ера
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NOTES ON CLIMATE
AND OTHER SUBJECTS
IN
EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
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NOTE
The statistical information in this volume is intended to
present in generalized form a representation of the average
atmospheric conditions in the region of the Mediterranean
east of Malta and thence to the Persian Gulf, and the areas
to north and south of this axial line. The mean and extreme
departures of some of the climatic elements from the normal
values are also given. Direct observations of upper air currents
are wanting for the greater part of the area dealt with, and the
relation of these currents can for the most part only be inferred
by the application of general theory to the interpretation of
surface conditions. It is intended that this book should be
used, in this connexion, in conjunction with a volume on
general meteorology now being prepared for the use of the
Air Services by the Meteorological Office.
Notes explanatory of the tables have been added for each
of the main divisions of the region, and attention is drawn
to any special points affecting aviation.
418309





CONTENTS
SECTION I
UHAr. PAGE
I. Climate or the Balkan Peninsula and the Aegean Sea 9
Tables 35
II. Climate of Asia Minor .136
Tables 143
III. Climate of Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine. . . 162
Tables 169
IV. Climate of Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf . 202
Tables 219
V. Climate of Lower Egypt, including Sinai Peninsula 232
Tables 243
VI. Climate of Cyrenaica, Tripoli, and Malta . . 257 .
Tables 261
VII. Avoidance of III Effects of Aviation . . . 272
VIII. Note on Magnetic Variation 274
IX. Tables of Mean Pressures and Temperatures
Computed for Different Altitudes above the
Ground 275
X. Formulae and Conversion Tables .... 284


LIST OP MAPS
(in pocket at end of volume)
Plate I. Mean
Plate II. Mean
Plate III. Mean
Plate IV. Mean
Plate V. Lines
Isobars, January.
Isobars, April.
Isobars, July.
Isobars, October,
of Equal Magnetic
Variation, 1917.


CHAPTER I
CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA AND THE
AEGEAN SEA
Physical Features
The southern portion of the Balkan Peninsula consists of
a mountainous region lying between the Adriatic Sea on the
west and the Aegean and Black Seas on the east. As one of
the great land-masses which project into the Mediterranean,
it has the general climatic character of the larger of these,
such as the Iberian Peninsula and Asia Minor, in that its
coastal belt enjoys a temperate climate,while the inland parts,
which are at a distance from the sea and are often at a con-
siderable altitude, experience a continental type of climate
with a wide range of temperature and a less abundant rainfall
in the winter months.
Although the Balkan Peninsula from 43° N. lat. to the
south of Greece is geographically in a similar situation to
Southern Italy, its climatic conditions differ widely from those
which are generally associated with the Mediterranean.
Eastern Europe and Western Asia lie to the northward, where
a severe winter climate is experienced, while on the south the
warm waters of the Mediterranean separate the peninsula
from the sub-tropical region of North Africa. Thus its
geographical position on the border-line between the strongly
marked inland or * continental' climate of Eastern Europe
and the warmer and more equable one of the Mediterranean
region gives rise to wide differences in the climate of places
which are not very far distant from one another. Besides
the position, which brings the inland portions within range
of a continental climate while the eastern and western shores
and Southern Greece enjoy milder conditions, the general


10 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
air-circulation, over the Eastern Mediterranean exercises a
powerful influence upon the climatic conditions, bringing
cold northerly gales to the south of the Aegean Sea in winter,
while the northerly, 'Etesian', winds of summer temper the
heat of that season.
The complex of mountain ranges which extends along the
eastern shore of the Adriatic is known as the Illyrian Alps,
and these join in Northern Serbia with the Transylvanian Alps
where the Danube passes from the Hungarian plain into that
of Roumania. From this point the Balkan Mountains con-
tinue to the Black Sea as a wall which divides the valley of
the Danube from the lands to the southward. On the south
side of the Balkan Mountains lies the Roumelian plain, which
extends from near Sofia on the west to the Black Sea and
Constantinople on the east, and is bounded on its southern
side by the Rhodope Mountains of Roumelia.
With the exception, therefore, of this eastern plain, the
Balkan area is a region of mountains and valleys, an elevated
mass of country deeply carved out into mountain ridges and
narrow valleys in which the rivers of the country flow. Here
and there the wider portions of the valleys, or the junction
of two or more main valleys, furnish small tracts of level
ground, but for the most part it is a mountainous country.
The Balkan range of mountains is an important feature in
the climate of Bulgaria, since it stands as a barrier between
the northerly winds of Roumania and the fertile Roumelian
plain to the south. Here in this plain, except in the spring
months, an area is found which enjoys an abnormally warm
climate under the shadow of the mountains, from which warm
and dry air-currents descend after depositing a large pro-
portion of their moisture on the northern slopes of the range.
The western end of the plain is shut in by the mountainous
country of Western Bulgaria and Serbia, which forms a much
eroded plateau in which the winter conditions are severe.
The mountain system, which includes practically the whole
of Serbian and Bulgarian territory, extends to Albania and
Greece, while the numerous islands of the Greek coasts are


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
11
the witnesses of a former wider extension of these same hill
ranges. In Greece the deeply indented coast-line admits the
waters of the Aegean and the Adriatic to a large coastal area,
and, consequently, introduces the mild and temperate con-
ditions of the Mediterranean climate, while the continental
conditions of the Balkans extend in a modified form to the
plateaux and hills of Northern Greece.
Meteorological Stations
Under such conditions as have been described above it is
difficult to obtain satisfactory sites for meteorological stations,
which have usually to be established in places which are con-
venient of access rather than especially suited for observing.
The direction of the valley in which the station lies and of the
neighbouring mountain ranges usually affect the circulation of
air at the station and may cause it to differ considerably from
the general movement of air over the region. These meteoro-
logical stations, too, are usually few in number, so that only
a very generalized idea of the climate can be obtained from
the data which they furnish, while the peculiarities of any
particular station may be given a greater significance than
they really possess.
In order to investigate the climatic conditions of the Balkan
Peninsula we require stations representing those which
prevail in these various regions—the hill-country of the
Balkans, the Roumelian plain, with its milder conditions;
those of the Adriatic coast of Albania and of the northern
coast of the Aegean will represent a transition zone between
the continental climate of the Balkans and the Mediterranean
climate of the more southern regions. The modified conti-
nental conditions of Northern Greece will be shown by the
towns of Thessaly and Epirus, while the coastal and southern
towns enjoy a true Mediterranean climate. Observations
which have been made at the following stations furnish a
satisfactory collection of material from which the climate of
the country may be deduced.


12 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
List of Stations
Place.
Altitude.
Lat
N.
Long. E.
Remarks.
Group I:
Feet.
0
'
a
Chepelare
3,625
41
44
24
42
High-level stations.
Samokov
3,117
42
20
23
34
Rilski Monastir
3,855
42
8
23
21
Kustendil
1,722
42
17
22
41
Sofia .
1,804
42
42
23
20
Group II:
Burgas
49
42
29
27
29
Roumelian Plain.
Stara Zagora
Kazanlyk
768
42
25
25
28
1,220
42
37
25
24
Haskovo
640
41
56
25
25
Philippopolis.
525
42
9
24
45
Group III:
Monastir
2,034
41
1
21
23
Western Macedonia.
iiskiib
804
42
0
21
26
Group IV:
Ragusa
49
42
38
18
7
Adriatic Coast.
Scutari
33
42
3
19
30
Durazzo
22
41
19
19
28
Valona
33
40
29
19
30
Group V:
Constantinople
246
41
2
28
28
North Coast of
Kavalla
39
40
55
24
22
Aegean Sea,
Salonica
7
40
39
22
57
Group VI:
Yanina
1,590
39
47
20
55
Inland stations of
Trikkala
367
39
35
21
45
Northern Greece.
Larissa
246
39
36
22
24
Lamia .
230
38
54
22
15
Group VII:
Volo .
20
39
24
22
58
Stations on the
Chalchis
36
38
27
23
30
Eastern Coast of
Athens
351
37
58
23
44
Greece.
Nauplia
20
37
33
22
48
Group VIII:
Androa
154
37
47
24
45
Islands in the South
Syra .
1,073
37
29
24
56
Aegean Sea.
Naxos .
16
37
6
25
23
Santorin
30
745
25
36
25


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
13
Place.
Altitude.
Lot. N.
Long. E.
Remarks.
Group IX:
Feet.
0
f
0
t
Cythera
574
36
9
23
0
Sea south of Greece.
Canea .
131
35
30
24
31
Candia
111
35
21
25
30
Group X:
Corfu .
98
39
38
19
33
Ionian Islands and
Arta .
177
39
10
20
45
West Coast of
Kephalonia .
26
38
11
20
15
Greece.
Patras
16
38
14
21
44
Zante .
10
37
33
22
48
Of the meteorological stations in Bulgaria, five have been
selected from those which are situated in the western mountain
region and in the Rhodope range to represent the high-level
conditions, and the first group includes the stations in this
mountainous part of the country. Chepelare is in the
Rhodope range, almost due N. of Kavalla and about 55 miles
distant. Samokov is SE., and Rilski Monastir nearly due
S. of Sofia, and about 30 and 40 miles distant from it respec-
tively; Kustendil is about 30 miles SW. of Sofia.
At Sofia in the west (1,804 ft.) the level country is of small
extent, since to the north-west and south the mountainous
country of Western Bulgaria hems it in, and climatically it
is more conveniently grouped with other hill stations than with
the places in the Roumelian plain.
In the second group, which contains stations representing
the more favourable climate of the Roumelian plain, Philippo-
polis and Haskovo are on the south side of the plain, while
Kazanlyk is at the foot of the Balkan range; Stara-Zagora
is some 20 miles away to the south-east at the foot of a small
group of hills lying in front of the Balkans; and Burgas is
a port on the Black Sea. On the south side of this plain the
Rhodope mountains extend in a south-easterly direction from
Serbia and Western Bulgaria to Adrianople, while their
southern spurs reach the northern coast of the Aegean Sea.
The climate of Western Macedonia is represented by Uskiib
and Monastir (Group III), which are the only stations furnish-


14 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
ing observations extending over an adequate period. The
conditions which they represent may be taken as continuing
westward until the influence of the Adriatic gives rise to
a milder and less rigorous climate; and the four stations of
Ragusa, Scutari, Durazzo, and Valona, which represent this
coastal climate, are included in Group IV, so far as data from
them are available.
The other coast-line of Macedonia—that of the Aegean Sea
—is represented by Salonica and Kavalla (Group V), to which
is added Constantinople, where the climatic conditions are
very similar to those of the other two places in this group.
These three stations represent a climatic transition between
the Mediterranean climate and that of the Balkans. Here
snow falls every winter, and rather low temperatures are not
uncommon, but the rainy season is in the winter, and a com-
paratively small amount of rain falls in the hot summer
months. The sixth group is of much the same character,
since the stations represent the inland regions of Northern
Greece and are situated at a moderate altitude. The winter
is cold, and the summer months are hot and dry. The seventh
group represents the milder climate of the east coast of Greece,
where low temperatures are exceptional and the rainfall is
moderate in quantity. The eighth group includes the islands
of the South Aegean, where the climate is mild in winter and
the rainfall is somewhat heavy. Crete and the sea to the south
of Greece (Group IX) are very similar in their climatic con-
ditions to the islands of the South Aegean. The tenth group,
the Ionian Islands and the west coast of Greece, has a mild
winter climate with only occasional frost and a considerable
winter rainfall.
Seasons.
In Bulgaria and Serbia the four seasons of spring, summer,
autumn, and winter are convenient climatic divisions of the
year, as is generally the case in the north temperate zone, but
in the more southern regions of Greece, Cyprus, Asia, Syria,
and still more markedly in Egypt, the spring and autumn


16 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
The Balkan Peninsula
While the climate of Greece and the Aegean Sea is of the
Mediterranean type, which is characterized by a hot summer,
a mild winter, and a maximum rainfall in the winter months,
that of the Balkan Peninsula is of the continental type with
a cold winter, a warm summer, and a rainfall which is dis-
tributed throughout the year. On the north there is little
to shield it from the cold northerly and north-easterly winds
which blow from Russia; the warm waters of the Adriatic
are separated from it by the coastal ranges of Albania and
Bosnia; the Black Sea is too much affected by the climate of
the Russian Steppes to have the moderating influence on the
Balkan climate that the Adriatic and the Mediterranean
exercise on their shores. Moreover, the Black Sea is normally
an area of low pressure during the winter, so that northerly
winds are prevalent on its western shores.
The summer temperature is moderately high, reaching 95° F.
and even 100° F. as a maximum in most years at many stations
in summer, but in winter the low temperatures recorded at all
stations are much below those of other countries of the
northern coasts of the Mediterranean. At Sofia — 24° F. has
been recorded in January, and temperatures nearly as low
have occurred at other stations during a period of ten years.
During the summer months periods of dry, hot weather
alternate with thunderstorms and heavy rainfall, after which
cooler and fine weather sets in for a time.
The cold dry conditions which prevail on the steppes of
Southern Russia during the winter months whenever the
pressure is high frequently extend to the Balkan Peninsula
and account for the moderate rainfall and the low tempera-
tures which are then experienced. Such cold periods are
characterized by calms or light winds, clear skies, and very
low night temperatures.
The rainfall is distributed fairly equally throughout the
year and in no month is the average amount very large,


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
17
3 to 4 inches being as a rule the average rainfall of the wettest
month; a minimum of rainfall occurs in winter, December
or January having usually the smallest amount. The rainfall
then increases until the early summer, the maximum occurring
usually in June, a month in which thunderstorms are especially
common, and after this the amount decreases until August or
September when a second minimum occurs, which is followed
in November by another maximum.
The passage of depressions over or near the Balkans from
west to east is of frequent occurrence, especially during the
winter months, and these cyclonic systems exert an important
influence on the climate. On the approach of such a depres-
sion from the westward the temperature begins to rise and
the sky becomes clouded; the winds become northerly or
southerly according as the centre of the depression passes
to the southward or northward of the Balkans; the weather
is showery, with snowfall at some stations if the winds are
northerly. As the centre of the depression approaches, the
temperature rises, the weather becomes mild or even warm
for the time of year, with rainfall generally and increasing
wind. As the depression moves away to the eastward, north-
westerly winds set in with colder weather and often consider-
able falls of snow. Similar changes accompany the passage of
each depression which is of any intensity, and if these follow
one another at short intervals, showery, unsettled, and cloudy
weather with a comparatively mild temperature may continue
for several days or even two or three weeks. More commonly,
however, high-pressure conditions assert themselves once
or twice in each month over Hungary, the Carpathians,
Roumania, or Southern Russia, and as these spread to the
Balkan Peninsula the weather becomes colder; it is at first
cloudy with local rain or snow showers with moderate or fresh
northerly winds. As the pressure rises, the temperature falls,
winds become light and northerly, with calms at many
stations, and the sky is usually clear, though at times there
is a considerable amount of cloud during such a period of
anticyclonic conditions. These periods of clear, calm, and
AIE—eM, В


18 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
cold weather coincide frequently with the northerly and
north-easterly gales with low temperatures which occur in
the Aegean Sea under these conditions of pressure distribution.
The most favourable winter weather occurs when a broad
belt of equal and moderately high pressure extends from
South Russia over the Balkan Peninsula to the north coast of
Africa (Cyrenaica), while a shallow low-pressure area lies
over central Europe, or over the Levant and Syria. In the
former case mild, clear weather prevails, with light southerly
winds; in the latter, the temperature is about the mean
value for the month, the sky is clear, and light northerly and
north-westerly winds prevail.
In the summer months depressions arriving from the
Mediterranean are few, but irregularities in the distribution of
pressure occur not infrequently and favour the development
of local thunderstorms with heavy rainfall, which are a marked
feature of this season in the Balkans. The weather before
such a storm is hot and dry, very low values of relative
humidity being often recorded. After the thunderstorm has
passed away cooler weather prevails for a while.
Greece and the Aegean Sea
The climate of Greece and the Aegean Sea is typically
Mediterranean, being characterized by a hot dry summer and
a mild winter with considerable rainfall, but on the northern
shore and the high ground of Thessaly the commencement of
a transition to the continental conditions of the Balkans is
apparent.
In summer the temperature is generally high, and little if
any rain falls, so that the whole country becomes sunburnt
and dried up; in the rocky valleys, where the northerly
winds are not felt, the temperature may be considerably
above that recorded at more open and exposed stations.
Northerly winds predominate and blow with great steadiness
at this season. Haze is frequent and visibility is usually
much below that of the cooler months. As almost every-


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
19
where on the coasts of the Mediterranean, daily alternation
of the land and sea breezes is well developed on the shores
of the Aegean.
In winter the temperature is never very low, except at some
of the inland stations, which are situated at a considerable
altitude, but slight frosts occur occasionally even as far south
as Athens. The days are pleasantly warm except during the
continuance of the northerly winds.
The winter coincides with the rainy season of the Mediter-
ranean, and from November to February rain falls frequently,
especially on the western coast of Greece and of Asia Minor,
but the rainfall of the eastern coast of Greece is markedly
less. The rain falls during the passage of cyclonic systems
which pass frequently in the winter months from west to east
over or near to Greece, and over the Aegean Sea. As the
spring approaches such depressions tend to follow more
northerly tracks, and the rainfall throughout Greece diminishes
towards the summer minimum.
Snow also is recorded once or twice in most years at several
of the Greek stations. *
As summer conditions give place to those of the winter,
cyclonic depressions, which rarely pass over the Eastern
Mediterranean in the summer, begin to invade it, and through-
out the winter they occur frequently, giving rise to gales,
heavy rain and generally unsettled weather. Their general
direction of movement is from west to east, but their paths
are usually curved and often very irregular. Those that
affect Greece and the Aegean Sea may pass over them, or to
the southward, or over the Balkan region to the north.
In the first case strong southerly winds may prevail in the
Aegean Sea as the depression approaches, veering to the
north-west as the depression passes away to the eastward.
The more persistent southerly gales occur when a depression
or a series of depressions passes to the north of the Aegean
Sea and causes strong southerly winds to continue for three
or even four days. The depressions which pass to the south
of Greece give rise to northerly and north-easterly winds of
B 2


20 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
some strength which are often full gales if the atmospheric
pressure over the Balkan region is high at the same
time.
Notes on the Tables
The climatological data which are given in this section will
probably be consulted usually in order to ascertain the extreme
conditions which may be anticipated in any month, or to see
what phenomena are restricted to certain seasons.
The monthly extremes of temperature (Mean Monthly Maxi-
mum and Mean Monthly Minimum, Tables III and VI, pp. 44,
56) show the highest and lowest temperatures which are to be
expected in any month. Occasionally these limits may be
passed, and the Tables IV and VII (the Absolute Maximum
and Absolute Minimum Temperatures pp. 50, 60) show the
highest and lowest temperatures which have hitherto been
recorded.
While the humidity of the air may be considerable when
the mean of the day is taken as in Table XI, p. 70, neverthe-
less at some stations and under favourable meteorological
conditions the air may be extremely dry, and the extent to
which this is the case is shown in Table XII, p. 74.
The rainfall in any month may frequently exceed the Mean
Rainfall, Table XIII, p. 76, but it is unlikely to reach the
amount of the Highest Rainfall, Table XIV, p. 80.
The northerly gales of winter which sweep down on the
Aegean from the Baltic highlands, Table XX, p. 118, the
thunderstorms of summer, and the rainfall of southern
Greece, are examples of phenomena having a special relation
to certain seasons.
Temperature,
In summer high temperatures occur especially at places in
the Roumelian Plain and at Salonica, since this town lies under
the lee of the hills which keep off the northerly breezes. June,
July, and August are the hottest months, a sensible reduction


ANJ) THE AEGEAN SEA
2i
of temperature occurring in September. In the Roumelian
Plain Stara Zagora is especially to be mentioned as having
a very warm summer climate, in which the fig and the sugar
cane ripen in gardens where irrigation is practicable.
In winter very low temperatures occur over all Bulgaria
and Macedonia, especially in the hill districts. The tempera-
ture of 0° Fahrenheit is not infrequently recorded, especially
in the mountains, and it is only on the shores of the Aegean
Sea and the Adriatic that milder conditions occur. Snow falls
frequently in December, January, and February, and occasion-
ally in November and March. The temperature begins to rise
appreciably in March, and in April the climate is generally mild.
The mean temperature of the various stations and the mean
values for each district are given in Table I, p. 36. July and
August are the hottest months, there being everywhere but little
difference between them. The lowest mean temperature occurs
everywhere in January. At the hill stations of Bulgaria the
lowest mean temperatures are recorded, 25°-27 ° F., as compared
with 41° F. on the Aegean coast. February is from 2° F.
to 4° F. warmer, but the most rapid increases take place
between March and April, and April and May. In the summer
the difference in the mean temperature of different districts,
which is so noticeable in winter, practically disappears, for
while the Bulgarian hill stations have a mean temperature in
July of 65° F., that of all the other districts lies between 73° F.
and 77° F.
A well-marked decrease of temperature occurs everywhere
in September and October, amounting to about 6° to 8° F. in
each month, while in November with the commencement of
winter conditions a more rapid decrease takes place.
At the Greek stations also January is the coldest month,
but at none of them is the mean temperature so low as 32° F.;
at Larissa, where the lowest mean temperature is recorded,
it is 39° F. The temperature rises slowly in February and
March, and then more rapidly in April and May, reaching its
highest value, about 80° to 83" F., in July or August.
The mean daily maximum temperature recorded at the.


22 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
various stations is given in Table II, p. 40, where it will be seen
that July and August have the highest values. The range of
the daily maximum temperature in different districts is from
about 80° P. in the hill stations to about 90° F. on the shores
of the Adriatic.
A better measure of the maximum temperatures which are
likely to occur is given by the mean monthly maximum or
the mean of the highest temperatures recorded in each month
(Table III, p. 44). These range from 87° P. to 95°F. at the hill
stations to 95° F. to 101° F. in the Roumelian Plain, where
the highest temperatures occur, Salonica 99-1° being the only
other place at which the maximum temperature in August will
probably reach 100° F.
In Table IV, p. 48, the highest temperatures recorded are given
so far as they are available, and the highest value 106-5° F. is
recorded at Haskovo in the southern part of the Roumelian
Plain; but Kustendil, Burgas, Stara Zagora, and Salonica
have all recorded temperatures over 100° F. during the past
12 or 15 years.
In Greece the mean daily maximum temperature (Table II,
p. 42) is especially marked at the inland stations where higher
temperatures occur than at those on the coast; at Trikkala in
northern Greece (Group VI) the mean daily maximum is 95° F.
in July and August as compared with 84° F. in the islands of
the southern Aegean Sea (Group VIII). The highest tempera-
tures which may be anticipated in any month (Table III, p. 46)
vary from 105° F. at Trikkala and 102° F. at Larissa to
92°-94° F. in the Greek Islands.
The highest temperatures which have been recorded (Abso-
lute Maximum, Table IV, p. 50) reach 110° F. and 111° F. at
many stations not only at the inland stations but also at some
coast stations such as Chalchis and Arta, and on islands as
Kephalonia.
Tables V, VI, and VII (pp.52,56,60) set forth the information
relating to the lowest temperatures which have been recorded,
and this is complete for the Bulgarian stations, but less so for the
other places for which the summarized results only are avail-


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
23
able at present. The lowest temperatures occur everywhere
in January. December and February are but little warmer
at most stations. In winter the lowest temperature in January
is about 0° F. at all the hill stations, and about 10° F. at those
in the Roumelian Plain, while at the coast stations it is 5° or
6° F. below freezing point. The Bulgarian stations experience
very low temperatures in February also, the lowest which are
to be anticipated being about 8° F. above those of January.
In the summer moderate temperatures occur as the minimum
values at the hill stations, where in July the mean daily
minimum is about 52° F., and the lowest minimum in the
month about 45° F. In the Roumelian Plain the correspond-
ing temperatures are about 7° F. higher, and on the Adriatic
and Aegean coasts about 17° F. higher than those of the
Bulgarian hill stations.
In Table VII, p. 60, the lowest temperatures which have
been recorded at the various stations are given, and the intense
cold of the winter at the Bulgarian hill stations is well shown.
These periods of very low temperature coincide with the occur-
rence of high atmospheric pressure over the Balkans, Roumania,
and southern Russia. As the barometer rises the temperature
falls, especially at night; clear skies prevail, and light winds
are the rule. Day by day the air over the Balkan plateau
gets colder until the advance of a depression from the western
Mediterranean and the Adriatic brings a warm moist current
of air leading to the formation of cloud and milder conditions.
These high pressure (anticyclonic) conditions may continue
for several days, and not infrequently for one or two weeks.
Under the continental conditions which prevail in the
Balkans, with corresponding temperatures low in winter and
high in summer, the maximum range of temperature is always
considerable. The difference between the highest and lowest
temperatures which are to be anticipated in each month gives
the monthly range of temperature, and this is set out in
Table X., p. 66.
The range of temperature is greatest at the hill stations
in January when, as has been already said, extremely low


24 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
night temperatures prevail. In the Roumelian Plain the
maximum range falls in October, when cold nights begin to
occur, while the day temperatures are still fairly high. Western
Macedonia (Group III) experiences a range which is very
similar to that of the Roumelian Plain.
On the coasts the range is naturally much less, on account
of the moderating influence of the waters of the Mediterranean,
which in winter are from 4° F. to 6° F. and even 8° F. above
the temperature of the coastal towns.
In Greece much more temperate conditions prevail, and
only at some of the inland stations of Northern Greece does
the mean daily minimum temperature (Table V, p. 54) fall as
low as 32° F. Elsewhere it varies between 40° F. and 50° F.
in January and rises to about 70° F. in the summer months.
The lowest temperatures to be anticipated (mean monthly
minimum, Table VI, p. 58) are below freezing point in the North
of Greece in December and January, especially at the inland
stations, but not elsewhere. In exceptionally severe winters
low temperatures are experienced in Northern Greece, and the
lowest temperatures which have been recorded are given in
Table VII, p. 62.
Frost
From the above it may be seen that frost may occur at the
inland stations of Northern Greece from November to March,
but only in January and February in the Greek islands.
Under the conditions which prevail in the Balkan region during
the winter months, the prevalence and the continuance of frost
is a factor of considerable importance. In Table VIII, p. 64,
the average number of days is given on which the temperature
fell below 32° F., and also, for certain stations, the average
number of days in each month on which it did not rise above
freezing point throughout the day. At the hill stations frost
is of daily occurrence during December, January, and February,
and in the Roumelian Plain it occurs on rather more than half
the days on the average. But conditions vary considerably in
different years, and in Table IX, p. 65, the maximum number


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
25
of occurrences of frost are given in the same form for these
stations. Thus it may be seen that in years when meteoro-
logical conditions are favourable to the occurrence of low
temperatures frost may occur daily in December, January,
and February, and from ten to twenty days in each month
the temperature may be below 32° F. throughout the twenty-
four hours.
Humidity
The mean relative humidity for the day is given in Table XI,
p. 70, from which it will be seen that December has the highest
mean value. In summer there is naturally a considerable
diminution, and this is especially marked in the Roumelian
Plain, where the mean value for Stara Zagora in August is only
50 per cent. The hot and dry summer climate of this place
has already been referred to. The prevailing dry northerly
winds of the summer months are the cause of comparatively
low values for the humidity at Constantinople and also at
Salonica, where the maximum temperature in summer is
abnormally high, as has been mentioned above.
In any month, however, great variations occur, for during
the mild cloudy weather which accompanies the passage of
depressions and the occurrence of rain the humidity is
usually very high; while during the prevalence of anticyclonic
conditions and northerly winds the air is frequently extremely
dry, the relative humidity falling occasionally to 20 per cent,
and even less in the afternoon. See Table XII, p. 74.
In Greece also the humidity in summer is not high, since
rain falls comparatively rarely, and the prevalent winds are
from the north. The lowest values occur at the inland stations
of Northern Greece, and the highest at those in the Ionian
Islands.
Rainfall
The first three groups, which include stations of Bulgaria
and Macedonia, show the same character of distribution of
the rainfall. May or June and October or November are the


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
27
for the month. Here, too, June is the month of the heaviest
rainfall, this being due to the heavy rain which accompanies
the thunderstorms, which reach their maximum frequency in
June (see Table XXII, p. 124).
Rain-days1 show the same distribution as the rainfall, and
in Bulgaria the highest numbers occur in May and June.
In wet summers two-thirds of the days may in these months
be more or less wet. In the more southern regions the
Mediterranean character is more apparent, and the number
of rain-days in July and August is but one-third of the
number that occur in the winter months or even less (Table
XV, p. 82).
Snow
Snow may be expected at any time from November to
April, and in December, January, and February it falls
frequently. In the hill country one day in three represents
the average frequency of snowfall in these three months,
while in the Roumelian Plain it is about one day in six.
The average number of days on which snow falls at different
stations is given in Table XVI, p. 86, as well as the average num-
ber of days during which the ground is covered with snow. The
maximum values for the periods for which observations are
available are given in Table XVII, p. 90, and from this it will be
seen that in the harder winters the ground in the hill country
may be covered with snow for the whole of December, January,
February, and March, and the Roumelian Plain for January
and February.
Snow falls every year on two or three occasions at some
of the Greek stations. While the average number of days on
which snow falls in each winter month at Salonica is nearly
one per month, at the various Greek stations its occurrence
is rarer except at the northern and inland stations, as is shown
in Table XVI, p. 88.
1 Days on which 0-2 mm. or 0-008 in. of rain fell.


28 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
Mist and Fog
The prevalence of mist and fog is so much affected by local
conditions that no general description of its distribution is
possible. Table XVIII, p. 90, gives the mean number of days of
mist or fog in each month for the Bulgarian stations and for
Salonica, The winter months show the highest values, while
the summer months are almost free from this phenomenon.
Haskovo appears to be particularly liable to misty weather.
The observations do not indicate to what extent dust and
heat haze affect visibility in the summer months, but it is
likely that under the prevailing conditions these may at times
restrict it considerably.
The distribution of fog and mist on so broken a coast line
as that of Greece is difficult to represent with any accuracy,
for the geographical conditions at any station largely deter-
mine the number of misty days that are recorded. The
observations taken at Athens record mist on about 20 days
in each of the winter months, while at many of the other
stations the average is from 3 to 5. Such observations as are
available have been summarized in Table XVIII.
Winds
The wind directions of Roumelia and Macedonia are given
in detail in Table XIX, p. 94, but any general account of
them that will give an accurate representation is difficult;
probably owing to the local peculiarities of some of the
stations. The great preponderance of north-westerly and
south-easterly winds at Uskiib is an instance of this.
In the summer the general flow of the air currents is from
a northerly or north-westerly direction, but their predomi-
nance is not strongly marked and winds are recorded with
a fair frequency from all directions. At the coast of the
Aegean Sea, and at Constantinople, the northerly and north-
easterly winds (the * Etesian' winds of the Greeks and the
* Meltemi' of the Turks) become more definitely the prevailing
winds. At almost all stations except those on the Aegean


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
29
coast a large percentage of the observations record calms, so
that light to moderate winds ordinarily prevail.
In Table XX, p. 118, the total numbers of days with winds
of gale force which have been recorded in eleven years are
given, and it will be seen that in the winter months these
amount to more than one per month on the average only at
the hill stations.
In the winter the conditions are different, for the Mediter-
ranean is now an area of low pressure, and very high pressure
frequently occurs in Southern Russia and over Roumania
and the Balkan region. Under these conditions light winds,
clear skies, and low night temperatures prevail over the high
plateau regions, and although the winds here attain no great
strength, the cold air pours down from the Balkans into the
low-lying area of the Aegean Sea as a gale which often con-
tinues for three, four, and even six days.
At this season, however, northerly winds are not so pre-
dominant as during the summer months, since the frequent
passage of cyclonic depressions over and to the north of Greece
gives rise to southerly and south-westerly winds which may
often exceed the northerly winds in frequency at this season
of the year.
In summer these depressions occur more rarely, and the
northerly winds blow with great steadiness until the summer
conditions begin to wane.
With the passage of depressions across the Balkans in winter
strong southerly and south-westerly winds occur, with mild
cloudy weather and often heavy rain, but these conditions
cease as the depression moves away to the eastward and cold
north-westerly winds, often accompanied by snow-showers,
succeed them. At this season gales are rather more frequent
than in summer, but even in winter the proportion of calm
days is very considerable.
The daily alternation of the wind during the summer
months at coastal stations is of general occurrence. For a few
hours after sunrise there is an almost complete calm, but two
or three hours before noon a breeze sets in from the sea,


30 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
becoming gradually stronger until by the afternoon it is of
moderate force. This sea-breeze dies down about sunset, and
a little later a light breeze blows from the land toward the
sea, and continues until shortly before sunrise, but never
attains the force of the sea-breeze.
Gales
Those recorded at the Bulgarian stations have been referred
to above, and are summarized in Table XX, p. 118.
The winds which cause a rough sea in the Aegean Sea are
almost exclusively from between north-west and north-east,
or from between south-east and south-west; strong easterly
or westerly winds are rare. Daily observations are available
from Athens for a series of years, and these give both the wind
force and the state of the sea; observations at Smyrna also
are available for eight years, and these two series may fairly
be utilized to furnish data concerning the gales which occur
in the Aegean Sea during the winter months.
An analysis of the daily observations for the twelve years
1902-13 is given in Table XXI, p. 120, where the days on which
the sea was reported as rough, very rough, or high are classified
according as the wind was from a northerly or a southerly
quarter. As some of these winds were only 1 moderate' or
'fresh ', the number of days on which the northerly and the
southerly winds were of gale force are given in additional
columns. For the most part such strong winds and rough sea
lasted only for one or two days, and in the fifth column the
gales which lasted for more than two days are noted.
From this table it will be seen that the days of northerly
winds are more numerous on the whole than those on which
a rough sea was caused by southerly winds; that the maximum
number of days on which the sea was reported as rough varied
from 12 to 15 in different months, and that the average was
from 5-5 to 0-8.
Some gales lasted for six and even seven days, but three and
four were more usual periods. The northerly gales, which
include almost all those of over two days' duration, occurred


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
31
when the atmospheric pressure was very high over the Balkans
or Southern Russia. Under these conditions during the winter
months the temperature on the Balkan highlands is low, and
frequently very low (see Tables VI and VII, pp. 56, 60). The
air over this region becomes very cold, and under suitable
conditions pours off the high lands into the low-lying Aegean
Sea as a strong wind which rises occasionally to full gale force.
Recent observations show that this stream of cold air is of no
great thickness—about 5,000 feet perhaps—but it may attain
a very considerable velocity and is of a strongly gusty character.
At the same time that such a northerly gale is blowing in the
Aegean, the highlands of Bulgaria and Serbia enjoy typical
anticyclonic conditions, viz. clear skies, and light breezes with
very low night temperatures; so long as these conditions
prevail the gale in the Aegean Sea may last, but occasionally
the wind drops for a while and then recommences, as the
controlling conditions vary.
On the approach.of a depression from the westward, the
weather in the Balkans becomes cloudy and milder, thus
putting an end to the conditions which gave rise to the gale
in the Aegean Sea, and the wind then rapidly moderates.
The southerly gales occur when a depression is approaching
the Grecian coast from the west, or when a depression passes
over the Balkan region to the north of the Aegean Sea. They
usually take from one to two days in passing, though occasion-
ally one of exceptional size, or two following in quick succession,
may protract a southerly gale to three or four days.
Thunderstorms
As is the case generally in Central Europe, the greatest
number of thunderstorms occur in the summer months. In
Tables XXII and XXIII, pp. 124, 128, the average numbers in
each month during a period of 10 years, 1901-10, are given,
and the maximum in June is very clearly marked. This
prevalence of thunderstorms during the summer months
explains the well-maintained rainfall at that season with a


32 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
maximum in June, since heavy falls of rain occur in connexion.
with the thunderstorms though the rain may be falling for
only a few hours.
The high temperature, light winds, and the rapid condensa-
tion which occurs in mountain regions are all favourable to
the development of thunderstorms, and it is noticeable that
the number recorded in the Roumelian Plain is about half as
many again as in the mountains. Short periods of high
temperature and low humidity with calms or light breezes
are terminated by a more or less violent thunderstorm which
is succeeded by cooler, moister, and more pleasant weather
for a while.
In Greece they are much fewer in number, about two being
the average per month. The summer is not always the period
of the maximum number of thunderstorms, for in the Ionian
Islands at least the highest monthly averages fall in the spring
and autumn.
Cloud
In the Balkan region the amount of cloud is greatest in the
winter months, but the diminution in the summer is not great.
The mean values for each month are given in Table XXIV,
p. 132, in the scale of 0-10, where 0 represents a cloudless sky,
and 10 one which is completely overcast. In winter there is
no well-marked variation of cloudiness during the day, but in
the summer the tendency is for the mornings and evenings to
be clear, and for the clouds to increase appreciably in the early
afternoon. At the more southern stations in Greece, where
drier conditions prevail in the summer months, there is a
maximum amount of cloud in winter, and a strongly marked
minimum in the summer months, when for days the sky may
be almost cloudless.
Conditions Affecting Aviation
Among the meteorological conditions which have an
intimate relation to the requirements of aviators is the
clearness of the atmosphere. Mist and fogs are most frequent


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
33
during the winter months as is shown in Table XVIII, but local
conditions have great influence and no general guide to the
prevalence of fog can be given. While Athens records a large
number of misty mornings, other stations in the Aegean Sea
show few.
On account of the high temperature in summer in the
Roumelian Plain and the light winds which prevail, dust and
heat haze are probably prevalent in the dry weather, though
the continuance of the rain throughout the summer and
especially in June should reduce considerably the difficulties
arising from this cause.
The range of temperature is considerable in all months of
the year, as is shown in Table X where the extreme range of
temperature which may be expected in each month is given.
The daily range is of course considerably less, and may be
taken as about 25° F. to 28° F. in summer and 15° F. to
20° F. in winter at the Bulgarian stations, while on the
Aegean and Adriatic coasts it is considerably less (see Tables
II and V).
Local air currents of considerable strength occur in the
neighbourhood of the mountain ranges, but except during the
passage of the depressions in winter when both southerly and
north-westerly winds of gale force are not infrequent, moderate
winds seem generally to prevail. The high frequency of
thunderstorms in the Roumelian Plain (Table XXIII) during
the summer months implies the occurrence of sudden and
violent squalls of wind which accompany the development
of the thunderstorms, and in June at any rate they must be
looked upon as a normal feature of the weather. During the
winter months the descent of cold air from the Macedonian
highlands to the Aegean Sea when conditions are favourable
must occasion not only high winds on the coast but violent
gusts and great disturbances in the air currents as they
descend to lower levels. Squalls of a similar nature occur at
many parts of the Greek coast and among the Greek islands
where high land descends steeply to the sea.
The velocity of the upper air currents (2,000^4,000 ft.) over
AIB—e.M. a


34 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
Macedonia under normal distribution of pressure reaches
from 25 to 30 miles per hour in January and February, when
the pressure gradient on either side of the Balkan spur of high
pressure is rather steep, but has considerably lower values at
other seasons. These normal conditions of the winter months,
however, are frequently replaced by the much steeper gradients
due to the passage of depressions, or to the occurrence of anti-
cyclone conditions over the Balkans; much higher velocities
will then occur.


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
35
TABLES
Summary
Table pages
I. Mean Temperature . . .... 36-9
II. Mean Daily Maximum Temperature .... 40-3
III. Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature . . . 44-7
IV. Absolute Maximum Temperature .... 48-51
V. Mean Daily Minimum Temperature . . . 52-5
VI. Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature . . . 56-9
VII. Absolute Minimum Temperature .... 60-3
VIII. Number of Days of
A. Frost (Minimum temperature less than 32° F.). 64
B. Frost all day (Maximum temperature less than
32° F.) 64
IX. Maximum Number of Days, in any year, of
A. Frost 65
B. Frost all day 65
X. Monthly Range of Temperature .... 66-9
XI. Relative Humidity 70-3
XII. Mean and Absolute Minimum Relative Humidity at
2 p.m. 74-5
XIII. Mean Monthly Rainfall 76-9
XIV. Maximum Rainfall 80-1
XV. Number of Rain Days 82-5
XVI. Average Number of Days of Snowfall . . . 86-9
XVII. Maximum Number of Days, in any year, of
A. Snowfall 90-1
B. Snow covering ground ..... 90-1
XVIII. Average Number of Days of Mist and Fog . . 90-3
XIX. Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations 94-117
XX. Total Number of Days with Winds of Gale Force. . 118-19
XXI. Number of Days of Winds, Force 5 to 9. . . • 120-3
XXII. Mean Number of Thunderstorms .... 124-7
XXIII. Maximum Number of Thunderstorms . . . 128-31
XXIV. Mean Amount of CJoud 132-5
С 2


36
CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE I
Mean Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group I:
O Jji
°P.
O p
O Jji
o -p_
O Ji
Chepelare
. 25-5
300
34-5
43-3
52-5
57-4
Samokov
. 25-3
28-8
34-5
43-9
540
59-5
Rilski Monastir
. 27-3
29-8
34-3
42-6
52-7
56-8
Kustendil
. 27-7
34-5
41-4
50-7
610
65-8
Sofia .
. 26-4
311
40-1
48-7
58-8
64:9
Mean
. 26-4
30-8
36-9
45-8
55-8
60-9
Group II:
Burgas
. 33
34
41-5
51
61
68
Stara Zagora
. 33
39
44
53
63
69
Kazanlyk
. 31
36
42
51
61
67
Haskovo
. 31
37
43
53
63
691
Philippopolis
. 31
34
43-5
54
63
70-0
Mean
. 31-8
36
42-8
52-4
62-2
68-6
Group III:
Monastir
. 30
37
45-5
52
(il
67
Uskub .
. 29-5
34
450
53
60
69
Mean
. 29-8
355
45-2
52-5
60-5
68-0
Group IV:
Durazzo
. 47
48
52
58
65
72
Scutari
. 39
42
49
57
65
72
Valona
. 48
49
53
59
66
73
Mean
. 44-6
46-3
51-3
58-0
65-3
72-3
Group V:
Constantinople
. 41
41
46
53
62
70
Kavalla
. 42
44
49
57
68
74-5
Salonica
. 41
45
49
58
68
76-5
Mean
73-7
. 41-3
66
43-3
56-0
48-0


38 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE I (continued)
Mean Temperature
Jan.
°F.
Feb.
° F.
Mar.
A pril.
° F.
May.
June.
Group VI:
o F
O
O J,
Yanina
. 41
43
47
56
67
71
Trikkala
. 40
45
51
59
69
76-5
Larissa
. 39
45
50
58
68-5
77
Lamia .
•
. 44
48
52
60
70
78
Mean
•
. 41-0
45-2
500
58-2
68-6
75-6
Group VII:
Volo .
. 45
49
53
59
66
76
Chalchis
• •
. 48
50
53
59
68
78
Athens
. 49
50
53
59
68
76
Nauplia
-
. 49
51
54
60
68
76
Mean
•
. 47-8
500
53-2
59-2
67-5
76-5
Group VIII:
Andros
. 51
53
55
60
69
76
Syra .
. 53
54
56
61
70
77
Naxos .
. 55
55
57
62
68
74-5
Santorin
•
. 51
53
55
60
65
72
Mean
. 52-5
53-8
55-8
60-8
680
74-9
Group IX:
Cythera
Canea .
Candia.
Mean
. 62
53
54
59
68
74
. Si
51
56
60
67
74
•
•
. 51
52
55
61
68
/75
. 52-3
52 0
55-0
600
67-7
74-3
Group X:
Corfu .
. 50
51
55
(il
68
75
Arta .
. 47
50
54
60
69
75
Kephalonia .
. 51
53
56
(il
68
74-5
Patras .
. 50
52
56
62
70
76
Zanto .
. 53
54
56
62
68-5
75
Mean
75-1
. 50-2
68-7
520
61-2
55-4


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
° F.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
° P.
Dec.
0 Jj._
0 Ji
0
0 Ji
75
83
82
83
75
69
74
73
75
61
64
64
67
49
51
52
55
43
46
46
49
82
81-5
82
807
80-1
72-7
640
51-8
460
81
80
74
66
55
50
83
82
76.
68
56
50
81
80
74
67
57
52
82
81-5
76
68
59
53
81-7
80-9
75-0
67-2
50-8
51-2
80
79-5
77
68
59
54
81
80-0
75
69
60
56
77-5
77-5
74
69
62
57
76-5
76-5
72
67
59
54
78-7
78-4
74-5
68-2
600
55-2
81
82
78
70
60
54
78
77
74
68
60
54
78
79
75
67
61
55
79
79-3
75-7
68-3
60-3
54-3
80
80
75
68
60
54
81
82
75
67
56
50
79
79
76
68
60
54
82
82
77
68-5
60
54
81
81
77
70-5
02
56
Group VI:
Yanina.
Trikkala.
Lariasa.
Lamia.
Mean.
Group VII:
Volo.
Chalchis.
Athens.
Nauplia.
Mean.
Group VIII:
Andros.
Syra.
Naxos.
Santorin.
Mean.
Group IX:
Cythera.
Canea.
Candia.
Mean.
Group X:
Corfu.
Arta,
Kephalonia.
Patras.
Zante.
80-6 80-8 760 68-4 59-6 53 6
Mean.


40 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE II
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group I:
0 Ji
°F.
°F.
° F.
o p
o F
Chepelare
39
43
48
57
67
72
Samokov . .
87
40
45-5
55
65-5
71
Rilski Monastir
40
43
49
57
66
72
Kustendil
37
44
53
63
75
80
Sofia .
•
85
41
50
60
71
76
Mean
•
37-6
42-2
49-1
58-4
68-9
74-2
Group II:
Burgas
41
46
50
60
69
78
Stara Zagora
41
46
52
64
75
80
Kazanlyk
41
46
53
63
74-5
80
Haskovo
41-5
47
55
65
77
84
Philippopolis
•
88
44
52
63
74
80
Mean
•
40-5
45-8
52-4
63
73-9
80-4
Group III:
Monastir
•
88
46
55
62
71-6
78-8
Group IV:
Durazzo
58
60
65
70
78
86
Scutari
44
48
55
62
72
78
Valona
-
68
63
70
76
86
90
Mean
•
55
57
63-3
69-3
78-7
84-7
Group V:
Constantinople
46
45
52
60
71-2
78
Kavalla
48
51
55
64
75
81
Salonica
•
49
53
58
66
76-5
84
Mean
81
47-7
74-2
49-7
63-3
55


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
°
°F.
° Ji
°F.
о J..
°F.
Group I:
76
78
69
62
49
43
Chepelare.
76
77
69
59-5
46
41
Samokov.
TJ
79
70
60
49
42
Rilski Monastir.
85
85
76
65
50
44
Kustendil.
815
81
73
62
47
39
Sofia.
79-1
79-6
71-4
61-7
48-2
41-8
Mean.
Group II:
83-5
84
76-6
67-5
54
46
Burgas.
86
87
78
67
52
45
Stara Zagora.
85-5
86
77-5
67-5
52
46
Kazanlyk.
89
91
80
71
52-5
47
Haskovo.
85
85
76
66
51
44
Philippopolia.
85-8
866
77-6
67-8
52-3
45-6
Mean.
Group III:
85
84-2
77
65
53
41
Monastir.
Group IV:
90
91
86
77
67
63
Durazzo.
85
84-6
77
67
56
49
Scutari
94
94
88
81
73
65
Valona.
89-7
89-9
833
75
65-3
59
Mean.
Group V:
82
82
75
68
58
51
Constantinople.
86
86-5
79
69
59
54
Ka valla.
90
88
81
71
58
52
Salonica.
86
Mean.
85-5
52-3
78-3
58-3
69-3


42 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
Group VI:
Yanina
Trikkala
Larissa
Lamia .
Mean
TABLE II (continued)
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
Jan.
. 56
. 48
. 00
. 51
Feb.
°F.
61
53
55
55
Mar.
59
61
59
April. May. June.
° F. ° F. ° F.
80
69
70
68
88
80
80
78
88
87
86
51-2
56-0 62-0 71-8 81-5 88-2
Group VII:
Volo .
. 02
56
61
08
77
84
Chalobis
. 53
50
60
69
79
87
Athens
. 03
55
61
68
78
80
Nauplia
. 07
59
02
68
76
84
Mean
. 03-7
56-5
010
08-2
77-5
85-2
Group VIII
Andros
Syra
Naxos .
Santorin
Mean
51
57
59
60
74-8
81-5
56
58
61
67
75-7
83-5
58
59
61
63
72-5
79
58
56
58
63
71-4
78
54-5
57-5
59-8
64-8
73-6
80-5
Group IX:
Cythera
Canea .
Candia.
Mean
55
56
58
64
71-6
78
59
58
04
67
76
83
57
59
62
67
73
80
57-0
57-0
61-3
660
73-5
80-3
Group X:
Corfu .
. 56
57
61
67
75
82
Arta .
. 66
58
63
70
79
85
Kephalonia .
. 07
58
63
69
76
82
Patras .
. 06
58
62
68
77
83
Zante .
. 57
58
60
67
75
81
Mean
82-6
. 06-4
76-4
57-8
68-2
61-8


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July. Aug. Sept.
° F. ° F. ° F.
95 93 86
95 95 85-5
90-5 92 84
92 91 84
931 92-7 84-9
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
°F.
°F.
° F.
78
65
57
74
59
52
73
60
54
75
62
55
75-2
616
54-5
89
89
82
75
62
57
91
90
83-5
75
62
58
91
90
83-5
74
64
56
90
90-5
84
76
. 66
60
902
89-9
83-2
75
63-5
57-8
85
85
77
73
63
58
87
87
81
74
65
60
81
83
79
73
65
61
83
83
77-5
71
64
58
84
845
78-6
72-7
64-2
59-2
85-5
86
82
73
64
58
86
86
82
77
69
63
83
83-5
80
72-5
68
62
84-8
85-2
81-3
74-2
670
610
88
88-5
83
91
94
87
88
88-5
83
89
90
84
86
86
81
75
66
59
77-5
65
58
76-5
67
60
76
07
59
75
66
60
Group VI:
Yanina.
Trikkala.
Larissa.
Lamia.
Mean.
Group VII:
Volo.
Chalchis.
Athens.
Nauplia.
Mean.
Group VIII:
Andres.
Syra.
Naxos.
Santorin.
Mean.
Group IX:
Cythera.
Canea.
Candía.
Mean.
Group X:
Corfu.
Arta.
Kephalonia.
Patras.
Zante.
88-4 89-4 83-6 76 0 66-2 59-2
Mean.


44 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE III
Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group I:
°F.
°F.
°P.
° F.
°F.
°F.
Chepelare . " .
. 53-8
56-5
63-1
72-7
79-9
83-8
Samokov
. 52-5
54-5
59-9
711
78-1
83-7
Rilski Monastir
. 53-4
54-5
60-6
70-3
790
82-6
Kustendil
. 53-4
57-6
66-4
77-2
85-3
900
Sofia .
. 52-3
57-9
66-4
76-5
82-6
88-2
Mean
. 531
56-2
63-3
73-6
810
85-7
Group II:
Burgas
. 56-7
621
68-2
78-1
84-4
89-8
Stara Zagora
. 57-7
60-4
67-8
78-6
86-4
90-9
Kazanlyk
. 55-4
604
67-8
77-4
85-5
90-5
Haskovo
. 58-5
61-2
69-3
79-9
88-3
94-3
Philippopolis
. 540
59-2
66-9
78-3
85-8
90-5
Mean
. 56-5
60-7
68-0
78-5
86-1
91-2
Group III:
Monastir
. 53-2
57-9
66-9
77-2
84-6
91-2
Uskub
. 48
56-8
69-4
76-3
82-2
90-3
Mean
. 50-6
57-3
68-1
76-7
83-4
90-7
Group IV:
Durazzo
—
—
—
—
—
—
Group V:
Constantinople
. 57-6
57-9
07-3
75-0
vl-7
89-4
Kavalla
. 58-3
58-5
62-4
730
811
86-7
Salonioa
. 60-1
63-3
68-3
77-5
871
94-1
Mean
90-1
. 58-7
84-3
59-9
75-2
CC.O


AND THE AEGEAN SEA

880 87 1 81-9
87-1 88-2 81-9
86-2 87-8 83-1
94-5 954 87-3
91-8 92 1 851
89-5 901 83-9
92-8 94-8 87-3
97 0 98 1 900
95-2 96 1 89-2
98-8 1011 89-4
946 96 1 87 1
95-7 97-2 88-6
94-8 95-5 88-3
93-6 95-2 88-0
94-2
90 0 90 1 84-7
91-9 94-3 86-9
98-2 991 91-9
Oct. Nov. Dec.
°F. °F. ° F.
76- 6 64-4 57-7
75- 7 63-1 55-4
77- 0 63-7 54-7
78- 3 66-9 570
76- 8 65-5 54-0
76-9 64-7 55-8
82- 2 69-4 61-3
81-9 67-3 59-4
83- 1 680 59-4
87-4 69 1 61-3
80-8 66-0 56-5
83-1 680 59-6
78-8 66-6 54-7
78-1 65-1 50-7
78-1
69-6
61-9
76-6
68-5
61-2
820
700
62-6
Group I:
Chepelare.
Samokov.
Rilski Monastir.
Kuatendil.
Sofia.
Mean.
Group II:
Burgas.
Stara Zagora.
Kazanlyk.
Haskovo.
Philippopolis.
Mean.
Group III:
Monastir.
(Jskub.
Mean.
Group IV:
Duiazzo.
Valona.
Mean.
Group V:
Constantinople.
Ka valla.
Salonica.
95-3 88-2 78-4 65-8 52-7
93-4 - 94-5 87-8
Mean.
78-9
61-9
69-4


46
CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE III (continued)
Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group VI:
°P.
°P.
°F.
°F.
0 p
°P
Trikkala
. 61-7
65-5
72-3
82-8
91-6
98-4
Larissa
. 61-9
68-5
75-0
84-0
90-5
97-7
Lamia .
. 63-9
67-6
72-9
81-5
90-5
98-1
Mean
-
. 62-5
67-2
73-4
82-8
90-9
98-1
Group VII:
Volo .
. 64-8
67-8
71-2
78-8
83-1
94-1
Chalchis
. 63-3
68-2
71-6
81-3
900
97-2
Athens
. 62-9
65-4
70-4
77-2
88-0
93-5
Nauplia
•
. 660
68-9
72-0
77-5
86-2
94-3
Mean
. 64-2
67-6
71-3
78-7
86-8
94-8
Group VIII:
Andros
. 63-9
66-6
69-8
77-2
86-9
91-8
Syra .
. 63-5
66-7
69-6
76-6
84-9
92-1
Naxos .
. 65-3
67-1
70-9
77-2
84-0
89-2
Santorin
-
. 61-9
64-0
67-5
74-5
82-6
87-4
Mean
•
. 63-6
66-1
69-4
76-4
84-6
90-1
Group IX:
Cythera
. 61-3
631
66-4
73-8
82-8
88-5
Candia.
•
. 66-4
68-5
73-2
79-7
86-7
97-5
Mean
•
. 63-8
65-8
69-8
76-7
84-7
930
Group X:
Corfu .
. 61-9
64-2
68-9
75-6
83-8
901
Arta
. 63-9
680
73-4
81-9
89-2
93-9
Kephalonia .
. 62-1
65-8
72-3
79-2
86-7
910
Patras .
. 63-3
66-9
72-7
79-3
85-1
91-9
Zante .
-
. 62-2
64-4
67-6
74-5
82-6
88-3
Mean
910
. 62-7
85-5
65-9
78-1
710


48
CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE IV
Absolute Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group I:
o Ji.
0 Ji_
a Ji
o J.
a
Chepelarc
58-3
63-7
721
77-2
87-3
910
Samokov
61-2
62-4
69-8
76-5
87-1
88-9
Bilski Monastir
57-9
65-7
69-3
79-7
86-9
86-7
Kustendil
60-1
64-8
73-0
84-7
97-5
95-5
Sofia .
61-3
67-8
75-6
85-6
92-8
93-4
Highest Temp, in Group
61-3
67-8
75-6
85-6
97-5
95-5
Group II:
Burgas
65-5
76-8
74-5
910
93-9
95-4
Stara Zagora
61-9
71-1
75-7
91-0
97-3
97-9
Kazanlyk
62-4
72-9
75-6
89-1
96-3
96-3
Haskovo
62-6
67-1
74-3
89-4
99-3
1040
Philippopolis
61-0
71-6
75-0
84-6
96-4
96-6
Highest Temp, in Group
65-5
76-8
75-7
91-0
99-3
104-0
Group III:
Uskiib ....
Group IV:
Durazzo
Valona
Group V:
Constantinople
K a valla
8
Salonica
66-7 69-4 73-4 82-4 96-3 100-9


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
49
July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
° F. ° F. ° F. ° F. 0 F. ° F.
93-7
937
87-8
83-5
70-3
62-2
90-7
93-6
88-2
83-1
74-3
67-3
959
90-5
88-5
83-.r)
700
62-8
97-7
1011
94-5
84-6
72-9
60-8
97-7
990
950
82-4
76-3
68-5
97-7
1011
95-0
84-6
76-3
68-5
96-6
103 3
930
90-3
77-9
68-2
103-3
103-8
93-6
90-1
73-4
66-7
98-1
99-3
94-1
93-9
76-6
69-3
102-7
1065
98-2
99-1
75-2
08-0
990
100-8
93-9
91-4
71-4
68-0
103-3
108-5
98-2
991
77-9
69-3

102-2
——
.


— 950 — — — —
— _ 981 — . — — —
963 _____
98-2
102-7 104-4 99-0 86-2 78-8 70-5
Group I:
Chepelarc.
Saraokov.
Rilski Monastir.
Kustendil.
Sofia.
Highest Temp, in Group.
Group II:
Burgas.
Stara Zagora.
Kazanlyk.
Haskovo.
Philippopolis.
Highest Temp, in Group.
Group III:
Uskiib.
Group IV:
Durazzo.
Valona.
Group V:
Constantinople.
Ka valla.
Salonica.
aib—e. it.
D
-


50 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE IV (continued)
Absolute Maximum Tempebatube
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group VI:
° F.
a J.
°P.
O J,
°F.
Yanina
. 70-7
—
—
—
—
—
—
Trikkala
73-4
84-2
91-4
98-6
105-8
Larissa .
. 69-4
78-8
86-4
92-5
1000
103-6
Lamia .
. 71-2
77-0
85-6
94-6
98-1
107-6
Highest Temperature
. 71-2
78-8
86-4
94-6
1000
107-6
Group VII:
Volo .
. 73-4
77-0
77-0
89-6
98-6
102-2
Chalchis
. 67-3
730
78-3
86-7
95-4
102-9
Athens
. 75-0
73-6
83-1
91-4
100-6
104-5
Nauplia
. 73-4
74-1
810
85-1
95-4
1000
Highest Temperature
. 750
77-0
83-1
91-4
100-6
104-5
Group VIII:
Andros
. 69-8
73-4
78-8
84-2
94-1
97-7
Syra .
. 69-4
72-5
75-2
82-8
92-8
100-6
Naxos .
. 69-8
73-2
76-1
82-6
92-1
96-8
Santorin
. 64-9
72-1
75-2
85-3
97-2
93-2
Highest Temperature
. 69-8
73-4
78-8
85-3
97-2
100-6
Group IX:
Cythera
. 66-2
680
72-5
80-6
91-4
97-7
Canea .
—
—
—
—
—
—
Candia.
. 69-4
74-3
77-7
83-7
93-2
101 8
Highest Temperature
.. 69-4
74-3
77-7
83-7
93-2
101-8
Group X:
Corfu .
. 67-6
72-5
76-3
83-5
91-4
950
Arta
. 68-0
72-3
77-5
90-7
96-8
100-4
Kephalonia .
. 65-8
74-3
950
92-3
95-9
95-9
Patras .
. 70-7
75-4
82-4
85-8
97-7
97-0
Zante .
. 720
73-4
77-0
85-1
97-7
98-1
Highest Temperature
100-4
. 720
97-7
75-4
92-3
95-0


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
51
July.
o J.
Aug.
Sept.
0 F.
Oct.
° F.
Nov.
Dec.
96-6
110-3
107-6
1117
0 Jji_
0 Ji
o
1112
105-8
105-8
1031
93-2
80-6
84-2
84-2
74-1
71-6
73-4
106-9
109-0
91- 8
92- 3
111-7
111-2
105-8
93-2
84-2
74-1
Group VI:
Yanina.
Trikkala.
Larissa.
Lamia.
Highest Temperature.
Group VII:
1040
1049
99-5
91-4
86-0
75-2
Volo.
107-6
111-2
100-4
91-8
81-3
77-7
Chalchis.
105-3
107-4
102-6
950
86-9
70-7
Athens.
101-8
1076
103-3
95-7
91-6
73-8
Nauplia.
107-6
1112
103-3
95-7
91-6
77-7
Highest Temperature.
Group VIII:
99-3
1051
99-0
93-2
82-4
76-6
Andros.
100-4
1040
100-4
87-8
79-9
85-1
Syra.
93-9
95-9
91-4
88-7
83-7
71-1
Naxos.
93-2
97-7
92-3
90-7
75-2
730
Santorin.
100-4
1051
100-4
93-2
83-7
85-1
Highest Temperature.
Group IX:
102-2
100-4
98-6
860
78-8
69-8
Cythera.
—
954
—
—
—
Canea.
94-6
90-0
100-2
90-0
87-4
76-3
Candia.
102-2
100-4
100-2
900
87-4
76-3
Highest Temperature.
Group X:
99-3
995
96-4
86-7
77-9
70-3
Corfu.
110-3
111-6
107-6
98-2
82-4
76-3
Arta.
106-7
109-4
1040
89-6
77-0
69-8
Kephalonia.
103-3
1071
97-9
90-5
83-3
73-8
Patras.
1000
101-8
1000
96-4
85-6
72-7
Zante.
110-3
111-6
107-6
98-2
85-6
76-3
Highest Temperature.
D 2


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec
o jf o Ji o y o Ji o -p op
Group I:
47 46 40 36 28 24 Chepelare.
51 50 44 38-5 29 25 Samokov.
49 50 45 39 31 26 Rilski Monastir.
57 56-5 51 44 33 29 Kustendil.
58 50 50 43-5 33 26 Sofia.
52-4 51-7 46 40-2 30-8 26 Mean.
Group II:
62 62 56 50 40 34 Burgas.
63 63 56-5 47-5 38 33 Stara Zagora.
58 57 51 45 36 31 Kazanlyk.
59 58 51 44 36 30 Haskovo.
63 62 55 48 38 33 * Philippopoli.
61 - 60-4 53-9 46-9 37-6 32-2 Mean.
Group III:
59 58 54 47 38 30 Monastir.
Group IV:
09 68 62 55 46 39 Scutari.
Group V:
07 68 01-5 57 50 43 Constantinople.
71 72 64 50 47 43 Ka valla.
70 69 63 56 46 40 Salonica.
69-3 69-7 62-8 56-3 47-7 42 Mean.


54
CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE V (continued)
Mean Daily Minimum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June
Group VI:
0 Ji
° F.
° F.
о -p.
о -p
о -p
Yanina
. 18
24
33
40
48
51
Trikkala
. 32
36
41
47
55
62
Larissa
. 82
33
39
46
54-5
62
Lamia .
. 38
41
44
51
59
66
Mean
. 30-0
33-5
39-2
46-0
54-1
60-2
Group VII:
Volo .
. 38
40
44
49
58
63
Chalchis
. 41
42
44
SO
58-5
66
Athens
. 41
42
46-
52
60
67-5
Nauplia
. 41
43
46
50
58
65
Mean
. 40-2
41-8
45-0
50-2
58-6
65-4
Group VIII:
Andros
. 45
44
48
53
60
67
Syra .
. 48
40
50
55
62
69
Naxos .
. GO
60
53
56
61-5
68
Santorin
. 47
47
50
53
59
66
Mean
. 47-5
45-2
50-2
54-2
60-6
67-5
Group IX:
Cythera
. 47
47
49
53
59
65
Canea .
. 46
46
48
51
58
64
Candía.
. 47
47
50
54
60
67
Mean
. 46-7
40-3
490
52-7
59
65-3
Group X:
Corfu .
. 43
44
47
51
58
64
Arta .
. 88
41
44
49
57
62
Kephalonia .
. 44
. 45
50
51
58
64
Patras .
. 44
46
49
54
59
66
Zante .
. 47
48
50
54
58
66
Mean
64-4
. 43-2
58-0
44-8
51-8
48


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
° F. °F. ° F. ° F. ° F. ° F.
Group VI:
58
58
54
44
33
24
Yanina.
65-5
65
60
53
44
38
Trikkala.
66
65
60
52-5
43
37
Larissa.
70
70
64
58
48
43
Lamia.
64-9
64-5
59-5
51-9
420
35-5
Mean.
Group VII:
69
68-5
62
57
48
43
Volo.
70
69
64
58
50
45
Chalchis.
72-5
72
67
59-5
52
45
Athens.
70
70-5
65-5
60
51
46
Nauplia.
70-4
70-0
64-6
58-6
50-2
44-8
Mean.
Group VIII:
72
72
67
62
54
49
Andros.
74-5
74
69
64
56
52
Syra.
72
72
68-5
64
57
53
Nax6s.
70
70
67
62
55
50
Santorin.
72-1
72-0
67-9
63-0
55-5
510
Mean.
Group IX:
69
70
67
61-5
54
50
Cythera.
69
69
66
610
54
49
Canea.
72
73
72
62
57
51
Candia.
70
70-7
68-3
61-5
55-0
500
Mean.
Group X:
69
69
65
60
53
47
Corfu.
66
67
65-5
56
47
43
Arta.
70
69
66
53
48
Kephalonia.
71
72
67-6
61
53
48
Patras.
72
72
68
63
56
51
Zante.
69-6
Mean.
69-8
47-4
66-4
52-4
60-0


56 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE VI
Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group I:
0 y
O Jji_
° F.
° F.
O p
Chepelare
. — 4
4
12
19
33
37
Samakov
0
4
13
23
34
41
Rilski Monastir
3
9
15
:i:s
33
38
Kustendil
4
13
20
30
39
46
Sofia .
. 4
11
17
24
38
45
Mean
1-4
8-2
15-4
23-8
35-4
414
Group II:
Burgas
. 13
19
24
33
44
50-5
Stara Zagora
. 11
20
26
32
44
52
Kazanlyk
ft
17
24
30
40-5
47
Haskovo
3
15
21
30
39
47-5
Philippopolis
. 11
19
29
33
45
52
Mean
. 9-4
18
24-8
31-6
42-5
49-8
Group III:
Monastir . • .
. 7
14
25
31
41
47-5
Uskiib .
. 7
14
28
40
50
56
Mean
. 7
14
26-5
35-5
45-5
51-8
Group IV:
Durazzo
. 2S-6
31-5
36-3
460
54-5
62-2
Scutari
28-6
34
43
52
60
Valona
. 32-0
36-3
41-7
40-4
54-0
60-1
Mean
. 2S-7
32-1
37-3
45-1
53-5
60-8
Group V:
Constantinople
. 28
26
31
37
46
54
Kavala
. 23
29
35
41
52
60
Salonica
. 24
27
33
40
50
59
Mean
57-7
. 25
49-3
27-3
39-3
33


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July,
o F
39
44
42
49-5
49
Aug.
O J,
41
39
47
47
Sept.
o -p
36-5 35
44-7 42-1
32
33
39
38-5
35-5
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
° F.
o F
o J.
23
12
6
27
13
8
28
18
12
31
20
14
31
17
10
28
16
10
56
54
45
38
24
18
55
54-5
45
36
23
18
51
50
40-5
31
22
17
51
46
40
29
17
14
56
54
44
34-5
25
19
53-8
51-7
42-9
33-7
22-2
17-2
52
49
42
35
23
11
62
59
53
37
23
14
57
54
47-5
36
23
12-5
66-4
64-8
54-1
48-6
37-8
33-1
63
64
56
46
35
35
64-2
61-9
58-1
50
41-2
34
64-5
63-6
561
48-2
38-0
340
61
60
53
48
38
33
64
64
53
48
36
33
65
61-5
54-5
45
32
26
Group I:
Chepelare.
Samakov.
Rilski Monastir.
Kustendil.
Sofia.
Mean.
Group II:
Birrgas.
Stara Zagora.
Kazanlyk.
Haskovo.
Philippopolis.
Mean.
Group III:
Monastir.
Uskiib.
Mean.
Group IV:
Durazzo.
Scutari.
Valona.
Mean.
Group V:
Constantinople.
Kavala.
Salonica.
63-3 61-8 53-5 47 35-3 30-7
Mean.


58 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE VI {continued)
Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June
Group VI:
°F.
o -p_
°F.
Trikkala
. 20
28
32
36
46-2
53-6
Larissa
. 22
24
29
36
44
54
Lamia .
. 28
31
33
40
49-5
58-5
Mean
•
. 23-3
27-7
31-3
37-3
46-6
55-4
Group VII:
Volo .
. 28
31
34
39
50
57
Chalchis
. 32
33
35
40
51
58
Athens
. 82
33
36
44
51
59
Nauplia
. 32
34
36
42
50
58
Mean
. 31-0
32-8
35-2
41-2
50-5
58
Group VIII:
Andros
. 35
37
39
46
52
59
Syra .
. 39
40
42
47
56
63-5
Naxos .
. 40
42
44
48
55
62
Santorin
•
. 38
33
40
46
53
60
Mean
•
. 38-0
39-2
41-2
46-8
54
61-1
Group IX:
Cythera
. 37
38
42
46
53
59
Candia.
-
. iO
40
43
47
53
61
Mean
-
. 38-5
39
42-5
46-5
53
60
Group X:
Corfu .
. 34
35
39
43
50
58
Arta .
. 28
32
34
39
48
55
Kephalonia .
. 34
36
39
43
50
57
Patras .
. 35
36
41
46
53
60
Zante .
•
. 39
39
44
48
54
61
Mean
58-2
. 34-0
510
35-6
43-8
39-4


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
° F.
Aug.
о F
Sept.
° F.
Oct.
° F.
Nov.
°F.
Dec.
° F.
57-6
59-0
62
57- 6
50-7
42
41
49
32
31
37
27
26
30
58- 0
63
19
56
59-5
69-5
fil-9
44
33-3
27-7
63
62
55
48
37
31
63
63
55
50
39
34
65
65
57
52
42
35
64
65
58-5
53
40
35
63-8
63-8
56-4
50-8
39-5
33-8
66
66
60
54
42
38
69
69
62
58
47
40
67
69
62
58-5
48
44
66
67
61
55
46
41
67
67-8
61-2
56-4
45-8
40-8
65
65
60
55
40
40
65-5
68
61
54
49
45
65
66-5
60-5
54-5
47-5
42-5
62
64
58
52
43
37
59
60
54
45
37
31
63
62
58
52
42
36
66
67
60
53
44
37
66
66
62
56
47
42
Group VI:
Trikkala.
Larissa.
Lamia.
Mean.
Group VII:
Volo.
Chalchis.
Athens.
Nauplia.
Mean.
Group VIII:
Andros.
Syra.
Naxoa.
Santorin.
Mean.
Group IX:
Cythera.
Candia.
Mean.
Group X:
Corfu.
Arta.
Kephalonia.
Patras.
Zante.
63-2
Mean.
63-8
36-6
58-4
42-6
51-6


60 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE VII
Absolute Minimum Temperature
Group I:
Che pelare .
Samokov .
Rilski Monastir
Kustendil .
Sofia .
Lowest Temp, in Group
Group II:
Burgas
Stara Zagora
Kazanlyk .
Haskovo
Philippopolis
Lowest Temp, in Group
Group III:
Monastir
Usküb .
Jan,
Feb.
Mar.
° J.
о p
a ji
— 19-1
-14-8
- 40
— 1.4-9
- 5-8
+ 3-6
— 12-1
- 7-6
+ 3-9
- 7-6
— 8-3
+ 11-3
-24-2
-15-3
- 11
-24-2
-15-3
- 40
April.
О
+ 12-0
+ 190
+ 17-6
+23-4
+23-5
+ 12-0
May.
°F.
25-5
27-9
27-9
36-7
33-3
25-5
June.
°F.
32- 4
35- 8
33- 4
39-9
36- 3
32-4
+ 0-7
+ 8-6
+ 13-5
+24-9
38-5
44-6
+ 1-9
+ 1-0
+ 15-8
+ 27-9
361
48-7
-5-8
-0-9
+ 18-5
+25-9
340
41-7
-3-8
— 9-4
+ 16-2
+ 26-0
34-ñ
430
+4-3
-1-й
+ 18-1
+ 30-6
37-0
45-7
-5-8
-9-4
13-5
24-9
34-0
41-7
- 0-9
-14-4
—
—
—
—
—
Group IV:
Durazzo ... — — — — — —
Valona . . . — — — — — —
Group V:
Constantinople . . 17-2 — — — — —
Kavalla . . . 12-0 — — — — —
Salonica . . . 14-0 14-9 26-0 33-1 44-1 53-1


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
61
July.
A wj.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
0 Ji
a j
O J.
0 Ji_
O j?
°F.
Group I:
360
32-7
18-5
16-7
- 4-5
-0-9
ChepeUrc.
410
36-0
22-5
22-3
- 1-3
-2-0
Samokov.
370
34-7
17-8
23-4
+ 8-6
+2-1
Rilski Monastir.
45-5
42-8
25-5
26-2
+ 12-6
-6-5
KnstendiL
46-2
44-6
31-6
190
+ 0-9
-71
Sofia.
36-0
32-7
17-8
16-7
- 4-5
-71
Lowest Temp, in Group.
51-8
49-8
34-7
31-5
8-6
9-3
51-4
50-5
34-7
30-2
230
181
45-7
45-0
33-1
24-1
11-5
8-4
46-2
43-7
30-9
230
8-4
- 4-0
51-8
50-4
35-2
27-9
25-2
190
45-7
43-7
30-9
23-0
8-4
- 40
Group II:
Burgas.
Stara Zagora.
Kazanlyk.
Haskovo.
Philippopolis.
Lowest Temp, in Group.
Group III:
— — — — — — "Monastir.
— — — — — — Uskiib.
Group IV:
— — — — — — Durazzo.
— — — — — — Valona.
Group V:
— — — — — — Constantinople.
— — — — — — Kavalla.
55-4 590 420 39-9 230 20-3 Salonica.


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
63
July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Group VI:
Yanina.
46-4
48-6
44-6
370
27-5
19-9
Trikkala.
54-7
55-0
40-6
34-5
22-3
16-7
Larissa.
53-6
590
46-8
44-2
28-4
T7-2
Lamia.
46-4
48-6
40-6
34-5
22-3
16-7
Lowest Temp, in Group.
Group VII:
59-0
57-2
46-4
43-7
311
24-8
Volo.
52-5
51-8
47-5
40-3
32-4
28-2
Chalchis.
61 0
60-3
48-0
44-8
30-2
28-4
Athens.
61-7
61-5
47'1
46-2
32-0
300
Nauplia.
52-5
51-8
46-4
40-3
30-2
24-8
Lowest Temp, in Group.
Group VIII:
58-1
62-6
53-6
48-2
320
33-8
Andros.
65-3
66-2
611
51-8
39-6
320
Syra.
63-7
61-5
500
48-9
381
39-6
Naxos.
63-5
63-0
52-7
51-1
29-8
35-1
Santorin.
58-1
61-5
50-0
48-2
29-8
32-0
Lowest Temp, in Group.
Group IX:
58-1
59-0
55-4
50-0
39-2
320
Cythera.
64-6
66-4
60-1
51-3
44-0
43-0
Candia.
58-1
59-0
55-4
50-0
39-2
32-0
Lowest Temp, in Group.
Group X:
57-2
690
50-0
43-7
381
29-3
Corfu.
53-6
57-0
48-2
390
30-2
23-7
Arta.
55-4
57Ю
52-7
47-5
36-5
28-2
Kephalonia.
56-5
60-8
54-5
41-2
36-5
30-6
Patras.
59-7
56-7
56-3
500
42-3
37-0
Zante
53-6
Lowest Temp, in Group.
56-7
23-7
48-2
30-2
390


64 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE VIII
Number of Days of (A) Frost; (B) Frost all Day.
(Minimum temperature less than 32° F.)
(Maximum temperature less than 32° F.)

Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
March.
April.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
Chepelare
17
2
24
3
28
7
23
3
24
1
12
—
Samokov .
19
3
26
4
29
9
25
6
24
2
10
—
Rilski Monastir .
15
1
23
4
28
5
23
2
23
1
9
—
Kuatendil
12
5
18
2
28
9
18
3
13
—
3
—
Sofia
14
2
21
6
28
11
21
5
15
1
4
—
Mean of Group I
154
2-6
22-4
3-8
28-2
8-2
220
3-8
19-8
10
7-6
—
Burgas
6
1
12
2
22
5
14
2
8
1
11

Stara Zagora
8
—
14
1
21
5
10
1
9
—
1
—
Kazanlyk
11
1
17
1
27
5
16
1
12
—
2
—
Haskovo .
6
—
11
2
19
4
10
1
8
—
1
—
Mean of Group II
7-6
0-6
13-2
1-6
22-6
5-4
12-6
1-6
8-8
0-2
30
—
Philippopolis
—
7
—
1
—
12
7
2
3
24
JL
8


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
05
TABLE IX
Maximum Number of Days, in any Year, of
(A) Frost; (B) Frost all Day.
Chepelare f
22
7
28
8
31
12
28
7
31
4
18
1
Samokov f
13
12
27
12
31
15
28
19
31
19
9
3
Rilski Monastir f
23
5
29
9
31
8
28
14
28
4
15
—
Kustendil f
19
2
28
18
30
24
28
18
30
2
5
—
Sofia*
27
9
29
16
31
23
28
18
29
3
9
—
Burgas * .
17
2
21
10
29
17
26
5
21
3
4
1
Stara Zagora f -
15
2
24
4
31
11
28
8
28
1
2
—
Kazanlyk f
18
2
25
4
31
9
28
6
26
1
4
—
Haskovo f
14
2
24
9
31
13
28
7
23
3
4
—
Philippopolis f •
14
2
25
14
30
16
25
17
19
—
2
—
* Observations, 1894-1910, utilized. f Observations, 1900-10, utilized.
41B—e, M.
10


66 CLIMATE OP THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE X
Range of Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group I:
°F.
0 Ji_
o Ji
o p_
0 F.
a -p
Chepelare
. 54-2
52-1
511
53-7
46-9
46-8
Samokov
. 52-5
50-5
46-9
48-1
441
42-7
Rilski Monastir
. 50-4
455
45-6
47-3
46-0
44-6
Kustendil
. 49-4
44-6
46-4
47-2
46-3
44-0
Sofia .
. 48-3
46-9
49-4
52-5
44-6
43-2
Mean.
. 50-9
47-9
47-9
49-8
45-6
44-3
Group II:
Burgas
. 43-7
431
44-2
45-1
40-4
39-3
Stara Zagora
. 46-7
40-4
41-8
46-6
42-4
38-9
Kazanlyk
. 46-4
43-4
43-8
47-4
45-5
43-5
Haskovo
55-5
46-2
48-3
49-9
49-3
46-8
Philippopolis
. 430
40-2
37-9
45-3
40-8
38-5
Mean
. 47-1
42-7
43-2
46-9
43-6
41-4
Group III:
Monastir
. 46-2
43-9
41-9
46-2
43-6
43-7
Uskiib
. 41-0
42-8
41-4
30-3
32-2
34-3
Mean
. 43-6
43-3
41-6
41-2
37-9
390
Group IV:
Valona
. 30-8
27-0
28-3
29-7
32-0
30-2
Durazzo
. 29-7
28-8
29-2
25-8
22-4
23-4
Mean.
. 30-2
27-9
28-7
27-7
27-2
26-8
Group V:
Constantinople
. 29-6
31-9
36-3
38-0
38-7
35-4
Kavalla
. 35-3
29-5
27-4
32 0
29-1
26-7
Salonica .
. 36-1
36-6
35-3
37-5
37-1
351
Mean . . . 33-7 32-7 330 35-8 350 32-4


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July. Aug. Sept.
° F. ° F. ° F.
49-0 50-6 4(1-9
43- 1 47-2 49-9
44- 2 48-8 50-1
450 48-4 48-3
42-8 45 1 46-6
44-8 48-0 48-4
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
°F.
0 F.
°F.
530
52-4
51-7
48-7
50-1
47-4
49-0
45-7
42-7
47-3
46-9
430
45-8
48-5
440
48-9
48-7
45-8
36-8
40-8
42-3
44-2
45-4
43-3
42-0
43-6
45-.0
459
44-3
41-4
44-2
46-1
48-7
52-1
46-0
42-4
47-8
55-1
49-4
58-4
52-1
47-3
38-6
42-1
43-1
46-3
410
37-5
41-9
45-5
45-7
49-4
45-8
42-4
42-8 46-5 40-3
31-6 36-2 35-0
37-2 41-3 40-7
43-8 43-6 43-7
41 1 42 1 36-7
42-4 42-8 40-2
26-1 32-4 30-4
23-9 25-9 30-5
250 291 30-4
31 0 25-7 30-6
280 29-1 29-7
29-5 27-4 30-1
290
27-9
33-2
30-1
30-3
37-6
31-7
33-9
37-4
30-1
28-6
370
31- 6
28-9
28-2
36-6
32- 5
380
Group I:
Chepelare.
Samokov.
Rilski Monastir.
Kustendil.
Sofia.
Mean.
Group II:
Burgas.
Stara Zagora.
Kazanlyk.
Haskovo.
Philippopolis.
Mean.
Group III:
Monastir.
Uskiib.
Mean.
Group IV:
Valona.
Durazzo.
Mean.
Group V:
Constantinople.
Ka valla.
Salonica.
30-1
Mean.
32-7
31-2
34-3
341
31-9


68 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE X (continued)
Range of Temperature
Group VI:
Trikkala
Larissa
Lamia .
Mean
Group VII:
Volo .
Chalchis
Athens
Nauplia
Mean
Group VIII:
Andros
Syra .
Naxos .
Santorin
Mean
Group IX:
Cythera
Candia.
Mean
Group X:
Corfu .
Arta .
Kephalonia
Patras .
Zante .
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
o j.
° J?
О J1
о p
о F.
о F
41-7
37-5
40-3
46-8
45-4
44-8
39-9
44-5
46-0
48-0
46-5
43-7
35-9
36-6
39-9
41-5
41-0
39-6
39-2
39-5
42-1
45-5
44-3
42-7
36-8
36-8
37-2
39-8
331
371
31-3
35-2
36-6
41-3
390
39-2
30-9
32-4
34-4
33-2
37-0
34-5
340
34-9
36-0
35-5
36-2
36-3
33-2
34-8
361
37-5
36-3
36-8
28-9
29-6
30-8
31-2
34-9
32-8
24-5
26-7
27-6
29-6
28-9
28-6
25-3
25-1
26-9
29-2
29-0
27-2
23-9
26-0
27-5
28-5
29-6
27-4
25-6
26-8
28-2
29-6
30-6
29-0
24-3
25-1
24-4
27-8
29-8
29-5
26-4
28-5
30-2
32-7
33-7
36-5
25-3
26-8
27-3
30-2
31-7
330
27-9
29-2
29-9
32-6
33-8
321
35-9
36-0
39-4
42-9
41-2
38-9
28-1
29-8
33-3
36-2
36-7
340
28-3
30-9
31-7
33-3
321
31-9
23-2
25-4
23-6
26-5
28-6
27-3
Mean
32-8
28-7
34-5
30-3
34-3
31-6


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
0 P.
Sept.
Oct.
° P.
Nov.
Dec.
O J,
o F
O Ji_
0 J._
46-2
43-2
39-8
47-3
44-4
38-5
46- 6
45-1
44-5
37-9
41- 0
36-7
38-9
360
47- 6
37-9
42- 8
38-4
43-1
43-4
44-0
42-5
40-7
37-2
33-3
35-5
36-9
36-2
40-4
37-2
38-5
38-5
39-6
36-4
36-2
33-6
33-6
330
35-5
32-3
31-9
310
33-7
340
34-7
36-2
38-3
34-3
34-8
35-2
36-7
35-3
36-7
340
28-5
25-6
21-9
23-2
24-8
310
27-1
21-0
24-0
25-8
300
28-5
24-7
24-1
26-8
34-3
25-7
23-9
260
27-5
31-9
27-1
26-7
25-8
27-9
29-6
28-7
24-4
22-1
26-2
29-5
25-7
29-8
200
29-1
28-2
26-5
30-4
26-1
32-1
25-7
24-8
27-6 24-9 28-6 28-4 29-1 25-2
33- 2
41-4
34- 7
31-3
270
31-4
42-2
36-8
311
27-9
33-4
42-4
36-3
32-1
25-4
31- 3
43-5
32- 7
31-9
25-5
30-8
38-4
30-5
32-5
28-0
28-8
37-4
30-7
30-5
240
Group VI:
Trikkala.
Larissa.
Lamia.
Mean.
Group VII:
Volo.
Chalohis.
Athens.
Nauplia.
Mean.
Group VIII:
Andros.
Syra.
Naxos.
Santorin.
Mean.
Group IX:
Cythera.
Candia.
Mean.
Group X:
Corfu.
Arta.
Kephalonia.
Patras.
Zante.
33-5 33-9 33-9 330 320 30-3
Mean.


70 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XI
Relative Humidity
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group I:
°/
/o
%
%
%
/o
/o
Chepelare
. 75-5
76-5
75
71-5
72-5
75
Samokov
. 77
79-5
77
70-6
69-3
71-3
Rilski Monastir
. 72
714
71-4
67-5
70-6
70-2
Kustendil
. 77-5
75-4
69
61-7
60-3
63-7
Sofia .
. 82
79
72
66
66
68
Mean
. 76-8
76-4
72-9
67-5
67-7
69-6
Group II:
Burgas
. 80
S3
81
77
79
77
Stara Zagora
. 73
73
68
61
61
63
Kazanlyk
. 77
75
69
63
64
66
Haskovo
. 81
81-5
77-5
70
68-5
69-5
Philippopolis
. 78
79-5
73
65
67-5
65-5
Mean
. 78
78-4
73-7
67-2
68
68
Group IV:
Durazzo
. 77
74
73
72
73
71
Group V:
Constantinople
. 74
71
62
57
57
53
Kavalla
. 84
85
83
83
81
79
Saloniea
. 70-8
71-3
68-3
66-1
64-3
60-7
Mean
64-2
. 70-3
67-4
75-8
68-7
71-1


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
Jidy.
%
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
la
0/
°l
la
V
la
la
la
70-5
70
74-5
70-3
70-7
64
76-5
78-5
80
82
66
63-3
78-2
80
66
63-3
76
78
79- 4
59-2
56-5
75
78-2
80- 2
83
63
62
68
77
81
65
63
69-5
76-5
79-1
80-9
74
72
75
81
82
84
53
50
58
69
74
77
57
54
63
73
78
79
59-5
58-5
66-5
75-5
81-5
84-5
58-5
58
65
73-5
79-5
81
60-4
58-5
65-5
74-4
79
811
68
71
73
78
79
80
53
75
54-2
53
75
57
55
78
62-4
63
82
71
71
84
73-6
74
85
74-5
Group I:
Chepelare.
Samokov.
Bilski Monastir.
Kustendil.
Sofia.
Mean.
Group II:
Burgas.
Stara Zagora.
Kazanlyk.
Haskovo.
Philippopolis,
Mean.
Group IV:
Durazzo.
Group III:
Constantinople,
Kavalla.
Salonica.
60-7 61-7 65-1 72 76-2 77-8
Mean.


72 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XI (continued)
Relative Humidity
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
0/
10
0/
%
%
Group VI:
10
/o
/o
Trikkala
. 80-5
76-9
73
66-3
59-6
54-2
Larissa
. 79-3
75-8
71-3
66-7
621
55-2
Lamia .
. 72
69-2
66-5
62-5
56-9
52-0
Mean
. 77-3
74-0
70-3
65-2
59-5
53-8
Group VII:
Volo .
. 74-5
73
71-1
70-1
65-2
65-6
Chalchis
t
. 77-5
76-1
73-1
67-8
61-4
58-2
Athens
. 74
72
69-2
64-4
59-7
54-2
Nauplia
-
•
. 72-8
70-1
68-3
66-7
63-5
60
Mean
. 74-7
72-8
70-4
67-2
62-4
59-5
Group VIII
Andros
. 74
73
71-7
68-2
64
62-4
Syra .
. 71
70
68-5
66-5
63-4
60-7
Naxos .
a
. 74-7
74-4
71-7
70-7
70-7
68-9
Santorin
•
•
. 72-3
71-7
70-7
70-6
69-6
65-4
Mean
•
-
. 73
72-3
70-6
69
66-9
64-4
Group IX:
Cythera
. 70-8
72-4
70-6
67-6
61-4
61-2
Canea .
. 76
75
72
70
67
61
Candia.
-
-
. 8 69
69
68
64
63
61
Mean
•
•
. 71-9
72-1
70-2
67-2
63-8
611
Group X:
Corfu .
. 76-1
78-3
75
75-5
73-7
72-8
Arta .
. 77-6
77
75-4
73-5
70-4
71-3
Kephalonia
. 77-3
78
76-5
75-7
73-9
72-1
Patras .
. 75-2
74-3
71
70-8
69-7
68
Zante .
■
•
. 74-2
75
72-4
72-6
691
68-3
Mean
70-5
a
71-4
a
73-6
. 76-1
74-0
76-5


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
01
%
V
fa
°/
°/
la
/o
10
10
48- 6
48
569
58-3
55-9
71- 8
78- 9
805
81-7
741
49- 5
46-9
48-6
72- 3
66-1
79- 1
721
47-7
48-3
48-1
570
70-1
76-7
78-8
63-4
60-7
651
74-3
76-6
73-8
53-6
54-4
61-2
70-4
74-1
78-4
47
46-3
55
66
73-3
74-5
54
54-9
59-8
68-5
72-6
755
54-5
54-1
60-3
69-8
74-1
75-5
59-7
60
63-2
70-1
74-9
76-7
53-2
57
63-6
71-8
78
75-2
711
73-9
73
75-3
74-3
76
60-4
621
68-2
72-5
73-7
74-6
6M
63-2
67
72-4
74-7
75-6
511
50-4
55-1
64-3
71-2
72-3
58
57
62
67
74
76
61
60
65-6
68
68
73
56-7
55-8
60-9
66-4
711
73-8
68-8
620
68-7
61- 6
62- 7
68-4
60-4
70-9
60-3
58-5
71-8
65-2
71-5
63-7
66
78-6
74-2
77-9
71-2
731
77-5
79
79-1
73- 2
74- 4
78
808
80 8
75-4
75-9
Group VI:
Trikkala.
Larissa.
Lamia.
Mean.
Group VII:
Volo.
Chalohis.
Athens.
Nauplia.
Mean.
Group VIII:
Andros.
Syra.
Naxos.
Santorin.
Mean.
Group IX:
Cythera.
Canea.
Candia.
Mean.
Group X:
Corfu.
Arta.
Kephalonia.
Patras.
Zante.
64-8 63 7 67-6 75 0 76-6 78-2
Mean.


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
75
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
%
%
%
%
°/
%
/0
29
30
26
27
31
31
36
38
36
41
39
46
28
26
26
22
30
24
33
29
36
32
43
36
Samokov.
Sofia.
Philipoppolis.
Kazanlyk.
81
18
15
25
28
31
19
18
18
28
29
26
18
20
23
24
28
22
Samokov.
Sofia.
Philippopolis.
17
Kazanlyk.
13
24
10
20
17


76 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIII
Mean Monthly Kaineall
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
J line.
Group I:
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
Ohepelare
. 2-56
2-6
1-93
2-52
2-91
4-31
Samokov
. 1-59
1-67
1-85
2-42
2-81
3-31
Rilski Monastir
. 1-90
2-44
2-17
311
31
3-36
Kustendil
. 1-94
1-9
1-22
1-78
2-84
2-38
Sofia .
. 1-50
1-42
1-46
2-05
3-39
3-23
Mean
. 1-9
2-01
1-73
2-37
3-01
3-32
Group II:
Burgas
. 1-85
2-24
1-61
1-77
2-02
3-38
Stara Zagora
. 1-46
1-85
1-69
1-58
2-44
3-35
Kazanlyk
. 1-73
1-81
1-46
1-73
2-76
3-74
Haskovo
. 2-52
2-32
213
2-05
1-88
2-94
Philippopolis
. 1-89
1-81
1-61
1-85
1-68
2-65
Mean
. 1-89
2-01
1-70
1-79
2-16
3-21
Group III:
Monastir
. 1-93
2-64
1-97
2-48
2-87
2-75
Uskiib .
. 1-42
1-10
0-79
1-69 •
2-28
2-24
Mean
. 1-68
1-87
1-38
2-08
2-58
2-49
Group IV:
Durazzo
. 2-95
3-31
3-94
2-24
1-61
1-93
Scutari
. 4-65
5-98
6-61
4-96
3-27
2-09
Valona
. 3-98
3-50
4-21
2-32
1-42
1-89
Mean
. 3-86
4-26
4-92
317
21
1-97
Group V:
Constantinople
. 3-42
2-72
2-44
1-65
1-18
1-34
Kavalla
. 2-80
342
2-72
1-93
2-05
1-65
Salonica
. 1-26
0-87
1-10
1-61
1-73
1-85
Mean
1-61
. 2-49
1-65
2-34
1-73
2-09


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Ащ.
Sept.
ins.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
3-64
1-97
1-54
1-69
2-64
307
2-70
2-0
1-76
1-81
202
1-22
2-40
212
1-63
306
343
1-9
2-37
2-35
1-48
2-15
2-53
1-68
2-83
207
1-59
219
1-93
1-42
2-79
210
Ье
2-18
2-51
1-86
1-55
118
0-87
1-98
252
205
2-15
1-61
0-99
1-58
2-36
1-81
2-23
1-51
1-76
2-08
248
1-69
1-63
1-32
113
1-42
303
2-20
1-65
1-23
1-34
1-24
1-77
1-34
1-84
1-37
1-22
1-66
2 43
1-82
1-81
1-77
1-38
3-38 2-99
2-6
1-46
1-46
118
209 1-50
1-97
1-63
1-62
1-28
2-74 2-25
2-29
0-47
1-89
1-73
713
846
7-32
1-54
1-02
3-46
7-4
8-46
6-22
0-52
1-89
3-97
5-39
7-68
5-75
0-84
1-60
305
6-64
8-2
6-43
1-06
0-71
0-79
1- 65
205
1-34
1-14
2-52
4-02
2-72
1-97
480
2- 16
102
0- 87
3-23
1-97
1- 73
Group I:
Chepelare.
Samokov.
Rilski Monastir.
Kustendil.
Sofia.
Mean.
Group II:
Burgas.
Stara Zagora.
Kazanlyk.
Haskovo.
Philippopolis.
Mean.
Group III:
Monastir.
Üsküb.
Mean.
Group IV:
Durazzo.
Scutari.
Valona.
Mean.
Group V:
Constantinople.
Kavalla.
Salonica.
0-85
Mean»
1-61
3-33
151
2-9
1-71


78 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE ХШ (continued)
Mean Monthly Bainfall
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Group VI:
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
Yanina
. 5-51
3-86
5-67
2-83
1-89
2-83
Trikkala
. 3-23
2-80
311
2 05
2-83
161
Larissa
. 1-77
1-81
1-65
1-58
1-89
1-30
Lamia .
. 2-31
1-81
1-50
1-93
1-93
1-42
Mean
. 3-20
2-57
2-98
210
2-13
1-79
Group VII:
Volo .
. 1-69
1-77
1-81
1-30
1-42
1-02
Chalchis
. 2-71
1-85
1-81
1-42
0-83
0-55
Athens
. 2.05
1-46
1-34
0-83
0-79
0-67
Nauplia
. 2-28
1-81
1-89
0-94
1-02
0-67
Mean
. 2-18
1-72
1-71
112
101
0-73
Group VIII:
Andros
. 5-20
3-94
311
1-18
0-91
0-63
Syra .
. 3 86
2-60
2-32
1-10
0-94
0-35
Naxos .
. 2-84
2-52
1-46
0-91
0-78
0-12
Santorin
. 2-56
1-73
1-38
0-83
0-75
0-04
Mean
. 3-61
2-70
2-07
1-00
0-84
0-28
Group IX:
Cythera
. 4-29
3-58
2-20
0-94
0-59
0-55
Canea .
. 4-13
3-94
1-77
0-79
039
0-24
Candia.
. 3-39
3-23
1-97
0-63
0-48
0-09
Mean
. 3-94
3-58
1-98
0-79
0-49
0-29
Group X:
Corfu .
. 6-26
5-94
4-33
2-99
213
0-86
Arta .
. 4-49
5-32
4-37
3-23
2-99
1-65
Kephalonia .
. 4-65
4-33
2-99
1-65
110
0-83
Patras .
. 3-27
2-95
2-32
2-09
1-50
0-79
Zante .
. 6-02
4-88
3-39
1-97
1-34
0-35
Mean
0-89
. 4-94
1-81
4-68
2-39
3-48


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
Group VI:
1-50
2-01
1-54
6-89
713
7-99
Yanina.
0-87
0-78
0-98
315
417
4-06
Trikkala.
1-22
0-75
1-06
1-89
272
2-32
Larissa.
1-22
1-06
1-18
2-40
315
358
Lamia.
1-20
1-K
119
3-58
4-29
449
Mean.
Group VII:
0-51
0-67
118
1-69
2-64
216
Volo.
019
0-43
0-91
114
2-20
2-76
Chalchis.
0-27
0-35
0-55
1-73
2-87
2-44
Athens.
0-27
0-55
1-06
2-28
303
3 66
Nauplia.
0-31
0-50
0-92
1-71
2-68
2-75
Mean.
Group VIII
008
016
0-63
1-73
3-15
5 20
Andros.
0-20
0-51
0-83
1-69
315
3-54
Syra.
004
0-08
0-39
1-04
2-01
2-87
Naxos.
004
—
0-43
0-91
2-52
303
Santorin.
0-09
019
0-57
1-34
2-71
3-66
Mean.
Group IX:
0-51
0-78
0-83
2-91
4-61
5 35
Cythera.
—
0-08
0-32
0-94
6-73
5-63
Canea.
012
0-35
0-78
1-81
3-58
398
Candia.
0-21
0-40
0-64
1-89
4-97
4-99
Mean.
0-20
0-91
3-54
6-34
0-67
0-59
1-97
5-31
016
0-67
1-26
4-49
0-16
0-20
114
3-35
0-08
016
1-30
4-21
Group X:
8-50
9-72
Corfu.
5-63
7-48
Arta.
5-08
713
Kephalonia.
410
4-84
Patras.
8-19
1024
Zante.
0-25 0-51 1-84 4-74 0-30 7-88
Mean.


80
CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIV
Maximum Rainfall
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
Jane.
Group I:
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
Chepelare
. 4-69
3-58
3-84
4-69
4-42
709
Samokov
. 303
313
4-54
4-84
4-46
5-81
RUski Monastir
. 3-23
4-27
4-65
5-36
4-74
7-07
Kustendil
. 3-31
2-75
3-76
2-89
5-13
5-15
Sofia .
. 5-04
2-88
4-12
3-73
5-73
7-31
Group II:
Burgas
. 5-53
6-18
3-86
4-25
4-71
10-24
Stara Zagora
. 4-33
3-70
4-49
5-51
4-87
6-67
Kazanlyk
. 50
3-93
3-05
4-68
4-87
7-75
Haskovo
. 5-59
516
3-32
3-86
3-87
5-16
Philippopolis
7-91
. 611
3-54
3-78
4-60
2-75


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
Group I:
6-35
5-29
3-31
5-16
5-30
613
Chepelare.
4-53
*503
4-41
3-42
5-0
2-79
Samokov.
516
4-24
4-21
6-21
814
5-27
Rilski Monastir.
3-81
4-61
3-62
610
535
315
Kustendil.
6-19
8 91
3-26
6-89
6-46
3-26
Sofia.
Group II:
5-28
409
2-56
5-24
7-13
4-67
Burgas.
3-77
4-06
3-41
3-66
4-09
3-68
Stara Zagora.
4-36
4-67
5-61
4-77
5-0
313
Kazanlyk.
2-78
50
3-76
3-78
654
4-79
Haskovo.
3-78
2-98
3-95
3-50
4-77
3-31
Philippopolis.
AIR—E. M.
1?


82 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XV
Number of Rain
Days (
> 0-2
mm. or 0-008
in. of
rain)
Group I:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Chepelare
. 11
12
11
12
14
7
Samokov
. 10
12
12
12
14
15
Rilski Monastir
. 10
13
12
13
IS
IS
Kustendil
. 7
9
6-5
7
12
.11
Sofia .
. 12
8
10
11
13
12
Mean
. 10
10-8
10-3
11-0
13-6
120
Group II:
Burgas
. 8
10
9
9
10
11
Stara Zagora
. 8
10
9
9
11
13
Kazanlyk
. 8
10
9
12
12
14
Haskovo
. 8
9
9
9
9 •
12
Philippopolis
. 7
8
8
7
9
13
Mean
. 7-8
9-4
8-8
9-2
10-2
12-6
Group III:
Monastir
. 10
11
10
11
14
13
Uskiib .
. 6
8*
5
6
9
7
Mean .
. 8
8
7-5
8-5
11-5
10
Group IV:
Durazzo
. 9-9
8-6
11-8
8-2
6-6
5-2
Scutari
. 9-0
10-5
10-7
9-8
7-9
5-8
Valona
. 8-1
6-9
8-6
5-3
3-8
3-6
Mean
. 9-0
8-7
10-4
7-8
6-1
4-9
Group V:
Constantinople
. 120
11-0
100
8-0
6-4
4-6
Kavalla
. 60
100
8-0
6-0
6-0
6-5
Salonioa
. 60
60
6-0
7-0
60
6-0
Mean .
5-7
. 8-0
61
9-0
70
8-0


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
10
6
8
8
12
11
10
7
8
9
12
9
9
7
9
10
J 2
10
8
5
7-5
7-5
10
6-5
9
6
(i
7
8
11
9-2
6-2
7-7
8-3
10-8
9-5
5-
4
5
7
9
9
8
5
S
7
10
8
8
6
7
8
11
9
7
5
5
7
10
9
6
4
5
7
10
8
6-8
4-8
5-4
7-2
10-0
8-6
8
6-5
5-5
10
9
11
5
4
4
6
5
6
6-5
5-2
4-7
8
7
8-5
2-1
4-1
4-2
100
13-6
12-4
3-0
3-1-
5-6
9-6
10-1
10
1-0
3-1
5-5
6-5
.114
9-9
2-0
34
51
8-7
11-7
10-8
2-9
3-5
6-1
6-5
11
14
4-3
4-3
4-5
30
8
9
4-0
30
3-5
6-0
7
8
3-7
3-6
4-7
51
8-7
103
Group I:
Chepelare.
Samokov.
Rilski Monastir.
Kustendil.
Sofia.
Mean.
Group II:
Burgas.
Stara Zagora.
Kazanlyk.
Haskovo.
Philippopolis.
Mean.
Group III:
Monastir.
Uskfib.
Mean.
Group IV:
Durazzo.
Scutari.
Valona.
Mean.
Group V:
Constantinople.
Kavalla.
Salonica.
Mean.
72


84 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XV (continued)
Number of Rain Days
Group VI:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Yanina
. 11
8
17
14,
13
13-5
Trikkala
. 11
13
13
11
9
7
Larissa
. 8
10
9
9
8
Lamia .
. 11
11
9
7
7-4
4-6
Mean
. 10-2
105
120
10-2
9-4
7-8
Group VII:
Volo .
. 8
8
10
6
5-7
5-6
Chalchis
. 13
12
11
7
6-5
4-6
Athens
. 11
11
10
8
8
5
Nauplia
. 9-8
9-6
10
7
6
4
Mean.
104
101
10-2
7
6-6
4-8
Group VIII:
Andros
. 12
12
10
6
4-5
20
Syra .
. 12
11
9
4
46
1-0
Naxos .
. 12
11
6
6
50
1-0
Santorin
. 11
12
8
4
36
10
Mean
. 11-8
11-5
8-2
5-0
4-4
1-2
Group IX:
Cythera
. 7
g
7
2-5
2-6
0-8
Canea .
. 13-4
11-2
6-9
4-2
2-4
1-1
Candia.
. 15
12
12
5
- 4
1
Mean
. 11-8
10-7
8-6
3-9
30
1-0
Group X:
Corfu .
. 11
13
9
9
6
4
Arta .
. 11
13
12
in
10
7
Kephalonia .
. 11
13
9
(i
4
2-5
Patras .
. 12
15
12
11
9
(i
Zante .
. 13
15
10
8
5-6
3-2
Mean
4-5
. 11-6
6-9
138
8-8
10-4


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Group VI:
9
7
6
11
14
13
Yanina.
5
3
6
9
11
12
Trikkala.
5
3
4-6
6
10
9
Larissa.
3-2
3-4
5-2
7
9
12
Lamia.
5-5
4-1
5-4
8-2
110
11-5
Mean.
Group VII:
2-1
2-6
2-5
5
8
7
Volo.
2
2-6
4-6
8
11
12
Chalohis.
2
2
4
8
11
13
Athens.
2
2
3-6
7-5
9
10-4
Nauplia.
20
2-3
3-7
7-1
9-7
10-6
Mean.
Group VIII:
10
1-0
30
5-5
10
12
Andros.
0-2
01
1-5
4
7
U
Syra.
0-4
0-4
1-6
4
6
10
Naxos.
01
00
1-0
4
8
11
Santorin.
0-4
0-4
1-8
4-4
7-8
11-0
Mean.
Group IX:
0-4
00
0-9
4-5
8
9
Cythera.
0-1
0-4
1-7
5-6
10-9
139
Canea.
0-0
1
2
7
12
15
Candia.
0-2
0-5
1-5
5-7
10-3
126
Mean.
Group X:
2
1-5
5
10
11
11
Corfu.
3
2
6
9
12
13
Arta.
0-1
0-1
3
7
1)
13
Kephalonia.
1-5
2-6
5-2
11-4
13
15
Patras.
10
1-2
5-5
8-0
12
17
Zante.
IS
Mean.
1-5
4-9 9-1 11-4 13-8


86 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XVI
Average Number of Days of Snowfall
Group I:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June
Chepelare
. 10
10
9
4
0-3
—
Samokov
. 11
Id
10
4
0-3
—
Rilski Monastir
. 10
6
10
9
4
04
—
Kustendil
4
0-8
01
—
Sofia .
. 10
9
8
2
01
—
Mean . .
. 94
8-8
8
2-9
0-2
—
Group II:
Burgas
. 6
6
4
3
04
—
—
Stara Zagora
4
5
04
—
—
Kazanlyk
7
7
5
1
—
—
Haskovo
7
5
4
1
—
—
Philippopolis
6
4
3
0-5
—
—
Mean
. 64
4-8
4
0-6
—
—
Group III:
Uskub .
. 4-7
3-5
1
—
—
—
Group IV:
Scutari
. 11
1-2
0-6
—
—
—
Group V:
Constantinople
. 5-5
6
3
0-2
—
—
Salonica
—
. 14
—
0-7
01
04


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
J uly.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Group I:
—
—
0-3
0-5
6
7
Chepelare.

—
0-2
0-7
6
7'
Samokov.


01
1
6
12
Rilski Monastir.


00
00
3
3
Kustendil.
—
—
0-0
0-3
5
7
Sofia.
—
—
01
0-5
5-2
7-2
Mean.
Group II:


—
—
1
3
Burgas.




3
3
Stara Zagora.


—
—
i
4
Kazanlyk.


,

3
3
Haskovo.
—
—
—
—
2
2
Philippopolis.
—
—
—
—
2-6
3
Mean.
Group III:
—
—
—
0-6
1-4
2-1
Uskiib.
Group IV:
—
—
—
0-1
0-6
3-6
Scutari.
Group V:



0-6
2-9
Constantinople.
—,
Salonioa.
—
0-7
—
0-3
—


88 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XVI (continued)
Average Number of Days of Snowfall
Group VI:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
Yanina
. 1-7
1-6
10
—
—
Trikkala
. 36
3-8
0-9
01
—
Larissa
. 1-6
1-2
0-3
01
—
Lamia .
. 2-4
1-4
0-5
—
—
Mean
. 2-3
20
0-7
0-1
—
Group VII:
Volo .
. 0-6
11
0-2
—
—
- —
Chalchis
. 1-9
1-5
0-2
—
—
—
Athens
. 1-8
1-6
11
01
—
—
Nauplia
. 09
0-9
—
—
—
—
Mean .
. 1-3
1-2
0-4
—
—
—
Group VIII:
Andros
Syra .
Naxos .
Santorin
Mean
Group IX:
Cythera
Group X:
Corfu .
Arta .
Kephalonia
Patras .
Zante .
2-8
2-е
0-4
—
—
—
0-6
1-4
—
—
—
—
0-6
1-2
0-1
—
—
—
06
14
0-2
—
—
—
11
1-6
0-2
—
—
—

0-6




0-4
01
0-6
01
0-3
0-2
0-1
0-4
0-6
0-9
_ 01 — —
0-1 — — —
Mean
0-4 —
03~


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
— — — — 0-7 11
— — — — 0-6 0-5
— — — — 0-4 0-4
— — — — 0-4 0-5
0-5 0-6
0-1 0-2
0-2 0-6
0-1 0-9
0-8 0-5
— 0-3
0-5
0-9
0-1
0-4
0-1
0.4
— 01
0-1
0-3
Group VI:
Yanina.
Trikkala.
Larissa.
Lamia.
Mean.
Group VII:
Volo.
Chalchis.
Athens.
Nauplia.
Mean.
Group VIII:
Andros.
Syra.
Naxos.
Santorin.
Mean.
Group IX:
Cythera.
Group X:
Corfu.
Arta.
Kephalonia.
Patras.
Zante.
0-1
Mean.


90 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XVII
Maximum Number of Days in any Year, of
(A) Snowfall; (B) Snow covering Ground.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
Chepeiare f
11
13
14
23
18
31
Samokov f
12
13
12
27
14
31
Rilski Monastir f .
9
19
12
26
14
31
Kustendil t
7
14
7
27
11
31
Sofia*
9
13
17
27
16
31
Burgas *
4
8
6
8
13
25
Stara Zagora f
4
4
7
11
9
30
Kazanlyk f
7
7
9
17
12
31
Haskovo f .
6
4
8
20
12
31
Philippopolis f
6
5
0
23
11
31
* Observations, 1894-1910.
f Observations, 1900-10.
TABLE XVIII
Average Number op Days of Mist and Fog
Group I:
Chepeiare
Samokov
Rilski Monastir
Kustendil
Sofia .
Mean
Group II:
Burgas
Stara Zagora
Kazanlyk
Haskovo
Philippopolis
Mean
Group V:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
0:7
1-3
1-3
0-6

0-4
6-1
8-7
6-1
36
1-8
06
4-6
4-4
4-3
4-0
1-6
1-4
5-1
1-0
10
0-3
0-1
140
6-0
6-0
1-0
01
0-3
6-1
4-3
3-7
1-9
0-7
0-5
3-6
3-1
• 4-2
1-8
1-8
10
5-0
3-2
2-6
1-5
10
0-3
4-4
5-2
2-4
0-8
0-3
0-3
7-2
7-7
9-7
4-3
21
0-9
5-1
4-7
2-6
0-6
0-2
0-2
5-0
4-8
4-3
1-8
1-1
0-6
Salonica
0-1
2-5
0-4
1-7
0-6


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
21
28
22
31
7
15
Chepelare.f
19
28
19
31
9
9
Samokov.f
17
28
17
31
8
15
Rilski Monastir.t
11
28
12
26
2
3
Kustendil.f
18
28
21
25
9
3
Sofia.*
8
13
11
6
1
—
Burgas.*
10
22
8
4
2
5
Stara Zagora.f
14
28
16
5
4
1
Kazanlyk.f
11
28
13
10
3
1
Haskovo.f
10
28
10
8
1
—
Philippopolia.f
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Group I:

—
0-5
1-3
1-1
1-5
Chepelare.
0-1
01
1-4
5-5
6-4
8-7
Samokov.
11
0-6
0-7
4-5
4-7
5-5
Rilski Monastir.
0-2
0-4
3-8
5-7
Kustendil.
0-2
0-2
10
6-0
10-0
120
Sofia.
0-3
0-2
0-8
3-5
5-2
6-7
Mean.
0-7
0-4
2-0
4-1
30
4-1


1-0
1-3
3-4
5-5

—
0-1
2-1
3-5
7-0
1-7
1-7
3-4
9-5
9-8
13-6
—
—
0-2
20
4-5
70
0-5
0-4
1-3
3-8
4-8
7-4
Group II:
Burgas.
Stara Zagora.
Kazanlyk.
Haskovo.
Philippopolis.
Mean.
Group V:
_
Salonica.
_
7-5
0-1
3-2
0-8


92 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XVIII (continued)
Average Number of Days of Mist and Fog
Group VI:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Trikkala
. 31
0-4
0-4
0-2
0-5
0-2
Larissa
1-0
01
01
0-1
—
—
Lamia .
8
—
0-4
—
1-0
—
—
Mean
8
1-4
0-3
0-2
0-4
0-2
0-1
Group VII:
Volo .
. 0-7
0-2
0-6
0-6
—
—
Chalohis
. 0-3
—
—
—
0-2
—
Athena
. 18-0
150
25-0
200
240
22-0
Nauplia
. 6-2
4-2
70
3-6
1-4
1-4
Mean
. 6-3
4-8
81
60
6-4
5-8
Group VIII:
Andros
. 2-5
20
3-5
30
20
10
Syra .
8 1-2
1-2
2-0
0-8
—
0-2
Naxos .
—8
0-2
0-8
0-8
0-8
0-1
Santorin
. 1-7
1-4
3-4
6-9
110
140
Mean
. 1-3
1-2
2-4
2-9
3-4
3-8
Group IX:
Cythera
—
1-3
0-4
0-6
10
0-6
Group X:
Corfu .
. 3-4
2-6
4-6
3-7
20
0-2
Arta .
. 0-4
0-4
0-6
—

—
Kephalonia .
. 1-6
0-8
1-4
2-2
3-4
2-2
Patras .
. 7-5
7-3
100
8-6
5-0
3-3
Zante .
-
. 1-2
0-8
0-6
1-2
10
0-4
Mean
1-2
. 2-8
2-3
2-4
31
3-4


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Group VI:
01
0-4
—
0-9
3-2
1-2
Trikkala.
—
- -
0.1
0-3
1-4
0-9
Larissa.
—
—
0-2
—
0-2
—
Lamia.
—
0.1
0-1
0;4
1-0
0-7
Mean.
Group VII:
—
—
—
0-3
10
0-3
Volo.
—
—
—
—
0-2
0-4
Chalchis.
22-0
200
230
24-0
190
18-0
Athens.
0-3
2-4
2-1
1-8
4-5
5-8
Nauplia.
5-6
5-6
6-3
6-5
6-2
61
Mean.
Group VIII:
10
10
1-0
2-0
3-0
2-5
Andros.
—
—
—
0-8
1-5
1-5
Syra.
01
0-2
—
0-1
0-1
0-2
Naxos.
6-0
4-7
5-0
3-8
50
1-6
Santorin.
1-8
1-5
1-5
1-7
2-4
1-4
Mean.
Group IX:
—
01
0-2
—
0-3
—
Cythera.
Group X:
1-4
1-7
2-0
4-5
2-0
0-6
Corfu.
—


4-0
0-2
0-6
Arta.
2-2

0-2
0-4
2-4
2-8
Kephaloi
6-6
8-6
5-4
8-3
10-3
.9-2
Patraa.
1-8
0-4
1-2
1-4
1-4
1-6
Zante.
2-4
Mean.
21
30
1-7
3-3
3-7


94 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
JANUARY
Group I:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
w.
NW.
С.
Chepelare
22-4
13-8
1-8
6-9
24-7
11-2
4-7
51
8-4
Samokov
50
7-4
8-8
11-5
11-7
10-2
13-9
10-8
20-6
Rilski Monastir
3-2
23-2
5-0
1-8
5-8
17-6
1-7
0-3
41-4
Kustendil
3-7
1-3
1-6
2-3
1-0
1-2
1-6
4-3
830
Sofia
2-0
100
14-0
11-0
2-0
100
130
17-0
22-0
Mean .
7-3
111
6-3
6-7
90
10-0
70
7-5
351
Group II:
Burgas .
1G-3
61
2-6
0-8
3-7
16-3
23-8
11-4
190
Stara Zagora .
20-2
16-4
10-7
5-8
10-3
7-0
4-7
10-7
14-1
Kazanlyk
5-2
2-1
3-8
5-8
1-4
M
7-2
21-3
520
Haskovo .
9-6
7-6
10
0-9
3-8
3-3
11-6
151
47-1
Philippopolis .
3-3
1-4
8-4
6-4
1-2
12-9
22-5
6-8
37-2
Mean .
10-9
6-7
5-3
3-9
4-1
81
140
131
33-9
Group III:
Monastir .
24-3
6-8
12-5
14-5
12-9
4-8
100
14-4
00
Üsküb .
01
0-3
—
23-3
—
1-1
—
67-6
7-6
Mean .
12-2
3-5
6-2
18-9
6-5
2-9
50
41-0
3-8
Group IV:
Scutari .
2-4
4-6
17-3
3-8
1-е
1-3
3-3
3-5
62-2
Durazzo
45-0
160
110
14-0
5-0
30
10
20
30
Mean .
23-7
10-3
14-2
8-9
3-3
2-2
2-2
2-7
32-6
Group V:
Constantinople.
21-8
26-8
1-3
0-9
14-7
18-3
2-7
2-7
10-8
Kavalla .
32-8
2-7
17-2
4-3
5-4
2-1
15-е
10-2
9-7
Salonica .
23-0
13-fi
8-1
5-1
2*5
3-7
30 .
7-5
33-5
Mean .
180
25-9
6-8
14-4
71
8-9
8-0
34
7-5


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
95
Group VI:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Yanina .
. 8-6
6-9
9-2
30-1
14-5
3-9
12-4
14-4
—
Trikkala
. 13-8
6-8
5-5
6-9
5-7
15-3
19-5
24-8
1-7
Larissa .
. 8-5
6-4
7-9
2-0
2-9
3-9
6-2
5-7
56-6
Lamia .
. 130
1-7
100
3-7
2-0
1-6
9-5
33-6
24-9
Mean .
. 110
5-4
8-1
10-7
6-3
(i-2
11-9
19-6
20-8
Group VII:
Volo
. 151
1-6
2-9
5-8
2-5
0-6
3-8
64-7
3-0
Chalchis
. 41-8
10-9
5-8
7-5
12-6
20
4-4
14-9
0-1
Athens .
. 15-0
22-1
6-4
4-8
13-1
7-5
4-8
9-3
17-0
Nauplia.
. 23-9
11-6
9-4
3-6
66
9-0
5-2
12-1
18-0
Mean .
. 24-0
11-5
61
5-4
8-7
4-8
4-6
25-2
9-7
Group VIII:
Andros .
. 21-4
32-5
6-4
6-2
21-7
6-9
0-9
3-9
0-1
Sjra
36-7
16-8
31
30
6-3
12-7
9-4
7-1
4-9
Naxos .
. 37-7
18-1
1-0
5-0
15-3
101
4-3
3-0
5-6
Santorin
. 26-8
15-2
6-0
5-3
7-7
11-3
13-9
13-8
—
Mean .
. 30-7
20-7
4-1
4-9
12-8
10-2
7-1
6-9
2-6
Group IX:
Cythera.
. 0-1
8-1
1-9
3-9
4-7
14-3
17-5
9-4
0-1
Canea .
. 13-8
21-9
11-7
4-6
9-4
9-8
10-3
2-3
16-3
Candia .
. 20-7
1-2
—
0-6
42-9
10-5
1-0
15-1
8-1
Mean.
. 24-9
10-4
4-6
30
190
116
9-6
8-9
8-2
Group X:
Corfu .
. 6-7
8-6
100
14-1
П0
9-3
5-3
9-2
25-9
Arta
. 21
32-4
34-2
18-2
3-8
3-2
4-1
1-8
0-2
Kephalonia
. 8-2
12-2
8-7
1 ;V 1
14-7
13-6
6-4
15-9
5-2
Patras .
. 17-8
23-8
8-6
14-4
16-6
8-4
5-1
3-7
1-8
Zante .
. 24-7
12-5
6-3
10-9
13-4
111
7-8
11-6
1-7
Mean.
7-0
. й<Г
8-4
17-9
5-7
13-6
91
14-5
11-9


96 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
FEBRUARY
Group I:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Chepelare
201
12-3
0-9
9-9
25-8
12-8
4-6
4-6
8-9
Samokov
4.4
9-5
16-8
9-5
8-8
101
10-3
11-1
19-5
Rilski Monastir
2-2
15-7
3-3
16
4-8
20-9
1-9
0-9
48-8
Kustendil
2-9
1-6
1-8
2-1
2-2
1-9
1-3
4-1
82-1
Sofia
2-0
7-0
120
10-0
2-0
60
21-0
230
17-0
Mean .
6-3
9-2
7-0
6-6
8-7
10-3
7-8
8-7
35-3
Group II:
Burgas .
15-4
12-2
10-2
3-4
2-2
12-3
17-0
10-0
17-3
Stara Zagora .
16-8
16-6
21-4
10-8
7-1
5-7
3-3
7-6
10-6
Kazanlyk
6-4
1-7
6-4
13-9
2-4
11
6-0
15-5
46-6
Haskovo .
111
9-6
4-8
3-8
4-6
2-6
9-3
15-8
38-4
Philippopolis .
3-5
1-9
14-8
11-6
2-9
9-7
15-0
6'6
33-7
Mean .
10-6
8-4
11-5
8-7
3-8
6-3
101
11-1
29-3
Group III:
Monastir .
23-3
8-1
7-2
13-0
20-9
3-1
9-7
14-7
—
Üsküb .
—
0-3
—
18-7
0-2
1-2
05
66-1
13-0
Mean .
11-6
4'2
3-6
15-9
10-5
2-2
5-1
40-4
6-5
Group IV:
Scutari .
20
3-4
17'4
4-3
30
1-7
5-4
3-3
59-5
Durazzo
29-0
13-0
6-0
20-0
11-0
6-0
4-0
50
60
Mean .
15-5
8-2
11-7
12-2
7-0
3-8
4-7
4-2
32-8
Group V:
Constantinople.
21-8
27-8
2-3
0-8
13-9
17-9
2-1
3-9
9-6
Kavalla .
5-4
60
44-0
8-9
8-9
1-8
10-1
5-4
9-6
Salonica .
21-9
111
9-3
5-5
3-1
5-5
4-6
7-2
31-8
Mean .
170
16-4
5-5
14-9
5-6
18-5
8-4
5-1
8-6


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
Group VI:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
С.
Yanina .
. 7-5
8-0
7-6
28-4
141
7-4
12-4
14-7
—..
Trikkala
. 15-8
8-4
61
8-7
5-2
12-4
21-е
20-8
1-0
Larissa .
. 6-6
10-9
7-4
3-0
2-8
40
8-7
6-8
49-8
Lamia .
. 9-8
3-6
180
5-9
2-0
1-9
90
26-7
23-1
Mean.
. 9-9
7-7
9-7
11-5
60
6-4
12-9
17-2
18-6
Group VII:
Volo
. 13-4
4-4
4-6
120
8-е
0-6
4-6
48-4
з-е
Chalchia
. 32-9
11-3
7-4
13-9
21-2
3-2
2-3
7-6
0-2
Athens .
. 11-6
201
6-2
6-2
19-3
9-7
6-4
7-7
12-8
Nauplia.
. 18-0
10-9
10-8
4-4
11-3
12-7
6-4
7-5
18-0
Mean.
. 19-0
11-7
7-2
91
161
6-6
4-9
17-8
8-6
Group VIII:
Andros .
. 18-5
27-4
8-2
10-8
22-6
7-6
1-2
3-7
01
Syra .
Naxos .
. 27-3
14-1
6-1
5-0
9-6
15-6
11-4
61
4-8
. 31-3
14-4
0-6
81
18-0
11-8
60
4-6
5-2
Santorin
. 20-6
12-4
6-0
9-4
8-7
14-0
18-3
10-6
—
Mean.
. 24-4
17-1
5-2
8-4
14-7
12-2
9-2
6-3
2-5
Group IX:
Cythera.
. 291
6-7
3-2
7-6
6-1
19-1
240
4-3
—
Canea .
. 16-9
20-6
12-7
4-7
6-9
9-9
7-2
5-8
15-3
Candía .
. 10-2
1-8
—
1-6
43-7
7-3
1-3
12-4
21-7
Mean.
. 18-7
9-7
5-3
4-6
18-9
121
10-8
7-6
12-3
Group X:
Corfu .
. 6-6
8-4
8-2
14-4
14-2
9-е
в-е
7-е
24-4
Arta
. 16
26-7
30-7
17-1
9-1
7-9
4-8
21
01
Kephalonia
. 5-6
9-7
8-0
16-4
15-2
11-7
9-7
17-9
5-8
Patras .
. 17-7
191
8-0
140
16-4
10-6
9-6
3-4
1-3
Zante .
. 17-3
106
5-8
12-6
14-7
126
11-4
13-9
1-4
Mean.
. 9-7
14-9
121
14-9
13-9
10-5
8-4
9-0
6-6
AIE—E. M.
G


98 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
march
Group I:
N.
NE.
Б.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
c.
Chepelare
22-1
16-4
0-9
9-5
25-6
9-3
3-2
3-9
91
Samokov.
5-8
10-3
15-5
9-4
9-2
10-0
9-9
10-4
19-5
Rilaki Monastir
30
161
4-2
1-2
5-1
20-8
1-8
0-4
47-1
Kustendil
4-7
2-1
1-9
3-4
3-3
2-9
2-1
5-1
74-5
Sofia
2-0
110
150
9-0
2-0
60
17-0
200
170
Mean .
75
11-2
7-5
6-5
90
9-8
6-8
8-0
33-5
Group II:
Burgas .
14-7
16-5
17-2
4-0
3-0
10-3
13-2
7-5
13-5
Stara Zagora .
15-6
191
21-4
8-7
8-4
(ri
3-4
6-2
10-7
Kazanlyk
8-9
2-4
9-9
16-5
1-5
1-е
5-9
15-8
37-4
Haskovo
10-4
11-3
7-7
51
7-4
3-8
5-1
11-0
38-2
Philippopolis .
2-8
2-5
19-4
131
1-9
12-6
130
5-7
28-9
Mean .
10-5
10-4
151
9-5
4-4
7-0
8-1
9-2
25-7
Group III:
Monastir
19-6
7-3
7-1
14-0
25-4
4-2
9-4
131
—
Üsküb .
0-5
0-3
0-9
15-4
0-3
0-9
0-1
69-7
11-9
Mean .
100
3-8
40
14-7
12-8
2-5
4-8
41-4
60
Group IV:
Scutari .
1-4
2-9
12-3
4-0
3-8
31
6-0
2-5
64-0
Durazzo .
240
190
7-0
18-0
100
7-0
30
50
7-0
Mean .
12-7
11-0
9-6
110
6-9
50
4-5
3-8
35-5
Group V:
Constantinople.
19-9
31-7
2-1
0-6
12-4
17-6
2-2
2-3
11-2
Kavalla .
12-9
1-6
18-3
7-5
26-4
91
8-1
4-3
11-8
Salonica .
13-9
9-0
8-9
6-9
5-3
12-3
4-3
5-3
34-1
Mean , .
190
155
4-0
14-1
4-9
9-8
130
5-0
14-7


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
99
Group VI:
N.
NE.
Б.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Yanina .
8-2
9-6
10-7
30-7
16-3
2-6
8-3
13-6
—
Trikkala
. 8-6
8-2
10-5
11-6
7-1
15-3
19-4
16-6
2-2
Larissa .
. 5-3
11-3
16-0
2-7
2-5
5-9
8-5
6-0
41-8
Lamia .
. 7-6
2-4
210
7-4
2-4
1-8
8-0
23-3
26-1
Mean.
. 7-4
7-9
14-6
131
7-1
6-4
11-0
14-9
17-5
Group VII:
Volo
. 11-7
1-8
4-5
14-7
15-5
0-8
3-8
41-0
6-2
Chalchis
. 32-9
14-2
6-4
12-9
18-2
3-7
2-8
8-8
01
Athens .
. 11-6
21-5
5-2
4-3
16-1
11-7
7-6
5-4
16-ti
Nauplia.
. 17-3
110
9-6
4-8
14-9
9-9
8-0
5-6
18-9
Mean.
18-4
12-1
6-4
9-2
16-2
6-5
5-6
15-2
10-4
Group VIII:
Andros .
. 24-7
25-8
8-7
9-1
19-7
6-8
1-5
3-7
—
Syra
. 29-6
15-3
6-8
6-2
7-6
13-2
8-7
6-4
6-2
Naxos .
. 32-8
17-8
0-5
6-6
16-6
10-3
40
4-3
7-2
Santorin
. 23-1
12-4
7-5
8-4
5-6
101
19-3
13-7
—
Mean.
. 27-6
17-8
5-9
7-6
12-4
10-1
8-4
7-0
3-3
Group IX:
Cythera.
. 30-2
7-0
3-9
4-7
5-6
101
29-5
9-0
—
Canea .
. 10-9
9-9
6-6
12-9
10-2
8-5
15-5
7-4
18-1
Candía .
. 10-6
0-2
0-4
1-2
28-4
10-5
2-8
15-7
30-2
Mean.
. 17-2
5-7
3-6
6-3
14-7
9-7
15-9
10-7
16-1
Group X:
Corfu .
. 5-6
5-0
7-6
14-1
13-2
13-6
6-1
10-7
24-2
Arta
. 1-3
20-4
25-2
151
13-6
9-8
11-2
3-0
0-2
Kephalonia
. 6-3
7-8
6-6
14-8
15-8
11-9
10-0
22-4
4-4
Patras .
. 18-2
21-7
6-2
9-8
16-2
11-4
10-6
4-3
1-6
Zante .
. 16-7
7-3
7-2
12-6
14-9
10-9
11-3
17-7
1-5

Mean.
6-4
. 9-6
11-6
12-5
9-8
10-6
11-5
13-3
14-7


100 CLIMATE OP THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX {continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
APRIL
Group I:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
w.
NW.
C.
Chepelare
16-2
12-9
2-2
14-7
29-8
8-1
3-4
31
9-6
Samokov.
4-6
9-1
16-6
90
61
7-3
16-9
10-6
19-9
Rilski Monastir
2-2
14-2
5-7
2-1
4-2
17-6
2-3
0-7
510
Kustendil
4-2
4-1
4-7
30
3-3
2-9
3-2
4-6
70-1
Sofia
30
130
20-0
110
2-0
8-0
130
160
140
Mean .
60
10-6
9-8
8-0
91
8-8
7-7
70
32-9
Group И:
Burgas .
9-4
16-0
23-4
5-2
3-4
12-7
12-7
5-1
121
Stara Zagora .
13-4
17-5
19-7
10-5
10-5
6-3
3-3
6-7
121
Kazanlyk
6-9
1-8
8-6
21-5
1-9
1-8
5-0
16-3
36-2
Haskovo
10-8
11-7
7-5
6-2
9-9
3-7
7-3
10-6
32-3
Philippopolis .
2-6
1-9
20-3
14-3
1-8
10-4
12-9
6-1
29-7
Mean .
8-6
9-8
15-9
11-5
5-5
7-0
8-2
8-9
24-5
Group III:
Monastir
17-5
8-0
7-8
17-3
19-4
4-8
10-3
14-9
—
Üsküb .
1-7
5-0
2-2
250
1-4
3-3
1-3
49-7
10-4
Mean .
9-6
6-5
5-0
21-2
10-4
4-0
5-8
32-3
5-2
Group IV:
Scutari .
0-8
1-0
11-7
3-6
4-5
4-3
5-9
2-0
66-2
Durazzo .
21-0
8-0
8-0
160
15-0
90
24)
120
94)
Mean .
10-9
4-5
9-8
9-8
9-8
6-6
3-9
7-0
37-6
Group V:
Constantinople.
170
35-4
2-1
1-3
10-5
14-8
2-7
21
14-1
Kavalla .
8-0
0-7
26-0
100
12-7
7-3
14-7
3-3
17-3
Salonica .
13-2
6-6
7-8
8-2
60
16-3
4-8
5-6
31-6
Mean .
21-0
12-7
3-7
14-2
7-4
12-0
12-8
6-5
9-7


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
101
Group VI:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Yanina .
. 15-2
15-2
6-8
21-7
11-8
2-8
7-1
19-4
—
Trikkala
. 7-6
8-2
12-4
15-2
9-6
16-8
14-5
141
1-7
Larissa .
. 4-2
11-2
20-1
4-2
2-4
6-4
10-3
3-8
37-4
Lamia .
. 61
2-8
23-9
10-1
3-9
20
8-8
19-8
22-6
Mean.
. 8-3
9-4
15-8
12-8
6-9
7-0
10-2
14-3
15-4
Group VII:
Volo .
. 7-6
0-5
4-е
12-5
27-6
0-7
4*6
335
8-4
Chalchis
. 29-1
7-6
6-3
130
23-9
3-9
3-3
12-0
—
Athens .
. 9-1
16-6
5-0
4-2
17-1
15-6
9-1
4-6
18-7
Nauplia.
. 12-2
8-7
7-4
2-9
17-3
14-6
7-3
6-3
23-3
Mean.
. 14-5
8-4
5-8
8-1
21-5
8-7
61
14-1
12-6
Group VIII:
Ândros .
. 19-6
25-4
10-7
7.9
22-6
5-5
0-6
7-8
0-1
Syra
. 231
19-8
7-0
4-8
6-5
15-9
10-6
5-2
M
Naxos .
. 36-0
14-9
0-4
3-4
191
11-9
3-2
2-7
8-4
Santorin
. 16-8
12-9
111
90
4-1
10-3
20-6
15-2
—
Mean.
. 23-9
18-2
7-3
6-3
131
10-9
8-7
7-7
3-9
Group IX:
Cythera.
. 33-6
5-9
1-3
3-4
7-6
£-0
31-9
7-4
—
Canea .
. 10-6
6-0
11-4
6-0
5-1
11-3
20-0
15-5
141
Candía .
. 8-0
0-4
10
2-5
21-2
5-2
2-3
18-1
411
Mean.
. 17-4
4-1
4-6
4-0
11-3
8-5
181
13-7
18-4
Group X:
Corfu
. 41
5-0
6-4
10-1
171
14-6
8-0
10-6
241
Arta
. 10
151
24-0
171
13-9
11-8
11-3
5-0
0-8
Kephalonia
. 3-9
2-7
4-2
14-5
24-8
12-0
7-4
25-3
5-2
Patras .
. 17-8
17-4
3-2
6-3
16-7
14-6
14-7
7-6
1-7
Zante .
. 10-6
5-5
5-8
130
18-8
8-8
11-9
23-2
2-4
Mean. . 7-5 9-1 8-7 12-2 18-3 12-4 10-7 14-3 6-8


102 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages oe Total Observations
MAY
Group I:
N.
NE.
E.
SB.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Chepelare
16-3
130
1-4
17-0
300
5-8
2-1
30
11-2
Samokov.
6-3
8-5
17-7
100
4-5
4-7
14-2
9-9
24-2
Rilski Monastir
2-0
14-2
7-3
2-9
4-1
17-4
0-9
0-5
50-5
Kustendil
2-9
3-2
2-7
2-8
2-9
2-9
1-8
8-9
76-6
Sofia
2-4
100
12-6
12-9
0-9
4-6
11-8
13-3
31-3
Mean .
60
9-8
8-3
9-1
8-5
7-1
6-1
61
38-8
Group II:
Burgas .
8-3
15-7
27-7
8-2
4-5
15-0
11-4
2-5
6-4
Stara Zagora .
13-9
16-3
21-7
12-4
9-5
4-9
2-6
6-3
12-4
Kazanlyk
7-6
3-2
7-9
17-7
2-6
1-4
5-5
13-3
40-8
Haskovo
10-2
12-8
10-6
4-4
5-9
20
5-5
11-6
36-8
Philippopolis .
2-7
2-9
19-6
11-5 .
2-6
8-4
131
5-9
330
Mean .
8-5
10-2
17-5
10-8
5-0
6-3
7-6
7-9
25-9
Group III:
Monastir
16-7
100
7-6
18-2
16-7
4-7
12-4
13-8
—
Üsküb .
0-1
1-6
2-3
28-2
31
-1-5
0-7
50-7
11-9
Mean .
8-4
5-8
4-9
23-2
9-9
31
6-6
32-3
60
Group IV:
Scutari .
0-4
11
6-6
2-7
4-8
6 1
5-8
1-8
70-7
Durazzo .
12-0
70
16-0
120
100
7-0
6-0
18-0
12-0
Mean .
6-2
4-0
11-3
7-3
7-4
6-5
5-9
9-9
41-4
Group V:
Constantinople.
18-2
34-9
2-9
11
7-7
13-4
30
3-2
15-6
Kavalla .
7-5
M
16-1
10-2
17-2
15-6
11-8
0-6
19-9
Salonica .
11-2
6-8
7-7
6-6
70
191
4-9
5-6
311
Mean .
22-2
12-3
31
14-3
6-6
8-9
100
0-0
10-6


104
CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
JUNE
Group I:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
a
Chepelare
18-8
14-7
1-9
16-6
25-0
4-9
2:6
2-6
12-8
Samokov
5-3
8-9
8-1
7-4
5-3
6-5
14-6
13-4
30-5
Rilski Monastir
2-4
12-1
7-0
3-0
4-7
11-3
1-9
0-9
57-0
Kustendil
2-8
30
3-4
31
1-7
2-7
3-9
3-3
75-9
Sofia .
3-7
7-7
7-7
81
1-2
4-7
14-7
19-3
32-8
Mean .
6-6
9-3
5-6
7-6
7-6
60
75
7-9
41-8
Group II:
Burgas .
5-3
7-2
22-4
10-5
7-2
15-9
16-6
4-8
101
Stara Zagora .
16-4
15-7
14-8
9-3
7-8
6-7
5-0
9-8
14-4
Kazanlyk
9-5
40
4-2
10-8
2-3
2-2
6-7
15-2
450
Haskovo .
10-5
8-6
7-3
5-1
3е
2-4
100
11-9
40-5
Philippopolis .
6-0
2-1
13-7
70
3-6
1Ô-3
17-5
8-1
31-8
Mean .
9-5
7-5
12-6
8-5
4-9
7-5
11-2
9-8
28-4
Group III:
Monastir .
20-0
12-5
13-6
161
9-3
2-9
8-1
18-5
,
üsküb .
0-4
1-8
11
21-9
3-8
21
1-3
59-6
8-0
Mean .
10-2
7-2
7-4
18-5
6-5
2-6
4-7
390
40
Group IV:
Scutari .
06
1-0
5-2
3-7
3-6
4-6
7-3
1-2
730
Durazzo
210
7-0
120
90
70
20
64)
17-0
190
Mean .
10-8
40
8-6
6-3
5-3
3-3
6-6
91
46-0
Group V:
Constantinople.
17-6
39-3
4-0
1-2
5-9
10-8
2-6
2-8
15-9
Kavalla .
3-3
0-5
21-7
10-0
12-8
16-7
25-0
2-2
7-8
Salonica .
15-3
7-2
60
7-3
7-1
17-5
5-8
8-2
26-6
Mean .
16-8
121
4-4
15-7
111
10-2
150
6-2
8-6


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
105
Group VI:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
С.
Yanina .
. 17-7
14-2
6-8
18-9
4-6
4-3
7-5
26-0
—
Trikkala
. 7-4
7-0
8-4
9-2
10-1
15-7
17-8
22-9
1-5
Larissa .
. 1-8
11-9
17-8
4-9
3-б
9-4
8-3
30
39-3
Lamia .
. 4-0
1-7
220
8-6
3-2
2-4
12-1
190
27-0
Mean.
. 7-7
8-7
13-8
10-4
5-4
7-9
11-4
17-7
16-9
Group VII:
Volo
. 8-4
0-8
1-2
4-7
49-8
—.
3-7
24-4
7-0
Chalchis
. 34-9
10-3
7-7
9-7
20-1
4-5
2-6
10-3
—
Athens .
. 8-2
13-8
4-3
30
16-6
18-1
8-0
4-0
240
Nauplia.
. 8-0
5-1
3-8
2-7
25-3
10-3
5-2
3-8
35-8
Mean.
. 14-9
7-5
4-3
5-0
27-9
8-2
4-9
10-6
16-7
Group VIII:
Andros .
. 18-4
18-4
17-1
1-8
13-2
5-3
0-8
24-6
0-4
Syra
. 28-1
22-9
12-6
3-3
3-3
10-3
5-8
41
9-6
Naxos .
. 43-9
17-4
0-1
1-9
15-1
8-0
1-е
24)
10-0
Santorin
. 25-9
6-5
30
1-9
3-2
9-3
30-3
19-6
0-3
Mean.
. 29-1
16-4
8-2
2-2
8-7
8-2
9-6
12-6
5-1
Group IX:
Cythera.
. 30-3
1-3
0-9
0-6
0-3
3-3
61-2
2-1
—
Canea .
. 16-5
10-6
11-3
3-8
5-е
20
23-4
141
12-7
Candía .
. 9-2
31
10
1-9
26
1-9
10
38-9
40-4
Mean.
. 18-7
5-0
4-3
2-2
2-8
2-4
28-5
18-4
17-7
Group X:
Corfu
. 7-3
10-3
7-4
7-7
8-9
9-6
7-1
10-2
31-5
Arta
. 1-3
130
20-8
10-6
13-9
15-9
18-3
5-7
0-6
Kephalonia
. 2-6
10
0-8
6-2
145
8-1
6-2
55-1
5-5
Patras .
. 9-6
5-3
1-6
4-7
191
20-1
28-8
6-8
4-1
Zante .
. 11-3
6-9
2-2
6-0
5-0
4-2
16-8
43-7
3-9
Mean.
91
. 6-4
24-3
7-3
15-4
6-5
11-6
7-0
12-3


106 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
JULY
Group I:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Chepelare
20-4
16-1
2-7
18-2
21-9
3-9
1-8
3-8
120
Samokov.
6-6
8-6
9-4
5-8
7-6
7-1
14-8
14-3
25-9
Rilski Monastir
0-9
12-7
6-4
1-8
5-1
13-9
1-е
0-3
57-3
Kustendil
2-6
3-8
1-8
2-5
1-9
2-8
3-8
6-2
74-3
Sofia
3-6
7-8
5-8
5-6
1-6
4-3
16-8
190
35-6
Mean .
6-8
9-8
5-2
6-8
7-6
6-4
7-8
8-7
410
Group II:
Burgas .
4-9
60
26-0
8-9
7-6
130
17-4
5-2
10-9
Stara Zagora .
22-0
18-7
140
8-5
6-5
4-8
2-2
9-6
13-7
Kazanlyk
12-8
3-3
3-6
8-7
2-4
20
в-8
21-2
38-3
Haskovo
11-3
9-7
61
2-5
40
20
9-8
14-1
40-4
Philippopolis .
4-9
M
12-5
7-4
2-8
9-7
18-7
8-5
34-4
Mean .
11-2
7-7
12-5
7-2
4-7
6-3
110
11-9
27-5
Group III:
Monastir
23-8
15-2
11-4
10-7
9-5
2-2
8-7
18-5
—
Üsküb .
—
2-0
01
16-7
4-5
1-2
1-2
61-4
12-9
Mean .
11-9
8-6
5-7
13-7
7-0
1-7
4-9
39-9
6-5
Group IV:
Scutari .
0-3
2-8
9-9
2-2
21
5-1
8-2
21
67-3
Durazzo .
30-0
60
90
10-0
30
10
10
190
21-0
Mean .
15-2
4-4
9-5
6-1
2-5
30
4-6
10-5
44-2
Group V:
Constantinople.
22-4
54-0
4-4
0-7
1-7
2-5
1-0
21
11-2
Kavalla .
66
3-2
11-8
6-5
18-3
21-5
7-0
M
23-6
Salonica .
16-1
7-1
5-1
5-7
7-4
18-9
5-5
7-5
26-7
Mean .
20-5
15-0
3-6
21-4
4-5
7-1
14-3
4-3
91


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
107
Group VI:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
С.
Yanina .
. 17-6
13-7
10-2
10-9
3-9
3-2
9-8
30-7
—
Trikkala
. 8-0
9-2
111
12-2
6-2
14-3
15-9
19-8
3-3
Larissa .
. 3-5
13-6
17-2
30
1-8
4-е
8-2
3-5
44-6
Lamia .
. 4-3
2-2
26-4
8-7
2-6
0-9
10-4
15-8
28-7
Mean.
. 8-4
9-7
16-2
8-7
3-6
5-7
11-1
17-5
19-1
Group VII:
Volo
. 12-2
1-6
0-6
2-6
54-0
0-1
3-0
18-5
7-е
Chalchis
. 42-4
141
4-8
7-6
10-4
3-1
44)
13-6
—
Athens .
. 15-5
26-7
4-2
1-8
10-2
11-5
4-е
5-0
19-9
Nauplia.
. 190
5-9
3-6
2-1
22-7
7-4
3-4
5-4
30-5
Mean.
. 22-3
121
3-3
3-5
24-3
5-5
3-7
10-8
145
Group VIII:
Andros .
. 22-5
14-4
6-9
0-3
4-е
2-2
0-4
48-4
0-3
Syra
. 50-9
27-1
5-9
1-1
1-7
1-9
3-4
4-3
3-7
Naxos .
. 62-1
23-2
—
0-7
4-8
1-3
0-1
1-0
6-8
Santorin
. 46-2
10-4
0-3
0-3
1-0
3-2
11-6
26-8
0-2
Mean.
. 45-4
18-8
3-3
0-6
30
2-1
3-9
201
'2-7
Group IX:
Cythera.
. 47-4
4-2
0-2
—
0-1
1-7
45-3
1-1
—
Canea . *
. 30-7
10-4
4-9
1-6
3-3
5-1
16-4
12-6
15-1
Candia .
, 3-2
0-6
0-8
0-4
20
0-6
5-4
65-9
21-0
Mean.
. 27-1
5-1
1-9
0-6
1-8
2-8
22-4
26-5
120
Group X:
Corfu .
. 9-1
8-4
6-7
4-4
4-3
4-8
6-9
15-5
39-9
Arta
. 1-2
14-2
22-6
10-3
141
15-9
161
4-4
1-2
Kephalonia
. 3-8
2-3
10
5-5
12-4
4-6
6-2
61-2
.•¡•l)
Patraa .
. 15-7
10-8
26
3-3
15-3
17-4
22-4
7-7
4-9
Zante .
. 9-6
6-9
2-3
2-6
3-3
1-1
20-1
47-1
7-0
Mean.
11-2
. 7-9
27-2
8-5
14-3
7-0
8-7
5-2
9-9


108
CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
AUGUST
Group I: .
N.
NE.
Б.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
с.
Chepelare
18-7
15-8
2-9
19-7
21-8
3-6
1-3
2-7
13-5
Samokov.
6-3
9-7
9-6
9-5
9-1
8-7
9-7
9-8
27-7
Rilski Monastir
1-2
12-8
6-3
2-4
4-8
13-9
Ö-8
1-2
56-3
Kustendil
3-4
4-3
3-0
2-2
3-1
5-1
4-3
4-е
69-9
Sofia
2-4
101
8-е
7-1
1-9
3-6
12-6
140
39-7
Mean .
6-4
10-5
61
8-2
8-2
. 7-0
5-3
6-5
41-4
Group II:
Burgas .
7-4
IM
26-7
7-8
6-7
11-3
140
6-8
7-9
Stara Zagora .
21-3
20-5
16-6
9-3
5-9
4-3
1-5
7-2
13-4
Kazanlyk
12-8
4-4
5-3
10-8
20
2-0
5-3
19-4
38 0
Haskovo
9-0
11-3
5-1
2-0
1-4
1-9
9-9
11-6
47-6
Philippopolis .
3-9
1-4
14-7
11-2
2-9
7-8
171
5-9
35-1
Mean .
10-9
9-7
13-7
8-2
3-8
5-4
9-6
10-2
28-4
Group III:
Monastir
28-3
11-4
8-2
14-9
9-7
2-2
11-0
14-3
—
Üsküb .
—
16
0-1
170
2-4
31
4-0
57-9
140
Mean .
14-2
6-5
4-2
15-9
6-1
2-6
7-5
36-1
70
Group IV:
Scutari .
0-3
3-7
9-9
35
2-3
2-4
4-е
1-0
72-3
Durazzo .
28-0
7-0
100
120
3-0
3-0
44)
190
140
Mean .
14-1
5-4
9-9
7-7
2-6
2-7
4-3
100
43-2
Group V:
Constantinople .
20-4
59-6
2-7
о-е
1-2
1-4
1-0
1-4
11-7
Kavalla .
9-7
6-5
21-5
3-2
9-7
17-2
11-8
3-2
17-2
Salonica .
14-5
6-4
5-3
6-2
6-7
18-8
30
60
331
Mean .
20-7
14-9
3-6
24-2
5-3
9-8
125
3-3
5-9


110 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages oe Total Observations
september
Group I: .
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
c.
Chepelare
20-8
11-6
1-е
16-3
25-6
4-5
1-9
4-1
13-4
Sam око v.
5-1
10-5
15-6
10-6
7-6
7-9
7-8
8-6
26-4
Rilski Monastir
1-2
14-1
9-3
1-8
3-8
13-3
7-0
0-5
490
Kustendil
3-6
2-3
2-8
2-6
2-4
20
2-6
31
78-4
Sofia
1-9
7-0
13-4
120
1-7
4-0
11-9
10-7
37-2
Mean .
6-5
9-1
8-5
8-7
8-2
6-3
6-3
5-4
40-9
Group II:
Burgas .
110
12-8
21-5
90
6-8
9-6
12-3
6-5
10-4
Stara Zagora .
19-(i
22-2
17-6
9-5
6-5
3-8
1-5
4-5
14-6
Kazanlyk
90
2-8
61
11-8
2-1
1-1
4-7
14-9
48-4
Haskovo
10-6
11-2
7-9
20
2-5
2-4
6-0
10-3
47-1
Philippopolis .
2-5
1-е
17-4
121
3-9
8-2
15-4
5-4
33-4
Mean .
10-5
101
13-9
8-9
4-4
5-0
8-0
8-3
30-8
Group III:
Monastir
200
9-3
8-6
15-3
17-8
44)
15-4
—
Üsküb .
0-3
16
0-4
180
0-8
3-6
10
51-9
22-5
Mean .
10-2
5-4
4-5
16-7
9-3
3-8
5-3
33-6
11-2
Group IV:
Scutari .
1-8
2-8
12-2
2-4
4-7
5-1
6-6
2-0
62-5
Durazzo .
32-0
7-0
60
110
70
50
6-0
18-0
8-0
Mean .
16-9
4-9
91
6-7
5-8
51
6-2
10-0
35-3
Group V:
Constantinople.
16-1
53-3
3-2
1-1
3-7
6-3
1-1
1-е
13-6
Kavalla .
10-3
0-6
26-7
4-8
11-5
17-6
9-1
3-6
15-8
Salonica .
13-2
6-5
8-2
6-1
5-2
181
3-5
4-4
34-8
Mean .
21-4
13-2
3-2
20-1
4-6
12-7
140
4-0
6-8


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
111
Group VI:
Yanina .
Trikkala
Larissa .
Lamia .
Mean.
Group VII:
Volo
Chalchis
Athens .
Nauplia.
Mean.
Group VIII:
Andros .
Syra
Naxos .
Santorin
Mean .
Group IX:
Cythera.
Canea .
Candía .
Mean .
Group X:
Corfu .
Arta
Kephalonia
Patras .
Zante
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
16-0
11-7
11-7
15-2
6-6
2-6
8-3
27-9

6-0
10-0
9-0
15-8
8-0
14-3
15-9
17-4
3-е
4-6
13-1
15-2
2-2
2-4
4-е
30
2-1
52-8
3-6
1-3
30-2
100
2-3
0-7,
6-2
12-7
330
7-6
9-0
16-5
10-8
4-8
5-6
8-4
15-0
22-3
90
1-3
0-9
5-1
39-7
0-3
2-2
35-0
е-6
44-0
17-8
5-3
9-6
11-8
1-6
2-4
7-3
0-1
14-3
28-2
3-9
1-е
9-6
9-2
3-6
4-4
25-2
210
85
5-3
2-2
21-7
7-2
2-8
7-5
23-8
22-1
13-9
3-9
4-7
20-7
4-6
2-7
13-6
13-9
31-2
15-1
9-е
1-9
7-4
1-е
1-2
31-3
0-7
64-3
21-2
4-7
1-7
2-9
2-9
4-2
1-6
6-6
56-9
24-1
0-3
0-9
7-6
2-4
0-7
10
6-2
42-4
17-3
31
1-6
1-1
4-3
10-2
20-0
—
46-2
19-4
4-4
1-5
4-7
2-8
4-1
13-5
3-4
55-5
4-8
1-3
11
1-4
3-8
30-8
1-3
25-9
13-1
4-6
16
7-7
3-9
12-2
9-9
9-3
0-8
—
0-8
90
2-7
1-8
41-9
30-2
6-2
1-9
M
60
3-5
14-9
17-7
4-9
5-3
3-9
9-2
9-4
9-3
7-7
10-4
39-9
1-3
22-1
30-2
12-5
10-2
8-3
10-7
4-2
0-5
1-4
5-6
5-4
5-8
13-9
11-6
5-1
45-0
6-2
19-9
17-2
6-4
9-6
131
12-8
130
3-8
4-2
18-2
7-4
3-4
6-2
7-5
4-2
11-9
38-8
2-4
Mean . 9-1 11-6 9-9 8-7 10-8 9-0 9-7 20-4 10-6


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
113
Group VI:
Yanina .
Trikkala
Larissa .
Lamia .
Mean.
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
w.
NW.
С.
13-4
5-7
96
32-9
8-6
6-0
4-6
19-3
,
7-8
6-7
8-9
10-7
8-8
16-1
200
16-3
4-7
3-4
4-8
10-6
2-5
0-8
1-4
3-3
2-3
70-9
9-2
1-2
21-0
6-7
3-4
1-7
5-8
14-0
370
8-5
4-6
12-6
13-2
5-4
6-3
8-4
130
28-1
Group VII:
Volo
. 6-5
1-5
2-7
8-0
23-1
0-1
4-6
48-2
5-4
Chalchis
. 33-2
131
7-7
13-3
196
2-7
1-9
8-1
0-5
Athens .
. 10-9
23-8
5-8
3-8
13-4
10-5
4-9
3-е
23-3
Nauplia.
. 126
13-2
8-8
3-3
18-8
100
4-8
в-8
21-8
Mean.
. 15-8
12-9
6-2
7-1
18-7
5-8
4-0
16-7
12-7
Group VIII:
Andros .
. 27-6
22-0
141
5-0
14-8
6-8
1-4
8-1
0-2
Syra
. 36-2
18-3
7-0
21
8-6
8-8
8-8
2-е
7-6
Naxos .
. 45-6
18-2
0-7
22
13-4
71
1-6
1-3
10-1
Santorin
. 25-8
19-2
9-9
4-9
3-2
9-7
161
12-2
—
Mean.
. 33-8
19-4
7-9
36
100
81
6-7
60
4-5
Group IX:
Cythera.
. 50-3
7-8
2-4
2-е
3-3
8-4
20-9
4-3
Canea .
. 15-4
14-4
7-6
1-8
3-9
6-2
10-6
4-2
36-1
Candía .
. 9-7
1-6
—
1-3
13-7
9-5
2'8
400
21-9
Mean. . 251 7-9 3-3 1-9 70 80 11-4 16-2 19-3
Group X:
Corfu .
. 3-7
5.4
4-7
130
130
9-9
6-3
6-2
37-8
Arta
. 1-4
18-8
28-6
17-1
11-9
е-8
11.6
3-1
0-8
Kephalonia
. 3-6
5-7
5-3
13-9
21-5
12-6
6-9
27-1
3-6
Patras .
. 20-4
19-2
в-9
15-3
13-1
7-7
101
41
3-2
Zante .
. 13-2
90
7-7
13-6
12-2
10-6
9-9
220
1-9
Mean.
. 8-6
не
10-6
146
14-3
9-5
8-9
12-6
9-4
АГВ—В, И-
H


114 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
NOVEMBER
Group I:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
w.
NW.
C.
Chepelare
19-3
150
1-1
9-0
24-7
11-8
4-6
5-2
9-4
Samokov.
6-3
100
12-8
10-6
8-2
60
12-6
19-4
23-1
Rilski Monastir
1-7
15-6
4-9
10
3-7
190
5-7
9-8
48-0
Kustendil
3-1
1-7
21
31
1-7
2-4
1-7
3-8
80-4
Sofia
20
100
160
13-0
3-0
100
120
140
190
Mean .
6-5
10-4
7-4
7-3
8-3
9-8
7-3
6-8
360
Group II:
Burgas .
21-7
8-2
6-5
2-7
3-3
12-8
180
10-3
16-3
Stara Zagora .
18-5
18-7
161
71
81
5-2
2-4
7-5
16-4
Kazanlyk
5-7
1-9
4-0
7-7
2-2
1-4
5-2
14-4
57-4
Haskovo
110
8-9
3-4
21
3-4
1-9
7-4
13-4
48-5
Philippopolis .
1-5
0-8
11-8
10-3
2-4
10-4
16-8
6-9
391
Mean .
11-7
7-7
8-3
60
3-9
6-3
100
10-5
35-5
Group III:
Monastir
23-6
8-е
8-е
161
17-6
3-5
8-2
13-8
—
Üsküb .
—
0-3
3-5
19-6
—
0-3
1-0
64-5
10-8
Mean .
11-8
4-4
60
17-8
8-8
1-9
4-6
39-2
5-4
Group IV:
Scutari .
1-9
4-9
19-0
3-5
30
0-9
3-9
2-3
60-6
Durazzo .
27-0
16-0
90
220
70
30
2-0
80
6-0
Mean .
146
10-5
140
12-8
50
20
30
51
33-3
Group V:
Constantinople.
164
34-8
2-3
1-е
11-9
16-6
2-4
Ы
12-3
Kavalla .
10-5
2-2
32-8
8-3
7-2
5-6
13-9
6-7
12-8
Salónica .
20-2
12-7
10-6
4-2
3-0
61
3-6
65
331
Mean . . 15-7 16-5 15-2 4-7 7-4 9 1 6-6 5-0 19-4


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
115
Group VI:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
9.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Yanina .
. 8-8
5-2
3-4
33-7
11-8
70
5-2
24-9
—
Trikkala
. 11-2
6-9
5-9
8-2
9-0
13-9
18-9
23-6
2-4
Larissa .
. 6-1
6-2
7-9
1-0
0-е
1-2
4-0
4-3
68-7
Lamia .
. 8-5
1-9
14-4
4-3
2-8
0-7
9:8
22-4
35-2
Mean,
. 8-6
5-0
7-9
11-8
6-0
5-7
9-5
18-8
26-6
Group VII:
'
Volo
. 13-9
2-7
2-8
6-9
6-6
M
3-9
57-9
4.2
Chalchis
. 37-6
12-8
6-2
12-8
141
3-1
3:3
9-0
o-е
Athens .
. 121
28-5
7-0
4-6
11-5
6-9
4-2
5-4
19-8
Nauplia.
. 23-6
12-8
10-3
21
10-6
6-9
4-1
11-6
18-0
Mean.
. 21-8
14-2
6-6
6-6
10-7
4-5
3-9
210
10-6
Group VIII:
Andros .
. 19-4
38-5
110
9-6
14-9
2-9
1-0
2-7
—
Syra
. 35-5
220
6-3
2-9
7-8
10-6
в-o
3-9
5-0
Naxos .
. 40-6
20-7
0-8
4-9
15-4
7-0
M
3.5
6-0
Santorin
. 29-1
19-1
8-1
6-6
4-9
91
12-6
10-4
01
Mean.
. 311
25-1
6-6
6-0
10-7
7-4
5-2
5-1
2-8
Group IX:
Cythera.
. 45-3
110
3-6
5-7
6-4
9-6
14-9
3-6
- ¿ —
Canea .
. 16-2
17-3
8-0
3-7
5-3
7-4
15-3
3-1
23-7
Candia .
. 5-0
1-7
0-3
1-8
38-3
15-2
3-8
18-2
15-7
Mean.
. 22-2
100
3-9
3-7
16-7
10-7
11-3
8-3
131
Group X:
Corfu .
. 41
6-9
10-3
16-6
10-8
8-9
6-3
6-5
29-7
Arta
. 2-4
29-7
33-7
15-2
9-2
3-1
3-8
1-5
1-4
Kephalonia
. 6-3
116
8-8
14-0
17-5
15-8
6-4
171
2-5
Patras .
. 22-7
23-8
8-5
176
90
71
6;5
30
1-9
Zante . .
. 19-2
13-4
8-4
12-2
11-3
11-5
7-2
141
2-7
Mean.
. 10-9
17-1
13-9
151
11-6
9-3
6.0
8-4
7-6
H2


116 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XIX (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
DECEMBER
Group I:
N..
NE.
E.
SE.
S\
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Chepelare
20-8
121
1-4
7-9
26-8
13-4
30
4-2
10-4
Samokov.
51
8-3
11-5
12-6
9-7
7-4
13-3
10-4
21-2
Rilski Monastir
2-3
155
4-7
0-6
3-0
18-3
3-3
1-0
51-3
Kustendil
31
2-2
2-7
3-0
1-8
0-9
0-8
3-9
81-6
Sofia
40
110
14-0
11-0
40
6-0
15-0
170
160
Mean .
7-1
9-8
6-9
7-0
91
9-2
7-1
7-3
361
Group II:
Burgas .
18-6
7-4
5-2
1-6
3-1
13-5
24-9
8-2
180
Stara Zagora .
15-5
17-5
15-8
6-6
8-9
5-8
3-1
. 7-2
19-5
Kazanlyk
5-9
1-1
4-8
8-6
2-1
0-6
7-4
15-8
53-7
Haskovo
8-2
7-6
3-1
2-0
5-2
2-6
7-7
131
50-6
Philippopolis .
2-9
1-9
10-7
7-1
1-9
9-4
19-6
6-3
40-3
Mean .
10-2
7-1
7-9
5-2
4-2
6-4
12-5
10-1
36-4
Group III:
Monastir
24-3
6-8
12-5
14-5
12-9
4-8
100
14-4
—
Üsküb .
0-1
0-3
—
23-3
—
1-1
67-6
7-6
Mean .
12-2
3-5
6-2
18-9
6-4
2-9
5-0
410
3-8
Group IV:
Scutari .
2-1
3-7
15-9
4-3
3-8
0-8
3-2
3-6
62-7
Durazzo .
22-0
14-0
100
29-0
110
6-0
10
1-0
60
Mean .
121
8-8
12-9
16-6
7-4
3-4
2-1
2-2
34-3
Group V:
Constantinople.
22-5
28-0
1-4
1-1
14-6
15-7
26
3-9
10-3
Kavalla .
12-4
2-7
21-6
10-2
12-4
7-5
15-6
8-0
9-7
Salonica .
22-1
12-8
9-4
5-5
2-1
2-7
2-4
8-2
34-8
Mean .
18-3
190
6-7
14-5
6-8
10-8
8-6
5-6
9-7


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
117
Group VI:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Yanina .
. 8-1
3-7
6-8
28-9
12-8
4-7
13-2
21-8
Trikkala
. 9-3
6-3
5-6
8-8
8-5
150
22-1
22-9
1-5
Larissa .
. 6-8
6-0
5-1
1-2
2-8
1-8
4-8
3-4
68-1
Lamia .
. 8-6
2-4
110
3-2
1-4
1-8
9-1
30-9
31-6
Mean.
. 8-2
4-6
7-1
10-5
6-4
5-8
12-3
19-7
25-3
Group VII:
Volo .
. 13-4
1-3
2-6
10-4
3-1
0-7
5-1
60-0
3-4
Chalchia
. 30 0
11-3
8-7
15-1
18-4
3-5
2-5
10-5
—
Athens .
. 11-4
22-5
7-3
5-1
14-3
9-4
5-4
6-6
18-0
Nauplia.
. 20-7
15-2
9-1
30
8-2
8-0
6-5
9-6
19-7
Mean.
. 18-9
12-6
6-9
8-4
11-0
5-4
4-9
21-7
10-0
Group VIII:
Andros .
. 17-7
32-4
8-5
8-5
21-0
9-3
0-6
2.0
Syra
. 29-6
16-0
4-7
2-5
11-8
14-6
11-7
4-7
4-4
Naxos .
. 33-5
15-7
1-3
5-7
22-1
9-9
3-7
3-0
5-1
Santorin
. 24-6
13-6
6-6
7-9
10-3
14-9
120
10-1
—
Mean.
. 26-4
19-4
5-3
6-1
16-3
12-2
7-0
4-9
2-4
Group IX:
Cythera.
. 38-3
9-2
4-4
7-2
5-4
14-0
16-6
4-9
Canea .
. 16-3
14-2
12-3
5-1
4-8
8-0
12-5
31
23-7
Candia .
. HI
1-4
0-3
1-6
41-4
18-0
30
10-0
12-9
Mean.
. 21-9
8-2
5-7
4-6
17-2
13-3
10-7
6-0
12-2
Group X:
Corfu
. 3-7
8-2
12-7
16-6
12-3
11-6
5-9
6-0
23-0
Arta
. 2-3
26-4
341
19-3
7-1
4-1
4-2
1-5
10
Kephalonia
. 6-8
11-0
9-3
15-4
14-8
15-5
6-9
17-6
2-7
Patras .
. 16-9
25-6
8-7
15-3
15-2
8-1
4-9
2-9
2-4
Zante .
. 21-7
11-0
10-5
12-5
12-1
14-1
6-4
10-2
1-5
Mean.
61
. 10-3
7-6
16-4
5-7
151
10-7
15-8
12-3


118 CLIMATE OP THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XX
Total Number of Days with Winds of Gale Force during
the Eleven Years 1900-1910
Group I:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
Jul
Chepelare . . .
6
7
10
7
6
—
Samokov
25
35
20
30
21
11
Rilski Monastir(10yrs.)
15
14
17
12
7
6
Kustendil
2
3
6
8
7
6
Sofia ....
12
17
14
18
9
13
Mean
12
15
13
15
10
7
Group II:
Burgas
12
9
16
5
4
6
Stara Zagora
12
15
11
18
10
15
Kazanlyk
3
3
2
2
3
1
Haskovo
2
1
2
2
—
3
Philippopolis
8
11
5
13
4
16
Mean
7 8 7 8 4 8


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
119
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Group I:
7
2
2
4
13
6
Chepelare.
15
14
17
13
15
25
Samokov.
6
2
6
7
18
17
Rilski Monastir (10_yrs.)
11
7
4
10
5
7
Kustendil.
20
11
7
12
12
13
Sofia.
12
7
9
13
14
Mean.
Group II:
6
4
3
1
5
5
Burgas.
82
22
16
16
22
15
Stara Zagora.
8
6
5
4
4
6
Kazanlyk.
7
5
4
2

4
Haskovo.
17
7
6
4
5
12
Philippopolis.
12 9 7 5 7 8 Mean.


120 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XXI
Number of Days with Winds, Fokce 5 to 9

January.
О
February.
О
March.
О
Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Kos. 5 to 9.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
£ й
Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
a 4
Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
B¿
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
-у» о
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
^ о
ь.s
Year.
£g
S 3
о,
(н *Й
fe 2
H
9*;O
о?
ей «S
«S -a
Ф
J-*
g*
N.
S.
N. I S.
*
N.
S.
N.
S.
N.
S.
N.
S.
*
1902 .
5
6
3
8
3
6
7
10
3
0
4
1
1
0
1
2
2
4
1
3
0
3
0
1
1
4
6
1
2
3
7
3
2
1
4
6
7
0
2
0
0
2
1
1
0
0
2
2
0
2
4
0
1
2
6
3
2
1
1
4
4
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
i»
7
5
6
1
2
6
4
0
3
5
2
2
1
4
3
5
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
1
1
0
1903 .
1
17
0
2
0
3
0
0
2
2
1
1
0
1904 .
ls
14
1905 .
4
3
2
5
7
1
4
2
0
0
0
ls
1
1906 .
1907 .
1
1
1
1s
1,
Is
1908 .
1909 .
0
3
3
1910 .
4
0
2
0
1911 .
11
151.
1912 .
3
1
1,
1,
5
1913 .
1
0
Total in j
12 years (
66
19
38
11
8
46
10
30
4
5
43
12
28
6
3
Average
per year
5-5
1-6
3-2
0-9
—
3-8
0-8
2-5
0-3
—
3-6
1-0
2-3
0-5
Maximum
in year
11
4
7
4
—
7
2
6
2
—
7
3
5
2
* 1, means a gale of four days' duration.


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
121

April.
May.
June.
Days of Wind
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nob. 5 to 9.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
О
Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
и
Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
о
£§-
11
Ii
g 2
и
> 5
Year.
О 3
о .
о.
«
8?.
|¿
О
cl'
*
— ев
ев »в
О
N.
S.
N.
S.
*
N.
s.
N.
S.
N.
S.
N.
S.
*
6
1
2
2
3
3
0
6
1
3
5
1
0
6
0
0
2
1
2
0
0
0
3
0
3
0
4
0
0
1
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1з
4
2
4
3
0
6
3
6
1
4
2
2
5
2
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
1
4
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
. 1902
. 1903
. 1904
. 1905
. 1906
. 1907
. 1908
. 1909
. 1910
. 1911
. 1912
. 1913
1
1
2s
h
h
1
5
3
0
0
0
0
4
1
0
1
1
0
3
2
0
3
2
0
4
1
1
3
0
2
0
3
3
4
0
0
1
0
6
1
1
1
1
1
5
9
2
1
6
2
6
2
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ms
Is
1
h
2
1
0
Is
1
33
2-8
14
19
8
5
37
16
14
0
2
49
13
14
1
5
Total in
12 years
1-2
1-6
0-7
—
30
1-3
M
—
—
4-0
10
M
0
—
Average
per year
6
6
4
4
—
6
5
4
0
—
9
4
4
1
—
I Maximum
( in year


122
CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XXI (continued)
Number of Days with Winds, Force 5 to 9

July.
August.
September.
Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
l.i
Days of Wind
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
Id
Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
Es s
^ о
1 °
g 2
- -
Year.
о g
«ев
О 3
©-
« «
SS
1-°°
О •
ü «
«•о
- —
*
N.
s.
N.
S.
*
N.
S.
N.
S.
N.
S.
N.
S.
*
1902 .
6
4
9
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
3
1
2
0
1
2
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
о
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
1
0
2
4
2
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
15
1903 .
12
0
0
1
isi5
i*
8
5
9
8
9
8
0
3
5
3
2
1904 .
I1
6
8
7
0
0
5
4
0
2
0
0
0
0
1905 .
13
6
(i
6
3s
1»
1«
1»
1906 .
1,
ls
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1з
1907 .
11
1908 .
10
9
5
4
4
3
1« 1,
1909 .
13
2
171«
1.1»
1з
1
1910 .
0
1911 .
11
3
2
1
1
1з
1912 .
1»
3
0
0
0
1913 .
Total in
12 years
81
2
15
0
11
84
1
12
0
8
72
5
18
1
6
Average
per year
6-7
0-1
1-2
0
7-0
0
10
0
—
60
0-4
1-5
0
Maximum
in year
13
2
3
0
—
12
1
5
0
—
12
3
4
1
* 1, means a gale of four days' duration.


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
123

Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
October.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
О
Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
November.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
О
Days of Wind.
Moderate to Gale.
Beaufort
Nos. 5 to 9.
December.
Days of Wind of
Gale force.
Beaufort
Nos. 6 and 9.
О
* о
£я
^ О
> 2
йЗ
il
6Ss?
о È
с 3
о У
Year
со ce
со со
- S>»
V >i
N.
s.
N.
S.
-3,2
*
N.
S.
N.
S.
*
N.
S.
N.
S.
*
1
2
1
1
7
0
0
3
0
0
0
3
5
7
1
6
1
3
0
4
1
2
5
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
Is
6
3
3
4
5
2
2
2
3
3
1
5
1
3
2
2
4
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
3
1
3
2
1
3
1
2
0
0
0
1,
1s
. 1902
. 1903
. 1904
. 1905
. 1906
. 1907
. 1908
. 1909
. 1910
. 1911
. 1912
. 1913
3
2
0
4
8
8
0
8
5
2
6
1
0
0
0
2
7
2
6
8
4
1
0
3
2
4
5
2
1
7
4
6
0
2
0
0
4
1
1-
1
6
0
1
h
0
0
0
2
5
5
0
4
1
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
1*
зs
0
Is
2
1,
_
0
1*
1»
E
0
4
1.
0
Is
о
4
2
47
14
12
2
5
46
26
2-2
7
18
18
1-5
5
39
32
23
15
6
Total in
12 years
4-0
8
M
6
10-
4
01
1
3-8
8
1-5
3-2
6
2-7
7
1-9
1-2
3
( Average
I per year
—
5
6
—
4

Maximum
ШgШ
in year


124 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XXII
Mean Number of Thunderstorms
Group I:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Chepelare
—
01
01
11
4-7
86
Samokov
. 01
—
0-2
1-3
5-3
7-5
Eilski Monastir
—
01
0-3
09
2-4
3-9
Kustendil
. 0-2
01
01
0-4
1-8
3-8
Sofia .
. —
0-2
0-2
20
7-7
10-6
Mean
. 006
0-1
0-2
M
4-4
6-9
Group II:
-
Burgas
•
—
0-2
0-4
1-7
4-1
7-9
Stara Zagora
-
—
0-3
0-5
2-4
8-5
11-6
Kazanlyk
■
. 01
0-2
0-6
2-2
8-5
12-8
Haskovo
•
—
0-5
0-5
1-5
5-3
90
- Philippopolis
-
. —
0-2
—
1-6
5-3
83
Mean . . . 0 02 0-3 • 0-4 1-9 6-3 9-9
Group IV:
Durazzo . . .1-8 1-4 30 1-2 1-8 2-3
Group V:
Constantinople . .0-1 — 0-1 0-4 0-9 2-0


126 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XXII (continued)
Mean Number of Thunderstorms
Group VI:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June
Trikkala
. 0-4
0-75
0B
0-5
1-9
3-1
Larissa
Lamia .
-
. 01
0-25
0-1
01
0-5
09
Group VII:
Mean
•
. 0-2
0-33
0-2
0-2
0-8
13
Volo . . .
—
0-5
0-4
0-6
1-4
2 5
Chalchis
. 0-4
0-6
0-5
0-1
0-9
0-6
Athens
. 10
0-8
0-8
10
1-8
21
Nauplia
•
. 11
0-75
0-4
0-25
0-75
29
Group VIII:
Mean
-
. 0-6
0-66
0-5
0-5
1-2
20
Andros
a 01
03
0-3
—
0-1
0-2
Syra .
. 0-6
0-4
1-0
—
01
0-1
Naxos .
. 0-5
1-75
0-75
0-6
10
0-1
Santorin
•
. 0-9
1-9
1-6
0-7
0-5
0-4
Group IX:
Mean
-
. 0-5
109
0-9
0-3
0-4
0-2
Cythera
-
—
01
01
—
—
—
Group X:
Corfu .
. 1-0
1-4
0-9
0-75
. . .
0-9
0-5
Arta .
. 1-75
2-0
1-4
1-5
2-5
30
Kephalonia .
. 0-75
1-4
1-25
0-4
0-5
0-4
Patras .
. 10
1-75
1-5
1-6
1-6
30
Zante .
•
. 2-1
2-5
1-5
0-9
10
0-4
Mean
1-5
a
1-3
. 1-3
10
1-8
1-3


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
Jvly.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Group VI:
2-4
0-9
0-9
0-9
11
0-4
Trikkala.
01
—
—
01
—
—
Larissa.
—
01
01
01
—
01
Lamia.
OS
0-3
0-3
0-4
0-4
0-2
Mean.
Group VII:
1-4
1-4
10
0-75
0-4
0-25
. Volo. -
0-75
0-9
1-4
0-5
0-3
0-4
Chalchis.
1-7
1-7
1-7
2-7
2-3
1-5
Athens
1-75
1-0
0-6
1-3
01
0-6
Nauplia.
1-4
1-25
1-2
1-3
0-8
0-68
Mean.
Group VIII:
—
—
0-25
—
0-25
01
Andros.
0-4
01
—
0-5
01
0-75
Syra.
0-6
0-5
0-4
10
1-25
0-6
Naxos.
01
—
0-4
1-25
2-6
1-25
Santorin.
0-3
0-2
0-26
0-7
10
0-7
Mean.
. Group IX:
Cythera.
Group X:
0-75
0-25
2-4
26
2-1
1-5
Corfu.
2-25
0-9
2-1
2-75
20
1-75
Arta.
—
—
0-25
1-0
0-9
0-25
Kephalooia.
09
M
2-1
1-7
3-1
1-6
Patras.
0-25
0-25
0-9
1-75
2-25
26
Zante.
0-8 0-5 1-5 2 0 2 07 1-5
Mean.


128 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XXIII
Maximum Number of Thunderstorms
Group I:
Chepelare
Samokov
Rilski Monastir
Kuatendil
Sofia .
Maximum.
Group II:
Burgas
Stara Zagora
Kazanlyk
Haskovo
Philippopolis
Jan.
Feb.
Мат.
April.
May.
June.
! 1

1
1
3
8
13
1
0
1
4
8
13
- —
1
2
2
4
9
1
1
1
1
4
10
-
. —
2
2
6
13
14
-
2
2
6
13
14
2
2
6
10
14
—
2
2
5
15
17
2
2
6
13
21

3
2
2
13
17
-
. —
2
—
6
11
16
Maximum.
21
1
15
3
6
2


130 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XXIII (continued)
Maximum Number of Thunderstorms
Jan. Feb. Mar. April. Mat/. Juno.
Group VI:
Trikkala ... 1 3 2 2 (\ 11
Larissa ... — — — — — —
Lamia .... I 1 1 1 3 2
Maximum .
1
3
2
2
6
11
Group VII:
Volo .
—
2
1
2
3
7
(lhalchis
2
2
1
1
2
2
Athens
3
5
4
Г)
6
8
Nauplia
3
#3
->
1
3
10
Maximum .
3
5
4
5
6
10
Group VIII:
Andros
1
1
1
—
1
1
Syra .
3
2
3
—
1
1
Naxos .
1
5
2
1
3
1
Santorin
3
6
3
о
2
1
Maximum .
3
6
3
2
3
1
Group IX:
Cythera
. —
1
1
—
—
—
Group X:
Corfu .
3
-1
3
2
3
2
Arta .
4
7
3
3
10
!l
Kephalonia .
3
4
е
2
2
2
Patras .
3
4
3
3
4
9
Zante .
4
7
3
3
3
1
Maximum.
9
4
10
7
3
6


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
131
luly.
Aug.
Np.pt.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Group VI:
fi
4
4
5
3
2
Trikkala.
1
—
—
1
—
—
Larissa.
—
1
1
1
—
1
Lamia.
0
4
4
S
3
2
Maximum.
Group VII:
3
4
4
2
1
1
Volo.
8
2
3
2
1
2
Ghalohia.
8
7
8
8
7
4
Athens.
8
3
2
4
1
2
Nauplia.
8
7
8
8
7
4
Maximum.
Group VIII:
—
—
1
—
1
—
Andros.
2
1
—
2
1
3
Syra.
3
3
1
4
3
3
Naxos.
1
—
2
3
5
8
Santorin.
3
3
2
4
5
3
Maximum.
Group IX:
Cythera.
2
1
8
8
."i
Group X:
Corfu.
8
5
7
fi
li
4
Arta.
—
—
1
5
6
2
Kephalonia.
3
2
3
4
7
7
Patras.
L'
!
3
5
6
9
Zante.
8
5
8
8
7
9
Maximum.
I 2


132 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XXIV
Mean Amount of Cloud
Group I:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June
Chepelare
. 5-2
60
60
5*2
5-2
5-4
Samokov
. 61
72
6-7
6-7
6-2
5-9
Rilski Monastir
. 5-5
6-4
6-2
8-4
5-8
5-6
Kustendil
. 5-8
6-4
5-8
5-8
5-2
4-6
Sofia .
. 6-3
6-7
6-2
60
5-3
5-0
Mean
. 5-8
6-5
6-2
60
5-5
5-3
Group II:
Burgas
. 6-4
7-3
7-2
61
5-4
4-8
Stara Zagora
. 6-0
71
6-7
6-2
5-7
5-5
Kazanlyk
. 5-7
70
6-6
6-1
5-4
5-3
Haskovo
. 6-4
7-3
6-9
6-2
5-9
5-6
Philippopolis
. 5-7
70
6-5
5-6
5-3
5-2
Mean
. 60
7-1
6-8
60
5-5
5-3
Group III:
Monastir
. 6-4
6-6
5-6
5-6
5-3
4-6
Uskiib .
. 71
61
60
6-3
5-7
4-7
Mean
. 6-7
0-4
5-8
5-9
5-5
4-6
Group IV:
Durazzo
. 4-4
4-1
4-4
3-9
3-2
2-4
Scutari
. 4-6
51
4-7
50
4-1
3-2
Valona
. 5-5
4-6
4-8
3-6
3-8
2-8
Mean
. 4-8
4-6
4-6
41
3-7
2-8
Group V:
Kavalla
. 4-6
5-8
5-5
5-1
4-2
3-8
Salonica
. 4-8
61
5-8
5-1
4-2
3-4
Mean
. 4-7
60
5-6
5-1
4-2
3-6
i 0 = oloudless sky; 10 = completely overcast.


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Group I:
3-7
3-0
3=7
50
61
5-9
Ohepelaro.
4-6
3-6
4-5
5-7
6-8
6-9
Samokov.
1-0
3-5
3-9
5-1
6-2
6-0
Rilski Monastir.
3-3
2-8
3-7
50
6-5
6-6
Kustendil.
3-4
2-7
3-6
5-2
6-7
70
Sofia.
3-8
31
3-9
&2
6-5
6-5
Mean.
Group II:
3-0
2-4
40
5-6
6-8
70
Burgas.
3-8
2-9
4-0
5-7
6-6
70
Stara Zagora.
3-8
2-9
40
5-6
6-6
6-7
Kazanlyk.
3-9
30
3-9
5-5
7-0
7-1
Haskovo.
3-7
2-9
3-9
5-5
6-8
6-9
Philippopolis.
3-6
2-8
3-96
5-6
6-8
6-9
Mean.
Group III:
2-7
2-6
3-2
50
5-8
5-9
Monastir.
3-4
3-4
3-3
50
6-6
6-8
Dskub.
30
30
3-3
50
6-2
6-3
Mean.
Group IV:
11
1-5
1-8
3-9
5-0
51
Durazzo.
1-6
1-7
2-8
4-3
4-6
51
Scutari.
1-4
1-9
31
4-6
62
5-7
Valona.
1-4
1-7
2-6
4-3
5-3
5-:i
Mean.
Group V:
2-4
2-1
3-7
39
5-6
62
Kavalla.
20
2-1
3-1
4-7
6-2
60
- Salonica.
2-2
Mean.
21
61
3-4
5-9
4-3


134 CLIMATE OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA
TABLE XXIV (continued)
Mean Amount of Cloud
Group VI:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June
Trikkala . .
. 5-9
67
6-4
60
5-4
4-4
Larissa
. 5-4
60
5-8
51
4-6
3-8
Lamia .
. 5-7
61
62
5-2
4-1
3-3
Mean
. 5-7
6-3
6-1
5-4
4-7
3-8
Group VII:
Volo .
. 5-2
5-4
54
4-4
40
31
Chalchis
. 6-5
6-3
5-9
4-9
4-2
3-2
Athens
. 5-5
56
5-2
4-6
3-6
2-4
Nauplia
. 5-6
60
5-8
4-9
4-3
2-9
Mean
. 5-7
5-8
5-6
4-7
4-0
2-9
Group VIII:
Andros
. 68
6-5
5-8
4-2
3-0
1-4
Syra .
. 5-9
5-8
5-3
3-9
3-2
1-3
Naxos .
. 6-9
6-8
6-1
5-0
4-2
2-1
Santorin
. 6-8
6-6
5-8
4-9
3-7
1-8
Mean
. 6-6
6-4
5-7
4-5
3-5
1-7
Group IX:
Cythera
. 5-8
5-6
5-1
4-7
3-4
1-9
Canea
. 6-6
6-6
4-9
4-6
3-5
2-1
Candia
. 60
5-5
4-3
3-6
2-9
11
Mean
. 61
59
48
4-3
3-3
1-7
Group X:
Corfu .
4<l
5-7
5-0
4-6
3-7
2-5
Arta .
• . 5-0
6-0
5-6
5-5
4-8
3-7
Kephakmia .
. 40
51
4-4
3-8
2-5
1-8
Patras .
. 5-5
63
5-9
5-6
4-6
3-0
Zante .
. 4-8
53
4-2
3-9
2-8
1-9
Mean
2-0
. o-0
3-7
5-7
4-7
5-0


AND THE AEGEAN SEA
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Group VI:
2-6
2-1
3-4
50
6-6
6-7
Trikkala.
20
1-8
30
4-7
6-1
61
Larissa.
1-6
1-6
2-9
4-4
61
61
Lamia,
2-1
1-8
31
4-7
6-3
6-3
Mean.
Group VII:
1-9
1-9
2-8
41
5-5
5-4
Volo.
1-4
1-4
2-7
4-3
6-2
6-6
Chalohis.
10
11
2-2
4-0
6-6
5-6
Athens.
1-4
1-5
2-6
4-3
5-6
60
Nauplia.
1-4
1-5
2-6
4-2
5-7
5-9
Mean.
Group VIII:
0-5
0-70
1-75
3-7
6-2
6-7
Andros.
0-6
0-4
1-4
3-2
5-0
61
Syra.
0-8
0-5
21
4-3
6-5
71
Naxos.
0-2
0-3
11
3-3
5-8
6-7
Santorin.
0-5
0-5
1-6
3-6
5-9
0-0
Mean.
Group IX:
0-6
0-8
1-7
3-7
5-6
60
Uytheia.
0-7
1-4
2-6
3-3
5-8
66
Canea.
1-1
1-3
1-6
3-4
4-9
50
Candia.
0-8
1-2
2-0
3-5
5-4
5-9
Mean.
Group X:
0-9
11
2-4
4-2
5-4
5-6
Corfu.
1-4
1-4
2-6
4-2
5-6
5-8
Arta.
0-4
0-5
Mi
2-9
4-6
5-2
Kephalonia.
10
1-0
2-1
4-5
6-0
6-1
Patras.
0-6
0-8
1-9
3-5
4-7
51
Zante.
0-9
Mean.
1-0
5-6
21
5-3
3-9


CHAPTER II
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
Physical Features
Practically the whole of Asia Minor consists of an
elevated plateau, which, with its mountain ranges, every-
where rises rapidly from the coast, and forms a region
having an average altitude of about 3,000 feet and up-
wards, of which the climate is of the continental type. Here
hot summers and cold winters are everywhere the rule, and,
as is ordinarily the case in mountainous countries, there are
wide differences between the temperatures which are experi-
enced in winter at places only a short distance apart.
Towns and villages which are situated on the floors of valleys
experience a greater intensity of cold in winter than other
places of the same altitude which are on sloping ground, where
the air which has been chilled on the mountain can flow past
instead of accumulating. Rainfall is fairly abundant in the
winter on the coasts, but it usually decreases rapidly from the
coast as inland localities are reached. The interior receives
little rain in summer; November and May are usually the
months of the heaviest rainfall. In the south-eastern portion
of the country a gradual passage from these spring and autumn
rains to the winter rainfall of Mesopotamia and Syria is
noticeable. In the higher mountains of the interior the rainfall
is frequently heavy, and deep snow occurs in their passes
in winter, but recorded observations are few.
Meteorological Stations
In Asia Minor there are few meteorological stations, and the
majority have been in operation for a few years only. The
coastal stations, of which three lie on the Black Sea shore,


138
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
Samos furnish a fairly complete series of observations, although
the periods over which they extend are not long. Th.e railway
stations in the neighbourhood of Smyrna furnish measure-
ments of the rainfall, but it seems that only those for 1902
have been published.
On the south coast Adana is the only station available,
and here observations have been made for two years, and, in
the case of rainfall, for four years.
The great tableland which forms the whole of Asia Minor
except the narrow coastal belt has a mean altitude of about
3,000 to 4,000 ft., while its mountain ranges rise to a height
of 10,000 ft. in some places. Some half-dozen stations furnish
a general idea of the climate of the interior, but of these only
two, Merzifun, 14 years, and Mezere, 7 years, have observa-
tions which embrace an adequate number of years. As re-
gards their position, Mezere, which is close to Kharput, lies on
the northern flanks of the Taurus range, to the north of Urfeh
and Diarbekr, places which provide observations illustrating
the climate of northern Mesopotamia. Merzifun, Sivas,
Kaisiriyeh, and Konia, form a group of stations in the central
portion of the plateau, while Eski Sheher and Anon Kara
Hisar lie further to the westward.
General Conditions
As in Greece and Syria so also in Asia Minor the winter and
summer seasons are the most developed, while spring and
autumn have rather the character of short transitional periods
of a month or two, the one between winter and summer being
somewhat longer than that which introduces the winter
season. November to March constitute the winter, with April
and May as the transition period between it and the summer,
which ends with September. In October the change from
summer to winter conditions begins and is completed by the
following month.
In summer the general meteorological conditions of the
Eastern Mediterranean are mainly determined by the low
pressure which prevails over the Persian Gulf and is related


CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
139
to the monsoon of the Indian Ocean. In May these conditions
begin to develop, and by June they are fully established. As
a result there is a general northerly and north-westerly flow
of air from south-eastern Europe towards the plains of
Mesopotamia, and hot dry climatic conditions prevail generally
over Asia Minor. By November winter conditions have set in,
when the Mediterranean is the principal area of low pressure
and the Asiatic high-pressure system extends frequently over
Asia Minor with light winds, clear skies, and very low night
temperatures. With the passage of frequent cyclonic storms
from the Mediterranean over Asia Minor considerable precipi-
tation takes place, and this on the elevated plateau of the
interior occurs very largely in the form of snow.
Notes on the Tables
Temperature
The mean temperature of several stations is given in
Table I, p. 144. The lowest temperature occurs everywhere in
January, and the highest usually falls in July or sometimes
in August. The mean temperature at the coastal stations is
always considerably above freezing-point, but falls below
it in January, and often in December and February also, at
the inland stations.
The mean daily maximum exceeds 90° F. at Smyrna and
Adana, of the coast stations, and also at the high inland
station of Mezere. The highest temperatures which have been
recorded are given in Table IV, p: 146, and for stations at which
the observations only extend over a short period the value
given represents a temperature which may occur in any year,
and may frequently be exceeded. Temperatures exceeding
100° F. may occur at Smyrna, Adana, Sivas, and probably at
other stations in the interior, though the observations which
are available are insufficient to indicate more closely the
extreme summer temperatures on the plateau.
The mean daily minimum temperatures are given in Table V,
p. 148, where it will be seen that these are not below 32° F.


140
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
except on the plateau, where this occurs from November to
March. Tables VI and VII, pp. 148, 150, show the mean
monthly minimum and absolute minimum temperatures
recorded at a few stations, but as the observations at some of
them, e. g. Sivas, Konia, and others, have only been made for
a few years, they can only indicate the general character of the
winter. They do, however, indicate very severe winter con-
ditions in December, January, and February, and this is fully
borne out by the result obtained at Merzifun in the north, and
at Mezere in the south, where observations have been taken
for 14 and 7 years respectively. When data are so incomplete
it is difficult to state the greatest range of temperature which is
to be anticipated in any month, but taking Smyrna as a coastal
station the mean monthly range of temperature is 42° F. in
January, 44° F. in April, and 37° F., in July. For Merzifun
as an inland station the figures are 36° F., 47° F., and 37° F.;
other places in the interior may perhaps experience a wider
range of temperature.
Humidity
The humidity has been observed at few stations in the
interior, but the observations made at Mezere show well the
dryness of the summer months (Table VIII, p. 150).
The rainfall is moderately heavy on the coasts, and inland
a considerable quantity falls, though the amount diminishes
rapidly on going inland.
On the coasts the heaviest rainfall occurs in December, but
in the interior May is usually the wettest month, while from
July to September very little rain falls.
Besides the stations given in Table IX, p. 152, some
additional data are available.
Rainfall
Augora .
Spring.
ins.
3-80
Summer.
ins.
1-81
Autumn.
ins.
1-39
Winter.
ins.
2-32
Year.
ins.
9-38
Konia .
709


CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
141
In Table IX certain results in western Asia Minor for the
year 1902 are included. They were taken at a number of
the stations of the railway system and are here grouped in
four sets. The first set includes the results of five stations, all
near Smyrna, and on or near the coast; the second and third
include stations to the east of Smyrna and situated at an
altitude of from about 2,500 to 3,500 ft. The fourth set
includes stations on the inland plateau to the east-south-east
of Smyrna. On the coast the winter maximum of rainfall is
well marked, while on the western plateau maxima occurred
in that year in March and November.
The average number of rain-days in each month is available
from a few stations. In the winter season at the coast stations
the maximum number of rain-days is from 12-14, while the
spring maximum at the inland stations has about the same
number (Table X, p. 152).
Winds
The paucity of stations and the dominating influence of
local conditions in such regions as the deeply-indented western
coast of Asia Minor, or the inland plateau with its mountain
ranges, make it difficult to deduce the actual air circulation
from the available observations. Very probably many of these
apply only to the immediate neighbourhood of the station
(Table XI, p. 154). On the north coast there is a predomi-
nance of southerly winds at Trebizond, which is much more
marked in the winter months than in the summer. Farther
westward at Samsun and Sinope the northerly winds are in
a considerable majority in the summer and equal or even
exceed the southerly winds in winter. On the west coast the
wind conditions are those of the Aegean Sea with the northerly
winds exceeding the southerly winds little if at all in winter,
but very considerably in the summer months. Smyrna, with
its large proportion of westerly and south-westerly winds in
summer represents doubtless local conditions only.
On the south coast Tarsus furnishes 18 months' observa-
tions which indicate that south-westerly winds largely


TABLES
Summary
Table.
PAfiKS
I.
Mean Temperature ......
144-5
II.
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
144-5
III.
Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature .
146-7
IV.
Absolute Maximum Temperature ....
146-7
V.
Mean Daily Minimum Temperature
148-0
VI.
Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature .
148-П
VII.
Absolute Minimum Temperature ....
150-1
VIII.
Relative Humidity ......
150-1
IX.
Mean Rainfall .......
152-3
X.
Number ofRain Days ......
152-3
XI.
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
154-0
XII.
100-1
Mean Amount of Cloud .....


144
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
North Coast:
Samson
Trebizond
West Coast:
Smyrna
Samoa .
South Coast:
Adana .
Interior:
TABLE I
Mean Temperature
Jan.
43-3
45-6
48-6
oO-O
Feb.
O Ji
Mar.
April.
0 J.
45-9 47-8 53-1
47-6 51-2 59-5
51-3 51-6 59-2
May.
a F
65-3
61-5
69-2
67-6
June.
0 F.
67-8
67-8
76-4
73-8
54-7 58-1 66-7 73-9 79-7
Konia .
. 26-8
31-0
39-2
50-0
60-4
64-4
Sivas .
. 28-2
36-9
34-7
46-6
58-8
63-5
Merzifun
. 29-5
350
40-8
48-2
59-7
63-6
Mezere.
. 19-2
29-9
40-6
52-7
60-2
70-3
Eski Sheher .
. 23-5
26-1
32-5
39-7
53-4
69-1
Anon Kara Hisar
. 32-7
43-5
41-3
54-3
54-5
63-7
TABLE II
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June
North Coast:
° F.
O Ji
o -p
o Ji
° F.
Samsun
—
—
—
—
70-9
75-7
Trebizond
. 48-9
52-1
54-8
59-0
68-5
75-7
West Coast:
Smyrna
. 58-0
55-7
60-2
68-5
78-6
86-7
Samoa.
. 52-5
55-4
56-1
64-6
73-4
79-5
South Coast:
Adana .
. 53-4
53-2
65-5
71-2
82-4
903
Interior:
Konia .
. 87-7
42-b
50-7
65-1
75-7
79-8
Sivas .
. 31-8
37-4
43-9
59-7
79-3
81-3
Merzifun
. 34-7
38-3
46-9
56-1
70-3
74-6
Mezere.
27-7
38-4
51-9
66-3
73-9
84-2
Eski Sheher.
. 34-1i
38-1
44-4
55-0
71-8
83-1
Anon Kara Hisar
82-9
. 40-11
69-8
52-9
67-3
51-8


146
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
TABLE III
Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
West Coast:
o p
a Ji
o p
o ji
o J.
o y_
Smyrna
67-1
67-6
71-9
82-0
90-6
98-0
Samos.
61-7
62-4
65-5
78-6
81-5
86-7
South Coast:
Adana ....
62-8
64-6
75-6
80-2
94-1
966
Interior:
Sivas ....
42-4 8
53-1
55-8
78-1
85-5
92-5
Merzifun
45-8
50-5
64-2
73-5
78-4
82-7
Mezere.
46-0
50-0
62-6
79-2
85-8
93-7
Eski Sheher .
44-6
46-4
55-4
60-8
66-2
88-7
Afion Kara Hisar .
r,o-9
00-8
62-6
73-4
83-3
8f.-0
TABLE
IV
i
Absolute
Maximum
Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
North Coast:
° P.
a Ji_
O J.
O J.
° F.
Samsun
—
—
—
—
82-0
900
West Coast:
Smyrna
(S9-0
71-9
77-0
84-0
96-4
102-0
Samos ....
62-9
65-1
70-7
81-5
86-7
89-6
South Coast:
Adana ....
64-9
71-4
84-9
81-7
99-3
103-6
Interior:
Konia ....
50-0
53-6
69-8
75-2
87-8
87-8
Sivas ....
48-2
54-5
64-2
89-2
94-1
97-2
Merzifun
52-7
54-5
67-1
80-6
83-3
87-8
Mezere.
4G-0
53-2
70-3
79-7
87-1
95-9
Eski Sheher.
46-4
50-0
60-8
68
91-4
89-C
Afion Kara Hisar .
89-fi
58-fi
87-8
02-6
73-4
66-2


CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
147
July. Aug. Sept.
° F. ° F. 0 F.
100-2
102-3
95-3
91-2
90-8
87-8
94-8
96-3
94-8
97-3
97-0
91-4
87-0
87-6
82-0
99-9
96-8
94-1
95-0
96 8
89-fi
93-2
91-4
86-9
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
0 Ji_
o -p
°F.
87-2
79-8
68-1
81-8
72-3
64-9
89-8
80-6
62-7
74-8
61-9
46-8
741
61-7
52-5
85-6
06-0
57-6
78-8
55-4
Û0-9
74-3
54-5
54-J)
West Coast:
Smyrna.
Samoa.
South Coast:
Adana.
Interior:
Sivas.
Merzifun.
Mezere.
Eski Sheher.
Afion Kara Hisar.
July. Aug. Sept.
° F. ° F. ° F.
88-5
89-0
88-2
102-0
1070
98-9
91-6
93-2
95-0
95-7
102-2
96-6
96-8
91-4
91-4
1017
1000
95-4
91-4
91-4
86-9
100-4
97-7
94-1
968
96-8
91-4
93-2
93-2
93-2
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
0 -p
a y
° F.
89-4
76-8
63-0
93-0
82-0
73-9
86-5
76-1
- 66-7
90-1
82-0
66-4
78-8
69-8
53-6
76-6
65-3
52-5
78-8
65-3
57-2
88-7
70-2
58-3
78-8
57-2
51-8
82-4
55-4
57-2
North Coast:
Samsun.
West Coast:
Smyrna.
Samos.
South Coast;
Adana.
Interior:
Konia
Sivas.
Merzifun.
Merzere.
Eski Sheher.
Afion Kara Hisar.
K2


148
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
TABLE V
Mean Daily Minimum Temperature
Jan.
North Coast:
Samsun ... —
Trebizond . . . 37-9
West Coast:
Smyrna . . . 38-3
Samos.... 43-9
South Coast:
Adana.... 37-H
Interior:
Konia .... 14-9
Sivas .... 14-2
Merzifun . . 24-1
Mezere. . . .11-2
Eski Shcher. . . 15-3
Afion Kara Hisar . . 25-0
Feb. Mar. April. May. June.
OJi ® ~p ® "p
—
—
—
59-7
60-1
40-1
41-5
46-2
55-5
61-7
39-5
42-4
50-5
59-5
66-3
46-4
46-0
53-2
61-2
67-1
39-2
46-4
54-5
60-8
66-9
19-3
27-7
35-0
45-3
48-9
16-7
25-3
33-6
430
46-4
24-8
31-1
37-9
49-1
53-4
22-1
31-5
41-7
48-3
55-9
16-7
23-9
28-6
36-1
52-9
34-3
30-4
41-3
39-4
44-4
TABLE VI
Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
West Coast:
O J.
0 -p
° F.
o p
°F.
Smyrna
. 2-5-0
28-3
33-4
37-9
50-1
59-3
Samos.
. 32-0
37-9
37-7
43-0
54-8
61-2
South Coast:
Adana .
. 26-6
30-2
38-5
48-9
52-5
58-1
Interior:
Sivas .
. -8-8
—9-2
6-8
23-2
34-0
36-3
Merzifun
. 10-1
]3-7
20-9
26-8
37-2
44-4
Mezere.
. — 0-9
4-3
9-0
2(H
32-0
48-9
Eski Sheher .
. 10-4
10-4
19-4
2(i-r.
35-6
48-2
Alion Kara Hisar .
410
. 13-1
32-0
18-.T
32-9
23-0


CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
14'J
July. Aug. Sept.
»f, op. °f,
Ü6-4
67-8
61-9
(i6-9
671
62-7
703
710
64-2
71-2
70-3
66-0
721
73-6
68-2
52-7
510
44-7
50-9
49-3
43-5
57-5
57-2
52-3
61-5
61-5
52-8
61-3
61-2
45-7
50-5
50-0
44-9
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
° F.
o
53-8
51-1
44-1
57-5
48-3
43-1
55-2
48-7
44-2
6l-7
54-5
48-2
60-8
50-5
43-5
37-0
29-9
27-0
30-7
31-3
20-1
45-1
37-0
30-1
45-5
37-4
27-0
32-4
23-9
21-7
42-1
23-0
23-9
North Coast:
Sansum.
Trebizond.
West Coast:
Smyrna.
Samoa.
South Coast:
Adana.
Interior:
Konia.
Sivas.
Merzifun.
Mezere.
Eski Sheher.
Afion Kara Hisar.
July. Aug. Sept.
° F. ° F. 0 F.
63-1
65-8
56-6
67-6
60-4
58-4
68-0
698
61-3
42-8
41-9
33-4
49-6
49-2
40-8
54-9
51-4
43-7
53-6
49-1
33-8
39-2
55-4
41-9
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
°F.
0 F.
O
45-0
34-7
33-2
53-6
44-9
34-7
54-3
38-3
30-9
27-7
14-4
7-9
32-7
25-0
17-3
35-G
25-7
3-1
23-0
15-8
17-6
38-3
19-4
19-4
West Coast:
Smyrna.
Samoa.
South Coast:
Adana.
Interior:
Sivas.
Merzifun.
Mezere.
Eski Sheher.
Afion Kara Hisar.
S


CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
151
July. Aug. Oct. Nov. Dec.
° F. ° F. 0 F. ° F. ° F. ° F.
North Coast:
59-1
630
57-9
39-7
42-4
37-0
Sams un.
West Coast:
(i0-0
620
48-9
39-9
18-5
23-0
Smyrna.
66-5
65-0
51-6
48-7
39-5
29-0
Samos.
South Coast:
67-0
68-2
60-8
53-0
32-2
32-7
Adana.
Interior:
464
44-0
32-0
23-0
21-2
24-8
Konia.
38-3
40-6
290
19-6
7-9
-141
Sivas.
48-2
46-4
36-0
33-8
14-0
10-4
Merzifun.
53-2
50-0
36-5
3 LI
21-2
—n-r,
Mezere.
500
32-5
32-0
120
10-4
10-4
Eski Sheher.
33-4
32-9
320
32-5
120
12-2
Afion Kara Hisar.
uly.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
%
V
<V
°/
lo
o/
la
o/
10
10
10
71
67
74
75
69
65
50
48
59
66
74
77
36
26
35
24
41
54
41
76
63
86
81
30
North Coast:
Trebizond.
West Coast:
Smyrna.
Interior:
Mezere, mean of day.
Mezere, at 12 noon.
S


152
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
TABLE IX
Mean Rainfall (inches)
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
North Coast:
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
Samsun
. 3-15
2-28
2-91
2-59
1-89
1-49
Trebizond .
. 2-87
1-89
2-83
2-75
1-96
2-63
West Coast:
Smyrna
. 2-79
2-61
3-21
1-12
0-88
0-38
Samos . ...
. 5-43
5-51
4-56
114
0-98
0-19
South Coast:
Adana .
. 2-36
4-00
2-87
1-87
1-U6
1-01
Interior:
Sivas .
. 2-10
1-68
1-37
2-34
2-98
1-09
Merzifun
. 0-89
1-21
1-78
1-96
238
2-2C
Mezere.
. 1-41
2-04
1-96
2-40
2-52
0-90
Eski Sheher .
. 0-28
0-17
0-73
0-70
0-93
1-71
Anon Kara Hisar .
. 0-51
2-ho
2-79
1-94
2-10
1-55
In 1902:
Smyrna *
. 311
1-4U
1-47
0-07
1-67
0-08
E. of Smyrna t
. 1-06
1-18
2-68
1-42
0-80
0-12
E. of Smyrna %
. 0-51
1-00
3-44
l-3.ri
1-87
0-47
ESE. of Smyrna §.
. 0-96
0-73
3-48
1(i3
1-02
0-53
* Mean of five stations near Smyrna.
t Mean of six stations E. of Smyrna (Alashehir to Ushak).
j Mean of seven stations E. of Smyrna (Ushak to Afion Kara Hisar).
§ Mean of seven stations ESE. of Smyrna (Denislu to Diner).
TABLE X
Numbeb of Rain Days (> 0-2 mm. or 0-008 in. of rain)
Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June.
West Coast:
Smyrna
Samos .
South Coast:
Adana.
10-8
14
10-0
14
9-6
9-6
12
7-1
9
5-5
5-1
3
1-5
3
5-5 3-2
Interior:
Sivas .
. 12
10-3
11-7
10-5
162
6-2
Merzifun
. 6
3
7-4
7-3
9-3
111
9-2
Mezere.
. 9
5
11-5
12-2
12-7
152
7-0
Eski Sheher .
. 4
S
3
8
4-5
8
8
Afion Kara Hisar .
6-5
. 3
4-5
3
6-5
8-5


CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
153
July. Aug. Sept.
ins. ins. ins.
0-70
106
212
1-73
2-32
303
0-43
0-52
—
0-11
—
0-01
0-02
0-16
0-42
0-13
0-72
0-72
0-65
0-84
0-03
0-07
0-27
0-05
0-78
0-02
0-11
0-01
0-05
0-24
0-33
—
—
0-43
—
0-13
0-39
0-89
—
Oct.
ins.
Nov.
ins.
Dec.
ins.
2- 75
401
3- 62
3- 34
4-17
4- 88
0- 81
3-36
5-43
3-72
7-75
1- 92
MO
3-94
4-96
1-26
1-32
1-37
0-72
112
1-94
0- 89
1- 52
1- 09
2- 36
2-33
307
2- 12
1-00
112
1-20
0-25
0-16
2- 9(i
6-89
3- 82
319
401
2-76
1- 93
2- 54
North Coast:
Sams un.
Trebizond.
West Coast:
Smyrna.
Samos.
South Coast:
Adana.
Interior:
Sivas.
Merzifun.
Merzere.
Eski Shcher.
Afion Kara Hisar.
In 1902:
Smyrna.*
E. of Smyrna.f
E. of Smyrna, j
ESE. of Smyrna. §
July. Aug. Sept.
0-3
0-6
2-5
0-5
1-2
1
0-2
0-6
0-8
3
2-2
4-7
3-1
1-7
3-3
2-0
1-3
3-8
06
2-5
0-6
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
3-0
10-3
Ill
(i
10
14
4
10-5
7-7
9-2
11-2
6-7
5-0
6-8
5-9
7-7
12-7
12-5
3-5
9
8-6
West Coast:
Smyrna.
Samos.
South Coast:
Adana.
Interior:
Sivas.
Merzifun.
Mezere.
Eski Sheher.
0-6
Afion Kara Hisar.
2
6-6
1
s
1-6


154
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
TABLE XI
Wind Directions as Percentages op Total Observations
JANUARY
North Coast:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sinope .
. 0-0
2-7
22-4
14-9
7-9
2-6
25-3
12-3
5-9
Hamsun
. 0-8
14-8
3-0
16-0
2-5
21-1
0-4
41-4
—
Trebizond
. 5-1
1-0
10-7
6-7
23-3
15-7
18-8
10-6
21
Mean .
. 3-9
6-2
12-0
12-5
11-2
131
14-8
23-4
20
West Coast:
Scutari .
. 17-2
30-4
12-7
4-8
10-7
14-2
2-3
30
4-7
Smyrna
Samos
. 10-6
19-0
22-3
11-7
11-7
1-9
7-0
2-2
130
. 7-8
11-0
13-7
10-9
8-7
2-0
20
17(i
26-3
Mean .
. 11-9
20-1
16-2
91
10-4
6-0
3-7
7-6
14-9
Interior:
Mezere .
. 130
1-3
9-2
11-3
25-9
8-4
17-0
10-3
30
Merzifun
. 10-3
8-8
14-2
6-4
11-8
7-0
11-0
4-0
26-6
Konia
. 37-1
15-3
9-7
9-7
19-4
4-0
1-6
3-2

Angora .
. 27-4
56-4
1-6
1-6
6-5
6-5
—
—
Mean .
. 21-9
20-5
8-7
7-2
15-9
6-5
7-5
11
7-4
FEBRUARY
North Coast:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sinope .
. 5-3
2-5
25-7
14-9
6-1
1-6
25-0
13-7
5-2
Samsun
. 0-5
26-5
—
7-8
1-8
11-4
—
52-0
—
Trebizond
. 5-4
1-4
19-0
8-2
20-(i
8-8
16-8
15-9
3-9
Mean .
. 3-7
10-1
14-9
10-3
9-5
7-3
13-9~
27-2
3-0
West Coast:
Soutari .
. 20-7
28-7
121
3-7
10-8
14-4
3-2
1-3
5-1
Smyrna
. 7-4
13-0
19-0
16-6
14-2
6-4
4-7
2-4
10-3
Samos .
. 2-6
4-8
15-2
16-9
12-1
4-5
21
17-9
23-U
Mean .
. ToTT
~15-5~
15-4
12-4
12-4
8-4
3-3
T2_
151
Interior:
Mezere .
. 12-2
1-9
8-7
10-3
30-1
8-3
190
8-3
1-2
Merzifun
. 15-4
9-4
9-9
3-7
12-0
7-3
9-4
.vr,
20-S
Konia .
. 30-3
10-7
8-9
17-9
23-2
5-4
1-8
1-8

Angora .
. 161
42-8
7-1
23-2
1-8
3-6
5-4
—
—
Mean .
7-0
. 18-5
3-9
16-2
8-9
8-6
6-1
73^8
16-9


156
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
TABLE XI (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
MAY
North Coast:
N.
NE.
K.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sinope .
. 5-6
1-8
31-5
160
5-6
1-3
21-5
12-6
41
Samsun
. 1-6
33-8
1-2
10-7
3-3
4-9
—
44-5
—
Trebizond
. 10-3
3-3
35-3
8-1
7-7
4-2
10-8
14-7
5-6
Mean.
. 5«8
12-9
22-6
11-6
5-5
3-5
10-8
23-9
3-2
West Coast:
Scutari .
. 15-3
27-9
3-1
0-5
18-0
23-9
5-3
0-7
5-3
Smyrna
. 6-2
6-6
7-3
4-7
9-1
13-5
33-8
3-8
15-0
Samoa .
. 6-4
M
3-2
6-5
10-9
2-2
3-5
40-7
25-5
Mean.
. 9-3
11-9
4-5
3-9
12-7
13-2
14-2
15-1
15-3
Interior:
Mezerc .
. 19-0
1-0
6-5
11-7
22 (i
8-9
16-8
13-5
—
Merzifun
. 9-8
18-0
121
4-0
10-1
6-0
12-0
4-0
24-0
Konia .
. 24-2
6-4
81
9-7
16-1
21-0
4-8
9-7
—
Angora .
. 8-1
—
—
4-8
12-9
21-0
29-0
24-2
—
Mean.
. 15-3
6-4
6-7
7-5
15-4
14-2
15-7
12-8
6-0
JUNE
North Coast:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sinope .
. 0-2
1-9
21-0
16-0
4-2
1-9
22-9
17-3
8-6
Samsun
. 0-4
43-9
0-4
8-5
0-4
3-4

430

Trebizond
. 8-4
3-8
27-9
6-0
11-2
7-1
13-4
18-1
4-1
Mean.
. 50
16-5
16-4
10-1
5-3
4-1
12-1
26-1
4-2
West Coast:
Scutari .
. 11-5
30-1
4-5
0-2
15-4
29-9
2-7
1-1
4-6
Smyrna
Samos .
. 7-3
6-9
7-2
4-8
9-7
12-3
34-1
6-7
110
. 4-8
0-5
3-1
5-7
9-1
1-1
3-0
57-7
150
Mean.
. 7-9
12-5
4-9
3-6
11-4
14-4
13-3
21-8
10-2
Interior:
Mezore .
. 20-0
—
2-2
5-7
22-1
7-7
24-3
180
—
Merzifun
. 17-4
15-4
8-5
31
8-2
5-3
15-1
3-0
24-0
Konia .
. 38-4
0-7
3-3
8-3
21-7
13-3
5-0
3-3

Angora .
. 5-0
20-0
13-3
11-7
8-3
15-0
13-4
13-3
—
Mean.
6-0
. 20-2
9-4
10-5
14-5
6-8
10-3
7-2
15-1


fiLTMATE OF ASIA MINOR
157
JULY
North Coast:
N.
NE.
K.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sinope .
. 8-4
1-6
18-1
10-3
3-9
1-0
29-9
21-7
5-1
Samsun
. 1-2
41-0
1-7
3-3
1-3
5-0
1-3
45-2
—
'Jrebizond
. 12-6
61
17-8
3-3
16-0
7-6
13-3
17-3
6-0
Mean.
. 7-4
16-2
125
5-6
7-1
4-5
14-8
28-1
3-7
West Coast:
Scutari .
. 16-9
45-8
6-7
0-4
9-4
15-3
20
1-6
1-9
Smyrna
. 12-4
15-5
8-5
0-7
1-7
13-9
34-0
5-2
8-1
Saraos .
. 5-0
01
2-4
0-5
—
—
2-1
83-4
6-5
Mean.
. 11-4
20-5
5-9
0-5
3-7
9-7
12-7
30-1
5-5
Interior:
Mezere .
. 22-4
1-0
3-2
30
15-4
5-3
26-5
23-2
—
Merzifun
. 23-3
24-0
8-5
2-0
5-3
3-3
8-5
11
24-0
Konia .
. 67-8
KM
—
3-2
9-7
1-6
—
1-6
—
Angora .
. 4-8
17-7
14-5
8-1
8-1
6-4
6-5
33-9
—
Mean.
. 29-6
14-7
6-5
41
9-6
4-1
10-4
15-0
6-0
AUGUST
North Coast:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
0.
Sinope .
. 9-1
3-1
18-0
91
3-9
1-2
29-7
19-8
6-1
Samsun
. 3-8
45-0
2-5
30
0-8
0-4
0-4
44-1
—
Trebizond
. 10-2
3-2
18-6
5-6
16-9
9-2
11-3
22-4
2-6
Mean.
. 7-7
171
130
5-9
7-2
3-6
13-8
28-7
2-9
West Coast:
Scutari .
. 14-5
49-9
10-9
0-5
7-2
121
1-3
0-9
2-7
Smyrna
. 14-4
13-2
5-6
—
1-5
12-3
27-2
5-3
20-5
Samos .
. 15-5
4-2
0-5
0-2
0-7
4-2
70-2
3-fi
Mean.
. 14-8
21-4
6-9
0-3
3-0
8-4
10-9
25-5
8-9
Interior:
Mezcre .
. 25-2
—
3.5
3-7
15-2
5-6
210
25-8
—
Merzifun
. 29-ii
22.5
9-7
1-6
3-4
6-3
2-0
0-2
24-6
Konia .
. 64-9
22-0
—
—
17-7
Hi
—
3-2
—
Angora .
. 14-5
3-2
30-6
8-1
12-9
12-9
6-5
11-3
—
Mean.
6-1
. 310
10-1
12-1
7-4
110
6-6
3-4
12-3


158
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
TABLE XI (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
SEPTEMBER
North Coast:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sinope .
. 91
3-1
180
9-1
3-9
1-2
29-7
19-8
6-1
Samsun
. 3-8
45-0
2-5
3-0
0-8
0-4
0-4
441
—
Trebizond
. 10-2
3-2
18-6
5-6
lfi-9
9-2
113
22-4
2-6
Mean .
. 7-7
17-1
130
5-9
7-2
3-6
13-8
28-8
2-9
West Coast:
Scutari .
. 14-2
39-6
10-0
0-7
8-6
17-5
2-3
2-0
5-1
Smyrna
. 8-8
15-5
130
1-5
4-2
130
22-1
3.6
18-3
Samos .
. 14-9
0-6
3-3
0-6
41
0-6
3-4
62-0
10-5
Mean .
. 12-6
18-6
8-6
0-9
5-6
10-4
9-3
22-5
11-3
Interior:
Mezere .
. 22-8
0-5
2-4
3-9
17-4
4-8
23-5
24-7
—
Merzifun
. 171
18-8
14-6
2-2
5-6
2-0
7-5
2-7
29-5
Konia .
. 51-7
23-3
6-7
8-3
10-0
—



Angora .
. 21-7
1-7
3-3
100
100
11-7
18-3
23-3
—
Mean .
. 28-3
11-1
6-7
6-1
10-7
4-6
12-3
12-7
7-4
OCTOBER
North Coast:
N.
NK.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sinope .
. 4-5
4-0
27-4
17-7
5-2
1-5
191
11-6
9-0
Samsun
1-2
40-0
1-3
12-1
1-7
6-2
—
37-5
—
Trebizond
. 3-9
1-5
lfi-4
9-3
25-1
10-6
16-7
12-6
3-9
Mean.
. 3-2
11-8
150
130
10-7
61
11-9
20-6
4-3
West Coast:
Scutari .
. 12-2
32-5
10-6
3-6
8-4
19-3
21
1-5
9-8
Smyrna
4-4
8-5
17-4
8-5
11-3
10-4
17-5
3-3
18-7
Samos .
. 6-5
1-3
4-9
7-4
10-6
20
20
430
22-3
Mean .
. 7-7
141
11-0
6-5
101
10-6
7-2
15-9
16-9
Interior:
Mezere .
. 12-3
—
2-2
7-9
28-8
91
26-0
13-7
—
Merzifun
. 16-0
14-3
130
1-5
4-7
2-6
11-5
3-2
32-r,
Konia .
. 40-3
9-7
8-1
11-3
20-9
8-1
1-6
—
—
Angora .
. 9-7
—
—
161
35-5
22-fi
lii-l
—
—
Mean.
8-1
. 19-C
4-2
(i-0
13-8
5-8
10-0
9-2
22-5


CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
NOVEMBER
North Coast:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sinope .
. 7-1
5-5
28-2
131
5-5
2-1
22-8
10-5
5-2
Samsun
. 0-9
27-8
—
22-2
—
8-5
0-9
39-7
—
Trebizond
. 4-1
0-8
12-2
8-5
20-5
16-5
22-4
8-8
6-2
West Coast:
Mean .
. 40
11-4
13-4
14-6
8-7
9-0
15-4
19-7
3-8
Scutari .
. 12-9
26-6
12-4
5-7
10-7
15-7
4-5
2-3
9-2
Smyrna
. 10-8
15-7
20-2
11-6
11-4
30
10-7
2-4
14-2
Samoa .
. 6-3
3-4
9-6
8-5
13-9
1-2
31
22-6
31-4
Mean .
. 100
15-2
14-1
8-6
120
H-fi
6-1
9-1
18-3
Interior
Mezere .
-. 8-1
0-3
7-3
10-0
34-0
8-2
23-0
91
—
Merzifun
. 8-5
5-0
11-0
5-4
10-0
8-7
12-5
1-8
37-1
Konia .
. 41-7
3-3
13-3
23-3
16-7
1-7
—
—
—
Angora .
. 11-7
18-3
1-7
8-3
5-0
23-3
15-0
16-7
—
Mean .
. 17-5
6-*
8-3
11-7
16-4
10-5
12-6
ri-9
9-3
DECEMBER
North Coast:
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sinope .
. 5-7
4-0
23-3
14-1
6-4
2-7
26-0
12-5
5-3
Samsun
1-3
25-4
0-4
18-2
2-1
20-4
—
32-2
—
Trebizond
. 3-3
0-4
10-8
7-2
28-8
18-2
20-3
8-5
2-5
West Coast
Mean
. 3-4
9-9
11-5
13-2
12-4
13-8
15-4
17-7
2-6
Scutari .
. 17-9
21-4
10-5
7-0
12-3
19-8
3-7
1-8
5-6
Smyrna
. 13-7
14-1
21-8
11-3
15-9
11
5-4
1-7
15-0
Samos .
. 5-7
6-9
10-9
11-7
12-1
31
31
16-4
30-1
Interior:
Mean .
. 12-4
14-1
14-4
10-0
13-4
8-0
4-1
6-6
16-9
Mezere .
. 10-8
0-2
8-7
10-1
32-8
11-4
16-7
9-3
—
Merzifun
. 9-0
70
18-8
5-0
7-7
5-3
7-5
2-0
37-7
Konia .
. 12-9
4-8
14-5
12-9
24-2
11-3
6-5
12-9
—
Angora .
. 11-3
161
—
3-2
12-9
24-2
9-7
8-1
14-5
Mean.
11-0 7-0 10-5 7-8 19-4 13-0 10-1 H-l 130


160
CLIMATE OF ASIA MINOR
West Coast:
Samos .
Interior:
Kotiia .
Mezcre.
TABLE XII
Mean Amount op Cloud1
Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June.
. 5-6 6-2 5-2 5-2 3-7 1-9
11
5
12 14
6-9 5-8
9
5-2
1
2-5
0 = cloudiest sky; 10 = completely overcast.


CHAPTER III
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS, SYRIA, AND PALESTINE
Physical Features and Meteorological Stations
Syria and Palestine form a narrow belt of country which
lies between the Eastern Mediterranean on the west and the
Syrian desert on the east, which separates it from the plains
of Upper Mesopotamia. The country is hilly, especially in the
north, where the Lebanon and other ranges, which run more
or less parallel to the coast, attain considerable altitudes and
divide the country into a series of parallel belts.
In the north where Syria joins Asia Minor at the Gulf of
Iskanderun no meteorological observations are available, but
those of Cyprus may be conveniently utilized since this island
lies only 120 miles west of the coast of northern Syria.
The observations from the following stations have been
utilized so far as they are available :(
Place.
j Altitude.
Feet.
Lat. N.
Long. E.
Period of
Observation.
Years.
Cyprus:
O /
0 /
Kyrenia .
45
35
20
33
19
24-27
Famagusta
75
35
7
33
57
24-27
Limassol
26
34
40
33
1
24-27
Nicosia .
499
35
11
33
22
24-27
Coast:
Beirut
115
33
54
35
28
25
Haifa
33
32
48
34
59
9
Sarona .
66
32
5
34
47
10
Gaza
66
31
30
34
27
10
Inland:
El Kereiyeh
. 3,330
33
49
35
40
8
Ksara
. 3,030
33
49
35
52
2
Nazareth-
. 1,608
32
42
35
17
15
Jerusalem
2,200
31
47
35
13
20
Hebron .
. 2,900
31
31
35
8
16-18
El Athrun
656
31
.50
32
40
9
Tiberias .
. - 653
32
48
35
34
18
Melhamiyeh
3
• • -770
33
32
35
39


CYPRUS, SYRIA, AND PALESTINE 163
The stations in Cyprus are on the coast of the island except
Nicosia, which is in the Central Plain near the foot of the
northern range, and they represent a climate which is very
similar to that of the coast of northern Syria. Farther to the
eastward he the plains of the Jezireh in Northern Mesopotamia,
and the foothills of the Taurus ranges where meteorological
data more or less complete are available at 'Aintab, Urfeh,
Diarbekr, and Mosul (Chap. IV).
To the southward Beirut, Haifa, Sarona, and Gaza represent
the climate of the coastal belt, while El Kereiyeh (Le Krey),
Ksara, Nazareth, Jerusalem, Hebron, and El Athrun form
a chain of stations on the inland plateau which lies between
the Mediterranean and the valley of the Jordan. Tiberias,
and Melhamiyeh which is a few miles farther to the south-
ward, lie in the valley of the Jordan at about six or seven
hundred feet below the level of the Mediterranean.
Syria and Palestine enjoy a climate of the Mediterranean
type, but lying close to the deserts of Syria and Arabia the
rainfall, which is abundant in the north, and moderate near
to the coast, decreases rapidly inland.
In the winter season the Eastern Mediterranean is normally
an area of low pressure, and the prevalent winds of the
Syrian coast are easterly and south-easterly. As-the summer
approaches the influence of the Mediterranean becomes less,
and during May the Persian Gulf becomes an area of low
pressure which influences the flow of air over Syria and
Mesopotamia. By June this circulation, which is related to
the monsoon conditions of the Indian Ocean, is fully estab-
lished, and westerly and south-westerly winds prevail on the
Syrian coast with north-westerly winds inland until October,
when a return to the winter conditions begins.
Notes on the Tables
Temperature
The climate of Syria and Palestine is warm generally, and
in the summer comparatively high temperatures prevail,
which coinoide with the rainless season of the year. January
L2


164
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
is the coldest month, and August the warmest. The tempera-
ture, falls slowly in the early autumn, and that of September
is usually higher than that of -June.
In Table I, p. 170, the mean temperature of the day is given,
from which it will be seen that 80°-82° P. represents the highest
mean temperature at or near sea-level, lower values being
recorded at the high-level stations of Palestine, and higher
ones in the Jordan Valley. In Table II, p. 172, are given the
mean daily maximum temperatures, or the mean of the highest
temperatures of each day. This shows that Cyprus generally
has a hot climate in summer, while that of the Jordan valley
is hotter still. InTableIII,p. 174, the mean of the highest tem-
peratures in each month which have been recorded during the
period for which observations are available is given, and this
represents the highest temperature which may be ordinarily
anticipated in each month. This is about 100° F. for Cyprus
and somewhat less at most of the Syrian stations. The
highest temperatures which have been recorded are given in
Table IV, p. 176, where it will be seen that 110° F. has been
reached at several stations.
The lower limits of temperature are given in Tables V-VII,
pp. 178, 180, 182. The mean daily minimum nowhere falls as
low as freezing point, and only at El Kerervoh, Jerusalem, and
Hebron may a frost be anticipated in the course of the month
of January. The records show, however, that frost has
occurred at practically all stations except those on the Medi-
terranean coast line, and in the Jordan valley (Table VII).
Under the semi-arid conditions which prevail over part of
Syria a wide range of temperature is to be expected, but this
is less marked in the region near the Mediterranean, where
most of the meteorological stations are situated, than in the
country to the east of the Jordan. (Table VIII, p. 184).


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
166
Humidity
The humidity of the air varies widely under these con-
ditions. In Cyprus and on the Syrian coast it is moderately
high throughout the year, but at the inland stations of Syria
it is low in the summer months, and on some days very low
indeed under the hot, dry conditions which then prevail.
(Table IX. p. 186.)
Rainfall
The rainfall shows a strongly marked seasonal distribution
of a typical Mediterranean type. The heaviest rainfall occurs
in December or January in a rainy season which extends from
about the middle of October to the middle of May. June to
September are nearly, and frequently quite, rainless. The
heaviest rainfall naturally occurs in the mountainous part of
Northern Syria, where the station of El Kereiyeh may be
taken as an example. Here the rainfall diminishes rapidly
both towards the west and to the east as lower levels are
reached, as may be seen by the much smaller amounts which
are recorded at Beirut and Damascus. (Table X, p. 188.)
Farther south a belt of heavier rainfall extends along the
high ground from Nazareth to Hebron, while the amount
diminishes rapidly towards the east, where nearly all the
region east of the Jordan valley receives less than an inch of
rain in the year, and more gradually on the west as the
coastal stations show. The variation in different years is
very considerable, and the total for the year in wet years
may be more than twice that which falls in a year of scanty
rainfall. Table XI, p. 190, gives the highest amounts of rain
which have been recorded at those stations for which this
information is available. The average number of rain days
(days on which 0-2 mm. or -008 in. of rain fell) shows the
same seasonal variation as the rainfall. Rain days occur
but rarely in the summer months. (Table XII, p. 192.)
Snow falls every winter in the mountains, but only occa-
sionally in the plains. At Jerusalem the average number of
days on which snow falls is three.


1(56
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
Winds
Table XIII, p. 194, gives the percentage of winds blowing
from eight points of the compass for each month, so far as
the observations at different stations provide sufficient data.
Not infrequently the position of the station affects the results
to some extent, as at Kyrenia in Cyprus- which is situated on
the northern shore with a steep range of hills rising immedi-
ately behind it. The recording of calms also varies greatly,
and at some places none are shown, the light airs being
recorded probably as wind direction, and thus masking to
some extent the true prevalent wind.
Taking the mean values for the groups of Cypriote stations,
Syrian coastal stations, and the inland zone of Syria, there
is a distinct seasonal change from a predominance of easterly
winds in the winter months, when the Mediterranean is an
area of low pressure, to the summer conditions in which the
prevailing winds are westerly or south-westerly. The change
is indicated in March and becomes clear in April, while in June,
July, August, and even September, when the low pressure
over the Persian Gulf is most strongly developed, westerly
winds largely predominate. At the inland stations of Syria
in these months the prevailing wind is north-west rather than
west, thus conforming to the general air circulation of this
part of Asia which is so strongly developed over the plains of
Mesopotamia. The daily variation of the winds is not shown
at all stations by the published data, but the phenomenon
of the alternating land and sea breezes is noticeable on the
coasts, though this will often take the form only of a well-
marked freshening of the wind from sea to land during the
day, as on the Egyptian coast. In October the easterly
winds begin to increase in frequency on the Syrian coast, and
by November with the arrival of winter conditions the
predominance of easterly winds returns.
Winds of gale force are not very numerous. At Beirut
they number on the average 11 per annum, of which the
greatest number occur in January and rather fewer in Decern-


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
167
ber; from May to August practically none are recorded.
Observations in Cyprus indicate a frequency of about the
same amount, and of similar distribution.
Cloud
December and January are the months of greatest cloudi-
ness, but even then the average amount does not usually
exceed 5 in the scale where 0 represents a cloudless sky and
10 one that is completely overcast. The amount of cloud
diminishes rapidly with the commencement of summer con-
ditions and is very small until October. (Table XIV, p. 200.)
Conditions Affecting Aviation
Throughout Syria and Palestine the observations which
have been made give little information bearing directly on
this. As in all hot countries where the rainfall is scanty in
summer, both dust and heat-haze must interfere considerably
with visibility at that season of the year, especially in the
afternoon when the wind has increased, but at other times
a clear atmosphere may be expected on most occasions. The
valley of the Jordan, especially in the summer months, may
very probably furnish abnormal conditions.
The cloudiness is in general small, especially in the dry
summer months, as is shown in Table XIV, p. 200, but in
the mountains of northern Syria larger amounts are to be
anticipated.
The extreme range of temperature which may be expected
in any month is given in Table VIII, p. 184, where it will be
seen to reach 40° F. on the coasts of Cyprus and Syria, and
about 55° F. at inland stations in Palestine.
The average daily range of temperature is about 20° to 25° F.
in Cyprus, 12° F. in winter to 25° F. in summer at Beirut,
and rather more at the stations of inland Syria.
The normal directions of the wind at different stations is
given in Table XIII, p. 194, from which it is seen that from
April to October, when depressions passing over Syria from the
Mediterranean are few, the winds, which are mainly from the


168 CYPRUS, SYRIA, AND PALESTINE
west and north-west, have considerable steadiness. With the
passage of these depressions during the winter season, much
larger variations both in force and direction occur.
At Beirut, December, January, and March are the months
in which the strongest winds are recorded. In all months the
wind force is greater in the afternoon, and this is probably
more markedly the case at the inland stations, but the obser-
vations are not sufficient to demonstrate this.
In the mountain regions, and also in the neighbourhood of
the Jordan valley, especially near the Dead Sea, irregular air
currents are to be expected, but no actual observations exist
on the subject.


TABLES
SUMMARY
TABLE
PAGES
I.
Mean Temperature ......
. 170-1
II.
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
. 172-3
III.
Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature .
. 174-5
IV.
Absolute Maximum Temperature ....
. 176-7
V.
Mean Daily Minimum Temperature.
. 178-9
VI.
Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature
. 180-1
VII.
Absolute Minimum Temperature ....
. 182-3
VIII.
Monthly Range of Temperature ....
. 184-5
IX.
Relative Humidity ......
. 186-7
X.
Mean Monthly Rainfall
. 188-9
XI.
Maximum Rainfall ......
. 190-1
XII.
Number of Rain Days ......
. 192-3
XIII.
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
. 194-9
XIV.
. 200-1
Mean Amount of Cloud ......


172 CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE II
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Cyprus:
O Ji
0 Ji
O Ji
o p
T.
Kyrenia
. 60-8
64-1
68-1
74-5
81-2
88-0
Famagusta .
. GiJ-4
62-7
66-7
72-9
80-8
88-0
Limaaaol
. 62-S
64-9
68-4
73-6
80-2
86-5
Nicosia
. 58-0
61-2
65-9
74-7
83-6
91-3
Syria, Coast:
Beirut .
. 61-5
63-5
66-7
72-1
77-5
83-3
Inland:
Damascus (1867) .
ElKereiyeh .
. 44-6
54-1
54-8
65-4
71-9
77-0
Ksara .
. 46-2
43-8
54-6
66-3
75-3
83-8
Nazareth
. 37-2
61-7
65-3
74-1
79-1
85-8
Jerusalem
. 50-7
56-3
60-9
70-3
78-9
84-2
Hebron
. 51-9
56-4
60-7
70-6
79-7
83-5
El Athrun
. 62-0
65-3
69-7
78-9
87-6
91-0
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias
96-4
. 63-7
89-4
(i7-3
80-4
720


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
173
July. Aug. Sept.
0 F. 0 P. 0 p.
94-0
949
90-1
92-9
933
89-1
91-3
916
88-8
97-7
978
92-4
88.1
89.0
86-1
950
84-1
77-4
79-7
80-7
77-3
89-0
90-5
85-1
89-2
89-7
890
870
870
83-6
85-9
874
84-8
94-4
951
91-5
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
0 -p
° F.
0 Ji_
83-3
72-0
64-4
82-7
73-5
64-0
83-3
74-2
66-6
84-4
71-2
62-6
81-5
73-0
66-2
71-0
71-6
56-2
50-5
76-8
68-0
55-4
87-8
76-2
61-8
78-4
65-3
55-9
79-8
67-2
57-1
87-4
77-1
68-2
Cyprus:
Kyrenia.
Famagusta.
Limassol.
Nicosia.
Syria, Coast:
Beirut.
Inland:
Damascus (1867).
El Kereiyeh.
Ksara.
Nazareth.
Jerusalem.
Hebron.
El Athrun.
Jordan Valley:
99-7
Tiberias.
997
68-7
95-7
78-3
90-1


174
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE HI
Mean Monthly Maximum Tbmperatuee
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Cyprus:
O J.
0 j.
a Ji
O Ji_
o F
0 F.
Kyrenia
68-8
71-9
75-9
82-6
89-7
96-7
Famagusta .
. 66-7
69-2
74-8
820
91-5
92-4
Limassol
. 69-9
71.0
76-5
820
89-8
94-5
Nicosia
. 65-1
68-5
75-6
86-1
94-4
100-3
Syria, Coast:
Beirut .... 69-9
Haifa .... 67-8
Sarona. . 68-9
Ghaza „ 66-9
Inland:
El Kereiyeh . . 581
Ksara . .60-0
Nazareth . .68-3
Jerusalem . . 60-9
Hebron 67-8
ElAthrun . 762
72-5
81-6
86-3
89-7
90-8
76-1
85-2
951
960
94-2
75-3
88-1
942
901
89-7
730
85-8
921
930
86-7
61-7
65-1
811
85-1
85-8
60-8
67-6
77-9
91-0
94-4
730
82-4
91-9
97-7
99-1
66-2
74-6
861
92-6
948
68-9
76-6
890
94-2
96 0
77-9
85-1
99-8
1050
103-8
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias . . 72-9 77-7 88-9 96-4 102-7 108-3
Melhamiyeh . . 72-3 71-1 81-3 94 1 103-5 104-0


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
175
July. Aug. Sept. Oct.
1011
1016
97-0
91.4
98-2
986
96-3
90-3
982
97-6
95-6
90-4
1041
103-6
100-4
94-1
91-4
92 3
90-8
90-3
92-4
95-3
94-8
96 6
86-5
88-3
87-9
92-1
87-6
87-9
85-4
87-9
85-2
86-9
80-7
76-1
98-9
1020
95-5
89-7
97-3
94-8
1000
99-1
92-8
93-2
90-5
870
93-3
95-0
92-3
910
100-5
101-4
99-3
97-3
106-9
106-2
105-6
101-5
Nov.
Dec.
°F.
o F
Cyprus:
81-7
720
Kyrenia.
80-8
71-4
Famagusta.
82-3
73-3
Limassol.
81-7
70-1
Nicosia.
Syria, Coast:
82-2
74-8
Beirut.
85-8
72-6
Haifa.
89-7
77-3
Sarona.
84-6
74-1
Ghaza.
Inland:
68-9
590
El Kereiyeh.
80-0
64-7
Ksara.
87-9
77-0
Nazareth.
76-8
67-1
Jerusalem.
79-8
70-7
Hebron
91-0
80-4
Б1 Athrun.
Jordan Valley:
91-8
80-8
Tiberias.
104-7
Melhamiyeh.
—
77-5
—
84-2
99-5


174
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE Ш
Mean Monthly Maximum Température
Jan.
°F.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
°F.
May.
June.
Cyprus:
° J.
о F.
о p
о j,
Kyrenia
. 68-3
71-9
75-9
82-6
89-7
96-7
Famagusta .
. ев-7
69-2
74-8
82-0
915
92-4
Limassol
. Ct9-9
71.0
76-5
820
89-8
946
Nicosia
. 66-1
68-6
75-6
861
94-4
100-3
Syria, Coast:
Beirut .
. 69-9
72-5
81-6
86-3
89-7
90-8
Haifa .
. 67-8
76-1
85-2
95-1
960
94-2
Sarona.
68-9
75-3
881
942
901
89-7
Ghaza . ч
. 66-9
730
85-8
92-1
930
86-7
Inland:
ElKereiyeh .
. 58-1
61-7
651
811
85-1
85-8
Ksara .
. 60-0
60-8
67-6
77-9
91-0
94-4
Nazareth
. 68-8
730
82-4
91-9
97-7
99-1
Jerusalem
. 60-9
66-2
74-6
861
92-6
94-8
Hebron
. 67-2
68-9
76-6
890
94-2
960
El Athrun .
. 76-2
77-9
85-1
99-8
1050
103-8
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias
. 72-9
77-7
88-9
96-4
102-7
1083
Melhamiyeh .
1040
. 72-3
1036
71-1
94-1
81-3


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
175
July. Aug. Sept. Ocl. Nov. Dec.
1011
1016
970
91.4
81-7
720
Cyprus:
Kyrenia.
98-2
986
96-3
90-3
80-8
71-4
Famagusta.
98 2
97-6
95-6
90-4
82-3
73-3
Limassol.
1041
103-6
100-4
941
81-7
70-1
Syria, Coast:
Nicosia.
91-4
923
90-8
90-3
82-2
74-8
Beirut.
92-4
95-3
94-8
966
85-8
72-6
Haifa.
86-5
88-3
87-9
92-1
89-7
77-3
Sarona.
87-6
87-9
85-4
87-9
84-5
74-1
Ghaza.
85-2
86-9'
80-7
76-1
68-9
59-0
Inland:
El Kereiyeh.
98-9
1020
95-5
89-7
80-0
64-7
Ksara.
97-3
94-8
1000
99-1
87-9
77-0
Nazareth.
92-8
93-2
906
87-0
76-8
67-1
Jerusalem.
93-3
960
92-3
910
79-8
70-7
Hebron
100-5
101-4
99-3
97-3
910
80-4
Jordan Valley:
El Athrun.
106-9
106-2
106-6
101-6
91-8
80-8
Tiberias.
1047
Melhamiyeh.
—
77-6
—
84-2
99-5


176
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE IV
Absolute Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Cyprus:
O Ji
O Ji
° P.
o J,
o -p_
O J.
Kyrenia
. 74-0
970
980
101-5
101-8
103-5
Famagusta .
. 77-0
78-0
82-5
89-0
1010
103-0
Limassol
. 88-0
79-0
87-0
90-0
102-0
102-0
Nicosia
. 70-0
76-2
880
94-0
109-5
105-5
Syria, Coast:
Beirut .
. 78-9
82-2
921
971
100-0
99-5
Haifa .
Sarona.
Ghaza .
Inland:
Damascus (1867) . . — — — — — —
ElKereiyeh. . . 62-9 67-4 76-8 85-1 91-0 92-8
Ksara .... 60 0 60-8 67-6 77-9 93-2 96-4
Nazareth ... — — — — — —
Jerusalem ... — — — — — —
Hebron ... — — — — — —
ElAthrun . . . 84-B 88-8 91-0 104-3 109-4 111-5
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias — — — — 114-1
Melhamiyeh ... — — — — — —
* The month in which these temperatures


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
° F. ° F. 0 F. °F, "F. ° F.
Cyprus:
109- 0 108 0 1130 101-8 92-2 800 Kyrenia.
104-2 102-5 103-2 960 87-0 77-0 Famagusta.
106- 0 1080 1030 98-0 88-5 80-0 Limassol.
1160 108 0 105-8 100-5 95-0 75 0 Nicosia.
Syria, Coast:
980 99-3 99 1 101-3 89-4 83-6 Beirut.
1040* — _ — — — Haifa.
100-9* — — — — — Sarona.
104 0* — — — — — Ghaza.
Inland:
99-5 89-0 85-0 76 0 — — Damascus (1867).
89-6 95-1 84-2 80-9 71-2 64-7 El Kereiyeh.
99-5 106-1 97-1 92-6 82-5 65-8 Ksara.
110- 4* • — — — — — Nazareth.
102- 2* — — —8 — 8—8 Jerusalem.
103- 1* — — — — — Hebron.
103 0 108-6 108-6 103-6 93-2 86-7 El Athrun.
Jordan Valley:
— — — — — — Tiberias.
107- 2 — — — — — Melhaniiyeh.
were recorded is not stated.
Are—E. M.


178
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE V
Mean Daily Minimum Temperature-
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Cyprus:
a
O J,
o p
O
o jr.
O Jji_
Ityrenia
. 48-7
44-8
47-3
51-6
58-0
64-2
Famagusta .
. 41-4
42-1
43-9
49-3
56-2
66-6
Limassol
. 43-1
44-7
47-1
511
56-4
61-9
Nicosia
. 38-6
39-9
41-8
47-4
55-2
62-8
Syria, Coast:
Beirut.
. 49-3
50-3
52-8
57-7
62-9
68-3
Inland:
Damascus (1867) .
. 36-3
38-6
—
46-8
—
—
El Kereiyeh .
. 86-8
43-1
43-7
50-9
55-7
59-3
Ksara .
. 27-2
29-0
37-5
45-5
50-7
55-9
Nazareth
. 41-8
43-5
46-2
51-6
57-0
61-7
Jerusalem .
. 88-4
410
440
49-4
54-8
59-0
Hebron
. 86-6
38-5
40-8
45-9
51-2
54-7
El Athrun .
. 46-0
469
48-7
54-3
59-1
62-6
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias
70-3
. 47-5
65-1
49-8
58-5
52-9


SYRIA AND PALESTINE 179
July. Aug. Sept.
° F. ° F. ° F.
69-9
70-2
66-7
68-8
690
641
66-4
67-7
64-1
67-8
67-9
63-5
72-3
73-4
71-9
64-7
59-8
561
62-7
640
61-3
59-1
60-4
55-7
66-3
67-4
65-1
62-6
62-9
60-6
57-1
58-7
56-5
66-2
67-4
65-3
74-5
75-7
72-5
Oct. Nov. Dec.
0 F. ° F. ° F.
610 53-6 47-6
580 50-4 45-4
59-8 52-4 46 9
57 1 48-4 41-7
68-1 60-2 541
50-8 44-4 40-6
57-7 48-7 42-6
50-5 43-1 36-3
62-2 53-0 45-6
57-7 49-1 43-1
53-6 46-2 40-4
62-6 56-3 50-3
69-1 60-4 53 1
Cyprus:
Kyrenia.
Famagusta.
Limassol.
Nicosia.
Syria, Coast:
Beirut.
Inland:
Damascus (1867).
El Kereiyeh.
Ksara.
Nazareth.
Jerusalem.
Hebron.
El Athrun.
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias.
H 2
f


ISO
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE VI
Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Cyprus:
o -p
o -p
0 Ji_
O p
0 Jf
O Ji_
Kyrenia
. 87-2
38-5
40-4
46-3
50-9
58-3
Famagusta .
. 31-4
34-2
35-6
42-7
49-3
57-7
Limassol
. 85-4
38-8
39-8
44-9
50-7
56-9
Nicosia
. 81-6
331
34-2
40-3
46-7
55-6
Syria, Coast:
Beirut .
. 41-0
42-6
43-8
49-8
55-5
62-9
Haifa .
. 89-9
42-4
45-5
50-9
55-9
64-9
Sarona.
. 41-1
44-0
44-4
48-0
53-2
60-2
Ghaza .
. 48-6
45-6
48-2
54-3
60-9
66-7
Inland:
El Kereiyeh .
. 27-7
32-5
330
35-2
47-1
51-6
Ksara .
—
—
—
—
42-2
46-9
Nazareth
. 83-2
361
38-3
43-1
491
55-2
Jerusalem
. 30-1
341
34-8
37-5
44-2
51-4
Hebron
. 29-0
320
311
34-3
40-1
45-3
El Athrun .
. 34-1
411
42-4
45-3
52-3
58-1
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias
. 88-8
43-2
44-1
50-2
56-7
64-2
Melhamiyeh .
70-2
. 89-2
62-8
46-0
52-5
49-3


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
181
July. Aug. Sept. Oct,
64-2
658
61-4
55-1
64-6
651
58-2
51-3
61-7
63-9
59-7
56-0
60-3
614
56-4
48-6
68-5
69-9
07-1
00-0
70-7
71-7
67-2
58-8
65-1
680
62-6
57-9
71-9
73-2
67-1
60-9
59-0
59-5
54-8
48-9
52-5
52-8
48-3
42-8
62-2
638
57-3
54-5
56-8
57-5
52-7
47-4
50-5
510
47-6
44-7
62-7
64-5
62-0
57-5
70-2
720
06-7
62-4
Nov.
Dec.
0 Ji_
o F*
Cyprus:
46-9
41-1
Kyrenia.
41-4
36-3
Famagusta.
46-1
39-7
Limassol.
39-2
34-4
Nicosia.
Syria, Coast:
52-1
43-3
Beirut.
50-9
43-5
Haifa,
51-2
44-6
Sarona.
51-6
45-8
Ghaza.
Inland:
37-7
33-8
El Kereiyeh.
35-4
27-2
Ksara.
45-3
35-9
Nazareth.
39-3
34-1
Jerusalem.
37-4
318
Hebron.
48-5
41-9
El Athrun.
Jordan Valley:
53-1
45-0
Tiberias.
78-1
Melhamiyeh.
—
44-1
—
54-3
65-3


182
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE VII
Absolute Minimum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Cyprus:
°P.
°P.
OP.
"P.
°F.
°F.
Kyrenia
. 30-0
30-0
33-8
37-0
46-8
420
Famagusta .
. 23 0
26-0
20-0
310
390
50-0
Limassol
. 27-5
300
340
37-5
40-0
44-0
Nicosia
. 25-0
27-0
27-0
320
400
49-0
Syria, Coast:
Beirut .
. 35-0
35-9
35-7
42-9
49-8
55-9
Haifa .
. 34-8*
Sarona.
. 37-5*
Ghaza .
. 39-2*
Inland:
Damascus (1867) .
. 31-5
26-0
—
32-0
—
—
ElKereiyeh .
. 21-2
28-4
29-9
32-1
401
44-6
Ksara .
. 0-7
19-2
28-8
34-9
420
46-7
Nazareth
. 38-6*
Jerusalem
. 21-2*
Hebron
. 18-9*
El Athrun .
. 26-6
37-4
39-5
42-8
48-5
56-4
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias
. 34 0
—
—
—
—
—
Helhamiyeh.
. 33-4
—
—
—
—
—
* The month in whioh these temperatures


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
if
Aug.
°F.
Sept.
°F.
Out.
°V.
Nov.
°F.
Dec.
°F.
54-0
600
600
53-0
51-5
530
48-5
50-0
42-5
50-0
400
38-2
26-5
330
260
32-0
27-5
290
29-0
46-9
58-5
58 0
570
52-0
63-8
62-0
60-4
51-9
41-3
80-2
69-0
56-8
525
68-0
570
601
48-0
53-2
48-3
48-0
44-7
41-7
41-0
27-2
32-3
340
27-2
22-5
61-5
62-2
60-4
55-7
420
36-3
Cyprus:
Kyrenia.
Famagusta.
Limassol.
Nicosia.
Syria, Coast:
Beirut.
Haifa.
Sarona.
Ghaza.
Inland:
Damascus (1867).
El Kereiyeh.
Ksara.
Nazareth.
Jerusalem.
Hebron.
El Athrun.
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias.
Melhamiyeh.
were recorded is not stated.


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
185
July. Aug. Sept. Oct.
36-9
35-8
35-6
36-3
34-4
34-3
39-2
40-1
36-9
34-3
36-7
35-9
43-8
42-2
440
45-5
22-9
22-4
23-7
29-7
21-7
23-6
27-6
37-8
21-4
20-3
25-3
34-2
15-7
14-7
18-3
27-0
26-2
27-4
25'9
27-2
46-4
49-2
47-2
46-9
351
310
42-7
44-6
360
35-7
37-8
39-6
42-8
44-0
44-7
46-3
37-8
36-9
37-3
39-8
36-7
34-2
38-9
39-1
Nov.
Dec.
°F.
°
Cyprus:
34-8
30-9
Kyrenia.
40-6
36-6
Famagusta.
37-0
34-0
Limassol.
426
35-7
Nicosia.
Syria, Coast:
30-1
316
Beirut.
34-9
29-1
Haifa.
38-5
32-7
Sarona.
32-9
28-3
Ghaza.
Inland:
31-2
25-2
El Kereiyeh.
44-6
37-5
Ksara.
42-6
41-1
Nazareth.
37'5
33-0
Jerusalem.
42-4
38-9
Hebron.
42'6
38-5
El Athrun.
Jordan Valley:
38-7
35-8
Tiberias.
26-6
Melhamiyeh.
—
33-4
—
29'9
34-2


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
187
July. Aug. Sept.
% % %
66-4
65-0
65-6
65-1
68-3
67-1
68
66
U
71
68
67
73-6
71-6
89-6
71
70-6
70-6
49
58
66
61
—
—
56-6
00-3
60-3
53
56-3
57-6
Oct.
Nov.
•%
Dec.
%
%
68-9
74-9
791
70-9
783
82-9
66
67
69
66
69
72
69-6
70-6
72-0
60
71
75-3
79
86
59
71
72
54-3
65
71-3
54-3
57
62
Cyprus:
Famagusta.
Nicosia.
Syria, Coast:
Beirut.
Haifa.
Sarona.
Ghaza.
Inland:
Damascus (1867).
El Kereiyeb.
Jerusalem.
El Athrun.
Jordan Valley:
49-5
Tiberias.
51-5
68
55
60
49


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
191
July. Aug.
ins. ins.
0 04 0-20
005 0-11
002 0-05
0-69 0-90
0-39 0-27
0-02
Sept. Oct.
ins. ins.
1- 48 606
200 8-90
2- 08 2-96
1-85 2-83
2-40 7-36
0-96 805
— 0-98
019 2-47
005 2 11
Nov. Dec.
ins. ins.
9-84 10-76
1017 12-20
1101 8-82
10-29 6-43
15-31 13-66
1215 15-77
1-77 9-51
610 1405
3-65 8-93
Cyprus:
Kyrenia.
Famagusta.
Limassol.
Nicosia.
Syria, Coast:
Beirut.
Inland:
El Kereiyeh.
Ksara.
Hebron.
El Athrun.
Jordan Valley:
— 205
Tiberias.
6-65 8-74


192
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE Xn
Number of Rain Days (>0-2 mm. or 0-008 in. of rain).
Cyprus:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June
Famagusta .
. 10-6
9-8
7-7
4-9
3-7
0-8
Nicosia
. 9-3
7-5
7-3
3-9
3-3
1-3
Syria, Coast:
Beirut.
. 15-6
14-5
10-9
6-5
3-2
0-8
Haifa .
. 13-3
9-6
8-3
3
2-4
0-1
Sarona.
. 11
6-8
6-8
2-6
0-2
Ghaza .
. 8-9
6-4
4-9
1-4
1-5
01
Inland:
Damascus (1868)
El Kereiyeh
Ksara .
Nazareth
Jerusalem
Hebron
El Athrun
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias
_


9
13
7-7
13-7
8-2
4
I
16
19
16
13
6
—.
12-4
12
9-9
4-5
1-9

13
9-8
9-6
4-6
2-1
0-1
13
11
10
5
1
1
14-5
10-4
10-7
6-8
1-8
0-5
10 9
10-3
8-8
3-8
1-3
Melhamiyeh .
—
12
3-3
12-2
4-5
9-8


194
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE XIII
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
JANUARY
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
c.
Kyrenia
. 18-7
7-6
35-9
0-6
20-2
0-7
11-8
2-3
2-2
Famagusta
. 9-1
16-8
14-1
2-7
6-3
6-4
26-4
18-3
—
Limassol
. 11-6
13-2
21-1
16-0
6-4
12-8
9-8
8-9
—
Mean.
. 13-1
12-5
23-7
6-4
10-9
6-6
160
9-8
0-7
Beirut .
. 7-8
9-6
10-2
18-7
10-2
20-5
6-4
8-2
13-4
Haifa .
. 8-1
2-3
48-2
5-7
13-8
5-6
14-3
1-2
0-8
Sarona .
. 4-5
7-7
7-7
14-9
31-6
71
2-3
4-2
200
Gaza
. M
1-1
10-7
1-6
0-9
23-9
9-0
0-6
51-2
Mean.
. 5-4
5-2
19-2
10-2
141
14-3
8-0
2-3
21-3
El Kereiyeh
. 6-3
1-9
12-5
8-7
7-5
15-0
15-5
3-6
290
Nazareth
. 4-5
19-3
27-3
13-6
9-1
6-8
101
9-1
—
Jerusalem
. 2-3
10
24-3
1-6
1-4
10-6
30-4
4-1
24-3
Hebron .
. 6-7
8-1
121
7-0
3-5
8-1
26-9
27-1
0-5
El Athrun
. 3-3
3-4
17-4
12-3
6-7
19-2
10-7
17-7
9-3
Mean.
. 4-6
6-7
18-7
8-6
5-6
11-9
18-7
12-3
12-6
FEBRUARY
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Kyrenia
. 146
5-8
34-2
0-4
22-0
2-2
16-8
1-6
2-4
Famagusta
. 6-8
14-0
12-4
4-2
7-8
10-1
24-8
200
—
Limassol
. 5-6
6-3
25-2
8-5
7-4
8-2
15-9
9-5
13-4
Mean.
. 8-9
8-7
23-9
4-4
12-4
7-5
19-2
10-3
5-3
Beirut .
. 8-5
9-5
8-1
13-0
8-9
25-9
5-4
5-4
15-3
Haifa
. 12-2
1-3
35-0
1-9
151
5-6
230
1-5
4-4
Sarona .
. 4-2
5-7
3-5
16-3
23-3
13-8
4-6
1-8
26-8
Gaza
. 3-8
0-2
121
3-6
10
19-6
8-0
21
49-6
Mean.
. 7-2
4-2
14-7
8-7
12-1
16-2
10-2
2-7
240
El Kereiyeh
. 2-7
3-0
8-0
16-2
8-6
12-8
20-3
6-1
22-1
Nazareth
. 11-2
21-2
22-5
100
6-3
90
11-2
9-0
—
Jerusalem
. 1-1
M
21-6
2-1
0-8
6-8
39-1
4-3
23-1
Hebron .
. 101
4-7
30
11-2
5-3
50
31-1
29-6
—
El Athrun
. 1-7
1-3
11-7
18-5
7-1
16-7
16-9
18-9
7-2
Mean.
10-5
. 5-3
136
6-2
28-7
13-3
100
11-6
5-6


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
195
MARCH
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Kyrenia
16-6
60
28-5
0-8
210
0-6
22-5
2-9
1-0
Famagusta
5-6
15-3
11-9
2-9
5-8
12-3
25-8
20-4
—
Limassol
5-6
5-6
21-4
8-6
8-1
7-8
22-8
7-0
130
Mean.
9-2
8-9
20-6
41
11-6
6-9
23-7
10-1
4-6
Beirut .
10-4
11-8
7-1
6-1
5-0
31-5
6-9
4-6
16-7
Haifa .
151
0-3
30-4
2-3
10-1
4-3
30-1
4-6
2-8
Sarona .
3-2
5-2
3-2
9-4
18-7
15-5
11-6
5-2
28-0
Gaza
5-8
0-6
8-8
4-1
0-9
21-3
13-8
1-3
43-4
Mean.
8-4
4-6
12-4
4-5
8-7
17-9
15-6
3-9
22-7
El Kereiyeh .
2-3
1-4
9-3
11-2
8-7
13-3
24-2
8-2
21-4
Nazareth
10-3
12-6
17-2
116
3-4
15-0
18-4
11-5
—
Jerusalem
1-1
2-1
13-9
2-6
1-2
6-3
42-1
7-1
23-6
Hebron .
6-1
6-6
4-6
11-6
4-5
3-9
35-8
271
—
El Athrun
4-2
11
100
16-0
5-9
11-8
18-2
25-2
7-6
Mean.
4-8
4-7
110
10-6
4-7
101
27-8
160
10-5
APRIL
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Kyrenia
. 14-6
1-8
30-1
—
17-1
0-6
30-2
40
1-6
Famagusta
. 6-9
15-4
16-2
3-5
61
12-7
24-6
150
—
Limassol
. 50
31
19-6
11-6
8-6
8-2
26-5
4-6
12-7
Mean.
. 8-8
6-8
220
50
10-6
7-2
271
7-9
4-7
Beirut .
. 9-3
13-6
5-3
3-4
3-5
36-3
8-7
5-3
14-6
Haifa
. 19-4
0-8
19-8
2-4
7-5
5-9
36-3
4-9
30
Sarona .
. 2-3
2-7
20
4-0
120
19-3
19-3
90
29-4
Gaza
. 3-5
0-5
12-0
1-4
0-7
11-8
22-9
30
44-2
Mean.
. 8-6
4-4
9-8
2-8
5-9
18-3
2118
5-5
22-8
El Kereiyeh
. 2-2
0-9
5-4
230
4-5
9-7
24-8
8-1
211
Nazareth
. 11-7
10-4
19-5
90
1-3
10-4
220
150
—
Jerusalem
. 1-3
1-8
16-4
2-6
1-4
2-8
37-8
11-5
24-4
Hebron .
. 14-4
2-8
13-3
10-8
4-5
5-0
200
28-1
1-1
El Athrun
. 3-4
1-5
7-5
19-8
5-7
90
12-5
29-7
10-6
Mean.
11-5
. 6-6
18-5
3-5
•234
12-4
7-4
130
3-5


196
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE XIII (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
MAY
X.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Kyrenia
. 15-7
2-0
24-1
0-4
21-3
0-8
32-8
2-8
0-1
Famagusta
. 5-4
13-4
21-0
4-7
6-7
13-5
24-0
11-5
—
Limassol
. 3-7
1-6
17-3
13-7
9-6
8-4
27-9
4-5
13-2
Mean.
. 8-3
5-7
20-8
6-3
12-5
7-6
282
6-3
4-4
Beirut.
. 11-9
14-3
3-8
11
2-9
33-6
10-4
8-2
13-8
Haifa
. 14-4
0-8
13-2
0-8
8-0
6-6
42-7
8-9
4-6
Sarona .
. 4-5
2-3
2-3
1-0
3-2
24-2
25-8
19-3
17-4
Gaza
. 5-9
—
17-8
2-7
0-5
9-4
29-3
3-5
30-9
Mean.
. 9-2
4-4
9-3
1-4
3-6
18-4
270
100
16-7
El Kcreiyeh
. 6-3
2-4
6-6
161
4-5
4-3
220
11-4
26-0
Nazareth
. 22-1
9-3
5-8
10-5
2-3
22-1
15-1
12-8
—
Jerusalem
. 44
2-0
11-7
1-8
10
3-0
37-3
18-4
20-4
Hebron .
. 16-5
5-9
8-6
9-2
6-8
7-0
16-5
29-2
0-3
El Athrun
. 30
1-5
3-6
15-8
6-1
4-4
8-0
430
14-3
Mean.
. 10-5
4-2
7-3
10-7
41
8-2
19-8
230
12-2
JUNE
X.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Kyrenia
. 16-5
0-8
14-7
—
15-5
0-7
47-1
3-0
1-4
Fama«usta
. 2-6
10-3
26-5
5-9
8-3
13-4
200
12-8
—
Limassol
. 2-2
1-7
11-5
12-6
10-7
10-4
31-2
4-3
15-4
Mean.
. 7-1
4-3
17-6
6-2
11-5
8-2
328
6-7
5-6
Beirut .
. 7-4
7-3
1-2
0-1
2-7
50-5
14-2
4-9
il-7
Haifa .
. 10-5
0-5
2-9
0-9
51
8-2
60-2
7-0
4-7
Sarona .
. 1-7
1-3
1-3
10
2-6
33-6
32-6
13-6
12-3
Gaza
. 4-9
—
171
0-7
1-3
1-3
30-5
20
42-2
Mean.
. 61
2-3
5-6
0-7
2-9
23-4
344
6-9
17-7
El Kereiyeh
. 7-6
2-9
2-4
3-4
3-2
1-1
27-0
15-4
37-0
Nazareth
. 131
6-0
3-5
2-4
—
238
26-2
250
—
Jerusalem
. 3-4
1-3
2-8
0-3
0-2
0-8
48-1
26-8
16-3
Hebron .
. 10-8
3-0
2-0
1-4
2-2
2-5
20-6
57-2
0-3
El Athrun
. 2-5
0-4
1-9
12-8
4-9
2-6
7-9
54-4
12-3
Mean.
13-2
. 7.5
35-8
2-7
260
2-5
6-2
4-0
21


SYRIA AND PALESTINE
197
JULY
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Kyrenia
. 16-5
1-1
21-7
—
18-0
1-1
37-9
2-3
1-2
Famagusta
. 1-8
8-6
26-6
6-1
10-7
17-0
191
8-5
1-6
Limassol
. 1-2
1-2
10-3
12-5
11-3
100
32-9
4-3
15-9
Mean.
. 6-5
3-6
19-5
6-2
13-3
9-4
300
50
6-2
Beirut .
. 4-4
1-6
0-3
0-1
4-4
60-2
15-9
3-3
9-8
Haifa
. 1-4
0-2
1-8
0-9
9-1
190
62-1
20
3-5
Sarona .
. —
—
1-3
0-3
0-3
56-3
30-4
3-3
8-1
Gaza
. 1-6
0-6
16-7
0-5
0-5
4-8
290
11
45-2
Mean.
. 1-9
0-6
50
0-4
3-6
351
34-4
2-4
16-6
El Kereiyeh
. 7-7
0-8
0-8
1-4
31
20
20-3
17-0
46-9
Nazareth
. 7-3
—
2-4
—
—
40-3
31-7
18-3
—
Jerusalem
. 1-8
—
0-5
—
0-1
10
51-9
30-7
140
Hebron .
. 13-2
1-9
1-1
—
11
1-3
13-9
07-2
0-3
El Athrun
. 10
0-1
1-2
14-6
4-3
2-7
8-5
55-7
12-2
Mean.
. 6-2
0-6
1-2
3-2
1-7
9-5
25-3
37-8
14-7
AUGUST
N.
NE.
1E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Kyrenia
. 19-0
0-7
18-5
0-1
20-5
0-7
33-9
31
3-4
Famagusta
. 5-6
11-1
20-2
4-0
91
161
21-7
111
1-1
Limassol
. 11
2-0
11-3
121
11-8
8-3
34-9
7-2
111
Mean.
. 8-6
4-6
16-7
5-4
13-8
8-4
302
71
5-2
Beirut .
. 5-7
3-9
0-7
0-1
5-4
44-9
18-9
6-8
13-6
Haifa
. 5-4
0-3
2-0
1-4
8-7
15-7
58-2
4-6
3-7
Sarona .
. 0-3
—
0-3
1-3
4-5
48-2
23-2
8-0
14-2
Gaza
. 3-5
—
18-5
0-4
1-3
1-9
24-5
8-2
41-7
Mean.
. 3-7
10
5-4
0-8
5-0
27-7
31-2
6-9
18-3
El Kereiyeh
. 8-6
1-2
0-6
2-7
4-5
1-5
18-0
150
48-0
Nazareth
. 10-7
1-2
—
1-2

21-4
39-3
26-2
—
Jerusalem
. 2-2
0-5
0-5
0-2
0-1
0-6
44-9
35-2
15-8
Hebron .
. 140
0-3
0-5
0-8
1-3
1-3
11-6
69-1
1-1
El Athrun
. 5-7
0-1
2-1
18-2
1-8
1-1
7-6
53-6
9-8
Mean.
14-9
. 8-3
39 8
0-7
24-3
0-7
5-2
4-6
1-5


198
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE XIII (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
SEPTEMBER
N.
NE.
К.
SE.
8.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Kyrenia
. 19-3
0-4
17-8
0-08
22-7
0-6
330
2-6
3-4
Famagusta
. 6-9
90
14-0
1-1
3-8
11-4
35-3
18-3
0-1
Limassol
. 1-е
1-9
13-7
11-7
7-7
9-2
340
6-0
14-2
Mean.
. 9-3
3-8
15-2
4-3
11-4
7-1
341
90
5-9
Beirut .
. 16-5
116
1-6
0-3
2-7
29-7
15-3
9-0
13-4
Haifa
. 19-7
0-8
7-5
1-4
1-4
4-9
46-7
9-5
8-1
Sarona .
. 5-7
20
0-3
0-7
5-4
35-4
130
12-4
25-1
Gaza
. 2-0
—
250
0-4
—
2-9
27-2
40
38-5
Mean.
. 110
3-6
8-6
0-7
2-4
18-2
25-6
8-7
21-3
El Kereiyeh
. 61
5-3
3-5
2-5
6-3
8-9
17-8
8-6
41 0
Nazareth
. 22-2
6-2
6-2
2-4
1-2
14-8
23-4
23-4
—
Jerusalem
. 50
1-9
4-8
1-3
—
1-7
34-9
30-0
20-4
Hebron .
. 16-6
1-4
3-е
3-6
30
1-7
9-4
60-1
0-6
El Athrun
. 8-9
1-0
4-7
14-3
1-8
3-3
5-4
51-0
9-4
Mean.
. 11-8
3-2
4-6
4-8
2-5
6-1
18-2
34-6
14-3
OCTOBER
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Kyrenia
. 19-2
1-9
21-4
006
24-2
0-5
27-0
1-9
3-3
Famagusta
. 7-0
111
90
1-5
4-3
8-1
34-3
24-5
006
Limassol
. 40
3-9
19-9
12-4
5-2
9-2
25-0
5-7
14-7
Mean.
. 101
5-6
16-8
4-6
11-2
5-9
288
10-7
60
Beirut .
. 20-2
19-4
4-6
2-5
4-4
19-7
6-4
5-2
17-6
Haifa
. 18-9
1-3
24-8
2-3
2-9
2-3
32-1
9-6
5-9
Sarona .
. 5-8
4-2
4-8
5-5
9-7
14-5
4-5
8-4
42-6
Gaza
. 30
0-5
22-8
51
0-8
2-4
25-5
4-9
350
Mean.
. 12-0
6-4
14-2
3-9
4-5
9-7
171
7-0
25-3
El Kereiyeh
. 2-4
0-9
12-0
12-4
7-7
8-8
23-4
6-1
26-0
Nazareth
. 31-2
21-1
13-7
7-5
2-5
3-7
6-3
13-7
—
Jerusalem
. 2-9
31
18-7
1-5
0-7
1-9
27-0
130
31-2
Hebron .
. 16-7
8-3
9-4
7-8
2-7
2-2
11-3
39-5
21
El Athrun
. 101
1-2
11-3
15-4
30
5-7
6-9
37-6
8-9
Mean.
13-6
. 12-7
22-0
6-9
15-0
130
4-5
8-9
3-3


200
CLIMATE OF CYPRUS
TABLE XIV
Mean Amount of Cloud
Cyprus:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
A pril.
May.
June.
Kyrenia
. 4-2
3-8
3-3
2-7
20
0-9
Famagusta .
. 3-6
3-6
3-4
3-1
2-4
1-5
Limassol
. 2-9
2-9
2-6
2-0
1-7
0-9
Nicosia
. 4-0
4-1
3-4
2-7
1*9
0-9
Syria, Coast:
Beirut .
. 559
5-57
4-83
4-2
315
1-37
Haifa .
. 5-2
4-6
4-7
3-7
30
2-5
Sarona.
. 4-2
3-9
4-3
3-2
2-6
1-7
Ghaza . .
. 3-6
3-1
3-3
2-6
2-4
1-7
Inland:
El Kereiyeh .
. 5-8
4-5
5-9
5-0
4-0
1-5
Ksara, 1910-11 .
. 6-0
6-8
4-9
5-3
4-5
0-8
Nazareth
. 4-9
4-6
5-4
4-3
3-5
2-2
Jerusalem
. 5-2
4-8
5-1
3-9
2-9
1-2
Hebron *
. 5-8
5-3
5-4
3-7
1-7
0-5
El Athrun .
. 40
3-4
4-0
2-9
1-7
0-8
Jordan Valley:
Tiberias
. 6-2
4-6
4-3
31
1-2
0-5
1 0 = cloudless sky; 10 = completely overcast.


CHAPTER IV
CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA AND THE
PERSIAN GULF
Physical Features
Mesopotamia includes the area comprised in the isosceles
triangle of which the apex is at Fao, on the head of the Persian
Gulf, and the base is from a line drawn from Diarbekr on the
Tigris to the point where the 36th degree of latitude crosses
the Euphrates at Meskeneh. The area in question is about
180,000 square miles in extent and is bounded as follows:
To the S. by the Persian Gulf; SE., E., and NE. by the chains
of mountains that are the rim of the great plateau of Iran or
Persia; to the N. by the similar ranges which form the edges
of the table-lands of Armenia and Asia Minor; to the W. by
the Syrian Desert, and SW. the arid wastes of Northern
Arabia.
These very well defined limits enclose what, relative to the
surrounding highlands, is a vast depression of the surface,
which, however, as explained below, contains a low plateau
in itself. This depression falls away from the northern moun-
tains, at first at a steep, and then at a more slowly diminishing
gradient, till it reaches the point where the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers approach to within 40 miles of each other, viz. on the
line Baghdad-Fellujeh. Here, now at a very low altitude, it
changes suddenly into the great alluvial basin which, in almost
a dead flat, stretches southwards for 500 miles, to end at the
Persian Gulf.
The limits of this depression are everywhere clearly marked;
on its upper half across from Euphrates to Tigris by the spurs


CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA 203
of the mountains of Asia Minor; then, looking down-stream,
to the right of the Euphrates hy the cliff-like edge of the Syrian
Desert as far as Nasiriyeh, and to the left of the Tigris by the
outworks of the Kurdish ranges, as far as Samarra; thence
onwards to the sea by a glacis sloping upwards, on the one
hand to the submontane regions of the Kurdish and Persian
hills, and on the other to the Arabian desert .
The depression falls, as stated above, into two most distinct
zones or districts; a feature which the Arabs and the Turkish
administration have very clearly realized, and to which they
have given expression by calling the first zone or district
Jezireh and the second Irak. The boundary of Jezlreh and
Irak is at or about a line from Baghdad to Fellujeh on the
Euphrates; all to the north of this line in Mesopotamia is
Jezlreh; all to the south is Irak.
Jezireh is a low plateau, composed of limestone and sedi-
mentary formations, intersected by low ranges of limestone,
gypsum, and basalt, which slopes from the southern spurs of
the Taurus and other ranges, southwards to where it ends
suddenly in the great alluvial plain of Irak. In its northern
half, Jezireh is distinctly a submontane, belt merging gradually
into a rolling and undulating plain, and presents all the
characteristics of such regions: good soil, plenty of water,
fair rainfall. These favourable conditions diminish with in-
creasing distance from the mountains, and the sloping plain
assumes the character of the Syrian Desert to its west. The
ruins of innumerable towns and villages; the existence of
the Assyrian empire with Nineveh, its capital, at Mosul; the
importance of this tract in Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arab
times, testify to what it was in the past, and may be again in
the future under a good and settled government. Jezireh
under happier conditions was a worthy rival of Irak. The
Jebel Sinjar range is a rough boundary between Upper and
Lower Jezireh; the latter is, and always has been, an un-
mitigated desert.
Irak is a perfect plain; in 350 miles it falls 220 ft. to the
sea. It is a sheet of the most fertile alluvium, an argillaceous,


AND THE PERSIAN GULF
205
almost continuously from May until October. At this season
the great low-pressure area of North-West India, which is related
to the monsoon of the Indian Ocean, extends to the Persian Gulf,
and the pressure gradient which exists from the Eastern Mediter-
ranean to the Persian Gulf maintains this flow of air over Mesopo-
tamia throughout these months.
Consequently the land depends on the waters of its two great
rivers for its fertility, since the rainfall alone is insufficient to
maintain vegetation through the summer. Drawing their supply
largely from the snowfall in the mountains of Armenia, the levels
of the Tigris and Euphrates increase in the spring months, and
begin to diminish as midsummer draws nigh. As in Egypt, the
cultivator is dependent on the water of the rivers for bringing
his crops to maturity, but in Mesopotamia they are at their
highest in April and May, whereas the rains of Abyssinia from
June to September produce the annual Nile flood of Egypt in
August and September.
Meteorological Observations
In a region so sparsely inhabited and so little civilized as
Mesopotamia the places at which meteorological observations
have been made are naturally few. Some have been carried on
for short periods among the foot-hills of the Taurus in the northern
portion of the basin of the Euphrates, while others have been
made for longer periods at Baghdad and Basra, and have been
published in the Meteorological Reports of the Indian Govern-
ment. Besides these, a series of observations which extends over
five to six years has been provided by the activity of an archaeo-
logical mission engaged upon investigations on the site of the
ancient city of Babylon.
We have therefore meteorological observations from the fol-
lowing places in Mesopotamia, but they are too few in number
and extend over too limited periods to represent adequately the
extensive basin of the Tigris and the Euphrates.


206
CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
Place.
Period of
Observations.
Altitude.
Latitude N.
Longitude E.
Upper Mesopotamia:
Years.
Feet.
-Aintab
32
J 3,200
37°
4-
37°
35'
I 2,755*
Urfeh
7
1,870
37
13
38
47
Diarbekr
1,950
37
54
40
22
Mosul . .
3-1
I 980
36
22
43
14
Lower Mesopotamia:
( Oou
Baghdad .
21
120
33
21
44
26
Babylon
5-6
100
32
30
44
20
Basra
11
25
Mohammareh
i
?
30
26
48
13
Persian Gulf:
Bushire
33
25
29
0
49
50
Bahrein
8
18
Jask ....
18
13
25
47
57
48
Muscat
18
20
23
37
58
35
Of these twelve stations 'Aintab, Urfeh, and Diarbekr represent
the climate of the hilly country which lies immediately to the
southward of the mountain ranges which extend from the Gulf
of Iskanderun on the west to Lake Van on the east, where they
join the mountains of Western Persia which form the eastern
boundary of Mesopotamia. This region, which forms a part of
the upper basins of the Euphrates and the Tigris, lies at an alti-
tude of 1,500 to 3,000 feet, while many of the hills rise
to greater heights. At iAintab the observations, which relate
to rainfall only, extend over thirty-two years. At Urfeh and
Diarbekr the periods are shorter, being seven (1900-6) and two
to four years (1901-5) respectively, but the observations are
more complete and include all climatic factors.
Situated on the banks of the Tigris about 100 miles farther
south than Diarbekr and more to the eastward is Mosul, where
observations have been made for three to four years (1908-
11). This town, which is about 900 feet above sea-level, repre-
sents the climate of the southern part of Upper Mesopotamia,
* The altitudes of some stations are uncertain. Those marked with an
asterisk are taken from the Royal Geographical Society-s Map of 1910, the other
value being that quoted in the observations.


AND THE PERSIAN GULF
207
where more arid conditions prevail than in the foot-hills. At
Mosul itself the winter rainfall is considerable, but in the
Jezireh it decreases gradually as the hill-country is left behind.
Notes on the Tables: Upper Mesopotamia
Temperature
The coldest month is January, while the hottest is July or
August, there being but little difference between these two months.
The mean temperature of the day (Table I, p. 220) varies from
about 40° F. in January (31° F. at Diarbekr) to about 90° F. in
July and August, the increase being at the rate of about ten
degrees per month from April onwards. September sees a definite
reduction of temperature after the summer heat, while in October
and November the temperature diminishes rapidly.
The difference between the temperature at Mosul and that
of the stations in the hills is not very apparent in the mean
temperature, but is clearly seen in the daily and monthly
extremes (Tables II, III, V, VI, pp. 220, 222). The mean daily
maximum temperature in Mosul in July is 110° F. or 11° higher
than at Diarbekr, while the mean monthly maximum, the highest
temperature which may ordinarily be expected in the month,
is 116-6° F. or 11° and 12° above that recorded at Diarbekr
and Urfeh respectively.
Fairly low temperatures occur at all these stations annually,
the mean daily minimum being 26-4° F. at Diarbekr, and 32° F.
at Mosul in January, but occasionally much lower readings are
recorded. The mean monthly minimum in January is 27-1° F.
at Urfeh, 19-2° F. at Mosul, and even 10-9° F. at Diarbekr. This
severe cold at Diarbekr is doubtless due to its position in a basin
into which the cold air drains from the surrounding mountains.
The lowest and highest temperatures which have been recorded
show the same wide range, though the observations have not yet
extended over a long period, seven years being available for Urfeh,
but from two to four for Diarbekr, and from three to four years
for Mosul.


210
CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
regularly for six years by an archaeological mission which was
carrying out excavations there.
To the south of the junction of the two rivers at Kurna the
climate becomes very damp as well as hot, and heavy dews are
of frequent occurrence, the conditions approximating to those of
the Persian Gulf. Basra, a station where meteorological observa-
tions have been made for eleven years past, represents this portion
of the country, while some observations made during four months
in the summer of 1885 at Mohammareh are also available.
Temperature
In Lower Mesopotamia the mean temperature (Table I, p. 220)
ranges from 47° F. in January to 95° F. in July, while at Baghdad
and Basra the range is somewhat less. January is the coldest
month, and February is only slightly warmer, but from March
onwards the temperature rises steadily at the rate of about 10° F.
per month until June. June, July and August are the hottest
months of the year, the maximum usually falling in July or
August.
As is to be expected in this semi-arid region, the maximum
temperatures are very high. The mean daily maximum (Table II,
p. 220) is from 57° F. to 60° F. in January, and rises to 110° F.
and .111° F. in August at Baghdad and Babylon, and to 104° F.
at Basra. The mean monthly maximum temperature (Table III,
p. 220) for August is considerably higher, being 119-5° F. at
Baghdad, while the highest temperatures which have been
recorded at these four stations are 121-3° F. at Babylon and
121-0° F. at Baghdad in August. While such high temperatures
are annually experienced in the summer, frost occurs occasion-
ally in December, January, and February. The mean monthly
minimum temperature (Table VI, p. 222) in January is 27-5° F. for
Baghdad, and 26-1° F. at Babylon, while the lowest temperature
which has been recorded is 20-8° F. for both of these places.
The extreme annual range of temperature is hardly so great
as in Upper Mesopotamia, although the maximum in August is
higher, since the minimum in January is not nearly so low as,
for instance, at Diarbekr.


212
CLIMATE OP MESOPOTAMIA
March at Baghdad and 5-0 in December and January at
Babylon, while at Basra it is 2-6 in January.
Snow falls occasionally, and as many as four days of snow were
recorded in January 1912 at Babylon.
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms (Table XII, p. 230) appear to be rather frequent,
for at Babylon, which is the only place at which they have
been regularly recorded, they show a well-marked maximum
in April and May, when nearly five occur on the average.
During the five years over which the observations extended
eight occurred in April of one year and ten in May of another.
In July, August, and September none occurred; and only a few
in the autumn, which thus exhibits in this respect a marked
difference from the spring.
Cloud
Cloudiness (Table XIII, p. 230) is naturally much less in the arid
climate of Southern Mesopotamia than under the somewhat moister
conditions of the country to the north of Baghdad. Both that
station and Babylon, however, show a well-marked cloudy season
from December to April, while from June to September the sky
is almost cloudless. A similar annual variation of cloudiness is
noticeable at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, while at places
nearer to the Indian Ocean, such as Jask and Muscat, July and
August are months of much cloud.
Winds (Upper and Lower Mesopotamia)
The winds of Mesopotamia have been observed at five
stations, viz. Urfeh, Mosul, Baghdad, Babylon, and Basra; but
at Baghdad and Basra the observations have been made at
8 a.m. only, while at the other places three observations daily
at 8 a.m., 2 p.m., and 7 p.m. or 8.30 p.m. are available, and
give a better representation of the air movement.
The mean wind directions for each month, expressed as per-
centages of the total directions observed in the month, are given
in Table XI, p. 228, where it will be seen that the dominant wind


AND THE PERSIAN GULF
213
direction in all months is the north-west, inclining at one time
more to the west and at another to the north. In the summer
the north-west wind shows the greatest steadiness at all
stations, when it reaches a percentage frequency of 70 to
80. In winter and spring the southerly and easterly winds
attain their greatest frequency, but there is a recognizable
difference at the different stations. At Urfeh calms are not
indicated in the observations, and in the winter months easterly
and southerly winds have each about half the frequency of the
north-westerly. At this station southerly winds are fairly fre-
quent at all seasons, but, as elsewhere, are at the minimum in
the summer months.
At Mosul calms are few, and the north-westerly winds are still
predominant, reaching 77-7 per cent, in the summer months.
At that season southerly winds are comparatively rare, but they
reach 30-3 per cent, in the winter months, and as south-easterly
winds continue into April and May. At Baghdad the observa-
tions were made at 8 a.m. only, and a very high percentage of
calms was recorded, from 58-4 per cent, in December to 22-9 per
cent, in July. This high proportion may be due to local con-
ditions, but also the light airs of the winter mornings have
probably been recorded as calms, since Dr. A. Schlafli, who
resided there in 1862-3 and made careful meteorological ob-
servations, notes that calms are comparatively rare. Even
though very light airs prevail in the early morning, the wind
rises steadily in the forenoon, and by the early afternoon is
blowing freshly to drop again at sunset, and this diurnal
variation in the strength of the wind is a normal condition in
all the months of the year except during periods of cold and
rainy weather in winter.
Southerly winds are frequent in the winter, but they fall to
a very small number in the summer months. At Babylon,
some seventy miles south of Baghdad, where observations
were taken three times daily for more than five years, hardly
any calms were recorded. Southerly winds were frequent
in the winter months and in April and May, but were always
greatly inferior to the north-westerly winds, which in the


214 CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
summer months reached the proportion of 85-5 per cent.
At Basra the proportions do not differ greatly from those of the
stations higher up the river, but southerly winds have a rather
greater prevalence in the summer months than farther northward.
The general character of the air circulation over Mesopotamia
is well indicated by these observations. Throughout the year
a prevailing current from the north-west sweeps over the country
from the hilly country in the north to the shores of the Persian
Gulf. This air has for the most part descended from altitudes of
4,000 feet or more on the plateaus of Asia Minor and Kurdistan,
and therefore reaches the northern part of Upper Mesopotamia
as a dry wind. This is clearly indicated by the low value of the
relative humidity at Urfeh. Passing southwards and entering
successively warmer regions, the air of Mesopotamia is every-
where dry, except in the delta, where the climatic conditions
agree closely with those in the Persian Gulf. The frequent
occurrence of easterly winds in the northern part of Upper
Mesopotamia during the winter and spring is probably con-
nected with the occurrence of depressions in the Levant, many
of which pass over Northern Syria or Palestine into Mesopotamia.
Data bearing on the velocity of the wind are very scanty.
There is probably a well-marked diurnal variation in both the
direction and the force of the wind in all parts of the country, but
the wind directions at the three hours of observation have been
published for Babylon only. Here the north-westerly wind of the
morning becomes more northerly and even passes to the east
of north by the afternoon, especially in the summer months.
Except in the cold weather or during the passage of depressions
the increase of wind velocity during the day is usual and is
especially marked during the hot months. From light airs at
sunrise the wind increases to a moderate breeze by about 10 a.m.,
and by 2 p.m. to 4 p.m. has become a fresh or even a strong
breeze. It is strong enough to raise dust and even sand, so that
in the afternoon the horizon is usually obscured. About sunset
the wind drops to rise again an hour or two later as a light
breeze, which may continue during the night, falling to a calm
before nrise.


AND THE PERSIAN GULF
215
Gales are said to be rare, but probably high winds occur when
depressions pass over the country in the rainy season. In the
summer the afternoon wind is said occasionally to reach gale
force, but this seems to be exceptional.
Sand storms
The occurrence of sand storms during 1911 and 1912 was
noted at Babylon, 12 and 4 being recorded respectively. They
seem to be most common in the spring months, but the obser-
vations were too few to support any definite conclusion. It
appears that these sand storms were strong winds carrying
dust and sand similar to the Khamsin of Egypt, and not the
Simoom (the hot wind accompanying a cloud of sand and dust
which sweeps across the arid country as a disturbance of com-
paratively slight depth and short duration). Preceded by
dull or cloudy weather of great heat and oppressiveness and
usually by a light southerly wind, the squall of the simoom
itself, accompanied by a dense sand cloud which it has raised,
advances with great rapidity, and often blows with extreme
violence. After its passage the air quickly clears and a cooler
period with northerly winds follows.
Conditions affecting Aviation
The density of the air in Mesopotamia has been computed
for four months of the year including those of mid-winter and
mid-summer, and the results are given in the following table:
Table of Density in Grammes per Cubic Metre
Place.
January.
April.
July.
October.
Mosul
1,233
1,170
1,089
1,149
Baghdad
....
1,254
1,194
1,127
1,172
1,260
1,166
1,121
1,177
Basra
1,250
1,185
1,130
1,176
In all hot countries where the ground is heated to a high
temperature in the summer months, the air in contact with
it is much hotter than that at a short distance above the
ground. The density of this layer which is in contact with
the ground is consequently less than that of the upper layers,


216
CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
and all objects seen through these heated layers appear to be
below their true position. This effect, known as mirage, leads
to a part of the sky being seen as though on the surface of the
desert, where it appears to be a sheet of water, and to hills, rocks,
and other objects being distorted. Visibility is thereby greatly
interfered with whenever the line of sight is inclined at a small
angle to the ground; for a line of sight from any considerable
height this form of interference would not be serious, but when
the ground is highly heated, as in the case of a semi-arid and sub-
tropical region, the ascending hot air and the cooler air which
descends to take its place will probably produce a general haziness
throughout the hottest time of the day. Further, the increased
velocity of the wind after midday raises a considerable amount
of fine dust which remains in suspense until sunset, and
diminishes the visibility of objects at a distance.
Clouds are rare in the summer months, and the few that do
occur are cirrus clouds which are situated at high altitudes.
Occasionally, when unsettled weather is imminent, overcast skies
are experienced, but these are uncommon and do not usually
last for any time.
The difference between the highest and lowest temperatures
in any month is very considerable; the mean range, or the
difference which is ordinarily experienced in the course of the
various months, is given in the following table:
Mean Monthly Range of Temperature
Month.
Mosul.
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Bushire.
o y
o Ji
o F
a p
O F
January .
41-2
41-1
430
37-3
35-2
February
40-8
41-9
45-9
37-7
30-7
March
36-4
450
48-8
37-7
35-5
April .
45-2
43-5
540
37-6
36-9
May
41-8
46-5
50-8
380
33-5
June
44-7
42-5
49-2
30-9
26-7
July
44-3
42-7
47-5
32-3
24-8
August .
44-1
45-4
49-4
33-8
27-0
September
47-7
47-7
531
39-8
27d
October .
44-8
47-4
510
39-8
300
November
441
45-5
51-4
403
345
December
33-3
34-8
33-5
403
46-3


218
CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
estimated velocity of the winds at from 1,500 to 4,000 feet
(gradient wind) is given in the following table:
Estimated Velocity op the Gradient Wind in Lower Mesopotamia,
Baghdad to Basra
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Metres per second ....
9-4
21-0
7-0
15-7
5-4
121
5-4
121
10-9
24-4
Farther eastward these velocities appear to increase to 30-0,
25-6, 24-8, 23-7, and 24-4 miles per hour respectively.
In the summer half-year the change of pressure (reduced to
sea-level) is comparatively rapid as the Tigris or Euphrates is
ascended, and the average increase of pressure for Mesopotamia
may be taken as being about 1 mb. for 125 kilometres or 77-7
statute miles, in going from the head of the Persian Gulf to
Upper Mesopotamia. In the months before and after July the
gradient is less, but from October to April the distribution of
pressure is too imperfectly known for isobars of any reliability
to be drawn. The lines shown on the maps must be regarded
as merely approximate so far as this area is concerned.


TABLES
Summary
TABLE PA b E
I. Mean Temperature ....... 220-1
II. Mean Daily Maximum Temperature .... 220-1
III. Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature .... 220-1
IV. Absolute Maximum Temperature ..... 222-3
V. Mean Daily Minimum Temperature .... 222-3
VI. Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature .... 222-3
VII. Absolute Minimum Temperature ..... 224-5
VIII. Relative Humidity 224-5
IX. Mean Monthly Rainfall 226-7
X. Rain Days 226-7
XI. Wind Directions, as Percentages of Total Observations . 228-31
XII. Thunderstorms 230-1
XIII. Mean Amount of Cloud 230-1


220
CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
TABLE I
Mean Temperature
Upper Mesopotamia:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Urfeh
. 40-3
47-8
52-3
62-6
71-2
81-7
Diarbekr .
. 30-9
40-5
47-5
58-5
68-2
78-8
Lower Mesopotamia:
Mosul
. 41-0
46-0
52-0
62-6
76-5
86-5
Baghdad .
. 48-8
52-8
59-2
68-0
78-8
87-3
Babylon .
Basra *
. 46-6
53-8
61-9
76-1
840
91-3
. 61-8
55-6
630
72-9
81-9
87-3
Persian Gulf:
Mohammareh f .
—
—
—
—
86-4
90-1
Bushire
. 57-5
58-8
64-5
72-9
81-1
84-9
Bahrein * .
. 61-2
62-2
67-2
74-3
83-1
87-2
Jask
. 66-7
67-9
71-3
790
84-3
88-2
Muscat
. 69-3
69-8
73-2
81-9
87-6
897
TABLE II
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
Upper Mesopotamia
Diarbekr .
. 39-0
48-2
56-1
67-6
78-6
90-3
Mosul
. 50-0
54-9
616
73-9
900
100-9
Lower Mesopotamia:
Baghdad .
. 59-6
65-8
72-9
82-8
93-7
104-5
Babylon .
. 57-2
66-7
75-4
85-6
97-7
106-3
Basra
. 69-9
65-4
73-6
83-8
93-9
99-7
Persian Gulf:
Bushire
. 64-4
65-5
72-4
81-2
89-1
91-8
Bahrein
. 66-7
67-5
73-8
81-4
90-7
93-9
.Task
. 73-8
74-8
79-2
86-5
92-2
95-9
Muscat
. 73-5
73-9
78-4
86-5
93-7
959
TABLE III
Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature
Urfeh
. 53-2
60-1
71-4
82-0
90-9
100-6
Diarbekr .
. 47-й
54-7
65-3
77-4
87-1
99-9
Mosul
. 60-4
64-8
70-9
84-9
97-0
108-7
Lower Mesopotamia:
Baghdad .
. 08-е
75-9
85-0
93-7
106-1
113-4
Babylon .
. 09-1
76-8
87-3
99-9
109-6
114-3
Basra
. 70-0
75-1
83-2
93-3
103-2
106-3
Persian Gulf:
Bushire
. 75-4
75-6
86-2
94-3
101-2
100-9
Bahrein .
. 76-6
75-2
85-7
92-6
102-6
101-4
Jask
. 78-7
81-4
87-9
920
101-6
1045
Muscat
. 80-7
78-3
89-4
96-5
104-5
106-6
* Deduced from
Max.
Min.
i correction derived from the observation of
Baghdad and Bushire respectively.
f For 1885 only.


AND THE PERSIAN GULF
July.
Aug.
Sept.
88-9
87-4
94-8
88-9
80-4
76-5
85-5
87-3
93-4
92-1
94-8
90-2
94 8
92 5
860
88-0
85-3
93-7
90-7
92-1
88-5
90-3
890
894
91 2
85- 8
87-8
88-2
83-2
85-0
86- 3
84-4
990
1101
98-1
1090
86-0
101-1
109- 4
1100
110-7
104-5
103-3
105-8
99-5
110- 5
103-3
95-3
97-7
960
93-2
969
98-4
94-0
94-6
930
89-1
94-3
891
1040
1042
95-5
105-3
105-1
92-8
116-6
1150
109-8
116-8
119-5
112-6
116-4
1170
1141
108-5
1092
1060
102-3
104-4
99-7
102-7
1038
100-7
103-6
101-3
99-8
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
70-0
63-9
73-2
55-4
50-4
590
46-0
40-1
48-2
76- 3
61-5
61-3
64-9
52-5
50-9
56-0
77- 2
77-4
78-2
69-6
73-7
75-4
77-1
61-6
65-0
70-2
72-4
80- 9
81- 8
82- 2
73-8
87-4
58-1
70-2
48-0
57-4
92-3
930
89-1
75-1
75-7
75-3
631
62- 4
63- 3
87- 6
77-9
79-9
83-4
82-5
68-5
70-8
77-6
76-9
88- 5
90-3
88-2
87-4
83-3
961
72-5
68-2
81-0
59-2
59-9
65-7
101-8
101-7
97-5
86-9
86-5
86-8
72- 1
73- 2
720
940
88- 2
790
79-7
95- 2
89- 2
88-7
96- 8
82- 8
Upper Mesopotamia
Urfeh.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.*
Mohammareh.t
Persian Gulf:
Bushire.
Bahrein.*
Jask
Muscat.
Upper Mesopotamia
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf:
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat.
Upper Mesopotamia
Urfeh.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf:
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
103-1
Muscat.
98-8
83- 1
98-3
90- 1
97- 0


224 CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
TABLE VII
Absolute Minimum Temperature
Upper Mesopotamia:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Urfeh
. 230
22-1
30-2
39-2
45-5
53-6
Diarbekr .
. -0-4
17-2
26-1
36-5
460
52-9
Lower Mesopotamia:
Mosul
4-3
5-2
34-5
37-6
53-2
61-9
Baghdad .
. 20-8
29-8
33-5
43-8
50-0
62-8
Babylon .
. 20-8
25-9
32-9
41-7
57-7
61-3
Basra
. 23-7
311
39-7
52-3
59-1
70-3
Persian Gulf:
Mohammareh * .
—
—
—
—
67-8
71-8
Bushire
. 32-0
37-2
45-4
50-4
57-7
67-2
Bahrein
. 40-8
44-8
51-3
57-3
65-3
72-3
Jask
. 41-8
51-3
47-3
61-3
69-3
73-7
Muscat
. 57-6
62-7
621
70-6
78-1
78-3
TABLE VIII
Upper Mesopotamia:
Relative
Humidity (Mean of
Day)
Urfeh
. 50
53
48
43
36
29
Lower Mesopotamia:
Mosul
. 87
87
78
76
65
43
Baghdad f.
. 80
72
71
60
52
38
Babylon .
. 67
55
47
42
34
26
Persian Gulf:
Basra f
. 79
76
71
66
61
58
Bushire
. 78
77
71
66
62
66
Bahrein
. 80
80
78
74
68
66
Jask
. 74
75
73
68
68
71
Muscat
. 68
69
68
59
59
64
* For 1885 only. f 8 a.m. only.


AND THE PERSIAN GULF
225
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Upper Mesopotamia:
66-2
671
51-8
48-2
37-6
19-4
Urfeh.
67-5
66-2
54-3
43-5
32-9
10-3
Diarbekr.
71-2
671
58-3
48-9
29-1
27-9
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia:
711
68-9
56-0
47-5
29-5
18-6
Baghdad.
60-1
630
57-2
46-0
27-1
18-9
Babylon.
70-7
68-7
59-7
52-5
35-7
29-9
Basra.
80-8
75-9
—
—
—
—
Mohammarch. *
Persian Gull:
740
69-1
63-2
55-4
46-3
39-4
Bushire.
76-8
79-3
74-4
55-9
52-9
430
Bahrein.
76-2
76-8
70-0
65-2
52-3
53-8
Jask.
77-3
77-1
77-3
74-7
67-1
03-5
Muscat.
Upper Mesopotamia:
26
28
29
34
49
50
Urfeh.
16
64
61
72
.80
86
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia:
39
42
44
52
66
80
Baghdad.*
24
22
25
35
51
67
Babylon.
59
59
62
68
71
79
Basra. *
Persian Gull:
67
68
67
65
68
75
Bushire.
(18
74
74
77
79
82
Bahrein.
74
77
74
69
69
72
Jask.
75
81
75
66
00
68
Muscat.
AIE—e. Mj


226 CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
TABLE IX
Meast Monthly Rainfall (inches)
Upper Mesopotamia:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
-Aintab
. 3-23
3-54
2-76
2-36
1-30
0-24
Urfeh
. 2-64
2-64
2-91
1-18
0-87
004
Diarbekr .
. 2-05
1-97
410
2-84
1-54
016
Mosul
. 2-49
306
3-37
2-09
0-48
Oil
Lower Mesopotamia:
Baghdad .
. 104
1-37
141
0-81
0-23
—
Babylon .
. 0-95
0-36
109
0-20
0-02
—
Basra
. 117
1-05
109
0-48
0-46
—
Persian Gulf:
Bushire
. 2-68
206
0-91
0-48
002
—
Bahrein .
. 0-37
0-59
0-38
017
010
—
Jask
. 0-79
0-86
0-77
0-06
—
0-05
Muscat
. 108
0-78
0-76
011
—
0-15
TABLE X
Rain Days (>0-2 mm. or 0-008 in. of rain)
Upper Mesopotamia:
Urfeh
. 7-9
9-2
113
8-8
5-9
0-6
Diarbekr .
. 7-0
70
130
120
6-0
2-5
Lower Mesopotamia:
Mosul
. 8-0
110
9-3
9-6
5-3
0-5
Baghdad .
. 2-2
2-4
36
2-1
0-7
—
Babylon .
. 5
4
4
3
1
—
Persian Gulf:
Basra
. 2-6
2-5
2-1
1-5
1-2
—
Bushire
. 42
3-8
2-2
1-1
—
—
Bahrein
. 0-9
1-7
1-1
0-9
0-2
—
Jask
. 22
1-8
1-7
0-2
—
0-1
Muscat
0-2
. 1-8
—
1-6
0-4
19


AND THE PERSIAN GULP
227
July. Aug. Sept. Oct.
008 — _
— — 0-16
— — 004
— — 0-31
— 0-05 —
— — 0-19
— 001 —
001 — —
0 02 — —
Nov. Dec
1 06 3-35 4 13
0-47 1-81 2-72
0-71 3-15 2-68
0-26 2 10 1-91
008 0-79 1 17
0-40 0-45 0-78
0-08 0-89 0-82
0 10 1-56 3-25
001 0 04 0-81
0 04 0-32 1-27
0-07 0-35 0-62
Upper Mesopotamia:
-Aintab.
Urfeh.
Marbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia:
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf:
Bushirc.
Bahrein.
-Task.
Muscat.
Upper Mesopotamia:
— — 0-8 3-2 7-8 9-5 Urfeh.
— — 2-5 45 100 120 Diarbekr.
— — 0-7 2-5 60 7-0 Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia:
— 01 — 0-3 1-5 3-1 Baghdad.
— — — 2 3 5 Babylon.
— — 0-3 0-2 1-8 2-5 Basra.
Persian Gull:
— — — 0-2 2-4 4-1 Bushire.
— — — 01 0-3 1-7 Bahrein.
— — — 0-2 0-6 2-1 Jask.
0-1 — — 0-1 0-8 1-3 Muscat.
P 2


228 CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
TABLE XI
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
Urfeh:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
N....
14
11
9
9
11
11
NE. .
10
13
12
6
11
4
E. .
. . 10
13
12
6
4
2
SE. .
9
П
14
12
4
i
S. .
3
7
6
7
2
2
sw.
6
8
9
10
15
13
w. .
14
I5
19
16
12
20
Mosul:
NW.
. 34
22
19
34
41
44
N....
. 13-9
14-6
8-4
14-7
231
21-9
NE.
8-4
4-9
3-3
3-4
5-1
3-9
E. .
. 10-2
150
14-7
10-2
10-7
3-0
SE. .
. 15-4
15-3
23-7
20-6
13-8
4-5
S. .
6-6
11-7
11-4
61
4-5
1-1
SW.
5-5
5-2
40
5-9
2-9
6-7
W. .
. 11-7
13-7
14-4
121
13-5
19-8
NW.
. 28-2
19-5
20-1
27-0
26-4
35-7
Baghdad:
C. .
—



—
3-4
N....
. 12-9
12-4
15-6
13-6
18-1
30-8
NE. -
0-3
1-9
1-7
4-4
4-8
50
E. .
1-0
1-9
3-7
2-1
1-9
0-7
SE. .
1-7
4-3
5-7
U7
1-3
14)
S. .
7-5
9-3
101
7-0
3-2
0-6
SW.
. 2-7
—
1-3
1-7
2-2
—
W. .
7-5
5-4
3-7
7-0
5-6
2-0
NW.
. 12-2
11-6
81
13-6
15-8
34-2
Babylon:
C. .
. 54-0
53-1
50-1
490
47-0
25-8
N....
. 13-1
18-6
15-2
17-8
21-8
23-9
NE.
4-9
4-5
5-5
7-7
5-7
21
E. .
5-9
7-4
6-8
7-2
71
2-4
SE. .
. 180
201
17-3
12-7
9-3
2-7
S. .
7-2
5-7
8-7
6-7
7-7
20
SW.
4-4
5-7
5-3
5-6
5-1
2-5
w. .
. 17-0
15-5
13-1
130
14-7
15-8
NW.
. 26-7
20-3
26-0
26-3
26-7
470
Basra:
C. .
2-6
2-3
2-4
2-9
1-9
1-е
N....
. 29-3
21-6
19-8
33-4
27-2
27-1
NE.
0-6
2-2
4-5
3-7
2-4
0-7
E. .
—
1-3
1-3
1-8
24
0-7
SE. .
6-4
3е
86
3-7
4-5
10
S. .
. 17-7
20-6
230
17-8
100
4-2
SW.
5-8
6-8
31
6-3
3-9
1-8
w. .
. 136
14-4
8-9
11-6
15-1
20-1
NW.
. 14-4
15-8
12-3
11-6
15-7
41-6
c. .
2-8
. 12-3
18-8
13-7
100
18-5


AND THE PERSIAN GULF
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct
Nov.
Dec.
Urfeh:
6
11
12
9
15
15
N.
8
7
8
6
11
15
NE.
2
5
2
2
8
18
E.
3
3
4
8
17
9
SE.
4
2
6
5
3
7
8.
11
14
15
14
5
2
SW.
12
15
12
12
11
15
W.
54
43
41
44
30
19
NW.
Mosul:
18-6
17-8
16-7
14-3
11-6
14-7
N.
2-5
20
30
4-2
5-9
8-7
NE.
5-9
4-2
3-9
6-0
8-6
5-9
E.
4-5
4-2
6-2
10-0
14-8
10-8
SE.
2-5
3-0
5-3
3-0
4-8
8-5
S.
5-6
7-5
5-9
7-1
7-4
6-2
SW.
20-6
23-6
20-8
21-4
13-9
12-7
w.
39-8
37-6
380
340
330
32-5
NW.
Baghdad
18-4
20-2
22-5
20-6
14-4
11-3
N.
1-0
1-7
2-8
3-3
1-7
10
NE.
—
1-0
10
2-6
1-7
1-3
E.
0-3
0-7
1-4
1-3
1-7
4-9
SE.
—
—
10
2-9
6-2
5-9
S.
—
0-3
0-3
1-6
2-0
1-6
SW.
7-1
6-7
6-5
2-0
2-7
4-3
W.
50-3
38-2
22-5
12-5
11-6
11-2
NW.
22-9
31-2
420
53-2
58-0
58-4
C.
Babylon:
15-8
150
16-5
18-7
110
10-7
N.
1-3
2-1
5-5
6-6
5-0
3-7
NE.
1-3
1-2
2-2
5-2
4-9
40
E.
1-2
2-6
3-0
9-9
11-4
11-6
SE.
1-3
1-3
2-5
5-8
3-3
7-0
S.
2-2
1-6
3-9
51
4-8
3-1
SW.
18-6
20-6
17-3
12-4
18-3
18-2
W.
56-5
51-8
43-1
30-8
35-9
34-5
NW.
1-6
3-8
6-0
5-6
5-3
5-0
C.
Basra:
32-8
22-1
6-2
16-1
11-6
15-3
N.
1-2
1-8
4-7
2-6
2-0
1-8
NE. *
1-2
1-8
2-3
0-6
1-3
1-8
E.
1-5
2-4
3-1
4-5
10-7
5-7
SE.
5-2
6-7
2-3
9-7
140
11-5
S.
3-6
10-7
14-8
3-9
30
6-1
SW.
21-3
25-3
40-6
310
260
28-5
w.
27-9
22-5
13-3
10-3
16-7
18-5
NW.
5-2
C.
6-7
10-8
12-5
14-7
212


230
CLIMATE OF MESOPOTAMIA
TABLE XI (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
SUMMARY
Nov
.-March.
April-May.
w.,
NE.
SE.,
S., &
W.,
NW.,
NE.
SE.,
S., &
NW,
& iL.
Яг 8P
Percentage.
Urfeh ....
&N.
SW.
&N.
<E Ел.
SW.
52-4
24-4
23-2
61-5
13-5
25-0
Mosul ....
52-6
17-1
30-3
58-4
14-7
17-9
Baghdad ....
300
3-2
13-0
53-3
6-2
2-8
Babylon ....
58-8
10-5
26-7
60-2
13-9
23-6
Basra ....
53-3
3-4
29-3
57-3
21
231
Thun DERSTORMS
TABLE XII
Upper Mesopotamia:
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
Urfeh . . . .
—
0-4
1.2
2-1
3-0
1-4
Lower Mesopotamia:
Diarbekr ....
—
0-3
10
4-0
1-7
2-5
Babylon . . . .
1-0
2-0
2-4
4-8
4-6
0-8
„ Maximum in any year
2
5
4
8
10
2
TABLE
XIII
Upper Mesopotamia:
Mean Amount
of Cloud
+
Urfeh* . . . .
3-9
4-7
4-7
3-е
2-8
0-9
Lower Mesopotamia:
Mosul *
5-2
5-6
5-1
5-6
3-6
1-4
Baghdad f
Babylon *.
2-8
2-7
29
2-1
1-6
0-3
4-3
3-9
3-6
3-9
3-2
0-9
Persian Gulf:
Basra f
3-6
3-4
3-9
2-7
2-6
0-1
Bushire f .
39
2-7
3-7
3-2
2-2
01
Bahreinf . . . .
2-4
1-8
1-8
10
0-9
0-2
Jask f
2-8
2-8
2-4
1-5
0-5
1-0
Muscat .
2-8
2-3
2-3
1-1
0-7
1-8
* 8 a.m. only.
f Three observations at 8 a.m., 2 p.m., and 7.30 or 8.30 p.m.
j 0 = cloudless sky; 10 = completely overcast.


AND THE PERSIAN GULF
231
J une-Sept.
W.,
NW.,
&N.
NE.
& E.
SE.,
S., &
sw.
w.,
NW.,
&N.
October.
& E- SW.
70-2
9-5
20-2
65-0
8-0
27-0
77-7
14-2
7-8
69-7
10-2
20-1
64-9
3-3
1-4
35-1
5-9
5-8
85-5
90
6-7
61-9
11-8
20-8
75-2
3-6
11-5
57-4
3-2
181
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
0-3
0-2
0-6
0-8
0-3

—
—
20
1-3
1-5
0-3



1-3
1-5
1-5
3
3
3
0-4
0-4
10
2-3
3-8
4-7
0-2
0-5
1-4
2-4
4-8
5-3
0-1
0-3
0-5
1-5
1-9
2-3
0-3
0-2
0-6
2-6
31
4-2
0-1
0-2
0-5
1-9
2-2
3-5
0-7
0-8
0-6
11
2-7
3-2
0-1
0-4
01
0-3
0-5
2-4
2-0
2-7
1-5
0-9
1-9
2-6
Percentage.
Urfeh.
Mosul.
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Upper Mesopotamia:
Urfeh.
Diarbekr.
Lower Mesopotamia:
Babylon.
„ Maximum in any year.
Upper Mesopotamia:
Urfeh.*
Mosul.*
Lower Mesopotamia:
Baghdad, f
Babylon.*
Basra, f
Persian Gulf:
Bushire.f
Bahrein.f
Jask-f
3-2
Muscat.
2-8
2-5
1-1
1-5
0-6


CHAPTER V
CLIMATE OF LOWER EGYPT INCLUDING SINAI
PENINSULA
Physical Features
The territorial division of Lower Egypt represents the delta
of the Nile, being divided from Upper Egypt (the Nile valley)
at the parallel of 30° N., just south of Cairo, and the apex of the
delta. The deltaic area measures 100 miles from S. to N., and
its base on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea measures
155 miles from Alexandria (W.) to Port Said (E.). Along the
shore the land consists mostly of low barren sandhills or saline
waste, backed by a series of great salt or brackish lagoons—
lakes Mareotis, Edku, Burlus, and Menzala. To the south the
fertile plain of the delta slopes very gently upward to the apex,
where the elevation is only some 30 ft. above sea-level. The
plain is bounded east and west by the higher ground of the
desert, which is not reached by the flood waters of the Nile.
The Suez Canal, leading from the Mediterranean at Port
Said S. to the Gulf of Suez. Along the western shore of this
gulf and of the Red Sea to the south extends a long chain of
hills, which ultimately rise and broaden into the highlands of
Eritrea and Abyssinia. The desert plateau of Et-Tih extends
E. of the Suez Canal, and merges to the S. in the peninsula of
Sinai, a triangular area bounded on the west and east re-
spectively by the two deep gulfs at the head of the Red Sea,
Suez and Akaba. The apex of the triangle is occupied by a
mountain mass in which the principal peaks rise over 8,500 ft.
These mountains rise steeply from the valleys at their feet,
and they are sterile and almost bare, supporting hardly any
vegetation.


234
CLIMATE OF LOWER EGYPT
quently the normal air circulation over Egypt is northerly,
and the winds blow round the North African high pressure
system over Egypt and the Red Sea, and towards a low-
pressure system which at this season exists in the Sudan. In
Lower Egypt this normal circulation is interfered with by the
cyclonic depressions which traverse the eastern Mediterranean
and cause south-westerly and westerly wind-s on the Egyptian
coast, but these winds do not extend as a rule far into Middle
Egypt, and in Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the Sudan the
northerly winds blow with great steadiness. By April the
low pressure in the Sudan has greatly diminished, and that
which occupies Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf in the
summer months has begun to form. Both in March and April
the low pressure over the Mediterranean is less strongly marked
than in the winter months, and winter conditions are now
changing to those of the summer.
By June summer conditions are well established; a low
pressure exists over the Persian Gulf, and there is also a
steep gradient from the Aegean Sea to the head of the Gulf;
North Africa is a region of moderately high pressure, while
a well-marked easterly gradient is maintained over Egypt from
the Mediterranean to latitude 20° N. Consequently northerly
and north-westerly winds blow with great steadiness over
Greece and the Aegean Sea, the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt,
and the Red Sea as far as latitude 20° N. during the summer
months, that is until the end of September. In October the
low pressure of the Persian Gulf disappears, that of the Sudan
is reformed, and in southern Russia and over the Balkans the
pressure rises considerably; depressions again traverse the
Mediterranean with increasing frequency, and by November
winter conditions are completely re-established.
Meteorological Stations
During the last fifteen years a well-arranged network of
meteorological stations has been established in the Nile valley
and the Sudan, but for Lower Egypt the following stations
will suffice:


INCLUDING SINAI PENINSULA 235
Period, of
Altitude.
Latitude N.
Longitude E.
Observations.
Place.
Feet.
0
0
t
Years.
Sidi Barrani .
88
31
38
25
58
3
Alexandria
104
31
12
29
54
30-45
Port Said
11
31
16
32
19
22-27
El Arish
62
31
7
33
46
6
Cairo (Abbassia)
100
30
5
31
17
18^5
Ismailiyeh
29
30
36
32
18
13-22
Suez
11
29
59
32
33
16-22
Nekhl .
1,300
29
54
33
45
5
Helwan .
380
29
52
31
20
9
Tor
5
* 28
14
33
37
6
Red Sea, near Kas
Mohammed
0
27
0
35
0
The first five stations are on the Mediterranean coast,
Abbassia and Helwan are respectively on the north, and a
short distance to the south, of Cairo; Ismailiyeh and Suez are
on the Suez Canal; Nekhl is in the northern portion of the
Sinai Peninsula ;* and Tor is on the eastern shore of the Gulf
of Suez.
Notes on the Tables
Temperature
In January, which is the month of the lowest temperature,
the mean temperature of the day (Table I, p. 244) is nowhere
in Lower Egypt as low as 50° F., and at Nekhl on the plateau
of northern Sinai is 47° F. The highest mean temperature
occurs in July or August, there being little difference between
these two months. The temperature rises quickly in April
and May, and falls most rapidly from October to November
and November to December with the commencement of
winter.
In Table II, p. 244, the mean daily maximum temperature for
places in Lower Egypt shows the mild character of the winter
and the hot summer which lasts from May to September.
The mean monthly maximum temperature (Table III, p. 244)
represents the highest temperature which may be ordinarily
anticipated in a month, and it appears that temperatures
exceeding 100° F. occur ordinarily in any of the five months
May-September. Exceptionally they may occur in any


236
CLIMATE OF LOWER EGYPT
month except the four winter months November to February
(Table IV, p. 246).
At no station does the mean daily minimum temperature
fall below 32° F., though it is very near it on the plateau of
North Sinai as represented by Nekhl; and here, as at most
parts of the high desert, very sharp frosts occur occasionally
(Tables VI, VII, pp. 246, 248). On the coast the moderating
effect of the Mediterranean is strongly felt, and the minimum
temperatures at Cairo are considerably below those of Port Said
and Alexandria. In Middle Egypt, where the effect of the
desert plateau is more strongly felt, the night temperatures are
frequently even lower than those at Cairo. The comparatively
low night temperatures in the summer months (Table V, p. 246)
are of great hygienic importance, providing a relief from the
heat of the day.
The mean range of temperature for any month is given in
Table VIII, p. 248, and in so arid a climate the amount is
naturally large. At several stations it exceeds 50° F. in April,
and at the two desert stations, Sidi Barrani and Nekhl, it may
exceed 60° F. The mean daily range of temperature in this
month varies from 16° F. at Alexandria to 23° F. at Cairo and
34° F. at Nekhl.
Humidity
On the coast the air is moist at all seasons, though in the
afternoon during the summer months it is comparatively dry.
Inland, except in winter, the air is usually very dry, and
exceptionally so while the hot southerly winds are blowing
even though the amount of moisture actually present in the
air may not be inconsiderable.
The comparatively low night temperatures, especially in the
deserts, cause an abundant deposit of dew except when un-
usually dry conditions prevail (Table IX, p. 248).
Rainfall
While Middle and Upper Egypt receive practically no rain
beyond that which falls in an occasional thunderstorm, or
during the rare passage of a small depression, Cairo receives


INCLUDING SINAI PENINSULA 237
about an inch and a quarter on the average, some years being
practically rainless, others recording two or three inches. The
rain has no practical importance, since agriculture depends
wholly on the Nile for the water needed for the crops. Further
north in the Delta the amount of rain increases, as much as
8-5 inches being the average annual rainfall at Alexandria.
During and after rain the unmetalled roads of the alluvial delta
are almost impracticable. In the coastal region to the west
of Alexandria the winter rain has a considerable economic
importance, as the nomad Arabs utilize it to raise a crop of
barley which is of value.
In the deserts bordering the Nile heavy but local rainstorms
occur occasionally, and large quantities of water (Arab, seil)
pour down the ordinarily dry valleys (wadi) for a few hours
with considerable force. In southern Sinai where the country
is mountainous, and the valleys are steep-sided and narrow,
the Arabs avoid camping on the valley floor in the autumn
when thunderstorms are common, and in stormy weather, on
account of the danger from these sudden floods (Tables X
and XI, p. 250).
Winds
On the coast westerly and south-westerly winds predominate
in December and January, when the depressions which pass
along the eastern Mediterranean from west to east are most
numerous. As these decrease the northerly and north-
westerly winds increase in frequency until by May they blow
with great steadiness and little variation in direction. Farther
inland a similar seasonal change takes place, but the southerly
winds are less frequent, and at Cairo the northerly winds are
the more numerous at all seasons. Except in the winter
months the diurnal change in the velocity of the wind is
strongly marked. Beginning as a light breeze at sunrise, it
increases steadily until it reaches a moderate or fresh breeze
in the afternoon, falling to a light breeze again at or soon
after sunset. While northerly winds largely predominate in
Egypt, there is at all seasons a marked increase of the westerly


240 CLIMATE OF LOWER EGYPT
throughout the year with a marked proportion of south-
westerly winds in. the winter months. In the summer the
southerly and south-westerly winds diminish to an insignificant
quantity, and on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt north-
north-west is the predominant direction. Further eastward
westerly winds prevail both at El Arish and Gaza, where the
winds of the plateau of northern Sinai as represented by
Nekhl follow the same direction. At Tor also the westerly
component is more important now than the northerly, and the
. principal wind direction in summer is west-north-west.
The winds of Egypt and the Sinai peninsula are usually
moderate except (a) during the passage of deep depressions
(which are not often experienced except near the Mediter-
ranean coast), or (b) when sudden squalls occur in connexion
with the thunderstorms which are not infrequently experi-
enced during the transition month of October and less
commonly in April and May. Light winds prevail commonly
in the morning and evening, increasing to moderate or fresh
by midday and the afternoon, but winds of gale force are
rare. Since the pressure distribution remains practically
unchanged for many days or even weeks, especially in the
summer months, moderate or fresh winds often blow steadily
day after day, dropping at night, and recommencing in the
morning.
While the Nile valley and the plateau regions of the desert
experience the greatest steadiness of northerly winds, the
mountainous character of the southern extremity of the Sinai
peninsula alters the character of the westerly winds of its
northern plateau. They acquire a more local character
except on the shores of the Gulfs of Suez and Akaba, where
the trend of the coastline influences the wind direction. In
the interior, light winds are the rule even during the day time,
and high winds are not very commonly experienced. De-
tailed observations from the Gulf of Akaba are not available,
but the reports of surveying parties who were there from
November until May speak of strong gusty winds up to gale
force from the north-east. In the winter months low, some-


INCLUDING SINAI PENINSULA 241
times very low, temperatures are experienced in the mountains
of this part of the peninsula, for several peaks rise to altitudes
of over 6,000 ft., and under anticyclonic conditions con-
siderable masses of air will be cooled. This cold air, streaming
down the mountain walls which contain the Gulf of Akaba,
will give rise to such strong gusty winds as are described.
They should not therefore occur in the summer months.
In the months of April and May passing depressions in the
Mediterranean may cause hot southerly winds in Lower
Egypt, especially if an area of high pressure is situated to
the east of the Nile. An increase of temperature with a rapid
fall in humidity indicates the commencement of this hot wind
(khamsin). It blows at first from the south-east and increases
rapidly in force during the day; the air is filled with fine
dust or even sand carried by the wind and the temperature
rises much above the ordinary daily maximum. These hot
winds may last one, two, or even three days, ceasing when
the direction veers rapidly to the north-west as the depression
passes away to the eastward, and cooler weather sets in.
In the hot weather small cyclonic squalls (habub) occa-
sionally occur, which are accompanied by dense clouds of
sand and dust and violent gusts of wind. These pass by
rapidly, and last as a rule but an hour or two.
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms occur occasionally in the winter season,
being rather more frequent in September and October than
in the other months. The average number recorded in the
year is three at Alexandria and four at Cairo.
Cloud
The amount of cloud is small at all times of year, and
especially during the summer months, when the greater part
of both day and night is practically cloudless. In September
and October thick mists are common in the early morning,
clearing away as the day becomes warm (Table XIII, p. 256).
AIB-E.M. Q


242 CLIMATE OF LOWER EGYPT
Conditions affecting Aviation
The cause and effect of mirage have been discussed in an
earlier chapter (pp. 215, 216). The range of temperature
which may be anticipated is given in Table VIII, p. 248, and
occasionally the figures there given may be exceeded.
The Helwan Observatory near Cairo is the only place in
the eastern Mediterranean at which investigations of the
upper air have been carried on. Observations have been
made during the last eight years, and some of the conclusions
arrived at may be extended to the air circulation over Egypt
and to the Sinai peninsula. The northerly and north-
westerly winds of the Nile valley are succeeded usually by
westerly winds at an altitude which may be taken as varying
from about 2,000 to 3,000 metres (6,600 to 10,000 ft.).
It may be assumed that this holds over the Sinai peninsula,
so that on its northern plateau westerly winds may be antici-
pated at all seasons and at all altitudes.
The velocity of gradient wind, which may be taken as
representing the upper air currents up to about 5,000 ft., as
deduced from the mean monthly distribution of pressure,
is about 8 metres per second, or 18 miles per hour, and this
is in reasonable agreement with the results obtained at
Helwan. Under certain conditions, and especially when
southerly winds are blowing into a depression which is passing
to the northwards, velocities up to double this amount were
recorded at 2,000 metres (6,600 ft.), but this is not of frequent
occurrence.


244 CLIMATE OF LOWER EGYPT
TABLE I
Mean Temperature
Jan.
SidiBarrani(3yrs.) . . 53-8
Alexandria (45 yrs.) . . 57-2
Port Said (27 yrs.) . . 56-3
ElArish (6 yrs.) . . 52-3
Cairo (Abbassia) (45 yrs.) . 54-0
Ismailia (13 yrs.) . .55-9
Suez (16 yrs.) . . . 56-S
Nekhl(5yrs.) . . . 47-8
Helwan(9yrs.) . . 52-7
Tor (6 yrs.) . . . 56-3
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
°F.
o -p
O Ji_
OJ,
55-8
56-3
62-4
67-3
70-7
58-3
60-8
64-9
69-6
74-3
57-9
60-8
65-1
70-5
75-7
54-5
58-1
63-5
69-6
73-8
56-8
62-15
69-8
76-5
81-3
59-7
63-1
70-3
75-6
79-8
60-6
64-4
71-4
78-1
82-0
50-9
55-9
63-9
72-0
74-7
55-6
59-9
680
75-2
79-2
590
63-5
70-0
79-3
79-7
TABLE II
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
°F.
°F.
»J,
° F.
O F
°F.
Sidi Barrani
. 62-6
64-8
65-8
73-2
78-4
80-1
Alexandria
. 64-4
66-6
69-6
74-3
790
82-4
Port Said
. 65-8
68-4
71-1
75-7
80-6
85-1
El Arish .
. 63-7
66-9
69-8
75-6
80-2
83-3
Cairo
. 64-6
69-1
74-5
831
90-3
94-5
Ismailia .
. 66-2
70-7
74-5
82-8
88-9
92-7
Suez
. 65-8
70-5
75-4
83-8
91-6
95-2
Nekhl .
. 61-9
65-8
71-6
80-8
90-1
92-8
Helwan .
. 64-2
680
73-0
82-8
90-3
93-7
Tor
. 69-6
71-6
79-3
82-2
88-2
92-1
TABLE m
Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
° F.
° F.
o -p
0 F.
°F.
Sidi Barrani
. 74-1
75-9
78-3
95-2
107-6
100-6
Alexandria (5 yrs.) .
. 72-9
74-8
81-5
94-5
97-9
95-7
Port Said (16 yrs.) .
. 71-6
77-4
83-5
94-0
94-0
950
El Arish .
. 76-5
84-4
88-7
1009
99-3
94-1
Cairo
. 77-0
78-6
84-0
99-0
102-7
1040
Ismailia .
. 73-9
81-9
88-7
99-7
103-8
105-3
Suez
. 73-6
79-5
86-4
98-1
103-8
105-4
Nekhl .
. 76-5
80-2
84-6
95-9
102-9
103-8
Helwan (5 yrs.)
. 78-6
80-6*
85-8
100-4
107-6
1060
Tor ...
1038
. 79-5
101-5
82-8
98-1
88-5


INCLUDING SINAI PENINSULA 245
July.
Aug.
°F.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
0 J,
°F.
°F.
°F.
74-3
75-2
73-9
69-1
64-9
77-9
78-8
770
73-8
67-3
79-3
802
78-3
750
67-5
76-8
78-3
75-7
71-8
63-0
831
82-2
77-7
73-6
65-0
83-5
82-9
79-5
75-4
66-6
84-7
84-9
81-3
76-1
66-9
76-8
77-5
74-1
69-1
58-8
810
80-4
77-0
730
64-6
811
82-2
79-3
74-5
66-6
Dec
o Ji_
57-9 Sidi Barrani (3 yrs.).
610 Alexandria (45 yrs.).
60-1 Port Said (27 yrs.).
55- 8 El Arish (6 yrs.).
57-7 Cairo(Abbas«a)(45yrs.).
59-2 Ismailia (13 yrs.).
59-9 Suez(16yrs.).
49-5 Nekhl (5 yrs.).
56- 1 Helwan (9 yrs.).
59-2 Tor (6 yrs.).
July. Aug.
0 F. ° F.
82-2 83-7
86-5 86-7
90 0 90-3
85-8 865
96- 6 94-6
95-9 950
97- 5 96-6
93-9 945
954 941
93-6 94-5
Sept. Oct.
° F. °P.
83- 8 78-4
84- 7 81-5
87- 8 84-7
83-8 80-8
89- 8 85-6
91- 2 87-1
92- 8 87-6
90- 0 84-2
89-4 84-7
88- 0 82-9
Nov. Dec.
° F. ° F.
82-2 66-6
74- 8 68-0
77-2 69-6
75- 4 67-8
75-7 68-2
77-5 69-6
77-0 69-1
75-2 65-5
75-9 67-3
77-7 71-8
Sidi Barrani.
Alexandria.
Port Said.
El Arish.
Cairo.
Ismailia.
Suez.
Nekhl.
Helwan.
Tor.
July. Aug. Sept.
0 F. ° F. ° F.
92-5 87-5 96-8
90-7 89-8 93-9
94-3 93-6 90 0
94-8 92 1 89-6
101- 5 99-3 97-2
102- 7 100-9 99-3
104-0 102-9 100 0
102- 2 100-9 98-8
103- 3 101-7 97-9
103 1 102-7 990
Oct. Nov. Dec.
° F. ° F. ° F.
94-3 86-2 72-3
92-7 82-8 75-4
90- 0 830 74-3
89-2 87-3 76-3
92-7 84-4 74-5
94-8 87-6 77-4
96-6 86-0 75-7
91- 9 85-1 75-6
94-3 85-6 75-2
89-4 86-5 78-4
Sidi Barrani.
Alexandria (5 yrs.).
Port Said (16 yrs.).
El Arish.
Cairo.
Ismailia.
Suez.
Nekhl.
Helwan.
Tor.
8


246 CLIMATE OP LOWER EGYPT
TABLE IV
Absolute Maximum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
OP.
■J-
°F.
OJ,
°P,
°P.
Sidi Barrani
. 840
80-2
84-9
1031
111-2
1121
Alexandria
. 81-0
91-4
102-9
102-2
104-9
112-8
Port Said (27yrs.) .
. 84-2
91-4
102-6
104-7
107-2
109-4
El Arish .
. 860
88-7
95-9
109-4
106-7
98-6
Cairo
. 82-6
95-5
106-2
108-7
111-6
1160
Ismailia .
. 77-0
93-2
103-6
108-7
106-9
1139
Suez
. .77-7
97-9
98-6
1040
1130
110-5
Nekhl .
. 860
84-0
91-9
1000
106-0
1071
Helwan .
. 84-9
84-2
95-7
107-8
111-2
114-8
Tor ...
. 860
89-6
941
1130
106-7
108-5
TABLE V
Mean Daily Minimum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
°F.
°P.
°P.
o p_
°F.
°P.
Sidi Barrani
. 450
44-8
46-8
52-2
55-9
61-2
Alexandria
. 50-4
52-2
54-5
58-1
63-5
68-9
Port Said
. 48-2
49-8
52-9
56-8
62-6
67-6
El Arish .
. 48-9
45-3
48-7
53-2
57-4
61-7
Cairo
. 44-2
46-7
49-8
550
610
65-7
Ismailia .
. 45-8
48-2
511
56-7
61-5
65-9
Suez
. 47-7
50-5
53-6
59-0
64-6
68-9
Nekhl .
. 32-7
35-8
401
46-9
53-4
56-5
Helwan .
. 45-3
46-9
50-5
570
63-1
67-3
Tor
. 46-8
48-2
540
61-3
67-5
730
TABLE VI
Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
°F.
°F.
"P.
0 F.
°F.
0
Sidi Barrani
. 37-4
38-3
390
43-7
44-2
51-3
Alexandria
. 44-4
42-6
48-2
520
58-5
64-9
Port Said (16 yrs.) .
. 45-0
47-0
49-5
53-8
59-4
66-2
El Arish .
. 85-2
410
421
45-5
51-3
55-2
Cairo (6 yrs.) .
. 35-9
39-3
430
471
54-3
61-9
Ismailia .
. 39-2
43-2
44-1
48-0
54-9
60-6
Suez
. 41-0
44-2
46-4
50-7
56-7
63-9
Nekhl .
. 23-2
27-9
28-2
36-9
45-1
50-4
Helwan .
. 38-8
39-7
43-3
48-0
550
61-2
Tor ...
66-9
. 89-9
59-2
40-1
51-6
45-3


INCLUDING SINAI PENINSULA
July. Aug. Sept.
° F. ° F. ° F.
97- 0 88-0 104-0
98- 6 950 1040
106- 5 101 1 102-6
103-1 950 95-9
111-7 106-9 105-8
1080 106-5 106-2
111-2 109-4 107-2
1080 105 1 105 1
108-3 103-6 106-2
107- 6 109-4 1040
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
0 Ji_
a J._
°F.
102-2
89-8
73-6
103-8
950
84-2
99-3
93-6
82-4
99-5
91-8
83-3
107-8
94-1
84-9
100-8
92-5
83-5
1040
88-5
79-5
98-1
88-0
80-1
104-5
93-2
83-8
94-1
89-1
82-4
Sidi Barrani.
Alexandria.
Port Said (27 yrs.).
El Arish.
Cairo.
Ismailia.
Suez.
Nekhl.
Helwan.
Tor.
July. Aug.
° F. 0 F.
66-9 680
72-9 74-1
71- 1 72-7
66-9 68-2
69- 6 69-6
70- 3 70-9
72- 3 72-9
59-9 60-6
69-4 700
74-3 75-2
Sept. Oct.
° F. ° F.
64-2 60-6
71- 8 68-5
70-7 67-6
660 61-9
66- 0 62-7
67- 3 63 1
69-8 65-7
58-3 54-0
67-3 64-4
72- 0 03-9
Nov. Dec.
0 F. ° F.
54-7 49-6
61-7 54-3
60 1 52 1
53- 4 46-9
54- 5 47-8
55- 0 48-4
56- 8 50-7
42-6 33-4
56-5 48-7
55-6 48-6
Sidi Barrani.
Alexandria.
Port Said.
El Arish.
Cairo.
Ismailia.
Suez.
Nekhl.
Helwan.
Tor.
July.
°F.
Aug.
°F.
Sept.
o -p
66-3
60-4
54-9
68-7
711
660
69-9
71-6
68-4
60-4
63-7
60-1
65-1
66-6
60-9
66-2
67-5
61-7
68-0
68-9
63-3
54-9
54-9
49-3
640
65-8
61-9
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
0 F.
°F,
49-1
43-7
44-8
58-5
53-4
46-8
62-6
55-1
47-7
56-1
44-1
38-7
56-8
46-4
41 0
56-7
48-2
42-3
58-8
48-2
42-6
44-1
33-1
24-8
55-6
47-8
42-8
Sidi Barrani.
Alexandria.
Port Said (16 yrs.).
El Arish.
Cairo (6 yrs.).
Ismailia.
Suez.
Nekhl.
Helwan.
69-4
Tor.
69-4
40-8
64-4
47-7
56-5


INCLUDING SINAI PENINSULA 249
Jvly.
°F.
Aug.
°F.
Sept.
0 Ji
55-4
590
51-8
63-5
64-4
60-3
55-4
60-8
58-3
56-3
59-9
57-2
59-0
59-9
55-4
63-7
64-4
55-4
62-6
66-2
60-4
51-1
53-6
45-0
60-8
630
58-3
68-0
68-0
61-7
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
op
°P.
°F.
45-5
37-4
44-8
540
46-4
37-4
500
39-9
82-0
53-6
34-7
35-6
51-4
38-3
33-8
53-6
44-6
38-1
53-6
42-8
\32-9
39-9
230
18-0
50-7
42-3
34-3
52-2
42-8
38-3
Sidi Barrani.
Alexandria.
Port Said (27 yrs.).
El Arish.
Cairo.
Ismailia.
Suez.
Nekhl.
Helwan.
Tor.
July. Aug.
0 F. ° F.
36-2 27-9
220 18-7
24-4 22-0
34-4 28-4
36-4 32-7
36-5 33-4
360 340
47-3 460
39-3 35-9
33-7 33-3
Sept. Oct.
a Ji_ o J._
41-9 45-2
27-9 34-2
21-6 27-4
29-5 33 1
36- 3 35-9
37- 6 38-1
36-7 37-8
49-5 47-8
360 38-7
34-6 32-9
Nov. Dec.
Op. °f.
42- 5 27-5
29-4 28-6
27-9 26-6
43- 2 37-6
380 33-5
39-4 35 1
37-8 33 1
52 0 50-8
37- 8 32-4
38- 8 37-6
Sidi Barrani.
Alexandria.
Port Said.
El Arish.
Cairo.
Ismailia
Suez.
Nekhl.
Helwan.
Tor.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
760
75-2
711
71-0
69-1
700
Alexandria.
761
75-1
73-5
73-6
72-6
75-6
Port Said.
77-5
77-5
75-0
73-5
75-5
79-7
El Arish.
51-2
56-3
62-2
66-1
68-8
70-8
Cairo.
41-5
44-5
49-0
50-0
55-0
580
Suez.
530
55-0
58-0
59-0
62-0
650
Ismailia.
49-8
550
58-4
58-8
60-9
641
Helwan.
65-0
Tor.
655
55-0
64-0
53-0
60-0


INCLUDING SINAI PENINSULA 251
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct:
Nov.
Dec.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins.


0-016
0-62
0-57
1-83
Sidi Barrani.
_

1-27
0-89
1-04
Mersa Matruh.
_

0-07
0-31
1-43
2-38
Alexandria.



0065
0-465
0-737
Port Said.



006
0-48
0-45
El Arish.


0-004
013
0-2
Cairo.


0-002
0-1
012
0-32
Ismailia.



004
0118
0-2
Suez.
Nekhl.


—
0016
008
0114
Helwan.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.

.
0-3
2-3
2-3
6-7
Sidi Barrani.


2-3
40
4-1
Mersa Matruh.


0-4
1-2
5-9
9-5
Alexandria.

01
0-8
20
1-2
Port Said.


1-0
3-5
5-0
El Arish.


0-09
0-54
1-95
3-3
Cairo.
0-1
01
01
1-0
2-8
4-3
Ismailia.
—
0-8
1-2
2-4
1-2
Suez (days with rain).
Nekhl.
—
Helwan.
—
1-3
—
0-9
01


252
CLIMATE OF LOWER EGYPT
TABLE XII
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
JANUARY
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sidi Barrani
11-6
6-4
4-3
40
70
330
31-7
1-9
0-0
(3yrs.)
Mersa Matruh .
34-9
2-7
1-6
—
4-3
3-8
26-8
25-8
—
(2 observations
per diem, 8 a.m.
4 p.m., 3 yrs.)
Alexandria
16-2
7-9
10-9
7-2
10-7
13-3
111
16-7
61
(30 yrs.)
Port Said (22 yrs.)
9-7
12-3
90
3-2
6-3
20-3
24-8
13-3
11
El Arish (7 yrs.)
2-1
0-5
—
0-2
240
46-5
13-1
5-2
8-4
Cairo (18yrs.) .
19-1
7-5
1-1
0-9
20-8
19-6
13-3
7-5
10-1
Ismailia (22 yrs.)
22-4
7-6
9-4
2-6
6-1
120
29-7
10-2
_
Suez (22 yrs.) .
34-4
100
3-4
5-3
15-2
12-6
7-5
11-6
—
Nekhl
1-6
1-6
0-8
1-6
0-8
25-8
67-0
0-8
—
(one observa-
tion per diem,
5 yrs.)
Helwan (9 yrs.) .
18-8
22-1
9-4
8-2
10-0
9-5
6-7
12-4
2-8
Tor (7 yrs.)
46-3
7-8
30
1-1
2-5
1-4
10-5
24-2
3-2
Red Sea, near Ras
Mohammed
32-4
4-4
1-8
4-9
41
1-4
5-2
41-8
4-0
FEBRUARY
N.
NE
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sidi Barrani
10-9
6-2
50
4-7
7-0
30-3
26-2
9-7

Mersa Matruh .
330
2-3
5-3
—
5-9
8-2
23-5
22-3
—
Alexandria .
17-2
9-6
10-4
7-3
8-7
9-9
12-7
21-0
31
Port Said .
13-9
16-6
100
3-3
6-7
16-2
19-3
130
10
El Arish .
21
4-4
0-2
1-6
14-8
41-6
15-2
9-2
10-8
Cairo
24-7
7-7
1-1
0-6
18-3
160
14-5
6-8
9-9
Ismailia .
221
9-2
11-9
3-8
4-3
8-4
29-1
11-2
—
Suez
36-2
7-9
2-4
5-8
19-6
11-6
4-6
11-9
—
Nekhl
—
—
0-8
1-8
2-6
360
570
1-8
—
Helwan
17-2
14-9
8-6
9-8
90
130
liC
12-7
2-9
Tor .
45-5
6-1
3-0
2-4
3-5
0-6
12-8
24-2
1-9
Red Sea, near Ras
Mohammed
5-0
27-2
46-6
4-0
5-7
1-9
1-8
4-0
3-8


INCLUDING SINAI PENINSULA 253
MARCH
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
s,
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sidi Barrani
11-8
11-3
9-4
7-2
3-5
191
27-4
10-2

Mersa Matruh .
28-5
1-1
14-5
—
4-3
4-8
381
8-6
—
Alexandria
22-7
150
10-6
70
5-0
5-6
7-6
24-5
2-3
Port Said .
17-1
20-7
11-S
2-7
4-3
9-7
15-8
17-5
0-7
El Arish .
8-2
2-8
1-8
0-2
161
32-5
141
17-8
6-5
Cairo
33-5
9-2
0-9
0-2
10-5
10-9
13-8
13-7
7-2
Ismailia .
27-3
11-6
111
4-2
3-5
6-3
23-5
12-5
—
Suez
42-4
5-1
1-9
4-2
19-2
9-2
6-5
11-5
—
Nekhl . .
1-6
6-5
0-8
0-8
31
15-2
67-7
4-3
—
Helwan
27-0
20-7
7-7
5-4
7-6
7-3
6-4
16-3
1-5
Tor .
31-7
4-4
2-2
31
60
1-2
13-9
34-3
3-2
Red Sea, near Ras
Mohammed
29-2
3-3
2-8
6-4
4-4
11
3-4
43-4
60
APRIL
N.
NE.
E.
BE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sidi Barrani
161
16-7
14-4
4-1
7-7
12-0
15-3
12-0
1-7
Mersa Matruh .
50-6
3-3
5-6
3-3
3-3
—
23-9
100
—
Alexandria
26-2
17-3
11-9
6-6
3-2
2-4
5-6
23-5
30
Port Said .
26-1
23-7
12-4
3-3
2-7
5-4
10-6
15-3
0-5
El Arish .
3-3
6-2
2-9
1-0
130
29-4
131
210
10-0
Cairo . * .
42-0
13-5
0-8
10
60
5-6
110
13-9
61
Ismailia .
310
15-2
131
2-9
3-2
2-6
18-4
13-6
—
Suez
54-9
4-3
0-6
2-2
16-9
8-5
2-5
100
0-1
Nekhl
7-5
100
50
1-7
100
150
45-7
50
—
Helwan
311
21-3
71
6-2
5-7
5-6
6-3
151
1-5
Tor .
15-3
1-4
1-8
4-8
8-5
2-1
17-8
43-7
4-4
Red Sea, near Ras
Mohammed
300
2-8
2-2
51
3-4
2-4
3-0
44-1
7-0
MAY
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sidi Barrani
17-5
8-6
16-5
5-4
9-7
6-4
19-9
12-4
3-2
Mersa Matruh .
69-4
4-8
3-8
—
1-6
1-1
12-4
7-0
—
Alexandria
36-9
18-7
7-7
3-8
2-3
1-1
41
22-8
2-4
Port Said
31-9
24-5
10-9
2-5
1-9
3-4
7-9
16-7
0-3
El Arish .
9-5
7-8
2-7
3-5
110
20-6
14-2
22-5
8-1
Cairo
47-3
14-8
0-9
0-3
2-4
3-2
6-6
16-8
7-6
Ismailia .
44-5
16-5
9-5
1-7
20
1-5
10-8
13-5
—
Suez
64-4
5-2
10
1-9
13-3
4-8
2-3
71
—
Nekhl
31
9-7
6-5
1-6
0-8
15-3
55-7
7-3
—
Helwan
36-7
24-6
4-9
1-8
1-6
4-1
4-9
20-5
10
Tor .
121
0-3
1-6
2-4
5-6
3-2
211
50-4
3-3
Red Sea, near Ras
Mohammed
7-0
271
52-8
1-5
3-0
1-8
1-6
31
21


254 CLIMATE OF LOWER EGYPT
TABLE XII (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages op Total Observations
JUNE
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
sw.
W.
NW.
C.
Sidi Barrani
14-7
11-6
8-3
4-8
1-6
7-5
28-7
20-5
2-2
Mersa Matruh
52-8
—
50
4-4
—
—
18-9
18-9
—
Alexandria
43-8
11-6
2-8
1-4
1-2
0-9
3-6
32-4
2-1
Port Said .
42-5
17-3
4-5
1-3
0-8
3-2
8-5
21-3
0-6
El Arish .
12-2
5-2
0-9
0-4
5-3
24-4
17-6
26-3
7-7
Cairo
60-1
15-1
10
—
0-5
0-3
4-2
15-9
31
Ismailia .
56-2
12-5
5-4
0-3
0-7
0-5
80
16-4
—
Suez
84-1
5-1
0-1
10
3-3
1-9
0-3
4-1
0-1
Nekhl
6-7
14-2
3-3
1-7
1-7
13-3
53-3
5-8
—
Helwan
44-4
18-4
4-0
0-6
0-8
0-5
2-4
26-8
20
Tor .
8-4
0-2
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-6
26-4
62-5
10
Red Sea, near Ras
Mohammed
26-7
0-9
0-5
1-4
10
0-7
2-7
62-1
4-0
JULY
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sidi Barrani
22-5
4-3
2-7
1-6
2-2
1-1
21-2
410
3-3
Mersa Matruh .
79-6
0-5
4-8
—
0-5
—
7-0
7-6
_
Alexandria
43-6
2-3
0-2
003
003
0-8
3-6
48-1
1-2
Port Said .
42-1
7-4
0-9
01
0-8
3-7
17-2
27-5
0-3
El Arish .
6-3
0-8
0-2
0-2
4-8
35-6
19-6
25-1
7-4
Cairo
53-8
40
0-6
—
0-2
0-7
8-2
29-8
2-6
Ismailia .
50-7
100
22
0-2
0-7
2-1
13-9
20-2
—
Suez
81-9
7-0
0-7
0-4
4-9
1-6
0-3
3-2
—
Nekhl
81
10-5
4-8
1-6
—
8-9
61-3
4-8
—
Helwan
45-2
8-8
0-4
0-3
0-3
0-3
5-2
37-4
2-1
Tor .
6-8
0-2
0-2
1-5
2-6
0-6
240
63-2
0-9
Red Sea, near Ras
Mohammed
27-3
1-2
0-6
0-6
1-0
1-4
6-7
58-2
3-0
AUGUST
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
a
Sidi Barrani
28-9
1-9
—

1-1
1-6
150
511
0-5
Mersa Matruh .
62-8
1-1
0-5
—
2-2
—
17-7
15-6
—
Alexandria
500
5-5
0-8
003
008
005
2-9
38-7
1-9
Port Said .
45-4
7-6
0-6
01
0-3
3-3
14-8
27-5
0-4
El Arish .
6-4
0-2
.—
—
5-0
29-6
22-6
22-2
140
Cairo
58-1
7-9
0-9
0-5
0-7
0-5
6-0
22-8
2-5
Ismailia .
51-8
9-6
2-2
01
0-4
1-7
12-5
21-7

Suez
85-8
7-7
0-6
0-3
1-3
0-7
0-3
3-0
0-3
Nekhl
5-6
13-7
1-6
0-8
—
13-7
54-8
7-2
—
Helwan
520
10-4
01
0-2
0-2
0-3
2-7
33-3
0-7
Tor .
9-6
0-8
10
0-2
OS
1-1
25-8
600
10
Red Sea, near Ras
Mohammed
30
310
57-0
1-6
40
1-7
0-3
10
0-4


INCLUDING SINAI PENINSULA
255
SEPTEMBER
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
sw.
W.
NW.
C.
Sidi Barrani
. 27-0
12-2
2-5
—
2-2
1-7
230
29-7
1-7
Mersa Matruh
. 67-2
2-2
7-7
—
1-1
—
13-9
7-2
0-5
Alexandria
. 52-0
13-5
31
10
1-2
11
1-3
23-6
3-2
Port Said
. 44-0
13-8
2-4
0-9
0-7
3-5
10-8
23-7
0-2
El Arish .
. 90
0-2
—
0-9
4-9
28-5
17-1
24-6
14-8
Cairo
. 63-8
13-3
0-6
0-2
0-7
.0-8
3-7
15-4
1-5
Ismailia
. 58-9
13-6
2-4
01
0-5
11
8-2
15-2

Suez
. 85-0
7-7
0-6
0-3
1-9
11
0-4
3-0

Nekhl
. 13-3
300
3-3
0-8
—
8-3
39-2
50

Helwan
. 50-5
231
1-4
0-4
0-3
0-3
0-9
22-2
1-2
Tor .
. 14-7
0-S
0-7
0-4
—
0-3
19-5
620
1-9
Red Sea, near
Ras
Mohammed
. 25-8
10
0-6
—
0-8
0-8
5-0
65-0
10
OCTOBER
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
Sidi Barrani
. 20-2
20-2
3-2
11
2-7
17-2
15-0
19-9
0-5
Mersa Matruh
. 64-5
11
8-0
—
4-3
—
15-6
6-4
—
Alexandria
. 36-2
27-6
100
31
2-2
1-9
2-2
120
4-8
Port Said .
. 32-6
27-9
7-6
1-5
2-4
3-6
7-9
16-1
0-4
El Arish .
. 90
30
11
0-6
13-8
25-9
18-4
151
131
Cairo
. 54-8
17-2
21
0-1
1-4
2-2
3-0
13-6
4-6
Ismailia .
. 51-7
15-5
8-2
0-9
10
21
91
11-5
—
Suez
. 69-5
9-3
11
10
5-9
3-8
10
8-4
—
Nekhl
. 7-2
23-4
1-6
31
—
13-7
48-5
2-4
—
Helwan
. 37-7
30-2
5-4
2-5
11
1-4
2-9
18-0
0-8
Tor .
. 31-7
3-7
1-4
0-6
0-8
0-5
14-0
44-2
31
Red Sea, near Ras
Mohammed
. 30-9
3-0
1-4
3-6
1-6
0-9
30
48-6
7-0
NOVEMBER
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C
Sidi Barrani
4-7
12-5
41
7-0
8-6
18-8
25-5
17-5
11
Mersa Matruh
. 43-3
—
3-9
—
9-4
—
35-6
7-7
—
Alexandria
. 24-8
191
10-7
4-4
61
6-9
7-6
150
5-3
Port Said .
. 19-1
23-6
6-6
1-9
51
11-8
170
14-5
0-4
El Arish .
. 4-8
2-3
0-7
0-8
15-5
39-7
17-3
13-8
5-1
Cairo
. 34-1
14-8
21
0-9
11-3
71
7-7
141
7-8
Ismailia .
. 39 0
12-9
8-6
0-9
1-9
5-1
20-4
11-2
—
Suez
. 54-1
10-9
2-6
30
10-4
6-6
3-2
9-2
—
Nekhl
. 3-3
3-3
4-2
3-3
—
17-5
600
8-3
—
Helwan
. 21-9
30-8
7-4
7-8
6-2
5-4
50
12-9
2-4
Tor .
. 39 0
9-5
1-9
0-7
1-2
0-4
10-3
34-5
2-4
Red Sea, near
Ras
Mohammed
-
. 33-2]f[ 3-4
30
2-1
1-9


256 CLIMATE OF LOWER EGYPT
TABLE XTI (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages oe Total Observations
DECEMBER
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
O.
Sidi Barrani
. 8-3
110
2-7
3-2
5-9
23-1
24-4
21-2

Mersa Matruh
. 43 0
3-2
2-2
—
91
—
290
13-4
_
Alexandria
. 14-8
10-8
10-7
7-4
11-9
13-6
9-8
13-9
7-1
Port Said .
. 10-7
13-7
9-5
3-5
7-1
181
24-3
121
1-0
El Arish .
. 1-8
1-0
0-5
1-0
18-8
46-2
16-8
7-9
6-0
Cairo
. 20-8
9-5
10
1-0
20-1
19-5
12-7
5-9
9-5
Ismailia .
. 23-5
9-5
10-5
1-6
31
9-5
32-0
10-3
_
Suez
. 34-2
120
3-6
5-5
15-9
13-9
5-3
9-6
_
Nekhl
. 31
4-8
1-6
1-6
—
170
63-0
8-9
—
Helwan .
. 20-5
21-7
7-7
101
11-7
9-3
6-8
10-3
20
Tor .
. 42-1
110
2-6
0-5
11
0-9
9-3
30-4
2-1
Red Sea, near
Ras
Mohammed
. 32-7
2-8
21
3-6
1-3
•6
5-2
44-7
6-0
TABLE XIII
Mean Amount of Cloud 1
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr. May. June. July.
Aug.
Sept. Oct. Nov.
Dec.
Alexandria 4-5
4-0
3-5
2-9 2-3
1-2
1-3
1-6
1-8 2-2 3-6
4-4
Port Said . 4-1
3-8
3-5
3-2 2-4
1-4
1-5
1-8
1-8 2-4 3-4
40
Cairo . 4-4
40
3-7
3-5 2-8
1-2
1-4
1-6
1-6 2-5 3-2
4-3
Helwan . 4-8
3-9
3-6
3-3 2-4
0-7
0-9
11
0-9 2-2 2-8
4-0
i 0 = cloudless sky; 10 = completely overcast.


CHAPTER VI
CLIMATE OF CYRENAICA, TRIPOLI, AND MALTA
The tables included in this chapter cover observations at
eight stations, which are given for the sake of completing
the chain from Lower Egypt (Chapter V), through Tripoli,
Malta, Sicily, and Southern Italy, to the Balkan Peninsula
(Chapter I).
The province of Tripoli is the Italian territory in North
Africa between Tunisia and Egypt. It extends southward
to include Fezzan and Kufra, and is bounded by the frontier
of the French Sahara to the S. and by that of Egypt to the
SE. and E. This vast territory is divided naturally into four
well-marked divisions, NW., SW., NE., and SE., based on
physical and geological features. Cyrenaica, the NE. division,
is a high limestone plateau. It is near the coast, so it has
more rain and dew than the area to the south, and has a
northern belt with trees and scrub; it has a good soil, is
intersected by deep wadis, and has a large proportion of
Mediterranean plants. Tripoli proper, the NW. division,
consists mainly of a coastal plain; its western districts have
ample rains, and where the ground affords good water-storage
the prolific wells allow the land to be developed as fertile oases.
The level is low, and the sea off it is comparatively shallow;
and the level of the land rises slowly in treeless rolling plains.
Fezzan, the SW. division, is an arid desert area, of stony
plateaus, bare downs, with occasional oases. The rainfall in
this area being higher than in the eastern, the oases are larger
and more numerous than the SE. division, which is mainly
desert, in the midst of which are the oases of Kufra.
Observations are given from two coastal stations in this
area—Benghazi on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Syrtis,
AIR—E.M. B


258
CLIMATE OF CYRENAICA
in 32° 7' N.. 20° 2' E., and Tripoli on the coast in 32° 54' K,
13° 11' E. The island of Malta furnishes observations from
a point between the North African coast and Sicily (35° 55' N.,
14° 29' E.). Syracuse (37° 3' N.. 15° 15' E.) and Catania
(37° 30' N., 15° 3' E.) are on the east coast of Sicily, and
Palermo (38° 6' N., 13° 19' E.) is on the north coast of the
same island. Lecce (40° 22' N., 18° 11' E.) and Foggia (41° 27'
N., 15° 30' E.) are respectively near the south-eastern and
the north-western extremities of the Apulian plain, Lecce
being situated near the centre of the heel of Italy between
the Gulf of Taranto and the Adriatic Sea, and Foggia a short
distance inland from the Gulf of Manfredonia (Adriatic Sea).
The climate of this portion of the Mediterranean basin
exhibits the usual division of the year into a dry summer
season from May to September, and a wet winter season
from November to March, together with April and October
as months of transition between them. The stations quoted
in the tables are all close to the sea, so that the temperature
rarely falls as low as 32° F., Palermo and Syracuse alone
having recorded frost. On the other hand, records of tem-
peratures as high as 100° F. are riot common except on the
African coast, and at Palermo. At Benghazi and Tripoli
a marked decrease in the highest temperatures of July and
August is recorded, which is apparently connected with the
great steadiness of the northerly winds in these months, and
the absence of southerly winds. At this season practically
no depressions pass along the southern shores of the Mediter-
ranean. Northerly and north-westerly winds of moderate
force prevail, with settled fine weather.
In September, when the distribution of pressure begins to
change, the weather becomes less settled, and depressions
cause southerly winds and rainfall especially in southern
Italy. From October to February the rainfall is considerable
and stormy weather is frequent as deep depressions traverse
the Mediterranean from west to east; southerly and south-
westerly winds are frequent, and are often of gale force.
These depressions sometimes remain almost stationary to the


TRIPOLI AND MALTA
259
west or north-west of Malta and Sicily, producing a con-
tinuance of stormy and unsettled weather. In April there
is a marked improvement in the weather conditions, the
rainfall decreases, and depressions pass less frequently.
The high-pressure system which extends from the Azores
over north-western Africa now becomes more effective, and
northerly and north-easterly winds predominate on the
African coast over the southerly and westerly winds of the
winter months. The exceptionally high temperatures in
May and June at Tripoli and Benghazi occur in connexion
with the passage of depressions over northern Africa and the
occurrence of southerly winds. With the summer, however,
a period of fine settled weather ordinarily sets in, with
northerly and north-westerly winds, continuing until towards
the end of September.
B2





TABLES
Summary
TABLE
PAGE
I.
Mean Temperature ......
262-3
II.
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
262-3
in.
Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature .
262-3
IV.
Absolute Maximum Temperature ....
262-3
v.
Mean Daily Minimum Temperature
264-5
VI.
Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature .
264-5
VII.
Absolute Minimum Temperature ....
264-5
VIII.
Mean Monthly Range of Temperature .
264-5
IX.
Relative Humidity ......
266-7
X.
Mean Monthly Rainfall .....
266-7
XI.
Number of Rain Days .....
266-7
XII.
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
268-70
XIII.
Mean Amount of Cloud .....
271
"


262
CLIMATE OF CYRENAICA
Benghazi
Tripoli .
Malta
Syracuse.
Catania .
Palermo .
Lecce
Foggia .
TABLE I
Mean Temperature
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
AprU.
May.
June.
o -p
0 Ji
0 Jji
O
56-1
58-1
63-1
66-5
71-2
75-9
53-7
55-6
59-5
64-4
68-7
74-3
53-4
53-4
55-0
58-6
63-9
70-9
52-0
52-5
55-0
58-6
65-1
72-5
51-4
52-5
56-3
60-3
66-2
74-1
50-5
52-2
54-7
58-6
64-0
70-7
48-0
49-1
52-5
57-7
64-6
72-3
43-5
45-5
50-4
56-3
64-0
72-7
TABLE II
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature
Benghazi . . . 60-3 63-5 67-8 72-5 77-9 80-4
Tripoli .... 59-9 61-9 66-2 71-4 75-4 80-9
Malta .... 59-5 60-4 63-1 66-7 72-1 81-1
Syracuse .... 57-0 57-9 61-3 65-7 72 0 79-9
Catania .... 56-5 57-6 60-8 65-5 72-5 80-1
Palermo .... 60-1 61-5 65-1 69-3 75-6 82-2
Lecce .... 52-9 54-7 59-7 65-1 73-8 80-6
Poggia .... 50-0 520 59-4 64-8 75-6 83-3
TABLE III
Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature
Benghazi . . . 66-4 72-9 85-8 87-3 96-1 95-2
Tripoli .... 67-6 74-5 83-3 93-4 94-8 100-8
Malta .... 65-5 66 70-5 74-3 81 87
Syracuse. . . . 63-3 63-9 70-2 73-9 81-3 88-7
Palermo .... 70-2 72-0 80-2 83-8 88-5 91-8
Benghazi
Tripoli .
Malta
Syracuse .
TABLE IV
Absolute Maximum Temperature
68-0
75-2
88-5
88-5
101-3
1040
79-3
89-6
95-4
104-4
103-6
109-4
76
72
83
93
89
99
72-5
69-1
77-7
79-9
87-6
96-8
Palermo .
96-4
82-2
104-2
82-4
91-9
98-1


TRIPOLI AND MALTA
263
July.
Aug.
0 F.
Sept.
Oct.
O ji
0 Ji
78-6
79-2
77-7
73-6
78-4
794
78-0
73-7
76-5
77-2
74-1
68-9
79-3
79-5
75-2
68-2
79-5
79-3
75-9
68-5
76-3
76-6
73-4
67-3
774
77-2
72-1
65-3
78-8
78-3
71-6
62-6
Nov.
Dec.
°P.
0 Ji_
64-2
59-5
Benghazi.
65-4
57-4
Tripoli.
61-7
55-8
Malta.
60-3
55-2
Syracuse.
60-1
540
Catania.
59-4
53-4
Palermo.
56-3
50-7
Leoce.
52-7
46-0
Foggia.
82-9
83-8
840
81-0
84-7
860
84-8
80-2
871
86-5
84-0
78-1
86-2
864
81-7
74-1
86-2
86-2
81-5
74-5
88-2
889
84-9
77-1
85-8
85-8
79-7
71-8
894
88-2
80-1
70-3
71- 7 64-3 Benghazi
72- 3 64-0 Tripoli.
70-3 62-1 Malta.
65-7 59-9 Syracuse.
65-3 594 Catania.
69-6 62-8 Palermo.-
62-1 55-8 Leece.
59-5 52-2 Foggia.
88-0
89-8
90-5
91-9
784
72-5
Benghazi.
97-5
96-7
98-2
92-8
83-7
71-8
Tripoli.
93
92
88-5
84-1
74-8
69
Malta.
96-8
95-2
91-6
82-0
73-8
664
Syracuse.
102-2
99-9
97-3
90-9
80-8
72-5
Palermo.
914 98-2 94-1 99-1
109 105-8 1094 102-2
103 101 100 94
104-0 104-5 102-2 90-9
81-1
76-3
Benghazi.
94-8
78-8
Tripoli.
81
75
Malta.
82-2
69-8
Syracuse.
112-6 113-9 115-9 104-5
Palermo.
88-5
78-6


TRIPOLI AND MALTA
265
July.
Aug.
°F.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
a F
o p
o Ji_
O J._
73-2
74-3
72-1
68-4
60-2
54-7
Benghazi.
72-0
72-9
71-2
67-1
58-5
50-8
Tripoli.
69-8
70-7
69-3
65-3
590
52-5
Malta.
71-1
72-0
68-4
62-1
54-5
47-5
Syracuse.
70-0
70-5
67-1
61-3
53-8
47-7
Catania.
63-9
64-9
62-6
56-8
50-0
44-4
Palermo.
68-0
68-9
63-7
57-9
50-2
44-6
Leoee.
67-1
66-2
60-8
53-8
44-8
38-8
Foggia.
70-3
73-4
69-3
62-6
53-1
50-0
66-0
68-0
65-5
58-6
50-2
43-2
68-4
69-7
64-8
58-7
51-8
47-5
64-8
66-0
61-5
53-4
46-8
40-8
58-3
59-5
55-4
47-7
41-7
36-3
17-7
16-4
21-2
29-3
25-3
22-5
31-5
28-7
32-7
34-2
33-5
28-fi
24-6
22-3
23-7
25-4
23-0
21-5
32-0
29-2
30-1
28-6
27-0
25-6
Benghazi
Tripoli.
Malta.
Syracuse
Palermo.
66-7
700
631
610
44-6
46-0
Benghazi.
62-2
64-4
60-6
52-7
42-4
390
Tripoli.
630
65-0
57-0
45 0
42-0
42-0
Malta.
54-7
54-0
55-6
46-4
41-7
33-8
Syracuse.
54-1
54-1
50-5
43-0
37-9
30-0
Palermo.
Benghazi.
Tripoli.
Malta.
Syracuse.
43-9
Palermo.
40-4
36-2
41-9
391
43-5


266
CLIMATE OF CYRENAICA
TABLE IX
Relative Humidity
Benghazi
Tripoli
Malta
Syracuse .
Catania
Palermo
Leece
Foggia
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
%
%
°/
%
0/
, 0
%
78
74
la
71
73
74
(1(1
66
(Mi
(14
65
67
67
74
76
73
74
72
68
71
71
70
74
70
71
66
65
64
(12
56
53
73
72
(17
67
66
65
74
71
(Hi
65
60
52
77
73
69
(15
60
53
TABLE X
Mean Monthly Rainfall (inches)
in. in. in. in. in. in.
Benghazi . . . 3-21 1-31 0-78 0-12 0 13 0-00
Tripoli .... 3-69 2-08 0-97 0-58 0-28 0-06
Malta . . . . 3-31 201 1-58 0-87 0-47 0-80
Syracuse. . . . 3-74 2-63 1-62 1-54 0-81 0-21
Catania .... 3-27 2-24 2-01 1-34 0-67 0-27
Palermo .... 4-03 3-10 2-83 2-61 1-38 0-63
Lecce .... 2-52 2-13 205 2 16 1-61 0-94
Foggia .... 2-05 1-1 1-3 1-61 1-77 1-18
TABLE XI
Number of Rain Days (>0-2 mm. or 0-008 in. of rain)
Benghazi ... 12 8 5-6 2 1-5 0-7
Tripoli .... 11 6 5 3 2 0-3
Malta .... 13 !) 9 5 3 1
Syracuse .... 11 9 8 6 5 2
Catania .... 9 7 6 6 4 1
Palermo .... 15 13 12 11 7 4
Lecoe .... 12 10 10 10 7 5
Foggia .... 8 7 7 9 7 6


TRIPOLI AND MALTA <- 267
July,
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
%
%
%
%
84
80
74
73
66
65
64
63
64
66
68
71
64
67
70
72
50
54
59
67
61
62
66
69
50
54
61
69
42
47
57
69
in.
in.
in.
in.
0-01
0-00
0-07
0-38
0-02
0-07
0-47
1-54
0-80
0-16
1-46
3-39
0-30
0-28
1-91
3-66
0-08
0-35
1-22
2-60
0-31
0-56
1-47
3-98
0-47
0-59
213
3-35
0-59
1-22
1-42
2-05
0
0
2-2
4
0-3
0-2
1-4
4
0-2
1
3
7
1
2
5
9
1
1
4
6
2
2
6
12
2
4
6
10
Nov.
Dec.
0/
0/
7a
76
7o
77
Benghazi.
63
65
Tripoli.
72
74
Malta.
72
70
Syracuse.
69
70
Catania.
72
75
Palermo.
74
76
Leece.
74
79
Foggia. *
in.
in.
2-10
2-89
Benghazi.
2-33
4-48
Tripoli.
3-27
4-33
Malta.
4-29
4-12
Syracuse.
3-54
3-38
Catania.
3-90
4-69
Palermo.
3-15
3-23
Lecce.
2-28
1-73
Foggia.
7
12-5
Benghazi.
6
11
Tripoli.
11
13
Malta.
10
12
Syracuse.
8
9
Catania.
13
16
Palermo,
11
12
Lecce. ,
2
Foggia. .
4
8
5
8
8


268
CLIMATE OF CYRENAICA
TABLE XII
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
Benghazi
Tripoli
Malta
Syracuse
Catania
Palermo
Lecee
Eoggia
JANUARY
N.
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
C.
16
4
7
7
30
6
23
7
—
10
11
6
12
10
20
16
16
—
51
16-7
3-7
14-3
1-6
15-3
6-9
33
3-4
6
16
8
7
4
17
29
10
3
6
9
8
3
3
14
24
8
26
5
6
. 4
3
21
32
11
8
10
15
3
2
13
16
8
7
19
7
14
2
4
9
7
10
15
20
13
FEBRUARY
19
(i
6
10
24
6
20
9
13
12
6
10
8
15
16
20
3-9
17-5
5-1
12-4
3-3
13-4
7-8
33-4
7
22
9
8
. 4
16
21
8
8
14
11
6
2
10
16
12
6
10
6
-¿2
14
25
8
12
18
5
2
10
12
8
5
24
19
7
4
8
4
9
16
19
3-2
5
21
18
lti
14
MARCH
Benghazi
Tripoli
Malta
Syracuse
Catania
Palermo
Lecce
Benghazi
Tripoli
Malta
Syracuse
Catania
Palermo
Lecce
27
4
6
7
23
4
19
10
—
13
17
12
13
8
11
9
17
—
3-7
16-2
5-2
140
2-5
10-0
10-6
35-3
2-5
6
19
11
10
16
16
20
li
li
5
15
15
7
f5
11
17
7
18
6
10
7
Г4
17
17
9
11
19
14
li
3
16
13
11
7
16
14
10
4
7
10
5
21
16
16
11
APRIL
39
4
4
6
20
:;
13
11

14
22
11
11
6
8
10
18
4-5
15-1
61
17-2
2-8
8-7
7-6
36-6
1-3
5
22
11
10
6
15
19
8
4
4
21
16
10
3
9
10
7
20
5
14
8
3
10
11
12
11
20
14
7
15
13
it
6
19
11
15
11
6
18
7
12
13
12
6


270
CLIMATE OF CYRENAICA
TABLE XII (continued)
Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations
SEPTEMBER
Benghazi
Tripoli
Malta
Syracuse
Catania
Palermo
Leoce
Foggia
Benghazi
Tripoli
Malta
Syracuse
Catania
Palermo
Lecce
Foggia
N.
NE.
E.
BE.
S.
SW.
w.
NW.
C.
52
4
4
4
14
4
9
9

13
24
17
11
5
12
6
12

5-4
23-1
6-3
17-3
2-7
8-7
3-3
31-6
1-5
8
23
10
11
7
17
12
6
(i
3
9
17
9
2
6
8
S
41
4
23
8
4
9
13
5
8
2«
22
7
3
11
8
7
3
21
18
18
6
7
9
4
7
12
17
20
OCTOBER
36
3
6
10
21
4
11
9

9
19
14
12
0
11
12
14

2-8.
190
5-6
20-6
2-8
10-8
5-5
31-2
1-7
6
19
8
9
10
17
17
7
7
7
13
17
S
3
5
9
5
36
4
12
8
4
14
22
8
9
19
13
6
3
18
14
9
3
17
17
10
3
7
12
6
12
10
18
22
NOVEMBER
Benghazi
Tripoli
Malta
Syracuse
Catania
Palermo
Lecce
Foggia
21
4
7
10
30
(i
16
6
8
12
9
15
9
17
13
17
3-1
17-4
4-5
151
41
11-6
7-0
35-3
6
19
8
8
4
16
22
9
8
12
11
3
2
8
15
3
5
9
7
4
21
29
Ii
6
13
(i
2
17
11
5
5
20
15
3
3
12
4
9
12
20
1-9
8
38
13
21
Benghazi . .13
Tripoli . . 8
Malta . . 3-4
Syracuse . . 5
Catania . . 8
Palermo . . 6
Lecce . 14
DECEMBER
1
7
13
29
7
4
13
12
14-2
3-7
131
1-9
19
7
5
4
10
10
4
3
4
4
5
22
5
2
18
9
9
21
7
25
18
13

15-6
10-8
34-9
2-4
17
26
11
6
8
23
.9
26
28
13
.9
9
4
9
23
10
Foggia . . 14
17
3
26
3
14
10
9
4


CHAPTER VII
AVOIDANCE OF ILL EFFECTS OF AVIATION
Many aviators are troubled by vertigo or giddiness. In
our usual movements, such as walking, running, railway
travelling, &c, we maintain our sense of equilibrium partly by
our visual impressions, partly by those impressions which are
conveyed to the brain from the labyrinth of the internal ear.
In aviation, these visual and labyrinthine impressions tend
to become confused by abnormal impressions, from sudden
and unusual changes in the position of the body, and from
the effects of gravity on the body during spiral descents, &c.
It is to these conditions, and not to any changes of atmo-
spheric pressure, that we must attribute the occurrence of
vertigo. The change of atmospheric pressure, during an
ascent, is neither great enough, nor sudden enough, to cause
anything like 'caisson disease ': that is, the setting free of
nitrogen in solution in the body fluids, which may happen
if a diver or a caisson-worker is too rapidly ' decompressed'
from the atmospheric pressure under which he has been
working.
It might seem more likely that an aviator, at a great
altitude, would suffer, not only from excessive cooling of the
body, but from want of oxygen. But, as he sits quiet, and
is not, like a mountain-climber, taking hard exercise, his
consumption of oxygen is small, and he is not likely to suffer
from want of oxygen at a height less than 15,000 ft. If he
were minded to break the record in altitude, he would need
some apparatus for inhaling oxygen, to prevent the danger
of insidious loss of power. He must keep proper voluntary
control and manipulation of his levers: and in this he might
fail, from want of oxygen, without being conscious of his
danger. But at the ordinary altitudes of aerial warfare,


AVOIDANCE OF ILL EFFECTS OF AVIATION 273
the want of oxygen does not come into play at all. And
certainly it has nothing to do with the symptoms which are
felt after rapid descents: for any want of oxygen would at
once disappear, when he came down into the lower levels.
The aviator ought of course to protect himself from the
numbing action of cold, in every possible way. The pro-
tective value of clothes depends on the entanglement of
stationary air in the garments. Fluffy woollen under-
clothing must be worn, and a wind-proof material over all,
either a light waterproof material or leather. The garments
should join close together, so that the wind cannot blow up
between them: gloves and sleeves should be closely joined,
and breeches and tunic. Grenfell's Arctic clothes (Labrador)
are suitable.
To avoid vertigo, the aviator should keep his gaze, so far
as he can, on the point of ground round which he is turning
his spiral. The pilot suffers less than the observer, because,
in moving the control levers, he expects the changes which
are going to happen in his bodily position. Good pilotage
will of course mitigate the vertigo very greatly. We can
hardly suppose that there are any sure means of relieving it,
any more than there are cures for sea-sickness. Rest and
quiet are the proper remedies. It is not advisable to use
drugs for dulling the nervous system.
AIB e. M.


274
NOTE ON THE MAP SHOWING LINES OP EQUAL
MAGNETIC VARIATION (PLATE V)
The map shows the approximate positions of lines of equal
magnetic declination or variation (isogonic lines) for the area
of the Eastern Mediterranean for the year 1917. The positions
are a little uncertain in the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea
and off the coast of Greece a certain amount of ' smoothing'
has had to be done. In the latter region the lines are not so
regular as shown, but it is impossible to draw them in more
correct detail without fuller surveys.
The secular variation may be taken all over the map as
5' annually: the lines are all travelling westwards, a little
faster NW. than SE.
To get the True Bearing of a point from a compass observa-
tion the magnetic variation must be added to the observed
bearing if the variation is East, subtracted if the variation
is West. Example :—
Observed Bearing.
55°
Magnetic Variation.
15° E.
True Bearing.
55° + 15° = 70°
66°
55° - 15° - 40°
15° W.


275
TABLES OF MEAN PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES
COMPUTED FOR DIFFERENT ALTITUDES ABOVE
THE GROUND
4
Supplied by the Meteorological Office, May 1916.
Summary
TABLE PAGE
I. United Kingdom. Pressures and Temperatures . 276
II. France (Paris). „ . . 278
III. Italy (Milan and Pavia). „ . . 280
IV. Egypt (Helwan). „ . . 281
V. East Africa. „ . . 282
VI. Mesopotamia (Baghdad). „ . . 283
32


276 MEAN PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES
TABLE I. UNITED KINGDOM
The temperatures are taken from Geophysical Memoirs,1
No. 2 (W. H. Dines) and are results obtained with ballons-
sondes. Pressures are for SE. England, and are calculated
from the Normal Pressures at sea-level (at Kew) and from
the temperatures given below.
Pressure (in Millibars)
Month.
Height,
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
km.
° A.
°A.
° A.
°A.
°A.
°A.
12
187
186
186
189
193
196
11
218
217
217
221
226
229
10
25.-,
254
254
259
264
267
9
297
297
297
302
307
311
8
346
346
346
350
356
360
7
401
401
400
405
410
415
(i
463
462
462
467
472
476
5
532
532
531
535
540
544
4
610
609
608
612
616
620
3
696
695
693
697
701
704
2
792
790
789
791
795
797
1
899
897
895
897
900
901
Gd.
1018
1016
1014
1014
1016
1016
Temperature (Absolute)
Month.
Height,
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
km.
° A.
"A.
°A.
°A.
°A.
°A.
12
217
218
219
220
221
222
11
217
217
217
219
220
221
10
220
220
220
222
224
225
!)
224
223
224
226
229
231
S
230
229
230
233
236
238
7
237
236
237
239
242
245
(i
243
243
244
246
249
252
5
250
249
250
252
256
259
4
257
256
257
259
262
265
3
263
262
263
265
268
271
2
267
266
267
270
273
276
1
271
271
273
276 .
279
282
(id.
276
276
277
282
285
288
i Published by the Meteorological Office.


AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES
277
July.
° A.
199
232
270
314
363
417
478
546
621
706
798
902
1016
Julyt
°A.
222
222
226
234
241
247
255
261
267
273
278
283
Aug.
4
198
232
270
313
362
416
478
546
621
705
797
900
1015
Aug.
°A.
221
222
226
233
241
248
255
262
268
274
279
283
Sept.
°A.
198
231
269
312
361
416
477
545
620
704
798
902
1017
Sept.
°A.
221
221
226
233
241
247
254
261
267
273
278
281
Month.
Oct.
•A.
194
227
265
308
356
411
472
540
616
700
794
898
1014
Month.
Oct.
°A.
219
220
224
231
238
245
251
268
264
270
275
279
Nov.
°A.
191
223
260
303
351
406
468
536
612
697
792
897
1014
Nov.
° A.
218
219
223
228
235
241
249
255
261
267
272
275
Dec.
°A.
188
220
256
299
347
402
464
533
610
696
790
896
1014
Dec.
°A.
217
218
221
225
232
238
245
252
258
264
269
272
Year.
°A.
192
224
262
305
354
408
470
538
615
699
794
899
1015
Year.
°A.
219
220
222
228
234
241
248
255
2l>2
268
273
278
289
282
289
277
286
280
283


AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES 279
Month.
Mean for
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Year.
481
485
476
479
473
472
473
648
552
544
547
541
540
541
623
626
619
621
616
616
617
706
709
703
705
700
701
701
799
801
797
797
794
795
796
902
903
902
900
898
900
900
1017
1016
1017
1015
1016
1018
1016-5
Month.
Mean for
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Year.
258
261
254
257
252
250
251
264
267
261
264
258
257
258
270
273
266
270
265
263
264
275
278
270
275
270
269
270
280
383
276
279
275
273
275
284
288
281
283
277
277
279
287
289
285
284
278
279
281
291
283
291
276
288
279
283


280 MEAN PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES
TABLE III. ITALY (MILAN AND PAVIA)
(Temperatures taken from Geophysical Memoir, No. 5,
p. 98,-down to 1 km.; Surface Temperatures estimated.
Pressures computed from Surface Pressures from Monthly
Normals in Geo. Mem., No. 1).
Pressure (in Millibars)
Spring.
Summer.
Autumn.
Winter.
Height,
Feb., Mar.,
May, June,
Aug., Sept.,
Nov., Dec,
Year.
km.
April.
July.
Oct.
Jan.
6
464
476
483
468
473
S
533
544
550
537
541
4
609
621
626
613
617
3
695
705
709
698
701
2
790
799
801
792
796
1
896
902
904
897
900
Gd.
1014
1015
1016
1015
1015
Temperature (Absolute)
Spring.
Summer.
Autumn.
Winter.
Height,
\Feb., Mar.,
May, June,
Aug., Sept.,
Nov., Dec,
year.
km.
April.
July.
Oct.
Jan.
6
244
251
257
248
250
5
250
258
264
253
256
4
257
264
270
261
263
3
263
271
276
268
269
2
269
278
282
272
275
1
275
285
288
275
281
Gd.
286
279
279
293
294


AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES 281
TABLE IV. EGYPT (HELWAN)
Temperature observations with kites in October, Novem-
ber, December, 1907; and January, 1908, are available. It
is assumed that above the first kilometre the fall of tem-
perature per kilometre is the same as that found in August
for East Africa, viz.: 6° C.
Pressure (in Millibars)
Height, km.
Winter.
Summer.
Equinox.
Year.
6
474
485
480
480
5
542
552
548
547
4
618
626
623
622
3
703
709
707
706
2
798
800
800
799
1
903
901
903
902
0
1018
1011
1015
1015
Temperature (Absolute)
Height, km.
Winter.
Summer.
Equinox.
Year.
6
250
261
256
256
5
256
267
262
260
4
262
273
268
266
3
268
279
274
272
2
274
285
280
278
1
280
291
286
284
0
288
300
295
291
Winter—November, December, January, February.
Summer—May, June, July, August.
Equinox—March, April, September, October.


284
FORMULAE AND CONVERSION TABLES
TABLE PAGE
Units and Formulae of Conversion .... 285
I. Millimetres to Inches ....... 286
II. Metres to Fee 287
Ш. Kilometres to Statute Miles 288
IV. Kilometres to Nautical Miles 288
V. Square Metres to Square Feet . . . . . 289
VI. Hectares to Acres . . . . . . . 290
VII. Cubic Metres to Cubic Feet 291
VIII. Litres to Gallons 292
IX. Metres per Second to Statute Miles per Hour . . . 293
X. Centigrade Degrees to Degrees Fahrenheit . . . 294
XI. Degrees Fahrenheit to Centigrade Degrees . . . 296
XII. Equivalents in Millibars of Inches of Mercury at 32° F. and
Lat. 45° 298
XIII. Specification of the Beaufort Scale with Probable Equiva-
lents of the Numbera of the Scale .... 300


285
UNITS AND FORMULAE OF CONVERSION
Measures of Length.
1 statute mile = 1609-315 metres.
1 nautical mile = 1853-152 ,,
1 kilometre = 0-6213824 statute mile.
= 0-5396212 nautical mile.
Measures of Velocity.
1 metre per sec. = 3-2809 ft. per sec.
,, „ = 2-2369 miles per hour.
= 1-9435 knots.
1 foot per sec. = 0-304797 metre per sec.
1 mile per hour = 0-44704 ,, „
1 knot = 0-51453
Measures of Temperature.
Absolute scale A, Centigrade scale C, Fahrenheit scale F,
Reaumur scale R. Equivalent intervals 1°A = 1°C = 1-8° F
= 1-6° R. Freezing point of water (under standard condi-
tions) is 273° A = 0° C = 32° F = 0° R. Boiling point of water
(under standard conditions) is 373° A = 100° C = 212° F
= 80° R.
A = 273 + C = | (459-4 + F) = f (218-4 + R)
or
C = f (F - 32) = I R.
Measures of Pressure.
1 millibar (mb.) = 0-0295306 mercury inch.
= 0-750076 mercury millimetre.
1 mercury inch at 32° F in latitude 45°.
= 33-8632 mb.
[30 mercury inches = 1015-8960 mb.]
1 mercury millimetre at 0° C in latitude 45°.
= 1-333200 mb.
[760 mercury millimetres = 1013-231 mb.]
1000 mb. = 14-496 lb. per sq. in. (in London).


286
CONVERSION TABLES
TABLE I
Millimetres to Inches
тт.
ins.
mm.
ins.
mm.
ins.
mm.
ins.
mm.
ins.
0
0-000
40
1-575
80
3-150
120
4-724
160
6-299
1
0-039
41
1-614
81
3-189
121
4-764
161
6-339
2
0-079
42
1-654
82
3-228
122
4-803
162
6-378
3
0118
43
1-693
83
3-268
123
4-843
163
6-417
4
0157
44
1-732
84
3-307
124
4-882
164
6-457
6
0-197
46
1-772
85
3-346
125
4-921
165
6-496
6
0-236
46
1-811
86
3-386
126
4-961
166
6-535
7
0-276
47
1-850
87
3-425
127
5-000
167
6-576
8
0-315
48
1-890
88
3-465
128
5-039
168
6-614
g
0-354
49
1-929
89
3-504
129
5-079
169
6-654
10
0-394
50
1-969
90
3-543
130
5-118
170
6-693
и
0-433
51
2-008
91
3-583
131
5-157
171
6-732
12
0-472
52
2-047
92
3-622
132
5-197
172
6-772
13
0-512
53
2-087
93
3-661
133
5-236
173
6-811
14
0-551
54
2-126
94
3-701
134
5-276
174
6-850
16
0-591
55
2-165
95
3-740
135
5-315
175
6-890
16
0-630
56
2-205
96
3-780
136
5-354
176
6-929
17
0-669
57
2-244
97
3-819
137
5-394
177
6-969
IS
0-709
58
2-283
98
3-858
138
5-433
178
7-008
19
0-748
59
2-323
99
3-898
139
5-472
179
7-047
20
0-787
60
2-362
100
3-937
140
5-512
180
7-087
21
0-827
61
2-402
101
3-976
141
5-551
181
7-126
22
0-866
62
2-441
102
4-016
142
5-591
182
7-165
23
0-906
63
2-480
103
4-055
143
5-630
183 -
7-205
24
0-945
64
2-520
104
4-094
144
5-669
184
7-244
26
0-984
65
2-559
105
4-134
145
5-709
185
7-283
26
1-024
66
2-598
106
4-173
146
5-748
186
7-323
27
1063
67
2-638
107
4-213
147
5-787
187
7-362
28
1-102
68
2-677
108
4-252
148
5-827
188
7-402
29
1-142
69
2-717
109
4-291
149
5-866
189
7-441
30
1-181
70
2-756
110
4-331
150
5-906
190
7-480
31
1-220
71
2-795
111
4-370
151
5-945
191
7-520
32
1-260
72
2-835
112
4-409
152
5-984
192
7-559
33
1-299
73
2-874
113
4-449
153
6024
193
7-598
34
1-339
74
2-913
114
4-488
154
6-063
194
7-638
36
1-378
75
2-953
115
4-528
155
6-102
195
7-677
36
1-417
76
2-992
116
4-567
1561
6-142
191)
7-717
37
1-457
77
3-031
117
4-606
157
6-181
197
7-756
38
1-496
78
3-071]
118
4-646
158
6-220
198
7-795
39
1-535
79
3-110
119
4-685
15!)
6-260
199
7-835
tenths of
Tenths of a Millimetre
200
7-874
nch.
. -004
•008 -012
•016
•020
-024
•028
•032
•035
mm.
9
1
S
2
7
3
6
4
5


o
O
do
P3
O
i—i
<
Eh
m
W
IN
•
8*-62
*S-3*
*l36
*_831
88*1
8**61
8*33
616*3
6_163
os-*3S
113*8
8839
88*181
18-1*8
*_681
88-8661
31*383
3-**93
83-3863
3818
6
*3*3
8-6*
18-16
8-*31
8*3*l
63861
81*33
1_**3
18883
3*-ise
8**8
l*-381
oeoiot
8*-888
8*81
*8*66I
8*-3383
368*13
8-8*63
3-..
8
i6-33
88**
8*-88
61131
3-**1
8*38
38-613
31-3*3
8*-33
*3-8S
8-1*8
8-68
33381
81*88
68*81
8*-166I
**-6183
*13*13
38*863
8*88
L
81-6I
6*-3*
813
_i.T
3681
88*8
*C*I3
*e-6*3
*1383
9_*18
888*8
338
*_E81
38-388
IT88I
618861
83*183
1E-**13
8-386S
8*888
9
8-11
13-6*
38-38
ssm
*13*l
**88
*3*13
8-**3
3-883
81-118
6*88
8*-38
8-88T
*8838
38**91
16*861
66-3183
8-1*13
116963
*3363S
S
31*1
8_**
*888
**-111
381
81881
8_33
883*3
6*383
.-88
13-1*8
63-68
81866
1**38
** 8*91
8-T86I
18683
88-i83
883163
9_838
*8-6
91-3*
1*38
83-81
8-18
88SiI
61*3
8-683
18383
33*8
8_88
18*8
3-*66
81338
138*11
*18861
8**83
1**83
8-3163
818638
8
1**
8168
8188
66*81
8838
8881
l**3
33*83
88-613
*8-I8S
***8
81-38
8 866
8_88
86**11
88-6861
*1*33
83-183
316*63
83838
Z
83*
3*8
8_81
188*1
1**8
3181
883
*_3E3
*8*13
1*-863
318
8-6*1
8*386
31318
8**11
881861
3-6633
*_83*3
*8**6S
.-*83S
\
88
8-38
3131
8*-86
83-18
*8-*1I
3*61
8-633
8*-313
83-*63
8-838
81**1
93-*86
*S3IS1
3*8*91
8-8161
6**633
8-*313
183*63
*8883•
8
8
81
o<-
os:
Of
09
8
8
88
86
ooi
83
88
88
3*
81
88
38
86
881
xaa^ ox saaxaj^;
ii aiavx
8


288
CONVERSION TABLES
TABLE in
Kilometres to Statute Miles
Kilo-
Stat.
Kilo-
Stat.
Kilo.
Stat.
Kilo-
Stat.
Kilo-
Stat.
metres,
. miles.
metres.
miles.
metres.
miles.
metres.
miles.
metres.
miles.
1
0-621
21
13-049
41
25-477
61
37-904
81
50-332
2
1-243
22
13-670
42
26-098
62
38-526
82
50-953
3
1-864
23
14-292
43
26-719
63
39147
83
51-575
4
2-486
24
14-913
44
27-341
64
39-768
84
52-196
5
3107
25
15-536
45
27-962
65
40-390
85
52-817
6
3-728
26
16156
46
28-584
66
41-011
86
53-439
7
4-350
27
16-777
47
29-205
67
41-633
87
54060
8
4-971
28
17-399
48
29-826
68
42-254
88
54-682
9
5-592
29
18-020
49
30-448
69
42-875
89
55-303
10
6-214
30
18-641
50
31069
70
43-497
90
55-924
11
6-835
31
19-263
51
31-690
71
44-118
91
56-546
12
7-457
32
19-884
52
32-312
72
44-739
92
57-167
13
8-078
33
20-506
53
32-933
73
45-361
93
57-789
14
8-699
34
21-127
54
33-555
74
45-982
1)4
58-410
15
9-321
35
21-748
55
34-176
75
46-604
95
59031
16
9-942
36
22-370
56
34-797
76
47-225
96
59-653
17
10-563
37
22-991
57
35-419
77
47-846
97
60-274
IS
11-185
38
23-613
58
36040
78
48-468
98
60-895
1!)
11-806
39
24-234
59
36-662
79
49-089
99
61-517
20
12-428
40
24-855
60
37-283
80
49-711
100
62-138
100
62-138
300
186-415
500
310-691
700
434-907
900
559-244
200
124-276
400
248-553
600
372-829
800
497-106
1000
621-382
TABLE IV
Kilometres to Nautical Miles
Kilo-
Nautical Kilo-
Nautical
Kilo. Nautical
Kilo-
Nautical
Kilo-
Nautical
metres, miles.
metres.
miles.
metres.
miles.
metres.
miles.
metres.
miles.
1
0-540
21
11-332
41
22-124
61
32-917
81
43-709
2
1-079
22
11-872
42
22-664
62
33-457
82
44-249
3
1-619
23
12-411
43
23-204
63
33-996
83
44-789
4
2-158
24
12-951
44
23-743
64
34-536
84
45-328
5
2-698
25
13-491
45
24-283
65
35075
85
45-868
6
3-238
26
14 030
46
24-823
66
35-615
86
46-407
7
3-777
27
14-570
47
25-362
67
36-155
87
46-947
8
4-317
28
15-109
48
25-902
68
36-694
88
47-487
9
4-857
29
15-649
49
26-441
69
37-234
89
48-026
10
5-396
30
16189
50
26-981
70
37-774
90
48-566
11
5-936
31
16-728
51
27-521
71
38-313
91
49-106
12
6-475
32
17-268
52
28060
72
38-853
92
49-645
13
7-015
33
17-807
53
28-600
73
39-392
93
50-185
14
7-555
34
18-347
54
29-140
74
39-932
94
50-724
15
8-094
35
18-887
55
29-679
75
40-472
95
51-264
16
8-634
36
19-426
56
30-219
76
41011
- 96
51-804
17
9-174
37
19-966
57
30-758
77
41-551
97
52-343
18
9-713
38
20-506
58
31-298
78
42-090
98
52-883
19
10-253
39
21-045
59
31-838
79
42-630
99
53-423
20
10-792
40
21-585
60
32-377
80
43-170
KM)
53-962
100
53-962
300
161-886
500:
269-811
700
377-735
900
485-659
200
107-924
400
215-849
600:
123-773
800
431-697
1000
539-621


CONVERSION TABLES
Qi—< eo tc i> cs © .—i ec
^ lO CO 1>C0 0> O IN M
^tNa^tpM©l>iacNt3Sto
IN CO i—« CD H lO 6 i?5 A
oo tr ? -
C0
ao
0S
9
01
CO
to
to
eo
o
00
do
i—i
CD
0S
—
-f
i—i
i—I
i-H
c58CNeOTt<iac©i>aoc
-—i^COoip-i^coo5r-*ec
,_, H H H (N IN
N
a
ia
oc
a
CO
00
o
o
•N
V
in
^
m
ob
eb
r-
eo
to
00
93
—
IN
N
K
o
<3
o
09
m
«
B
o
H
8*
SI
o
ca
u
o
COt~OS©^CC"#COl>a0
H IN IN
OOaso^eO-^lCCOt-OO
OS
o
OJ
CO
us
to
0S
00
OS
o
CO
m
00
CO
o
in
©
in
OS
5
CO
lO
58
o
CM
i—'
*—i
N
eq
w t[ us to cc a i—icMeoirs
CNiai>OINSOt-8IN
3
lO
o
op
35
so
fH
SO
t-
o
H CM CM
63
l>
Q
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o
=D
X
Oi
iO
0S
M
tN
Ol
i-
OI
r-H
i-H
ia
*
00


294
CONVERSION TABLES
TABLE X
Centigrade Degrees to Degrees Fahrenheit
Centigrade. Fahrenheit.
0 o
+ 0
+ 320
1
33-8
2
35-6
3
37-4
4
39-2
5
41-0
6
42-8
7
44-6
8
46-4
9
48-2
10
50-0
11
51-8
12
53-6
13
55-4
14
57-2
15
590
16
60-8
17
62-6
18
64-4
19
66-2
20
68-0
21
69-8
22
71-6
23
73-4
24
75-2
Centigrade. Fahrenheit.
o o
20
78-8
27
80-6
28
82-4
29
84-2
30
86-0
31
87-8
32
89-6
33
91-4
34
93-2
35
950
36
96-8
37
98-6
38
100-4
39
102-2
40
104-0
41
105-8
42
107-6
43
109-4
44
111-2
45
113-0
46
114-8
47
116-6
48
118-4
49
120-2
50
1220
25
77-0


296
CONVERSION TABLES
TABLE XI (continued)
Conversion of Degrees Fahrenheit into Centigrade Degrees
Degrees Fah.
Plus. Minus.
Tenths of Degrees.
2 3 4
6
8
9
□
64
0
17-8
17-8
17-9
17-9
18-0
181
181
18-2
18-2
18-3
65
1
18-3
18-4
18-4
18-5
18-6
18-6
18-7
18-7
18-8
18-8
66
2
18-9
18-9
190
19-1
191
19-2
19-2
19-3
19-3
19-4
67
3
19-4
19-5
19-6
19-6
19-7
19-7
19-8
19-8
19-9
19-9
68
4
20-0
201
20-1
20-2
20-2
20-3
20-3
20-4
20-4
20-5
69
5
20-6
20-6
20-7
20-7
20-8
20-8
20-9
20-9
210
211
70
6
211
21-2
21-2
21-3
21-3
21-4
21-4
21-5
21-6
21-6
71
7
21-7
21-7
21-8
21-8
21-9
21-9
220
22-1
221
22-2
72
8
22-2
22-3
22-3
22-4
22-4
22-5
22-6
22-6
22-7
22-7
73
9
22-8
22-8
22-9
22-9
230
23-1
23-1
23-2
23-2
23-3
74
10
23-3
23-4
23-4
23-5
23-6
23-6
23-7
23-7
23-8
23-8
75
11
23-9
23-9
24-0
24-1
241
24-2
24-2
24-3
24-3
24-4
76
12
24-4
24-5
24-6
24-6
24-7
24-7
24-8
24-8
24-9
24-9
77
13
25-0
251
25-1
25-2
25-2
25-3
25-3
25-4
25-4
25-5
78
14
25-6
25-6
25-7
25-7
25-8
25-8
25-9
25-9
26-0
261
79
15
26-1
26-2
26-2
26-3
26-3
26-4
26-4
26-5
26-6
26-6
80
16
26-7
26-7
26-8
26-8
26-9
26-9
27-0
27-1
27-1
27-2
81
17
27-2
27-3
27-3
27-4
27-4
27-5
27-6
27-6
27-7
27-7
82
18
27-8
27-8
27-9
27-9
28-0
28-1
28-1
28-2
28-2
28-3
83
19
28-3
28-4
28-4
28-5
28-6
28-6
28-7
28-7
28-8
28-8
84
20
28-9
28-9
29-0
291
29-1
29-2
29-2
29-3
29-3
29-4
86
21
29-4
29-5
29-6
29-6
29-7
29-7
29-8
29-8
29-9
29-9
86
22
300
30-1
30-1
30-2
30-2
30-3
30-3
30-4
30-4
30-5
87
23
30-6
30-6
30-7
30-7
30-8
30-8
30-9
30-9
310
311
88
24
311
31-2
31-2
31-3
31-3
31-4
31-4
31-5
31-6
31-6
89
25
31-7
31-7
31-8
31-8
31-9
31-9
320
32-1
32-1
32-2
90
26
32-2
32-3
32-3
32-4
32-4
32-5
32-6
32-6
32-7
32-7
91
27
32-8
32-8
32-9
32-9
330
331
33-1
33-2
33-2
33-3
'92
28
33-3
33-4
33-4
33-5
33-6
33-6
33-7
33-7
33-8
33-8
93
29
33-9
33-9
340
341
34-1
34-2
34-2
34-3
34-3
34-4
94
30
34-4
34-5
34-6
34-6
34-7
34-7
34-8
34-8
34-9
34-9
95
31
350
35-1
35-1
35-2
35-2
35-3
35-3
35-4
35-4
35-5
96
32
35-6
35-6
35-7
35-7
35-8
35-8
35-9
35-9
360
36-1
97
33
36-1
36-2
36-2
36-3
36-3
36-4
36-4
36-5
36-6
36-6
98
34
36-7
36-7
36-8
36-8
36-9
36-9
37-0
37-1
371
37-2
99
35
37-2
37-3
37-3
37-4
37-4
37-5
37-6
37-6
37-7
37-7
100
36
37-8
37-8
37-9
37-9
38-0
381
38-1
38-2
38-2
38-3
101
37
38-3
38-4
38-4
38-5
38-6
38-6
38-7
38-7
38-8
38-8
102
38
38-9
38-9
390
39-1
39-1
39-2
39-2
39-3
39-3
39-4
103
39
39-4
39-5
39-6
39-6
39-7
39-7
39-8
39-8
39-9
39-9
104
40
400
40-1
40-1
40-2
40-2
40-3
40-3
40-4
40-4
40-5
105
41
40-6
40-6
40-7
40-7
40-8
40-8
40-9
40-9
41 0
411
106
42
41-1
41-2
41-2
41-3
41-3
41-4
41-4
41-5
41-6
41-6
Temperatures on this page have the same sign in both scales.


CONVERSION TABLES
207
TABLE XI (continued)
Conversion of Degrees Fahrenheit into Centigrade Degrees
Tenths of Degrees.
utyreea r an.
Plus. Minus.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
c o
107
43
41-7
41-7
41-8
41-8
41-9
41-9
42-0
42-1
42-1
42-2
108
44
42-2
42-3
42-3
42-4
42-4
42-5
42-6
42-6
42-7
42-7
109
45
42-8
42-8
42-9
42-9
430
43-1
43-1
43-2
43-2
43-3
110
46
43-3
43-4
43-4
43-5
43-6
43-6
43-7
43-7
43-8
43-8
111
47
43-9
43-9
440
44-1
44-1
44-2
44-2
44-3
44-3
44-4
112
48
44-4
44-5
44-6
44-6
44-7
44-7
44-8
44-8
44-9
44-9
113
49
450
45-1
45-1
45-2
45-2
45-3
45-3
45-4
45-4
45-5
114
50
45-6
45-6
45-7
45-7
45-8
45-8
45-9
45-9
460
46-1
US
51
46-1
46-2
46-2
46-3
46-3
46-4
46-4
46-5
46-6
46-6
116
52
46-7
46-7
46-8
46-8
46-9
46-9
47-6
47-1
47-1
47-2
117
53
47-2
47-3
47-3
47-4
47-4
47-5
47-6
47-6
47-7
47-7
US
54
47-8
47-8
47-9
47-9
48-0
48-1
48-1
48-2
48-2
48-3
11!)
55
48-3
48-4
48-4
48-5
48-6
48-6
48-7
48-7
48-8
48-8
120
56
48-9
48-9
490
49-1
49-1
49-2
49-2
49-3
49-3
49-4
121
57
49-4
49-5
49-6
49-6
49-7
49-7
49-8
49-8
49-9
49-9
122
58
500
50-1
501
50-2
50-2
50-3
50-3
50-4
50-4
50-5
123
59
50-6
50-6
50-7
50-7
50-8
50-8
50-9
50-9
510
511
124
60
511
51-2
51-2
51-3
51-3
51-4
51-4
51-5
51-6
51-6
125
52-2
61
521
51-7
52-1
51-7
52-0
51-8
51-9
51-8
51-9


298
CONVERSION TABLES
TABLE XII
Vapour Pressure. Mercury Inches at Standard Tempera-
ture (273° A) in Latitude 45° to Millibars
The fundamental equations are:
gis * = 980-617 cm./sec.a
density of mercury at normal freezing point of water = 13-5955 gm/cms.
1 mercury inch = 33-8632 millibars.
1 millibar = 0-0295306 mercury inche3 = 0-750076mercurymillimetres.
using 1 inch = 2-54000 cm.
1 cm. = 0-393701 inch,
and taking the expression 'mercury inch' to denote the pressure due to a column
of mercury one inch high under standard conditions of temperature (freezing point
of water) and gravity (latitude 45°).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Inches.
Millibars.
0-0
00
0-3
0-7
10
1-4
1-7
20
2-4
2-7
3-0
0-1
3-4
3-7
4-1
4-4
4-7
51
5-4
5-8
6-1
6-4
0-2
6-8
7-1
7-5
7-8
8-4
8-5
8-8
9-1
9-5
9-8
0-3
10-2
10-5
10-8
11-2
11-5
11-9
12-2
12-5
12-9
13-2
0-4
13-5
13-9
14-2
14-6
14-9
15-2
15-6
15-9
16-3
16-6
0-5
16-9
17-3
17-6
17-9
18-3
18-6
190
19-3
19-6
20-0
0-6
20-3
20-7
21-0
21-3
21-7
22-0
22-3
22-7
230
23-4
0-7
23-7
24-0
24-4
24-7
251
L'5-4
25-7
26-1
26-4
26-8
0-8
27-1
27-4
27-8
281
28-4
28-8
291
29-5
29-8
30-1
0-9
30-5
30-8
31-2
31-5
31-8
32-2
32-5
32-8
33-2
33-5
10
33-9
34-2
34-5
34-9
35-2
35-6
35-9
36-2
36-6
36-9
Inches
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Millibars
33-9
67-7
101-6
135-5
169-3
203-2
2370
270-9
304-8
338-6
Millibars
372-5
406-4
440-2
474-1
507-9
541-8
575-7
609-5
643-4
677-3
Inches
20
11
19
12
18
13
17
14
16
IS


CONVERSION TABLES 299
TABLE XII (continued)
Equivalents in Millibars of Inches of Mercury at 32° F.
and Latitude 45°
1234 56789
Millibars.
914-6 9150 915-3 915-7 9160 916-3 916-7 9170 917-4
918 0 918-4 918-7 919-0 919-4 919-7 920-1 260-4 920-7
921-4 921-8 922-1 262-4 922-8 263-1 923-4 923-8 924-1
264-8 925-1 925-5 265-8 926-2 266-5 926-8 927-2 267-5
928-2 928-5 928-9 929-2 269-5 929-9 930-2 930-6 930-9
931-6 931-9 932-3 932-6 932-9 933-3 933-6 933-9 934-3
935 0 935-3 935-6 936-0 936-3 936-7 937-0 937-3 937-7
938-3 938-7 939-0 939-4 939-7 940-0 94-O4 940-7 941-1
941-7 942-1 942-4 942-8 943-1 943-4 943-8 944-1 944-4
945-1 945-5 945-8 946-1 946-5 946-8 947-2 947-5 947-8
948-5 948-8 949-2 949-5 949-9 950-2 950-2 950-9 951-2
951-9 952-2 952-6 952-9 953-2 953-6 953-9 954-3 954-6
955-3 955-6 956 0 956-3 956-6 957-0 957-3 957-7 958-0
958-7 959-0 959-3 959-7 960-0 960-4 960-7 961-0 961-4
962-1 962-4 962-7 963 1 963-4 963-7 964-1 964-4 964-8
965-4 965-8 966-1 966-5 966-8 967-1 967-5 967-8 968-1
968-8 969-2 969-5 969-8 970-2 970-5 970-9 971-2 971-5
972-2 972-6 972-9 973-2 973-6 973-9 974-2 974-6 974-9
975-6 975-9 976-3 976-6 977-0 977-3 977-6 978-0 978-3
979-0 979-3 979-7 980-0 980-3 980-7 981-0 981-4 981-7
982-4 982-7 983-0 983-4 983-7 984-1 984-4 984-7 985-1
985-8 986-1 986-4 986-8 987-1 987-5 987-8 988-1 988-5
989-1 989-5 989-8 990-2 990-5 990-8 991-2 991-5 991-9
992-5 992-9 993-2 993-5 993-5 994-2 994-6 994-9 995-2
995-9 996-3 996-6 996-9 997-3 997-6 997-9 998-3 998-6
999-3 999-6 1000 0 1000-3 1000-7 1001-0 1001-3 1001-7 1002-0
1002-7 1003-0 1003-4 1003-7 1004-0 1004-4 1004-7 1005-1 1005-4
1006-1 1006-4 1006-8 1007-1 1007-4 1007-8 1008-1 1008-4 1008-8
1009-5 1009-8 1010-1 1010-5 1010-8 1011-2 1011-5 1011-8 1012-2
1012-8 1013-2 1013-5 1013-9 1014-2 1014-5 1014-9 1015-2 1015-6
1016-2 1016-6 1016-9 1017-3 1017-6 1017-9 1018-3 1018-6 1018-9
1019-6 1020 0 1020-3 1020-6 1021 0 1021-3 1021-7 1022 0 1022-3
1023-0 1023-3 1023-7 1024 0 1024-4 1024-7 1025 0 1025-4 1025-7
1026-4 1026-7 1027 1 1027-4 1027-7 1028-1 1028-4 1028-8 1029-1
1029-8 10301 1030-5 1030-8 1031 1 1031-5 1031-8 1032-2 1032-5
1033-2 1033-5 1033-8 1034-2 1034-5 1034-9 1035-2 1035-5 1035-9
1036-2 1036-6 1036-9 1037-2 1037-6 1037-9 1038-2 1038-6 1038-9 1039-3
1039-6 1039-9 1040-3 1040-6 1041-0 1041-3 1041-6 1042-0 1042-3 1042-6
1043-0 1043-3 1043-7 1044-0 1044-3 1044-7 1045-0 1045-4 1045-7 1046-0
Mercury
0
Inches
and
Tenths.
27-0
914-3
27-1
917-7
27-2
9211
27-3
924-5
27-4
927-9
27-5
931-2
27-6
934-6
27-7
9380-
27-8
941-4
27-9
944-8
28-0
948-2
2-81
951-6
28-2
954-9
28-3
958-3
28-4
961-7
28-5
965-1
28-6
968-5
2S-7
971-9
2fe-8
975-3
2b-9
978-6
20-0
982-0
29-1
985-4
29-2
988-8
29-3
992-2
29-4
995-6
29-5
999-0
29-6
1002-4
29-7
1005-7
29-8
1009-1
29-9
1012-5
30-0
1015-9
30-1
1019-3
30-2
1022-7
30-3
10261
30-4
1029-4
30-5
1032-8
30-6
1036-2
30-7
1039-6
30-8
1043-0
30-9
1046-4
1046-7 1047-1 1047-4 1047-7 1048-1 1048-4 1048-7 1049-1 1049-4