Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi - Wikipedia Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi Jean Charles de Sismondi Born Jean Charles Léonard Simonde (1773-05-09)9 May 1773 Geneva, Republic of Geneva Died 25 June 1842(1842-06-25) (aged 69) Chêne-Bougeries, Canton of Geneva, Swiss Confederation Nationality Genevan, and Swiss since 1815 Field Political economy School or tradition Classical economics Influences Adam Ferguson, Jean-Louis de Lolme, Niccolo Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Adam Smith Contributions Theory of periodic crises Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi (also known as Jean Charles Leonard Simonde de Sismondi) (French: [ʒɑ̃ ʃaʁl leɔnaʁ də sismɔ̃di]; 9 May 1773 – 25 June 1842),[1] whose real name was Simonde, was a historian and political economist, who is best known for his works on French and Italian history, and his economic ideas. His Nouveaux principes d'économie politique, ou de la richesse dans ses rapports avec la population (1819) represents the first liberal critique of laissez-faire economics.[2][3] He was one of the pioneering advocates of unemployment insurance, sickness benefits, a progressive tax, regulation of working hours, and a pension scheme.[4][5] He was also the first to coin the term proletariat to refer to the working class created under capitalism,[4][6] and his discussion of mieux value anticipates the Marxist concept of surplus value.[7][8] According to Gareth Stedman Jones, "much of what Sismondi wrote became part of the standard repertoire of socialist criticism of modern industry."[9][better source needed] Contents 1 Early life 2 Economic thought 3 Italian history 4 French history 5 Later life 6 Other works 7 Historiographical position and political stance 8 Main publications 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Early life[edit] His paternal family seem to have borne the name Simonde, at least from the time when they migrated from Dauphiné to Switzerland at the revocation of the edict of Nantes. It was not till after Sismondi had become an author that, observing the identity of his family arms with those of the once flourishing Pisan house of the Sismondi and finding that some members of that house had migrated to France, he assumed the connection without further proof and called himself Sismondi.[10] The Simondes, however, were themselves citizens of Geneva of the upper class, and possessed both rank and property, though the father was also a village pastor.[10] His uncle by marriage was the prominent pastor Jacob Vernes, a friend of Voltaire and Rousseau.[11] The future historian was well educated, but his family wished him to devote himself to commerce rather than literature, and he became a banker's clerk in Lyon. Then the Revolution broke out, and as it affected Geneva, the Simonde family took refuge in England where they stayed for eighteen months (1793–1794). Disliking—it is said—the climate, they returned to Geneva, but found the state of affairs still unfavourable; there is even a legend that the head of the family was reduced to selling milk himself in the town. The greater part of the family property was sold, and with the proceeds they emigrated to Italy, bought a small farm in Pescia near Lucca and Pistoia, and set to work to cultivate it themselves.[10] Sismondi worked hard there, with both his hands and mind, and his experiences gave him the material of his first book, Tableau de l'agriculture toscane, which, after returning to Geneva, he published there in 1801.[10] At a young age, Sismondi had read The Wealth of Nations and became strongly attached to Smith's theories. He apparently published his first work on the subject of political economy, De la richesse commerciale ou principes de l'economie politique appliqué à la legislation du commerce (1803) to explain and popularize Smith's doctrine, but following this Sismondi spent a considerable amount of time dedicated to historical research. He again turned his attention to political economy around 1818 when he was commissioned to write an entry on "Political Economy" for the Edinburgh Encyclopædia. This was just following a serious economic downturn after the outbreak of the first major crisis in 1815.[12] Economic thought[edit] Part of a series on Liberalism History Age of Enlightenment List of liberal theorists (contributions to liberal theory) Ideas Civil and political rights Cultural liberalism Democracy Democratic capitalism Economic freedom Economic liberalism Egalitarianism Free market Free trade Freedom of the press Freedom of religion Freedom of speech Gender equality Harm principle Internationalism Laissez-faire Liberty Market economy Natural and legal rights Negative/positive liberty Non-aggression Principle Open society Permissive society Private property Rule of law Secularism Separation of church and state Social contract Welfare state Schools of thought Anarcho-capitalism Classical liberalism Radical liberalism Left-libertarianism Geolibertarianism Right-libertarianism Conservative liberalism Democratic liberalism Green liberalism Liberal autocracy Liberal Catholicism Liberal conservatism Liberal feminism Equity feminism Liberal internationalism Liberal nationalism Liberal socialism Social democracy Muscular liberalism Neoliberalism National liberalism Ordoliberalism Radical centrism Religious liberalism Christian Islamic Jewish Secular liberalism Social liberalism Technoliberalism Third Way Whiggism People Acton Alain Alberdi Alembert Arnold Aron Badawi Barante Bastiat Bentham Berlin Beveridge Bobbio Brentano Bright Broglie Burke Čapek Cassirer Chicherin Chu Chydenius Clinton Cobden Collingdood Condorcet Constant Croce Cuoco Dahrendorf Decy Dewey Dickens Diderot Dongsun Dunoyer Dworkin Einaudi Emerson Eötvös Flach Friedman Galbraith Garrison George Gladstone Gobetti Gomes Gray Green Gu Guizot Hayek Herbert Hobbes Hobhouse Hobson Holbach Hu Humboldt Jefferson Jubani Kant Kelsen Kemal Keynes Korais Korwin-Mikke Kymlicka Lamartine Larra Lecky Li Lincoln Locke Lufti Macaulay Madariaga Madison Martineau Masani Michelet Mill (father) Mill (son) Milton Mises Molteno Mommsen Money Montalembert Montesquieu Mora Mouffe Naoroji Naumann Nozick Nussbaum Obama Ohlin Ortega Paine Paton Popper Price Priestley Prieto Quesnay Qin Ramírez Rathenau Rawls Raz Renan Renouvier Renzi Ricardo Röpke Rorthy Rosmini Rosselli Rousseau Ruggiero Sarmiento Say Sen Earl of Shaftesbury Shklar Sidney Sieyès Şinasi Sismondi Smith Soto Polar Spencer Spinoza Staël Sumner Tahtawi Tao Thierry Thorbecke Thoreau Tocqueville Tracy Troeltsch Turgot Villemain Voltaire Ward Weber Wollstonecraft Zambrano Organizations Africa Liberal Network Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party Arab Liberal Federation Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats European Democratic Party European Liberal Youth European Party for Individual Liberty International Alliance of Libertarian Parties International Federation of Liberal Youth Liberal International Liberal Network for Latin America Liberal parties Liberal South East European Network Regional variants Europe Latin America Albania Armenia Australia Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Chile Colombia Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech lands Denmark Ecuador Egypt Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Iran Israel Italy Japan Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Mexico Moldova Montenegro Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Nigeria Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Senegal Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain South Africa South Korea Sweden Switzerland Thailand Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom United States Arizona School Classical Modern Uruguay Venezuela Zimbabwe Related topics Bias in academia Bias in the media  Liberalism portal  Politics portal v t e Title page of Nouveaux principes d'économie politique As an economist, Sismondi represented a humanitarian protest against the dominant orthodoxy of his time. In his 1803 book, he followed Adam Smith; but in his principal subsequent economic work, Nouveaux principes d'économie politique (1819), he insisted on the fact that economic science studied the means of increasing wealth too much, and the use of wealth for producing happiness, too little.[10] For the science of economics, his most important contribution was probably his discovery of economic cycles. In refutation of other thinkers at the time (notably J. B. Say and David Ricardo), Sismondi challenged the idea that economic equilibrium leading to full employment would be immediately and spontaneously achieved. He wrote, "Let us beware of this dangerous theory of equilibrium which is supposed to be automatically established. A certain kind of equilibrium, it is true, is reestablished in the long run, but it is after a frightful amount of suffering."[13] While he was not a socialist, in protesting against laissez faire and invoking the state "to regulate the progress of wealth"[10] he was an interesting precursor of the German Historical school of economics.[10] Focuses of his work are central to the idea of taking particular economic situations and analyzing them in the situational setting of history from which one is drawing data or insight. Sismondi is known for the study of economic crises rooting from “the social ramifications of the economic system rather than on its structure.” His interpretations put him before Marx, in semi-defining the bourgeoisie and proletariat division in society. Key to his philosophy, Sismondi saw these class divisions to coincide with crises in the economy and didn't see extreme social reform as the answer, but rather moderate versions that allowed for technological advances to be slowed for the economy to catch up, via limiting production and the limitation of what he referred to as “the prevailing glorification of free competition”, all while, most importantly, allowing individuals to retain private property and any revenues generated from it. His theory may more precisely be classed as one of periodic crises, rather than cycles per se. and as such is the earliest theorist of systemic Crisis theory. His theory was adapted by Charles Dunoyer, who introduces the notion of cycling between two phases, thus giving a modern form of economic cycle.[14] As important was his role as an economist; Sismondi was renowned as a historian. He commonly applied economic thought and historical settings to explain the irrationality of past economic events. Sismondi also contributed a great deal to economics with his thoughts on aggregate demand. Observing the capitalist industrial system in England, Sismondi saw that unchecked competition both resulted in producers all increasing individual production (because of lack of knowledge of other producers' production) this was then seen as forcing employers to cut prices, which they did by sacrificing workers' wages. This yielded overproduction and underconsumption; with most of England's workforce suffering from depressed wages, workers were then unable to afford the goods they had produced, and underconsumption of goods then followed. Sismondi believed that by increasing the wages of laborers they would have more buying power, be able to buy the national output and thus increase demand. In his book On Classical Economics, Thomas Sowell devotes a chapter to Sismondi, arguing that he was a neglected pioneer.[15] Italian history[edit] Meanwhile, he began to compile his great Histoire des républiques italiennes du Moyen Âge, and was introduced to Madame de Staël. He became part of her Coppet group, he was invited or commanded—for Madame de Stael was of chief political importance—to form one of the suite with which the future Corinne made the journey to Italy, which contributed to Corinne itself during the years 1804–1805. Sismondi was not altogether at ease here, and he particularly disliked Schlegel who was also a participant. But during this journey he met the Countess of Albany, widow of Charles Edward, who all her life was gifted with a singular ability to attract the affection of men of letters. Sismondi's platonic relationship with her was close and lasted long, and they produced much valuable and interesting correspondence.[10] In 1807 appeared the first volumes of the above-mentioned book about the Italian republics, which, though his essay in political economy had brought him some reputation and the offer of a Russian professorship, first made Sismondi a prominent man among European men of letters. The completion of this book, which extended to sixteen volumes, occupied him, though by no means entirely, for the next eleven years. He lived at first in Geneva where he delivered some interesting lectures about the literature of southern Europe, which were continued from time to time and finally published. He held an official position: secretary of the chamber of commerce for the then department of Leman.[10] French history[edit] Sismondi lived in Paris from 1813 until the Restoration, supporting Napoleon Bonaparte and meeting him once. Upon completing his book on Italian history, in 1818 he began his Histoire des Français, published in 29 volumes over 23 years. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "His untiring industry enabled him to compile many other books, but it is on these two that his fame mainly rests. The former displays his qualities in the most favourable light, and has been least injuriously affected by subsequent writings and investigations. But the latter, as a careful and accurate sketch on a grand scale, has now been superseded. Sainte-Beuve has, with benevolent sarcasm, surnamed the author "the Rollin of French History," and the praise and the blame implied in the comparison are both perfectly well deserved".[10] Later life[edit] In April 1819 Sismondi married[10] a Welshwoman, Jessie Allen (1777–1853), whose sister, Catherine Allen, was the wife of Sir James Mackintosh and another sister, Elizabeth Allen, was the wife of Josiah Wedgwood II and mother of Emma Wedgwood.[citation needed] This marriage appears to have been a very happy one.[10] In 1826 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.[citation needed] After spending the last years of his life in Geneva preparing new editions of his writings, finishing his study of the French, and serving as a member of the Geneva Assembly, speaking for freedom with order, he died in 1842 of stomach cancer.[1] Other works[edit] De la richesse commerciale, 1803 Besides the works mentioned above Sismondi produced many others, never working less than eight hours a day for many years. The most important ones are: Littérature du midi de l'Europe [Literature of Southern Europe] (1813),[16] a historical novel entitled Julia Severa ou l'an 492 (1822), Histoire de la renaissance de la liberté en Italie (1832), Histoire de la chute de l'Empire romain (1835), Précis de l'histoire des Français, an abridgment of his own book (1839), and several others, mainly political pamphlets.[10] Sismondi's journals and his correspondence with Channing, with the countess of Albany and with others have been published mainly by Mlle Mongolfier (Paris, 1843) and M. de Saint-René Taillandier (Paris, 1863). The latter work serves as the main text of two admirable Lundis of Sainte-Beuve (September 1863), republished in the Nouveaux Lundis, vol. VI.[10] Historiographical position and political stance[edit] He was a historian whose economic ideas passed through different phases. The acceptance of free trade principles in De la richesse commerciale was abandoned in favour of a critical posture towards free trade and industrialisation. Nouveaux principes d'économie politique attacked wealth accumulation both as an end in itself, and for its detrimental effect on the poor. He indicated contradictions of capitalism. He criticized the harsh conditions endured by the workers from the standpoint of a liberal republican.[9] He was also a passionate opponent of slavery.[4] Adolphe Blanqui said of him: "No writer has shown a sympathy more notable and more touching for the working classes."[17] Jean-Baptiste Say referred to Sismondi as "that enlightened author, ingenious, eloquent and selfless."[18] His critique was noticed by Malthus, David Ricardo and J. S. Mill, who called his writing "sprightly, and frequently eloquent."[5] While a young man at Edinburgh, Thomas Carlyle translated Sismondi's article on "Political Economy" for David Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia.[4] Sismondi subsequently influenced Carlyle's views on "the dismal science."[19] Sismondi's Italian histories were read and esteemed by Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Stendhal.[5][20] Sismondi influenced many major socialist thinkers including Karl Marx, Rosa Luxemburg, and Robert Owen. Marx thought Sismondi embodied the critique of the "bourgeois science of economics."[21] In his notes, Marx excerpted various aspects of his analysis. Marx was particularly fond of Sismondi's statement that "The Roman proletariat lived almost exclusively at the expense of society. One could almost say that modern society lives at the expense of the proletariat, from the share which it deducts from the reward of his labor."[21] Henryk Grossman argued that Sismondi was a significant methodological and theoretical predecessor of Marx, particularly by identifying the contradiction between use-value and exchange-value as fundamental to capitalism.[22] In 1897,Vladimir Lenin wrote an article refuting Sismondi's work. Lenin said," The contributor to Russkoye Bogatstvo states at the very outset that no writer has been "so wrongly appraised" as Sismondi, who, he alleges, has been "unjustly" represented, now as a reactionary, then as a utopian. The very opposite is true. Precisely this appraisal of Sismondi is quite correct.[23] In 1913, Rosa Luxemburg wrote a critique of Sismondi in The Accumulation of Capital.[24] Main publications[edit] Tableau de l'agriculture toscane (1801) De la richesse commerciale (1803) The History of the Italian Republics in the Middle Ages (Histoire des républiques italiennes du Moyen Âge) (16 vols.) (1807–18). His most important historical work, on Italy's republican past, which became an inspiration to 19th-century Italian nationalists. De l'intérêt de la France à l'égard de la traite des nègres (1814) Examen de la Constitution française (1815) Political Economy (1815) Nouveaux principes d'économie politique, ou de la richesse dans ses rapports avec la population (1819) Histoire des Français (1821–1844) Les colonies des anciens comparées à celles des modernes (1837) Études de sciences sociales (1837) Études sur l'économie politique (1837) Précis de l'histoire des Français (1839) Fragments de son journal et correspondance (1857) References[edit] ^ a b "Jean Charles Léonard Simonde de Sismondi". Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2004. Retrieved 21 July 2016. ^ Stewart, Ross E. (1984). "Sismondi's Forgotten Ethical Critique of Early Capitalism". Journal of Business Ethics. 3 (3): 227–234. doi:10.1007/BF00382924. S2CID 154967384. ^ Spiegel, Henry William (1991). The Growth of Economic Thought. Duke University Press. pp. 302–303. ^ a b c d Ekins, Paul; Max-Neef, Manfred (2006). Real Life Economics. Routledge. pp. 91–93. ^ a b c Murray, Christopher John (2004). Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760-1850, Volume 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1054–1055. ^ Ekelund Jr, Robert B.; Hébert, Robert F. (2006). A History of Economic Theory and Method: Fifth Edition. Waveland Press. p. 226. ^ Lutz, Mark A. (2002). Economics for the Common Good: Two Centuries of Economic Thought in the Humanist Tradition. Routledge. pp. 55–57. ^ McCracken, Harlan Linneus (2001). Value Theory and Business Cycles. Minerva Group. p. 22. ^ a b Stedman Jones, Gareth (2006). "Saint-Simon and the Liberal origins of the Socialist critique of Political Economy". In Aprile, Sylvie; Bensimon, Fabrice (eds.). La France et l'Angleterre au XIXe siècle. Échanges, représentations, comparaisons. Créaphis. pp. 21–47. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard de". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ^ Charles Dardier (1876). Ésaĭe Gasc, citoyen de Genève: sa politique et sa théologie, Genève – Constance – Montauban 1748–1813. Sandoz et Fischbacher. p. 54. ^ "An Introduction to the Study of Crisis by Kuruma Samezō 1929". ^ Simonde de Sismondi, New Principles of Political Economy, vol. 1 (1819), 20–21. ^ Charles Dunoyer and the Emergence of the Idea of an Economic Cycle, Rabah Benkemoune, History of Political Economy 2009 41(2):271–295; doi:10.1215/00182702-2009-003 ^ Sismondi: A Neglected Pioneer, History of Political Economy 1972 4(1): 62–88; doi:10.1215/00182702-4-1-62 ^ "Review of New Books". The Literary Chronicle (219): 465. 26 July 1825. Retrieved 22 June 2013. [...] Sismondi divides modern literature into two branches, which he makes the subjects of two dissertations: one on the Romance, the other on the Teutonic languages. The former embraces Arabian literature, the Provençals, the Troubadours, Italian and Spanish literature, &c. The second comprises the literature of England, Germany, and other Teutonic nations. ^ Lovell, David W. (2015). Marx's Proletariat (RLE Marxism): The Making of a Myth. Routledge. p. 75. ^ Say, Jean-Baptiste (1828). Cours Complet d'Economie Politique Pratique, chap. XVIII. ^ Dixon, Robert (2006). "Carlyle, Malthus and Sismondi: The Origins of Carlyle's Dismal View of Political Economy". History of Economics Review. 44 (1): 32–38. doi:10.1080/18386318.2006.11681227. S2CID 153937328. ^ Strickland, Geoffrey (1974). Stendhal: Education of a Novelist. CUP Archive. p. 271. ^ a b Chattopadhyay, Paresh (2016). Marx's Associated Mode of Production: A Critique of Marxism. Springer. pp. 39–41. ^ Kuhn, Rick (2016). "Sismondi, Marx and Grossman: Method, Contradictions of the Commodity, and Crisis". Marxism. 13 (1): 262–283. doi:10.26587/marx.13.1.201602.009. ^ "Lenin: 1897/econroman: Does the Home Market Shrink Because of the Ruination of the Small Producers?". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 3 December 2019. ^ "Rosa Luxemburg: The Accumulation of Capital (Chap.11)". marxists.catbull.com. Retrieved 3 December 2019. Further reading[edit] Lenin, Vladimir (1972) [1897]. "A Characterisation of Economic Romanticism: Sismondi and Our Native Sismondists". Lenin: Collected Works. 2. Moscow: Progress Publishers. pp. 129–266. OCLC 39312993. Rosenblatt, Helena (2012). "On the need for a Protestant Reformation: Constant, Sismondi, Guizot and Laboulaye". In Geenens, Raf (ed.). French Liberalism from Montesquieu to the Present Day. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–133. Rosenblatt, Helena (2013). "Sismondi, from Republicanism to Liberal Protestantism". In Kapossy, Béla (ed.). Modern Republicanism and Critical Liberalism. Slatkine. pp. 123–143. Vincent, K. Steven (2013). "The Liberalism of Sismondi and Constant". The European Legacy. 18 (7): 912–916. doi:10.1080/10848770.2013.839497. Henryk Grossman [2017] Simonde de Sismondi and His Economic Theories (A New Interpretation of His Thought) orig. in French [1924] Warsaw, English translation in Henryk Grossman [2017] Capitalism’s Contradictions: Studies in Economic Theory before and after Marx Ed. Rick Kuhn (Trans. Birchall, Kuhn, O’Callaghan) Haymarket, Chicago. Mazzei, Umberto (2018). Sismondi, précurseur ignoré de Marx, Slatkine, Genève. Mazzei, Umberto. "The reflection of Sismondi on Marx". External links[edit] Works by Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi at Internet Archive v t e Classical economists Francis Hutcheson Bernard Mandeville David Hume Adam Smith Jean-Baptiste Say Thomas Malthus James Mill Francis Place David Ricardo Henry Thornton John Ramsay McCulloch James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale Jeremy Bentham Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi Johann Heinrich von Thünen John Stuart Mill Nassau William Senior Edward Gibbon Wakefield Frédéric Bastiat Thomas Tooke Robert Torrens v t e Schools of economic thought Pre-modern Ancient schools Medieval Islamic Scholasticism Modern era Early modern Cameralism Mercantilism Physiocrats School of Salamanca Late modern American (National) Anarchist Mutualism Austrian Birmingham Classical Ricardian English historical French Liberal Georgism German historical Malthusian Marginalism Marxian Neoclassical Lausanne Socialist Contemporary (20th and 21st centuries) Behavioral Buddhist Capability approach Carnegie Chartalism Modern Monetary Theory Chicago Constitutional Disequilibrium Ecological Evolutionary Feminist Freiburg Institutional Keynesian Neo- (neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis) New Post- Circuitism Monetarism (Market) Neo-Malthusian Neo-Marxian Neo-Ricardian Neoliberalism New classical Rational expectations theory Real business-cycle theory New institutional New neoclassical synthesis Organizational Public choice Regulation Saltwater/freshwater Stockholm Structuralist Supply-side Thermoeconomics Virginia Social credit Related History of economic thought History of macroeconomic thought Economics Political economy Mainstream economics Heterodox economics Post-autistic economics Degrowth World-systems theory Economic systems Authority control BIBSYS: 90758750 BNE: XX1018845 BNF: cb11924947c (data) Botanist: Sism. CANTIC: a10157712 CiNii: DA01985203 GND: 118797336 HDS: 016007 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\003346 ISNI: 0000 0001 2321 3330 LCCN: n79100240 NDL: 00526212 NKC: jcu2010607831 NLA: 35500616 NLI: 000123263 NLP: A12104061 NTA: 06861327X PLWABN: 9810701054205606 RERO: 02-A000150472 SELIBR: 358568 SNAC: w6zw3c22 SUDOC: 02714061X Trove: 975809 VcBA: 495/10890 VIAF: 95159682 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79100240 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Charles_Léonard_de_Sismondi&oldid=989668725" Categories: 1773 births 1842 deaths 18th century in Geneva Economists from the Republic of Geneva Genevan scholars People from Geneva Swiss historians Swiss male writers Swiss economists Swiss Protestants Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 19th-century Swiss writers 19th-century economists 19th-century historians 19th-century male writers Coppet group Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Use dmy dates from February 2014 Articles with hCards All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from September 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015 Articles containing French-language text Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with Botanist identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Deutsch Español Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית Қазақша Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 November 2020, at 09:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement