LAYARDS
E
NINEKEN



HARVARD UNIVERSITY
VARD
CADE
IM ACA
CHRIS
<CCLES
SIIE
JAE IN NO
DIT
CH
COISONS
LIBRARY
OF THE
PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN
ARCHÆOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY
GIFT OF
CHARLES P. BOWDITCH
(Class of 1863)
Received February 14, 1916.





<kJ'


NINEVEH
ITS REMAINS.
VOL. I.


LONDON:
A. and G. A. SPOTTISWOODE,
New-street-Square.






FREE
Frontispiece Vo! I
LOWERING THE GREAT WINGED BULL.
John Murray. Albemarie Stre 21848


N I N E Y E H
ITS REMAINS:
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF A VISIT TO THE CHALDEAN
CHRISTIANS OF KURDISTAN, AND THE TEZIDIS,
OR DEVIL-WORSHIPPERS; AND AN ENQUIRY
INTO THE MANNERS AND ARTS OF
THE ANCIENT ASSYRIANS.
BY AUSTEN HENRY LAYARD, ESQ. D.C.L.

"She saw men pourtrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldeans pourtrayed with
vermilion,
"Girded with girdles upon their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all
of them princes to look to, after the manner of the Babylonians of Chaldea, the land of
their nativity." Ezeejki, xxiii. 14,15.
SIXTH EDITION.
IN TWO VOLUMES. —VOL. I.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1854.


AS. L45m 6
9. of Charles Po Bowdetile.
Red Feb, 14, 1916


TO
BENJAMIN AUSTEN, ESQ.
THESE VOLUMES
ARE AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED.





PREFACE.
It is with considerable diffidence that I venture to
submit the following narrative to the reader. The
opinions of friends, and a desire on my part to com-
municate the little information that opportunities
may have enabled me to acquire, with regard to a
country and city so little known as Assyria and
Nineveh, have alone induced me to undertake a work
of this nature under the united disadvantages of in-
capacity, literary inexperience, ill-health, and a very
short residence in England. When I add that I
have at the same time been engaged in preparing for
the press an illustrated work on the monuments of
Nineveh, and in superintending the publication, for
the Trustees of the British Museum, of the Cunei-
form inscriptions brought by me from Assyria, occu-
pations which have demanded considerable time and
a 4


Vlll PREFACE.
care, I may perhaps appeal with more confidence to
the kind indulgence of my readers, and particularly
of those who are far more competent than myself to
enter into the enquiries I have ventured to add to my
personal narrative.
A general dissertation, such as that contained in
the second volume, requires a very extensive ac-
quaintance with those ancient aud modern authors
who have written or casually touched upon similar
subjects. The necessity of a residence in the coun-
try, and the consequent absence of books, have pre-
vented me from consulting many works which might
have afforded valuable information, and have ren-
dered difficult the verification of quotations obtained,
in many instances, during hurried visits to London.
With more time and opportunities at my command,
this dissertation might have been rendered more
entertaining and useful. I should not have added it
to the narrative, had I not felt that there were many
observations which could only have occurred to one
engaged, like myself, in a very close examination of
the ruins of Assyria, and which, right or wrong, should
be recorded, if recorded at all, whilst still fresh in my
memory. I may perhaps venture to hope that, al-
though these general remarks may be of little value,
they will at least afford some assistance to others who
may engage in similar enquiries.
Being anxious to avoid entering upon debateable


PREFACE. IX
subjects, it was originally my intention to state merely
the results of my researches; but, as I proceeded
with my work, I found it necessary to touch upon
topics connected with Assyrian history and chrono-
logy. This was almost indispensable, in order to give
the reader an idea of the extent of the discoveries
and of the arguments they furnish. The opinions,
however, which I have ventured to offer must be
considered rather in the light of suggestions. Many
things that have appeared to me to be facts may re-
quire further proof before they can be generally ad-
mitted. An examination of the ruins of Assyria still
unexplored, and a fuller acquaintance with the monu-
ments and inscriptions already discovered, are required
to enable us to arrive at satisfactory results in an
enquiry such as I have entered into. Still it appears
to me that we have already sufficient data to warrant
the attempt. These words of caution are necessary,
and I trust the reader will acquit me of any wish to
mislead him, or to make more of my subject than it
deserves.
With regard to my personal narrative, I may owe
an apology to the reader for introducing subjects not
included in the title of my work, for adding nar-
ratives of my visits to the Tiyari and Yezidis, and a
dissertation upon the Chaldaeans of Kurdistan. I
have thought that it might not be uninteresting to
give such slight sketches of manners and customs,


X PREFACE.
as would convey a knowledge of the condition and
history of the present inhabitants of the country, par-
ticularly of those who, there is good reason to presume,
are descendants of the ancient Assyrians. They are,
indeed, as much the remains of Nineveh, and As-
syria, as are the rude heaps and ruined palaces.
A comparison between the dwellers in the land as
they now are, and as the monuments of their an-
cestors lead us to believe they once were, will not
perhaps be without useful results. It may give rise
to serious reflection, and may even prove an instruc-
tive lesson.
I must prepare the reader for such inaccuracies and
defects in my narrative, as may arise from haste and
inexperience. I have preferred sketches conveying
a general idea of my operations and adventures to
mere dry details, and a continuous relation of inci-
dents which might have lead me into frequent repe-
titions.
In spelling Eastern names I have followed no uni-
form system—having endeavoured to write them in
the best way I could, to convey the mode of their
pronunciation by the people of the country. This,
I am aware, is contrary to the plan now generally
adopted ; but I have not had time to reduce the
oriental words, in various languages, to one standard.
I have introduced into these volumes as many
illustrations of the sculptures and monuments as I


PREFACE. XI
conveniently could. More careful and elaborate
engravings of the bas-reliefs and objects discovered
will be published separately in a larger work on the
Monuments of Nineveh*, which may, therefore, be
considered illustrative of these volumes.
It is a pleasing duty to acknowledge kindness and
assistance in such labours as these, and it is with
gratitude that I admit the great obligation under
which I am to Mr. Birch of the British Museum,
for much valuable information and many important
suggestions, the source of which, when used, I have
not always acknowledged. To Mr. Hawkins and the
other officers of the British Museum, whom I have
had occasion to consult, I also have to express my
thanks for uniform kindness and courtesy. From
Mr. GeoTge Scharf, jun., I have received great assist-
ance. The plates and woodcuts have been chiefly
executed, from my sketches, by him, or under his
superintendence; and the reader will no doubt per-
ceive how much my work is indebted to him. To
others I would express my grateful obligations;
although I am restricted from making any other al-
lusion to the aid I have received from them.
To the Chairman and honourable Court of Direc-
tors of the East India Company, through whose en-
lightened munificence I am mainly enabled to publish
* Monuments of Nineveh. 100 plates, folio. London, John Murray, 1849.


Xll • PREFACE.
my drawings of the bas-reliefs discovered at Nineveh,
I must take this opportunity of expressing that grati-
tude -which many, who have been engaged in similar
undertakings, have had reason to feel as strongly as
myself. In recording a liberality, unfortunately so
rare, I become an additional witness to the noble
support they have ever rendered to literature and
science.
It is to be regretted that proper steps have not
been taken for the transport to England of the
sculptures discovered at Nineveh. Those which have
already reached this country, and, it is to be feared,
those which are now on their way, have consequently
suffered unnecessary injury. The great winged bull
and lion, which, I had hoped, would have speedily
formed an important portion of the national collection,
are still lying at Busrah ; and there is*little prospect,
at present, of their being brought to this country.
Surely British ingenuity and resources cannot, as is
pretended, be unable to remove objects which have
already, with very inadequate means, been transported
nearly a thousand miles. The cases containing the
small objects, recently deposited in the British
Museum, were not only opened without authority at
Bombay, but their contents exhibited, without proper
precautions, to the public. It is remarkable that
several of the most valuable (indeed the most valu-
able) specimens are missing; and the whole collection


PREFACE.
xii
was so carelessly repacked that it has sustained very
material injury. Were these Assyrian relics, how-
ever valuable, such as could be again obtained, either
by ingenuity or labour, their loss might not perhaps
be so seriously lamented; but if once destroyed, they
can never be restored ; and it must be remembered
that they are almost the only remains of a great city
and of a great nation.
Cheltenham,
October, 1848.





INTRODUCTION.
Before submitting the following narrative of my
labours in Assyria to the reader, it may not be un-
interesting to give a slight sketch of what had been
done in the field of Assyrian antiquities, previous to
the recent discoveries on the site of Nineveh.
The history of Assyria had been written by Hero-
dotus and Ctesias. Unfortunately, the work of the
former, who was so scrupulous in recording facts
and traditions, has been entirely lost. Not a frag-
ment of it has been preserved by those who, it may
be presumed, might have made use of it, and who
quote largely from him on similar subjects. This
fact has led modern critics to doubt whether Hero-
dotus did really write an Assyrian history, although
Aristotle mentions having seen it*; or whether he
merely alludes to a projected undertaking. Did
* Hist. Anim. l. vii. c. 18. I am indebted to a reviewer in the
Quarterly (No. clxvii. p. 138.) for the following note on this passage:
"Aristotle merely mentions a fact in natural history of which a certain
author was ignorant; for that author, in his account of the taking of
Nineveh, describes an eagle drinking. But the name of that author, in
the best MSS., is 'HaioSos, which reading is retained by Bekker; and
however it may seem more probable that Herodotus should have de-
scribed the taking of Nineveh than Hesiod, yet, even if so, there is
nothing to show that Aristotle did not cite from memory, or copy from
some other less accurate writer. The two passages in Herodotus, when
he speaks of his 'Aaavpioi \6yot and his trcpoi \oyoi (1. c. 106. 184.), by no
means show that he ever fulfilled his intention, if he had such intention'
of writing a separate Assyrian history."


XVI INTRODUCTION.
such a work exist, there is little doubt that we should
possess a very complete history of Assyria, as Hero-
dotus considered the subject of sufficient interest and
importance to demand a separate treatise. This de-
sign of writing a distinct account of the Assyrians
has unfortunately led him to omit all mention of that
nation in his great work; we might otherwise have
vv derttjed much information from casual notices, simi-
lar to those which he has introduced respecting the
Egyptians and other remarkable nations of antiquity.
Almost the only allusion he makes to an event in
Assyrian history—the sudden spread of the Assy-
rian power over Asia—apparently involves an as-
sertion in direct contradiction to all that we find
elsewhere recorded of the antiquity and origin of the
Assyrian empire.
Of the history of Ctesias only a few fragments
have been preserved, chiefly in the works of Diodorus
Siculus and Photius. He was a native of Cnidus,
who, either as a prisoner or a traveller, found him-
self at the Persian capital. Being skilled in medi-
cine, he was taken into favour by the king, and
remained seventeen years at his court, where he was
treated with great distinction. During his residence
in Persia he was able to consult the public archives,
and he compiled from them a history of the Per-
sians, and of their predecessors in the empire of
Asia.* He also wrote an account of India and its
productions; the absurd exaggerations and fables
which it contains have caused all his other works
* Diod. Sicul. l. xi.


INTRODUCTION. XVII
to be viewed with suspicion. He is likewise accused
of being lead, by extreme jealousy of Herodotus, into
direct mis-statements, that he may contradict that
historian. Aristotle, more than once, declares him
to be unworthy of credit *; and modern critics have
generally agreed to reject altogether, or to receive
with great reserve, all his assertions. Yet Diodorus
Siculus, and several ancient authors, appear to have
followed and trusted him; and it may be observed,
that whilst mere travellers' tales and vulgar traditions
were probably the only sources of his Indian marvels,
written records and monuments may have furnished
him with well-authenticated historical facts, to assist
him in compiling the history of the country in which
he resided, and of which he had a personal knowledge.
Unfortunately, of his history very little remains, ex-
cept the names of kings. Much relating to Assyria
contained in the works of others was, however, un-
doubtedly copied from him.
Of later writers who have touched upon Assy-
rian history, Diodorus Siculus, a mere compiler, is the
principal. Eusebius, and the Armenian historians,
such as Moses of Chorene, have preserved a few
valuable details and hints ; they also obtained their
information from elsewhere, but in some instances
from original sources not altogether devoid of au-
thenticity. Many other authors could be cited, who
have casually in their works alluded to events in
Assyrian history, or have introduced brief notices
* De Generat. Animal. 1. ii. c. 2., and Hist. Anim. l. viii. c. 1. 8.
r VOL. I. a


XV111 INTRODUCTION.
concerning the Assyrian empire ; but any particular
account of them, or an analysis of the information
they afford, would only weary the reader.* It is
remarkable, that none of the authors alluded to, do
more than mention by name any of the Assyrian
kings, with the exception of the three great mon-
archs, Ninus, Semiramis, and Sardahapalus, whom
traditions have made celebrated, and whose deeds,
like those of all prominent characters in an epoch
before sober history commenced, have been invested
with superhuman features, or have been mixed up
with fables. Yet above thirty generations elapsed
between Ninus and Sardanapalus, during which a
whole line of kings occupied the Assyrian throne, and
maintained the power of the empire. Their names
have been handed down to us in genealogical series
by Eusebius, the Syncellus, and others f; but the
lists themselves are more than doubtful, and are ge-
nerally believed to furnish sufficient evidence against
their own authenticity.
With regard to Ninus and Semiramis, I need only
here mention that, like all heroes of primitive history
and early tradition, their names appear to have be-
come conventional— all great deeds and national
events being assigned to them. Originally historic
characters, they have been to some extent invested
with divine attributes, and have been mixed up with
* I may mention Bcrosus, Abydenus, Strabo, Nicolaus of Damascus,
Castor, Polyhistor, Justin, Suidas, and the Syncellus.
f Abydenus gives a list of kings differing from those of Eusebius and
the Syncellus.


INTRODUCTION. XIX
the theology of the race of which they were the first
monarchs. This leads to a well-known result—the
hero-worship of ancient nations. Still, in admitting
this fact, we must guard against rejecting traditions,
simply because they are connected with these names.
Many have a foundation, and were probably derived
from events which actually took place. It is the pro-
vince of the critical inquirer to separate the mythic
from that which comes within the legitimate bounds
of history; to trace the origin of fables, and to draw
rational conclusions from them.
The Assyrians are not particularly alluded to in
Holy Writ, until the period when their warlike expe-
ditions to the west of the Euphrates, brought them
into contact with the Jews. The first king whose
name is recorded was Pul, who reigned between eight
and nine hundred years before the Christian aera;
and about two hundred previous to the fall of the em-
pire ; consequently he must have been nearly the last
of a long succession of kings who, it is generally
admitted, had ruled over the greater part of Asia.
The later monarchs are more frequently mentioned in
the Bible; as their conquests over the Jews, whom
they led captive into Assyria, bring them continually
under notice. But except when they particularly
concern the Jewish people, very little is related of the
deeds of even these monarchs.
Of modern historians who have attempted to re
concile the discrepancies of Assyrian chronology, and
to restore to some extent, from the fragments to
which I have alluded, a history of the Assyrian
a 2


XX
INTRODUCTION.
empire, I scarcely know whom to point out. From
such contradictory materials, it is not surprising that
each writer should have formed a system of his own;
and we may, without incurring the charge of scepti-
cism, treat all their efforts as little better than in-
genious speculations. In the date alone to be assigned
to the commencement of the Assyrian empire, they
differ nearly a thousand years; and even when they
treat of events which approach the epoch of au-
thentic history,—such as the death of Sardanapalus,
the invasion of the Medes, and the fall of the empire,
- there is nearly the same comparative discrepancy.
The Bactrian and Indian expeditions of Ninus, the
wonderful works of Semiramis, and the effeminacy
of Sardanapalus, have been described over and over
again, and form the standard ingredients of the Assy-
rian history of modern authors. The narratives framed
upon them convey useful lessons, and are, . moreover,
full of romantic events to excite the imagination. As
such they have been repeated, with a warning that
their authenticity rests upon a slender basis, and that
it is doubtful whether they are to be regarded as
history, or to be classed amongst fables. Although
the names of Nineveh and Assyria have been familiar
to us from childhood, and are connected with our
earliest impressions derived from the Inspired Writ-
ings, it is only when we ask ourselves what we really
know concerning them, that we discover our ignorance
of all that relates to their history, and even to their
geographical position.
It is indeed one of the most remarkable facts in


INTRODUCTION.
xxi
history, that the records of an empire, so renowned
for its power and civilisation, should have been en.
tirely lost; and that the site of a city as eminent for
its extent as its splendour, should for ages have been
a matter of doubt : it is not perhaps less curious that
an accidental discovery should suddenly lead us to
hope that these records may be recovered, and this
site satisfactorily identified.
The ruins in Assyria and Babylonia, chiefly huge
mounds, apparently of mere earth and rubbish, had
long excited curiosity from their size and evident
antiquity. They were the only remains of an un-
known period,- of a period antecedent to the Mace-
donian conquest. Consequently they alone could
be identified with Nineveh and Babylon, and could
afford a clue to the site and nature of those cities.
There is, at the same time, a vague mystery attach-
ing to remains like these, which induces travellers
to examine them with more than ordinary interest,
and even with some degree of awe. A great vitrified
mass of brick-work, surrounded by the accumulated
rubbish of ages, was believed to represent the identi.
cal tower, which called down the divine vengeance,
and was overthrown, according to an universal tra-
dition, by the fires of heaven. The mystery and
dread, which attached to the place, were kept up by
exaggerated accounts of wild beasts, who haunted the
subterraneous passages, and of the no less savage tribes
who wandered amongst the ruins. Other mounds in
the vicinity were identified with the hanging gar-
dens, and those marvellous structures which tradition
a
3


xxii
INTRODUCTION.
sul
has attributed to two queens, Semiramis and Nitocris.
The difficulty of reaching the site of these remains,
increased the curiosity and interest with which they
were regarded; and a fragment from Babylon was
esteemed a precious relic, not altogether devoid of a
sacred character. The ruins which might be pre-
sumed to occupy the site of the Assyrian capital
were even less known, and less visited than those in
Babylonia. Several travellers had noticed the great
mounds of earth opposite the modern city of Mosul,
and when the inhabitants of the neighbourhood
pointed out the tomb of Jonah upon the summit of
one of them, it was, of course, natural to conclude at
once, that it marked the site of the great Nineveh. *
Macdonald Kinneir, no mean antiquarian and geo-
grapher, who examined these mounds, was inclined to
believe that they marked the site of a Roman camp
of the time of Hadrian; and yet a very superficial
knowledge of the ruins of Babylonia would have
shown at once that they were of a very different
period.
The first to engage in a serious examination of the
ruins within the limits of ancient Assyria was Mr.
Rich, many years the political Resident of the East
* It need scarcely be observed, that the tradition placing the tomb of
Jonah amongst the ruins opposite Mosul, is not authenticated by any
passage in the Scriptures. It is now received by Christians and Mussul-
mans, and probably originated in the spot having been once occupied by
a Christian church or convent, dedicated to the prophet. The building,
which is supposed to cover the tomb, is very much venerated, and only
Mohammedans are allowed to enter it. The Jews, in the time of St.
Jerome, pointed out the sepulchre of Jonah at Gath-hepher, in the tribe
of Zabulon.


INTRODUCTION.
xxiii
VE
по
India Company at Baghdad, -a man, whom enter-
prise, industry, extensive and varied learning, and
rare influence over the inhabitants of the country,
acquired as much by character as position, eminently
qualified for such a task. The remains near Hillah,
being in the immediate vicinity of Baghdad, first at-
tracted his attention; and he commenced his labours
by carefully examining the nature and extent of the
site they occupied, and by opening trenches into the
various mounds. The results of his examination
and researches, with an able dissertation on the topo-
graphy of ancient Babylon, and the position of its
principal buildings, appeared at Vienna, in an oriental
literary journal called the “Mines de l’Orient." This
memoir was translated and published in England,
and was followed by a second memoir, called forth by
some remarks in the “ Archæologia,” by Major Ren-
nell. The two have recently been republished in a
work containing a narrative of a journey to Babylon,
edited by his widow.
It is unnecessary here to enter into a detailed ac-
count of Mr. Rich's discoveries amongst the ruins of
Babylon. They were of considerable interest, though,
of course, in results far behind what accident has
recently furnished. They consisted chiefly of frag-
ments of inscriptions, bricks, engraved stones, and a
coffin of wood; but the careful account which he
drew up of the site of the ruins was of greater value,
and has formed the ground-work of all subsequent
inquiries into the topography of Babylon.
In the year 1820 Mr. Rich, having been induced to
a 4


XXIV INTRODUCTION.
visit Kurdistan for the benefit of his health, returned
to Baghdad by way of Mosul. Remaining some days
in this city, his curiosity was naturally excited by the
great mounds on the opposite bank of the river, and
he entered upon an examination of them. He learnt
from the inhabitants of Mosul that, some time previous
to his visit, a sculpture, representing various forms of
men and animals, had been dug up in a mound forming
part of the great enclosure. This strange object had
been the cause of general wonder, and the whole
population had issued from the walls to gaze upon it.
The ulema having at length pronounced that these
figures were the idols of the infidels, the Mohammed-
ans, like obedient disciples, so completely destroyed
them, that Mr. Rich was unable to obtain even a frag-
ment.
His first step was to visit the village containing the
tomb of Jonah, built upon the summit of one of the
principal mounds. In the houses he met with a few
stones bearing inscriptions, which had probably been
discovered in digging the foundations; and under the
mosque containing the tomb he was shown three very
narrow and apparently ancient passages, one within
the other, with several doors or apertures.
He next examined the largest mound of the group,
called Kouyunjik by the Turks, and Armousheeah by
the Arabs. He only found amongst the rubbish a
few fragments of pottery, bricks with cuneiform cha-
racters, and some remains of building in the ra-
vines, lie ascertained that the circumference was
7690 feet. On a -subsequent occasion he made a


INTRODUCTION. XXV
careful survey of the site of all the ruins, which is
published in the collection of his journals, edited by
his widow.
With the exception of a small stone chair and a
few remains of inscriptions, Mr. Rich obtained no
other Assyrian relics from the ruins on the site of
Nineveh; and he left Mosul, little suspecting that in
these mounds were buried the palaces of the As-
syrian kings. As he floated down the Tigris to
Baghdad, he landed at Nimroud, and examined the
great mound. He was struck by its evident antiquity,
and learnt the tales of the inhabitants of the neigh-
.bouring villages connecting the ruins with Nimrod's
own city, and the better authenticated tradition that
they were those of Al Athur, or Ashur, from which
the whole country anciently received its name. He
obtained a few specimens of bricks bearing cuneiform
characters, and proceeded with his journey.
The fragments collected by Mr. Rich were subse-
quently placed in the British Museum, and formed
the principal, and indeed almost only, collection of
Assyrian antiquities in Europe. A case scarcely three
feet square enclosed all that remained, not only of
the great city, Nineveh, but of Babylon itself!
Other museums in Europe contained a few cylinders
and gems, which came from Assyria and Babylonia;
but they were not classified, nor could it be deter-
mined to what exact epoch they belonged. Of As-
syrian art nothing was known, not even by analogy.
The architecture of Nineveh and Babylon was a matter
of speculation, and the poet or painter restored their


XXVI LNTBODCCTION.
palaces and temples, as best suited his theme or his
subject. A description of the temple of Belus by
Herodotus, led to an imaginary representation of the
tower of Babel. Its spiral ascent, its galleries gradu-
ally decreasing in circumference and supported by
innumerable columns, are familiar to us from the
illustrations, adorning almost the opening page of that
Book, which is associated with our earliest recol-
lections.
Such was our acquaintance four years ago with
Nineveh and Assyria —their history, their site, and
their arts. The reader will judge from the following
pages, how far recent discoveries are likely to extend
our knowledge.
October, 1848.


CONTENTS
OK
THE FIRST VOLUME.
CHAPTER I.
First Journey in Assyria. Its Ruins. Kouyunjik, Nimroud, and
Kalah Sherghat. M. Botta's Discoveries. Khorsabad. Return
to Mosul ------ Page 1
CHAP. II
Mohammed Pasha. His Cruelties. The State of the Country.
Start for Nimroud. An Arab Family. Story of Abraham and
Nimrod. Commence Excavations. Discovery of a Chamber —
of Inscriptions— of Ivory Ornaments. Return to Mosul. Con-
duct of the Pasha. Excavations commenced amongst various
Ruins. Return to Nimroud. Further Discoveries. Selamiyah.
Discovery of Sculptures. Description of Bas-reliefs. Inter-
rupted by the Pasha. Further Discovery of Sculptures. De-
position of the Pasha. Departure for Baghdad - 19
CHAP. III.
Return to Mosul. Ismail Pasha. Change in the State of the
Country. Return to Nimroud. The Ruins in Spring. Excava-
tions resumed. Further Discoveries. New Interruptions. Sheikh
Abd-ur- Rahman and the Abou Salman Arabs. Fresh Bus-


XXV1H CONTENTS.
reliefs in the North-west Corner. Discovery of the principal
Palace. Entire Bas-reliefs. Discovery of the gigantic Lions.
Surprise of the Arabs. Sensation at Mosul, and Conduct of the
Pasha and Cadi. Excavations stopped. Further Discoveries.
Description of the human-headed Lions. Reflections on their
Antiquity and Object. The Jebour Arabs. Their Sheikhs. A.
Kurdish Chief. Nimroud in March. Description of the Plain
at Sun-set. The Tunnel of Negoub. An Assyrian Inscrip-
tion - .-.... Page 51
CIIAP. IV.
Preparations for a Journey to Al Hather. Gathering of the Cara-
van. Leave Mosul. The Desert. Flocks of Camels. The
Haddedeen Arabs. An Arab Repast. An Encampment. An
Arab Tribe moving. The Tents of Sofuk. Description of the
Shammar Sheikh. His History. A Commander of the Irregular
Cavalry. Sofuk's Harem and Wives. His Mare. Ride to Al
Hather. Arab Guides. Love amongst Arabs. Their Women.
The Ruins of Al Hather. Return to Mosul. Murder of Nejris
— and of Sofuk - - - - - - 82
CHAP. V.
Discovery of small Objects. Pavement of the Chambers. An
Arab"Feast. Arrival of Tahyar Pasha. Excavations continued.
The Summer at Nimroud. A Whirlwind. Further Disco-
veries of Bas-reliefs. Description of the Sculptures. Painted
Plaster. Receipt of Vizirial Letter. Excavations at Kouy-
unjik. Fresh Discoveries at Nimroud. Surprise of the Arabs.
First Collection of Sculptures sent to England. Visit from
Tahyar Pasha. Speculations of the Turks on the Sculptures.
Remove to Mosul. Discovery of a Building in a Mound near
Kouyunjik. New Chambers opened at Nimroud - 115
CHAP. VI.
Departure for the Tiyari Mountains. Khorsabad. Sheikh Adi.
A Kurdish Encampment. A Chaldasan Village. Converts to
Roman Catholicism. Amadiyah. A Turkish Governor. Al-
banian Irregulars. An Albanian Chief. The Valley of Ber-
wari. Chaldoean Villages. A Kurdish Bey. Ashcetha 147


CONTENTS. XXIX
CHAP. VII.
Asheetha. A Nestorian House. The Massacre. Zaweetha. Nes-
torian Priests. Murghi. Lizan. Scene of the Massacre. A
Tiyari Bridge. Raola. The House of the Melek. Tiyari
Women. The District of Tkhoma. Alarm of the Inhabitants.
Church Service. Tkhoma Gowaia. A Kurdish ^Chief. Pass
into Baz. Ergub. Return to Tkhoma. Be-Alatha. Roads of
Tiyari. Chonba. Murder of Melek Ismail. Return to Asheetha.
Kasha Auraham. A Copper Mine. Challek. Ourmeli. A
Subashi. A Kurdish Saint. Malthayiah. Sculptures. Alkosh.
Tomb of the Prophet Nahum. Rabban Hormuzd. Telkef and
its Christian Inhabitants. Return to Mosul. Second Massacre
in the Nestorian Mountains. Capture and Exile of Beder Khan
Bey ------ Page 173
CHAP. VIII.
Introduction of Christianity into Assyria. Origin of the Chaldaean
or Nestorian Church. Early Missions of the Chaldasans. The
Monuments of Se-gan-foo. The Chaldaeans under the Arabs.
The Learning of the Chaldseans. Their Translations of Greek
Works. The Chaldeans after the Tatar Invasion. Prester
John. His Letter to the Greek Emperor. Extent of the
Chaldaean Church. Decline of its Power. Origin of the Name
of "Nestorians." Doctrines of the Chaldacans or Nestorians.
Their Profession of Faith. Their Tenets. Their Patriarch.
Their Language. American Missions - - 240
CHAP. IX.
Invitation to the Feast of the Yezidis. Departure from Mosul.
Baadri. Hussein Bey, the Yezidi Chief. The Birth of his Son.
History of the Yezidis. Return of a Deputation. Ride to the
Tomb of Sheikh Adi. Our Reception. Sheikh Nasr. Descrip-
tion of the Tomb. Arrival of Pilgrims. An Incident. Sheikh
Shems, or the Sun. Votive Lamps. Celebration of Rites. Yezidi
Music. The Doctrines and Religious Observances of the Sect.
Their Belief in, and Fear of, the Evil Principle. The pro-
bable Origin of their Rites. Their Orders of Priesthood. Their
Language and Books. Return to Mosul. Letter of Sheikh


XXX CONTENTS.
Nasr. Departure for the Sinjar. Abou Maria. Tel Afer.
Mirkan. Defeat of the Turkish Troops. Escape of the Yezidis-
The Village of Sinjar. Wild Asses. Return to Mosul Page 270
CHAP. X.
Excavations on a large Scale undertaken by the British Museum.
Preparations. Choice of Workmen. Dwelling Houses built at
Nimroud. Bas-reliefs discovered. Description of them. Dis-
covery of Armour and Helmets—of Vases—of new Chambers
— of the Obelisk. Description of the Obelisk. Discoveries in
the South-west Corner of the Mound. Winged Lions. Crouch-
ing Sphinxes. Discovery of Tombs in the South-east Corner
of the Mound. Arab Workmen. Mode of Irrigation. Customs
of the Arabs. Facility of Divorce. Arab Revenge. Arab
Women. The Workmen. The Tiyari or Chaldaeans. Their
Women. A Raft plundered. Seizure of an Arab Sheikh. Arab
Excitement. Departure of Sculptures for Busrah 326


LIST OF PLATES, WOODCUTS, AND PLANS.
VOLUME I.
Lowering the great winged Bull.
Frontispiece.
Plan 2. South-west Ruin, Nimroud.
Facing page 34.
Plan 3. North-west Palace, Nimroud.
Facing page 62.
Eagle-headed Figure (N. W. Palace, Nimroud.) Facing page 64.
Discovery of the gigantic Head.
Facing page 66.
Winged human-headed Lion. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
Facing page 70.
A Shammar Lady on a Camel.
In page 104.
Winged Figure. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
Facing page 125.
Winged human-headed Bull. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
Facing page 127.
The Tomb of Jonah, Kouyunjik, and the Ruins opposite Mosul.
Facing page 131.
A Nestorian House in the District of Tiyari.
In page 177.
A Wicker Bridge across the Zab near Lizan.
In page 192.
Tel Afer.
Facing page 313.
Plan 1. General Plan of the Excavations in the Mound of Nimroud.
Facing page 332
Eunuch Warrior in Battle. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud.) Facing page 337.
The Obelisk.
Facing page 347.
Sphinx. (S. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
In page 349.
Map to illustrate Journeys into Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, and Sinjar.
At the End of Volume.





NINEVEH
ITS REMAINS.
CHAPTER I.
FIRST JOURNEY IN ASSYRIA. ITS RUINS. KOUYUNJIK, N1MROCD,
AND KALAH SHERGHAT.—M. BOTTA'S DISCOVERIES KHORSABAD.
RETURN TO MOSUL.
During the autumn of 1839 and winter of 1840,
I had been wandering through Asia Minor and Syria,
scarcely leaving untrod one spot hallowed by tra-
dition, or unvisited one ruin consecrated by history.
I was accompanied by one no less curious and en-
thusiastic than myself. We were both equally care-
less of comfort and unmindful of danger. We rode
alone; our arms were our only protection; a valise
behind our saddles was our wardrobe, and we tended
our own horses, except when relieved from the duty by
the hospitable inhabitants of a Turcoman village or an
Arab tent. Thus unembarrassed by needless luxu-
ries, and uninfluenced by the opinions and prejudices
of others, we mixed amongst the people, acquired
VOL. I. B


2 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. I.
without effort their manners, and enjoyed without
alloy those emotions which scenes so novel, and spots
so rich in varied association, cannot fail to produce.
I look back with feelings of grateful delight to
those happy days when, free and unheeded, we left at
dawn the humble cottage or cheerful tent, and linger-
ing as we listed, unconscious of distance and of the
hour, found ourselves, as the sun went down, under
some hoary ruin tenanted by the wandering Arab,
or in some crumbling village still bearing a well-
known name. No experienced dragoman measured
our distances and appointed our stations. We were
honoured with no conversations by pashas, nor did
we seek any civilities from governors. We neither
drew tears nor curses from villagers by seizing their
horses, or searching their houses for provisions : their
welcome was sincere; their scanty fare was placed
before us; we ate, and came and went in peace.
I had traversed Asia Minor and Syria, visiting the
ancient seats of civilisation, and the spots which re-
ligion has made holy. I now felt an irresistible desire
to penetrate to the regions beyond the Euphrates,
to which history and tradition point as the birthplace
of the wisdom of the West. Most travellers, after a
journey through the usually frequented parts of the
East, have the same longing to cross the great river,
and to explore those lands which are separated on
the map from the confines of Syria by a vast blank
stretching from Aleppo to the banks of the Tigris.
A deep mystery hangs over Assyria, Babylonia, and
Chaldaea. With these names are linked great nations


Chap. L] MOSUL. 3
and great cities dimly shadowed forth in history;
mighty ruins, in the midst of deserts, defying, by
their very desolation and lack of definite form, the
description of the traveller; the remnants of mighty
races still roving over the land; the fulfilling and
fulfilment of prophecies; the plains to which the
Jew and the Gentile alike look as the cradle of their
race. After a journey in Syria the thoughts natu-
rally turn eastward; and without treading on the
remains of Nineveh and Babylon our pilgrimage is
incomplete.
I left Aleppo, with my companion, on the 18th of
March. We still travelled as we had been accus-
tomed—without guide or servants. The road across
the desert is at all times impracticable, except to a
numerous and well-armed caravan, and offers no ob-
ject of interest. We preferred that through Bir and
Orfa. From the latter city we traversed the low
country at the foot of the Kurdish hills, a country
little known, and abounding in curious remains. The
Egyptian frontier, at that time, extended to the east
of Orfa, and the war between the Sultan and Mo-
hammed Ali Pasha being still unfinished, the tribes
took advantage of the confusion, and were plundering
on all sides. With our usual good fortune, we suc-
ceeded in reaching Nisibin unmolested, although we
ran daily risks, and more than once found ourselves in
the midst of foraging parties, and of tents which, an
hour before, had been pillaged by the wandering bands
of Arabs. We entered Mosul on the 10th of April.
During a short stay in this town we visited the
B 2


4 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. I.
great ruins on the east bank of the river, which have
been generally believed to be the remains of Nin-
eveh.* We rode also into the desert, and explored
the mound of Kalah Sherghat, a vast ruin on the
Tigris, about fifty miles below its junction with the
Zab. As we journeyed thither we rested for the night
at the small Arab village of Hammum Ali, around
which are still the vestiges of an ancient city. From
the summit of an artificial eminence we looked down
upon a broad plain, separated from us by the river.
A line of lofty mounds bounded it to the east, and one
of a pyramidical form rose high above the rest. Be-
yond it could be faintly traced the waters of the Zab.
Its position rendered its identification easy. This
was the pyramid which Xenophon had described, and
near which the ten thousand had encamped: the ruins
around it were those which the Greek general saw
twenty-two centuries before, and which were even then
the remains of an ancient city. Although Xenophon
had confounded a name, spoken by a strange race,
with one familiar to a Greek ear, and had called the
place Larissa, tradition still points to the origin of
the city, and, by attributing its foundation to Nimrod,
whose name the ruins now bear, connect it with one
of the first settlements of the human race.f
* These ruins include the great mounds of Kouyunjik and Nebbi
Yunus.
f "He (Nimrod) went out into Assyria and builded Nineveh, the city
Rehoboth and Calab, and Resen, between Nineveh and Calah; the same
is a great city." (Gen. x. 11, 12.) The ruins of Nimroud had been iden-
tified with Resen, of which Larissa was believed, first, by Bochart, to be.
a corruption, arising from the (presumed) use, by the inhabitants of the
country, of the common Shemitic article " al" before the word. It may


Chap. I.] KALAH SHERGHAT. ")
Kalah Sherghat, like Nimroud, was an Assyrian
ruin: a vast, shapeless mass, now covered with grass,
and showing scarcely any traces of the work of man
except where the winter rains had formed ravines
down its almost perpendicular sides, and had thus
laid open its contents. A few fragments of pottery
and inscribed bricks, discovered after a careful search
amongst the rubbish which had accumulated around
the base of the great mound, served to prove that it
owed its construction to the people who had founded
the city of which Nimroud is the remains. There
was a tradition current amongst the Arabs, that
strange figures carved in black stone still existed
amongst the ruins; but we searched for them in
vain, during the greater part of a day in which we
were engaged in exploring the heaps of earth and
bricks, covering a considerable extent of country
on the right bank of the Tigris.* At the time of
our visit the country had been deserted by the
Bedouins, and was only occasionally visited by a
few plunderers from the Shammar or Aneyza tents.
We passed the night in the jungle which clothes the
banks of the river, and wandered during the day un-
disturbed by the tribes of the desert. A Cawass,
who had been sent with us by the Pasha of Mosul,
be observed, in the first place, that the philological grounds are in-
adequate; and, in the second, that if this were Resen, no room would
be left for the site of Nineveh, a still greater city.
• A memoir on our visit to these ruins by Mr. Ainsworth will be
found in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xi. I shall
give a fuller account of the place when I describe the excavations and
discoveries which I subsequently made there.
B 3


6 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chat. I.
alarmed at the solitude, and dreading the hostile
Arabs, left us in the wilderness, and turned home-
wards. But he fell into the danger he sought to
avoid. Less fortunate than ourselves, at a short
distance from Kalah Sherghat, he was met by a party
of horsemen, and fell a victim to his timidity.
Were the traveller to cross the Euphrates to seek
for such ruins in Mesopotamia and Chaldaea as he
had left behind him in Asia Minor or Syria, his
search would be vain. The graceful column rising
above the thick foliage of the myrtle, ilex, and
oleander; the gradines of the amphitheatre covering
a gentle slope, and overlooking the dark blue waters of
a lake-like bay; the richly carved cornice or capital
half hidden by the luxuriant herbage; are replaced
by the stern shapeless mound rising like a hill from
the scorched plain, the fragments of pottery, and the
stupendous mass of brickwork occasionally laid bare
by the winter rains. He has left the land where
nature is still lovely, where, in his mind's eye, he
can rebuild the temple or the theatre, half doubting
whether they would have made a more grateful im-
pression upon the senses than the ruin before him.
He is now at a loss to give any form to the rude
heaps upon which he is gazing. Those of whose works
they are the remains, unlike the Roman and the
Greek, have left no visible traces of their civilisation,
or of their arts: their influence has long since passed
away. The more he conjectures, the more vague the
results appear. The scene around is worthy of the
ruin he is contemplating ; desolation meets desolation:


CHAP. I.]
NIMROUD.
a feeling of awe succeeds to wonder; for there is
nothing to relieve the mind, to lead to hope, or to
tell of what has gone by. These huge mounds of
Assyria inade a deeper impression upon me, gave
rise to inore serious thoughts and more earnest re-
flection, than the temples of Balbec and the theatres
of Ionia.
In the middle of April I left Mosul for Baghdad.
As I descended the Tigris on a raft, I again saw the
ruins of Nimroud, and had a better opportunity of
examining them. It was evening as we approached
the spot. The spring rains had clothed the mound
with the richest verdure, and the fertile meadows,
which stretched around it, were covered with flowers
of every hue. Amidst this luxuriant vegetation
were partly concealed a few fragments of bricks,
pottery, and alabaster, upon which might be traced
the well-defined wedges of the cuneiform character.
Did not these remains mark the nature of the ruin,
it might have been confounded with a natural emi-
nence. A long line of consecutive narrow mounds,
still retaining the appearance of walls or ramparts,
stretched from its base, and formed a vast quadrangle.
The river flowed at some distance from them : its
waters, swollen by the melting of the snows on the
Armenian hills, were broken into a thousand foaming
whirlpools by an artificial barrier, built across the
stream. On the eastern bank the soil had been washed.
away by the current ; but a solid mass of masonry
still withstood its impetuosity. The Arab, who guided
my small raft, gave himself up to religious ejacula-
B 4


8 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. I.
tions as we approached this formidable cataract, over
which we were carried with some violence. Once
safely through the danger, he explained to me that
this unusual change in the quiet face of the river
was caused by a great clam which had been built by
Nimrod* and that in the autumn before the winter
rains, the huge stones of which it was constructed,
squared, and united by cramps of iron, were frequently
visible above the surface of the stream.-}- It was, in
fact, one of those monuments of a great people, to be
found in all the rivers of Mesopotamia, which were
undertaken to ensure a constant supply of water
to the innumerable canals, spreading like net-work
over the surrounding country, and which, even in
the days of Alexander, were looked upon as the
works of an ancient nation. J No wonder that the
traditions of the present inhabitants of the land
should assign them to one of the founders of the
human race! The Arab explained the connection
between the dam and the city built by Athur, the
lieutenant of Nimrod, the vast ruins of which were
• This dam is called by the Arabs, either Sukr el Nimroud, from the
tradition, or El Awayee, from tlie noise caused by the breaking of the
water over the stones. Large rafts are obliged to unload before crossing
it, and accidents frequently happen to those who neglect this precaution.
-f Diodorus Siculus, it will be remembered, states that the stones of the
bridge built by Semiramis across the Euphrates were united by similar
iron cramps, wtoilst the interstices were filled up with molten lead.
J These dams greatly impeded the fleets of the conqueror in their
navigation of the rivers of Susiana and Mesopotamia, and he caused many
of them to be removed. (Strabo, p. 1051. ed. Ox. 1807.) By Strabo they
were believed to have been constructed to prevent the ascent of the rivers
by hostile fleets; but their use is evident. Tavernier mentions, in his
Travels (vol. i. p. 226.), this very dam. He says that his raft went over
a cascade twenty-six feet high; but he must have greaUy exaggerated.


Chap. I.] NIMBOUD. 9
then before us, and of its purpose as a causeway for
the mighty hunter to cross to the opposite palace,
now represented by the mound of Hammum Ali. He
was telling me of the histories and fate of the kings
of a primitive race, still the favourite theme of the
inhabitants of the plains of Shinar, when the last
glow of twilight faded away, and I fell asleep as we
glided onward to Baghdad.
My curiosity had been greatly excited, and from
that time I formed the design of thoroughly ex-
amining, whenever it might be in my power, these
singular ruins.
It was not until the summer of 1842 that I again
passed through Mosul on my way to Constantinople. I
was then anxious to reach the Turkish capital, and,
travelling Tatar, had no time to explore ruins. I
had not, however, forgotten Nimroud. I had fre-
quently spoken to others on the subject of exca-
vations in this and another mound, to which a
peculiar interest also attached; and at one time had
reason to hope that some persons in England might
have been induced to aid in the undertaking. I
had even proposed an examination of the ruins to M.
Coste, an architect who had been sent by the French
Government, with its embassy to Persia, to draw and
describe the monuments of that country.
On my arrival at Mosul, I found that M. Botta
had, since my first visit, been named French Consul
there; and had already commenced excavations on
the opposite side of the river, in the large mound
called Kouyunjik. These excavations were on a


10 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. I.
very small scale, and, at the time of my passage, only
fragments of brick and alabaster, upon which were
engraved a few letters in the cuneiform character,
had been discovered.
Whilst detained by unexpected circumstances at
Constantinople, I entered into correspondence with a
gentleman in England on the subject of excavations;
but, with this exception, no one seemed inclined to
assist or take any interest in such an undertaking.
I also wrote to M. Botta, encouraging him to pro-
ceed, notwithstanding the apparent paucity of results,
and particularly calling his attention to the mound of
Nimroud, which, however, he declined to explore on
account of its distance from Mosul and its inconvenient
position. I was soon called away from the Turkish
capital to the provinces; and for some months nu-
merous occupations prevented me turning my atten-
tion to the ruins and antiquities of Assyria.
In the meanwhile M. Botta, not discouraged by
the want of success which had attended his first
essay, continued his excavations in the mound of
Kouyunjik: and to him is due the honour of having
found the first Assyrian monument. This remark-
able discovery owed its origin to the following cir-
cumstances. The small party employed by M. Botta
were at work on Kouyunjik, when a peasant from
a distant village chanced to visit the spot. Seeing
that every fragment of brick and alabaster uncovered
by the workmen was carefully preserved, he asked
the reason of this, to him, strange proceeding. On
being informed that they were in search of sculp-


Chap. I.] DISCOVERY OF KHORSABAD. 11
tured stones, he advised them to try the mound on
which his village was built, and in which, he de-
clared, many such things as they wanted had been
exposed on digging for the foundations of new houses.
M. Botta, having been frequently deceived by similar
stories, was not at first inclined to follow the peasant's
advice, but subsequently sent an agent and one or two
workmen to the place. After a little opposition from
the inhabitants, they were permitted to sink a well
in the mound; and at a small distance from the
surface they came to the top of a wall which, on
digging deeper, they found to be built of sculp-
tured slabs of gypsum. M. Botta, on receiving in-
formation of this discovery, went at once to the
village, which was called Khorsabad.* He directed
a wider trench to be formed, and to be carried in the
direction of the wall. He soon found that he had
opened a chamber, which was connected with others,
and constructed of slabs of gypsum covered with
sculptured representations of battles, sieges, and
similar events. His wonder may be easily imagined.
A new history had been suddenly opened to him —
the records of an unknown people were before him.
He was equally at a loss to account for the age
and the nature of the monument. The art shown
in the sculptures, the dresses of the figures, the
mythic forms on the walls, were all new to him, and
afforded no clue to the epoch of the erection of the
* This word is probably an abbreviation of Ehosrau-abad, the abode
of Khosroes. From their vicinity to the Kurdish mountains, many of the
villages in this part of Assyria have Persian names.


Chap. I.] KHORSABAD. 13
complete its ruin. The records of victories and tri-
umphs, which had long attested the power and swelled
the pride of the Assyrian kings, and had resisted the
ravages of ages, were now passing away for ever.
They could scarcely be held together until an inex-
perienced pencil could secure an imperfect evidence
of their former existence. Almost all that was first
discovered thus speedily disappeared; and the same
fate has befallen nearly every thing subsequently
found at Khorsabad. A regret is almost felt that so
precious a memorial of a great nation should have
been thus exposed to destruction, when no precau-
tion could keep entire or secure the greater part of
it; but as far as the object of the monument is con-
cerned, the intention of its founders will be amply
fulfilled, and the records of their might will be more
widely spread, and more effectually preserved, by
modern art, than the most exalted ambition could
have contemplated.
M. Botta lost no time in communicating his re-
markable discovery to the principal scientific body in
France. Knowing the interest I felt in his labours,
he allowed me to see his letters and drawings as they
passed through Constantinople; and I was amongst
the first who were made acquainted with his success.
And here I gladly avail myself of the opportunity of
mentioning, with the acknowledgment and praise
they deserve, his disinterestedness and liberality, so
honourable to one engaged in the pursuit of know-
ledge. During the entire period of his excavations,
M. Botta regularly sent me not only his descriptions,


14 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. I.
but copies of the inscriptions, without exacting any
promise as to the use I might make of them. That
there are few who would have acted thus liberally,
those who have been engaged in a search after an-
tiquities in the East will not be inclined to deny.
M. Botta's communications were laid before the
"Academie" by M. Mohl; and that body, perceiving
at once the importance of the discovery, lost no time
in applying to the Minister of Public Instruction for
means to carry on the researches. The recommend-
ation was attended to with that readiness and mu-
nificence which almost invariably distinguished the
French Government in undertakings of this nature.
Ample funds to meet the cost of extensive excava-
tions were at once assigned to M. Botta, and an
artist of acknowledged skill was placed under his
orders to draw such parts of the monument dis-
covered as could not be preserved or removed.
With the exception of a few interruptions on the
part of the local authorities, who were suspicious of
the objects of the excavations, the work was carried
on with activity and success, and by the beginning
of 1845 the monument had been completely un-
covered. The researches of M. Botta were not
extended beyond Khorsabad; and, having secured
many fine specimens of Assyrian sculpture for his
country, he returned to Europe with a rich collection
of inscriptions, the most important result of his dis-
covery.
I have thus placed before the reader, as briefly as
possible, the history of the first discoveries in Assyria.


Chap. I.] M. BOTTA's DISCOVERIES. 15
M. Botta's labours may have merited a fuller de-
scription and more ample notice; but as the works
carried on at Khorsabad were in most respects iden-
tical in their character with those which I afterwards
undertook, I have, to avoid repetition, merely given
this short sketch of his labours. Their results are
now being published in France, and his countrymen
have not been backward in recognising the extent
and importance of his discovery, and in rewarding
the zeal, discrimination, and personal sacrifices which
led to it.
The advantages which I had derived from a perusal
of M. Botta's letters, and an inspection of his drawings,
enabled me to call public attention, at an early period,
to his discovery, and to be amongst the first to hazard
an opinion on the age and origin of this remarkable
monument. I endeavoured to show, in three letters to
the "Malta Times," the general grounds upon which
such an opinion could be formed. Not having had
an opportunity of examining similar Assyrian remains,
and my knowledge of M. Botta's discoveries being in-
complete, I was led into one or two errors; but in
most respects the view taken in those letters is the
one which is now generally adopted.* It will be
* Misled by a passage in one of M. Botta's letters, I had supposed that
two varieties of the cuneiform character had been found at Khorsabad,
and had founded an argument upon this presumed fact. M. Botta, him-
self, perceiving that inscriptions had been cut on the back of the slabs,
-was, at first, led to believe that they had been taken from some more
ancient edifice. The absence of the symbol which I had inadvertently
called the " Ferouher" ultimately proved no argument; for it was dis-
covered at Nimroud, together with many other religious emblems, which
show that the Zoroastrian system was mainly derived from Assyria. I


16 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. I.
shown hereafter on what evidence we may still con-
nect the edifice uncovered at Khorsabad with the
second dynasty of Assyrian kings, or with one of
those monarchs, Essaradon or Sennacherib, who
extended his conquests over the greater part of
Asia.
The success of M. Botta had increased my anxiety
to explore the ruins of Assyria. It was evident that
Khorsabad could not stand alone. It did not repre-
sent ancient Nineveh, nor did it afford us any addi-
tional evidence as to the site of that city. If the edifice
discovered had been one of its palaces, surely other
buildings of a vaster and more magnificent character
must exist nearer the seat of government, on the
banks of the river Tigris. It was true that M. Botta
had laboured unsuccessfully for above three months in
the great mound opposite Mosul, which was usually
identified with the Assyrian capital ; but that mound
much exceeded in extent any other known ruin; and
it was possible that in some parts of it the traces of the
buildings which it once contained were as completely
lost as they were in many parts of the mound of
Khorsabad. My thoughts still went back to the ruin
of Nimroud, and to the traditions which attached to
it. I spoke to others, but received little encourage-
ment. At last, in the autumn of 1845, Sir Stratford
Canning mentioned to me his readiness to incur,
for a limited period, the expense of excavations in
make these observations, as a reviewer in the Quarterly (No. 158.) has
been led into error by my observations. The letters in the Malta Times
were reprinted in many of the English and Continental periodicals.


Chap. I.] EXCAVATIONS PBOJECTED. 17
Assyria, in the hope that, should success attend the
attempt, means would be found to carry it out on
an adequate scale. I received with joy the offer of
commencing and carrying on these excavations. The
means were now at my disposal to prosecute a work
which I had so long desired to undertake. The reader
will not, I trust, be disinclined to join with me in
feelings of gratitude towards one who, whilst he has
maintained so successfully the honour and interests of
England by his high character and eminent abilities,
has acquired for his country so many great monuments
of ancient civilisation and art.* It is to Sir Stratford
Canning we are mainly indebted for the collection of
Assyrian antiquities with which the British Museum
will be enriched; without his liberality and public
spirit the treasures of Nimroud would have been
reserved for the enterprise of those who have ap-
preciated the value and importance of the discoveries
at Khorsabad.
The enlightened and liberal spirit shown by M.
Botta is unfortunately not generally shared. It was,
* I need scarcely remind the reader that it is to Sir S. Canning we
owe the marbles of Halicarnassus now in the British-Museum. The diffi-
culties which stood in the way of the acquisition of those invaluable relics,
and the skill which was required to obtain them, are not generally known.
I can testify to the efforts and labour which were necessary for nearly
three years before the repugnance of the Ottoman government could be
overcome, and permission obtained to extract the sculptures from the
walls of a castle, which was more jealously guarded than any similar
edifice in the empire. Their removal, notwithstanding the almost insur-
mountable difficulties raised by the authorities and inhabitants of Budroon,
was most successfully effected by Mr. Alison. The Elgin marbles, and all
other remains from Turkey or Greece now in Europe, were obtained
with comparative ease.
VOL. I. C


18 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. I.
consequently, deemed most prudent and most con-
ducive to the success of the undertaking, that I should
leave Constantinople without acquainting any one
with the object of my journey. I was only furnished
with the usual documents given to travellers when
recommended by the Embassy, and with strong
letters of introduction to the authorities at Mosul
and in the neighbourhood. My preparations were
soon completed, and I started from Constantinople
by steamer to Samsoun in the middle of October.
I need scarcely trouble the reader with the details
of my progress through a country so well known
and so often written about, as that between Sam-
soun and Mosul. Anxious to reach the end of my
journey, I crossed the mountains of Pontus and the
great steppes of the Usun Yilak as fast as post-horses
could carry me, descended the high lands into the
valley of the Tigris, galloped over the vast plains of
Assyria, and reached Mosul in twelve days.


Chap. II.] MOHAMMED PASHA. 19
CHAP. II.
MOHAMMED PASHA HIS CRUELTIES. THE STATE OF THE
COUNTRY. START FOR NIMROUD. AN ARAB FAMILY. STORY
OF ABRAHAM AND NIMROD. COMMENCE EXCAVATIONS. DIS-
COVERY OF A CHAMBER OF INSCRIPTIONS OF IVORY ORNA-
MENTS. — RETURN TO MOSUL.— CONDUCT OF THE PASHA.
EXCAVATIONS COMMENCED AMONGST VARIOUS RUINS. — RETURN
TO NIMROUD.— FURTHER DISCOVERIES SELAMIYAH. — DIS-
COVERY OF SCULPTURES DESCRIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS.
INTERRUPTED BY THE PASHA. FURTHER DISCOVERY OF
SCULPTURES. — DEPOSITION OF THE PASHA. — DEPARTURE FOR
BAGHDAD.
My first step on reaching Mosul was to present my
letters to the governor of the province. Mohammed
Pasha, being a native of Candia, was usually known
as Keritli Oglu (the son of the Cretan), to distin-
guish him from his celebrated predecessor of the same
name, who was called, during his lifetime, "Injeh
Bairakdar," or the Little Standard-bearer, from the
rank he had once held in the irregular cavalry. The
appearance of his Excellency was not prepossessing,
but it matched his temper and conduct. Nature had
placed hypocrisy beyond his reach. He had one eye
and one ear; he was short and fat, deeply marked
by the small-pox, uncouth in gestures and harsh in
voice. His fame had reached the seat of his govern-
ment before him. On the road he had revived many
good old customs and impositions, which the reforming
spirit of the age had suffered to fall into decay. He
c 2


20 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
particularly insisted on dish-parassi*; or a compen-
sation in money, levied upon all villages in which
a man of such rank is entertained, for the wear and
tear of his teeth in masticating the food he con-
descends to receive from the inhabitants. On enter-
ing Mosul, he had induced several of the principal
Aghas who had fled from the town on his approach,
to return to their homes; and, having made a formal
display of oaths and protestations, cut their throats
to show how much his word could be depended upon.
At the time of my arrival, the population was in a
state of terror and despair. Even the appearance of
a casual traveller led to hopes, and reports were
whispered about the town of the deposition of the
tyrant. Of this the Pasha was aware, and hit upon
a plan to test the feelings of the people towards him.
He was suddenly taken ill one afternoon, and was
carried to his harem almost lifeless. On the following
morning the palace was closed, and the attendants
answered inquiries by mysterious motions, which
could only be interpreted in one fashion. The doubts
of the Mosuleeans gradually gave way to general re-
joicings; but at mid-day his Excellency, who had
posted his spies all over the town, appeared in perfect
health in the market-place. A general trembling
seized the inhabitants. His vengeance fell principally
upon those who possessed property, and had hitherto
escaped his rapacity. They were seized and stripped,
on the plea that they had spread reports detrimental
to his authority.
» Literally, " tooth-money."


Chap. IL] MOSUL. 21
The villages, and the Arab tribes, had not suffered
less than the townspeople. The Pacha was accus-
tomed to give instructions to those who were sent to
collect money, in three words—"Go, destroy, eat;"*
and his agents were not generally backward in enter-
ing into the spirit of them. The tribes, who had
been attacked and plundered, were retaliating upon
caravans and travellers, or laying waste the cultivated
parts of the Pashalic. The villages were deserted,
and the roads were little frequented and very in-
secure.
Such was the Pasha to whom I was introduced two
days after my arrival by the British Vice-Consul,
Mr. Rassam. He read the letters which I presented
to him, and received me with that civility which a
traveller generally expects from a Turkish functionary
of high rank. His anxiety to know the object of my
journey was evident, but his curiosity was not grati-
fied for the moment.
There were many reasons which rendered it neces-
sary that my plans should be concealed, until I was
ready to put them into execution. Although I nad
always experienced from M. Botta the most friendly
assistance, there were others who did not share his
sentiments; from the authorities and the people of
the town I could only expect the most decided op-
position. On the 8th of November, having secretly
procured a few tools, and engaged a mason at the
moment of my departure, and carrying with me a
* To eat money, i. e. to get money unlawfully or by pillage, is a com-
mon expression in the East.
c 3


22 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
variety of guns, spears, and other formidable weapons,
I declared that I was going to hunt wild boars in a
neighbouring village, and floated down the Tigris on
a small raft constructed for my journey. I was
accompanied by Mr. Ross, a British merchant of
Mosul*, my Cawass, and a servant.
At this time of the year more than five hours are
required to descend the Tigris, from Mosul to Nim-
roud. It was sunset before we reached the Awai,
or dam across the river. We landed and walked to
the village of Naifa. No light appeared as we ap-
proached, n©r were we even saluted by the dogs,
which usually abound in an Arab village. We had
entered a heap of ruins. I was about to return to
the raft, upon which we had made up our minds to
pass the night, when the glare of a fire lighted up
the entrance to a miserable hovel. Through a crevice
in the wall, I saw an Arab family crouching round a
heap of half-extinguished embers. The dress of the
man, the ample cloak and white turban, showed that
he belonged to one of the Arab tribes, which cultivate
a little land on the borders of the desert, and are dis:
tinguished, by their more settled habits, from the
Bedouins. Near him were three women, lean and
haggard, their heads almost concealed in black hand-
kerchiefs, and the rest of their persons enveloped in
* Mr. Ross will perhaps permit me to acknowledge in a note, the
valuable assistance I received from him, during my labours in Assyria.
His knowledge of the natives, and intimate' acquaintance with the re-
sources of the country, enabled him to contribute much to the success of
my undertaking; whilst to his friendship I am indebted for many pleasant
hours, which would have been passed wearily in a land of strangers.


Chap. IL] NIMROUD. 23
the striped aba. Some children, nearly naked, and
one or two mangy greyhounds completed the group.
As we entered all the party rose, and showed some
alarm at the sudden appearance of strangers. The
man, however, seeing that we were Europeans, bid
us welcome, and spreading some corn-sacks on the
ground, invited us to be seated. The women and
children retreated into a corner of the hut. Our
host, whose name was Awad or Abd-Allah, was a
sheikh of the Jehesh. His tribe had been plundered
by the Pasha, and was now scattered in different
parts of the country; he had taken refuge in this
ruined village. He told us that owing to the extor-
tions and perfidy of Keritli Oglu, the villages in the
neighbourhood had been deserted, and that the Arab
tribe of Abou Salman had moved from the plain of
Nimroud, which they usually inhabited, to the south
of the Zab, and had joined with the Tai in their
marauding excursions into the country on this side
of the river. The neighbourhood, he said, was con-
sequently insecure, and the roads to Mosul almost
closed. Awad had learnt a little Turkish, and was
intelligent and active. Seeing, at once, that he
would be useful, I acquainted him with the object of
my journey; offering him the prospect of regular
employment in the event of the experiment proving
successful, and assigning him regular wages as super-
intendent of the workmen. He had long been ac-
quainted with the ruins, and entertained me with tra-
ditions connected with them. "The palace," said he,
"was built by Athur, the Kiayah, or lieutenant of
c 4


24 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IL
Nimrod. Here the holy Abraham, peace be with
him! cast down and brake in pieces the idols which
were worshipped by the unbelievers. The impious
Nimrod, enraged at the destruction of his gods, sought
to slay Abraham, and waged war against him. But
the prophet prayed to God, and said, 'Deliver me,
0 God, from this man, who worships stones, and
boasts himself to be the lord of all beings,' and God
said to him, 'How shall I punish him?' And the
prophet answered, 'To Thee armies are as nothing,
and the strength and power of men likewise. Before
the smallest of thy creatures will they perish.' And
God was pleased at the faith of the prophet, and he
sent a gnat, which vexed Nimrod night and day, so
that he built himself a room of glass in yonder
palace, that he might dwell therein, and shut out the
insect. But the gnat entered also, and passed by his
ear into his brain, upon which it fed, and increased
in size day by day, so that the servants of Nimrod
beat his head with a hammer continually, that he
might have some ease from his pain; but he died
after, suffering these torments for four hundred
years."*
Such are the tales to this day repeated by the
* This and similar traditions are found in a work called Kusset el
Nimroud (Stories of Nimrod), which Rich represents the inhabitants of
the villages near the ruins as reading during the winter nights. Although
there is no one in these days within some miles of the place who possesses
the work, or could read it if he did, the tales it contains are current
amongst the Arabs of the neighbourhood. I heard of several MSS. of
the Kusset at Mosul; but as they are classed amongst religious volumes,
1 was unable to procure a copy. (See note in chap. xxi. of Sale's Koran,
for a story somewhat similar to that in the text.)


Chap. II.] NIMROUD. 25
Arabs who wander round the remains of a great
city; which, by their traditions, they unwittingly help
to identify.
Awad volunteered to walk, in the middle of the
night, to Selamiyah, a village three miles distant, and
to some Arab tents in the neighbourhood, to procure
men to assist in the excavations.
I had slept little during the night. The hovel in
which we had taken shelter, and its inmates, did not
invite slumber; but such scenes and companions
were not new to me: they could have been for-
gotten, had my brain been less excited. Hopes,
long cherished, were now to be realised, or were to
end in disappointment. Visions of palaces under-
ground, of gigantic monsters, of sculptured figures,
and endless inscriptions, floated before me. After
forming plan after plan for removing the earth, and
extricating these treasures, I fancied myself wander-
ing in a maze of chambers from which I could find
no outlet. Then again, all was reburied, and I was
standing on the grass-covered mound. Exhausted,
I was at length sinking into sleep, when hearing the
voice of Awad, I rose from my carpet, and joined
him outside the hovel. The day already dawned;
he had returned with six Arabs, who agreed for a
small sum to work under my direction.
The lofty cone and broad mound of Nimroud
broke like a distant mountain on the morning sky.
But how changed was the scene since my former
visit! The ruins were no longer clothed with ver-
dure and many-coloured flowers; no signs of habi-


26 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
tation, not even the black tent of the Arab, was seen
upon the plain. The eye wandered over a parched
and barren waste, across which occasionally swept
the whirlwind, dragging with it a cloud of sand.
About a mile from us was the small village of Nim-
roud, like Naifa, a heap of ruins.
Twenty minutes' walk brought us to the principal
mound. The absence of all vegetation enabled me
to examine the remains with which it was covered.
Broken pottery and fragments of bricks, both in-
scribed with the cuneiform character, were strewed
on all sides. The Arabs watched my motions as I
wandered to and fro, and observed with surprise the
objects I had collected. They joined, however, in
the search, and brought me handfuls of rubbish,
amongst which I found with joy the fragment of a
bas-relief. The material on which it was carved had
been exposed to fire, and resembled, in every respect,
the burnt gypsum of Khorsabad. Convinced from
this discovery that sculptured remains must still
exist in some part of the mound, I sought for a place
where excavations might be commenced with a pro-
spect of success. Awad led me to a piece of alabaster
which appeared above the soil. We could not re-
move it, and on digging downward, it proved to be
the upper part of a large slab. I ordered all the
men to work around it, and they shortly uncovered a
second slab to which it had been united. Continuing
in the same line, we came upon a third; and, in the
course of the morning, laid bare ten more, the whole
forming a square, with one stone missing at the N.W.


Chap. II.] DISCOVERIES. 27
corner. It was evident that the top of a chamber had
been discovered, and that the gap was its entrance.*
I now dug down the face of the stones, and an in-
scription in the cuneiform character was soon exposed
to view. Similar inscriptions occupied the centre of
all the slabs, which were in the best preservation;
but plain, with the exception of the writing. Leaving
half the workmen to uncover as much of the chamber
as possible, I led the rest to the S.W. corner of the
mound, where I had observed many fragments of
calcined alabaster.
I dug at once into the side of the mound, which
was here very steep, and thus avoided the necessity of
removing much earth. We came almost immediately
to a wallf, bearing inscriptions in the same character
as those already described; but the slabs had evi-
dently been exposed to intense heat, were cracked in
every part, and, reduced to lime, threatened to fall to
pieces as soon as uncovered.
Night interrupted our labours. I returned to the
village well satisfied with their result. It was now
evident that buildings of considerable extent existed
in the mound; and that although some had been de-
stroyed by fire, others had escaped the conflagration.
As there were inscriptions, and as the fragment of a
bas-relief had been found, it was natural to conclude
that sculptures were still buried under the soil. I
determined to follow the search at the N.W. corner,
* This was the chamber marked A on plan 3.
f Back of wall 7, plan 2.


28 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
and to empty the chamber partly uncovered during
the day.
On returning to the village, I removed from the
crowded hovel in which we had passed the night.
With the assistance of Awad, who was no less
pleased than myself with our success, we patched up
with mud the least ruined house in the village, and
restored its falling roof. We contrived at least to
exclude, in some measure, the cold night winds; and
to obtain a little privacy for my companion and
myself.
Next morning my workmen were increased by
five Turcomans from Selamiyah, who had been at-
tracted by the prospect of regular wages. I em-
ployed half of them in emptying the chamber partly
uncovered on the previous day, and the rest in fol-
lowing the wall at the S.W. corner of the mound.
Before evening, the work of the first party was com-
pleted, and 1 found myself in a room built of slabs
about eight feet high, and varying from six to four
feet in breadth, placed upright and closely fitted
together. One of the slabs had fallen backwards
from its place; and was supported, in a slanting
position, by the soil behind. Upon it was rudely in-
scribed, in Arabic characters, the name of Ahmed
Pasha, one of the former hereditary governors of
Mosul. A native of Selamiyah remembered that some
Christians were employed to dig into the mound
about thirty years before, in search of stone for the
repair of the tomb of Sultan Abd-Allah, a Mussulman
Saint, buried on the left bank of the Tigris, a few


Chap. II.] DISCOVERIES. 29
miles below its junction with the Zab. They un-
covered this slab; but being unable to move it, they
cut upon it the name of their employer, the Pasha.
My informant further stated that, in another part
of the mound, he had forgotten the precise spot, they
had found sculptured figures, which they broke in
pieces, the fragments being used in the reparation of
the tomb.
The bottom of the chamber was paved with smaller
slabs than those employed in the construction of the
walls. They were covered with inscriptions on both
sides, and on removing one of them, I found that it
had been placed upon a layer of bitumen which must
have been in a liquid state, for it had retained, with
remarkable distinctness and accuracy, an impression
of the characters carved upon the stone. The in-
scriptions on the face of the upright slabs were about
twenty lines in length, and all were precisely similar.
In one corner, as it has been observed, a slab was
wanting, and although no remains of building could
be traced, it was evident from the continuation of the
pavement beyond the walls of the chamber, that this
was the entrance. As the soil had been worn away
by the rains to within a few inches of the tops of the
upright slabs, I could form no conjecture as to the
original height of the room, or as to the nature of the
walls above the casing of alabaster.
In the rubbish near the bottom of the chamber,
I found several ivory ornaments, upon which were
traces of gilding; amongst them was the figure of
a man in long robes, carrying in one hand the


30 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
Egyptian crux ansata, part of a crouching sphinx,
and flowers designed with great taste and elegance.
Awad, who had his own suspicions of the object of
my search, which he could scarcely persuade himself
was limited to mere stones, carefully collected all the
scattered fragments of gold leaf he could find in the
rubbish; and, calling me aside in a mysterious and
confidential fashion, produced them wrapped up in a
piece of dingy paper. "0 Bey," said he, "Wallah!
your books are right, and the Franks know that
which is hid from the true believer. Here is the
gold, sure enough, and, please God, we shall find it
all in a few days. Only don't say anything about it
to those Arabs, for they are asses and cannot hold
their tongues. The matter will come to the ears of
the Pasha." The Sheikh was much surprised, and
equally disappointed, when I generously presented
him with the treasures he had collected, and all such
as he might hereafter discover. He left me, mutter-
ing " Yia Rubbi!" and other pious ejaculations, and
lost in conjectures as to the meaning of these strange
proceedings.
On reaching the foot of the slabs in the S.W.
corner, we found a great accumulation of charcoal,
which was further evidence of the cause of the
destruction of one of the buildings discovered. I
dug also in several directions in this part of the
mound, and in many places came upon walls branch-
ing out at different angles.
On the third day, I opened a trench in the high
conical mound, and found nothing but fragments of


Chap. II.] RETUKN TO MOSUL. 31
inscribed bricks. I also dug at the back of the north
end of the chamber first explored, in the expectation
of discovering other walls beyond, but unsuccessfully.
As my chief aim was to prove the existence, as soon
as possible, of sculptures, all my workmen were moved
to the S.W. corner, where the many ramifications
of the building already identified, promised speedier
success. I continued the excavations in this part of
the mound until the 13th, still uncovering inscrip-
tions, but finding no sculptures.
Some days having elapsed since my departure from
Mosul, and the experiment having been now suffi-
ciently tried, it was time to return to the town and
acquaint the Pasha, who had, no doubt, already heard
of my proceedings, with the object of my researches.
I started, therefore, early in the morning of the 14th,
and galloped to Mosul in about three hours.
I found the town in great commotion. In the first
place, his Excellency had, on the day before, en-
trapped his subjects by the reports of his death, in
the manner already described, and was now actively
engaged in seeking pecuniary compensation for the
insult he had received in the rejoicings of the popu-
lation. In the second, the British Vice-Consul having
purchased an old building in which to store his stock
in trade, the Cadi, a fanatic, and a man of the most
infamous character, on the pretence that the Franks
had formed a design of buying up the whole of
Turkey, was endeavouring to raise a riot, which was
to end in the demolition of the Consulate and other
acts of violence. I called on the Pasha, and, in


32 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IT.
the first place, congratulated him on his speedy
recovery; a compliment which he received with a
grim smile of satisfaction. He then introduced
the subject of the Cadi, and the disturbance he had
created. "Does that ill-conditioned fellow," ex-
claimed he, "think that he has Sheriff Pasha (his
immediate predecessor) to deal with, that he must
be planning a riot in the town? When I was at
Siwas the Ulema tried to excite the people because I
encroached upon a burying-ground. But I made
them cat dirt! Wallah! I took up every gravestone
and built up the castle walls with them." He pre-
tended at first to be ignorant of the excavations at
Nimroud; but subsequently thinking that he would
convict me of prevarication in my answers to his
questions as to the amount of treasure discovered,
pulled out of his writing-tray a scrap of paper, as
dingy as that produced by Awad, in which was also
preserved an almost invisible particle of gold leaf.
This, he said, had been brought to him by the com-
mander of the irregular troops stationed at Selamiyah,
who had been watching my proceedings. I sug-
gested that he should name an agent to be present as
long as I worked at Nimroud, to take charge of all the
precious metals that might be discovered. He pro-
mised to write on the subject to the chief of the
irregulars; but offered no objection to the continua-
tion of my researches.
Reports of the wealth extracted from the ruins
had already reached Mosul, and had excited the cu-
pidity and jealousy of the Cadi and principal inhabit-


Chap. II.] JERRAIYAH. 33
ants of the place. Others, who well knew my object,
and might have spared me any additional interrup-
tion without a sacrifice of their national character,
were not backward in throwing obstacles in my way,
and in fanning the prejudices of the authorities and
natives of the town. It was evident that I should
have to contend against a formidable opposition ; but
as the Pasha had not, as yet, openly objected to my
proceedings, I hired several Nestorian Chaldfeans, who
had left their mountains for the winter to seek em-
ployment in Mosul, and sent them to Nimroud. At
the same time I engaged agents to explore several
mounds in the neighbourhood of the town, hoping to
ascertain the existence of sculptured buildings in
some part of the country, before steps were taken to
interrupt me.
Whilst at Mosul, Mormous, an Arab of the tribe of
Haddedeen, informed me that figures had been acci-
dentally uncovered in a mound near the village of
Tel Kef. As he offered to take me to the place, we
rode out together; but he only pointed out the site
of an old quarry, with a few rudely hewn stones.
Such disappointments were daily* occurring; and I
wearied myself in scouring the country to see remains
which had been most minutely described to me as
groups of sculptures, and slabs covered with writing,
and which generally proved to be the ruin of some
modern building, or an early tombstone inscribed
with Arabic characters.
The mounds, which I directed to be opened, were
those of Baasheikha (of considerable size), Baazani,
VOL. I. D


34 NINEVEH AND ITS EEMAINS. [Cbap. II.
Karamles, Karakush, Yara, and Jerraiyah. Con-
nected with the latter ruin many strange tales were
current in the country. It was said that on the mound
formerly stood a temple of black stone, held in great
reverence by the Yezidis, or worshippers of the
devil. In this building were all manner of sculp-
tured figures, and the walls were covered with in-
scriptions in an unknown language. When the Bey
of Rowandiz fell upon the Yezidis, and massacred
all those who were unable to escape, he destroyed
this house of idols; but the materials, of which the
walls were built, were only thrown down, and were
supposed to be now covered by a small accumulation of
rubbish. The lower part of an Assyrian figure, carved
in relief on basalt, dug up, it was said, in the mound,
was actually brought to me; but I had afterwards
reason to suspect that it was discovered at Khor-
sabad. Excavations were carried on for some time
at Jerraiyah, but no remains of the Yezidi temple were
brought to light.
Having finished my arrangements in Mosul, I re-
turned to Ximroud on the 19th. During my absence,
the workmen, under the direction of my Cawass, had
carried the excavations along the back of the wall c,
in plan 2., and had discovered the entrance d. Being
anxious to make as much progress as possible, I
increased my party to thirty men, and distributed
them in three sets over the S. W. corner of the
mound. By opening long trenches at right angles
in various directions, we came upon the top of wall
77i, built of slabs with inscriptions similar to those



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3G NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Ca*p. II.
workmen descended by steps. Parts of the wails were
now exposed to view; but it was impossible to con-
jecture which course they took, or whether the slabs
were facing the inside, or formed the back of the
chamber which had probably been discovered.
The Abou Salman and Tai Arabs continuing their
depredations in the plains of Nimroud and sur-
rounding country, I deemed it prudent to remove
from Naifa, where I had hitherto resided, to Sela-
miyah. The latter village is built on a rising ground
near the Tigris, and was formerly a place of some im-
portance, being mentioned at a very early period as a
market town by the Arab geographers, who generally
connect it with the ruins of Athur or Nimroud. It
probably occupied an ancient site, and in a line of
mounds now at a considerable distance from the
village, but enclosing it, can be traced the original
walls. Even five years ago Selamiyah was a
flourishing place, and could furnish 150 well armed
horsemen. The Pasha had, however, plundered it;
and the inhabitants had fled to the mountains or
into the Baghdad territories. Ten miserable huts now
stood in the midst of the ruins of bazaars and streets
surrounding a kasr or palace, belonging to the family of
the old hereditary Pashas, well built of Mosul alabaster,
but rapidly falling into decay. I had intended to
take possession of this building, which was occupied
by a few Hytas or irregular troops; but the rooms
were in such a dilapidated condition that the low
mud hut of the Kiayah appeared to be both safer
and warmer. I accordingly spread my carpet in one


Chap. II.] SELAMIYAH. 37
of its corners, and giving the owner a few piastres
to finish other dwelling-places which he had com-
menced, established myself for the winter. The
premises, which were speedily completed, consisted of
four hovels, surrounded by a wall built of mud, and
covered in with reeds and boughs of trees plastered
over with the same material. I occupied half of the
largest habitation, the other half being appropriated
for various domestic animals, — cows, bullocks, and
other beasts of the plough. We were separated by a
wall; in which, however, numerous apertures served
as a means of communication. These I studiously
endeavoured for some time to block up. A second
hut was devoted to the wives, children, and poultry of
my host; a third served as kitchen and servants' hall:
the fourth was converted into a stall for my horses.
In the enclosure formed by the buildings and the outer
wall, the few sheep and goats which had escaped the ra-
pacity of the Pasha, congregated during tlie night, and
kept up a continual bleating and coughing until they
were milked and turned out to pasture at day-break.
The roofs not being constructed to exclude the
winter rains now setting in, it required some exercise
of ingenuity to escape the torrent which descended into
my apartment. I usually passed the night on these
occasions crouched up in a corner, or under a rude
table which I had constructed. The latter, having
been surrounded by trenches, to carry off the accu-
mulating waters, generally afforded the best shelter.
My Cawass, who was a Constantinopolitan, complained
bitterly of the hardships he was compelled to endure,
p 3


38 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
and I had some difficulty in prevailing upon my ser-
vants to remain with me.
The present inhabitants of Selamiyah, and of
most of the villages in this part of the Pashalic of
Mosul, are Turcomans, descendants of tribes brought
by the early Turkish Sultans from the north of Asia
Minor, to people a country which had been laid waste
by repeated massacres and foreign invasions. In this
portion of the Ottoman Empire, except in Mosul and
the Mountains, there is scarcely a vestige of the ancient
population. The tribes which inhabit the Desert were
brought from the Jebel Shammar, in Nedjd, almost
within the memory of man. The inhabitants of the
plains to the east of the Tigris are mostly Turcomans
and Kurds, mixed with Arabs, or with Yezidis, who
are strangers in the land, and whose origin can-
not easily be determined. A few Chaldaeans and
Jacobite Christians, scattered in Mosul and the
neighbouring villages, or dwelling in the most inac-
cessible part of the mountains, their places of refuge
from the devastating bands of Tamerlane, are pro-
bably the only descendants of that great people which
once swayed, from these plains, the half of Asia.
The Yuz-bashi, or captain of the irregular troops,
one Daoud Agha, a native of the north of Asia Minor,
came to call upon me as soon as I was established in
my new quarters. Like most men of his class, ac-
knowledged freebooters*, he was frank and intel-
* The irregular cavalry, [Hytas as they are called in this part of
Turkey, and Bashi-bozuks in Roumelia and Anatolia,] are collected from
all classes and provinces. A man, known for his courage and daring, is


Cn
. II.] DISCOVERIES. 39
ligent. He tendered me his services, entertained me
with his adventures, and planned hunting expedi-
tions. A few presents secured his adherence, and he
proved himself afterwards a very useful and faithful
ally.
I had now to ride three miles every morning to the
mound; and my workmen, who were afraid, on ac-
count of the Arabs, to live at Naifa, returned, after
the day's labour, to Selamiyah.
The excavations were still carried on as actively as
the means at my disposal would permit. The en-
trance, d (plan 2.), had now been completely exposed,
and the backs of several slabs of wall d had been un-
covered. On them were the usual inscriptions, and
the corner-stone (No. 4.), which had evidently been
brought from another building, was richly ornamented
with carved flowers and scroll-work. But still no
sculptures had been discovered; nor could any idea
yet formed of the relative position of the walls. I
named Ilyta-bashi, or chief of the Hytas, and is furnished with teskeres,
orders for pay and provisions, for so many horsemen, from four or live
hundred to a thousand or more. He collects all the vagrants and free-
booters he can find to make up his number. They must provide their
own arms and horses, although sometimes they are furnished with them
by the Ilyta-bashi, who deducts a part of their pay until he reimburses
himself. The best Hytas are Albanians and Lazes, and Ihey form a
very effective body of irregular cavalry. Their pay at Mosul is small,
amounting to about eight shillings a month; in other provinces it is
considerably more. They are quartered on the villages, and are the
terror of the inhabitants, whom they plunder and ill-treat as they think
fit. When a Hyta-bashi has established a reputation for himself, his
followers are numerous and devoted. He wanders about the provinces,
and like a condottiere of the middle ages, sells his services, and those
of his troops, to the Pasha who offers most pay, and the best'prospects of
plunder.
d 4


40 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
ordered a trench to be opened obliquely from the
entrance (d) into the interior of the mound, pre-
suming that we should ultimately find the opposite
side of the chamber, to which, it appeared probable,
we had found the passage. After removing a large
accumulation of earth mixed with charcoal, charred
wood, and broken bricks, we reached the top of wall
/, on the afternoon of the 28th November. In order
to ascertain whether we were in the inside of a
chamber, the workmen were directed to clear away
the earth from both sides of the slabs. The south face
was unsculptured, but the first stroke of the pick on
the opposite side disclosed the top of a bas-relief.
The Arabs were no less excited than myself by the
discovery; and notwithstanding a violent shower of
rain, working until dark, they completely exposed to
view two slabs (Nos. 1. and 2.).
On each slab were two bas-reliefs, separated from
one another by a band of inscriptions. The subject
on the upper part of No. 1. was a battle scene. Two
chariots, drawn by horses richly caparisoned, were
each occupied by a group of three warriors; the
principal person in both groups was beardless, and
evidently an eunuch. He was clothed in a complete
suit of mail, and wore a pointed helmet on his head,
from the sides of which fell lappets covering the ears,
the lower part of the face, and the neck. The left
hand, the arm being extended, grasped a bow at full
stretch; whilst the right, drawing the string to the
ear, held an arrow ready to be discharged. A
second warrior urged, with the reins and whip, to the


Chap. II.] discovery of sculptures. 41
utmost of their speed, three horses, which were gal-
loping over the plain. A third, without helmet, and
with flowing hair and beard, held a shield for the
defence of the principal figure. Under the horses'
feet, and scattered about the relief, were the con-
quered, wounded by the arrows of the conquerors.*
I observed with surprise the elegance and richness of
the ornaments, the faithful and delicate delineation of
the limbs and muscles, both in the men and horses,
and the knowledge of art displayed in the grouping
of the figures, and the general composition. In all
these respects, as well as in costume, this sculpture
appeared to me not only to differ from, but to surpass,
the bas-reliefs of Khorsabad. I traced also, in the cha-
racter used in the inscription, a marked difference from
that found on the monuments discovered by M.Botta.
Unfortunately, the slab had been exposed to fire,
and was so much injured that its removal was hope-
less. The edges had, moreover, been cut away, to the
injury of some of the figures and of the inscription;
and as the next slab (No. 2.) was reversed, it was
evident that both had been brought from another
building. This fact rendered any conjecture, as to
the origin and form of the edifice we were exploring,
still more difficult.
The lower bas-relief on No. 1. represented the siege
of a castle or walled city. To the left were two
warriors, each holding a circular shield in one hand,
and a short sword in the other. A tunic, confined at
* "The Monuments of Nineveb," Plate 28.


42 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
the waist by a girdle, and ornamented with a fringe
of tassels, descended to the knee; a quiver was sus-
pended at the back, and the left arm was passed
through the bow, which was thus kept by the side,
ready for use. They wore the pointed helmets before
described. The foremost warrior was ascending a
ladder placed against the castle. Three turrets, with
angular battlements, rose above walls similarly orna-
mented. In the first turret were two warriors, one
in the act of discharging an arrow, the other raising
a shield and casting a stone at the assailants, from
whom the besieged were distinguished by their head-
dress,— a simple fillet binding the hair above the
temples. Their beards, at the same time, were less
carefully arranged. The' second turret was occupied
by a slinger preparing his sling. In the interval be-
tween this turret and the third, and over an arched
gateway, was a female figure known by her long hair
descending upon the shoulders in ringlets. Her right
hand was raised as if in the act of asking for
mercy. In the third turret were two more of the
besieged, the first discharging an arrow, the second
elevating his shield, and endeavouring with a torch
to burn an instrument resembling a catapult, which
had been brought up to the wall by an inclined plane
apparently built on a heap of boughs and rubbish.
These figures were out of all proportion when com-
pared with the size of the building. A warrior with
a pointed helmet, bending on one knee, and holding a
torch in his right hand, was setting fire to the gate of
the castle, whilst another in full armour was forcing


Chap. II.] INTERRUPTIONS. 43
the stones from its foundations with an instrument,
probably of iron, resembling a blunt spear. Between
them was a wounded man falling headlong from the
walls.*
No. 2. was a corner-stone very much injured, the
greater part of the relief having been cut away to
reduce it to convenient dimensions. The upper part,
or the lower as reversed, was occupied by two war-
riors; the foremost in a pointed helmet, riding on one
horse and leading a second ; the other, without helmet,
standing in a chariot, and holding the reins loosely in
his hands. The horses had been destroyed, and the
marks of the chisel were visible on many parts of the
slab, the sculpture having been in some places care-
fully defaced. The lower bas-relief represented a
singular subject. On the battlements of the castle,
two stories high, and defended by many towers, stood a
woman tearing her hair to show her grief. Beneath
the walls by the side of a stream, figured by numerous
undulating lines, crouched a fisherman drawing from
the water a fish he had caught.f This slab had been
exposed to fire like that adjoining, and had sustained
too much injury to be removed.
As I was meditating in the evening over my dis-
covery, Daoud Agha entered, and seating himself near
me, delivered a long speech, to the effect that he was
a servant of the Pasha, who was again the slave of
the Sultan; and that servants were bound to obey
the commands of their master, however disagreeable
* "The Monuments of Nineveh," Plate 29.
t Ibid., Plate 39.


44 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
and unjust they might be. I saw at once to what
this exordium was about to lead, and was prepared
for the announcement that he had received orders
from Mosul to stop the excavations by threatening
those who were inclined to work for me. On the
following morning, therefore, I rode to the town, and
waited upon his Excellency. He pretended to be
taken by surprise, disclaimed having given any such
orders, and directed his secretary to write at once
to the commander of the irregular troops, who- was
to give me every assistance rather than throw im-
pediments in my way. He promised to let me have
the letter in the afternoon before I returned to Sela-
miyah; but an officer came to me soon after, and
stated that as the Pasha was unwilling to detain me
he would forward it in the night. I rode back to the
village, and acquainted Daoud Agha with the result
of my visit. About midnight, however, he returned to
me, and declared that a horseman had just brought
him more stringent orders than any he had yet re-
ceived, and that on no account was he to permit me
to carry on the work.
Surprised at this inconsistency, I returned to
Mosul early next day, and again called upon the
Pasha. "It was with deep regret," said he, "I
learnt, after your departure yesterday, that the
mound in which you are digging had been used as a
burying-ground by Mussulmans, and was covered with
their graves; now you are aware that by the law it
is forbidden to disturb a tomb, and the Cadi and
Mufti have already made representations to me on


Chai-. II.] CONDUCT OF THE PASHA. 45
the subject." "In the first place," replied I, "being
pretty well acquainted with the mound, I can state
that no graves have been disturbed ; in the second,
after the wise and firm '"politico' which your Ex-
cellency exhibited at Siwas, grave-stones would pre-
sent no difficulty. Please God, the Cadi and Mufti
have profited by the lesson which your Excellency
gave to the ill-mannered Ulema of that city." "In
Siwas," returned he, immediately understanding my
meaning, "I had Mussulmans to deal with, and
there was tanzimat*, but here we have only Kurds
and Arabs, and, Wallah! they are beasts. No, I
cannot allow you to proceed; you are my dearest
and most intimate friend; if any thing happens to
you, what grief should I not suffer! your life is
more valuable than old stones; besides, the respon-
sibility would fall upon my head." Finding that the
Pasha had resolved to interrupt my researches, I
pretended to acquiesce in his answer, and requested
that a Cawass of his own might be sent with me to
Nimroud, as I wished to draw the sculptures and copy
the inscriptions which had already been uncovered.
To this he consented, and ordered an officer to accom-
pany me. Before leaving Mosul, I learnt with regret
from what quarter the opposition to my proceedings
chiefly came.
On my return to Selamiyah there was little diffi-
culty in inducing the Pasha's Cawass to countenance
the employment of a few workmen to guard the sculp-
* The reformed system introduced into most provinces of Turkey, but
which had not yet been extended to Mosul and Baghdad.


46 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. II.
tures during the day ; and as Daoud Agha considered
that this functionary's presence relieved him from
any further responsibility, he no longer interfered
with any experiment I might think proper to make.
Wishing to ascertain the existence of the graves, and
also to draw one of the bas-reliefs, which had been
uncovered, though not to continue the excavations
for a day or two, I rode to the ruins on the following
morning, accompanied by the Hytas and their chief,
who were going their usual rounds in search of
plundering Arabs. Daoud Agha confessed to me on
our way that he had received orders to make graves
on the mound, and that his troops had been em-
ployed for two nights in bringing stones from distant,
villages for that purpose.* "We have destroyed more
real tombs of the true Believers," said he, "in making
sham ones, than you could have defiled between the
Zab and Selamiyah. We have killed our horses and
ourselves in carrying those accursed stones." A
steady rain setting in, I left the horsemen, and re-
turned to the village.
In the evening Daoud Agha brought back with him
a prisoner and two of his followers severely wounded.
He had fallen in with a party of Arabs under Sheikh
Abd-ur-rahman of the Abou Salman, whose object in
crossing the Zab had been to plunder me as I worked
at the mound. After a short engagement, the Arabs
were compelled to recross the river.
I continued to employ a few men to open trenches
* In Arabia, the graves are merely marked by large stones placed
upright at the head and feet, and in a heap over the body.


Chap. II.] DISCOVERY OF BAS-RELIEFS. 47
by way of experiment, and was not long in discover-
ing other sculptures. Near the western edge we came
upon the lower part of several gigantic figures, un-
injured by fire.* It was from this place that in the
time of Ahmed Pasha, materials were taken for re-
building the tomb of Sultan Abd-Allah, and the slabs
had been sawn in half, and otherwise injured. At the
foot of the S.E. corner was found a crouching lion,
rudely carved in basalt, which appeared to have fallen
from the building above, and to have been exposed
for centuries to the atmosphere. In the centre of the
mound we uncovered part of a pair of gigantic winged
bulls, the head and half the wings of which had been
destroyed. Their length was fourteen feet, and their
height must have been originally the same. On
the backs of the slabs, upon which these animals
had been carved in high relief, were inscriptions
in large and well-cut characters. A pair of small
winged lionsf, the heads and upper part destroyed,
were also discovered. They appeared to form an
entrance into a chamber, were admirably designed
and very carefully executed. Finally, a bas-relief re-
presenting a human figure, nine feet high, the right
hand elevated, and carrying in the left a branch with
three flowers, resembling the poppy, was found in
wall k (plan 2.). I uncovered only the upper part of
these sculptures, satisfied with proving their existence,
without exposing them to the risk of injury, should
my labours be at any time interrupted. Still no con-
* Wall t, in plan 2. -f Entrance to chamber BB, plan 3.


48 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. 1L
jecture could be formed as to the contents of the
mound, or as to the nature of the buildings I was
exploring. Only detached and unconnected walls had
been discovered, and it could not even be determined
which side of them had been laid bare.
The experiment had been fairly tried; there was
no longer any doubt of the existence not only of
sculptures and inscriptions, but even of large edifices
in the interior of the mound of Nimroud, as all parts
of it that had yet been examined, furnished remains
of buildings and carved slabs. I lost no time, there-
fore, in acquainting Sir Stratford Canning with my
discovery, and in urging the necessity of a Firman,
or order from the Porte, which would prevent any
future interference on the part of the authorities, or
the inhabitants of the country.
It was now nearly Christmas, and as it was de-
sirable to remove from the mound all the tombs,
which had been made by the Pasha's orders, and others,
more genuine, which had since been found, I came
to an understanding on the subject with Daoud Agha.
I covered over the sculptures brought to light, and
withdrew altogether from Nimroud, leaving an agent
at Selamiyah.
On entering Mosul on the morning of the 18th
of December, I found the whole population in a fer-
ment of joy. A Tatar had that morning brought
from Constantinople the welcome news that the Porte,
at length alive to the wretched condition of the pro-
vince, and to the misery of the inhabitants, had dis-
graced the governor, and had named Ismail Pasha, a


Chap. II.] ISMAIL PASHA. 49
young Major-General of the new school, to carry on
affairs until Hafiz Pasha, who had been appointed
to succeed Keritli Oglu, could reach his government.
Only ten days previously the inhabitants had been well-
nigh driven to despair by the arrival of a Firman, con-
firming Mohammed Pasha for another year; but this
only proved a trick on the part of the secretaries of
the Porte to obtain the presents which are usually
given on these occasions, and which the Pasha, on
receipt of the document, hastened to remit to Con-
stantinople. His Excellency was consequently doubly
aggrieved by the loss of his Pashalic and of his
money.
Ismail Pasha, who had been for sdme time in com-
mand of the troops at Diarbekir, had gained a great
reputation for justice among the Mussulmans, and
for tolerance amongst the Christians. Consequently
his appointment had given much satisfaction to
-the people of Mosul, who were prepared to receive
him with demonstration. However, he slipped into
the town during the night, some time before he had
been expected. On the following morning a change
had taken place at the Serai, and Mohammed Pasha,
with his followers, were reduced to extremities. The
dragoman of the Consulate, who had business to
transact with the late Governor, found him sitting in
a dilapidated chamber, through which the rain pene-
trated without hindrance. "Thus it is," said he,
"with God's creatures. Yesterday all those dogs
were kissing my feet; to-day every one, and every
thing, falls upon me, even the rain!"
VOL. I. e


50 NINEVEH AND ITS KEMAINS. [Chap. II.
During these events the state of the country ren-
dered the continuation of my researches at Nimroud
almost impossible. I determined, therefore, to pro-
ceed to Baghdad, to make arrangements for the re-
moval of the sculptures at a future period, and to
consult generally with Major Rawlinson, from whose
experience and knowledge I could derive the most
valuable assistance. A raft having been constructed,
I started with Mr. Hector, a gentleman from Baghdad,
who had visited me at Nimroud, and reached that
city on the 24th of December.


Cuai\ III.] ISMAIL PASHA. 51
CHAP. III.
RETURN TO MOSCL. ISM AIL PASHA. CHANGE IN THE STATE
OF THE COUNTRY. — RETURN TO NIMROUD. — THE RUINS IN
SPRING. EXCAVATIONS RESUMED. FURTHER DISCOVERIES.
NEW INTERRUPTIONS. SHEIKH ABD-UR-RAHMAN AND THE ABOU
SALMAN ARABS, r— FRESH BAS-RELIEFS IN THE NORTH-WEST
CORNER. DISCOVERY OF THE PRINCIPAL PALACE ENTIRE BAS-
RELIEFS. DISCOVERY OF THE GIGANTIC LIONS. SURPRISE OF
THE ARABS. SENSATION AT MOSUL, AND CONDUCT OF THIS
PASHA AND CADI. EXCAVATIONS STOPPED. FURTHER DISCO-
VERIES DESCRIPTION OP THE HUMAN-HEADED LIONS. RE-
FLECTIONS ON THEIR ANTIQUITY AND OBJECT. THE JEBOUR
ARABS. THEIR SHEIKHS. — A KURDISH CHIEF. NIMROUD IN
MARCH. — DESCRIPTION OF THE PLAIN AT SUNSET. THE TUN-
NEL OF NEGOUB AN ASSYRIAN INSCRIPTION.
On my return to Mosul in the beginning of January,
I found Ismail Pacha installed in the government.
He received me with courtesy, offered no opposition
to the continuation of my researches at Nimroud,
and directed the irregular troops stationed at Sela-
miyah to afford me every assistance and protection.
The change since my departure had been as sudden
as great. A few conciliatory acts on the part of the
new Governor, an order from the Porte for an inquiry
into the sums unjustly levied by the late Pasha, with
a view to their repayment, and a promise of a dimi-
nution of taxes, had so far reassured and gained the
confidence of those who had fled to the mountains and
the desert, that the inhabitants of the villages were
E 2


52 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. III.
slowly returning to their homes; and even the Arab
tribes, which were formerly accustomed to pasture
their flocks in the districts of Mosul, were again
pitching their tents on the banks of the Tigris. The
diminished population of the province had been so
completely discouraged by the repeated extortions of
Keritli Oglu, that the fields had been left untilled.
The villagers were now actively engaged, although
the season was already far advanced, in sowing grain
of various kinds. The palace was filled with Kur-
dish chiefs and Arab Sheikhs, who had accepted the
invitation of the new Pasha to visit the town, and
were seeking investiture as heads of their respective
tribes. The people of Mosul were looking forward to
an equal taxation, and the abolition of the system of
torture and arbitrary exactions, which had hitherto
been adopted by their governors.
During my absence my agents had not been inac-
tive. Several trenches had been opened in the great
mound of Baasheikha; and fragments of sculpture
and inscriptions, with entire pottery and inscribed
bricks, had been discovered there. At Karamles a
platform of brickwork had been uncovered, and the
Assyrian origin of the ruin was proved by the inscrip-
tion on the bricks, which contained the name of the
Khorsabad king.
I rode to Nimroud on the 17th of January, having
first engaged a party of Nestorian Chaldaeans to ac-
company me.
The change that had taken place in the face of the
country during my absence, was no less remarkable


Chap. III.] RETURN TO NIMROUD. 53
than that which I had found in the political state of
the province. To me they were both equally agree-
able and welcome. The rains, which had fallen
almost incessantly from the day of my departure for
Baghdad, had rapidly brought forward the vegeta-
tion of spring. The mound was no longer an arid
and barren heap; its surface and its sides were
covered with verdure. From the summit of the
pyramid my eye ranged, on one side, over a broad
level enclosed by the Tigris and the Zab; on the
other, over a low undulating country bounded by the
snow-capped mountains of Kurdistan; but it was no
longer the dreary waste I had left a month before;
the landscape was clothed in green, the black tents
of the Arabs chequered the plain of Nimroud, and
their numerous flocks pastured on the distant hills.
The Abou Salman, encouraged by favourable re-
ports of the policy of the new Pasha, had recrossed
the Zab, and had sought their old encamping
grounds. The Jehesh and Shemutti Arabs had re-
turned to their villages, around which the wandering
Jebours had pitched their tents, and were now en-
gaged in cultivating the soil. Even on the mound
the plough opened its furrows, and corn was sown
over the palaces of the Assyrian kings.
Security had been restored, and Nimroud offered a
more convenient and more agreeable residence than
Selamiyah. Hiring, therefore, from the owners three
huts, which had been hastily built in the outskirts
of the village, 1 removed to my new dwelling place.
A few rude chairs, a table, and a wooden bedstead,
E 3


54 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. III.
formed the whole of my furniture. My Cawass spread
his carpet, and hung his tobacco pouch in the corner
of a hovel, which he had appropriated, and spent his
days in peaceful contemplation. The servants con-
structed a rude kitchen, and the grooms shared the
stalls with the horses. Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, the
brother of the British Vice-Con sul, came to reside
with me, and undertook the daily payment of the
workmen and the domestic arrangements.
My agent, with the assistance of the chief of the
Hytas, had punctually fulfilled the instructions he had
received on my departure. Not only were the coun
terfeit graves carefully removed, but even others,
which possessed more claim to respect, had been
rooted out. I entered into an elaborate argument
with the Arabs on the subject of the latter, and
proved to them that, as the bodies were not turned
towards Mecca, they could not be those of true
believers. I ordered the remains, however, to be
carefully collected, and to be reburied at the foot of
the mound.
I had now uncovered the back of the whole of
wall.;, of wall k to slab 15, and of six slabs of wall
m; Nos. 1. and 2. of wall/, and the entrance d with
a small part of wall a. All these belonged to the
palace in the S. W. corner of the mound represented
by plan 2. In the centre of the mound I had dis-
covered the remains of the two winged bulls; in the
N. W. palace Y (plan 3.), the chamber A, and the two
small winged lions forming the entrance to chamber
BB. The only additional bas-reliefs were two on


Chap. III.] INTERRUPTIONS. 55
slab 12 of wall k (plan 2.), the upper much injured
and the subject unintelligible; the lower containing
four figures, carrying presents or supplies for a ban-
quet. The hands of the foremost figure having been
destroyed, the object which they held could not be
determined; the second bore either fruit or a loaf
of bread; the third had a basket in his right hand,
whilst the left held a skin of wine thrown over the
shoulder; the fourth was the bearer of a similar skin,
and carried in the right hand a vessel of not inelegant
shape. The four figures were clothed in long robes,
richly fringed, descending to the ankles, and wore
the conical cap or helmet before described. The slab
on which these bas-reliefs occurred had been reduced
in size, to the injury of the sculpture, and had evi-
dently belonged to another building. The slabs on
either side of it bore the usual inscription, and the
whole had been so much injured by fire that they
could not be moved.
My labours had scarcely been resumed when I re-
ceived information that the Cadi of Mosul was endea-
vouring to stir up the people against me, chiefly on the
plea that I was carrying away treasure; and, what
was worse, finding inscriptions which proved that
the Franks once held the country, and upon the
evidence of which they intended immediately to re-
sume possession of it, exterminating all true be-
lievers. These stories, however absurd they may
appear, rapidly gained ground in the town. Old Mo-
hammed Erain Pasha brought out his Yakuti, and
confirmed, by that geographer's statements with re-
E 4


56
(Chap. III.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
gard to Khorsabad, the allegations of the Cadi. A
representation was ultimately made by the Ulema to
Ismail Pasha; and as he expressed a wish to see me,
I rode to Mosul. He was not, he said, influenced by
the Cadi or the Mufti, nor did he believe the absurd
tales which they had spread abroad. I should shortly
see how he intended to treat these troublesome fel-
lows; but he thought it prudent at present to humour
them, and made it a personal request that I would,
for the time, suspend the excavations. I consented
with regret; and once more returned to Nimroud
without being able to gratify the ardent curiosity I
felt to explore further the extraordinary building,
the nature of which was still a mystery to me.
The Abou Salman Arabs, who encamp around
Nimroud, are known for their thieving propensities,
and might have caused me some annoyance. Thinking
it prudent, therefore, to conciliate their chief, I rode
over one morning to their principal encampment.
Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman received me at the entrance
of his capacious tent of black goat-hair, which was
crowded with his relations, followers, and strangers,
who were enjoying his hospitality. He was one of
the handsomest Arabs I ever saw ; tall, robust, and
well-made, with a countenance in which intelligence
was no less marked than courage and resolution. On
his head he wore a turban of dark linen, from under
which a many-coloured handkerchief fell over his
shoulders; his dress was a simple white shirt, de-
scending to the ankles, and an Arab cloak thrown
loosely over it. Unlike Arabs in general, he had
us


Chap. III.]
57
ABD-UR-RAHMAN.
m
shaved his beard ; and, although he could scarcely be
much beyond forty, I observed that the little hair
which could be distinguished from under his turban
was grey. He received me with every demonstration
of hospitality, and led me to the upper place, divided
by a goat-hair curtain from the harem. The tent
was capacious; half was appropriated for the women,
the rest formed the place of reception, and was at the
same time occupied by two favourite mares and a
colt. A few camels were kneeling on the grass
around, and the horses of the strangers were tied by
the halter to the tent-pins. From the carpets and
cushions, which were spread for me, stretched on both
sides a long line of men of the most motley appear-
ance, seated on the bare ground. The Sheikh him-
self, as is the custom in some of the tribes, to show
his respect for his guest, placed himself at the furthest
end; and could only be prevailed upon, after many
excuses and protestations, to share the carpet with
me. In the centre of the group, near a small fire of
camel's dung, crouched a half-naked Arab, engaged
alternately in blowing up the expiring embers, and in
pounding the roasted coffee in a copper mortar, ready
to replenish the huge pots which stood near him.
After the customary compliments had been ex-
changed with all around, one of my attendants
beckoned to the Sheikh, who left the tent to receive
the presents I had brought to him, —a siſk gown and
a supply of coffee and sugar. He dressed himself in
his new attire, and returned to the assembly. “Ins-
hallah,” said I, “ we are now friends, although
ca


58 NINEVEH AND ITS BEMAINS. [Chap. Ill-
scarcely a month ago you came over the Zab on pur-
pose to appropriate the little property I am accus-
tomed to carry about me." "Wallah, Beh," he
replied, "you say true, we are friends; but listen:
the Arabs either sit down and serve his Majesty the
Sultan, or they eat from others, as others would eat
from them. Now my tribe are of the Zobeide, and
were brought here many years ago by the Pashas of
the Abd-el-Jelleel.* These lands were given us in
return for the services we rendered the Turks in
keeping back the Tai and the Shammah, who crossed
the rivers to plunder the villages. All the great
men of the Abou Salman perished in encounters
with the Bedouin, and Injeh Bairakdar, Mohammed
Pasha, upon whom God has had mercy, acknowledged
our fidelity, and treated us with honour. When that
blind dog, the son of the Cretan (may curses fall
upon him !) came to Mosul, I waited upon him, as it
is usual for the Sheikh; what did he do? Did he give
me the cloak of honour? . No; he put me, an Arab
of the tribe of Zobeide, a tribe which had fought
with the Prophet, into the public stocks. For forty
days my heart melted away in a damp cell, and I was
exposed to every variety of torture. Look at these
hairs," continued he, lifting up his turban, "they
turned white in that time, and I must now shave my
beard, a shame amongst the Arabs. I was released
at last; but how did I return to the tribe?—a.beggar,
unable to kill a sheep for my guests. He took my
mares, my flocks, and my camels, as the price of my
* The former hereditary governors of Mosul.


Chap. III.] NEW DISCOVERIES. 59
liberty. Now tell me, 0 Bey, in the name of God, if
the Osmanlis have eaten from me and my guests, shall
I not eat from them and theirs?"
The fate of Abd-urrahman had been such as he
described it; and so had fared several chiefs of the
desert and of the mountains. It was not surprising
that these men, proud of their origin, and accustomed
to the independence of a wandering life, had revenged
themselves upon the unfortunate inhabitants of the
villages, who had no less cause to complain than
themselves. However, the Sheikh promised to ab-
stain from plunder for the future, and to present him-
self to Ismail Pasha, of whose conciliatory conduct he
had already heard.
It was nearly the middle of February before I
thought it prudent to make fresh experiments among
the ruins. To avoid notice I only employed a few
men, and confined myself to the examination of such
parts of the mound as appeared to contain buildings.
A trench was first opened at right angles to the centre
of wall k (plan 2.), and we speedily found the wall q.
All the slabs were sculptured, and uninjured by
fire ; but unfortunately had been half destroyed by
long exposure to the atmosphere. Three consecutive
slabs were occupied by the same subject; others were
placed without regularity, portions of a figure, which
should have been continued on an adjoining stone,
being wanting. It was evident from the costume, the
ornaments, and the nature of the relief, that these
sculptures did not belong either to the same building,
or to the same period as those previously discovered.


60 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. III.
I recognised in them the style of Khorsabad, and in
the inscriptions particular forms in the character,
which were used in the inscriptions of that monu-
ment. Still the slabs were not "in situ :" they had
been brought from elsewhere, and I was even more
perplexed than I had hitherto been.
The most perfect of the bas-reliefs (No. 1.) was
in many respects interesting. It represented a king,
distinguished by his high conical tiara, standing over
a prostrate warrior; his right hand elevated, and the
left supported by a bow. The figure at his feet,
probably a captive enemy or rebel, wore a pointed
cap, somewhat similar in form to that already de-
scribed. I was, from this circumstance, at first in-
clined to believe that the sculpture represented the
conquest of the original founders of Nimroud, by a
new race, — perhaps the overthrow of the first by the
second Assyrian dynasty; but I was subsequently
led to abandon the conjecture. An eunuch holds a
fly-flapper or fan over the head of the king, who
appears to be conversing or performing some cere-
mony with a figure standing in front of him; pro-
bably his vizir or minister.* Behind this personage,
who differs from the King by his head-dress, — a simple
fillet round the temple, — are two attendants, the first
* I shall in future always designate this figure, which frequently occurs
in the Assyrian bas-reliefs, the King's Vizir or Minister. It has been con-
jectured that the person represented is a friendly or tributary monarch;
but as he often occurs amongst the attendants, aiding the king in his
battles, or waiting upon him at the celebration of religious ceremonies,
with his hands crossed in front, as is still the fashion in the East with
dependants, it appears more probable that he was his adviser, or some
high officer of the court.


Chap. III.] BAS-RELIEFS. 61
an eunuch, the second a bearded figure, half of which
was continued on the adjoining slab. This bas-relief
was separated from a second above, by a band of
inscriptions; the upper sculpture was almost totally
destroyed, and I could with difficulty trace upon it
the forms of horses, and horsemen. A wounded
figure beneath the horses wore a helmet with a
curved crest, resembling the Greek. These two sub-
jects were continued on either side, but the slabs were
broken off near the bottom, and the feet of a row of
figures, probably other attendants, standing behind the
king and his minister, could only be distinguished.
Another slab in this wall (No. 3.) was occupied,
with the exception of the prisoner, by figures resem-
bling those on the slab just described. The king,
however, held his bow horizontally, and his attendant
eunuch was carrying his arms, a second bow, the mace,
and a quiver. All these figures were about three feet
eight inches in height, the dimensions of those
before discovered being somewhat smaller.
The rest of the wall, which had completely disap-
peared in some places, had been composed of gigantic
winged figures, sculptured in low relief. They were
almost entirely defaced.
Several trenches carried to the west of wall q, and
at right angles with it, led me to walls s and t.
The sculptured slabs, of which they were built, were
not better preserved than others in this part of the
mound. T could only distinguish the lower part of
gigantic figures; some had been purposely defaced
by a sharp instrument; others, from long exposure,


62 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. in.
had been worn almost smooth. Inscriptions were
carried across the slabs over the drapery, but were
interrupted when a naked limb occurred, and re-
sumed beyond it. Such is generally the case when,
as in the older palace of Nimroud, inscriptions are
engraved over a figure.
These experiments were sufficient to prove that
the building I was exploring had not been entirely
destroyed by fire, but had been partly exposed to
gradual decay. No sculptures had hitherto been dis-
covered in a perfect state of preservation, and only
one or two could bear removal. I determined, there-
fore, to abandon this corner, and to resume excava-
tions near the chamber first opened*, where the slabs
were uninjured. The workmen were directed to dig
behind the small lions f, which appeared to form an en-
trance, and to be connected with other walls. After
removing much earth, a few unsculptured slabs were
discovered, fallen from their places, and broken in
many pieces. The sides of the room of which they
had originally formed part could not be traced.
As these ruins occurred on the edge of the mound,
it was probable that thQy had been more exposed than
the rest, and consequently had sustained more injury
than other parts of the building. As there was a
ravine running far into the mound, apparently formed
by the winter rains, I determined to open a trench in
the centre of it. In two days the workmen reached
the top of a slab, which appeared to be both well pre-
served, and to be still standing in its original posi-
* Chamber A, plan 3. t Entrance to chamber B B.


To face page 62. Vol. I.
PIAK XIZ.
NORTH-WEST PALACE, NIMROUD.
:





Chap. HI.] BAS-RELIEFS. 63
tion. On the south side I discovered, to my great
satisfaction, two human figures, considerably above
the natural size, sculptured in low relief, and still ex-
hibiting all the freshness of a recent work. This was
No. 30. of chamber B in the third plan. In a few
hours the earth and rubbish were completely re-
moved from the face of the slab, no part of which had
been injured. The ornaments delicately graven on
the robes, the tassels and fringes, the bracelets and
armlefs, the elaborate curls of the hair and beard,
were all entire. The figures were back to back and
furnished with wings. They appeared to represent
divinities, presiding over the seasons, or over particular
religious ceremonies. The one, whose face was turned
to the East, carried a fallow deer on his right arm,
and in his left hand a branch bearing five flowers.
Around his temples was a fillet, adorned in front with
a rosette.* The other held a square vessel, or basket,
in the left hand, and an object resembling a fir
cone in the right. On his head he wore a rounded
cap, at the base of which was a horn. The garments,
of both, consisting of a stole falling from the shoulders
to the ankles, and a short tunic underneath, de-
scending to the knee, were richly and tastefully deco-
rated with embroideries and fringes, whilst the hair
and beard were arranged with study and art. Al-
though the relief was lower, yet the outline was
perhaps more careful, and true, than that of the As-
syrian sculptures of Khorsabad. The limbs were
delineated with peculiar accuracy, and the muscles
* "Monuments of Nineveh," Plate 35.


To face page 64 Vol I

ज
EAGLE FEADED PIGURE
(N. W. Palace, Nimroud





Chap. TIL] DISCOVERY OF NIMROD. 65
of a chamber, and that, to explore it completely, I
had only to continue along the wall, now partly un-
covered.
On the morning following these discoveries, I rode
to the encampment of Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman, and was
returning to the mound, when I saw two Arabs of his
tribe urging their mares to the top of their speed.
On approaching me they stopped. "Hasten, 0 Bey,"
exclaimed one of them — " hasten to the diggers, for
they have found Nirarod himself. Wallah, it is won-
derful, but it is true! we have seen him with our eyes.
There is no God but God ;" and both joining in this
pious exclamation, they galloped off, without further
words, in the direction of their tents.
On reaching the ruins I descended into the new
trench, and found the workmen, who had already seen
me, as I approached, standing near a heap of baskets
and cloaks. Whilst Awad advanced and asked for a
present to celebrate the occasion, the Arabs withdrew
the screen they had hastily constructed, and dis-
closed an enormous human head sculptured in full
out of the alabaster of the country. They had
uncovered the upper part of a figure, the remainder
of which was still buried in the earth. I saw at once
that the head must belong to a winged lion or bull,
similar to those of Khorsabad and Persepolis. It
was in admirable preservation. The expression was
calm, yet majestic, and the outline of the features
showed a freedom and knowledge of art, scarcely to
be looked for in the works of so remote a period.
The cap had three horns, and, unlike that of the
VOL. I. F


66 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. III.
human-headed bulls hitherto found in Assyria, was
rounded and without ornament at the top.
I was not surprised that the Arabs had been
amazed and terrified at this apparition. It required
no stretch of imagination to conjure up the most
strange fancies. This gigantic head, blanched with
age, thus rising from the bowels of the earth, might
well have belonged to one of those fearful beings
which are pictured in the traditions of the country,
as appearing to mortals, slowly ascending from the
regions below. One of the workmen, on catching
the first glimpse of the monster, had thrown down
his basket and had run off towards Mosul as fast as
his legs could carry him. I learnt this with regret,
as I anticipated the consequences.
Whilst I was superintending the removal of the
earth, which still clung to the sculpture, and giving
directions for the continuation of the work, a noise of
horsemen was heard, and presently Abd-ur-rahman,
followed by half his tribe, appeared on the edge of
the trench. As soon as the two Arabs had reached
the tents, and published the wonders they had
seen, every one mounted his mare, and rode to the
mound, to satisfy himself of the truth of these incon-
ceivable reports. When they beheld the head they
all cried together, "There is no God but God, and
Mohammed is his Prophet!" It was some time before
the Sheikh could be prevailed upon to descend into
the pit, and convince himself that the image he saw
was of stone. "This is not the work of men's hands,"
exclaimed he, "but of those infidel giants of whom the


To face pag« 60. Vol I

DISCOVERT OF GIOANTIG HEAD





Chap. III.] THE CADI STOPS FURTHER PROCEEDINGS. 67
Prophet — peace be with him ! — has said that they
were higher than the tallest date tree; this is one of
the idols which Noah—peace be with him!—cursed
before the flood." In this opinion, the result of a care-
ful examination, all the bystanders concurred.
I now ordered a trench to be dug due south from
the head, in the expectation of finding a corresponding
figure, and before night-full reached the object of my
search about twelve feet distant. Engaging two or
three men to sleep near the sculptures, I returned
to the village, and celebrated the day's discovery by
a slaughter of sheep, of which all the Arabs near
partook. As some wandering musicians chanced to
be at Selamiyah, I sent for them, and dances were
kept up during the greater part of the night. On the
following morning Arabs from the other side of the
Tigris, and the inhabitants of the surrounding vil-
lages, congregated on the mound. Even the women
could not repress their curiosity, and came in crowds,
with their children, from afar. My Cawass was sta-
tioned during the day in the trench, into which I
would not allow the multitude to descend.
As I had expected, the report of the discovery of
the gigantic head, carried by the terrified Arab to
Mosul, had thrown the town into commotion. He
had scarcely checked his speed before reaching the
bridge. Entering breathless into the bazaars, he an-
nounced to every one he met that Nimrod had ap-
peared. The news soon got to the ears of the Cadi,
who, anxious for a fresh opportunity to annoy me,
called the Mufti and the Ulema together, to consult
r 2


68 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. III.
upon this unexpected occurrence. Their delibera-
tions ended in a procession to the Governor, and a
formal protest, on the part of the Mussulmans of the
town, against proceedings so directly contrary to the
laws of the Koran. The Cadi had no distinct idea
whether the bones of the mighty hunter had been
uncovered, or only his image; nor did Ismail Pasha
very clearly remember whether Nimrod was a true-
believing prophet, or an Infidel. I consequently re-
ceived a somewhat unintelligible message from his
Excellency, to the effect that the remains should be
treated with respect, and be by no means further
disturbed; that he wished the excavations to be
stopped at once, and desired to confer with me on the
subject.
I called upon him accordingly, and had some dif-
ficulty in making him understand the nature of my
discovery. As he requested me to discontinue my
operations until the sensation in the town had some-
what subsided, I returned to Nimroud, and dismissed
the workmen, retaining only two men to dig leisurely
along the walls without giving cause for further inter-
ference. I ascertained by the end of March the exist-
ence of a second pair of winged human-headed lions*,
differing from those previously discovered in form,
the human shape being continued to the waist and
furnished with arms. In one hand each figure carried
a goat or stag, and in the other, which hung down by
the side, a branch with three flowers. They formed
* Entrance to chamber B, plan 3.


Chap. III.] EXCAVATIONS RESUMED. 69
a northern entrance into the chamber of which the
lions previously described were the western portal.
I completely uncovered the latter, and found them to
be entire. They were about twelve feet in height,
and the same number in length. The body and
limbs were admirably portrayed; the muscles and
bones, although strongly developed to display the
strength of the animal, showed at the same time a
correct knowledge of its anatomy and form. Ex-
panded wings sprang from the shoulder and spread
over the baCk; a knotted girdle, ending in tassels,
encircled the loins. These sculptures, forming an
entrance, were partly in full and partly in relief.
The head and fore-part, facing the chamber, were in
full; but only one side of the rest of the slab was
sculptured, tbe back being placed against the wall of
sun-dried bricks. That the spectator might have
both a perfect front and side view of the figures, they
were furnished with five legs; two were carved on
the end of the slab to face the chamber, and three on
the side. The relief of the body and three Umbs was
high and bold, and the slab was covered, in all parts
not occupied by the image, with inscriptions in the
cuneiform character. These magnificent specimens
of Assyrian art were in perfect preservation; the most
minute lines in the details of the wings and in the
ornaments had been retained with their original fresh-
ness. Not a character was wanting in the inscriptions.
I used to contemplate for hours these mysterious
emblems, and muse over their intent and history.
What more noble forms could have ushered the
T 3


70 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Cuaf. III.
people into the temple of their gods? What more
sublime images could have been borrowed from
nature, by men who sought, unaided by the light
of revealed religion, to embody their conception of
the wisdom, power, and ubiquity of a Supreme
Being? They could find no better type of intellect
and knowledge than the head of the man; of
strength, than the body of the lion; of ubiquity,
than the wings of the bird. These winged human-
headed lions were not idle creations, the offspring of
mere fancy; their meaning was written upon them.
They had awed and instructed races which flourished
3000 years ago. Through the portals which they
guarded, kings, priests, and warriors had borne
sacrifices to their altars, long before the wisdom of
the East had penetrated to Greece, and had furnished
its mythology with symbols long recognised by the As-
syrian votaries. They may have been buried, and their
existence may have been unknown, before the found-
ation of the eternal city. For twenty-five centuries
they had been hidden from the eye of man, and they
now stood forth once more in their ancient majesty.
But how changed was the scene around them! The
luxury and civilisation of a mighty nation had given
place to the wretchedness and ignorance of a few
half-barbarous tribes. The wealth of temples, and
the riches of great cities, had been succeeded by ruins
and shapeless heaps of earth. Above the spacious
hall in which they stood, the plough had passed and
the corn now waved. Egypt has monuments no less
ancient and no less wonderful; but they have stood


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(N. W Palace, Nimroud.)





Chaf. III.] SCULPTUKES. 71
forth for ages to testify her early power and renown;
whilst those before me had but now appeared to
bear witness, in the words of the prophet, that once
"the Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon with fair
branches and with a shadowing shroud of an high
stature; and his top was among the thick boughs
.... his height was exalted above all the trees of the
field, and his boughs were multiplied, and his branches
became long, because of the multitude of waters
when he shot forth. All the fowls of heaven made
their nests in his boughs, and under his branches did
all the beasts of the field bring forth their young,
and under his shadow dwelt all great nations;" for
now is "Nineveh a desolation and dry like a wilder-
ness, and flocks lie down in the midst of her: all
the beasts of the nations, both the cormorant and
bittern, lodge in the upper lintels of it; their
voice sings in the windows; and desolation is in the
thresholds." *
Behind the lions was another chamber, f I un-
covered about fifty feet of its northern wall. On
each slab was carved the winged figure with the
horned cap, fir-cone, and square vessel or basket.
They were in pairs facing one another, and divided
by an emblematical tree, similar to that on the corner
stone in chamber B. All these bas-reliefs were in-
ferior in execution, and finish, to those previously
discovered.
* Ezekiel, xxxi. 3., &c, Zephaniah, ii. 13. and 14.
f Chamber C.
F 4


72 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. III.
During the month of March I received visits from
the principal Sheikhs of the Jebour Arabs, whose
tribes had now partly crossed the Tigris, and were
pasturing their flocks in the neighbourhood of Nim-
roud, or cultivating millet on the banks of the river.
The Jebour are a branch of the ancient tribe of
Obeid. Their encamping grounds are on the banks
of the Khabour, from its junction with the Eu-
phrates,—from the ancient Carchemish or Circesium,
— to its source at Ras-el-Ain. They were suddenly
attacked and plundered a year or two ago by the
Aneyza; and being compelled to leave their haunts,
took refuge in the districts around Mosul. The
Pasha, at first, received them well; but learning that
several mares of pure Arab blood still remained with
the Sheikhs, he determined to seize them. To obtain
them as presents, or by purchase, he knew to be im-
possible; he consequently formed the design of taking
the tribe by surprise, as they had been thrown off
their guard by their friendly reception. A body of
irregular troops was accordingly sent for the purpose
towards their tents; but the Arabs, suspecting the
nature of their visit, prepared to resist. A conflict
ensued, in which the Pasha's horsemen were com-
pletely defeated. A more formidable expedition, in-
cluding regular troops and artillery, now marched
against them. But they were again victorious, and
repulsed the Turks with considerable loss. They fled,
nevertheless, to the desert, where they had since been
wandering in great misery, joining with the Shammar
and other tribes in plundering the villages of the


Chap. III.] A KURDISH CHIEF. 73
Pashalic. On learning the policy pursued by Ismail
Pasha, dying with hunger, they had returned to
arable lands on the banks of the river; where, by an
imperfect and toilsome fashion of irrigation, they
could, during the summer months, raise a small sup-
ply of millet to satisfy their immediate necessities.
The Jebour were at this time divided into three
branches, obeying different Sheikhs. The names of
the three chiefs were Abd'rubbou, Mohammed Emin,
and Mohammed ed Dagher. Although all three
visited me at Nimroud, it was the first with whom
I was best acquainted, and who rendered me most as-
sistance. I thought it necessary to give them each
small presents, a silk dress, or an embroidered cloak,
with a pair of capacious boots, as in case of any fresh
disturbances in the country it would be as well to
be on friendly terms with the tribe. The intimacy,
however, which sprang from these acts of generosity,
was not in all respects of the most desirable or con-
venient nature. The Arab compliment of " my house
is your house" was accepted more literally than I
had intended, and I was seldom free from a large ad-
dition to my establishment. A Sheikh and a dozen
of his attendants were generally installed in my huts,
whilst their mares were tied at every door. My fame
even reached the mountains, and one day, on returning
from Mosul, I found a Kurdish chief, with a nume-
rous suite, in the full enjoyment of my premises.
The whole party were dressed in the height of fashion.
Every colour had received due consideration in their
attire. Their arms were of very superior design and


Chap. Ill] THE MDLLAH EFFENDI. 75
nomad Kurds who inhabit the mountains in the
neighbourhood of Rowandiz during the summer, and
the plains around Arbil in winter, I did not feel the
necessity of conciliating him as I had done the Arab
Sheikhs encamping near Nimroud, nor did I desire to
encourage visits from persons of his sanctity and con-
dition. I allowed him therefore to remain without
making any return for his presents, or understanding
the hints on the^ubject he took frequent occasion to
drop. At length, on the second evening, his secre-
tary asked for an interview. "The Mullah Effendi,"
said he, " will leave your Lordship's abode to-morrow.
Praise be to God, the most disinterested and sin-
cere friendship has been established between you, and
it is suitable that your Lordship should take this op-
portunity of giving a public testimony of your regard
for his Reverence. Not that he desires to accept
anything from you, but it would be highly gratifying
to him to prove to his tribe that he has met with a
friendly reception from so distinguished a person as
yourself, and to spread through the mountains reports
of your generosity." "I regret," answered I, " that
the trifling differences in matters of religion which
exist between us, should preclude the possibility of
the Effendi's accepting anything from me; for I am
convinced that, however amiable and friendly he may
be, a man of his sanctity would not do anything
forbidden by the law. I am at a loss, therefore, to
know how I can meet his wishes." "Although," he
rejoined, "there might perhaps be some difficulty on
that score, yet it could be, I hope, overcome. More-


76 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. in.
over, there are his attendants; they are not so par-
ticular as he is, and, thank God, we are all one. To
each of them you might give a pair of yellow boots
and a silk dress; besides, if you chance to have any
pistols or daggers, they would be satisfied with them.
As for me, I am a man of letters, and, having nothing
to do with arms and boots, you might, therefore,
show your approbation of my devotedness to your
service, by giving me white linen foj a turban, and a
pair of breeches. The EfFendi, however, would not
object to a set of razors, because the handles are of
ivory and the blades of steel; and it is stated in the
Hadith that those materials do not absorb moisture*;
besides, he would feel himself obliged if you could
lend him a small sum — five purses, for instance, (Wal-
lah, Billah, Tillah, he would do the same for you at
any time,) for which he would give you a note of
hand." "It is very unfortunate," I replied, "that
there is not a bazaar in the village. I will make a list
of all the articles you specify as proper to be given to
the attendants and to yourself. But these can only
be procured in Mosul, and two days would elapse
before they could reach me. I could not think of
taking up so much of the valuable time of the Mullah
EfFendi, whose absence must already have been sorely
* The Sheeas and some other sects, who scrupulously adhere to the
precepts of the Koran and to the Hadith or sacred traditions, make a
distinction between those things which may be used or touched by a
Mussulman after they have been in the hands of a Christian, and those
which may not; this distinction depends upon whether they be, according
to their doctors, absorbents or non-absorbents. If they are supposed to
absorb moisture, they become unclean after contact with an unbeliever.


Chap, in.] NIMROUD IN SPRING. 77
felt by his tribe. With regard to the money, for which,
God forbid that I should think of taking any note of
hand (praise be to God! we are on much too good
terms for such formalities), and to the razors, I think
it would give more convincing proofs of my esteem for
the Effendi, if I were myself to return his welcome
visit, and be the bearer of suitable presents." Finding
that a more satisfactory answer could not be obtained,
the secretary retired with evident marks of disap-
pointment in his face. A further attempt was made
upon Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, and renewed again in
the morning; but nothing more tangible could be
procured. After staying four days, the Mullah Effendi
Bey and his attendants, about twenty in number,
mounted their horses and rode away. I was no more
troubled with visits from Kurdish Chiefs.
The middle of March in Mesopotamia is the brightest
epoch of spring. A new change had come over the
face of the plain of Nimroud. Its pasture lands,
known as the "Jaif," are renowned for their rich
and luxuriant herbage. In times of quiet, the studs
of the Pasha and of the Turkish authorities, with the
horses of the cavalry and of the inhabitants of Mosul,
are sent here to graze. Day by day they arrived in long
lines. The Shemutti and Jehesh left their huts, and
encamped on the greensward which surrounded the
villages. The plain, as far as the eye could reach,
was studded with the white pavilions of the Hytas
and the black tents of the Arabs. Picketed around
them were innumerable horses in gay trappings,
struggling to release themselves from the bonds,


Chap. III.] THE CITY OF ARBELA. 79
had struggled to emulate the verdant clothing of
the plain — its receding rays were gradually with-
drawn, like a transparent veil of light, from the land-
scape. Over the pure, cloudless sky was the glow
of the last light. The great mound threw its dark
shadow far across the plain. In the distance, and be-
yond the Zab, Keshaf, another venerable ruin, rose in-
distinctly into the evening mist. Still more distant,
and still more indistinct, was a solitary hill overlooking
the ancient city of Arbela. The Kurdish mountains,
whose snowy summits cherished the dying sunbeams,
yet struggled with the twilight. The bleating of sheep
and lowing of cattle, at first faint, became louder as the
flocks returned from their pastures, and wandered
amongst the tents. Girls hurried over the greensward
to seek their fathers' cattle, or crouched down to milk
those which had returned alone to their well-remem-
bered folds. Some were coming from the river bearing
the replenished pitchers on their heads or shoulders;
others, no less graceful in their form, and erect in their
carriage, were carrying the heavy load of long grass
which they had cut in the meadows. Sometimes a
party of horsemen might have been seen in the dis-
tance slowly crossing the plain, the tufts of ostrich
feathers which topped their long spears showing
darkly against the evening sky. They would ride up
to my tent, and give me the usual salutation, "Peace
be with you, 0 Bey," or, "Allah Aienak, God help
you." Then driving the end of their lances into the
ground, they would spring from their mares, and
fasten their halters to the still quivering weapons.


80 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. III.
Seating themselves on the grass, they related deeds of
war and plunder, or speculated on the site of the tents
of Sofuk, until the moon rose, when they vaulted into
their saddles, and took the way of the desert.
The plain now glittered with innumerable fires.
As the night advanced, they vanished one by one,
until the landscape was wrapped in darkness and in
silence, only disturbed by the barking of the Arab
dog.
Abd-ur-rahman rode to my tent one morning, and
offered to take me to a remarkable cutting in the
rock, which he described as the work of Nimrod, the
Giant. The Arabs call it "Negoub," or, The Hole.
We were two hours in reaching the place, as we
hunted gazelles and hares by the way. A tunnel,
bored through the rock, opens by two low arched
outlets upon the river. It is of considerable length,
and is continued for about a mile by a deep channel,
also cut out of the rock, but open at the top. I sus-
pected at once that this was an Assyrian work, and,
on examining the interior of the tunnel, I discovered
a slab covered with cuneiform characters, which had
fallen from a platform, and had been wedged in a
crevice of the rock. With much difficulty I succeeded
in ascertaining that an inscription was also cut on
the back of the tablet. From the darkness of the
place, I could scarcely copy even the few characters
which had resisted the wear of centuries. Some days
after, others who had casually heard of my visit, and
conjectured that some Assyrian remains might have
been found there, sent a party of workmen to the


Chap. HI.] NEGOUB. 81
spot; who, finding the slab, broke it into pieces, in
their attempt to displace it. This wanton destruction
of the tablet is much to be regretted; as, from the
fragment of the inscription copied, I can perceive
that it contained an important, and, to me, new ge-
nealogical list of kings. I had intended to remove
the stone carefully, and had hoped, by placing it in
a proper light, to ascertain accurately the forms of
the various characters upon it. This was not the
only loss I had to complain of, from the jealousy and
competition of rivals.
The tunnel of Negoub is undoubtedly a remark-
able work, undertaken, as far as I can judge by the
fragment of the inscription, during the reign of an
Assyrian king of the second dynasty, who may have
raised the tablet to commemorate the event. Its
object is rather uncertain. It may have been cut
to lead the waters of the Zab into the surrounding
country for irrigation ; or it may have been the termi-
nation of the great canal, which is still to be traced
by a double range of lofty mounds, near the ruins of
Nimroud, and which may have united the Tigris with
the neighbouring river, and thus fertilised a large
tract of land. In either case the level of the two
rivers, as well as the face of the country, must have
changed considerably since the period of its con-
struction. At present Negoub is above the Zab, ex-
cept at the time of the highest flood in the spring, and
then water is only found in the mouth of the tunnel;
all other parts having been much choked up with
rubbish and river deposits.
VOL. I. G


82
[Cuap. IV.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
CHAP. IV.
PREPARATIONS FOR A JOURNEY TO AL HATHER. — GATHERING OF
THE CARAVAN. — LEAVE MOSUL. — THE DESERT. — FLOCKS OF
CAMELS. — THE HADDEDEEN ARABS. — AN ARAB REPAST. — AN
ENCAMPMENT. — AN ARAB TRIBE MOVING. — THE TENTS OF
SOFUK, — DESCRIPTION OF THE SHAMMAR SHEIKH. — HIS HIS-
TORY.- A COMMANDER OF THE IRREGULAR CAVALRY. – SOFUK's
HAREM AND WIVES. — HIS MARE. — RIDE TO AL HATHER. —
ARAB GUIDES. — LOVE AMONGST ARABS. — THEIR WOMEN. —
THE RUINS OF AL HATHER, — RETURN TO MOSUL. — MURDER
OF NEJRIS — AND OF SOFUK.
The operations at Nimroud having been completely
suspended until orders could be received from Con-
stantinople, I thought the time not inopportune to
visit Sofuk, the Sheikh of the great Arab tribe of
Shammar, which occupies nearly the whole of Meso-
potamia. He had lately left the Kabour, and was
now encamped near the western bank of the Tigris
below its junction with the Zab, and consequently not
far from Nimroud. I had two objects in going to his
tents; in the first place I wished to obtain the friend-
ship of the chief of a large tribe of Arabs, who would
probably cross the river in the neighbourhood of the
excavations during the summer, and might indulge,
to my cost, in their plundering propensities ; and, at
the same time, I was anxious to visit the remarkable
ruins of Al Hather, which I had only examined very
hastily on my former journey.
Mr. Rassam (the Vice-Consul) and his wife, with
several native gentlemen of Mosul, Mussulmans and
as &
Ten


Chap. IV.]
83
VISIT TO AL HATHER.
IS an
Christians, were induced to accompany me; and, as we
issued from the gates of the town, and assembled in
the well-peopled burying-ground opposite the Gover-
nor's palace, I found myself at the head of a formid-
able party. Our tents, obtained from the Pasha, and
our provisions and necessary furniture, were carried
by a string of twelve camels. Mounted above these
loads, and on donkeys, was an army of camel-drivers
tent-pitchers, and volunteers, ready for all services
There were, moreover, a few irregular horsemen, the
Cawasses, the attendants of the Mosul gentlemen,
the Mosul gentlemen themselves, and our own ser:
vants, all armed to the teeth. Ali Effendi, chief
of the Mosul branch of the Omeree, or descendants
of Omar, which had furnished several Pashas to the
province, was our principal Mussulman friend. He.
was mounted on the Hedban, a well-known white
Arab, beautiful in form and pure in blood, but now
of great age. Close at his horse's heels followed
a confidential servant; who, perched on a pack-
saddle, seemed to roll from side to side on two small
barrels, the use of which might have been an enigma,
had they not emitted a very strong smell of raki.
A Christian gentleman was wrapped up in cloaks
and furs, and appeared to dread the cold, although
the thermometer was at 100. The English lady was
equipped in riding-habit and hat. The two English-
men, Mr. Ross and myself, wore a striking mixture
of European and oriental raiments. Mosul ladies,
in blue veils, their faces concealed by black horse-
hair sieves, had been dragged to the top of piles of
G 2


84 NINEVEH AND ITS BEMAINS. [Chap. IV.
carpets and cushions, under which groaned their un-
fortunate mules. Greyhounds in leashes were led by
Arabs on foot; whilst others played with strange dogs,
who followed the caravan for change of air. The
horsemen galloped round and round, now dashing
into the centre of the crowd, throwing their horses
on their haunches when at full speed, or discharging
their guns and pistols into the air. A small flag
with British colours was fastened to the top of a
spear, and confided to a Cawass. Such was the motley
caravan which left Mosul by the Bab el Top, where a
crowd of women had assembled to witness the pro-
cession. •
We took the road to the ruins of the monastery of
Mar Elias, a place of pilgrimage for the Christians of
Mosul, which we passed after an hour's ride. Even-
ing set in before we could reach the desert, and we
pitched our tents for the night on a lawn near a
deserted village, about nine miles from the town
On the following morning we soon emerged from
the low limestone hills; which, broken into a thou-
sand rocky valleys, form a barrier between the Tigris
and the plains of Mesopotamia. We now found our-
selves in the desert, or rather wilderness; for at this
time of the year, nature could not disclose a more
varied scene, or a more luxuriant vegetation. We
trod on an interminable carpet, figured by flowers of
every hue. Nor was water wanting; for the abun-
dant rains had given reservoirs to every hollow, and
to every ravine. Their contents, owing to the nature
of the soil, were brackish, but not unwholesome.


Chap. IV.] HADDEDEEN ARABS. 85
Clusters of black tents were scattered, and flocks of
sheep and camels wandered over the plain. Those
of our party who were well mounted urged their
horses through the meadows, pursuing the herds of
gazelles, or the wild boar, skulking in the long grass.
Although such scenes as these may be described, the
exhilaration caused by the air of the desert in spring,
and the feeling of freedom arising from the contem-
plation of its boundless expanse, must have been
experienced before they can be understood. The
stranger, as well as the Arab, feels the intoxication
of the senses which they produce. From their effects
upon the wandering son of Ishmael, they might well
have been included by the Prophet amongst those
things forbidden to the true believer.
The first object we had in view was to discover the
tents of Sofuk. The Sheikh had been lately exposed
to demands on the part of the governors of Mosul
and Baghdad; and, moreover, an open hostility to his
authority had arisen amongst the Shammar tribes.
He was consequently keeping out of sight, and seek-
ing the most secluded spots in the desert to pitch
his tents. We asked our way of the parties of Arab
horsemen, whom we met roving over the plain; but
received different answers from each. Some were
ignorant; others fancied that our visit might be un-
acceptable, and endeavoured to deceive us.
About mid-day we found ourselves in the midst of
extensive herds of camels. They belonged to the
Haddedeen. The sonorous whoop of the Arab herds-
men resounded from all sides. A few horsemen were
Q 3


86 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IV.
galloping about, driving back the stragglers, and di-
recting the march of the leaders of the herd. Shortly
after we came up with some families moving to a
new place of encampment, and at their head I recog-
nised my old antiquity hunter, Mormous. He no
sooner perceived us than he gave orders to those who
followed him, and of whom he was the chief, to
pitch their tents. We were now in the Wadi Ghusub,
formed by a small salt stream, forcing its sluggish way
through a dense mass of reeds and water shrubs, from
which the valley has taken its name. About fifteen
tents were soon raised. A sheep was slaughtered in
front of the one in which we sat; large wooden bowls
of sour milk and platters of fresh butter were placed
before us; fires of camel's dung were lighted; de-
crepit old women blew up the flames; the men cut
the carcass into small pieces, and capacious cauldrons
soon sent forth volumes of steam.
Mormous tended the sheep of Ali Effendi, our
travelling companion, as well as his own.* The two
were soon in discussion, as to the amount of butter
and wool produced. Violent altercations arose on the
subject of missing beasts. Heavy responsibilities,
which the Effendi did not seem inclined to admit,
were thrown upon the wolves. Some time elapsed
* It is customary for the inhabitants of Mosul possessing flocks to
confide them to the Haddedeen Arabs, who take them into the desert
during the winter and spring, and pasture them in the low hills to the
east of the town during the summer and autumn. The produce of the
sheep, the butter and wool, is divided between the owner and the Arab
in charge of them; the sour milk, curds, &c, are left to the latter. In
case of death the Arab brings the ears, and takes an oath that they belong
to the missing animal.


Chap. IV.] ARAB REPAST. 87
before these vital questions were settled to the satis-
faction of both parties; ears having been produced,
oaths taken, and witnesses called, with the assistance
of wolves and the rot, the diminution in the flocks
was fully accounted for.
The sheep was now boiled. The Arabs pulled the
fragments out of the cauldron, and laid them on wooden
platters with their fingers. We helped ourselves after
the same fashion. The servants succeeded to the
dishes, which afterwards passed through the hands
of the camel drivers and tent pitchers; and at last,
denuded of all apparently edible portions, reached a
strong party of expectant Arabs. The condition of
the bones by the time they were delivered to a crowd
of hungry dogs assembled on the occasion, may easily
be imagined.
We resumed our journey in the afternoon, preceded
by Mormous, who volunteered to accompany us. As
we rode over the plain, we fell in with the Sheikh of
the Haddedeen, mounted on a fine mare, and followed
by a large concourse of Arabs, driving their beasts of
burden loaded with tents and furniture. He offered
to conduct us to a branch of the Shammar, whose
encampment we could reach before evening. We
gladly accepted his offer, and he left his people to
ride with us.
We had been wandering to and fro in the desert,
uncertain as to the course we should pursue. The
Sheikh now rode in the direction of the Tigris.
Before nightfall we came to a large encampment,
and recognised in its chief one Khalaf, an Arab who
a 4


NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
(Cap. IV.
frequently came to Mosul, and whom Mr. Rassam and
myself had met on our previous journey to Al Hather.
His tribe, although a branch of the Shammar, usually
encamp near the town ; and avoid, if possible, the
broils which divide their brethren. Strong enough
to defend themselves against the attacks of other
Arabs, and generally keeping at a sufficient distance
from Mosul to be out of reach of the devastating
arm of its governors, they have become compara-
tively wealthy. Their flocks of sheep and camels are
numerous, and their Sheikhs boast some of the finest
horses and mares in Mesopotamia.
Sheikh Khalaf received us with hospitality; sheep
were immediately slaughtered, and we dismounted
at his tent. Even his wives, amongst whom was a
remarkably pretty Arab girl, came to us to gratify
their curiosity by a minute examination of the Frank
lady. As the intimacy, which began to spring up,
was somewhat inconvenient, we directed our tents to
be pitched at a distance from the encampment, by
the side of a small stream. It was one of those calm
and pleasant evenings, which in spring make a para-
dise of the desert. The breeze, bland and perfumed
by the odour of flowers, came calmly over the plain.
As the sun went down, countless camels and sheep
wandered to the tents, and the melancholy call of the
herdsmen rose above the bleating of the flocks. The
Arabs led their prancing mares to the water; the
colts, as they followed, played and rolled on the grass.
I spread my carpet at a distance from the group, to
enjoy uninterrupted the varied scene. Rassam, now
Sun V


Chap. IV.] MOVING OF AN ARAB TRIBE. 89
in his element, collected around him a knot of won-
dering Arab9, unscrewed telescopes, exhibited various
ingenious contrivances, and described the wonders of
Europe, interrupted by the exclamations of incredu-
lous surprise, which his marvellous stories elicited
from the hearers. Ali Effendi and his Mussulman
friends, who preferred other pleasures and more de-
finite excitement, hid themselves in the high rushes,
and handed round a small silver bowl containing
fragrant ruby-coloured spirits, which might have re-
joiced even the heart of Hafiz. The camel-drivers
and servants hurried over the lawn, tending their
animals or preparing for the evening meal.
We had now reached the pasture-grounds of the
Shammar, and Sheikh Khalaf declared that Sofuk's
tents could not be far distant. A few days before
they had been pitched almost amongst the ruins of Al
Hather; but he had since left them, and it was not
known where he had encamped. We started early in
the morning, and took the direction pointed out by
Khalaf. Our view was bounded to the east by a
rising ground. When we reached the summit, we
looked down upon a plain, which appeared to swarm
with moving objects. We had come upon the main
body of the Shammar. It would be difficult to de-
scribe the appearance of a large tribe, like that we
now met, when migrating to new pastures. The
scene caused in me feelings of melancholy, for it re-
called many hours, perhaps unprofitably, though cer-
tainly happily spent ; and many friends, some who
now sighed in captivity for the joyous freedom which


90 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IV.
those wandering hordes enjoyed; others who had
perished in its defence. We soon found ourselves
in the midst of wide-spreading flocks of sheep and
camels. As far as the eye could reach, to the right,
to the left, and in front, still the same moving crowd.
Long lines of asses and bullocks laden with black
tents, huge cauldrons and variegated carpets; aged
women and men, no longer able to walk, tied on the
heap of domestic furniture; infants crammed into
saddle-bags, their tiny heads thrust through the nar-
row opening, balanced on the animal's back by kids or
lambs tied on the opposite side; young girls clothed
only in the close-fitting Arab shirt, which displa)-ed
rather than concealed their graceful forms; mothers
with their children on their shoulders; boys driving
flocks of lambs; horsemen armed with their long
tufted spears, scouring the plain on their fleet mares;
riders urging their dromedaries with their short
hooked sticks, and leading their high-bred steeds by
the halter; colts galloping amongst the throng; high-
born ladies seated in the centre of huge wings, which
extend like those of a butterfly from each side of the
camel's hump, and are no less gaudy and variegated.
Such was the motley crowd through which we had
to wend our way for several hours. Our appearance
created a lively sensation; the women checked our
horses; the horsemen assembled around us, and rode
by our side; the children yelled and ran after the
Franks.
It was mid-day before we found a small party that
had stopped, and were pitching their tents. A young


Chap. IV.] THE SHAMMAR SHEIKH. 91
chesnut mare belonging to the Sheikh, was one of
the most beautiful creatures I ever beheld. As she
struggled to free herself from the spear to which she
was tied she showed the lightness and elegance of
the gazelle. Her limbs were in perfect symmetry;
her ears long, slender and transparent; her nostrils,
high, dilated and deep red; her neck gracefully
arched, and her mane and tail of the texture of silk.
We all involuntarily stopped to gaze at her. "Say
Masha-Allah," exclaimed the owner, who seeing, not
without pride, that I admired her, feared the effect
of an evil eye. "That I will," answered I, "and
with pleasure; for, 0 Arab, you possess the jewel of
the tribe." He brought us a bowl of camel's milk,
and directed us to the tents of Sofuk.
We had still two hours' ride before us, and when
we reached the encampment of the Shammar Sheikh,
our horses, as well as ourselves, were exhausted by
the heat of the sun, and the length of the day's jour-
ney. The tents were pitched on a broad lawn in a
deep ravine; they were scattered in every direction,
and amongst them rose the white pavilions of the
Turkish irregular cavalry. Ferhan, the son of Sofuk,
and a party of horsemen, rode out to meet us as we
approached, and led us to the tent of the chief, dis-
tinguished from the rest by its size, and the spears
which were driven into the ground at its entrance.
Sofuk advanced to receive us; he was followed by
about three hundred Arabs, including many of the
principal Sheikhs of the tribe. In person he was
short and corpulent, more like an Osmanli than an


Char. IV.]
93
SHEIKH SOFUK.
WITU,
ivory, like those of most Arabs. Beyond him sat a
crowd of men of the most ferocious and forbidding
exterior - warriors who had passed their lives in war
and rapine, looking upon those who did not belony
to their tribe as natural enemies, and preferring their
wild freedom to all the riches of the earth.
Mrs. Rassam had been ushered into this crowded
assembly; and the scrutinising glance with which she
was examined from head to foot, by all present, was
not agreeable. We requested that she might be
taken to the tent of the women. Sofuk called two
black slaves, who led her to the harem, scarcely a
stone's-throw distant.
The compliments having been at length finished,
we conversed upon general topics. Coffee, highly
drugged with odoriferous roots found in the desert,
and with spices, a mixture for which Sofuk has long
been celebrated, was handed round before we retired
to our own tents.
Sofuk's name was so well known in the desert, and
he so long played a conspicuous part in the politics
of Mesopotamia, that a few words on his history may
not be uninteresting. He was descended from the
Sheikhs, who brought the tribe from Nedjd. At the
commencement of his career he had shared the chief-
ship with his uncle, after whose death he became
the great Sheikh of the Shammar. From an early
period he had been troublesome to the Turkish go-
vernors of the provinces on the Tigris and Eu-
phrates; but gained the applause and confidence of
the Porte by a spirited attack which he made upon
ver


94 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IV.
the camp of Mohammed AH Mirza, son of Feth Ali
Shah, and governor of Kirmanshah, when that prince
was marching upon Baghdad and Mosul. After this
exploit, to which was mainly attributed the safety
of the Turkish cities, Sofuk was invested as Sheikh
of the Shammar. At times, however, when he had
to complain of ill-treatment from the Pasha of Bagh-
dad, or could not control those under him, his tribes
were accustomed to indulge their love of plunder, to
sack villages and pillage caravans. He thus became
formidable to the Turks, and was known as the King
of the Desert. When Mehemet Reshid Pasha led
his successful expedition into Kurdistan and Meso-
potamia, Sofuk was amongst the chiefs whose power
he sought to destroy. He knew that it would be
useless to attempt it by force, and he consequently
invited the Sheikh to his camp, on the pretence of in-
vesting him with the customary robe of honour. He
was seized, and sent a prisoner to Constantinople.
Here he remained some months, until, deceived by his
promises, the Porte permitted him to return to his
tribes. From that time his Arabs had generally been
engaged in plunder, and all efforts to subdue them
had failed. They had been the terror of the Pasha-
lics of Mosul and Baghdad, and had even carried their
depredations to the east of the Tigris. However,
Nejris, the son of Sofuk's uncle, had appeared as his
rival, and many branches of the Shammar had de-
clared for the new Sheikh. This led to dissensions in
the tribe; and, at the time of our visit, Sofuk, who
had forfeited his popularity by many acts of treachery,


96 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IV.
Arabs for convenience recognise one man as their
chief; yet any unpopular or oppressive act on his part
at once dissolves their allegiance; and they seek, in
another, a more just and trustworthy leader. Sub-
mitting, for a time, to contributions demanded by the
Sheikh, if they believe them to be necessary for the
honour and security of the tribe, they consider them-
selves the sole judges of that necessity. The chief is
consequently always unwilling to risk his authority by
asking for money or horses from those under him.
He can only govern as long as he has the majority in
his favour. He moves his tent; and others, who are
not of his own family, follow him if they think pro-
per. If his ascendency be great, and he can depend
upon his majority, he may commit acts of bloodshed
and oppression, becoming an arbitrary ruler; but
such things are not forgotten by the Arabs, or seldom
in the end go unpunished. Of this Sofuk himself
was, as it will be seen hereafter, an example.
The usual Arab meal was brought to us soon after
our arrival—large wooden bowls and platters filled
with boiled fragments of mutton swimming in melted
butter, and sour milk.
When our breakfast was removed, the chief of the
Hytas called upon us. I had known him at Mosul;
he was the commander of the irregular troops sta-
tioned at Selamiyah, and had been the instrument
of the late Pasha in my first troubles, as he now
good-humouredly avowed. He was called Ibrahim
Agha, Goorgi Oglu, or the son of. the Georgian, from
his Christian origin. In his person he was short;


Chap. IV.] A KURDISH CHIEF. 97
his features were regular, and his eyes bright; his com-
pressed brow, and a sneer, which continually curled
his lip, well marked the character of the man. In ap-
pearance he was the type of his profession; his loose
jacket, tight under vest, and capacious shalwars, were
covered with a mass of gold embroidery; the shawls
round his head and waist were of the richest texture and
gayest colours; the arms in his girdle of the costliest
description, and his horses and mares were renowned.
His daring and courage had made him the favourite
of Mohammed Pasha; and he was chiefly instrumental
in reducing to obedience the turbulent inhabitants of
Mosul and Kurdistan, during the struggle between
that governor and the hereditary chiefs of the pro-
vince. One of his exploits deserves notice. Some
years ago there lived in the Island of Zakko, formed
by the river Khabour, and in a castle of considerable
strength, a Kurdish Bey of great power and influence.
Whilst his resistance to the authority of the Porte
called for the interference of Mohammed Pasha, the
reports of his wealth were no mean incentives to an
expedition against him. All attempts, however, to
seize him and reduce his castle had failed. At the
time of my first visit to Mesopotamia he still lived
as an independent chief, and I enjoyed for a night his
hospitality. He was one of the last in this part of
Kurdistan who kept up the ancient customs of the
feudal chieftains. His spacious hall, hung around
with arms of all kinds, with the spreading antlers of
the stag and the long knotted horns of the ibex, was
filled every evening with guests and strangers. After
VOL. I. H


98 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chir. IV.
sunset the floor was covered with dishes overflowing
with various messes. The Bey sat on cushions at the
top of the hall, and by him were placed the most
favoured guests. After dinner he retired to his
harem; every one slept where it was most convenient
to himself, and rising at daybreak, went his way
without questions from his host. The days of the
chief were spent in war and plunder, and half the
country had claims of blood against him. "Will no
one deliver me from that Kurdish dog?" exclaimed
Mohammed Pasha one day in his salamlik, after an
ineffectual attempt to reduce Zakko; "By God and
his Prophet, the richest cloak of honour shall be for
him who brings me his head." Ibrahim Agha, who
was standing amongst the Pasha's courtiers, heard
the offer and left the room. Assembling a few of his
bravest followers, he took the road to the mountains.
Concealing all his men, but six or eight, in the gar-
dens outside the small town of Zakko, he entered
after nightfall the castle of the Kurdish chief. He
was received as a guest, and the customary dishes of
meat were placed before him. After he had eaten he
rose from his seat, and advancing towards his host,
fired his long pistol within a few feet of the breast
of the Bey, and drawing his sabre, severed the head
from the body. The Kurds, amazed at this un-
paralleled audacity, offered no resistance. A signal
from the roof was answered by the men outside;
the innermost recesses of the castle were rifled, and
the Georgian returned to Mosul with the head and
wealth of the Kurdish chieftain. The Castle of Zakko


Chap. IV.] ARAB DEVOTION 99
was suffered to fall into decay; Turkish rule suc-
ceeded to Kurdish independence; and a few starving
Jews are now alone found amongst the heap of ruins .
But this is not the last deed of daring of Ibrahim
Agha: Sofuk himself, now his host, was destined
likewise to become his victim.
After the Hyta-bashi had retired, Sofuk came to
our tents and remained with us the greater part of
the day. He was dejected and sad. He bewailed his
poverty, inveighed against the Turks, to whom he at-
tributed his ruin, and confessed, with tears, that his
tribe was fast deserting him. Whilst conversing on
these subjects, two Sheikhs rode into the encamp-
ment, and hearing that the chief was with us, they
fastened their high-bred mares at the door of our
tent and seated themselves on our carpets. They
had been amongst the tribes to ascertain the feeling
of the Shammar towards Sofuk, of whom they were
the devoted adherents. One was a man of forty,
blackened by long exposure to the desert sun, and of
a savage and sanguinary countenance. His com-
panion was a youth, his features were so delicate and
feminine, and his eyes so bright, that he might have
been taken for a woman; the deception would not
have been lessened by a profusion of black hair which
fell, platted into numerous tresses, on his breast and
shoulders. An animated discussion took place as to
the desertion of the Nejrn, a large branch of the Sham-
mar tribe. The young man's enthusiasm and devoted-
ness knew no bounds. He threw himself upon Sofuk,
and clinging to his neck covered his cheek and beard
H 2


100
[Cuar. IV.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
with kisses. When the chief had disengaged himself,
his follower seized the edge of his garment, and sobbed
violently as he held it to his lips. “I entreat thee,
O Sofuk!” he exclaimed, “say but the word; by thine
eyes, by thy beard, by the Prophet, order it, and this
sword shall find the heart of Nejris, whether he
escape into the farthest corner of the desert, or be
surrounded by all the warriors of the tribe." But it
was too late, and Sofuk saw that his influence in the
tribe was fast declining.
Mrs. Rassam, having returned from her visit to the
ladies, described her reception. I must endeavour to
convey to the reader some idea of the domestic es-
tablishment of a great Arab Sheikh. Sofuk, at the
time of our visit, was the husband of three wives, who
were considered to have special claims to his affection
and his constant protection; for it was one of Sofuk's
weaknesses, arising either from a desire to impress the
Arabs with a notion of his greatness and power, or
from a partiality to the first stage of married life, to
take a new partner nearly every month; and at the end
of that period to divorce her, and marry her to one
of his attendants. The happy man thus lived in a
continual honeymoon. Of the three ladies now forming
his harem, the chief was Amsha, a lady celebrated in
the song of every Arab of the desert, for her beauty
and noble blood. She was daughter of Hassan,
Sheikh of the Tai, a tribe tracing its origin from the
remotest antiquity, and one of whose chiefs, Hatem, her
ancestor, is a hero of Eastern romance. Sofuk had
carried her away by force from her father; but had
always treated her with great respect. From her


Cuap. IV.]
101
AMSHA.
rank and beauty she had earned the title of “Queen
of the Desert.” Her form, traceable through the
thin shirt which she wore like other Arab women,
was well proportioned and graceful. She was tall in
stature, and fair in complexion. Her features were
regular, and her eyes dark and brilliant. She had
undoubtedly claims to more than ordinary beauty; to
the Arabs she was perfection, for all the resources of
their art had been exhausted to complete what na-
ture had begun. Her lips were dyed deep blue, her
eyebrows were continued in indigo until they united
over the nose, her cheeks and forehead were spotted
with beauty-marks, her eyelashes darkened by kohl;
and on her legs and bosom could be seen the tattooed
ends of flowers and fanciful ornaments, which were
carried in festoons and network over her whole body.
Hanging from each ear, and reaching to her waist,
was an enormous earring of gold, terminating in a tablet
of the same material, carved and ornamented with
four turquoises. Her nose was also adorned with a
prodigious gold ring, set with jewels, of such ample
dimensions that it covered the mouth, and was to be
removed when the lady ate. Ponderous rows of
strung beads, Assyrian cylinders, fragments of coral,
agates, and parti-coloured stones, hung from her
neck; loose silver rings encircled her wrists and
ankles, making a loud jingling as she walked. Over
her blue shirt was thrown, when she issued from her
tent, a coarse striped cloak, and a common black
handkerchief was tied round her head.
Her ménage combined, if the old song be true, the
- 3


102 NIXEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IV.
domestic and the queenly, and was carried on with a
nice appreciation of economy. The immense sheet
of black goat-hair canvass, which formed the tent, was
supported by twelve or fourteen stout poles, and was
completely open on one side. Being entirely set
apart for the women it had no partitions, like those
in the tent of the common Arab, who is obliged to
reserve a corner for the reception of his guests.
Between the centre poles were placed, upright and
close to one another, large goat-hair sacks, filled with
rice, corn, barley, coffee, and other household stuff;
their mouths being, of course, upwards. Upon them
were spread carpets and cushions, on which Amsha
reclined. Around her, squatted on the ground, were
some fifty handmaidens, tending the wide cauldron,
baking bread on the iron plates heated over the ashes,
or shaking between them the skins suspended between
three stakes, and filled with milk, to be thus churned
into butter. It is the privilege of the head wife to
prepare in her tent the dinners of the Sheikh's guests.
The fires, lighted on all sides, sent forth a cloud
of smoke, which hung heavily under the folds of the
tent, and would have long before dimmed any eyes
less bright than those of Amsha. As supplies were
asked for by the women she lifted the corner of her
carpet, untied the mouths of the sacks, and dis-
tributed their contents. Everything passed through
her hands. To show her authority and rank she
poured continually upon her attendants a torrent of
abuse, and honoured them with epithets of which I
may be excused attempting to give a translation;


Chap. IV.] AMSHA. 103
her vocabulary equalling, if not exceeding, in rich-
ness, that of the highly educated lady of the city.*
The combination of the domestic and authoritative
was thus complete. Her children, three naked little
urchins, black with sun and mud, and adorned with
a long tail hanging from the crown of their heads,
rolled in the ashes or on the grass.
Amsha, as I have observed, shared the affections,
though not the tent of Sofuk—for each establishment
had a tent of its own — with two other ladies;
Atouia, an Arab not much inferior to her rival in
personal appearance; and Ferrah, originally a Yezidi
slave, who had no pretensions to beauty. Amsha,
however, always maintained her sway, and the others
could not sit, without her leave, in her presence. To
her alone were confided the keys of the larder—sup-
posing Sofuk to have had either keys or larder — and
there was no appeal from her authority on all sub-
jects of domestic economy.
Mrs. Rassam informed me that she was received
with great ceremony by the ladies. To show the
rank and luxurious habits of her husband, Amsha
offered her guest a glass of " eau sucr^e," which Mrs.
Rassam, who is over nice, assured me she could not
drink, as it was mixed by a particularly dirty negro,
in the absence of a spoon, with his fingers, which he
sucked continually during the process.
* It may not perhaps be known that the fair inmate of the harem,
whom we picture to ourselves conversing with her lover in language too
delicate and refined to be expressed by anything else but flowers, uses
ordinarily words which would shock the ears of even the most depraved
amongst us.
h 4


104
[Chap. IV.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
When the tribe is changing its pastures, the ladies
of the Sheikhs are placed on the backs of dromedaries
in the centre of the most extraordinary contrivance
that man's ingenuity, and a love of the picturesque,
could have invented. A light framework, varying
from sixteen to twenty feet in length, stretches across
the hump of the camel. It is brought to a point at
each end, and the outer rods are joined by distended
parchment; two pouches of gigantic pelicans seem
to spring from the sides of the animal. In the centre,
and over the hump, rises a small pavilion, under which
is seated the lady. The whole machine, as well as
the neck and body of the camel, is ornamented with
tassels and fringes of worsted of every hue, and with
strings of glass beads and shells. It sways from side to
side as the beast labours under the unwieldy burthen;
looking, as it appears above the horizon, like some
stupendous butterfly skimming slowly over the plain.

H A Latani.
A SHAMIR LADY ON A CAII^L.


Chap. IV.] ARAB GUIDES. 105
la the evening Amsha and Ferrah returned Mrs.
Rassam's visit; Sofuk having, however, first obtained
a distinct promise that they were not to be received in
a tent where gentlemen were to be admitted. They
were very inquisitive, and their indiscreet curiosity
could with difficulty be satisfied.
Sofuk was the owner of a mare of matchless
beauty, called, as if the property of the tribe, the
Shammeriyah. Her dam, who died about ten years
ago, was the celebrated Kubleh, whose renown ex-
tended from the sources of the Khabour to the end
of the Arabian promontory, and the day of whose
death is the epoch from which the Arabs of Mesopo-
tamia now date the events concerning their tribe.
Mohammed Emin, Sheikh of the Jebour, assured me
that he had seen Sofuk ride down the wild ass of the
Sinjar on her back, and the most marvellous stories
are current in the desert as to her fleetness and powers
of endurance. Sofuk esteemed her and her daughter
above all the riches of the tribe; for her he would
have forfeited all his wealth, and even Amsha herself.
Owing to the visit of the irregular troops, the best
horses of the Sheikh and his followers were concealed
in a secluded ravine at some distance from the tents.
Al Hather was about eighteen miles from Sofuk's
encampment. He gave us two well-known horsemen
to accompany us to the ruins. Their names were
Dathan and Abiram. The former was a black slave, to
whom the Sheikh had given his liberty and a wife —
two things, it may be observed, which are in the desert
perfectly consistent. He was the most faithful and


106 NINEVEH AND ITS BEMAINS. [Chap. IV.
brave of all the adherents of Sofuk, and the fame of
his exploits had spread through the tribes of Arabia.
As we rode along, I endeavoured to obtain from him
some information concerning his people, but he would
only speak on one subject. "Ya Bej,"* said he, " the
Arab only thinks of two things, war and love: war,
Ya Bej, every one understands; let us, therefore,
talk of love;" and he dwelt upon the beauties of
Arab maidens in glowing language, and on the rich
reward they offered to him who has distinguished
himself in the foray or the fight. He then told me
how a lover first loved, and how he made his love
known. An Arab's affections are quickly bestowed
upon any girl that may have struck his fancy as she
passed him, when bearing water from the springs, or
when moving to fresh pastures. Nothing can equal
the suddenness of his first attachment, but its ardour.
He is ready to die for her, and gives himself up to
desperate feats, or to deep melancholy. The maiden,
or the lady of his love, is ignorant of the sentiment
she has unconsciously inspired. The lover therefore
seeks to acquaint her with his passion. He speaks to
a distant relation, or to a member of the tribe who
has access to the harem of the tent which she occupies;
and after securing his secrecy by an oath, he confesses
his love, and entreats his confidant to arrange an in-
terview. If the person addressed consents to talk to
the woman, he goes to her when she is alone, and
* "O my Lord;" he so prefaced every sentence. The Shammar
Arabs pronounce the word Beg, which the Constantinopolitans soften
into Bey, Bej.


Chap. IV.] ARAB WOMEN. 107
gathering a flower or a blade of grass, he says to
her, " Swear by him who made this flower and us
also, that you will not reveal to any one that which
I am about to unfold to you." If she be not disposed
to encourage the addresses of any lover, or if in
other cases she be virtuous, she refuses and goes her
way, but will never disclose what has passed; other-
wise she answers, "I swear by him who made the
leaf you now hold and us," and the man settles a
place and time of meeting. Oaths taken under these
circumstances are seldom, if ever, broken.
The Shammar women are not celebrated for their
chastity. Some time after our visit to Sofuk, Mo-
hammed Emin, Sheikh of the Jebour, was a guest at
his tents. Some altercation arising between him and
Ferhan, he called the son of the chief "a liar."
"What manner of unclean fellow art thou," ex-
claimed Sofuk, "to address thus a Sheikh of the
Shammar? Dost thou not know that there is not a
village in the pashalic of Mosul in which the Arab
name is not dishonoured by a woman of the Jebour?"
"That may be," replied the indignant chief; "but
canst thou point out, 0 Sofuk, a man of the Nejm
who can say that his father is not of the Jebour?"
This reproach, which the fame of the large branch
of the Shammar to which he alluded warranted to a
certain extent, so provoked Sofuk, that he sprang
upon his feet, and drawing his sword, would have
murdered his guest had not those who sat in the
tent interposed.
The system of marriages, and the neglect with


108 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IV.
which women are treated, cannot but be productive
of bad results. If an Arab suspects the fidelity of
his wife, and obtains such proof as is convincing to
him, he may kill her on the spot; but he generally
prefers concealing his dishonour from the tribe, as
an exposure would be looked upon as bringing shame
upon himself. Sometimes he merely divorces her,
which can be done by thrice repeating a certain
formula. The woman has most to fear from her
own relations, who generally put her to death if
she has given a bad name, as they term it, to the
family.
As we rode to Al Hather, we passed large bodies
of the Shammar moving with their tents, flocks, and
families. On all sides appeared the huge expanding
wings of the camel, such as I have described. Dathan
was known to all. As the horsemen approached, they
dismounted and embraced him, kissing him, as is cus-
tomary, on both cheeks, and holding him by the hand
until many compliments had been exchanged.
A dark thunder-cloud rose behind the time-worn
ruins of Al Hather as we approached them. The
sun, still throwing its rays upon the walls and palace,
lighted up the yellow stones until they shone like
gold.* Mr. Ross and myself, accompanied by an
Arab, urged our horses onwards, that we might
escape the coming storm; but it burst upon us in its
* The rich golden tint of the limestone, of which the great monuments
of Syria are built, is known to every traveller in that country. The ruins
of Al Hather have the same bright colour; they look as if they had been
steeped in the sunbeams.


Chap. IV.] AL HATHER. 109
fury ere we reached the palace. The lightning played
through the vast buildings, the thunder re-echoed
through its deserted halls, and the hail compelled us
to rein up our horses, and turn our backs to the tem-
pest. It was a fit moment to enter such ruins as
these. They rose in solitary grandeur in the midst
of a desert, "in media solitudine positas," as they
stood fifteen centuries before, when described by the
Roman historian.* On my previous visit, the first
view I obtained of Al Hather was perhaps no less
striking. We had been wandering for three days in
the wilderness without seeing one human habitation.
On the fourth morning a thick mist hung over the
place. We had given up the search, when the vapours
were drawn up like a curtain, and we saw the ruins
before us. At that time within the walls were the tents
of some Shammar Arabs, but now as we crossed the
confused heaps of fragments, forming a circle round
the city, we saw that the place was tenantless. Flocks
on a neighbouring rising ground showed, however,
that Arabs were not distant.
We pitched our tents in the great court-yard, in
front of the palace, and near the entrance to the
inner inclosure. During the three days we remained
amongst the ruins I had ample time to take accurate
measurements, and to make plans of the various build-
ings still partly standing within the walls. As Al
Hather has already been described by others, and as
the information I was able to collect has been placed
* Ammianus Marcellinus, lib. 25. cap. 8.


110 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IV.
before the public*, I need not detain the reader with
a detailed account of the place. Suffice it to men-
tion, that the walls of the city, flanked by numerous
towers, form almost a complete circle, in the centre
of which rises the palace, an edifice of great mag.
nificence, solidly constructed of squared stones, and
elaborately sculptured with figures and ornaments.
It dates probably from the reign of one of the Sassa-
nian Kings of Persia, certainly not prior to the Arsa-
cian dynasty, although the city itself was, I have little
doubt, founded at a very early period. The marks
upon all the stones, which appear to be either a
builder's sign or to have reference to some religious
observance, are found in most of the buildings of Sas-
sanian origin in Persia, Babylonia, and Susiana.f
With the exception of occasional alarms in the
night, caused by thieves attempting to steal the
horses, we were not distui'bed during our visit. The
Arabs from the tents in the neighbourhood brought
us milk, butter, and sheep. We drank the water of
the Thathar, which is, however, rather salt; and our
servants and camel-drivers filled during the day many
baskets with truffles.
On our return we crossed the desert, reaching
* See Dr. Ross's Memoir in the Geographical Society's Journal, and
Dr. Ainsworth's Travels. A memoir on the place by me, accompanied by
plans, &c, was read before the Institute of British Architects, and partly
printed in a number of the Builder.
t Many of these marks are given in Mr. Ainsworth's Memoir in the
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. They are not letters of any
one particular alphabet, but they are signs of all kinds. I discovered
similar marks at Bisutum, Isfahan, Shuster, and other places in Persia,
where Sassanian buildings appear to have existed.


Chap. IV.] FATE OF SOFUK. Ill
Wadi Ghusub the first night, and Mosul on the fol-
lowing morning. Dathan and Abiram, who had
both distinguished themselves in recent foraging
parties, and had consequently accounts to settle with
the respectable merchants of the place, the balance
being very much against them, could not be pre-
vailed upon to enter the town, where they were ge-
nerally known. We had provided ourselves with two
or three dresses of Damascus silk, and we invested our
guides as a mark of satisfaction for their services.
Dathan grinned a melancholy smile as he received
his reward. "Ya Bej," he exclaimed, as he turned
his mare towards the desert; "may God give you
peace! Wallah, your camels shall be as the camels
of the Shammar. Be they laden with gold, they
shall pass through our tents, and our people shall not
touch them."
A year after our visit the career of Sofuk was
brought to its close. The last days of his life may
serve to illustrate the manners of the country, and
the policy of those who are its owners. I have men-
tioned that Nejris, Sofuk's rival, had obtained the
support of nearly the whole tribe of Shammar. In
a month Sofuk found himself nearly alone. His re-
lations and immediate adherents, amongst whom were
Dathan and Abiram, still pitched their tents with
him, but he feared the attacks of his enemies, and
retreated for safety into the territory of Beder Khan
Bey, to the East of the Tigris, near Jezirah. He sent
his son Ferhan with a few presents, and with pro-
mises of more substantial gifts in case of success, to


112 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IV.
claim the countenance and support of Nejib Pasha
of Baghdad, under whose authority the Shammar
are supposed to be. The Pasha honoured the young
Sheikh with his favour, and invested him as chief
of the tribe, to the exclusion of Sofuk, whom he
knew to be unpopular; but who still, it was under-
stood, was to govern as the real head of the Sham-
mar. He also promised to send a strong military
force to the assistance of Ferhan, to enable him to
enforce obedience amongst the Arabs.
The measures taken by Nejib Pasha had the effect
of bringing back a part of the tribe to Sofuk, who
now proposed to Nejris, that they should meet at his
tents, forget their differences, and share equally the
Sheikhship of the Shammar. Nejris would not ac-
cept the invitation; he feared the treachery of a man,
who had already forfeited his good name as an Arab.
Sofuk prevailed upon his son to visit his rival. He
hoped, through the means of the young chief, who
was less unpopular and more trusted than himself,
to induce Nejris to accept the terms he had offered,
and to come to his encampment. Ferhan refused,
and was only persuaded to undertake the mission
after his father had pledged himself, by a solemn oath,
to respect the laws of hospitality. He rode to the
tents of Nejris, who received him with affection, but
refused to trust himself in the power of Sofuk, until
Ferhan had given his own word that no harm should
befall him. "I would not have gone," said he, "to
the tents of Sofuk, had he sworn a thousand oaths;
but to show you, Ferhan, that I have confidence in


CRAP. IV.]
113
MURDER OF NEJRIS.
was
your word, “I will ride with you alone;" and, mount-
ing his mare, unaccompanied by any of his attendants,
he followed Ferhan to the encampment of Sofuk.
His reception showed him at once that he had
been betrayed. Sofuk sat in gloomy silence, sur-
rounded by several of the most desperate of his tribe.
He rose not to receive his guest, but beckoned him
to a place by his side. Ferhan trembled as he looked
on the face of his father; but, Nejris, undaunted,
advanced into the circle, and seated himself where
he had been bidden. Sofuk at once upbraided him
as a rebel to his authority, and sought the excuse of
a quarrel. As Nejris answered boldly, the occasion
was not long wanting. Sofuk sprang to his feet, and
drawing his sword, threw himself upon his rival. In
vain Ferhan appealed to his father's honour, to the
laws of hospitality, so sacred to the Arab; in vain he
entreated him not to disgrace his son by shedding
the blood of one whom he had brought to his tents.
Nejris sought protection of Hajar, the uncle of Sofuk,
and clung to his garments; but he was one of the
most treacherous and bloodthirsty of the Shammar.
Upon this man's knee was the head of the unfortunate
Sheikh held down, whilst Sofuk slew him as he would
have slain a sheep. The rage of the murderer was
now turned against his son, who stood at the entrance
of the tent tearing his garments, and calling down
curses upon the head of his father. The reeking
sword would have been dipped in his blood, had not
those who were present interfered.
The Shammar were amazed and disgusted by this
VOL. I.


114 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IV.
act of perjury and treachery. The hospitality of an
Arab tent had been violated, and disgrace had been
brought upon the tribe. A deed so barbarous and so
perfidious had been unknown. They withdrew a second
time from Sof'uk, and placed themselves under a new
leader, a relation of the murdered Sheikh. Sofuk
again appealed to NejibPasha, justifying his treachery
by the dissensions which would have divided the tribe,
and would have led to constant disorders in Mesopo-
tamia had there still been rival candidates for the
Sheikhship. Nejib pretended to be satisfied, and agreed
to send out a party of irregular troops to assist Sofuk
in enforcing his authority throughout the desert.
The commander of the troops sent by Nejib was
Ibrahim Agha, the son of the Georgian, whom we
met on our journey into the desert. Sofuk received
him with joy, and immediately marched against the
tribe; but he himself was the enemy against whom
the Agha was sent. He had scarcely left his tent,
when he found that he had fallen into a snare which
he had more than once set for others. In a few
hours after, his head was in the palace of the Pasha
of Baghdad.
Such was the end of one whose name will long be
remembered in the wilds of Arabia; who, from his
power and wealth, enjoyed the title of "the King of
the Desert," and led the great tribe of Shammar from
the banks of the Khabour to the ruins of Babylon.
The tale of the Arab will turn for many years to
come on the exploits and magnificence of Sofuk.


Chap. V.] DISCOVERY OF SMALL OBJECTS. 115
CHAP. V.
DISCOVERY OF SMALL OBJECTS. —PAVEMENT OF THE CHAMBERS.
AN ARAB FEAST. ARRIVAL OF TAHYAR PASHA. EXCAVATIONS
CONTINUED. THE SUMMER AT NIMROUD. A WHIRLWIND.
FURTHER DISCOVERIES OF BAS-RELIEFS DESCRIPTION OF THE
SCULPTURES. PAINTED PLASTER. RECEIPT OF VIZ1RIAL
LETTER. EXCAVATIONS AT KOUYUNJIK. FRESH DISCOVERIES
AT NIMROUD. SURPRISE OF THE ARABS. FIRST COLLECTION
OF SCULPTURES SENT TO ENGLAND. VISIT FROM TAHYAR
PASHA SPECULATIONS OF THE TURKS ON THE SCULPTURES.
REMOVED TO MOSUL. — DISCOVERY OF A BUILDING IN A MOUND
NEAR KOUYUNJIK. NEW CHAMBERS OPENED AT NIMROUD.
On my return to Mosul I hastened back to Nimroud.
During my absence little progress had been made, as
only two men had been employed in removing the
rubbish from the upper part of the chamber to which
the great human-headed lions formed an entrance.
The lions to the east of them (entrance d) had, how-
ever, been completely uncovered; that to the right
(No. 2.) had fallen from its place, and was sustained
by the opposite sculpture. Between them was a large
pavement slab covered with cuneiform characters.
In clearing the earth from this entrance, and from
behind the fallen lion, many ornaments in copper,
two small ducks in baked clay, and tablets of ala-
baster inscribed on both sides were discovered.*
Amongst the copper mouldings were the head of a
* All these objects are deposited in the British Museum,
i 2


116 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.
ram or bull*, several hands (the fingers closed and
slightly bent), and a few flowers. The hands may
have served as a casing to similar objects in baked
clay, frequently found amongst the ruins, and having
an inscription, containing the names, titles, and
genealogy of the King, graved upon the fingers.
The heads of the ducks, for they resemble that bird
more than any other, are turned and rest upon the
back, which bears an inscription in cuneiform cha-
racters. Objects somewhat similar have been found
in Egypt. It is difficult to determine the original
site of the small tablets. They appeared to me to
have been built up inside the walls above the slabs,
or to have been placed behind the slabs themselves,
and this conjecture was confirmed by subsequent dis-
coveries. The inscription upon them resembled that
on all the slabs in the north-west palace.
It is remarkable that whilst such parts of the
chamber B as had been uncovered were paved with
kiln-burnt bricks, and the entrance d with a large slab
of alabaster, between the two great lions there was only
a flooring of common sun-dried brick. In the middle
of the entrance, near the fore-part of the lions, were
a few square stones carefully placed. I expected to
find under them small figures in clay, similar to those
discovered by M. Botta in the doorways at Khor-
sabad, but nothing of the kind existed.
As several of the principal Christian families of
* This head may have belonged to the end of a chariot pole, or to a
throne such as that represented in one of the sculptures. (See Plate 5,
of the " Monuments of Nineveh," and Plates 96 and 97, in which several
of the small objects here described are represented.)


Chap. V.] A FEAST. 117
Mosul were anxious to see the sculptures, whose
fame had been spread over the town and provinces,
I was desirous of gratifying their curiosity before the
heat of summer had rendered the plain of Nimroud
almost uninhabitable. An opportunity at the same
time presented itself of securing the good-will of the
Arab tribes encamping near the ruins, by preparing
an entertainment which might gratify all parties.
The Christian ladies, who had never before been out
of sight of the walls of their houses, were eager to
see the wonders of Nimroud, and availed themselves
joyfully of the permission, with difficulty extracted
from their husbands, to leave their homes. The
French consul and his wife, and Mr. and Mrs. Ras-
sam, joined the party. On the day after their arrival
I issued a general invitation to all the Arabs of the
district, men and women.
White pavilions, borrowed from the Pasha, had
been pitched near the river, on a broad lawn still car-
peted with flowers. These were for the ladies, and
for the reception of the Sheikhs. Black tents were
provided for some of the guests, for the attendants
and for the kitchen. A few Arabs encamped around
us to watch the horses, which were picketted on all
sides. An open space was left in the centre of the
group of tents for dancing, and for various exhibi-
tions provided for the entertainment of the company.
Early in the morning came Abd-ur-rahman,
mounted on a tall white mare. He had adorned
himself with all the finery he possessed. Over his
keffiah, or head-kerchief, was folded a white turban,
I 3


118
[Chap. V.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
edged with long fringes which fell over his shoulders,
and alınost concealed his handsome features. He
wore a long robe of red silk and bright yellow boots,
an article of dress much prized by Arabs. He was
surrounded by horsemen carrying spears tipped with
tufts of ostrich feathers.
As the Sheikh of the Abou-Salman approached the
tents I rode out to meet him. A band of Kurdish
musicians, hired for the occasion, advanced at the
same time to do honour to the Arab chief. As they
drew near to the encampment, the horsemen, led by
Schloss, the nephew of Abd-ur-rahman, urged their
mares to the utmost of their speed, and engaging in
mimic war, filled the air with their wild war-cry.
Their shoutings were, however, almost drowned by
the Kurds, who belaboured their drums, and blew
into their pipes with redoubled energy. Sheikh
Abd-ur-rahman, having dismounted, seated himself
with becoining gravity on the sofa prepared for
guests of his rank; whilst his Arabs picketted their
mares, fastening the halters to their spears driven
into the ground.
The Abou-Salman were followed by the Shemutti
and Jehesh, who came with their women and children
on foot, except the Sheikhs, who rode on horseback.
They also chanted their peculiar war-cry as they
advanced. When they reached the tents, the chiefs
placed themselves on the divan, whilst the others
seated themselves in a circle on the greensward.
The wife and daughter of Abd-ur-rahman, mounted
on mares, and surrounded by their slaves and hand-
en
War-O


Chap. V.] ARAB DANCES. 119
maidens, next appeared. They dismounted at the
entrance of the ladies' tents, where an abundant re-
past of sweetmeats, hahva, parched peas, and let-
tuces had been prepared for them.
Fourteen sheep had been roasted and boiled to
feast the crowd that had assembled. They were
placed on large wooden platters, which, after the men
had satisfied themselves, were passed on to the women.
The dinner having been devoured to the last frag-
ment, dancing succeeded. Some scruples had to be
overcome before the women would join, as there were
other tribes, besides their own, present; and when at
length, by the exertions of Mr. Hormuzd Rassam,
this difficulty was overcome, they made up different
sets. Those who did not take an active share in the
amusements seated themselves on the grass, and
formed a large circle round the dancers. The Sheikhs
remained on the sofas and divans. The dance of the
Arabs, the Debke, as it is called, resembles in some
respects that of the Albanians, and those who perform
in it are scarcely less vehement in their gestures, or
less extravagant in their excitement, than those wild
mountaineers. They form a circle, holding one
another by the hand, and, moving slowly round at
first, go through a shuffling step with their feet,
twisting their bodies into various attitudes. As the
music quickens, their movements are more active;
they stamp with their feet, yell their war-cry, and
jump as they hurry round the musicians. The motions
of the women are not without grace ; but as they insist
on wrapping themselves in their coarse cloaks before
I 4


120 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V
they join in the dance, their forms, which the simple
Arah shirt so well displays, are entirely concealed.
When those who formed the Debke were completely
exhausted by their exertions, they joined the lookers-
on, and seated themselves on the ground. Two war-
riors of different tribes, furnished with shields and
drawn scimitars, then entered the circle, and went
through the sword-dance. As the music quickened,
the excitement of the performers increased. The
bystanders at length were obliged to interfere, and to
deprive the combatants of their weapons, which were
replaced by stout staves. With these they belaboured
one another unmercifully to the great enjoyment of
the crowd. On every successful hit, the tribe, to
which the one who dealt it belonged, set up their
war-cry and shouts of applause, whilst the women
deafened us with the shrill "tahlehl," a noise made by
a combined motion of the tongue, throat, and hand
vibrated rapidly over the mouth. When an Arab or
a Kurd hears this tahlehl he almost loses his senses
through excitement, and is ready to commit any
desperate act.
A party of Kurdish jesters from the mountains
entertained the Arabs with performances and imi-
tations, more amusing than refined. They were re-
ceived with shouts of laughter. The dances were
kept up by the light of the moon, the greater part of
the night.
On the following morning Abd-ur-rahman invited
us to his tents, and we were entertained with re-
newed Debkes and sword-dances. The women, un-


Chap. V.] TAHYAR TASHA. 121
disturbed by the presence of another tribe, entered
more fully into the amusement, and danced with
greater animation. The Sheikh insisted upon my
joining with him in leading off a dance, in which we
were joined by some five hundred warriors, and Arab
women. His admiration of the beauty of the French
lady who accompanied us exceeded all bounds, and
when he had ceased dancing, he sat gazing upon her
from a corner of the tent. "Wallah," he whispered
to me, "she is the sister of the Sun! what would
you have more beautiful than that? Had I a thou-
sand purses, I would give them all for such a wife.
See!—her eyes are like the eyes of my mare, her
hair is as bitumen, and her complexion resembles
the finest Busrah dates. Any one would die for a
Houri like that." The Sheikh was almost justified in
his admiration.
The festivities lasted three days, and made the
impression I had anticipated. They earned me a great
reputation and no small respect, the Arabs long after-
wards talking of their reception and entertainment.
When there was occasion for their services, I found
the value of the feeling towards me, which a little
show of kindness to these ill-used people had served
to produce.
Hafiz Pasha, who had been appointed to succeed
the last governor, having received a more lucrative
post, the province was sold to Tahyar Pasha. He
made his public entry into Mosul early in May, and
I rode out to meet him. He was followed by a large
body of troops, and by the Cadi, Mufti, Ulema, and


122 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Cbap. V.
principal inhabitants of the town, who had been wait-
ing for him at some distance from the gates to show
their respect. The Mosuleeans had not been deceived
by the good report of his benevolence and justice
which had preceded him. He was a venerable old
man, bland and polished in his manners, courteous to
Europeans, and well informed on subjects connected
with the literature and history of his country. He
was a perfect specimen of the Turkish gentleman of
the old school, of whom few are now left in Turkey.
I had been furnished with serviceable letters of in-
troduction to him; he received me with every mark
of attention, and at once permitted me to continue
the excavations. As a matter of form, he named a
Cawass, to superintend the work on his part. I wil-
lingly concurred in this arrangement, as it saved me
from any further inconvenience on the score of trea-
sure; for which, it was still believed, I was success-
fully searching. This officer's name was Ibrahim
Agha. He had been many years with Tahyar, and
was a kind of favourite. He served me during my
residence in Assyria, and on my subsequent journey
to Constantinople, with great fidelity; and, as is very
rarely the case with his fraternity, with great honesty.
The support of Tahyar Pasha relieved me from
some of my difficulties; for there was no longer cause
to fear any interruption on the part of the authorities.
But my means were very limited, and my own re-
sources did not enable me to carry on the excavations
as I wished. I returned, however, to Nimroud, and
formed a small but effective body of workmen, choos-


Chap. V.] SUMMER AT NIMROUD. 12$
ing those who had already proved themselves equal
to the work.
The heats of summer had now commenced, and it
was no longer possible to live under a white tent.
The huts were equally uninhabitable, and still swarmed
with vermin. In this dilemma I ordered a recess
to be cut into the bank of the river, where it rose
perpendicularly from the water's edge. By screen-
ing the front with reeds and boughs of trees, and
covering the whole with similar materials, a small
room was formed. I was much troubled, however,
with scorpions and other reptiles, which issued from
the earth forming the wails of my apartment; and
later in the summer by the gnats and sandflies, which
hovered on a calm night over the river. Similar
rooms were made for my servants. They were the
safest that could be invented, should the Arabs take
to stealing after dark. My horses were picketted on
the edge of the bank above, and the tents of my work-
men were pitched in a semi-circle behind them.
The change to summer had been as rapid as that
which ushered in the spring. The verdure of the
plain had perished almost in a day. Hot winds,
coming from the desert, had burnt up and carried
away the shrubs; flights of locusts, darkening the air,
had destroyed the few patches of cultivation, and
had completed the havoc commenced by the heat of
the sun. The AbouSalman Arabs, having struck
their black tents, were now living in ozailis, or sheds,
constructed of reeds and grass along the banks of the
river. The Shemutti and Jehesh had returned to their


124 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.
villages, and the plain presented the same naked and
desolate aspect that it wore in the month of November.
The heat, however, was now almost intolerable.
Violent whirlwinds occasionally swept over the face
of the country. They could be seen as they advanced
from the desert, carrying along with them clouds of
sand and dust. Almost utter darkness prevailed
during their passage, which lasted generally about an
hour, and nothing could resist their fury. On re-
turning home one afternoon after a tempest of this
kind, I found no traces of my dwellings; they had been
completely carried away. Ponderous wooden frame-
works had been borne over the bank, and hurled some
hundred, yards distant; the tents had disappeared,
and my furniture was scattered over the plain. When
on the mound, my only secure place of refuge was
beneath the fallen lion, where I could defy the fury
of the whirlwind: the Arabs ceased from their work,
and crouched in the trenches, almost suffocated and
blinded by the dense cloud of fine dust and sand
which nothing could exclude.*
Although the number of my workmen was small,
the excavations were carried on as actively as possible.
The two human-headed lions, forming the entrance df,
* Storms of this nature are frequent during the early part of summer
throughout Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Susiana. It is difficult to
convey an idea of their violence. They appear suddenly and without any
previous sign, and seldom last above an hour. It was during one of
them that the Tigris steamer, under the command of Colonel Chesney,
was wrecked in the Euphrates; and so darkened was the atmosphere that,
although the vessel was within a short distance of the bank of the river,
several persons who were in her are supposed to have lost their lives from
not knowing in what direction to swim.
t Chamber 13, plan 3.





Te fare pare 125 Vol 1.

ALLENGE
WINGED SIGURE
(N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)


Chap. V.J BAS-RELIEFS. 125
led into another chamber, or to sculptured walls,
which, as it will hereafter be explained, may have
formed an outward facing to the building. The slabs
to the right and left, on issuing from this portal, had
fallen from their original position, and all of them,
except one, were broken. I had some difficulty in
raising the pieces from the ground. As the face of
the slabs was downwards, the sculpture had been
well preserved.
On the slabs Nos. 2. and 3. was represented the
King, holding a bow in one hand and two arrows in
the other. He was followed by his attendant eunuch,
who carried a mace, a second bow, and a quiver
for his use. Facing him was his vizir, his hands
crossed before him, also followed by an eunuch. These
figures were about eight feet high ; the relief very low,
and the ornaments rich and elaborately carved. The
bracelets, armlets, and weapons, were all adorned with
the heads of bulls and rams; colour still remained
on the hair, beard, and sandals.
No. 1., forming a corner wall, was a slab of
enormous dimensions; it had been broken in two:
the upper part was on the floor, the lower was still
standing in its place. It was only after many in-
effectual attempts that I succeeded in raising the
fallen part sufficiently to ascertain the nature of the
sculpture. It was a winged figure, with a three-
horned cap, carrying the fir cone and square utensil;
in other respects, similar to those already described,
except that it had two wings rising from both sides
of the back and enclosing the person. Its dimensions


126 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.
Avere gigantic, the height being about sixteen feet
and a half, but the relief was low.
The first slab on the other side of the entrance
contained a vizir and his attendant, similar to No. 3.
The succeeding slabs were occupied by figures, differ-
ing altogether in costume from those previously
discovered, and apparently representing people of
another race; some carrying presents or offerings,
consisting of armlets, bracelets, and earrings on trays;
others elevating their clenched hands, either in token
of submission, or in the attitude still peculiar to
Easterns when they dance. One figure was accom-
panied by two monkeys, held by ropes; the one rais-
ing itself on its hind legs in front, the other sitting
on the shoulders of the man, and supporting itself by
placing its fore paws on his head.* The dresses of
all these figures were singular. They had high boots
turned up at the toes, somewhat resembling those
still in use in Turkey and Persia. Their caps, al-
though conical, appear to have been made up of bands,
or folds of felt or linen. Their tunics varied in
shape, and in the fringes, from those of the high-
capped warriors and attendants represented in other
bas-reliefs. The figure with the monkeys wore a
tunic descending to the calf of the leg. His hair was
simply fastened by a fillet. There were traces of
black colour all over the face, and it is not improbable
that it was originally painted to represent a negro;
although the features were in no way characteristic
* This bas-relief will be placed in the British Museum.





To face page 127. Vo! I

WINGED HUMAN-HEADED BOLL. IN. W. Tolace, Nlmroud.)


Chap.V.] bas-reliefs. 127
of one of that race, but were of the usual form: it is,
however, possible that the paint of the hair had been
washed down by water over other parts of the sculp-
ture. These peculiarities of dress suggest that the
persons represented were captives from some distant
country, bringing tribute to the conquerors.
In chamber 13 the wall was continued to the south,
or to the left facing the great lion*, by an eagle-
headed figure resembling that already described; ad-
joining it was a corner stone, occupied by the sacred
tree; beyond, the wall ceased altogether. On digging
downwards, it was found that the slabs had fallen
in; and although they were broken, the sculptures,
representing battles, sieges, and other historical sub-
jects, were, as far as it could be ascertained by the
examination of one or two, in admirable preservation.
The sun-dried brick wall, against which they had been
placed, was still distinctly visible to the height of
twelve or fourteen feet; and I could trace, by the
accumulation of ashes, the places where beams had
been inserted to support the roof, or for other pur-
poses. This wall served as my guide in digging on-
wards, as, to the distance of 100 feet, the slabs had all
fallen. I was unwilling to raise them at present,
as I had neither the means of packing nor moving
them.
The first sculpture still standing in its original
position, which was uncovered after following this
wall, was a winged human-headed bull of yellow
* Entrance A, chamber B, plan 3.


128 NINEVEH AND ITS KEMAINS. tCnAP. V.
limestone.* On the previous day the detached head,
now in the British Museum, had been found. The
bull, to which it belonged, had fallen against the op-
posite sculpture, and had been broken by the fall into
several pieces. I lifted the body with difficulty; and,
to my surprise, discovered under it sixteen copper
lions, admirably designed, and forming a regular se-
ries, diminishing in size from the largest, which was
above one foot in length, to the smallest, which
scarcely exceeded an inch. To their backs was af-
fixed a ring, giving them the appearance of weights.f
Here I also discovered a broken earthen vase, on which
were represented two Priapean human figures, with
the wings and claws of a bird, the breast of a woman,
and the tail of a scorpion, or some similar reptile. I
carefully collected and packed the fragments. J
Beyond the winged bull the slabs were still entire,
and occupied their original positions. On the first
was sculptured a winged human figure, carrying a
branch with five flowers in the raised right hand,
and the usual square vessel in the left. Around his
temples was a fillet adorned with three rosettes. On
each of the four adjoining slabs were two bas-reliefs,
separated by a band of inscriptions. The upper, on
the first slab, represented a castle apparently built on
an island in a river. One tower was defended by an
armed man, two others were occupied by females.
* "The Monuments of Nineveh," Plate 4.
f These bronze lions are now in the British Museum Plate 96. of
the " Monuments of Nineveh."
"The Monuments of Nineveh," Plate 95.


Chap. V.] BAS-RELIEFS. 129
Three warriors, probably escaping from the enemy,
were swimming across the stream; two of them on
inflated skins, in the mode practised to this day by
the Arabs inhabiting the banks of the rivers of As-
syria and Mesopotamia; except that, in the bas-relief,
the swimmers were pictured as retaining the aperture,
through which the air is forced, in their mouths. The
third, pierced by arrows discharged from the bows
of two high-capped warriors kneeling on the shore,
was struggling, without the support of a skin, against
the current. Three rudely designed trees completed
the back-ground.*
In the upper compartment of the next slab was
the siege of the city, with the battering-ram and
movable tower, noAV in the British Museum. The
lower part of the two slabs was occupied by one sub-
ject, a king receiving prisoners brought before him
by his vizir. The sculpture, representing the king
followed by his attendants and chariot, is already
in the national collection. The prisoners were on the
adjoining slab. Above their heads were vases and
various objects, amongst which appear to be shawls
and elephants' tusks, probably representing the spoil
carried away from the conquered nation.f
Upon the third slab were, in the upper compart-
ment, the king hunting, and in the lower, the king
standing over the lion, both deposited in the British
Museum; and on the fourth the bull hunt, now also
* "Monuments of Nineveh," Plate 33.
t Id., Plates 17, 23, and 24.
VOL. I. K


130 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Cbap. V.
in England, and the king standing over the prostrate
bull.*
The most remarkable of the sculptures hitherto dis-
covered was the lion hunt; which, from the knowledge
of art displayed in the treatment and composition,
the correct and effective delineation of the men and
animals, the spirit of the grouping, and its extraordi-
nary preservation, is probably the finest specimen of
Assyrian art in existence.
On the flooring, below the sculptures, were dis-
covered considerable remains of painted plaster still
adhering to the sun-dried bricks, which had fallen in
masses from the upper part of the wall. The colours,
particularly the blues and reds, were as brilliant and
vivid when the earth was removed from them, as they
could have been when first used. On exposure to the
air they faded rapidly. The designs were elegant and
elaborate. It was found almost impossible to preserve
any portion of these ornaments, the earth crumbling
to pieces when any attempt was made to raise it.
About this time I received the vizirial letter pro-
cured by Sir Stratford Canning, authorizing the
continuation of the excavations and the removal of
such objects as might be discovered. I was sleeping
in the tent of Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman, who had in-
vited me to hunt gazelles with him before dawn
on the following morning, when an Arab awoke me.
He was the bearer of letters from Mosul, and I read
by the light of a small camel-dung fire, the document
* "Monuments of Nineveh," Plates 10, 11, and 12.





race page 131. Vol I.
HE

T
TV
31
SIAPA
SENCE
TEE TOMB OF JONAI, KOUYUNJIK, AND TEE RUINE OPPOSITE MOSCL.


Chap. V.] KOUVUNJIK. 131
which secured to the British nation the records of
Nineveh, and a collection of the earliest monuments
of Assyrian art.
The vizirial order was as comprehensive as could
be desired; and having been granted on the departure
of the British ambassador, was the highest testimony
the Turkish government could give of their respect
for the character of Sir Stratford Canning, and of
their appreciation of the eminent services he had
rendered them.
One of the difficulties, and not one of the least
which had to be encountered, was now completely
removed. Still, however, pecuniary resources were
wanting, and in the absence of the necessary means,
extensive excavations could not be carried on. I
hastened, nevertheless, to communicate the letter of
the Grand Vizir to the Pasha, and to make arrange-
ments for pursuing the researches as effectually as
possible.
Not having yet examined the great mound of Kou-
yunjik, which, as it has already been observed, has
generally been believed by travellers to mark the true
site of Nineveh, I determined to open trenches in it.
I had not previously done so, as the vicinity of the
ruins to Mosul would have enabled the inhabitants
of the town to watch my movements, and to cause
me continual interruptions before the sanction of the
authorities could be obtained to my proceedings. A
small party of workmen having been organized, exca-
vations were commenced on the southern face, where
the mound was highest; as sculptures, if any still
K 2


132 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.
existed, would probably be found in the best state of
preservation under the largest accumulation of rubbish.
The only opposition I received was from the French
Consul, who claimed the ruins as French property.
The claim not being recognised, he also dug into the
mound, but in another direction. We both continued
our researches for about a month without much suc-
cess. A few fragments of sculpture and inscriptions
were discovered, which enabled me to assert with
some confidence that the remains were those of a
building contemporary, or nearly so, with Khorsabad,
and consequently of a more recent epoch than the
most ancient palace of Nimroud. All the bricks dug
out bore the name of the same king, but I could not
find any traces of his genealogy.
On my return to Nimroud, about thirty men,
chiefly Arabs, were employed to carry on the exca-
vations. Being anxious to learn as soon as possible
the extent of the building, and the nature of the
sculptures it contained, I merely dug down to the
top of the slabs and ascertained the character of the
sculpture upon them, reserving a completer examin-
ation for a more favourable opportunity. I was thus
able to form an opinion as to the number of bas-reliefs
that could be removed, and to preserve those partially
uncovered from injury, by heaping the rubbish again
over them.
United to the last of the four slabs with small bas-
reliefs, beyond the bulls of yellow limestone, was an
ornamented corner-stone marking the end of hall B,
the length of which could now be ascertained. Its


Chap. V.] BAS-RELIEFS. 133
dimensions were peculiar—154 feet in length by 33
in breadth—resembling in its narrowness the cham-
bers of Khorsabad, though exceeding them all in its
proportions. Adjoining the corner-stone was a winged
figure; beyond it a slab 14 feet in length, cut into a
recess, in which were four figures. Two kings stood
facing one another, but separated by the symbolical
tree, above which was the emblem of the supreme
deity — a human figure, with the wings and tail of a
bird, enclosed in a circle, and holding a ring in one
hand, resembling the image so frequently occurring
on the early sculptures of Persia, and at one time
conjectured to be the Zoroastrian " ferouher," or spirit
of the person beneath. The fact of the identity of
this figure with the Persian symbol is remarkable,
and gives rise to new speculations and conjectures,
which will be alluded to hereafter. Each king held
a mace or instrument formed by a handle with a ball
or circle at the end*, and was followed by a winged
figure carrying the fir-cone and basket. This bas-
relief was well designed and delicately carved, and
the ornaments on the dresses and arms of the figures
were elegant and elaborate.^
This large slab was followed by a winged figure
similar to that preceding it, and the end of the hall
was formed by a second ornamented corner-stone.
The half of both the winged figures adjoining the
* A similar object is seen in the hand of a sitting figure on a cylinder
engraved in Rich's Second Memoir on Babylon.
f This bas-relief has been sent to England; it is broken in several
pieces. See Plate 25 of " The Monuments of Nineveh."
k 3


134 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.
centre slab, as well as the lower part of that slab,
which advanced beyond the sculpture, had been pur-
posely destroyed, and the stone still bore the marks
of the chisel.
Subsequent excavations disclosed in front of the
large bas-relief a slab of alabaster, 10 feet by 8, and
about 2 feet thick, cut at the western end into steps
or gradines. It appeared to be a raised place for a
throne, or to be an altar on which sacrifices were
made: the latter conjecture was strengthened by a
conduit for water or some other fluid, also of ala-
baster, being carried round the slab, which was
covered on both sides with inscriptions. On raising
it, a process of considerable difficulty from its weight
and size, I found underneath a few pieces of gold
leaf and fragments of bones.
In the northern corner of the same part of the
chamber, and near this slab, were two square stones
slightly hollowed in the centre.
The first slab forming the northern wall after the
corner-stone, was occupied by a human figure, with
four wings; his right hand was raised, and in his left
was a mace. Beyond were two lions* to correspond
with those forming the entrance d, from which they
differed somewhat in form, the hands being crossed
in front, and no animal being carried on the arm.f
They led to an outer hall or vestibule similar to
that marked E, in the 3rd plan. The bas-reliefs
represented figures bearing ornaments: there was
* Entrance c, chamber B, plan 3.
t "Monuments of Nineveh," Plate 42.


Chap. V.] BAS-BELIEFS. 135
another gigantic figure like that already described,
which was also broken into two pieces.
As the edge of a deep ravine had now been reached
by the trenches, the workmen were directed to return
to the yellow bulls, which were found to form the
entrance into a new chamber, marked F in the 3rd
plan. I only partly uncovered the slabs as far as
the entrance a, and three to the west of it. On
No. 4. was a king attended by eagle-headed figures.
Around his neck were suspended the symbolical or
astronomical signs, which are frequently found on
Assyrian monuments; sometimes detached and placed
close to the principal personages, enclosed in a square
or scattered over the slab*; at others forming a part
of his attire. They are generally five in number, and
include the sun, a star, a half-moon, a three-pronged
or two-pronged instrument, and a horned cap similar
to that worn by the human-headed bulls, and the
winged figures in chamber B. All the other slabs in
this chamber were occupied by eagle-headed figures
in pairs, facing one another and separated by the
usual symbolical tree.
The entrance a was formed by four slabs, on two
of which (Nos. 1. and 2.) were figures without wings,
with the right hand raised, and carrying in the left
a mystic flower; and on the others simply the often-
repeated inscription. This entrance led me into a
new chamber, remarkable for the elaborate and care-
ful finish of its sculptures, and the size of its slabs.
* In the rock sculptures of Bavian, to the east of Mosul, they occur
above the king, and they are frequently found on cylinders.
k 4


136 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V
I uncovered the northern wall, and the eastern as far
as the entrance e* Each slab, except the corner-
stones, was occupied by two figures about eight feet
in height. Nos. 2, 3, and 4. formed one group. On
the centre slab No. 3. was the king seated on a stool
or throne of most elegant design and careful work-
manship. His feet were placed upon a footstool sup-
ported by lions' paws. In his elevated right hand
he held a cup ; his left rested upon his knee. His
attire and head-dress resembled those of the kings in
other bas-reliefs, but his robes were covered with the
most elaborate designs, probably representing em-
broidery. Upon his breast, and forming a border
with fringes attached, were graved a variety of re-
ligious emblems and figures, like those found upon
cylinders and seals of Assyria and Babylon. Amongst
them were men struggling with animals, winged
horses, gryphons, the sacred tree, and the king him-
self engaged in the performance of religious cere-
monies. All these were represented in the em-
broidery of the robes. They were lightly cut, and it
is not improbable that they were originally coloured.
The bracelets, armlets, and other ornaments were
equally elegant and elaborate in design. In front of
the king stood an eunuch, holding in one hand and
above the cup, a fly-flapper; and in the other the
cover, or case of the cup, which was in the hand of
the king. A piece of embroidered linen, or a towel,
thrown over the eunuch's shoulder, was ready to be
presented to the king, as is the custom to this day in
* From slab No. 1. to 8.


Chai-. V.] BAS-RELIEFS. 137
the East, after drinking or performing ablutions.
Behind the eunuch was a winged figure wearing the
horned cap, and bearing the fir-cone and basket. At
the back of the throne were two eunuchs, carrying
the arms of the king, followed by a second winged
human figure. The garments and ornaments of all
these persons were as richly embroidered and adorned
as those of the monarch. The colours still adhered
to the sandals,.brows, hair, and eyes. The sculptures
were in the best state of preservation; the most deli-
cate carvings were still distinct, and the outline of the
figures retained its original sharpness. Across the
slabs ran the usual inscription.*
The Arabs marvelled at these strange figures. As
each head was uncovered they showed their amaze-
ment by extravagant gestures, or exclamations of
surprise. If it was a bearded man, they concluded at
once that it was an idol or a Jin, and cursed or spat
upon it. If an eunuch, they declared that it was the
likeness of a beautiful female, and kissed or patted
the cheek. They soon felt as much interest as I did
in the objects discovered, and worked with renewed
ardour when their curiosity was excited by the ap-
pearance of a fresh sculpture.. On such occasions
they would strip themselves almost naked, throw the
kerchief from their heads, and letting their matted
hair stream in the wind, rush like madmen into the
trenches, to carry off the baskets of earth, shouting,
at the same time, the war cry of the tribe.
* The three slabs with these bas-reliefs are in the British Museum.
See Plates 5 and 6 of " The Monuments of Nineveh."


138 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.
On the other uncovered slabs of chamber G were
groups composed of the king, raising the cup, and
attended by two eunuchs, or holding a bow in one
hand, and two arrows in the other, preceded and
followed by a winged human figure similar to those
on Nos. 2. and 4. These groups were alternate, and
were all equally remarkable for the richness and
elegance of the embroidery and ornaments. They
furnished me not only with a collection of beautiful
designs, but also with many new and highly interesting
symbolical and mythic signs, and figures.* I shall
hereafter describe them more in detail, and show the
important insight they afford us into the religious
system of the Assyrians, and the origin of the mytho-
logy of some other countries.
I did not, for the time, follow the eastern wall of
this chamber, but turned into the entrance e, which
led me into another chamber (H). This entrance
was formed by two winged figures (Nos. 1. and 2.),
and two plain slabs (Nos. 3. and 4.) crossed in the
centre by the usual inscription. Upon the first slab
beyond it was a winged human figure with a fillet
round the temples, carrying the fir-cone and basket;
upon the following slabs, the king holding a cup,
between two similar winged figures.
I quitted this chamber, after uncovering the upper
part of four or five bas-reliefs; and returning to the
entrance a (chamber G), traced to the south of it two
slabs upon which were groups similar to those on the
* Most of these details are engraved in "The Monuments of Nineveh."


Chap. V.] REMOVAL OF SCULPTURES. 139
opposite wall, except that the right hand of the king
rested on the hilt of his sword, and not on the bow.
On No. 27. was an eagle-headed figure, and beyond it
I discovered another pair of human-headed lions,
smaller than those forming entrance a of chamber B,
but excelling them in the preservation of the details.
The slabs on which they were carved were slightly
cracked ; but otherwise they appeared to have issued
but the day before from the hand of the sculptor.
The accumulation of earth and rubbish above this
part of the ruins was very considerable, and it is
not improbable that it was owing to this fact that
the sculptures had been so completely guarded from
injury.
Beyond this entrance were continuous groups,
similar to those already described as occurring on
the previous slabs.
I was now anxious to embark and forward to Bagh-
dad, or Busrah, for transport to Bombay, such sculp-
tures as I could move with the means at my disposal.
Major Rawlinson had obligingly proposed that, for
this purpose, the small steamer navigating the lower
part of the Tigris should be sent up to Nimroud, and
I expected the most valuable assistance, both in re-
moving the slabs and in plans for future excavations,
from her able commander, Lieutenant Jones. The
Euphrates, one of the two vessels originally launched
on the Rivers of Mesopotamia, had some years be-
foere succeeded in reaching the tomb of Sultan Abd-
Allah, a few miles below Nimroud. Here impedi-
ments, not more serious than those she had already


140 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.
surmounted, occurring in the bed of the stream, she
returned to Baghdad. A vessel even of her construc-
tion,—and with engines of the same power—could
have reached, I have little doubt, the bund or dam of
the Awai, which would probably have been a barrier
to a further ascent of the Tigris. It was found,
however, that the machinery of the Nitocris was
either too much out of repair, or not sufficiently
powerful, to impel the vessel over the rapids, which
occur in some parts of the river. After ascending
some miles above Tekrit the attempt was given up,
and she returned to her station.
Without proper materials it was impossible to
move either the gigantic lions, or even the large
sculptures of chamber G. The few ropes to be ob-
tained in the country were so ill-made that they
could not support any considerable weight. I deter-
mined, therefore, to displace the slabs (in chamber
B) divided into two compartments; then to saw off
the sculptures, and to reduce them as much as pos-
sible by cutting from the back. The inscriptions
being a mere repetition of the same formula I did not
consider it necessary to preserve them, as they added
to the weight. With the help of levers of wood, and
by digging away the wall of sun-dried bricks from be-
hind the slabs, I was enabled to turn them into the
centre of the trench, where they were sawn by marble-
cutters from Mosul. When the bas-reliefs were thus
prepared, there was no difficulty in dragging them
out of the trenches. The upper part of a slab in
chamber G-, containing the heads of a king and his


Chap. V.] VISIT OF THE PASHA. 141
attendant eunuch, having been discovered broken off
and detached, was included amongst the sculptures to
be embarked. One of the winged figures from en-
trance e of the same chamber, and an eagle-headed
divinity, were also successfully moved. These, with
the head and the hoof of the bull in yellow limestone
from entrance b chamber B, form the collection first
sent to England, and now deposited in the British
Museum. As they have been long before the public,
and have been more than once accurately described,
I need not trouble the reader with any further account
of them.
After having been removed from the trenches,
the sculptures were packed in felts and matting, and
screwed down in roughly made cases. They were
transported from the mound to the river upon rude
buffalo carts belonging to the Pasha, and then placed
upon a raft formed of inflated skins and beams of
poplar wood. They floated down the Tigris as far
as Baghdad, were there placed on board boats of
the country, and reached Busrah in the month of
August.
Whilst I was moving these sculptures Tahyar
Pasha visited me. He was accompanied, for his
better security, by a large body of regular and irre-
gular troops, and three guns. His Diwan Effendesi,
seal-bearer, and all the dignitaries of the household,
were also with him. I entertained this large com-
pany for two days. The Pasha's tents were pitched
on an island in the river near my shed. He visited
the ruins, and expressed no less wonder at the sculp-


142 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.
tures than the Arabs; nor were his conjectures as to
their origin and the nature of the subjects repre-
sented, much more rational than those of the sons of
the desert. The gigantic human-headed lions ter-
rified, as well as amazed, his Osmanli followers. "La
Illahi il Allah (there is no God but God)," was echoed
from all sides. "These are the idols of the infidels,"
said one, more knowing than the rest. "I saw many
such when I was in Italia with Reshid Pasha, the am-
bassador. Wallah, they have them in all the churches,
and the Papas (priests) kneel and burn candles before
them." "No, my lamb,"' exclaimed a more aged and
experienced Turk. "I have seen the images of the in-
fidels in the churches of Beyoglu ; they are dressed in
many colours; and although some of them have wings,
none have a dog's body and a tail; these are the
works of the Jin, whom the holy Solomon, peace be
upon him! reduced to obedience and imprisoned
under his seal." "I have seen something like them
in your apothecaries' and barbers' shops," said I, al-
luding to the well-known figure, half woman and half
lion, which is met with so frequently in the bazars
of Constantinople. "Istafer Allah (God forbid),"
piously ejaculated the Pasha; "that is the sacred
emblem of which true believers speak with reverence,
and not the handywork of infidels." "There is no
infidel living," exclaimed the engineer, who was looked
up to as an authority on these subjects, "either in
Frangistan or in Yenghi Dunia (America), who
could make any thing like that; they are the work of
the Majus (Magi), and are to be sent to England to


Chap. V.] DISCOVERIES AT KOUYUXJIK. 143
form the gateway to the palace of the Queen." "May
God curse all infidels and their works!" observed
the cadi's deputy, who accompanied the Pasha; "what
comes from their hands is of Satan: it has pleased
the Almighty to let them be more powerful and in-
genious than the true believers in this world, that
their punishment and the reward of the faithful may
be greater in the next."
The heat had now become so intense that my
health began to suffer from continual exposure to
the sun, and from the labour of superintending the
excavations, drawing the sculptures, and copying the
inscriptions. In the trenches, where I daily passed
many hours, the thermometer generally ranged from
112° to 115° in the shade, and on one or two occa-
sions even reached 117°. The hot, winds swept over
the desert; they were as blasts from a furnace during
the day, and even at night they drove away sleep.
I resolved, therefore, to take refuge for a week in the
sardaubs or cellars of Mosul; and, in order not to lose
time, to try further excavations in the Mound of
Kouyunjik. Leaving a superintendent, and a few
guards to watch over the uncovered sculptures, I
rode to the town.
The houses of Baghdad and Mosul are provided
with underground apartments, in which the inhabit-
ants pass the day during the summer months. They
are generally ill-lighted, and the air is close and op-
pressive. Many are damp and unwholesome; still
they offered a welcome retreat during the hot wea-
ther, when it was almost impossible to sit in a room.


144 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.
At sunset the people emerge from these subterra-
neous chambers and congregate on the roofs, where
they spread their carpets, eat their evening meal, and
pass the night.
After endeavouring in vain for some time to find
any one who had seen the bas-relief, described by
Rich* as having been found in one of the mounds
forming the large quadrangle in which are included
Nebbi Yunus and Kouyunjik, an aged stone-cutter
presented himself, and declared that he had not only
been present when the sculpture was discovered, but
that he had been employed to break it up. He offered
to show me the spot, and I opened a trench at once
into a high mound which he pointed out in the
northern line of ruins. The workmen were not long
in coming upon fragments of sculptured alabaster,
and after two or three days' labour an entrance was
discovered, formed by two winged figures, which had
been purposely destroyed. The legs and the lower
part of the tunic were alone preserved. The propor-
tions were gigantic, and the relief higher than that
of any sculpture hitherto discovered in Assyria. This
entrance led into a chamber, of which slabs about
five feet high and three broad alone remained stand-
ing. There were marks of the chisel over them all;
but from their size it appeared doubtful whether
figures had ever been sculptured upon them. As no
slabs of alabaster or fragments of the same material
were found, it is probable that the upper part of the
walls was constructed of kiln-burnt bricks, with
* Residence in Kurdistan and Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 39.


Chap. V.] BA«-RELIEFS. 145
which the whole chamber was filled up, and which
indeed formed the greater part of the mound. On
the sides of many of them was an inscription, contain-
ing the name of the king who built the edifices of
which Kouyunjik and Nebbi Yunus are the remains.
The pavement was of limestone. After tracing the
walls of one chamber, I renounced a further examina-
tion, as no traces of sculpture were to be found, and
the accumulation of rubbish was very considerable.
This building appears to have been either a guard-
house at one of the entrances into the quadrangle,
or a tower defending the walls. From the height of
the mound it would seem that there were originally
two or more stories.
The comparative rest obtained in Mosul so far
restored my strength, that I returned to Nimroud
in the middle of August, and again attempted to
renew the excavations. I uncovered the top of the
slabs of chamber H from entrance e to entrance b,
and discovered the chambers I and R.* Upon most
of them were similar sculptures; the king standing
between two winged figures, and holding in one hand
a cup, in the other a bow. The only new feature in
this chamber was a recess cut out of the upper part
of slab No. 3. I am at a loss to account for its use;
from its position it might have been taken for a
window opening into chamber G; but there was no
corresponding aperture in the slab, which formed the
facing of the wall at its back in that chamber. It
* Plan 3.
VOL. I. L


146 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chm>. V.
may have been used as a place of deposit for sacred
vessels and instruments, or as an altar for sacrifice;
a conjecture which may be strengthened by the fact
of a large square stone slightly hollowed in the
centre, and probably meant to contain a fluid, being
generally found in front of the slabs in which such
recesses occur.
The slabs in chamber R were unsculptured, having
the usual inscription across them. The pavement
was formed by alabaster slabs. Entrance b led
me into a further chamber, narrow and long in its
proportions. I only uncovered the upper part of a
few of the slabs. Upon them were two bas-reliefs
separated by the usual inscription; the upper (simi-
lar on all the slabs) represented two winged human
figures with the horned cap, kneeling on one knee
before the mystic tree; their hands were stretched
out, one towards the top, and the other towards the
bottom of the emblem between them.* In the lower
compartments were eagle-headed figures facing each
other in pairs, and separated by the same symbolical
tree.
The state of my health again compelled me to re-
nounce for the time my labours at Nimroud. As I
required a cooler climate, I determined to visit the
Tiyari mountains, inhabited by the Chaldzean Chris-
tians, and to return to Mosul in September, when the
violence of the heat had abated.
* Plate r A— of " The Monuments of Nineveh."


Chap. VI.] DEPARTURE FOR THE TIYARI MOUNTAINS. 147
CHAP. VI.
DEPARTURE FOR THE TIYARI MOUNTAINS.— KIIORSABAD. — SHEIKH
ADI A KURDISH ENCAMPMENT A CHALDjEAN VILLAGE
CONVERTS TO ROMAN CATHOLICISM. — AMADIYAH. — A TURKISn
GOVERNOR—ALBANIAN IRREGULARS.—AN ALBANIAN CHIEF.—
THE VALLEY OF BERWABL — CHALDjEAN VILLAGES. — A KURDISH
BEY.—ASHEETHA.
The preparations for my departure for the Tiyari
mountains were completed by the 28th August, and
on that day I started from Mosul. My party con-
sisted of Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, Ibraham Agha, two
Albanian irregulars, who were to accompany me as
far as Amadiyah, a servant, a groom, and one Ionian,
or Ionunco, as he was familiarly called, a half-witted
Nestorian, whose drunken frolics were reserved for the
entertainment of the Patriarch, and who was enlisted
into our caravan for the amusement of the company.
We rode our own horses. As Ionunco pretended to
know all the mountain roads, and volunteered to con-
duct us, we placed ourselves under his guidance. I
was provided with Bouyourouldis, or orders, from the
Pasha to the authorities as far as Amadiyah, and with
a letter to Abd-ul-Summit Bey, the Kurdish chief of
Berwari, through whose territories we had to pass*
Mar Shamoun, the Patriarch, furnished me with a
very strong letter of recommendation to the meleks
and priests of the Nestorian districts.
As I was anxious to visit the French excavations
T. 2


148 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VI.
at Khorsabad on my way to the mountains, I left
Mosul early in the afternoon, notwithstanding the
great heat of the sun. It was the sixth day of Ra-
mazan,~and the Mahommedans were still endeavour-
ing to sleep away their hunger when I passed through
the gates, and crossed the bridge of boats. Leaving
my baggage and servants to follow leisurely, I galloped
on with the Albanians, and reached Khorsabad in
about two hours.
The mound is about fourteen miles N.N.E. of
Mosul. A village formerly stood on its summit, but
the houses were purchased and removed by M. Botta,
when the excavations were undertaken by the French
Government. It has been rebuilt in the plain at the
foot of the mound. The Khausser, a small stream
issuing from the hills of Makloub, is divided into
numerous branches as it approaches the village, and
irrigates extensive rice-grounds. The place is con-
sequently very unhealthy, and the few squalid in-
habitants who appeared, were almost speechless from
ague. During M. Botta's excavations, the workmen
suffered greatly from fever, and many fell victims
to it.
The mode of carrying on the excavations resembled
that which I adopted at Nimroud; and the general
plan of construction is the same as in the Assyrian
edifices already described. There are, however, more
narrow passages in this building than at Nimroud,
and the chambers are inferior in size. At the same
time the slabs used in their construction are in general
higher, though narrower. The relief in the larger


Chap. VI.] KHOBSABAD. 149
figures is more bold, in the smaller there is little dif-
ference. The human-headed bulls differ principally
in the head-dress from those of the earliest buildings
at Nimroud; the three-horned cap is higher, and is
not rounded off, the top being richly ornamented.
The head-dress, in fact, is like that of similar winged
animals at Persepolis. The faces of several of the
bulls were turned inwards, which gave them an
awkward and unsightly appearance.
Since M. Botta's departure the chambers had been
partly filled up by the falling in of the trenches; the
sculptures were rapidly perishing; and, shortly, little
will remain of this remarkable monument. Scarcely
any part of the building had escaped the fire which
destroyed it, and consequently very few sculptures
could be removed. Of exterior architecture I could
find no trace except a flight of steps, flanked by solid
masonry, which appears to have led up to a small
temple of black stone or basalt, a few traces of
which still remain. At the foot of the mound lies an
altar or tripod, similar to that now in the Louvre,
and part of a shaft of a column, which probably did
not belong to the building.
The subjects of the sculptures, and the characters
used in the inscriptions, have a general resemblance
to those of Nimroud. I shall point out hereafter in
what manner they differ.
Khorsabad, or Khishtabad, is mentioned by the
early Arab geographers. It is described as a village
occupying the site of an ancient Assyrian city called
"Saraoun," or "Saraghoun;" and Yakuti declares,
i. 3


150 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VI.
that soon after the Arab conquest considerable trea-
sures were found amongst the ruins. It was generally
believed at Mosul, where a copy of Yakuti's work
exists, that it was in consequence of this notice, and
in the hopes of further riches, M. Botta excavated in
the mound—hence much of the opposition encountered
from the authorities.
I had finished my examination of the ruins by the
time the baggage reached the village. The sun had
set, but being unwilling to expose my party to fever
by passing the night on this unhealthy spot, I rode on
to a small hamlet about two miles distant. It was
dark when we reached it, and we found ourselves in
the midst of a marsh, even more extensive than that
of Khorsabad. As there was no village beyond, I was
obliged to stop here; and clambering up to a plat-
form, formed of branches of trees and elevated upon
poles, I passed the night free from the attacks of
the swarms of gnats which infested the stagnant
water below.
We left the hamlet long before sunrise, and soon
reached some of the springs of the Khausser, a small
stream which rises at the northern extremity of the
Jebel Maklub, irrigates the lands of numerous villages
on its course towards Mosul, and falls into the Tigris,
near Kouyunjik, after traversing the large quadrangle,
of which that mound forms a part.
Our road crossed the northern spur of Jebel Mak-
lub, and then stretched over an extensive level to
the first range of the Kurdish hills. The heat soon
became intense, the plain was parched and barren; a


Char. VI.]
151
SHEIKH ADI.
few mud-built walls marked here and there the ruins
of a village, and the silence and solitude were only
broken by parties of Kurds, who were lazily driving
before them, towards Mosul, donkeys heavily laden
with rich clusters of grapes from the mountains.
A weary ride brought us to the Yezidi village of
Ain Sifni. Its white houses and conical tombs had
long been visible on the declivity of a low hill; its
cleanliness was a relief after the filth of Mussulman
and Christian habitations. I had expected to find
here Sheikh Naser, the religious chief of the Yezidis.
As he was absent I continued my journey, after par- .
taking of the hospitality of the chief of the village,
to the tomb of Sheikh Adi. After a further ride of
two hours through a pleasant valley, watered by a
mountain torrent, whose banks were concealed by
flowering oleanders, we reached a well-wooded basin,
in the centre of which rose the white spire of the
tomb of the great Yezidi saint.
I was soon stretched by a fountain in the cool
shade, flung over the tomb by a cluster of lofty
trees, and gave myself up to a full flow of gratitude
at this sudden change from the sultry heat and salt
streams of the plains, to the verdure and sweet springs
of the Kurdish Hills. There were “ pleasure-places”
enough for all my party, and each eagerly seized his
tree, and his fountain. The guardians of the tomb,
and a few wanderers from a neighbouring village,
gathered round me, and satisfied my curiosity as far
as their caution and prejudices would allow. But I
will defer, until I relate my second visit to this place,
m
e
L 4


152 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. V.]
a fuller description of the spot, and such information
as I could collect relative to the singular rites and
traditions of the disciples of Sheikh Adi.
We passed the night on the roof of one of the
buildings within the precincts of the sacred edifice,
and continued our journey at dawn on the following
morning.
Quitting the Yezidi district, we entered the moun-
tains inhabited by the large Kurdish tribe of Mis-
souri. The valleys were well-wooded; many-shaped
rocks towered above our heads, or hung over the
streams of the Gomel*, which almost cut off our
passage through the narrow defiles. A few villages
were scattered on the declivities, but their inhabitants
had deserted them for rude huts, built of branches of
trees, their summer habitations.
In four hours we reached the large village of
Kaloni, or Kalah-oni, built amongst vineyards, and
hanging over the bed of the Gomel. The houses,
well constructed of stone, were empty. Huge horns
of the ibex ornamented the lintels of the gateways,
and the corners of the buildings. The inhabitants
were at some distance, on the banks of the stream,
living under the trees in their temporary sheds.
These Kurds were of the Badinan branch of the
Missouri tribe. Their chief, whose hut was in the
midst of this group of simple dwellings, was absent;
but his wife received me with hospitality. Carpets,
the work of her own women, were spread under a
* Or Gomer; this stream forms the principal branch of the Ghazir or
Bumadas.


Ciiap.VL] A KURDISH TRIBE. 153
mulberry tree; and large bowls of milk and cream,
wooden platters filled with boiled rice, slices of
honey-comb, and baskets of new-gathered fruit, were
speedily placed before us. The men sat at a re-
spectful distance, and readily gave me such informa-
tion as I asked for. The women, unembarrassed
by the veil, brought straw to our horses, or ran to
and fro with their pitchers. Their hair fell in long
tresses down their backs, and their foreheads were
adorned with rows of coins and beads; many were
not unworthy the reputation for beauty which the
women of Missouri enjoy.
The spot was rich in natural beauties. The valley,
shut in by lofty rocks, was well wooded with fruit
trees—the mulberry, the peach, the fig, the walnut,
the olive, and the pomegranate; beneath them sprang
the vine, or were laid out plots of Indian corn, sesame,
and cotton. The sheds were built of boughs; and
the property of the owners, carpets, horse-cloths, and
domestic utensils, were spread out before them. From
almost every door, mingling with the grass and
flowers, stretched the many-coloured threads of the
loom, at which usually sat one female of the family.
There was a cleanliness, and even richness, in the
dresses of both women and men, an appearance of
comfort and industry, which contrasted strikingly
with the miserable state of the people of the plain;
and proved that these Kurds had been sufficiently
fortunate to escape the notice of the last governor of
Mosul, and were reserved for some more scrutinising
Pasha.


154 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VI.
I acknowledged the hospitality of the Kurdish lady
by a present to her son, and rode up to the small
Chaldaean village of Bebozi, standing on the summit
of a high mountain. The ascent was most precipi-
tous, and the horses could with difficulty reach the
place. We found a group of ten houses, built on the
edge of a cliff overhanging the valley, at so great a
height, that the stream below was scarcely visible.
The inhabitants were poor, but received us with un-
affected hospitality. I had left the usual road to
Amadiyah for the purpose of visiting an inscription,
said to exist near this village. A guide was soon found
to conduct me to the spot of which I had heard; but
after toiling up a most precipitous pathway, I was
shown a rock on which were only a few rude marks,
bearing no resemblance to any writing that had ever
been invented. I was accustomed to such disappoint-
ments, and always prepared for them. I returned to
the village and visited the small church. The people
of Bebozi are amongst those Chaldasans who have
very recently become Catholics, and are but a too com-
mon instance of the mode in which such proselytes
are made. In the church I saw a few miserable
prints, dressed up in all the horrors of red, yellow,
and blue, miracles of saints and of the blessed Virgin,
and a hideous infant in swaddling clothes, under
which was written "l'lddio, bambino." They had
recently been stuck up against the bare walls. "Can
you understand these pictures?" I asked. "No," was
the reply; "we did not place them here; when our
priest (a Nestorian) died a short time ago, Mutran


Chap. VL] CONVERTS. 155
Yusuf, the Catholic bishop, came to us. He put up
these pictures, and told us that we were to adore
them. We pulled them down again; but for doing
so our Kiayahs (heads of the village) were bastina-
doed by Mahmoud Agha, the chief of Missouri, and
we got our heads broken. We now, therefore, leave
them where they are. And as the Kurds have been
bribed not to allow a Nestorian priest to come to the
village, we are compelled to hear the Catholic priest,
whom Mutran Yusuf occasionally sends us." On the
altar and reading-desk, were a few books — forms
of prayer, rituals, and the scriptures used by the
Chaldasans. They had not been changed, only the
name of Nestorius had been carefully blotted out
with a pen, and the Sunday worship of the new pro-
selytes, with the exception of a few prostrations to
the pictures, remained as it was before their con-
version.
I returned to the house at which I had alighted,
and endeavoured to sleep. Ionunco, however, had
engaged in a controversy on the merits of their re-
spective creeds with some Chaldaeans, strangers from
a neighbouring village, whose conversion was of a
more ancient date, and more complete, than that of
the people of Bebozi. I was fain to cover my face
with my cloak, and to lie and listen. The dispute
waxed warm. Ionunco brought to bear all the texts
he had gathered during a prolonged residence with
the patriarch, and other dignitaries of his Church.
The converts quoted the arguments which had turned
them from their errors. Those of Bebozi listened in


156 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VI.
admiration to a learned discussion on the distinction
of the persons. The strangers then insisted on the
advantage of reeognising and being under the Pope.
"The Pope," exclaimed the irritated Ionunco, "may
be very useful; but, as far as I am concerned, I
would not change him against my donkey!" This
irreverent sally would have been the signal for a
general commencement of hostilities, had 1 not inter-
fered. Ionunco was ordered to saddle his mare, and
we resumed our journey.
After crossing a range of hills, covered by a forest
of dwarf oak, we descended into the valley of Cheloki,
and reached about sunset the large Kurdish village
of Spandareh, so called from its poplar trees, "span-
dar." The inhabitants, alarmed at the formidable
appearance of our party, were inclined to shirk the
duties of hospitality; and it required a few stringent
measures before we could convince them that ours
was a friendly, not a hostile, invasion.
We were now separated from the valley of Amadiyah
by a range of high and well-wooded mountains called
Ghara. This we crossed by a road little frequented,
and of so precipitous a nature that our horses could
scarcely keep their footing—one, indeed, carrying part
of our baggage, suddenly disappeared over the edge
of a rock, and was found some hundred feet below, on
his back, firmly wedged between two rocks; how he
got there with nothing but the bone of his tail broken,
was a mystery beyond the comprehension of our
party. The valley of Amadiyah, chiefly a sandstone
deposit, is cut up into innumerable ravines by the


Chap. VI.] AMADIYAH. 157
torrents, which rush down the mountains and force
their way to the river Zab. It is, however, well
wooded with oaks, producing in abundance the galls
for which this district is celebrated. The peasants
were picking them at the time of our journey; and
as this year the crop was abundant, I had an oppor-
tunity of distinguishing between the trees which pro-
duce them, and those which do not.
The town and fort of Amadiyah had been visible
from the crest of the Ghara range; but we had a long
ride before us, and it was nearly mid-day ere we
reached the foot of the lofty isolated rock on which
they are built. We rested in the small Chaldean
village of Bebadi, one of the few in the Amadiyah
district which had not gone over to the Catholic
party. The inhabitants were miserably poor, and I
had to listen to a long tale of wretchedness and op-
pression. The church was hung with a few tattered
cotton handkerchiefs, and the priest's garments were
to match. I gave him two or three pieces of common
print, out of which he made a turban for himself, and
beautified the altar.
The plain of Amadiyah contains many Chalda?an
villages, which were formerly very flourishing. Most
of them have now been deserted, and the inhabitants
have taken refuge in the higher mountains from the
violence and tyranny of Kurds and Turkish governors,
and from the no less galling oppression of prosely-
tising bishops.
Some half-clothed, fever-stricken Albanians were
slumbering on the stone benches as we entered the


158 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VI.
gates of the fort, which certainly during the season
of Ramazan, if not at all others, might be taken by
surprise by a few resolute Kurds. We found our-
selves in the midst of a heap of ruins—porches, bazaars,
baths, habitations, all laid open to their inmost re-
cesses. Falling walls would have threatened passers-
by, had there been any; but the place was a desert.
We had some difficulty in finding our way to a
crumbling ruin, honoured with the name of Serai—
the Palace. Here the same general sleep prevailed.
Neither guards nor servants were visible, and we
wandered through the building until we reached the
room of the governor. His hangers-on were in-
dulging in comfort and sleep upon the divans, and
we had some trouble in rousing them. We were at
length taken to a large room, in a tower built on the
very edge of the rock, and overlooking the whole
valley—the only remnant of the state of the old
hereditary Pashas of. Amadiyah. A refreshing breeze
came down from the mountain, the view was ex-
tensive and beautiful, and I forgot the desolation and
misery which reigned around.
A few miserable Nestorian Chaldaeans, and one or
two half-starved Jews came to me with the usual
melancholy tale of distress; and shortly after Kasha
Mendi, a worthy ecclesiastic, who ministered to the
spiritual wants of half the villages in the valley,
hearing of my arrival, joined the party. The priest
was, of course, better informed than the rest; and
from him I obtained the information I required as to
the state of the Chaldaeans' in the district, and as to


Chap. VI.] A TURKISH GOVERNOR. 159
the means of reaching Tiyari. The Albanian irregulars
were to leave me here, as the authority of the Pasha
of Mosul did not extend beyond. We were now to
enter the territories of Kurdish chiefs, who scarcely
admitted any dependence upon the Porte. I deter-
mined upon sending all my horses, except one, with
the Albanians to Dohuk, there to await my return,
and to hire mules for the rest of my journey.
It was the hour of afternoon prayer before Selim
Agha, the Mutesellim or governor, emerged from his
harem; which, however, as far as the fair sex were
concerned, was empty.
The old gentleman, who was hungry, half asleep,
and in the third stage of the ague, hurried through
the ordinary salutations, and asked at once for
quinine. His attendants exhibited illustrations of
every variety of the fever; some shivered, others
glowed, and the rest sweated. He entreated me to
go with him into the harem; his two sons were
buried beneath piles of cloaks, carpets, and grain-
sacks, but the whole mass trembled with the violence
of their shaking. I dealt out emetics and quinine
with a liberal hand, and returned to the Salamlik,
to hear from Selim Agha a most doleful history of
fever, diminished revenues, arrears of pay, and re-
bellious Kurds. He was a native of Zillah, in Asia
Minor, where he had been Nefous Emini, a kind of
public registrar and tax-gatherer, and had followed
in the train of the late Pasha to seek his fortunes in
the south. He sighed as he talked of his native
place, a flourishing, healthy market town; and the


160
[Cuar. VI.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
as
tears ran down his cheeks as he recapitulated his
manifold misfortunes, and entreated me to intercede
with the governor of Mosul for his advancement or
recall. I left him with his watch in his hand,
anxiously looking for sunset, that he might console
himself with a dose of tartar emetic.
Amadiyah was formerly a place of considerable
importance and strength, and contained a very large
and flourishing population. It was governed by
hereditary Pashas— feudal chiefs, who traced their
descent from the Abbaside Caliphs, and were always
looked up to, on that account, with religious respect
by the Kurds. The ladies of this family were no less
venerated, and enjoyed the very peculiar title for a
woman of “Khan." The last of these hereditary chiefs
was Ismail Pasha ; who long defied, in his almost
inaccessible castle, the attempts of Injeh Bairakdar
Mohammed Pasha to reduce him. A mine was at
length sprung under a part of the wall, which, from
its position, the Kurds had believed safe from attack,
and the place was taken by assault. Ismail Pasha
was sent a prisoner to Baghdad, where he still remains;
and his family, amongst whom was his beautiful wife,
Esma Khan, not unknown to the Europeans of
Mosul, together with Mohammed Seyyid Pasha of
Akra*, a member of the same race, long lived
upon the bounty of Mr. Rassam. Amadiyah is
frequently mentioned by the early Arab geographers
and historians, and its foundation dates, most pro-
m
* A district to the east of Amadiyah.


Chap. VI.] ALBANIAN TROOPS. 1G1
bably, from a very early epoch. Kasha Mendi
casually confirmed to me the assertion of Rich, that
the town was once called Ecbatana, by saying that
he had seen a very early Chaldaean MS. in which
Amadiyah was so named. The only remains that I
could discover about the town were a defaced bas-
relief on the rock near the northern gate, of which
sufficient alone was distinguishable to enable me to
assign to it an approximate date — the time of the
Arsacian kings; and some excavations in the rock
within the walls, which appear to have been used at
an early period as a Christian church. Amadiyah is
proverbially unhealthy, notwithstanding its lofty and
exposed position. At this time of the year the in-
habitants leave the town for the neighbouring moun-
tains, in the valleys of which they construct " ozailis,"
or sheds, with boughs. The population has greatly
diminished since the reduction of the place by the
Turks, and the salian, or property-tax, now yields
only 20,000 piasters (less than 2001.) a year. The
castle is considered of great importance as a key to
Kurdistan, and is defended by 300 Albanians and a
small party of artillerymen with three guns.
I made my way through the deserted streets to a
small enclosure, in which were the quarters of the
Albanians. The disposable force may have consisted
of three men ; the rest were stretched out on all sides,
suffering under every stage of fever, amidst heaps of
filth and skins of water-melons, showing the nature
and extent of their commissariat. One of their chiefs
boasted that he had braved the fever, and insisted
VOL. I. M


162 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Cuap. VI.
upon my drinking coffee, and smoking a narguileh
of no very prepossessing appearance with him. He
even indulged so far in mirth and revelry, that he
disturbed a shivering youth basking in the last rays
of the sun, and brought him to play upon a santour,
which had lost the greater number of its strings.
An air of his native mountains brought back his
melancholy, and he dwelt upon the miseries of an
irregular's life, when there was neither war nor
plunder. The evening gun announced sunset whilst
I was sitting with the chief; and I left the garrison
as they were breaking their fast on donkey-loads of
unripe water-melons.
On my return to the Serai, I found the governor
recovering from the effects of his emetic, and anxious
for his dinner. As the month of Ramazan is one of
festivity and open house, Ismail Agha of Tepelin (the
Albanian chief in command of the garrison), the
Cadi, the collector of the revenue, a Kurdish chief,
and one or two others came as guests. Our meal
gave undoubted proofs either of the smallness of the
means of Selim Agha, or of the limited resources of
the country. When the dinner was over, I intro-
duced a theological subject as becoming the season,
and the Cadi entered deeply into the subject of pre-
destination and free will. The reckless way in which
the Albanian threw himself into the argument as-
tonished the company, and shocked the feelings of
the expounder of the law. His views of the destinies
of man were bold and original; he appealed to me
for a confirmation of his opinions, and assuming that


Chap. VI.] ISMAIL AGUA. 163
I fully concurred with him, and that he had silenced
the Cadi, who was ejaculating a pious "Istaffer
Allah" (may God forgive him), he finished by asking
me to breakfast.
Next morning I left my guards and the attendants
of the Governor collecting mules for my journey from
the peasants who had brought provisions to the town,
and after some difficulty found my way to the quarters
of Ismail Agha. They were in a small house, the only
habitable spot in the midst of a heap of ruins. His
room was hung round with guns, swords, and yata-
ghans, and a few dirty Albanians, armed to the teeth,
were lounging at the door. The chief had adorned
himself most elaborately. His velvet jacket was co-
vered with a maze of gold embroidery, his arms were
of the most costly description, and ample fur cloaks
were spread over the dingy divans. It was a strange
display of finery in the midst of misery. He received
me with great cordiality; and when he found that I
had been to his old haunts in his native land, and
had known his friends and kindred, his friendship ex-
ceeded all reasonable bounds. "We are all brothers,
the English and the Tosques," exclaimed he, en-
deavouring to embrace me; "we are all Frama-
souns*; I know nothing of these Turks and their
Ramazan, thank God! Our stomachs were given us
to be filled, and our mouths to take in good things."
He accompanied these words with a very significant
* The term Framasoun (or Freemason), (ft well as Protestant, are in
the East, I am sorry to say, equivalent to infidel. The Roman Catholic
missionaries have very industriously spread the calumny.


164 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [CuAr.VI.
signal to one of his followers, who was at no loss to
understand its meaning, and set about forming a
pyramid of cushions, on the top of which he mounted
at the imminent risk of his neck, and reached down
from a shelf a huge bottle of wine, and a corre-
sponding pitcher of raki. Ismail Agha then dived
into the recesses of a very capacious but ill-looking
purse, out of which he pulled twenty paras*, its sole
contents, and despatched without delay one of his
attendants to the stall of a solitary grocer, who was
apparently the only commercial survivor in the wreck
around him. The boy soon returned with a small
parcel of parched peas, a few dates, and three lumps
of sugar, which were duly spread on a tray and placed
before us as zests to the wine and brandy. It was
evident that Ismail Agha had fully made up his mind
to a morning's debauch, and my position was an un-
comfortable one. After drinking a few glasses of raki
in solitary dignity, he invited his followers to join
him. Messengers were despatched in all directions
for music ; a Jew with the ague, the band of the regi-
ment, consisting of two cracked dwarf kettledrums,
and a fife, and two Kurds with a fiddle and a san-
tour, were collected together. I took an opportunity
of slipping out of the room unseen, amidst the din of
Albanian songs and the dust of Palicari dances.
On my return to the Serai I found the mules ready,
the owners having been at length brought to under-
stand that it was my intention to pay for their hire.
* About one penny.


Chap. VI.] BERWAIU. 165
Every thing being settled, and the animals loaded, I
wished the Mutesellim good day, and promised to
bring his miserable condition to the notice of the
Pasha. A Kurdish chief was to accompany me as
far as Abd-ul-Summit Bey's, to whom I was strongly
recommended.
We left Amadiyah by the opposite gate to that by
which we had entered. We were obliged to descend
on foot the steep pathway leading to the valley below.
Crossing some well-cultivated gardens, we commenced
the ascent of the mountains through a wooded ravine,
and came suddenly upon the Yilaks, or summer
quarters of the population of Amadiyah. The spot was
well chosen. The torrent was divided into a thousand
streams, which broke over the rocks, falling in cas-
cades into the valley below. Fruit and forest trees
concealed the sheds and tents, and creepers of many
hues almost covered the sides of the ravine. All our
party enjoyed the delicious coolness and fragrance of
the place; and we did not wonder that the people of
Amadiyah had left the baneful air of the town for these
pleasant haunts. An hour's ride brought us to the
summit of the pass, from which a magnificent view
of the Tiyari mountains opened upon us. Ionunco
became eloquent when he saw his native Alps before
him. He named one by one the lofty peaks which
sprang out of the confused heap of hills; that of
Asheetha and several others were covered with snow.
Below us was the extensive valley of Berwari, which
separates the range of Amadiyah from the Nestorian
country. At a short distance from the crest of the
M 3


1GG NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VI.
mountain we found a small barren plain, called Nev-
dasht, in which stands the Kurdish village of Mag-
lana. We reached Hayis, a Nestorian hamlet, about
sunset. There were only four families in the place,
so poor that we could only procure a little boiled
meal, and some dried mulberries for our supper. The
poor creatures, however, did all they could to make
us comfortable, and gave us what they had.
The valley of Berwari is well wooded with the gall-
bearing oak; and the villages, which are numerous,
are surrounded by gardens and orchards. The pre-
sent chief of the district is a fanatic, and has almost
ruined the Christian population. In all the villages
through which we passed, we saw the same scene and
heard the same tale of wretchedness. Yet the land is
fruitful, water plentiful, and the means of cultivation
easy. Fruit trees of many descriptions abound; and
tobacco, rice, and grain of various kinds could be
raised to any extent. Even the galls afford but a
scanty gain to the villagers, as Abd-ul-Summit Bey
has monopolised them, and those who pick are com-
pelled to deliver them to the chief at a very small
price. The villages are partly inhabited by Kurds
and partly by Nestorian Chaldaeans; there are no Ca-
tholics amongst them. Many of the Christian villages
have been reduced to no more than five or six houses,
and some have only two or three. We stopped at
several during our day's journey. The men, with the
priests, were generally absent picking galls; the women
were seated in circles under the trees, clipping the
grapes and immersing them in boiling water previous


Chap.VI.] KALAII GUMRI. 167
to drying them for raisins. We were everywhere
received with the same hospitality, and everywhere
found the same poverty. Even Ibrahim Agha, who
had been enured to the miseries of misgovernment,
grew violent in his expressions of indignation against
Abd-ul-Summit Bey, and indulged in a variety of
threats against all the male and female members of
his family.
The waters of the mountain torrents collected in
the valley, form a branch of the Khabour, and the
river is sufficiently deep, during the rainy season and
spring, to admit of rafts being floated from Berwari
to the Tigris. At that time of the year poplars,
oaks, and other trees, are thus sent to Mosul. The
most important produce of the valley is the gall nut.
which abounds. Were agriculture encouraged, the
inhabitants might carry on a lucrative trade with
Mosul in many useful articles; but at present the
Christians are too much exposed to the rapacity of the
Kurds, and the Mohammedans are too idle, to cultivate
the land to any extent. The district is very insecure;
and Abd-ul-Summit Bey loses no opportunity of shed-
ding the blood of the Christians of the mountains.
During the massacre in Tiyari many of those who
succeeded in making their escape, were put to death
by his orders, when passing through his territories.
Zeinel Bey, the blood-thirsty agent of Beder Khan
Bey, is a cousin of this chief.
The castle of Kumri or Gumri, the residence of
Abd-ul-Summit Bey, stands on the pinnacle of a lofty
isolated rock, and may be seen from most parts of the
M 4


168 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [CHAr. VI.
valley of Berwari. It is a small mud fort, but is
looked upon as an impregnable place by the Kurds.
The chief had evidently received notice of my ap-
proach, and probably suspected that the object of my
visit was an inspection, for no friendly purposes, of his
stronghold; for as we came near to the foot of the
hill, we saw him hastening down a precipitous path-
way on the opposite side, as fast as his horse could
carry him. A mullah, one of his hangers on, having
been sent to meet us on the road, informed us that
his master had left the castle early in the morning,
for a distant village, whither we could follow him.
Not having any particular wish to make a closer in-
spection of Kalah Kumri, I struck into the hills, and
took the pathway pointed out by the mullah.
We rode through several Kurdish villages, sur-
rounded by gardens, and well watered by mountain
streams. A pass of some elevation had to be crossed
before we could reach the village of Mia, our quarters
for the night. Near its summit we found a barren
plain on which several Kurdish horsemen, who had
joined us, engaged with my own party in the Jerid.
The mimic fight soon caused general excitement, and
old habits getting the better of my dignity, I joined
the melee. A severe kick in the leg from a horse
soon put an end to my manoeuvres, and the party
was detained until I was sufficiently recovered from
the effects of the blow to continue our journey.
It was sunset consequently before we reached Mia.
There are two villages of this name; the upper, in-
habited by Mohammedans, the lower by Nestorian


Cuap.VL] ABD-UL-SUMM1T BEY. 169
Chaldeeans. A Kurd met us as we were entering the
former, with a message from Abd-ul- Summit Bey, to
the effect that, having guests, he could not receive us
there, but had provided a house in the Christian
village, where he would join us after his dinner. I
rode on to the lower Mia, and found a party of
Kurds belabouring the inhabitants, and collecting
old carpets and household furniture. Finding that
these proceedings were partly meant as preparations
for our reception, though the greater share of the
objects collected was intended for the comfort of the
Bey's Mussulman guests, I at once put a stop to
the pillaging, and released the sufferers. We found
a spacious and cleanly roof; and with the assistance
of the people of the house, who were ready enough to
assist when they learnt we were Christians, established
ourselves for the night.
Soon after dark another messenger came from
Abd-ul-Summit Bey to say that as the Cadi and other
illustrious guests were with him, he could not visit
me before the morning. I had from the first sus-
pected that these delays and excuses had an object,
and that the chief wished to give a proof of his
dignity to the Kurds, by treating me in as uncere-
monious a manner as possible; so, calling the Kurd
and addressing him in a loud voice, that the people
who had gathered round the house might hear, I
requested him to be the bearer of a somewhat uncivil
answer to his master, and took care that he should
fully understand its terms. Ionunco's hair stood
on end at the audacity of this speech, and the Nes-


170 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [CuAr. VI.
torians trembled at the results. Ibrahim Ajrha
tittered with delight; and pushing the Kurd away
by the shoulders, told him to be particular in de-
livering his answer. The message had the effect
I had anticipated; an hour afterwards, shuffling
over the house-tops at the great risk of his shins,
and with a good chance of disappearing down a
chimney, came the Bey. He was enveloped in a
variety of cloaks; he wore, after the manner of the
Bohtan chiefs, a turban of huge dimensions, about
four feet in diameter, made up of numberless ker-
chiefs and rags of every hue of red, yellow, and
black; his jacket and wide trowsers were richly em-
broidered; and in his girdle were all manner of
weapons. In person he was tall and handsome; his
eyes were dark, his nose aquiline, and his beard black;
but the expression of his' face was far from prepos-
sessing. I left him to open the conversation, which
he did by a multiplicity of excuses and apologies for
what had passed, not having, by the Prophet, been
aware, he said, of the rank of the guest by whose
presence he had been honoured. I pointed out to him
one or two fallacies in his assertions; and we came
to a distinct understanding on the subject, before we
proceeded to general topics. He sat with me till mid-
night, and entered, amongst other things, into a long
justification of his conduct towards Christians, which
proved that his authority was not established as well
as he could desire. In dealing with a Kurd, you are
generally safe as long as you can make him believe
that you are his superior, or his equal.


172 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VI.
the whole valley; and detached houses, surrounded
by gardens and orchards, were scattered over the
sides of the mountains. To the right ran the valley
which leads to the Zab. We had little difficulty in
descending through the loose stones and detritus
which cover the face of the mountain, although both
our mules and ourselves had frequent falls. On
reaching the entrance of the valley, we rode at once
to the house of Yakoub, the rais or chief of Asheetha,
who received us with grateful hospitality.


Chap. VII.] ASHEETIIA. 173
CHAP. VII.
ASHEETHA.—A NESTORIAN HOUSE.— THE MASSACRE.— ZAWEETIIA.
NESTORIAN PRIESTS. MDRGHI. I.IZAN. SCENE OF THE
MASSACRE. A TIYARI BRIDGE. RAOI.A. THE HOUSE OF THE
MELEK.—T1YARI WOMEN. THE DISTRICT OF TKHOMA. ALARM
OF THE INHABITANTS. — CHURCH SERVICE. — TKHOMA GOWAIA.
A KURDISH CHIEF. PASS INTO BAZ. ERGUB RETURN TO
TKHOMA. BE-ALATHA. ROADS OF TIYARI. CHONBA.
MURDER OF MELEK-ISMAIL RETURN TO ASHEETHA. KASHA
AURAHAM A COPPER MINE. — CHALLEK OURMELI A SU-
BASHI. — A KURDISH SAINT. — MAXTHAYIAH. — SCULPTURES. —
ALKOSH. TOMB OF THE PROPHET NAHUM.— RABBAN HORMUZD.
TELKF.F AND ITS CHRISTIAN INHABITANTS. RETURN TO
MOSUL. — SECOND MASSACRE IN THE NESTORIAN MOUNTAINS. —
CAPTURE AND EXILE OF BEDER KHAN BEY.
We had no sooner reached the house of Yakoub Rais,
than a cry of "The Bey is come," spread rapidly
through the village, and I was surrounded by a crowd
of men, women, and boys. My hand was kissed by
all, and I had to submit for some time to this tedious
process. As for my companion, he was almost
smothered in the embraces of the girls, nearly all of
whom had been liberated from slavery after the great
massacre, or had been supported by his brother for
some months in Mosul.* Amongst the men were
* It may be remembered, that Beder Khan Bey, in 1843, invaded the
Tiyari districts, massacred in cold blood nearly 10,000 of their inhabit-
ant.-, and carried away as slaves a large number of women and children.
But it is perhaps not generally known, that the release of the greater
part of the captives was obtained through the humane interference and
generosity of Sir Stratford Canning, who prevailed upon the Porte to
send a commissioner into Kurdistan, for the purpose of inducing Beder


174 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chat. VII.
many of my old workmen, who were distinguished
from the rest of the inhabitants of Asheetha by their
gay dresses and arms, the fruits of their industry
during the winter. They were anxious to show their
gratitude, and their zeal in my service. The priests
came too; Kasha Ghioorghis, Kasha Hormuzd, and
others. As they entered the room, the whole as-
sembly rose; and lifting their turbans and caps re-
verentially from their heads, kissed the hand extended
to them. In the mean while the girls had disap-
peared; but soon returned, each bearing a platter of
fruit, which they placed before mc. My workmen
also brought large dishes of boiled garas swimming
in butter. There were provisions enough for the
whole company.
The first inquiries were after Mar Shamoun, the
Patriarch. I produced his letter, which the priests
first kissed and placed to their foreheads. They
afterwards passed it to the principal men, who went
through the same ceremony. Kasha Ghioorghis
then read the letter aloud, and at its close, those
present uttered a pious ejaculation for the welfare
of their Patriarch, and renewed their expressions
of welcome to us.
These preliminaries having been concluded, we had
to satisfy all present as to the object, extent, and
Khan Bey and other Kurdish Chiefs, to give up the Blaves they had taken,
and advanced, himself, a considerable sum towards their liberation. Mr.
Russam also obtained the release of many slaves, and maintained and
clothed at his own expense, and for several months, not only the Nes-
torian Patriarch, who had taken refuge in Mosul, but many hundred
ChnhUeans who had escaped from the mountains.


176 NINEYJCU AND ITS REMAIXS. LCuap. VII.
tivity of the few surviving families, who had returned
to the village, and had already brought a large por-
tion of the land into cultivation.
The houses of Asheetha, like those of the Tiyari
districts*, are not built in a group, but are scattered
over the valley. Each dwelling stands in the centre
of the land belonging to its owner; consequently,
the village occupies a much larger space than would
otherwise be required, but has a cheerful and pleasing
appearance. The houses are simple, and constructed
so as to afford protection and comfort, during winter
and summer, 'ihe lower part is of stone, and con-
tains two or three rooms inhabited by the family
and their cattle during the cold months. Light is
admitted by the door, and by small holes in the wall.
There are no windows, as in the absence of glass, a
luxury as yet unknown in Kurdistan, the cold would
be very great during the winter, when the inhabitants
are frequently snowed up for many days together.
The upper floor is constructed partly of stone, and
partly of wood, the whole side facing the south being
open. Enormous beams, resting on wooden pillars
and on the walls, support the roof. This is the
summer habitation, and here all the members of the
family reside. During July and August, they usu-
ally sleep on the roof, upon which they erect stages
of boughs and grass resting on high poles. By thus
raising themselves as much above the ground as
* Asheetha and Zaweetha were formerly looked upon as half-inde-
pendent districts, each having its own Rais or head. They vere neither
within the territories nor under the authority of the Melcks of Tiyari.


Chap. VII.]
177
ASUEETHA.
possible, they avoid the vermin which swarm in the
rooms, and catch the night wind which carries away
the gnats. Sometimes they build these stages in the
branches of high trees around the houses. The
winter provision of dried grass and straw for the
cattle is stacked near the dwelling, or is heaped on
the roof.

A NeBtorian House in til© District of TiyarL
As this was the first year that the surviving in-
habitants of Asheetha, about 200 families, had re-
turned to the village and had cultivated the soil, they
were almost without provisions of any kind. We
were obliged to send to Zaweetha for meat and rice;
and even milk was scarce, the flocks having been
carried away by the Kurds. Garas was all we could
VOL. I. N


178 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VIT.
find to eat. They had no corn, and very little barley.
Their bread was made of this garas, and upon it alone
they lived, except when on holidays they boiled the
grain, and soaked it in melted butter.
The men were now busy in irrigating the land;
and seemed to be rewarded by the promise of ample
crops of their favourite grain, and of wheat, barley,
rice, and tobacco. The boys kept up a continued
shrill shriek or whistle to frighten away the small
birds, which had been attracted in shoals by the ripe
corn. When tired of this exercise, they busied them-
selves with their partridges. Almost every youth in
the country carries one of these birds at his back, in
a round wicker cage. Indeed, whilst the mountains
and the valleys swarm with wild partridges, the
houses are as much infested by the tame. The
women, too, were not idle. The greater part of them,
even the girls, were beating out the corn, or employed
in the fields. A few were at the doors of the houses
working at the loom, or spinning wool for the clothes
of the men. I never saw more general or cheerful
industry; even the priests took part in the labours of
their congregation.
I walked to the ruins of the school and dwelling-
house, built by the American missionaries during
their short sojourn in the mountains. These build-
ings had been the cause of much jealousy and sus-
picion to the Kurds. They stand upon the summit
of an isolated hill, commanding the whole valley. A
position less ostentatious and proportions more modest
might certainly have been chosen; and it is sur-


Chap. VII.] ASHEETHA. 179
prising that persons, so well acquainted with the
character of the tribes amongst whom they had come
to reside, should have been thus indiscreet. They
were, however, most zealous and worthy men; and
had their plans succeeded, I have little doubt that
they would have conferred signal benefits on the
Nestorian Chaldaeans. I never heard their names
mentioned by the Tiyari, and most particularly that
of Dr. Grant, without expressions of profound re-
spect, amounting almost to veneration.* There are
circumstances connected with the massacre of the
Nestorians most painful to contemplate, and which I
willingly forbear to dwell upon.
During the occupation of Asheetha by the Kurds,
Zeinel Bey fortified himself with a few men in the
house constructed by the Americans; and the posi-
tion was so strong, that, holding it against all the
attempts of the Tiyari to dislodge him, he kept the
whole of the valley in subjection.
Yakoub Eais, who was naturally of a lively and
jovial disposition, could not restrain his tears as he
related to me the particulars of the massacre. He
had been amongst the first seized by Beder Khan
Bey; and having been kept by the chief as a kind of
hostage, he had been continually with him, during
* Dr. Grant, who published an account of his visit to the mountains,
fell a victim to his humane zeal for the Chaldeans in 1844. After the
massacre, his house in Mosul was filled with fugitives, whom he supported
and clothed. Their sufferings, and the want of common necessaries
before they reached the town, had brought on a malignant typhus fever,
of which many died, and which Dr. Grant caught whilst attending the
sick in his house. Mosul holds the remains of most of those who were
engaged in the American missions to the Chaldaeans.
h 2


180 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
the attack on the Tiyari, and had witnessed all the
scenes of bloodshed which he so graphically described.
The descent upon Asheetha was sudden and unex-
pected. The greater part of the inhabitants fell
victims to the fury of the Kurds, who endeavoured
to destroy every trace of the village. We walked to
the church, which had been newly constructed by
the united exertions and labour of the people. The
door was so low, that a person, on entering, had to
perform the feat of bringing his back to the level of
his knees. The entrances to Christian churches in
the East are generally so constructed, that horses
and beasts of burthen may not be lodged there by
the Mohammedans. A few rituals, a book of prayer,
and the Scriptures, all in manuscript, were lying
upon the rude altar; but the greater part of the
leaves were wanting, and those which remained were
either torn into shreds, or disfigured by damp and
water. The manuscripts of the churches were hid
in the mountains, or buried in some secure place, at
the time of the massacre; and as the priests, who had
concealed them, were mostly killed, the books have
not been recovered. A few English prints and hand-
kerchiefs from Manchester were hung about the walls;
a bottle and a glass, with a tin plate for the sacrament,
stood upon a table; a curtain of coarse cloth hung
before the inner recess, the Holy of Holies; and these
were all the ornaments and furniture of the place.
I visited my former workmen, the priests, and
those whom I had seen at Mosul; and as it was ex-
pected that I should partake of the hospitality of each,


Chap. VU.J YAKOUB RAIS. 181
and eat of the dishes they had prepared for me—
generally garas floating in melted rancid butter, with
a layer of sour milk above—by the time I reached
Yakoub's mansion, my appetite was abundantly satis-
fied. At the door, however, stood Sarah, and a bevy
of young damsels with baskets of fruits mingled with
ice, fetched from the glacier: nor would they leave
me until I had tasted of every thing.
We lived in a patriarchal way with the Rais. My
bed was made in one corner of the room. The opposite
corner was occupied by Yakoub, his wife and un-
married daughters: a third was appropriated to his
son and daughter-in-law, and all the members of his
son's family: the fourth was assigned to my com-
panion: and various individuals, whose position in
our household could not be very accurately deter-
mined, took possession of the centre. We slept well
nevertheless, and no one troubled himself about his
neighbour. Even Ibrahim Agha, whose paradise
was Chanak Kalassi, the Dardanelles, to which he
always disadvantageously compared every thing, con-
fessed that the Tiyari Mountains were not an un-
pleasant portion of the Sultan's dominions.
Yakoub volunteered to accompany me during the
rest of my journey through the mountains; and as
he was generally known, was well acquainted with
the by-ways and passes, and a very merry companion
withal, I eagerly accepted his offer. We left part of
our baggage at his house, and it was agreed that he
should occasionally ride one of the mules. He was a
very portly person, gaily dressed in an embroidered
s 3


182 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
jacket and striped trowsers, and carrying a variety
of arms in his girdle.
The country through which we passed, after leaving
Asheetha, can scarcely be surpassed in the beauty
and sublimity of its scenery. The patches of land
on the declivities of the mountains were cultivated
with extraordinary skill and care. I never saw
greater proofs of industry. Our mules, however,
were dragged over places almost inaccessible to men
on foot; but we forgot the toils and dangers of the
way in gazing upon the magnificent prospect before
us. Zaweetha is in the same valley as Asheetha.
The stream formed by the eternal snows above the
latter village, forces its way to the Zab. On the sides
of the mountains is the most populous and best culti-
vated district in Tiyari. The ravine below Asheetha
is too narrow to admit of the road being carried along
the banks of the torrent: and we were compelled to
climb over an immense mass of rocks, rising to a
considerable height above it. Frequently the footing
was so insecure that it required the united force of
several men to carry the mules along by their ears
and tails. We, who were unaccustomed to mountain
paths, were obliged to have recourse to the aid of our
hands and knees.
I had been expected at Zaweetha; and before we
entered the first gardens of the village, a party of
girls, bearing baskets of fruit, advanced to meet me.
Their hair, neatly platted and adorned with flowers,
fell down their backs. On their heads they wore co-
loured handkerchiefs loosely tied, or an embroidered


Chap. VII.] ZAWEETHA. 183
cap. Many were pretty, and the prettiest was Aslani,
a liberated slave, who had been for some time under
the protection of Mrs. Rassam; she led the party,
and welcomed me to Zaweetha. My hand having
been kissed by all, they simultaneously threw them-
selves upon my companion, and saluted him vehe-
mently on both cheeks; such a mode of salutation,
in the case of a person of my rank and distinction,
not being, unfortunately, considered either respectful
or decorous. The girls were followed by the Rais and
the principal inhabitants, and I was led by them into
the village.
The Rais of Zaweetha had fortunately rendered
some service to Beder Khan Bey, and on the invasion of
Tiyari his village was spared. It had not even been
deserted by its inhabitants, nor had its trees and gar-
dens been injured. It was consequently, at the time
of my visit, one of the most flourishing villages in the
mountains. The houses, neat and clean, were still
overshadowed by the wide-spreading walnut-tree;
every foot of ground which could receive seed, or
nourish a plant, was cultivated. Soil had been
brought from elsewhere, and built up in terraces on
the precipitous sides of the mountains. A small
pathway amongst the gardens led us to the house of
the Rais.
We were received by Kasha Kami of Lizan, and
Kasha Yusuf of Siatha; the first, one of the very few
learned priests left among the Nestorian Chaldaeans.
Our welcome was as unaffected and sincere as it had
been at Asheetha. Preparations had been made for
X 4


184 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
our reception, and the women of the family of the
chief were congregated around huge cauldrons at the
door of the house, cooking an entire sheep, rice, and
garas. The liver, heart, and other portions of the
entrails were immediately cut into pieces, roasted
on ramrods, and brought on these skewers into the
room. The fruit, too, melons, pomegranates, and
grapes, all of excellent quality, spread on the floor,
before us, served to allay our appetites until the
breakfast was ready.
Mar Shamoun's letter was read with the usual
solemnities by Kasha Kana, and we had to satisfy the
numerous inquiries of the company. Their patri-
arch was regarded as a prisoner in Mosul, and his
return to the mountains was looked forward to with
deep anxiety. Everywhere, except in Zaweetha, the
churches had been destroyed to their foundations,
and the priests put to death. Some of the holy edi-
fices had been rudely rebuilt; but the people were
unwilling to use them until they had been conse-
crated by the Patriarch. There were not priests
enough indeed to ofliciate, nor could others be or-
dained until Mar Shamoun himself performed the
ceremony. These wants had been the cause of great
irregularities and confusion in Tiyari; and the Nes-
torian Chaldaeans, who are naturally a religious
people, and greatly attached to their churches and
ministers, were more alive to them than to any of
their misfortunes.
Kasha Kana was making his weekly rounds to the
villages which had lost their priests. He carried


Chap.VII.] THE RAIS. 185
under his arm a bag full of manuscripts, consisting
chiefly of rituals and copies of the Scriptures; but he
had also one or two volumes on profane subjects which
he prized highly; amongst them was a grammar by
Rabba Johannan bar Zoabee, to which he was chiefly
indebted for his learning. He read to us—holding as
usual the book upside down — a part of the intro-
duction treating of the philosophy and nature of
languages, and illustrated the text by various at-
tempts at the delineation of most marvellous alpha-
bets. A taste for the fine arts seemed to prevail
generally in the village, and the walls of the Rais's
house were covered with sketches of wild goats and
snakes in every variety of posture. The young men
were eloquent on the subject of the chase, and related
their exploits with the wild animals of the mountains.
A cousin of the chief, a handsome youth very gaily
dressed, had shot a bear a few days before, after a
hazardous encounter, and he brought me the skin,
which measured seven feet in length. The two great
subjects of complaint I found to be the Kurds and
the bears, both equally mischievous; the latter carry-
ins off the fruit both when on the trees and when laid
out to dry; and the former, the provisions stored for
the winter. In some villages in Berwari the inhabit-
ants pretended to be in so much dread of the bears,
that they would not venture out alone after dark.
The Rais, finding that I would not accept his hos-
pitality for the night, accompanied us, followed by
all the inhabitants, to the outskirts of the village.
His frank and manly bearing, and simple kindness,


186 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
had made a most favourable impression upon me,
and I left him with regret. Kasha Kana, too, fully-
merited the praises which he received from all who
knew him. His appearance was mild and venerable;
his beard, white as snow, fell low upon his breast;
^but his garments were in a very advanced stage of
rags. I gave him a few handkerchiefs, some of which
were at once gratefully applied to the bettering of
his raiment; the remainder being reserved for the
embellishment of his parish church. The Kasha is
looked up to as the physician, philosopher, and sage
of Tiyari, and is treated with great veneration by
the people. As we walked through the village, the
women left their thresholds and the boys their sports
to kiss his hand—a mark of respect, however, which
is invariably shown to the priesthood.
We had been joined by Mirza, a confidential ser-
vant of Mar Shamoun, and our party was further in-
creased by several men returning to villages on our
road. Yakoub Rais kept every one in good humour
by his anecdotes, and the absurdity of his gesticu-
lations. Ionunco, too, dragging his mare over the
projecting rocks, down which he generally contrived
to tumble, added to the general mirth, and we went
laughing through the valley.
From Zaweetha to the Zab, there is almost an
unbroken line of cultivation on both sides of the
valley. The two villages of Miniyanish and Murghi
are buried in groves of walnut-trees, and their peace-
ful and flourishing appearance deceived me, until I
wandered amongst the dwellings, and found the same


Chap. VII.] MURGHI. 187
scenes of misery and desolation that I had witnessed
at Asheetha. But nature was so beautiful that we
almost forgot the havoc of man, and envied the re-
pose of these secluded habitations. In Miniyanish,
out of seventy houses only twelve had risen from
their ruins; the families to which the rest belonged
having been totally destroyed. Yakoub pointed
out a spot where above three hundred persons had
been murdered in cold blood, and all our party had
some tale of horror to relate. Murghi was not less
desolate than Miniyanish, and eight houses alone had
been resought by their owners. We found an old
priest, blind and grey, bowed down by age and grief,
the solitary survivor of six or eight of his order. He
was seated under the shade of a walnut-tree, near
a small stream. Some children of the village were
feeding him with grapes, and on our approach his
daughter ran into the half-ruined cottage, and brought
out a basket of fruit and a loaf of garas bread. I
endeavoured to glean some information from the old
man as to the state of his flock; but his mind wan-
dered to the cruelties of the Kurds, or dwelt upon
the misfortunes of his Patriarch, over whose fate he
shed many tears. None of our party being able to
console the Kasha, I gave some handkerchiefs to his
daughter, and we resumed our journey.
Our road lay through the gardens of the villages,
or through the forest of gall-bearing oaks which
clothe the mountains above the line of cultivation.
But it was everywhere equally difficult and pre-
cipitous, and we tore our way through the matted


188 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
boughs of overhanging trees, or the thick foliage of
creepers which hung from every branch. Innumer-
rable rills, led from the mountain springs into the
terraced fields, crossed our path, and rendered our
progress still more tedious. We reached Lizan,
however, early in the afternoon, descending to the
village through scenery of extraordinary beauty and
grandeur.
Lizan stands on the river Zab, which is crossed by
a rude bridge. I need not weary or distress the
reader with a description of desolation and misery,
hardly concealed by the most luxuriant vegetation.
We rode to the graveyard of a roofless church slowly
rising from its ruins — the first edifice in the village
to be rebuilt. We spread our carpets amongst the
tombs; for as yet there were no inhabitable houses.
The Melek, with the few who had survived the mas-
sacre, was living during the day under the trees,
and sleeping at night on stages of grass and boughs,
raised on high poles, fixed in the very bed of the Zab.
By this latter contrivance they succeeded in catching
any breeze that might be carried down the narrow
ravine of the river, and in freeing themselves from
the gnats and sandflies abounding in the valley.
It was near Lizan that occurred one of the most
terrible incidents of the massacre; and an active
mountaineer offering to lead me to the spot, I fol-
lowed him up the mountain. Emerging from the
gardens we found ourselves at the foot of an almost
perpendicular detritus of loose stones, terminated,
about one thousand feet above us, by a wall of lofty


Chap. VII.] LIZAN. 189
rocks. Up this ascent we toiled for above an hour,
sometimes clinging to small shrubs whose roots
scarcely reached the scanty soil below; at others
crawling on our hands and knees; crossing the gul-
lies to secure a footing, or carried down by the stones
which we put in motion as we advanced. We soon
saw evidences of the slaughter. At first a solitary
skull rolling down with the rubbish; then heaps of
blanched bones; further up fragments of rotten gar-
ments. As we advanced, these remains became more
frequent—skeletons, almost entire, still hung to the
dwarf shrubs. I was soon compelled to renounce an
attempt to count them. As we approached the wall
of rock, the declivity became covered with bones,
mingled with the long platted tresses of the women,
shreds of discoloured linen, and well-worn shoes.
There were skulls of all ages, from the child unborn
to the toothless old man. We could not avoid tread-
ing on the bones as we advanced, and rolling them
with the loose stones into the valley below. "This
is nothing," exclaimed my guide, who observed me
gazing with wonder on these miserable heaps ; "they
are but the remains of those who were thrown from
above, or sought to escape the sword by jumping
from the rock. Follow me!" He sprang upon a
ledge running along the precipice that rose before
us, and clambered along the face of the mountain
overhanging the Zab, now scarcely visible at our
feet. I followed him as well as I was able to some
distance; but when the ledge became scarcely broader
than my hand, and frequently disappeared for three


190 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
or four feet altogether, I could no longer advance.
The Tiyari, who had easily surmounted these diffi-
culties, returned to assist me, but in vain. I was
still suffering severely from the kick received in my
leg four days before; and was compelled to return,
after catching a glimpse of an open recess or plat-
form covered with human remains.
When the fugitives who had escaped from Asheetha
spread the news of the massacre through the valley
of Lizan, the inhabitants of the villages around col-
lected such part of their property as they could carry,
and took refuge on the platform I have just described
and on the rock above; hoping thus to escape the
notice of the Kurds, or to be able to defend, against
any numbers, a place almost inaccessible. Women
and young children, as well as men, concealed them-
selves in a spot which the mountain goat could
scarcely reach.* Beder Khan Bey was not long in
discovering their retreat; but being unable to force
it, he surrounded the place with his men, and waited
until they should be compelled to yield. The wea-
ther was hot and sultry; the Christians had brought
but small supplies of water and provisions. After
* When amongst the Bakhtiyari I saw a curious instance of the
agility of the women of the mountains. I occupied an upper room in
a tower, forming one of the corners in the yard of the chief's harem.
I was accustomed to lock my door on the outside with a padlock. The
wife of the chief advised me to secure the window also. As I laughed
at the idea of any one being able to enter by it, she ordered one of her
handmaidens to convince me, which she did at once, dragging herself
up in the most marvellous way by the mere irregularities of the bricks.
After witnessing this feat, I could believe any thing of the activity of the
Kurdish women.


Chap. VII.] RAOLA. 193
horses, a labour of no slight trouble and difficulty, as
the current was rapid, and the bed of the river choked
with rocks. More than an hour was wasted in find-
ing a spot sufficiently clear of stones, and in devising
means to induce the animals to enter the water. We
resumed our journey on the opposite side of the
valley. But before leaving Lizan I must mention
the heroic devotion of ten Tiyari girls, from the vil-
lage of Serspeetho, who, as they were led across the
bridge by the Kurds, on their return from the great
massacre, — preferring death to captivity and con-
version,—threw themselves simultaneously into the
Zab, and were drowned in its waters.
We now entered a valley formed by a torrent which
joins the Zab below Lizan. On the opposite side, but
far in the distance, were the Kurdish villages of the
district of Chal*, surrounded by trees and gardens.
We passed through the small Chaldasan village of
Shoordh, now a heap of ruins, inhabited by a few
wretched families, whose priest had been recently put
to death by Nur-Ullah Bey, the Chief Of the Hakkiari
tribes. From Shoordh we descended into a wild and
rocky ravine, leading to the once rich and populous
valley of Raola. We soon found ourselves on the out-
skirts of cultivation. A few feet of soil were rescued
from the bed of the torrent, and sown with tobacco
and garas. These straggling plots led us into a series
* Their names are Chal, Scrshkioutha, Behedri, Beshoukha, Shuraisi,
Beea, and Dalasha. The district is under an hereditary chief, Tatar Bey,
who pays tribute to the Governor of Amadiyah, and is consequently de-
pendent upon the Fasha of Mosul.
VOL. I. O


194 NINEVEH AND IT8 REMAINS. [CHiP.VII.
of orchards and gardens, extending to the district of
Tkhoraa.
We were nearly two hours in reaching the house
of the Melek.* My party having gradually increased
as we rode among the scattered cottages, I was fol-
lowed by a large company. Melek Khoshabaf had
been apprised of my intended visit; for he met us
with the priests, and principal inhabitants at some
distance from his dwelling. I was much struck by
his noble carriage and handsome features. He wore,
like the other chiefs, a dress of very gay colours, and
a conical cap of felt, slightly embroidered at the edges,
in which was stuck an eagle's feather. The men who
accompanied him were mostly tall and well made,
and were more showily dressed than the inhabitants
of other villages through which we had passed. Their
heads were shaved, as is customary amongst the Tiyari
tribes, a small knot of hair being left uncut on the
crown, and allowed to fall in a plait down the back.
This tail, with the conical cap, gives them the appear-
ance of Chinese. The boys, in addition to their in-
separable partridges, carried cross-bows, with which
they molested every small bird that appeared, and
almost every one had an eagle's feather in his cap.
We followed the Melek to his house, which stood
high above the torrent, on the declivity of the moun-
tain. The upper or summer room was large enough
to contain all the party. The Melek and priests sat
on my carpets; the rest ranged themselves on the bare
* Literally, King, the title given to the chiefs of Tiyari.
f A corruption of Khath Shaba, Sunday.


Chap. Vn.] RAOLA. 195
floor against the walls. The girls brought me, as
usual, baskets of fruit, and then stood at the entrance
of the room. Many of them were very pretty; but
the daughter of the chief, a girl of fourteen, excelled
them all. I have seldom seen a more lovely form.
Her complexion was fair; her features regular; her
eyes and hair as black as jet; a continual smile
played upon her mouth; and an expression of min-
gled surprise and curiosity stole over her face, as she
examined my dress or followed my movements. Her
tresses, unconfined by the coloured handkerchief
bound loosely round her head, fell in disorder down
her back, reaching to her waist. Her dress was more
gay, and neater, than that of the other women, who
evidently confessed her beauty' and her rank. I
motioned to her to sit down; but that was an honour
only reserved for the mother of the Melek, who occu-
pied a corner of the room. At length she approached
timidly to examine more closely a pocket compass,
which had excited the wonder of the men.
The threatened invasion of Tkhoma by Beder
Khan Bey, was the chief subject of conversation, and
caused great excitement amongst the inhabitants of
Raola. They calculated the means of defence pos-
sessed by the villagers of the proscribed district; but
whilst wishing them success against the Kurds, they
declared their inability to afford them assistance; for
they still trembled at the recollection of the former
massacre, and the very name of the Bohtan chief
struck terror into the hearts of the Tiyari. They
entreated me to devise some mode of delivering them
o 2


196 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
from the danger. "It is true," said the Melek, "that
when Nur-Ullah Bey joined Beder Khan Bey in the
great massacre, the people of Tkhoma marched with
the Kurds against us; but could they do otherwise?—
for they feared the Chief of Hakkiari. They are our
brothers, and we should forgive them; for the Scrip-
tures tell us to forgive even our enemies." This pious
sentiment was re-echoed by all the company.
Several men, whose wives and daughters were still
in slavery, came to me, thinking that I could relieve
them in their misfortune; and there was scarcely any
one present who had not some tale of grief to relate.
Several members of the family of Melek Khoshaba,
including his cousin, to whom he had succeeded in
the chiefship, had been killed in the massacre. The
villages in the valley of Raola having, however,
suffered less than those we had previously visited,
were fast returning to their former prosperity.
Whilst we were discussing these matters the
women left the room, and I observed them, shortly
after, performing their ablutions by a rill in a garden
below. They stripped themselves without restraint
of all their garments, and loosed their hair over their
shoulders. Some stood in the stream, and poured
water over one another out of wooden bowls; others
combed and plaited the long tresses of their com-
panions, who crouched on the grass at their feet.
The younger girls and children played in the brook,
or ran over the meadow. They remained thus for
above an hour, unnoticed by the men, and as un-
mindful of their presence as if they bathed in some
secluded spot, far distant from any human habitation.


Chap. VII.] APPROACH TO TKHOMA. 197
The Melek insisted upon accompanying us, with
the priests and principal inhabitants, to the end of
the valley. As we passed through the village we
saw the women bathing at almost every door; nor
did they appear at all conscious that we were near
them. This simple and primitive mode of washing
is thus publicly practised amongst all the Chaldaaan
tribes, particularly on the Saturday. The men neither
heed nor interfere, and their wives and daughters are
not the less virtuous or modest.
Although all this district is known as Raola, yet
its length has rendered distinct names for various
parts of the village necessary. The houses are scat-
tered over the sides of the mountains, and surrounded
by gardens and vineyards. A torrent, rising at- the
head of the valley, is divided into innumerable water-
courses carried along the sides of the hills to the
most distant plots of cultivation. Its waters are con-
sequently entirely absorbed, except during the period
of winter rains, when they seek an outlet in the Zab.
The gardens are built up in terraces, and are sown
with tobacco, rice, and such vegetables and grains as
are peculiar to the mountains. The valley is well
wooded with fruit trees, amongst which are the
walnut, fig, pomegranate, apple, and mulberry.
Melek Khoshaba accompanied me to a rude monu-
ment raised over the bodies of fifty prisoners, who had
been murdered at the time of the invasion, and left
me at the entrance of the village. We had to pass
through a narrow and barren ravine, and a rocky
gorge, before entering the district of Tkhoma. Our
o 3


. 198 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
path lay in the bed of the torrent; and the mountains,
rising precipitously on either side, shut in a scene of
extraordinary wildness and solitude. This was the
only road by which we could reach Tkhoma, without
crossing the lofty ranges of rocks surrounding it on
all other sides. A resolute body of men might have
held the ravine against any numbers. This was one
of the most dangerous tracks we had to traverse
during our journey. On the heights above are one
or two villages, inhabited by the Apenshai* Kurds,
who are always engaged in hostilities with the Tiyari,
and fall upon such as are crossing the frontiers of
Tkhoma. My party was numerous and well armed,
and keeping close together we travelled on without
apprehension.
We emerged suddenly from this wilderness, and
saw a richly cultivated valley before us. Flocks of
sheep and goats were browsing on the hill sides, and
herds of cattle wandered in the meadows below.
These were the first domestic animals we had seen in
the Chaldaean country, and they showed that hitherto
'Tkhoma had escaped the hand of the spoiler. Two
villages occupied opposite sides of the valley; on the
right, Ghissa, on the left, Birijai. We rode to the
latter. The houses are built in a cluster, and not
scattered amongst the gardens, as in Tiyari. We were
surrounded by the inhabitants as soon as we entered
the streets, and they vied with one another in ex-
pressions of welcome and offers of hospitality. Kasha
Hormuzd, the principal priest, prevailed upon me to
* By the Kurds they are called Pinianshi.


Chap. VII.] CHURCH OF BIRIJAI. 199
accompany him to a house he had provided, and on
the roof of which carpets were speedily spread. The
people were in great agitation at the report of Beder
Khan Bey's projected march upon Tkhoma. They
immediately flocked round us, seeking for news. The
men were better dressed than any Nestorian Chal-
daeans I had yet seen. The felt cap was replaced by
turbans of red and black linen, and these two favourite
colours of the Kurds were conspicuous in their ample
trowsers, and embroidered jackets. As they carried
pistols and daggers in their girdles, and long guns
in their hands, they could scarcely be distinguished
from the Mussulman inhabitants of the mountains.
The women wore small embroidered scull-caps, from
beneath which their hair fell loose or in plaits. Their
shirts were richly embroidered, and round their necks
and bosoms were hung coins and beads. They were
happy in having escaped so long the fanaticism and
rapacity of the Kurds. But they foresaw their fate.
All was bustle and anxiety; the women were burying
their ornaments and domestic utensils in secure places;
the men preparing their arms, or making gunpowder.
I walked to the church, where the priests were collect-
ing their books and the holy vessels, to be hid in the
mountains. Amongst the manuscripts I saw many
ancient rituals, forms of prayer, and versions of the
Scripture; the Acts of the Apostles and the.Epistles
on vellum, the first and last leaves wanting, and
without date, but evidently of a very early period;
and a fine copy of the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles
also on vellum, entire, with numerous illuminations,
o 4


200 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VI I
written in the year of the Seleucidae 1552*, in the
time of " Mar Audishio, Patriarch of the East, and of
the Chaldaeans."
I was much touched by the unaffected hospitality
and simple manners of the two priests, Kashas Hor-
muzd, and Khoshaba, who entertained me; a third
was absent. Their dress, torn and soiled, showed
that they were poorer than their congregation. They
had just returned from the vineyards, where they had
been toiling during the day; yet they were treated
with reverence and respect; the upper places were
given to them, they were consulted on all occasions,
and no one drew nigh without kissing the hand,
scarred by the plough and the implements of the
field.
Almost every house furnished something towards
our evening repast; and a long train of girls and
young men brought us in messes of meat, fowls,
boiled rice, garas, and fruit. The priests and the
principal inhabitants feasted with us, and there re-
mained enough for my servants, and for the poor who
were collected on the roof of a neighbouring house.
After our meal many of the women came to me, and
joined with the men in debating on their critical
position, and in forming schemes for the security of
their families, and the defence of their village. It was
past midnight before the assembly separated.
* The era of the Seleucidae (the Greek or Alexandrian year, or the era
of contracts, as it is sometimes called) was once in general use amongst
the Christians, Jews, and Mussulmans of the East, and is to this day
always employed by the Chaldajans. It commences in October b.c. 312;
according to the Chaldaeans one year later.


CiiAr. VII.] A NESTORIAX CHURCH. 201
The following day being Sunday, we were roused
at dawn to attend the service of the church. The
two priests officiated in white surplices. The cere-
monies were short and simple; a portion of Scripture
was read and then interpreted by Kasha Hormuzd in
the dialect in use in the mountains—few under-
standing the Chaldaean of the books. His companion
chanted the prayers — the congregation kneeling or
standing, and joining in the responses. There were
no idle forms or salutations; the people used the
sign of the cross when entering, and bowed when the
name of Christ occurred in the prayers. The Sacra-
ment was administered to all present—men, women,
and children partaking of the bread and wine, and
my companion^ receiving it amongst the rest. They
were disposed to feel hurt at my dedining to join
them, until I explained that I did not refuse from
any religious prejudice. When the service was ended
the congregation embraced one another, as a symbol
of brotherly love and concord*, and left the church.
I could not but contrast these simple and primitive
rites with the senseless mummery, and degrading
forms, adopted by the converted Chaldasans of the
plains—the unadorned and imageless walls, with the
hideous pictures and monstrous deformities which
encumber the churches of Mosul.
The vestibule of the church was occupied by a
misshapen and decrepit nun. Her bed was a mat in
* This custom, it will be remembered, prevailed generally amongst the
primitive Christians. The Roman Catholic Church has retained the
remembrance of it in the " Pax."


202
(Chap. VII.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
the corner of the building, and she was cooking her
garas on a small fire near the door. She inquired,
with many tears, after Mar Shainoun, and hung
round the neck of my companion when she learnt
that he had been living with him. Vows of chastity
are very rarely taken amongst the Nestorian Chal-
dæans; and this woman, whose deformity might have
precluded the hope of marriage, was the sole instance
we met with in the mountains. Convents for either
sex are unknown.
Birijai contained, at the time of my visit, nearly one
hundred houses, and Ghissa forty. The inhabitants
were comparatively rich, possessing numerous flocks,
and cultivating a large extent of land. There were
priests, schools, and churches in both villages.
One of the Meleks of the tribe came early from
Tkhoma Gowaia *, the principal village in the district,
to welcome me to his mountains, and to conduct me
to his house. He explained that as it was Sunday the
Chaldæans did not travel, and consequently the other
Meleks and the principal inhabitants had not been
able to meet me. We took leave of the good people
of Birijai, who had treated us with great hospitality,
and followed Melek Putros up the valley.
To our left was the small Kurdish hamlet of Hay.
shat, high up in a sheltered ravine. An uninter-
rupted line of gardens brought us to the church of
Tkhoma Gowaia, standing in the midst of scattered
houses, this village being built like those of Tiyari.
Here we found almost the whole tribe assembled, and
* i. e. middle or centre Tkhoma.


Cuap. VII.]
TKHOMA.
203
in deep consultation on the state of affairs. We sat
in a loft above the church during the greater part of
the day, engaged in discussion on the course to be
pursued to avoid the present difficulties, and to de-
fend the valley against the expected attack of Beder
Khan Bey. The men, who were all well armed, de-
clared that they were ready to die in the defence of
their villages; and that, unless they were overcome
by numbers, they would hold the passes against the
forces of the Kurdish chief. The Kurds, who in.
habited two or three hamlets in Tkhoma, had also
assembled. They expressed sympathy for the Chris-
tians, and offered to arm in their behalf. After
much debate it was resolved to send at once a
deputation to the Pasha of Mosul, to beseech his
protection and assistance. Two priests, two persons
from the families of the Meleks, and two of the
principal inhabitants, were chosen; and a letter was
written by Kasha Bodaca, one of the most learned
and respectable priests in the mountains. It was a
touching appeal, setting forth that they were faithful
subjects of the Sultan, had been guilty of no offence,
and were ready to pay any money, or submit to any
terms that the Pasha might think fit to exact. The
letter, after having been approved by all present, and
sealed with the seals of the chiefs, was delivered to
the six deputies, who started at once on foot for
Mosul. At the same time no precaution was to be
omitted to place the valley in a state of defence, and
to prepare for the approach of the Kurds.
There were in Tkhoma three Meleks, each chosen


204 NIN'EVEE AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
from a different family by the tribe. The principal was
Melek Putros, — a stout, jovial fellow, gaily dressed,
and well armed. His colleagues were of a more
sober and more warlike appearance. There were
no signs of poverty among the people; most of the
men had serviceable weapons, and the women wore
gold and silver ornaments. All the young men car-
ried cross-bows; in the use of which they were very
skilful, killing the small birds as they rested on the
trees. A well-armed and formidable body of men
might have been collected from the villages; which,
properly directed, could, I have little doubt, have
effectually resisted the invasion of Beder Khan Bey.
There are five Chaldaean villages in the district of
Tkhoma—Ghissa, Birijai, Tkhoma Gowaia, Muzra,
and Gunduktha: and four Kurdish — Apenshai,
Hayshat, Zaweetha, and Guzeresh. The largest is
Tkhoma Gowaia, containing 160 houses, and the
residence of the Meleks. By the Kurds, Tkhoma is
corrupted into Tkhobi; and the greater part of the
Chaldasan names undergo similar changes.
We passed the night on the roof of the church,
and rose early to continue our journey to Baz. The
valley and pass, separating Tkhoma from this dis-
trict, being at this time of the year uninhabited, is
considered insecure, and we were accompanied by a
party of armed men, furnished by the Meleks. The
chiefs themselves walked with us to the village of
Mezrai, whose gardens adjoin those of Tkhoma Gowaia.
The whole valley, indeed, up to the rocky barrier
closing it towards the east, is an uninterrupted line


Chap. TIT.] TKHOMA. 205
of cultivation. Above the level of the artificial
watercourses, derived from the torrent near its
source and irrigating all the lands of the district,
are forests of oaks, clothing the mountains to within
a short distance of their summits. Galls are not so
plentiful here as in Tiyari; they form, however, an
article of commerce with Persia, where they find a
better market than in Mosul. Rice and flax are very
generally cultivated, and fruit-trees abound.
We stopped for a few minutes at Gunduktha, the
last village in Tkhoma, to see Kasha Bodaca, whom
we found preparing, at the request of his congregation,
to join the deputation to the Pasha of Mosul. We
took leave of him, and he started on his journey. He
was an amiable, and, for the mountains, a learned
man, much esteemed by the Chaldaean tribes. Being
one of the most skilful penmen of the day, his manu-
scripts were much sought after for the churches. He
was mild and simple in his manners; and his appear-
ance was marked by that gentleness and unassuming
dignity, which I had found in more than one of the
Nestorian Chaldaean priests.*
The torrent enters the valley of Tkhoma by a very
narrow gorge, through which a road, partly con-
structed of rough stones piled up in the bed of the
stream, is with difficulty carried. In the winter,
when the rain has swollen the waters, this entrance
must be impracticable; and even at this time, we
could scarcely drag our mules and horses over the
rocks, and through the deep pools in which the tor-
* Mr. Ainsworth, writing to Kasha Kana, of Lizan, observes that he
resembled in his manners and appearance an English clergyman.


206 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
rent abounds. All signs of cultivation now ceased.
Mountains rose on all sides, barren and treeless.
Huge rocks hung over the road, or towered above us.
On their pinnacles, or in their crevices, a few goats
sought a scanty herbage. The savage nature of the
place was heightened by its solitude.
Soon after entering the ravine, we met a shepherd-
boy, dragging after him a sheep killed by the bears;
and a little beyond we found the reeking carcase of
a bullock, which had also fallen a victim to these for-
midable animals, of whose depredations we heard con-
tinual complaints. I observed on the mountain-sides
several flocks of ibex, and some of our party endea-
voured to get within gun-shot; but after sun-rise their
watchfulness cannot be deceived, and they bounded off
to the highest peaks, long before the most wary of our
marksmen could approach them.
We were steadily making our way over the loose
stones and slippery rocks, when a party of horsemen
were seen coming towards us. They were Kurds,
and I ordered my party to keep close together, that
we might be ready to meet them in case of necessity.
As they were picking their way over the rough
ground like ourselves, to the evident risk of their
horses' necks as well as of their own, I had time to
examine them fully as they drew near. In front, on
a small, lean, and jaded horse, rode a tall gaunt
figure, dressed in all the tawdry garments sanctioned
by Kurdish taste. A turban of wonderful capacity,
and almost taking within its dimensions horse and
rider, buried his head, which seemed to escape by a
miracle being driven in between his shoulders by the


Chap. VII.] A KURDISH CHIEF. 207
enormous pressure. From the centre of this mass of
many-coloured rags rose a high conical cap of white
felt. This load appeared to give an unsteady rolling
gait to the thin carcase below, which could with
difficulty support it. A most capacious pair of
claret-coloured trowsers bulged out from the sides of
the horse, and well nigh stretched from side to side
of the ravine. Every shade of red and yellow was
displayed in his embroidered jacket and cloak; and
in his girdle were weapons of extraordinary size, and
most fanciful workmanship. His eyes were dark and
piercing, and overshadowed by shaggy eyebrows; his
nose aquiline, his cheeks hollow, his face long, and
his beard black and bushy. Notwithstanding the
ferocity of his countenance, and its unmistakeable ex-
pression of villany, it would have been difficult to
repress a smile at the absurdity of the figure, and the
disparity between it and the miserable animal con-
cealed beneath. This was a Kurdish dignitary of
the first rank; a man well-known for deeds of op-
pression and blood; the Mutesellim, or Lieutenant-
Governor under Nur-Ullah Bey, the Chief of Hakkiari.
He was followed by a small body of well-armed men,
resembling their master in the motley character of
their dress; which, however, was somewhat reduced
in the proportions, as became an inferiority of rank.
The cavalcade was brought up by an individual
differing considerably from those who had preceded.
His smooth and shining chin, and the rich glow of
raki* upon his cheeks, were undoubted evidences of
* Ardent spirits, extracted from raisins or dates.


208
[Cuap. VII.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
sel
Christianity. He had the accumulated obesity of
all his companions; and rode, as became him, upon a
diminutive donkey, which he urged over the loose
stones with the point of a claspknife. His dress did
not differ much from that of the Kurds, except that,
instead of warlike weapons, he carried an ink-horn
in his girdle. This was Bircham, “the goulama
d'Mira,”* as he was commonly called, - a half rene-
gade Christian, who was the steward, banker, and
secretary of the Hakkiari chief.
I saluted the Mutesellim, as we elbowed each other
in the narrow pass; but he did not seem inclined to
return my salutation, otherwise than by a curl of the
lip, and an indistinct grunt, which he left me to in-
terpret in any way I thought proper. It was no use
quarrelling with him, so I passed on. We had not
proceeded far, when one of his horsemen returned to
us, and called away Yakoub Rais, Ionunco, and one of
the men of Tkhoma. Looking back, I observed them
all in deep consultation with the Kurdish chief, who
had dismounted to wait for them. I rode on, and it
was nearly an hour before the three Chaldæans re-
joined us. Ionunco's eyes were starting out of his
head with fright, and the expression of his face was
one of amusing horror. Even Yakoub's usual grin
had given way to a look of alarm. The man of
Tkhoma was less disturbed. Yakoub began by en-
treating me to return at once to Tkhoma and Tiyari.
The Mutesellim, he said, had used violent threats ; de-
claring that as Nur-Ullah Bey had served one infidel
nar
* The servant of the Mir or Prince.


Chap. VII.]
209
DESCENT INTO BAZ.
m
who had come to spy out the country, and teach the
Turks its mines, alluding to Schultz*, so he would
serve me; and had sent off a man to the Hakkiari
chief to apprise him of my presence in the mountains.
“We must turn back at once,” exclaimed Yakoub,
seizing the bridle of my horse, “or, Wallah! that
Kurdish dog will murder us all.” I had formed a
different plan; and, calming the fears of my party as
well as I was able, I continued my journey toward
Baz. Ionunco, however, raked his brain for every
murder that had been attributed to Nur-Ullah Bey;
and at each new tale of horror Yakoub turned his
mule, and vowed he would go back to Asheetha.
We rode for nearly four hours through this wild,
solitary valley. My people were almost afraid to
speak, and huddled together as if the Kurds were
coming down upon us. Two or three of the armed
men scaled the rocks, and ran on before us as scouts; -
but the solitude was only broken by an eagle soaring
above our heads, or by a wild goat which occasionally
dashed across our path. In the spring, and early
summer, these now desolate tracks are covered with
the tents of the people of Tkhoma, and of the Kurds,
who find on the slopes a rich pasture for their flocks.
· It was mid-day before we reached the foot of the
mountain dividing us from the district of Baz. The
pass we had to cross is one of the highest in the
Chaldæan country, and at this season there was snow
* It will be remembered that this traveller was murdered by Nur-
Ullah Bey.
VOL. I.


210
(Chap. VII.
NINEVEI AND ITS REMAINS..
mu
upon it. The ascent was long, steep, and toilsome.
We were compelled to walk, and even without our
weight, the mules could scarcely climb the acclivity.
But we were well rewarded for our labour when we
gained the summit. A scene of extraordinary gran-
deur opened upon us. At our feet stretched the
valley of Baz,—its villages and gardens but specks
in the distance. Beyond the valley, and on all sides
of us, was a sea of mountains — peaks of every form
and height, some snow-capped, others bleak and
naked; the furthermost rising in the distant regions
of Persia. I counted nine distinct mountain ranges.
Two vast rocks formed a kind of gateway on the
crest of the pass, and I sat between them for some
minutes gazing upon the sublime prospect before us.
The descent was rapid and dangerous, and so pre-
cipitous that a stone might almost have been dropped
on the church of Ergub, first visible like a white
spot beneath us. We passed a rock, called the “ Rock
of Butter," from a custom, perhaps of pagan origin,
existing amongst the Chaldæan shepherds, of placing
upon it, as an offering, a piece of the first butter made
in the early spring. As we approached the village,
we found several of the inhabitants labouring in the
fields. They left their work, and followed us. The
church stands at some distance from the houses; and
when we reached it, the villagers compelled all my
servants to dismount, including Ibrahim Agha, who
muttered a curse upon the infidels as he took his
foot out of the stirrup. The Christians raised their


Chap. VII.] EBGUB. 211
turbans,—a mark of reverence always shown on
these occasions.
The houses of Ergub are built in a group. We
stopped in a small open space in the centre of them,
and I ordered my carpet to be spread near a foun-
tain, shaded by a cluster of trees. We were soon
surrounded by the inhabitants of the village. The
Melek and the priest seated themselves with me ; the
rest stood round in a circle. The men were well
dressed and armed; and, like those of Tkhoma, they
could scarcely be distinguished from the Kurds.
Many of the women were pretty enough to be en-
titled to the front places they had taken in the crowd.
They wore silver ornaments and beads on their fore-
heads, and were dressed in jackets and trowsers of
gay colours.
After the letter of the Patriarch had been read,
and the inquiries concerning him fully satisfied, the
conversation turned upon the expected expedition of
Beder Khan Bey against Tkhoma, and the movements
of Nur-Ullah Bey, events causing great anxiety to
the people of Baz. Although this district had been
long under the chief of Hakkiari, paying an annual
tribute to him, and having been even subjected to
many vexatious exactions, and to acts of oppression
and violence, yet it had never been disarmed, nor ex-
posed to a massacre such as had taken place in Tiyari.
There was, however, cause to fear that the fanatical
fury of Beder Khan Bey might be turned upon it as
well as upon Tkhoma ; and the only hope of the inha-
bitants was in the friendly interference of Nur-Ullah
p 2


212 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
Bey, whose subjects they now professed themselves to
be. They had begun to conceal their church-books
and property, in anticipation of a disaster.
Both the Melek and the priest pressed me to ac-
cept their hospitality. I preferred the house of the
latter, to which we moved in the afternoon. My host
was suffering much from the ague, and was moreover
old and infirm. I gave him a few medicines to stop
his fever, for which he was very grateful. He accom-
panied me to the church; but the bare walls alone
were standing; the books and furniture had been
partly carried away by the Kurds, and partly removed
for security by the people of the village.
After the events of the morning I had made up
my mind to proceed at once to Nur-Ullah Bey, whose
residence was only a short day's journey distant; but
on communicating my intention to Mr. Hormuzd Ras-
sam, he became so alarmed, and so resolutely de-
clared that he would return alone rather than trust
himself in the hands of the Mir gf Hakkiari, that I
was forced to give up my plan. In the present state
of the mountains there were only two courses open
to me, either to visit the chief, who would probably,
after learning the object of my journey, receive and
assist me as he had done Dr. Grant; or to retrace
my steps without delay. I decided upon the latter
with regret, as I was thus unable to visit Jelu and
Diz, the two remaining districts of the Nestorian
Chaldoeans. I did not, however, communicate my plans
to any one; but learning that there were two of Nur-
Ullah Bey's attendants in the village, I sent for them,


Chap. VII.] RETURN TO TKHOMA. 213
and induced them, by a small present, to take a note
to their master. I instructed them to report that it
was my intention to visit him on the following day,
and sent a Christian to see that they took the road to
Julamerik. The treachery and daring of Nur-Ullah
Bey were so well known, that I thought it most pru-
dent to deceive him, in case he might wish to waylay
me on my return to Tkhoma. I started therefore
before day-break without any one in the village being
aware of my departure, and took the road by which
we had reached Baz the day before.
The district of Baz contains five large villages;
Ergub, Makhtayah, Shaoutha, Orwantiz, and Besanua,
which follow in this order down the valley. It is
well cultivated and well watered, producing tobacco,
flax, rice, and grain of various kinds.
We crossed the pass as quickly as we were able,
hurried through the long barren valley, and reached
Gunduktha, without meeting any one during our
journey : to the no small comfort of my companions,
who could not conceal their alarm during the whole
of our morning's ride.
We stopped to breakfast at Gunduktha, and saw
the Meleks at Tkhoma Gowaia. The people of this
village had felt much anxiety on our account, as the
Mutesellim had passed the night there, and had used
violent threats against us. I learnt that he was
going to Chal to settle some differences which had
arisen between the Kurds of that district and of Hak-
kiari, and that Bircham had been sent to Tkhoma by
Nur-Ullah Bey to withdraw his family and friends;
p 3


214 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chat. VII.
"for this time," said the chief, "Beder Khan Bey in-
tends to finish with the Christians, and will not make
slaves for consuls and Turks to liberate."
As I was desirous of leaving Tkhoma as soon as
possible, I refused the proffered hospitality of Melek
Putros, and rode on to Birijai.
Being unwilling to return to Asheetha by Raola
and the villages I had already visited, I determined
—notwithstanding the account given by the people of
Tkhoma of the great difficulty of the passes between
us and the Zab—to cross the mountain of Khouara,
which rises at the back of Birijai. I found that
their descriptions had not been exaggerated. We
were two hours dragging ourselves over the loose
stones, and along the narrow ledges, and reached the
summit weary and breathless. From the crest we
overlooked the whole valley of Tkhoma, with its
smiling villages, bounded to the east by the lofty
range of Kareetha; to the west I recognised the
peaks of Asheetha, the valley of the Zab, Chal, and
the heights inhabited by the Apenshai Kurds.
The mountain of Khouara is the Zoma—or summer
pasture grounds—of the inhabitants of Ghissa and
Birijai. As we ascended we passed many rude sheds
and caverns, half-blocked up at the entrance with
loose stones,—places in which the flocks are kept
during the night, to preserve them from wild animals.
There is a fountain at a short distance from the top
of the pass, and a few trees near it; but the moun-
tain is otherwise naked, and, at this time of the year,
without verdure.


Chap. VII.] BE-ALATHA. 215
My companions amused themselves by rolling large
stones down the declivity, and watching them as they
bounded over the rocks, till they disappeared in the
ravines beneath; setting in motion an avalanche of
rubbish, which swept down the sides of the mountain,
and threatened to overwhelm the stragglers, who still
toiled up the ascent, or a solitary shepherd, keeping
his flock in the valley.
An hour's rapid descent brought us to the Tiyari
village of Be-Alatha,—a heap of ruins on the op-
posite sides of a valley. The few surviving inhabit-
ants were in extreme poverty, and the small-pox was
raging amongst them. The water-courses destroyed
by the Kurds had not been repaired, and the fields
were mostly uncultivated. Even the church had not
yet been rebuilt; and as the trees which had been cut
down were still lying across the road, and the charred
timber still encumbered the gardens, the place had a
most desolate appearance. We were hospitably re-
ceived by a Shamasha, or deacon; whose children,
suffering from the prevailing disease, and covered
with discoloured blains, crowded into the only small
room of the wretched cottage. Women and children,
disfigured by the malignant fever, came to me for
medicines; but it was beyond my power to relieve
them. Our host, as well as the rest of the inhabitants,
was in extreme poverty. Even a little garas, and
rancid butter, could with difficulty be collected by
contributions from all the houses, and I was at a loss
to discover how the people of Be-Alatha lived. Yet
the deacon was cheerful and contented, dwelling with
p 4


216 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
resignation upon the misfortunes that had befallen
his village, and the misery of his family.
On leaving the village, now containing only ten
families, I was accosted by an old priest, who had
been waiting until we passed, and who entreated me
to eat bread under his roof. As his cottage was dis-
tant I was compelled to decline his hospitality, though
much touched by his simple kindness, and mild and
gentle manners. Finding that I would not go with
him, he insisted upon accompanying us to the next
village, and took with him three or four sturdy moun-
taineers, to assist us on our journey; for the roads,
he said, were nearly impassable.
Without the assistance of the good priest our at-
tempt to reach Marth d' Kasra would certainly have
been hopeless. More than once we turned back in
despair, before the slippery rocks and precipitous
ascents. Ibrahim Agha, embarrassed by his capa-
cious boots, which, made after the fashion of* the
Turks, could have contained the extremities of a
whole family, was more beset with difficulties than
all the party. When he attempted to ride a mule,
unused to a pack-saddle, he invariably slid over the
tail of the animal, and lay sprawling on the ground,
to the great amusement of Yakoub Rais, with whom
his adventures were a never-failing source of anec-
dote in the village assemblies. If he walked, either
his boots became wedged into the crevices of the
rocks, or filled with gravel, to his no small discomfort.
At length, in attempting to cross a bed of loose
stones, he lost all presence of mind, and remained


Chap. VII.] MABTH D'KASRA. 217
fixed in the middle, fearful to advance or retreat.
The rubbish yielded to his grasp, and he looked down
into a black abyss, towards which he found himself
gradually sinking with the avalanche he had put in
motion. There was certainly enough to frighten any
Turk, and Ibrahim Agha clung to the face of the de-
clivity—the picture of despair. "What's the Kurd
doing?" cried a Tiyari, with whom all Mussulmans
were Kurds, and who was waiting to pass on; "Is
there anything here to turn a man's face pale? This
is dashta, dashta" (a plain, a plain). Ibrahim Agha,
who guessed from the words Kurd and dashta, the
meaning of which he had learnt, the purport of the
Christian's address, almost forgot his danger in his
rage and indignation. "Gehannem with your dashta!"
cried he, still clinging to the moving stones, "and
dishonour upon your wife and mother. Oh! that I
could only get one way or the other to show this
Infidel what it is to laugh at the beard of an Osmanli,
and to call him a Kurd in the bargain!" With the
assistance of the mountaineers he was at length
rescued from his perilous position, but not restored
to good-humour. By main force the mules were
dragged over this and similar places; the Tiyaris
seizing them by the halter and tail, and throwing
them on their sides.
We were two hours struggling through these diffi-
culties before reaching Marth d' Kasra, formerly a
large village, but now containing only forty houses.*
* The village contains two churches and two priests.


218 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
Its appearance, however, was more flourishing than
that of Be-Alatha; and the vineyards, and gardens
surrounding it had been carefully trimmed and irri-
gated. Above Marth d' Kasra, on a lofty overhanging
rock, is the village of Lagippa, reduced to ten houses.
It is not accessible to beasts of burden. I rode to
the house of a priest, and sat there whilst the mules
were resting.
As we were engaged in conversation, Ibrahim Agha,
who had not yet recovered his composure, entered
the room labouring under symptoms of great indig-
nation. The cause of his anger was some women
who had commenced their ablutions, in the manner I
have already described, near the spot where he had
been sitting. "When I told them to go to a greater
distance," said he, "they replied, that if I did not
wish to see them, I might turn my head the other
way. If these infidels have no modesty," continued
he, "let them at least know that we Mussulmans
have. Mohammed Pasha, upon whom God has had
mercy! declared of the Arabs, that the men were
without religion, the women without drawers, and
the horses without bridles; but these unbelievers eat
more dirt than all the Arabs, and are verily little
better than the beasts of the field." Having calmed
the wrath of the Cawass, I reasoned with the priest
on the impropriety of this habit; but he did not
appear at all sensible of it, only observing that the
custom was general in the mountains.
The road between Marth d' Kasra and Chonba was
no less difficult and dangerous than that we had


Chap. VH.] MELEK ISMAIL. 219
taken in the morning. The gardens of the former
village extend to the Zab, and we might have fol-
lowed the valley; but the men who were with us pre-
ferred the shorter road over the mountain, that we
might reach Chonba before night-fall. On approach-
ing the Zab, I observed a most singular mass of con-
glomerate, the deposits of the river, but raised about
500 feet above its bed by a substratum of schists;
and apparently upheaved from its original site by a
comparatively recent convulsion of nature.
The villages in the valley of the Zab had suffered
more from the Kurds than any other part of Tiyari.
Chonba was almost deserted; its houses and churches
a mass of ruins, and its gardens and orchards uncul-
tivated and neglected. There was no roof, under
which we could pass the night; and we were obliged
to spread our carpets under a cluster of walnut-trees,
near a clear and most abundant spring. Under these
trees was pitched the tent of Beder Khan Bey, after
the great massacre; and here he received Melek Ismail,
when delivered a prisoner into his hands. Yakoub,
who bad been present at the murder of the unfor-
tunate chief of Tiyari, thus described the event.
After performing prodigies of valour, and heading his
people in their defence of the pass which led into the
upper districts, Melek Ismail, his thigh broken by a
musket-ball, was carried by a few followers to a cavern
in a secluded ravine; where he might have escaped
the search of his enemies, had not a woman, to save
her life, betrayed his retreat. He was dragged down


220
[CHAP. VII.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
the mountain with savage exultation, and brought
before Beder Khan Bey. Here he fell upon the
ground. “ Wherefore does the infidel sit before me?"
exclaimed the ferocious chief, who had seen his
broken limb, “and what dog is this that has dared
to shed the blood of true believers ?” “O Mir," re-
plied Melek Ismail, still undaunted, and partly raising
himself, “this arm has taken the lives of nearly
twenty Kurds; and, had God spared me, as many
more would have fallen by it.” Beder Khan Bey rose
and walked to the Zab, making a sign to his at-
tendants that they should bring the Melek to him.
By his directions they held the Christian chief over
the river, and, severing his head from his body with
a dagger, cast them into the stream.
All the family of the Melek had distinguished
themselves, at the time of the invasion, by their
courage. His sister, standing by his side, slew four
men before she fell mortally wounded.
Over the spring, where we had alighted, formerly
grew a cluster of gigantic walnut-trees, celebrated in
Tiyari for their size and beauty. They had been cut
down by the Kurds, and their massive trunks were
still stretched on the ground. A few smaller trees
had been left standing, and afforded us shelter. The
water, gushing from the foot of an overhanging rock,
was pure and refreshing; but the conduits, which had
once carried it into the fields, having been destroyed,
a small marsh had been formed around the spring.
The place consequently abounded in musquitoes, and


Chap. VII.]
221
COPPER MINES.
iver
we were compelled to keep up large fires during the
night, to escape their attacks.
On the following morning we ascended the valley
of the Zab, for about three miles, to cross over the
river. The road led into the district of upper Tiyari,
its villages being visible from the valley, perched on
the summits of isolated rocks, or half concealed in
sheltered ravines. The scenery is sublime. The
river forces itself through a deep and narrow gorge,
the mountains rising one above the other in wild con-
fusion, naked and barren.except where the moun-
taineers have collected the scanty soil, and surrounded
their cottages with gardens and vineyards.
A bridge of wicker-work at this part of the river
was in better repair than that of Lizan, and we
crossed our mules without difficulty. Descending
along the banks of the Zab for a short distance, we
struck into the mountains; and passing through
Kona Zavvi and Bitti, two Kurdish villages buried in
orchards, reached Serspeetho about mid-day. We sat
for two hours in the house of the priest, who received
us very hospitably. Out of eighty families thirty
have alone survived; the rest having been utterly
destroyed. The two churches were still in ruins, and
but a few cottages had as yet been rebuilt.
In the afternoon we resumed our journey, and
crossing a high and barren mountain, descended into
the valley of Asheetha.
I spent a day in the village, to give rest to our
mules; for they stood in great need of it, after crossing
the mountains of Tiyari. As I was desirous of visit-
2
SU


222 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VH.
ing some copper mines, described to me by the people
of the district, I engaged Kasha Hormuzd, and one
Daoud, who had been a workman at Nimroud, to
accompany me. We left Asheetha, followed by
Yakoub, the priests, and principal inhabitants, who
took leave of us at some distance from the village.
We chose a different road from that we had followed
on entering the mountain, and thus avoided a most
precipitous ascent. Descending into the valley, lead-
ing from Berwari to Asheetha, we came upon a large
party of travellers, whom we at first took for Kurds.
As they discharged their guns, and stopped in the
middle of a thicket of rushes growing in the bed of
the torrent, we approached them. They proved to be
Nestorian Chaldaeans returning from Mosul to the
mountains. Amongst them, to my surprise, I found
Kasha Oraho.* This very amiable, learned, and worthy
priest, had fled from Asheetha at the time of the mas-
sacre. On account of his erudition, intimate know-
ledge of the political condition of the tribes, and
acquaintance with the tenets and ceremonies of the
Chaldasan church, he had acted as secretary to Mar
Shamoun during his exile. Nearly three years had
elapsed since he had quitted his mountains, and he
pined for his native air. Against the advice of his
friends he had determined to leave the plains, and he
was now on his return, with his wife and son, to Tiyari.
I sat with him for a few minutes, and we parted, never
to meet again. A few days after our meeting Beder
Khan Bey and his hordes descended into Asheetha.
* A corruption of Auraham, Abraham.


Chap. VII.] MINES. 223
Fresh deeds of violence recalled the scenes of blood-
shed to which the poor priest had formerly been a
witness; and he died of grief, bewailing the miserable
condition of the Christian tribes.
We no longer followed the same valley we had
ascended on our approach to Tiyari; but entered the
mountains to the right, and, after a rapid ascent,
found ourselves in a forest of oaks. Our guides were
some time in finding the mouth of the mine, which
was only known to a few of the mountaineers. At a
distance from the entrance, copper ores were scattered
in abundance amongst the loose stones. I descended
with some difficulty, and discovered many passages
running in various directions, all more or less blocked
up with rubbish and earth, much of which we had to
remove before I could explore the interior of the
mine. The copper runs in veins of bright blue;
in small crystals, in compact masses, and in pow-
der which I could scrape out of the cracks of the
rocks with a knife. I recognised at once in the latter
the material used to colour the bricks and ornaments
in the Assyrian Palaces. After following several
ramifications, as far as the accumulated rubbish would
permit, I returned into the open air. The mine
had evidently been opened, and worked at a very
remote period; and its entrance was so well concealed
by rocks and stones, that it was difficult to account
for its discovery. In the Tiyari mountains, particu-
larly in the heights above Lizan, and in the valley
of Berwari, mines of iron, lead, copper, and other
minerals abound. Both the Kurds and the Chal-


224 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
daaans make their own weapons and implements of
agriculture, and cast bullets for their rifles, — col-
lecting the ores, which are scattered on the declivities,
or brought down by the torrents.
Leaving the district of Holamoun and Geramoun *
to our right, we entered a deep valley, and rode for
five hours through a thick forest of oak, beech, and
other mountain trees. We passed a few encamp-
ments of Kurds, who had chosen some lawn in a
secluded dell to pitch their black tents; but we saw
no villages until we reached Challek. By the road-
side, as we descended to this place, I observed an ex-
tensive ruin, of substantial masonry of square stones.
I was unable to learn that any tradition attached to
the remains, nor could I ascertain their name, or de-
termine the nature and use of the building. It was
evidently a very ancient work, and may have been an
Assyrian fort to command the entrance into the
mountains. The pass is called Kesta, from a Kurdish
village of that name.
Challek is a large village, inhabited partly by
Chaldaeans and partly by Kurds. There are about
fifteen families of Christians, who have a church and
a priest. The gardens are very extensive, and well
irrigated, and the houses are almost concealed in a
forest of fruit trees. We passed the night in the
* Two large villages so called, inhabited by Nestorian Chaldaeans;
but forming a separate district, and paying tribute directly to the Pasha
of Mosul. They were formerly very flourishing; but having recently
been much harassed by Beder Khan Bey, the inhabitants have mostly
fled to the higher mountains. The district produces very fine galls.


Chap. VII.] A SU-BASHI. 225
residence of the Kiayah, and were hospitably enter-
tained.
In the morning we rode for some time along the
banks of the Khabour, and about five hours and a
half from Challek forded the Supna, one of its con-
fluents. The valley of Berwari is here broken up into
numberless ravines, and is thickly wooded with the
gall-bearing oak. The mountain-range separating us,
at this point, from the valley of Amadiyah, is consider-
ably lower than where we had previously crossed it.
Scattered over the hills are numerous Kurdish villages,
and the turreted castle of a chief may occasionally
be seen, in the distance, crowning the summit of some
isolated rock. Kalah Gumri, the residence of Abd-ul-
Summit Bey, is visible from all parts of Berwari.
We stopped at the Kurdish village of Ourmeli during
the middle of the day, and found there a Su-bashi—
a kind of superintendent tax-gatherer—from Mosul,
who received me in a manner worthy the dignity of
both. He was dressed in an extraordinary assort-
ment of Osmanlu and Kurdish garments, the greater
part of which had been, of course, robbed from the
inhabitants of the district placed under his care. He
treated me with sumptuous hospitality, at the ex-
pense of the Kurds, to whom he proclaimed me a
particular friend of the Vizir, and a person of very
exalted worth. He brought, himself, the first dish of
pillau, which was followed by soups, chicken-kibaubs,
honey, yaghort, cream, fruit, and a variety of Kurd-
ish luxuries. He refused to be seated, and waited
upon me during the repast. It was evident that all
vol. i. Q


226 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
this respectful attention on the part of so great a
personage, was not intended to be thrown away; and
when he retired I collected a few of the Kurds, and,
obtaining their confidence by paying for my break-
fast, soon learnt from them that my host had dealt so
hardly with the villages in his jurisdiction, that the
inhabitants, driven to despair, had sent a deputation
to lay their grievances before the Pasha. This might
explain the fashion of my reception, which I could
scarcely attribute to my own merits. As I antici-
pated, he came to me before I left, and commenced a
discourse on the character of Kurds in general, and
on the way of governing them. "Wallah, Billah, 0
Bey!" said he, "these Kurds are no Mussulmans;
they are worse than unbelievers; they are nothing
but thieves and murderers; they will cut a man's
throat for a para. You will know what to tell His
Highness when he asks you about them. They are
beasts that must be driven by the bit and the spur;
give them too much barley," continuing the simile,
"and they will get fat, and vicious, and dangerous.
No, no, you must take away the barley and leave them
only the straw." "You have no doubt," I observed,
eyeing his many-coloured Kurdish cloak, " taken care
that as little be left them to fatten upon as possible."
"I am the lowest of His Highness's servants," he
replied, scarcely suppressing a broad grin; "but never-
theless, God knows that I am not the least zealous in
his service." It was at any rate satisfactory to find
that, in the Su-bashi's system of government, Kurds
and Christians were placed on an equal footing, and


Chap. VII.] A KURDISH SAINT. 227
that the Mussulmans themselves now tasted of the
miseries they had so long inflicted with impunity upon
others.
We soon crossed the valley of Amadiyah, and meet-
ing the high road between Daoudeeya* and Mosul,
entered some low hills thickly set with Kurdish vil-
lages. In Kuremi, through which we passed, there
dwells a very holy Sheikh, who enjoys a great reputa-
tion for sanctity and miracles throughout Kurdistan.
He was seated in the Iwan, or open chamber, of a
very neat house; built, kept in repair, and conti-
nually white-washed by the inhabitants of the place.
A beard, white as snow, fell almost to his waist; and
he wore a turban and a long gown of spotless white
linen. He is almost blind, and sat rocking himself
to and fro, fingering his rosary. He keeps a per-
petual Ramazan, never eating between dawn and
sunset. On a slab, near him, was a row of water-
jugs of every form, ready for use when the sun went
down. Ibrahim Agha, who was not more friendly
to the Kurds than the Su-bashi, treated the Sheikh to
a most undignified epithet as he passed; which, had
it been overheard by the people of the village, might
have led to hostilities. Although I might not have
expressed myself so forcibly as the Cawass, I could
not but concur generally in his opinion when re-
flecting that this man, and some others of the same
class, had been the chief cause of the massacres of
the unfortunate Christians; and that, at that moment,
* The principal place of a district of the same name, which has a
governor appointed from, and accounting directly with, Mosul.
Q2


228 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
his son, Sheikh Tahar* was urging Beder Khan Bey
to prove his religious zeal by shedding anew the blood
of the Chaldaeans.
We stopped for the night in the large Catholic
Chaldaean village of Mungayshi, containing above
forty Christian houses, a new church, and two priests.
The inhabitants carry on a considerable trade with
Mosul in raisins, and their vineyards are extensive
and well cultivated. They complained bitterly of the
governor of Daoudeeya, who had plundered them,
they said, of every thing; and they also had sent a
deputation to the Pasha.
A pass over a richly wooded range of hills, leads
from Mungayshi into a fertile plain, watered by several
streams, and occupied by many Kurdish villages.
Beyond, the mountains are naked and most barren.
We wandered for some hours amongst pinnacles,
through narrow ravines, and over broken rocks of
sandstone, all scattered about in the wildest con-
fusion. Not a blade of vegetation was to be seen;
the ground was parched by the sun, and was here
and there blackened by volcanic action. We came
to several large pools of hot, sulphurous springs,
bubbling up in many parts of the valley. In the
spring, both the Kurds and the people of the sur-
rounding villages congregate near these reservoirs,
and pitch their tents for nearly a month; bathing
* This fanatic, who was one of Beder Khan Bey's principal advisers,
when entering Mosul, was accustomed to throw a veil over his face that
his sight might not be polluted by Christians, and other impurities in the
place. He exercises an immense influence over the Kurdish population,
who look upon him as a saint and worker of miracles.


Chap. VII.] MALTHAIYAH. 229
continually in the waters, which have a great reputa-
tion for their medicinal qualities.
A long defile brought us to the town of Dohuk,
formerly a place of some importance, but now nearly
in ruins. It is built on an island formed by a small
stream, and probably occupies an ancient site. Its
castle, a mud building with turrets, was held for
some time, by the hereditary Kurdish chief of the
place, against Injeh Bairakdar Mohammed Pasha;
but was reduced, and has since been inhabited by a
Turkish Governor. Ismail Bey, the Mutesellim, re-
ceived me very civilly, and I breakfasted with him.
The son of a Kurdish chief, of some importance in
the neighbourhood, was visiting the Bey. He was
dressed in a most elaborately embroidered suit, had
ponderous jewelled rings in his ears, carried enormous
weapons in his girdle, and had stuck in his turban a
profusion of marigolds and other flowers. He was a
handsome, intelligent boy; but, young as he might
be, he was already a precocious pupil of Sheikh Ta-
har; and when I put him upon a religious topic, he
entered most gravely into an argument to prove the
obligation imposed upon Mussulmans to exterminate
the unbelievers, supporting his theological views by
very apt quotations from the Koran.
My horses, which had been sent from Amadiyah,
were waiting for me here; and leaving our jaded
mules we rode on to the Christian village of Maltha-
iyah, about one hour beyond, and in the same valley
as Dohuk. Being anxious to visit the rock-sculptures
near this place, I took a peasant with me and rode to
« 3


232 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
on the roof of the church; and the Kiayah had pre-
pared a very substantial repast. The inhabitants of
Malthaiyah are Catholic Chaldasans; their conversion
not dating many years. The greater part joined us
in the evening. My companion, who was always
ready to plunge into a religious controversy, and
delighted in the subtle distinctions between the Nes-
torian and Roman Catholic creeds, engaged them at
once on these subjects; bringing about a noisy theo-
logical combat, which lasted till past midnight, with-
out any one being convinced of his errors.
Next morning we rode over a dreary plain to
Alkosh. In a defile, through the hills behind the
village, I observed several rock-tombs, — excavations
similar to those of Malthaiyah; some having rude
ornaments above the entrance, the door-ways of others
being simply square holes in the rock.
On reaching Alkosh I proceeded at once to the house
of the Kiayah, but found his apartments occupied
by a Su-bashi, a pompous, ill-favoured Turk; who,
putting his head out of the window, asked, in a very
impertinent way, who I was, whence I came, where I
was going and what I wanted,—questions which
were not otherwise answered than by his being
speedily dislodged from his corner, and pushed by
the shoulders into the street, to his no small surprise,
and to the great satisfaction and delight of a crowd
of by-standers, who had been all more or less the vic-
tims of his extortions. "What dog are you," ex-
claimed Ibrahim Agha, as he gave him the last push
into the gutter, and made many very offensive and


Chap. VII.] THE TOMB OF NAHUM. 233
unwarrantable allusions to the female members of his
family, "to establish a Makiamah* up there, and
cross-question people like his Reverence the Cadi? 0
you offspring of a bad breed I you shall have the
Dahiakparasif; but it shall be on the soles of your
feet."
Alkosh is a very considerable Christian village.
The inhabitants, who were formerly pure Chaldaeans,
have been converted to Roman Catholicism. It con-
tains, according to a very general tradition, the tomb
of Nahum, the Prophet — the Alkoshite, as he is
called in the introduction to his prophecies. It is a
place held in great reverence by Mohammedans and
Christians, but especially by Jews, who keep the
building in repair, and flock here in great numbers
at certain seasons of the year. The tomb is a simple
plaster box, covered with green cloth, and standing
at the upper end of a large chamber. On the walls
of the room are slips of paper, upon which are
written, in distorted Hebrew characters, religious
exhortations, and the dates and particulars of the
visits of various Jewish families. The house con-
taining the tomb is a modern building. There are
no inscriptions, nor fragments of any antiquity about
the place; and I am not aware in what the tradition
originated, or how long it has attached to the village
of Alkosh. |
* Court of justice.
f Literally stick-money, the tax on suits paid to the Cadi.
J According to St. Jerome, El Kosh or El Kosha, the birth-place of
the prophet, was a village in Galilee, and his tomb was shown at Betho-
gabra near Emmaus. As his prophecies were written after the captivity


234 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chat. VII.
After visiting the tomb I rode to the convent of
Rabban Hormuzd, built on the almost perpendicular
sides of lofty rocks, enclosing a small recess or basin,
out of which there is only one outlet,—a narrow and
precipitous ravine, leading abruptly into the plains.
The spot is well suited to solitude and devotion.
Half-buried in barren crags, the building can scarcely
be distinguished from the natural pinnacles by which
it is surrounded. There is scarcely a blade of vege-
tation to be seen, except a few olive trees, encouraged,
by the tender solicitude of the monks, to struggle
with the barren soil. Around the convent, in almost
every accessible part of the mountains, are a mul-
titude of caves or chambers in the rock, said to have
once served as retreats for a legion of hermits, and
from which most probably were ejected the dead, to
make room for the living; for they appear to have
been, for the most part, at a very remote period,
places of burial—a few having been purposely con-
structed for dwelling places, whilst others may have
been enlarged to meet the increased wants of the new
tenants. The number of these recesses must at one
time have been very great. They are now rapidly
disappearing, and have been so doing for centuries. *
of the ten tribes, and apply exclusively to Nineveh, the tradition, which
points to the village in Assyria as the place of his death, is not without
weight.
* When Mr. Rich visited the convent, in the early part of this cen-
tury, the number of the caves were daily diminishing. The rock in which
they had been cut was rapidly crumbling away, filling up with rubbish
many of these recesses, and carrying away others altogether. The monks
too had destroyed many, when hewing stone for the repair of the
building. (Rich's Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan, &c, vol. ii.
p. 94.)


Chap.VIL] BABBAN HOBMUZD. 235
Still the sides of the ravine are in some places honey-
combed by them.
The hermits, who may once have inhabited the
place, have left no successors. A lonely monk from
the convent may occasionally be seen clambering over
the rocks; but otherwise the solitude is seldom dis-
turbed by the presence of a human being.
The ascent to the convent, from the entrance of the
ravine, is partly up a flight of steps rudely constructed
of loose stones, and partly by a narrow pathway cut
in the rock. We were, therefore, obliged to dismount,
and to leave our horses in a cavern at the foot of the
mountain.
Rabban Hormuzd was formerly in the possession
of the Nestorian Chaldaeans; but has been appropri-
ated by the Catholics since the conversion of the in-
habitants of Alkosh, Tel Kef, and other large villages
of the plain. It is said to have been founded by
one of the early Chaldaean patriarchs, in the latter
part of the fourth century. The saint, after whom
the convent is called, is much venerated by the Nes-
torians. He was, according to some traditions, the
son of a king of Persia, and a Christian martyr.
The convent is an extensive building, partly exca-
vated in the rocks, and partly constructed of stones
well cut and fitted together. Since it was plundered
by the Kurds, under the Bey of Rowandiz, no at-
tempt has been made to restore the rich ornaments
which once decorated the chapel, and principal halls.
The walls are now naked and bare, except where
hung with a few hideous pictures of saints and


236 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VII.
holy families, presented or stuck up by the Italian
monks who occasionally visit the place. In the
chapel are the tombs of several Patriarchs of the
Chaldaean Church, buried here long before its divi-
sions, and whose titles, carved upon the monuments,
are always "Patriarch of the Chaldaeans of the
East."* Six or eight half famished monks reside in
the convent. They depend for supplies, which are
scanty enough, upon the faithful of the surrounding
country.
It was night before we reached the large Catholic
village of Tel Kef. I had sent a horseman in the
morning, to apprise the people of my intended visit;
and Gouriel, the Kiayah, with several of the principal
inhabitants, had assembled to receive me. As we
approached they emerged from a dark recess, where
they had probably been waiting for some time. They
carried a few wax lights, which served as an illumi-
nation. The motion of these lights, as the bearers
advanced, was so unsteady, that there could be no
doubt of the condition of the deputation.
Gouriel and his friends reeled forward towards my
Cawass, who chanced to be the first of the party, and
* The seal used by Mar Shamoun bears the same title, and the Pa-
triarch so styles himself in all public documents. It is only lately that
he has been induced, on some occasions, when addressing Europeans, to
call himself " Patriarch of the Nestorians ;" the name never having been
used by the Chalcheans themselves. The distinction becomes important,
inasmuch as the see of Rome and the Catholics have endeavoured, with
considerable success, to fix the title of Chaldsans upon the converted
alone, using that of Nestorian as one of contempt and reproach, in speak-
ing of those who have retained their ancient faith. So much odium at-
taches to the name, that many have joined the Catholic party to avoid it.
I have termed the Nestorians " Chaldeans," or "Nestorian Chahteans,"
and the new sect " Catholic Chaldaeans."


Chap. VII.] INVASION OF TKHOMA. 239
The Porte was prevailed upon to punish this atro-
cious massacre, and to crush a rebellious subject who
had long resisted its authority. An expedition was
fitted out under Osman Pasha; and after two engage-
ments, in which the Kurds were signally defeated by
the Turkish troops headed by Omar Pasha, Beder
Khan Bey took refuge in a mountain-castle. The
position had been nearly carried, when the chief,,
finding defence hopeless, succeeded in obtaining from
the Turkish commander, Osman Pasha, the same
terms which had been offered to him before the com-
mencement of hostilities. He was to be banished
from Kurdistan; but his family and attendants were
to accompany him, and he was guaranteed the enjoy-
ment of his property. Although the Turkish ministers
more than suspected that Osman Pasha had reasons
of his own for granting these terms, they honourably
fulfilled the conditions upon which the chief, although
a rebel, had surrendered. He was brought to Con-
stantinople, and subsequently sent to the Island of
Candia — a punishment totally inadequate to his
numerous crimes.
After Beder Khan Bey had retired from Tkhoma,
a few of the surviving inhabitants returned to their
ruined villages; but Nur-UUah Bey, suspecting that
they knew of concealed property, fell suddenly upon
them. Many died under the tortures to which they
were exposed; and the rest, as soon as they were
released, fled into Persia. This flourishing district
was thus destroyed; and it will be long ere its cot-
tages again rise from their ruins, and the fruits of
patient toil again clothe the sides of its valleys.


340 NINEVEH AND ITS KEMA1NS. [Chap. VIII.
CHAP. VIII.
INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO ASSYRIA. — ORIGIN OP THE
CHALDEAN OR NESTORIAN CHURCH. — EARLY MISSIONS OF THE
CHALDiEANS. THE MONUMENT OF SE-GAN-FOO. THE CIIALDjEANS
• UNDER THE ARABS. THE LEARNING OF THE CI1 ALD.KANS.
THEIR TRANSLATIONS OF GREEK WORKS. — THE CHALDEANS
AFTER THE TATAR INVASION. PRESTER JOHN. HIS LETTER
TO THE GREEK EMPEROR.—EXTENT OF THE CHALDiEAN CHURCH.
DECLINE OF ITS POWER. — ORIGIN OF THE NAME OF "NES-
TORIANS." — DOCTRINES OF THE CHALDEANS OR NESTORIANS.
THEIR PROFESSION OF FAITH. THEIR TENETS. THEIR
PATRIARCH.— THEIR LANGUAGE.— AMERICAN MISSIONS.
The account given in the preceding chapter, of the
Chaldaean or Nestorian tribes, will probably have
made the reader desirous of knowing something of
their condition, and of the events which led to the
isolation of a small Christian community in the midst
of the mountains of Kurdistan. Indeed the origin
of the race, as well as the important position which
the Chaldaean Church once held in Asia, renders the
subject one of considerable historical interest. To
Protestants, the doctrines and rites of a primitive
sect of Christians, who have ever remained untainted
by the superstitions of Rome, must be of high im-
portance; and it is a matter of astonishment, that
more curiosity has not been excited by them, and
more sympathy felt for their sufferings.
In the first centuries of the Christian aera, the plains
of Assyria Proper were still the battle-ground of the


Chap. VIII.] NESTORIUS. 241
nations of the East, and the West. From the fall
of the Assyrian empire, whose capital was Nineveh,
the rich districts watered by the Tigris and Euphrates
had been continually exposed to foreign invasion.
Their cities had been levelled with the ground, the
canals which gave fertility to the soil had been de-
stroyed, and a great part of the ancient population
had either been exterminated or carried away cap-
tive to distant regions. Still there lingered in the
villages and around the sites of the ruined cities
the descendants of those who had formerly possessed
the- land. They had escaped the devastating sword
of the Persians, of the Greeks, and of the Romans.
They still spoke the language of their ancestors, and
still retained the name of their race.
The doctrines of Christianity had early penetrated
into the Assyrian provinces; they may even have
been carried there by those who had imbibed them at
their source. When, in the first part of the fifth cen-
tury, the church was agitated by the dissensions of
St. Cyril and Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constan-
tinople, the Chaldaeans were already recognised as
one of the most extensive of the Eastern sects.
Nestorius himself was never in Assyria; but it will
be remembered that, in the struggle at Ephesus
between him and his rival St. Cyril, his chief sup-
porters were the Eastern Bishops, who accompanied
John of Antioch to the third oecumenical Council.*
Although the peculiar doctrines held by Nestorius,
had been previously promulgated on the borders of
* A.D. 431.
VOL. I. E


242 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.VIII.
Assyria by Diodorus of Tarsus, and Theodorus the
Bishop of Mopsuestia, and had been recognised by
the celebrated school of Edessa, the Ur of the Chal-
dees, and the last seat of their learning; yet until the
persecution of the Patriarch of Constantinople, the
schism had not attracted much attention. "It was to
the rank and sufferings of Nestorius, that the doc-
trines which he had maintained owed their notoriety,
and those who professed them, their name.
These doctrines were alternately taught and con-
demned in the school of Edessa, to the time of its
close, by an order of the Emperor Zeno. Those who
professed them were known as the Persian party.
When the Emperor called upon all Christian sects to
forget their dissensions, and to subscribe the Heno-
ticon, or articles of Faith, Barsumas, the recusant
Bishop of Nisibis, placed himself under the protec-
tion of the Persian King Firouz. Acacius, who on the
murder of Babuaeus was elected to the archbishopric
of Seleucia or Ctesiphon*, secretly professed the
Nestorian doctrines. Babaeus, his successor, openly
declared himself in favour of the new sect; and from
his accession may be dated the first recognised esta-
blishment of the Nestorian Church in the East, and
the promulgation of its doctrines amongst the nations
of central Asia.
Until the fall of the Sassanian dynasty, and the esta-
blishment of the Arab supremacy in the provinces to
* The names of Seleucia and Ctesiphon are very frequently confounded
by the early Christian writers; but the cities stood on opposite sides of the
river Tigris, and were built at different periods.


Chap. Vni.] INSCRIPTION OF SE-GAN-FOO. 243
the east of the Tigris, the Chaldaeans were alternately
protected and persecuted; their condition mainly de-
pending upon the relative strength of the Persian
and Byzantine Empires. Still their tenets were re-
cognised as those of the Eastern Church, and their
chief, at an early period, received the title of "Pa-
triarch of the East." They laboured assiduously to
disseminate their doctrines over the continent of Asia;
and it is even asserted that one of the Persian Kings
was amongst their converts. From Persia, where
the Chaldaean Bishoprics were early established, they
spread eastwards; and Cosmas Indicopleustes, who
visited Asia in the early part of the sixth century,
declares that they had bishops, martyrs, and priests
in India, Arabia Felix, and Socotra, amongst the
Bactrians, the Huns, the Persarmenians, the Medes,
and the Elamites; and that their Metropolitans even
penetrated into China as early as the fifth century.*
The celebrated inscription of Se-gan-foo, which was
seen by the Jesuit missionaries in the year 1625,
gives many particulars regarding the state of the
Chaldaean Church in China, from a. d. 620 to 781.
The Chaldaeans had enjoyed, during that period, with
only two exceptions, the imperial favour; and their
doctrines had been preached before the court, and
throughout the empire. This inscription, the authen-
ticity of which—so long contested—seems at length
to be generally admitted, contains an exposition of
the creed of the sect, and of their peculiar tenets and
* Cosmas Indicopleustes, in Topographia Christiana, Assemani, Tol. iv.
p. 92. Gibbon, ch. 47. note 116. Mosheim, Hist. Tart. Eccles. pp. 8,9.
n 2


244 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VIH.
ceremonies, a short history of the progress of Chris-
tianity in China, and the names of the missionaries
who preached the Gospel in that country. The date of
the erection of the monument is given in these words:
u In the empire of the family of the great Tang, in
the second year of the reign of Keen-Kung, on Sunday
the seventh day of the month of Autumn, was erected
this stone, the Bishop Hing-Kiu administering to
the Church of China; a Mandarin, whose name was
Lieu-sie-ki-yen, and whose title was Keao-y-kuu,
whose predecessor was Tae-kiew-sie-su-kan-keun,
wrote this inscription with his own hand." In the
margin is written in Syriac: "In the days of the
Father of Fathers, Mar Ananjesus, the Patriarch."
Below are these words, also in Syriac:" In the Greek
year 1092, Mar Jezedbuzd, a Presbyter and Chor-
episcopus of the royal city of Chumdan, the son of
Millesius of happy memory, a Presbyter of Balkh
in Tochuristan, erected this tablet of stone, in which
are described the precepts of our Saviour, and the
preaching of our fathers to the Emperor of the
Chinese." These notices fix the date of the monu-
ment to A. d. 781. The Patriarch Ananjesus died
about 778; but it is highly probable that the intelli-
gence of his death had not yet reached the far distant
regions of China.*
* For a full account of this remarkable monument, which is so pecu-
liarly interesting, as affording irrefragable proof of the spread of Chris-
tianity in Asia during the early centuries of the Christian rera, the
reader is referred to Asscmani, who published a transcript of the in-
scription. D'Herbelot has also given a description and analysis of the
inscription in the supplement to his Bibliothcque Orientale, and its


Chap. VIII.] THE CHALDEANS UNDER THE ARABS. 245
We find, in the earliest annals of the Chaldaean
Church, frequent accounts of missionaries sent by the
Patriarchs of the East into Tatary and China, and
notices of their success and of their fate.
When the Arabs invaded the territories of the Per-
sian Kings, and spread their new faith over Asia,
they found the Chaldaean Church already powerful in
the East. Even in Arabia its missionaries had gained
extensive influence, and Mohammed himself may have
owed the traditions and learning which he embodied
in the Koran to the instruction of a Chaldaean monk.*
At any rate the Arabian prophet appears to have
genuineness has been canvassed by numerous controversial writers. Mr.
Milman, in an able note in his edition of Gibbon's Decline and Fall (chap,
xlvii.), has pointed out upon what evidence its authenticity can be esta-
blished. It was discovered in the foundations of the walls of the city of
Se-gan-foo. Above the Chinese inscription is the figure of a cross; the
title then follows, written in three characters. The inscription itself
contains sixty-two lines, counting the lines from right to left, or twenty-
eight if read from top to bottom, after the manner of the Chinese.
It begins by stating that it was written by King-Sing, a priest of the
kingdom of Taetsin. That which follows may be divided into twenty-one
sections, containing a profession of Christian faith, an exposition of church
ceremonies and observances in accordance with Nestorian doctrines, and
a general history of the introduction and progress of Christianity in the
Empire. The inscription is followed by seven lists of missionaries, who
preached the Gospel in China from the year 636, written in the ancient
Syriac (Estranghelo) character. The names are Syriac, Persian, (or
Peblevi), and Chinese.
The 5th section contains an account of the arrival in China of Olopuen,
or Jaballah, a preacher of the Gospel of Christ, from Tacin, when Tai-kung,
the second Emperor of the 13th dynasty, called Tang, was upon the throne.
That monarch, by an edict published in the twelfth year of his reign, ap-
proved of the Christian religion, and commanded the Mandarins to build
a church, upon the walls of which the portrait of the Emperor was painted
as an ornament.
* The tradition of his connection with Sergius, a Nestorian monk, is
well known.
k 3


246 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.VHI.
been well disposed towards the Nestorians; for one
of his first acts, after he had established his power,
was to enter into a treaty with them. By this docu-
ment not only protection, but various privileges were
secured to the sect. They were freed from military
service; their customs and laws were to be respected;
their clergy were to be exempted from the payment
of tribute; the taxes imposed on the rich were limited
to twelve pieces of money, those to be paid by the
poor to four; and it was expressly declared that when
a Christian woman entered into the service of a Mus-
sulman, she should not be compelled to change her
religion, to abstain from her fasts, or to neglect her
customary prayers and the ceremonies enjoined by
her church.* The prosperity of the Chaldaeans and
the toleration of the Arab conquerors are shown by
a letter from the Patriarch Jesujabus to Simon the
metropolitan of a Persian city. "Even the Arabs,"
he writes, "on whom the Almighty has in these days
bestowed the dominion of the earth, are amongst us,
as thou knowest. Yet they do not persecute the Chris-
tian religion; but, on the contrary, they commend our
faith, and honour the priests and saints of the Lord,
conferring benefits upon His churches and His con-
vents." f
* The substance of this treaty is given by three Syriac authors — Bar
Hebraeus, Maris, and Amrus. (Assemani, vol. iv. p. 59.) It was first pub-
lished in Arabic and Latin by Gabriel Sionita, Paris, 1630, and is usually
called the "Testamentum Mahometi." Whilst its authenticity is admitted
by early Mohammedan and Eastern Christian writers, this treaty is re-
jected as a forgery by most European critics. It is not, however, impro-
bable that it is founded upon some traditionary compact.
f Assemani, vol. iii. p. 131.


CHAP.Vm.] CHAUXEAN AUTnORS. 247
At the time of the Arab invasion, the learning of
the East was still chiefly to be found amongst the
Chaldaeans. Their knowledge and skill gained them
favour in the eyes of the Caliphs, and they became
their treasurers, their scribes, and their physicians.
Whilst filling such high stations, and enjoying the
confidence of the Sovereign, they could protect and
encourage their fellow-Christians. A Bishopric was
established in the new Mussulman settlement of Cufa,
and shortly afterwards the seat of the Patriarchate
was transferred from Seleucia and Ctesiphon, now
falling into decay, to Baghdad, the new and flourish-
ing capital of the Commanders of the Faithful.
We are indebted to the Chaldaeans for the pre-
servation of numerous precious fragments of Greek
learning; as the Greeks were, many centuries before,
to the ancestors of the Chaldaeans for the records of
astronomy and the elements of Eastern science. In
the celebrated schools of Edessa, Nisibis, Seleucia, or
Mahuza—as it is frequently called by the Syrian
chroniclers, —and of Dorkena, the early languages of
the country, the Chaldee and Syriac, as well as Greek,
were publicly taught; and there were masters of the
sciences of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, dialectics, arith-
metic, geometry, music, astronomy, and medicine,
whose treatises were preserved in public libraries.*
The works of Greek physicians and philosophers had
at an early period been translated into Chaldee. They
excited the curiosity of the Caliphs, who were then
* Asseuiani, vol. iv. p. 943.
K 4


248 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VHI.
the encouragers and patrons of learning; and by
their orders they were translated by Nestorian Chal-
daeans into Arabic. Amongst the works confided by
the Caliph Al Mamoun to his Chaldaean subjects, we
find recorded those of Aristotle and Galen; and others
in the Greek, Persian, Chaldaean, and Egyptian lan-
guages. He also sent learned Nestorians into Syria,
Armenia, and Egypt,- to collect manuscripts, and to
obtain the assistance of the most learned men. When
asked by a rigid Mussulman how he could trust the
translation of any book to a Christian, he is said to
have replied: "If I confide to him the care of my
body, in which dwell my soul and my spirit, where-
fore should I not entrust him with the words of a
person whom I know not, especially when they re-
late to matters which have no reference to our faith
or to his faith?" Assemani, who wrote the history
of the Nestorian and Monophysite Churches, gives a
long list of the translators of, and commentators
upon, the treatises of Aristotle; and a Syriac writer
has left an extensive catalogue of the works of Chaldee
authors.*
* Alexander von Humboldt (Cosmos, vol. ii. ch. 5.) notices the influence
of the Nestorian Chaldeans on the civilisation and literature of the East.
"We may perceive that, in the wonderful arrangement of the order of
the world, the Christian sect of the Nestorians, who had exerted a very
important influence on the diffusion of knowledge, became also of use to
the Arabians before the latter came to the learned and controversial city
of Alexandria; and even that Nestorian Christianity was enabled to pene-
trate far into eastern Arabia under the protection of armed Islam. The
Arabians were first made acquainted with Greek literature through the
Syrians, a cognate Semitic race, who had received this knowledge hardly
a century and a half before from the Nestorians. Physicians trained in
Grecian establishments of learning, or in the celebrated medical school


Chap. VIIL] PBESTER JOHN. 249
The Chaldaean Patriarchs were not insensible to the
growing power of the Tatar kings, whose descendants
afterwards overturned the throne of the Caliphs, and
overran nearly the whole of Asia. At an early period
Chaldaean missionaries had penetrated into Tatary,
and from the sixth century, to the time of the con-
quest of Baghdad by Hulaku Khan, in the middle of
the thirteenth, they had possessed great influence over
the tribes of Turkistan. They even boasted of the
conversion to Christianity of more that one Tatar
king, amongst whom was the celebrated Prester, or
Presbyter, John. Of this strange personage, who
plays so conspicuous a part in the early annals of the
Church, and of whom so many fables have been re-
founded at Edes$a in Mesopotamia by Nestorian Christians, were living
at Mecca in the time of Mahomet, and connected by family ties with him-
self and Abu Bekr.
"The school of Edcssa, a prototype of the Benedictine schools of Monte-
Cnssino and Salerno, awakened a disposition for the pursuit of natural
history, by the investigation of 'healing substances in the mineral and
vegetable kingdoms.' When this school was dissolved from motives of
fanaticism under Zeno the Isaurian, the Nestorians were scattered into
Persia, where they soon obtained a political importance, and founded a
new and much-frequented medicinal institution at Jundi-shapour, in
Khuzistan. They succeeded in carrying both their scientific and literary
knowledge and their religion as far as China, under the dynasty of Thang,
towards the middle of the seventh century, 572 years after Buddhism had
arrived there from India.
"The seeds of western cultivation scattered in Persia by learned
monks, and by the philosophers of the school of the latter Platonists at
Athens persecuted by Justinian, had exercised a beneficial influence on
the Arabians during their Asiatic campaigns. However imperfect the
scientific knowledge of the Nestorian priests may have been, yet, by its
particular medico-pharmaceutical direction, it was the more effectual in
stimulating a race of men who had long lived in the enjoyment of the
open face of nature, and preserved a fresher feeling for every kind of
natural contemplation, than the Greek and Italian inhabitants of cities."


250 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.VHI.
lated that his very existence has been doubted, there
remains a curious letter. It may have been com-
posed for him by the Chaldaean missionaries who
accompanied him in his wanderings, or it may be a
forgery, after their return to Europe, by some eccle-
siastics who had visited his court. It contains, how-
ever, a singular and amusing description of the power
and state of these Tatar kings, and shows the exag-
gerated ideas which prevailed regarding them. Many
particulars contained in this letter are confirmed by
Marco Polo, Sir John Mandeville, and other travel-
lers; and as this circumstance goes far to prove that
it was at least written by one who had seen the
country and people he describes, I have made some
extracts from it. It is addressed to Alexius Comnenus,
the Greek Emperor.
"Prester John, by the grace of God, and of our
Lord Jesus Christ, the king of kings, to Alexius
Comnenus, the governor of Constantinople, health and
a happy end. Our Majesty has been informed that
thou hast learnt our excellence, and that mention has
been made to thee of our greatness. That which we
desire to know is, whether thou holdest with us the
true faith, and whether in all things thou believest
in our Lord Jesus Christ?
"If thou desirest to know our greatness, and the
excellence of our might, and over what lands our
power extendeth, know and believe, without doubting,
that we are Prester John, the servant of God: that
we excel in all riches under Heaven, and in virtue
and in power all the kings of the earth. Seventy


Chap. VIII.] LETTER OF TRESTER JOHN. 251
kings are our tributaries. We are a devout Christian,
and we everywhere protect, and nourish with alms,
such poor Christians as are within the empire of our
clemency. We have made a vow to visit the sepul-
chre of our Lord with a great army, as it becometh
the glory of our Majesty, to wage war against and
humiliate the enemies of the cross of Christ, and to
exalt His holy name.* Our magnificence ruleth
over the three Indias; and our territories stretch
beyond the furthermost India, in which resteth the
body of the blessed Apostle, Thomas; thence through
the wilderness they extend towards the rising of the
sun, and, returning towards the going-down thereof,
to Babylon, the deserted, even to the Tower of Babel.
Seventy-two provinces obey us, a few of which are
Christian provinces; and each hath its own king.
And all their kings are our tributaries. In our terri-
tories are found elephants, dromedaries, and camels,
and almost every kind of beast that is under Heaven.
Our dominions flow with milk and honey. In one
portion of our territories no poisons can harm; in
another grow all kinds of pepper; and a third is so
thick with groves that it resembleth a forest, and is
full of serpents in every part. There is also a sandy
sea without water. Three days' journey from this sea
there are mountains from which descend rivers of
stones. Near these mountains is a desert between
* A similar tow was exacted by Ilaiton, the Christian King of Armenia,
from Magno Cham, the fourth emperor of the Tatars in 1253. (Histoire
Orientale, ou des Tartares, par Haiton, parent du Roi d'Armcnie. Ber-
geron, Collect, de Voyages, vol. ii.)


Chap. VIII.] LETTER OF PRESTER JOHN. 253
Desert. * Our palace is of ebony and shittim wood,
and cannot be injured by fire. On its roof, at each
end, are two golden apples, and in each apple are two
carbuncles, that the gold may shine by day and the
carbuncles give light by night. The greater gates
are of sardonyx, mingled with horn, so that none may
enter with poison; the lesser gates are of ebony. The
windows are of crystal. The tables are of gold and
amethyst, and the columns which sustain them are of
ivory. The chamber in which we sleep is a wonderful
work of gold and silver, and every manner of precious
stones. Within it incense is ever burning. Our bed
is of sapphire. We have the most beautiful wives.
We feed daily 30,000 men, besides casual guests; and
all these receive daily sums from our chamber, to
nourish their horses, and to be otherwise employed.
During each month we are served by seven kings (by
each one in his turn), by sixty-five dukes, and by three
hundred and sixty-five counts. In our hall there
dine daily, on our right hand, twelve archbishops, on
our left twenty bishops, besides the Patriarch of St.
Thomas and the Protopapas of Salmas, and the Archi-
protopapas of Susa, in which city is the throne of our
glory and our imperial palace. Abbots, according to
the number of the days in the year, minister to us in
our chapel. Our butler is a primate and a king; our
steward is an archbishop and a king; our chamber.
lain is a bishop and a king; our mareschal is an archi-
* According to tradition the tomb of Daniel was preserved amongst.
the ruins of Susa, or in a valley of the Bakhtiyari mountains. We have
no other mention of its existence at Babylon.


254 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. {Chap. VTH.
mandrite and a king; and our head cook is a king
and an abbot; but we assume an inferior rank, and
a more humble name, that we may prove our great
humility."
The Chaldaean missionaries do not appear to have
always had the same success as with Prester John.
If other Tatar kings refused to embrace the Christian
religion, there is, nevertheless, evidence to prove
that their wives and children, in many instances,
were amongst the converts. Their influence secured
to the Christians the toleration of their religion,
although it may not have been sufficient to enable
them to extend it. Amongst those who married
Christian wives may be mentioned the celebrated
Ginghis Khan, whose four children were probably
brought up in the faith of their mother. The Metro-
politan of the Tatar branch of the Chaldaean church
resided at Meru, or Merv. This city, built upon
the ruins of the Margiana Alexandria of the Mace-
donian conqueror, stood on the south-western borders
of those vast steppes which stretch eastwards to the
frontiers of China; and formed, in the days of its
prosperity, the principal station in the great caravan
route between Persia and Bokhara, Balkh, Samarcand,
and the cities of Transoxiana. These plains were
subsequently occupied by roving Tatar tribes; the
most numerous of which were known to the early
Christian historians, as the Keraites. The chief of this
tribe was looked upon as the sovereign of that great
region. He resided in the city of Karakorum, at the
foot of the mountains of Altai, the burial place of


Chap.YIIL] the tataks. 255
the kings of his race. It is singular "that a Chal-
daean Patriarch first announced, in the hall of the
Caliphs, the progress from the north of these in-
numerable hordes, which were destined, ere long, to
sweep away the dynasty of the prophet, and to defile
the palaces of Baghdad. The incident, as described
by Eastern writers*, is highly interesting; and it so
strikingly illustrates the manners of the people who
now inhabit the city where the scene occurred, that
it is worth recording.
The Chaldaean Patriarch had received a letter from
his Metropolitan at Samarcand, giving him an ac-
count of the new race which had appeared. He
hastened to communicate the news to the Caliph, and
read the letter before the divan, or assembly of
councillors and chiefs. A people, numerous as the
locust-cloud, had burst from the mountains be-
tween Thibet and Kotan, and were pouring down
upon the fertile plains of Kashgar. They were
commanded by seven kings, each at the head of
70,000 horsemen. The warriors were as swarthy
as Indians. They used no water in their ablutions;
nor did they cut their hair. They were most skilful
archers, and were content with simple and frugal
fare. Their horses were fed upon meat. The Arabs
listened with wonder and incredulity to these strange
reports. The mode of feeding the horses chiefly
astonished them; and they refused to credit the
assertion, until one of their number declared that he
* Abulfaraj in Chronico Syriaco ad an. Hegirae 438. Assemani, vol. iv.
p. 487.


256
[CHAP. VII.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
himself had seen horses in Arabia which were not only
fed upon raw meat, but even upon fried fish.*
I will not trouble the reader with a detailed ac-
count of the alternate reverses and successes of the
Chaldæan missionaries in the interior of Asia, al-
though the history of their labours in that region is
one of high interest; but I cannot refrain from add-
ing a list of the twenty-five Metropolitan bishops,
who, at the time of the capture of Baghdad by Hulaku
Khan, recognised the Chaldæan Patriarch as the head
of the Eastern Church. This list will serve to show
the success of the Chaldæan missions, and the influ-
ence which they possessed at this time in Asia. The
sees of these Metropolitans were scattered over the
continent, from the shores of the Caspian to the Chi-
nese seas, and from the most northern boundaries
of Scythia to the southern extremity of the Indian
peninsula. They included, 1. Elam and Jundishapour
(Susiana, or the modern Persian province of Khu-
zistan); 2. Nisibis ; 3. Mesena, or Busrah; 4. As-
syria, or Adiabene, including the cities of Mosul and
Arbela; 5. Beth-Garma, or Beth-Seleucia, and Carcha
(in Assyria); 6. Halavan, or Halacha (the modern
Zohab, on the confines of Assyria and Media); 7.
Persia, comprising the cities of Ormuz, Salmas, and
Van; 8. Meru (Mery in Khorassan); 9. Hara (He-
rat); 10. The Razichitæ, or Arabia, and Cotroba;
11. China ; 12. India ; 13. Armenia ; 14. Syria, or
Damascus ; 15. Bardaa, or Aderbijan (the Persian
lasa
* The practice of occasionally giving raw meat to horses still exists in
some parts of Arabia.


CHAP. VIII.]
257
CHALDÆAN METROPOLITAN.
province of Azerbijan); 16. Raia and Tabrestan (Ray,
Rha, or Rhagæ, perhaps the Rhages of Tobit, near the
modern city of Teheran, - Tabrestan comprised a part
of Ghilan and Mazanderan, the ancient Hyrcania);
17. The Dailamites (to the south of the Caspian Sea);
18. Samarcand and Mavaralnahr (Transoxiana); 19.
Cashgar and Turkistan (Independent Tatary); 20.
Balkh and Tocharestan (Bactria); 21. Segestan
(Seistan); 22. Hamadan (Media); 23. Chanbalek
(Cambalu, or Pekin in China); 24. Tanchet (Tan-
guth in Tatary); 25. Chasemgara and Nuacheta
(districts of Tatary).
All these Metropolitans were in direct communica-
tion with the Nestorian Patriarch; and those whose
sees were too distant to admit of their frequently
tendering in person their obedience to him, as the
head of the Eastern church, were expected to send
every sixth year a report upon the condition of their
flock, and a renewed confession of their faith.
After the fall of the Caliphs, the power of the Chal-
dæan Patriarch in the East rapidly declined. The sect
endured persecution from the Tatar sovereigns, and
had to contend against even more formidable rivals
in the Catholic missionaries, who now began to spread
themselves over Asia. The first great persecution
of the Chaldæans appears to have taken place during
the reign of Kassan, the son of Arghoun, the grand-
son of Hulaku. But it is to the merciless Tamer.
lane that their reduction to a few wanderers in the
provinces of Assyria must be attributed. He fol-
lowed them with relentless fury; destroyed their
VOL. I.
en NO


258
(Chap. VIII.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
SCE
remi
churches, and put to the sword all who were unable
to escape to the almost inaccessible fastnesses of the
Kurdish mountains. Those who at that time sought
the heights and valleys of Kurdistan, were the de-
scendants of the ancient Assyrians, and the remnant
of one of the earliest Christian sects.
From the year 1413, the Chaldæan records contain
scarcely any mention of the existence of the Nestorian
church beyond the confines of Kurdistan. The seat
of the Patriarchate had been removed from Baghdad
to Mosul, and from thence, for greater security, to an
almost inaccessible valley near the modern Kurdish
castle of Julamerik, on the borders of Persia. A few
Chaldæans who still dwelt in the cities and villages
* of the plains, were exposed not only to the tyranny
of Turkish governors, but to the persecutions of
Popish emissaries, and did not long retain their faith.
Those alone who had found refuge in Kurdistan, and
on the banks of the Lake of Oroomiah in Persia, re-
mained faithful to their church. The former main-
tained a kind of semi-independence, and boasted that
no conqueror had penetrated into their secluded val-
leys. Although they recognised the supremacy of
the Sultan by the payment of an annual tribute, no
governors had been sent to their districts; nor, until
the invasion and massacre described in the last
chapter, had any Turk, or Kurd, exercised authority
in their villages.
It is only in the mountains of Kurdistan, and in
the villages of the district of Oroomniah in Persia,
that any remnant of this once wide-spreading sect


Chap. VIII.] THE CHALDEANS IN KURDISTAN. 259
now exist; unless, indeed, the descendants of those
whom their ancestors converted still preserve their
faith in some remote province of the Chinese Empire.
The Nestorians of India were even in the last cen-
tury represented by the Christians of St. Thomas,
who inhabit the coast of Malabar; but, from some
unexplained cause, this community, a few years ago,
abandoned its Church, and united with the Jocobites,
or Monophysites.*
By a series of the most open frauds, the Eoman
Catholic emissaries obtained many of the documents
which constituted the title of the Chaldaean Patri-
arch, and gave him a claim to be recognised, and
protected as head of the Chaldaean church by the
Turkish authorities. A system of persecution and
violence which would scarcely be credited compelled
the ChakUeans of the plain to renounce their faith,
and to unite with the Church of Rome. A rival
Patriarch, who appropriated to himself the titles and
functions of the Patriarch of the East, was elected,
not by but for the Seceders, and was put forward as
a rival to the true head of the Eastern Church.
Still, as is the case in all such forced conversions, the
change was more nominal than real; and to this day
the people retain their old forms and ceremonies,
their festivals, their chronology, and their ancient
language in their prayers and holy books. They are
even now engaged in a struggle with the Church of
* There may have been from the earliest Christian period a mixture
of Nestorians and Jacobites on the Malabar coast. -
8 2


260 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. TOT.
Rome, for the maintenance of these last relics of their
race and faith.
If I have, in these volumes, sometimes called the
Chaldaeans " Nestorians," it is because that name has
been generally given to them. It is difficult to ascer-
tain when it was first used ; probably not before the
Roman Catholic missionaries, who were brought into
contact with them, found it necessary and politic to
treat them as schismatics, and to bestow upon them a
title which conveyed the stigma of a heresy. By the
Chaldeans themselves the name has ever been dis-
avowed; and although Nestorius is frequently men-
tioned in their rituals, and book of prayer, as one of
the fathers of their church, yet they deny that they
received their doctrines from him. Ebedjesus, a Chal-
da?an, who wrote in the fourteenth century, asserts
that " the Orientals have not changed the truth; but,
as they received it from the apostles, so have they re-
tained it without variation. They are therefore called
Nestorians without reason, and injuriously. Nesto-
rius followed them, and not they Nestorius." And
even Assemani, a member of the Romish church, who
wrote their history, calls them "Chaldaeans or As-
syrians; whom, from that part of the globe which they
inhabit, we term Orientals ; and from the heresy they
profess, Nestorians."* Paul V., in a letter to the
Patriarch Elias, admits their origin. "Agreat part
of the East," says he, "was infected by this heresy
(of Nestorius); especially the Chaldaeans; who, for
* Vol. iv. p. 1.


Chap. VIII.] THE CHALDEANS. 261
this reason have been called Nestorians." * The
name still used by the people themselves is, "Chal-
dani," except when designating any particular tribe;
and the Mussulmans apply to them the common epi-
thet of " Nasara." The Patriarch still styles himself,
in his letters, and in official documents, "the Patriarch
of the Chaldasans, or of the Christians of the East;"
using the titles which are found on the tombs of such
of his predecessors as were buried in the convent of
Rabban Hormuzd, before it fell into the possession of
the converts to Roman Catholicism.f
The peculiar doctrine of the Chaldaeans—that
which has earned for them the epithet of heretics—
may be explained in a few words. With Nestorius
they assert "the divisibility and separation of the two
persons, as well as of the two natures, in Christ;"
or, as Assemani has more fully denned it, "the
attribution of two persons to Christ, the one being
the word of God, the other the man Jesus; for ac-
cording to Nestorius, the man formed in the womb of
the Virgin was not the only-begotton Word of God,
and the Incarnation was not the natural and hypo-
static Union of the Word with the human nature, but
the.mere inhabiting of the word of God in man—
that is, in the human nature subsisting of itself—as
it were in its temple." J This, of course, involves
the refusal of the title of "Mother of God" to the
Virgin, which the Chaldeans still reject, although
they do not admit, to their full extent, the tenets on
♦ Assemani, vol. iv. p. 75. j- See previous chapter, p. 236.
} Assemani, vol. iv. p. 190.
s 3


262 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. VHI.
account of which they are accused of heresy by the
Church of Rome. The distinctions they make upon
this point, however, are so subtle and refined, that
it is difficult for one who discourses with them to
understand that which most probably they scarcely
comprehend themselves. The profession of faith
adopted by the fathers of their church, and still re-
peated twice a day by the Chaldaeans, differs in few
respects from the Nicene creed. I give it entire, as
it is both interesting and important. In their books
it is entitled, "The Creed, which was composed by
three hundred and eighteen Holy Fathers, who were
assembled at Nice, a city of Bithynia, in the time of
King Constantine the Pious, on account of Arius, the
Infidel accursed."
"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty,
Creator of all things, which are visible and invisible:
"And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God,
the only begotten of his Father before all worlds:
who was not created: the true God of the true God;
of the same substance with his Father, by whose
hands the worlds were made, and all things were
created ; who for us men and for our salvation de-
scended from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy
Ghost, and became man, and was conceived and born
of the Virgin Mary, and suffered and was crucified,
in the days of Pontius Pilate, and died, and was
buried, and rose on the third day, according to the
Scriptures, and ascended into Heaven, and sitteth on
the right hand of his Father, and is again to come
and judge the living and the dead.


Chap. VIII.] CREED OF THE CHALDEANS. 263
"And we believe in one Holy Spirit, the Spirit of
Truth, who proceeded from the Father—the Spirit
that giveth light:
"And in one holy and universal Church.
"We acknowledge one baptism for the remission
of sins, and the resurrection of the body, and the life
everlasting."
It will be perceived that there is nothing in this
creed to authorise the violent charge of heresy made
against the Chaldaeans by their enemies; and it is
certainly evident, not only from this document, but
from the writings of Nestorius himself and the earliest
Fathers of the Eastern Church, that much more has
been made of the matter in dispute than its import-
ance deserves.* But however this may be, it should
be remembered that it is only with this fundamental
heresy that the Roman Catholic charges the Chaldaean.
It is not denied that in other respects they have
retained, to a great extent and in all their purity,
the doctrines and forms of the primitive Church.
Mosheim, whose impartiality can scarcely be doubted,
thus speaks of them: "It is to the lasting honour of
the Nestorian sect, that of all the Christian societies
established in the East, they have preserved them-
selves the most free from the numberless super-
stitions which have found their way into the Greek
and Latin Churches." f It is, therefore, highly in-
teresting to a Protestant to ascertain in what respects
• See Assemani, vol. iv. p. 192. Researches in Armenia, &c., by Smith
and Dwight, vol. ii. p. 225. Mosheim, Eccles. Hist. Cent. XVI. sect, iii,
f Mosheim, Cent. XVI. sect. iii. part i.
s 4


264 NINEVEU AND ITS REMAINS. [Ciiap. VIII
they differ from other Christian sects, and what their
belief and observances really are.
They refuse to the Virgin those titles, and that
exaggerated veneration, which were the origin of
most of the superstitions and corruptions of the
Romish and Eastern Churches.
They deny the doctrine of Purgatory, and are
most averse, not only to the worship of images, but
even to their exhibition.
The figure of the cross is found in their churches,
and they are accustomed to make the sign in common
with other Christians of the East; but this ceremony,
however, is not considered essential, but is looked
upon rather in the light of a badge of Christianity,
and as a sign of brotherhood among themselves, scat-
tered as they are amidst men of a hostile faith.
In the rejection of the doctrine of Transubstantia-
tion, they agree with the Reformed Church ; although
some of the earlier writers have so treated of the
subject as to lead to the supposition that they admit
the actual presence. Any such admission is, how-
ever, undoubtedly at variance with their present
professions, and with the assertions that I have, on
more than one occasion, heard from their Patriarch
and priests.
Both the bread and wine are distributed amongst
the communicants, and persons of all ages are allowed
to partake of the sacred elements. Christians of all
denominations are admitted to receive the holy sacra-
ment, whilst Chakheans are allowed to communicate
in any Christian church.


Chap. VIII.] TENETS OF THE CHALDEANS. 265
With regard to the number and nature of their
sacraments their books are full of discrepancies. Nor
were the statements I received from the Patriarch,
and various priests, more consistent. The number
seven is always mentioned by the earliest Chaldaean
writers, and is traditionally retained to this day; but
what these seven sacraments really are, no one seems
to know. Baptism is accompanied by confirmation, as
in the Armenian church, when the rneiron, or conse-
crated oil, is used; a drop being placed on the forehead
of the child. This confirmation, or consecration, ap-
pears to have originated in the custom of giving ex-
treme unction to an infant, in the fear that it might
die soon after immersion. Through the ignorance of
its origin, this distinct sacrament came to be considered
an integral part of baptism: but neither extreme
unction nor confirmation appears to have been recog-
nised as a sacrament by the Chaldaeans.* Auricular
confession, which once was practised as a sacrament,
has now fallen into disuse, f
A doubt also exists as to whether marriage is to be
considered a sacrament. In the early ages of the
Chaldaean church, the degrees of consanguinity and
affinity, within which intermarriages were prohibited,
were numerous and complicated. Ebedjesus enume-
rates sixty-two; but the laws on this subject, if ever
very strictly observed, have been greatly relaxed. The
Patriarch has the power of pronouncing a divorce,
and is the sole judge of the sufficiency of the grounds.
* La Croze, Christianisme des Indes, l. Hi. p. 176. Assemani, vol. iv,
p. 27. Smith and Dwight, Researches in Armenia, pp. 227, 228.
+ Assemani, vol. iv. p. 285.


266 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap-VHI.
The five lower grades of the clergy, including the
Archdeacon*, are allowed to marry. In the early ages
of the church, the same privilege was extended to the
bishop and archbishop, and even to the Patriarch.
Ordination is a sacrament. Oil is only used in the
ordination of the Patriarch. In other instances prayers
are said over the candidates, with an imposition of
hands, and with the tonsure of so much of the hair
from the crown of the head, as when grasped in the
hand rises above it. The early age at which the clergy,
including bishops, priests, and deacons, are ordained,
has long formed a ground of reproach against the
Chaldaean church; which, in this respect, differs not
only from all other Eastern churches, but acts in
direct opposition to its own statutes.
The fasts of the Chaldaeans are numerous, and they
are very strictly observed, even fish not being eaten.
There are 152 days in the year in which abstinence
from animal food is enjoined: and although, during
the time I was carrying on my excavations, I fre-
quently obtained from the Patriarch a dispensation
for the workmen, they never seemed inclined to avail
themselves of it. The feasts are observed with equal
strictness. On the sabbath no Chaldasan performs a
journey, or does any work. Their feasts, and fast
days, commence at sunset, and terminate at sunset on
the following day.
* The Chaldtean Church reckons eight orders of clergy. 1. The Ka-
tolceka, or Patriarka, the head. 2. The Mutran or Metrapoleeta, the arch-
bishop. 3. The Khalfa, or Episkopa, the bishop. 4. The Arkidynkono,
the archdeacon. 5. The Kasha, or Kesheesha, the priest. 6. The Sham-
masha, the deacon. 7. The Hoopodyakono, the subdeacon. And 8. The
Karooya, the reader. .


Chap. VIII.] LANGUAGE OF THE CHALDEANS. 267
The Patriarch is always chosen, if not of necessity, at
least by general consent, from one family. It is neces-
sary that the mother should abstain from meat and all
animal food, some months before the birth of a child,
who is destined for the high office of chief of the
Chaldaean Church. The Patriarch himself never tastes
meat. Vegetables and milk constitute his only nou-
rishment. He should be consecrated by three Metro-
politans, and he always receives the name of Shamoun,
or Simon; whilst his rival, the Patriarch of the con-
verted Chaldajans, in like manner, always assumes
that of Usuf, or Joseph.
The language of the Chaldaeans is a Shemitic dialect
allied to the Hebrew, the Arabic, and the Syriac, and
still bears the name of Chaldee. Most of their church
books are written in Syriac, which, like the Latin in
the West, became the sacred language in the greater
part of the East. The dialect spoken by the moun-
tain tribes varies slightly from that used in the vil-
lages of the plains; but the differences arise chiefly
from local circumstances: and it is a singular and
interesting fact, that the Chaldaean spoken near Mosul
is almost identical with the language of that very re-
markable tribe the Sabaeans, or Christians of St. John,
as they are vulgarly called, who are found in the
districts near the mouths of the Euphrates, and in the
province of Khuzistan, or Susiana; and are probably
the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of Baby-
lonia and Chaldaea.
It will be seen from the foregoing remarks, that
there are some most striking points of resemblance


268
(Chap. VIII.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
between the Chaldæan Christians, and the members of
the Protestant church. These coincidences are the
more important, and the more deserving of attention,
inasmuch as they confirm many of the doctrines of
the Reformed religion, and connect them with those
of the primitive church. The peculiar doctrine which
has brought upon the Chaldæans the accusation of
heresy—even admitting it to the fullest extent -
can only be charged against them as an innovation.
Their ignorance of the superstitions of the church of
Rome, and their more simple observances and cere-
monies, may be clearly traced to a primitive form of
Christianity received by them before its corruption.
Isolated amongst the remote valleys of Kurdistan,
and cut off from all intercourse with other Christian
communities, they have preserved, almost in its ori-
ginal purity, their ancient faith. Corruptions may
have crept in, and ignorance may have led to the
neglect of doctrines and ceremonies; but, on the
whole, it is a matter of wonder that, after the lapse
of nearly seventeen centuries, the Chaldæans should
still be what they are. There are no sects in the
East, and few in the West, who can boast of such
purity in their faith, or of such simplicity in their
forms of worship.
The Protestants of America have, for some time
past, taken a deep interest in the Chaldæans. Their
missionaries have opened schools in and around Oroo-
miah. A printing-press has been established, and
several works, including the Scriptures, have already
been issued in the vernacular language of the people,


270 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
CHAP. IX.
INVITATION TO THE FEAST OF THE YEZIDIS. DEPARTURE FROM
MOSUL. BAADRI. HUSSEIN BEY, THE YEZIDI CHIEF THE
BIRTH OF HIS SON. — HISTORY OF THE YEZIDIS RETURN OF
A DEPUTATION. RIDE TO THE TOMB OF SHEIKH ADL—OUR
RECEPTION. SHEIKH NASR. — DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMB.
ARRIVAL OF PILGRIMS.—AN INCIDENT.—SHEIKH SHEMS, OR THE
SUN. VOTIVE LAMPS. CELEBRATION OF RITES. YEZIDI
MUSIC. THE DOCTRINES AND RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES OF THE
SECT. THEIR BELIEF IN, AND FEAR OF, THE EVIL PRINCIPLE.
THE PROBABLE ORIGIN OF THEIR RITES. — THEIR ORDERS
OF PRIESTHOOD.—THEIR LANGUAGE AND BOOKS RETURN TO
MOSUL. LETTER OF SHEIKH NASR DEPABTURE FOR THE
SINJAB. — ABOU MARIA. TEL AFER. MIRK AX. DEFEAT OF
THE TURKISH TROOPS. ESCAPE OF THE YEZIDIS. THE VIL-
LAGE OF SIN JAR. — WILD ASSES. — RETURN TO MOSUL.
A few days after my return to Mosul from the
Tiyari mountains, a Cawal, or priest of the Yezidis,
or Worshippers of the Devil, was sent by Sheikh
Nasr, the religious chief of that remarkable sect, to
invite Mr. Rassam and myself to their great periodical
feast. The Vice-consul was unable to accept the in-
vitation; but I seized with eagerness the opportunity
of being present at ceremonies not before witnessed
by an European— ceremonies which have given rise,
among Mussulmans and Christians, to fables con-
founding the practices of the Yezidis with those of
the Ansyri of Syria; and ascribing to them certain
midnight orgies, which have earned them the epithet
of Cheragh Sonderan, or "the Extinguishers of


272 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. XI.
of money, which the inhabitants of the district of
Sheikhan undertook to repay, in course of time, out of
the produce of their fields. They punctually fulfilled
the engagement thus entered into, and looked to the
British Vice-consul as their protector.
Owing to the disturbed state of the country, and
the misconduct of the late Pashas, some years had
elapsed since the Yezidis had assembled at Sheikh
Adi. The short rule of Ismail Pasha, and the con-
ciliatory measures of the new governor, had so far
restored confidence amongst persons of all sects, that
the Worshippers of the Devil had determined to
selebrate their great festival with more than ordinary
solemnity and rejoicings. It was customary for the
Yezidis, when sufficiently powerful to defend them-
selves against the attacks of Kurds and Arabs, to
meet periodically in large numbers at the tomb of
their great Saint. Men and women from the Sinjar,
and from the northern districts of Kurdistan, left
their tents and pastures to be present at the solem-
nisation of their holy rites. This year, as the roads
were once more free from plunderers, it was expected
that the distant tribes would again repair to the tomb
of the Sheikh.
I quitted Mosul, accompanied by Hodja Toma (the
dragoman of the Vice-consulate), and the Cawal, or
priest, sent by Sheikh Nasr. We were joined on the
road by several Yezidis, who were, like ourselves, on
their way to the place of meeting. We passed the
night in a small hamlet near Khorsabad, and reached
Baadri early next day. This village, the residence of


Chap. IX.] AERIVAL AT BAADRI.
273
Sheikh Nasr, the religious, and Hussein Bey, the
political chief of the Yezidis, is built at the foot of the
line of hills crossed in my previous journey to the
Chalda;an Mountains, and about five miles to the north
of Ain Sifni. We travelled over the same dreary
plain, leaving the mound of Jerrahiyah to our right.
On approaching the village I was met by Hussein
Bey, followed by the priests and principal inhabitants
on foot. The chief was about eighteen years of age,
and one of the handsomest young men I ever saw.
His features were regular and delicate, his eye
lustrous, and the long curls, which fell from under
his variegated turban, of the deepest black. An
ample white cloak of fine texture, was thrown over
his rich jacket and robes. I dismounted as he drew
near, and he endeavoured to kiss my hand; but to
this ceremony I decidedly objected; and we compro-
mised matters by embracing each other after the
fashion of the country. He then insisted upon leading
my horse, which he wished me to remount, and itwas
with difficulty that I at length prevailed upon him to
walk with me into the village. He led me to his
salamlik, or reception room, in which carpets and
cushions had been spread. Through the centre ran] a
stream of fresh water derived from a neighbouring
spring. The people of the place stood at the lower
end of the room, and listened in respectful silence to
the conversation between their chief and myself.
Breakfast was brought to us from the harem of
Hussein Bey; and the crowd having retired after we
VOL. I. T


274 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
had eaten, I was left during the heat of the day to
enjoy the cool temperature of the salamlik.
I was awakened in the afternoon by that shrill cry
of the women, which generally announces some happy
event. The youthful chief entered soon afterwards,
followed by a long retinue. It was evident, from the
smile upon his features, that he had joyful news to
communicate. He seated himself on my carpet, and
thus addressed me:—"0 Bey, your presence has
brought happiness on our house. At your hands we
receive nothing but good. We are all your servants;
and, praise be to the Highest, in this house another
servant has been born to you. The child is yours:
he is our first-born, and he will grow up under your
shadow. Let him receive his name from you, and
be hereafter under your protection." The assembly
joined in the request, and protested that this event,
so interesting to all the tribe, was solely to be attri-
buted to my fortunate visit. I was not quite aware of
the nature of the ceremony, if any, in which I might
be expected to join on naming the new-born chief. Not-
withstanding my respect and esteem for the Yezidis,
I could not but admit that there were some doubts as
to the propriety of their tenets and form of worship;
and I was naturally anxious to ascertain the amount
of responsibility which I might incur, in standing god-
father to a devil-worshipping baby. However, as I
was assured that no other form was necessary than
the mere selection of a name (the rite of baptism being
reserved for a future day, when the child could be
carried to the tomb of Sheikh Adi, and could bear im-


Chap. IX.] NAMING A YEZIDI. 275
mersion in its sacred waters), I thus answered Hussein
Bey: — "0 Bey, I rejoice in this happy event, for which
we must return thanks to God. May this son be but
the firet of many who will preserve, as their forefathers
have done, the fame and honour of your house. As you
ask of me a name for this child I could give you many
which, in my language and country, are well-sounding
and honourable; but your tongue could not utter
them, and they would moreover be without meaning.
Were it usual I would call him after his father, whose
virtues he will no doubt imitate; but such is not the
custom. I have not forgotton the name of his grand-
father,—a name which is dear to the Yezidis, and still
brings to their memory the days of their prosperity
and happiness. Let him therefore be known as Ali
Bey; and may he live to see the Yezidis as they were
in the time of him after whom he is called." — This
oration, which was accompanied by a few gold coins to
be sewn to the cap of the infant, was received with great
applause; and the name of Ali Bey was unanimously
adopted; one of the chiefs relations hastening to the
harem, to communicate it to the ladies. He returned
with a carpet and some embroidery, as presents from
the mother, and with an invitation to the harem to see
the females of the family. I found there the chief's
mother and his second wife; for he had already taken
two. They assured me that the lady, who had just
brought joy to the house, was even more thankful
than her husband; and that her gratitude to me, as
the author of her happiness, was unbounded. They
brought me honey and strings of dried figs from the
T 2


276
[CHAP. IX.
NINEVÉH AND ITS REMAINS.
Sinjar, and entertained me with domestic histories
until I thought it time to return to the salamlik.
The Yezidis were some years ago a very powerful
tribe. Their principal strongholds were in the district
which I was now visiting, and in the Jebel Sinjar, a
solitary mountain rising in the centre of the Meso-
potamian desert to the west of Mosul. The last
independent chief of the Yezidis of Sheikhan was Ali
Bey, the father of Hussein Bey. He was beloved by
his tribe, and sufficiently brave and skilful in war to
defend them, for many years, against the attacks of
the Kurds and Mussulmans of the plain. The power-
ful Bey of Rowandiz, who had united most of the
Kurdish tribes of the surrounding mountains under
his banner, and had defied for many years the Turks
and the Persians, resolved to crush the hateful sect
of the Yezidis. Ali Bey's forces were greatly inferior
in numbers to those of his persecutor. He was de-
feated, and fell into the hands of the Rowandiz
chief, who put him to death. The inhabitants of
Sheikhan fled to Mosul. It was in spring; the river
had overflowed its banks, and the bridge of boats had
been removed. A few succeeded in crossing the
stream ; but a vast crowd of men, women, and children
were left upon the opposite side, and congregated
on the great mound of Kouyunjik. The Bey of Ro-
wandiz followed them. An indiscriminate slaughter
ensued; and the people of Mosul beheld, from their
terraces, the murder of these unfortunate fugitives,
who cried to them in vain for help for both Chris-
tians and Mussulmans rejoiced in the extermination


Chap. IX.] MASSACRE OF THE YEZIDIS. 277
of an odious and infidel sect, and no arm was lifted
in their defence. Hussein Bey, having been carried
by his mother to the mountains, escaped the general
slaughter. He was carefully brought up by the
Yezidis, and from his infancy had been regarded as
their chief.
The inhabitants of the Sinjar were soon after sub-
dued by Mehemet Reshid Pasha, and a second time
by Hafiz Pasha. On both occasions there was a
massacre, and the population was reduced by three-
fourths. The Yezidis took refuge in caves, where
they were either suffocated by fires lighted at the
mouth, or destroyed by discharges of cannon.
It will be remembered that Mohammedans, in their
dealings with men of other creeds, make a distinction
between such as are believers in the sacred books,
and such as have no recognised inspired works. To
the first category belong Christians of all denomina-
tions, as receiving the two Testaments; and the Jews,
as followers of the old. With Christians and Jews,
therefore, they may treat, make peace, and live; but
with such as are included in the second class, the
good Mussulman can have no intercourse. No treaty
nor oath, when they are concerned, is binding. They
have the choice between conversion and the sword,
and it is unlawful even to take tribute from them.
The Yezidis, riot being looked upon as "Masters of a
Book," have been exposed for centuries to the perse-
cution of the Mohammedans. The harems of the
south of Turkey have been recruited from them.
Yearly expeditions have been made by the governors
T 3


278 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. DC.
of provinces into their districts; and whilst the men
and women were slaughtered without mercy, the
children of both sexes were carried off, and exposed
for sale in the principal towns. These annual hunts
were one of the sources of revenue of Beder Khan
Bey; and it was the custom of the Pashas of Baghdad
and Mosul to let loose the irregular troops upon the
ill-fated Yezidis, as an easy method of satisfying their
demands for arrears of pay. This system was still
practised to a certain extent within a very few
months of my visit; and gave rise to atrocities
scarcely equalled in the better known slave trade. It
may be hoped that the humane and tolerant policy of
the Sultan, which has already conferred such great
and lasting benefits upon multitudes of his subjects,
will be extended to this unfortunate sect.
It was not unnatural that the Yezidis should re-
venge themselves, whenever an opportunity might
offer, upon their oppressors. They formed themselves
into bands, and were long the terror of the country.
No Mussulman that fell into their hands was spared.
Caravans were plundered, and merchants murdered
without mercy. Christians, however, were not mo-
lested; for the Yezidis looked upon them as fellow-
sufferers for religion's sake.
These acts of retaliation furnished an excuse for
the invasion of the Sinjar by Mehemet Reshid and
Hafiz Pashas. Since the great massacres which
then took place, the Yezidis have been completely
subdued, and have patiently suffered under their mis-
fortunes. Their devotion to their religion is no less


Chap. IX.] PERSECUTIONS OF THE YEZIDIS. 279
remarkable than that of the Jews; and I remember
no instance of a person of full age renouncing his
faith. They invariably prefer death, and submit
with resignation to the tortures inflicted upon them.
Even children of tender age, although educated in
Turkish harems, and nominally professing the Mus-
sulman religion, have frequently retained in secret
the peculiar doctrines of the sect, and have been in
communication with Yezidi priests.
Sheikh Nasr had already left Baadri, and was pre-
paring for the religious ceremonies at the tomb of
Sheikh Adi. I visited his wife, and was gratified
by the unaffected hospitality of my reception, and
by the cleanliness of the house and its scanty furni-
ture. All the dwellings which I entered appeared
equally neat and well built. Some stood in small
gardens filled with flowers, and near them were
streams of running water, brought from the abundant
springs which issue from the hill above the village.
Late in the afternoon two horsemen arrived, as if
from a long journey. Their garments were torn,
and their faces bronzed and weather beaten. They
were received with general demonstrations of joy by
the inhabitants of the village, who crowded round
them. Throwing down their guns, they kissed my
hand, and then that of the chief. They had returned
from a mission to a branch of the Yezidis, who had
crossed the frontiers some years before, and had
taken refuge from the tyranny of the Kurds in the
Russian territories. On a former occasion, the Yezidis
of Sheikhan had sent a deputation to their brethren,
T 4


280 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX,
to ask for pecuniary assistance towards the support
of their clergy, and the repair of the tomb of Sheikh
Adi. The deputies having, however, fallen into the
hands of the chief of Bitlis, were murdered. The
two horsemen, who had just arrived, were more for-
tunate than their predecessors,—not only escaping
the many dangers of the journey, but bringing back
a considerable sum of money. They described the
flourishing state of those they had visited, and the
wonders they had seen in Georgia. Leaving them in
the midst of a large crowd of men, who were listen-
ing with eagerness to their relation, I walked to the
ruins of the fort built by Ali Bey, which crowns a
hill overhanging the village.
On the outskirts of the houses, I found the women
performing their ablutions in the principal stream.
They were preparing for the festival of the morrow;
for no one can enter the valley of Sheikh Adi on
this occasion without having first purified his body
and his clothes. They took no notice of me; and
although divested of all their garments, walked about
unconcernedly. The men had been washing during
the day in another part of the rivulet.
At dawn Hussein Bey issued from his harem,
armed and dressed in his gayest robes, ready to pro-
ceed to the tomb of the saint. The principal people
of the village were soon collected, and we all started
together, forming a long procession, preceded by mu-
sicians with the tambourine and pipe. The women
were busily employed in loading their donkeys with
carpets and domestic utensils. They were to follow


Chap. IX.]
281
RIDE TO THE TOMB.
m
.
leisurely. Hussein Bey and I rode together, and as
long as the ground permitted, the horsemen and foot-
men who accompanied us, engaged in mimic fight,
discharging their fire-arms into the air, and singing
their war-cry. We soon reached the foot of a very
precipitous ascent, up which ran a steep and difficult
pathway. The horsemen now rode on in single file,
and we were frequently compelled to dismount and
drag our horses over the rocks. We gained the sum-
mit of the pass in about an hour, and looked down
into the richly wooded valley of Sheikh Adi. As soon
as the white spire of the tomb appeared above the
trees, all our party discharged their guns. The echoes
had scarcely died away, when our signal was an-
swered by similar discharges from below. As we
descended through the thick wood of oaks, we passed
many pilgrims on their way, like ourselves, to the
tomb; the women seated under the trees, relieving
themselves awhile from their infant burdens; the men
re-adjusting the loads which the rapid descent had
displaced. As each new body of travellers caught
sight of the object of their journey, they fired their
guns, and shouted the cry of the tribe to those below.
At some distance from the tomb we were met by
Sheikh Nasr and a crowd of priests and armed men.
The Sheikh was dressed in the purest white linen, as
were the principal members of the priesthood. His
age could scarcely have exceeded forty; his manners
were most mild and pleasing; he welcomed me with
warmth ; and it was evident that my visit had made
a very favourable impression upon all present. After


Chap. IX.] THE TOMB OF SHEIKH ADI. 283
abundant spring issuing from the rock; and two
smaller apartments, in which are the tombs of the
saint and of some inferior personage. The water of
the reservoir is regarded with peculiar veneration,
and is believed to be derived from the holy well of
Zemzem. In it children are baptized, and it is used
for other sacred purposes.
The tomb of Sheikh Adi is covered, as is the custom
in Mussulman sanctuaries, by a large square case
or box made of clay and plastered; an embroidered
green cloth being thrown over it. It is in the inner
room, which is dimly lighted by a small lamp. On
it is written the chapter of the Koran, called the
Ayat el Courci.
In the principal hall a few lamps are generally
burning, and at sunset lights are placed in niches
scattered over the walls.
Two white spires, rising above the building, form a
pleasing contrast with the rich foliage by which they
are surrounded. They are topped by gilt ornaments,
and their sides are fashioned into many angles, causing
an agreeable variety of light and shade. On the
lintels of the doorway are rudely carved a lion, a
snake, a hatchet, a man, and a comb. The snake is
particularly conspicuous. Although it might be sus-
pected that these figures were emblematical, I could
obtain no other explanation from Sheikh Nasr, than
that they had been cut by the Christian mason who
repaired the tomb some years ago, as ornaments
suggested by his mere fancy. I observed the
hatchet and comb carved on many stones in the


Chap. IX.] PILGRIMS. 285
lowed him into the outer court, which was filled by a
busy crowd of pilgrims. In the recesses and on the
ground were spread the stores of the travelling mer-
chants, who, on such occasions, repair to the valley.
Many-coloured handkerchiefs, and cotton stuff's, hung
from the branches of the trees; dried figs from the
Sinjar, raisins from Amadiyah, dates from Busrah,
and walnuts from the mountains, were displayed in
heaps upon the pavement. Around these tempting
treasures were gathered groups of boys and young
girls. Men and women were engaged on all sides in
animated conversation, and the hum of human voices
was heard through the valley. All respectfully saluted
the Sheikh, and made way for us as we approached.
We issued from the precincts of the principal build-
ing, and seated ourselves on the edge of a fountain
built by the road side, and at the end of the avenue
of trees leading to the tomb. The slabs surrounding
the basin are to some extent looked upon as sacred;
and at this time only Sheikh Nasr, Hussein Bey, and
myself were permitted to place ourselves upon them.
Even on other occasions the Yezidis are unwilling to
see them polluted by Mussulmans, who usually choose
this spot, well adapted for repose, to spread their
carpets. The water of the fountain is carefully pre-
served from impurities, and is drank by those who
congregate in the valley. Women were now hasten-
ing to and fro with their pitchers, and making merry
as they waited their turn to dip them into the re-
servoir. The principal Sheikhs and Cawals sat in a
circle round the spring, and listened to the music of
pipes and tambourines.


286
(Chap. IX.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
arms
I never beheld a more picturesque or animated
scene. Long lines of pilgrims toiled up the avenue.
There was the swarthy inhabitant of the Sinjar, with
his long black locks, his piercing eye and regular fea-
tures—his white robes floating in the wind, and his
unwieldy matchlock thrown over his shoulder. Then
followed the more wealthy families of the Kochers,-
the wandering tribes who live in tents in the plains,
and among the hills of ancient Adiabene; the men
in gay jackets and variegated turbans, with fantastic
arms in their girdles; the women richly clad in silk
antaris ; their hair, braided in many tresses, falling
down their backs, and adorned with wild flowers;
their foreheads almost concealed by gold and silver
coins; and huge strings of glass beads, coins, and en-
graved stones hanging round their necks. Next
would appear a poverty-stricken family from a village
of the Mosul district; the women clad in white, pale
and care-worn, bending under the weight of their
children; the men urging on the heavily-laden donkey.
Similar groups descended from the hills. Repeated
discharges of fire-arms, and a well-known signal
announced to those below the arrival of every new
party.
All turned to the fountain before proceeding to
their allotted stations, and laying their arms on the
ground, kissed the hands of Sheikh Nasr, Hussein Bey,
and myself. After saluting the assembled priests they
continued their way up the sides of the mountains,
and chose some wide-spreading oak, or the roof of
a building, for a resting-place during their sojourn in


Chap. IX.] PILGRIMS. 287
the valley. They then spread their carpets, and,
lighting fires with dry branches and twigs, busied
themselves in preparing their food. Such groups
were scattered in every direction. There was scarcely
a tree without its colony.
All, before entering the sacred valley, washed them-
selves and their clothes in the stream issuing from it.
They came thus purified to the feast. I never before
saw so much assembled cleanliness in the East. Their
garments, generally white, were spotless.
During the afternoon, dances were performed be-
fore the Bey and myself. They resembled the Arab
Debke' and the Kurdish Tchopee. As many young
men as could crowd in the small open space in
front of the fountain joined in them. Others sang
in chorus with the music. Every place from which
a sight could be obtained of the dancers was occupied
by curious spectators. Even the branches above
our heads were bending under the clusters of boys
who had discovered that, from them, they could
get a full view of what was going on below. The
manoeuvres of one of these urchins gave rise to a
somewhat amusing incident, which illustrates the
singular superstitions of this sect. He had forced
himself to the very end of a weak bough, which was
immediately above me, and threatened every moment
to break under the weight. As I looked up I saw
the impending danger, and made an effort, by an
appeal to the Chief, to avert it. "If that young
Sheit "I exclaimed, about to use an epithet,
generally given in the East to such adventurous


288 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
youths*; I checked myself immediately; but it was
already too late; half the dreaded word had escaped.
The effect was instantaneous; a look of horror seized
those who were near enough to overhear me; it was
quickly communicated to those beyond. The pleasant
smile, which usually played upon the fine features of
the young Bey, gave way to a serious and angry
expression. I lamented that I had thus unwillingly
wounded the feelings of my hosts, and was at a loss
to know how I could make atonement for my indis-
cretion—doubting whether an apology to the Evil
principle or to the chief was expected. I endea-
voured, however, to make them understand, without
venturing upon any observations which might have
brought me into greater difficulties, that I regretted
what had passed ; but it was some time ere the group
resumed their composure, and indulged in their pre-
vious merriment.
My carpets had been spread on the roof of a build-
ing of some size, belonging to the people of Semil.
Around me, but at a convenient distance, were scat-
tered groups of pilgrims from that district. Men,
women, and children were congregated round their
cauldrons, preparing for their evening meal; or were
stretched upon their coarse carpets, resting after the
long march of the day. Near me was^the chief,
whose mud castle crowns the mound of the village of
Semil. He was an ill-looking man, gaily dressed, and
well armed. He received me with every demonstra-
* The term Sheitan (equivalent to Satan) is usually applied in the
East to a clever, cunning, or daring fellow. .


Chap. IX.] THE SANCTUARY OF SHEIKH SHEMS. 289
tion of civility, and I sat for some time with him and
his wives; one of whom was young and pretty, and
had heen recently selected from the Kochers, or wan-
derers. Her hair was profusely adorned with flowers
and gold coins. They had sacrificed a sheep, and all
(including the chief, whose arms, bare to the shoulder,
were reeking with blood) gathered round the carcase;
and, tearing the limbs, distributed morsels to the poor
who had been collected to receive them.
At some distance from the people of Semil, were
the wife and family of Sheikh Nasr, who had also
slain a sheep. The Sheikh himself resided in the
sacred building, and was occupied during the day in
receiving the pilgrims, and performing various duties
imposed upon him on the occasion. I visited his
harem; his wife spread fruit and honey before me,
and entertained me with a long account of her
domestic employments.
Below the cluster of buildings assigned to the
people of Semil is a small white spire, springing
from a low edifice, neatly constructed, and, like all
the sacred edifices of the Yezidis, kept as pure as
repeated coats of whitewash can make it. It is called
the sanctuary of Sheikh Shems, or the Sun; and is
so built, that the first rays of that luminary should
as frequently as possible fall upon it. Near the door
is carved on a slab an invocation to Sheikh Shems;
and one or two votive tablets, raised by the father of
Hussein Bey, and other chiefs of the Yezidis, are built
into the walls. The interior, which is a very holy
place, is lighted by a few small lamps. At sunset, as'
VOL. i. iJ


290 NINEVEH AND ITS BEMAINS. [Chap. IX
I sat in the alcove in front of the entrance, a herds-
man led into a pen, attached to the building, a drove
of white oxen. I asked a Cawal, who was near me,
to whom the beasts belonged. "They are dedicated,"
he said, "to Sheikh Shems, and are never slain ex-
cept on great festivals, when their41esh is distributed
amongst the poor."* This unexpected answer gave
rise to an agreeable musing; and I sat almost uncon-
scious of the scene around me, until darkness stole
over the valley.
As the twilight faded, the Fakirs, or lower order of
priests, dressed in brown garments of coarse cloth,
closely fitting to their bodies, and wearing black tur-
bans on their heads, issued from the tomb, each
bearing a light in one hand, and a pot of oil, with a
bundle of cotton wicks, in the other. They filled
and trimmed lamps placed in niches in the walls of
the court-yard, and scattered over the buildings on
the sides of the valley, and even on isolated rocks
and in the hollow trunks of trees. Innumerable
stars appeared to glitter on the black sides of the
mountain, and in the dark recesses of the forest. As
the priests made their way through the crowd, to
perform their task, men and women passed their
right hands through the flame; and, -after rubbing
the right eyebrow with the part which had been
purified by the sacred clement, they devoutly carried
it to their lips. Some, who bore children in their
* The dedication of the bull to the sun, so generally recognised in the
religious systems of the ancients, probably originated in Assyria, and the
Yezidis may have unconsciously preserved a myth of their ancestors.


Ciiap. IX.] YEZIDI CEREMONIES. 291
arms, anointed them in like manner, whilst others
hold out their hands to be touched by those who, less
fortunate than themselves, could not reach the flame.
The lamps are votive offerings from pilgrims, or
from those who have appealed to Sheikh Adi in times
of danger or disease. A yearly sum is given to the
guardians of the tomb for oil, and for the support of
the priests who tend the lamps. They are lighted
every eveniog as long as the supplies last. In the
day time the smoked walls mark the places where
they are placed; and I have observed the Yezidis
devoutly kissing the blackened stones. A traveller*,
who had merely seen these traces, has suggested that
bitumen or naphtha is burnt in the valley during
religious ceremonies; but both are considered some-
what impure, and the oil of Sesame and other vege-
table substances are alone used.
About an hour after sunset the Fakirs, who are the
servants of the tomb, appeared with platters of boiled
rice, roast meat, and fruit. They had been sent to
ine from the kitchen of the holy edifice. The wife of
Sheikh Nasr also contributed some dishes towards the
repast.
As night advanced, those who had assembled — they
must now have amounted to nearly five thousand per-
sons — lighted torches, which thev carried with them
as they wandered through the forest. The effect
was magical; the varied groups could be faintly dis-
tinguished through the darkness; men hurrying to
and fro; women, with their children, seated on the
* Ainsworth, " Travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia," &c. vol. ii. p. 185.
v 2


Chap. IX.] YEZIDI CEREMONIES. 293
The same slow and solemn strain, occasionally
varied in the melody, lasted for nearly an hour; a
part of it was called "Makam Azerat Esau," or the
song of the Lord Jesus. It was sung by the Sheikhs,
the Cawals, and the women ; and occasionally by those
without. I could not catch the words; nor could I
prevail upon any of those present to repeat them to
me. They were in Arabic; and as few of the Yezidis
can speak or pronounce that language, they were not
intelligible, even to the experienced ear of Hodja
Toma, who accompanied me. The tambourines which
were struck simultaneously, only interrupted at inter-
vals the song of the priests. As the time quickened
they broke in more frequently. The chant gradually
gave way to a lively melody, which, increasing in
measure, was finally lost in a confusion of sounds.
The tambourines were beaten .with extraordinary
energy ; the flutes poured forth a rapid flood of notes;
the voices were raised to their highest pitch; the men
outside joined in theory; whilst the women made the
rocks resound with the shrill tahlehl. The musicians,
giving way to the excitement, threw their instruments
into the air, and strained their limbs into every con-
tortion, until they fell exhausted to the ground. I
never heard a more frightful yell than that which rose
in the valley. It was midnight. The time and place
were well suited to the occasion; and I gazed with
wonder upon the extraordinary scene around me.
Thus were probably celebrated ages ago the mys-
terious rites of the Corybantes, when they met in
v s


29+
[Cuar. IX.
NINEVEU AND ITS REMAINS.
some consecrated grove.* I did not marvel that such
wild ceremonies had given rise to those stories of
unhallowed rites, and obscene mysteries, which have
rendered the name of Yezidi an abomination in the
East. Notwithstanding the uncontrollable excitement
which appeared to prevail amongst all present, there
were no indecent gestures nor unseemly ceremonies.
When the musicians and singers were exhausted, the
noise suddenly died away; the various groups re-
sumed their previous cheerfulness, and again wan-
dered through the valley, or seated themselves under
the trees.
So far from Sheikh Adi being the scene of the
orgies attributed to the Yezidis, the whole valley is
held sacred; and no acts, such as the Jewish law has
declared to be impure, are permitted within the
sacred precincts. No other than the high priests
and the chiefs of the sect are buried near the tomb.
Many pilgrims take off their shoes on approaching
it, and go barefooted as long as they remain in its
vicinity.
Some ceremony took place before I joined the
assembly at the tomb, at which no stranger can be
present, nor could I learn its nature from the Cawals.
Sheikh Nasr gave me to understand that their holy
symbol, the Melek Taous, was then exhibited to the
* " Tympana tenta tonant palmis, et cymbala circum
Concava, raucisonoquc minantur cornua cantu,
Et Phrygio stimulat numero cava tibia menteis,
Telaque præportant violenti signa furoris,
Ingratos animos, atque impia pectora volgi
Conterrere metu quæ possint numine Divæ."
(Lucret. lib. ii. v. 618, &c.)


296 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
same simple courtesy and kindness ; nor had I any
cause to change the good opinion I had already
formed of the Yezidis. There were no Mohammedans
present, nor any Christians, except those who were
with me, and a poor woman who had lived long with
the sect, and was a privileged guest at their festivals.
Unrestrained by the presence of strangers, the women
forgot their usual timidity, and roved unveiled over
the mountains. As I sat beneath the trees, laughing
girls gathered round ine, examined my dress or
asked me of things to them strange and new. Some,
more bold than the rest, would bring me the strings
of beads and engraved stones hanging round their
necks, and permit me to examine the Assyrian relics
thus collected together; whilst others, more fearful,
though not ignorant of the impression which their
charms would create, stood at a distance, and weaved
wild flowers into their hair.
The men assembled in groups round the fountains
and about the tomb. They talked and made merry;
but no dissension or angry words disturbed the general
good humour. The sound of music and of song rose
from all sides above the hum of voices. The priests
and sheikhs walked amongst the people, or sat with
the families assembled under nearly every tree.
Sheikh Nasr frequently visited mc, and I had op-
portunities of talking to him alone on the singular
tenets of his sect. From these conversations, and
from such observations as I was able to make during
my visit at Sheikh Adi, I noted down the following
particulars. Although, it must be confessed, far from


Chap. IX.] TEN^ts OF THE YEZTDIS. 297
sufficient to satisfy curiosity, and in many respects
incomplete, they are the best I could obtain from
persons naturally suspicious of strangers, and fearful
of betraying the secrets of their faith. They give,
however, a better insight into the origin and belief
of the YezidiSj than any information before obtained
by travellers.
The Yezidis recognise one Supreme Being; but, as
far as I could learn, they do not offer up any direct
prayer or sacrifice to him. Sheikh Nasr endeavoured
to evade my questions on this subject; and appeared to
shun, with superstitious awe, every topic connected
with the existence and attributes of the Deity. The
common Mohammedan forms of expression — half
oath, half ejaculation — are nevertheless frequently
in the mouths of the people, but probably from mere
habit. The name of the Evil Spirit is, however, never
mentioned; and any allusion to it by others so vexes
and irritates them, that it is said they have put to
death persons who have wantonly outraged their feel-
ings by its use. So far is their dread of offending the
Evil principle carried, that they carefully avoid every
expression which may resemble in sound the name of
Satan, or the Arabic word for "accursed." Thus, in
speaking of a river, they will not say Shat, because
it is too nearly connected with the first syllable in
Sheitan, the Devil; but substitute Na/ir. Nor, for the
same reason, will they utter the word Keitan, thread
or fringe. Naal, a horse-shoe, and naal-band, a farrier,
are forbidden words; because they approach to laan,
a curse, and maloun, accursed.


300 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
Nameh* he was one of the Merwanian Caliphs. They
have some foolish traditions connected with him,
chiefly relating to his interviews with celestial per-
sonages, and to a feat he performed in bringing the
springs, now rising in the valley in which his tomb
stands, from the wall of Zemzcm at Mecca.
As to the origin of their name, it is well known
that the Mussulmans trace it to the celebrated
Ommiade Caliph Yezid, who figures as the persecutor
of the family of AH in their own religious history;
but there is reason to believe that it must be sought
for elsewhere, as it was used long before the introduc-
tion of Mohammedanism, and is not without connection
with the early Persian appellation of the Supreme
Being.f It is difficult to trace their ceremonies to any
particular source. They baptize in water, like the
Christians; if possible, within seven days after birth.
They circumcise at the same age, and in the same
manner as the Mohammedans; and reverence the sun,
and have many customs in common with the Sabaeans.
All these ceremonies and observances may indeed
have had a common origin, or may have been grafted
at different times on their original creed. They may
have adopted circumcision to avoid detection by their
* The late lamented Dr. Grant has suggested that the Sheikh Adi of
the Yezidis may be Adde, a disciple of Manes. I cannot, however, trace
the Hebrew descent, which that gentleman could discover in them as
well as in almost every other sect in Assyria.
-(• Theophanes (Chronographia, p. 492. cd. Bon,) mentions a settlement
of Iesdem, on the lesser Zab, near which the Emperor Ileracleus en-
camped, — tni r/7rXi«i><T<i> tic rove ofieoi'c n.v 'Itatty, They may have been
Yezidis, and of the ancestors of the present sect. Ifajor Rawlinson has
already pointed out the name as occurring in AdLbene.


Chap. IX.] YEZIDI DOCTRINES. 301
Mussulman oppressors; and may have selected pas-
sages from the Koran, to carve upon their tombs
and sacred places; because, as suggested to me by
Sheikh Nasr, they corresponded with their opinions,
and were best suited to a country in which Arabic
was the spoken language. They have more in com-
mon with the Sabamns than with any other sect. I
have already alluded to their reverence for the sun,
and have described the temple and the oxen dedicated
to that luminary.* They are accustomed to kiss the
object on which its first beams fall; and I have
frequently, when travelling in their company at sun-
rise, observed them perform this ceremony. For fire,
as symbolical, they have nearly the same reverence;
they never spit into it, but frequently pass their
hands through the flame, kiss them, and rub them over
their right eyebrow, or sometimes over the whole
face.f The colour blue, to them, as to the Saboeans,
is an abomination; and never to be worn in dress, or
to be used in their houses. Their Kubleh, or the
place to which they look whilst performing their holy
ceremonies, is that part of the heavens in which
the sun rises, and towards it they turn the faces of
their dead.J In their fondness for white linen, in
* I must observe that although the inscriptioas, in the sanctuary de-
scribed, were nil addressed to Sheikh Shems, and that both the Sheikh
Nasr and the Cawals assured me that it was dedicated to the sun, it is
just possible that, under the title of Sheikh Shems, some other object
than the sun or some particular person is designated, and that my in-
formants were unwilling to enter into any explanation.
•f- Some travellers have asserted that they will not blow out a candle;
but such is not the case; nor is it an insult to spit in their presence.
X All Eastern sects appear to have had some Kubleh, or holy point, to


302 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
their cleanliness of habits, and in their frequent ablu-
tions, they also resemble the Sabaeans.
The lettuce, and I believe the bamiyah*, and some
other vegetables, are never eaten by them. Pork is
unlawful; but not wine, which is drunk by all. Al-
though they assert that meat should not be eaten,
unless the animal has been slain according to the
Mosaic and Mohammedan law, they do not object to
partake of the food of Christians.
I could not learn that there were any religious ob-
servances on marriage; nor are the number of wives
limited. I was informed by the Cawals that the men
and women merely presented themselves to a Sheikh,
who ascertains that there is mutual consent. A ring
is then given to the bride, or sometimes money in-
stead. A day is fixed for rejoicings. They drink
sherbet, and dance, but have no religious ceremonies.
Their year begins with that of the Eastern Chris-
tians, whom they follow also in the order and names
of their months. Some fast three days at the com-
mencement of the year; but this is not considered
necessary. They do not observe the Mohammedan
liamazan. Wednesday is their holiday, and although
some always fast on that day, yet they do not abstain
from work on it, as the Christians do on the Sabbath.
which the face was to be turned during prayer. The Jews, it will be
remembered, looked towards Jerusalem. The Sabamns, according to
some, to the north star, or, according to others, towards that part of the
heavens in which the sun rises. The early Christians chose the East;
Mohammed, who recognised the general custom, and found it necessary
to adhere to it, appointed the holy Kaaba of Mecca to be the Kubleh of
his disciples.
* Hibiscus esculentus.


Chap. IX.] ORDERS OF THE TRIESTHOOD. 303
Sheikh Nasr informed me that they had a date of
their own, and that he believed we were then, ac-
cording to their account, in the year 1550. This
suggested some connection with Manes; but neither
by direct or indirect questions could I ascertain that
they were acquainted with the name, or recognised
him in anywise as the originator of their peculiar
doctrines with regard to the Evil principle.
Their names, both male and female, are generally
those used by Mohammedans and Christians, or such
as are common amongst the Kurds, and not strictly
of Mussulman origin. The name of Goorgis (George)
is, however, objectionable; and is never, 1 believe,
given to a Yezidi.
They have four orders of priesthood, the Pirs, the
Sheikhs, the Cawals, and the Fakirs; and, what is
very remarkable, and, I believe, unexampled in the
East, these offices are hereditary, and descend to
females, who, when enjoying them, are treated with
the same respect and consideration as the men.
The Pirs *, or saints, are most reverenced after the
great Sheikh, or religious head of the sect. They are
believed to have the power, not only of interceding
for the people, but of curing disease and insanity.
They are expected to lead a life of great sanctity and
honesty; and are looked up to with great reverence.
They are not confined, I believe, to any particular
fashion of dress. The only Pir I knew was one Sino,
* This is a Kurdish (Persian) title, — it moans, literally, an old man.


304 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
who was recognised as the deputy of Sheikh Nasr,
and had suffered imprisonment in his stead.
The Sheikhs are next in rank. They are ac-
quainted with the hymns, and are expected to know
something of Arabic, the language in which the hymns
are written. Their dress should be entirely white,
except the skull-cap beneath the turban, which is
black. As servants of Sheikh Adi, they are the
guardians of his tomb, keep up the holy fires, and
bring provisions and fuel to those who dwell within
its precincts, and to pilgrims of distinction. They
always wear round their bodies a band of red and
yellow, or red and orange plaid, as the mark of their
office; with it they bind together the wood, and
other supplies which they bring to the sacred edifice.
The women carry the same badge, and are employed
in the same services. There are always several
Sheikhs residing in the valley of Sheikh Adi. The)7
watch over the tomb, and receive pilgrims; taking
charge in rotation of the offerings that may be
brought, or selling the clay balls and other relics.
The Cawals, or Preachers, appear to be the most
active members of the priesthood. They are sent by
Sheikh Nasr on missions, going from village to village
as teachers of the doctrines of the sect. They alone
are the performers on the flute and tambourine; both
instruments being looked upon, to a certain extent,
as sacred. I observed that before, and after, using the
tambourine they frequently kissed it, and then held
it to those near them to be similarly saluted. They
are taught singing at a very early age, and are skilful


30G NINEVEH AND ITS KEMAINS. [Chap. IX.
rections for the performance of their rites, and other
matters connected with their religion. It is preserved
either at Baazani or Baasheikha, and is regarded with
so much superstitious reverence that I failed in every
endeavour to obtain a copy, or even to see it. This
I much regretted, as its contents would probably
throw new light upon the origin and history of this
remarkable sect, and would clear up many doubts
which still hang over their tenets. It is considered
unlawful to know how to read and write. There are
only one or two persons amongst the Yezidis who can
do either: even Sheikh Nasr is unacquainted with
the alphabet. Those who know how to read have
only been taught, in order that they may preserve the
sacred book, and may refer to it for the doctrines
and ceremonies of the sect.
The Yezidis have a tradition that they originally
came from Busrah, and from the country watered by
the lower part of the Euphrates; that, after their
emigration, they first settled in Syria, and subsequently
took possession of the Sinjar hill, and the districts
they now'inhabit in Kurdistan. This tradition, with
the peculiar nature of their tenets and ceremonies,
points to a Sabrean or Chaldasan origin. With the
scanty materials which we possess regarding their
history, and oAving to the ignorance prevailing
amongst the people themselves,— for I believe that
even the priests, including Sheikh Nasr, have but a
very vague idea of what they profess, and of the
meaning of their religious forms—it is difficult to
come to any conclusion as to the source of their
peculiar opinions and observances. There is in them


Chap. IX.] ORIGIN OF THE YEZIDIS. 307
a strange mixture of Sabajanism, Christianity, and
Mohammedanism, with a tincture of the doctrines
of the Gnostics and Manichaeans. Sabscanism, how-
ever, appears to be the prevailing feature; and it
is not improbable that the sect may be a remnant
of the ancient Chaldees, who have, at various times,
outwardly adopted the forms and tenets of the ruling
people to save themselves from persecution and
oppression: and have gradually, through ignorance,
confounded them with their own belief and mode of
worship. Such has been the case with a no less re-
markable sect, the Sabaeans, or Mendai (the Christians
of St. John, as they are commonly called), who still
inhabit the banks of the Euphrates and the districts
of ancient Susiana.
The Yezidis are known amongst themselves by the
name of the district, or tribe, to which they respectively
belong. Those who inhabit the country near the
foot of the Kurdish Hills, are called Dasni or Daseni,
most probably from the ancient name of a province.*
Tribes of Yezidis are found in the north of Syria, in
Northern Kurdistan, in Bohtan, Sheikhan, and Mis-
souri. In the plains, their principal settlements are
in the villages of Baazani, Baasheikha, and Semil.
Having spent three days at Sheikh Adi, and wit-
nessed all the ceremonies at which a stranger could
be present, I prepared to return to Mosul. Sheikh
Nasr, Hussein Bey, and the principal Sheikhs and
Cawals, insisted upon accompanying me about three
* There is a tribe of Kurds of this name, living in the mountains near
Suleimaniyah.
x 2


Chap. IX.] REACH MOSUL. 309
"Peace be also to Fukrah Rizo, who dwells in
Koulkah.
"Peace be also to the inhabitants of the town of
Sinjar, old and young.
"Peace be also to the dwellers in the mountain of
Sinjar, old and young.
"May God the most High watch over you all.
Amen.
"We never forget you in our prayers before Sheikh
Adi, the greatest of all Sheikhs, and of all Khasseens *;
our thoughts are always with you, and ye are in our
mind by day and by night.
"A beloved friend of ours is about to visit you,
and we have sent with him our Cawal, Murad, in
order that ye may treat him with all kindness and
honour. For, as ye receive him, so would ye receive
me; and if ye do evil unto him, so do ye evil unto
me. As ye are the children of obedience, and faithful
to Sheikh Adi, the chief of all Sheikhs, disregard not
these our commands, and may God the most High
watch over you always.
"He who intercedes for you,
"Sheikh Nasr,
"The Elder."
The village of Ain Sifni was almost deserted; the
inhabitants having migrated during the festival to
the valley of Sheikh Adi. I urged on my horse, and
reached Mosul early in the afternoon.
Tayar Pasha had for some time been planning an
* I am not aware of the exact position of the Khasseens in the hier-
archy of the Yczidis, or whether this is a general name for their saints.
x 3


310 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
expedition into the Sinjar, not with any hostile in-
tention, but for the purpose of examining the state of
the country, which had been ruined by the vexatious
extortions and gratuitous cruelty of the late governor
of Mosul. He had previously sent an agent to make
an inquiry into the condition of the villages; and a
deputation of the inhabitants had returned with him
to petition for a diminution of taxes, which the desti-
tute state of the district rendered them unable to pay.
The arrangements of his Excellency, after nu-
merous delays, were at length completed by the 8th
October, and three o'clock of that day was declared
to be the fortunate hour for leaving the town.
The principal inhabitants, with the Cadi and Mufti
at their head, were collected in the large square
opposite the palace and without the walls, ready
to accompany the Pasha, as a mark of respect, some
distance from the gates. It was with difficulty that
I made my way to the apartments of the governor,
through the crowd of irregular troops and servants
which thronged the court-yard of the Serai. Above,
there was no less confusion than below. The at-
tendants of his Excellency were hurrying to and
fro laden with every variety of utensil and instru-
ment; some carrying gigantic telescopes, or huge
bowls, in leather cases; others labouring under bun-
dles of pipe-sticks, or bending under the weight of
calico bags crammed with state documents. The
grey-headed Kiayah had inserted his feet into a
pair of capacious boots, leaving room enough for
almost any number of intruders. Round his fez, and


Chap. IX.] A GREAT MAN'S OFFICERS. * 311
the lower part of his face, were wound endless folds
of white linen, which gave him the appearance of a
patient emerging from a hospital; and he carried furs
and cloaks .enough to keep out the cold of the frigid
zone. The Divan Effendesi, although a man of the
pen, strutted about with sword and spurs, followed
by clerks and inkstand bearers. At the door of the
harem waited a bevy of Aghas; amongst them the
lord of the towel, the lord of the washing-bason, the
lord of the cloak, the chief of the coffee-makers, and
the chief of the pipe-bearers, the treasurer, and the
seal-bearer.* At length the Pasha approached; the
Cawasses forced the crowd out of the way; and, as
his Excellency placed his foot in the stirrup, the
trumpets sounded as a signal for the procession to
move onwards. First came a regiment of infantry,
followed by a company of artillery-men with their
guns. The trumpeters, and the Pasha's own standard,
a mass of green silk drapery, embroidered in gold,
with verses from the Koran, succeeded; behind were
six led Arab horses, richly caparisoned with coloured
saddle-cloths, glittering with gold embroidery. The
Pasha himself then appeared, surrounded by the
chiefs of the town and the officers of his household.
The procession was finished by the irregular cavalry,
divided into companies, each headed by its respective
commander, and by the wild Suiters with their small
kettle-drums fastened in front of their saddles.
I was accompanied by my Cawass and my own ser-
vants, and rode as it best suited, and amused me, in
* These arc all offices in the household of a Turkish pasha.
x 4


312 * NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
different parts of the procession. We reached Ha-
maydat, a ruined village on the banks of the Tigris,
three caravan hours from Mosul about sun-set. Here
we had the first proofs of the commissariat arrange-
ments; for there was neither food for ourselves nor
the horses, and we all went supperless to bed.
On the following day, after a ride of six hours
through a barren and uninhabited plain, bounded to
the east and west by ranges of low limestone hills, we
reached a ruined village, built on the summit of an
ancient artificial mound, and called Abou Maria. The
Aneyza Arabs were known to be out on this side of
the Euphrates, and during our march we observed
several of their scouts watching our movements. The
irregular cavalry frequently rushed off in pursuit;
but the Arabs, turning their fleet mares towards the
desert, were soon lost in the distance.
We passed the ruins of three villages. The plain,
once thickly inhabited, is now deserted; and the wells,
formerly abundant, are filled up. In spring, the Arab
tribe of Jehesh frequently encamp near the pools of
water supplied by the rains. The remains of build-
ings, and the traces of former cultivation, prove that
at some period, not very remote, others than the roving
Bedouins dwelt on these lands: whilst the artificial
mounds, scattered over the face of the country, show
that long ere the Mussulman invasion this was one of
the flourishing districts of ancient Assyria.
A most abundant spring issues from the foot of the
mound of Abou Maria. The water is collected in
large, well-built reservoirs. Near them is a mill,
"





To face page 313 val.

LE
S2
EL
22
3
12
DER
TEL AFER


Chap. IX.] TEL AFER. 313
now in ruins, but formerly turned by the stream,
Avithin a few yards of its source. Such an ample
supply of water, although brackish to the taste, must
always have attracted a population in a country
where it is scarce. The village, which was deserted
during the oppressive government of Mohammed
Pasha, belonged to the Jehesh. Three miles below,
on the stream derived from the springs of Abou Maria,
is the mud fort and small hamlet of Kessi Kupria, so
named from the ruins of a bridge. A party of irre-
gular cavalry under my old friend Daoud Agha (who,
by the way, brought me a load of water-melons and
Sinjar figs to celebrate my visit), were then stationed
there.
Three hours' ride, still over the desert, brought us
to Tel Afer, which we reached suddenly on emerging
from a range of low hills. The place had a much
more important and flourishing appearance than I
could have expected. A very considerable eminence,
partly artificial, is crowned by a castle, whose walls
are flanked by numerous towers of various shapes.
The town, containing some well-built houses, lies at
the foot of the mound, and is partly surrounded by
gardens well wooded with the olive, fig, and other
fruit trees. Beyond this cultivated plot is the broad
expanse of the desert. A spring, as abundant as that
of Abou Maria, gushes out of a rock beneath the
castle, supplies the inhabitants with water, irrigates
their gardens, and turns their mills.
Tel Afer was once a town of some importance ; it
is mentioned by the early Arab geographers, and


314 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
may perhaps be identified with the Telassar of Isaiah,
referred to, as it is, in connection with Gozan and
Haran.* It has been three times besieged, within a
few years, by Ali Pasha of Baghdad, Hafiz Pasha,
and Injeh Bairakdar Mohammed Pasha. On each oc-
casion the inhabitants offered a vigorous resistance.
Mohammed Pasha took the place by assault. More
than two-thirds of the inhabitants were put to the
8 word, and the property of the remainder was con-
fiscated. The houses within the fort were destroyed,
and the town was rebuilt at the foot of the mound.
A small Turkish garrison now occupies the castle.
Previous to its last capture, Tel Afer was almost in-
dependent of the Turkish governors of Mesopotamia.
It paid a small tribute, but had its own hereditary
chief, who, in league with the Bedouins of the desert
and the Yezidis of the Sinjar, enriched his followers
by the plunder of caravans, and by foraging expedi-
tions into the uncultivated districts of Mosul. Great
wealth is said to have been discovered in the place,
on its pillage by Mohammed Pasha, who took all the
gold and silver, and distributed the remainder of the
spoil amongst his soldiers.
The inhabitants of Tel Afer are of Turcoman
origin, and speak the Turkish language. They occa-
sionally intermarry, however, with the Arabs, and
generally understand Arabic. .
Towards evening I ascended the mound, and visited
the castle, in which was quartered a small body of
* Isaiah, xxxvii. 12. The name does not occur elsewhere in the Bible;
and we have consequently no means of determining its locality.


Ohap. IX.] TEL AIER. 315
irregular troops. The houses, formerly inhabited by
families whose habitations are now built at the foot
of the artificial hill, are in ruins, except that occu-
pied by the commander of the garrison. From the
walls I had an uninterrupted view over a vast plain,
stretching westwards toward the Euphrates, and
losing itself in the hazy distance. The ruins of
ancient towns and villages rose on all sides; and
as the sun went down, I counted above one hundred
mounds, throwing their dark and lengthening shadows
across the plain. These were the remains of Assyrian
civilisation and prosperity. Centuries have elapsed
since a settled population dwelt in this district of
Mesopotamia. Now, not even the tent of the
Bedouin could be seen. The whole was a barren
deserted waste.
We remained two days at Tel Afer. The commis«
sariat was replenished, as far as possible, from the
scanty stores of the inhabitants. The Pasha recom-
mended forbearance and justice; but his advice was
not followed; nor were his orders obeyed. The houses
were broken into and a general pillage ensued. At
length, an the 13th, we resumed our march.
The mountain of Sinjar is about thirty miles dis-
tant from Tel Afer. A very low range of hills
diverges from its southern spur, and unites with that
behind the town. The Pasha, with his troops, took
the road across the plain.
We passed the first night on the banks of a small
salt stream, near the ruins of a village, called by
the people of Sinjar and Tel Afer, Zabardok; and


318
(Chap. IX.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
claiming a present as a reward for their prowess. I
appealed to the Pasha, who had been persuaded that
every head brought to him was that of a powerful
chief, and after some difficulty prevailed upon him to
have them buried; but the troops were not willing
to obey his orders, and it was late in the night before
they were induced to resign their bloody spoil, which
they had arranged in grim array, and lighted up
with torches.
On the following morning the contest was renewed;
but the Yezidis defended themselves with undimi.
nished courage. The first who ventured into the gorge
was the commander of a body of irregular troops, one
Osman Agha, a native of Lazistan. He advanced
boldly at the head of his men. On each side of him
was a Suiter, with his small kettle-drums by his side,
and the tails of foxes in his cap. * He had scarcely
entered the valley, when two shots from the rocks
above killed his two supporters. The troops rushed
forward, and attempted to reach the caves in which
the Yezidis had taken refuge. Again they were
beaten back by their unseen enemies. Every shot
from the rocks told, whilst the Pasha's troops were
unable to discover, but by the thin smoke which
marked the discharge of the rifle, the position of
those who defended the gorge. The contest lasted
during the day, but without results. The loss of the
Hytas was very considerable; not a cavern had been
* The Suiters are buffoons who precede the irregular cavalry, play on
small kettle-drums, and are fantastically attired. They generally display
great during and courage.


Chap. IX.] DEFEAT OF THE TURKS. 319
carried; nor a Yezidis, as far as the assailants could
tell, killed, or even wounded.
On the following morning the Pasha ordered a
fresh attack. To encourage his men he advanced
himself into the gorge, and directed his carpet to be
spread on a rock. Here he sat, with the greatest
apathy, smoking his pipe, and carrying on a frivolous
conversation with me, although he was the object of
the aim of the Yezidis ; several persons within a few
feet of us falling dead, and the balls frequently throw-
ing up the dirt into our faces. Coffee was brought
to him occasionally as usual, and his pipe was filled
when the tobacco was exhausted; yet he was not a
soldier, but what is termed "a man of the pen." I
have frequently seen similar instances of calm in-
difference in the midst of danger amongst Turks,
when such displays were scarcely called for, and
would be very unwillingly made by a European.
Notwithstanding the example set by his Excellency,
and the encouragement which his presence gave to
the troops, they were not more successful in their
attempts to dislodge the Yezidis than they had been the
day before. One after another, the men were carried
out of the ravine, dead or dying. The wounded were
brought to the Pasha, who gave them water, money,
or words of encouragement. The "Ordou cadesi,"
or Cadi of the camp, reminded them that it was
against the infidels they were fighting: that every one
who fell by the enemies of the prophet was rewarded
with instant translation to Paradise; while those
who killed an unbeliever were entitled to the same


320 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Cnir. IX.
inestimable privilege. The dying were comforted,
and the combatants animated by the promises and
extortions of the Cadi; who, however, kept himself
well out of the way of danger behind a rock. He
was a fanatic — the fellow; and his self-satisfied air
and comfortable obesity, had created in me very
strong feelings of indignation and disgust; — not
diminished by the new principles of international
law which he propounded in my presence to the
Pasha. "If I swore an oath to these unbelieving
Yezidis," asked his Excellency, "and in conse-
quence thereof, believing their lives to be secure,
they should surrender, how far am I bound thereby?"
"The Yezidis being Infidels," replied his Reverence,
smoothing down his beard, "are in the same cate-
gory as other unbelievers," — here his eye turned on
me ; — " as they do not understand the true nature of
God and of his prophet, they cannot understand the
true nature of an oath : consequently it is not bind-
ing upon them; and therefore, as there is no reci-
procity, it cannot be binding upon you. Not only
could you put them to the sword, after they had sur-
rendered upon the faith of your oath, but it is your
duty as a good Mussulman to do so: for the un-
believers are the enemies of God and his prophet."
Here he again honoured me with a particular look.
The Pasha, as soon as the expounder of the law had
departed, thought it necessary to condemn the atro-
cious doctrines which I had heard, and to assure me
that the Cadi was an ass. This fanatic was half
Kurd, half Arab, and was a specimen of the religious


Chap. IX.] PLIGHT OF THE YEZIDIS. 321
chiefs who dwell in Kurdistan, and in the towns
on its borders; and are constantly inciting the Mo-
hammedans against the Christians, and urging them
to shed their blood. I need scarcely say that the
abominable opinions which they profess, are not
shared by any respectable Turk or Mussulman; and
will no longer, it is to be hoped,—now that the Porte
has established its authority in Kurdistan,—lead to
massacres of the Sultan's Christian subjects.
Attempts were made during the day to induce the
Yezidis to surrender, and there was some chance of
success. However, night drew near, and hostilities
still continued. The regular and irregular troops were
then posted at all the known places of access to the
gorge. The morning came, and the attack was re-
commenced. No signs of defence issued from the valley.
The Hytas rushed in, but were no longer met by the
steady fire of the previous day. They paused, fearing
some trick or ambuscade; then advanced cautiously,
but still unnoticed. They reached the mouths of the
caves;—no one opposed them. It was some time,
however, before they ventured to look into them.
They were empty. The Yezidis had fled during the
night, and had left the ravine by some pathway known
only to themselves, and which had escaped the watch-
fulness of the Turkish soldiery. In the caverns were
found a few rude figures of men and goats, formed of
dried figs fastened upon sticks. These were seized
by the victors, and borne in triumph through the
camp as the gods of the worshippers of Satan. The
Pasha, having fully satisfied himself upon this point,
VOL. I. Y


322 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. IX.
by a reference to his reverence, the Cadi, directed the
idols to be carefully packed, and sent them at once, as
trophies and valuable curiosities, to Constantinople by
a special Tatar.
Whilst attempts were being made to discover the
retreat of the fugitives, the Turkish camp remained
near the village of Mirkan. I took this opportunity
of visiting other parts of the Sinjar. The residence
of the governor of the district is in the village built
amongst the ruins of the old city—the Singara of
the ancient geographers, and the "Belled Sinjar" of
the Arabs. A small mud fort, raised a few years ago,
stands on a hill in the midst of the remains of walls
and foundations; but the principal part of the ancient
city appears to have occupied the plain below. Around
this fort, at the time of my visit, were congregated
about two hundred families. The Yezidi inhabitants
of the village, unlike those of the other districts, are
mixed with Mussulmans. The latter, however, are so
lax in their religious observances, and in dress so like
the Yezidis, that it is difficult to distinguish them
from the unbelievers. I was continually falling into
mistakes, and eliciting a very indignant exclamation
of "God forbid!"
It would be difficult to point out, with any degree
of certainty, ruins at Belled Sinjar more ancient than
the Mohammedan conquest. It became a place of
some importance in the early ages of Islam, and had
its own semi-independent rulers. There are the re-
mains of several fine buildings ; and the lower part of
a minaret, constructed, like that of the great mosque


Chap. IX.] BELLED SINJAR. 323
of Mosul, of coloured tiles and bricks, is a conspicuous
object from all parts of the plain. There are very
abundant springs within the circuit of the old walls;
the air is declared to be salubrious, and the soil rich
and productive.
All the villages of the Sinjar are built upon one
plan. The houses rise on the hill-sides, and are sur-
rounded by terraces, formed of rough stones piled one
above the other as walls, to confine the scanty earth.
These terraces are planted with olive and fig trees;
a few vineyards are found near some villages. The
houses, which are flat-roofed, are exceedingly clean
and neat. They frequently contain several apart-
ments. The walls of the interior are full of small re-
cesses, like pigeon-holes, which are partly ornamental,
and partly used to keep the domestic utensils and
property of the owner. They give a very singular
and original appearance to the room; and the oddity
of the effect is considerably increased by masses of
red and black paint daubed on the white wall, in
patches, by way of ornament.
The principal, and indeed now the only, trade car-
ried on by the inhabitants of the Sinjar, is in dried
figs, which are celebrated in this part of Turkey, and
supply all the markets in the neighbouring provinces.
The soil is fertile, and, as the means of irrigation are
abundant, corn and various useful articles of produce
might be raised in great plenty from the extensive
tracts of arable land surrounding the villages. But
the people have been almost ruined by misgovern-
v 2


Cap. X.]
327
EXCAVATIONS RENEWED.
LS
abad alone, greatly exceeded the whole grant to the
Museum, which was to include private expenses,
those of carriage, and many extraordinary outlays
inevitable in the East, when works of this nature
are to be carried on. I determined, however, to
accept the charge of superintending the excavations,
to make every exertion, and to economise as far as
it was in my power—that the nation might pos-
sess as extensive and complete a collection of As-
syrian antiquities as, considering the smallness of
the means, it was possible to collect. The want of
knowledge and experience as a draughtsman, was a
drawback, indeed a disqualification, which I could
scarcely hope to overcome. Many of the sculptures,
and monuments discovered, were in too dilapidated a
condition to be removed, and others threatened to fall
to pieces as soon as uncovered. It was only by draw-
ings that the record of them could be preserved.
There was no inclination to send an artist to assist
me, and I made up my mind to do the best I could ;
to copy as carefully and accurately as possible, that
which was before me. I had therefore to superintend
the excavations; to draw all the bas-reliefs discovered ;
to copy and compare the innumerable inscriptions ;
to take casts of them*; and to preside over the mov-
ing and packing of the sculptures. As there was no
se
* Casts of the inscriptions and of some of the sculptures were taken
with brown paper, simply damped, and impressed on the slab with a hard
brush. Some of these served as moulds, and were subsequently cast in
plaster of Paris in England. When intended for this purpose the paper
was made into a kind of paste, and mixed with a glutinous powder de-
rived from a root called “Shirais."
. Y 4


328 NINEVEn AND ITS KEMAINS. [Chap. X.
one to be trusted to overlook the diggers, I was
obliged to be continually present, and frequently to
remove the earth myself from the face of the slabs—
as, through the carelessness and inexperience of the
workmen, they were exposed to injury from blows
of the picks. 1 felt that I was far from qualified to
undertake these multifarious occupations. I knew,
however, that if persons equal to the task, and suffi-
ciently well acquainted with the various languages of
the country to carry on the necessary communica-
tions with the authorities, and to hold the requisite
intercourse with the inhabitants—Arabs, Kurds,
Turks„and Chaldaeans—were sent out expressly from
England, the whole sum granted would be expended
before the excavations could be commenced. The
researches would probably be then less extensive, and
their results less complete than they would be if,
however unqualified, I at once undertook their super-
intendence. I determined, therefore, to devote the
whole of my time to the undertaking, and to make
every sacrifice to ensure its success.
It was, in the first place, necessary to organise a
band of workmen best fit to carry on the work. The
scarcity of corn, resulting from the oppressive mea-
sures of Mohammed Pasha, and from the large
exportation which had been made to Syria and the
sea-coast, had driven the Arab tribes to the neigh-
bourhood of the town, where they sought to gain a
livelihood by engaging in labours not very palatable
to a Bedouin. I had no difficulty in finding work-
men amongst them. There was, at the same time,


Chap. X.] CHOICE OF WORKMEN. 329
this advantage in employing these wandering Arabs
—they brought their tents and families with them,
and, encamping round the ruins and the village,
formed a very efficient guard against their brethren
of the Desert, who looked to plunder, rather than to
work, to supply their wants. To increase my num-
bers I chose only one man from each family; and, as
his male relations accompanied him, I had the use of
their services, as far as regarded the protection of my
sculptures. Being well aquainted with the Sheikhs
of the Jebour, I chose my workmen chiefly from that
tribe. The chiefs promised every protection; and I
knew enough of the Arab character not to despair
of bringing the men under proper control. The
Arabs were selected to remove the earth — they
were unable to dig; this part of the labour required
stronger and more active men; and I .chose for it
about fifty Nestorian Chaldaaans, who had sought
work for the winter in Mosul, and many of whom,
having already been employed, had acquired some ex-
perience in excavating. They went to Nimroud with
their wives and families. I engaged at the same time
one Bainan, a Jacobite, or Syrian Christian, who was
a skilful marble-cutter, and a very intelligent man.
I had made also a valuable addition to my establish-
ment in a standard-bearer of the irregular troops, of
whose courage I had seen such convincing proofs
during the expedition to the Sinjar, that I induced
his commander to place him in my service. His
name was Mohammed Agha; but he was generally
called, from the office he held in his troop, the "Bair-


330 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. X.
akdar." He was a native of Scio, and had been carried
off at the time of the massacre, when a child, by an
irregular, who had brought him up as a Mussulman.
In his religious opinions and observances, however,
he was as lax, as men of his profession usually are.
He served me faithfully and honestly, and was of
great use during the excavations. Awad still con-
tinued in my employ; my Cawass, Ibrahim Agha, re-
turned with me to Nimroud; and I hired a carpenter
and two or three men of Mosul as superintendents.
I was again amongst the ruins by the end of
October. The winter season was fast approaching,
and it was necessary to build a proper house for the
shelter of myself and servants. I marked out a plan
on the ground, on the outside of the village of Nim-
roud, and in a few days the habitations were complete.
My workmen formed the walls of mud bricks, dried
in the sun, and covered in the rooms with beams and
branches of trees. A thick coat of mud was laid over
the whole, to exclude the rain. Two rooms for my
own accommodation were divided by an Iwan, or open
apartment, the whole being surrounded by a wall.
In a second court-yard were huts for my Cawass,
for Arab guests, and for my servants, and stables for
my horses. Ibrahim Agha displayed his ingenuity by
making equidistant loopholes, of a most warlike appear-
ance, in the outer walls ; which I immediately ordered
to be filled up, to avoid any suspicion of being the
constructor of forts and castles, with the intention of
making a permanent Frank settlement in the country.
We did not neglect precautions, however, in case of


Chap. X.] ARRANGE MY ESTABLISHMENT. 331
an attack from the Bedouins, of -whom Ibrahim Agha
was in constant dread. Unfortunately, the only
shower of rain, that I saw during the remainder of
my residence in Assyria, fell before my walls were
covered in, and so saturated the bricks that they
did not become again dry before the following spring.
The consequence was, that the only verdure, on which
my eyes were permitted to feast before my return to
Europe, was furnished by my own property — the
walls in the interior of the rooms being continually
clothed with a crop of grass.
On the mound itself, and immediately above the
great winged lions first discovered, a house was
built for my Nestorian workmen and their families,
and a hut, to which any small objects discovered
among the ruins could at once be removed for safety.
I divided my Arabs into three parties, according to
the branches of the tribe to which they belonged.
About forty tents were pitched on different parts of
the mound, at the entrances to the principal trenches
Forty more were placed round my dwelling, and the
rest on the bank of the river, where the sculptures
were deposited previous to their embarkation on the
rafts. The men were all armed. I thus provided
for the defence of all my establishment.
Mr. Hormuzd Rassam lived with me; and to him
I confided the payment of the wages, and all the
accounts. He soon obtained an extraordinary influ-
ence amongst the Arabs, and his fame spread through
the desert.
I divided my workmen into bands. In each set


332 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. X.
were generally eight or ten Arabs, who carried away
the earth in baskets; and two, or four, Nestorian
diggers, according to the nature of the soil and rubbish
which had to be excavated. They were overlooked by
a superintendent, whose duty it was to keep them to
their work, and to give me notice when the diggers
approached any slab, or exposed any small object to
view, that I might myself assist in the uncovering
or removal. I scattered a few Arabs of a hostile
tribe amongst the rest, and by that means I was
always made acquainted with what was going on, could
easily learn if there were plots brewing, and could
detect those who might attempt to appropriate any
relics discovered during the excavations. The small-
ness of the sum placed at my disposal, compelled
me to follow the same plan in the excavations that I
had hitherto adopted,—viz. to dig trenches along the
sides of the chambers, and to expose the whole of the
slabs, without removing the earth from the centre.
Thus, few of the chambers were fully explored; and
many small objects of great interest may have been
left undiscovered. As I was directed to bury the
building with earth after it had been explored, to
avoid unnecessary expense, I filled up the chambers
with the rubbish taken from those subsequently un-
covered, having first examined the walls, copied the
inscriptions, and drawn the sculptures.
The excavations were recommenced, on a large scale,
by the 1st of November. My working parties were
distributed over the mound — in chambers, B, G, and
I, of the palace or edifice represented in plan 3.; in


Tombs :
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Engraveal loy J. XC. Walker.





Chap. X.] BAS-RELIEFS. 333
the centre of the mound near the gigantic bulls *;
in the S. E. corner, where as yet no traces of building
had been discovered ; and at walls a and d of plan 2.
I also opened trenches in parts of the ruins hitherto
unexamined.
It will be remembered that in chamber B (plan 3.),
the slabs from No. 2. to entrance b, had fallen with
their faces to the ground. I was, in the first place,
anxious to raise these bas-reliefs, and to pack them
for removal to Busrah. To accomplish this, it was
necessary to remove a large accumulation of earth and
rubbish—to empty, indeed, nearly the whole chamber,
for the fallen slabs extended almost half way across it.
The sculptures from No. 3. to 11. (inclusive) were
found to be in admirable preservation, although the
slabs were broken by the fall. They were divided,
as those already described f, into two compartments,
separated by an inscription running across the slab.
All these inscriptions were precisely similar.
The bas-reliefs, above and below, were of the highest
interest. They represented the wars of the king, and
the conquest of a foreign nation. The two upper
bas-reliefs, on slabs Nos. 3. and 4., formed one subject
— the king followed by warriors, in battle with his
enemies under the walls of a hostile castle. He
stands, gorgeously attired, in a chariot drawn, as
usual, by three horses richly caparisoned. He is dis-
charging an arrow either against the besieged, who
are defending the towers and walls; or against a
warrior, who, already wounded, is tumbling from his
* At i and./, plan 1. t See page 128.


334 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS- [Chap. X.
chariot, one of the horses having fallen to the ground.
An attendant protects the person of the king with a
shield, and a charioteer holds the reins and urges on
the horses. A warrior, fallen from the chariot of the
enemy, is almost under the horses' feet. Above the
king is his presiding Deity, represented — as at Per-
sepolis —by a winged figure within a circle, and
wearing a horned cap resembling that of the human-
headed lions and bulls. Like the king, he is shooting
an arrow, the head of which is in the form of a
trident.
Behind the king are three chariots; the first drawn
by three horses—one of which is rearing and another
falling—is occupied by a warrior already pierced by
an arrow, and apparently demanding quarter of his
pursuers. In the other chariots are two warriors,
one discharging an arrow, the other guiding the
horses, which are at full speed. In each chariot is a
standard—the device of one being an archer, with
the horned cap but without wings, standing on a
bull; that of the other, two bulls, back to back. At
the bottom of the first bas-relief, are wavy lines, to
indicate water or a river, and trees are scattered over
both. Groups of men, fighting or slaying the enemy,
are introduced in several places: and three headless
bodies above the principal figures in the second bas-
relief represent the dead in the back ground.*
On the upper part of the two following slabs was
the return after victory. In front of the procession
* These bas-reliefs are in the British Museum. See " Monuments of
Nineveh," plates 13. and 14.


Chap. X.] BAS-RELIEFS. 335
are several -warriors carrying heads, and throwing
them at the feet of the conquerors. Two musicians
are playing with a plectrum, on stringed instruments,
or harps similar to those represented on slabs Nos.
19. and 20. of the same chamber.* They are followed
by the warriors, who were seen in battle in the pre-
vious bas-relief, now unarmed, and holding their
standards before them; above them flies an eagle
with a human head in his talons. Behind them is
the king carrying in one hand his bow, and in the
other two arrows—the position in which he is so
frequently represented on Assyrian monuments, and
probably denoting triumph over his enemies. Above
the horses of his chariot is the presiding divinity;
also holding a bow in his hand. The second warrior,
who in war bore the shield, is now replaced by an
eunuch, raising the parasol, the emblem of royalty,
above the monarch's head: the third warrior still
holds the reins of the horses, which are led by
grooms standing at their heads. Behind the king's
chariot is a horseman leading a second horse, gaily
caparisoned.f
After the procession, we have the castle and
pavilion of the victorious king. The ground plan
of the former is represented by a circle, divided into
four equal compartments, and surrounded by towers
and battlements. In each compartment there are
figures evidently engaged in culinary occupations,
and preparing the feast; one is holding a sheep,
* One of them is now in the British Museum,
t "Monuments of Nineveh." plates 21. and 22.


336 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. X.
which the other is cutting up: another appears
to be baking bread. Various bowls and utensils
stand on tables and stools, all remarkable for the
elegance of their forms. The pavilion is supported
by three posts or columns; on the summit of one is
the fir-cone,—the emblem so frequently found in the
Assyrian sculptures; on the others are figures of the
ibex or mountain-goat. They are designed with
great spirit, and carefully executed. The material—
probaby silk or woollen stuff,—with which the upper
part of the pavilion is covered, is richly ornamented
and edged with a fringe of fir-cones, alternating with
another ornament, which generally accompanies the
fir-cone in the embroidery of dresses, and in the de-
coration of rooms. Beneath the canopy is a groom
cleaning one horse; whilst others, picketed by their
halters, are feeding at a trough. An eunuch stands
at the entrance of the tent to receive four prisoners,
who, with their hands tied behind, are brought to him
by a warrior in a pointed helmet. Above this group
are two singular figures, uniting the human form with
the head of a lion. One holds a whip or thong in
the right hand, and grasps his.under jaw with the
left. The hands of the second are elevated and joined
in front. They wear under-tunics descending to the
knees; and a skin falls from the head, over the
shoulders, to the ankles. They are accompanied by
a man clothed in a short tunic, and raising a stick
with both hands.*
The four following bas-reliefs represent a battle,
* "Monuments of Nineveh," plate 30.





Chap. X.] BAS-RELIEFS. 337
in which the king, the two warriors with their
standards, and an eunuch are in chariots; and four
warriors, amongst whom is also an eunuch, on horses.
The enemy fight on foot, and discharge their arrows
against the pursuers. Eagles hover above the victors,
and one is already feeding on a dead body. The
winged divinity in the circle is again seen above the
king. These bas-reliefs are executed with great spirit,
particularly that containing the horsemen.*
The lower series of bas-reliefs contained three sub-
jects— the siege of a castle, the king receiving pri-
soners, and the king, with his army, crossing a river.
The first occupied the under compartments of three
slabs. The greater part of the castle is in the centre
bas-relief. It has three towers, and apparently seve-
ral walls, one behind the other. They are all sur-
mounted by angular battlements. The besiegers have
brought a battering-ram (attached to a moveable
tower, probably constructed of wicker-work) up to
the outer wall, from which many stones have already
been dislodged and are falling. One of the besieged
has succeeded in catching the ram by a chain, and is
endeavouring to raise or move it from its place;
whilst two warriors of the assailing party are hold-
ing it down by hooks, to which they are hanging.
Another is throwing fire (traces of the red paint
being still visible in the sculpture) from above, upon
the engine. The besiegers endeavour to quench the
flame, by pouring water upon it from two spouts in
* "Monuments of Nineveh," plates 26. and 27.
VOL. I. Z


338 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. X.
the moveable tower. Two figures, in full armour,
are undermining the walls with instruments like
blunt spears; whilst two others appear to have found
a secret passage into the castle. Three of the be-
sieged are falling from the walls; and upon one of
the towers are two women, tearing their hair and
extending their hands, in the act of asking for mercy.
The enemy are already mounting to the assault, and
scaling ladders have been placed against the walls.
The king, discharging an arrow, and protected by a
shield held by a warrior in complete armour, stands
on one side of the castle. He is attended by two eu-
nuchs, one holding the umbrella, the other his quiver
and mace. Behind them is a warrior, leading away
captive three women and a child, and driving three
bullocks, a part of the spoil. The women are tearing
their hair.
On the other side of the castle are two kneeling
figures, one discharging an arrow, the other holding
a wicker shield for his companion's defence. Behind
them is the vizir, also shooting an arrow, and pro-
tected by the shield of a second warrior. He is fol-
lowed by three more warriors, the first kneeling, and
two behind in complete armour, erect — one bending
the bow, the other raising a shield. They appear to
have left their chariot, in which the charioteer is still
standing. The heads of the horses are held by a
groom; and behind the chariot are two warriors,
carrying each a bow and a mace.*
* "Monuments of Nineveh," plates 18, 19, 20.


Chap. X.] FRESH DISCOVERIES. 339
The three following bas-reliefs represented the
king receiving captives; the subject being treated,
with the exception of the prisoner,— who is here
omitted,— and of the grouping of the figures, as that
on Nos.17. and 18. in the same chamber, and already
described.* Behind the chariot of the king, however,
are two other chariots, each containing a charioteer
alone. They are passing under the walls of a castle, on
which are women in animated conversation, probably
viewing the procession, or discussing the results of
the expedition.
The three remaining bas-reliefs — the passage of the
river — are highly interesting and curious. In the
first is a boat containing a chariot, in which is the
king. In one hand he holds two arrows ; in the other
a bow. An eunuch, standing in front of the chariot,
is talking with the king, and is pointing with his
right hand to some object in the distance, perhaps
the stronghold of the enemy. Behind the chariot is
a second eunuch, holding a bow and a mace. The
boat is towed by two naked men, who are walking
on dry land ; and four men row the vessel with oars.
One oar, with a broad flat end, is passed through a
rope, hung round a thick wooden pin at the stern,
and serves both to guide and impel the boat. It is
singular that this is precisely the mode adopted by
the inhabitants of Mosul to this day, when they
cross the Tigris in barks, perhaps even more rude
than those in use, on the same river, three thousand
*P. 129.
•/. a


340 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. X.
years ago. A charioteer, standing in the vessel,
holds the halters of four horses, which are swimming
over the stream. A naked figure is supporting him-
self upon an inflated skin, — a mode of swimming
rivers still practised in Mesopotamia. In fact, the
three bas-reliefs, with the exception of the king and
the chariot, might represent a scene daily witnessed
on the banks of the Tigris, —probably the river here
represented. The water is shown by undulating lines,
covering the face of the slab. On the next slab
are two smaller boats; in the first are probably the
couch of the king, and a jar or large vessel; in the
other is an empty chariot: they are each impelled
by two rowers, seated face to face at their oars.
Five men, two leading horses by their halters, are
swimming on skins. Two fish are represented in
the water. On the third slab is the embarkation—
men are placing two chariots in a boat, which is
about to leave the shores; two warriors, one with,
and the other without, support, are already swim-
ming over; and two others are filling and tying up
their skins on the bank. Behind them, on dry land,
are three figures erect, probably officers superin-
tending the proceedings; one of whom, an eunuch,
holds a whip in his right hand, which may have been
used—as in the army of Xerxes—to keep the soldiers
to their duty, and prevent them flying from the
enemy.*
* Herod, book vii. ch. 56., in which Xerxes is described as seeing his
troops driven by blows over the bridge across the Hellespont; and we
learn also, from the same author, that it was the custom for the officers to


Chap. X.] FRESH DISCOVERIES. 341
Chamber I. had only been partly emptied, and the
walls were still half buried. A party of Arabs were
employed in removing the remaining earth. As we
approached the floor, a large quantity of iron was
found amongst the rubbish ; and I soon recognised in
it the scales of the armour represented on the sculp-
tures. Each scale was separate, and of iron, from two
to three inches in length, rounded at one end, and
square at the other, with a raised or embossed line in
the centre.
The iron was covered with rust, and in so decom-
posed a state, that I had much difficulty in detaching
it from the soil. Two or three baskets were filled
with these relics.
As the earth was removed, other portions of ar-
mour were found; some of copper, others of iron,
and others of iron inlaid with copper. At length a
perfect helmet (resembling in shape and in the orna-
ments the pointed helmet represented in the bas-
reliefs) was discovered. When first separated from
the earth it was perfect, but immediately fell to pieces.
I carefully collected and preserved the fragments,
which were sent to England. The lines which are
seen round the lower part of the pointed helmets in
the sculptures, are thin strips of copper, inlaid in the
iron.
Several helmets of other shapes, some with the
arched crest, were also uncovered; but they fell to
pieces as soon as exposed; and I was only able, with
carry whips to urge their soldiers on to the combat: same book, ch. 223,
"The Monuments of Nineveh," plates 15, 16.
z 3


344 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. X.
slab No. 16. were two beardless figures, which, from
a certain feminine character in the features, and from
a bunch of long hair falling down their backs, ap-
pear to be women. They wear the same horned cap
as the bearded figures, and, like them, have wings.
They are facing one another, and between them is the
usual sacred tree. They hold in one hand a garland
or chaplet; and raise the other towards the symboli-
cal tree. They wear a necklace, to which is appended
several circular medallions, with stars.*
The shape of this chamber was singular. It had
two entrances, one communicating with the rest of
the building, the other leading into a small room,
from which there was no other outlet. It resembled
a long passage, turning abruptly at right angles
and opening into a wider, though still an elongated,
apartment.
In chamber J. nothing of any importance was dis-
covered. The slabs were unsculptured; upon each
of them was the usual inscription, which was also
cut upon the slabs forming the pavement. It will be
observed by a reference to the plan (3.), that there
was a recess in one of the corners, resembling a
doorway or entrance; and that the communication
with chamber H. was cut off by a single slab. As it
is not probable that the wall of sun-dried bricks was
carried up to the roof from this slab, there may have
been an opening here, to admit light and air. How-
ever, it is difficult to account for half the architectural
mysteries in this strange building.
* " Monuments of Nineveh," plate 7.


Chap. X.] DISCOVERY OF WINGED BULLS. 345
The entrance formed by the pair of human-headed
lions, discovered in chamber G., led me into a new
hall, which I did not then explore to any extent, as
the slabs were not sculptured.
It was in the centre of the mound, however, that
one of the most remarkable discoveries awaited me.
I have already mentioned the pair of gigantic winged
bulls, first found there.* They appeared to form
an entrance, and to be only part of a large building.
The inscriptions upon them contained a name, differ-
ing from that of the king, who had built the palace
in the north-west corner. On digging further I found
a brick, on which was a genealogy, the new name oc-
curring first, and as that of the son of the founder
of the earlier edifice. This was, to a certain extent,
a clue to the comparative date of the newly discovered
building.
I dug round these sculptures, expecting to find
the remains of walls, but could discover no other
traces of building than a few squared stones fallen
from their original places. As the backs of the bulls
were completely covered with inscriptions, in large
and well-formed cuneiform characters, I was led to
believe that they might originally have stood alone.
Still there must have been other slabs near them. I
directed a deep trench to be carried, at right angles,
behind the northern bull. After digging about ten
feet, the workmen found a slab lying flat on the brick
pavement, and having a gigantic winged figure sculp-
'P. 47.


346 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.X.
tured in relief upon it. This figure resembled some
already described; and carried the fir-cone, and the
square basket or utensil; but there was no inscription
across it. Beyond was a similar figure, still more
gigantic in its proportions, being about fourteen feet
in height. The relief was low, and the execution
inferior to that of the sculptures discovered in the
other palaces. The beard and part of the legs of a
winged bull, in yellow limestone, were next found.
These remains, imperfect as they were, promised
better things. The trench was carried in the same
direction for several days; but nothing more appeared.
It was now above fifty feet in length, and still without
any new discovery. I had business in Mosul, and
was giving directions to the workmen to guide them
during my absence. Standing on the edge of the
hitherto unprofitable trench, I doubted whether I
should carry it any further: but made up my mind
at last not to abandon it until my return, which
would be on the following day. I mounted my horse,
but had scarcely left the mound, when a corner of
black marble was uncovered, lying on the very edge
of the trench. This attracted the notice of the
superintendent of the party digging, who ordered the
place to be further examined. The corner was part
of an obelisk, about six feet six inches in height, lying
on its side, ten feet below the surface.
An Arab was sent after me without delay, to an-
nounce the discovery; and on my return I found the
obelisk completely exposed to view. I descended
eagerly into the trench, and was immediately struck





To face page 347. Vol. I.

99894
Cote
23
30
HUN
.
EN
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THE OBELISK


Chap. X.] DISCOVERY OF THE OBELISK. 347
by the singular appearance, and evident antiquity,
of the remarkable monument before me. We raised
it from its recumbent position, and, with the aid of
ropes, speedily dragged it out of the ruins. Al-
though its shape was that of an obelisk, yet it was
flat at the top, and cut into three gradines. It was
sculptured on the four sides; there were in all twenty
small bas-reliefs, and above, below, and between
them was carved an inscription 210 lines in length.
The whole was in the best preservation; scarcely a
character of the inscription was wanting; the figures
were as sharp and well defined as if they had been
carved but a few days before. The king is twice
represented followed by his attendants; a prisoner is
at his feet, and his vizir and eunuchs are introducing
men leading various animals, and carrying vases
and other objects of tribute on their shoulders, or
in their hands. The animals are the elephant,
the rhinoceros, the Bactrian or two-humped camel,
the wild bull, the lion, the stag, and various kinds
of monkeys. Amongst the objects carried by the
tribute-bearers, may perhaps be distinguished the
tusks of the elephant, shawls, vases of the precious
metals, fruit, and bars of metal, or bundles of rare
wood. From the nature, therefore, of the bas-reliefs,
it is natural to conjecture that the monument was
erected to commemorate the conquest of India, or
of some country far to the east of Assyria, and on
the confines of the Indian peninsula. The name of
the king, whose deeds it appears to record, is the
same as that on the centre bulls; and it is introduced


Chap. X.] SPniNXES IN SOUTH-WEST EDIFICE.
349
destroyed in all the sculptures; those in front were
a monster, with the head of a lion, the body of a man,
and the feet of a bird, raising a sword or stick as if
in the act of striking, and preceded by men also
raising one arm. * Between the two lions, forming
this entrance, were a pair of crumbling sphinxes.
They differed from all Assyrian sculptures hitherto
discovered; nor could I form any conjecture as to
their original use. They were not in relief, but
entire. The human head was beardless ; but whether
that of a male or female, I could not determine: the
horned cap was square, and highly ornamented at the
top, resembling the head-dress of the winged bulls at
Khorsabad. The body was that of a lion. A pair

Sphinx from 3.W Palace (Nimroud )
of gracefully formed wings appeared to support a
kind of table, 'or the base of a column; but as no
* See woodcuts, pp. 462 and 463. Vol. II.


350 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. X.
trace of a column could be found, these sphinxes may
have been altars for sacrifice, or places to receive
offerings to the gods, or tribute to the king. There
was no inscription upon them, by which they could
be connected with any other building.
The whole entrance was buried in charcoal, and
the fire which destroyed the building appears to have
raged in this part with extraordinary fury. The
sphinxes were almost reduced to lime; one had been
nearly destroyed; but the other, although broken
into a thousand pieces, was still standing when un-
covered. I endeavoured to secure it with rods of
iron and wooden planks: but the alabaster was too
much calcined to resist exposure to the atmosphere.
I had scarcely time to make a careful drawing,
before the whole fell to pieces. The fragments were
too small to admit of their being collected, with a
view to future restoration. The sphinxes, when
entire, were about five feet in height, and the same
in length.
Whilst superintending the removal of the charcoal,
which blocked up the entrance formed by the winged
lions just described, I found a small head in alabaster,
with the high horned cap, precisely similar to that of
the large sphinx. A few minutes afterwards, the
body of the crouching lion was dug out, and I had
then a complete and very beautiful model of the
larger sculptures.* It had been injured by the fire,
but was still sufficiently well preserved to show accu-
* Now in the British Museum.


Chap. X.] THE SOUTH-WEST EDIFICE. 351
rately the form and details. In the same place I dis-
covered the bodies of two lions, united and forming
a platform or pedestal, similar to that formed by the
one crouching sphinx; but the human heads were
wanting, and the rest of the sculpture had been
so much injured by fire, that I was unable to pre-
serve it.
The plan and nature of the edifice in which these
discoveries were made was still a mystery to me.
All the slabs hitherto uncovered had evidently been
brought from another building; chiefly from that in
the N. W. part of the mound. The discovery of the
entrance I have just described, proved this beyond a
doubt; as it enabled me to distinguish between the
back and the front of the walls. I was now convinced
that the sculptures hitherto found, were not meant
to be exposed to view; they were, in fact, placed
against the wall of sun-dried bricks; and the backs
of the slabs, smoothed preparatory to being re-sculp-
tured, were turned towards the interior of the cham-
bers. I had not yet had sufficient experience in the
Assyrian character, to draw any inference from the
inscriptions occurring on the bricks found amongst
the ruins in this part of the mound, so as to connect
the name of the king upon them, with that of the
founder of any known building.
There were no inscriptions between the legs and
behind the bodies of the lions just described, as in
other buildings at Nimroud and Khorsabad. I had
not yet found any sculptures unaccompanied by the
name and genealogy of the founders of the edifice


352 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.X.
in which they had been placed. When no in-
scription was on the face, it was invariably to be
found on the back of the slab. I determined, there-
fore, to dig at the back of the lions. I was not dis-
appointed in my search; a few lines in the cuneiform
character were discovered, and I recognised at once
the names of three kings in genealogical series. The
name of the first king in the series, or the founder of
the edifice, was identical with that of the builder of
the N. W. palace; that of his father with the name on
the bricks found in the ruins opposite Mosul; that of
his grandfather with the name of the builder of
Khorsabad. This fortunate discovery served to con-
nect the latest palace at Nimroud, with two other
cities or edifices in Assyria; and subsequently with
important monuments existing in other parts of Asia.
It will be shown hereafter, upon what evidence the
proof of the facts I have here stated rests.*
Whilst excavations were thus successfully carried
on amongst the centre ruins, those of the two palaces
first opened, discoveries of a different nature were
made in the S. E. corner, which was much higher than
any other part of the mound. I dug to a consider-
able depth, without meeting with any traces of build-
ing. Fragments of inscribed bricks, and of pottery,
appeared in abundance; and a few earthen vessels,
and jars well preserved, were found amongst the
rubbish. One morning, the superintendent of the
workmen informed me that a slab had been un-
* See Vol. II. Part II. Chap. I.


Chap. X.] DISCOVERY OF SARCOPHAGUS. 353
covered, bearing an inscription. I hastened to the
spot, and saw the stone he had described lying at the
bottom of the trench. Upon it was a royal name,
which I recognised as that on the bull in the centre of
the mound. The slab having been partly destroyed,
the inscription was imperfect. I ordered it to be raised,
with the intention of copying the characters. This
was quickly effected with the aid of an iron crow;'
when, to my surprise, I found that it had been used
as the lid of an earthen sarcophagus, which, with its
contents, was still entire beneath. The sarcophagus
was about five feet in length, and very narrow. The
skeleton was well preserved, but fell to pieces almost
immediately on exposure to the air: by its side were
two jars in baked clay of a red colour, and a small
alabaster bottle, all precisely resembling, in shape,
similar vessels discovered in Egyptian tombs. There
was no other clue to the date, or origin of the se-
pulchre.
The sarcophagus was too small to contain a man of
ordinary size when stretched at full-length; and it
was evident, from the position of the skeleton, that the
body had been doubled up when forced in. A second
earthen case was soon found, differing in form from
the first. It resembled a dish-cover in shape, and
was scarcely four feet long. In it were also vases of
baked clay. Its lid was a slab taken from some
building, like the lid of the sarcophagus first dis-
covered. Although the skulls were entire when first
exposed to view, they crumbled into dust as soon as
touched, and I was unable to preserve either of them.
VOL. I. A A


354 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. X.
The six weeks following the commencement of ex-
cavations upon a large scale were amongst the most
prosperous and fruitful in events, during my re-
searches in Assyria. Every day produced some new
discovery. My Arabs entered with alacrity into the
work, and felt almost as much interested in its re-
sults, as I did myself. They were now well organised,
and I had no difficulty in managing them. Even
their private disputes and domestic quarrels were
referred to me. They found this a cheaper fashion
of settling their differences than litigation; and I
have reason to hope that they received an ampler
measure of justice than they could have expected at
the hands of his reverence, the Cadi. The tents had
greatly increased in numbers, as the relatives of those
who were engaged in the excavations came to Nim-
roud and swelled the encampment; for although they
received no pay, they managed to live upon the gains
of their friends. They were, moreover, preparing to
glean,—in the event of there being any crops in the
spring,—and to take possession of little strips of land
along the banks of the river, upon which they might
cultivate millet during the summer. They already
began to prepare water-courses, and machines for
irrigation. The mode of raising water, generally
adopted in the country traversed by the rivers of
Mesopotamia, is very simple. In the first place a
high bank, which is never completely deserted by the
river, must be chosen. A broad recess, down to the
water's edge, is then cut in it. Above, on the edge of
this recess, are fixed three or four upright poles, ac-


Chap. X.] MACHINE FOR IRRIGATION. 355
cording to the number of oxen to be employed, united
at the top by rollers running on a swivel, and sup-
porting a large framework of boughs and grass, which
extends to some distance behind, and is intended as
a shelter from the sun during the hot days of sum-
mer. Over each roller are passed two ropes, the one
being fastened to the mouth, and the other to the
opposite end, of a sack, formed out of an entire bullock
skin. These ropes are attached to oxen, which throw
all their weight upon them by descending an inclined
plane cut into the ground behind the apparatus. A
trough formed of wood, and lined with bitumen, or a
shallow trench, coated with matting, is constructed at
the bottom of the poles, and leads to the canal run-
ning into the fields. When the sack is drawn up to
the roller, the ox turns round at the bottom of the
inclined plane. The rope attached to the lower part
of the bucket being fastened to the back part of the
animal, he raises the bottom of the sack, in turning
to the level of the roller, and the contents are poured
into the troughs. As the ox ascends, the bucket is
lowered; and, when filled, by being immersed into
the stream, is again raised and emptied, as I have de-
scribed. Although this mode of irrigation is very
toilsome, and requires the constant labour of several
men and animals, it is generally adopted on the banks
of the Tigris and Euphrates. In this way all the
gardens of Baghdad and Busrah are watered ; and by
such means the Arabs, who condescend to cultivate,—
when, from the failure of the crops, famine is staring
A A 2


Chap. X.] ARAB WOMEN. 350
dered to the complainant; but he refused to accept
them, although the tribe approved of their decision.
As the girl appeared to fear the consequences of the
steps she had taken, I yielded to her solicitations,
and allowed her to remain under my roof. In the
night the man went to the tent of the mother, and
stabbed her to the heart. He then fled into the de-
sert. I succeeded after some time in catching him,
and he was handed over to the authorities at Mosul;
but, during the confusion which ensued on the death
of Tahyar Pasha, he escaped from prison, and I heard
no more of him. The Arabs, on account of this
tragical business, were prejudiced against the girl,
and there was little chance of her being again be-
trothed. I married her, therefore, to an inhabitant
of Mosul.
When I first employed the Arabs, the women were
sorely ill-treated, and subjected to great hardships.
I endeavoured to introduce some reform into their
domestic arrangements, and punished severely those
who inflicted corporal chastisement on their wives.
In a short time the number of domestic quarrels was
greatly reduced; and the women, who were at first
afraid to complain of their husbands, now boldly
appealed to me for protection. They had, however
some misgivings as to the future, which were thus
expressed by a deputation sent to return thanks after
an entertainment: — "0 Bey! we are your sacrifice.
May God reward you! Have we not eaten wheaten
bread, and even meat and butter, since we have been
under your shadow? Is there one of us that has not
A A 4


364 NINEVEH AND ITS REMA1NS. [Chap. X,
chant. I often watched these poor creatures, as they
reverentially knelt—their heads uncovered—under
the great bulls, celebrating the praises of Him, whose
temples the worshippers of those frowning idols had
destroyed—whose power they had mocked. It was
the triumph of truth over paganism. Never had
that triumph been more forcibly illustrated than by
those who now bowed down in the crumbling halls
of the Assyrian kings.
I experienced some difficulty in settling disputes
between the Arabs and the Tiyari, which frequently
threatened to finish in bloodshed. The Mussulmans
were always ready, on the slightest provocation, to
bestow upon the Chaldaeans the abuse usually re-
served in the East for Christians. But the moun-
taineers took these things differently from the humble
liayahs of the plain, and retorted with epithets very
harsh to a Mohammedan's ear. This, of course, led to
the drawing of sabres and priming of matchlocks;
and it was not until I had inflicted a few summary
punishments, that some check was placed upon these
disorders.
The women retained their mountain habits, and
were always washing themselves on the mound, with
that primitive simplicity which characterises their
ablutions in the Tiyari districts. This was a cause
of shame to other Christians in my employ; but the
Chaldaeans themselves were quite insensible to the
impropriety, and I let them have their way.
On Sunday, sheep were slain for the Tiyari work-
men, and they feasted during the afternoon. When


Chap. X.] REMOVAL OF SCULPTURES. 365
at night there were music and dances, they would
sometimes join the Arabs; but generally performed
a quiet dance with their own women, with more
decorum, and less vehemence, than their more ex-
citable companions.
As for myself I rose at day-break, and after a
hasty breakfast rode to the mound. Until night I
was engaged in drawing the sculptures, copying and
moulding the inscriptions, and superintending the
excavations, and the removal and . packing of the
bas-reliefs. On my return to the village, I was oc-
cupied till past midnight in comparing the inscrip-
tions with the paper impressions, in finishing drawings,
and in preparing for the work of the following day.
Such was our manner of life during the excavations
at Nimroud; and 1 owe an apology to the reader for
entering into such details. They may, however, be
interesting, as illustrative of the character of the
genuine Arab, with whom the traveller is seldom
brought so much into contact as I have been.
Early in December a sufficient number of bas-reliefs
were collected to load another raft, and I consequently
rode into Mosul to make preparations for sending a
second cargo to Baghdad. I had soon procured all
that was necessary for the purpose; and loading a
small raft with spars and skins for the construction
of a larger, and with mats and felts for packing the
sculptures, I returned to Nimroud.
The raft-men having left Mosul late in the day, and
not reaching the Awai until after nightfall, were afraid
to cross the dam in the dark ; they therefore tied the


Chap. X.] SEIZURE OF A SHEIKEI. 367
although it has never yet been my good fortune to
see you. I know the laws of friendship ; that which
is my property is your property, and the contrary.
But there are a few things, such as mats, felts, and
ropes, which come from afar, and are very necessary
to me, whilst they can be of little use to you ; other-
wise God forbid that I should ask for them. You
will greatly oblige me by giving these things to me."
"As I am your sacrifice, 0 Bey," answered he, "no
such things as mats, felts, or ropes were ever in my
tents (I observed a new rope supporting the principal
pole). Search, and if such things be found we give
them to you willingly." "Wallah, the Sheikh has
spoken the truth," exclaimed all the bystanders.
"That is exactly what I want to ascertain; and as
this is a matter of doubt, the Pasha must decide be-
tween us," replied I, making a sign to the Bairakdar,
who had been duly instructed how to act. In a
moment he had handcuffed the Sheikh, and jumping
on his horse, dragged the Arab, at an uncomfortable
pace, out of the encampment. "Now, my sons," said
I, mounting leisurely, "I have found a part of that
which I wanted; you must search for the rest."
They looked at one another in amazement. One man,
more bold than the rest, was about to seize the bridle
of my horse ; but the weight of Ibrahim Agha's cour-
batch across his back, drew his attention to another
object. Although the Arabs were well armed, they
were too much surprised to make any attempt at re-
sistance; or perhaps they feared too much for their
Sheikh, still jolting away at an uneasy pace in the


368
[CHAP. X.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
iron grasp of the Bairakdar, who had put his horse
to a brisk trot, and held his pistol cocked in one hand.
The women swarming out of the tents, now took part
in the matter. Gathering round my horse, they kissed
the tails of my coat and my shoes, making the most
dolorous supplications. I was not to be moved, how-
ever; and extricating myself with difficulty from the
crowd, I rejoined the Bairakdar, who was hurrying
on his prisoner with evident good-will.
The Sheikh had already made himself well known
to the authorities by his dealings with the villages, and
there was scarcely a man in the country who could
not bring forward a specious claim against him —
either for a donkey, a horse, a sheep, or a copper kettle.
He was consequently most averse to an interview
with the Pasha, and looked with evident horror on
the prospect of a journey to Mosul. I added con-
siderably to his alarm, by dropping a few friendly
hints on the advantage of the dreary subterraneous
lock-up house under the governor's palace, and of the
pillory and sticks. By the time he reached Nimroud,
he was fully alive to his fate, and deemed it prudent
to make a full confession. He sent an Arab to his
tents; and next morning an ass appeared in the court-
yard bearing the missing property, with the addition
of a lamb and a kid by way of a conciliatory offering,
I dismissed the Sheikh with a lecture, and had after-
wards no reason to complain of him or of his tribe; -
nor indeed of any tribes in the neighbourhood; for
the story got abroad, and was invested with several
horrible facts in addition, which could only be traced


Chap. X.] MR. LONGWORTH. 369
to.the imagination of the Arabs, but which served
to produce the effect I desired — a proper respect for
my property.
During the winter Mr. Longworth, and two other
English travellers, visited me at Nimroud. As
they were the only Europeans (except Mr. Ross),
who saw the palace when uncovered*, it may be
interesting to the reader to learn the impression
which the ruins were calculated to make upon those
who beheld them for the first time, and to whom the
scene was consequently new. Mr. Longworth, in a
letter f, thus graphically describes his visit:—
"I took the opportunity, whilst at Mosul, of visiting
the excavations of Nimroud. But before I attempt to
give a short account of them, I may as well say a few
words as to the general impression which these wonder-
ful remains made upon me, on my first visit to them.
I should begin by stating, that they are all under-
ground. To get. at them, Mr. Layard has excavated
the earth to the depth of twelve to fifteen feet,
where he has come to a building composed of slabs
of marble. In this place, which forms the north-
western angle of the mound, he has fallen upon the
interior of a large palace, consisting of a labyrinth
of halls, chambers, and galleries, the walls of which
are covered with bas-reliefs and inscriptions in the.
cuneiform character, all in excellent preservation.
The upper part of the walls, which was of brick,
* Mr. Seymour also visited me at Nimroud, but before the excavations
were in an advanced stage,
t Morning Post, March 3d, 1847.
VOL. I. B B


374 APPENDIX. [App. I.
the entrances. Fragments of pottery, and remains of masonry
in unbaked bricks. In some places a pavement of baked
bricks.
e. Upper chambers in a part of the mound elevated above
the rest of the platform. (See plan 4.)
f. A mass of solid mosonry of unbaked bricks, reaching
almost to the surface of the platform; perhaps originally a
part of the outer wall. No remains of pottery, or alabaster
slabs.
g. The south-west palace. (See plan 2.)
h. Trenches showing remains of wall cased with alabaster
slabs; probably originally sculptured, but completely de-
stroyed by fire. The mound is here lower than at g.
z. Remains of centre palace ; a pair of gigantic bulls, partly
destroyed, and several bas-reliefs removed from their original
places. Above the ruins numerous tombs.
?i. A large number of sculptured slabs, placed one above
the other.
j. Trench in which the obelisk of black marble was dis-
covered.
k. Part of the mound separated by a deep ravine from h.
The trenches opened in it showed remains of painted
chambers, and masonry of unbaked bricks. Fragments of a
bull, or lion, in yellow limestone, and of an obelisk, or monu-
ment, in black stone, and painted bricks, and pottery, were
discovered here.
1. A platform, or pavement, of thick plaster, immediately
above the ravine.
m. Remains of south-east edifice. (See plan 5.) ^°
sculptures, or alabaster slabs. Above ruins, sarcophagi)
tombs, and a large quantity of pottery.
n. Trenches opened into the mound from the outer slope.
Remains of building similar to those at m, and probably all
part of one large edifice. Pottery, sarcophagi, &c, above
the ruins.
o. Deep trenches. No remains of sculpture or alabaster
slabs. Some pottery amongst the rubbish, and part of a


App. I.] APPENDIX. 375
pavement, in large baked bricks, at a considerable depth
beneath the surface.
p. Similar trenches. A pavement of baked bricks, part
of a wall in roughly hewn blocks of limestone, a few frag-
ments of pottery, and three lion's paws in copper discovered.
No remains of sculpture or alabaster slabs.
q. Similar trenches, showing a pavement of baked bricks,
and of limestone slabs, but no other remains of building.
r. Trenches cut from the eastern face of the mound,
through a solid mass, or wall, of sun dried bricks, nearly fifty
feet thick. In this wall was discovered the small vaulted
chamber.
*. Deep trenches through the outer wall. No other re-
mains of building.
t. Trenches in which fragments of pottery and part of a
pavement were discovered, but no remains of building.
Plan 2.
This building is situated in the south-west corner of the
mound, and is built of slabs evidently brought from else-
where, the inscriptions upon most of them being similar to
those in the north-west palace. The only bas-reliefs, which
may have faced the chambers, are those in walls n, o, r, rr, q,
ss, t, u, v; but they also appear to have belonged to another
building: all the others have their sculptured sides turned
towards the wall of sun-dried bricks. It is sometimes doubtful
which wsiy the slabs face; as, for instance, in wall ss, where
the opposite slabs have not been discovered. All the walls,
except n, q, s, ss, and t, have been destroyed by fire.
Plan a.
All the slabs, except 5 and 10, arc unsculptured, and have
on the back the inscription found behind the slabs in
the north-west palace, from whence they were evidently
b u 4


App. I.] APPENDIX. 379
WALL m.
TJnsculptured slabs, with the usual inscription from the
north-west palace, with the exception of one slab, on which
could be traced the remains of a colossal figure.
wall n.
No. 1. Unsculptured.
2. Two groups of warriors discharging arrows; probably
from centre palace.
3. Horsemen pursuing enemy. Vulture above, with the
entrails of the slain.
Another slab, which had not been placed, was found near
this wall. It contained a bas-relief with several castles on a
hill, but was greatly injured.
wall o.
All the slabs in this wall appear to have been sculptured,
but the bas-reliefs were almost completely destroyed.
wall p.
The panelling of alabaster slabs had disappeared.
waLL q.
No. 1. Divided into two compartments. In the lower,
the king, and his vizir, standing over a prostrate enemy;
followed by their eunuchs and other attendants. The upper
compartment was almost entirely destroyed, but appears to
have contained warriors on horseback. A wounded figure,
wearing a helmet with a curved crest, was seen beneath the
horse's feet.
2. Appears to have been a continuation of No. 1.; but
only the feet of several figures, probably attendants, could be
distinguished.


382 APPENDIX. [App. 1
5 and 6. Upper compartments contain one subject — pro-
cession of king and warriors returning after victory. Heads
of the slain brought before them. Musicians playing on
stringed instruments. Over the king's head presiding divi-
nity with bow. Eunuch raising the parasol.
7, Upper compartment — interior of a castle and a pavilion.
Figures engaged in domestic occupations; eunuch receiving
prisoners; horses feeding; lion-headed human figures in one
corner.
8, 9, 10, 11. Upper compartments, one subject—a battle
scene. King in his chariot, accompanied by warriors and
eunuchs in chariots and on horses; enemy on foot; eagles
flying over the victors; winged divinity in a circle above the
king.
3, 4, 5. Lower compartments — siege of a castle. Batter-
ing-ram attached to a moveable tower; figures in armour
undermining the walls; women on towers tearing their hair;
scaling-ladders placed against the walls. The king discharg-
ing an arrow, protected by the shield of a warrior, and at-
tended by two eunuchs. Vizir, and other figures, some
kneeling, others standing, discharging arrows on the other
side of the castle.
6, 7, 8. Lower compartments. King, followed by his
chariot and attendants, and by the chariots of his warriors,
receiving captives. Women viewing the procession from
the walls of a castle.
9, 10, 11. Lower compartments. King crossing a river
in a boat; smaller boats, carrying chariots and furniture;
figures swimming on inflated skins, others tying up their
skins on the bank; embarkation of the chariots; three at-
tendants superintending the passage of the river.
12. Colossal figure of the king, holding a cup in one hand,
and his bow in the other; attended by eunuch carrying his
arms.
13. Two kings facing one another, and attended by winged
figures; a bas-relief similar to that on slab 23.
14. Similar to slab 12.


App. I.]
383
APPENDIX.
15. Colossal winged figure facing entrance b, with garland
round head, carrying a flower with five branches in one hand,
and square vessel in the other.
Entrance b. 1 and 2, Winged human-headed bulls in
yellow limestone, facing chamber B. 3 and 4, slabs with
standard inscription.
16. Similar to 15; figure facing entrance b.
17. Upper compartment-castle by a river. One tower
defended by an armed man, two others occupied by females ;
three men swimming across the stream, two on inflated skins ;
two warriors on the bank, discharging arrows against the
fugitives; trees in the background.
18. Upper compartment-siege of city, with battering-
ram and moveable tower; king and his attendants under the
walls.
17 and 18. Lower compartments contain one subject —
king followed by his chariot and attendants, receiving pri-
soners.
19. Upper compartment- king hunting the lion.
19. Lower compartment - king raising the sacred cup, and
standing over the conquered lion.
20. Upper compartment- king hunting the wild bull.
20. Lower compartment - king raising sacred cup, and
standing over prostrate bull.
21. Corner-stone, similar to No. 2.
22. Colossal winged figure, with three-horned cap, carry-
ing basket and fir-cone: facing 23.
23. Slab cut into a recess in which are two kings facing
one another, separated by the symbolical tree, and each fol-
lowed by a winged figure carrying fir-cone and basket. Above
the sacred tree, and between the kings, is the winged divinity
in a circle, holding a ring in one hand. In front of this
sculpture was a large slab for a throne or altar.
24. Colossal winged figure, similar to No. 22.: facing 23.
25. Corner-stone, similar to No. 2.
26. Colossal human figure, with four wings; the right
hand raised, and in the left a mace: facing entrance c.


App. I.J APPENDIX. 385
D.
Slab 1. Winged figure, about fourteen feet high, with
three-horned cap, fir-oone, and square vessel.
2. Colossal figure of king holding bow and arrows, followed
by eunuch, carrying his arms: facing No. 3.
3. Vizir, facing the king (No. 2.), and followed by eunuch.
4. Also vizir followed by eunuch.
5. 6, 7, 8. Colossal figures, apparently captives, bringing,
as presents or tribute, ear-rings, bracelets, &c. Figure
on slab 7, accompanied by two monkeys. All facing en-
trance d.
E.
Nos. 1 and 2. Figures resembling Nos. 5—8. chamber D,
bringing ear-rings, bracelets, and other ornaments on trays.
3 and 4. Similar to 1 and 2.
5. Gigantic winged figure resembling No. 1. chamber D.
F.
All the slabs, except No. 4., occupied by colossal eagle-
headed figures in pairs, facing one another, and separated by
the symbolical tree.
No. 4. Colossal figure of the king attended by eagle-headed
figures, and wearing figures of the sun, moon, star, horned
cap, and bident round his neck.
G.
Entrance a. 1 and 2, Colossal figures without wings,
wearing garlands round their heads, right hand raised, and
in the left a flower with three blossoms. 3 and 4, unsculp-
tured, with the usual inscription. All the figures in this
chamber are colossal, and remarkable for the careful finish of
the sculpture and elaborate nature of the ornaments.
No. 1. Corner-stone, with sacred tree.
VOL. I. C C


386 APPENDIX. [App. I.
2, 3,4. One subject—king seated on his throne, attended
by three eunuchs and two winged figures.
18, 19. Winged figures: facing entrance d.
21, 22, 27. Eagle-headed figures: facing entrances c
and b.
26. Unsculptured, with usual inscription.
All the other slabs in the east wall have, alternately, the
king holding a cup in one hand and a bow in the other,
attended by two eunuchs; and the king holding two arrows
in one hand and a bow in the other, attended by two winged
figures, carrying the fir-cone and basket. On the west wall
the groups are similar; but the king's hand is on the hilt of
his sword, instead of holding the bow.
In front of Nos. 20. and 29. are square slabs of alabaster,
with a hole in the centre.
Entrance b. 1 and 2, Human-headed winged lions; facing
chamber Y.
Entrance c. 1 and 2, Colossal winged figures, holding fir-
cone and basket: facing hall Y. 3 and 4, unsculptured, with
usual inscription.
Entrance d. 1 and 2, Colossal eagle-headed winged figures:
facing chamber N.
Entrance e. 1 and 2, Colossal winged human figures,
bearing fir-cone and square utensil: facing chamber G. 3 and
4, unsculptured, with usual inscription.
II.
No. 1. Winged human figure, with fillet round the head,
bearing fir-cone and basket: facing entrance e.
All the other slabs in this chamber have the king holding
a cup in one hand, and a bow in the other, standing between
two winged figures, with garlands round their heads similar
to No. 1. There are three recesses in the western wall, in
slabs 3, 30, and 32.


392 APPENDIX. [App. U.
or cedar, covered with an imitation of drapery, which was
gilded, while the exposed parts of the body, similar to the
wooden statues with stone extremities, called axpoxdoi by
the Greeks, were executed in ivory. There is no trace of
staining.
7. Jaws of a lion or panther, 2 inches high, and 2 inches
wide.
8. A stag, grazing, and going to the left; incomplete; 4{
inches long.
9. Heads of two other stags, proceeding in the reverse
direction, to the right.
10. Anterior part of a stag, nearly in full relief, head
raised.
11—16. A cow, and portions of others, standing towards
the right, but turning back its head, and licking its calf;
3T\ inches long.
17. Similar cow, turned to the left; 3 inches long.
18. Calves, which have apparently formed part of a group
with the cows, which they may have been suckiDg; 1$ inch
long.
19. 20. Bodies of winged gryphons, 1^ inch long.
21. The fragment of a bull, going to the right; the eye in-
laid with blue; 1,^ inch high.
22. A fragment of another bull, lT3j inch long.
The remainder are all portions of flat panels, of about j
inch thick, with tenons above and below; they are all carved
in bas-relief, of a round and Egyptian style; the accessories,
such as the eyes, draperies, and portions of the chair, inlaid
with a deep-blue glass, probably an imitation of lapis lazuli,
and some of the more important parts gilded. They are
evidently the prototype of the toreutic work of the Greeks.
23. 24, 25. Three panels, which represent each the same
subject, a monarch unbearded, wearing on his head the
Egyptian hheprr, or helmet, which is ornamented with a series
of annulations or rings, perhaps to show that it was of chain
or scale armour, and has in front the uraeus serpent, emblem
of royalty, with an Assyrian garment round the loins, like


App. II.] APPENDIX. 393
the Egyptian shenti, apparently, from its corrugated folds,
intended to represent wool, with a long pendent fold on the
left side; the whole with a border of oval drops; the legs
bare, and unshod, advancing to the right; holding in his left
hand a tall flower of the lotus, which rises out of a clod of
earth; the whole representing the Egyptian symbol for the
upper country. As pendents to these are three other panels,
26, 27, 28., on which a figure, exactly the same, advances
to the right. These, which are nearly of equal size, measuring
3-tt> 3£ inches high, and 2£, 2^ inches wide, have evidently
been placed in composition with one another, probably arranged
in pairs, or else in series, facing to the right and left.
29. Two figures in Egyptian style, with hair falling in
locks from the crown of the head; squared at the base;
wearing the shenti round the loins; standing face to face,
and cording up between them a double flower of the papyrus;
each figure places one foot on a flower of the papyrus. These
figures are apparently imitated from the ordinary representa-
tion of the Nile, cording up the flowers of the lotus and pa-
pyrus, common to the sides of Egyptian thrones. There is
half of a similar panel with the figure on the left side —
30. The large panel measures 3TT inches wide, and 3
inches high; the fragment 2{£ inches by lT£ inch.
31. Portion of another panel, representing an Assyrian
deity, bearded and draped, standing, looking to the left, and
holding in his pendent left hand a symbol of life, probably
the god Baal or Belus; 2T7^ inches high.
32—35. Three panels and head from another, also of style
peculiarly Egyptian. They represent a kind of window with
three plain mouldings, in which is a head carved in Egyptian
style in very salient relief, the locks falling in regular rows
of curls: in some instances these curls are tied at the ends.
The neck has a collar round it, and is placed on a stand, sup-
ported by four pillars with capitals, in shape of the lily lotus.
These measure 3T77 inches square, and were probably disposed
:»t the gable end of whatever object they decorated.
There are four other heads (36), of most exquisite style


396
[App. III.
APPENDIX.
11. * The king standing over the prostrate bull.
12. *7 The siege of a castle, with a battering-ram and
moveable tower, and the king under the walls.
13. * † The king followed by his attendants and his
- chariot, receiving prisoners.
14. * Prisoners led by warriors and eunuchs. Part of the
preceding subject.
15. † Two heads; one of the king, the other of his attendant
eunuch. Part of a large slab, the rest destroyed.
16. Eagle-headed human figure: the wings, which were
on an adjoining slab, are wanting in this specimen. I
17. †A winged human figure, bearing the fir-cone and
square utensil.
18. † The human head of a winged bull, and a hoof from
the same sculpture, in yellow limestone.
19. * King crossing a river; horses swimmimg, and men on
inflated skins.
20. † Continuation of the preceding Boats carrying
chariot and furniture; horses swimming, and men on skins.
21. * Sequel to preceding. Eunuch and warriors superin-
tending embarkation of chariot in a boat; men preparing
skins for crossing the river.. (These three bas-reliefs were
broken in many pieces.)
22. * Interior of castle or pavilion, with persons engaged
in domestic occupations or sacrifice ; horses feeding, &c.
23. Warriors in chariots, with standards, pursuing enemy.
24. * Horsemen contending with the enemy. Continuation
of the preceding.
25. Eunuch warrior in chariot, contending with the enemy.
Part of same subject.
26. King in his chariot, discharging an arrow. Part of
same subject.
27. * King in his chariot, returning in triumph from battle;
parasol borne over his head by an eunuch.
All these single figures are between 7 ft. 6 in, and 8 ft.


398 APPENDIX. [Apr. III.
45. The king, followed by his attendants and chariot, re-
ceiving his vizir.
46. Chariots passing under castle walls; upon which are
women. Part of preceding subject.
47 and 48. Colossal figure of the king, standing, holding
a cup in one hand and his bow in the other, followed by two
eunuchs bearing his arms.
49. An eunuch raising a fly-flapper or fan. Part of pre-
ceding subject.
50. Colossal figure of the king holding two arrows in one
hand and a bow in the other, followed by a winged figure
with the fir-cone and square utensil.
51. Two colossal figures: one an eunuch, belonging to
group on 46 and 47, and the other a winged figure belonging
to group on 48.
52. * Eunuchs writing down the amount of spoil of sheep
and cattle; women in carts drawn by oxen. (From centre
palace.)
53. tCart with women; castle and two battering rams.
Sequel to preceding subject.
54. f Warrior discharging an arrow from behind a shield
held by a second warrior; palm-tree behind. (From centre
palace.)
55. A flock of camels; part of spoil. (From centre palace.)
56. * A flock of sheep and goats. Part of preceding subject.
(From centre palace.)
57. *f Prisoners, with their arms bound behind, preceded
by an eunuch. (From centre palace.)
58. * The king holding a long staff or wand.
59. fThe assault of a city; part of a bas-relief. (From
centre palace.)
60. * t The head of a figure, with a conical cap made up of
bands. (From the south-west palace.)
61. t The head of a king.
62. fThe head of an eunuch.
63. *Two colossal figures from the procession of tribute-
bearers; one brings two monkeys.


App. III.] APPENDIX. 399
f Five small winged figures.
64. *f Human head of a winged bull, in relief. (From
the centre palace.)
65. * Large bas-relief from the end of the great hall B of
the north-west palace, representing two kings standing before
the sacred tree, and followed by winged figures. (In five
pieces.)
66. fPart of a bas-relief with siege of a castle and figures
impaled. (From centre palace.)
67."
68.
69.
70.
71.
72. Human head of a winged bull, in coarse limestone-
(From south-west palace.)
73. *f A head with a garland and three rosettes round the
temples. The colours well preserved.
74. *f The obelisk.
75. * Fisherman in a pond. (Kouyunjik.)
76. f Warriors leading horses. (Kouyunjik.)
77. f Archers and slingers. (Kouyunjik.)
78. A stone with figures, sacred emblems, and an inscrip-
tion. (Kouyunjik.)
79. Sitting figure in basalt. (Kalah Sherghat.)
80. fAn inscription with the name of the Khorsabad
king. (North-west palace, Nimroud.)
81.1 fTwo small tablets with standard inscription, from
82. J Nimroud.
83. f Inscription. (Kouyunjik.)
84. f Cast of a warrior on horseback.
85. fCast of two warriors turning back and discharging
arrows.
END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.


LONDON:
A. and G. A. SPOTTISWOODE,
New-street-Square.


A LB KM A Rl,II StBEKT,
January, 1855.
MR. MURRAY'S LIST.
NEW WORKS JUST PUBLISHED.
AN ENGLISHWOMAN'S IMPRESSIONS OF
MANNERS AND SOCIETY IN RUSSIA,
DURING A TEN YEARS' RESIDENCE IN THAT COUNTRY.
With Woodcut*. Post 8vo. 10«. ltd.
The Englixhwuman inKustia. "Our readers will observe that throughout our remarks
-we have relied on the statements of an anonymous author. But we have various
grounds, which we can barely glance at, for receiving them with confidence. In the first
place, they correspond substantially with the statements upon similar topics of Haxthausen
and Custine, and, in addition to this, they convey with them the impression that we are
dealing with a truthful person. Her volume displays little of the practised writer's art;
but it is clear, calm, sensible, and apparently candid. She is properly careful to disguise
the names of the persons to whom she refers, and whom she may have met in Russian
society. She is frequently, by the remembrance of much hospitable treatment, induced
to say all she can in their praise. She cordially remembers the warmheartedness of her
Russian friends, and bids adieu to them for ever with regret; and she may or may not
have published her impressions reluctantly, but, at all events, we are disposed to receive
them as accurate and authentic."—Times.
Tlie Englishwoman in Kmsia. "Since the 'Letters from the Baltic,' we have met
with no book descriptive of the society and manners of a foreign nation, comparable with
these impressions of a ten years' residence in the land of our astute and powerful enemy.
It is no mere passing impression of the points of difference of life and feeling, which the
most careless traveller can gather from the surface of social life as he rides or drives
post-haste through a new country, that our gifted authoress presents in her present volume.
Her views are the results of experience, and her opinions such as study alone can
warrant a writer in expressing."—Britannia.
The Englishwoman in Russia "Ten years of domestication in Russia might be
expected to produce some knowledge of the couutry, when the person so domesticated was
an English lady, free from prejudice, frank in her disposition, shrewd in her perceptions.
Ladies are anion? the best observers of our home life, and the writer of this book proves
unquestionably that she has all the qualifications necessary to a trustworthy reporter.
Her book, written without pretension, is admirably put together; it is not a diary, but
a planned and well-considered piece of writing ; and though it consists mainly of incidents
belonging to the author's personal experience, they are all such as serve to display in
the most striking way some general fact, the author's purpose being to illustrate not
herself, but Russia, to tell not any part of her own inner life, but something of the inner
life of a great empire concerning which too many false accounts are current. It is a
vert valuable as well as a very delightful book."—Examiner.


NEW WORKS JUST PUBLISHED.
HISTORICAL MEMORIALS OF CANTERBURY.
THE LANDING OF AUGUSTINE-THE MURDER OF BECKET-
THE BLACK PRINCEBECKET'S SHRINE.
BY THE REV. ARTHUR P. STANLEY, M.A.,
Canon of Canterbury.
With Woodcuts. 8vo. 78. 6d.
RUSSIAN CAMPAIGNS ON THE DANUBE
AND THE BALKAN—1828-29.
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With Map and Plans of Brailow, Varna, Silistria, and Schumla. 8vo. 148.
HISTORY OF SPANISH LITERATURE.
WITH CRITICISMS ON PARTICULAR WORKS, AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF
PROMINENT WRITERS.
BY GEORGE TICKNOR, ESQ.,
Second and Cheaper Edition. 3 Vols. 8vo. 248.
THE ART OF TRAVEL;
OR, HINTS ON THE SHIFTS AND CONTRIVANCES AVAILABLE IN WILD COUNTRIES,
BY FRANCIS GALTON,
Author of "The Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa."
Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 6s.
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE
MECHANICAL INVENTIONS OF JAMES WATT.
ILLUSTRATED FROM HIS CORRESPONDENCE WITH HIS FRIENDS, AND A
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MEMOIRS OF
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EDITED BY THE RIGHT HON. J. W. CROKER.
Second and Cheaper Edition. Portrait. 2 Vols. 8vo. 218.


NEW WORKS JUST PUBLISHED.
A CHURCH DICTIONARY.
A MANUAL OF REFERENCE FOR CLERGYMEN AND STUDENTS.
BY WALTER FARQUHAR HOOK, D.D.,
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Seventh Edition, revised. 8vo. 168.
ATHENS AND ATTICA.
" JOURNAL OF A TOUR.
BY REV. CHRISTOPHER WORDSWORTH, D.D.
Canon of St. Peter's, Westminster.
Third Edition. With Maps and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 88. 6d.
MEMOIR OF SIR FOWELL BUXTON.
BY HIS SON.
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NOTES OF A NATURALIST IN THE
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BY DR. J. D. HOOKER, F.R.S.
With Maps, Plates, and Woodcuts. 2 Vols. 8vo. 368.
HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY THE GREAT, A.D. 690
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8vo. 128.


NEW WORKS JUST PUBLISHED.
. TREASURES OF ART IN GREAT BRITAIN.
BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THE CHIEF COLLECTIONS OF PAINTINGS, DRAWINGS,
SCULPTURES, MINIATURES, MSS., Ac., IN THIS COUNTRY.
BY DR. WAAGEN,
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With Index. 3 Vols. 8vo. 3(1*.
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Vols. III. and IV. (completing the work) 8vo. li«. each.
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HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH POOR LAW:
IX CONNECTION WITH THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
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2 Vols. Svo. 2S«.
"The title of this work gives by no means an adequate idea of its contents. Instead
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has long been a desideratum no one will deny. Those who are interested in the subject
could not refer to a more authentic source of information than the work before us. The
official position which Sir George Nicholls held in connection with the administration of
that law, afforded him the amplest opportunity of becoming acquainted with its working.
We have only in conclusion, to express our appreciation of this valuable contribution to a
branch of our history which had not hitherto received any systematic or connected
treatment."—Hunting VhrunicU.
NOTES FROM LIFE.-
BY HENRY TAYLOR, ESQ.,
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A SCHOOL HISTORY OF GREECE.
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ROMAN CONQtJEST, WITH CHAPTERS ON
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BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D.,
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MR. MURRAY'S LIST.
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FROM THE DEATH OF PHILIP OF MACEDON TO THE END OF THE REION OF
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*,* A copious Index to the entire work is also preparing.
LORD BROUGHTON.
A JOURNEY THROUGH ALBANIA.
OTHER PROVINCES OF TURKEY IN EUROPE AND ASIA, TO CONSTANTLNOPI.E.
DURING THE YEARS 1S0» avd 1810.
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HANDBOOK OF MEDIEVAL ART.
TRANSLATED FROM THI PKENCH OF II. JULES LABABTHE, AND EDITED WITH NOTES
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BY MRS. PALLISER.
With Woodcuts. 8vo.
REV. DR. ROBINSON.
BIBLICAL RESEARCHES IN THE HOLY LAND.
BY REV. EDWARD ROBINSON, D.D.
A Now and Revised Edition. With Maps. 8vo,
REV. DR. ROBINSON.
LATER BIBLICAL RESEARCHES IN TnE HOLY IAND
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4-
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BY SIR CHARLES LYELL, F.R.S.
Fifth Edition, revised, with 500 Woodcuts. 8vo.
In this new edition the size of the work has increased from 500 to 650 pages, and the
illustrations have been augmented in a still higher proportion. Many results of original
observation, made during several recent tours by the author, especially in Madeira,
Teneriffe, and other volcanic islands, have been introduced into the text, nearly the whole
of which has been recast.
REV. B. JOWETT.
ST. PAUL'S EPISTLES TO THE THESSALONIANS,
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ST. PAUL'S EPISTLES TO THE CORINTHIANS.
WITH CRITICAL NOTES AND DISSERTATIONS, &c.
BY REV. ARTHUR P. STANLEY, M.A.,
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2 Vols. 8vo.
GEORGE BORROW, ESQ.
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TRANSLATED FROM THE DANISH, WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND NOTES.
BY GEORGE BORROW, ESQ.
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18 MR MURRAY'S LIST.
MURRAY'S BRITISH CLASSICS.
A SERIES OF CAREFULLY RBYI9ED AND REAUTIFULLY PRINTED EDITIONS OF
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Publishing Monthly in Demy Octavo Volume*, 7». 6d. each.
The following Worla are now in progress, or preparation:
I. THE WORKS OF ALEXANDER POPE. Edited by
the Rioht Hon. John Wilson Choker. Assisted by Petee Cuhsttwg-
HAM, F.S.A.
*,* This edition will be collated, for the first time, with all the editions
which appeared in the Poet's lifetime, including those of Wartrarton, Waxton
and Roscoe, and tho allusiens throughout will be explained with greater
fulness and accuracy than has yet boon attempted. The Letters will include
hitherto Pope's unpublished correspondence with Edward Earl of Oxford,
and with Broome, his assistant in the translation of the Odyssey; while the
life will contain many new facts of importance, and correct many errors of
previous biographers.
n. THE WORKS OF DRYDEN AND SWIFT. Edited
with Notes.
III. HUME'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. A new Edition,
carefully revised throughout, with notes and commentations, to correct
his errors and supply his deficiencies.
When a young man of eighteen asks for a History of England there is no
resource but to give him IIumr. David Hume is the master of the field.
There is not a page of his that we could not correct and amplify, nevertheless
we cannot do without him, we have not the resolution nor, we may add, the
genius to supply a substitute. On the whole we expect to see no rival to
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IV. POETICAL WORKS OF LORD BYRON. Edited,
with Notes.
V. THE WORKS OF JOSEPH ADDISON. Edited, with
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"The experiment in cheap literature thus begun by Mr. Murray—perhaps equalled
by none in boldness—has certainly been begun in the right way. In no other way,
at such a price, could it possibly hope to succeed. The series must include no works
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the production, for very many years, of others having in that respect superior merit.
As long as this is done, we believe firmly that the publisher may find himself well
rewarded for his most spirited undertaking. For surely the best works of our boat
writers, issued in the best way, ought to command for at least two generations such
a sale as shall render possible a price which otherwise could by no means secure for
either editors or publisher a just remuneration. Wherefore moBt heartily do we wish
Mr. Murray good speed, and offer him all encouragement in his worthy effort."
—The Examiner.
tit For a Lilt of Worla already Published, «ee page 6.


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DEAN PEACOCK.
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THE INVENTOR OP HIEROGLYPHICS.
BY GEORGE PEACOCK, D.D., DEAN OF ELY.
With Portrait. 8vo.
DR. YOUNG.
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS OF DR. YOUNG.
ONE OF THE EIGHT FOREIGN ASSOCIATES OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE
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TURKEY AND ITS INHABITANTS.
THE MOSLEMS, GREEKS, ARMENIANS, 4c—THE REFORMED INSTITUTIONS,
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SIR GEORGE GREY.'
POLYNESIAN MYTHOLOGY.
AND ANCIENT TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF THE NEW ZEALAND RACE, AS
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BY SIR GEORGE GREY.
Governor of the Cape of Good Hopo, and Late Governor-in-Chief of New Zealand.
With Woodcuts. Post 8vo.
THE LATE J. G. LOCKHART.
ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS,
HISTORICAL AND ROMANTIC. TRANSLATED, WITH NOTES.
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Fourth Illustrated Edition, with Woodcuts and Colours. 4to.
BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WAIT FRIAK&.






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