Feminist theology - Wikipedia Feminist theology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Movement to reconsider theological doctrine For the journal, see Feminist Theology (journal). Part of a series on Feminism History Social Feminist history History of feminism Women-only space Women's history American British Canadian German Timelines Women's suffrage Muslim countries US Other women's rights Suffrage by country Australia Canada Japan Kuwait Liechtenstein New Zealand Spain (Civil War) Spain (Francoist) Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Cayman Islands Wales United States In states Utah Waves First Second Third Fourth General variants Analytical Anarchist Anti-abortion Atheist Conservative Cultural Cyber Difference Ecofeminism Vegetarian Embedded Equality Eugenic Fat French French post-structuralist Global Hip-hop/Activism Individualist Labor Lesbian Radical lesbianism Liberal Equity Lipstick Materialist Maternal Multicultural Black Chicana Indigenous Kurdish (Jineology) Native American White Neofeminism Networked New Postcolonial Postfeminism Postmodern Post-structural Radical Separatist Sex-positive Socialist Marxist Social Standpoint State Transfeminism Transnational Victim Womanism Africana Religious variants Buddhist Christian Mormon Neopagan Dianic Wicca Reclaiming Hindu Islamic Jewish Orthodox Sikh Concepts Literature Children's literature Effects on society Equality Female education Female genital mutilation Femicide Feminism in culture Feminist movement African-American women's suffrage movement Art movement In hip hop Feminist stripper Gender equality Girl power Honor killing International Girl's Day and Women's Day Language reform Matriarchal religion Media Men in feminism Misogyny Oedipus complex Opposition to feminism Political lesbianism Lesbian separatism Pro-feminism Protofeminism Purplewashing Reproductive justice Sex workers' rights Sexual harassment Sexual objectification Theory in composition studies Triple oppression Violence against women War on women Women's health Women's rights Toxic masculinity Outlooks Criticism of marriage Views on BDSM Views on pornography Views on prostitution Views on sexual orientation Views on sexuality Views on transgender topics Theory Feminist method Gender studies Gender mainstreaming Gynocentrism Kyriarchy Male gaze Matriarchy Women's studies Men's studies Patriarchy Écriture féminine Areas of study anthropology archaeology architecture art art criticism literary criticism film theory biology composition studies criminology pathways perspective economics fpda geography international relations constructivism legal theory pedagogy philosophy aesthetics empiricism epistemology ethics justice ethics existentialism metaphysics science political ecology political theory pornography psychology revisionist mythology science fiction sex wars sexology sociology technoscience theology womanist theology By country Albania Australia Bangladesh Canada China Democratic Republic of the Congo Denmark Egypt Ethiopia Finland France Germany Ghana Greece Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Iraq Republic of Ireland Israel Italy Japan Latin America Argentina Brazil Chile Haiti Honduras Mexico Paraguay Trinidad and Tobago Lebanon Malaysia Mali Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Northern Cyprus Norway Pakistan Philippines Poland Russia Syria Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Taiwan Thailand Turkey Vietnam Ukraine United Kingdom United States History of women Lists and categories Lists Articles Feminists by nationality Literature American feminist literature Feminist comic books Conservative feminisms Ecofeminist authors Feminist art critics Feminist economists Feminist philosophers Feminist poets Feminist rhetoricians Jewish feminists Muslim feminists Feminist parties Suffragists and suffragettes Women's rights activists Women's studies journals Women's suffrage organizations Categories Women's rights by country Feminists by nationality  Feminism portal v t e Feminist theology is a movement found in several religions, including Sanatan Dharma (old form of Hinduism), Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, and New Thought, to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of those religions from a feminist perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts and matriarchal religion.[1] Contents 1 Methodology 1.1 Development of feminist theology 1.2 Prehistoric religion and archaeology 1.3 Gender and God 1.4 New Thought movement 2 Within specific religions 2.1 Judaism 2.2 Christianity 2.3 Islam 2.4 Sikhism 2.5 Hinduism 2.6 Neopaganism 2.7 Buddhism 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Methodology[edit] Development of feminist theology[edit] While there is no specific date to pinpoint the beginning of this movement, its origins can be traced back to the 1960s article, “The Human Situation: A Feminine View,” written by Valerie Saiving (Goldstein).[2] Her piece of work questioned theologies written by men for men in a modern perspective to then dismantle what it had created over the years, patriarchal systems that oppress women. After Saiving's work was published, many scholars took up her ideas and elaborated upon them, which built the feminist theology movement further. Grenz and Olson view the steps of feminist theology in threes: first, feminist theologians critique the treatment of women in the past, second, they determine alternative biblical/religious texts that support feminist ideologies, and third, they claim the theology that adheres to such standards, through reclamation, abolishment, and/or revision. [3] Grenz and Olson also mention that while all feminists agree there is a flaw in the system, there is disagreement over how far outside of the Bible and the Christian tradition women are willing to go to seek support for their ideals.[4] This concept is also important when feminist theology is relating to other religions or spiritual connections outside of Chrisitanity. Prehistoric religion and archaeology[edit] Further information: Mother Nature, Goddess, and feminist archaeology The primacy of a monotheistic or near-monotheistic "Great Goddess" is advocated by some modern matriarchists as a female version of, preceding, or analogue to, the Abrahamic God associated with the historical rise of monotheism in the Mediterranean Axis Age. Mother Nature (sometimes known as Mother Earth) is a common representation of nature that focuses on the life-giving and nurturing features of nature by embodying it in the form of the mother. Images of women representing mother earth, and mother nature, are timeless. In prehistoric times, goddesses were worshipped for their association with fertility, fecundity, and agricultural bounty. Priestesses held dominion over aspects of Incan, Assyrian, Babylonian, Slavonic, Roman, Greek, Indian, and Iroquoian religions in the millennia prior to the inception of Patriarchal religion. Gender and God[edit] Main article: Gender of God Others who practice feminist spirituality may instead adhere to a feminist re-interpretation of Western monotheistic traditions. In those cases, the notion of God as having a male gender is rejected, and God is not referred to using male pronouns. Feminist spirituality may also object to images of God that they perceive as authoritarian, parental, or disciplinarian, instead emphasizing "maternal" attributes such as nurturing, acceptance, and creativity.[5] Carol P. Christ is the author of the widely reprinted essay "Why Women Need the Goddess",[6] which argues in favor of the concept of there having been an ancient religion of a supreme goddess. This essay was presented as the keynote address to an audience of over 500 at the "Great Goddess Re-emerging" conference at the University of Santa Cruz in the spring of 1978, and was first published in Heresies: The Great Goddess Issue (1978), pgs. 8-13.[7] Carol P. Christ also co-edited the classic feminist religion anthologies Weaving the Visions: New Patterns in Feminist Spirituality (1989) and Womanspirit Rising (1979/1989); the latter included her essay Why Women Need the Goddess.[7] New Thought movement[edit] Main article: New Thought New Thought as a movement had no single origin, but was rather propelled along by a number of spiritual thinkers and philosophers and emerged through a variety of religious denominations and churches, particularly the Unity Church, Religious Science, and Church of Divine Science.[8] It was a feminist movement in that most of its teachers and students were women; notable among the founders of the movement were Emma Curtis Hopkins, known as the "teacher of teachers" Myrtle Fillmore, Malinda Cramer, and Nona L. Brooks;[8] with its churches and community centers mostly led by women, from the 1880s to today.[9][10] Within specific religions[edit] Judaism[edit] Main articles: Jewish feminism and Women in the Bible Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to make the religious, political, and social status of Jewish women equal to that of Jewish men. Feminist movements, with varying approaches and successes, have opened up within all major denominations of Judaism. There are different approaches and versions of feminist theology that exist within the Jewish community. Some of these theologies promote the idea that it is important to have a feminine characterization of God within the siddur (Jewish prayerbook) and service. They challenge the male rabbi teachings that only emphasize God as a man with masculine traits only. In 1976, Rita Gross published the article "Female God Language in a Jewish Context" (Davka Magazine 17), which Jewish scholar and feminist Judith Plaskow considers "probably the first article to deal theoretically with the issue of female God-language in a Jewish context".[11][12]  Gross was Jewish herself at this time.[13] Reconstructionist Rabbi Rebecca Alpert (Reform Judaism, Winter 1991) comments: The experience of praying with Siddur Nashim [the first Jewish prayer book to refer to God using female pronouns and imagery, published by Margaret Wenig and Naomi Janowitz in 1976[14]] ... transformed my relationship with God. For the first time, I understood what it meant to be made in God's image. To think of God as a woman like myself, to see Her as both powerful and nurturing, to see Her imaged with a woman's body, with womb, with breasts – this was an experience of ultimate significance. Was this the relationship that men have had with God for all these millennia? How wonderful to gain access to those feelings and perceptions. In 1990 Rabbi Margaret Wenig wrote the sermon, "God Is a Woman and She Is Growing Older", which as of 2011 has been published ten times (three times in German) and preached by rabbis from Australia to California.[15] Rabbi Paula Reimers ("Feminism, Judaism, and God the Mother", Conservative Judaism 46 (1993)) comments: Those who want to use God/She language want to affirm womanhood and the feminine aspect of the deity. They do this by emphasizing that which most clearly distinguishes the female experience from the male. A male or female deity can create through speech or through action, but the metaphor for creation which is uniquely feminine is birth. Once God is called female, then, the metaphor of birth and the identification of the deity with nature and its processes become inevitable Ahuva Zache affirms that using both masculine and feminine language for God can be a positive thing, but reminds her Reform Jewish readership that God is beyond gender (Is God male, female, both or neither? How should we phrase our prayers in response to God’s gender?, in the Union for Reform Judaism's iTorah, [2][permanent dead link]): Feminine imagery of God does not in any way threaten Judaism. On the contrary, it enhances the Jewish understanding of God, which should not be limited to masculine metaphors. All language that humans use to describe God is only a metaphor. Using masculine and feminine metaphors for God is one way to remind ourselves that gendered descriptions of God are just metaphors. God is beyond gender. These views are highly controversial even within liberal Jewish movements.[16] Orthodox Jews and many Conservative Jews hold that it is wrong to use English female pronouns for God, viewing such usage as an intrusion of modern, western feminist ideology into Jewish tradition.[citation needed] Liberal prayer books tend increasingly to also avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the UK Liberal movement's Siddur Lev Chadash (1995) does so, as does the UK Reform Movement's Forms of Prayer (2008).[17][18] In Mishkan T'filah, the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as “He” have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) [19] In 2015 the Reform Jewish High Holy Days prayer book Mishkan HaNefesh was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.[20] It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer Avinu Malkeinu that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."[20] Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement's earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering “mibeit,” Hebrew for “from the house of,” in addition to the traditional “son of” or “daughter of.”[20] In 2003 The Female Face of God in Auschwitz: A Jewish Feminist Theology of the Holocaust, the first full-length feminist theology of the Holocaust, written by Melissa Raphael, was published.[21] Judith Plaskow’s Standing Again at Sinai: Judaism from a Feminist Perspective (1991), and Rachel Adler’s Engendering Judaism: An Inclusive Theology and Ethics (1999) are the only two full-length Jewish feminist works to focus entirely on theology in general (rather than specific aspects such as Holocaust theology.) [22] This work of feminist theology in regards to Judaism, also contextualizes the other goals of this movement, to re frame historical texts and how they are being taught. It is in addition to how God is being viewed but also the role of women historically and how they are being treated today in a new feminist light. While there is some opposition faced, Jewish communities believing feminism is too Western and does not validate Judaism, there is also the approval of an insider feminist perspective that takes into consideration traditions and modern thought.[23] Christianity[edit] Main articles: Christian feminism and Women in the Bible Christian feminism is an aspect of feminist theology which seeks to advance and understand the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually, and in leadership from a Christian perspective. This is through reformation to be along the lines of feminist thought in regards to their religion.[24] Christian feminists argue that contributions by women in that direction are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity.[25] These theologians believe that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically determined characteristics, such as sex and race.[26] Their major issues include the ordination of women, male dominance in Christian marriage, recognition of equal spiritual and moral abilities, reproductive rights, and the search for a feminine or gender-transcendent divine.[27][28][29][30][31] Christian feminists often draw on the teachings of more historical texts that reinforce that feminism does not go against Christianity but has always been in its texts.[32] Mary Daly grew up an Irish Catholic and all of her education was received through Catholic schools. She has three doctorate degrees, one from St. Mary's College in sacred theology then two from University of Fribourg, Switzerland in theology and philosophy. While in her early works Daly expressed a desire to reform Christianity from the inside, she would later come to the conclusion that Christianity is not able to enact the necessary changes as it is. According to Ford's The Modern Theologians, “Mary Daly has done more than anyone to clarify the problems women have concerning the central core symbolism of Christianity, and its effects on their self-understanding and their relationship to God.”[33] Daly is a prime example of how some feminist theologians come to the conclusion that reclamation and reform are no longer a viable option, that condemnation is the only way out.[24] Rosemary Radford Ruether writes about crucial additional interpretations of how Christian feminist theology is impacted by the world. Ruether grew up Roman Catholic and attended Catholic schools through her sophomore year of high school. She was a classics major at Scripps College, worked for the Delta Ministry in 1965 and taught at Howard University School of Religion from 1966 to 1976.[34] “Rosemary Ruether has written on the question of Christian credibility, with particular attention to ecclesiology and its engagement with church-world conflicts; Jewish-Christian relations…; politics and religion in America; and Feminism".[35] Ruether is said to be one of the major Christian feminist theologians of our time.[36] Her book Sexism and God-Talk is the earliest feminist theological assessment of Christian theology.[37] In the 1970s Phyllis Trible pioneered a Christian feminist approach to biblical scholarship, using the approach of rhetorical criticism developed by her dissertation advisor, James Muilenburg.[38]:158–159[39][40] Christian feminist theology has consistently been critiqued as being focused on primarily white women. This has resulted in the development of movements such as womanist theology, focusing on African American women coined by the works of Alice Walker Asian feminist theology, and mujerista theology, introduced by Ada Maria Isasi-Dia concerning Latinas. The term Christian egalitarianism is sometimes preferred by those advocating gender equality and equity among Christians who do not wish to associate themselves with the feminist movement. Women apologists have become more visible in Christian academia. Their defense of the faith is differentiated by a more personal, cultural and listening approach "driven by love".[41] See also: Unity Church, Christian Science, Christian theological praxis and Postmodern Christianity. Islam[edit] Main article: Islamic feminism Islamic feminism is a form of feminism concerned with the role of women in Islam. It aims for the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of gender, in public and private life. Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework. Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilized secular and European or non-Muslim feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement.[42] Advocates of the movement seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Quran and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Qur'an (holy book), hadith (sayings of Muhammad) and sharia (law) towards the creation of a more equal and just society.[43] This is done through the advocation of the female autonomy in line with the guideline of the Qur’an. Feminist theologians like Azizah al-Hibri, professor of Law at University of Richmond, founded KARAMAH: Muslim Women Lawyers for Human Rights.[44] Another form of claiming rights in power is that a few Muslim majority countries have produced more than seven female heads of state, including Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan, Mame Madior Boye of Senegal, Tansu Çiller of Turkey, and Megawati Sukarnoputri of Indonesia. Bangladesh was the first country in the world to have consecutive, elected, female heads of state: Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina.[45] Feminist theology and Islam is also used to strengthen the spiritual connection to the women of Islam when they undergo severe trauma, to promote human rights especially those of women.[46] Fatima Mernissi’s book, The Forgotten Queens of Islam, is a crucial piece in feminist theology for Islam and how it relates to a non western state.[47] Other theologists include Riffat Hassan, Amina Wadud, and Asma Barlas. This theology has been used to educate, re-frame religion, pose as a building block for peace, and the advancement of women’s rights, in legislation and in society.[48] Sikhism[edit] Main article: Sikh feminism In Sikhism women are equal to men. The verse from the Sikh scripture the Guru Granth Sahib states that: From woman, man is born; within woman, man is conceived; to woman he is engaged and married. Woman becomes his friend; through woman, the future generations come. When his woman dies, he seeks another woman; to woman he is bound. So why call her bad? From her, kings are born. From woman, woman is born; without woman, there would be no one at all. — Guru Nanak, Guru Granth Sahib According to scholars such as Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh, feminist theology in Sikhism is also the feminization of rituals such as the ceremonial rite of who lights a funeral pyre. Singh further states that this is the reclamation of religion to inspire “personal and social renewal of change" and that these theologians are seen as gurus rather than simply women or scholars. The teachings of Guru Nanak focus on the singularity between men and women, with anything that differs denounced. He cites the example that origins and traditions stem from women as supervisors and in control, as well as engaged in history, such as Mai Bhago, who rallied men to fight against imperial forces alongside her in the battle at Muktsar in 1705.[49] Hinduism[edit] See also: Feminism in India § Hindu feminism, and Kalavati tantra Within Ancient Hinduism, women have been held in equal honour as men. The Manusmriti for example states: The society that provides respect and dignity to women flourishes with nobility and prosperity. And a society that does not put women on such a high pedestal has to face miseries and failures regardless of how so much noble deeds they perform otherwise. Manusmrithi Chapter 3 Verse 56. Within the Vedas the Hindu holy texts, women were given the highest possible respect and equality. The Vedic period was glorified by this tradition. Many rishis were women, indeed so that several of them authored many of the slokas, a poem, proverb or hymn, in the Vedas. For instance, in the Rigveda there is a list of women rishis. Some of them are: Ghosha, Godha, Gargi, Vishwawra, Apala, Upanishad, Brahmjaya, Aditi, Indrani, Sarma, Romsha, Maitreyi, Kathyayini, Urvashi, Lopamudra, Yami, Shashwati, Sri, Laksha and many others. In the Vedic period women were free to enter into brahmacharya just like men, and attain salvation. During Hindu marriage ceremonies, the following slokas are uttered by the grooms, yet in recent years their importance is understood less frequently with no actie desire to analyze them in depth to come to the conclusions that was being portrayed: "O bride! I accept your hand to enhance our joint good fortune. I pray to you to accept me as your husband and live with me until our old age. ..." Rigveda Samhita Part -4, sukta 85, sloka 9702 "O bride! May you be like the empress of your mother-in-law, father-in-law, sisters-in-law and brothers-in-law (sisters and brothers of the groom). May your writ run in your house." Rigveda Samhita Part -4, sukta 85, sloka 9712 This sloka from the Atharvaveda clearly states that the woman leads and the man follows: "The Sun God follows the first illuminated and enlightened goddess Usha (dawn) in the same manner as men emulate and follow women." Athravaveda Samhita, Part 2, Kanda 27, sukta 107, sloka 5705. Women were considered to be the embodiment of great virtue and wisdom. Thus we have: "O bride! May the knowledge of the Vedas be in front of you and behind you, in your center and in your ends. May you conduct your life after attaining the knowledge of the Vedas. May you be benevolent, the harbinger of good fortune and health and live in great dignity and indeed illuminate your husband's home." Atharva Veda 14-1-64. Women were allowed full freedom of worship. "The wife should do agnihotra (yagna), sandhya (puja) and all other daily religious rituals. If, for some reason, her husband is not present, the woman alone has full rights to do yagna". Rigveda Samhita, part 1, sukta 79, sloka 872. Moving on towards the Monotheistic era of Hinduism when such ideals such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism, a specific deity for feministic worship was brought about under the Shaktism branch. From a Hinduism point of view women are equal in all measures to men in comparison, historical texts have stated this and is the basis of Hinduism, recognizing women as valuable and interconnected between men and women. Shakti, the name meaning power and referring to the female counterpart of Shiva, possesses connected powers that do not belong to just male or female but rather works together, equally dependent upon the other. Hindu feminist scholars also go beyond the reconstruction of texts but also the reestablishment of society and Hinduism in practice.[50] Neopaganism[edit] Main articles: Goddess movement and Dianic Wicca Some currents of Neopaganism, in particular Wicca, have a ditheistic concept of a single goddess and a single god, who in hieros gamos represent a united whole. Polytheistic reconstructionists focus on reconstructing polytheistic religions, including the various goddesses and figures associated with indigenous cultures. The term thealogy is sometimes used in the context of the Neopagan Goddess movement, a pun on theology and thea θεά "goddess" intended to suggest a feminist approach to theism. The Goddess movement is a loose grouping of social and religious phenomena that grew out of second-wave feminism, predominantly in North America, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand in the 1970s, and the metaphysical community as well. Spurred by the perception that women were not treated equitably in many religions, some women turned to a Female Deity as more in tune with their spiritual needs. Education in the Arts became a vehicle for the study of humanitarian philosophers like David Hume at that time. A unifying theme of this diverse movement is the femaleness of Deity (as opposed and contrasted to a patriarchal God). Goddess beliefs take many forms: some people in the Goddess movement recognize multiple goddesses, some also include gods, while others honour what they refer to as "the Goddess," which is not necessarily seen as monotheistic, but is often understood to be an inclusive, encompassing term incorporating many goddesses in many different cultures. The term "the Goddess" may also be understood to include a multiplicity of ways to view deity personified as female, or as a metaphor, or as a process. (Christ 1997, 2003) The term "The Goddess" may also refer to the concept of The One Divine Power, or the traditionally worshiped "Great Goddess" of ancient times. In the latter part of the 20th century, feminism was influential in the rise of Neopaganism in the United States, and particularly the Dianic tradition. Some feminists find the worship of a goddess, rather than a god, to be consonant with their views. Others are polytheists, and worship a number of goddesses. The collective set of beliefs associated with this is sometimes known as thealogy and sometimes referred to as the Goddess movement. See also Dianic Wicca. Buddhism[edit] Main article: Buddhist feminism Buddhist feminism seeks to advance and understand the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually, and in leadership from a Buddhist perspective and within Buddhism. While some core beliefs in Buddhism may cause friction with Western feminism, Buddhist feminist theology strives to find the common ground and balance between tradition and the goals of this movement. In carrying the teachings of Buddhism, feminist theologians critique the common feminist ideology as “other-ing” males. This idea is in conflict with Buddhist beliefs of interconnections between all. The enemy is not the “other” but the idea that there is not a singular connection and being the same.[51] Buddhist feminist theologies take into consideration religious ideologies, challenge Western feminist views, and reclaim what Buddhism is at its core, interconnected and accepting.[51] See also[edit] Atheist feminism Divine Science Goddess movement Liberation theology Marianismo Ordination of women Patriarchy Re-Imagining (Christian feminist conference) Thealogy When God Was a Woman (book) Notes[edit] ^ "What Is Feminist Theology?". Voices of Sophia. 2008-12-18. ^ Saiving, Valerie (1960). "The Human Situation: A Feminine View". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 28 (1): 75–78. doi:10.2979/jfemistudreli.28.1.75. JSTOR 10.2979/jfemistudreli.28.1.75. S2CID 145533099. ^ Grenz and Olson, p. 227. ^ Grenz and Olson, p. 229. ^ Moder, Ally (2019-09-01). "Women, Personhood, and the Male God: A Feminist Critique of Patriarchal Concepts of God in View of Domestic Abuse". Feminist Theology. 28 (1): 85–103. doi:10.1177/0966735019859471. ISSN 0966-7350. S2CID 201410294. ^ "per Carol P Christ biography for Signs Out of Time Project". ^ a b "Goddess Tours Greece-Sacred Sites Tour-Goddess Pilgrimage Crete". Goddess Tours Greece-Sacred Sites Tour-Goddess Pilgrimage Crete. Retrieved 22 May 2017. ^ a b Lewis, James R. (1992). Perspectives on the New Age. SUNY Press. pp. 16–18. ISBN 978-0-7914-1213-8. ^ Harley, Gail M.; Danny L. Jorgensen (2002). Emma Curtis Hopkins: Forgotten Founder of New Thought. Syracuse University Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-8156-2933-7. ^ Bednarowski, Mary Farrell (1999). The Religious Imagination of American Women. Indiana University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-253-21338-9. ^ "Jewish Feminist Theology: A Survey". My Jewish Learning. Retrieved 2012-07-17. ^ "Standing at Sinai". Dhushara.com. Retrieved 2012-07-17. ^ Greenspahn, Frederick E. (2011-11-01). Jewish Mysticism and Kabbalah: New Insights and Scholarship - Frederick Greenspahn - Google Books. ISBN 9780814733363. Retrieved 2012-07-17. ^ Shannon Weber (4 June 2019). Feminism in Minutes. Quercus. pp. 286–. ISBN 978-1-63506-142-0. ^ [1] Archived September 25, 2013, at the Wayback Machine ^ "This gender less God also represents a profound betrayal of the Torah narrative." Matthew Berke, "God and Gender in Judaism", in Copyright (c) 1996 First Things 64 (June/July 1996): 33–38 ^ The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan | The Jewish Chronicle ^ Siddur Lev Chadash Archived July 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ^ Goodstein, Laurie (3 September 2007). "In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change". The New York Times. ^ a b c "'Gates of Repentance' replacement advances Reform trends | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California". Jweekly.com. 2015-03-26. Retrieved 2015-04-14. ^ The Female Face of God in Auschwitz: A Jewish Feminist Theology of the Holocaust (Religion and Gender): Melissa Raphael: 9780415236652: Amazon.com: Books ^ "Feminist Theology - Jewish Women's Archive". jwa.org. Retrieved 22 May 2017. ^ Kaufman, Debra (August 1985). "Women Who Return to Orthodox Judaism: A Feminist Analysis". Journal of Marriage and Family. 47 (3): 543–551. doi:10.2307/352257. JSTOR 352257. ^ a b Porterfield, Amanda (1987). "Feminist Theology as a Revitalization Movement". Sociological Analysis. 8 (3): 234–244. doi:10.2307/3711520. JSTOR 3711520. ^ Harrison, Victoria S. (January 2007). "Modern Women, Traditional Abraham-focused Religions and Interpreting Sacred Texts". Feminist Theology. 15 (2): 145–159. doi:10.1177/0966735007072020. S2CID 145641264. ^ McPhillips, Kathleen (October 1999). "Theme: Feminisms, Religions, Cultures, Identities". Australian Feminist Studies. 14 (30): 255–258. doi:10.1080/08164649993083. ^ Daggers, Jenny (January 2001). "'Working for Change in the Position of Women in the Church': Christian Women's Information and Resources (CWIRES) and the British Christian Women's Movement, 1972-1990". Feminist Theology. 9 (26): 44–69. doi:10.1177/096673500100002604. S2CID 144674091. ^ McEwan, Dorothea (September 1999). "The Future of Christian Feminist Theologies—As I Sense it: Musings on the Effects of Historiography and Space". Feminist Theology. 8 (22): 79–92. doi:10.1177/096673509900002206. S2CID 144816076. ^ Mclntosh, Esther (January 2007). "The Possibility of a Gender-Transcendent God: Taking Macmurray Forward". Feminist Theology. 15 (2): 236–255. doi:10.1177/0966735007072034. S2CID 145121811. ^ Polinska, Wioleta (September 2004). "In Woman's Image: An Iconography for God". Feminist Theology. 13 (1): 40–61. doi:10.1177/096673500401300104. S2CID 170205207. ^ Kessel, Edward L. (1983). "A proposed biological interpretation of the Virgin birth". Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation. 35: 129–136. ^ Clack, Beverley (May 1999). "Thealogy and Theology: Mutually Exclusive or Creatively Interdependent?". Feminist Theology. 7 (21): 21–38. doi:10.1177/096673509900002103. S2CID 143523339. ^ Ford, p. 242. ^ Ruether, p. 222. ^ Ford, p. 248. ^ Bouma-Prediger, Steven (1995). The greening of theology: the ecological models of Rosemary Radford Ruether, Joseph Sittler, and Juergen Moltmann. Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-7885-0163-0. OCLC 33105042. ^ Basson, Denise (2013-06-12). "Rosemary Radford Ruether : themes from a feminist liberation story". Scriptura. 97 (0): 37. doi:10.7833/97-0-712. ISSN 2305-445X. ^ Tull, Patricia K. (1999). "Chapter 8: Rhetorical Criticism and Intertextuality". In Haynes, Stephen R.; McKenzie, Steven L. (eds.). To each its own meaning : an introduction to biblical criticisms and their applications (Rev. and expanded. ed.). Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0664257842. ^ "Finding Aid for Phyllis Trible Papers, 1954-2015" (PDF). Archives of Women in Theological Scholarship The Burke Library Columbia University Libraries Union Theological Seminary, New York. 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2018. ^ Vater, Ann M. (1980). "Review of God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality". Journal of Biblical Literature. 99 (1): 131–133. doi:10.2307/3265712. JSTOR 3265712. ^ Dilley, Andrea Palpant. "The Unexpected Defenders". Christianity Today. 59(April 2015)3. p. 40 CT online edition ^ II International Congress on Islamic Feminism Archived December 8, 2009, at the Wayback Machine ^ Margot Badran. "Al-Ahram Weekly | Culture | Islamic feminism: what's in a name?". weekly.ahram.org.eg. Archived from the original on 2015-03-20. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ Hidayatullah, Aysha. Muslim Feminist Theology in the United States. Peter Lang AG. pp. 81–100 (20 pages). ^ Women Who Rule: 10 Firsts - MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 2009-08-20. ^ Spahić-Šiljak, Zilka (2013). "Do It and Name It: Feminist Theology and Peace Building in Bosnia and Herzegovina". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 29 (2): 176–182. doi:10.2979/jfemistudreli.29.2.176. S2CID 144159361. ^ Spahić-Šiljak, Zilka (2013). "Do It and Name It: Feminist Theology and Peace Building in Bosnia and Herzegovina". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 29 (2): 176–184. doi:10.2979/jfemistudreli.29.2.176. S2CID 144159361. ^ Hidayatullah, Aysha (2013). Muslim Feminist Theology in the United States. Peter Lang AG. pp. 81–100. ^ Singh, Nikky-Guninder Kaur (2000). "Why Did I Not Light the Fire? The Refeminization of Ritual in Sikhism". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 16 (1): 63–85. JSTOR 25002376. ^ Sugirtharajah, Sharada (2002). "Hinduism and Feminism: Some Concerns". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 18 (2): 97–104. JSTOR 25002442. ^ a b Keefe, Alice A. (1997). "Visions of Interconnectedness in Engaged Buddhism and Feminist Theology". Buddhist-Christian Studies. 7: 61–76. doi:10.2307/1390399. JSTOR 1390399. References[edit] Ford, David F., ed. (1997). The Modern Theologians: An Introduction to Christian theology in the twentieth century (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: B. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19592-4. Grenz, Stanley J.; Olson, Roger E. (1997). 20th-Century Theology: God & the World in a Transitional Age. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-1525-8. Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Women and Redemption: A Theological History (2nd ed.). Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-9816-4. Bibliography[edit] Anderson, Pamela Sue. A Feminist Philosophy of Religion: The Rationality and Myths of Religious Belief (Oxford; Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1998) ISBN 978-0-631-19383-8. Anderson, Pamela Sue; Clack, Beverley (eds.) Feminist Philosophy of Religion: Critical Readings (London: Routledge, 2004) ISBN 978-0-415-25749-7. Kassian, Mary A. The Feminist Gospel: the Movement to Unite Feminism with the Church. Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway Books, 1992. ISBN 0-89107-652-2 Stone, Merlin, compiler. Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: a Treasury of Goddess and Heroine Lore from around the World. Updated with a new pref. Boston: Beacon Press, 1990. N.B.: Edition statement appears on the paperback book's cover, but not upon the t.p. or its verso. ISBN 0-8070-6751-2 Stone, Merlin. When God Was a Woman. San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt-Brace-Jovanovich Publishers, cop. 1976. ISBN 0-15-696158-X. External links[edit] Diamant, Anita. "Holding Up Half the Sky: Feminist Judaism", Patheos Directory of Bahá'í Articles on Gender Equality Finch, Trevor R. J. Unclipping the Wing: A Survey of Secondary Literature in English on Baha'i Perspectives on Women Ruether, Radford Rosemary. "A Feminist Critique in Religious Studies" Scholten-Gutierrez, Melissa. "An Ever-Evolving Judaism: Women Meeting the Needs of the Community", Patheos Links to related articles v t e Philosophy of religion Concepts in religion Afterlife Euthyphro dilemma Faith Intelligent design Miracle Problem of evil Religious belief Soul Spirit Theodicy Theological veto Conceptions of God Aristotelian view Brahman Demiurge Divine simplicity Egoism Holy Spirit Misotheism Pandeism Personal god Process theology Supreme Being Unmoved mover God in Abrahamic religions Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Jainism Judaism Mormonism Sikhism Baháʼí Faith Wicca Existence of God For Beauty Christological Consciousness Cosmological Kalam Contingency Degree Desire Experience Fine-tuning of the universe Love Miracles Morality Necessary existent Ontological Pascal's wager Proper basis Reason Teleological Natural law Watchmaker analogy Transcendental Against 747 gambit Atheist's Wager Evil Free will Hell Inconsistent revelations Nonbelief Noncognitivism Occam's razor Omnipotence Poor design Russell's teapot Theology Acosmism Agnosticism Animism Antireligion Atheism Creationism Dharmism Deism Demonology Divine command theory Dualism Esotericism Exclusivism Existentialism Christian Agnostic Atheistic Feminist theology Thealogy Womanist theology Fideism Fundamentalism Gnosticism Henotheism Humanism Religious Secular Christian Inclusivism Theories about religions Monism Monotheism Mysticism Naturalism Metaphysical Religious Humanistic New Age Nondualism Nontheism Pandeism Panentheism Pantheism Perennialism Polytheism Possibilianism Process theology Religious skepticism Spiritualism Shamanism Taoic Theism Transcendentalism more... Religious language Eschatological verification Language game Logical positivism Apophatic theology Verificationism Problem of evil Augustinian theodicy Best of all possible worlds Euthyphro dilemma Inconsistent triad Irenaean theodicy Natural evil Theodicy Philosophers of religion (by date active) Ancient and medieval Anselm of Canterbury Augustine of Hippo Avicenna Averroes Boethius Erasmus Gaunilo of Marmoutiers Pico della Mirandola Heraclitus King James VI and I Marcion of Sinope Thomas Aquinas Maimonides Early modern Augustin Calmet René Descartes Blaise Pascal Baruch Spinoza Nicolas Malebranche Gottfried W Leibniz William Wollaston Thomas Chubb David Hume Baron d'Holbach Immanuel Kant Johann G Herder 1800 1850 Friedrich Schleiermacher Karl C F Krause Georg W F Hegel William Whewell Ludwig Feuerbach Søren Kierkegaard Karl Marx Albrecht Ritschl Afrikan Spir 1880 1900 Ernst Haeckel W K Clifford Friedrich Nietzsche Harald Høffding William James Vladimir Solovyov Ernst Troeltsch Rudolf Otto Lev Shestov Sergei Bulgakov Pavel Florensky Ernst Cassirer Joseph Maréchal 1920 postwar George Santayana Bertrand Russell Martin Buber René Guénon Paul Tillich Karl Barth Emil Brunner Rudolf Bultmann Gabriel Marcel Reinhold Niebuhr Charles Hartshorne Mircea Eliade Frithjof Schuon J L Mackie Walter Kaufmann Martin Lings Peter Geach George I Mavrodes William Alston Antony Flew 1970 1990 2010 William L Rowe Dewi Z Phillips Alvin Plantinga Anthony Kenny Nicholas Wolterstorff Richard Swinburne Robert Merrihew Adams Ravi Zacharias Peter van Inwagen Daniel Dennett Loyal Rue Jean-Luc Marion William Lane Craig Ali Akbar Rashad Alexander Pruss Related topics Criticism of religion Desacralization of knowledge Ethics in religion Exegesis History of religion Religion Religious language Religious philosophy Relationship between religion and science Faith and rationality more... Portal Category v t e Theology Conceptions of God Theism Forms Deism Dystheism Henotheism Hermeticism Kathenotheism Nontheism Monolatry Monotheism Mysticism Panentheism Pandeism Pantheism Polydeism Polytheism Spiritualism Theistic finitism Theopanism Concepts Deity Divinity Gender of God and gods Male deity Goddess Numen Singular god theologies By faith Abrahamic religions Baháʼí Faith Judaism Christianity Catholic Islam Buddhism Hinduism Jainism Sikhism Zoroastrianism Concepts Absolute Brahman Emanationism Logos Supreme Being God as the Devil Sustainer Time Trinitarianism Athanasian Creed Comma Johanneum Consubstantiality Homoousian Homoiousian Hypostasis Perichoresis Shield of the Trinity Trinitarian formula Trinity Trinity of the Church Fathers Trinitarian universalism Eschatology Afterlife Apocalypticism Buddhist Christian Heaven Hell Hindu Islamic Jewish Taoist Zoroastrian Feminist Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Judaism Mormonism Goddesses Other concepts The All Aristotelian view Attributes of God in Christianity / in Islam Binitarianism Demiurge Divine simplicity Divine presence Egotheism Exotheology Holocaust Godhead in Christianity Latter Day Saints Great Architect of the Universe Great Spirit Apophatic theology Olelbis Open theism Personal god Phenomenological definition Philo's view Process Tian Unmoved mover Names of God in Christianity Hinduism Islam Jainism Judaism By faith Christian History Outline Biblical canon Glossary Paterology Christology Pneumatology Cosmology Ecclesiology Ethics Hamartiology Messianism Philosophy Practical Sophiology Soteriology Hindu Ayyavazhi theology Krishnology Islamic Oneness of God Prophets Holy Scriptures Angels Predestination Last Judgment Jewish Abrahamic prophecy Aggadah Denominations Kabbalah Philosophy Religion portal v t e Feminist theory Academic fields Anthropology Archaeology Architecture Art Art criticism Film theory Literary criticism Biology Composition studies Criminology Digital humanities Economics FPDA Geography History International relations (Constructivism) Legal theory Pedagogy Philosophy Aesthetics Empiricism Epistemology Ethics Existentialism Metaphysics Science Political ecology Political theory Postmodernism Psychology Sexology Sociology Technoscience Theology Womanist Asian Feminism portal Related subjects Ecofeminism Feminist method Hegemonic masculinity Women's history Women's studies Feminist theorists Elizabeth Anderson Karen Barad Simone de Beauvoir Wendy Brown Nancy Bauer Judith Butler Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw Hélène Cixous Alice Crary Andrea Dworkin Cynthia Enloe Martha Fineman Nancy Fraser Germaine Greer Donna Haraway Sandra Harding Patricia Hill Collins bell hooks Luce Irigaray Julia Kristeva Catharine MacKinnon Martha Nussbaum Val Plumwood Diana E. H. Russell Dorothy E. Smith Marilyn Waring Lists Women's studies journals v t e Feminism History General Timeline First-wave Second-wave timeline Third-wave Fourth-wave Social Bicycling and feminism Feminist history Women's history Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting) Women's suffrage Timeline Australia Canada Japan Kuwait Majority-Muslim countries New Zealand Switzerland United Kingdom Wales United States Timeline African-American States of Utah Virginia Wyoming Variants General Analytical Anarchist Anti-abortion Atheist Carceral Conservative Cultural Cyber HCI Difference Eco Vegetarian Equality Ethnic/Racial Black Chicana Gypsy Indigenous Kurdish (Jineology) Native American White Eugenic Fat Global Hip-hop Activism Individualist Labor Lesbian Liberal Equity Lipstick Materialist Maternal Neo New Post Postcolonial Postmodern Post-structural French Radical Separatism Sex-positive Social Socialist Marxist Standpoint State Postcolonial Trans Transnational Victim Womanism Africana Religious Buddhist Christian Asian Womanist Islamic Jewish Mizrahi Orthodox Neopagan Dianic Wicca Reclaiming Mormon Sikh Concepts Feminist literature Children's literature Embedded feminism Female education Femicide Feminism and equality Feminism and media Feminist businesses Feminist effects on society Feminism in culture Feminist movement Art movement Feminist stripper Feminist theory Gender equality Girl power Language reform Male gaze Matriarchal religion Men in feminism Misogyny Networked feminism Opposition to feminism Political lesbianism Pro-feminism Protofeminism Purplewashing Reproductive justice Second-generation gender bias Sexual harassment Social housekeeping Straw Transgender and transsexual Triple oppression Views on BDSM Views on pornography Views on prostitution War on women Women's health Women's rights Theory Gender studies Gender mainstreaming Gynocentrism Matriarchy Women's studies Men's studies Kyriarchy Patriarchy Écriture féminine Economics Post-structuralist discourse analysis Method Oedipus complex Political theory Theology Thealogy Womanist Sexology Sociology Rhetoric Legal theory Art Art criticism Literary criticism Film theory Biology Political ecology Architecture Anthropology Archaeology Criminology Pathways perspective Geography Pedagogy Philosophy Aesthetics Empiricism Epistemology Ethics Justice ethics Existentialism Metaphysics Science Pornography Psychology Seriality International relations Existentialism Revisionist mythology Technoscience Science fiction Composition studies By country Australia Bangladesh Canada China Denmark Egypt France Germany Greece Hong Kong India Indonesia Republic of Ireland Israel Italy Japan Latin America Argentina Brazil Chile Haiti Mexico Malaysia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Norway Pakistan Poland Russia Syria South Africa South Korea Sweden Taiwan Thailand Trinidad and Tobago Vietnam Ukraine United Kingdom United States Lists People Art critics Ecofeminist authors Economists Jewish Muslim Philosophers Poets Rhetoricians Suffragists and suffragettes Women's rights activists Other Conservative feminisms Literature American Comic books Parties Women's studies journals Category Index Portal v t e Religion in politics General concepts Anti-clericalism Anticlericalism and Freemasonry Caesaropapism Clericalism Clerical fascism Confessionalism Divine rule Engaged Spirituality Feminist theology Thealogy Womanist theology Identity politics Political religion Religious anarchism Religious anti-Masonry Religious anti-Zionism Religious communism Religious humanism Religious law Religious nationalism Religious pacifism Religion and peacebuilding Religious police Religious rejection of politics Religious segregation Religious separatism Religious socialism Religious views on same-sex marriage Secularism Secular religion Separation of church and state Spiritual left State atheism State religion Theocracy Theonomy Christianity and politics Blaine Amendment Christian anarchism Christian anti-communism Christian anti-Masonry Papal ban Christian anti-Zionism Christian communism Christian corporatism Christian democracy Christian egalitarianism Christian environmentalism Evangelical environmentalism Christian fascism German Christians (movement) National Catholicism Positive Christianity Protestant Reich Church Christian feminism Mormon feminism Christian humanism Christian law Christian left Evangelical left Christian libertarianism Christian pacifism Christian peacemaking Christian reconstructionism Christian republic Christian right Christian socialism In Utah Christian state Christian Zionism Cisalpinism Dominion Theology Febronianism Gallicanism Liberation theology Papal state Pillarisation Political Catholicism Relations between the Catholic Church and the state In Argentina Sphere sovereignty Subsidiarity Temporal power Theodemocracy Ultramontanism Neo-ultramontanism Islam and politics Hui pan-nationalism Human Rights in Islam Imamate Islamic anarchism Islamic anti-Masonry Islamic anti-Zionism Islamic democracy Islamic fascism Islamic feminism Sharia law by country Islamic nationalism In Pakistan In South Asia Islamic pacifism Islamic republic Islamic socialism Islamic state Islamic Zionism Islamism Criticism Islamization Khilafat Petro-Islam Political quietism Taliban Talibanization Two-nation theory Judaism and politics Halachic state Jewish anarchism Jewish anti-Zionism Haredim Jewish Autonomism Jewish democracy Jewish fascism Kahanism Revisionist Maximalism Jewish feminism Jewish law Jewish left Jewish pacifism Jewish political movements Jewish right Jewish secularism Jewish socialism Bundism Humanistic Judaism Poale Zion Religious Zionism World Agudath Israel Hinduism and politics Akhand Bharat Hindu feminism Gandhism Hindu law Hindu modernism Hindu nationalism Hindutva Hindu Rashtra Panun Kashmir Bangabhumi Hindu revolution Hindu revivalism Hindu environmentalism Integral humanism Indigenous Aryans Rama Rajya Saffronisation Shuddhi Uniform civil code Buddhism and politics Buddhists anti-communism Buddhist feminism Buddhist law Buddhist modernism Buddhist nationalism 969 Movement Nichirenism Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism Buddhist socialism Engaged Buddhism Humanistic Buddhism Secular Buddhism Other American civil religion Imperial cult Ancient Rome Gottgläubig Khalistan movement Neopaganist feminism Religious aspects of Nazism Creativity (religion) Personality cult State Shinto Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feminist_theology&oldid=997866502" Categories: Feminist theology Feminist theory Feminism and spirituality Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 16:49 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement