h t h e 
s e t p i e c e o f P h i l i p ' s and A n n i e ' s snug h e a r t h from Enoch Arden 
a l m o s t as a p r o t o t y p e o f t h e f a m i l y t a b l e a u . " I t combines two 
common s u b j e c t s o f m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g : f a m i l y 
r i t u a l s ; and t h e f a t h e r r e t u r n i n g home from work, war, o r s e a " 
( 2 ) . 



t a b l e a u x i s imbedded w i t h i n a complex n a r r a t i v e o f t r a g e d y and 

r o m a n c e — t h e l a s t two o f t h e g e n r e s i d e n t i f i e d by Rosenberg. 

P e r h a p s h e r o i c t r a g e d y i s t o o s t r o n g a t e r m f o r what 

happens t o t h e h e r o o f Enoch Arden. y e t Tennyson's " f i s h e r m a n " 

i s f a r more t h a n a common seaman. He i s seen f i s h i n g and 

s e l l i n g h i s wares f o r a mere 25 o f t h e 911 l i n e s i n t h e poem 

(44-60, 91-100). H i s p r i m a r y p a r t i n t h e n a r r a t i v e i s as an 

embodiment o f t h e d e s o l a t i o n o f t h e s o u l , as V a l e r i e P i t t 

d e f i n e s i t , " a n o t h e r m e d i t a t i o n on t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s o l a t e d 

from h i s s o c i e t y , and, l i k e t h e I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g , a s t u d y i n 

h e r o i c f a i l u r e " ( 2 1 8 ) . The f o r c e t h a t l e a d s t o Enoch's 

i s o l a t i o n and f a i l u r e i s n o t u n i q u e t o him, f o r i t r e c u r s 

t h r o u g h o u t Tennyson's w o r k — e a r l y and l a t e — t h e t r a g i c f l a w o f 

p r i d e . B e f o r e Enoch i s humbled by f a t e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 

i n n k e e p e r , M i r i a m Lane, he had " [ h ] e l d h i s head h i g h , and 

c a r e d f o r no man" ( 8 4 4 ) . Enoch's h u b r i s p l a c e s him amid 

numerous o t h e r Tennyson h e r o e s who s u f f e r from a s i m i l a r 

c h a r a c t e r weakness o f p u t t i n g t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r d e s i r e s 
20 

b e f o r e o t h e r s . As Fredeman s u g g e s t s o f Tennyson's e a r l y 

e g o i s t s , a l l o f them "may w e l l ask, w i t h T i t h o n u s " : 'Why 
20 . . . . 

Fredeman's s t u d y o f " S t Simeon S t y l i t e s " i d e n t i f i e s a 
p r i d e s i m i l a r t o S a i n t Simeon's i n P a r i s i n "Oenone," t h e S o u l 
i n "The P a l a c e o f A r t , " t h e M a r i n e r s i n "The L o t o s - E a t e r s , " 
" U l y s s e s , " and " T i t h o n u s . " L a t e r Tennyson c h a r a c t e r s who 
s u f f e r from t h e same f l a w i n c l u d e P r i n c e s s I d a i n The  
P r i n c e s s . t h e deranged s p e a k e r i n Maud, and s e v e r a l K n i g h t s o f 
t h e Round T a b l e i n I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g . 



512 

s h o u l d a man d e s i r e i n any way/ To v a r y from t h e k i n d l y r a c e 

o f men . . . ?'" (28-9) . 

One o f t h e r e a s o n s t h a t Fredeman g i v e s f o r U l y s s e s ' s 

d e s i r e s , a t l e a s t , c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e s t a t u r e o f 

Tennyson's m y t h i c h e r o . More t h a n j u s t t o " d r i n k l i f e t o t h e 

l e e s , " t h e a d v e n t u r e r ' s i m p u l s e t o resume v o y a g i n g a l s o 

d e r i v e s from h i s o v e r w e e n i n g sense o f s e l f - i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e 

e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r s — p r e s u m a b l y l o v e d ones ("Sphere" 3 8 0 ) . 

U l y s s e s ' s " a b n e g a t i o n o f d o m e s t i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . . . does 

n o t go u n p u n i s h e d o r . . . i s n o t w i t h o u t d i r e consequences 

e l s e w h e r e i n Tennyson" (382). Fredeman draws a p a r a l l e l t o 

"Enoch A r d e n " as w e l l a l t h o u g h he does n o t p u r s u e i t s c a u s e s 

o r "unhappy" consequences. The o s t e n s i b l y l a u d a b l e 

( p o t e n t i a l l y h e r o i c ) c a u s e s f o r Enoch's d e p a r t u r e , and t h e 

f o r c e s a t work a g a i n s t h i s l e a v i n g , a r e a c t u a l l y more 

p r o b l e m a t i c i n Enoch A r d e n t h a n i n U l y s s e s ' s monologue. 

S o c i o - e c o n o m i c d e t e r m i n e r s cause him t o l e a v e : 

1) Enoch w i s h e s t o p r o v i d e a b e t t e r l i f e f o r h i s c h i l d r e n ; and 

2) h i s b r o k e n l e g and r e d u c e d employment have i n j u r e d t h e 

f a m i l y ' s economic s t a b i l i t y . These a r e p i t t e d a g a i n s t 

r o m a n t i c f o r c e s t h a t s h o u l d make t h a t l e a v i n g more e m o t i o n a l l y 

d i f f i c u l t f o r Enoch t h a n i t t u r n s o u t t o be: 1) Enoch and 

A n n i e have e n j o y e d seven y e a r s o f wedded b l i s s ; " a r i d 2) A n n i e 

begs him n o t t o go. W i t h i n c o n t e x t , t h e u n r e f o r m e d Enoch's 

m o t i v e s a r e n o t as p o t e n t i a l l y s e l f - s e r v i n g as U l y s s e s ' s , nor 

a r e t h e y y e t w i t h o u t s u s p i c i o n . Thus, m o r a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s 



513 

m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t t h e poem's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t r i c t l y as e i t h e r 

e p i c o r t r a g i c h e r o i s m , a t l e a s t t o t h i s p o i n t . 

B o t h t h e r o m a n t i c t i e s t h a t b i n d and t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c 

f e t t e r s t h a t c h a f e , once a g a i n h a r k e n back t o t h e g e n r e t h e y 

r e p r e s e n t . A n n i e ' s r o l e as a d e t e r r e n t t o Enoch's 

m a t e r i a l i s t i c p u r s u i t s i s s u e s from t h e i d y l ' s i n i t i a l 

f a i r y t a l e - l i k e romance, t h e l a s t o f Rosenberg's g e n r e s . 

D o n a l d H a i r m a i n t a i n s t h a t " V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s and c r i t i c s 

g e n e r a l l y e x p e c t e d an i d y l t o p r e s e n t a p a s t o r a l l a n d s c a p e , a 

p a r a d i s a l r e t r e a t t h a t c r i t i c i s m has l a b e l l e d t h e l o c u s  

amoenus o r 'the p l e a s a n c e , ' a l a n d s c a p e where l i v i n g i s easy 

and p l e a s u r e c o n t i n u o u s . " H a i r adds t h a t V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s 

a c c e p t e d " d o m e s t i c b l i s s " i n Enoch Arden as a p a s t o r a l 

s u b s t i t u t e ( 9 7 ) . Y e t from t h e o u t s e t , t h e t h r e e c h i l d r e n ' s 

q u a r r e l s a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e poem foreshadow f u t u r e d o m e s t i c 

t r o u b l e . A l t h o u g h Enoch's p h y s i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y as a c h i l d 

c a r r i e s i n t o a d u l t h o o d , and he g e t s t h e g i r l " i n t h e end," 

t h e y do n o t l i v e h a p p i l y e v e r a f t e r . I n a d d i t i o n , Enoch does 

n o t j o u r n e y from home on a r o m a n t i c ( I d a ' s P r i n c e ) o r h e r o i c 

q u e s t ( t h e k n i g h t s o f t h e Round T a b l e ) . H a i r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 

o f t h e V i c t o r i a n d o m e s t i c scene as a v a r i a n t o f a t r a d i t i o n a l 

p a s t o r a l s t r u c t u r e m i s t a k e n l y r e i n f o r c e s Enoch A r d e n as a 

romance (even i f i t s f a i r y t a l e e n d i n g must now be t h e second 

o n e ) , and e x c l u d e s t h e o b v i o u s s o c i a l r e a l i s m i n t h e r e a s o n s 

why Enoch f e e l s he must l e a v e t h e f i s h i n g v i l l a g e . 



514 

As even F r i c k e who r e a d s t h e poem's mythos r e a l i z e s , t h e 

" s u g g e s t i o n s o f Enoch as a m y t h i c h e r o " a r e undermined by t h e 

f a c t t h a t he i s common, and has common f l a w s — " s t r o n g - w i l l e d , 

p o s s e s s i v e , and f e a r f u l o f p o v e r t y " ( 1 0 6 ) . H i s p u r s u i t o f 

economic independence makes him " b l i n d t o l o v e " ( 1 0 6 ) . I n 

w e i g h i n g t h e p r o s and cons o f j o i n i n g t h e crew o f t h e "Good 

F o r t u n e " (128-47) , Enoch, i n F r i c k e ' s v i e w , r e v e a l s h i m s e l f t o 

be "as b e n t upon a d v e n t u r e and t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f r i c h e s as 

upon t h e h a p p i n e s s o f h i s own f a m i l y " ( 1 0 6 ) . I n Enoch Arden, 

Tennyson a m b i v a l e n t l y i m p l i e s t h a t a p r i v a t e c o n c e r n f o r s e l f -

w o r t h and n o t t h e " s e l f - h e l p " p h i l o s o p h y o f Samuel S m i l e s may 

a c t u a l l y be d r i v i n g t h e p u b l i c m a c h i n e r y o f l a i s s e z - f a i r e 

c a p i t a l i s m . 

I f s u c h a r e a d i n g o f Enoch's a d v e n t u r e s i s a l l o w e d , t h e n i t 

can o n l y be so t h r o u g h t h e a d d i t i o n a l a l l o w a n c e t h a t , 

u l t i m a t e l y , t h e meaning o f a l i t e r a r y t e x t , e s p e c i a l l y i f i t 

i s "a g r e a t poem," r e s t s more w i t h i t s r e a d e r s t h a n i t does 

w i t h e i t h e r t h e a u t h o r o r t h e t e x t i t s e l f . F o r a l t h o u g h Enoch  

A r d e n i s " a t once e p i c and l y r i c , n a r r a t i v e and drama, t r a g e d y 

and romance," t h i s i d y l a c t u a l l y a c h i e v e s i t s g r e a t e s t 

p o t e n t i a l as a d o m e s t i c a l l e g o r y . And a l l e g o r y , more t h a n any 

o t h e r l i t e r a r y form, draws i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e from i t s r e a d e r s . 

F o r t h e "message" t o be u n d e r s t o o d a l l e g o r i c a l l y , r e a d e r s must 

w i l l i n g l y r e s p o n d — a l m o s t a t a p r e - c o g n i t i v e l e v e l — t o codes 

w i t h i n t h e t e x t t h a t p r o v o k e m o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d i f f e r e n t 



515 

from t h o u g h s t i l l a l l i e d t o t h e i d e a t i o n a l meanings o s t e n s i b l y -

p r o v i d e d by t h e a u t h o r . 

Indeed, f o r a g r e a t many r e a d e r s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and 

Tennyson's p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e poems, t h e i n i t i a l c a t a l y s t f o r 

a l l e g o r i c a l r e a d i n g was a f f e c t i v e and n o t c o g n i t i v e . One o f 

t h e most s e r i o u s t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o e t r y i n g e n e r a l , and o f M i l e s  

S t a n d i s h and Enoch A r d e n i n p a r t i c u l a r , c o n c e r n s t h e a l l e g e d l y 

s o f t , " f e m i n i n e " r e s p o n s e t o l i t e r a t u r e , t h e s e n t i m e n t a l , a 

c h a r g e a g a i n s t p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y t h a t i t has s h a r e d 
21 

w i t h p o p u l a r f i c t i o n . 
F o r example, Baum's comments on Tennyson's E n g l i s h I d y l s 

and on Enoch A r d e n a r e i n t e r e s t i n g because n o t o n l y do t h e y 

t y p i f y many t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a c t i o n s t o n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

s e n t i m e n t a l i t y , b u t t h e y a l s o work a t l e s s e n i n g Tennyson's 

c u l p a b i l i t y f o r t h e s e n t i m e n t a l i n h i s work. S p e a k i n g o f t h e 

Two c l a r i f i c a t i o n s need t o be made h e r e . 
M i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r m i s r e a d i n g i m p l i e s i n t e l l e c t u a l o r 
i d e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s e s a t odds w i t h t h e emotions o r s e n t i m e n t s 
t h a t c o n s t i t u t e poems' t o n e s . S e c o n d l y , t h e use o f gendered 
t e r m s , " f e m i n i n e " o r " m a s c u l i n e " p r o c e s s e s o f r e a d i n g , does 
n o t c a r r y n e g a t i v e o r p o s i t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s . T h i s b i n a r y i s 
n o t meant t o s t e r e o t y p e women as r e a d i n g p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e i r 
h e a r t s and men w i t h t h e i r heads. V i c t o r i a n men's f r e q u e n t and 
f r a n k a d m i s s i o n s t o t e a r f u l r e s p o n s e s t o p o e t r y and many 
women's j u d i c i o u s comments about Tennyson's v e r s e d i s p e l any 
n o t i o n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s were, as a group, d o m i n a t e d by one 
l e v e l o f r e s p o n s e o r t h e o t h e r . "On One Who E f f e c t e d an 
E f f e m i n a t e Manner" c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h a t , f o r Tennyson, when 
r e a d i n g s were a t t h e i r b e s t , t h e y a c t i v a t e d b o t h h a l v e s o f t h e 
p e r s o n a l i t y . 



516 

e a r l y i d y l s , Baum a b s o l v e s Tennyson o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s 

" V i c t o r i a n " e m o t i o n a l i s m : 

[ I ] t need n o t be t h o u g h t t h a t Tennyson d e l i b e r a t e l y 
w r o t e down t o a m i d d l e - c l a s s a u d i e n c e f o r t h e mere 
sake o f p o p u l a r a p p e a l . The t e m p t a t i o n t o do so may 
have e x i s t e d l a t e r , y e t t h e r e was s o m e t h i n g g e n u i n e 
i n Tennyson as i n h i s contemporary r e a d e r s w h i c h 
made t h i s k i n d o f t h i n g a t t r a c t i v e . B o t h he and 
t h e y l i k e d i t . I t was p a r t o f t h e s e n t i m e n t a l 
s t r a i n , b e g i n n i n g b e f o r e t h e a c c e s s i o n o f V i c t o r i a , 
w h i c h made V i c t o r i a n h e a r t s b l e e d e a s i l y and w h i c h 
Tennyson came t o r e l y upon h e r e a f t e r t o s a t i s f y h i s 
numerous f o l l o w i n g . A s i n c e r e i n s i n c e r i t y made him 
f a l s e l y t r u e . (145-6) 

He t h e n a s s e r t s t h a t Enoch Arden was " c o n c e i v e d i n s e n t i m e n t 

and b r o u g h t f o r t h i n complacency" (167). Y e t , l a t e r , Baum 

q u a l i f i e s t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s . Of Tennyson's t r e a t m e n t o f 

c o n t e m p o r a r y i s s u e s , he remarks t h a t 

H i s age p l a c e d on him t h a t bad eminence o f 
I n t e r p r e t e r G e n e r a l , and i t gave him t h e g i f t o f i t s 
own weakness, s e n t i m e n t a l i t y i n t h e s e r i o u s c o n c e r n s 
o f d a i l y l i f e . I t gave him t h e dangerous g i f t a l s o 
o f p o p u l a r i t y — w h i c h a t f i r s t unsought grew by what 
i t f e d upon. I t r e c r e a t e d him i n h i s own image and 
t h e r e f o r e i n t h e end dominated him. I t made him, t o 
a l a r g e d e g r e e , o r encouraged him t o make h i m s e l f , a 
m i r r o r i n d e e d , r a t h e r t h a n a p o e t . (250) 

Baum's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a s t s Tennyson as a v i c t i m o f 

s e n t i m e n t a l i t y , i n t h e t h r o e s o f a presumed e m o t i o n a l 

p a s s i v i t y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e t h o u s a n d s o f V i c t o r i a n 

r e a d e r s who i n d u l g e d i n s e n t i m e n t a l f i c t i o n and p o e t r y . 

Baum assumes t h a t s e n t i m e n t a l i t y n e c e s s a r i l y a r i s e s from 

a r t i s t s ' e m o t i o n a l weaknesses and t h e i r r e c i p i e n t s ' p a s s i v i t y . 

To v i n d i c a t e Tennyson from t h e c h a r g e o f s e n t i m e n t a l i t y , he 

a r g u e s t h a t b a s i c a l l y t h e p o e t c o u l d n o t h e l p h i m s e l f : he was 



517 

v i c t i m i z e d by t h e t i m e s i n w h i c h he l i v e d . S i n c e Baum's 

Tennyson: S i x t y Y e a r s A f t e r (1948), s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s have been 

i n t e n t on c o r r e c t i n g c h a r g e s o f s e n t i m e n t a l i t y a g a i n s t 

Tennyson t h r o u g h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t t r y t o p e r s u a d e r e a d e r s 

a g a i n s t p a s s i v e , s e n t i m e n t a l r e a d i n g s i n f a v o u r o f ones more 

a c t i v e l y " i n t e l l e c t u a l . " T h i s , f o r example, i s what Thomas 

A s s a d t r i e s t o do i n h i s s t u d y o f "The M a j o r Poems o f 

Tennyson's 'Enoch A r d e n ' V o l u m e . " 2 2 A t t h e end o f h i s 

a r t i c l e , A s s a d d i s m i s s e s e x c l u s i v e l y a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s : " I t 

i s w e l l known t h a t a f f e c t i o n w i t h o u t an adequate b a s i s o f 

c o g n i t i o n c a n n o t l o n g command our i n t e r e s t . We c a l l s u c h 

f e e l i n g s s e n t i m e n t a l " (55) . He can do t h i s because he f e e l s 

c o n f i d e n t t h a t he has, i n p l a c e o f t h e s e n t i m e n t a l , s u p p l i e d 

r e a d i n g s o f Tennyson's " c o n s c i o u s t e c h n i q u e s and themes" i n 

t h e f i r s t f i v e poems o f t h e Enoch Arden volume. 

A s s a d r e a d s t h e f i r s t f i v e poems i n r e v e r s e o r d e r and 
i n r e l a t i o n t o one a n o t h e r : "Enoch A r d e n , " "Aylmer's F i e l d , " 
"Sea Dreams," "The Grandmother," and " N o r t h e r n Farmer." I n 
t h e "Farmer," A s s a d p o i n t s o u t t h e f a r m e r ' s sense o f d u t y 
v e r s u s n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m a t e r i a l i s m ( 3 3 ) . I n t h e 
"Grandmother," " t i m e and a w e a l t h o f s p i r i t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s 
have b r o u g h t t h e o l d grandmother t o a s t a t e o f p e a c e f u l 
r i p e n e s s i n w h i c h n e i t h e r m a t e r i a l w e a l t h n o r d o g m a t i c 
r e l i g i o n have any p a r t " ( 3 6 ) . "Sea Dreams" "shows t h e w i f e ' s 
t r u l y C h r i s t i a n s p i r i t o f f o r g i v e n e s s , p i t y , and g e n t l e n e s s — 
as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e p r e a c h e r ' s l o u d , empty f o r m a l i s m — 
f i n a l l y s u c c e s s f u l i n q u e l l i n g t h e r a g e o f h a t r e d i n s p i r e d by 
t h e e v i l s o f m a t e r i a l i s m " ( 4 0 ) , and i n "Aylmer's F i e l d , " 
" [ p j r i d e n o u r i s h e d by m a t e r i a l i s m has c a u s e d t h e d e a t h o f 
i n n o c e n t young l o v e r s , has changed a C h r i s t i a n s p i r i t o f 
g e n t l e n e s s and p i t y i n t o one o f vengeance and w r a t h , and has 
b r o u g h t t h e name and house o f Aylmer t o d e s o l a t i o n and r u i n " 
( 4 4 ) . W i t h each poem, Tennyson's condemnation o f m a t e r i a l i s m 
i s r e v e a l e d ; A s s a d t h e n re-examines t h e more s u b t l y d e v e l o p e d 
"Enoch A r d e n " i n l i g h t o f t h i s key p r e o c c u p a t i o n . 



518 

W i t h t h e s e poems, Tennyson a l l e g e d l y c r e a t e d i n c r e a s i n g l y 

d r a m a t i c r e n d e r i n g s o f t h e t r a g i c consequences t h a t r e s u l t 

from o b s e s s i o n s w i t h p h y s i c a l and m a t e r i a l w e l f a r e t o t h e 

e x c l u s i o n o f t h e e m o t i o n a l and s p i r i t u a l (49) . A s s a d i s 

c o r r e c t i n i d e n t i f y i n g t h e e v i l s o f m a t e r i a l i s m i n t h i s volume 

s i n c e t h i s i s a p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f Tennyson's t h r o u g h o u t h i s 

work. And A s s a d ' s a n a l y s i s o f Enoch A r d e n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e 

o t h e r f o u r poems r e v e a l s i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l s between 

r e l i g i o u s and m a t e r i a l i s t dogma. Y e t , i n h i s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e 

" s e n t i m e n t a l " e n d i n g o f Enoch A r d e n , A s s a d b e t r a y s h i s b i a s e s . 

Enoch's e m o t i o n a l and s p i r i t u a l a c c e p t a n c e o f h i s d e s t i n y 

draws a " c u r r e n t o f . . . e a s y t e a r s " from h i s a u d i t o r , M i r i a m 

Lane, and w o u l d l i k e l y have had a s i m i l a r e f f e c t on Tennyson's 

V i c t o r i a n a u d i t o r s a l s o . However, A s s a d moves q u i c k l y p a s t 

t h i s e m o t i o n a l i s m t o t h e f o r m e r l y m a t e r i a l i s t i c Enoch d y i n g i n 

an " i m p o v e r i s h e d l o n e l y h o s t e l " so as t o c l a i m t h a t t h e " f i n a l 

i r o n y o f t h e s t o r y i s hammered home" ( 5 3 ) . The s t r o n g 

"hammer" o f t h i s p a r t o f h i s argument p r e c i p i t a t e s h i s 

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Tennyson's t e c h n i q u e s and themes " p r o v i d e t h e 

i n t e l l e c t u a l edge w h i c h keeps t h e a f f e c t i v e p a r t o f t h e 

awareness from b e i n g s e n t i m e n t a l l y s o f t " ( 5 5 ) . Because A s s a d 

w r i t e s o u t o f a m o d e r n i s t l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n t h a t p r i v i l e g e s 

i d e a t i o n a l o v e r e m o t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , even a f f e c t i v e 

r e s p o n s e s a r e made t o s u p p l y t h e m e t a l f o r a s t e e l y , h a r d -

edged i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m . 



However, t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t h e i g h t e n e d 

e m o t i o n a l i s m i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y was u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y 

f e l t t o p r o d u c e f l a w e d work. I n S a c r e d T e a r s : S e n t i m e n t a l i t y  

i n V i c t o r i a n L i t e r a t u r e . F r e d K a p l a n r e d e f i n e s s e n t i m e n t a l i t y 

i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y as a n a t u r a l p r o d u c t o f e i g h t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y , e x a m i n i n g w i t h o u t t h e a h i s t o r i c a l 

p e j o r a t i v i s m o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h e means by w h i c h 

a u t h o r s s u c h as D i c k e n s , T h a c k e r a y , and C a r l y l e worked w i t h i n 

and a g a i n s t a known l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n o f s e n t i m e n t a l i s m . 2 3 

E s s e n t i a l l y , he c o n c l u d e s t h a t w h i l e a l l t h r e e s h a r e d w i t h t h e 

m a j o r i t y o f t h e i r V i c t o r i a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a f a i t h i n "human 

n a t u r e , " o n l y C a r l y l e p e s s i m i s t i c a l l y d o u b t e d t h e v a l u e o f 

s e n t i m e n t t o r e l e a s e t h e m o r a l r e s p o n s i v e n e s s i n h e r e n t i n t h a t 

n a t u r e ( 1 4 2 - 3 ) . As K a p l a n p o i n t s o u t , " C a r l y l e was aware t h a t 

s e n t i m e n t a l i t y i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y had d i v i d e d i n t o two 

main c u r r e n t s , one a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e n s i b i l i t y , t h e o t h e r w i t h 

m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y " (134). I n K a p l a n ' s v i e w , by b e i n g t h u s 

aware, C a r l y l e m i s t r u s t e d them b o t h : s e n s i b i l i t y had been 

t a k e n up by Romantic p o e t s and had, s u p p o s e d l y , become d e v o i d 

o f m o r a l c o n t e n t w h i l e m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y f o s t e r e d among 

V i c t o r i a n w r i t e r s t h e i n c i t e m e n t o f p o t e n t i a l l y m o r a l i s t i c 

2 3 Leo L o w e n t h a l ' s c h a p t e r on t h e h i s t o r i c a l "Debate o v e r 
A r t and P o p u l a r C u l t u r e " summarizes a s i m i l a r argument t o t h a t 
o u t l i n e d by K a p l a n . Here, v a r i o u s f i g u r e s from M o n t a i g n e t o 
F l a u b e r t , P a s c a l t o N i e t z s c h e v o i c e t h e c o n f l i c t i n g demands o f 
t h e a u d i e n c e ' s need f o r p l e a s u r e and t h e a r t i s t ' s a l l e g e d 
m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o improve s o c i e t y ( 1 4 - 5 1 ) . 



f e e l i n g s t h a t were w i t h o u t t r a n s c e n d e n c e and were r a r e l y 

t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o any p u r p o s e f u l a c t i o n (134-41). 

Somehow, i t i s C a r l y l e ' s d i s p a r a g i n g v o i c e r a t h e r t h a n t h e 

a p p r o v i n g ones o f D i c k e n s and T h a c k e r a y t h a t has come t o 

dominate t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e s e n t i m e n t a l 

i n V i c t o r i a n p o e t r y and o f Tennyson's s e n t i m e n t a l i t y i n 

p a r t i c u l a r . I n i t i a l l y , C a r l y l e exempted Tennyson's e a r l y 

p o e t r y from h i s c r i t i c a l d i s d a i n . K a p l a n a r g u e s t h a t i n t h e 

1840s C a r l y l e saw i n Tennyson's p o e t r y a "consonance between 

t h e p o e t i c language and t h e m o r a l c o n t e n t " ( 1 3 7 ) , a B a r d i c 

v o i c e " g e n e r a t i n g c o s m i c v i s i o n s and t h e o p t i m i s m o f a 

r e g e n e r a t i v e b e l i e f system" (13 6 ) . W i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f 

t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l s and t h e I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g , however, 

C a r l y l e f e l t t h a t Tennyson's p o e t r y had become " m e r e l y 

s e n t i m e n t a l . " That i s , l a c k i n g a t r a n s c e n d e n t m o r a l v i s i o n , 

i t had become d o m e s t i c r a t h e r t h a n e p i c , e x a c t i n g o n l y " s a c r e d 

t e a r s " from i t s a u d i e n c e ( K a p l a n 137-8). R o b e r t M a r t i n , i n 

h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f " I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g , 1872-1874" (493-510), 

echoes C a r l y l e ' s l a t e r a t t i t u d e as e x p l a i n e d by K a p l a n d e s p i t e 

h a v i n g e a r l i e r i n h i s b i o g r a p h y a t t r i b u t e d C a r l y l e ' s 

c r i t i c i s m s o f Tennyson e i t h e r t o h i s d i s d a i n f o r p o e t r y i n 

g e n e r a l o r t o C a r l y l e ' s u s u a l i r a s c i b i l i t y (see 241, 2 67, 

3 0 3 ) . The c r u x o f t h e m a t t e r i s whether o r n o t p o e t s such as 

Tennyson d e l i b e r a t e l y p r o d u c e d work t h a t p r o v o k e d p r o t e a n 

l e v e l s o f r e s p o n s e , i n c l u d i n g t h e s e n t i m e n t a l . Tennyson's 

o b v i o u s p o p u l a r i t y i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n 



o f Enoch Arden. and g e n e r a t e d a s u s p i c i o n among h i s 

c o n t e m p o r a r i e s and h i s l a t e r r e a d e r s t h a t was t o l a s t f o r more 

t h a n a c e n t u r y . Presumably, a p o e t o f Tennyson's s t a t u r e who 

d e l i b e r a t e l y chose p o e t i c s u b j e c t s t h a t would a p p e a l t o t h e 

b r o a d s e n t i m e n t s o f h i s a u d i e n c e c o u l d o n l y have m e r e t r i c i o u s 

i n t e n t s . Tennyson, however, d i d n o t p r o s t i t u t e h i m s e l f and 

h i s a r t w i t h Enoch Arden. 

I n d i r e c t o p p o s i t i o n t o C a r l y l e ' s b e l i e f t h a t 

s e n t i m e n t a l i t y l a c k s a t r a n s c e n d e n t m o r a l v i s i o n , Jane 

Tompkins s t r e s s e s t h e " S e n t i m e n t a l Power" o f V i c t o r i a n 

A m e r i c a n f e m a l e n o v e l i s t s , t h e most p o p u l a r o f whom was 

H a r r i e t B e e c h e r Stowe. Tompkins i n i t i a l l y summarizes t h e 

s t a n d a r d v i e w t h a t she a r g u e s a g a i n s t : " t h e s e women a r e 

g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t t o have t r a d e d i n f a l s e s t e r e o t y p e s , d i s h i n g 

o u t weak-minded pap t o n o u r i s h t h e p r e j u d i c e s o f t h e i l l -

e d u c a t e d and underemployed f e m a l e r e a d e r s h i p . S e l f - d e l u d e d 

and u n a b l e t o f a c e t h e h a r s h f a c t s o f a c o m p e t i t i v e s o c i e t y , 

t h e y a r e p o r t r a y e d as m a n i p u l a t o r s o f a g u l l i b l e p u b l i c who 

k e p t t h e i r r e a d e r s i m p r i s o n e d i n a dreamworld o f s e l f -

j u s t i f y i n g c l i c h e s " ( 2 6 9 ) . I f j u d g e d s o l e l y by t h e s e 

c r i t i c i s m s , t h e n c e r t a i n l y L o n g f e l l o w — i f n o t T e n n y s o n — c o u l d 

j o i n hands w i t h f e m a l e s e n t i m e n t a l i s t s . I n Tompkins's mind, 

t h o u g h , t h i s j o i n i n g would have been t o t h e s e male p o e t s ' 

c r e d i t . 

Opposing t h e s t a n d a r d v i e w , Tompkins a l l e g e s t h a t t h r o u g h 

t h e i r work f e m a l e n o v e l i s t s a c t i v e l y p u r s u e d s o c i a l r e f o r m . 



She adds, however, t h a t " [ t ] h e i r f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e e v i l s o f 

t h e i r s o c i e t y was a f i x e d match from t h e s t a r t " (269) . I t was 

so because even i f i n t h e i r work and t h e i r l i v e s t h e y 

s u p p o r t e d systems o f b e l i e f " t h a t gave women t h e c e n t r a l 

p o s i t i o n o f power and a u t h o r i t y i n t h e c u l t u r e , " s o c i o -

economic and p o l i t i c a l power were t h e e x c l u s i v e r i g h t s o f men 

( 2 6 9 ) . O b v i o u s l y , under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , d i r e c t a p p e a l s 

t o r e a d e r s ' r a t i o n a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l s y m p a t h i e s f o r a l l -

encompassing p o l i t i c a l change would be i n e f f e c t u a l . 

C o n s e q u e n t l y , p o p u l a r f e m a l e n o v e l i s t s s t i m u l a t e d t h e i r 

r e a d e r s ' c o l l e c t i v e e m o t i o n a l i s m and s e n t i m e n t , i n t h e hopes 

o f c h a n g i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r i v a t e b e l i e f system. 

C o n t r i v a n c e s t h a t many t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s r e g a r d 

w i t h contempt, Tompkins c l a i m s had l e g i t i m a t e p o l i t i c a l 

p u r p o s e s . F i r s t , b o t h t h e c o n t i n u a l and o b v i o u s a p p e a l s t o 

t h e r e a d e r ' s e m o t i o n s and t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by 

t h e i r u t t e r c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y s i t u a t e d p o p u l a r women's n o v e l s i n 

a f a m i l i a r l i t e r a r y t e r r a i n , " h a l f w a y between sermon and 

s o c i a l t h e o r y , t h a t b o t h c o d i f i e s and a t t e m p t s t o mold t h e 

v a l u e s o f i t s t i m e " ( 2 7 1 ) . Second, s e n t i m e n t a l r e s p o n s e s t o 

t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s , i n t u r n , c o u l d a c t i v a t e awareness o f p r e s e t 

a s s u m p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g f a m i l y and s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , power 

and i t s r e l a t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l human f e e l i n g , p o l i t i c a l and 

s o c i a l e q u a l i t y and, most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s 

t h a t o r g a n i z e and s u s t a i n t h e r e s t (271). T h i r d , by 

e n t r e n c h i n g a r e l i g i o u s e t h i c o f s e l f - s a c r i f i c e t h r o u g h t h e 



power o f t h e dead o r d y i n g — i n p a r t i c u l a r c h i l d r e n — t h e s e 

n o v e l i s t s c o u l d s u g g e s t r e d e m p t i o n even f o r t h e u n r e g e n e r a t e 

(272) . F o u r t h , r e l i g i o u s o r s p i r i t u a l c o n v e r s i o n s were t o 

form t h e b a s i s f o r a new s o c i a l o r d e r ; t h e r e f o r e , a n o v e l ' s 

e v e n t s were r e a d a l l e g o r i c a l l y , as t h e e t e r n a l t r u t h s o f 

Heaven and H e l l , Death and Judgment r a t h e r t h a n as h i s t o r i c a l 

r e a l i s m ( 2 7 6 - 8 ) . And, f i n a l l y , s e t t i n g s would be r e a d 

a l l e g o r i c a l l y as w e l l , as p o s i t i o n s upon a s p i r i t u a l map 

r a t h e r t h a n s p e c i f i c t i m e s o r p l a c e s ( 2 7 8 ) . 

G i v e n t h e c u l t u r a l prominence o f women and d o m e s t i c i t y i n 

t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Tompkins s u g g e s t s t h a t n o v e l i s t s s u c h 

as Stowe u s e d s t o c k , s e n t i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n s and c h a r a c t e r s i n 

d o m e s t i c s e t t i n g s n o t because t h e y were weak-minded o r f e e b l e , 

b u t because t h e y wanted d e l i b e r a t e l y t o draw upon t h e i r 

r e a d e r s ' e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s i n o r d e r t o a c t i v a t e an a f f e c t i v e 

awareness o f s o c i a l problems t h a t , i n t u r n , c o u l d prompt an 

i n n e r , s p i r i t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . That s u c h p r o c e s s e s have 

v e r y l i t t l e t o do w i t h c o g n i t i o n makes t h e i r s t a g e s d i f f i c u l t 

t o a r t i c u l a t e i n i d e a t i o n a l t e r m s . I n " S e n t i m e n t and 

S u f f e r i n g : Women's R e c r e a t i o n a l R e a d i n g i n t h e 1860s," S a l l y 

M i t c h e l l a t t e m p t s a d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s e s t a g e s by s u g g e s t i n g — 

a l o n g l i n e s s i m i l a r t o T o m p k i n s — t h a t t h e power o f t h e 

" p o p u l a r e m o t i o n a l n o v e l " l i e s i n i t s v e r y commonness: " i t 

p r o v i d e s a mode o f d i s t a n c i n g w h i c h makes r e p r e s s e d emotions a 

form t h a t i s p u b l i c l y a c c e p t a b l e and t h a t makes them a s o u r c e 

o f p l e a s u r e . I t a l s o a f f o r d s r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e s e needs a r e 



524 

common—shared between a u t h o r and r e a d e r , and r e a d e r and 

r e a d e r " ( 3 4 ) . T h i s s h i f t from a f f e c t i v e p l e a s u r e t o c o g n i t i v e 

awareness o f c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s e r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r s t u d y i f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's n a r r a t i v e poems a r e t o be r e a d 

a p p r o v i n g l y as d o m e s t i c a l l e g o r i e s r a t h e r t h a n watered-down 

i m i t a t i o n s o f c l a s s i c a l p o e t i c forms o r i n f e r i o r c o u s i n s t o 

t h e f a r more r e a l i s t i c — a n d t h e r e f o r e more v a l u e d — f i c t i o n o f 

t h e p e r i o d . 

Tompkins's and M i t c h e l l ' s s t u d i e s o f s e n t i m e n t a l f i c t i o n go 

o n l y so f a r i n a s s i s t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s and 

Tennyson's p o e t i c u s e s o f t h e s e n t i m e n t a l because t h e y , o f 

c o u r s e , f o c u s on e l e m e n t s o f f i c t i o n — e v e n t , c h a r a c t e r , and 

s e t t i n g — i n t h e i r f o s t e r i n g o f s e n t i m e n t a l moods. F o r 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's r e a d e r s , t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f 

s e n t i m e n t o c c u r s l e s s a t t h e l e v e l o f r e s p o n s e s t o s t o c k , 

m e l o d r a m a t i c c h a r a c t e r s i n a c t i o n as such t h a n a t t h e l e v e l o f 

e m o t i o n a l / v i s c e r a l r e a c t i o n s t o t h e a f f e c t i v e l y r i c i s m o f each • 

p o e t ' s v o i c e . But Tompkins's o v e r a l l c o n c l u s i o n , however, has 

p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 

n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y s i n c e , t h r o u g h s e n t i m e n t , l i t e r a r y t e x t s can 

be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a l l e g o r i e s o f a new p o l i t i c a l o r d e r t h a t 

p o s i t s woman a t i t s c e n t r e . 

Tompkins's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s e n t i m e n t ' s a l l e g o r i c a l 

p u r p o s e — t o engender a new, f e m a l e p o l i t i c a l o r d e r — r e l a t e s t o 

t h e means by w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's n a r r a t i v e poems 

g e n e r a t e d t h e i r p o p u l a r a p p e a l . S e n t i m e n t ' s a l l e g o r i c a l 



f u n c t i o n , i n r e l a t i o n t o form and a u d i e n c e , i n t e r s e c t s t h i s 

c h a p t e r ' s e a r l i e r a n a l y s i s o f t h e o v e r l a p p i n g p o e t i c g e n r e s 

t h a t c o n s t i t u t e M i l e s S t a n d i s h and Enoch A r d e n as p o p u l a r 

n a r r a t i v e poems. O b v i o u s l y n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s and 

w r i t e r s o f b o t h genders q u e s t i o n e d t h e s o c i a l v a l u e o f t h e 

" a f f e c t i o n s " i n r e l a t i o n t o p o e t i c g e n r e . And male c r i t i c s 

f r e q u e n t l y a s s i g n e d f e m a l e p o e t s t o l y r i c i s m — t h e l o w e r 

r e a c h e s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p o e t i c h i e r a r c h y — b e c a u s e t h i s 

g e n r e p r e s u m a b l y a l l o w e d them t o d i s p l a y t h e i r g r e a t e s t 

s t r e n g t h s : compassion and b e a u t y . I n Female W r i t e r s (1842), 

Mary Ann S t o d a r t a r g u e s t h e same r a t i o n a l e f o r f e m a l e l y r i c i s m 

b u t from a woman's p e r s p e c t i v e and w i t h g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t 

r e s u l t s . R a t h e r t h a n acknowledge t h e t r a d i t i o n a l male 

h i e r a r c h y , she a r g u e s f o r s e p a r a t e b u t e q u a l s p h e r e s : " t o t h e 

man b e l o n g s t h e e p i c , w i t h i t s g r a n d manner, i t s sense o f 

h i s t o r y , and i t s knowledge o f good and e v i l ; t o t h e woman 

b e l o n g s t h e l y r i c , w i t h an emphasis on i n d i v i d u a l f e e l i n g and 

d o m e s t i c e x p e r i e n c e " (summarized by H e l s i n g e r I I I 3 0 ) . 

S t o d a r t champions f e m a l e p o e t s f o r t h e i r l y r i c a l l y e x p r e s s e d , 

d o m e s t i c s e n t i m e n t s : 

We may n o t , we c a n n o t 'murmur t a l e s o f i r o n wars,' 
f o l l o w t h e c u r r e n t s o f a heady f i g h t , p o r t r a y w i t h 
t h e v i v i d power o f Homeric song, t h e h o r r i d d i n o f 
war, t h e r u s h o f c o n t e n d i n g w a r r i o r s , t h e p r a n c i n g 
o f t h e n o b l e s t e e d , t h e c l a n g , t h e t u m u l t , t h e 
s t i r r i n g i n t e r e s t o f t h e b a t t l e - f i e l d — n o — b u t we 
can do what m i g h t i e r man would p e r h a p s d i s d a i n — w e 
can f o l l o w one s o l i t a r y s o l d i e r as he d r a g s h i s 
wounded l i m b s beneath t h e s h e l t e r i n g hedge; and 
w h i l e we mark h i s g l a z i n g eye, we c a n r e a d w i t h 
woman's k e e n n e s s , t h e t h o u g h t s o f w i f e , c h i l d r e n , 



and home, w h i c h a r e p l a y i n g around h i s h e a r t , ( q t d . 
30-31) 

As male p o e t s w o r k i n g w i t h i n and a g a i n s t f e m a l e t h e m a t i c 

p a r a d i g m s , o f t e n from women's p e r s p e c t i v e s i f n o t w i t h t h e i r 

v o i c e s , L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson c r o s s e d back and f o r t h between 

t h e s e p a r a t e s p h e r e s S t o d a r t o u t l i n e s above. Through each 

p o e t ' s e x t r a o r d i n a r y s k i l l a t c o n f l a t i n g s e e m i n g l y opposed 

g e n r e s i n M i l e s S t a n d i s h and Enoch Arden and, t h r o u g h 

s e l e c t i v e l y r i c i s m , L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson encouraged t h e 

h e i g h t e n e d e m o t i o n a l i s m o f w h i c h S t o d a r t s p e a k s . F o r many o f 

t h e i r r e a d e r s — w o m e n and men a l i k e — t h i s e m o t i o n a l i s m c o u l d 

r e a d i l y have f o s t e r e d a l l e g o r i c a l r e a d i n g s o f women's c e n t r a l 

r o l e i n s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y . 

The s e n t i m e n t a l t r i g g e r i n p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y t h a t 

p u t s t h i s a l l e g o r i c a l p r o c e s s i n t o p l a y i s n o t t h e 

m e l o d r a m a t i c c h a r a c t e r s and s c e n e s o f f i c t i o n . I t i s 

a f f e c t i v e l y r i c i s m . A l t h o u g h L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 

l y r i c v o i c e s a r e wed t o n a r r a t i v e p u r p o s e s and become d i f f u s e d 

i n t o a c t i o n , c h a r a c t e r , s e t t i n g , and m o o d — t h e e l e m e n t s o f 

f i c t i o n — t h e y a r e p e r h a p s even more sonorous because more 

r e s o n a n t i n n a r r a t i v e t h a n t h e y a r e i n song. E r i c G r i f f i t h s 

d e s c r i b e s V i c t o r i a n l y r i c i s m i n a way t h a t s u g g e s t s s t r o n g l y 

i t s p o t e n t i a l t i e s w i t h a l l e g o r y : " t h e l y r i c u t t e r a n c e 

c o n s c i o u s l y i d e a l i z e s t h e f a c t s o f t h e d a r k w o r l d i t i s s u e s 

from as i t i d e a l i z e s t h a t w o r l d ' s speech. I t d o e s n ' t come as 

a s u r p r i s e when we f i n d t h a t p e o p l e a c t u a l l y behaved t o w a r d s 



527 

each o t h e r i n ways q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from what we i m a g i n e i f we 

r e a d works o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n as i f t h e y weren't a t a l l 

i m a g i n a t i v e " ( G r i f f i t h s 177). N e i t h e r L o n g f e l l o w n o r Tennyson 

c o u l d have r e a l i s t i c a l l y e x p e c t e d h i s r e a d e r s t o behave as 

e i t h e r as P r i s c i l l a s o r A n n i e s . However, i n t h e l y r i c 

u t t e r a n c e o f t h e d o m e s t i c s o l u t i o n s t h a t each p o e t s o u g h t , he 

r e g i s t e r s t h e a l l e g o r i c a l power o f t h e f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e 

w i t h i n humanity as a whole. 

I n M i l e s S t a n d i s h , L o n g f e l l o w i m p l i c i t l y v i l i f i e s h i s 

s o c i e t y ' s l o s s o f t h i s f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e by v o i c i n g s t r o n g 

s e n t i m e n t a l bonds between a j u s t and humane C h r i s t i a n i t y and 

t h e d o m e s t i c w o r l d o f t h e P u r i t a n maid, P r i s c i l l a . The 

P u r i t a n s , o f c o u r s e , s a i l e d t o A m e r i c a because o f t h e i r 

r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s t h a t t h e C h r i s t i a n Word was Law. From a 

m i d - n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p e r s p e c t i v e , L o n g f e l l o w r e a f f i r m s t h i s 

o r i g i n a l " s e n t i m e n t " on w h i c h h i s n a t i o n was founded. On t h e 

b r i n k o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' u l t i m a t e d i s s o l u t i o n i n t o C i v i l 

War, L o n g f e l l o w a l l e g o r i c a l l y s u g g e s t s t h a t s o c i a l 

d i s i n t e g r a t i o n stems from a p e o p l e ' s l o s s o f compassion f o r 

one a n o t h e r : t h e i r l o s s r e g i s t e r s i n t h e i r i n s i n c e r e u s e s o f 

l a n g u a g e and e q u a l l y i n s i n c e r e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e words t h a t 

o t h e r s use t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r d i f f e r i n g r e a l i t i e s . By e x p o s i n g 

t h e s e c a u s e s , L o n g f e l l o w ' s poem t h e r e b y s e e k s i t s s o l u t i o n s 

i n t e r n a l l y i n P r i s c i l l a as she b o t h v o i c e s and m a n i f e s t s t r u e 

C h r i s t i a n compassion. A t t h e same t i m e , L o n g f e l l o w ' s d o m e s t i c 

a l l e g o r y o f h i s n a t i o n draws upon i t s e x t e r n a l r e a d e r s ' own 



528 

w i l l i n g n e s s t o i d e n t i f y s e n t i m e n t a l l y w i t h t h e dilemmas and 

s o l u t i o n s p o s e d — n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t o l i k e what t h e y h e a r , b u t 

t o l i s t e n . 

L i s t e n i n g i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t b o t h M i l e s S t a n d i s h and John 

A l d e n have g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y d o i n g . Because t h e C a p t a i n i s 

s o l e l y o c c u p i e d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e w o r l d v i a h i m s e l f and h i s 

m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s ( h i s f i g u r a t i v e language c o n s i s t s a l m o s t 

e n t i r e l y o f metaphors o f weaponry), h i s most f r e q u e n t r e s p o n s e 

t o o t h e r s ' words i s "unheeding." When A l d e n i n t e r j e c t s d u r i n g 

S t a n d i s h ' s t a l e o f n e a r d e a t h a t F l a n d e r s , t h e C a p t a i n 

c o n t i n u e s r i g h t on, "unheeding t h e words o f t h e s t r i p l i n g " ( I 

3 4 ) . When A l d e n i n t e r r u p t s t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n about J u l i u s 

C a e s a r w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n o f h i s own, S t a n d i s h a g a i n i g n o r e s 

him, "not h e e d i n g o r h e a r i n g t h e o t h e r " ( I I 1 2 ) . More 

s e r i o u s l y , S t a n d i s h d i s m i s s e s c o m p l e t e l y t h e P l y m o u t h E l d e r ' s 

C h r i s t i a n p e t i t i o n f o r peace i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e I n d i a n s ' 

" c h a l l e n g e o f w a r f a r e " v i a "arrowy t o n g u e s o f d e f i a n c e " (IV 

113-14). F o r t h e C a p t a i n i n t e n d s t o r e t u r n l i k e w i t h l i k e 

s i n c e he i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t " ' t h e o n l y tongue t h a t i s 

u n d e r s t o o d by t h e savage / Must be t h e tongue o f f i r e t h a t 

speaks from t h e mouth o f t h e cannon!'" (IV 1 2 4 — 5 ) . Thus when 

t h e E l d e r d e l i v e r s him a m i l d r e b u k e f o r h i s " i r r e v e r e n t 

l a n g u a g e , " i t t o o f a l l s "unheeded" on d e a f e a r s . F o r M i l e s 

S t a n d i s h i s by now so committed t o t h e v e n t i n g o f h i s anger a t 

b e i n g r e j e c t e d by P r i s c i l l a t h a t n a t i v e i n s o l e n c e i s j u s t t h e 

s p a r k he needs t o s e t o f f h i s e m o t i o n a l powder keg. I n b o t h 



P r i s c i l l a ' s r e j e c t i o n o f S t a n d i s h ' s words by p r o x y , and t h e 

I n d i a n s ' r e f u s a l t o l i s t e n t o P u r i t a n i c a l g o s p e l , L o n g f e l l o w 

i m p l i c i t l y compares v a r i o u s s i t e s o f c o n f l i c t o v e r t h e s i n c e r e 

b e s t o w a l o f s e n t i m e n t . F o r n o t h e e d i n g i s n o t t h e same as 

r e j e c t i o n o r r e f u s a l . The l a t t e r two i m p l y a g e n u i n e h e a r i n g 

and a c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d , "no." 

A l d e n a l s o s u f f e r s from n o t h e e d i n g because he i s t o o 

c a u g h t up i n t h e f a s h i o n i n g o f p h r a s e s t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o t h e 

i m p o r t o f h i s c o n v e r s a n t ' s speech. He i g n o r e s P r i s c i l l a ' s 

i n d i g n a n t r e s p o n s e t o S t a n d i s h ' s p r o p o s a l by p r o x y because by 

now he has warmed t o h i s t a s k : "unheeding t h e words o f 

P r i s c i l l a , " he u r g e s t h e s u i t o f h i s f r i e n d by " e x p l a i n i n g , 

p e r s u a d i n g , e x p a n d i n g " ( I I I 131-2). A l t h o u g h A l d e n ' s 

m e t a p h o r i z i n g does n o t s t o p i m m e d i a t e l y once he and P r i s c i l l a 

p l e d g e t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p , i n t h e d o m e s t i c c o m m u n i t y - b u i l d i n g 

c h a p t e r , "The S p i n n i n g - W h e e l , " P r i s c i l l a i s a b l e t o d i r e c t 

A l d e n ' s a t t e n t i o n away from h i s " i d l e " s p i n n i n g o f words i n t o 

a p r a c t i c a l s p i n n i n g o f a c t u a l w o o l . T h e r e i n , she i s " t o be 

t h e p a t t e r n f o r h o u s e w i v e s , " and g u i d e him i n how t o become 

" e q u a l l y w o r t h y o f b e i n g t h e model o f husbands" ( V I I I 6 4 - 5 ) . 

T h e i r d o m e s t i c l a b o u r t o g e t h e r t h e r e b y p r e s a g e s t h e i r u n i o n . 

P r i s c i l l a ' s p r a c t i c a l , no-nonsense a p p r o a c h t o l i f e does 

n o t , however, p r e v e n t h e r from b e i n g p o r t r a y e d i n p o s t u r e s 

t h a t prompt r e a d e r s ' s e n t i m e n t a l r e s p o n s e s . F o r she i s 

f r e q u e n t l y r e a d t h r o u g h A l d e n ' s p o e t i c i z i n g . A l t h o u g h she 

a l o n e c a r r i e s t h e a l l e g o r i c a l w e i g h t o f t h i s d o m e s t i c i d y l , 



530 

she i s y e t t o A l d e n , i n i t s s i m p l e s t l y r i c a l s e n s e , t h e "May-

f l o w e r o f P l y m o u t h . " Hence, h e r i n w a r d u n i t y o f words and 

a c t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d o u t w a r d l y f o r him i n s t o c k p o s t u r e s o f 

d o m e s t i c b l i s s . F o r i n s t a n c e , A l d e n h e a r s t h e " m u s i c a l v o i c e 

o f P r i s c i l l a , " even b e f o r e he s e e s h e r , as she s i t s s i n g i n g 

t h e h u n d r e d t h p s a l m w h i l e she s p i n s . Through A l d e n ' s eyes and 

e a r s she i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o " t h e P u r i t a n g i r l , i n t h e 

s o l i t u d e o f t h e f o r e s t , / Making t h e humble house and t h e 

modest a p p a r e l o f homespun / B e a u t i f u l w i t h h e r b e a u t y , and 

r i c h w i t h t h e w e a l t h o f h e r b e i n g ! " ( I l l 5 2 - 4 ) . A s i m i l a r 

p a s t o r a l l y r i c i s m g e n t l y b l e s s e s t h e c o u p l e on t h e i r wedding 

day. Even t h i s " l a n d o f t o i l and p r i v a t i o n " t h a t i s s a i d t o 

l i e b e f o r e them, P r i s c i l l a and A l d e n t r a n s f i g u r e t h r o u g h t h e i r 

l o v e i n t o " t h e Garden o f Eden" (IX 6 3 ) . The f i n a l s t a n z a ' s 

murmuring b r o o k s , g o l d e n l e a v e s , and odorous grape v i n e s whose 

s c e n t s m i n g l e w i t h t h e balm o f p i n e and f i r - t r e e , c o m p l e t e t h e 

poem i n a p a r t i n g image " o f t h e p r i m i t i v e p a s t o r a l ages" (IX 

8 5 - 9 ) , 2 4 

T h i s s e n t i m e n t a l , h a p p y - e v e r - a f t e r e n d i n g , however, does 

n o t have t o be s c o r n e d f o r mawkishness. Moreover, t h e 

n a r r a t o r c l e a r l y a d m i t s t h a t i t i s m e r e l y e x t e r n a l , t h a t 

i d e a l i s m has m o m e n t a r i l y c o l o u r e d t h i s y o u t h f u l P u r i t a n w o r l d . 

Moreover, t h e poem's comic r e s o l u t i o n o f y o u t h o v e r age i s 

2 4 The r e c o v e r y o f t h e L o t u s l a p s u s , w i t h w h i c h M i l e s  
S t a n d i s h c o n c l u d e s , m i r r o r s t h e many e i g h t e e n t h and 
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Edens e n c y c l o p e d i a c a l l y t r e a t e d i n Max F. 
S c h u l t z ' s P a r a d i s e P r e s e r v e d (1985). 



531 

a l s o m e r e l y e x t e r n a l c o n v e n t i o n because i t i s undermined by 

S t a n d i s h ' s " r e t u r n from t h e dead" a l l e g e d l y t o b l e s s 

P r i s c i l l a ' s and A l d e n ' s u n i o n . H i s s p e c t r a l appearance a t t h e 

c h u r c h d o o r , however, r e c a l l s an e a r l i e r " s p e c t r e o f t e r r o r " : 

t h e b l o o d y " t r o p h y o f war t h e head o f t h e b r a v e Wattawamat" 

upon t h e r o o f o f t h i s same c h u r c h / f o r t r e s s ( V I I 9 4 ) . 

P r i s c i l l a had i n i t i a l l y " a v e r t e d h e r f a c e " from t h i s s p e c t r e 

because she r e a d i n Wattawamat's f a t e a f u t u r e t h a t m i g h t have 

s y m b o l i c a l l y been h e r s . She t h a n k s God t h e n t h a t she d i d n o t 

marry M i l e s S t a n d i s h , f o r she f e a r s t h a t "coming home from h i s 

b a t t l e s " he m i g h t have one day l a i d " c l a i m t o h e r hand, as t h e 

p r i z e and r e w a r d o f h i s v a l o u r " ( V I I 99-100). The C a p t a i n ' s 

a r r i v a l a t t h e w e d d i n g — e v e n though i t i s meant t o convey h i s 

a p o l o g y — b y a s s o c i a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o t h r e a t e n p e r i p h e r a l l y t h e 

peace o f P r i s c i l l a ' s and A l d e n ' s u n i o n a t c e n t r e s t a g e . 

S t a n d i s h s t i l l has "an i r o n w i l l " t h a t s t a y s h i s f u l l 

c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; and when he i s c a l l e d upon t o e x p l a i n h i s 

m y s t e r i o u s d i s a p p e a r a n c e , he r e l a p s e s i n t o metaphors o f 

w a r f a r e . 

I n s h o r t , L o n g f e l l o w ' s a f f e c t i v e l y r i c i s m i n M i l e s S t a n d i s h 

works t h r o u g h a l l u s i o n and t h e t o n a l q u a l i t i e s o f t h e v e r s e , 

even as i t d i d i n "A Psalm o f L i f e , " t o encourage r e a d e r s ' 

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n b o t h t h e dilemmas o f w a r f a r e and t h e i r 

d o m e s t i c s o l u t i o n . That h i s r e s o l u t i o n l i e s i n t h e d i s t a n t 

P u r i t a n p a s t does n o t d i m i n i s h i t s p o t e n t i a l as a l l e g o r y . The 

i d y l engages r e a d e r s ' p r i v a t e , s p i r i t u a l s e l v e s more t h a n 



t h e i r i n t e l l e c t s so t h a t as a c o l l e c t i v e e m o t i o n a l f o r c e t h e y 

can p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y and p u b l i c l y i n t h e m o r a l c r i s i s 

f a c i n g t h e i r n a t i o n i n t h e 1850s. As i n M i l e s S t a n d i s h , t h i s 

t o o was t o e r u p t i n a war between language and a c t i o n , f o u g h t 

i n t h e houses o f government and on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d s . I n t h e 

s c r i b e ' s w i n n i n g o f t h e maiden and i n t h e poem's a t t e m p t s t o 

i n s p i r e d o m e s t i c p e a c e — w i t h i n t h e s e l f , w i t h i n t h e home, 

w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n — L o n g f e l l o w may w e l l have been a l l u d i n g t o 

t h e w e l l - w o r n metaphor t h a t " t h e pen i s m i g h t i e r t h a n t h e 

sword." U n f o r t u n a t e l y , by 1860, t h e adage had worn o u t 

a l t o g e t h e r — i t was t o p r o v e as much a sham as M i l e s S t a n d i s h ' s 

p r o c l a m a t i o n on s e l f - r e l i a n c e . 

The t h r e a t s t o d o m e s t i c b l i s s w h i c h c o n t i n u e t o l i n g e r a t 

t h e p e r i p h e r y o f M i l e s S t a n d i s h f i n d t h e i r p a r a l l e l o u t s i d e 

t h e t e x t i n a contemporary atmosphere o f s o c i a l t e n s i o n and 

p o l i t i c a l unease. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e n a r r a t i v e i t s e l f , l i k e 

t h e b i v o u a c o f t h e "Psalm," can o n l y e v e r r e a l l y p r o v i d e a 

t e m p o r a r y s h e l t e r from t h e s t o r m . F o r t h e t r u e s h e l t e r c o u l d 

n o t be g a i n e d o b j e c t i v e l y even i n l y r i c i s m o f p o e t r y — i t c o u l d 

o n l y r e s t w i t h i n t h e s e l f . I f r e s p o n s i v e t o s e n t i m e n t and 

c o m p a s s i o n , t h e n r e a d e r s — w h e t h e r t h e y be M i l e s S t a n d i s h o r 

Enoch A r d e n — a r e s u b s e q u e n t l y p r o v o k e d by a d e s i r e t o r e c r e a t e 

t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e h e a r t h w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s , t o make o f t h e i r 

own p e r s o n s d o m e s t i c havens o f e m o t i o n a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l 

c o m f o r t . 



533 

T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o c c u r s i n Enoch when he " r e a d s " t h e 

b l i s s i n A n n i e ' s and P h i l i p ' s f a m i l y t a b l e a u and t h e n w i s h e s 

t o p r o t e c t i t . T h i s , i n t u r n , i s what Tennyson's r e a d e r s a r e 

t o do w h e n — t h r o u g h M i r i a m Lane's e y e s — t h e y " r e a d " Enoch's 

e m o t i o n a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l peace. I t c a n n o t be o v e r s t r e s s e d 

t h a t t h i s r e a d i n g does n o t t a k e p l a c e o n l y a t a c o g n i t i v e 

l e v e l . R e a d e r s ' a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s t o t e x t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f 

t e a s e d i n t o a t y p e o f v i s c e r a l a c t i v i t y t h r o u g h t h e p h y s i c a l 

s e n s a t i o n o f sound, i n s p i r e an e q u a l i f n o t g r e a t e r 

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f meaning t h a n do c o g n i t i v e 

ones. F o r i n s t a n c e , Enoch Arden may have c a u s e d i t s 

c o n t e m p o r a r y r e a d e r s t o sense i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c a l l y t h a t t h e 

l i f e l i v e d one-hundred y e a r s ago was s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f t h e 

18 60s. But when c a l l e d upon t o a r t i c u l a t e e x a c t l y why t h i s i s 

t r u e , t h e y may n o t have been a b l e t o e x p l a i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e ; 

t h e " f e e l " o f t h e poem s i m p l y s u g g e s t s i t . 

To be e f f e c t i v e as a l l e g o r y , Enoch A r d e n must i n s p i r e i t s 

r e a d e r s o u t s i d e t h e t e x t t o t a k e up t h e poem's e v e n t s as i f 

t h e y were t h e i r own, and t o a s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s v i c a r i o u s l y 

w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r s w i t h i n t h e poem who a r e c a l l e d upon t o 

" r e a d " v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s and p e o p l e . The p l a c e s w i t h i n t h e 

poem where t h i s r e s p o n s e o c c u r s a r e p u n c t u a t e d by a h e i g h t e n e d 

e m o t i o n a l i s m t h a t r e g i s t e r s i n t h e sonorous l y r i c i s m o f 

Tennyson's b l a n k v e r s e . The f i r s t i s P h i l i p ' s v i e w o f A n n i e 

and Enoch i n l o v e . Tennyson e n s u r e s t h a t h i s r e a d e r s ' 

s y m p a t h i e s a r e w i t h P h i l i p even b e f o r e he goes t o t h e h a z e l -



534 

wood by p o i n t i n g t o h i s s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g , f e m i n i n e r o l e o f 

n u r s i n g h i s s i c k f a t h e r as t h e r e a s o n f o r h i s d e l a y . Then, he 

s e e s t h e l o v e r s : 

And i n t h e i r eyes and f a c e s r e a d h i s doom; 
Then, as t h e i r f a c e s drew t o g e t h e r , g r o a n ' d , 
And s l i p t a s i d e , and l i k e . a wounded l i f e 
C r e p t down i n t o t h e h o l l o w s o f t h e wood. (73-6) 

Echoes o f t h e o p e n i n g o f Maud l i n k P h i l i p ' s " l i f e l o n g hunger 

i n h i s h e a r t " t o Tennyson's many o t h e r j i l t e d l o v e r s . The 

i m p a c t o f P h i l i p ' s r e a d i n g i s f e l t v i s c e r a l l y i n h i s g r o a n i n g , 

and i n t h e assonance o f t h e l o n g " i " and s h o r t "o" t h a t 

c r e a t e s a l o n g d r a w i n g o u t o f t h e m i s e r y t h a t he f e e l s . 

Tennyson manages t h r o u g h sound t o t r a n s f o r m P h i l i p ' s e m o t i o n a l 

a n g u i s h i n t o p h y s i c a l p a i n . He r e s p o n d s l i k e a k i c k e d dog, 

who must h i d e h i m s e l f t o l i c k h i s wounds. The s e n t i m e n t s 

b r o u g h t i n t o p l a y h e r e n e c e s s a r i l y i n f l u e n c e r e a d e r s ' 

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P h i l i p ' s s u f f e r i n g t h r o u g h o u t w h i l e A n n i e 

w a i t s f o r a s i g n from God t o b r i n g an end t o h e r and h i s 

s o r r o w . 

A n n i e ' s h i g h l y e m o t i o n a l p l e a d i n g w i t h Enoch n o t t o go on 

h i s merchant v e n t u r e i s y e t a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e where r e a d e r s a r e 

made t o f e e l p h y s i c a l l y t h e p a i n f u l e f f e c t s o f a c h a r a c t e r ' s 

u n r e q u i t e d needs (157-66). I t r e g i s t e r s more f o r c e f u l l y s t i l l 

i n h e r r e s p o n s e t o h i s s e r m o n i z i n g j u s t b e f o r e Enoch l e a v e s : 

. . . she h e a r d , 
Heard and n o t h e a r d him; as t h e v i l l a g e g i r l , 
Who s e t s h e r p i t c h e r u n d e r n e a t h t h e s p r i n g , 
Musing on him t h a t used t o f i l l i t f o r h e r , 
Hears and n o t h e a r s , and l e t s i t o v e r f l o w . (205-9) 



The r e p e t i t i o n i s t h e key means by w h i c h A n n i e ' s l i n g e r i n g 

f e a r and doubt s t i m u l a t e i n h e r a k i n d o f somnambulism. She 

i s numb t o t h e r e a l i t y o f p r e s e n t and f u t u r e ; she d w e l l s o n l y 

as a symbol o f t h e abandoned v i l l a g e g i r l . Enoch's words a r e 

now a waste o f b r e a t h t h a t r e c a l l w a t e r w a s t e d upon t h e 

ground, f o r h e r p r e d e t e r m i n e d r o l e as "widow" has been t a k e n 

up even b e f o r e Enoch l e a v e s . As i n P h i l i p ' s a l i e n a t i o n from 

l o v e , r e s p o n s e s t o A n n i e ' s a r e s e t e a r l y so t h a t i n i t i a l 

s e n t i m e n t s can be drawn upon l a t e r i n t h e poem. Her most 

t r a g i c moment, f o r example, comes about by h e r use o f t h e 

B i b l e t o a u t h o r i z e a c h o i c e t h a t she i s t o o weak t o make 

o p e n l y . She m i s r e a d s Enoch's p r e d i c a m e n t as d e a t h so t h a t she 

can g e t on w i t h l i f e . I n a l e t t e r t o J o a n Agnew, 19 June 

18 69, R u s k i n e x p l a i n s t h e d e p t h o f h i s own e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e 

t o t h i s scene i n p a r t i c u l a r : "To my mind, t h e s a d d e s t and 

s t r a n g e s t t h i n g — y e t so l i k e human l i f e — b u t t h e d e e p e s t p i e c e 

o f t h e t r a g e d y — i s t h e d e c e i v i n g o f t h e w i f e by t h e True 

Dream, 'Under t h e Palm T r e e s . ' The V a i n P r o v i d e n c e , t h e Good 

S p i r i t becoming a l y i n g one. E v e r y day t h e w o r l d and i t s ways 

g e t more t e r r i b l e t o me" (XXXVI 570-71). The q u i n t e s s e n t i a l 

humanism i n A n n i e ' s dilemma makes Enoch's a c t u a l d e a t h 

p a t h e t i c a l l y t r a g i c . 

Of c o u r s e , once Enoch i s c a s t away upon a t r o p i c a l i s l a n d , 

h i s p h y s i c a l i s o l a t i o n and a l i e n a t i o n a r e f e l t most a c u t e l y . 

T h i s sense i s a c h i e v e d p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e l i n e s t h a t 

d e s c r i b e t h e i s l a n d , l i n e s t h a t W a l t e r Bagehot, and many o t h e r 



r e a d e r s a f t e r him, d e t e r m i n e d as t o o o r n a t e f o r n a r r a t i v e 

p o e t r y ( l i n e s 568-95, see Jump 282-93). But what Bagehot 

f a i l e d t o h e a r i n t h e s e l i n e s i s t h e s e n s a t i o n o f b e i n g a l m o s t 

p h y s i c a l l y s i c k e n e d by t h e l u s h n e s s o f v i s u a l imagery and t h e 

human e m p t i n e s s i n t h e p o w e r f u l sounds o f n a t u r e t h a t have no 

r e s o n a n c e f o r t h e h e r o . The v i s i o n he most d e s i r e s , " t h e 

k i n d l y human f a c e , " and t h e sound he l o n g s f o r , "a k i n d l y 

v o i c e , " a r e d e n i e d t o him as a form o f punishment f o r h i s 

f a i l u r e t o r e g i s t e r t h e s e b e f o r e i n t h e c o m p a s s i o n a t e l o o k s 

and p l e a d i n g s o f h i s w i f e . But t h i s f a c e and v o i c e can now be 

s u p p l i e d by t h e r e a d e r s o f t h e poem i f t h e y v i s u a l l y and 

a u d i b l y r e a d Enoch's l o n e l i n e s s as i f i t were t h e i r own. I f 

s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e a f f e c t i v e l y r i c i s m o f t h e v e r s e , t h e n 

r e a d e r s f e e l t h e t e d i u m and e x p e r i e n c e v i c a r i o u s l y t h e 

o v e r s t i m u l a t i o n o f sense and u n d e r s t i m u l a t i o n o f e m o t i o n . 

They b e g i n h e r e t o i d e n t i f y w i t h Enoch's s u f f e r i n g , and f e e l 

a n x i e t y a t h i s r e s c u e because o f e v e n t s back i n t h e v i l l a g e . 

O b v i o u s l y , Enoch's m a s o c h i s t i c d e s i r e t o l o o k i n upon 

A n n i e ' s and P h i l i p ' s h e a r t h once he r e t u r n s i s t h e c l i m a x t o 

t h e i d y l ' s s e t - p i e c e s . What Enoch sees has been d i s c u s s e d 

p r e v i o u s l y ; what r e m a i n s i s Enoch's e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o t h i s 

d o m e s t i c t a b l e a u . Here, Enoch echoes P h i l i p ' s e a r l i e r m i s e r y , 

a t a h e i g h t e n e d p i t c h . Enoch w i s h e s t o d e s t r o y what he sees 

v i s u a l l y by u t t e r i n g a " s h r i l l and t e r r i b l e c r y , / Which i n 

one moment, l i k e t h e b l a s t o f doom, / Would s h a t t e r a l l t h e 

h a p p i n e s s o f t h e h e a r t h " (7 64-6). However, he t u r n s away 



537 

s o f t l y . H i s v o i c e i s s i l e n c e d f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e poem by 

h i s i n v o c a t i o n t o God t o b r i n g him t h e s t r e n g t h o f i n n e r 

r e s o l v e so t h a t he w i l l n o t i n t r u d e upon A n n i e ' s peace. 

S u b s e q u e n t l y , Enoch a c h i e v e s h i s i n w a r d s p i r i t u a l peace 

t h r o u g h h i s h e r o i c s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . T h i s f i n a l c o n t e n t m e n t i s 

f e l t by t h e poem's r e a d e r s t h r o u g h M i r i a m Lane who undergoes a 

p r o c e s s s i m i l a r t o Enoch's on h e a r i n g h i s t a l e . She a t f i r s t 

v e n t s h e r emotions p h y s i c a l l y i n an " h a l f - h y s t e r i c a l c r y " o f 

d i s b e l i e f . Then, " F a s t f l o w ' d t h e c u r r e n t o f h e r e a s y t e a r s " 

(862) as she s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e s w i t h Enoch's p a i n and 

s u f f e r i n g . F i n a l l y , M i r i a m r e s i s t s t h e u r g e t o r u s h o u t and 

p r o c l a i m "Enoch Arden and h i s woes" ( 8 6 4 ) , f o r she i s bound t o 

Enoch as Enoch i s t o God i n vows o f s i l e n c e . She and t h e 

" l a z y g o s s i p s o f t h e p o r t " a r e — l i k e E n o c h — a l s o n o t a l l o w e d 

t o i n t r u d e on A n n i e ' s and P h i l i p ' s l i v e s by t a k i n g p l e a s u r e i n 

t h e r e t e l l i n g o f Enoch's s u f f e r i n g . They a r e t o e x p r e s s 

c o m p a s s i o n , n o t f a s c i n a t i o n , and must s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y b e a r 

o t h e r p e o p l e ' s p a i n even as t h e i r own. 

T h a t Tennyson's r e a d e r s n e c e s s a r i l y r e a d Enoch Arden 

t h r o u g h s y m p a t h e t i c eyes and e a r s i s s u g g e s t e d by i t s 

t h o u s a n d s o f p u r c h a s e r s . Whether t h e y r e a d i n t o t h i s i d y l t h e 

deeper c o n n o t a t i o n s o f d o m e s t i c a l l e g o r y i s l e s s c e r t a i n . One 

a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Enoch Arden c o n c e r n s t h i s 

p r o c e s s o f a l l e g o r i c a l r e a d i n g i t s e l f . Readers o f t h i s poem 

must be made t o f e e l t h a t l o v e f o r t h e e m o t i o n a l and n o t 

m e r e l y t h e m a t e r i a l w e l l - b e i n g o f o t h e r s has t o s u p e r s e d e 



538 

s e l f - l o v e t o e n s u r e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e community. Enoch's 

t r u e c a r i n g f o r A n n i e a l l o w s him, f i n a l l y , t o r e a d h e r f u t u r e 

c o r r e c t l y and a v o i d t h e l e g a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f h i s s e l f -

d i s c l o s u r e . I n h i s r e f u s a l t o i n t r u d e upon A n n i e ' s and 

P h i l i p ' s "bigamous" m a r r i e d l i f e , Enoch i r o n i c a l l y p r e s e r v e s 

t h e s a n c t i t y o f t h e bonds o f u n s e l f i s h l o v e t h a t have p r e c e d e d 

i t . He i d e a l i z e s a m a r r i a g e o f t h e h e a r t a t t h e expense o f 

t h e l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n . T h i s , i n t u r n , r e a f f i r m s t h e 

community's g e n e r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s e l f - s a c r i f i c e o f t h e h e r o 

so t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n w i l l be s e c u r e . 

By a c t i v a t i n g t h e s y m p a t h e t i c emotions o f h i s a u d i e n c e f o r 

Enoch's dilemma, Tennyson a c h i e v e s h i s a l l e g o r i c a l p u r p o s e : 

h i s r e a d e r s g e t o u t s i d e o f t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r own narrow 

c o n c e r n s , and i m a g i n a t i v e l y f e e l f o r t h e p l i g h t s o f t h e i r 

" c r e a t e d " f r i e n d s . F o r Tennyson, t h i s i s what i t means t o be 

f u l l y human. A c c o r d i n g l y , he s e t s h i s poem a hundred y e a r s i n 

t h e p a s t because he w i s h e s t o convey t h a t t i m e p e r i o d when 

" a l l t h i n g s human" began t o change, when p e o p l e a l l o w e d 

m a r k e t - f o r c e s and t h e d e s i r e f o r w e a l t h t o r e p l a c e b o t h t h e i r 

l o v e o f home and community and t h e i r e m o t i o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n , 

i n s h o r t , a t t h a t p o i n t when t h e d e h u m a n i z i n g p r o c e s s i n 

s o c i e t y began. 

C l e a r l y , t h e l o c u s o f human i n t e r a c t i o n i s t h e d o m e s t i c 

h e a r t h and home s i n c e i t i s t h e r e t h a t c h i l d r e n f i r s t l e a r n 

how t o l i v e and l o v e as s o c i a l b e i n g s . P i t t r i g h t l y a s s e r t s 

t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o t h e o p i n i o n s o f many o f Tennyson's 



539 

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s , i t " i s f o o l i s h t o l a u g h a t 

Tennyson's c o n c e r n w i t h d o m e s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s — t h e y were a t 

t h e f o r e f r o n t o f t h e V i c t o r i a n e t h i c a l t a b l e a u , t h e y a r e t h e 

b a s i s o f a l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n , and Tennyson u s e s t h a t 

c o n v e n t i o n , as most p o e t s use t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e i r p e r i o d , 

as t h e medium o f s o m e t h i n g e l s e . " T h i s s o m e t h i n g e l s e P i t t 

d e f i n e s as o b l i q u e w r i t i n g , n o t t r u e a l l e g o r y where " b o t h 

a c t o r s and a c t i o n s a r e d e s i g n e d t o s t a n d f o r some s p e c i f i c 

s i t u a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e m s e l v e s , b u t . . . t y p e s t o r i e s , s t o r i e s 

i n w h i c h t h e a c t i o n , though c o m p l e t e and s a t i s f y i n g i n i t s e l f , 

p o i n t s t o and r e f l e c t s some o t h e r s i t u a t i o n " (13 6-7). P i t t ' s 

" t y p e s t o r y " i s h e r e r e f e r r e d t o as d o m e s t i c a l l e g o r y i n w h i c h 

t h e t e x t ' s p o i n t i n g t o and r e f l e c t i n g , a p r o c e s s w h i c h P i t t 

does n o t e x p l a i n , a c t u a l l y o c c u r s i n t h e h e a r t s and minds o f 

Tennyson's r e a d e r s . 

I n s t e a d , P i t t e x p l a i n s Tennyson's use o f a l l e g o r y w i t h i n 

t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s p u b l i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . "The L a u r e a t e ' s 

v o i c e was meant t o warn and t o encourage, he r e c e i v e s and 

e x p r e s s e s t h e s u b c o n s c i o u s f e a r s and d o u b t s o f h i s g e n e r a t i o n , 

b u t he a l s o f e e l s and p r e s e n t s t h e i r sense o f v a s t achievement 

and t h e i r o b s t i n a t e sometimes i r r i t a t i n g o p t i m i s m " ( 1 5 3 ) . 

A l t h o u g h i n h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f T e n n y s o n i a n a l l e g o r y P i t t 

a g a i n p r i v i l e g e s t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n s o v e r t h e r e a d e r ' s , 

she n e v e r t h e l e s s acknowledges t h a t , as a p u b l i c p o e t , Tennyson 

p e r f o r c e o p e r a t e d on t h e two l e v e l s o f i n c o m i n g and o u t g o i n g 

s t i m u l i s i m u l t a n e o u s l y : r e c e i v i n g and e x p r e s s i n g , f e e l i n g and 



p r e s e n t i n g . As n o t e d above f o r Tennyson's own r e a d e r s , t h e 

f i r s t i s p r i m a r i l y i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c . I t i s p e r f o r m e d by t h e 

" f e e l i n g h e a r t s " ( f e m i n i n e ) t h a t A r t h u r H a l l a m p o s i t s as one 

h a l f o f Tennyson's i d e a l r e a d e r s h i p . The second, n a t u r a l l y , 

i s c o g n i t i v e , t a k e n up by t h e " i m a g i n a t i v e t e m p e r s " 

( m a s c u l i n e ) o f t h e second h a l f . T h e i r p e r f e c t u n i o n i n 

Tennyson's androgynous v o i c e f a s h i o n e d a haven o f d o m e s t i c 

peace and s e c u r i t y o u t o f Enoch Arden i t s e l f t h a t , i n t u r n , 

l e d t o i t s immense p o p u l a r i t y . 

A c c o r d i n g t o Fredeman, t h e " d o m e s t i c element i n Tennyson's 

p o e t r y goes w e l l beyond m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g t o t h e h e a r t h , t h e 

h e a r t , and t h e home: i t i s t h e s t a b i l i z i n g f o r c e i n i n d i v i d u a l 

l i f e , t h e p r o t e c t i o n a f f o r d e d by a c i v i l i z e d o r d e r i n s o c i e t y , 

and t h e a s s u r a n c e o f a p u r p o s e f u l meaning. I t s c o n c o m i t a n t s 

a r e t h o s e v a l u e s on w h i c h t h e V i c t o r i a n s p l a c e d so h i g h a 

p r e m i u m — v i r t u e , i n t e g r i t y , l o y a l t y , d u t y , d i s c i p l i n e , 

c h a s t i t y , h o n o u r — v a l u e s w h i c h Tennyson t h o u g h t o f as 

u n i v e r s a l , t h e h u m a n i z i n g d e n o m i n a t o r s t h a t b r i d g e 

d i s t i n c t i o n s o f s e x , c l a s s , g e n e r a t i o n s , and even n a t i o n s " 

( 3 6 5 - 6 ) . That t h e d o m e s t i c i d y l a f f o r d s s t a b i l i t y i n t h e f a c e 

o f i n s t a b i l i t y , r e a s s u r a n c e i n t h e f a c e o f doubt has a l w a y s 

been acknowledged as a p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r i t s p o p u l a r i t y among 

V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s . Y e t p u r p o s e f u l meaning and a b r i d g i n g 

between s o c i a l b a r r i e r s — t h e s e r e s p o n s e s come about t h r o u g h 

s e n t i m e n t and, where a p p l i c a b l e , a l l e g o r y . I n f l u e n c e d by t h e 

New C r i t i c i s m ' s p r i v i l e g i n g o f t h e t e x t , most t w e n t i e t h -



c e n t u r y r e a d e r s assume t h a t t h e poems t h e m s e l v e s engender 

t h e s e r e s p o n s e s . However, Tennyson's d o m e s t i c i d y l s , i n 

p a r t i c u l a r Enoch Arden. r e v e a l t h a t Tennyson s e t much g r e a t e r 

s t o r e i n r e a d e r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h i s p o e t i c n a r r a t i v e s t h a n 

has h i t h e r t o been g r a n t e d . 

I n b o t h M i l e s S t a n d i s h and Enoch A r d e n , t h e f i x e d d o m i c i l e 

o f h e a r t h and home a l l e g o r i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t s language i t s e l f as 

a g u a r a n t o r o f communal peace and s e c u r i t y . Indeed, i n h i s 

" F a b l e f o r C r i t i c s , " James R u s s e l l L o w e l l i m p l i e s as much i n 

h i s r e f e r e n c e t o E v a n g e l i n e : 

Had T h e o c r i t u s w r i t t e n i n E n g l i s h , n o t Greek, 
I b e l i e v e t h a t h i s e x q u i s i t e sense would s c a r c e change a 

l i n e 
I n t h a t r a r e , t e n d e r , v i r g i n - l i k e p a s t o r a l E v a n g e l i n e . 
T h a t ' s n o t a n c i e n t nor modern, i t s p l a c e i s a p a r t 
Where t i m e has no sway, i n t h e r e a l m o f p u r e A r t , 
' T i s a s h r i n e o f r e t r e a t from E a r t h ' s hubbub and s t r i f e 
As q u i e t and c h a s t e as t h e a u t h o r ' s own l i f e . (1328-34) 

I n M i l e s S t a n d i s h . L o n g f e l l o w s i m i l a r l y c r e a t e s a s e c u r e home 

i n P r i s c i l l a h e r s e l f t h r o u g h t h e p e r f e c t u n i o n o f a c t i o n and 

l a n g u a g e t h a t , i n t u r n , e s t a b l i s h e s " P r i s c i l l a " as 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p r o t o t y p i c a l f e m i n i n e t e x t . 

F o r Tennyson, however, s t a b i l i t y does n o t r e s i d e i n t h e 

f e m i n i n e t e x t ; i t r e s i d e s i n t h e f e m i n i n e r e a d e r wedded t o h i s 

t e x t s . I n i t s f u n c t i o n w i t h i n a s h a r e d community o f 

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , language s e e k s i t s s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n 

Tennyson's p o e t r y i n images o f d o m e s t i c i t y . I n o t h e r words, 

t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p o e t r y (and n o t t h e p o e t r y o f e x p e r i e n c e ) 



542 

t a k e s p l a c e w i t h i n t h e f i x e d d o m i c i l e o f t h e poem i t s e l f i n 

w h i c h a u t h o r i t y i s i n c a r n a t e i n t h e v e r y b r e a t h o f t h e l o g o s . 

The l o g o s o r head o f t h i s f a m i l y u n i t i s a c o r p o r e a l 

c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h e d i v i n e Logos and i s m a s c u l i n e . Y e t t h e 

m a s c u l i n e l o g o s i s w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a t i o n u n t i l e x p e r i e n c e d by 

a r e a d e r who, i f n o t b i o l o g i c a l l y f e m a l e , n o n e t h e l e s s r e s p o n d s 

e m o t i o n a l l y , i n a " f e m i n i n e " way, t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f word 

and r e a d e r : o n l y t o g e t h e r do t h e y c r e a t e meaning. Spoken from 

t h e male p o i n t o f v i e w v o i c e d by K i n g A r t h u r , i t i s t h e 

"maiden p a s s i o n f o r a maid" t h a t w i l l " t e a c h h i g h t h o u g h t , and 

a m i a b l e words / And c o u r t l i n e s s , and d e s i r e o f fame, / And 

l o v e o f t r u t h , and a l l t h a t makes a man" ( " G u i n i v e r e " 476-80). 

The p a s s i o n must t h e r e f o r e be compassion. F o r t h e m e d i e v a l 

k n i g h t , t h e f i r s t terms o f t h i s a p p o s i t i v e s e r i e s a r e most 

i m p o r t a n t : " h i g h t h o u g h t , " " c o u r t l i n e s s , " and " l o v e o f t r u t h . " 

But f o r t h e p o e t , t h e second terms a r e paramount: " a m i a b l e 

words," " d e s i r e o f fame," and " a l l t h a t makes a man." F o r as 

a p u r v e y o r o f t r u t h t h r o u g h l a n g u a g e , Tennyson can o n l y 

a c h i e v e h i s own " f a m e " — h i s t r u e m a s c u l i n i t y — t h r o u g h 

s u c c e s s f u l a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e r e a d e r / m a i d . 

One o f t h e most p r o b l e m a t i c f e a t u r e s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 

p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e poems i s t h a t , i n t h e i r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f 

g e n r e s , t h e y r i s k s e v e r a l t i m e s o v e r t h e p o t e n t i a l t o be 

m i s r e a d . F o r g e n r e c a r r i e s w i t h i t an e n t i r e h o s t o f l i t e r a r y 

p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s t h a t g u i d e r e a d e r s ' d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f meaning. 

These f u n c t i o n as c o g n i t i v e g r i d s t h r o u g h w h i c h t e x t s a r e 



i n t e r p r e t e d . E d u c a t e d r e a d e r s , o f c o u r s e , have a c c e s s t o more 

g r i d s t h a n u n e d u c a t e d r e a d e r s . Y e t p r i o r t o genre 

e x p e c t a t i o n s coming i n t o p l a y , r e a d e r s o f a l l c l a s s e s and b o t h 

g e n d e r s a r e a f f e c t e d by p o e t r y t h a t s t i m u l a t e s t h e e a r and, 

l i k e l y , t o u c h e s t h e h e a r t , p e r h a p s even w i t h o u t t h e i r knowing 

i t . Through t h i s b a s i c , a l m o s t p r i m i t i v e r e s p o n s i v e n e s s i n 

e v e r y o n e , L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson c o n c e i v e d t h e i r i n i t i a l 

p o p u l a r i t y v i a l y r i c . I n l y r i c ' s f e l i c i t o u s u n i o n w i t h 

a l l e g o r y v i a n a r r a t i v e , L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson n u r t u r e d t h a t 

p o p u l a r i t y t o w o r l d w i d e s u c c e s s . 



5 4 3 ^ 

CONCLUSION 

How w i l l men speak o f me when I am gone, 
When a l l t h i s c o l o u r l e s s , sad l i f e i s ended 
And I am d u s t ? They w i l l remember o n l y 
The w r i n k l e d f o r e h e a d , t h e marred c o u n t e n a n c e , 
The r u d e n e s s o f my speech, and my rough manners, 
And n e v e r dream t h a t u n d e r n e a t h them a l l 
There was a woman's h e a r t o f t e n d e r n e s s . 
They w i l l n o t know t h e s e c r e t o f my l i f e , 
L o c k e d up i n s i l e n c e , o r b u t v a g u e l y h i n t e d 
I n u n c o u t h rhymes, t h a t may p e r c h a n c e s u r v i v e 
Some l i t t l e space i n memories o f menI 
Each one p e r f o r m s h i s l i f e - w o r k , and t h e n l e a v e s i t ; 
Those t h a t come a f t e r him w i l l e s t i m a t e 
H i s i n f l u e n c e on t h e age i n w h i c h he l i v e d . 

— L o n g f e l l o w ( M i c h a e l Ancrelo I I i v ) 

P o p u l a r , P o p u l a r , U n p o p u l a r 1 
'You're no P o e t ' — t h e c r i t i c s c r i e d ! 
'Why?' s a i d t h e P o e t . 'You're u n p o p u l a r ! ' 
Then t h e y c r i e d a t t h e t u r n o f t h e t i d e — 
'You're no P o e t ! ' 'Why?'—'You're p o p u l a r ! ' 
Pop-gun, P o p u l a r and U n p o p u l a r ! 

— T e n n y s o n 1874 ( R i c k s Poems I I I 14) 

One o f t h e b e s t means o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g how and why 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s . a n d Tennyson's p o e t r y was p o p u l a r i n t h e 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i s t o c o n s i d e r when, how, and why t h e i r 

work p a s s e d from f o r m e r p o p u l a r i t y . I n f a i r n e s s , t h e s e 

q u e s t i o n s demand a t h o r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e r e c e p t i o n 

p r o c e s s e s a t work i n s h a p i n g L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's 

d i f f e r e n t p r o s p e c t s , b u t such an i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s n o t 

a t t e m p t e d h e r e . R i s k i n g r e d u c t i o n i s m p e r h a p s , t h e f o l l o w i n g 

remarks o u t l i n e g e n e r a l t r e n d s more t h a n i d e n t i f y e x a c t l y t h e 

p r o c e s s by w h i c h p o e t i c p o p u l a r i t y was l o s t , b u t t h e i n t e n t i o n 



i s t o p r o v o k e d i s c u s s i o n about r a t h e r t h a n i n v o k e c l o s u r e on 

t h i s much m a l i g n e d body o f g e n t e e l p o e t r y . Indeed, one a l m o s t 

h e s i t a t e s t o c l o s e t h e book a t a l l on L o n g f e l l o w , knowing 

t h a t , i n t h e p r o c e s s , h i s v o i c e c o u l d be " [ l j o c k e d up i n 

s i l e n c e , " h i s f a t e s e a l e d once more by t h o s e w r i t e r s who, 

coming a f t e r him, s c o r n e d h i s " i n f l u e n c e on t h e age i n w h i c h 

he l i v e d . " Here a g a i n , t h e i n t e n t i o n i s n o t t o l o b b y f o r 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y canon. 

R a t h e r , i t i s t o c o n s i d e r how changes t o b o t h L o n g f e l l o w ' s and 

Tennyson's r e p u t a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d i n a s o c i o - e c o n o m i c and 

c u l t u r a l m i l i e u i n w h i c h " p o p u l a r p o e t r y , " because p o e t r y has 

become a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y a t t a c h e d t o academic p u r s u i t s , i s 

now l i t t l e more t h a n an oxymoron. 

As e a r l y as t h e 1860s, t h e t i d e s o f p o e t i c p o p u l a r i t y t h a t 

had washed b o t h s h o r e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c were b e g i n n i n g t o 

r e c e d e f o r L o n g f e l l o w and Tennyson. Today, L o n g f e l l o w ' s v o i c e 

has l o n g s i n c e been s i l e n c e d by waves o f m o d e r n i s t c r i t i c i s m 

a g a i n s t an e f f e t e V i c t o r i a n A m e r i c a . The f u l l range o f 

Tennyson's v o i c e was a l s o d a m p e n e d — i f n o t a l t o g e t h e r 

s i l e n c e d — b y s i m i l a r waves o f r e v i s i o n i s t B r i t i s h h i s t o r y 

a f t e r t h e F i r s t W o r l d War. N e v e r t h e l e s s , a l o n g w i t h t h e 

V i c t o r i a n age i t s e l f , Tennyson g r a d u a l l y managed t o r e g a i n 

some o f h i s l o s t g l o r y , so t h a t i n academic c i r c l e s a t l e a s t 

he i s now c o n s i d e r e d V i c t o r i a n B r i t a i n ' s f i n e s t p o e t . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p r e s e n t i m b a l a n c e o f f o r t u n e , 

p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e y had s h a r e d e q u a l l y i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l 



545 

e v o c a t i o n o f t h e " p e o p l e ' s v o i c e " i n t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h 

c e n t u r y , r a i s e s many q u e s t i o n s about p o e t i c p o s t e r i t y i n 

r e l a t i o n t o p o p u l a r i t y f o r w h i c h d e f i n i t i v e answers a r e h a r d 

t o f i n d . I n t h e b r o a d e s t t e r m s , however, b o t h L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

and Tennyson's d e c l i n e , and t h e l a t t e r ' s p a r t i a l r e s t o r a t i o n , 

stem from r e a d e r s ' i n c r e a s i n g l y b i f u r c a t e d s e n s i b i l i t i e s o v e r 

t h e l a s t 120 y e a r s . U l t i m a t e l y , Tennyson was a l l o w e d 

r e s t o r a t i o n by h a l v e s — L o n g f e l l o w n o t a t a l l . 

The f i r s t b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n c o n c e r n s t h e p u b l i c v e r s u s 

p r i v a t e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e a r t i s t i n r e l a t i o n t o a u d i e n c e . 

P a r t i c u l a r l y a c u t e i n V i c t o r i a n B r i t a i n , p r o f e s s i o n a l c r i t i c s ' 

v o i c e s r e g i s t e r e d and sought t o g u i d e t h e s h i f t s and 

v i c i s s i t u d e s o f r e a d e r s ' t a s t e s : from t h e c r i e s s u c h as t h o s e 

o f C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h i n t h e 1830s c o n c e r n i n g Tennyson's 

n e g l e c t o f " t h e s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d and s t r o n g s i m p l i c i t y o f 

n a t u r e and t r u t h " (Jump 52) t o H i p p o l y t e T a i n e ' s d e r i s i o n i n 

t h e 18 60s t h a t Tennyson c o u l d be r e a d " i n t h e f a m i l y c i r c l e by 

n i g h t " (Jump 2 7 2 ) . 1 Tennyson's e p i g r a m m a t i c s t a n z a on 

p o p u l a r i t y c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e s t h e changes t h a t had t a k e n p l a c e 

o v e r f o r t y y e a r s from t h e d i r e c t i v e s by e a r l y r e v i e w e r s t h a t 

p o e t s n o t s e p a r a t e t h e m s e l v e s from t h e i r p o p u l a r r e a d e r s h i p t o 

e q u a l l y f o r c e f u l demands by l a t e r r e v i e w e r s t h a t t h e y e x i s t 

a p a r t i n p r i v a t e w o r l d s o f t h e i r own a r t i s t i c d e s i g n . 

1 C h r i s t o p h e r N o r t h ' s famous r e v i e w was i n Blackwood's 
(May 1832) w h i l e H i p p o l y t e T a i n e ' s comments f i r s t appeared i n 
h i s H i s t o i r e de l a L i t t e r a t u r e A n q l a i s e (1863-4), t r a n s l a t e d 
i n 1871 by H. van Laun. 



546 

Tennyson's enormously s u c c e s s f u l poems s u c h as Enoch Arden may 

have g a r n e r e d a wide r e a d e r s h i p a t t h e t i m e o f p u b l i c a t i o n , 

b u t s o - c a l l e d p u b l i c poems s u c h as t h i s became t o u c h s t o n e s f o r 

r i d i c u l e t h a t has, as c h a p t e r s t h r e e and f o u r p o i n t o u t , 

c o n t i n u e d t o t h i s day. 

R e l a t e d t o t h e above s h i f t i n c r i t i c a l s e n s i b i l i t y away 

from p o e t r y t h a t i s a c c e s s i b l e t o a l l l e v e l s o f t h e r e a d i n g 

p u b l i c i s a second b i n a r y t h a t c o n c e r n s t a s t e i n r e l a t i o n t o 

c l a s s . Edmund C l a r e n c e Stedman's r e v a l u a t i o n o f L o n g f e l l o w 

and Tennyson a y e a r a f t e r L o n g f e l l o w ' s d e a t h ( C e n t u r y Magazine 

1883) r e v e a l s d i r e c t l y t h e c l a s s d i v i s i o n s b e i n g drawn i n 

t h e i r l a t e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t r a n s a t l a n t i c r e c e p t i o n . H i s 

i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f h i s own and f u t u r e a u d i e n c e s ' 

d i v i d e d p e r c e p t i o n s on t h e two p o e t s i s w o r t h c i t i n g a t some 

l e n g t h : 

I n E n g l a n d , L o n g f e l l o w has been s t y l e d t h e p o e t o f 
t h e m i d d l e c l a s s e s . Those c l a s s e s i n c l u d e , however, 
t h e m a j o r i t y o f i n t e l l i g e n t r e a d e r s , and Tennyson 
had an e q u a l s h a r e o f t h e i r f a v o u r . The E n g l i s h 
m i d d l e c l a s s e s f u r n i s h an a n a l o g u e t o t h e one g r e a t 
c l a s s o f A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s , among whom o u r p o e t ' s 
s u c c e s s was so e v i d e n t . T h i s was because he used 

2 I n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o C r i t i c a l E s s a y s on t h e P o e t r y o f  
Tennyson, J o h n K i l l h a m p r o v i d e s "A Review o f Modern 
C r i t i c i s m , " i n w h i c h he c o n t e n d s t h a t t h e r e " i s no doubt t h a t 
Enoch Arden s e t " o f f t h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t Tennyson ( 3 ) . 
K i l l h a m c i t e s b r i e f l y t h o s e comments o f t h e 1860s t h a t have 
p a s s e d i n t o p o s t e r i t y by b e i n g " a s c r i b e d t o by i n n u m e r a b l e 
c r i t i c s e v e r s i n c e " : Bagehot's c r i t i c i s m o f Tennyson's o r n a t e 
t r e a t m e n t o f an i n f e r i o r s u b j e c t i n "Pure and O r n a t e A r t " 
(Jump 282-93); G e r a r d Manley H o p k i n s ' s d i s p a r a g e m e n t o f 
Tennyson's " P a r n a s s i a n " v e r s e i n a l e t t e r t o W. M. B a i l i e i n 
September 1864 (Jump 278-81); and s l i g h t s a g a i n s t Tennyson's 
o v e r w e e n i n g m o r a l i t y i n Swinburne's Notes on Poems and Reviews 
(Hyder 15-32). 



547 

h i s c u l t u r e n o t t o v e i l t h e word, b u t t o make i t 
c l e a r . He drew upon i t f o r t h e p e o p l e i n a manner 
w h i c h t h e y c o u l d r e l i s h and comprehend. Would n o t 
any p o e t whose work m i g h t l a c k t h e s u b t l e t y t h a t 
commends i t s e l f t o p r o f e s s i o n a l r e a d e r s be r e l e g a t e d 
by U n i v e r s i t y c r i t i c s t o t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s wards? 
C a s t e and l i t e r a r y p r i e s t h o o d have s o m e t h i n g t o do 
w i t h t h i s . Were i t n o t f o r " L u c r e t i u s " and " I n 
Memoriam," t h e a u t h o r o f "The May Queen" and 
" L o c k s l e y H a l l " and "Enoch A r d e n " would be i n t h e 
same c a t e g o r y ; as i t i s , he s c a r c e l y e s c a p e s i t i n 
t h e judgment o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c and Neo-Romantic 
s c h o o l s . . . . So f a r as c o m f o r t , v i r t u e , d o m e s t i c 
t e n d e r n e s s , and freedom from t h e extremes o f p a s s i o n 
and i n c i d e n t a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e m i d d l e 
c l a s s e s , [ L o n g f e l l o w ] has been t h e i r m i n s t r e l . . 
. . (Cameron 183) 

Stedman's remarks s u g g e s t s e v e r a l l a y e r s o f t h e d u a l i s m t h a t 

would come t o dominate t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c e p t i o n o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o p u l a r p o e t r y i n t h i s c e n t u r y . 

C o n c e r n i n g p o e t i c t e x t s t h e m s e l v e s , t h e o p p o s i n g i s s u e s became 

c l a r i t y v e r s u s a m b i g u i t y and s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d n e s s v e r s u s 

s u b t l e t y , c l e a r l y t h e h a r b i n g e r s o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m t h a t 

would have d e l e t e r i o u s consequences f o r p o e t r y t h a t a p p e a l e d 

t o t h e p o e t i c s e n s i b i l i t i e s o f r e a d e r s o f a l l c l a s s e s . As f o r 

i t s r e c i p i e n t s , t h e y t o o were t o become s p l i t by t h e d u a l i s m 

g e n e r a t e d by t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an e l i t e u n i v e r s i t y 

p r i e s t h o o d above and a g a i n s t t h e amorphous m i d d l e - c l a s s 

p u b l i c . 3 

Stedman a l s o s u g g e s t s t h e means by w h i c h Tennyson's 
v o i c e would be p r e s e r v e d w i t h i n academic c i r c l e s , t h a t i s , 
t h r o u g h t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e two Tennysons l e g e n d . D u a l i s m i n 
r e l a t i o n t o Tennyson's and L o n g f e l l o w ' s own s p e c i f i c p o e t i c 
canons i s d i s c u s s e d below. 



548 

I n 1908, f o r example, P a u l Elmer More c o u l d c l a i m t h a t 

L o n g f e l l o w was s t i l l " t h e most b e l o v e d p o e t o f t h e p a s t 

c e n t u r y , and t h i s n o t o n l y among t h e i g n o r a n t and h a l f 

e d u c a t e d , b u t among p e o p l e o f t h e f i n e s t c u l t u r e " (13 6 ) . Such 

an even-handed assessment, however, c o u l d n o t s u r v i v e t h e 

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y t a s t e i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f 

t h i s c e n t u r y . By t h e 193 0s, a t l e a s t one u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r 

had r e l e g a t e d L o n g f e l l o w t o t h e c l a s s r o o m s o f " w r e t c h e d 

s c h o o l c h i l d r e n " (Lewisohn 6 5 ) , and many more were t o f o l l o w . 4 

I n one a t t e m p t t h e r e a f t e r t o r e j u v e n a t e a t l e a s t p a r t o f 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s f o r m e r r e p u t a t i o n , Norman P e a r s o n i d e n t i f i e d 

"Both L o n g f e l l o w s , " a l o n g l i n e s s i m i l a r t o t h e two Tennysons 

l e g e n d , a l t h o u g h i n t h e A m e r i c a n b a r d ' s c a s e d i v i d e d by c l a s s . 

"There were i n f a c t two L o n g f e l l o w ' s , " P e a r s o n a r g u e s , "whose 

c a r e e r s were i n c o n f l i c t . There was t h e ' b e t t e r maker' who, 

l i k e an E z r a Pound de s e s j o u r s , w i s h e d t o b r i n g t o t h e c r a f t 

o f A m e r i c a n p o e t r y and t o t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e c o u r t o f 

Cambridge and o f t h e H a r v a r d Y a r d a l l t h a t was d e x t r o u s and 

e n n o b l i n g from t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e p a s t " ( 2 4 5 - 6 ) . P e a r s o n ' s 

4 To t h i s p o i n t , t h e q u e s t i o n o f t a s t e has v i r t u a l l y been 
a b s e n t from t h i s , s t u d y o f p o e t i c p o p u l a r i t y . G r a n t e d , most o f 
t h e r e s p o n s e s t o L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's p o e t r y b e t r a y t h e 
i n d i v i d u a l r e c i p i e n t ' s met o r unmet l i t e r a r y e x p e c t a t i o n s 
g o v e r n e d l a r g e l y by t a s t e o r s e n s i b i l i t y . However, i t was n o t 
u n t i l c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e began t o be p e r c e i v e d i n b o t h 
A m e r i c a and B r i t a i n as a s u b j e c t f o r academic s t u d y t h a t t a s t e 
began t o i n f l u e n c e t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n s . W h i l e t h e s h i f t s and 
changes i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s academic r e p u t a t i o n i s i t s e l f a t o p i c 
w o r t h y o f f u r t h e r s t u d y , t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y canon f o r m a t i o n i s 
n o t t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n h e r e . 



p e r c e p t i o n o f New E n g l a n d ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l " a r i s t o c r a c y " c l e a r l y 

o v e r s i m p l i f i e s L o n g f e l l o w ' s a t t e m p t s as a m i d d l e - c l a s s 

A m e r i c a n p o e t t o n e g o t i a t e h i s c u l t u r a l i n h e r i t a n c e . P e a r s o n 

c o n t i n u e s : "and t h e r e was t h e f a m i l i a r b a r d , he who f o r t h e 

m i d d l e c l a s s e s and t h e p o p u l a c e c o u l d now t h r o u g h p e r i o d i c a l s 

and c o l l e c t e d - e d i t i o n s s i n g t o t h e p e o p l e by t h e i r f i r e s i d e s " 

( 2 4 6 ) . P e a r s o n ' s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t o " s e r v e b o t h [ a u d i e n c e s ] 

a t once i s a d e m o c r a t i c c o n c e p t , b u t i t makes f o r awkward 

p o e t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s " (252) l e a d s t o no s o l u t i o n o t h e r t h a n 

t o e x c i s e o n e - h a l f o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s c o r p u s . And a l t h o u g h 

P e a r s o n n e v e r s t a t e s d i r e c t l y w h i c h o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s two v o i c e s 

he w o u l d s i l e n c e , one s u s p e c t s v e r y s t r o n g l y t h a t i t i s " t h e 

p e o p l e ' s v o i c e . " 

However, a n t e b e l l u m A m e r i c a was no where n e a r as d i v i d e d by 

c l a s s as P e a r s o n makes i t seem, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o 

e d u c a t i o n , as c h a p t e r one has d e m o n s t r a t e d . P r i o r t o t h e 

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e , and f o r most o f h i s e n t i r e 

c a r e e r , L o n g f e l l o w r e a l i z e d t h e enormous i n f l u e n c e o f 

V i c t o r i a n A m e r i c a ' s i d e a l i s t i c a l l y " c l a s s l e s s , " m u l t i - e t h n i c 

a u d i e n c e . I f a p o e t were t o speak t o t h i s h e t e r o g e n e o u s 

a u d i e n c e ' s c o n c e r n s , he would have d e v e l o p a v a r i t o n a l l y r i c 

v o i c e and v e r s a t i l i t y o f genre and s t y l e . As shown t h r o u g h o u t 

t h i s s t u d y , L o n g f e l l o w d i d i n d e e d promote and e x c e l i n 

numerous p o e t i c g e n r e s t o such an e x t e n t t h a t , i n e s s e n c e , he 

c r e a t e d an a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r p o e t r y among a w i d e s p r e a d a u d i e n c e 

where p r e v i o u s l y i t had e x i s t e d o n l y f o r t h e Brahmin l i t e r a t i 



o f New E n g l a n d . By t h e 1860s, however, L o n g f e l l o w ' s l i t e r a r y 

i n t e r e s t s were c h a n g i n g . The t r a g i c d e a t h o f h i s w i f e i n 1861 

and t h e s t a r t o f t h e C i v i l War seem t o have e x h a u s t e d t h e 

g r i s t f o r L o n g f e l l o w ' s e m o t i o n a l m i l l . Thus, even as t h e 

c u l t u r a l l a n d s c a p e was becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y d i v e r s i f i e d , w i t h 

t h e e x c e p t i o n o f "The Hanging o f t h e Crane," L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p o e t r y p u b l i s h e d a f t e r t h e C i v i l War became more n a r r o w l y 

p r o s a i c and m o r a l i s t i c . L e s s t h e l y r i c s o f home and h e a r t h 

t h a t m i g h t have c o n t i n u e d t o prompt r e a d e r s ' modest p r i v a t e 

r e s p o n s e s , h i s new p u b l i c n a r r a t i v e s o f myth and l e g e n d i n 

T a l e s o f a Wayside I n n r e q u i r e d l i t t l e e m o t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t 

from h i s r e a d e r s . H i s f i n a l t u r n t o drama c o n t i n u e d t h i s 

t r e n d i n i t s s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s t o e x o r c i s e s o c i e t y ' s r e l i g i o u s 

d o u b t s about t h e r e l e v a n c e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n modern l i f e . 

The most i m p o r t a n t i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s e s t i m a t i o n , t h e t h r e e - p a r t 

C h r i s t u s ( 1 8 7 1 ) , s o l d b a d l y , w h i l e t h e most p o w e r f u l i n 

c r i t i c a l e s t i m a t i o n , M i c h a e l A n q e l o (1884), was l e f t 

u n f i n i s h e d a t h i s d e a t h , 24 March 1882. 

What t h i s meant f o r L o n g f e l l o w was t h a t even as h i s c u r r e n t 

work a t t r a c t e d fewer r e a d e r s among t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e , 

p r o c e s s e s were a t work i n t h e development o f l i t e r a t u r e as a 

f i e l d f o r s p e c i a l s t u d y t h a t would a l s o have c o n s i d e r a b l e 

n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s on b o t h h i s f u t u r e r e p u t a t i o n and on t h e 

f u t u r e o f p o p u l a r p o e t r y i n g e n e r a l . I n t e r e s t e d i n e x p o s i n g 

t h e i r s t u d e n t s t o B r i t i s h and European c u l t u r e s i n t h e 

b r o a d e s t ways p o s s i b l e , H a r v a r d i n s t r u c t o r s s u c h as L o n g f e l l o w 



(1835-54) and James R u s s e l l L o w e l l (1855-86) had s e t a t r e n d 

f o r an i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c s t y l e o f t e a c h i n g , i n G e r a l d G r a f f ' s 

t e r m s , a " g e n e r a l i s t - p r o f e s s o r " a p p r o a c h (82) t h a t had 

c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t much o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The 

" g e n e r a l i s t p r o f e s s o r " had a l l o w e d f o r f a r more c r o s s i n g back 

and f o r t h between c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c 

s u c h as l i t e r a r y s o c i e t i e s , t h a n t h e i n n e r sanctums o f l a t e r 

l i t e r a t u r e and language departments were t o do. I n " V i c t o r i a n 

C u l t u r e i n A m e r i c a , " D a n i e l Howe a r g u e s t h a t n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y " [ c ] o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r s t a u g h t what seems t o us a 

b e w i l d e r i n g v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s ; l a d i e s and gentlemen o f 

l e t t e r s f e l t f r e e t o p o n t i f i c a t e on a l l t o p i c s . " Howe adds, 

however, t h a t i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , s c h o l a r s h i p became "so 

r e c o n d i t e and s p e c i a l i z e d , so c o n s c i o u s l y e x c l u s i v e , as t o be 

i n a c c e s s i b l e t o a l l b u t a h a n d f u l o f i n i t i a t e s . When t h i s 

happened, i t was a symptom o f t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f V i c t o r i a n 

c u l t u r e " ( 1 4 ) . I t a l s o t o l l e d t h e d e a t h k n e l l f o r p o p u l a r 

p o e t r y . I n t h e f i r s t t h i r t y y e a r s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , 

A m e r i c a n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s e s t a b l i s h e d " l i t e r a r y 

c r i t i c i s m " as i t i s known t o d a y as an academic endeavour; 

a c c o r d i n g t o G r a f f , A m e r i c a n s c h o l a r s "wanted t o purge 

l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s o f t h e s e n t i m e n t a l i t y and amateurism o f t h e 

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y " (121-2). L o n g f e l l o w ' s s e n t i m e n t a l v e r s e 

c o u l d n o t h e l p b u t become p a r t o f t h i s l a r g e r purge. 

I n E n g l a n d , t h e p r o c e s s e s a t work t h a t would expunge 

Tennyson's p o e t r y from " s e r i o u s " c o n s i d e r a t i o n seem t o have 



been i n v i d i o u s l y a t work t h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r and were t h u s 

n o t e x c l u s i v e l y t h e r e s u l t o f a f u l l - s c a l e i n s t i t u t i o n a l 

r e v o l u t i o n . I n t h e comments t h a t f o l l o w , one must b e a r i n 

mind, however, two p o i n t s : 1) t h a t a f t e r 1850 Tennyson was 

L a u r e a t e u n t i l h i s d e a t h on 6 O c t o b e r 1892; and, 2) t h a t b o t h 

t h e s a l e s o f h i s work and t h e s e v e r i t y o f c r i t i c s were 

i n f l u e n c e d by h i s p u b l i c s t a t u r e . I t s i n f l u e n c e i s most 

a p p a r e n t i n t h e s a l e s o f h i s l a s t volume o f p o e t r y . A c c o r d i n g 

t o Hagen, " o v e r 26,000 c o p i e s " o f The Death o f Oenone, A k b a r ' s  

Dream, and O t h e r Poems, p u b l i s h e d p o s t h u m o u s l y on 28 O c t o b e r 

1892, were s o l d i n a few months, whereas s a l e s dropped o f f 

s h a r p l y t h e r e a f t e r ( 1 8 4 ) . L a t e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i n t e r e s t i n 

Tennyson's new p o e t r y had waned f o r a t l e a s t two r e a s o n s : l i k e 

L o n g f e l l o w , Tennyson t u r n e d t o p o e t i c dramas t h a t d i d l i t t l e 

t o advance and may a c t u a l l y even have damaged h i s r e p u t a t i o n 

among t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e ; and p o e t i c t a s t e s i n l i t e r a r y 

c i r c l e s a c c e p t e d many o f t h e a e s t h e t i c p r e c e p t s o f F r a n c e ' s 

" a r t f o r a r t ' s s a k e " movement t o w h i c h Tennyson h i m s e l f was a 

s e l f - p r o f e s s e d opponent (see " A r t f o r A r t ' s Sake" i n R i c k s 

Poems I I I 1 2 ) . 

The p r o d u c t s o f Tennyson's e x p e r i m e n t w i t h drama—Queen  

Marv (1875), H a r o l d (1876), The Cup and The F a l c o n (1884), and 

B e c k e t ( 1 8 8 4 ) — a p p e a r t o have been w r i t t e n w i t h a c o n f i d e n c e 

t h a t was seldom w a r r a n t e d i n t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n s . Hagen w r i t e s 

o f " l a c k - l u s t r e " s a l e s and Tennyson's d i f f i c u l t i e s a t g e t t i n g 

Henry I r v i n g t o p e r f o r m B e c k e t on t h e London s t a g e ( i t was 



p e r f o r m e d i n 1893 a f t e r Tennyson's d e a t h ) . 5 Why Tennyson 

chose drama a t t h i s l a t e s t a g e i n h i s c a r e e r i s i n t r i g u i n g 

from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e s t u d y o f genre i n r e l a t i o n t o 

a u d i e n c e d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r s i x . S i r C h a r l e s c o n t e n d s t h a t 

Tennyson had e x h a u s t e d o t h e r g e n r e s — t h e e p i c , d r a m a t i c 

monologue, and i d y l — a n d " f e l t t h a t h i s f u l l powers c o u l d n o t 

be r e a l i z e d u n l e s s he c o u l d s u c c e s s f u l l y e x e r t them i n t h e 

f i e l d o f p o e t i c drama . . . . Moreover, s u c c e s s f u l p l a y s 

based on Dora and Enoch Arden had been p r o d u c e d i n A m e r i c a , 

and i n 1870 young W.S. G i l b e r t had made a h i t a t t h e O l y m p i c 

w i t h a r e s p e c t f u l p a r o d y o f The P r i n c e s s (410-11). However, 

r a t h e r t h a n m e r e l y new v e n t u r e s i n t o t h e t h e a t r e , Tennyson's 

p o e t i c dramas can be r e a d as c o n t i n u a t i o n s o f t h e d r a m a t i c 

n a r r a t i v e v o i c e t h a t he a d o p t e d f o r t h e l a t e r I d y l l s o f t h e  

K i n g , a v o i c e t h a t r e q u i r e d i n c r e a s i n g l y a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n 

on t h e p a r t o f l i s t e n e r s i f t h e m o r a l and s o c i a l dilemmas 

u n d e r l y i n g t h e a c t i o n were t o be u n d e r s t o o d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e 

h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t s o f h i s new p l a y s t h e m s e l v e s encouraged a 

c o l l e c t i v i s t , p u b l i c awareness o f B r i t a i n ' s p a s t i n t h e f a c e 

o f c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l d i s s o l u t i o n t h a t Tennyson 

f e a r e d was t h r e a t e n i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e n a t i o n . When h i s 

dramas p r o v e d u n s u c c e s s f u l conveyances o f t h i s w a r n i n g , 

Tennyson r e t u r n e d t o t h e d r a m a t i c monologue, " L o c k s l e y H a l l 

5 Reasons f o r Tennyson's s h i f t t o drama i n t h e 187 0s 
r e q u i r e f u r t h e r s t u d y t h a n t h e y have r e c e i v e d t o d a t e . One o f 
t h e o n l y r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f Tennyson's p l a y s i s D e n n i s 
Organ's Tennyson's Dramas: A C r i t i c a l Study (1979). 



S i x t y Y e a r s A f t e r , " f o r example, t o c h a s t i s e h i s age. And 

a l t h o u g h Tennyson's l a t e v o l u m e s — B a l l a d s and O t h e r Poems 

(1880), T i r e s i a s and O t h e r Poems (1885), Demeter and O t h e r  

Poems (1889), and The Death o f Oenone, E t c . ( 1 8 9 2 ) — s o l d much 

b e t t e r t h a n h i s p l a y s and c o n t a i n e d some t e c h n i c a l l y b r i l l i a n t 

poems, h i s p o p u l a r i t y had e r o d e d t o o f a r t o r e c l a i m t h e v a s t 

r e a d e r s h i p he had once commanded (see Hagen 156-7, 176-7, 181-

2, 184-5). 

R i c h a r d A l t i c k m a i n t a i n s i n V i c t o r i a n P e o p l e and I d e a s t h a t 

i n V i c t o r i a n B r i t a i n t h e " c r i t i c s o f i t s p r e s e n t s e l f were 

j o i n e d by c r i t i c s o f i t s e a r l i e r p h a s e s , so t h a t t h e age 

s p o n s o r e d numerous r e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t i t s e l f w h i l e i t was s t i l l 

r u n n i n g i t s c o u r s e " ( 2 9 9 ) . One e a r l y V i c t o r i a n s e l f - c r i t i c i s m 

t h a t spawned an enormous r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t Tennyson i n t h e 

18 60s was s u s p i c i o n — e v e n d i s p a r a g e m e n t — o f t h e f e m i n i n e : " t h e 

woman's t e n d e r h e a r t " as L o n g f e l l o w c a l l e d i t . 6 F o r example, 

w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f Poems and B a l l a d s (1866), Swinburne 

s u f f e r e d a h o s t i l e c r i t i c a l r e a c t i o n w h i c h he a t t r i b u t e d , i n 

p a r t , t o t h e L a u r e a t e ' s t r a n s f o r m i n g " t h e d o m e s t i c c i r c l e " 

i n t o t h e " o u t e r l i m i t and extreme h o r i z o n o f [ t h e male p o e t ' s ] 

w o r l d o f work" ("Notes on Poems and R e v i e w s " Hyder 2 9 ) . 

6 I n h i s e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e i n g r e d i e n t s used by 
t h e p o e t i c c h e f s he d i s c u s s e s i n E v e r y Man h i s own P o e t : The  
I n s p i r e d S i n g e r ' s R e c i p e Book (1877), W.H. M a l l o c k o b s e r v e s 
t h a t i t " i s d i f f i c u l t t o know what t o say o f Mr. T*nn*s*n, as 
t h e m i l k and w a t e r o f w h i c h h i s books a r e composed c h i e f l y , 
make i t a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o d i s c o v e r what was t h e o r i g i n a l 
n a t u r e o f t h e m a t e r i a l s he has b o i l e d down i n i t " ( 9 ) . 



555 

A l t h o u g h Swinburne's comments were as much a r e a c t i o n t o t h e 

p u b l i c d i s t a s t e f o r h i s work as t h e y were s l i g h t s a g a i n s t 

Tennyson's p o e t r y p e r s e , Swinburne's c a s t i g a t i o n o f " t h e 

i d y l " and h i s r e f u s a l t o j o i n " t h e s i l v e r f l o c k o f i d y l l i c 

swans" (Hyder 3 1 ) , f o l l o w e d by f u r t h e r c h a r g e s a g a i n s t t h e 

" e f f e m i n a t e p o e t r y " o f t h e t i m e i n "Under t h e M i c r o s c o p e " 

(Hyder 35-87), s e t a t o n e f o r c r i t i c i s m a g a i n s t Tennyson t h a t 

would c o n t i n u e i n t o t h e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y . One o f t h e 

f e a t u r e s o f Swinburne's c r i t i c i s m o f t h e " f e m i n i n e " v o i c e i n 

Tennyson's p o e t r y t h a t foreshadowed t h e development o f 

f o r m a l i s t s c h o o l s o f c r i t i c i s m a t t h e end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y was h i s r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e e m o t i o n a l demands t h a t 

" f e m i n i n e " p o e t r y r e q u i r e d o f i t s a u d i e n c e . F a r from b e i n g 

autonomous, o r g a n i c w h o l e s , Tennyson's i d y l s r e q u i r e d 

a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s from h i s r e a d e r s i n o r d e r t o be 

a p p r e c i a t e d and u n d e r s t o o d . 7 

The c o i n c i d e n c e o f an a n t i - f e m i n i n e movement i n t h e 18 60s 

and 1870s ( h e a r d most v i r u l e n t l y i n A l f r e d A u s t i n ' s " P o e t r y o f 

t h e P e r i o d " i n Jump 294-311) and t h e demand f o r p o e t i c 

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , R o b e r t Buchanan i n h i s n o t o r i o u s a t t a c k 
on t h e F l e s h l y p o e t s , l o c a t e s Swinburne among t h e "sub-
T e n n y s o n i a n s c h o o l " who d i s t o r t t h e s e n s u a l i s m o f Tennyson's 
" V i v i e n " and t h e " h y s t e r i c t o n e and o v e r l o a d e d s t y l e " o f Maud 
"The ways o f a g r e a t p o e t , " Buchanan s a y s , " l e a d him i n a l l 
d i r e c t i o n s , i n t o a l l moods, w h i l e t h e way o f a s m a l l p o e t i s 
narrow and w i t h o u t v a r i e t y . The g a i n o f good i n t h e P r e -
R a p h a e l i t e s t y l e comes from t h e l a u r e a t e ; what i s bad comes 
from I t a l y and F r a n c e " ( 3 2 n . ) . Buchanan deemed " V i v i e n " "an 
e s s e n t i a l pendant t o t h a t w o n d e r f u l a p o t h e o s i s o f M a s c u l i n e 
C h a s t i t y , w h i c h i s t h e h e a r t o f t h a t A r t h u r i a n e p i c on w h i c h 
t h e l a u r e a t e has p o u r e d a l l h i s o r i e n t w e a l t h " ( 8 6 ) . 



556 

autonomy stemming from " a r t f o r a r t ' s s a k e " p r e s a g e d t h e 

p a r a d o x a t t h e h e a r t o f Tennyson's r e p u t a t i o n t o d a y . On t h e 

one hand, p o e t r y t h a t a p p e a l e d t o " f e m i n i n e " e m o t i o n a l i s m was 

t o be s c o r n e d by b o t h t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e and by a c a d e m i c i a n s 

as t h e a r t i f i c i a l p r o d u c t s o f an e f f e m i n a t e c u l t u r e . On t h e 

o t h e r , i f Tennyson's " f e m i n i n e " V i c t o r i a n i s m were e x c i s e d , 

t h e n Tennyson c o u l d assume h i s " p r o p e r " s t a t u r e among l i t e r a r y 

s c h o l a r s s e e k i n g t o p r e s e r v e from t h e p a s t t h o s e c u l t u r a l 

p r o d u c t s w h i c h s h o u l d y e t r e m a i n i n t h e wake o f s t r i d e n t 

m o d e r n i s t campaigns a g a i n s t a V i c t o r i a n c u l t u r a l and s o c i o -

p o l i t i c a l i n h e r i t a n c e . I n 1923, Hugh I'Anson F a u s s e t c a p t u r e s 

t h i s mood a t i t s most s t r i d e n t : T e n n y s o n i a n m o r a l i t y "cannot 

b e a r t h e c a n d i d s c r u t i n y o f a g e n e r a t i o n w h i c h has r e a p e d t h e 

b i t t e r f r u i t s o f h i g h - s o u n d i n g e g o t i s m " ( 2 9 9 ) . As 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s a l s o would be, Tennyson's " f e m i n i n e " v o i c e was 

drowned i n waves o f r e a c t i o n a r y h i s t o r y . 

P e r h a p s even more s t r o n g l y t h a n i n B r i t a i n , women o f 

a n t e b e l l u m A m e r i c a had managed t o assume c u l t u r a l s t a t u s i n a 

s o c i e t y e c o n o m i c a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y d r i v e n by men. Howe 

summarizes t h e i r s t a t u s as f o l l o w s : 

The i n n o v a t i o n s i n p r i n t i n g and i n women's e d u c a t i o n 
b r o u g h t w i t h them t h e emergence o f an enormous new 
a u d i e n c e o f women r e a d e r s , who were s e r v e d t o a 
l a r g e e x t e n t by a new group o f women w r i t e r s . There 
was a women's communication network i n m i d d l e - c l a s s 
V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y . O f t e n t h i s f e m i n i n e V i c t o r i a n i s m 
o p e r a t e d as complementary, even compensatory, i n 
r e l a t i o n t o m a s c u l i n e V i c t o r i a n i s m , e m p h a s i z i n g 
v a l u e s l i k e s e c u r i t y and s e n t i m e n t . I n t h e hands o f 
women l i k e H a r r i e t Beecher Stowe and S a r a h J o s e p h a 
H a l e , t h e s e c o u l d be p o w e r f u l a p p e a l s . (27) 



As c h a p t e r s two and s i x d e m o n s t r a t e , L o n g f e l l o w became very-

p o p u l a r because o f h i s a b i l i t y t o a p p e a l t o t h e f e m i n i n e 

s e n t i m e n t s o f h i s r e a d e r s . However, p o s t b e l l u m A m e r i c a was 

v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t , f o r a l o n g w i t h i t s l o s t i d e a l i s m came a t u r n 

t o n a t u r a l i s m i n l i t e r a t u r e i n w h i c h L o n g f e l l o w c o u l d have no 

p o s s i b l e s h a r e s i n c e s e n t i m e n t a l i s m and n a t u r a l i s m c o u l d n o t 

be more d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed. 

P a u l More, f o r example, advances s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o p u l a r i t y , a l l o f them t i e d i n some way t o 

More's b e l i e f t h a t p o p u l a r p o e t r y b e g e t s a c r a v e n s p i r i t and 

engenders p a s s i v i t y i n t h e r e a d e r . The e m o t i o n i n 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o e t r y i s " b a r e l y , i f a t a l l , d i s t i n g u i s h e d from 

t h e ' s e n t i m e n t a l p a t h o s o f d a i l y , commonplace l i f e " ( 1 4 0 ) . 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s " p e c u l i a r p o p u l a r i t y i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t he 

does n o t r e q u i r e o f us any v i o l e n t r e a d j u s t m e n t o f our 

o r d i n a r y moods, t h a t he s e t s our own d a i l y t h o u g h t s and 

emotions t o m u s i c " (140). L o n g f e l l o w i s t h e "one p o e t you 

w i l l f i n d i n a l m o s t e v e r y h o u s e h o l d , t h e p o e t who i s r e a l l y 

r e a d and e n j o y e d by t h e p e o p l e ; f o r i t i s j u s t t h i s s e n t i m e n t 

o f f a c i l e p a t h o s t h a t marks t h e t r u e p o p u l a r i t y " ( 1 4 1 ) . 

F i n a l l y , L o n g f e l l o w " r e p r e s e n t s a b e a u t i f u l s o c i e t y now p a s s e d 

away and a l m o s t f o r g o t t e n " (151) . However, Jane Tompkins 

a l l e g e s t h a t s u c h " f o r g e t t i n g " has been p a r t o f a c o n s c i o u s 

e f f o r t t o c o n s t r u c t a h i s t o r y o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y f r o n t i e r 

A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e a t odds w i t h t h e way a t l e a s t f i f t y p e r c e n t 



558 

o f l i f e was a c t u a l l y l i v e d ; h e r remarks about f i c t i o n c o u l d 

a p p l y e q u a l l y t o p o e t r y : 

The v e r y grounds on w h i c h s e n t i m e n t a l f i c t i o n has 
been d i s m i s s e d by i t s d e t r a c t o r s , grounds t h a t have 
come t o seem u n i v e r s a l s t a n d a r d s o f a e s t h e t i c 
judgment, were e s t a b l i s h e d i n a s t r u g g l e t o s u p p l a n t 
t h e t r a d i t i o n o f e v a n g e l i c a l p i e t y and m o r a l 
commitment t h e s e n o v e l i s t s r e p r e s e n t . I n r e a c t i o n 
a g a i n s t t h e i r w o r l d v i e w , and p e r h a p s even more 
a g a i n s t t h e i r s u c c e s s , t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c s 
have t a u g h t g e n e r a t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s t o e q u a t e 
p o p u l a r i t y w i t h debasement, e m o t i o n a l i t y w i t h 
i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s , r e l i g i o s i t y w i t h f a k e r y , 
d o m e s t i c i t y w i t h t r i v i a l i t y , and a l l o f t h e s e , 
i m p l i c i t l y , w i t h womanly i n f e r i o r i t y . ( " S e n t i m e n t a l 
Power" 82) 

Tompkins a r g u e s a g a i n s t s u c h a l i m i t e d v i e w o f what 

c o n s t i t u t e d s i t e s o f p o l i t i c a l power i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h 

c e n t u r y , and a g a i n s t t h e m o d e r n i s t d i s p a r a g e m e n t o f V i c t o r i a n 

l i t e r a t u r e o f s e n t i m e n t because i t demands o f r e a d e r s an 

a c t i v e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d o u t s i d e t h e t e x t w i t h t h e 

w o r l d i n s i d e i t . 

The d i s p a r a g i n g c o n t r a s t s between p a s s i v e e m o t i o n a l i s m and 

a c t i v e c o g n i t i o n echo a now f a m i l i a r v i e w o f L o n g f e l l o w as a 

t o o g e n t l e , f e m i n i n e p o e t r e a d o n l y by t h e u n e d u c a t e d . F r e d 

L e w i s P a t t e e ' s remarks on L o n g f e l l o w ' s p o p u l a r i t y , made i n 

1940, c a p t u r e t h e m i d - t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y v i e w o f h i s work t h a t 

c o n t i n u e s t o t h i s day: 

H i a w a t h a F w h a t e v e r i t s r e a l i s t i c d e f e c t s , has won 
t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e , a t l e a s t t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y t h a t 
have ended t h e i r e d u c a t i o n w i t h t h e e i g h t h g r a d e . 

(171) 
and, 

. . . though he w r o t e w i t h no t h o u g h t o f t h e 
newspaper r e a d i n g masses, i t was t h e y who bought h i s 
books and i t was t h e y who gave him t o - d a y what i s 



559 

h i s most e n d u r i n g fame. I n a c r i t i c a l p e r i o d o f 
A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y , L o n g f e l l o w p r e s e n t e d p o p u l a r 
l i t e r a t u r e t h a t was on t h e h i g h l e v e l s o f i t s t i m e . 
H i a w a t h a may n o t be t r u e t o h i s t o r y o r t o e t h n o l o g y , 
b u t as p o e t r y o f b e a u t y and s o u l i t u n d o u b t e d l y 
b r o u g h t t o t h e u n c u l t u r e d many o f A m e r i c a a new 
v i s i o n o f r e a l p o e t r y . (176) 

Y e t , P a t t e e assumes a d i c h o t o m y between " h i g h " c u l t u r e and 

"low" c u l t u r e i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a t h a t was i n no way 

as c l e a r - c u t as i t has become i n t h i s c e n t u r y . The same was 

a l s o t r u e o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y B r i t a i n , as Howe p o i n t s o u t : 

Some d i v i s i o n s t h a t we t a k e f o r g r a n t e d w i t h i n our 
own c u l t u r a l system d i d n o t y e t f u l l y e x i s t d u r i n g 
t h e V i c t o r i a n age. One o f t h e s e i s t h e d i c h o t o m y 
between "mass" and " h i g h " c u l t u r e . I t was 1915 when 
Van Wyck B r o o k s [ A m e r i c a ' s Coming o f Age] c o m p l a i n e d 
t h a t A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e was b i f u r c a t e d i n t o "lowbrow" 
and "highbrow." V i c t o r i a n a u t h o r s w i t h l a r g e 
r e a d e r s h i p s l i k e L o n g f e l l o w , Horace B u s h n e l l , 
H a r r i e t Beecher Stowe, however, had d e f i e d t h i s 
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , as had p e r f o r m e r s l i k e Edwin B o o t h 
and t h e European v i s i t o r Jenny L i n d . Nor d i d o n l y a 
few g r e a t i n d i v i d u a l s t r a n s c e n d t h e c a t e g o r i e s ; many 
l o n g - s i n c e o b s c u r e w r i t e r s l i k e L y d i a S i g o u r n e y and 
W i l l i a m Ware d i d t o o . [Asa B r i g g s ] has w r i t t e n : " I 
have no doubt t h a t t h e r e was a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f 
t h e p o p u l a t i o n who had r e a d and were p r e p a r e d t o 
d i s c u s s t h e n o v e l s o f D i c k e n s and t h e poems o f 
Tennyson t h a n c o u l d be found t o d i s c u s s t h e works o f 
any p a r t i c u l a r n o v e l i s t o r p o e t t o d a y . " S u b s t i t u t e 
L o n g f e l l o w f o r Tennyson and t h e same c o u l d be s a i d 
o f t h e V i c t o r i a n U n i t e d S t a t e s . . . . That w h i c h 
we would r e g a r d as ' h i g h ' c u l t u r e was 
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t h e V i c t o r i a n 
w o r l d ; t h e s p e c i a l i z e d " e x p e r t " had n o t y e t become 
p r o m i n e n t . (14) 

The s e v e r a l b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n s i d e n t i f i e d t h u s f a r — a p u b l i c 

v e r s u s p r i v a t e p o e t i c s ; a mass m i d d l e c l a s s v e r s u s an e d u c a t e d 

e l i t e ; g e n e r a l i s t v e r s u s s p e c i a l i s t approaches t o l i t e r a t u r e 

as an academic s t u d y ; and f e m i n i n e s e n t i m e n t ' v e r s u s m a s c u l i n e 

i n t e l l e c t — p o i n t f i n a l l y t o a t l e a s t one r e a s o n f o r t h e 



d e v a l u a t i o n o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e i n t h i s c e n t u r y , and t h e n e a r 

i m p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t p o e t r y w i l l e v e r g a r n e r s u c h l a r g e 

r e a d e r s h i p s a g a i n i n e i t h e r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o r B r i t a i n : t h e 

l o s s o f p l e a s u r e as a c o l l e c t i v i s t m o r a l p r i n c i p l e . 

I n " C o m p l i c i t P l e a s u r e , " C o l i n M e r c e r t r i e s t o u n d e r s t a n d 

" t h e s p e c i f i c ways i n w h i c h we c o n s e n t t o t h e forms o f p o p u l a r 

c u l t u r e " (50) even though we may n o t s u p p o r t them 

i d e o l o g i c a l l y . One such way i s t h r o u g h " p l e a s u r e . " M e r c e r 

c l a i m s t h a t " i n t h e i n t e r s t i c e s o f r e g r e t , d e s i r e , a m b i t i o n , 

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , n o s t a l g i a . . . p l e a s u r e does i t s work" ( 5 3 ) . 

M e r c e r r e c o g n i z e s t h a t one o f t h e r e g r e t t a b l e r e a s o n s why 

s c h o l a r s a v o i d d i s c u s s i o n s o f p l e a s u r e i s a sense o f g u i l t : 

" ' g u i l t ' o f enjoyment o f s u c h and s u c h i n s p i t e o f i t s known 

i d e o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l p r o v e n a n c e " ( 5 4 ) . I n o t h e r words, 

once r e a d e r s c a n no l o n g e r i d e o l o g i c a l l y s u p p o r t L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

p a t r i o t i s m o r Tennyson's j i n g o i s m , t o use two extreme 

examples, t h e y r e f u s e t o s u p p o r t t h e p o e t r y a t a l l t h r o u g h a 

s e n s e o f g u i l t t h a t t h e y have r e s p o n d e d a f f e c t i v e l y t o t h e 

p l e a s u r e t h e t e x t s p r o v i d e . T h i s n a t u r a l l y l e a d s t o an 

a v o i d a n c e o f s i t e s o f p l e a s u r e , and s u c h a p r o c e s s i s r e v e a l e d 

no where more c l e a r l y t h a n i n t h e n e g a t i v e a e s t h e t i c t h a t has 

come t o dominate t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . And i t 

i s j u s t s u c h an a e s t h e t i c t h a t "has s e v e r e l y d i s t o r t e d 

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r p o e t r y . 

Modern and post-modern o v e r r e l i a n c e on i d e a t i o n a l 

s i g n i f i c a n c e and i d e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s has, i n g e n e r a l , l i m i t e d 



561 

t h e o r i s t s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r v a r i o u s forms o f 

c o n s e n t and r e s i s t a n c e t o p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . S p e c i f i c t o t h e 

p o p u l a r p o e t r y o f t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d , t h e p r i v i l e g i n g o f 

i n t e l l e c t o v e r e m o t i o n has l e d t o a t o o h a s t y d i s r e g a r d f o r 

t h e m u l t i p l e l e v e l s o f c o m p l i c i t y t h a t g o v e r n t h e p l e a s u r a b l e 

c r e a t i o n o f meaning. R e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s d i s r e g a r d o f what 

L o n g f e l l o w has s t i l l t o o f f e r t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e a d e r s , 

S t e v e n A l l a b a c k t r i e s t o r e a c t i v a t e an a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e 

m u l t i p l i c i t y o f p o e t i c r e s p o n s e . I n " L o n g f e l l o w Now" (1982), 

he a r g u e s t h a t r e a d e r s ' "embarrassment" o v e r L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

s i m p l i c i t y d e r i v e s from p r o f e s s o r s o f l i t e r a t u r e t e a c h i n g 

s t u d e n t s t o a p p r e c i a t e more " p r o b l e m a t i c " r e a l i t i e s t h a n t h e 

ones w h i c h most o f them a c t u a l l y l i v e . That i s , o u t o f 

embarrassment, t h e y r e f u s e t o " a l l o w a more v u l n e r a b l e and 

t e a c h a b l e r e a d i n g s e l f t o come f o r w a r d , " a r e a d i n g s e l f "more 

i n need" he adds (113). The p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t t h e a f f e c t i v e 

l e v e l o f r e s p o n s e ( i n s t i g a t e d by c o r p o r e a l , v i s c e r a l r e s p o n s e s 

t o v a r i o u s d e v i c e s o f sound and image), can e a s i l y cause 

r e a d e r s c o n d i t i o n e d t o e x p e c t i n t e l l e c t u a l e n l i g h t e n m e n t from 

p o e t r y t o f e e l g u l l e d by c o m p l i c i t p l e a s u r e i n t h e t e x t (as 

M e r c e r would argue) o r embarrassed i n t o s i l e n c e (as A l l a b a c k 

p o s i t s ) i f t h e y f e e l c a l l e d upon t o l e n d i d e a t i o n a l s u p p o r t t o 

i d e o l o g i e s embodied i n t h e t e x t t h a t t h e y f i n d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y 

u n a p p e a l i n g . 

As Henry G i r o u x and Roger Simon argue i n P o p u l a r C u l t u r e :  

S c h o o l i n g and E v e r y d a y L i f e , l i m i t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s o f 



p o p u l a r c u l t u r e t o an i d e o l o g i c a l t e r r a i n , " l i m i t s our a b i l i t y 

t o u n d e r s t a n d how p e o p l e a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e dominant 

c u l t u r e t h r o u g h p r o c e s s e s o f accommodation, n e g o t i a t i o n , and 

even r e s i s t a n c e " ( 1 7 ) . P l e a s u r e , need, d e s i r e — v a r i o u s l e v e l s 

o f a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e — t h e s e a r e a l l embodied i n L o n g f e l l o w ' s 

i n t e n t i o n t o work upon h i s r e c i p i e n t ' s " f e e l i n g s " and i n 

H a l l a m ' s and Tennyson's r e s o l v e t o i n d u c e a m o r a l i t y o f human 

l o v e o u t o f a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e . To f a i l t o r e s p o n d 

e m o t i o n a l l y t o n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r p o e t r y i s t o f a i l t o 

u n d e r s t a n d i t s t r u e power i n i t s t i m e and, p e r h a p s , i t s power 

f o r a l l t i m e . As A l l a b a c k remarks, i n r e j e c t i n g L o n g f e l l o w 

"we r e j e c t a p a r t o f o u r s e l v e s w h i c h t h r i v e s upon 

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d n e s s , s i m p l e wisdom, and h o n e s t e x p r e s s i o n s o f 

unadorned e m o t i o n " ( 1 2 0 ) . P o p u l a r p o e t r y i n g e n e r a l , and 

L o n g f e l l o w ' s and Tennyson's i n p a r t i c u l a r , has l o s t i t s v a l u e 

i n Western c u l t u r e because n o n - c o g n i t i v e r e a d i n g p l e a s u r e has 

become d e v a l u e d i n t h i s c e n t u r y . 



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L o r d Tennyson. 2 v o l s , i n 1. London: P r i v a t e l y P r i n t e d , 
1908. 

Woodress, James, ed. A m e r i c a n L i t e r a r y S c h o l a r s h i p : An  
A n n u a l . [ f o r 1987], Durham, N.C.: Duke UP, 1989. 

Young, G. M. "The Age o f Tennyson." K i l l h a m , C r i t i c a l 25-40. 



583 

WORKS CONSULTED 

B a k e r , A r t h u r E., ed. A Concordance t o t h e P o e t i c a l and  
D r a m a t i c Works o f A l f r e d , L o r d Tennyson. 3 v o l s . 
London: Kegan P a u l , T r e n c h , T r u b n e r , and Co., 1914. 

B a l d i c k , C h r i s . The S o c i a l M i s s i o n o f E n g l i s h C r i t i c i s m ,  
1848-1932. O x f o r d : O x f o r d UP, 1983. 

B a r r e l l , John. P o e t r y , Language and P o l i t i c s . M a n c h e s t e r : 
M a n c h e s t e r UP, 1988. 

B a r t l e t t , I r v i n g H. The A m e r i c a n Mind i n t h e M i d - N i n e t e e n t h  
C e n t u r y . New York: C r o w e l l , 1967. 

Baym, Max I . A H i s t o r y o f L i t e r a r y A e s t h e t i c s i n A m e r i c a . 
New Y o r k : Ungar, 1973. 

B e e t z , K i r k H. Tennyson: A B i b l i o g r a p h y , 1827-1982. 
Metuchen, N.J.: S c a r e c r o w P r e s s , 1984. 

B l a s e r , Roy. "Tennyson t h e P s y c h o l o g i s t . " Sex, Symbolism,  
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Bode, C a r l . M i d c e n t u r y A m e r i c a : L i f e i n t h e 1850s. 
C a r b o n d a l e : S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s UP, 1972. 

B r a d l e y , A.C. " P o e t r y f o r P o e t r y ' s Sake." O x f o r d L e c t u r e s on  
P o e t r y . London: M a c m i l l a n , 1909. 3-34. 

B r i g g s , A s a . V i c t o r i a n P e o p l e : A Reassessment o f P e r s o n s and  
Themes, 1851-67. New Y o r k : H a r p e r and Row, 1963. 

B r i t i s h B r o a d c a s t i n g Corp. The I d e a s and B e l i e f s o f t h e  
V i c t o r i a n s . London: S y l v a n P r e s s , 1949. 

B r o o k s , C l e a n t h , R.W.B. L e w i s and R o b e r t Penn Warren, eds. 
A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e . New York: S t M a r t i n ' s , 1973. 

B u c k l e r , W i l l i a m E. The V i c t o r i a n I m a g i n a t i o n : E s s a y s i n  
A e s t h e t i c E x p l o r a t i o n . New York: New York UP, 1980. 

B u c k l e y , Jerome. The V i c t o r i a n Temper: A Study i n L i t e r a r y  
C u l t u r e . New York: V i n t a g e Books, 1951. 

B u r t o n , R i c h a r d . L i t e r a r y L e a d e r s o f A m e r i c a . New York: 
C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s , 1904. 



584 
Canby, Henry S e i d e l . C l a s s i c A m e r i c a n s : A Study o f Eminent  

A m e r i c a n W r i t e r s from I r v i n g t o Whitman. New York: 
R u s s e l l and R u s s e l l , 1959. 

C h r i s t , C a r o l . V i c t o r i a n and Modern P o e t i c s . C h i c a g o : U o f 
C h i c a g o P, 1984. 

C l a r k , H a r r y Hayden, ed. M a j o r A m e r i c a n P o e t s . New Y o r k : 
A m e r i c a n Book Company, 193 6. 

C o l l e y , Ann. "The C o n f l i c t Between T r a d i t i o n and Modern 
V a l u e s i n Tennyson's The P r i n c e s s . " B u c k n e l l Review 24 
(1978): 37-48. 

Cook, Roy J . , ed. One Hundred and One Famous Poems w i t h a  
P r o s e Supplement. R e v i s e d E d i t i o n , 1916. C h i c a g o : 
R e i l l e y and Lee, 1958. 

D a v i e s , Hugh Sykes. The P o e t s and t h e i r C r i t i c s : B l a k e t o 
B r o w n i n g . 4 v o l s . London: H u t c h i s o n E d u c a t i o n a l , 1962. 
V o l . 2. 

Day, M a r t i n S. H i s t o r y o f A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e from t h e 
B e g i n n i n g t o 1900. Garden C i t y , N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970. 

D u y c k n i c k , E v e r t and George, eds. C y c l o p e d i a o f A m e r i c a n 
L i t e r a t u r e . 2 v o l s . New York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r , 1856. 
V o l . 2. 

E l i o t , T.S. " ' I n Memoriam'." 1936. S e l e c t e d E s s a y s . New 
Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , and W o r l d , 1964. 286-95. 

The Use o f P o e t r y and t h e Use o f C r i t i c i s m . 1933. 
London: F a b e r and F a b e r , 1970. 

F i n d l e y , L e o n a r d M. "Swinburne and Tennyson." V i c t o r i a n  
P o e t r y 9 (1971): 217-36. 

F i s h w i c k , M a r s h a l l . Common C u l t u r e and t h e G r e a t T r a d i t i o n . 
W e s t p o r t , Conn.: Greenwood P r e s s , 1982. 

F l y n n , E l i z a b e t h A. and P a t r o c i n i o P. S c h w e i c k a r t , eds. 
Gender and R e a d i n g : E s s a y s on R e a d e r s , T e x t s , and  
C o n t e x t s . B a l t i m o r e : Johns H o p k i n s UP, 198 6. 

F r a n c i s , E l i z a b e t h A. "Tennyson's P o l i t i c a l P o e t r y , 1852-
1855." V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y 14 (1976): 113-23. 

F r e u n d , E l i z a b e t h . The R e t u r n o f t h e Reader: Reader Response  
C r i t i c i s m . New York: Metheun, 1987. 



585 

F r i c k e r , R o b e r t . " V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y i n Modern E n g l i s h 
C r i t i c i s m . " E n g l i s h S t u d i e s 24 (1942): 129-41. 

G e l p i , A l b e r t . The T e n t h Muse: The Psyche o f t h e A m e r i c a n  
P o e t . Cambridge: H a r v a r d UP, 1975. 

G o l d f a r b , R u s s e l l . S e x u a l R e p r e s s i o n and V i c t o r i a n  
L i t e r a t u r e . L e w i s b u r g : B u c k n e l l UP, 1970. 

H a i g h t , Gordon S. " L o n g f e l l o w and Mrs. S i g o u r n e y . " New  
E n g l a n d Q u a r t e r l y 3 (1930): 532-7. 

H a t f i e l d , James T. New L i g h t on L o n g f e l l o w , W i t h S p e c i a l  
R e f e r e n c e t o h i s R e l a t i o n s w i t h Germany. B o s t o n : 
Houghton M i f f l i n , 1933. 

H u b b e l l , J a y B. Who A r e t h e M a j o r A m e r i c a n W r i t e r s ? . Durham 
N.C.: Duke UP, 1972. 

I n g l i s , F r e d . P o p u l a r C u l t u r e and P o l i t i c a l Power. New York: 
S t . M a r t i n ' s , 1988. 

J a c o b s , Norman, ed. C u l t u r e f o r t h e M i l l i o n s . P r i n c e t o n , 
N.J.: Van N o s t r a n d , 1961. 

J a r r e l l , R a n d a l l . P o e t r y and t h e Age. New York: A l f r e d A. 
Knopf, 1953. 

J u s t u s , James H. "The F i r e s i d e P o e t s : H e a r t h s i d e V a l u e s and 
t h e Language o f C a r e . " N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y A m e r i c a n  
P o e t r y . Ed. A. R o b e r t Lee. London: V i s i o n P r e s s , 1985. 
146-65. 

K a p l a n , H a r o l d . D e m o c r a t i c Humanism and A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e . 
C h i c a g o : U o f C h i c a g o P, 1972. 

Kay, D o n a l d . "The 'Holy G r a i l ' and Tennyson's Quest f o r 
P o e t i c I d e n t i t y . " A r l i n g t o n Q u a r t e r l y 2 (1969): 58-70. 

K i e r n a n , V i c t o r . "Tennyson, K i n g A r t h u r , and I m p e r i a l i s m . " 
C u l t u r e . I d e o l o g y , and P o l i t i c s : E s s a y s f o r E r i c  
Hobsbawm. Eds. R a p h a e l Samuel and G a r e t h Stedman J o n e s . 
London: R o u t l e d g e , 1982. 126-48. 

L a u t e r , P a u l . "Race and Gender i n S h a p i n g t h e A m e r i c a n 
L i t e r a r y Canon: a Case Study from t h e T w e n t i e s . " 
F e m i n i s t C r i t i c i s m and S o c i a l Change: Sex, C l a s s , and  
Race i n L i t e r a t u r e and C u l t u r e . Eds. J u d i t h Newton and 
Deborah R o s e n f e l t . New Y o r k : Metheun, 1985. 



586 
L e w i s , R i c h a r d W a r r i n g t o n B a l d w i n . The A m e r i c a n Adam: 

I n n o c e n c e , Tragedy, and T r a d i t i o n i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h  
C e n t u r y . C h i c a g o : U o f C h i c a g o P, 1955. 

L o n g f e l l o w , E r n e s t Wadsworth. Random Memories. B o s t o n : 
Houghton M i f f l i n , 1922. 

L o n g f e l l o w , Henry Wadsworth. E v a n g e l i n e . 1951. Ed. and 
I n t r o . C. B r u c e F e r g u s s o n . H a l i f a x : Nimbus, 1982. 

M a t t h i e s s e n , F. 0. A m e r i c a n R e n a i s s a n c e : A r t and E x p r e s s i o n 
i n t h e Age o f Emerson and Whitman. 1941. London: O x f o r d 
UP, 1972. 

McSweeny, K e r r y . Tennyson and Swinburne as Romantic  
N a t u r a l i s t s . T o r o n t o : U o f T o r o n t o P, 1981. 

M i t c h e l l , S a l l y . The F a l l e n A n g e l : C h a s t i t y , C l a s s , and 
Women's R e a d i n g 1835-1880. B o w l i n g Green, Ohio: B o w l i n g 
Green UP, 1981. 

N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e , L o n g f e l l o w N a t i o n a l H i s t o r i c P a r k 
[ C o o r d i n a t o r s ] . P a p e r s P r e s e n t e d a t t h e L o n g f e l l o w  
Commemorative C o n f e r e n c e , A p r i l 1-3, 1982. Washington, 
D.C.: U.S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1982. 

Nemerov, Howard. "On L o n g f e l l o w . " 1963. A m e r i c a n P o e t r y t o  
1914. Ed. H a r o l d Bloom. New York: C h e l s e a P u b l i s h e r s . 
169-82. 

O ' N e i l l , J o s e p h E. "Henry Wadsworth L o n g f e l l o w , P o e t o f t h e 
F e e l i n g H e a r t . " A m e r i c a n C l a s s i c s R e c o n s i d e r e d . Ed. 
H a r o l d C. G a r d i n e r . New York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r s ' Sons, 
1958. 146-75. 

O x e n h a n d l e r , N e a l . "The Changing Concept o f L i t e r a r y Emotion: 
A S e l e c t i v e H i s t o r y . " New L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y 20 (1988-89): 
105-21. 

P a r r i n g t o n , Vernon L. Main C u r r e n t s i n A m e r i c a n Thought. 
V o l . 2 o f The Romantic R e v o l u t i o n i n A m e r i c a , 1800-1860. 
New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t B r a c e , 1927. 

P a t t i s o n , R o b e r t . Tennyson and T r a d i t i o n . Cambridge: H a r v a r d 
UP, 1979. 

P e a r c e , Roy Harvey. The C o n t i n u i t y o f A m e r i c a n P o e t r y . 
M i d d l e t o w n Conn.: Wesleyan UP, 1987. 

R i c h a r d s o n , C h a r l e s F. A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e : 1607-1885. 
2 v o l s . New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1889. 



587 

R u s t , R i c h a r d D i l w o r t h . "Henry Wadsworth L o n g f e l l o w . " 
F i f t e e n A m e r i c a n A u t h o r s B e f o r e 1900: B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l  
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357-78. 

S a i n t s b u r y , George. P r e f a c e s and E s s a y s . London: M a c m i l l a n , 
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S a n d e r s , C.R. "Tennyson and t h e Human Hand." V i c t o r i a n  
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Sendry, J o s e p h . " I n Memoriam: T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y C r i t i c i s m . " 
V i c t o r i a n P o e t r y . 18 (1980): 105-18. 

S p i l l e r , R o b e r t E. e t a l . , eds. A L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y o f t h e  
U n i t e d S t a t e s . 1946. New York: M a c m i l l a n , 1963. 

S u l e i m a n , Susan R. and Inge Crossman, eds. The Reader i n t h e  
T e x t : E s s a y s on A u d i e n c e and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . P r i n c e t o n : 
P r i n c e t o n UP, 1980. 

Tennyson, A l f r e d L o r d . Dear and Honoured Lady: The C o r r e s - 
pondence Between Queen V i c t o r i a and A l f r e d Tennyson. 
Eds. Hope Dyson and S i r C h a r l e s Tennyson. London: 
M a c m i l l a n , 1970. 

I n Memoriam. Ed. Susan S h a t t o and M a r i o n Shaw. O x f o r d : 
C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1982. 

. Maud: A D e f i n i t i v e E d i t i o n . Ed. Susan S h a t t o . London: 
A t h l o n e P r e s s , 1986. 

A V a r i o r u m E d i t i o n o f Tennyson's I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g . 
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. The Works o f Tennyson. [ E v e r s l e y E d i t i o n 9 V o l s . ] 
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Tennyson, S i r C h a r l e s . "Tennyson as P o e t L a u r e a t e . " Palmer 
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London: M a c m i l l a n , 1974. 

Tennyson, H a l l a m . M a t e r i a l s f o r a L i f e o f A.T. 4 V o l s . 
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. Tennyson and h i s F r i e n d s . London: M a c m i l l a n , 1911. 



588 

T h o l f s e n , T r y g y v e . "The T r a n s i t i o n t o Democracy i n V i c t o r i a n 
E n g l a n d . " I n t e r n a t i o n a l Review o f S o c i a l H i s t o r y 6 
(1961): 226-48. 

Tompkins, Jane P. "The Reader i n H i s t o r y : t h e Changing Shape 
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Jane Tompkins. B a l t i m o r e and London: Johns H o p k i n s U. 
P., 1980. 201-26. 

T r e n t , W i l l i a m P e t a l . , eds. The Cambridge H i s t o r y o f 
A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e . 3 v o l s . New York: M a c m i l l a n , 1942. 
V o l . 2. 

T u c k e r , H e r b e r t F. J r , "Tennyson and t h e Measure o f Doom." 
PMLA. 98 (1983): 8-20. 

V i n c e n t , D a v i d . B r e a d . Knowledge, and Freedom: A Study o f 
N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y Working C l a s s A u t o b i o g r a p h y . London 
and New York: Metheun, 1981. 

V i n c e n t , Leon. A m e r i c a n L i t e r a r y M a s t e r s . B o s t o n : Houghton 
M i f f l i n , 1906. 

Von H a l l b e r g , R o b e r t , ed. Canons. C h i c a g o : U o f C h i c a g o P, 
1984. 

Waggoner, H y a t t H. A m e r i c a n P o e t s from t h e P u r i t a n s t o t h e 
P r e s e n t . 1968. B a t o n Rouge: L o u i s i a n a S t a t e UP. 1984. 

W a i t e s , B e r n a r d e t a l . , eds. P o p u l a r C u l t u r e : P a s t and  
P r e s e n t . London: Croom Helm, 1982. 

W e l t e r , Rush. The Mind o f A m e r i c a 1820-1860. New York: 
C o l u m b i a UP, 1975. 



589 

APPENDIX I 
A: AMERICAN VOLUMES OP LONGFELLOW'S POETRY: 1839-18 65 

Note: The f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and f i g u r e s p r o v i d e o n l y an 
i n c o m p l e t e r e c o r d o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s volumes and s a l e s , drawn from 
s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s : C h a r v a t ' s The P r o f e s s i o n o f A u t h o r s h i p 
( 1 0 6 - 6 7 ) ; T r y o n ' s " N a t i o n a l i s m and I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o p y r i g h t " and 
L i v i n g s t o n ' s A B i b l i o g r a p h y o f t h e F i r s t E d i t i o n s o f t h e W r i t i n g s  
o f Henry Wadsworth L o n g f e l l o w . 

Year Volume Publisher Format & Cost Copies 
1839 V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t John Owen f i n e paper 750 

14 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 5 2 : 8,800 
( l a r g e p a p e r i s s u e o f 250 c o p i e s o f 3 r d e d i t i o n ; s i m i l a r 
p r a c t i c e o c c u r s w i t h each major volume even w i t h T i c k n o r and 
F i e l d s ) 

1841 B a l l a d s and O t h e r Poems Owen f i n e p a p e r 750 
9 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 4 8 : 3,770 

1842 Poems on S l a v e r y Owen f i n e p a p e r 750 1,750 
( L o n g f e l l o w g i v e s p l a t e s t o A n t i - S l a v e r y T r a c t A s s o c i a t i o n 
f o r r e p r i n t i n g ) 

184 3 The S p a n i s h S t u d e n t Owen f i n e p a p e r 750 
5 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 4 5 : 1,600 

1845 B e l f r y o f Bruges Owen f i n e p a p e r 750 
4 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 4 6 : 2,050 

1845 ( L o n g f e l l o w p u r c h a s e s p l a t e s from Owen, and w i l l own a l l 
p l a t e s o f h i s poems u n t i l 1865) 

1845 V o i c e s o f t h e N i g h t R e d d i n g d o u b l e column pamphlet 
12 1/20 1,000-2,000 

1845 C o l l e c t e d E d i t i o n Carey and H a r t i l l u s t r a t e d 1,000 
Moroccan l e a t h e r , s t e e l p l a t e s $3.50-$7.00 

184 6 C o l l e c t e d E d i t i o n H a r p e r s d o u b l e column pamphlet 
p a p e r c o v e r e d 500 2,000 

1846 ( T i c k n o r and F i e l d s buy a l l Owen's o l d s t o c k and become 
L o n g f e l l o w ' s p u b l i s h e r u n t i l 1882) 

1847 E v a n g e l i n e T i c k n o r and F i e l d s * t r a d e e d i t i o n $1.00 
37 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 6 9 : 28,005 



184 9 C o l l e c t e d E d i t i o n H a r p e r s 
( w i t h E v a n g e l i n e ) 

d o u b l e column pamphlet 
p a p e r c o v e r e d 620 6,000 

1849 The S e a s i d e T i c k n o r and F i e l d s t r a d e e d i t i o n $1.00 5,000 
and t h e F i r e s i d e 

1850 C o l l e c t e d E d i t i o n T i c k n o r and F i e l d s t r a d e e d i t i o n $2.00 
Two Volumes 1 s t e d i t i o n : 20,000 
( o t h e r p r i c e s range from 500 t o $8.00; 85 i m p r e s s i o n s from 
1850-70: 164,168 c o p i e s s o l d ) 

1851 The G o l d e n Legend T i c k n o r and F i e l d s t r a d e e d i t i o n $1.00 
13 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 6 4 : 9,848 

1855 Song o f Hiawatha T i c k n o r and F i e l d s t r a d e e d i t i o n $1.00 
29 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 6 8 : 50,771 

1856 C o l l e c t e d E d i t i o n T i c k n o r and F i e l d s B l u e and G o l d $1.75 
40,000 

1858 M i l e s S t a n d i s h T i c k n o r and F i e l d s t r a d e e d i t i o n $1.00 
1 s t e d i t i o n : 10,000 10 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 6 5 : 29,424 

1863 T a l e s o f a T i c k n o r and F i e l d s t r a d e e d i t i o n $1.00 
Wayside I n n 3 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 6 5 : 22,000 

1865 H o u s e h o l d Poems T i c k n o r and F i e l d s I l l u s t r a t e d 500 20,000 
( s e l e c t e d ) b l u e p a p e r c o v e r s 

* T i c k n o r and F i e l d s ' t r a d e e d i t i o n was o f stamped brown c l o t h 
c o v e r s , 12mo.; o t h e r e d i t i o n s m i g h t a l s o be c o l o u r e d : Hiawatha 
( r e d ) ; M i l e s S t a n d i s h ( p u r p l e ) w i t h s i d e s stamped i n g i l t and 
g i l t edges. 

B: LONGFELLOW'S RECORDED INCOME FROM WRITING: 1840-6 4 

Y e a r Books P e r i o d i c a l s T o t a l 

1840 $173.00 $46.00 $219.00 
1841 212.00 45. 00 257.00 
1842 202.00 , 315.00 517.00 
1843 235.00 100.00 335.00 
1844 225.00 300.00 525.00 
1845* 2,610.00 250.00 2,860.00 
1846 1,700.00 100.00 1,800.00 
1847 1,100.00 1,100.00 
1848 1,425.00 100.00 1,525.00 
1849 2,556.25 305.00 2,861.25 
1850 1,750.00 150.00 1,900.00 
1851 2,537.70 2,537.70 
1852 1,055.60 50.00 1,105.60 
1853 1, 275 250.00 1,525.00 



591 

1854 1,600.00 100.00 1,700. 00 
1855** 3,475.00 200.00 3,675. 00 
1856 7,400.00 7,400. 00 

* L o n g f e l l o w ' s f i r s t C o l l e c t e d E d i t i o n appeared i n 1845. 
** L o n g f e l l o w p u b l i s h e d Hiawatha i n 1855. 

1857 2,450.00 100.00 2,550. 00 
1858 2,410.00 250.00 2,660. 00 
1859 1,767.00 50. 00 1,817. 00 
1860 1,132.00 50.00 1,182. 00 
1861 874.50 50.00 924 . 50 
1862 1,022.50 50. 00 1,072. 50 
1863 1,131.00 250.00 1,381. 00 
1864 2,382.00 300.00 2,682. 00 

L o n g f e l l o w e s t a b l i s h e d a new c o n t r a c t w i t h T i c k n o r and F i e l d s i n 
1865. H i s a v e r a g e y i e l d f o r c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s was $3,284 f o r 
t h e n e x t t e n y e a r s . A f t e r 1875, he was p a i d a f l a t sum o f $4,000 
p e r annum f o r a l l h i s o l d books ( C h a r v a t P r o f e s s i o n 112-13). 

Average wages i n t h e 1840s-60s were 
Congressmen: $8.00 p e r day 
L a b o r e r s : $2.00 p e r day 



592 

APPENDIX II 
A: ENGLISH VOLUMES OF TENNYSON'S POETRY: 1830-1865 

Note: The f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and f i g u r e s p r o v i d e o n l y an 
i n c o m p l e t e r e c o r d o f Tennyson's volumes and s a l e s , drawn from 
s e v e r a l s o u r c e s : Hagen's Tennyson and h i s P u b l i s h e r s . Shannon's 
Tennyson and t h e R e v i e w e r s . S i r C h a r l e s Tennyson's A l f r e d  
Tennyson, and Wise's B i b l i o g r a p h y . 

Year Volume Publisher Format & Cost Copies 

1830 Poems C h i e f l y L y r i c a l E f f i n g h a m W i l s o n 5s 600 
d r a b paper o r p i n k b o a r d s 

1832 Poems Edward Moxon d r a b paper b o a r d s 6s 450 

1842 Poems (2 v o l s ) Moxon d r a b paper b o a r d s 12s 
24 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 7 2 : 800, 1000 (drab o r g r e e n ) , 1500 ( g r e e n ) , 
2000; 5 t h (one v o l ) : i l l u s t r a t e d , e n g r a v e d s t e e l , 9 s ; 7 t h 
morocco: 18s 

1847 The P r i n c e s s Moxon * t r a d e e d i t i o n 5s 
17 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 6 8 : 1500, 1500, 1500, 2000, 2000 (1000 

a n n u a l l y t h e r e a f t e r ) ; 1875 r e d u c e d t o 3s 6d 

1850 I n Memoriam Moxon p u r p l e c l o t h b o a r d s 6s 
21 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 7 2 : 5000+3000, 5000, 3000, 3000 (60,000 i n a 
few m o n t h s ) ; i n 1875 r e d u c e d t o 5s, i n 1877 r e d u c e d t o 4s 

1855 Maud E t c . Moxon t r a d e e d i t i o n 5s 
19 e d i t i o n s - 1 8 8 4 : 10,000, 2000, 

1857 I l l u s t r a t e d E d i t i o n Moxon b l u e c l o t h b o a r d s 10,000 
wood b l o c k i l l u s t r a t i o n s , g i l t d e s i g n c o v e r : 31s 6d 

(Moxon's d e a t h i n 1858; B r a d b u r y & Evans manage p u b l i s h i n g ) 

1859 I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g Moxon t r a d e e d i t i o n 7s 8 e d i t i o n s : 
40,000, f o l i o e d i t i o n ( 1 8 6 7 — ) e n g r a v e d s t e e l 
i l l u s t r a t i o n s : 1, 3, and 5 g u i n e a s . 

1864 Enoch Arden E t c . Moxon t r a d e e d i t i o n 6s 60,000 
i l l u s t r a t e d ( 1 8 6 6 ) ; i n 1875 r e d u c e d t o 3s 6d 

1865 Moxon's M i n i a t u r e P o e t s : a S e l e c t i o n from t h e Works  
o f A l f r e d Tennyson Moxon c l o t h b o a r d s 5s 
8 p a r t s mauve w r a p p e r s , 6d p e r 

* Moxon's t r a d e e d i t i o n s were i n g r e e n c l o t h b o a r d s w i t h g i l t 
l e t t e r i n g on t h e s p i n e ; t h i s f o r m a t becomes s t a n d a r d w i t h o t h e r 
Tennyson p u b l i s h e r s a f t e r Moxon (1869-1892). 



B: TENNYSON'S INCOME FROM WRITING: 1840-1864 

Poems (1842) 
1843 £156 2s 6d 
1844 
1845 £259 18s I d 
C i v i l L i s t p e n s i o n : £2 00 p e r annum 
1846 £330 7s 6d 
( a v e r a g e s £100 a n n u a l l y t h e r e a f t e r ) 

P r i n c e s s (1847) 
1848 £103 13s 7d 
1849 £118 4s 7d 
1851 £106 19s 4d 
1852 £147 3s l O d 
1853 £L82 3s 2d 
1854 £L66 4s l O d 
( a v e r a g e s £L75 a n n u a l l y t h e r e a f t e r ) 

I n Memoriam (1850) 
1850 £445 
L a u r e a t e p e n s i o n : £2 00 p e r annum 
1851 £273 
1852 £133 
1853 £175 
1854 £150 
1855 £100 
1856 £100 
( a n n u a l a v e r a g e s t h e r e a f t e r unknown) 

Maud (1855) 

1856 £2000 ( c u m u l a t i v e from a l l volumes t o d a t e ) 

I l l u s t r a t e d (1857) 
1858 £2000 (by c o n t r a c t w i t h Moxon) 
1863 £923 4s ( r o y a l t i e s from R o u t l e d g e on r e m a i n d e r e d volumes 
R o u t l e d g e i s s u e s 5000 (1865) and 5000 (1869) 
1865 £924 6s 
1869 £924 6s 
I d y l l s o f t h e K i n g (1859) 
( a v e r a g e s £2300 p e r y e a r f o r f i v e y e a r s : £11,500) 
Enoch Arden (1864) 
1865 £8065 I s l O d 

S e l e c t i o n (1865) 
1865 £5710 4s 2d 

Average a n n u a l income i n t h e 1840s-60s: 
S k i l l e d a r t i s a n s , p r i n t e r s : £400 



APPENDIX III 

The Graves of a Household 

They grew i n beauty, side by side, 
They f i l l ' d one home with g l e e ; — 

Their graves are sever'd, f a r and wide, 
By mount, and stream, and sea. 

The same fond mother bent at night 
O'er each f a i r sleeping brow; 

She had each folded flower i n s i g h t , — 
Where are those dreamers now? 

One, midst forests of the west, 
By a dark stream i s l a i d — 

The Indian knows h i s place of r e s t , 
Far i n the cedar shade. 

The sea, the blue lone sea, hath one, 
He l i e s where pearls l i e deep; 

He was the lov'd of a l l , yet none 
O'er h i s low bed may weep. 

One sleeps where southern vines are drest 
Above the noble s l a i n : 

He wrapt h i s colours round h i s breast, 
On a blood-red f i e l d of Spain. 

And one—o'er her the myrtle showers 
I t s leaves, by s o f t winds fann'd: 

She faded midst I t a l i a n f l o w e r s , — 
The l a s t of that bright band. 

And parted thus they r e s t , who play'd 
Beneath the same green tree; 

Whose voices mingled as they pray'd 
Around one parent knee! 

They that with smiles l i t up the h a l l , 
And cheer'd with song the h e a r t h , — 

Alas! for love, i f thou wert a l l , 
And nought beyond, oh, earth! 

F e l i c i a Hemans 1828 



A Psalm of L i f e 

What the Heart of the Young Man 
Said to the Psalmist 

T e l l me not, i n mournful numbers, 
L i f e i s but an empty dreamI — 

For the soul i s dead that slumbers, 
And things are not what they seem. 

L i f e i s r e a l ! L i f e i s earnest! 
And the grave i s not i t s goal; 

Dust thou a r t , to dust returnest, 
Was not spoken of the soul. 

Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, 
Is our destined end or way; 

But to act, that each to-morrow 
Finds us farther than to-day. 

Art i s long, and Time i s f l e e t i n g , 
And our hearts, though stout and brave, 

S t i l l , l i k e muffled drums, are beating 
Funeral marches to the grave. 

In the world's broad f i e l d of b a t t l e , 
In the bivouac of L i f e , 

Be not l i k e dumb, driven c a t t l e ! 
Be a hero i n the s t r i f e ! 

Trust no Future, howe'er pleasant! 
Let the dead Past bury i t s dead! 

A c t , — a c t i n the l i v i n g Present! 
Heart within, and God o'erhead! 

Lives of great men a l l remind us 
We can make our l i v e s sublime, 

And, departing, leave behind us 
Footprints on the sands of time; 

Footprints, that perhaps another, 
S a i l i n g o'er l i f e ' s solemn main, 

A f o r l o r n and shipwrecked brother, 
Seeing, s h a l l take heart again. 

Let us, then, be up and doing, 
With a heart f o r any f a t e ; 

S t i l l achieving, s t i l l pursuing, 
Learn to labor and to wait. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 1838 



Break, break, break 

Break, break, break, 
On thy cold gray stones, O Sea! 

And I would that my tongue could u t t e r 
The thoughts that a r i s e i n me. 

0 well for the fisherman's boy, 
That he shouts with h i s s i s t e r at play! 

O well for the s a i l o r lad, 
That he sings i n h i s boat on the bay! 

And the s t a t e l y ships go on 
To t h e i r haven under the h i l l ; 

But 0 for the touch of a vanished hand, 
And the sound of a voice that i s s t i l l ! 

Break, break, break, 
At the foot of thy crags, O Sea! 

But the tender grace of a day that i s dead 
W i l l never come back to me. 

A l f r e d Tennyson 1842