Hindu philosophy - Wikipedia Hindu philosophy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Various systems of thought in Hinduism Part of a series on Hindu philosophy Orthodox Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaisheshika Mimamsa Vedanta Heterodox Charvaka Ājīvika Buddhism Jainism Sub-schools Smartist Advaita Vaishnavite Vishishtadvaita Dvaita Bhedabheda Dvaitadvaita Achintya Bheda Abheda Shuddhadvaita Akshar-Purushottam Darshan Shaivite Shaiva Siddhanta Pratyabhijña Panchartika Pramanavada Shakti Vishishtadvaita Trika Shiva Bhedabeda Shivadvaita Teachers (Acharyas) Nyaya Akṣapāda Gotama Jayanta Bhatta Raghunatha Siromani Mīmāṃsā Jaimini Kumārila Bhaṭṭa Prabhākara Advaita Adi Shankara Vishishtadvaita Ramanuja Dvaita Madhva Achintyabhedabhed Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Dvaitadvait Nimbarka Shuddhadvaita Vallabha Akshar-Purushottam Darshan Swaminarayan Tantra Shakta Abhinavagupta Nigamananda Paramahansa Ramprasad Sen Bamakhepa Kamalakanta Bhattacharya Anandamayi Ma Others Samkhya Kapila Yoga Patanjali Vaisheshika Kanada, Prashastapada Major texts Sruti Smriti Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Upanishads Principal Upanishads Minor Upanishads Other scriptures Bhagavat Gita Agama (Hinduism) Vachanamrut Shastras and Sutras Brahma Sutras Samkhya Sutras Mimamsa Sutras Nyāya Sūtras Vaiśeṣika Sūtra Yoga Sutras Pramana Sutras Puranas Dharma Shastra Artha Śastra Kamasutra Naalayira Divya Prabhandham Tirumurai Shiva Samhita Hinduism Other Indian philosophies v t e Part of a series on Philosophy Plato Kant Nietzsche Buddha Confucius Averroes Branches Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Legal philosophy Logic Metaphysics Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind Philosophy of science Political philosophy Social philosophy Periods Ancient Pre-Socratic Hellenistic Medieval Modern Early modern Late modern Contemporary Traditions Analytic Neopositivism Ordinary language Continental Existentialism Phenomenology Pragmatism Skepticism Traditions by region African Eastern Chinese Indian Middle-Eastern Egyptian Iranian Western Traditions by school Aristotelian Augustinian Averroist Avicennist Hegelian Kantian Occamist Platonist Neoplatonist Scotist Thomist Traditions by religion Buddhist Christian Humanist Hindu Jain Jewish Judeo-Islamic Islamic Early Islamic Illuminationist Sufi Literature Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Philosophers Aestheticians Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Social and political philosophers Lists Index Outline Years Problems Publications Theories Glossary Philosophers Miscellaneous Philosopher Wisdom Women in philosophy  Philosophy portal v t e Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings[1] that emerged in ancient India. These include six systems (shad-darśana) – Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[2] In Indian tradition, the word used for philosophy is Darshana. This word comes from the Sanskrit root drish (to see, to experience).[3] These are also called the Astika (theistic) philosophical traditions and are those that accept the Vedas as an authoritative, important source of knowledge.[4][note 1][note 2] Ancient and medieval India was also the source of philosophies that share philosophical concepts but rejected the Vedas, and these have been called nāstika (heterodox or non-orthodox) Indian philosophies.[2][4] Nāstika Indian philosophies include Buddhism, Jainism, Cārvāka, Ājīvika, and others.[7] Western scholars have debated the relationship and differences within āstika philosophies and with nāstika philosophies, starting with the writings of Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries, which were themselves derived from limited availability of Indian literature and medieval doxographies.[2] The various sibling traditions included in Hindu philosophies are diverse, and they are united by shared history and concepts, same textual resources, similar ontological and soteriological focus, and cosmology.[8][9] While Buddhism and Jainism are considered distinct philosophies and religions, some heterodox traditions such as Cārvāka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy.[10][11][12] Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies, such as the realism of the Nyāya, the naturalism of the Vaiśeṣika, the dualism of the Sāṅkhya, the non-dualism and knowledge of Self as essential to liberation of Advaita, the self-discipline of yoga and the asceticism and elements of theistic ideas.[13][14][15] Examples of such schools include Pāśupata Śaiva, Śaiva siddhānta, Pratyabhijña, Raseśvara and Vaiṣṇava.[13][14] Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.[16] The ideas of these sub-schools are found in the Puranas and Āgamas.[17][18][19] Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called pramāṇaśāstras,[20][21] as well as theories on metaphysics, axiology, and other topics.[22] Contents 1 Classifications 1.1 Āstika 1.2 Nāstika 1.3 Other schools 2 Characteristics 3 Overview 3.1 Epistemology 4 Sāmkhya 5 Yoga 6 Vaiśeṣika 7 Nyāya 8 Mīmāṃsā 9 Vedānta 9.1 Advaita 9.2 Viśiṣṭādvaita 9.3 Dvaita 9.4 Dvaitādvaita (Bhedabheda) 9.5 Śuddhādvaita 9.6 Acintya Bheda Abheda 10 Cārvāka 11 Shaivism 11.1 Pāśupata Shaivism 11.2 Shaiva Siddhanta 11.3 Kashmir Shaivism 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 Bibliography 16 Further reading 17 External links Classifications[edit] Further information: Āstika and nāstika In the history of Hinduism, the six orthodox schools had emerged before the start of the Common Era, and some schools emerged possibly even before the Buddha [23] Some scholars have questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Hindu philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views.[24] Since ancient times Indian philosophy has been categorized into āstika and nāstika schools of thought.[25] The orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy have been called ṣaḍdarśana ("six systems"). This schema was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins.[26]:2–3 It was then adopted by the early Western Indologists, and pervades modern understandings of Hindu philosophy.[26]:4–5 Āstika[edit] There are six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought.[note 3] Each is called a darśana, and each darśana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each astika darsana also accepts the premise that Atman (soul, eternal self) exists.[4][27] The āstika schools of philosophy are: Samkhya - An atheistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter. Yoga - A school which emerged from Sankhya and emphasises on practical use of Sankhya theory. This schools focuses on meditation, contemplation and liberation. Nyāya or logic - The school of epistemology which explores sources of knowledge. Vaiśeṣika - An empiricist school of atomism. Mīmāṃsā - An anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy. This school deals with the correct interpretation of the verses in Vedas. Vedānta - The last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or jñānakāṇḍa (section of knowledge). Vedanta is also referred as Uttara-Mimamsa. Vedānta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period. Nāstika[edit] See also: Buddhist philosophy and Jain philosophy Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four nāstika (heterodox) schools are prominent:[7] Cārvāka, a materialism school that accepted the existence of free will.[28][29] Ājīvika, a materialism school that denied the existence of free will.[30][31] Buddhism, a philosophy that denies existence of ātman (soul, self)[32] and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of Gautama Buddha. Jainism, a philosophy that accepts the existence of the ātman (soul, self), and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of twenty-four teachers known as tirthankaras, with Rishabha as the first and Mahavira as the twenty-fourth.[33] Other schools[edit] Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar Vidyaranya (1238–1317 CE)[citation needed], in his book 'Sarva-Darshana-Samgraha', includes the following, along with Buddhism[34] and Jainism,[35] as sub-schools of Hindu philosophy: Pashupata Shaivism, developed by Nakulisa[36] Shaiva Siddhanta, the theistic Sankhya school[37][38] Pratyabhijña, the recognitive school of Kashmir Shaivism, Trika[39][40] Raseśvara, a Shaiva school that advocated the use of mercury to reach immortality[41] The Ramanuja school[42] The Pūrṇaprājña (Madhvācārya) school[43] The Pāṇinīya[44] The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas.[13] Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.[16] Characteristics[edit] School Samkhya Yoga Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Mīmāṃsā Advaita Vedanta[N 1] Vishishtadvaita Vedanta[N 1] Dvaita Vedanta[N 1] Achintya Bheda Abheda Pashupata Shaiva Siddhanta Kashmir Shaivism Raseśvara Pāṇini Darśana Akshar-Purushottam Darśana Classification rationalism,[45][46] dualism, dualism, spiritual practice realism,[47] logic, analytic philosophy naturalism,[48] atomism exegesis, philology, ritualism non-dualism, pantheism qualified non-dualism, pantheism dualism, theology simultaneous non-dualism and dualism theism, spiritual practice Monotheism theistic non-dualism, idealism alchemy linguistics, philosophy of language qualified non-dualism, panentheism Philosophers Kapila, Iśvarakṛṣṇa, Vācaspati Miśra, Guṇaratna more.. Patañjali, Yajnavalkya, Vyasa[N 2] Aksapada Gautama, Vātsyāyana, Udayana, Jayanta Bhatta more.. Kanada, Praśastapāda, Śridhara's Nyāyakandalī more.. Jaimini, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa, Prabhākara more.. Gaudapada, Adi Shankara, Madhusudana Saraswati, Vidyaranya more.. Yamunacharya, Ramanuja more.. Madhvacharya, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Raghavendra Swami Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Six Goswamis of Vrindavana, Visvanatha Chakravarti, Krishnadasa Kaviraja, Baladeva Vidyabhushana, Rupa Goswami, more.. Haradattacharya, Lakulish Tirumular, Meikandadevar, Appayya Dikshita, Sadyojyoti, Aghorasiva Vasugupta, Abhinavagupta, Jayaratha Govinda Bhagavat, Sarvajña Rāmeśvara Pāṇini, Bhartṛhari, Kātyāyana Bhagwan Swaminarayan, Shastriji Maharaj, Bhadreshdas Swami Texts Samkhyapravachana Sutra, Samkhyakarika, Sāṁkhya tattvakaumudī more.. Yoga Sutras, Yoga Yajnavalkya, Samkhya pravacana bhasya Nyāya Sūtras, Nyāya Bhāṣya, Nyāya Vārttika more.. Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, Padārtha dharma saṁgraha, Daśapadārtha śāstra more.. Purva Mimamsa Sutras, Mimamsasutra bhāshyam more.. Brahma Sutras, Prasthanatrayi, Avadhuta Gita, Ashtavakra Gita, Pañcadaśī more.. Siddhitrayam, Sri Bhasya, Vedartha Sangraha AnuVyakhana, Brahma Sutra Bahshya, Sarva Shāstrārtha Sangraha, Tattva prakashika, Nyaya Sudha, Nyayamruta, Tarka Tandava, DwaitaDyumani Bhagavata Purana, Bhagavad Gita, Sat Sandarbhas, Govinda Bhashya, Chaitanya Charitamrita, Gaṇakārikā, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā, Rāśikara bhāshya Sivagamas, Tirumurais, Meikanda Sastras Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta, Tantraloka Rasārṇava, Rasahṛidaya, Raseśvara siddhānta Vākyapadīya, Mahabhashya, Vārttikakāra Swaminarayan Bhashyam, Swaminarayan-Siddhanta-Sudha Concepts Originated Purusha, Prakṛti, Guṇa, Satkāryavāda Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dhāraṇā, Dhyana, Samadhi Pratyakṣa, Anumāna, Upamāna, Anyathakyati vada, Niḥśreyasa more.. Padārtha, Dravya, Sāmānya, Viśeṣa, Samavāya, Paramāṇu Apauruṣeyātva, Arthāpatti, Anuapalabdhi, Satahprāmāṇya vāda Jivanmukta, Mahāvākyas, Sādhana Chatuṣṭaya, three orders of reality, Vivartavada Hita, Antarvyāpi, Bahuvyāpi more.. Prapacha, Mukti-yogyas, Nitya-samsarins, Tamo-yogyas Sambandha, Abhidheya, Prayojana (Relationship, Process, Ultimate Goal) Pashupati, eight pentads Charya, Mantramārga, Rodha Śakti Citi, Mala, Upaya, Anuttara, Aham, Svatantrya Pārada, three modes of mercury Sphoṭa, Ashtadhyayi Akshar Purushottam Upasana ^ a b c Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita have evolved from an older Vedanta school and all of them accept Upanishads and Brahma Sutras as standard texts. ^ Vyasa wrote a commentary on the Yoga Sutras called Samkhyapravacanabhasya.(Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.) Overview[edit] Epistemology[edit] Main article: Pramana Epistemology is called pramāṇa.[49] It has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. Pramāṇa is a hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge.[49] The focus of pramāṇa is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one doesn't, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.[20] Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six pramāṇas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths: Pratyakṣa - Direct perception Anumāṇa - Inference or indirect perception Upamāṇa - Comparison and analogy Arthāpatti - Postulation, derivation from circumstances Anupalabdi - Non-perception, absence of proof Shabda - Word, testimony of past or present reliable experts[50] Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by the different schools. The schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge.[21] For example, the Cārvāka nāstika philosophy holds that only one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge,[51] the Samkhya school holds that three are (perception, inference and testimony),[51] while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge.[51][52] Sāmkhya[edit] Main article: Samkhya Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism,[53] with origins in the 1st millennium BCE.[54] It is a rationalist school of Indian philosophy,[45] and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies.[55] Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of six pramāṇas as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These were pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and sabda (Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[56][51] Samkhya school espouses dualism between consciousness and matter.[57] It regards the universe as consisting of two realities: Puruṣa (consciousness) and prakriti (matter). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form.[58] This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (awareness, intellect) and ahankara (individualized ego consciousness, “I-maker”). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[58] Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche).[59] Guna, it states, are of three types: Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; Rajas guna is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions.[60] The interplay of these gunas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.[61][62] Samkhya theorises a pluralism of souls (Jeevatmas) who possess consciousness.[63] Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate about its specific view on God. [64][65][66][67] The Samkhya karika, one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to be "three[68] kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them.[69] The text then presents a distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states, From the triad of suffering, arises this inquiry into the means of preventing it. That is useless - if you say so, I say: No, because suffering is not absolute and final. – Verse 1 The Guṇas (qualities) respectively consist in pleasure, pain and dullness, are adapted to manifestation, activity and restraint; mutually domineer, rest on each other, produce each other, consort together, and are reciprocally present. – Verse 12 Goodness is considered to be alleviating and enlightening; foulness, urgent and persisting; darkness, heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they cooperate for a purpose by union of contraries. – Verse 13 There is a general cause, which is diffuse. It operates by means of the three qualities, by mixture, by modification; for different objects are diversified by influence of the several qualities respectively. – Verse 16 Since the assemblage of perceivable objects is for use (by man); Since the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (in man); Since there must be superintendence (within man); Since there must be some entity that enjoys (within man); Since there is a tendency to abstraction (in man), therefore soul is. – Verse 17 — Samkhya karika, [69][70] The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realization of Puruṣa as distinct from Prakriti; this knowledge of the Self is held to end transmigration and lead to absolute freedom (kaivalya).[71] Yoga[edit] Main article: Yoga (philosophy) In Indian philosophy, Yoga is, among other things, the name of one of the six āstika philosophical schools.[72] The Yoga philosophical system aligns closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya school.[73][74] The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of personal god (Ishvara), unlike Samkhya.[75][76][77] The epistemology of the Yoga school, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six prāmaṇas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge:[51] pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda (āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[52][51] The universe is conceptualized as a duality in Yoga school: puruṣa (consciousness) and prakṛti (matter); however, the Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya school.[78] A key text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."[79] Hindu philosophy recognizes many types of Yoga, such as rāja yoga, jñāna yoga,[80] karma yoga, bhakti yoga, tantra yoga, mantra yoga, laya yoga, and hatha yoga.[81] The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school theory that jñāna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha.[73] Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism.[82][83][84] Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realizes the equivalence of Atman (soul, self) and Brahman.[85][86] Vaiśeṣika[edit] Main article: Vaisheshika The Vaiśeṣika philosophy is a naturalist school.[48] It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy.[87] It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), and that one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence.[88] Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school.[88] The Vaiśeṣika darśana is credited to Kaṇāda Kaśyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE.[88][89] The foundational text, the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, opens as follows: Dharma is that from which results the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good. The authoritativeness of the Veda arises from its being an exposition of dharma. The Supreme Good results from knowledge, produced from a particular dharma, of the essence of the Predicables, Substance, Attribute, Action, Genus, Species and Combination, by means of their resemblances and differences. — Vaiśeṣika Sūtra 1.1.1-1.1.4, [90] The Vaiśeṣika school is related to the Nyāya school but features differences in its epistemology, metaphysics and ontology.[91] The epistemology of the Vaiśeṣika school, like Buddhism, accepted only two means to knowledge as reliable – perception and inference.[52][92] The Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas.[52][93] Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, and fire). Each of these four are of two types:[87] atomic (paramāṇu) and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu). A composite, in this philosophy, is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible.[87] The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (commonness), viśeṣa (particularity) and amavāya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).[88][94] Nyāya[edit] Main article: Nyāya The Nyāya school is a realist āstika philosophy.[95][96] The school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.[97][98] The foundational text of the Nyāya school is the Nyāya Sūtras of the first millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE.[99][89] Nyāya epistemology accepts four out of six prāmaṇas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[51][100][50] In its metaphysics, the Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than the others.[95] It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance).[101] Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality.[102] The Nyāya Sūtras begin: Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word – these are the means of right knowledge. Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object and which is determinate, unnameable and non-erratic. Inference is knowledge which is preceded by perception, and is of three kinds: a priori, a posteriori, and commonly seen. Comparison is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known. Word is the instructive assertion of a reliable person. It [knowledge] is of two kinds: that which is seen, and that which is not seen. Soul, body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, suffering and release – are the objects of right knowledge. — Nyāya Sūtras 1.1.3-1.1.9, [103] Mīmāṃsā[edit] Main article: Mīmāṃsā The Mīmāṃsā school emphasized hermeneutics and exegesis.[104][105] It is a form of philosophical realism.[106] Key texts of the Mīmāṃsā school are the Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini.[107][108] The classical Mīmāṃsā school is sometimes referred to as pūrvamīmāṃsā or Karmamīmāṃsā in reference to the first part of the Vedas.[107] The Mīmāṃsā school has several sub-schools defined by epistemology. The Prābhākara subschool of Mīmāṃsā accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[100][50] The Kumārila Bhaṭṭa sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added a sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology: anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).[51] The metaphysics of the Mīmāṃsā school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines, and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the soul is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma.[107][109][110] To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name.[107] The Mīmāṃsākas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic vidhi (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive karya (actions), and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with.[104][107] Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language.[111] While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools,[112] their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also describe, develop and derive.[107] Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā developed and emphasized karmakāṇḍa (the portion of the śruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasized jñānakāṇḍa (the portion of the Vedas which relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).[104] Vedānta[edit] The Vedānta school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE[89][113] and is the most developed and best-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge:[93] pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[52][51][50] All of these have been further categorized by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error.[93] The emergence of Vedanta school represented a period when a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge. These focussed on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. This included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and Brahman, and an emphasis on meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.[114][115] Advaita[edit] Main article: Advaita Vedanta Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism.[116][117] Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness.[118][119] This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE.[118] Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.[120] According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman.[121] Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. Māyā connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal".[122] The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be".[123][124][125] The concept of ātman is of soul within each person, each living being. Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence.[126][127] They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of māyā as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. Jīvanmukti (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as ātman in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.[128][127] Viśiṣṭādvaita[edit] Main article: Vishishtadvaita Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman.[129] Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman. Dvaita[edit] Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy.[130][131] Also called as Tattvavāda and Bimbapratibimbavāda, the Dvaita sub-school was founded by the 13th-century scholar Madhvacharya.[130] The Dvaita Vedanta school believes that God (Vishnu, supreme soul) and the individual souls (jīvātman) exist as independent realities, and these are distinct.[132][133] Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas, espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two separate realities.[130] The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman.[130] Vishnu is the supreme Self, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions.[134] The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.[135] Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta subschool, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being.[136][137] However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent.[133][132] Salvation, in Dvaita, is achievable only through the grace of God Vishnu.[130][138][139] Dvaitādvaita (Bhedabheda)[edit] Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender. Śuddhādvaita[edit] Śuddhādvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531). The founding philosopher was also the guru of the Vallabhā sampradāya ("tradition of Vallabh") or Puṣṭimārga, a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna. Vallabhacharya enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Māyā (which itself is His power) and manifests Himself through the world.[140] That is why Shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’. Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world. The Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary, the physical material world is. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’ (but devoid of bliss) like sparks and fire.[141] Acintya Bheda Abheda[edit] Main article: Achintya Bheda Abheda Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), stated that the soul or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti). He followed the Dvaita concept of Madhvacharya.[142] This philosophy of "inconceivable oneness and difference". Cārvāka[edit] Main article: Charvaka The Cārvāka school is one of the nāstika or "heterodox" philosophies .[143][11][144] It rejects supernaturalism, emphasizes materialism and philosophical skepticism, holding empiricism, perception and conditional inference as the proper source of knowledge[145][146] Cārvāka is an atheistic school of thought.[147] It holds that there is neither afterlife nor rebirth, all existence is mere combination of atoms and substances, feelings and mind are an epiphenomenon, and free will exists.[28][29] Bṛhaspati is sometimes referred to as the founder of Cārvāka (also called Lokayata) philosophy. Much of the primary literature of Carvaka, the Barhaspatya sutras (ca. 600 BCE), however, are missing or lost.[147][148] Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the shastras, sutras and the Indian epic poetry as well as from the texts of Buddhism and from Jain literature.[147][149][150] The Tattvôpaplava-siṁha by the skeptic philosopher Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa has been considered by many scholars to be an unorthodox Cārvāka text.[151] One of the widely studied principles of Cārvāka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and metaphysical truths.[152] In other words, the Cārvāka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.[153] Shaivism[edit] Part of a series on Shaivism Deities Paramashiva (Supreme being) Shiva Sadasiva Bhairava Rudra Virabhadra Shakti Durga Kali Parvati Sati Ganesha Murugan Sastha Shiva forms Others Scriptures and texts Vedas Upanishads (Svetasvatara) Agamas and Tantras Shivasutras Tirumurai Vachanas Philosophy Three Components Pati Pashu Pasam Three bondages Anava Karma Maya 36 Tattvas Yoga Satkaryavada Abhasavada Svatantrya Aham Practices Vibhuti Rudraksha Panchakshara Bilva Maha Shivaratri Yamas-Niyamas Guru-Linga-Jangam Schools Adi Margam Pashupata Kalamukha Kapalika Mantra Margam Saiddhantika Siddhantism Non - Saiddhantika Kashmir Shaivism Pratyabhijna Vama Dakshina Kaula: Trika-Yamala-Kubjika-Netra Others Nath Inchegeri Veerashaiva/Lingayatism Siddharism Sroutaism Aghori Indonesian Scholars Lakulisha Abhinavagupta Vasugupta Utpaladeva Nayanars Meykandar Nirartha Basava Sharana Srikantha Appayya Navnath Related Nandi Tantrism Bhakti Jyotirlinga Shiva Temples v t e Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine.[154] However, the Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE)[155] is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.[156] Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dualist-with-dualist (bhedābheda) perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought—Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).[157] Pāśupata Shaivism[edit] Pāśupata Shaivism (Pāśupata, "of Paśupati") is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools.[158] The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. Paśu in Paśupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or principium), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler.[159] Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of souls to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, soul possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.[160] Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the soul with God through the intellect.[161] Shaiva Siddhanta[edit] Considered normative Tantric Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta[162][163] provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism.[164] Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace).[165] This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the Nayanars.[166] Kashmir Shaivism[edit] Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighth[167] or ninth century CE[168] in Kashmir and made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the end of the twelfth century CE.[169] It is categorised by various scholars as monistic[170] idealism (absolute idealism, theistic monism, realistic idealism,[171] transcendental physicalism or concrete monism[171]). It is a school of Śaivism consisting of Trika and its philosophical articulation Pratyabhijña.[172] Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit or Brahman),[173] in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness.[174] This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world (Śakti) is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness (Chit).[175] Whereas, Advaita holds that Brahman is the reality (pure consciousness) and it is inactive (niṣkriya) and the phenomenal world is an appearance (māyā).[176] The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.[177] See also[edit] Hinduism portal Philosophy portal Āstika and nāstika Buddhism and Hinduism Buddhist philosophy Hindu idealism Pramana Indian philosophy Kashmir Shaivism Metaphilosophy Dharma Asrama Vedas Origin of language Notes[edit] ^ M Chadha (2015), in The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, states that Vedas were knowledge source but interpreted differently by different schools of Hindu philosophy: "The sacred texts of the Hindus, the Vedas, are variously interpreted by the six traditional Hindu philosophical schools. Even within a single school, philosophers disagree on the import of Vedic statements. (...) Hindu intellectual traditions must be understood as standing for the collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection. There is no single, comprehensive philosophical doctrine shared by all intellectual traditions in Hinduism that distinguishes their view from other Indian religions such as Buddhism or Jainism on issues of epistemology, metaphysics, logic, ethics or cosmology. The Vedas are regarded as Apauruseya, but by the same token, they are not the Word of God either.[5] ^ Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not deontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as an epistemic authority by an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy;[6] (Note: This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions) ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453–487. References[edit] ^ Soken Sanskrit, darzana ^ a b c Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149877, pages 2-5 ^ Meaning of word Darshana ^ a b c Klaus Klostermaier (2007), Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide, ISBN 978-1851685387, Chapter 2, page 26 ^ M Chadha (2015), The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion (Editor: Graham Oppy), Routledge, ISBN 978-1844658312, pages 127-128 ^ Elisa Freschi (2012), Duty, Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004222601, page 62 ^ a b P Bilimoria (2000), Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-1135703226, page 88 ^ Frazier, Jessica (2011). The Continuum companion to Hindu studies. London: Continuum. pp. 1–15. ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0. ^ Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0813540689, pages 101-119 ^ R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design. Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164-165, Quote: "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..." ^ a b KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816077, page 67; Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Cārvāka system, is a Hindu system."; ^ V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon - Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism, Skepticism, and Humanism, ISBN 978-1591022992, page 84; For a general discussion of Cārvāka and other atheistic traditions within Hindu philosophy, see Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199644650, pages 367-378 ^ a b c Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, ISBN 978-0889201583, pages 124-134, 164-173, 242-265 ^ a b Flood 1996, pp. 132-136, 162-169, 231-232. ^ Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447020916, pages 7-14 ^ a b Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, ISBN 978-0889201583, pages 219-223 ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, ISBN 978-0889201583, pages 28-35 ^ Jayandra Soni (1990), Philosophical Anthropology in Śaiva Siddhānta, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120806320, pages vii-xii ^ Hilko Schomerus and Humphrey Palme (2000), Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120815698, pages 13-19 ^ a b Potter 1991, p. 172. ^ a b Guttorm Fløistad 1993, p. 137-154. ^ Karl H. Potter (1961), A Fresh Classification of India's Philosophical Systems, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1, pages 25-32 ^ Students' Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica, ISBN 978-0852297605, page 316 ^ Potter 1991, p. 98-102. ^ Nicholson 2010. ^ a b Nicholson, Andrew J. (2014). Unifying Hinduism: philosophy and identity in Indian intellectual history. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231149877. ^ John Plott, James Dolin and Russell Hatton (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, pages 60-62 ^ a b R Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata, Anthem, ISBN 978-0857284334, pages 53, 94, 141-142 ^ a b >Johannes Bronkhorst (2012), Free will and Indian philosophy, Antiqvorvm Philosophia: An International Journal, Roma Italy, Volume 6, pages 19-30 ^ James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 22 ^ AL Basham (2009), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas - a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812048, Chapter 1 ^ Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism" KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-8120806191, pages 246–249, from note 385 onwards; Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now (2013, Subscription Required); ^ Paul Dundas (2002), The Jains, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415266055, pages 1-19, 40-44 ^ Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 12-35 ^ Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 36-63 ^ Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 103-111 ^ Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 112-127 ^ King 2007, p. 45. ^ Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 128-136 ^ Carl Olson, The Many Colors of Hinduism, Rutgers University Press, 2007, page 237 ^ Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 137-144 ^ Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 64-86 ^ Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 87-102 ^ Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 203-220 ^ a b Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, pages 43-46 ^ Tom Flynn and Richard Dawkins (2007), The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief, Prometheus, ISBN 978-1591023913, pages 420-421 ^ Nyaya Realism, in Perceptual Experience and Concepts in Classical Indian Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2015) ^ a b Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, ISBN 978-8120812932, pages 227-246 ^ a b Lochtefeld 2002, p. 520-521. ^ a b c d Flood 1996, p. 225. ^ a b c d e f g h i Grimes 1989, p. 238. ^ a b c d e Perrett 2000, pp. 245-248. ^ Flood 1996, pp. 232. ^ Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0365-5, p.149 ^ Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al), Ashgate, ISBN 978-0754633013, pages 149-158 ^ Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pages 245-248 ^ Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, p. 264, ISBN 0-691-08953-1 ^ a b Samkhya - Hinduism Encyclopædia Britannica (2014) ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 154-206 ^ James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 9780823931798, page 265 ^ T Bernard (1999), Hindu Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1373-1, pages 74–76 ^ Haney, William S., Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained, Bucknell University Press (1 August 2002). P. 42. ISBN 1611481724. ^ Dasgupta, Surendranath (1992). A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 258. ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8. ^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page 39 ^ Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 38-39 ^ John C. Plott et al (1984), Global History of Philosophy: The period of scholasticism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-0895816788, page 367 ^ Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149877, Chapter 4, pg. 77 ^ adhyatmika, adhibhautika and adhidaivika - that is, suffering caused internally by self, cause by other human beings, caused by acts of nature ^ a b Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press ^ Original Sanskrit: Samkhya karika Compiled and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa (2015), Sanskrit Documents Archives; Second Translation (Verse 1): Ferenc Ruzsa (1997), [The triple suffering - A note on the Samkhya karika, Xth World Sanskrit Conference: Bangalore, University of Hungary, Budapest; Third Translation (all Verses): Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna John Davis (Translator), Trubner, London, University of Toronto Archives ^ Larson, Gerald James. Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Motilal Banarasidass, 1998. P. 13. ISBN 81-208-0503-8. ^ For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 43. ^ a b Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali IEP ^ Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 43. ^ Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton. p. 453. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. ^ Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", p. 104. ^ Zimmer, Heinrich (1951). Philosophies of India. New York City: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01758-1. Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Campbell, page 280 ^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, pages x-xi, 101-107, 142 and Introduction chapter ^ Max Müeller, The six systems of Indian philosophy, Longmans, page 410 ^ The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra by Georg Feuerstein ^ The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra, Georg Feuerstein ^ Phillips, Stephen H. (1995). Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of "New Logic". Open Court Publishing. pp. 12–13. ^ Personalism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013) ^ Northrop Frye (2006), Educated Imagination and Other Writings on Critical Theory, 1933-1962, University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0802092090, page 291 ^ Mike McNamee and William J. Morgan (2015), Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415829809, pages 135-136, Quote: "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter." ^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, pages 141-142 ^ a b c Analytical philosophy in early modern India J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ a b c d Oliver Leaman, Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge, ISBN 978-0415173629, 1999, page 269. ^ a b c Michael Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0739138465, page 7 ^ Original Sanskrit and Translation: The Vaisheshika Sutra of Kanada with the Commentary of Sankara Misra BD Basu (Translator), The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Volume 6, University of Toronto Archives; For modern translations and a history of the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra in the 1st millennium BCE, see: Stephen H. Phillips (1998), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814899, pages 38-54 ^ DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7, pages 172-175 ^ Grimes 1989, p. 225. ^ a b c P Bilimoria (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy - Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, ISBN 978-94-010-5107-1, pages 137-154 ^ M Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120810860, pages 228-237 ^ a b Nyaya: Indian Philosophy Encyclopædia Britannica (2014) ^ Flood 1996, pp. 221-227. ^ B Gupta (2012), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge and Freedom, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415800037, pages 171-189 ^ PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought: Toward a Constructive Postmodern Ethics, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, page 223 ^ B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv. ^ a b DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7, page 172 ^ Vassilis Vitsaxis (2009), Thought and Faith, Somerset Hall Press, ISBN 978-1935244042, page 131 ^ BK Matilal (1997), Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807174, pages 353-357 ^ Original Sanskrit and Translation: The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama SC Vidyabhusana (Translator), The Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, University of Toronto Archives; A 1990 print is available from Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120807488 (Editor: N Sinha) ^ a b c Oliver Leaman (2006), Shruti, in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415862530, page 503 ^ Mimamsa Encyclopædia Britannica (2014) ^ M. Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120810860, page 323-325 ^ a b c d e f Chris Bartley (2013), Purva Mimamsa, in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, 978-0415862530, page 443-445 ^ M. Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120810860, page 298-335 ^ Neville, Robert (2001). Religious truth. SUNY Press. ^ Worthington, Vivian (1982). A history of yoga. Routledge. p. 66. ^ Peter M. Scharf, The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy (1996), Chapter 3 ^ Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter GmbH (Berlin), ISBN 978-3110181593, pages 23-24, 551-663 ^ Oliver Leaman (1999), Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415173636, page xiv ^ Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, page 77; JN Mohanty (2001), Explorations in Philosophy, Vol 1 (Editor: Bina Gupta), Oxford University Press, page 107-108 ^ Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415173582, page 251; R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, ISBN 978-8180695957, pages 345-347 ^ Advaita Vedanta Sangeetha Menon (2012), IEP ^ Nakamura, Hajime (1990), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, pp. 110–114 ^ a b Flood 1996, pp. 239-244. ^ Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824802714, pages 10-14 ^ Adi Shankara, Sengaku Mayeda, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013) ^ Richard Brooks (1969), The Meaning of 'Real' in Advaita Vedānta, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 19, No. 4, pages 385-398 ^ AC Das (1952), Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154 ^ H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 978-0802840974, page 57 ^ Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618555, page 119 ^ Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott (2009), Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1902210438, pages 14-16 ^ John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-18001-1, pages 98-106 ^ a b Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86 ^ Michael Comans (1993), The question of the importance of Samadhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedanta, Philosophy East & West. Vol. 43, Issue 1, pages 19-38 ^ Christopher Etter (30 April 2006). A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism. iUniverse. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-0-595-39312-1. ^ a b c d e Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 340–344. ISBN 978-1-898723-94-3. ^ Hindu Philosophy, IEP, Quote: "Dvaita: Madhva is one of the principal theistic exponents of Vedānta. On his account, Brahman is a personal God, and specifically He is the Hindu deity Viṣṇu." ^ a b Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 238–243, 288–293, 340–343. ISBN 978-1-898723-94-3. ^ a b James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1 & 2, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pages 12-13, 213-214, 758-759 ^ Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 124-127 ^ Christopher Etter (2006), A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism, iUniverse, pp. 59-60, ISBN 0-595-39312-8. ^ Bryant, Edwin (2007). Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma). Oxford University Press. p. 358. ISBN 978-0195148923. ^ Stoker, Valerie (2011). "Madhva (1238-1317)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 29 February 2016. ^ Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (1962). Philosophy of Śrī Madhvācārya. Motilal Banarsidass (2014 Reprint). pp. 417–424. ISBN 978-8120800687. ^ Sharma, Chandradhar (1994). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 373. ISBN 81-208-0365-5. ^ Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, “Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)”, Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917. ^ “Brahmavād Saṅgraha”, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014. ^ Lord Chaitanya Archived 7 June 2002 at the Wayback Machine (krishna.com) "This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference." ^ R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design, Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164-165, Quote: "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..." ^ Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199644650, pages 367-378; Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism, Skepticism, and Humanism, ISBN 978-1591022992, page 84 ^ KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816077, page 67; Roy W Perrett (1984), The problem of induction in Indian philosophy, Philosophy East and West, 34(2): 161-174 ^ V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon - Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x ^ a b c Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli and Moore, Charles (1957). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press. pp. 227–249. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. ^ Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2013), The base text and its commentaries: Problem of representing and understanding the Carvaka / Lokayata, Argument: Biannual Philosophical Journal, Issue 1, Volume 3, pages 133-150 ^ Bhattacharya, Ramakrishna (2002). "Cārvāka Fragments: A New Collection". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 30 (=6): 597–640. ^ Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812932, pages 53-58 ^ Balcerowicz, Piotr (2016), Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), "Jayarāśi", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2016 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 8 July 2020 ^ Cowell, E. B.; Gough, A. E. (1882). The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy. pp. 5–7. ^ MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16 ^ Tattwananda, Swami (1984), Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship (First Revised ed.), Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd., p. 45. ^ Flood 1996, p. 86. ^ Chakravarti, Mahadev (1994), The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages (Second Revised ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p. 9, ISBN 81-208-0053-2. ^ Cowell and Gough (1882), p. xii. ^ Flood (2003), p. 206. ^ Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 104-105. ^ Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 103 ^ Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 107 ^ Xavier Irudayaraj,"Saiva Siddanta," in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.10 ff. ^ Xavier Irudayaraj, "Self Understanding of Saiva Siddanta Scriptures" in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.14 ff. ^ Flood (2006), p. 120. ^ Flood (2006), p. 122. ^ Flood 1996, p. 168. ^ Kashmir Shaivism: The Secret Supreme, By Lakshman Jee ^ Dyczkowski, p. 4. ^ The Trika Śaivism of Kashmir, Moti Lal Pandit, pp. 1 ^ Kashmir Shaivism: The Secret Supreme, Swami Lakshman Jee, pp. 103 ^ a b Dyczkowski, p. 51. ^ Flood (2005), pp. 56–68 ^ Singh, Jaideva. Pratyãbhijñahṛdayam. Moltilal Banarsidass, 2008. PP. 24–26. ^ Dyczkowski, p. 44. ^ Ksemaraja, trans. by Jaidev Singh, Spanda Karikas: The Divine Creative Pulsation, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.119 ^ Shankarananda, (Swami). Consciousness is Everything, The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism. PP. 56–59 ^ Mishra, K. Kashmir Saivism, The Central Philosophy of Tantrism. PP. 330–334. Bibliography[edit] Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint ed.). Calcutta: University of Calcutta. Cowell, E. B.; Gough, A. E. (1882). The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy: Trubner's Oriental Series. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-24517-3. Dyczkowski, Mark S. G. (1987). The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-88706-432-9. Guttorm Fløistad (28 February 1993). Philosophie asiatique/Asian philosophy. Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-0-7923-1762-3. Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5. Flood, Gavin (2005). The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1845110110. Grimes, John A. (1989). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0100-2. King, Richard (2007), Indian Philosophy. An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Georgetown University Press Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4. Müeller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd. ISBN 0-7661-4296-5. Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy. Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press Perrett, Roy W. (2000). Philosophy of Religion. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8153-3611-2. Potter, Karl H. (1991). Presuppositions of India's Philosophies. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 98. ISBN 978-81-208-0779-2. Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. Further reading[edit] Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. Rambachan, Anantanand. "The Advaita Worldview: God, World and Humanity." 2006. Zilberman, David B., The Birth of Meaning in Hindu Thought. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland, 1988. ISBN 90-277-2497-0. Chapter 1. "Hindu Systems of Thought as Epistemic Disciplines". 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Religious language Eschatological verification Language game Logical positivism Apophatic theology Verificationism Problem of evil Augustinian theodicy Best of all possible worlds Euthyphro dilemma Inconsistent triad Irenaean theodicy Natural evil Theodicy Philosophers of religion (by date active) Ancient and medieval Anselm of Canterbury Augustine of Hippo Avicenna Averroes Boethius Erasmus Gaunilo of Marmoutiers Pico della Mirandola Heraclitus King James VI and I Marcion of Sinope Thomas Aquinas Maimonides Early modern Augustin Calmet René Descartes Blaise Pascal Baruch Spinoza Nicolas Malebranche Gottfried W Leibniz William Wollaston Thomas Chubb David Hume Baron d'Holbach Immanuel Kant Johann G Herder 1800 1850 Friedrich Schleiermacher Karl C F Krause Georg W F Hegel William Whewell Ludwig Feuerbach Søren Kierkegaard Karl Marx Albrecht Ritschl Afrikan Spir 1880 1900 Ernst Haeckel W K Clifford Friedrich Nietzsche Harald Høffding William James Vladimir Solovyov Ernst Troeltsch Rudolf Otto Lev Shestov Sergei Bulgakov Pavel Florensky Ernst Cassirer Joseph Maréchal 1920 postwar George Santayana Bertrand Russell Martin Buber René Guénon Paul Tillich Karl Barth Emil Brunner Rudolf Bultmann Gabriel Marcel Reinhold Niebuhr Charles Hartshorne Mircea Eliade Frithjof Schuon J L Mackie Walter Kaufmann Martin Lings Peter Geach George I Mavrodes William Alston Antony Flew 1970 1990 2010 William L Rowe Dewi Z Phillips Alvin Plantinga Anthony Kenny Nicholas Wolterstorff Richard Swinburne Robert Merrihew Adams Ravi Zacharias Peter van Inwagen Daniel Dennett Loyal Rue Jean-Luc Marion William Lane Craig Ali Akbar Rashad Alexander Pruss Related topics Criticism of religion Desacralization of knowledge Ethics in religion Exegesis History of religion Religion Religious language Religious philosophy Relationship between religion and science Faith and rationality more... Portal Category v t e Religion Major religious groups and denominations1 Abrahamic Judaism Orthodox Haredi Hasidic Modern Conservative Reform Karaite Samaritanism Haymanot Reconstructionist Renewal Humanistic list Christianity Catholicism Latin Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Nestorianism Assyrian Ancient Proto-Protestantism Waldensians Czech Brethren/Moravians Protestantism Lutheranism Calvinism Reformed Presbyterianism Congregationalism Anabaptism Amish Brethren Hutterites Mennonites Schwenkfelders Anglicanism Methodism Holiness Baptists Quakerism Plymouth Brethren Restorationism Irvingism Adventism Pentecostalism/Charismatic Evangelicalism Nondenominational Independent Catholicism Nontrinitarianism Unitarianism Swedenborgianism Mormonism Christadelphians Bible Students/Jehovah's Witnesses Anglo-Israelism Oneness Pentecostalism Spiritual Tolstoyan Judaizers Esoteric list Islam Sunni Ashʿari Maturidi Traditionalist theology Salafism Wahhabism Modernist Salafism Shia Twelver Zaidiyyah Isma'ilism Alawis Sufism Khawarij Ibadism Alevism Ahmadi Mahdavia Quranism Non-denominational Others Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Ali-Illahism Mandaeism Rastafarianism Dharmic Hinduism Vaishnavism Sri Vaishnavism Brahma Sampradaya Nimbarka Sampradaya Pushtimarg Mahanubhava Ramanandi Varkari Shaivism Siddhantism Kashmir Kapalika Kaumaram Lingayatism Nath Balinese Shaktism Smartism Śrauta Sant Mat Neo-Hinduism Buddhism Theravada Mahayana Chan/Zen/Thiền Amidism Nichiren Vajrayana Tibetan Neo-Buddhism Others Ayyavazhi Jainism Digambara Śvētāmbara Ravidassia Sikhism Khalsa Sects Mazdans Zoroastrianism Yazidism Yarsanism Indo-European Armenian Baltic Celtic Druidry Germanic Hellenism Italo-Roman Romanian Slavic Ossetian Kalash Uralic Estonian Finnish Hungarian Mari Mordvin Sámi Udmurt Altaic Turko-Mongolic Tengrism Burkhanism Vattisen Yaly Tungusic Manchu Evenki Chinese Confucianism Taoism Folk Taoism Yao Taoism Nuo Salvationist Xiantiandao Yiguandao Luoism Tibeto-Burmese Bon Burmese Benzhuism Bimoism Bathouism Bongthingism Donyi-Polo Heraka Kiratism Qiang Sanamahism Korean Korean shamanism Cheondoism Jeungsanism Japanese Shinto Shugendō Tenrikyo Ryukyuan Tai and Miao Ahom Hmongism Mo Satsana Phi Austroasiatic Vietnamese Caodaism Đạo Mẫu Hoahaoism Sarnaism Austronesian Batak Parmalim Dayak Kaharingan Momolianism Javanese Kejawèn Karo Pemena Malaysian Philippine Dayawism Tagalog Polynesian Hawaiian Māori Sumbese Marapu Sundanese Wiwitan African Traditional Akan Akamba Baluba Bantu Kongo Zulu Berber Guanche church Bushongo Dinka Dogon Efik Fon and Ewe Ik Lotuko Lozi Lugbara Maasai Mbuti Odinani San Serer Tumbuka Urhobo Waaqeffanna Yoruba Ifá Diasporic Candomblé Bantu Jejé Ketu Comfa Convince Espiritismo Kumina Obeah Palo Quimbanda Santería Tambor de Mina Trinidad Orisha Umbanda Vodou Voodoo Winti Native American Abenaki Anishinaabe Blackfoot Californian Miwok Ohlone Pomo Cherokee Chilote Choctaw Creek Guarani Haida Ho-Chunk Hopi Iroquois Seneca Wyandot Longhouse Religion Jivaroan Kwakwakaʼwakw Lakota Lenape Mapuche Mesoamerican Aztec Maya Purépecha Midewiwin Muisca Native American Church Navajo Nuu-chah-nulth Pawnee Tsimshian Ute Zuni Other ethnic Aboriginal Australian Caucasian Abkhaz Circassian Inuit Papuan Siberian Recent Adi Dharm/Brahmoism Anthroposophy Discordianism Eckankar Falun Gong Fourth Way Goddess Japanese Jediism Modekngei Neopaganism Reconstructionism Wicca list Neoshamanism New Acropolis New Age New Thought Rajneesh Satanism Spiritualism Subud Tensegrity Thelema Theosophy Neo-Theosophy Agni Yoga Transcendental Meditation UFO religion Raëlism Scientology Unitarian Universalism White Brotherhood Note: 1 The main source: Eliade, Mircea, ed. (1987). The Encyclopedia of Religion. 1–16. New York: MacMillan. Historical religions Prehistoric Paleolithic Harappan Dravidian Egyptian Atenism Mesopotamian Sumerian Babylonian Semitic Canaanite Yahwism Arabian Somali Hurrian Urartu Etruscan Basque Georgian Vainakh Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-Iranian Vedic Mazdaism Hittite Armenian Paleo-Balkan Albanian Illyrian Thracian Dacian Greek Mysteries Orphism Gnosticism Hermeticism Greco-Buddhism Roman Imperial cult Gallo-Roman Mithraism Manichaeism Mazdakism Scythian Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Frankish Norse Celtic Baltic Slavic Finnish Hungarian Ainu Melanesian Micronesian Nauruan Cook Islands Rapa Nui Tongan Inca Olmec Zapotec Fuegian Selk'nam Guanche Jamaican Maroon Topics Aspects Apostasy / Disaffiliation Behaviour Beliefs Clergy Conversion Deities Entheogens Ethnic religion Denomination Faith Fire Folk religion God Meditation Monasticism monk nun Mysticism Mythology Nature Ordination Orthodoxy Orthopraxy Prayer Prophecy Religious experience Ritual liturgy sacrifice Spirituality Supernatural Symbols Truth Water Worship Theism Animism Deism Dualism Henotheism Monotheism Nontheism Panentheism Pantheism Polytheism Transtheism Religious studies Anthropology Cognitive science Comparative Development Evolutionary origin Evolutionary psychology History Philosophy Neurotheology Psychology Sociology Theology Theories Women Religion and society Agriculture Business Clergy monasticism ordination Conversion evangelism missionary proselytism Disability Education Fanaticism Freedom pluralism syncretism toleration universalism Fundamentalism Growth Happiness Homosexuality Minorities National church National religiosity levels Religiocentrism Populations Schism Science State Theocracy Vegetarianism Video games Violence persecution terrorism war Wealth Secularism and irreligion Antireligion Deism Agnosticism Atheism Criticism LaVeyan Satanism Deconstruction Humanistic Judaism Irreligion by country Objectivism Secular humanism Secular theology Secularization Separation of church and state Unaffiliated Overviews and lists Index Outline Timeline Abrahamic prophets Deification Deities Founders Mass gatherings New religious movements Organizations Religions and spiritual traditions Scholars Category Portal v t e History of religions Timeline of religion List of religions and spiritual traditions Major groups Abrahamic Baha'i Christianity Islam Judaism Rastafarianism Amerindian Aztec Mayan Inca East Asian Confucianism Taoism Shinto Indian Buddhism Hinduism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Mithraism Zoroastrianism Manichaeanism Modern Neopaganism Wicca New Thought Scientology Spiritism Historical Prehistoric Paleolithic Near East Egyptian Semitic Mesopotamian Indo-European Celtic Germanic Illyro-thracian Greek Hellenism Gnosticism Neoplatonism Roman Slavic Vedic Hinduism Related topics Evolution of morality Evolutionary origin of religions Evolutionary psychology of religion History of atheism History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic) Humanism Irreligion Roman School Secularism v t e Philosophy of science Concepts Analysis Analytic–synthetic distinction A priori and a posteriori Causality Commensurability Consilience Construct Creative synthesis Demarcation problem Empirical evidence Explanatory power Fact Falsifiability Feminist method Functional contextualism Ignoramus et ignorabimus Inductive reasoning Intertheoretic reduction Inquiry Nature Objectivity Observation Paradigm Problem of induction Scientific law Scientific method Scientific revolution Scientific theory Testability Theory choice Theory-ladenness Underdetermination Unity of science Metatheory of science Coherentism Confirmation holism Constructive empiricism Constructive realism Constructivist epistemology Contextualism Conventionalism Deductive-nomological model Hypothetico-deductive model Inductionism Epistemological anarchism Evolutionism Fallibilism Foundationalism Instrumentalism Pragmatism Model-dependent realism Naturalism Physicalism Positivism / Reductionism / Determinism Rationalism / Empiricism Received view / Semantic view of theories Scientific realism / Anti-realism Scientific essentialism Scientific formalism Scientific skepticism Scientism Structuralism Uniformitarianism Vitalism Philosophy of Physics thermal and statistical Motion Chemistry Biology Geography Social science Technology Engineering Artificial intelligence Computer science Information Mind Psychiatry Psychology Perception Space and time Related topics Alchemy Criticism of science Descriptive science Epistemology Faith and rationality Hard and soft science History and philosophy of science History of science History of evolutionary thought Logic Metaphysics Normative science Pseudoscience Relationship between religion and science Rhetoric of science Science studies Sociology of scientific knowledge Sociology of scientific ignorance Philosophers of science by era Ancient Plato Aristotle Stoicism Epicureans Medieval Averroes Avicenna Roger Bacon William of Ockham Hugh of Saint Victor Dominicus Gundissalinus Robert Kilwardby Early modern Francis Bacon Thomas Hobbes René Descartes Galileo Galilei Pierre Gassendi Isaac Newton David Hume Late modern Immanuel Kant Friedrich Schelling William Whewell Auguste Comte John Stuart Mill Herbert Spencer Wilhelm Wundt Charles Sanders Peirce Wilhelm Windelband Henri Poincaré Pierre Duhem Rudolf Steiner Karl Pearson Contemporary Alfred North Whitehead Bertrand Russell Albert Einstein Otto Neurath C. D. Broad Michael Polanyi Hans Reichenbach Rudolf Carnap Karl Popper Carl Gustav Hempel W. V. O. Quine Thomas Kuhn Imre Lakatos Paul Feyerabend Jürgen Habermas Ian Hacking Bas van Fraassen Larry Laudan Daniel Dennett Category  Philosophy portal  Science portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hindu_philosophy&oldid=996266133" Categories: Hindu philosophy Indian philosophy Metaphilosophy Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from March 2015 Use dmy dates from March 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية বাংলা भोजपुरी Български Eesti Español ગુજરાતી 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 पालि Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Tagalog தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 14:32 (UTC). 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