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M
T A MI A
E S O P O
AND
:
ASSYRIA,
FROM THE
EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME
WITH
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THEIR NATURAL HISTORY.
BY J. BAILLIE FRASER, ESQ.,
Author of " An Historical and Descriptive Account of Persia,” &c.
WITH A MAP AND ENGRAVINGS.
NEW-YORK:
HARPER AND BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF-ST.
1842.





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0 Jan 25:22 F F
PRE FACE.
po.
In the work now presented to the public, the au-
thor has endeavoured to bring under one view all
that is known of the history and aspect, moral, phys-
ical, and political, of the provinces of Mesopotamia
and Assyria; and to give, at the same time, a sketch
of the causes that have produced the revolutions of
which they have been the theatre. The subject is
extensive and complicated, and the difficulty of com-
pressing the matter which it embraces into one vol.
ume was proportionally great. That all which
might have been done towards the attainment of
this object has really been effected, is more than the
author ventures to assert; but he can safely affirm
thai no pains have been spared in collecting the most
suitable materials to be found in the writings of
others, as well as in applying such as have been fur-
nished by his own acquaintance with those interest-
ing countries.
In point of fact, little original matter can be ex-
pected, unless we were to recover some of the lost
works of the ancients, or to succeed in deciphering
those inscriptions in the cuneiform character which
have hitherto baffled the researches of the learned.
Late discoveries, indeed, seemed to afford some rea-
sonable hope of success; but it must now be admit.
ted that, though several ingenious conjectures have
been made, and some plausible speculations have
been hazarded, no accession has been obtained to
our knowledge of facts. The subject in general,
therefore, remains as dark and uncertain as before.
Nearly all that can be said or known respecting
the history, chronology, religion, and manners of
these primeval empires, will be found collected in
the “ Universal Ancient History," a work of very
A2
25-2,8
gono


PREFACE.
great learning and research; but those who desire to
apply to the original sources of information may, in
addition to the sacred Scriptures of the Old Testa-
ment, consult the works of Herodotus, Diodorus Sic-
ulus, Arrian, Xenophon, Plutarch, and such others
as are usually cited by writers on this subject. Co-
ry's “ Ancient Fragments" will supply the English
reader with what remains of the works of Berosus,
Abydenus, Apollodorus, and Alexander Polyhistor.
Hyde, Bryant, Jackson, Hales, Usher, and Newton,
may be referred to for chronology. Sir William
Drummond, Faber, Bochart, and Beke, will afford
food enough for those who delight in ingenious spec.
ulations ; while Prideaux and Russell will show
what can be done to connect profane with sacred
history.
For light to guide him in geographical description,
the inquirer must have recourse to the works of
Ptolemy, of Strabo, and of Cellarius, together with
the minor geographies of Hudson and Isidore of
Charax; to Abulfeda and Ibn Haukul among the
Mohammedans; while, for comparative geography,
his main help will be found in D'Anville, Rennell,
and Vincent. Williams, in his Geographical Me-
moir, has presented some learned disquisitions; and
the researches of Rich, himself a man of classical
learning as well as a judicious observer, are of the
highest value. The works of Heeren treat of every
branch of the ancient history of these regions; and,
though we may not agree in all his conclusions, they
are entitled to respect as the opinions of a laborious
and acute inquirer into Oriental antiquities.
Our information regarding what may be termed
the middle ages of those countries--that is, from the
destruction of Babylon by Darius down to the Mo-
hammedan era-is greatly more extensive and com-
plete than that which we possess respecting their
remoter history. Those who are anxious for a more
intimate acquaintance with the events of this period,


PREFACE.
will find ample materials in the pages of the Univer-
sal History, and in the more eloquent chapters of
Gibbon.
In all that relates to the history and condition of
the Christian population in those provinces, and of
the various sects that have successively sprung up
or still continue to exist, the best authority is Asse-
mani, whose Oriental Dictionary is a mine of inval-
uable information on such subjects. Mosheim and
other Church historians may likewise be consulted,
as also Bingham, the author of " Origines Ecclesias-
ticæ,” though these all draw chiefly from Assemani.
Of the condition of modern Mesopotamia--that is,
from the Mohammedan conquest to the present
time-notices are to be found in the works of va-
rious travellers, from Rawolf and Benjamin of Tu-
dela downward. But less is known of Assyria,
which now constitutes a portion of the Turkish em-
Lire; and there is no general account of the present
state of the two provinces, although much valuable
information may be gathered from the works of Nie-
buhr, Olivier, Rich, Buckingham, Porter, and Rous-
seau. These materials, together with what the au-
thor has been enabled to glean from other sources,
as well as from his own observations, form the basis
of this portion of the present work ; and he must
here take occasion to express his obligations to Co-
lonel Taylor, Political Resident at Bagdad, to whom
he has been indebted, not only for the valuable man-
uscript journal of the late Mr. Elliot, but for much
iinportant information on matters connected with the
statistics of the country, as well as with the manners
of the people.
Much still remains to be done in both provinces,
for there are many districts of which, as yet, little or
nothing is known. The labours of modern travel-
lers are, however, daily throwing light on their an-
tiquities, natural history, and geography: and when
the works of Colonel Chesney, Major Rawlinson,


viii
PREFACE.
and others, shall have been given to the public, and
Mr. Ainsworth and his colleagues shall have com-
pleted the expedition they have undertaken under
the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, the
secrets of some of the most interesting districts in
Upper Mesopotamia and Kurdistan, especially those
of Sinjar, Hatteras, and Mount Jewar, will, it is ex-
pected, be laid fully open to the European world.
In the mean time, as every source of information,
both private and public, has been made use of in
combination with the author's personal knowledge
of the country, it is hoped that the geographical ac-
count which has been given will be found at once
entirely accurate, and as particular, too, as the limits
of such a work will permit. In this description may
be included the characteristic details of manners and
customs of the Arab and Kurdish tribes, which, de-
rived chiefly from actual observation, have been con-
firmed by various persons, whose opinions, from
their opportunities of judging, are entitled to the
highest credit.
The sketch of the natural history of these provin-
ces has likewise been drawn up with an anxious de-
sire to afford a summary of whatever valuable in-
formation has been collected upon the subject.
Of the decorations of this volume, the author has
only to observe, that they are all engraved from
drawings made by himself upon the spot, and that
he can vouch at least for their accuracy, nothing
having been added to the original sketch except the
particular effect which was deemed appropriate to
the subject.
The utmost care has been bestowed on the con.
struction of the map, which will be found to contain
all the additions made by recent travellers to our
geographical knowledge of the interesting country
which occupies the basin of the Tigris and Eu-
phrates.
May, 1841.


CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
General Description of Mesopotamia and Assyria.
High Claims of these Countries on our Regard.-Interest attached to
their early History.-Inquiry checked by Scantiness of authentic Rec-
ords.-Little known of the Origin of either the Assyrian or Babylo-
nian Empire, and their intimate Connexion with each other. -Defini-
tion of "Assyria” according to the Greek Historians.—The Jewish
Writers.-Boundaries.-Mesopotamia.-Limits defined.-Divisions of
Assyria according to Ptolemy-Strabo-D'Anville.- Mesopotamia ac-
cording to Strabo.--Modern Divisions of both Provinces.-Inhabitants.
_Tribes. --Arabs, and their Locations.-Kurds.-Habits.-Face of the
Country.- Mountains. - Rivers.- Euphrates.--Its Course.-Scenery
and Places along its Banks.-Periods of Rise and Fall.-The Tigris
and Tributaries.-Its Course.-Shut el Arab.-Khabour and Hermas.
-Greater and Lesser Zab.--Diala.-System of artificial Irrigation.-
Nature of the ancient Canals.-Names of those on Record.—The Pal-
lacopas.--The Nahrawan and Dijeil.-Modern Canals.-Marshes of
Babylonia.-Waasut.–The Shut el Hye.-Chaldean Marshes, and
Marshes of Susiana . . . .
· · Page 17
CHAPTER II.
History of the Assyrian Monarchy.
Uncertainty of the Chronology of these Periods.--Necessity of adopting
some consistent System of Notation.- Errors of Usher, Lloyd, and
others.--Discrepancy of Opinion between various Authors.--Mode of
Notation adopted.-Sources of Information.-Sacred Writ. – Greek
Historians.-Herodotus-Ctesias. - Commencement of the Assyrian
Empire according to each.-Syncellus and Polyhistor.-Beke's “ Ori-
gines Biblicæ."-Scriptural Account.--Lists of Kings of both Monar-
chies to the Fall of Babylon.--Claims of Ctesias to Credit discussed. -
Opinions divided.--His Account of the Assyrian Monarchy.- Ninus.
--Semiramis.-Ninyas, &c.-Thonos Concolerus.--His Identity with
Sardanapalus.-Errors of Ctesias.-History of the Monarchy according
to Scripture and Ptolemy's Canon.-Asshur Founder of it.-Pul.-
Tiglath-Pileser.-Shalmaneser. -Sennacherib.- Esarhaddon, suppo-
sed to be the warlike Sardanapalus.-Saosducheus, &c.- Various Con-
jectures.--Nabuchodonosor.-Fall of Nineveh-And of the Assyrian
Empire . . . . . . .
. . . . 37
CHAPTER III.
Rise and Fall of the Babylonian Empire.
The only authentic Record contained in Holy Writ.-Ptolemy's Canon
affords the only true Chronology.-Nabonassar.-Merodach Baladan.


CONTENTS.
Golden Statue.--Other gigantic Works.--Canals.- Artificial Lake.
Its Construction attributed to Semiramis, to Nebuchadnezzar, and to
Queen Nitocris. - Population.-Space occupied by Buildings.--Scrip-
tural Denunciations against Babylon . . . . . Page 94
- CHAPTER VI. .
Ruins of Babylon described.
Allusions to them by ancient Anthors.-From A.D. 917 to 1616.-De-
scribed by Niebuhr and Beauchamp.-By Olivier.-By Rich.--Gen-
eral Aspect.-Face of the Country.- Principal Mounds described.--
Hill of Amran.-El-kasr.-Remarkable Tree.--Embankment.--Muje-
libé. --Coffins discovered there.-Birs Nimrod.--Vitrified Masses.-Al
Heimar.-Other Ruins.--Buckingham's Account and Opinions of the
Mujelibé, El-kasr, &c.-Al Heimar.-The Birs.--Sir Robert Ker Por-
ter.-Iis Description of the same Ruins.---His Search for farther Ruins
on the west Side of the Euphrates.-Difficulty of reconciling the Posi-
tion of these Ruins with the Accounts of ancient Ilistorians.--Specu.
lations regarding the ancient Walls of Babylon.-- Probable Mistakes of
Buckingham.-Changes in the Course of the Euphrates.-Conjectures
concerning the Birs Nimrod-And the ancient Borsippa.-Discrepan-
cy between ancient Accounts.--Arrian and Berosus.---Cities built from
the Ruins of Babylon.--Ainsworth's Suggestion of a Change of Names
for the several Ruins.-His Mistakes in regard to Measurements.-
The vitrified Masses.-Much Room yet for Investigation respecting
these Ruins and the circumjacent Country.-Prospects of this being
effected . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
CHAPTER VII.
Other Ruins of Babylonia and Chaldea.
Akkerkoof.--The Site of Accad.--Umgeyer-According to some Opinions
the ancient Orchoe.-Jibel Sanam.-Teredon.- Workha.-Sunkhera.
--Yokha.-Til Eide.--Guttubeh.-Iskhuriah.--Zibliyeh.-Tel Siphr,
&c.-Waasut or Cascara.-Seleucia and Ctesiphon.-Tauk e Kesra.
--Cupidity of a Pacha.-Kalla mal Kesra.--Opis, Situation of.-Me-
dian Wall.-Traditions regarding its Use.--Sittace.--Sheriat el Bei-
tha.--Samarra.-The Malwiyah.-Large Mosque.- Kaf or Chaf.-
Giaoureah.-Kadesia. - Statue of black Basalt.-Tecreet.-Al Hadhr
or Hatra.-Felugia.-New Fields of Enterprise for Explorers 128
CHAPTER VIII.
Nineveh and its Environs.
Ancient Nineveh nowhere particularly described in Sacred Writ.-Ac-
count of by Diodorus.-Its Walls.-Incidentally mentioned by Herodo-
tus. By the Prophets Jonah and Nahum as an exceedingly great and
profligate City.-Mr. Rich's Account of its Ruins.-- Visible Remains.-
Tel Koyunjak.-Sepulchral Chamber and Inscription, &c.-Nebbi Yu-
nus.- Inscribed Gypsum-And Antiques.-Mosque in Memory of the
Prophet Jonah.-Conjectures.-Strabo's Account of the City's Extent.
--Mounds of Yaremjee, Zembil Tepessi, &c.-Vestiges not numerous.
- Mounds of Nimrod or Al Athur.-Larissa of Xenophon ?--Resin ?


dij
CONTENTS.
Remains.--Pyramid.-Mr. Rich's Voyages down the Tigris to Bag
dad.--Ancient Sites on the Banks.--His Visit to Mar Mattei.-Villa-
ges of Yezidees and Jacobite Christians.--Ain u Sofra.--Yezidees.--
Their Pope.--Some Particulars of their Faith and Worship.--Posi-
tion, Appearance, and Description of the Convent.--History.-Estab-
lishment.-View from its Terrace.-Ras ul Ain.-Excursion to Rabban
Hormuzd-And Al Kosh.-Character of the Yezidees.-Al Kosh.
Birth and Burial place of the Prophet Nahum.--Ascent to, and Ap-
pearance of the Convent of Rabban Hormuzd. - Establishment.--
Aspect of the Priests and Monks.--Discipline.-Period of Founding.
-Grottoes.-Manuscripts.-Destroyed.-Chaldean Villages populous.
-Convent of Mar Elias. Churches of Mars Toma and Mar She-
maoon . . . . . . .
.
• Page 142
CHAPTER IX.
Subsequent History of Mesopotamia and Assyria.
Rennell's Opinion of Xenophon's Retreat.--Advance of Cyrus.-Battle
of Cunaxa, and Death of Cyrus.--Truce between the Greek Generals
and the King. The former advance to the Tigris, and cross it at Sit-
tace.--Their March to Opis-And to the Banks of the Zab.-Treach-
ery of Tissaphernes. -Clearchus and other Officers put to Death.
Farther Attempts at Treachery.- Defeated by the Prudence of the
Greciar Officers.-Xenophon appointed to the Command. - The Greeks
cross the Zab.- Are assailed by Mithradates.- Arrangements for re-
pulsing the Enemy's light Troops.March to Larissa-To Mespila.
Struggles during their Progress to the Carduchian Mountains.-Re-
solve to ascend them in Preference to crossing the River.--Are reso-
lutely opposed by the Carduchians.-Abandon their useless Slaves and
Baggage.--Difficulties of the Ascent.Severe Contests with the Ene-
my-And Losses.-Cross the Centrites, and pass into Armenia.
Change of Dynasty.-Battle of Arbela.-The Seleucidæ.--Arsacidæ.
Appearance of the Romans in Mesopotamia.-Reduced to a Roman
Province.--First Expedition of Crassus.--Embassy from Orodes.- The
Romans driven out by the Parthians.--Second Expedition of Crassus.
-Advice of the King of Armenia.- Treachery of Abgarus-Who con-
ducts them into the Deserts of Charræ.-Infatuation of Crassus.-His
Army attacked by Surenas.-His Son slain.-The Romans forced to re-
treat with great Loss to Charræ.-Again betrayed and surrounded.-
Crassus forced by the Legionaries to negotiate.- Is slain during an in-
terview with Surenas. - The Army destroyed.-Reflections on the
Conduct of Xenophon and Crassus . . . . . . 155
CHAPTER X.
Continued Contests between the Romans and Persians.
The Parthians overrun the Country to Antioch, which is twice saved
with Difficulty.--Antony, having obtained the Eastern Provinces of
the Roman Empire, overtaxes Syria.-That Province, &c., overrun by
Labienus.--Pacoras defeated by Ventidius and slain.-Antony resolves
to invade the Parthian Empire.--His Success at first.-Takes the
Route of Armenia.-Invests Praaspa, the Capital of Media. Is forced
to raise the Siege and retreat.-Hardships during his Retreat.-Suce
ceeds in reaching and crossing the Araxes.His impatient Obstinacy.


CONTENTS.
xiii
---Farther Losses in Armenia.-Augustus Cæsar forces Phraates to
make Peace.-Successes of Trajan.-War continued with various Suc-
cess.-Exploits of Shapoor.-Constantius succeeded by Julian.--Juli-
an's Defiance of Shapoor.-His Expedition.--Successful Career.
Change of Fortune at Ctesiphon.--He is betrayed-Attacked, and kill-
ed by a Javelin.--Disastrous Retreat of the Roman Army under Jovian.
--Mesopotamia continues the Theatre of War till the Invasion of the
Huns.-The Roman Provinces invaded by Nooshirwan.--He is check-
ed by Belisarius,--Victorious Career of Khoosroo Purveez.---Arrested
by Heraclius, who outmanceuvres and defeats the Persians.--Triumph-
ant Expeditions of Heraclius.-Farther Efforts of Khoosroo.-He is de-
feated at all Points.--Destagerd taken,-Khoosroo put to Death by his
Son Siroes, who concludes a Treaty with Heraclius.-Capture of Cte-
siphon by the Moslems, and Incorporation of the two Provinces with
the Dominions of the Caliphs . . . . . . Page 177
CHAPTER XI.
Present State of Mesopotomia.
Buckingham's Account of Bir.-Orfa.-Mosque and Pool of “ Abraham
the Beloved.”-Mosques.-Gardens.- Population.- Manufactures.--
Castle.- History.--Haran.--Division of Opinions in regard to its Iden-
tity with the Haran of Genesis.- March to Mardin.--Plundering Arabs.
- Mardin described.--Ceremonial of the Syrian Church.-March to
Diarbekir.- Wadi Zenaar.-Approach to Diarbekir.-The City descri-
bed.-Walls.--Mosques and Churches.--History - Population.-Sin-
jar Mountains.-Dara.- Nisibin.-Sheik Farsee. - Extortion.- AC-
count of Nisibin.-More Extortion.- Journey to Mosul.- Appearance of
Mosul.- Description. - Houses.-- Bazars. - Coffee-houses.- Church-
es.--Population-Government.--Trade.-Climate.--Extent according
to Mr. Southgate.-Sinjar District visited by Mr. Forbes.-Yezidee
Robbers subdued by Hafiz Pacha.-Til Afar.-Bukrah.---Mirka.-Kir-
si.-Kolgha.--Samukhah.-Sakiniyah. -Description of the Country.
-Geographical Observations . . . . . . . 189
CHAPTER XII.
Present Condition of Assyria.
Portion of Kurdistan included in Assyria.-Nestorian Christians of Jewar.
-Sert.-Colonel Sheil's Journey to Jezirah ibn Omar.- Plain of Me-
diyad.-Jezirah ibn Omar described.-Its Chief.-Swimming the Ti-
gris.-Skirt the Mountains to Accra and the Zab.-Change of Scenery.
-Cross the Zab.-Erbile (Arbela). -Altun Kupri.-Kirkook.-Kufri.
-Antiquities.-Tooz Khoormattee.-Kara Teppé.--Aspect of Lower
Assyria. Sugramah Pass, and View from it.-Pachalic and Pacha of
Solymaneah.-Present State of the Town.-The Bebeh Tribe of
Kurds.-Climate.--Shahrasour.-State and Chief of Rewandooz.-His
Rise and Character -Pachalic and Pacha of Amadieh.-Dr. Ross's
Description of the Meer, his Camp, Government, Army.--Scheme of
executive Justice. - Fate.- Town of Rewandooz.- Nestorians of
Jewar.-Their Origin-Numbers-Government.-Face of their Coun-
try.--Antiquities at Shahraban.-The Zendan.-Kasr Shireen.-Ha-
oosh Kerek.-General Meanness of Sassanian Ruins.-Kelwatha.-


xiv
CONTENTS.
Pachalic of Zohab.--Sir e Pool e Zohab.–The ancient Calah or Hul
wan.--Antiquities there.-Royal Sepulchre
• Page 207
CHAPTER XIII.
Modern Babylonia.
Bagdad.--Its Origin, Position, and History.-Walls-Gates-Mosques
and Shrines.-Impressions on entering the City from Persia.-Banks
of the Tigris.-Boats.-Bazars.--Market-places.--Sketch by Bucking-
ham.- Private Houses.--Domestic Habits.- Women.--Georgians and
Arabs.-Population.-Establishment of Daood Pacha.-Plague in Bag-
dad.-Its rapid Progress.-Exposure of Infants.-Inundation.-Condi-
tion of the Pacha.-Instances of sweeping Mortality --Fate of Caravans
and Fugitives.-Subsequent Calamities.- Present Population.-Cos-
tume.- White Asses and black Slaves.-A Battle within the Walls.---
Insubordination at Kerbelah and Nejeff Ali.--Sketch of a March in
Babylonia.-Camp of the Zobeid Sheik.-His Tent--And Entertain-
ment.-Expenditure of an Arab Chief.—March towards Sook el Shi-
ook.-Arab Bravado.-Hospitality.-Madan Arabs.-Their Houses-
And Flocks of Buffaloes.-The Montefic Arabs.-Their Reed Huts.-
Sook el Shiook.-Interview with the Sheik of the Montefic. 230
CHAPTER XIV
Religion, Character, Manners, and Customs of the Inhabi-
tants of Modern Mesopotamia and Assyria.
Variety of Races.-Arabs.-Countries inhabited by.-Religion.-Char-
acter.-Blood-feuds - Sketches of the Arabs on the Euphrates by El-
liot. -Beni Saeed.-Hamet ul Khaleel --Their Women.-Costume.
Camp of the Al Fadhlee.-Food.-Jungle Arabs.-Mode of decamp-
ing and encamping.-Contrast between the Jungle, or Fellah and Be-
douin Arabs.-Kurds.-Religion.-Points of Similarity with the Scot-
tish Highlanders.--Manners in Society and in Domestic Life.--Selim
Aga.-Roostum Aga.--National Character.- Personal Appearance.-
Women.-Turkomans. -Christian Population.-Nestorians, Chalde-
ans, or Syrians.-Divisions of Sects.-Early Progress of Christianity in
the East.-Christian Bishops and Sees.-The Nestorian Heresy.-Con-
demnation of its Author.--Rise of the Jacobite Schism.-Its wide Dis-
semination.-Number of Sees.-Armenians and Roman Catholics.
Character of the Christian Population.--Chaldeans of Mount Jewar-
Sabæans.--Origin.-Tenets. -Persecution.-Places of Abode, and sup-
posed Numbers.-Manicheans.-Doctrines of Manes.-History of the
Sect.-Yezidees.-Supposed Origin.-Various Appellations.--Secrecy
observed by the concerning their Religion.- Account of their Tenets
so far as is known.-Tribes of the Sinjarli Yezidees.-Their Sacred
Fountains and Repositories of Treasure.-Character by Rich.-Shai-
tan Purust and Chirag Koosh.-Their Origin.-Ali Ullahis . . 260
CHAPTER XV.
Natural History.
Introduction. GEOLOGY.-FIRST DISTRICT Primary Rock.-Keb-
ban Silver and Lead Mines.-Copper Mines.-Carbonaceous Marls and


CONTENTS.
XV
Sandstones.-Coal.-SECOND DISTRICT-Supercretaceous Deposite.
---Limestone Deposite.-Compact Chalk.-Plutonic Rocks.-Forma-
tions near Orfa and Mosul.-Marble.-Sulphur Springs.--Mines.-
Hills of Kurdistan.-Calcareous Gypsum.-Hill of Flames.-Kufri
Hills. - Hamrine. - Formation of Euphrates.-Gypseous.- Plutonic
Rocks.-Marls.-Hills of Denudation.-Sand Hills.-Naphtha Springs.
-THIRD DISTRICT-Limits.-Moving Sand Hills.-Salt Emorescen-
ces.--Marshes.-Water Country. BOTANY.-FIRST or MOUNTAIN
DISTRICT—Forest Trees.-Cultivated Plants. --Gallnuts.--Gum Ar-
abic.-Manna.-SECOND DISTRICT- Plains of Assyria.--Spring Flow-
ers.--Summer.- Common Plants.- Potherbs. - Fruits. - Cultivated
Plants. - Vegetables. — THIRD DISTRICT - Alluvial.- Succulent
Plants.-Grasses.-Sedges.-Babylonian Willow.-Limit between the
Land and the Water.-Mariscus Elongatus. ZOOLOGY.-MAMMALIA
of First District-Plantigrade Carnivora.--Felines.--Rodents.-Rumi-
nants.-Angora.–Taurus.--Goat.-Other Districts - Bats.--Insecti-
vora. – Carnivora. - Lions. - Tigers. - Chaus.- Lynx. -- Hyenas.-
Wolves, &c.-Domestic Cats.-Dogs.-Turkoman Dog.-Rodents.--
Pachydermata.- Boar.- Horse.- Ass.- Ruminants.-- Dromedary.
Camels.- Gazelle.-Sheep.- Bovidæ.-ORNITHOLOGY -- Raptores.-
Vultures.-- Eagles.-- Owls. - Incessores.-- Cranes. — Nightingale.-
Larks.- Sparrows.-Bee-eaters, &c.- Game-birds.--Grouse. -Par-
tridges.-Cursores.-Ostrich.--Grallatores.-Palmipedes.-- REPTILES
-Tortoises.--Lizards.-Frogs, &c.-FISHES.-INSECTS Page 290
ENGRAVINGS.
Јасе
Le Vignette.
Map of Mesopotamia and Assyria
VIGNETTE--The Birs Nimrod.
Tauk e Kesra . . . . .
View of Bagdad.
. . .
Mesopotamian Arabs and their Tents
men
.
.
.
.
.
.
to face page 135
. . 230
262





MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA,
ANCIENT AND MODERN.
CHAPTER I.
General Description of Mesopotamia and Assyria.
High Claims of these Countries on our Regard.--Interest attached to
their early History.-luquiry checked by Scantiness of authentic Rec-
ords.--Little known of the Origin of either the Assyrian or Babylo-
nian Empire, and their intimate Connexion with each other. -Detini-
tion of " Assyria” according to the Greek Historians.- The Jewish
Writers.-Boundaries.--Mesopotamia.-Limits defined. -Divisions of
Assyria according to Ptolemy-Strabo-D'Anville.-Mesopotamia ac-
cording to Strabo.--Modern Divisions of both Provinces.-Inhabitants.
-Tribes.-Arabs, and their Locations.-Kurds.-Habits.-Face of the
Country.-- Mountains. - Rivers.- Euphrates.--Its Course.-Scenery
and Places along its Banks.-Periods of Rise and Fall.-The Tigris
and Tributaries.-Its Course.-Shut el Arab.--Khabour and Hermas.
-Greater and Lesser Zab.-Diala.--System of artificial Irrigation.-
Nature of the ancient Canals.-Names of those on Record.-The Pal-
lacopas.-The Nahrawan and Dijeil.--Modern Canals.-Marshes of
Babylonia.--Waasut.-The Shut el Hye.-Chaldean Marshes, and
Marshes of Susiana.
Places along its Course. -Shut el Aran: of artificial Irrigatio pala
It may be safely asserted that there are no regions in
the world which possess more powerful claims on our re-
gard than those which form the subject of the following
pages.
Mesopotamia and Assyria, if not actually the cradle of
mankind, were, at all events, the theatre on which the de-
scendants of Noah performed their first conspicuous part.
The plains of Shinar witnessed not only the defeat of that
presumptuous enterprise, which scattered them abroad upon
the face of the earth, but also the exploits of the “ Mighty
Hunter,” and the triumph of his ambition in the establish-
ment of the first monarchy recorded either by sacred or
profane writers.
B2


18
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
On the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris did the
two greatest cities of the ancient world rise into magnifi-
cence: Nineveh, which repented in sackcloth and ashes
at the preaching of Jonah, and Babylon, the “glory of
kingdoms,” which, elevated by the proud Nebuchadnezzar
to the height of splendour, listened to his impious boast-
ings, and saw his deep humiliation. There did Daniel
prophesy, and expound the mysterious warnings of the Most
High; and there did Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego
experience the signal protection of that Almighty Power
whom they feared and obeyed.
By the capturé, too, of that superb metropolis was the
word of prophecy fulfilled, and the rule of the great Cyrus
-an instrument in the Divine hand-consolidated over
Asia; and on the field of Arbela was that splendid empire
in its turn overthrown by the rising power of the Macedos
nian conqueror, who, after his brilliant career, returned to
the capital of Assyria to end his days.
In like manner have the plains of Mesopotamia borne
witness to the catastrophe of Cunaxa, and the gallant bear-
ing of the indomitable ten thousand; seen the defeat and
death of Crassus; the retreat of Marc Antony; the fall of
the apostate Julian; the disgraceful peace of his success-
or; and the changing fortunes of the bold Heraclius.
Events so various and important must invest the coun-
tries where they occurred with a deep interest; and that
portion of them, in particular, which has reference to the
early postdiluvian ages, cannot fail to excite the curiosity
of those who delight in marking the moral progress of the
human race. But all hope of tracing clearly the events
of their early history is checked by the scantiness of means;
for, while the annals of more recent times are illustrated
by numerous records, the glimpses of light shed from au-
thentic sources upon the remote period to which our views
are now directed, serve only to show that, at a very uncer-
tain era after the universal deluge, a monarchy was found-
ed on the Euphrates by Nimrod, the son of Cush, which
rose into considerable importance; and that, at some sub-
sequent period, it was overthrown by a neighbouring pow-
er, the seat of which was on the banks of the Tigris.
Mesopotamia and Assyria have, from the most ancient
times, been so intimately connected, both geographically
and politically, that they will be most clearly described


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
19
in conjunction with each other., Herodotus, Strabo, and
others use the latter appellation, as including both, in con-
junction with certain other provinces; and Heeren ad-
verts to this fact when he observes that the Greek histori-
ans apply the term generally to several monarchies which
flourished in the regions about the Tigris and Euphrates
previous to the reign of Cyrus. The Jewish writers, on
The other hand, use it to express a distinct nation of con-
querors, and the founders of an empire, having the seat of
government at Nineveh, and which flourished between the
years 800 and 700 B.C. Hence, to define the limits of
Assyria, according to the ideas of ancient historians, would
be impossible, because, like those of all Eastern sovereign-
ties, they varied with the fortune of every chief who held
the sceptre. But, viewing both countries merely in the
light of geographical divisions of Asia, it will not be diffi-
cult to indicate their boundaries.
Loosely speaking, Assyria may be considered as termi-
nated on the west by the course of the Tigris, on the north
by Armenia, on the northeast and east by Mount Zagros
and the Gordyæan range, and on the southeast by the prov-
ince of Susiana or Kuzistan.
Mesopotamia may be more strictly defined, as embraced
by the Tigris and Euphrates, except on the north, where it
meets the mountains of Armenia. But it will be proper to
specify more exactly the various regions which are to pass
under our review.
If a line were drawn from Arghana Madan by Erzen to
Sert, along the crest of the intervening heights, and from
thence carried behind Amadieh along the tops of Aiagha
Dag or Zagros, including Solymaneah and Zohab, till it
should reach the Pass of Kerrend, and extended again by
a course comprehending Mendali, to a point upon the Ti-
gris somewhat below Ctesiphon, such a line, taken in con-
junction with that river from its source to the point where
they meet, will circumscribe pretty accurately the ancient
Assyria.
Again, if the same line were continued westward to Ma-
latia on the Euphrates, the boundary of Mesopotamia would
from thence be indicated, as already observed, by the course
* Manual of Ancient Geography, by A. H. L. Heeren. Oxford, 1829,
8vo, p. 25, 26.


20
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
of that river; but as both banks are comprehended in the
basin, and may physically, as well as politically, be regard-
ed as connected with each other, we shall include in our
description all places of importance on the one as well as
on the other. "
By Ptolemy, Assyria is divided, from northwest to south-
east, into the provinces of Arrapachitis, Adiabene (which
is sometimes used to designate the whole country), Arbe-
litis, Calachene, Apolloniatis, and Sittacene. Aturia or
Atyria, Artacene, Chalonitis, and Corduene, are also men-
tioned by others; but there are no means of distinctly as-
certaining their respective boundaries.
· Strabo describes it as conterminous with Persia and Su-
siana, and as comprehending Babylonia and a considera-
ble portion of the surrounding district, the countries of the
Elymæans, Parætacenians, and Chalonitis, towards Mount
Zagros; the plains in the environs of Nineveh, namely,
Dołomenia, Calachenia, Chazenia, and Adiabene; the val-
leys of the Gordyæans, and the Mygdonians of Nisibis even
to Zeugma* of the Euphrates; and the vast region beyond
the river inhabited by the Arabs, to the Cilicians, Phæni-
cians, and Libyans, and the portion of the coast compre-
hending the Sea of Egypt and the Gulf of Issus.t
Herodotus remarks that Babylon and the other parts of
Assyria formed the ninth satrapy of Darius; and as by
that historian Syria is considered as included in Assyria,
this government, in his estimation, must have extended
from the Mediterranean to the head of the Persian Gulf,
and from Mount Taurus to the Arabian Desert.I
D'Anville assigns to both countries nearly the same lim-
its which we have given them, and describes Mesopota-
mia as a region between rivers, the Aram Naharaim of
the Pentateuch, and called “ul Jezeerah," or the Island,
by the Arabs.lt
* Or the Bridge, or place for passing the river, the site of the present
Roumkala.
+ Strabo, cura Casauboni. Amst., 1763, folio, lib. xvi., p. 1070.
# Herodotus, cura Wesselingii. Amst., 1763, folio, lib. iii., p. 245.
9 Beke, in his Origines Biblicæ, disputes this opinion, and conceives,
upon grounds which he sets forth, that “ Aram Naharaim" of the Pen-
tateuch is to be sought in the land of Damascus, watered by the Rivers
Pharphar and Abana.
HI Géographie Ancienne, par M. D'Anville, 3 tomes, 12mo. Paris, 1768,
tome ii., p. 190.
20ana.


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
21
By Strabo, Mesopotamia is declared to be bounded on
the north by Taurus, which separates it from Armenia;
that it is largest near the mountains, where, between Thap-
sacus, at the passage of the Euphrates, and the point where
Alexander crossed the Tigris, it is 2400 stadia broad;
while between Babylon and Seleucia, the space separating
the rivers does not exceed 200 stadia. He states that the
Mygdonians inhabit the part near the Euphrates and the
two Zeugmas; that they possess the city of Nisibis, called
also Antiocha Mygdonia, at the foot of Mount Masius,
that of Tigranocerta, the districts of Carrhes and Nice-
phorium, Chordiraza and Sinnaca; that near the Tigris,
among the mountains, is the country of the Gordyæans, call-
ed by the ancients Carduchi, where also are found the Cos-
sæans, the Paretacenians, and the Elymæans; and that
the southern portions of Mesopotamia are inhabited by
the Scenite Arabs, a nomade people, who live by plunder,
and change their abodes when pasture and booty fail.*
It would be very difficult to assign to these several di-
visions a place in modern maps. The northern part of
Mesopotamia, to the foot of Mount Masius, is certainly the
Mygdonia of the Greeks, including Nisibin and Aljezira.
To the west, and stretching southward, lies the district of
Osroene, including the ancient Edessa, Charræ, and Nice-
phorium ; Circesium (now Karkisia), at the junction of
the Khabour with the Euphrates, is rather the name ap-
plied to a city than a country; and, excepting the towns
upon the river's bank, there appears to have been no place
of consequence between Khabour and Babylonia proper:
indeed, the tract must have always been in great measure
a desert. These limits extended from the Median wall
which joined the two rivers, and included all the space
between them, which, no doubt, was subdivided into many
districts, the names of which have not reached our time.
The lower part of this province obtained the designation
of Chaldea, because, after the capture of Babylon, many
of the inhabitants retired thither, carrying with them their
arts and sciences; but this colony must be carefully dis-
tinguished from the true and ancient Chaldea, the birth-
place of Terah and Abraham, the mother-country of the
wise men, and, doubtless, of the race that ruled both there
and in Nineveh.
* Strabo, lib. xvi., p. 1082.


22
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
Returning to the northern limits of Assyria, we find the
districts of Carduchia and Corduene in the mountains be-
tween Sert and Julamerik; Arbelitis, of which the capital
was Arbela, in the low lands; the plains of Dolomenia
and Calachene spread around Mosul; the Gordyæans,
Elymæans, and Parætacenians occupied the valleys of
the Gordyæan Mountains, at whose foot, towards Kirkook,
stretch the plains of Adiabene, Apolloniatis, the present
Shahraban, and Chalonitis, which last appears to have
been the southeastern district, bordering on Louristan and
Susiana. Such, perhaps, according to our present knowl-
edge of the ancient divisions of these provinces, is the
nearest adaptation of them to modern maps.
We have now to consider the modern divisions of the
countries we have undertaken to describe. The pachalic
of Bagdad is at present a dependancy of the Turkish em-
pire, and governed by a pacha sent from Constantinople.
It is arranged into the following districts :
Mardin, governed by a waiwodeh. | Mendali, a zabit.
Nisibin,
Janan, -
Mosul, by a pacha, nominated by Bagdad, residence of the pacha.
the Porte, but subject to the Pa- ! Bussora, a mussellim.
cha of Bagdad.
Sook el Shiook, a sheik.
Arbel, a beg.
Semava, a sheik.
Kirkook, a mussellim.
Khezail, a sheik.
Khoee, till lately subject to the men Lemlum, a sheik.
of Rewandooz.
Nejeff, a mootwullee.
Kewy Sanjiak, a pacha.
Kerbela, a mootwullee.
Solymaneah, a pacha.
Hillah, a beg.
Dour, a zabit.
Jubbeh, a beg.
Tecreet, a beg.
Hit, a beg.
Samieh, a zabit.
Anah, a beg.
Zohab, a pacha.
Rahaba, a beg.
Khanekin, a pacha.
To this enumeration must be added the towns on the
right bank of the Euphrates, above Rahaba, most of which
are included in the pachalic of Aleppo, and have been al-
ready adverted to. These, with the districts of Diarbekir,
Orfa, Jezirah ul Omar, Sert, Amadieh, Accra, and some
others among the Kurdish Mountains, will complete the
detail of our limits in so far as territory is concerned. But
besides the fixed inhabitants who form the agricultural
population, and the dwellers in the towns, there are a vast
number of wandering tribes, both Arabs and Kurds, who
roam over its surface, paying little regard to any govern-


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
23
ment whatever. The whole country from Mardin to Kar-
kisia, following the line of the Khabour and Hermas Riv-
ers, has of late been overrun by the Jerbah tribe, who, at-
tracted some years ago from Arabia by the hopes of better
pasture, took possession of that part of the Jezirah. The
vicinity of Bagdad is in the same manner infested by the
tribe of Delaim, aided by the Jubboor.
From Semava to Hillah the country is swampy, in con-
sequence of the Euphrates having long since broken its
embankments. This tract, including what are known as
the Lemlum Marshes, is held by the Khezail Arabs, who
cultivate the ground, and feed large flocks of buffaloes, on
which they subsist. Above Hit, the whole western bank
of the river, and the country beyond it, is in the possession
of numerous petty clans, who in their turn are domineered
over by the Aneiza, a very powerful tribe, who range the
Desert from the vicinity of Aleppo to an unknown extent
inward, suffering no one to pass without their permission.
On the eastern side of the Tigris, the Chaab Arabs hold
possession of the low country of Susiana from the River
Kerkha to the sea; while northwest of that river, the Beni
Lam exercise sovereignty until they are met by the Feilee
tribes of Louristan, who feed their flocks and pillage tray.
ellers to the very neighbourhood of Mendali. From thence
northward to the boundary of Assyria, between the Gordy-
æan Mountains and the Tigris, the country swarms with
various classes of robbers, who, by their ravages, check ev-
ery attempt at improvement which the inhabitants might
otherwise be induced to make. Owing to these causes, as
well as from the influence of a bad government, Mesopo-
tamia and Assyria, which comprise in their extent some
of the richest land in the world, are reduced almost to an
unproductive desert.
The face of this extensive country, stretching nearly 800
miles from northwest to southeast, by a medium breadth
of 200, exhibits great variety of soil, climate, and appear-
ance. Thus the whole of Irak or Babylonia may be de-
'scribed as a rich alluvial flat, varied by marshy tracts and
a few sandy stripes. Again, the lower part of Mesopota-
mia degenerates from a loamy deposite into a hard gravel;
while the higher districts of Diarbekir, Sert, Jezirah ui
Omar, Amadieh, and Solymaneah, consist of little else than
a mass of mountains intersected by fertile valleys. These


24
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
ridges rise to a still greater height in the neighbourhood of
Julamerik, and Mount Jewar is said to ascend at least
15,000 feet; on the other hand, the plains of Arbela and
Nineveh, of Kirkook, Tooz Khoormattee, and Kufri,
though in some places scorched, are yet occasionally very
productive.
In like manner, while the low country is parched with
the intense heat of summer, the eye may be regaled by the
sight of a snowy ridge hanging like a cloud in the air; and
when the inhabitants of Bagdad are panting in their sirdabs,
or cellars under ground, whither they retire to avoid the
rays of the sun, the traveller who is crossing the mountains
of Kurdistan is glad to draw his cloak tightly about him,
to protect his person from the cold blasts that descend from
the ice-covered peaks. Thus, too, the date-tree yields its
luscious fruit in perfection in the plains of Babylonia, while
only the hardier fruits of northern climes can be matured
in the orchards of the Kurdish highlands.
The mountain ranges of Sinjar, of Masius, and the
Hamrines, are among the principal ones of Upper Meso-
potamia. The exact extent and direction of the first is not
well known; but it is connected, as we gather from Mr.
Ainsworth, on the northeast with a series of low rounded
eminences called the Babel Hills, which appear to cross
the Tigris below Jezirah ibn Omar to the south of Zaco.
Mount Masius runs in a westerly direction from the Ti-
gris to the parallel of Nisibin, when, turning towards the
north at Dara, it again assumes its former line, overlook-
ing throughout its course a very level plain. Northward
from this boundary the country consists of high table-
lands, intersected by ridges of rocky mountains, which are
branches of Taurus, under the names of Karahjah Dag,
Ali Dag, Madan, Mahrab, and Kalaat Dag. The last two
are peaks of that range which divides the eastern Euphra-
tes and the Tigris, the sources of the latter river being sit-
uated in its southern face, near the Arghana mines.
Both provinces have been by nature blessed with the
means of almost unlimited fertility in the abundant streams
which water them, though this benefit has been differently
distributed in each. In Assyria and Upper Mesopotamia
the rivers and mountain streams are numerous; and there
is no want either of rain or snow to assist in bringing the
crops to maturity. On the other hand, in Lower Mesopo-


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
25
tamia and Babylonia, productiveness must depend on the
industry and judgment with which the inhabitants dispense
the ample supplies afforded by the Tigris and Euphrates,
and take advantage of their periodical inundations.
From Erzingan (eight caravan days' journey from Er-
zeroum), Colonel Chesney remarks* that the Euphrates
may be described as a river of the first order, struggling in
an exceedingly tortuous course through numerous obsta-
cles; and, though forming frequent rapids, is still so shal-
low that, during the autumn, loaded camels can in some
places pass it. Its velocity is from two to four miles an
hour, according to season and localities. It is navigable
for large boats, or, rather, rafts of 120 tons, from Erzingan
probably, and certainly from Malatia, downward.t This
was the case in the days of Herodotus; and the produce
of Armenia might still be carried as far as Hillah, as it
then was to Babylon.
The upper part of the river brought to the recollection
of the colonel and his party the scenery of the Rhine below
Schaffhausen, being enclosed between two parallel ranges
of hills, and having its banks covered, for the most part
thickly, with brushwood and timber of moderate size, with
a succession of long narrow islands in its bed, on some of
which are considerable towns. There are also numerous
villages on either side, chiefly inhabited by Arabs, among
whom the Weljee or Welda, and the Bohabour tribes appear
to be the principal. From Bir downward to Hit, the stream
is much interrupted with shallows and fords, where camels
pass with ease; and between Racca and Anah, a distance
of about 170 miles, the bed is particularly rocky. On the
whole, the scenery is described as possessing a very pic-
turesque character, not a little heightened by the frequent
occurrence of ancient aqueducts formed of mason-work,
coming boldly up to the water's edge, and which, owing to
the frequent windings of the river, appear in every possible
* In his Report contained in the Parliamentary papers on the Euphra-
tes Expedition.
+ This seems doubtful, as Mr. Brant, British consul at Erzeroum, who
crossed the river (there still called the Morad) on his way from Kharput
to Malatia, at a place called Ezz Ogloo, considerably below the latter,
affirms that from that place, for forty-five miles downward, it bursts
through the great chain of Taurus, and forms such a succession of rap-
ids, and runs in so rocky a channel, that no rafts or boats attempt to pass.
Below that space, he says, it becomes and continues to be navigable.


26
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
variety of position. These celebrated structures will here-
after be more particularly delineated.
About ten miles below Hit, the hills almost entirely
cease; there is little brushwood and few trees on the banks,
and the ancient aqueducts give place to the common wheel
or water-skins, raised by bullocks with ropes drawn over
pulleys. The river winds less, and instead of rocks and
pebbles, the bed is now formed of sand or mud, while the
current is duller and deeper than before. As far as Hillah,
almost the only habitations to be seen are the black hair-
tents of the Bedouins, rising among patches of cultivation
and clusters of date-trees. Approaching the latter place,
canals for irrigation become more frequent; and near the
remains of ancient Babylon, two streams called the Nil
proceed from the river, one above and the other below the
principal ruin, and form a lake which fertilizes much land.
For thirty miles below Hillah the banks are covered
with mud villages imbedded in date-trees, to which suc-
ceed huts built neatly of reeds, with earthen forts or castles
to protect the crops. Farther down, near Lemlum, the
land, being flat, is easily irrigated ; and here the river din
vides itself into several streams, the two lower of which
encircle a considerable island, and in the season of flood
overflow the country on either side to the extent of sixty
miles. The moment that the waters recede, which hap-
pens in June, the whole of this tract is covered with crops
of rice and other grain, and dotted with reed cottages.
These last, when suffered to remain too long, are frequent-
ly surprised by the rising inundation; and it is no uncom-
mon thing to see persons on foot or in their canoes follow-
ing their floating village in order to arrest the materials.
Not many years ago, the whole town was thus swept away;
yet the inhabitants constantly rebuild their dwellings in
the same spot.
In passing through these marshes, the river, which from
Bir to Hillah preserves a breadth varying from 300 to 450
yards, is contracted occasionally to fifty, with a depth of
from six to nine feet, and a very winding course. But at
Saloa Castle, twenty miles below Lemlum, it again aug-
ments in size, and the lake on the right bank disappears,
But the eastern bank continues still low and marshy,
and the country requires to be protected by bunds or dams,
which, however, often break when the waters rise, and


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
27
much damage is occasioned. The stream, nevertheless,
maintains a breadth varying from 200 to 400 yards as far
as Korna, where it forms a junction with the Tigris; and
from this point the united river is from 500 to 800 yards in
breadth, and three to five fathoms deep.
A slight increase takes place in the Euphrates in Janu-
ary, but the grand flood does not commence till about the
27th of March ; and it attains its height about the 20th of
May, after which it falls pretty rapidly till June, when the
rice and grain crops are sown in the marshes. The de-
crease then proceeds gradually until the middle of Novem-
ber, when the stream is at its lowest. The rise of the wa-
ter at Anah in ordinary seasons is from ten to twelve feet;
though it occasionally amounts to eighteen, entering the
town, and overflowing much of the bank. At its greatest
height it runs with a velocity exceeding five miles an hour,
but after a decrease of twenty days there is a correspond-
ing diminution of rapidity, insomuch that boats can track
against the current.
The course of the Euphrates from Bir to Bussora has
been estimated by Colonel Chesney at 1143 miles, and
from Bir upward by the eastern branch to its source near
Malasgird, is about 500 more, making an aggregate of
fully 1600 miles.
The Tigris takes its rise in that branch of Taurus where
the mines of Arghana are situated, and whence the waters
flow to this river on the south, and to the Morad on the
north. Bursting through the eastern part of Mount Ma-
sius, from which it receives many small tributaries, it is
joined at Osmankeuy by a considerable stream, called by
Kinneir the Batman Su, by the Turks Bulespena or Bare-
ma. Another large supply is afforded by the Erzen, which
is said to take its rise in Susan, a district northwest of Bet-
lis, probably in the range of Mount Niphates. It was six-
ty yards broad where crossed by the author now named,
and reached his horse's knees. The next feeder is the
Betlischai, which falls into it somewhere above Jezirah ul
Omar, and was found by him to be eighty yards broad, and
not fordable. He erroneously takes it for the Khabour,
which, rising in the district of Amadieh, unites with the
Heizel, and falls into the Tigris below Zaco.
Passing the ruins of Ctesiphon and Seleucia, the Tigris
holds its course through a deep alluvial soil and marshy


28
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
land. Its banks, like those of the Euphrates, are thickly
sprinkled with heaps and mounds, the vestiges of former
habitations, with Arab tents or huts, and some considera-
ble villages, among which the chief is Koote ul Amara,
giving its name to the river as far as Korna. At this lat-
ter place the two great streams unite, forming, as has been
seen, the Shut el Arab, though Abulfeda calls it still the
Digleh or Tigris all the way to the sea.
Among the rivers of importance which have their rise
in Mesopotamia are the Khabour (ancient Chaboras), and
the Hermas or Huali, which unite before they fall into the
Euphrates at Karkisia. Of these, the first has its source
partly in the springs of Ras ul Ain, and partly at a great-
er distance in the northwest; the second originates in
Mount Masius, and flows by Nisibin and Sinjar to lose it-
self in the other.
The greater Zab is formed of many streams which flow
from the Kurdish Mountains. It is joined about twenty-
five miles from its confluence with the Tigris by the Go-
mel, the ancient Bumadus, which has its rise north of Ac-
cra. The lesser Zab, too, derives its waters from va
sources. One large branch from Lahijan in Kurdistan,
called the Ak-su, runs by Sardasht, and, joined by anoth-
er stream from the vicinity of Banna, unites with that
which passes through the Keuy Sanjiak valley, above Al-
tun Kupri. The rest, though considerable, are less known.
The Diala issues from the Koh Saugur, between Hama-
dan and Kermanshah, from whence, bursting through a
pass of the Shahu Mountains, and receiving many tribu-
taries in its course, it forces its way through the remarka-
ble defile of Darnah, where there are still the ruins of a
town and castle. From thence, receiving an accession at
Gundar, it enters the singular plain of Semiram by a tre-
mendous gorge, and assumes a southwesterly course until
it unites with the Hulwan River near Khanekin. Previ-
ous to this it is called the Shirwan, from an ancient city
of that name, past the ruins of which it flows; but after
its junction it assumes the appellation of the Diala, which
it retains till it falls into the Tigris a little below Bagdad.
Having thus described the principal rivers of these coun-
tries, it will be proper also to give some idea of the sys-
tem of artificial irrigation which was so essential to the
prosperity of the alluvial districts,


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
29
The fertility of Babylonia has been the theme of all an-
cient writers. Herodotus remarks that this province and
the rest of Assyria were by Darius constituted the ninth
satrapy of his empire, and that it contributed a full third
part of the revenues of the state. This great productive-
ness did not arise from the soil in its natural state, for at
this day it produces little besides a scanty sprinkling of
tamarisks, thorns, or salsugineous plants. It was effected
by the wisdom of a judicious monarch, who, aiding the
efforts of an industrious people, supplied the means of ir-
rigation from the periodical floods of the Euphrates and
Tigris. The same historian, Diodorus, and others, inform
us of great hydraulic operations being conducted by sev-
eral sovereigns of Babylon; and of these the magnificent
system of canals by which the flat surface of the land was
divided into sections, all within reach of the water, was,
no doubt, the most important. The traveller, in passing
over the face of the country, now almost a desert, meets
everywhere with vestiges which prove how completely
traversed it once was by such arteries of fructification. It is
remarkable, too, that all these canals, instead of having
been sunk in the earth, like those of the present day, were
entirely constructed on the surface; a fact which proves not
only the superior skill of the engineers of antiquity, but
the infinitely greater attention to agriculture paid in those
times by farmers or peasantry. By what means the water
was raised to fill these conduits, does not in every case
appear; whether by dikes thrown across the river, or by
depressing its bed at the point of derivation. The for-
mer expedient was certainly adopted in many instances on
the Athem, on the Diala, on the T'igris above Samarra, and
on the Euphrates near Hit. But it must be recollected that
the country contiguous to both rivers, and the Euphrates in
particular, was protected by embankments from the peri-
odical rise of their streams, a measure which, by confining
the water, raised it so as to fill these canals. In this man-
ner they served the double purpose of vents for drawing
off the dangerous superabundance of the fluid, and collect-
ing it for the beneficial purpose of irrigation.
The principal canals mentioned by ancient geographers
are the Nahr-raga, the Nahr Sares, the Fluvius Regius,
the Kutha, and the Pallacopas. The first of these, which,
according to Pliny, has its origin at Sippara or Hippara,
C2


30
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
appears to occupy the place of the Nahr Isa, which, de-
rived from the Euphrates at Dehmah near Anbar, joined
the Tigris in the western part of that city.
The Nahr Sares of Ptolemy is by D'Anville considered
as identical with the Nahr Sarsar of Abulfeda, who de-
scribes it as rising below the former, as passing through
the level country between Bagdad and Cufa, and joining
the Tigris between Bagdad and Madayn. Mr. Ainsworth
says “this corresponds to the present Zimberaniyah,” and
remarks that Ammianus Marcellinus notices a canal be-
tween Macepracta and Perisabor on the Nahr Malikah,
which must be the Sarsar.*
The Fluvius Regius of Ptolemy is undoubtedly the Nahr
Malikah of the Arabian geographers, which, according to
Ammianus, was drawn from Perisaboras on the Euphra-
tes, and is said by Abulfeda to have joined the Tigris be-
low Madayn. It was one of the most ancient, as well as
most important of these works in Babylonia, being attrib-
uted by tradition to Cush, and to Nimrod king of Babel;
while Abydenus, with more probability, attributes it to
Nebuchadnezzar.
We are told that, about seven miles below the Nahr
Malikah, a second canal was derived from the Euphrates,
which traversed the country nearly parallel with the oth-
ers, and, like them, emptied itself into the Tigris. In its
course it passed the old city of Kutha, supposed to have
derived its name from Cush, the father of Nimrod, whose
posterity possessed the land.t
These are the four canals supposed to have been passed
by the army of Cyrus the younger, after the battle of Cu-
naxa, on their way to Sitiace; and, from the position of
these works, a good idea may be obtained of the method
of irrigation in those days. The country was intersected
by them at intervals of six or eight miles, and could thus
be watered throughout its whole extent by smaller ones
derived from the principal conduits.
But, besides these larger channels, there were many of in-
ferior size, constructed to supply particular towns and dis-
* Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea, by William Ains-
worth, F.G.S., &c., 8vo, London, 1838, p. 163-165.
† Mr. Ainsworth (Researches, p. 166) thinks that this town of Kutha
may be represented by the ruins and mounds of the Towebah, which by
some are considered as the northern quarter of ancient Babylon.








MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
31
tricts, each quarter of Babylon itself being provided with
water in that manner. The numerous dry beds still to be
seen in all directions, prove the extent to which the system
was carried.
Nearly twenty-two miles below the point of derivation
of the Kutha canal, as we are told by the same geogra-
pher, the Frat divided itself into two streams, the more
southern of which passes beyond Cufa into the marshes
of Roomyah. The other and larger branch flows opposite
the Kasr ibn Hobeirah, and bears the name of the Nahr
Soora.*
The former branch of the Euphrates here spoken of is,
we believe, the same that now forms the lake called the
Sea of Nejeff, and which sweeps round till it joins the
marshes of Roomyah.
It is probable that hence was derived the great canal of
Pallacopas, which appears to have been executed in the
very early days of the Babylonian monarchy, and intend-
ed, perhaps, as much to promote agriculture by means of
irrigation, as to drain a mass of waters injurious to health
and improvement.
We learn from Arrian that much expense was incurred
by the governors of Babylon in restraining an over-abun-
dant flow through the Pallacopas into the fenny districts;
and that, therefore, Alexander, willing to do the Assyrians
a benefit, resolved to dam up that entrance from the Eu-
phrates. He proposed that a cut should be made about
thirty furlongs from the mouth of the canal, where the soil
was rocky, being satisfied that much water would be there
by saved, and its distribution better regulated.
From the first part of this account we should be led to
think that the ancient canal had its commencement, at
least, in what Abulfeda terms the southern branch of the
Euphrates, as through this the water reached the marshes.
From the second it would appear as if Alexander had pur-
sued his intention of effectually damming up the overflow
of the river in the old bed of the canal, and made a fresh
* Mr. Ainsworth (Researches, p. 171, 172) calls it Nahr Surah or Sa-
res, and from thence deduces its identity with the Nahr Sares of Ptole-
my; but we believe it was called Nahr Soora from the name of a town
in its vicinity.
† Arriani Historia, curâ Gronovii, Lugd. Bat., 1704, folio, lib. vii., p.
302.


32
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
opening at the distance of thirty furlongs in firmer ground.
The circumstance of his sailing down the Euphrates to
the mouth of the Pallacopas, and through that canal to the
place where he built the town now called Meshed Ali,
would lead to the supposition that the new cut must have
been about the parallel of Cufa or Dewannieh. That the
Pallacopas was continued to the sea, into which it emp-
tied itself somewhere about Teredon, is certain, although
its channel is now nearly obliterated; for both Colonel
Chesney and Lieutenant Ormsby, in journeying westward
froin Bussora, found its bed between Zobeir and the Jibel
Sanam, which is the site of ancient Teredon. The last
named of these gentlemen found that it was sixty paces
broad; and his guide told him that, in travelling along its
channel all the way from Khor Abdullah (the supposed an-
cient mouth of the Euphrates) to Hillah, mounds, with the
usual vestiges of old buildings, are frequently met with on
its banks. In the days of Abulfeda, however, the Pallaco-
pas was no longer in operation, and the waters seem to
have escaped by their old vent into the marshes, the work
of Alexander having probably given way. Of late, the
higher portion of the Babylonian fens received a great
augmentation from the damage done to the embankinents
of the river in the memorable inundation of 1830. For
many years previous to that time, the Montefic Arabs had
farmed the whole western side of the Euphrates from the
Pacha of Bagdad at a certain sum, and upon condition of
maintaining in good order the huds which prevented it
from overflowing the country from Sook el Shiook to Hit.
In that year these embankments were swept away, and
have not since been replaced, so that the river, when in
flood, has a free passage into the Bahr e Nejeff.
These were the principal canals derived from the Eu-
phrates in this quarter. No doubt there were many others
in the level districts of Mesopotamia, but they are less
known; and it is highly probable that the alļuvial territory
between the Hye, the Tigris, and the Euphrates, was equal-
ly well supplied with such means of irrigation. In like
manner, the districts about Bussora bear marks of having
been anciently supplied with conduits, though most of the
names are now lost.
The waters of the Tigris have also been made subservi-
ent to the purposes of agriculture by means of various ca.


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
33
nals; and two of these merit especial mention. The first
was the Nahrawan, the most magnificent, indeed, of all
similar works achieved by the ancient kings of Babylon.
Its sources were threefold. The first, issuing from the
river at the point where it cuts the Hamrine hills, ran dis-
lant from the parent stream about six or seven miles to-
wards the ancient town of Samarra, where it was joined
by the second conduit. This last, leaving the Tigris at a
place called Guntree Rissassee, fell into the other, which
Then received the name or Nahrawan, and the united cur-
rent ran nearly south-southeast towards the Athem, absorb-
ing first the superfluous waters of the Nahr But, then the
Athem itself, next the Nahr Raathan, and, finally, a third
cut from the river at Gaim. Hence it proceeded generally
at the distance of from six to twelve miles from the course
of the Tigris, as it flowed in those days, but approaching
it at Bagdad; a little after which it crossed the Diala, ex-
hausting its contents, which were raised to a proper level
by a bund.
In like manner, this gigantic aqueduct stretched onward
till, entering Kuzistan, it absorbed all the streams from the
Lour and Buckharee Mountains, and at length joined the
Kerkha, or, as some say, was lost in the marshes of that
part of Susiana.
In its long course of nearly 400 miles, this canal, which
equalled the Tigris in size, being from 250 to 400 feet broad,
fertilized a vast district of country, sending off numerous
branches on both sides, and one, in particular, to Jarjarya,
not far from Koote ul Amara.
On its margin are found ruins of various buildings, and
on either bank the sites of towns and cities, which once
derived wealth from the commerce or agriculture it en-
couraged, and which, with it, have sunk into ruin. Much
of the marsh now existing in the line of its course has been
formed by the waters it formerly directed to useful purpo-
ses; and those of the Diala, in particular, have forced a
passage to the Tigris below Bagdad, converting much
land, once carefully cultivated, into a swampy waste.
Second to the Nahrawan, but also of great importance,
is the Dijeil Canal, which issued from the right bank of
the Tigris some miles below Samarra. It flows parallel
to that river to within twenty-five miles of Bagdad, and
even now fertilizes a large extent of territory, which, how-
ever, is at present in the hands of the Jerbah Arabs.


34
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
The following canals are still in operation, and exhibit
a melancholy contrast with the magnificent catalogue of
antiquity;
1. The Boogharaib, deriving its waters from the Euphra-
tes below Felugia, joins the marshes of Bagdad.
2. The Massoodee, drawn from a swamp fed from the
Euphrates, and falls into the Tigris two hours below the
former.
3. The Daoodee (cut by Daood Pacha), which connects
the two just mentioned.
4. The Rithwannieh issues from the Euphrates south-
west from Bagdad, and joins the Tigris below the Massoo-
dee.
5. The Mahmoodee, which has its supplies from the Eu-
phrates, flows towards Seleucia, but is exhausted in the
process of irrigation.
. There are a few smaller cuts between these last and the
town of Hillah, but they water comparatively little ground.
. 6. The Khalis (on the Assyrian side of the Tigris), sup-
plied by the Diala, runs nearly seventy miles with a wind-
ing course towards the south west, that brings it to within
twenty miles of Bagdad.
7. The Khoraisan, which flows from the opposite side
of the same river, has nearly an equal course in a south-
easterly direction.
With the exception of the last two, these canals are
works of very inferior extent and importance to the an-
cient ones.
8. The Dijeil, already described, is ancient, but now al-
most entirely filled up.
Besides these, there are several near Bussora, such as
the Nahr Kerbela leading to that place, and the Nejeff con-
structed by Nadir Shah, of the present state of which we
are ignorant. Mr. Ainsworth* mentions a system of irri-
gating ducts near Gerah, as the Mejilah, the Jemilah, the
Antar, the Jamidah, and others; and there are similar
works opposite Semava, including the extensive line of the
Shatrah Canal, which gives numerous offsets to the Eu-
phrates, and unites with the Hye near its mouth. With
the exception of the irrigation accomplished by means of
the water-wheel on the banks of the rivers, it is from the
* Researches, p. 127.


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
35
operation of these cuts that the whole agricultural produce
of the present Babylonia is still raised, the food of the in-
habitants provided, and the revenue furnished.
The Marshes of that district must here also claim a few
words. The first to be noticed is the great tract already
alluded to which lies near Hillah, and is seen stretching
out like a vast sea.
These swamps are fed by the Euphrates at the season of
its great rise, the embankments which restrained its wa.
ters having been destroyed. They communicate with the
Roomyah and Lemlum Marshes, through which the river
winds, but probably also send a considerable portion of
their fluid down the ancient Pallacopas, and to an un-
known distance into the Arabian desert.
The Lemlum themselves are the next in succession
southward, though connected with the former, and consti-
tuting part of the Paludes Babylonia, in which many of
the galleys of Alexander lost their way when they accom-
panied him on his voyage. These marshes, according to
Colonel Chesney, occupy a space of sixty miles in breadth,
and rather more in length. A considerable portion of
them, however, is cultivated by Khezail Arabs,
Mr. Ainsworth says that there is but a narrow band of
soil between them and the Tigris; but in this he is mista-
ken, as actual observation has proved that they extend
rather towards the Hye than to that river.
The next fenny tract is the one that surrounds the ruins
of Workha, considered by Mr. Ainsworth and Colonel
Taylor to be the district of Chaldea proper; and which,
doubtless, is connected with the marshes of Lemlum. Of
its extent there exists no accurate information, as the na-
ture of the country renders travelling there extremely dif-
ficult.
Communicating with this watery land by creeks or
ditches, if not by a continuity of swampy ground, is the
valley of the Boo je Heirat and Shut el Hye. This val-
ley appears once to have been the bed of the Tigris itself,
for Abulfeda distinctly says that Waasut was intersected
by the Digleh, which was spanned by a bridge of boats.
This city, the ancient Cascara, and the seat of one of the
bishops of early Christianity, was once populous, rich,
well cultivated, and flourishing. The industry of the in
habitants restrained within proper embankments the over-


36
GENERAL DESCRIPTION, ETC.
abundance of the waters with which it was surrounded;
but when wars and troubles arose, these were either neg-
lected or destroyed, and the populous province accordingly
returned to a state of nature, and became a country of
lakes and morasses.
Mr. Ainsworth considers this Waasut to be the seat of
the ancient Cybate, and adopts the opinion that the Nahra-
wan which appears in the valley is the same which origi-
nates at Samarra on the Tigris. Probably some of the
lakes described by Abulfeda represented in his day the
Chaldean one of Pliny, which, according to the English
traveller, lay beyond the former course of the Tigris and
Nahrawan, and was, no doubt, connected with it. The
whole country east of the Hye is indeed of a very low and
marshy character, "while the dry land on the banks of the
Euphrates stretches beyond the Shut el Hye, protected by
the date-plantations, the rampart-enclosed reed huts, and
the more stable habitations of the Montefic Arabs from
Kut (Koote), by Sook el Shiook to Omu el Bak, the 'moth-
er of moschetoes ;' the inland country to the east and to the
west in the parallel of the 'Sheik's Market-town' becomes
already occupied by an almost perpetual inundation; and
at Omu el Bak the waters spread from the banks of the
river in every direction like a great lake, extending to the
extreme verge of the horizon, and only here and there in-
terrupted by groves of date-trees, and occasional huts isl-
anded in the desert of waters. On the ascent of the steam-
er Euphrates in the latter end of October, and the descent
of the same vessel in the beginning of November, 1836, the
extent of this great inundation had undergone very little
diminution from what it had been in the month of June,
nearly at the period of the great foods."* But few par-
ticulars are known of the former extent of the several lakes
or morasses which are separated by slips of higher land,
where the Beni Ruffeyah and other Arabs pitch their tents.
At the end of this Chaldean lake Pliny places Ampe, which
Mr. Ainsworth is disposed to think is now represented
by Korna, at the junction of the two rivers. D'Anville,
however, considers this town as identical with Ptolemy's
Apamea and the Digla of Pliny. On the other side of the
present bed of the Tigris are found the marshes of Susiana,
* Ainsworth's Researches, p. 128, 129.


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 37
which, if the river formerly ran through the valley of the
Hye, must have been continuous with the Chaldean Lake,
or only separated by the low territory of the Messina of
Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo, and others. Indeed, the whole
country of Susiana, which lies on the left bank of the cur,
rent, appears to be little more than one succession of mo.
rasses.
CHAPTER II.
History of the Assyrian Monarchy.
Uncertainty of the Chronology of these Periods.- Necessity of adopting
some consistent System of Notation. -- Errors of Usher, Lloyd, and
others.--Discrepancy of Opinion between various Authors.--Mode of
Notation adopted. Sources of Information.-Sacred Writ. - Greek
Historians.-Herodotus-Ctesias, - Commencement of the Assyrian
Empire according to each.-Syncellus and Polyhistor.-Beke's "Ori-
gines Biblicæ."-Scriptural Account.-Lists of Kings of both Monar-
chies to the Fall of Babylon.-Claims of Ctesias to Credit discussed.-
Opinions divided.-His Account of the Assyrian Monarchy.- Ninus.
-Semiramis.-Ninyas, &c.—Thonos Concolerus.His Identity with
Sardanapalus.--Errors of Ctesias:- History of the Monarchy according
to Scripture and Ptolemy's Canon.-Asshur Founder of it. -Pul.
Tiglath-Pileser.-Shalmaneser.- Sennacherib. - Esarhaddon, suppo-
sed to be the warlike Sardanapalus.--Saosducheus, &c.- Various Con.
jectures.-Nabuchodonosor.-Fall of Nineveh-And of the Assyrian
Empire.
HAVING thus given a description of the boundaries, divis-
ions, and general aspect of the countries hereafter to be
more minutely delineated, we shall endeavour, as succinct-
ly as possible, to sketch the history of the monarchies of
which, from the earliest times, they were the seat. This
is a task of no ordinary difficulty; for so obscure is the
chronology of those remote periods, and perplexing are
the names and actions attributed by various writers to in-
dividuals who are said to have flourished during them, that,
in spite of the numerous attempts to connect the detached
notices on the subject, it still remains not a little dark and
confused. As an instance of this, and of the discrepancy
which prevails among chronologists on some of the most
important epochs, it may be mentioned that Dr. Hales, in
D


38 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
his learned work, recites upward of 120 several opinions
in reference to the interval which elapsed between the cre-
ation of the world and the birth of our Saviour, and the
extremes are removed from each other by no less than
3268 years. A difference of 1142 years occurs, in like
manner, among authors in fixing the era of the Deluge;
they disagree, also, to the extent of 300 years regarding the
time of the fall of Nineveh; and a like diversity prevails
upon the date of the Exode of the Jews from Egypt.
An attempt to reconcile the various systems that have
produced such discordant opinions would be but an idle
waste of time, and unsuited to a work of this nature, which
professes rather to give results than to enter into laboured
disquisitions. It is proposed only to state the issue of the
most successful investigations on the subject of the an-
cient Babylonish and Assyrian monarchies. But, in order
to succeed even in this, some system of chronology must
be adopted, and we shall shortly explain the nature of that
which has been preferred.
It is generally known that the scheme of Usher, Lloyd,
and others, which furnishes the marginal dates in the au-
thorized version of the Scriptures, and was adopted in the
eighth century in place of the more ancient notation of the
Septuagint, is now held to be altogether erroneous. The
era of creation, according to that account, is only 4004
years anterior to the birth of Christ.
The following are considered as among the highest au-
thorities on this subject:
5555
5481
Josephus, according to various authors.........
5402
4698
5586
The Septuagint.....................................
5508
Syncellus ............................................5500
Pezron ................................................5872
Eusebius ....
.........5200
Jackson.....
........5426
Hales..................................................5411
Dr. Russell, who, in his “Connexion of Sacred and Pro-
fane History," has examined this subject with great as-
siduity and learning, and who has consulted not only the
writings of Jewish and pagan historians, and of the early
* Vol. i., Preliminary Dissertation ; and vol. ii., chap. i.


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 39
fathers, but also the works of the most distinguished mod-
ern chronologists, inclines to fix this important point in
the year B.C. 5441, which, being nearly a mean of the best
authorities, we will venture to adopt as that by which to
determine such dates as admit of precise notation. On
the same grounds, he places the era of the Deluge in
· · · · '
Or after the Creation
B.C.3185
Or after the Creation . . . . . . 2256
Making, till the era of redemption :
5441
Assuming, therefore, this point as established, we shall
proceed to the history of those early ages so far as there
are grounds on which to base our narrative.
The principal sources of information are, first, the Scrip-
tures of the Old Testament; and, secondly, the writings
of several Greek historians who have treated of those
times.
Of these last, the two most important are, Herodotus,
who lived about the year B.C. 430, contemporary with Ne-
hemiah and Malachi, and who himself visited Babylon and
saw its condition only a hundred years after it was taken
by Cyrus. The other is Ctesias, a physician of Cnidos,
who, accompanying Cyrus the younger in that quality on
his expedition against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon,
was taken prisoner at the battle of Cunaxa, B.C. 399, and
resided at the court of that monarch seventeen years.
From the writings of these two historians, it will be found
that all subsequent annalists and geographers, including
Diodorus and Strabo, have chiefly drawn their materials;
and it is these original elements, multiplied and often dis-
torted by the theories and conjectures of numerous com-
mentators, that supply all the information we really pos-
sess regarding those early and obscure periods in the his-
tory of man.
The authors of the “Universal History," a work of deep
erudition and research, incline to reject almost entirely
the testimony of Ctesias, whose long list of kings, with its
mixture of Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and Median names,
seems to destroy the pretensions of its compiler to veraci-
ty; while they attach much credit to the accounts of He-
rodotus, as agreeing far better than those of other histori-
ans with the chronology of Sacred Writ and the few insu-
lated facts that can be brought to bear upon the subject.


40 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
VA
no
According to their computation, after this historian, the
Assyrian monarchy commenced 1236 B.C., and continued
520 years.*
Dr. Russell, in his very elaborate examination of the
question, for which we must refer our readers to the work
itself (vol. ii., chap. i.), comes to the conclusion that the
account of Ctesias is by no means to be altogether reject-
ed; and the result of his inquiry is to place the origin of
the Assyrian empire in the year.
B.C.2126
Or after the Flood i .
1059
3185
which, with the assumed period from the Creation to
the Flood of . . . . . . .
makes, up to the birth of Christ.
. 5441
And he observes that this comes to within one year of the
date fixed by Ctesias for the commencement of his catalogue
of the Assyrian monarchs, the accession of Ninus being
placed in the year B.C. 2127.
Proceeding with his retrospect, and quoting from the
Chronographia of Syncellus of the Chaldean. kings who
succeeded Nimrod at Babylon, Dr. Russell carries back
the commencement of that monarch's reign, or the origin
of the first Babylonish monarchy, to the year 601, or 619
after the Deluge, that is, to B.C. 2566: the difference be-
tween the two former sums arising from an equivalent dif-
ference assigned to the duration of certain reigns, accord.
ing to Syncellus and Alexander Polyhistor. A third dy-
nasty has been added to these by Moses of Chorene, an
Armenian historian, who quotes from Abydenus, a compi-
ler of Chaldean records; but he inclines to reject this as
being quite unknown to the two former authors.
It is to be observed that these three later and Christian
writers are the only ones who have touched upon this por-
tion of Babylonian history; all others commencing their
labours only where Sacred Writ terminates its short but
invaluable notices upon this dark era.
This fact has been prominently set forward by Mr. Beke
in his laborious and interesting work of “Origines Bibli-
cæ,” in which he examines with great ingenuity every-
* Ancient Universal History, 8vo, Lond., 1747–1754, vol. iv., p. 264-
270.


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 41
thing which has been presented to us on these important
points in the Sacred Volume, and rejects almost entirely
all other evidence upon the subject as fabulous and unsat-
isfactory.
It must, in fact, be confessed that, with regard to the ear-
liest period of the Babylonian annals, we have no other
source of information worthy of any credit besides the Bi-
ble; and all which we learn there is the bare fact that, at
a certain time, a son or descendant of Cush attained to
great power, and founded a kingdom, “the beginning of
which was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh in
the land of Shinar.”*
In the same manner, the whole which we are told re-
garding the foundation of an Assyrian kingdom is, that at
some period, equally undetermined, “out of that land [of
Shinar) went forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh, and the
city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Resen between Nineveh
and Calah.”+ It is true that the proper reading of this
passage has been much disputed; for many authorities,
both English and German, contend that its true meaning
is, that Nimrod went forth as a conqueror into the land of
Asshur, and builded Nineveh and the other towns. In ei-
ther case, Asshur must have preceded Nimrod, as we find
the country already called by his name; and farther down
we are informed that he was a son or descendant of Shem.
Of the kingdom of Babylon we hear no more from Scrip-
ture history till the days of Merodach Baladan, B.C. 721,
who revolted from the Assyrians and wrote to King Hez-
ekiah; while the first mention of an Assyrian monarch is
in the year B.C. 821, when Jonah was sent to one in Nin-
eveh, who by some is supposed to be identical with the
Arbaces of Ctesias. .
Considering as we do the Sacred Volume as containing
the only undoubted source of information on this subject,
down to the era of Nabonassar, B.C. 747, when the Canon
of Ptolemy, founded on astronomical observation, com-
mences (Nabonassar having himself destroyed all records
of antecedent kings and dynasties), it would still be im-
proper, in a work of this sort, to pass over entirely the tés.
timony of historians who have written from such sources
as were open to them, and which, among a great mass of
* Gen., X., 10.
† Gen., X., 11, 12.
D2


42 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
error and fable, unquestionably contains some facts which
may be reconciled with those that proceed from less
doubtful sources. We shall therefore give a succinct ac-
count of the origin of the two monarchies, as it appears in
the most accredited histories; and, in order to assist the
reader in comprehending the chronology of the period, we
have framed the accompanying table, upon the data alrea-
dy referred to, showing the dynasties, names of kings, pe-
riods of their respective reigns, and the year of their ac-
cession before the Christian era, from the rise of the Baby-
lonian power under Nimrod, and that of Assyria under
Asshur, down to the extinction of both by the arms of the
renowned Cyrus in the year B.C. 536.
BABYLON.
CHALDEAN KINGS.
Years. B.C.
1. Nimrod, 619 years after the Deluge, founds a kingdom
in the land of Shinar, and reigned .................0....2566
2. Chomasbolus ..................................... 7 ... 2560
3. Porus ............................................35.... 2552
4. Nechubes ........................................43....2517
6. Abius .....................
.......48.... 2474
.6. Oniballus ........................................40....2426
7. Zinzirus ...........................
.....45....2386
2244
ARAB KINGS.
1. Mardocentes deposes Zinzirus in ........... ............2341
And reigned ...............
.......45
2. Name and period lost, say .............
...2296
3. Sisimardacus ..
.28....2256
4. Nabius ........
.37... .2228
5. Parannus ......
.40....2191
6. Nabonnebus .....
.......25....2151
215
Deposed and slain by Ninus in ...........
..2126
ASSYRIA.
Asshur, period unknown, went out from Shinar and built Nineveh
and other cities.
No account of his successors till the time of Ninus.


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 43
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.
Assyrian KINGS ACCORDING TO CTESIAS.
Years. B.C.
1. Ninus, conquered Babylon in ......... .............2126
Reigned
.......52
2. Semiramis....
42.... 2074
3. Ninyas ...........
..............38....2032
4. Arius ............................................30....1994
5. Aralius ..........................................40.... 1964
6. Xerxes or Balaus ....
. 1924
7. Armanithres .................
.....38.... 1894
8. Belochus .............
......35....1857
9. Balæus ...............
......52.... 1821
10. Sethos, Altadas
......35....1769
11. Mamythus
......30.... 1734
12. Ascalius or Mascaleus
.30. ... 1704
13. Sphærus .....
..............28.... 1674
14. Mamylus .........
.......30....1646
15. Sparthæus
........40....1616
16. Ascatades .........
.42....1576
17. Amyntes ........................................50....1534
18. Belochus II. ..................
1484
19. Baletores or Baletaras ......
........34.... 1459
20. Lamprides ......
.....37.... 1425
21. Sosares ........
.....20....1388
22. Lampares ......
......30....1368
23. Panyas ......
......45....1338
24. Sosarmus
.......42....1293
25. Mithræus ......................................37.... 1251
26. Teutamus or Tautanus ..............
32.... 1214
27. Teutæus .....................
.......44.... 1182
28. Thineus ....
.......30....1138
29. Dercylus .....
......40....1108
30. Empacmes
......38.... 1068
31. Laosthenes
......45....1030
32. Pertiades ......
......30.... 985
33. Ophræteus .....
......21.... 955
34. Ephecheres ...
.52.... 934
35. Acraganes ......
42.... 882
36. Thonos Colcolerus or Sardanapalus .... ..............20.... 841
Under this monarch occurred the revolt of the Medes and
Babylonians, which terminated in a separation of the mon-
archy once more into the Babylonian and Assyrio-Median
States .............................................. 821
BABYLONIAN SOVEREIGNS ACCORDING TO SCRIPTURE
AND PTOLEMY.
Earlier Sovereigns unknown, probably Belesis and his family.
Years. B.C.
1. Nabonassar; the era of this monarch's accession ascer-
tained by astronomical calculation, reigned ........14.... 747


44 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
Years. BC.
2. Nadius .......................................... 2....733
3. Chinzirus ..............
..... 5....731
4. Jugæus ................
... 5....726
5. Merodach Baladan .....
..12....721
Revolts from the Assyrians, and writes to King Hez-
ez-
ekiah ................................
.........710
6. Arcianus .......
.......... 5....709
1st Interregnum ...................
.. 2....704
7. Belibus .......................................... 3....702
8. Apronadius ........................................6....699
9. Regibelus ............................
..........1....693
10. Mesessemordak ........................
......4....692
2d Interregnum ......
........8....688
11. Esarhaddon subdues Babylon, and reduces it to a tribu-
tary state .....
. 13....680
12. Saosducheus or Nebuchadnezzar I. ...
.20....667
13. Chyniladan ..........
...22.... 647
14. Nabopolassar or Labynetus ....
..21....625
In alliance with Cyaxares, who takes Nineveh............606
ASSYRIAN SOVEREIGNS ACCORDING TO SCRIPTURE AND
PTOLEMY.
B.C.
1. King of Assyria, mentioned in Jonah, unnamed, probably iden-
tical with Arbaces of Ctesias .
.821
Jonah's prophecy about ......
.......800
2. Pul or Belus, Mandauces of Ctesias ....
.....790
1st Invasion of Israel ............
......770
3. Tiglath-pileser ....
.......747
20 Invasion of Israel .....
.......740
4. Shalmaneser .......
.........726
34 Invasion of Israel ............
.722
5. Sennacherib ............................. .. ............714
1st Invasion of Judea ...................................711
6. Esarhaddon, Assarhaddon, or Sardanapalus I. ..... ........710
In this reign the Medes and Babylonians again revolt; the
former elect Dejoces for their king ; the latter, under
Merodach Baladan, assert their independence.
Babylon reconquered ...................................680
2d Invasion of Judea, and captivity of Manasseh ..........674
7. Ninus III....................
......................667
8. Nabuchodonosor I. .................
.......658
Defeat of Arphaxad or Phraortes the Mede ... ......641
3d Invasion of Judea by Holofernes......................640
9. Sarac, or Sardanapalus II. ......
..... 636
Nineveh taken by Cyaxares in alliance with Nabopolassar..606
8. Nabucent of Arphazalea by Holo
BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AFTER THE CAPTURE OF NINEVEH,
ACCORDING TO SCRIPTURE, PTOLEMY, BEROSUS, HEROD-
OTUS, AND XENOPHON.
1. Nabopolassar throws off the Assyrian yoke, Nineveh be-
ing destroyed, reigned .....
....... 2....606
Years.
B.C


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 45
Years. B.C.
2. Nabecolassar, Bochtanser, or Nebuchadnezzar........43....604
Subdues Persia or Elam ................................596
3. Evil Merodach ..................................... 3....561
4. Nericassolassar, Neriglissar, or Belshazzar* .......... 5....558
5. Laborosoarshod did not reign a year.
6. Nabonadius or Labynetus II. appointed by Cyaxares or
Darius the Mede* ...........
.......17....553
Babylon taken by Cyrus, and the empire terminated ........536
It is unnecessary to repeat the lists of Chaldean and
Arabian kings which appear in the table, as no particulars
whatever are given of their reigns. The last of them, if
they ever had an existence, was overthrown and proba-
bly put to death by the celebrated Ninus, the first in Cte-
sias's catalogue of Assyrian rulers, who at this time waxed
great, and succeeded in uniting under one sovereign the
crowns of Assyria and Babylon.
Of the monarchs who filled the throne of Assyria, from
the foundation of the empire by Asshur till the accession
of Ninus, no record has reached our times, either in pro-
fane or in sacred history; and the magnitude and duration
of the empire itself can only be inferred from the fact that
it contained many rich and populous cities, and became
so powerful as to overthrow the might of Babylon. As,
however, the whole narrative touching the following race
of kings rests upon the authority of Ctesias, it may be well
to examine shortly what degree of credit is due to his wri.
tings.
That he had good opportunities for observation and in-
quiry cannot be denied; for he enjoyed the favour of the
monarch at whose court he lived, and had access, it is as-
serted, to the records of the empire, preserved from a re-
mote period.
But, in the first place, we are met by the fact already
stated, that Nabonassar had, previously to the time he
treats of, destroyed all, or, at any rate, most of the nation-
al records; and, in the second, unfortunately for his credit,
he did not confine himself to those things concerning which
he might have had personal knowledge. Besides, the ac-
count he wrote of India was such as to stamp him in the
minds of all his readers as a perfect romancer; hence the
great Aristotle, nearly his contemporary, declares him to
be a writer entitled to no belief; and others of the ancients
* Hales.


46 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
have been equally severe on him. “Who can see Ninus
at the head of millions of men, at a time when the earth
must have been but thinly inhabited, when mankind must
have been a good deal in a state of simplicity and nature;
who can read this without arraigning the historian of false
hood and forgery? Or who can read his story of Semira-
mis—her mighty valour and heroic deeds at the age of
twenty or thereabout; her two millions of men employed
in the building of Babylon; her 300,000 skins of black oxen
made up in the form of elephants, and other things of this
nature--and not conclude that what contained it was no
genuine history, but a most barefaced romance ?"*
Then, continues the same writer, the very medley of
names, Greek, Egyptian, and Persian, argue his list to be
the grossest forgery. In the canon of Scripture, all the
five names recorded are evidently Assyrian, being derived
from the names of their gods: thus we find Pul or Phul,
Tiglath-pileser for Tiglath-pul-assur, Shalmaneser for Shal-
man-assur, and Esarhaddon for Assur-haddon; whereas no
such analogy is observable in the lists of Ctesias and his
followers. Again, the length and equality of the reigns is
against all experience and probability: besides which,
there exist anachronisms and discrepancies from sacred
history which condemn him; for, according to him, Ninus
and Abraham must have existed together, as the former,
by his account, conquered Persia, Media, Egypt, Assyria,
and all Asia in the days of the patriarch, while no trace
of any such events is to be found in Scripture. On the
contrary, the succession of rulers given in the Bible is to-
tally inconsistent with the fabled conquests by Ninus and
Semiramis.
Dr. Russell, on the other hand, is inclined to repose far
greater confidence in the testimony of Ctesias, partly be-
cause, he argues, it does not appear that the historian could
have had any motive for fabricating a falsehood, and part-
ly because there are strong grounds for believing that some,
at least, of the sovereigns and conquerors he mentions ac-
tually had existence, and performed some of the exploits
attributed to them. But for the long and elaborate chain
of reasoning by which he arrives at the conclusion that
the term of duration and list of kings assigned by that his-
* Ancient Universal History, vol. iv., p. 265.


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 47
torian to the Assyrian monarchy, from its foundation by
Ninus to its extinction under Thonos Concolerus or Sar.
danapalus, are worthy of credit and adoption, we must re-
fer to the work itself,* as it is too long for insertion here,
and depends too much upon a nice comparison of dates
and events to admit of abridgment. With these remarks
upon the credibility of Ctesias, we shall proceed to give a
short account of his history.
Ninus, the first-mentioned sovereign, is represented as a
martial and ambitious prince, who, conceiving the idea of
extensive conquest, trained up the youth of his kingdom to
warlike usages and personal endurance. By these means,
having created a formidable army, he entered into a league
with the King of Arabia, by whose assistance he overran
Babylonia, reduced its cities and strongholds, carrying the
royal family away to captivity and death.
Armenia, his next object, would have fallen an easy
prey, had not its king, Barzanus, appeased the conqueror
with gifts, and consented to become his vassal. Pharnus,
the sovereign of Media, was next overthrown and put to
death; and, if we are to credit the historian, in seventeen
years Ninus appears to have brought into subjection the
greater part of Asia, except India and Bactriana; pro
bly the vast regions of Tartary also remained untouched.
Having led his victorious army back to his own country,
he employed the treasures he had amassed, and the multi-
tude of people he had collected, in building the city of Nin-
eveh, the origin of which is in Scripture assigned to As-
shur, at probably a much earlier period, unless, with some,
we should conclude that Ninus and he are the same person.
An expedition against the Bactrians having failed, the
great conqueror, after constructing the stupendous city de-
scribed by our author, proceeded a second time against
that nation; and the enterprise was not more remarkable
for the success which attended the arms of the Assyrian
monarch, than for its being the occasion of his union with
the renowned Semiramis, whose name is so well known
in the ancient history of the East, although chronologers
cannot agree within 1500 years as to the period of her ex-
istence.
So extraordinary a heroine could not in those days be
ba-
* Connexion of Sacred and Profane History, vol. ii., c. l.


48 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
permitted to have a mere human origin ; and, according-
ly, Ctesias ascribes her birth to the amour of a certain
goddess, named Derceto by the Greek writers, with an ob-
scure youth who was sacrificing at her altar. The infant,
abandoned by its mother near Ascalon in Syria, was rear-
ed, according to tradition, by flocks of pigeons, from which
circumstance these birds were held sacred in Syria; and
the name of Semiramis is by some asserted to be derived
from a word in that language signifying a dove.
The fact probably is, assuming the reality of her exist.
ence, that she was a woman of low origin, but remarkable
for beauty of person and vigour of mind. By these quali-
ties she captivated the heart of Menon, governor of Syria,
who married her, and had by her two children. In the
end he became so attached to her, that, when forced to ac-
company his sovereign into Bactriana, he desired her to
repair to the camp in disguise. She obeyed, and made
her appearance in a dress calculated to conceal her sex,
and yet to set off her charms so much, that the Persian
ladies afterward assumed it.
Ninus, who on this occasion is said to have led against
Bactriana the incredible multitude of 1,700,000 foot, 210,000
horse, and 10,600 scythe-armed chariots, had already re-
duced the whole country, with its numerous and populous
cities, except the capital, which was still maintained by
its king Oxyartes. The acute and intelligent observations
of Semiramis upon the conduct of the siege first attracted
the great monarch's attention; and the valour and ability
which she displayed in carrying into practice the measures
she advised, not less than her beauty, made, in the sequel,
so powerful an impression on his heart, that he attempted
by negotiation to obtain the lady from her husband. Find-
ing these means ineffectual, he suceeeded in his object by
menace; upon which Menon, in a fit of rage and despair,
put an end to his life, and Semiramis became the consort
of Ninus.
By this lady the Assyrian ruler had a son named Ninyas,
who succeeded his mother on the throne. For himself, hé
did not live long to enjoy his triumphs; and his death has
by some subsequent writers been attributed to the treach-
cry of the woman whom he had, at the expense of faith
and honour, raised to a throne. It is said that, having
secured the good-will of the nobles, she induced the king


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 49
to invest her with the sovereignty over his dominions for
five days, and that the first use she made of this power
was to put himself to death. Other authors, who follow
Ctesias, are silent regarding the manner of his demise,
which is supposed to have taken place at Nineveh in a
natural manner, after his return from the conquest of Bac-
tria, and at the close of a reign of fifty-two years. At all
events, sufficient honours were paid to his remains by the
widow, for she erected in his capital a tumulus of the most
gigantic proportions.
Secure on the throne, Semiramis now thought only of
eclipsing the glory of her husband; and her first act was
to build the city of Babylon, the same, we are told, of
which the ruins still excite the astonishment of travellers,
and the magnificence of which, according to the account
preserved from Ctesias, is calculated to excite doubt even
more than amazement. Nor were her splendid works
confined to the metropolis. The banks of the Euphrates
and Tigris were embellished with towns; and the com-
merce of her empire was improved by various judicious
measures, as were its agricultural resources by the canals
which she caused to be formed.
Having completed her operations in Mesopotamia, Se-
miramis assembled a vast army, and marching into Media,
left there also magnificent monuments of her power and
taste, and where, during the completion of these works,
according to some authors, she abandoned herself for a
· long time to a course of the most profligate vice and luxu-
ry. But, arousing from this disgraceful sloth, she visited
the whole of her Asiatic dominions, and passing thence
through Egypt, added the greater part of Libya to her wide
territories. From thence she marched to reduce Ethiopia,
and, having settled affairs in that quarter, she again enter-
ed Asia, and reposed for a while at Bactra.
But tranquillity had no charms for this restless conquer-
or. The wealth and prosperity of distant India excited
her ambition; she longed to view its wonders, to possess
its riches, and therefore she resolved to invade it. "Three
years were consumed in preparing an armament suited to
this great enterprise; and the force with which she at last
left Bactra is by Ctesias set down at the incredible multi-
tude of 3,000,000 foot, 200,000 horse, 100,000 armed chari-
ots, 100,000 camelmen, besides artificers. To these were


50 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
added 2000 vessels for navigating the Indus, carried to the
banks of the river on camels, together with the hides of
300,000 black oxen, made into artificial elephants, formed
for the purpose of familiarizing her cavalry with the sight
of these animals, as well as to terrify the Indians and en-
courage her own troops by a show of the counterfeit quad-
rupeds.
The preparations made by Stabrobates, the sovereign
of India, for repelling this alarming invasion, were such
as became a powerful prince, jealous of his independence,
and indignant at an unprovoked aggression. It is assert-
ed that he gathered together a far greater army than Se-
miramis commanded, and, adding contumely to defiance,
upbraided his enemy with her infamous mode of life, and
threatened, should his arms be successful, to put her to a
cruel death. She smiled at his threats, and advanced to
the Indus. “He does not know me yet," said she; "he
will soon have an opportunity of judging me by my ac-
tions and deportment." But the height of her fortune and
the limit of her empire had now been reached. A tempo-
rary success rendered her bold; and, decoyed across the
river, over which she constructed a bridge of boats, she
came to a decisive action with the Indian king. Her ar-
tificial elephants could not withstand the shock of the true
ones; and, being wounded in a combat hand to hand with
Stabrobates, she was forced to recross the stream. The
bridge was destroyed in order to check pursuit; but, though
many of the Indians perished in the struggle, a multitude
of her own troops also were destroyed, and the Assyrian
queen retreated to Bactra with scarcely a third part of her
army.
This was the last of her enterprises. Her own son, de-
siring to anticipate the prediction of an oracle, which de-
clared “that she should, at a certain period, disappear from
the eyes of men," sent a eunuch to assassinate her. She
forgave him the attempt, surrendered herself into his hands,
and was translated from earth, as was asserted, in the form
of a dove, a flock of which birds had settled at the mo-
ment upon her palace.
Such, after a glorious and successful reign of forty-two
years, and a life of sixty-two, was the end of the celebra-
ted Semiramis; and the description of her actions alone
has been held by many as clearly decisive as to the defect


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 51
of the historian's claim to credit. It is not alone the in-
credible numbers of her army and vast preparations that
cast over the narrative an air of fable, for this may be
found in other authors, both Greek and Mohammedan, in
relating facts which themselves rest on indisputable evi-
dence. We may instance the enormous armaments at-
tributed to Darius and Xerxes in their invasions of Greece,
nd the incredible multitudes of human beings said to
have been slaughtered by Zinghis Khan. In the sack and
destruction of five cities alone, Merve, Nishapore, Herat,
Rhé, and Bagdad, the number of persons put to death, ac-
cording to the historians of Zinghis, exceeds eight millions!
But to attribute to distant countries like India such an ad-
vanced state of power, riches, and civilization, at a period
little more than a thousand years after the Flood-and not
only to call into existence such prodigious armies, but
imagine they could be maintained in remote quarters of
the globe, when the race of men were as yet but thinly
scattered over any part of its surface-argues not only a
strong disposition to romance, but a deficiency of all au-
thentic records.
Ninyas, the son of Semiramis, was ill qualified to main-
tain the mighty fabric of empire which his parents had
reared. Little, in truth, remained for him to do; for all
Asia, with the exception of India, acknowledged his su-
premacy, and few were the adventurers in those early times
hardy enough to dispute his power. Unmoved by any ne-
cessity for exertion, he abandoned himself to voluptuous
enjoyment. Concealing himself from the eyes of his sub.
jects, as if he were something more than mortal, he spent
his time in lascivious sloth among his concubines and eu.
nuchs. Yet it would appear that he did not altogether
neglect the affairs of state; for we hear that, in order to
preserve tranquillity throughout his dominions, it was his
practice to levy an army every year, enrolling a certain
number of men from each province, who, at the end of that
period, were each bound by an oath of fidelity, and dismiss-
ed to their homes. The rapid changes involved in this sys-
tem were considered to afford security against any serious
conspiracy on the part either of officers or soldiers.
Of the long list of his successors, little or nothing has
been recorded by Ctesias, or at least by his transcribers,
beyond their names, and that they pursued a line of policy


52 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
similar to that of their progenitor. And here, again, there
does appear a most conclusive objection to the authenticity
of this portion of the narrative. That, at any period of the
world, a term of 1200 years should have been occupied in
one empire by a single family, in an unbroken line of con-
secutive sovereigns, whose reigns all extended to so unu-
sual a length, is a fact unparalleled in history, and opposed
to the course of human affairs : and that this long period
should, moreover, have been so unproductive of great
events as not to afford a single prominent occurrence to
give the means of fixing a date, is a circumstance so en-
tirely at variance with all probability, as to render the
whole recital totally unworthy of credit.
The last of this long race of sovereigns, Thonos Conco-
lerus of Ctesias, the Sardanapalus of Diodorus, Justin, and
Polyhistor, has left a name almost unequalled for efſemi-
nate luxury and depraved sensuality. It is asserted that
he had become so lost to a sense of decency, that not only
did he clothe himself like a woman, but painted his face,
and, assuming the ornaments and air of the most worthless
of the sex, sat and spun among his concubines. The bold-
ness and resolution, however, with which he is represented
to have roused himself and defended his kingdom, when
attacked by the rebel Medes and Babylonians under Ar-
baces and Belesis, is so inconsistent with the character
attributed to him, that it has been brought forward as one
among other reasons for concluding that there were more
than one king of the race named or entitled Sardanapalus ;*
and that two of them-one an effeminate, the other a brave
prince-have, in the accounts of Ctesias and his followers,
been confounded together. But this is one of many con-
jectures to which the obscurity of this period of history has
given rise, when the false light of fable was beginning to
fade before the gleams of truth from more authentic
sources.
It is at the termination of this monarch's reign and life
that Ctesias has placed the destruction of Nineveh ; but
this obviously must be a mistake; for, according to the
most approved chronology, the downfall of Thonos Con-
* St. Martin and others suppose this to have been a title borne by the
kings of Assyria (derived, no doubt, from the appellations of their gods),
rather than a name peculiar to any one sovereign, as there appear to
have been more than one who bore it


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 53
colerus took place about the year B.C. 821.* Yet, twenty
years afterward, following the same notation, we find the
prophet Jonah sent to preach repentance to the Ninevites,
in " that great city, wherein are more than sixscore thou-
sand persons that cannot discern between their right hand
and their left hand, and also much cattle;”+ and that their
unnamed king, and all his people, received the divine warn-
ing with reverence, humbling themselves before the Lord
in sackcloth and ashes. The most probable solution of
this difficulty is, that Ctesias and his followers have some-
how confounded together the taking of Nineveh by Arba-
ces and Belesis and the death of Sardanapalus, when the
former prince established the Medo-Assyrian dynasty upon
the throne of Nineveh, with the final capture and demoli-
tion of the city, and overthrow of the empire by Cyaxares
the Mede, in the year B.C. 606.
The account of this first taking of Nineveh, and the death
of the last sovereign of the line of Ninus, is shortly as fol-
lows. Sardanapalus, living in despicable effeminacy, be-
came odious to his subjects, and more especially to a val-
iant noble named Arbaces, and Belesis, a priest and as-
trologer. These two conspired for the overthrow of their
unworthy sovereign, the latter assuring his confederate
that, by the rules of his art, he could foresee that he was to
dethrone Sardanapalus, and become lord of his dominions.
The former, on his part, promised that, should they succeed
in their enterprise, he would bestow the government of
Babylon upon him.
The conspirators raised their friends, and, gaining over
many of the king's troops, attacked the royal army, but
were defeated in three pitched battles. Belesis, however,
relying on his astrological revelations, persevered ; and,
re-enforced by the revolted troops of Bactria, surprised the
army of Sardanapalus at a splendid festival, and routed
them with immense slaughter. The king filed to Nineveh,
where, having laid up immense magazines, and trusting to
the response of an oracle, which declared that the great city
would never be taken until the river had become her ene-
my, he abandoned himself in fatal security to the indul-
gence of sloth, while the enemy blockaded his walls.
He was at length roused from his delusion; for, after
* Dr. Russell's Connexion, vol. ii., c. I.
+ Jonah, iv., 11.
E 2


54 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
two years, the river, swollen to an extraordinary size by an
unusual fall of rain, overflowed its banks, and swept away
no less than twenty stadia, or about two miles and a half, of
the fortifications. Sardanapalus saw that, the oracle being
fulfilled, his hour was come; and he prepared to meet it in
a characteristic manner. Retiring to his palace, he caused
a vast pile of wood to be raised in one of the courts, having
a chamber constructed within. On it he heaped all his
gold and silver plate and rich apparel, and, entering with
his eunuchs and concubines, set fire to the pile, whereby he
destroyed himself and them together.
Thus far have we followed Ctesias, whom we now re-
linquish for other guides. Of the credit due to the earlier
parts of his work, we have already expressed a distinct
opinion. That there may be some foundation for a portion
of his list of kings, it would be idle to dispute or deny, and
that the later periods of his narrative afford more frequent
and decided glimpses of truth, may also be safely admit-
ted. But, cut off as we are from all reference to the origi-
nal, and restricted to the works of copyists, who may not
always have abstained from alterations, it seems impossi-
ble to admit the statements within the pale of authentic
history.
We shall now shortly examine the history of the Assyr-
ian or Medo-Assyrian dynasty, according to the canon of
Scripture and of Ptolemy, which have a remarkable coin-
cidence, arranged principally from the Universal History,
and the authorities followed by its compilers.
With its exception of the slight mention of Asshur as the
founder of Nineveh in the book of Genesis, the first ruler
of that city noticed in the Old Testament is the personage
to whom Jonah was sent, unless we should admit “ Chu-
shan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia,'* who held the chil-
dren of Israel in bondage eight years, to be an Assyrian
sovereign. And of that nameless monarch visited by the
prophet, nothing more is known than what we read in the
Bible; but it has been conjectured that he was the same
as Arbaces the Mede.
The next mention in the inspired writingst of an As-
syrian king is that of Pul, who was contemporary with
Menahem, king of Israel, B.C. 771, perhaps the Mandau-
* Judges, iii., 8.
+ 2 Kings, xv., 19.


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 55
ces of Ctesias, and successor to Arbaces. The only fact
recorded of this prince is that he invaded Syria, and re-
ceived from the court of Samaria 1000 talents of silver as
the price for forbearance and future protection.
Pul appears to have been succeeded by Tiglath-pileser,
B.C. 747, probably his son, and perhaps the Sosarmus or
Artycas of Ctesias, who, in the year B.C. 740, overran the
dominions of Israel, and carried away many of the inhab-
itants captive.* He pursued the same system towards his
other conquests in that quarter; for we find in the same
sacred text,t that, instigated by the King of Judah, he
marched against Damascus, slew Rezin its king, and,
transporting his people to Kir in Media, put an end to his
sovereignty.
Shalmaneser, the Enemessar of Tobit, succeeded Tig-
lath-pileser, B.C. 726. Provoked by the rebellion of Ho-
shea, king of Israel, who had been reduced to the condi-
tion of his tributary, and who had solicited the assistance
of So, king of Egypt, to enable him to throw off the Assyri-
an yoke, he overran the country with a powerful army,
laid siege to Samaria, which, at the end of three years, he
took, and, carrying all the people into captivity, brought to
a termination the independent existence of the ten tribes.
He then proceeded against the cities of Sidon, Acre, Pa-
lætyrus, and others, which, revolting from the Tyrians,
opened their gates; but he failed, after a struggle of five
years, to gain possession of Tyre itself.
Sennacherib, possibly the Arbianes of Ctesias, makes
his first appearance in Sacred Writ in the fourteenth year
of the reign of Hezekiah, king of Judah, B.C. 714, march-
ing against the dominions of that prince, who had withheld
the stipulated tribute. On this occasion, the Assyrian
monarch not only compelled him to acknowledge his su-
premacy, and promise an annual payment of thirty talents
of gold and 300 of silver, but, unsatisfied with these con-
cessions, and with the treasure which the other was forced
to strip from the house of God, he sent his generals, Tar-
tan, Rabsaris, and Rab-shakeh, with a mighty host, to re-
duce Jerusalem itself. These men declared their master's
will, taunted Hezekiah with his weakness, and warned
him not to put his trust either in the power of Egypt or in
* 2 Kings, xv., 29. 2 Chron., xxviii.
+ 2 Kings, xvi., 9.


56 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
the arm of Jehovah; for that the one was a broken reed,
that would pierce the hand of him who should lean there-
on; and as for the other, “Know ye not," said they, in the
name of their master, “what I and my fathers have done
unto all the people of other lands? Were the gods of the
nations of those lands any ways able to deliver their lands
out of mine hand, .... that your God should be able to de-
liver you out of mine hand ?'* Therefore did he summon
the people to submit, that they might be taken to a land
abounding with corn and oil, where they might live and
not die.
It was on this memorable occasion that Hezekiah call-
ed upon the name of the Lord. And the arm of the Al-
mighty was stretched forth; and, of the multitude of arm-
ed Assyrians that followed their king to battle, 185,000
men were in one night smitten dead. The rest, te xor-
struck, fled with their baffled monarch, and returned with
speed to Nineveh, where, soured by disappointments, he
became so cruel and tyrannical as to exhaust the endu-
rance even of his own family, and was at length put to
death by his two sons, Adrammelech and Sharezer, while
performing his devotions in the temple of Nisroch his
god.t
The decline of the Assyrian power may be dated from
the reign of this prince. His father's losses before Tyre,
and his own in Judea, with his subsequent misrule and
death, were probably the exciting causes of a second revolt
of the Medes, who were desirous to throw off the yoke.
And though Esarhaddon (according to Ptolemy, Asaradin;
to Tobit, Sarchedon;t to Isaiah, Sargons), third son of the
murdered monarch, in B.C. 710, and his successor, exerted
himself to maintain the integrity of the empire, he was un-
able to reduce the rebels to subjection, who soon after were
formed into a separate monarchy under their first king,
Dejoces, B.C. 704.
These events have led some to regard Esarhaddon as the
warlike Sardanapalus who resisted the efforts of his rebell-
ious subjects with so much fortitude.ll That he was an
equitable as well as a courageous prince, seems probable,
* 2 Chron., xxxii., 13-15.
+ Tobit, i., 21. 2 Kings, xix., 37. 2 Chron., xxxii., 21.
# Tobit, i., 21.
Ø Isaiah, u., L.
11 Ancient Universal History, vol. iv., p. 327, 329.
| Ezru, iv., 10, calls him the great and noble Asnapper.


58 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
in length from Bethulia unto Cyamon, which is over against
Esdraelon.”* There he fell, as is well known, a victim to
his own inordinate passions, by the hand of the Jewish he-
roine Judith, who had devoted herself to destroy him in or-
der to save her country;t and the Assyrians, panic-struck
at the loss of their leader, fled to their own country, pur-
sued with great slaughter by the enemies they had despised.
It seems not improbable that, in the successful warfare
of Nabuchodonosor with the Medes, the great feast held
after it, and the dispersion and slaughter of the Assyrians
themselves subsequently to the death of Holofernes, we
may discover the events which have been confounded by
Ctesias, and form his conclusion to the reign of Thonos
Concolerus.
Of Chyniladan we hear no more, but that he was suc-
ceeded by a king called by Polyhistor, Sarac-probably the
Sardanapalus of Justin and other modern authors—in 636
B.C.; but, less able or less fortunate than his predecessor,
he lost all that had been wrested from the Medes, and his
power was reduced so low that Nabopolassar, the govern-
or of Babylon, to whom he had committed the command
of his forces in that country, thought it a fit occasion to
throw off the Assyrian yoke. Entering into an alliance
with Cyaxares the Mede, he assisted that prince in his at-
tack upon Sarac, and the city of Nineveh was invested by
the combined troops. This unfortunate ruler, whose mind
had been enfeebled by misfortune, dreading to fall into the
hands of his enemies, put an end to his life by burning the
palace in which his wealth and family were bestowed in
the manner related by Ctesias in reference to Concolerus,
But some confusion of dates appears here, by which it
seems doubtful whether this event was not suspended at
least twenty-eight years; for at this period the Scythians
overran Central Asia, against whom the combined Median
and Babylonian force found full employment for their arms.
In the mean time, Nabopolassar died, leaving the kingdom
to his son, the celebrated Nebuchadnezzar (or Nabuchodo-
nosor), who completed the destruction of the Assyrian pow-
* Judith, vii., 3.
+ The authors of the Universal History advert to the probability of the
story of Judith being fictitious. The point need not be discussed here ;
we refer our readers, if curious on the subject, to that book, vol. iv., po
173, and to Prideaux.


HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 59
er about 606 B.C. The great city of Nineveh, levelled to
the ground by Cyaxares, no longer lifted her head among
nations. In process of time, indeed, other towns rose from
amid its ruins, and flourished, and decayed, and were for-
gotten; but even at the present day the site of that great
and mighty capital may be traced upon the banks of the
Tigris.
The empire itself, however, was now no more; the word
of God had gone forth against it, and its power was with-
ered, its glory passed away. “Behold, the Assyrian was
a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, and with a shad-
owing shroud, and of an high stature; and his top was
among the thick boughs. The waters made him great, the
deep set him up on high with her rivers running round
about his plants, and sent out her little rivers unto all the
trees of the field. Therefore his height was exalted above
all the trees of the field, and his boughs were multiplied,
and his branches became long, because of the multitude of
waters when he shot forth. All the fowls of heaven made
their nests in his boughs, and under his branches did all
the beasts of the field bring forth their young, and under
his shadow dwelt all great nations. Thus was he fair in
his greatness, in the length of his branches : for his root
was by great waters. The cedars in the garden of God
could not hide him: the fir-trees were not like his boughs,
and the chestnut-trees were not like his branches; nor any
tree in the garden of God was like unto him in his beauty.
I have made him fair by the multitude of his branches; so
that all the trees of Eden, that were in the garden of God,
envied him. Therefore, thus saith the Lord God, Because
thou hast lifted up thyself in height, and he hath shot up
his top among the thick boughs, and his heart is lifted up
in his height, I have delivered him into the hand of the
mighty one of the heathen; he shall surely deal with him:
I have driven him out for his wickedness. And strangers,
the terrible of the nations, have cut him off, and have left
him; upon the mountains and in all the valleys his branch-
es are fallen, and his boughs are broken by all the rivers
of the land; and all the people of the earth are gone down
'from his shadow, and have left him. Upon his ruin shall
all the fowls of the heaven remain, and all the beasts of
the field shall be upon his branches: to the end that none
of all the trees by the waters exalt themselves for their


60
RISE AND FALL OF THE
height, neither shoot up their top among the thick boughs,
neither their trees stand up in their height, all that drink
water: for they are all delivered unto death, to the nether
parts of the earth, in the midst of the children of men, with
them that go down to the pit,"'* &c.
CHAPTER III.
Rise and Fall of the Babylonian Empire.
The only authentic Record contained in Holy Writ.-Ptolemy's Canon
affords the only true Chronology.--Nabonassar.-Merodach Baladan.
- Esarhaddon, the warlike King of Assyria. --- Nabopolassar. - His
Power.–Nabocolassar or Nebuchadnezzar.-Aids in the Destruction
of Nineveh.-Overruns Syria, and carries the Jews into Captivity.
Humbles Pharaoh.-His Dreams.-Divine Predictions.-His Humilia-
tion-Repentance And Death.-Evil Merodach.-The Belshazzar of
Daniel.-Murdered by Neriglissar, who probably is identical with Da-
rius the Mede. He seizes the Throne-And is slain in Battle.-Labo-
rosoarchod.-Nabonadius.—Nitocris.--Her Acts and Improvements.
Babylon attacked by Cyrus.--Taken by turning the Euphrates.-Ful-
filment of the Prophecies.--Gradual Decay of Babylon.-Its Destruc-
tion by Darius-By Xerxes.--Seleucia.-Accounts of its Desolation by
various Authors.
It is now requisite to turn back nearly a century and a
half, that we may discover the establishment of the con-
temporary kingdom of Babylon, the history of which is so
intimately connected with that of Assyria that it is impos-
sible to disunite them.
It has been already observed, that the only authentic no-
tice of what is generally supposed to have been the origin
o the ancient Babylonian power—the first monarchy of
the postdiluvian world—is contained in three verses of the
10th chapter of Genesis; that the lists of Chaldean and
Arabian kings given by Syncellus, Polyhistor, and Moses
of Chorene, are entitled to no credit, because they rest not
on any authentic ground; and that there is no mention of
any ruler of Babylon before Merodach Baladan, who, B.C.
710, wrote to Hezekiah.t Prior to this time, however,
* Ezekiel, xxxi., 3-14.
+ There is, it is true, mention made in Gen., iv., 1, 2, of Amraphel,
king of Shinar, who warred with the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah in
the days of Abraham.


BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.
61
commences the canon of Ptolemy, the most valuable of
uninspired records; and had the chronology of the previous
period been certain, and the date of the first revolt of the
Medes and Babylonians from the Assyrians under Arba-
ces and Belesis been accurately fixed, we might have ex-
pected to find the commencement of the Babylonian king-
dom placed in the year B.C.821, contemporary with that of
the Medo-Assyrian, and Belesis named as the first sover-
eign. But historians have wisely preferred the accounts of
Ptolemy, confirmed by occasional notices in Sacred Writ,
to the less certain authority of other profane writers; and
he appears to have discovered no king prior to Nabonas-
sar.* It has been established by astronomical calculations
that this monarch's reign began on Wednesday, the 26th
of February, B.C. 747, in the twenty-third year after the
appearance of Pul on the west of the Euphrates. This
shows the kingdom to have been of Assyrian origin, and
accords with what is stated by the prophet Isaiah:t" Be-
hold the land of the Chaldeans: this people was not, till
the Assyrian founded it for them that dwell in the wilder-
ness: they set up the towers thereof, they raised up the
palaces thereof."
It is uncertain who this prince was; but, as he was con-
temporary with Tiglath-pileser, some have supposed that
he may have been his brother, a son of Pul, king of Assyria.
This, it is acknowledged, is entirely conjectural; and that
he was tributary or subservient to Tiglath-pileser appears
more certain. Indeed, the authors of the Universal His-
tory are inclined to think that the Semiramis of the Greeks,
if she ever did exist as queen of Babylon, must have been
the wife of this prince, and that, as her husband commenced
the city, she must have exerted herself after his death in
beautifying it, from whence she obtained the reputation of
being its founder. For the arguments by which this hy-
pothesis is supported, we must refer to the work itself.
Of the three monarchs who, according to the canon, next
succeed, nothing is recorded ; and Mardoch Empades, the
Merodach Baladan of Scripture, fifth on the list, is only
* It has been already observed, that Nabonassar, desirous of being
thought the first monarch of the dynasty, destroyed all the records of
Babylon that had been preserved in the temple or archives.
† Chap. xxiii., 13.
I 2 Kings, xx., 12. Isaiah, xxxix., 1. He is called the son of Baladan,


62
RISE AND FALL OF THE
remarkable as having held communication with the kings
of Judah. He sent a special messenger to Hezekiah to
congratulate him on his recovery from illness. The next
who claims notice is Asaradin, the Esarhaddon of Scrip-
ture, who, we have seen, acquired fame as the warlike
Sardanapalus of Assyria, and who possibly, on the race of
Nabonassar becoming extinct or rebellious, B.C. 680, took
possession of the sovereignty. It was he who utterly swept
away the people of Israel, and carried Manasseh, king of
Judah, with him in chains to Babylon. Of his successors,
Saosducheus and Chyniladan, we have already spoken, as
masters at once of Assyria and Babylon.
The most brilliant period of the Babylonian history now
approached. Nabopolassar, having broken the power, if
not destroyed the city of Nineveh, removed the seat of em-
pire to his capital. During the time when the forces of
these allies were employed in repelling the Scythian inva-
sion, Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, attempted to recover
his former possessions in Syria; and, in his way to besiege
the city of Carchemish, overthrew the King of Judah, who
lost his life in the encounter.* Nabopolassar was succeed-
ed by his son Nobocolassar (or Nebuchadnezzar), who,
after driving out the Syrians, co-operated with Cyaxares
in destroying Nineveh. Having resolved to punish other
invaders, he marched at the head of a powerful army
against the Egyptians, who had formed an alliance with
the revolted tribes on the western bank of the Euphrates,
In this enterprise he was not only successful, but on his re-
turn entered Judea, took Jerusalem, rifled the temple, and
made the king a prisoner. The humble submission of the
fallen Jehoiakim, and the promise of a yearly tribute, saved
him from the fate of the other captives, who were sent in
chains to Babylon. Pursuing his victorious career, he
humbled Pharaoh; and, after making himself master of
the whole country between the Nile and the Euphrates, he
returned to Babylon, loaded with spoil and encumbered
with captives, when he began to enlarge and embellish the
seat of his growing empire.
In this he eminently succeeded, though he himself lived
to experience the lowest degree of human degradation as
well as of grandeur. His history is familiar to every
* 2 Chron., XXXV., 20–24.


64
RISE AND FALL OF THE
the Elamites or Persians, the Moabites, the Ammonites,
the Tyrians and others, made the subject of prophetic an-
nouncement, and Jeremiah* sent tokens of the impending
wrath to the ambassadors of all the devoted powers. En-
couraged by Pharaoh Hophra, the people of western Syria
renounced their allegiance; but the King of Babylon, an
instrument, no doubt, of vengeance in the hand of the Al-
mighty, overthrew first the monarch in whom they had
confided, and then, turning his arms against Jerusalem,
he destroyed its walls, burned it with fire, and, putting out
the eyes of the ill-advised Zedekiah, carried him in chains
to the Eastern capital.
The predictionst against Tyre and Egypt still remain-
ed to be accomplished. A thirteen years' siege of the first
at length gave to the conqueror possession of an empty
city, for the inhabitants had retired to a neighbouring isi-
and with their effects, though his army, meanwhile, was
successfully employed in reducing to obedience the Sido-
nians, the Ammonites, and the Edomites.
But the plunder of Egypt compensated for his disap-
pointment at Tyre; and, having laid waste that land
from the tower of Syene even unto the border of Ethio-
pia,"! he returned to his capital.
With the gold amassed in these various expeditions, and
especially with the spoils of the Temple of Jerusalem, it is
supposed he erected the colossal statue in honour of his
god Bel, which he placed in the plain of Dura, and com-
manded his subjects, of whatever nation or faith, to fall
down and worship it. The beautiful story of the three
Hebrew youths, who, refusing to comply with this tyran-
nical and unholy mandate, were in consequence cast into
the fiery furnace, is well known to every reader of the sa-
cred annals.
But the hour of retribution and reverse drew nigh; for
scarcely had he returned from this splendid career of vic-
tory, when his mind was again disturbed by a singular and
ominous dream, which seemed to prefigure events so aw-
ful as to shake for a moment even the intrepid soul of the
prophet who was called upon to interpret it. “Daniel was
astonied for one hour, and his thoughts troubled him.”'s
* Chap. xxvii.
# Ibid., xxix., 10.
+ Ezekiel, xxvi., xxvii., xxviii.
0 Daniel, iv., 19.


BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.
65
But, recovering his equanimity, he lifted up his voice, and
boldly declared the will of the Most High, the terrible
sentence which drove the haughty monarch to herd with
the beasts of the field. Nor was the fulfilment of this
dreadful denunciation long deferred, although it appears
that the humbling effect of its announcement had been but
transitory. Only one year afterward, we find the devoted
ruler walking in the front of his palace, contemplating the
mighty works of which he had been the author, with a
heart, not filled with gratitude and veneration towards the
Giver of all good, for the unmerited prosperity which he
had bestowed upon him, but swelling with pride and arro-
gance; saying, “Is not this great Babylon, that I have
built for the house of the kingdom, by the might of my
power, and for the honour of my majesty ?" But, “while
the word was in the king's mouth, there fell a voice from
heaven, saying, O King Nebuchadnezzar, to thee it is spo-
ken; The kingdom is departed from thee: and they shall
drive thee from among men, and thy dwelling shall be with
the beasts of the field : they shall make thee to eat grass
as oxen, and seven times shall pass over thee, until thou
know that the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men,
and giveth it to whomsoever he will. The same hour
was the thing fulfilled upon Nebuchadnezzar; and he was
driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen, and his body
was wet with the dew of heaven, till his hairs were grown
like eagles' feathers, and his nails like bird's claws. And
at the end of the days I, Nebuchadnezzar, lifted up mine
eyes unto heaven, and mine understanding returned unto
me, and I blessed the Most High, and I praised and hon-
oured him that liveth forever, whose dominion is an ever-
lasting dominion, and his kingdom is from generation to
generation: and all the inhabitants of the earth are repu-
ted as nothing: and he doeth according to his will in the
army of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth;
and none can stay his hand, or say unto him, What doest
thou? At the same time my reason returned unto me;
and, for the glory of my kingdom, mine honour and bright-
ness returned unto me: and my counsellors and my lords
sought unto me; anıl I was established in my kingdom;
and excellent majesty was added unto me. Now I, Nebu-
chadnezzar, praise, and extol, and honour the King of heav-
F2


66
RISE AND FALL OF THE
en, all whose works are truth, and his ways judgment:
and those that walk in pride he is able to abase."*
er was there so overwhelming a check given to hu-
man pride; never a more impressive warning held forth to
the impious and the vain; nor can language express a
more affecting acknowledgment of error, or a deeper and
more grateful piety, than breathes in the concluding words
of the royal penitent's narrative. We envy not the feel-
ings of the man who should attempt to weaken the force
of such a lesson by seeking to explain, upon natural causes,
events which arose out of a direct interposition of divine
power.
During the period of the monarch's humiliation, the reins
of government were held by his son, Evil Merodach, whose
bad administration was severely punished by his father
upon his return to reason. But the aged sovereign sur-
vived this act of justice only one year; and the manner of
his death, on which sacred history has been silent, has by
profane writers been described as attended with preternat-
ural circumstances. A spirit of prophecy is said to have
come upon him as his hour approached; and, ascending to
the top of his palace, he foretold the destruction of his king-
dom by the Medes and Persians, praying at the same time
that he might not live to witness the event. While yet
speaking, it is added that he, like Semiramis, was snatch-
ed away from the view of men, and was no more seen upon
earth.
Evil Merodach, called Ilvarodam in Ptolemy's canon,
and usually considered the Belshazzar of Daniel, who
speaks of him as the son of Nebuchadnezzar,t now re-
leased from the dungeon into which the just displeasure of
his father had cast him, commenced his reign by an act of
mercy. He took from the prison, where he had languish-
ed thirty-seven years, Jehoiachin, king of Judah, and treat-
ed him ever afterward as a sovereign. But, while acting
as regent during the visitation inflicted on his parent, he
had the imprudence to provoke the anger of Astyages, king
of Media, by plundering a part of his country during a
great hunting-match which he held on the occasion of his
marriage with Nitocris, a Median lady; and an armed
body being sent out to punish the aggressors, the Prince
* Daniel, iv., 30–37.
^ Ibid., V., 2.
Jeremiah, lii., 31.


BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.
67
of Babylon was routed, and pursued with great slaughter
to his capital. In this battle the great Cyrus, though only
sixteen years of age, first distinguished himself.* This act
of folly appears to have been the origin of those forebodings
of evil uttered by the father, and which appear to have
thoroughly subdued the spirit of the son, who, retiring into
his palace, abandoned himself to sloth two whole years,
after which he was murdered by Neriglissar, the husband
of his sister, supposed to be a Mede, who headed a con-
spiracy of the nobles.
In this account of the end of Evil Merodach, supposing
him to be identical with the Belshazzar of Daniel, of which
there seems little room to doubt, there is a remarkable co-
incidence between the narrative given by the prophet and
that of profane authors. Berosus, an annalist, it is true,
deserving of no great credit in his accounts of very remote
periods, but who is entitled to more belief as the events he
describes approach nearer to his own time, relates that he
was killed at a banquet by some of his lords. Daniel
writes that, on the occasion when the miraculous writing
on the wall appeared, Belshazzar made a great feast to a
thousand of his lords, and commanded the golden and sil-
ver vessels, which his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out
of the temple of Jerusalem, to be brought, that the king and
his princes, his wives and concubines, might drink there-
from. “In that night,” says the prophet, emphatically,
"was Belshazzar, the king of the Chaldeans, slain. And Da-
rius the Median took the kingdom, being about threescore
and two years old.”+
This statement, it is obvious, can refer to nothing more
than the death of Belshazzar himself, which, according to
Ptolemy's canon, occurred in the year B.C. 553, seventeen
years before the final destruction of Babylon, and not to
the latter event, of which there is no distinct record in Holy
Scripture. The Darius here mentioned, and who must not
be confounded with Cyrus, is supposed, with sufficient
probability, to be Neriglissar the Mede, and chief conspir-
ator, who seized the kingdom. That this conqueror con-
tinued to reign in Babylon after his accession to the throne,
appears from the sixth chapter of Daniel, where he is rep-
resented as setting over his kingdom 120 princes, of whom
* Cyropædia of Xenophon.
+ Daniel, v., 30, 31.


68
RISE AND FALL OF THE
the prophet himself was made the first; while Cyrus is
spoken of in the 10th chapter distinctly as King of Persia.
That the sovereignty of Babylon existed independently of
that of the Medes and Persians for a space after the death
of Belshazzar, is therefore as clearly proved from Scripture
as from the canon of Ptolemy and other profane writers.
Indeed, the concurrence of known dates renders this ob-
vious and apparent; but, for farther information upon this
perplexing subject, we must again refer to the authors of
the Universal History.*
Neriglissar, or Darius, is represented to have been a wise
and prudent prince; but the power of the Medes and Per-
sians was so greatly on the increase, that he was forced to
solicit aid from his allies to enable him to resist them.
The accounts of this period are chiefly gathered from the
works of Berosus and the Cyropædia of Xenophon, which
last describes both the war and its issue. After an at-
tempt at mediation on the part of the sovereign of India,
who sent ambassadors for the purpose of proffering his
good offices, the armies met, and a general engagement
ensued, in which Neriglissar was slain, and his army utter-
ly dispersed.
But the day on which Babylon was doomed to fall had
not yet arrived. What use the conquerors made of their
victory does not appear; but we find that the throne was
next occupied by a youth, son of the late monarch, who
by Berosus is called Laborosoarchod, and Labassoarasc
by Abydenus.t In this respect they both differ from Ptole-
my's canon, where no such name intervenes between Ne-
riglissar and the last king, Nabonadius. Perhaps it was in
consequence of his very brief reign of only nine months
that he has been omitted. He evinced a most vicious and
cruel disposition, which is probably the cause which led to
his assassination by Nabonadius.
The prince just named, the Labynetus of Herodotus, is
understood to have been the son of Evil Merodach and of
the celebrated Nitocris, who naturally enough was moved
with indignation at seeing his country falling into ruin, and
his people oppressed by the worthless heir of a usurper,
who had excluded him from the throne. Yet, to preserve,
even for a season, his hereditary power, recovered by such
* Ancient Universal History, vol. iv., p. 422–426.
† Ibid, vol. iv., p. 418.


BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.
69
violent means, was a painful struggle. The resources of
the kingdom, though still sufficient to check the progress
of certain invaders, had been greatly impaired by misrule,
and were still in a declining state, while probably Nabona-
dius was not qualified, either by talents or disposition, to
restore their efficiency. It appears, indeed, that his reign
of seventeen years derived its chief lustre from the acts of
his mother Nitocris, who exerted herself not only to em-
bellish the city and improve the surrounding country, but
to fortify it so as to resist the storm which she foresaw
would come from the east. Many of her hydraulic opera-
tions were calculated to extend cultivation and increase
the resources of the state; but she also added to the works
of the capital, constructing walls along the river-banks, to
prevent an enemy from gaining access in that way. He-
rodotus also ascribes to her the building of the bridge,
which till her time had been wanting at Babylon. Of her
death there is no particular mention, but it probably was
the forerunner of the defeat of her son and the fall of the
monarchy.
Cyrus, having at length not only established himself
firmly on the throne of Persia, but reduced a great part of
Asia to obedience, once more directed his arms against
Babylon. Nabonadius attempted to oppose the great war-
rior in the field, but was beaten back into the city, and im-
mediately placed under a close blockade. The immense
strength and perfect state of the fortifications, not less than
the condition of the magazines, which contained supplies
sufficient for twenty years' consumption, inspiring the citi-
zens with confidence, they gave themselves up to unbound-
ed luxury and enjoyment. This unwise security suggest-
ed to Cyrus the means of their overthrow. Herodotus and
Xenophon both relate that, after he had passed full two
years before Babylon, and had even begun to despair of
success, the incautious blindness of the inhabitants induced
him to attempt a bold stratagem. On the night of an an-
nual festival, which they were wont to spend in drinking
and jollity, he cut the bank of a canal which communica-
ted with a great lake that had been formed to receive the
superabundant waters of the Euphrates at the period of
its flood. The river poured its contents into that res-
ervoir, which was of capacity sufficient to receive them
for a time; and, placing strong bodies of troops at the


70
RISE AND FALL OF THE
.
points where the stream entered and quitted the city, which
was divided by it into two parts, he commanded them, so
soon as it should become shallow enough to admit of be-
ing forded, to enter by its channel. In the disorder of the
night, the gates leading from each street to the bank had
been left unclosed and unguarded. The Persians ad-
vanced unopposed; and the several parties, meeting at the
palace, seized and put to death the king, on which the sur-
viving inhabitants submitted to the conqueror.
Such was the termination of the Babylonian empire;
and thus was commenced the fulfilment of that series of
prophetic denunciations pronounced by Isaiah, Jeremiah,
and Daniel. It is interesting to trace how closely the cir-
cumstances that are related of this event by profane histo-
rians correspond with and illustrate the narrative of Sa-
cred Writ. "Great obscurity, no doubt, still hangs over
this interesting period; and chronologists are as much
perplexed by the conflicting dates deduced from various
computations, as the historians have been puzzled by the
numerous discrepancies that appear, both in regard to
names and persons, in the records of different authors.
But on this one important point there is no material dis-
pute, namely, that the kingdom of Babylon, including the
empire of Assyria, was finally subverted by Cyrus the
Great, about the year 536 before the Christian era. It is
equally manifest that these powerful sovereignties never
afterward recovered a separate or independent existence,
but passed as subordinate provinces to each succeeding
conqueror that arose in the East. Alexander, indeed, en-
tertained views of restoring the city to its ancient glory,
and making it the metropolis of his immense domin-
ions; but death prevented the accomplishment of his in-
tentions. His successor, Seleucus, established a capital
on the banks of the Tigris, but it endured only for a sea-
son, and is now, like the other, deserted and desolate.
The followers of Mohammed also founded an empire, of
which Mesopotamia and Assyria formed a portion; but,
for their chief town, they avoided the proscribed site of
Babylon, and built Bagdad on the Tigris. Yet even their
more recent power has passed away like that of their pred-
ecessors: the structures they erected have ceased to exist,
and the modern inhabitants can scarcely point out where
the palace of the caliphs once stood. "Babylon, the glory


BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.
71
|
of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," is
indeed “as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah.
It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in
from generation to generation: .... wild beasts of the des-
ert shall lie there; and their houses shall be full of doletul
creatures; and owls shall dwell there, and the wild beasts
of the islands shall cry in their desolate houses, and drag.
ons in their pleasant palaces. . . . . How art thou fallen
from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning! how art thou
cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations !"*
It may, however, be interesting to trace with somewhat
more distinctness the gradual decay of this magnificent
city, after its first capture by Cyrus the Great. Leniently
dealt with by that conqueror, who appears to have made it
the seat of his government seven months in the year, the
inhabitants recovered in a great measure from the effects
of the calamity which had stricken their nation, and lived
happily under the protection of their new master. But
his son Cambyses, a dissolute and cruel prince, having
loaded them with heavy taxes, and removed the royal res-
idence entirely to Susa, they took advantage of the troub-
les consequent on his death, and attempted to throw off the
Persian yoke. This called down upon them the ven-
geance of Darius, his successor, who marched with a pow-
erful army to reduce them to obedience.
Besieged within their walls, the Babylonians had re-
course to a very cruel expedient, in order to economize
the consumption of their stores. Each man selected from
his women the wife he was most attached to, and a single
maid-servant; and all the rest of his family, old men and
children, fathers, mothers, sisters, and infants, were with-
out distinction strangled. Thus relieved from the fear of
want, they not only held the city, but completely baffled
every stratagem put in practice by Darius to throw them
off their guard. The disgrace of ultimate failure on his
part was prevented by the extraordinary self-devotion of
one of his chief officers. This man, named Zopyrus, hav-
ing mutilated himself by cutting off his nose and ears,
and mangling his body by stripes, fled to the Babylonians,
feigning that he had been thus used by his master for ad-
vising him to raise the siege, and had come to them burn-
ing for revenge.
* Isaiah, xiii., 19–22; xiv., 12.


72
RISE AND FALL OF THE
Falling into the snare, they at once received and em.
ployed him. Some considerable successes over the Per-
sian troops, which Darius connived at to cover the deceit,
induced the inhabitants to intrust Zopyrus with a stili
more important charge, till at length the guard of the city
ports was confided to his care. On the next assault, the
Cissian and Belidian gates were opened by him to the Per-
sians, who thus, through the wiles of a pretended desert-
er, became a second time masters of Babylon. Resolved
to provide against the chance of future rebellion, Darius
crucified three thousand of the principal citizens, and beat
down the walls, it is said, from the height of 200 cubits to
fifty, which, if we admit the correctness of the former di-
mensions, may account for the difference on this head be-
tween the measurement given by Herodotus and that of
Strabo. But he provided for the repopulation of Babylon
by sending them 50,000 women to replace those they had
murdered ; and, to cherish a spirit of loyalty, gave them
Zopyrus for their governor.
His son Xerxes was still more cruel and less scrupu-
lous; for we learn from Arrian that, after his return from
Greece, he destroyed the temple of Belus and other places
consecrated to the national worship, and carried off the
great golden image of which Herodotus was told by the
Chaldeans.
But it is not easy to reconcile the destruction of the
walls by Darius, and of the temple by Xerxes, with the
description which the former historian gives as an eyewit-
ness of its condition in his own day, for he speaks of it as
it existed at that time, and not merely as it had formerly
been. As we hear of no farther violence being inflicted on the
city till the time of Alexander, it must appear not a little
singular, that then, which was but one century afterward,
the temple of Belus should again have become so much
dilapidated that the work of ten thousand men should be
required for two months merely to remove the fallen ru-
ins. By that time, however, the city also had suffered
greatly from its misfortunes; and though we learn, as
has just been stated, that the intention of the conqueror
was to restore the fane of the national god, and make Baby-
lon his chief residence, his death put a stop to all the
measures which he contemplated for carrying his purpose
into effect. His successor, Seleucus Nicator, by building


74
ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, ETC., OF THE
collection of shapeless ruins in a howling wilderness, the
haunt of venomous creatures and beasts of prey; and so
complete is the annihilation of all which might tell of the
past, that tradition and science are equally unable to dis-
cover, among the heaps of dust and potsherds which at-
tract the traveller's eye, even the site of the celebrated tem-
ple of Belus, or the gigantic walls of Babylon.
CHAPTER IV.
Origin, Government, Religion, Laws and Customs, foc., of
the Ancient Assyrians and Babylonians.
Sources of Information.--Origin of the Assyrians-Government.--Re-
ligion.—Gods of the Assyrians.-Customs and Laws same as those of
the Babylonians.-Government of the Babylonians.-Names of their
Monarchs, and Derivation.-Their Habits.--Officers and Functiona-
ries. Establishment and Titles.-Laws,-Little known regarding
them.-Sale of Virgins.- Punishments. - Religion. - Chaldeans.
Opinions regarding their Origin.-Regarded as a nomad Race by
Heeren and Gesenius.–Faber's Theory of the Progress of their Reli-
gion-And of the Dispersion of Mankind after the Flood. Of the Cu-
thim or Cushim.-Remarks on Faber's Theory.-Mr. Beke's Theory.-
Supported by Coincidence of ancient and modern Names.-Bochart.-
Difficulties of the Subject.--The Chaldeans the dominant People in
ancient Babylon.-Origin and Progress of their Religion.-Chaldean
Cosmogony and Doctrines according to Berosus.-Its Similarity with
the Scriptural Account of the Noachian Deluge.-Mythology.--Pul or
Belus.-Nebo, Rach, Nego, Merodach, &c.-Grossness and Depravity
of their Ceremonies.- Manners and Customs of the Babylonians.-
Learning.-Science.- Astronomy and Astrology.--Mathematics.-Mu-
sic.-Poetry.--Skill in working Metals and Gems Manufactures,
Commerce.
Origin.-It will now be proper to place before our read.
ers the little that is known of the origin, government, re-
ligion, laws, and customs of the ancient Assyrians and
Babylonians. The sources of information on these sub-
jects are much the same as those from whence the general
history is derived, and are neither less limited nor imper-
fect. From Scripture we know that Assyria was occupied
by Asshur and his descendants, to whom, no doubt, it
owes its name. We have the same authority for believing
that a portion, at least, of Mesopotamia was possessed by


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 75
Nimrod and his progeny; and an attempt has been made
to prove that another section became the abode of Arphax-
ad, the son of Shem, and his posterity.*
Government.–Of the nature of the Assyrian government
we know nothing more than may be gathered from the Bi-
ble; that it was an hereditary monarchy, and quite despotic.
We are equally in the dark respecting the laws by which
it was governed. It is probable they were few and simple,
depending chiefly, in their application, on the will of the
prince, partaking, in a great degree, of the nature of patri-
archal rules, though sometimes harshly enforced by arbi-
trary power.
Religion.—This, there is no doubt, was a polytheistical
idolatry; for there is sufficient proof that the nation had
various idols. In Scripture, for example, we hear of Sen-
nacherib being slain by his sons while worshipping in the
temple of his god. In all probability, the deities and forms
of adoration among the Assyrians were nearly the same as
those of their neighbours, and particularly the Babyloni-
ans, a circumstance which will afterward be more partic-
ularly noticed. It may, therefore, be sufficient at present
to name such of their divinities as were peculiar to them,
of which Nisroch was one. Adrammelech and Anamme-
lech, both mentioned in the Old Testament, appear to have
been other names for Moloch, which itself signifies Lord,
or supreme power; and they were revered under various
representations, as that of a mule, a peacock, a pheasant,
or a quail.
Derceto, the reputed mother of Semiramis, though of
Mesopotamian origin, was recognised at Ascalon. The
Greeks attributed to her several other names; and, like
their own Venus, she was represented as half woman, half
fish. Hence the Assyrians are said to have had a super-
stitious reverence for the finny tribes; a feeling which they
extended to pigeons, from their having been the nurses of
their great queen, who disappeared from the eyes of man-
kind in the shape of a dove. In fact, it appears that, like
other nations of antiquity, they deified all their deceased
sovereigns who had in any degree distinguished themselves.
The customs, arts, and trade of Assyria, having, so far
as is known, been similar to those of Babylon, require no
* Origines Biblicæ ; or, Researches in Primeval History. By Charles
Tilstone Beke ; 8vo, Lond., 1834, vol. i., p. 106.


76 ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, ETC., OF THE
separate notice; we shall therefore proceed at once to the
consideration of these particulars in relation to the latter
people.
Government of the Babylonians. — This, like that of all
other Eastern states, was essentially despotic, gradually de-
generating from the pure patriarchal form into the sway of
an absolute monarch. Everything centred in the person
of the sovereign; all decrees were issued by him; and,
claiming a supernatural character, he even demanded di-
vine worship. The names of the kings, accordingly, were
derived from those of their gods, or of former rulers who
were confounded with them; and, on a similar principle,
they affected strict retirement from the vulgar eye, and sel-
dom appeared in public. .
Haughty and arrogant as they were, these autocrats
were nevertheless obliged to have frequent communion
with their nobles, with whom we find them occasionally
feasting, and from whom were selected the chief officers
who administered the government of the country. Of the
duties of some of these functionaries we are incidentally
informed by various authors; and it appears that the judges
were divided into three sections, and chosen from the gra-
vest personages of the empire. On the first class devolved
the regulation of marriage, and the punishment of all crimes
which violated its sacred obligations; the second took cog-
nizance of robberies and thefts; and the third decided in
all civil affairs. We find also, from the book of Daniel,
that Nebuchadnezzar deputed his authority to princes, gove,
ernors, captains, judges, treasurers, counsellors, and sher-
iffs, whose duty it was to maintain good order in all de-
partments of the imperial service. Again, from the same
source, we gather that the great king had a household cor-
responding in the extent of its establishment to his mighty
state, including the captain of his guard, the prince of his
eunuchs, the supreme judge, and the chief of the magi.
cians, who were always in attendance. The first of these
was the minister of his justice; the second had charge of
the interior of the royal dwelling, and the education of the
youth who were brought up within the palace; the third
sat at the king's gate, that is, in an adjoining apartment,
to hear complaints and to pass judgment; the last attend-
ed near his person, to interpret all omens and dreams, fix
fortunate periods, and to satisfy the monarch's mind with


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 77
regard to everything that related to prognostication. All
these were chosen on account of their personal qualities,
as well as the excellence of their mental endowments. He
was saluted with the Oriental form of “O king ! live for-
ever!” which resembles nearly the mode of address adopt-
ed at the present day towards the great sovereigns of Asia,
whose courts, in respect of attendance and magnificence,
bear a close resemblance to those of the Assyrian and
Mesopotamian empires.
Of their laws nothing in detail appears to be known, ex-
cept that strange and revolting arrangement, particularly
described by Herodotus and Strabo, whereby it was pro-
vided that, instead of parents disposing of their own daugh-
ters in marriage, all young women should be brought to a
public place appointed for the purpose, and put up for sale,
one by one, to the highest bidder. The money thus ob
tained for the most beautiful was employed in obtaining
husbands for those left without an offer, and who were dis-
posed of in the same manner, with a premium proportioned
to their want of personal attraction. But the historian in-
forms us also that the whole business was conducted with
the strictest attention to decorum, being always under the
superintendence of the officers appointed for this duty, re-
spectable by their age and rank, and who, before the bar-
gain was concluded, received security from each purchas-
er that he would marry the object of his choice.
We have no information respecting their punishments,
farther than that they appear to have been inflicted accord-
ing to the will or caprice of the reigning monarch. This
we see exemplified in the story of Shadrach, Meshach,
and Abednego, and in that of the prophet himself, when,
through the intrigue of his enemies, he was cast into the
den of lions.
The administration of their various religious rites was
committed to the Chaldeans, who composed the hierarchy
of the country, and engrossed the whole of their boasted
learning. They were not only the priests, but formed the
scientific body of the nation, pretending to the gift of
prophecy, a knowledge of augury and divination, and
the power, by means of enchantment, of influencing the
destinies of men. By these means they acquired a most
dangerous influence over their superstitious countrymen;
but who these Chaldeans originally were, is a problem
G 2


78
ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, ETC., OF TIIE
that has never yet been satisfactorily solved, although fre-
quently made the subject of much learned discussion.
Even the stock from which they sprung, and the land
where they first acquired power, are matters still involved
in darkness. From the profane writers of antiquity we
gain little knowledge on the subject; and although they
are frequently mentioned in Scripture, the notices are iso-
lated, and sometimes obscure. 'I'hus far it is certain that
they were a distinct nation as far back as the days of Te-
rah, the father of Abraham, who lived "in Ur of the Chal-
dees;' and it may be inferred, from a statement in the
book of Job,* that they were a predatory race. Yet the
prophet Isaiah, it might be thought, must have had some
other people in his view when he said, t “Behold the land
of the Chaldeans: this people was not, till the Assyrian
founded it for them that dwell in the wilderness." Could this
have been applied to a tribe who lived in Mesopotamia in
the days of Terah and Abraham ?
Heeren, following Gesenius in his disquisition on this
very text, is disposed to seek for the original Chaldeans in
the mountains of Kurdistan, or still farther to the north,
and suggests that the name may have been applied by the
Semitic nations to the more barbarous tribes of upper
Asia, as that of Turani afterward was, by the inhabitants
of Iran or Persia, to the Tartars. He regards them as a
nomad race, who, about the year B.C. 630, descending
from the mountains of Taurus and Caucasus, overwhelm-
ed southern Asia, and, entering the Mesopotamian plains,
first as mercenaries, at length started forth as conquerors,
and made themselves masters of the rich provinces of
Babylonia and Syria. This, however, appears to be a
mere conjecture, founded on insufficient grounds, and in-
consistent with the declaration of Scripture as to the ex-
istence of the Chaldeans in Mesopotamia at a much ear-
lier period.
Mr. Faber, who has treated the question fully in his in-
genious work upon Pagan Idolatry, regards the Chaldeans
as a branch of the descendants of Cush, the son of Ham;
and his theory is so curious that we shall attempt a very
slight sketch of it, in order to give the reader an idea of
* Chap. i., 17.
+ Chan. xxiii., 13.
Historical Researches, 3 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1833, vol. ii., p. 147, and
note.


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 79
the various speculations to which this dark subject has
given rise.
This learned author supposes that the descendants of
Noah did not quit the land of Armenia at an early period
after the Flood, but that the patriarch lived and died in the
vicinity of the spot whence he issued from the Ark. No
sooner did his personal influence cease to be felt, than di,
visions took place among his progeny, which disposed the
different families or clans to a separation. Ninirod, a man
of an ambitious spirit and powerful mind, being surround-
ed by his kindred, who regarded him with devotion, natu-
rally controlled the councils of the whole body, who, pass-
ive and disunited, easily submitted to his sway. To re-
strain the turbulent, laws soon became necessary, as well
as officers to administer and an armed police to enforce
them. These statutes were framed, of course, by the great
leader, whose famil, constituted the magistrates, and from
whose tribe were chosen the conservators of the peace;
who, thus armed, and formed into a disciplined band, be-
came the first military establishment-an irresistible en-
gine in the hands of the mighty hunter.
But the religion professed by these early inhabitants of
the earth-a devotion to the will of the one almighty Cre-
ator-was unfavourable to the project of absolute dominion
entertained by Nimrod; for the command of God had gone
forth that they were to separate, and replenish the earth
with human beings : a consummation which the ambitious
chief sought to prevent. To effect his purpose, a change
of worship was necessary, and that, accordingly, became
his next object. To administer this new religion a priest-
hood was indispensable, selected from his own military
caste, whose interests were identified with those of the
tribe, and in whom alone their ruler could trust. Such an
institution would, of course, be reverenced and upheld by
soldiers proud of their privileges, who, at the same time,
would naturally regard their holy brethren as thei
coadjutors in obtaining and preserving their own power.
Such was Nimrod, the leader of the Noachites, and on
such a basis was his power constituted, when, according to
our author, he led the unbroken nation of mankind, about
559 years after the Flood, from the country of Armenia into
the plains of Shinar, and about 54 years later commenced
the tower and city of Babel. This undertaking, a short
S
L


80
ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, ETC., OF THE
time afterward, was brought to an abrupt conclusion by di-
vine interposition; whence followed the ordained disper-
sion of mankind.
The moral effect of so severe a blow upon such a proud
nation would, it is supposed, appear in dividing them into
many portions, each of whom would seek their own for-
tune where chance might lead, some containing individu-
als of all classes and castes, others composed entirely of
priests and military; which last would carry with them a
high notion of their former privileges, and claim for them-
selves the peculiar honours due to a race of unpolluted no-
bility.
This tribe or clan, of which Nimrod was the chief, and,
in fact, the king, is designated by Mr. Faber the Cushim or
Cuthim, as being the descendants of Cush, the son of Ham;
and they are regarded by him as fulfilling a very exalted
destiny, and sustaining a most remarkable part in the his-
tory of mankind. It is imagined by many that Ham and
his race became accursed on account of the sin against his
father Noah; but this exposition of the well-known pas-
sage in the 9th chapter of Genesis is rejected by the author
just named, who, for reasons which he sets forth, conceives
the curse to be limited to Canaan, while he confers the
sceptre of the world on the warlike posterity of Cush, not-
withstanding that reading of the Sacred Volume which
blesses both Shem and Japheth, and gives to them Canaan
as their servant.
He also maintains that the first postdiluvian empire,
that of the Cuthites, commenced with the institution of an
idolatrous religion at Babel. After this, he admits, Scrip-
ture is silent on the future fate of the family; but he nev-
ertheless asserts that there is no quarter of the world where
the name and the race are not to be found. He conceives
that, while many of them emigrated to different quarters
of the earth, Nimrod, with the portion who adhered to him,
founded Babel, and three subordinate towns; and that he
afterward went forth to Nineveh, where he discovered the
family and descendants of Asshur already settled. These
he drove out, and built a city after his own name, while
his former capital, now abandoned, sunk for a time into a
merely provincial town. Meanwhile, the dispersed Cath-
ites took their way in various directions, settling at first
principally in the mountainous tract which stretches from


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 81
the head of the Ganges by the south of the Caspian Sea to
the northeast of the Euxine, including all that Iofty region
called by the natives the stony girdle of the earth,” from
whence they overran most parts of the world. Thus in
Africa they occupied the whole country from the Thebais
to the source of the Nile and Mountains of the Moon, as
well as the land of Egypt, which was subjugated by a tribe
of pastoral Cushim from Upper India and Ethiopia. In
Asia their rule stretched from the banks of the Indus to the
Mediterranean Sea; while, migrating northward, they cov-
ered Touran (Tartary) with an unmixed race, under the
name of Scuths or Scyths. These were the Celto-Scuths
of the West, and the Indo-Scuths of the East. In short,
“this enterprising people, who, by a singular fate, have
ever been, at different periods, the corrupters and the re-
formers, the disturbers and the civilizers of the world, were
known by various names, either general to the whole,
particular to certain divisions. They were called Scuths,
Chusas, Chasas, Cisseans, Cosseans, Coths, Ghauts, and
Goths, from their great ancestor Cush; whose name they
pronounced Cusha, Chusa, Ghoda, Chasa, Chasya, or
Cassius. They were styled Palli, Bali, Bhils, Philistim,
Palistim, Bulgs, or Belgæ, from their occupation; for the
term denotes shepherds. And they were partially denomi-
nated Phanakim or Phænicians, and Huc-Sos or Shep-
herd-kings, from their claiming to be a royal race; Sacas,
Sagas, Sacasenas, Sachim, Suchim, Saxe, or Saxons, from
their god Saca or Sacya; Budins or Wudins, from their
god Buddha or Woden ; Teuts or Teutons, from their god
Teut or Taut; and Germans or Sarmans, from their god
Saman or Sarman, and his ministers the Samaneans, or
Sarmaneans, or Germaneans, as they are indifferently call-
ed, according to a varied pronunciation of the same word."*
The Chaldeans, then, according to Mr. Faber, were
those descendants of Cush who, under Nimrod, built Nin-
eveh, and founded what has been called the Assyrian em-
pire, but really the Cuthic; and the first Chaldean dynas-
ty he supposes to coincide with that of the seven monarchs
mentioned by Eusebius and Syncellus—and which lasted
224 years, or, according to Alexander Polyhistor, only 190
and with the Mahabadians of the Iranians. To these he
* The Origin of Pagan Idolatry. By George Stanley Faber, B.D.; 3
vole. 4to, Lond., 1816, vol. i., p. 85, 86.


82 ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, ETC., OF THE
adds the list of kings given by Ctesias, which, commen-
cing with Ninus, terminates with Thonos Concolerus; and
from this results a line of sovereigns of the Cuthic lineage,
extending through a space of 1495 years from Nimrod.
These positions he endeavours to establish at great length
and with much ingenuity; dwelling particularly on a pas-
sage of Justin, quoted from Trogus Pompeius, which men-
tions a Scythian race of kings, who, prior to the era of Ni-
nus, coming from the north, and extending their sway even
to Egypt, were the dominant power for some time in In-
dia. These, he contends, were the imperial Cuthim, for
they must have been Nimrodic monarchs : and thus, says
he, “we may be morally sure that the descent of the Scyth-
ians from the Armenian Caucasus, previous to their ac-
quiring the sovereignty of Asia, really means, however it
may be disguised, the descent of the Cushim, at the head of the
subjugated Noachide, from Mount Ararat into the Babylonian
plain of Shinar, and that the national appellation of Scyth-
ians or Scuthim is the selfsame word, pronounced only
with a sibilant prefix, as Cuthim or Cushim."*
We have enlarged on this author's views, because he
enjoys a high reputation for learning, and his work, how-
ever open to criticism in some points, assuredly displays
much research as well as talent. But, though we do not
mean to enter the lists with him, we cannot avoid obsery-
ing, that his account of the origin of the Chaldees appears
not to coincide with the facts narrated in Scripture, nor
with the probable condition of the world in those early
ages.
In the first place, the Noachidæ, whether subjected or
not by a section of their number, and whether remaining
in Armenia or existing in the plains of Shinar at the pe-
riod in question, comprehended at all events the whole of
the human race. There could not, therefore, be any oth-
er of the sons of men whom they might subdue on their
descent, either in Egypt, or in any part of Asia; indeed,
none of the countries could have received their names, as
the several families of the Noachidæ, from whom they de-
rived their respective appellations, had not yet dispersed
to seek their several abodes.
In the second place, it seems scarcely possible to identi-
* Origin of Pagan Idolatry, vol. iii., p. 402.
Gen., xi., 1-9.


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 83
fy the Chaldees of Ur, in the days of Terah and Abraham,
with the Cushim of Ninus, who in Sacred Writ are always
designated as Assyrians, and whose descendants, if Mr.
Faber's hypothesis be just, must about that time have been
in great glory, and enjoying the power won for them by
the victorious Semiramis. In fact, it seems difficult to
conceive that a monarchy, so extensive as that of Assyria
is represented to have been, could have existed contempo-
raneously with so many petty sovereigns in its vicinity;
and the presence of any great power in that quarter must
appear extremely doubtful when we read of Abraham res-
cuing Lot and defeating the King of Elam with only 318
men of his household.
Mr. Beke propounds a theory totally different from that
now stated. "Ur of the Chaldees he supposes to have been
peopled by the descendants of Arphaxad, the son of Shem,
who, according to the system laid down in his work, set-
tled in the northwestern parts of Mesopotamia, and, as
their numbers increased, extended themselves southward
and eastward along the valley of the Hermas, from Nine-
veh to the territory of Shinar, which latter he conceives,
upon grounds to which we may hereafter have occasion
to advert, not to have been in Babylonia, but near the foot
of Mount Masius. These Arphaxadites or Casdim he
conceives to have been the ancient Chaldeans; consider-
ing the latter term as an abbreviation of the Hebrew pat-
ronymic Arphacasdim, that is, the children or descendants
of Arphaxad.*
This reasoning receives some corroboration from the
fact that many places in that neighbourhood retain the ap-
pellations they bore in ancient times, and which they prob-
ably received from their first settlers. Thus Haran, which
still exists in the vicinity of Ur, received its name, no
doubt, from the brother of Abraham; and Serug, in the
same country, was most probably the dwelling-place of the
grandson of Peleg. Nineveh is not the only spot which
preserves the name of Nimrod. Babel remains unchan-
ged; and Mosul even at this day is known to its Christian
inhabitants as the city of Atur: a fact which is implied in
the title-page of the Syro-Chaldean Bibles, found in every
church.
* Origines Biblicæ, vol. i., p. 107.
+ Mr. Beke, however, does not admit this to have been the Haran of
Abraham's brother.


84
ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, ETC., OF THE
Nor need this immutability of name be regarded with
surprise, when we reflect that the Syrian, Chaldaic, He-
brew, and Arabic are all cognate tongues, which have not,
as in other lands, been superseded, or even greatly corrupt-
ed, by the more barbarous dialects of the strangers who
from time to time have overrun the district. The unchan-
ging Arabic is still the general language of all those re-
gions, while Jews and Christians use, with little variation,
the forms of speech that were common in the days of the
captivity. This is a state of things singularly favourable
for etymological discoveries and the advancement of com-
parative geography; and though the application of the one
science to the other may occasionally be carried too far,
there is, in the present case, strong grounds of probability,
at least, for the derivation of the term Casdim and the lo-
cation of the Chaldees in Ur.
In both these points, it is true, Mr. Beke is opposed by
high authority. “The learned Bochart ridicules Josephus
and others when they maintain that the Chaldeans were
formerly called Arphaxadites, and insists that they derive
their name from Chased or Chesed, the son of Nahor,
brother of Abraham, who was their progenitor, and from
whom, in the ancient Scripture, they are always called
Chasdim. In confirmation of this he quotes Hieronymus,
who says that “Chased also is the fourth from whom
the Chasdim, that is, the Chaldeans, were aſterward call-
ed;" from whence, too, Ur Chasdim, that is, Ur of the
Chaldees, is always described as the region or city in
which he dwelt. He confesses, indeed, that Chased was
not born at the time when we read that Abraham went
forth from Ur of the Chaldees, but that the city was so
called by anticipation; a figure, he says, common in Scrip-
ture, as the one from which that celebrated people were to
spring. Arphaxad, he adds, appears to have given his
name to that part of Assyria called by Ptolemy Arrapa-
chitis.*
Enough has now been stated to show the difficulties of
this subject, which would be perplexed rather than eluci-
dated by the recital of farther conjectures. But, notwith-
standing this obscurity, there is no doubt that the Chalde-
ans, as the dominant people in ancient Babylon, possessed
* Bocharti Geographia Sacra, editio quarta, folio, Lugd. Bat., 1707,
lib. i., cap. iv., p. 74.


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 85
all power and learning, as well as the influence which be-
longed to the priesthood. Whether their idolatry com-
menced with the era of the dispersion or not, it probably
arose in the manner common to all such superstitions.
The Almighty, invisible to mortal eye, was worshipped
through the medium of his most glorious works; and
thence sprung Sabaism, the adoration of the heavenly host.
To this simple and pure veneration another element was
soon added. The souls of those kings who had greatly dis-
tinguished themselves on earth were regarded after their
death as protecting spirits, who continued to watch over
their people and families upon earth. From heroes they
were transformed to dernigods, and at length each was
identified with some one of the heavenly host. The found-
er of their race, or he who was regarded as such, was rep-
resented by the sun; and a female influence, naturally pro-
vided as his consort, took her place in the mythological
character as the moon. The other chief personages re-
ceived various names and titles, suiting their several char-
acters, but all might be resolved into the one original idea.
The Chaldeans, according to Berosus,* taught that there
were kings who ruled at Babylon before the Deluge, the
amount of whose reigns were 120 sari, or 432,000 years,
each saros being a period of 3600. The last of these was
Xisuthrus, at the termination of whose reign of eighteen
sari came the Deluge. In the time of the third of these
antediluvian monarchs appeared Oannes Annedotus, an
amphibious creature, half man, half fish, who ascended by
day from the Erythrean Sea, and instructed the assembled
multitudes of mankind. He taught that there was a time
when all things were darkness and waters, wherein resi-
ded monsters of various sorts, with snakes, reptiles, and
fishes. Over these presided Omoroca, a female who long
reigned in gloomy and solitary independence; but at length
Belus came and cut her asunder, and out of one half of her
body was formed the earth, while the other half became
the heavens, upon which all the monsters were annihila-
ted. This, he said, was an allegory, conveying to them
the aqueous origin of the universe; for that Omoroca was
the same as Thalatth, or the sea, although the word might
also mean the moon. Afterward, seeing that the earth
* Ancient Fragments. By Isaac Preston Cory; 2d edit., 8vo, Lond.,
1832, p. 30.


86 ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, ETC., OF THE
wanted living beings, he commanded one of the gods to
cut off his head, and the other gods, mixing the blood with
earth, formed the human species from the compound. This
same Belus, whom men also called Dis, or Pluto, divided
the darkness from the light, and separated the earth from
the heavens; disposed the world in order, and called forth
the starry host.
Oannes also taught the Babylonians the use of letters,
and made them acquainted with the principles of architec-
ture, jurisprudence, and geometry; showed them valuable
seeds, and was their instructer in all useful arts. Of this
merman there were four appearances, one of which was
under the name of Odacon.
To Xisuthrus the god Cronus appeared in a vision, and
told him that a flood would take place in a particular
month, and that he should write a history of all things
down to the time, and bury it in the City of the Sun at
Sippara.* He was instrucied to build a ship, and embark
in it with his family, friends, and a pilot, together with an-
imals of all sorts. Having obeyed the mandate, he sailed
about the world, floating on the face of the waters until the
Deluge abated, when the vessel stranded, as is supposed,
among the Gordyæan Mountains, where, like Noah, after
sending forth birds, he found that the earth was dry, and,
with his wife, and daughter, and the pilot, quitted his asy-
lum. Having then built an altar and sacrificed to the gods,
he and his companions disappeared.
Those who remained in the ship now disembarked, and
began to lament their lost companions, calling upon the
name of Xisuthrus. Him they saw no more; but they
heard his voice in the air, admonishing them to pay due
regard to religion, and telling them that, on account of his
piety, he had been translated to live with the gods, and that
his wife, children, and the pilot enjoyed the same honours.
He farther told them to make the best of their way to Bab-
ylonia, and search at Sippara for the records he had left,
and which were to be made known to all mankind.
The similarity of this account to that of the Noachic
ge must be quite apparent, although the whole is
greatly disfigured by its Chaldean dress. At what period
idolatry began, we know not, nor when the simplicity of
+ The Perisabora of the ancient geographers, and Anbar, the ruins of
which are still to be seen close to the castle of Felagia.


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 87
the patriarchal system gave way to the fantastic innova-
tions of man; but we learn from Scripture that images
were made use of as objects of adoration as early as the
days of Terah, the father of Abraham. The period of hero-
worship soon followed; and the gods of the Chaldees from
henceforth are to be viewed in images and monsters made
by the hands of men.
The first of the ancient kings who received the honours
of deification was Pul or Bel, Belus, to whom his son, the
Tiglath-pileser of Sacred Writ, or Ninus of profane writers,
erected an image; and his title to this distinction appears
to have been acknowledged throughout Mesopotamia as
well as Assyria, for a temple was built to him in Babylon
at a very early period, where he was regarded as the tu-
telary divinity. In this celebrated structure, however,
there appear to have been two gods, one of whom was un-
derstood to be invisible, while the other was represented by
a colossal statue of gold. There were also two altars; on
the one, which was of the same precious metal, and of mod-
erate size, only young victims could be offered; on the
other, which was larger, none but such as were full grown;
hence it would appear that one of these gods was held sub-
ordinate to the other.
The next in importance of their deities appears to have
been represented by an idol called Succoth-benoth, men-
tioned in 2 Kings, xvii., 30, and which is said to mean the
tabernacles of the daughters. Herodotus says that this god-
dess was by the Babylonians called Mylitta, signifying
mother; and Selden considers the name as the root of the
Venus of later mythologies, a derivation which is support-
ed by other authorities, and involves but an easy change
of orthography.
Another of the Assyrian or Babylonian deities was Nebo
or Nabo, whose name so often enters into those of their
kings, and who, therefore, may be supposed to have been
held in high estimation. He is found in Isaiah (chapter
xlvi.) coupled with Bel, and may possibly have been the
same with Chemosh or Baal-peor of the Moabites; but lit-
tle more is known of him than that he is understood to have
been much consulted as an oracle.
To these may be added Rach, Nego or Nergal, Mero-
dach, and many others that have not reached our time,
who were objects of worship to the capricious Babyloni-


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 89
with a sort of slipper, such as is observed in the sculptures
at Persepolis. It is almost unnecessary to observe that
this account applies only to the latter period of the Empire,
and not to the earlier times, when their manners must have
been more simple, the public mind more energetic, and
habits of vice less prevalent.
The whole learning of the nation rested, as we have al-
ready said, with the Chaldees, who refer their first instruc-
tion in astronomy, geometry, and astrology to that oannes
of whom we have just spoken. Sir Isaac Newton leans to
the opinion that this person was an Egyptian, who, not long
before the days of David and Solomon, fled into Chaldea,
carrying with him the science of his country. This opin-
ion, however, seems rather at variance with the Scripture,
where the learning of the latter nation is spoken of as re-
markable at a very early age; and the attempt of the first
postdiluvians to build the tower of Babel, implies an ac-
quaintance with the principles of architecture which could
only belong to an advanced state of the exact sciences.
Besides, according to the tradition of Jews, Arabs, and In-
dians, the Egyptians owed all their knowledge to the Chal-
deans, from whose country it was conveyed by Abraham:
and, rivals as the two nations were, both in arts and arms,
the claim to superior antiquity, at least, did certainly lie in
favour of the Mesopotamians.
But, whatever may have been its source, it is manifest
that their science in later times was stationary. They
parted not from the rules they had been taught; professed
neither to know, to require, nor to teach more than they
themselves had learned from their ancestors; and their
principal merit appears to have consisted in being perfect-
ly acquainted with what they professed to know. In point
of fact, their attainments were very trifling, and their no-
tions of astronomy, in particular, were fanciful and absurd.
They appear to have considered the earth as a being like a
vessel or boat, hollow within, round which the sun, and
moon, and stars revolved, but at what relative distances
they were totally ignorant; hence they attributed the great-
er length of time occupied by their respective revolutions
only to a greater tardiness of motion. The moon, howev-
er, they conceived was an exception to this hypothesis;
they taught that she shone with a light not her own, and
accounted for her eclipses by her immersion in the shadow
H2


90 ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, ETC., OF THE
of the earth; but as to the eclipses of the sun they were to-
tally uninformed
They divided the zodiac into twelve spaces, each being
distinguished by a sign, and throughout which the several
planets performed their revolutions. These bodies were
six in number, enumerated according to their respective
shares of influence, as follows: Saturn, the Sun, Mars,
Venus, Mercury, and Jupiter; and they were denominated
interpreters, as portending by their motions and aspect the
will of the gods.
Under the planets they ranged thirty stars, which they
called counselling gods; half of whom took cognizance
of what was done under the earth, the other half of that
which was done by men, or in the heavens; and they
taught that once in ten days one of the superior stars de-
scended as a messenger to the inferior, and vice versa, by
which a regular correspondence was kept up. Of these
deities there were twelve chiefs, one of whom was assign-
ed to. each month of the year and section of the zodiac.
Out of the inferior stars, again, they selected twenty-four,
placing twelve towards the north pole and twelve to the
south.
All these luminaries were believed to exercise great
power over the fortunes of men; and from their aspects
and position with reference to each other, they predicted
all of good or evil that should befall the individuals born
under their sway. This, it will be observed, was less a
system of astronomy than of astrology, to the knowledge
of which, indeed, they made the highest pretensions.
As to the world, they taught that it was eternal--without
beginning and without end; and they acknowledged a
Divine Providence, who directed the motions of the heav-
ens and the course of nature by means of inferior agents
or deities. Beyond this, little is known of their doctrines
on those lofty subjects.
That the Chaldeans had a considerable acquaintance
with mathematics and geometry appears certain, as we
have already observed ; for, without some knowledge of
these sciences, they could not have constructed the build-
ings and other important works which are attributed to
them, and of which the vestiges still remain.
It is likewise manifest that they had musical instru-
ments and performers, as in the book of Daniel we read


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 91
of flutes, cornets, harps, sackbuts, psalteries, and dulci-
mers; but we are ignorant of their real form; and it is
not improbable that they bore some resemblance to those
used by the rude band now called the Nokara Khaneh,
which in Persia and other Eastern countries plays at sta-
ted times over the gateway of the royal palace.
Of their poetry we know nothing; and their total igno-
rance of medicine may be estimated from the fact that it
was their custom to expose their sick publicly in places
where every passer-by might see them, in the hope that
some one who had been similarly afflicted might commu-
nicate the means of cure.
That they were skilful in the working of metals, and in
the cutting of stones and gems, appears not only from the
uses they made of these substances in their palaces, tem-
ples, and houses, but from the fragments which are, even
at this remote period, occasionally found among the ruins
of Babylon and other cities of Mesopotamia. They were
also celebrated for their manufacture of linen and wool-
len. The cloaks called sindones, usually made of cotton,
were highly valued for fineness of texture and brilliancy
of colour, insomuch that they were commonly set apart
for royal use. Their carpets of finest fabric and most
splendid dyes, also their gorgeous drapery and embroider-
ies, were equally famous. The former were in great re-
quest in Persia, where every bed and couch were covered
with them.
Pliny mentions a suit of Babylonian hangings for a di-
ning-room which cost a sum equal in our money to £6458
6s. 8d.; and Plutarch, in his life of Cato, tells us that the
stern patriot, having received in a legacy a Babylonian
cloak or mantle, sold it immediately, as being far too cost-
ly for him to wear. This people, too, as well as the As-
syrians, were celebrated for their purple dye.“
That the commerce of ancient Babylon must have been
very great, is unquestionable. The riches and luxury of
the country alone afford sufficient proof of this; and as-
suredly no city of that period could boast of a more ad-
vantageous position as a trading entrepôt. Built upon one,
and commanding the navigation of two noble streams,
both leading to the Persian Gulf, and surrounded by pop-
ulous districts, nothing was wanting to encourage a spirit
of adventure; and that such did exist to a very great ex-


92
ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, ETC., OF THE
tent we know, though of the exact nature and particulars
of the commerce itself we have no detailed account. The
natives were fond of magnificence, and full of artificial
wants; costly in dress, perfumes, ornaments, and in their
general habits of life. Their own country did not produce
the articles they consumed in such abundance, and they
must therefore have imported them; and as the land around
afforded little to give in return, the means of purchasing
must have arisen in part from the profits of trade and barter.
It is known, also, that many of the early sovereigns gave
great encouragement to merchandise as well as to agricul-
ture. Gerrha, supposed to have been near the site of the
modern El Katif, was a commercial station; Teredon, on
the Pallacopas, was founded by Nebuchadnezzar; and
Semiramis is said to have built towns upon the banks of
the Tigris as marts for Media and Persia.
The land-trade of Babylon is divided by Heeren* into
five chief branches: that to the east with Persia and Bac-
tria; to the north with Amenia; to the west with Phæ-
nicia and Asia Minor; and, finally, to the south with
Arabia.
The great road to the east ran by Ecbatana to the Cas-
pian Gates, through which it led to Hyrcania and Aria,
and thence in a northerly direction to Bactra, which last
was the entrepôt of Central Asia, Tartary, and the more
southern provinces.
The path for western commerce, according to Strabo,
passed north through Mesopotamia to Anthemusia on the
Euphrates, twenty-five days' journey, where it turned to-
wards the Mediterranean. This line could only be trav-
ersed by strong caravans, on account of the Scenite Arabs,
who occupied the Desert and plundered all whom they
could overpower.
The northern route to Armenia and Asia Minor was the
great military communication made by the Median soy-
ereigns, from Susa by Babylon to Sardis. It was divided
into 110 stages of five parasangs or about twenty miles
each, every one having a splendid caravansera attached
to it. Tavernier traced it from Smyrna to Tokat, from
whence, in later times, it went to Erivan for the purpose of
reaching Ispahan, subsequently the capital of Persia. The
* Historical Rosearches, vol. ii., p. 203.


ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 93
great road now leads by Erzeroum to Tabreez and the
north of Persia.
But the commerce with Armenia was chiefly maintain-
ed by the River Euphrates on rafts of timber bound upon
inflated hides, or in rude boats. These were loaded with
wine and other produce of the country, and when they
reached Babylon were sold, together with the commodi-
ties which they conveyed, the force of the stream render-
ing it impossible for them to return up the river. The
owners, however, carefully preserved the skins, which
were folded upon asses or mules, and carried back by
land. This trattic is described as having been prosecuted
to a great extent.
But the main branch of trade was undoubtedly that with
India and the countries beyond the Gulf. This was car-
ried on, of course, in ships, many of which, it may be pre-
sumed, were the property of Chaldean merchants; for that
this people possessed a mercantile navy is not only alluded
to in Scripture. * but is rendered certain from many inci-
dental notices preserved to us in the Greek writers. Still
there is reason, as Heeren obseryes, for believing that
much of this intercourse was conducted by the Phæni-
cians, who had settlements on the eastern coast of Arabia,
and were the great carriers between India and Babylon.t
The principal objects of this trade were frankincense
and drugs, spices, especially Ceylon cinnamon, ivory, eb-
ony, fragrant woods, precious stones, pearls, gum-lac for
dye, robes, gold and gold-dust, and Indian dogs, which last
were greatly in demand all over Central Asia. One of
the sairaps of Babylon is said to have devoted the revenue
of four towns to their maintenance; and Xerxes carried
an immense number along with him when he invaded
Greece.
The chief places in the East to which this navigation
was directed, were on the western coasts of the Indian pen-
insula: to Crocola, now Curachee; probably to Barygaza,
now Baroach; and to Ceylon.
Heeren speaks of certain ports in the gulf which were
places at once of produce and of commerce. Tylos, an
island, according to Ptolemy, fifty miles from the Bay of
Gerrha, supplied walking-sticks, and timber for ship-build-
* Isaiah, xliii., 14.
Historical Researches, vol. ii., p. 246.


ANTIQUITIES.-BABYLON.
95
their existence, when they were the seats of empire, popu-
lous and rich, and covered with cities, towns, and villages,
of which now, in many cases, not even the names remain.
Before, therefore, describing the country in its present de-
cayed condition, it is fit that our attention should be turned
to the vestiges of that fallen greatness; the venerable re-
mains of departed prosperity which meet the traveller's
eye in every quarter-in the alluvial plains of Babylonia
as well as in the rocky mountains of Assyria. In descri-
bing the most prominent of these, we shall endeavour, by
examining what time has spared, and making use of the
imperfect lights which history or tradition presents, to com-
pare, in some degree, the brilliant past with the desolate
present, and trace, in the obscure mounds and shattered
walls that now encumber the land, the abodes of genera-
tions who once were among the wise and mighty of the
earth.
Of these vestiges no place affords a more abundant dis-
play than Babylonia and Chaldea, the Irak-Arabi of the
Mohammedans. Not only are the ruins of the ancient cap-
ital, the first and probably the greatest city of the world,
to be found within their precincts, together with those of
Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Orchoe, and Waasut, but the whole
plain is thickly covered with traces of former habitations.
Scarcely, indeed, is there a single rood of ground which
does not exhibit some fragment of brick, or tile, or glass,
or sepulchral urn, to tell that man has lived in a region
which now presents to the eye.but one vast expanse of arid
desert: a howling wilderness, where the only evidence
that he still exists is afforded by the black Bedouin tent, or
the wandering camel which here and there dots its dreary
surface.
Among these numerous vestiges, the mounds of ancient
Babylon claim, of course, the first place in interest and im-
portance; and we shall accordingly proceed to consider it
as it was and is. But, before attempting a description of
this great city, there are some preliminary questions which
can scarcely fail to suggest themselves as involving con-
siderations of the highest interest, and which it is there-
fore proper to examine.
In the first place, are we to consider the ruins which are
now very generally admitted to be the remains of the Bab-
ylon of Nebuchadnezzar, as occupying also the position of


96
ANTIQUITIES.-BABYLON.
the Tower of Babel, and the first city of the postdiluvians ?
Do any one of the mounds which now meet the traveller's
eye represent the relics of that earliest architectural effort
of the human race? Or did the Babel of Nimrod, the cap-
ital of the mighty hunter, occupy the same spot as the me-
tropolis of the Chaldæo-Babylonians ?
These questions lead directly to another, on the solution
of which the replies to them must mainly depend, namely,
whether the land of Shinar, mentioned in the book of Gen-
esis, is identical with the Babylonia of more recent times.
To the consideration of this point we shall first address
ourselves.
Many learned disquisitions have been promulgated upon
this subject, and various results embraced by their authors.
The opinion most commonly received is that the plains of
Babylonia do really represent the land of Shinar. Some
writers, however, are disposed to deny this proposition ;
and among these, Mr. Beke has endeavoured to prove not
only that the territory of Babylonia is not identical with
the land of Shinar, but that we must look for that land in
Upper Mesopotamia; and he is inclined to fix it in the
plains about Ur* or Orfa, in the province of Diar-Modzar.
But there are better data on which to proceed in examin-
ing this question; and Mr. Ainsworth, in his “Researches,"
has furnished proof, first, that the country indicated by Mr.
Beke as answering to the Shinar of the postdiluvians,
agrees in no particular with the description of that land in
Scripture; and, secondly, that the alluvial formations of
Babylonia did not, at the period when the Tower of Babel
was built, differ greatly in extent, consistence, or natural
appearance from their condition at the present day. In
regard to the first point, it may be sufficient to remark, that
the whole of Upper Mesopotamia, with the exception of
particular and limited spots, consists of gravelly tracts in-
tersected by ranges of hills, in no place affording an ex-
panse of flat country answering to the Scriptural account
of Shinar. The only two level tracts of great extent are
those which stretch eastward from the Khabour, and south
from Sinjar to the Hamrine range of hills; and both of
these, so far as is known, are rather of a gravelly than an
alluvial character, and in no case far removed from mount-
the land of Shinar hy of Babylonia is not to prove not
* See the map annexed to his work.


ANTIQUITIES.-BABYLON.
97
ains. Now we are especially told in Scripture that the
builders of the Tower of Babel used bricks, well burned in
the fire, instead of stones, and slime or bitumen for mortar.
But in no part of Upper Mesopotamia could there have
been occasion for such expedients, the two last-named ma-
terials being far less abundant than stone and mortar;
whereas, in the alluvial district of Babylonia, the use of
brick would become a measure of necessity; and the ever-
flowing fountains of Hit, which unquestionably furnished
the bituminous cement for the capital of Nebuchadnezzar,
were at hand to supply the builders of Babel with the same
ingredient.
These considerations may serve, perhaps, to prove that,
notwithstanding the tempting lure which the name of Sin-
jar or Singara holds out to etymologists, the position of
that land must be sought for at a lower point in the valley
of the Euphrates, if, indeed, the whole country from the
Sinjar hills downward to the sea did not, in those early
times, pass under the same name. In fact, the geological
researches of Mr. Ainsworth supply us with the means of
showing that the early postdiluvians could have had no
such serious obstacles to contend with in choosing the lo-
cality which is generally believed to have been the scene
of their daring attempt. We shall not follow him through
the elaborate inquiry of which he has given us the result.
It goes chiefly to prove that the large beds of breccia and
gravel which abound throughout Mesopotamia must have
been brought to their present situation by the agency of
water, at some period antecedent to the Deluge of Scripture:
first, because these beds in many places underlie formations
of a Plutonic character, which must have been produced
by physical convulsions, of which there exists no record
since that event; secondly, because these gravelly forma-
tions extend in the valley of the Euphrates to a distance
below the site of ancient Babylon, having been discovered
at Iskenderia, in the ancient bed of the Pallacopas, and to
the west of Semava; and, thirdly, because there is every
reason for believing the greater part of the alluvium of
Babylonia and Chaldea to have been formed by the Flood,
and to have experienced little alteration since the progress
of alluvial encroachment upon the waters of the gulf by
the washings of the rivers became comparatively slow.
Mr. Ainsworth proves that, reckoning from the time when


98
ANTIQUITIES.-BABYLON.
Babylon attained its high rank as a city, a period of 2600
years, the increase of land by the deposition of alluvium at
the head of the gulf, into which the Euphrates, Tigris, and
all the rivers of Susiana empty their waters, has not ex-
ceeded the rate of thirty yards per annum.
Thus it may be considered as established, both that the
Shinar of Scripture, or, at least, the portion of it referred
to in the 10th chapter of Genesis, was not in Upper Mes-
opotamia, and also that it lay farther down the valley of
the Euphrates, in an alluvial soil, in the neighbourhood of
bituminous springs. A full consideration of all the cir-
cumstances detailed will, we think, lead to the conclusion
that the Tower of Babel and first city of the postdiluvians
must have been founded on some spot not very distant
from the ruins of Babylon which are seen at this day.
Whether that celebrated structure did actually occupy the
exact position of those mounds that now attract the trav-
eller's eye, is a point which, from the scanty information
we possess, will never, in all human probability, be decided.
Adopting, however, the reasoning of Mr. Rich, in his
first Memoir on the ruins of Babylon, it may be observed
that there is no Scriptural authority for supposing that
the building was destroyed at the time of the dispersion of
mankind, although its farther progress was arrested. We
learn that the Babel of Nimrod was certainly placed in
the land of Shinar, and there appears nothing unreasona-
ble in the supposition that the city of the dispersed might
continue to be the abode of the mighty hunter and of his
descendants; while those who, in a later age, undertook to
raise a monument to the honour of Belus, may have avail-
ed themselves of the labours of their forefathers as a foun-
dation for their own. At the same time, it may be re-
marked that there are no grounds for even conjecturing to
what extent the building had proceeded when stopped by
the interposition of the Almighty, or whether it had attain-
ed a magnitude calculated to impart an enduring grandeur
to its ruins.
Assuming, then, that the Babel of the postdiluvians did
actually occupy the same, or nearly the same place as the
mounds which represent the Babylon of a subsequent pe-
riod, a step at least will be gained towards establishing the
positions of the other cities of the kingdom of Nimrod,
“Erech, and Accad, and Calneh," in the land of Shinar.


ANTIQUITIES.-BABYLON.
Recent researches, both geographical and historical, have
induced several learned persons to fix the sites of these
ancient cities as follows:
Accad is supposed to be represented by the huge mound
of Akkerkoof, above six miles from Bagdad, and the
smaller ones by which it is surrounded.
Erech, by the still more imposing remains known by
the name of Workha, in Chaldea Proper, below Lemlum.
Calneh is referred to the site of Ctesiphon or Madayn,
which cities have, of course, obliterated all vestiges of a
prior state.
The proofs on which these conclusions rest are not as
yet before the public, and it would exceed the bounds of a
work like this to give in detail a chain of evidence and
reasoning which, it is to be hoped, will soon appear in a
perfect shape. But, with regard to the first, it may be
mentioned that, while the remains of ancient embank-
ments, canals, and other buildings, fragments of pottery,
glass, and similar substances, no less than the nature of
its structure and materials, attest its having, in very re-
mote times, been a place of great importance, the name
applied to it by several ancient authors approaches to that
of the ancient city of Nimrod. Thus, in the text of the
Talmud, it is called Aggada, and the learned Hyde quotes
from Maimonides the expression “Extat Aggada tres an-
nos natus” in reference to this spot. That the Accad of
Scripture should be found in the vicinity of Babel was to
be expected ; and it is worthy of remark, that the Akker-
koof of the Arabs is by the Turks called Aker-i-Nimrod
or Akree-Babel.
The name of Erech appears to be well preserved in the
present appellation of Irkah, Irakh, or Workha; while its
locality with reference to that of Babel, as now assumed,
appears confirmatory of the conjecture that it commem-
orates the second-mentioned city of Nimrod. Yet it is
possible that it may represent only the Orchoe of the Chal-
deans instead of Umgeyer or Mugeyer, a ruin hitherto
unknown or undescribed, and which by some is conceived
to occupy the ground of that city; while, on the other
hand, the term Orchoe may be nothing more than a modi-
fication of the ancient Erech, and Workha or Irkha a
more modern pronunciation of both.
The comparative vicinity of the site of Citsiption to


ANTIQUITIES.-BABYLON. 101
olis, we must have recourse to other sources besides Scrip-
ture; for, although we find in the Sacred Volume many
direct allusions to the great power of the empire, and the
magnificence of its capital-its walls, its palaces, its tem-
ples, and its idols of massy gold-to give a detailed de-
scription of Babylon in its high and palmy state, formed
no part of the design contemplated by the inspired writers.
We must therefore turn to the pages of Herodotus, Cte-
sias, Strabo, and Diodorus, where we shall find ample
materials.
These authors all describe the city as having been in
form a square, each side of which, according to the first
of them, extended 120 stadia, or about fifteen miles. But,
as the accounts differ greatly in regard to the dimensions
and extent of the walls, the following table, taken from
Rennell's Geography of Herodotus, will serve to give at a
glance the results of the several authorities :
Circuit of Walls. Height of Walls. Breadth of Walls.
Stadia.
Cubits. Feet.
Cubits. Feet.
Herodotus .......480...... ......200 300...........50 75
Ctesias ..........360...... . * 300.....
Pliny ............480......
Clitarchus .......365......
Curtius ..........368............100 150..........
Strabo ...........385............ 50 75........
The walls, according to the old historians, were protect-
ed from approach by a large wet ditch, the mud from
which served to form the bricks that were used in the
building. These were cemented together with melted
bitumen, and the moat was lined with the same materials.
In each side of the square there were twenty-five portals,
making 100 in all, which were furnished with gates of
brass. On the summit of the wall, between each two of
these gateways, were built three towers: there was one
at each corner, and three between each corner and the
first gate, all of them rising ten feet above the parapet of
the wall. In some parts, however, where the line led
through a morass, these towers were omitted, as unneces-
sary for defence, so that there were but 250 in all. Within
the walls there was left a space of 200 feet clear of houses,
forming a spacious pathway all round. The city was in-
tersected by straight streets, running from each gate on
either side to that corresponding opposite, so that the
* Fifty orgya are given ; it should probably be fifty cubits.
32
•
32
I 2


ANTIQUITIES.-BABYLON.
103
ened by a surrounding wall twenty-two feet thick. The
floors were formed by a pavement of stones, each sixteen
feet long by four broad, over which two courses of brick,
cemented together with plaster, were laid in a bed of bitu-
men; over these were spread thick sheets of lead; and on
this solid terrace was placed suitable mould, deep enough
to nourish and support the largest trees. On the highest
of these terraces was a reservoir, which, being filled by an
engine from the river, served to water the plants. Such,
according to Diodorus, were the celebrated hanging gar-
dens of Babylon erected by Nebuchadnezzar The Temple
of Belus, which, at all events, was enlarged and embellish-
ed by that monarch, is described by Herodotus as two fur-
longs square, in the midst of which rose a tower of the
solid depth and height of one furlong, upon which, resting,
as a base, seven other turrets were built in like manner
and in regular succession. The ascent, which was on the
outside, winding from the ground, was continued to the
highest tower, and in the middle of the vast structure there
was a convenient resting-place. In the last tower was a
large chapel, in which was placed a couch, magnificently
adorned, and near it a table of solid gold; but there was
no statue. No man was suffered to sleep there; but the
apartment was occupied by a female, who, as the Chal-
dean priests affirmed, was selected by their deity from the
whole nation as the object of his pleasures. “They them-
selves," adds the historian, “have a tradition, which can-
not easily obtain credit, that their deity enters this temple,
and reposes by night on this couch.”
In the temple there was also a small chapel, which con-
tained a figure of Jupiter, in a sitting posture, with a large
table before him. These, with the base of the table and
the seat of the throne, were all of the purest gold, and were
estimated to be worth 800 talents. On the outside of the
chapel there were two altars; one was of gold, on which
only young animals were sacrificed; the other was of im-
mense size, and appropriated to the sacrifice of those which
were full grown. Upon this, too, at the annual festival in
honour of their god, the priests are said to have consumed
incense to the amount of 1000 talents. In this temple there
was formerly a statue of solid gold, twelve cubits high; a
fact the historian mentions from information given by the
Chaldeans, not from his own knowledge, which would seem


104
ANTIQUITIES.-BABYLON.
to imply that his other descriptions were drawn from per-
sonal observation. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, he adds,
endeavoured by sinister means to obtain possession of this
statue, not daring openly to take it; but his son Xerxes af-
terward seized it, putting to death the priest who endeay-
oured to prevent its removal.
Besides those gigantic works, there were others of less
show, but much more important to the prosperity of the
capital and its surrounding territory, which were construct-
ed or completed by Nebuchadnezzar, or other sovereigns of
the Chaldæo-Babylonian dynasty. Such were the noble
system of canals, which are alluded to by Herodotus, and
several of which are mentioned by ancient historians—the
Nahr Malikah, the Pallacopas, the Nahrawan, and the
Dijeil of later times. To these may be added the great arti-
ficial lake, the huge embankments, and the subterraneous
passage or tunnel under the Euphrates, attributed by Dio-
dorus, on the authority of Ctesias, to the great Semiramis;
by Berosus, Abydenus, and others, to Nebuchadnezzar;
and by Herodotus to Queen Nitocris, who, we have reason
to believe, was the wife of Evil Merodach, although the
historian mentions neither the name of her consort nor of
her predecessor.
Of these canals Herodotus speaks in terms of approba-
tion, but seems to consider them as formed rather as a
means of defence than of agricultural improvement; for he
says that, by their disposition, they rendered the Euphrates,
which before flowed to the sea in an almost even line, só
complicated in its windings, that, in its passage to Babylon,
it arrived three times at Ardericca, an Assyrian village, at
which all persons wishing to go from the sea to the capital
were compelled to touch on three different days. The
banks, too, which she raised to restrain the river on each
side, were, he says, really wonderful, from their enormous
height and substance. The earth used for them was taken
from an immense lake which she dug, the circumference
of which was not less than 420 furlongs (about forty-two
miles), and the banks were strengthened by stones brought
from a distance.
One use of this lake, he remarks, was to receive the wa-
ters of the Euphrates, which were turned into it, so that,
the bed below becoming dry, she was enabled to erect a
bridge over the channel; previous to which period, all per-


106
ANTIQUITIES.-BABYLON.
learned author is inclined to think that Babylon, in its
most flourishing state, may have contained 1,200,000 in-
habitants.
Such, then, was the capital of Nebuchadnezzar and his
successors, until sacked and destroyed by Darius, accord-
ing to the testimony of Herodotus, who visited the place
scarcely a century after its first reduction by Cyrus, and
about eighty-seven years after the more severe treatment
inflicted on it by his successor. We have now to visit its
mouldering remains, after the full accomplishment of the
Divine denunciations pronounced against it by the mouth
of his prophets: “How art thou fallen from Heaven, O Lu-
cifer, son of the morning! how art thou cut down to the
ground, which didst weaken the nations! I will make it
a possession for the bittern, and pools of water; and I will
sweep it with the besom of destruction."* “And Babylon
shall become heaps, a dwelling-place for dragons, an as-
tonishment, and an hissing, without an inhabitant. Her
cities are a desolation, a dry land, and a wilderness; a
land wherein no man dwelleth, neither doth any son of man
pass thereby.”+
* Isaiah, xiv., 12, 23.
† Jeremiah, li., 37, 43.


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
CHAPTER VI.
Ruins of Babylon described.
Allusions to them by ancient Authors.-From A.D. 917 to 1616.-De-
scribed by Niebuhr and Beauchamp.-By Olivier.-By Rich.-Gen-
eral Aspect.--Face of the Country: - Principal Mounds described.--
Hill of Amran.--El-kasr.-Remarkable Tree.--Embankment.-Muje-
libe. -Coffins discovered there.-Birs Nimrod.-Vitrified Masses.-Al
Heimar.-Other Ruins.-Buckingham's Account and Opinions of the
Mujelibé, El-kasr, &c.-Al Heimar.-The Birs.-Sir Robert Ker Por-
ter.-His Description of the same Ruins.-His Search for farther Ruins
on the west Side of the Euphrates.-Difficulty of reconciling the Posi-
tion of these Ruins with the Accounts of ancient Historians.--Specu-
lations regarding the ancient Walls of Babylon.-Probable Mistakes of
Buckingham.-Changes in the Course of the Euphrates.-Conjectures
concerning the Birs Nimrod-And the ancient Borsippa.-Discrepan-
cy between ancient Accounts.- Arrian and Berosus.-Cities built from
the Ruins of Babylon.-Ainsworth's Suggestion of a Change of Names
for the several Ruins.-His Mistakes in regard to Measurements.
The vitrified Masses.-Much Room yet for Investigation respecting
these Ruins and the circumjacent Country.- Prospects of this being
effected.
The gigantic mounds and mouldering heaps which are
now all that remains of this great capital, have for ages
past attracted the notice of travellers. Ibn Haukul, the
Persian geographer, in 917 A.C., speaks of Babel as a
small village, and assumes that hardly any remains of
Babylon were to be seen. Abulfeda describes the former
merely as the place where Ibrahim ul Khaleel was cast
into the fire. The city, he says, is now destroyed, and re-
placed by a diminutive hamlet, and, quoting from Ibn Hau-
kul, he calls it the most ancient structure of Irak, from
which the surrounding country took its name. "The Ca-
naanitish kings and their descendants dwelt here; its ruins
declare it to have been an extensive city.” Benjamin of
Tudela, a Jewish traveller of the twelfth century, remarks
tha othing was to be seen but the ruins of Nebuchadnez-
zar's palace, into which no one dared to enter, on account
of the serpents and scorpions with which it was infested.
In 1583, Èldred, an English merchant, on his way from
Bir to Bagdad, passed the "old mighty city of Babylon,
many ruins whereof are easily to be seen by daylight;"


108
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
and he mentions, in particular, the Tower of Babel, which
he describes as a quarter of a mile in circuit, and about
the height of St. Paul's, but it “showeth much bigger;"
and he farther states that it was built of very large sun-
dried bricks, cemented by courses of “mattes, made of
canes, as though they had been laid within one yeere."
Rawolff, who visited the place in the sixteenth century,
speaks of ihe remains of an ancient bridge, of the relics of
ancient fortifications, and of the Temple of Belus, which
was so much destroyed, and so full of venomous animals,
that it could only be approached during two months of win-
ter, when they do not leave their holes.
In 1616, Pietro della Valle visited the ruins, and descri-
bed them rather generally as a confused heap of fragments,
so covered over with earth that they looked sometimes as
much like hills as buildings. There are on record the nar-
ratives of several other persons who travelled thither during
the same century; but Niebuhr in 1765, and Beauchamp
twenty years later, are the first among more modern au-
thors who have given any account of the remains. The
latter states that the ruins of Babylon are very conspicu-
ous about one league north of the town of Hillah. "Above
all the rest is one which is rather flat on the top, of an ir-
regular form, about thirty toises or 180 feet high, and much
cut up by furrows down the sides. It would never have
been taken for a work of man, were it not for the regular
layers of bricks which are visible, and which prove that
it was no natural hill. Beyond this mound, on the bank of
the river, are immense masses of building, which supplied
bricks for the building of Hillah.”
Besides these ruins, M. de Beauchamp likewise men-
tions a brick wall, which he calculates must have been
sixty feet thick. “It ran,” he observes, " parallel with the
river, and may have been part of the wall of the city. I
discovered also a subterranean channel, which, instead of
being vaulted, was covered with flat stones three feet broad
by six or seven long. These ruins extend several miles to
the north of Hillah, and satisfactorily prove this to have
been the site of ancient Babylon.” He also alludes to
Brouss, on the opposite side of the river, but he does not
describe it.
A few years after, Olivier visited these ruins, which he
describes as being so far from presenting any traces of a


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
109
city, that a careful examination is required before some of
the mounds, dug into on all sides, are discovered. Among
these heaps, he particularizes one, which, he says, appears
to be the remains of the Temple of Belus, built by Semira-
mis. The surface of it is formed of earth; but from the
interior the Arabs dig out large baked bricks, cemented
with a layer of reeds and bitumen; and the circumference
he estimates at 1100 to 1200 ordinary paces. This is cer-
tainly the Mujelibé, as he says that it is situated about one
league north of Hillah; and he adds, that between it and
the river there are a great many heaps, and many founda-
tions of ancient walls.
“Here it is that in general are found the large bricks on
which are the inscriptions in unknown characters. There
are some ruins to be found on the west side of the Euphra-
tes, where likewise are sometimes found bricks with in-
scriptions on them; but I sought in vain for traces of the
palace of the kings, nor could I discover, in any direction,
the ramparts or walls of the city.” Hence it is plain that
Olivier did not see, or, at least, did not visit, the Birs.
The first comprehensive and authentic account we pos-
sess is from the pen of Claudius James Rich, of the East
India Company's civil service, who for many years filled
the important situation of Resident at Bagdad, and, through
the consideration he enjoyed from his official situation and
high character, possessed peculiar advantages for prose-
cuting his researches. Of these he fully availed himself;
and, repairing to Hillah, accompanied by the requisite
guards, he spent ten days upon the ground, zealously oc-
cupied in investigation and inquiry. We shall, therefore.
take his description of these ruins as the groundw
work of
our own, adding what farther may appear expedient from
the observations of subsequent writers.
"From the accounts of modern travellers,” says he, “I
had expected to have found on the site of Babylon more
or less than I actually did. Less, because I could have
formed no conception of the prodigious extent of the whole
ruins, or of the size, solidity, and perfect state of some of
the parts of them; and more, because I thought that I
should have distinguished some traces, however imperfect,
of many of the principal structures of Babylon. 'I ima-
gined, I should have said, 'Here were the walls, and such
must have been the extent of the area; there stood the pal


110
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
ace, and this, most assuredly, was the Tower of Belus.'
I was completely deceived: instead of a few insulated
mounds, I found the whole face of the country covered
with vestiges of buildings, in some places consisting of
brick walls surprisingly fresh, in others merely of a vast
succession of mounds of rubbish, of such indeterminate fig.
ures, variety, and extent, as to involve the person who
should have formed any theory in inextricable conſusion.
.... I shall confine myself, in the present Memoir, to a
plain, minute, and accurate statement of what I actually
saw, avoiding all conjectures except where they may tend
to throw light on the description, or be the means of exci-
ting others to inquiry and consideration.
“The whole country between Bagdad and Hillah is a
perfectly flat and (with the exception of a few spots as you
approach the latter place) uncultivated waste. That it
was at some former period in a far different state, is evi-
dent from the number of canals by which it is traversed,
now dry and neglected, and the quantity of heaps of earth,
covered with fragments of brick and broken tiles, which
are seen in every direction—the indisputable traces of for-
mer population.")*
Little need be added to this general description of the
appearances on the ground, for the accuracy of which ev-
ery one who has visited the spot will readily vouch. The
wide extent of mounds and vestiges of buildings must, in
truth, arrest the attention of every beholder, who, at the
same time, will not fail to remark how little the shapeless
heaps on which he gazes can suggest in any degree either
the nature or object of the structures of which they are the
wrecks. After a minute account of the surrounding coun-
try, Mr. Rich goes on to describe the ruins. The principal
masses on the eastern side of the river extend from a point
about two miles north of Hillah for a space of three miles in
the same direction, and are chiefly embraced by a long cir-
culart mound, which commences near the southeast corner
of the Mujelibé, and, taking a wide detour to the eastward,
terminates at the southeast corner of the eminence called
the Hill of Amran. There is, besides, a long ridge called
* Narrative of a Journey to the Site of Babylon, &c., by Claudius
James Rich, Esq., 8vo, London, 1839, p. 33-46.
+ Sir R. K. Porter describes it as two straight lines converging to an
angle.


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
111
by him the Embankment, which extends 750 yards along
the river, and, bending to the eastward, is continued beyond
the village of Jumjuma, till, farther east, it crosses the road
from Hillah to Bagdad. The whole area included within
these rampart-like mounds is two miles and 600 yards from
east to west, and two miles 1000 yards from north to south.
It is again cut nearly in half, longitudinally, first, by a
straight dike, like the boundary, but of less magnitude, of
which only á mile in length remains; and there is to the
west of this a still smaller and shorter ridge, which termi-
nates to the north in a high heap of rubbish of a red colour,
nearly 300 yards long and 100 broad, but containing few
whole brick's. All these, and the rest of the ruins hereafter
to be described, consist of mounds of earth formed by the
decomposition of buildings channelled by the weather, and
the surface of them strewed with pieces of brick, bitumen,
and pottery.
Beyond the southern enclosure or embankment, which
affords little interest, and proceeding towards the north, is
found the first grand mass of ruins, which, in consequence
of having upon it a small domed building, said to be the
tomb of a son of Ali named Amran, has been named the
Hill of Amran, Its figure approaches that of a quadrangle,
of about 1100 yards long and 800 broad, very irregular in
height, but rising in the highest part from fifty to sixty feet
above the plain. It has been much dug into for the purpose
of procuring bricks; but there is nothing in its appearance
to require a more particular description. On the north of
this mound there is a valley of 550 yards in length, covered
with tufts of rank grass, and crossed by a low ridge of ruins.
To this succeeds the second important class of remains,
which form nearly a square of 700 yards in length and
breadth, and are connected with the mounds of Amran
by a bank of considerable height, and nearly 100 yards in
breadth. This square, named the Kasr or Palace, Mr.
Rich considers as the most interesting part of the Babylo-
nian ruins, as all that can be seen of it attests its having
been composed of buildings far superior to any which have
left traces in the eastern quarter. The bricks are of the
finest description, and, notwithstanding the immense quan-
tities of them that have been carried off, they appear still to
be abundant. But the search for them has caused farther
dilapidation and confusion, by burrowing into the mound,


112
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
and cutting it into ravines in all quarters, so that it is im-
possible to guess at the original plan of the structure. In
these excavations, walls of burned brick and excellent mor-
tar are constantly met with, and fragments of alabaster
vessels, fine earthenware, marble, and great quantities of
varnished tiles, the glazing and colouring of which are
surprisingly fresh. He found in a hollow a sepulchral urn
of earthenware, and near it some human bones, which pul-
verized with the touch. One ravine, hollowed out by ex-
plorers, ran into its substance near 100 yards by thirty feet
wide, and forty to fifty deep, displaying on one side some
yards of a perfect wall, the front, no doubt, of some build-
ing; the other, an utterly confused mass of rubbish, as if
the way had been made through a solid structure. At the
south end was found a subterraneous passage, floored and
walled with large bricks laid in bitumen, and covered over
with blocks of sandstone a yard thick and several yards
long. It was half full of brackish water, is nearly seven
feet in height, and, the workmen said, increased farther on
so much in size that a horseman might pass through it.
The superstructure over it is cemented with bitumen; in
other parts of the ravine mortar has been used; and all the
bricks have writing on them. At the northern end of this
cavity, Mr. Rich, in consequence of hearing from an old
Arab of an image or idol of black stone having been seen,
set some men to excavate, and disinterred a lion, * rudely
sculptured in dark gray stone, and of colossal dimensions,
standing on a pedestal.
A little to the west of the ravine is a pile of building,
consisting of several walls and piers, which face the car-
dinal points, eight feet in thickness, in some places orna-
mented with niches, and in others strengthened by pilas-
ters and buttresses built of fine burned brick, still perfectly
clean and sharp, laid in lime cement of such tenacity that
those whose business it is to find bricks have given up
working on account of the extreme difficulty of extracting
them whole. The tops of those walls are broken, so that
they may have originally been much higher. This remark-
able ruin is by the natives called the Kasr or Palace,
which appellation has been used to distinguish the whole
* This lion, having been again disinterred, and examined by the officers
of the Euphrates expedition, has been pronounced to be an elephant, of
which the trunk is broken off.


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
113
quadrangular mass. A little to the north-northeast may
be seen the singular tree, the only one found near these re-
mains, said by the Arabs to have flourished in ancient
Babylon, and to have been miraculously preserved to af-
ford Ali a convenient place to tie up his horse after the bat-
tle of Hillah. It is thought to resemble the lignum vitæ ;
but it is, in fact, a peculiar species of tamarisk.
Mr. Rich then describes the embankment on the river-
side, which is separated on the east from those of Amran
and the Kasr by a winding valley or ravine 150 yards
broad, the bottom of which is covered with nitrous eftiores-
cence, and apparently never had any buildings on it. The
face of the mound to the river-side is abrupt and perpendic-
ular, having been cut by the action of the water, and ex-
poses at the top a number of urns filled with human bones,
which have not undergone the action of fire. The river
has encroached here, as fragments of masonry are seen in
the water beneath the bank.
The other mounds within this space deserye little atten-
tion, as they present no remarkable appearance; but the
huge mass farthest north requires particular notice. It is
called by the Arabs Mukalibé oř Mujelibé, the first of
which words means the “overturned," a term which, Mr.
Rich observes, is sometimes applied to the Kasr. The
second, Mujelibé, has been rendered “the place of captiv-
ity," from jalib, “a captive;" and is supposed to identify
the place as the prison in which the Israelites were con-
fined. It is of an oblong shape, but irregular in its sides,
which face the cardinal points—the northern one being 200
yards in length, the southern 219, the eastern 182, and
the western 136. Its height is still more unequal, but at
the highest point, which is the southeastern angle, it
measures 141 feet. Near the summit of the western face,
which is the least elevated part, there appears a low wall
with interruptions, built of unburned bricks mixed up with
chopped straw or reeds, and cemented with clay-mortar
of great thickness, having between every course a layer of
reeds. On the north side there are vestiges of a similar
construction. The southwestern angle is crowned by
something like a turret or lantern; the other angles are in
a less perfect state, but may once have been similarly or-
namented. All its faces are furrowed by the weather, and
in some parts ploughed to a very great depth. The top is
K2


114
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
covered with heaps of rubbish, in digging into some of
which layers of broken bricks cemented with mortar are
discovered, and entire ones with inscriptions may here and
there be found; the whole being interspersed with innumer-
able fragments of pottery, bitumen, pebbles, vitrified scoria,
and even shells, bits of glass, and mother-of-pearl. There
were dens of wild beasts in several parts; and Mr. Rich
perceived in some a strong smell like that of a lion.
Bones of sheep and other animals, with abundance of por-
cupine quills, were seen in the cavities, with numbers of
bats and owls. It is a singular coincidence, that here, for
the first time, he became aware of the belief held by the
natives as to the existence of satyrs-animals like men
from the waist upward, but having the thighs and legs of
a goat. It is added, they hunt them with dogs, and eat
the lower part, abstaining from the upper portion of the
figure on account of its resemblance.
Having heard that a coffin of mulberry-wood, contain-
ing a human body, swathed in tight wrappers and partial-
ly covered with bitumen, had been observed in a passage
which leads into the interior of the mound, he set twelve
men to work, in order to uncover the cellar to which it
leads. They dug into a shaft or hollow pier sixty feet
square, lined with brick laid in bitumen and filled with
earth, in which they got a brass spike, some earthen ves-
sels, and a beam of date-tree; and, after three or four days'
toil, and making their way through several passages, lined
chiefly with fine bricks, but exhibiting also some that were
unburned, they found a wooden coffin, containing a skeleton
in high preservation. Under the head of it was a round
pebble, on the outside a bird, and in the inside an ornament
of the same material, which had probably been suspended
to some part of the corpse. A little farther on was seen
the skeleton of a child. "No doubt can be entertained of
their antiquity.
Such are the principal remains on the eastern side of the
river. Upon the western, Mr. Rich found but one object
worthy of much attention; and, indeed, on looking to that
quarter from the height of the Mujelibé, none else was to
be seen. The ruin in question was the Birs Nimrod, by
far the most interesting and gigantic of the whole that un-
derwent his examination. This huge and venerable pile,


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
115
which is situated about six miles* southwest of Hillah, is
a mound of an oblong figure, the total circumference of
which is 762 yards. The eastern side is cloven by a deep
furrow, and is not more than fifty or sixty feet high; but
the opposite side rises in a conical figure to an elevation of
198, and is crowned by a solid pile of brickwork, thirty-
seven in height by twenty-eight in breadth, diminishing in
thickness to the top, which is broken and irregular. It is
rent by a fissure to a great extent, and is also perforated by
square holes, disposed in rhomboids. The fine bricks of
which it is built have inscriptions on them; and so admi-
rable is the cement by which they are fastened, and which
appears to be lime-mortar, that, though the layers are so
close together that it is difficult to discern what substance
is between them, it is nearly impossible to extract one of
them whole. The other parts of the summit are occupied
by immense fragments of brickwork, of no determinate
figure, tumbled together, and converted into solid vitrified
masses, as if they had undergone the action of the fiercest
fire, or been blown up with gunpowder, the layers being still
perfectly discernible : a curious fact, and one for which
Mr. Rich professes himself quite unable to account.
The whole of the mound on which those fragments are
deposited is itself a ruin, channelled by the weather, strew-
ed also with the usual debris, as well as with pieces of
black stone, sandstone, and marble. In the eastern face,
layers of unburned brick are plainly to be seen, but no
reeds were discernible in any part, and in the north side
may be observed traces of building exactly similar to the
brick pile. At the foot of the mound a step is observed,
scarcely elevated above the plain, but exceeding in extent,
by several feet each way, the true or measured base; and
there is a quadrangular enclosure around the whole, as at
the Mujelibé, at once much more perfect and of greater
dimensions. At a trifling distance from the Birs, and par-
allel with its eastern face, is a mound, not inferior to that
of the Kasr in elevation, but much longer than it is broad.
On its top are two small oratories, one of which is called
Makam Ibrahim ul Khaleel; and around the Birs to a con-
siderable extent are traces of smaller elevations.
This very remarkable ruin, more striking from its utter
* By some of the officers of the Euphrates expedition it is considered
to be ten or eleven.


116
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
loneliness, burst upon Mr. Rich's view under circumstan-
ces of a peculiarly impressive nature. It was a stormy
morning, and dark clouds obscured every surrounding ob-
ject, till, when just within a favourable distance, they
broke, and discovered the Birs, with its picturesque
mound, relieved against the opening sky, yet enveloped
with a gauzy haze that added to the sentiment of mysteri-
ous awe which the sight of this venerable pile cannot fail
to inspire.
The mound of Al Heimar resembles the one now de-
scribed, though on a much smaller scale, and stands about
six miles east of Hillah, being generally included among
the Babylonian ruins. It is a conical mass of rubbish,
surinounted by a structure of brickwork, which, like that
of the Birs, but far inferior in style, evidently rises from
the foundation. It is called Al Heimar from its red col.
our.
Several other remains are noticed in the vicinity of
these, the most remarkable of which are Nebbi Eyoub, the
tomb of the prophet Job, three leagues south of Hillah,
near the Euphrates, with a canal and two large mounds;
and a collection of ruins, named Boursa by the natives,
near Jerbouiya, a village four leagues south from the same
town, but distant from the river. Two considerable ele-
vations are visible from the top of the Mujelibé, looking
southward, and another, called Towereij, to the northwest.
The governor also mentioned one as large as the Mujelibé,
thirty-five hours south of Hillah, where, a few years ago,
a cap or diadem, and some other articles of fine gold were
found. This was probably Mugheyer, of which we shall
hereafter have occasion to speak more at length.
Such is an abstract of Mr. Rich's account of these in-
teresting relics; and, in the few observations which he has
offered regarding them, his object has rather been to ena-
ble his readers to form their own opinion, or to make their
own conjectures, than to pronounce any decision himself.
He has been followed by Mr. Buckingham and Sir Robert
Ker Porter, who have each of them given a detailed nar-
rative, not only of what they saw, but of the conclusions
they arrived at, respecting the various mounds which they
describe from personal inspection. The first-mentioned
“gentleman spent only two days in his examination, the
latter ten; but, as the result very nearly corresponds with


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
117
that attained by Mr. Rich, we shall only notice the points
on which any difference exists. Mr. Buckingham, indeed,
on all occasions, refers to the Memoir as to a document
which cannot be improved in point of accuracy. He
adopts Rich's measurements generally, and quotes exten-
sively from his publication. He thinks the Mujelibé was
certainly enclosed by walls and ditches, but differs entire-
ly from those who have been disposed to regard it as the
ruins of the Temple of Belus; being satisfied that it must
have comprised a variety of edifices, varying in form as
well as in use and materials. On its exterior surface are
the remains of walls sufficient to prove that its base is still
a solid building, very little enlarged by debris; while the
summit, for similar reasons, affords ample evidence that
its elevation could never have much exceeded that of its
present height. All this goes to establish that it cannot be
the Tower of Belus, which must have left an infinitely
larger quantity of ruins. Its area, too, is larger than what
has been attributed to that celebrated structure, which,
besides, is stated by Diodorus, Strabo, and others, to have
been built of fire-burned bricks and bitumen, whereas the
chief part of the Mujelibé is composed of sun-dried ones,
cemented with clay mortar and layers of reeds or rushes.
Mr. Buckingham is rather disposed to consider this
mound as the old castellated palace mentioned by Diodo-
rus, which he supposes to have been built on the side of
the river opposite to the Temple of Belus.
The Kasr, distant from the Mujelibé somewhat more
than a mile. is, he observes, occasionally called Babel :
and here he conjectures was the royal abode to which
were attached the hanging gardens. “Were it not that
the palaces are said to have been seated on opposite sides
of the river, I should have said, when looking towards the
Mujelibé, There was certainly the old palace, and here is
the site of the new;" but this he acknowledges to be at va-
riance with all existing accounts, though he suggests that
the stream may have changed its course, and once passed
between them.
Viewing the mounds of Amran and the Kasr, connect-
ed together as they are with a broad and lofty ridge like a
causeway, and faced by an embankment on the edge of
the river, he is inclined to regard them as forming the
space and buildings which, according to Diodorus and


118
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
o high
Strabo, were surrounded by three walls, one of sixty stadia
in circuit, one of forty, and a third, of which the extent is
not mentioned. The first of these walls, he observes, may
be represented by the mound which strikes off from the
east corner of the embankment, and which, he says, may
be traced at its northern end in an eminence appearing
northwest of the Mujelibé. The wall of forty stadia is
the circular ridge mentioned by Mr. Rich, joining the
southeastern corner of Amran, and coinciding nearly with
the southeast angle of the Mujelibé. The third he con-
siders to be represented by the straight mounds E and F
of Mr. Rich's plan.*
After surveying this place, Mr. Buckingham and his
companion rode eastward across the country, to try if they
could find any traces of the walls of Babylon. Their
more definite object was Al Heimar, in their way to which
they saw many straight lines of mounds running in vari-
ous directions, some intersecting others, which that gen-
tleman identifies at once as being the remains of the recti-
linear streets of the old capital, because they rise too his
above the soil to be formed of the earth from the interve-
ning space, which was level with the surrounding land.
Had Mr. Buckingham been better acquainted with the na-
ture of the ancient canals of Babylonia, he would have
known that their banks generally rose above the surface;
and that these mounds, therefore, more probably represent
aqueducts than houses, which were too insignificant both
in point of size and material to have continued so long
where so many great fabrics have entirely disappeared.
This author enters into a long and elaborate disquisition
to prove that the mound at Al Heimar is the remains of
part of the wall of the ancient metropolis; a conclusion
which we shall notice hereafter. As to the Birs Nimrod,
he estimates the mound at 200 feet high, and the brick
building on the top at fifty more. He describes four sta-
ges in this remarkable ruin, besides the step already men-
tioned, a little raised above the ground, and exceeding in
extent by several feet the true base of the building. With-
in this rises the lowest stage, showing a part of its materi-
al only where a pit has been dug or worn. These are of
sun-dried though firmly made brick, cemented with bitu-
* Rich's Journey to the site of Babylon, &c., p. 60,


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
119
men or mortar, but without reeds. The second stage pre-
sents at the northeast angle, which is exposed, a wall, ex-
ternally, at least, of burned brick. The third, which, like
the last, recedes in a due proportion, is also formed of the
same material. Above all rises the fourth and last stage,
which is the tower-like pile. The summit of this, stili
250 feet above its base, occupies, says he, nearly an area
of 100 feet, only one side of which is now erect, being a
wall of thirty feet in breadth, fifteen in thickness, and fifty
feet high. He adverts to the vitrified masses at its foot,
and seems to think that, had fuel been collected in the up-
per stage, and set on fire, it might have burst the fabric
asunder, and produced such effects; alluding here to a
quotation by Sir Isaac Newton from Vitringa, in which
that author" speaks of a Parthian king having about 130
years B.C., burned many of the temples of the Babyloni-
ans with fire. Mr. Buckingham entertains no doubt that
this is really the remains of the Tower of Belus, notwith-
standing the objections that may be urged against it on the
ground of its locality or otherwise.
Sir R. K. Porter spent ten days at Hillah, great part of
which was employed in examining the ruins; and his ac-
counts, though in some respects more detailed, differ little
in substance from those furnished by Mr. Rich. He lim-
its the circumference of the Birs Nimrod to 694 yards; but
the difference between this and the measurement of his
predecessor may probably have arisen from the difficulty
of determining the exact limit of the base. The mound
he states to be 200 feet high, and the fragments of the brick
wall thirty-five. He remarked that in the upper part of the
masonry, lime is exclusively used for cement, while bitu-
men has been confined to the lower parts of the building.
The bricks, too, used below were larger, so that in some
parts of the wall, exposed at the eastern angle, he found
them twelve inches and three quarters square, by four inch-
es and three quarters thick, and laid in mortar an inch
deep. In a portion of the wall at the northwest angle, the
several courses, instead of being on a level, had a gentle
inclination; those facing the north sloped towards the east,
and those on the western face towards the south. Still
lower down, a large hole afforded a peep into what Sir
Robert calls the pith of the building, which was composed
of large sun-dried bricks, cemented with clay-mortar mixed


120
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
with broken straw or reeds to the thickness of an inch
and a half. Hence he supposes that the whole interior of
the lower part is constructed of these materials, each stage
or story being cased with furnace-baked bricks, binding
the rest together; and that the bitumen was used only
near the foundation, where damp was likely to do inju-
ry. He entertains no doubt that the Birs is the ancient
Temple of Belus. Of the Mujelibé his description is quite
the same as that of Mr. Rich, but his measurements vary.
As to its height he nearly agrees, the southeast corner be-
ing the highest point; but states that the north side meas-
ures 552 feet; the south, 230; the east, 230; and the west,
551. In this there is probably some error, as the south,
instead of the west side, must correspond with the north-
ern one. He thinks it never rose much higher than at
present, and concludes that it must have been a platform
on which more magnificent buildings were meant to be
erected, as at Persepolis. He repudiates entirely the opin-
ion that this could have been the Tower of Belus, and in-
clines to consider it as the remains of the castellated
palace.
In the measurements of the Kasr he agrees in the main
with Mr. Rich, since whose visit, he remarks, the excava-
tions had greatly altered its external form. Here, also, he
observed the use of bitumen in the lower part of the build-
ing, but adds that the core or pith of these mounds is.com-
posed of furnace-baked bricks cemented with lime. He
entertains no doubt that the two mounds of Amran and
the Kasr conjointly formed the new palace, of which the
first enclosure was the rampart-like mass that joins it to
the Mujelibé, and which Sir Robert lays down as forming
an angle with the apex pointing eastward instead of a cir-
cular sweep. The second and third enclosures he con-
ceives to be represented by the several ridges which divide
the enclosed space in a direction from north to south, and
subtending the angle, along the summit of one of which
the present road to Hillah runs. He considers Rennell's
idea of the river having ever flowed between the Mujelibé
and Kasr as totally chimerical.
At Al Heimar, Porter discovered nothing new. He vis-
ited certain mounds about a mile to the eastward, but con-
ceives that they could never have stood within the pre-
cincts of Babylon. He took considerable pains, also, in


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
121
searching for ruins on the western side of the river, and
found two groups of mounds between the village Anana
and the Birs. The largest of these was thirty-five feet
high, and the country was dotted with heaps. He asks
whether these can be the remains of the lesser palace.
He observed also, in proceeding round by the village Tha-
masia, that for a mile and three quarters before reaching
the Birs, the land was covered with the usual vestiges,
which continued to the foot of that ruin; and, relying on
this fact, he argues that the Birs did actually occupy a
space in the city.
Such is the amount of the three best descriptions of the
Babylonian remains, written by persons who, in our own
day, have enjoyed the most favourable opportunities for
carrying on their investigations; and it will be seen that,
upon comparing the delineations of ancient writers with
the actual state of the ruins, they have all come to the
conclusion that the Temple of Belus is represented by the
Birs Nimrod, and the palace and hanging gardens by the
ruins of the Kasr, in combination, perhaps, with those of
the Amran Hill.
To reconcile the positions of these two places, and the
present course of the Euphrates, with the details given by
Herodotus, Diodorus, Strabo, and others, appears impossi-
ble. Yet, from many circumstances, it seems more prob-
able that their writings have been inaccurately copied, or
imperfectly understood by us, than that the mounds in
question can represent any other buildings of the ancient
capital than those now specified. For, in the first place,
assuming that the Euphrates has changed its course, the
distance of from seven to eleven miles at least-which we
find between the Birs* and the Kasr-can never be made
to correspond with that which would appear to have exist-
ed between these celebrated edifices according to every
description of Babylon that has reached our times. On
the other hand, it must be admitted that no other structures
could have left remains so gigantic as those which have
just been described, and are presumed to represent the
Temple of Belus and the palace of Nebuchadnezzar.
So great, indeed, is the distance between the principal
* A late traveller, Colonel Chesney, asserts, that the distance of the
Birs from Hillah is not less than ten miles; if this be so, it must be elev-
en, at least, from the Kasr.


122
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
mounds, that it seems impossible, by any process of meas-
urement, to bring them within the space assigned to the
walls of the old city. For, even supposing the enclosed
sections in each division of it—in one of which was the
palace, in the other the Temple of Belus, as mentioned by
Herodotus--not to have been, mathematically speaking,
in the centre of their respective squares, it is scarcely pos-
sible to wrest the sense so far as to imagine that either
building could have been placed in a corner or at an ex-
tremity of the town; and yet, if the Birs and Kasr are as-
sumed to represent the temple and palace described by the
Greek historian, such must needs be the case with one of
them, supposing the other to have been near the centre of
its division.
Some very ingenious antiquaries, in seeking for the boun-
daries of ancient Babylon, have been inclined to regard the
Birs as forming the southwestern angle of the city; Al Hei-
mar as that of the southeast; the Towebah as represent-
ing the northeast angle; while the one to the northwest
must be looked for in the marshes that stretch westward
in that quarter. This, of course, would exclude the Birs
from the distinction, which others are disposed to bestow
upon it, of representing the Temple of Belus, even if we
concede to the metropolis the utmost extent assigned by
any historian; but there appears to be no ground for sup-
posing such a theory, nor does actual observation warrant
it. The writer of these pages examined great part of the
ground between Al Heimar and the river, in a line with
the Birs, and northward from Al Heimar towards the To-
webah; and the result was, that though great part of the
country appeared covered with vestiges of former build-
ings, he not only failed in detecting any continuous course
of mounds, such as might indicate the direction of the
wall, but actually observed a greater number of these re-
mains eastward of the imaginary line than to the west of it.
Mr. Buckingham is disposed to regard that conical
mound as constituting a portion of the ramparts of Baby-
lon. He probably overlooked the distance between Ål
Heimar and the Birs—not less than fifteen miles*—which
would either shut out his Tower of Belus altogether, or
make it nothing more than a corner bastion. Sir Robert
* According to Colonel Chesney, more than twenty.


124
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
The name Bursif, so easily passing into Birs, seems to
favour this idea, which would also account for the other-
wise unintelligible appellation by which this remarkable
ruin is known; for the word Birs has no signification in
Arabic or the cognate languages.
Mr. Rich, it is true, alludes to a collection of mounds,
four or five hours south of Hillah, near the village Jer-
bouiyah, known by the name of Boursa, which may lay
claim to being the Borsippa mentioned by Strabo and oth-
er writers. But Buckingham casts some doubt on the po-
sition, and even on the existence of this Boursa; for it ap-
pears, that of all his escort, there was only one man who
pretended to any acquaintance with the place, and even
he had no clear notions respecting it. Sir R. Porter men-
tions a station called Boursa Shishara, two hours from
Kiahya Khan, on the way from Bagdad' to Hillah, where
is a true Babylonian mound thirty feet high, with a layer
of reeds between each course of bricks; and he speculates
on the possibility of this having been the Borsippa where
Alexander halted on his way from Ecbatana to Babylon.
But, if the Birs be pronounced a relic of Borsippa and
not of Babylon, where are we to look for the Temple of
Belus, which, of all the buildings in that metropolis, must,
from its uncommon height, have left the most imposing ru-
ins? It has been shown that neither the Mujelibé nor
Kasr can pretend to be its representative, and there is none
other to fall back upon.
There is, indeed, no small difficulty in reconciling the
accounts of historians respecting the state of this celebra-
ted structure from time to time. Herodotus, who describes
it as an eyewitness 430 years B.C., though he alludes to
the destruction of its walls by Darius, and the partial pil-
lage of its shrines by Xerxes, speaks of it as by no means
dilapidated; on the contrary, he describes its two walls as
still existing, the outer one castellated and 200 cubits high,
and the Temple of Belus as being quite perfect and undes-
ecrated, except by the plunder of its golden image by the
Persian prince. Yet barely a century afterward, Alexan-
der, according to Arrian, found it so encumbered by ruins
that 10.000 men were not able to remove them in two
months; while Berosus, a priest of Belus, who flourished
at the same period, writes a history of the Chaldean cos-
mogony chiefly from the allegorical representations which


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
125
he saw on the walls of this very temple. That it must, :
however, have suffered greatly prior to this time, is certain;
and, in tracing the progress of decay, we have witnessed a
rapidity of destruction, which is the more impressive, as it
corresponds so accurately with all the denunciations of di-
vine wrath which were hurled against the sinful and devo-
ted city. But Providence works by instruments, and it is
striking indeed to trace the Almighty hand in the human
agents who overwhelmed that mighty city by a rapid suc-
cession of attacks; nor need we be surprised at the disap-
pearance of a great part of her ruins, when we reflect that
out of them were built, in succession, Seleucia and Ctesi-
phon, Coché, Cufa, Kerbelah, Meshed Ali, Bagdad old and
new, besides many smaller towns and villages. No won-
der that, when the more solid materials were carried off,
the mud and sun-burned bricks, exposed to the action of
rain and wind, should crumble into the soil whence they
were taken.
A late and very acute traveller, Mr. Ainsworth, whose
work has already been referred to, has suggested a change
of names for the several ruins, which he thinks will sim-
plify the investigation. The Mujelibé, he says, ought to
be called Babel; and he applies the former term to the
Kasr, which last appellation he again bestows upon the
mound called by Mr. Rich the embankment. We do not
know to what extent he prosecuted his discoveries upon
the spot; but it appears to us that, had he inquired minute-
ly, he would scarcely have found grounds on which to rest
his new nomenclature. We think he would rather have
adopted the conclusion held by other travellers, that the
northern mound could never have been much higher than
it now is, and, consequently, that it could not be the Tower
of Belus; while certainly there is a strong internal evi-
dence that the Kasr, called by him the Mujelibé, repre-
sents the palace and hanging gardens. We think him
greatly in error, too, in the elevation which he assigns to
the several mounds: sixty-four feet to the northernmost, or
Mujelibé of Rich; twenty-eight feet to the Kasr of the
same author; twenty-three feet to the Amran ibn Ali.
In these there can be no doubt of his being mistaken.
The Birs, according to him, belonged to the most westerly
quarter of Babylon, if not to a distinct city, and is there-
L2


126
RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED.
fore more likely to represent Borsippa than the Tower of
Belus.
There is one fact in connexion with the most remarka-
ble of these relics which we cannot dismiss without a few
more observations. All travellers who have ascended the
Birs have taken notice of the singular heaps of brickwork
scattered on the summit of the mound, at the foot of the
remnant of wall still standing. To the writer of this vol-
ume they appeared the most striking of all the ruins. That
they have undergone the most violent action of fire, is evi-
dent from the complete vitrification which has taken place
in many of the masses. Yet how a heat sufficient to pro-
duce such an effect could have been applied at such a
height from the ground, is unaccountable. They now lie
upon a spot elevated 200 feet above the plain, and must
have fallen from some much more lofty position, for the
structure which still remains, and of which they may be
supposed to have originally formed a part, bears no mark
of fire. The building originally cannot have contained
any great proportion of combustible materials; and to
produce so intense a heat by substances carried to such an
elevation would have been almost impossible, from the
want of space to pile them on. Nothing, we should be in-
clined to say, short of the most powerful action of electric
fire, could produce the complete yet circumscribed fusion
which is here observed; for that the melted masses have
had some connexion with the building yet remaining can-
not be doubted. Of such a catastrophe we have no record,
unless we accept as such the prophecy of Jeremiah,*
"and her high gates shall be burned with fire;': but there
are many events connected with the history of this city
which remain in total obscurity, and this, we are inclined
to think, must be placed among them. These fragments
are of various hues, brown, yellow, and gray. Although
fused into a solid mass, the courses of bricks are still visi-
ble, identifying them with the standing pile above; but so
hardened have they been by the power of heat, that it is
almost impossible to break off the smallest piece; and,
though porous in texture, and full of air-holes and cavi.
ties, like other bricks, they require, on being submitted to
the stone-cutter's lathe, the same machinery as is used to
* Chap. li., 58.


RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED. '127
ish.
dress the hardest pebbles. Their specific gravity is very
great, and they are capable of receiving a very good pol-
From the statements now made, it is obvious that, how-
ever much has been written on the subject, the locality of
ancient Babylon is as yet but very imperfectly understood:
a circumstance which arises chiefly from the difficulty of
residence, and of making the necessary observations upon
the spot, so that no traveller hitherto has been able to de-
vote to the examination of the ruins themselves, as well as
of the circumjacent country, that time and attention which
are indispensable for illustrating so obscure a subject. But
matters will probably not remain long thus. Something
has already been done towards removing the obstacles that
have hitherto existed: the Euphrates expedition has fa-
miliarized the Arabs on the banks of that river with tl
sight of Europeans; and we know that even now there are
in those regions travellers peculiarly well qualified by in-
telligence, zeal, and perseverance for prosecuting these in-
teresting investigations. Hence there is good ground to
hope that the secrets of ancient Mesopotamia and Babylo-
nia, historical, geographical, and antiquarian, will ere long
be laid at least as open to the present generation as those of
Egypt, Greece, and Rome.


128 OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA.
CHAPTER VII.
Other Ruins of Babylonia and Chaldea.
Akkerkoof.-The Site of Accad.-Umgeyer-According to some Opinions,
che ancient Orchoe.-Jibel Sanam.-Teredon.-Workha.-Sunkhera.
-Yokha.--Til Eide.-Guttubeh.--Iskhuriah.-Zibliyeh.--Tel Siphr,
&c.-Waasut or Cascara.-Seleucia and Ctesiphon -Tauk e Kesra.
Cupidity of a Pacha.-Kalla mal Kesra.--Opis, Situation of.--Me-
dian Wall.--Traditions regarding its Use.--Sittace.-Sheriat el Bei-
tha.-Samarra.—The Malwiyah.-Large Mosque.-- Kaf or Chaf.-
Giaoureah.-Kadesia.-Statue of black Basalt.-Tecreet.-Al Hadhr
or Hatra.– Felugia.-New Fields of Enterprise for Explorers
Next to the ruins just described, and as certainly con-
temporary with them, we must notice the isolated but enor-
mous pile of Akkerkoof or Aggerkoof, called also Tel Nim-
rod, and by the Turks Nimrod Tepessi. Sir R. Porter
says the former name is only applied to the district around
it. It is six miles from Bagdad, and stands upon a hillock
that slopes gently upward from the level of the plain to a
considerable height, above which it rises to an elevation
of about 125 feet. Its general resemblance to the Birs
Nimrod struck Mr. Rich forcibly; and the mass of the
building, which is solid, is composed of unburned bricks
mixed with chopped straw, having layers of reeds two
inches thick between every five or six courses. These
reeds protrude from the weather-worn edges of the bricks,
communicating to the profile of the edifice a singular ser-
rated look, visible from a distance. In appearance they
are still perfectly fresh, differing only from those that grow
in the circumjacent marshes in being a little darker in col-
our. As in the Birs, there are also here square holes run-
ning through the body of the pile, as if to afford ventilation.
The shape is now so irregular, owing to the effect of time,
that its original form can scarcely be detected; but it
seems to have been a square, the sides of which faced the
cardinal points. The circumference, taken above the
mound of rubbish, is 300 feet, and the diameter at the lar-
gest part about 100. The mound consists of loose sandy
earth, probably drifted by the wind, mingled with fragments


OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. 129
of brick, pottery, and half-vitrified clay. Like the Birs, it
has a mound of debris on the eastern side; and this is sup-
posed to indicate the site of Accad, one of the cities of Nim-
rod : a conjecture which is thought to be supported by its
position with reference to Babylon, by the name of Akker-
koof, and the tradition which ascribes it to the mighty hunt-
er. Embankments, and the usual debris, testify to its hav-
ing been a considerable town; while its vicinity to Bagdad
accounts sufficiently for the disappearance of its furnace-
bricks and all transportable materials.
The remaining antiquities of Babylonia will not detain
us long, as, though some may represent places of impor-
tance, they do not possess the great interest which attaches
to the capital or to Nineveh. We shall mention a few of
the most remarkable.
Following the course of the Euphrates, we find upon its
right bank, about twenty-five miles southeast of Semava,
and ten or eleven from the river-bank, the most perfect re-
mains of one of those lofty edifices which, like the Birs and
Akkerkoof, are supposed to have been Chaldean temples.
It is called Mugeyer or Umgeyer, which in Arabic signi-
fies “the place of bitumen;" and as it has not as yet, we be-
lieve, been described, if, indeed, it has ever before been vis-
ited by any modern traveller, we shall here introduce an
account of it derived from personal inspection. It is a
huge quadrangular building, rising to the height of eighty
or a hundred feet above the plain, from a great mass of di-
lapidated matter. The lower half was hid from view by
these ruins, out of which the mason-work emerged in two
distinct stories. The sides, which faced the cardinal
points, were on the west full sixty yards in length, and on
the north about forty; there being no means at hand for
more accurate measurement. The structure resembles
that of the Birs, but there was no such fine masonry as
appears on the top of the latter. The bricks were coarser
and softer; many were marked with the arrow-headed
character, and in most cases laid together in very thick
beds of bitumen, which bore the impression of the matted
reeds. The workmanship, on the whole, was very good,
and much of it quite perfect, as there have not been any
materials abstracter from it as at Babylon. The mass is
pervaded with small holes as is the Birs; and a circular
one was observed on the top, at present filled with rubbish,


130 OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA.
but which may possibly descend into the building. The
northern and western faces exhibited two distinct stories,
the upper diminishing in extent as in some of the Indian
pagodas, which it a good deal resembled; but the bricks
were so altered by long exposure to the weather, that it
was impossible to pronounce whether those that now met
the eye constituted part of the original outside coating or
not. Looking from the top, vestiges of a wall of no great
thickness could be traced, apparently forming an enclosure
to the building. Its north face, the only one at all perfect,
measured 118 long paces; of the rest, only the corners
were visible, and near the southeastern angle rose a pretty
large conical mound, like the ruins of a bastion. There
were many others about it, especially towards the south-
east; and the earth was extensively covered with ruins,
among which were fragments of sepulchral vases sticking
out of the ground, flints, pebbles, and numerous pieces of
old copper. The whole character of this edifice testifies
that it must be coeval with the Birs. Mr. Ainsworth has
pronounced it to be the ancient Orchoe of the Chaldeans,
of the situation of which we know little; but there is rather
more reason for believing that city to be represented by the
ruins of Workha, in Chaldea Proper, and to which we
shall soon allude. Mugeyer is also believed to stand on
the banks of the ancient Pallacopas; but the exact course
of that canal has not been traced in modern times, and there
was nothing seen from the top of the ruin to confirm the
idea. There were, however, one or two lofty mounds ob-
served to the westward, bearing much the appearance of
the place itself when first seen above the horizon; but cir-
cumstances did not permit us to visit them.
Of the remains to the south and eastward of this place
little is known, although there is every reason to believe
that relics abound in the course of the Pallacopas. Jibel
Sanam, which marks the site of the ancient Teredon, a city
built by Nebuchadnezzar at the mouth of that outlet of the
Euphrates, is described as a true Babylonian mound of
prodigious size, lofty, and of infinitely greater extent than
the Birs, but in other respects resembling those already de-
scribed.
The territory of ancient Chaldea, extending from De-
wannieh and the Euphrates to the Boo je Heirat Canal, is
thickly dotted with immense mounds, among which that


OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. 131
of Workha rises pre-eminent; but, from the difficulty of
approaching it, owing to the surrounding lakes and marsh-
es, it has never been examined. We could descry this ele-
vation at a distance of about four miles, but were unable
to reach it. Not far from Workha is seen Sunkhera, one
of a large number of mounds forming a sort of circle, built
of fire-burned bricks; the whole surface being strewed with
scoriæ, agates and carnelian fragments, and bits of cop-
per, but no glass. The chief one was very large, and from
fifty to sixty feet high; and the entire circle must have
been more than a mile in diameter. The surface of the
land around it was irregular, raised in heights and hollows;
but whether or not these were sites of buildings could not
be ascertained. In the area were traces of foundations, a
square consisting of houses and courts, which, as they do
not rise above the level of the soil, are probably of recent
date. The rest was undoubtedly ancient. To the north
and east were several clusters of mounds, the largest of
which was called Yokha, of considerable size, and in the
centre of a wide tract of debris. To the northwest of this
was observed a lofty pyramidal mass called Til Eide, sur-
rounded by the relics of old habitations.
Six or eight miles northeast of this last, our attention
was attracted by an elevation, which belonged to a place
that must have been of very great magnitude in its day.
It appeared to have been a quadrangle of at least five or
six miles each way, and of which the building in question
formed the northeastern corner. It was a structure like a
great bastion, formed of fire-burned bricks of the usual
size, with layers of reeds between each tier as at the Mu-
jelibé, and rising to a height of at least fifty feet from the
plain, including the tuppeh or hillock of ruins out of which
it springs. It was split from top to bottom into four pie-
ces, and each opening afforded the means of entrance into
the interior, which was partially hollowed out; but wheth-
er by original construction or effected by the rains, is un-
certain.
From the summit may be traced, by irregular heaps and
fragments, the course of the northern and eastern sides,
converging at right angles to each other. The greater part
of the area was bare, as is usual in such cases, and dotted
all over with the black camps of Arab tribes. Following
the line of the north wall for nearly five miles, the country


132 OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA.
on the northern side appeared also covered with debris,
and a boundless extent of them stretched to the west of the
square space; besides which, there are huge ridges about
the same distance to the south, which the natives call
Hummam. They gave no name to the ruins in general,
but assigned to the country at large the appellation of
Guttubeh. The evidences of an extensive population in
former times were more remarkable here, perhaps, than in
any other part of the Jezirah.
A large portion of this district is low, and, to a great ex-
tent, periodically overflowed, so that the remains were less
conspicuous; but about thirty miles northward the mounds
again become frequent. Among the most remarkable are
those of Iskhuriah, not far from the Tigris; and Zibliyeh,
southwest of the former, nearly half way between the two
rivers. The first is a name applied by the Arabs to a huge
group, of which the highest may rise to twenty-five or
thirty feet above the plain, and are covered with immense
quantities of scoriæ and slag-like stones resembling the re-
fuse of a brick furnace. These are either black, porous,
hard, and heavy, or composed of yellow vitrified matter,
being, in some cases, several feet square by six inches
thick. The mounds themselves, except in this particular,
are not very remarkable; but the size and multitude of the
slabs were perplexing. It was told us that they are formed
into millstones and various other articles; and, in truth,
they might be supposed to have constituted some peculiar
manufactory. The Arab name implies a “stony” place;
and the tradition regarding them is, that this was the coun-
try of Lot (Loot), and that Heaven in its wrath showered
them down on the wicked inhabitants. Looking from the
top of the highest of these mounds, the whole region seemed
covered with others of various sizes, insomuch that there
was scarcely a quarter of the horizon without a height of
some sort, all of which must be the remains of towns or
villages.
The line of march, adopted from a camp of the Zobeid
Arabs where we had halted for a night, led, for twelve or
fourteen miles, over a country littered with ruins, to a
group which rose in a circular space covered with bricks
and potsherds. Of these, the principal objects were four
pyramidal mounds, rising abruptly to a height of forty or
fifty feet, and built of sun-dried brick. Two or three miles






NEERINEETS
NUTRITIUUUUUUU
JIHiiiiiitain
பாரையா
மாயாப்பபாராமல்,
RUCUTD
JERSON
Tauk e Kesra.


OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. 135
distant from these was a still loftier structure, consisting of
a tower or bastion-shaped building, about eighty feet in
height. The exterior of it was formed of sun-dried brick,
like the Mujelibė, and pierced with holes; but the interior
was composed of furnace-baked bricks, like those of the
Birs and similar edifices. The walls were plainly perceiv-
ed in one part, and the external coating of sun-dried brick
was deeply furrowed by the rains. The Arabs called it
Zibliyeh, and gave a trivial name to each of the lesser
mounds. The traces of a very large canal and two or
three smaller ones, crossing from north to south near this
place, showed that the district had been extensive and well
cultivated.
These are but a very few of the relics of antiquity that
lie scattered over this comparatively small tract, to which
might be added many more, such as Tel Siphr, Atlah, Tel
Medinah, Jera Supli, Mizisthah, Jayithah, and Abu-ghu-
root, proving that this land must have once borne a dense
population, and now possibly represents Beana, Chunduca,
Chumana,' Cæsa, Birande, Bethana, Thalme, Forthuda,
Jamba, Rhajia, Rhalta, Chiriphe, and others merely men-
tioned by Ptolemy and Cellarius.
Waasut, the capital of the ancient province of Cascara,
has lately been visited by two travellers, Lieutenant Orms-
by and Captain Mignon; but neither appears to have dis-
covered any remains worthy of notice. It consists of forty
or fifty wretched houses, built of mud and fragments of
brick taken from the old city, which last is strewed around
in the shape of sand-covered hillocks, without a single ob-
ject to give interest to the scene.
The next ruins that demand our attention are those of
Seleucia and Ctesiphon or Ul Madayn, on opposite sides
of the Tigris, nineteen miles below Bagdad. Of the first,
little indeed is left to tell what it was, if we except part of
the north and south walls, of great thickness, and built of
unburned bricks, and an immense extent of mounds, covered
with debris. Of Ctesiphon, besides a portion of the wall,
which resembles that of Seleucia in fabric, there remains
only one very remarkable object. It is known as the Tauk
e Kesra, or the Arch of Khoosroo, and may be regarded as
the facade of a very magnificent building that appears never
to have been completed. It consists of a wall 284 feet
long, rather more than 100 feet high, and nineteen feet


136 OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA.
thick at the bottom, ornamented, not in very good taste,
with four tiers of pilasters, having niches like windows
rising above one another-the higher ones diminishing in
height and increasing in numbers towards the top. In the
centre the
there is an archway, which rises to a point, the apex
of which is 101 feet from the ground, and of eighty feet
span. This gives entrance to what has been a noble hall,
153 feet long, of which the arched roof remains in great
part entire, though there are in it some extensive chasms.
It is plastered and perforated with holes, from whence tra-
dition tells that in the time of Khoosroo there hung a hun-
dred silver lamps. These, no doubt, disappeared at the
period when Ciesiphon was sacked by the Arabs; but
there still remained a ring of yellow metal in the ceiling,
near the centre of the arch, which tempted the cupidity of
a pacha of Bagdad. He first caused his troops to fire at it
with musket balls, which shattered the roof; but this expe-
dient failing, he sent an Arab up who contrived to run a
rope through the ring, and this being yoked to a number of
buffaloes, it was at length torn down, and proved to be of
simple brass.
There are also the remains of a fort, now intersected by
the Tigris, called Kallah mal Kesra, in which are found
broken sepulchral urns or jars; and, half an hour's march
distant from the Tauk, there is a space of 1450 yards
square, surrounded by walls of sun-dried bricks, in which
are likewise seen shattered vases. It is called by the na-
tives the Garden of Kesra or Khoosroo.
The next points of interest to the antiquary and geogra-
pher, particularly as connected with the celebrated retreat
of the Ten Thousand, are the site of Opis and the line of
the Median wall. That city is said by Xenophon to have
stood on the northern side of the Physcus, where the stream
was 100 feet broad, having a bridge over it; and we know
from other sources that it was also on the Tigris. Now
Dr. Ross, who made a journey to Samarra, the ruins of a
Moslem city on the latter river, bounded by two branches
of the Nahrawan canal, found the angle between the north-
western bank of the Physcus and the left bank of the Ti-
gris covered with very ancient mounds, which, in common
with some other inquirers well informed on these subjects,
he believes to be the remains of Opis. But Mr. Ainsworth,
who conceives that the Tigris has shifted its bed a good


OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. 137
deal towards the northeast, looks for the ancient junction
of it with the Athem farther west than the present point of
union, where there are certain ruins called Babelin (the
second Babel); and these he is inclined to regard as mark-
ing the site of the Opis recorded in the Anabasis and in the
campaigns of Alexander.
Strabo maintains that the Median wall was to be found
on the Tigris as high as the Opis; and such must in all
probability have been the case, as, had it touched the river
lower down, it would have cut through the Dijeil Canal,
an ancient work, which has its derivation from that stream
immediately below Samarra. According to Xenophon,
it was said to extend twenty parasangs (about seventy
miles) in length; and in the account of Julian's expedi-
tion, it is mentioned as originating at Macepracta. Now
the distance from the point of junction of the Athem with
the Tigris to Felugia, which represents the ancient Mace-
practa, is just about seventy miles; and both Dr. Ross, in
his visits to that part of the country in 1836, and Lieuten-
ant Lynch of the Euphrates expedition, examined a con-
tinuous mound or embankment which, there can be little
doubt, is the remains of this celebrated wall. The former
describes it as a single straight and solid mound, twenty-
five long paces in thickness, and from thirty-five to forty
feet high, running in a line from north-northeast & east,
to south-southwest & west, as far in the latter direction as
the eye can trace it, but cut off by the Dijeil Canal about
half a mile from the point where he discovered it. On its
western face there are bastions at every fifty-five paces,
and on the same side a deep ditch twenty-seven yards
broad. The Bedouins told him that it ran in the same line
across the country till it touched two mounds named Ram-
elah, on the Euphrates, some hours above Felugia; and
that in places far inland it is built of brick, in some points
worn down to the level of the desert. Where Dr. Ross
saw it, near the village of Jibbarah, it was constructed of
the common pebbles of the country, imbedded in a tena-
cious lime cement. The Arab tradition is, that it was
built by Nimrod to keep off the people of Nineveh, with
whom he was at feud. The land in the vicinity presents
numerous remains of ancient buildings; among which the
doctor mentions particularly those of Istabolat as being of
M2


138 OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA.
considerable extent and very perfect.* Lynch confirms
this account of the Median wall, along the side of which,
he says, he galloped for more than an hour without finding
any appearance of termination.t
This vicinity is thickly strewed with ancient ruins. The
banks of the Athem, and Tigris, and the Nahrawan were
also found by Ross to be crowded with the relics of exten-
sive towns and cities; and among these, on the right bank
of the Tigris, must be sought the Sittace of Xenophon. It
was twenty parasangs below Opis, and fifteen stadia from
the river; and Mr. Ainsworth conceives that he has dis-
covered it in an extensive series of mounds and embank-
ments, consisting of the usual materials, and stretching
from “ Sheriat el Beitha” westward, almost to Akkerkoof;
from which, however, these works are for most part of the
year separated by the overflow of the Euphrates.
The ruins of Samarra, the Sarra-manraa of Abulfeda,
and the Labab, are extensive, and denote that it must have
been a great city in the time of its prosperity, which was
during the reign of the Caliph Motassem, its founder.
The most remarkable specimen is an immense conical
tower of brick, called the Malwiyah, upward of 100 feet
in height;t to the top of which a man could ascend on
horseback, by means of a spiral path running round its
outside. It has also a stair in the interior. Close to it are
the remains of a jameh or mosque, of great dimensions,
to which the other is said to have served for the minaret.
It is a quadrangular building, 264 paces by 160, having
walls eleven spans thick, with turrets at short intervals,
and a large bastion at each corner. There are five doors
in the largest and three in the smallest sides; and here, in
the time of the caliphate, the whole population of Samar-
ra used to assemble for prayer. There are also the re-
mains of the caliph's palace, magnificent walls, arches,
gates, subterranean chambers, and courts, built of brick
and mortar, little of which, however, is perfect except the
great entrance, consisting of a very lofty arch, with small-
er ones on either side.
Besides these, there are Til Allee, a high, sloping mass
of rubbish; a group of mounds named Kaf or Chaf, which
the Arabs believe to be the abode of the seven sleepers,
* Journal of Geographical Society, vol. it., p. 446. Ibid., p. 473
# Rich considered it to be nearly 200 feet.


OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. 139
and of their dog, which is occasionally heard howling on
a Friday night; and Giaoureah, or the palace of the infi-
dels, a large assemblage of rubbish and brick, all of which
are of a date far more ancient than the Mohammedan era.
At Gaim, six or seven miles south of Samarra, is seen a
square pyramidal building of rough stone and mortar,
from fifty to sixty feet in height, which marks the point of
the lowest derivation of the Nahrawan Canal. Opposite
to this, on the western bank of the Tigris, are Kadesia, a
perfect heptagon fort, with bastions at every angle, and
seventeen smaller ones, with a gate on each face, the dis-
tance from one bastion to another being ten or twelve
yards. It is built of mud and sun-burned bricks, four inch-
es thick, and the walls even now are twenty feet high.
Around it the country is strewed with relics, as well as the
banks of the Tigris on both sides. From a part of these
ruins was taken the lower portion of a statue of black ba-
salt in a sitting posture, resembling the figures at Persepo.
lis, and which is now in the possession of Colonel Tay.
lor, British resident at Bagdad. The Arabs say that the
upper part of it is still in the water beneath the bank from
whence the other fragment was dug.
At Kadesia there was formerly a great glass manufacto-
ry, the slag of which is scattered about in large hillocks,
still affording crystals of almost every colour. The work-
men are said to have been brought from Kadees, a village
of Merve in Khorasan, from whence, also, is derived the
name of the town in Mesopotamia.
About thirty miles north by west from Samarra lies Te-
creet, which has been already noticed ; and at two days'
journey from thence are the ruins of Al Hadhr, the an-
cient Hatra, which have lately been twice visited at great
personal risk by the indefatigable Doctor Ross, who thus
describes them. They lie about thirty miles west by north
of the ruin Kalah Sherkat, on the right bank of the Tigris,
nearly ninety miles in a straight line north-northwest of Te
creet, and two from the western bank of the Tharthar Riv-
er (the ancient Thirtha). They occupy a space of ground
upward of a mile in diameter, enclosed hy a circular wall of
immense thickness, with square bastions or towers, at about
sixty paces from each other, built of large regularly-cut
stones. The upper part of the curtains have in most places
been thrown down, along with some of the bastions; but


140 OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA.
most of the latter are tolerably entire, having each vaulted
chambers towards the city. Outside the wall is a broad
and very deep ditch, now dry; and at the interval of 100
or 150 paces is a thick rampart, at present only a few feet
high, which goes round the town. At some distance beyond
the fortifications on the eastern and northern side stand
two lofty mounds with square towers on them.
Nearly in the centre of the town stands a quadrangle,
enclosed by a strong thick wall, the sides of which, 300
paces each, face the four cardinal points, and are defend-
ed, like the exterior wall, with bastions. This square is in-
tersected in the centre by a range of ruinous buildings,
comprising a maze of chambers, gateways, and a single
pillar, reduced to thirty feet in height. Between these ed-
ifices and the eastern wall the ground is clear; but the
space towards the west is partly occupied by a huge pile
of building fronting the east, and part of a wing facing the
north. The ground story of these alone remains perfect,
and consists of a series of vaulted halls of two sizes, from
thirty to sixty feet in height, and above twelve in breadth.
The whole, like every other part of the city, is built of a
brownish-gray limestone, each piece being so closely fitted
in its place, that, if cement has been used, it cannot be
seen; and almost every one composing the great pile has
cut on it one or more letters, seemingly the builder's
marks. The chambers are adorned with variously sculp-
tured work, each stone at the spring of the arch having
carved on it a human bust in high relief. Others bear fig-
ures of females, apparently in the air, with crossed feet
and loose flying robes, and cornices of foliage and other
devices beneath. In one chamber there is a line of eight
bulls with human heads; and in others, griffons, serpents,
and other animals, some of which, Ross thinks, bear evi-
dence of having been touched by a Greek or Roman chisel.
The dwelling-houses appear to have been confined to
the western part of the city; and, though now merely
mounds and hillocks, the doctor believes that an attentive
examination might ascertain the site of every street and
square. A canal crosses the whole eastward of the cen-
tral space; and the dreary aspect of certain detached
buildings scattered thickly beyond it led him to conclude
that it was the Necropolis. He looked eagerly for the
statues said by the Arabs to exist here, but could discover


OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. 141
none; and when he desired a Bedouin to point him out the
statue of the woman milking a cow, which had been par-
ticularly mentioned, he led him without hesitation to the
bull monsters just described. Hence he doubts greatly
the existence of any figures here, at least above ground.*
This Hatra appears to have been held during the wars
between the Romans and Parthians by an Arab chief, call-
ed by the writers of those days Barsuma, who took part
with the latter against the invaders. Built upon a mount-
ain and strongly fortified, it is said to have resisted the at-
tacks of Trajan and Severus. According to report, it rose
to a degree of wealth and power that attracted the cupidi-
ty of the last of those emperors, who led an army against
it; but, though he spared no means for reducing it to sub-
jection, his exertions proved vain. It probably owed its
riches to commerce, being, like Palmyra, an entrepôt in
the midst of a wide desert."
When Niebuhr passed this way, he was assured by some
Arabs of the Tai tribe, that among the ruins of Al Hadr
there are to be found multitudes of petrified bodies; and
they even pretended to have themselves seen those of muf-
tis, cadis, women, and children in every possible attitude,
who, according to the tradition of the place, had all been
turned into stone in a single night. It is possible, as the
traveller suggests, that this may be an exaggerated account
of sculptures which might be well worthy of a visit.
The neighbourhood of Felugia, where is found the south-
ern termination of the Median wall, abounds also in vesti-
ges of ancient habitations; the remains, we presume, of
the Perisaboras of Julian's expedition, or Ancobar of Ptol-
emy. Nor can there be any doubt that the wild realm of
Mesopotamia, from this wall to the line of the Khabour,
would in like manner, if explored, prove fertile in discov-
eries indicative of a teeming population wherever the soil
admitted of culture : but as yet no traveller has had op-
portunity, or been tempted to brave the perils of the Arabs
and the desert, in order to enter upon this new field of en-
terprise.
* Journal of Geographical Society, vol. ix., p. 467-470.


142
NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
CHAPTER VIII.
Nineveh and its Environs.
Ancient Nineveh nowhere particularly described in Sacred Writ.-Ac-
count of by Diodorus.-Its Walls.-Incidentally mentioned by Herodo-
tus.-By the Prophets Jonah and Nahum as an exceedingly great and
profligate City.-Mr. Rich's Account of its Ruins.- Visible Remains.-
Tel Koyunjak.--Sepulchral Chamber and Inscription, &c.-Nebbi Yu-
nus.- Inscribed Gypsun-And Antiques.-Mosque in Memory of the
Prophet Jonah.-Conjectures.-Strabo's Account of the City's Extent.
-Mounds of Yaremjee, Zembil Tepessi, &c.-Vestiges not numerous.
-Mounds of Nimrod or Al Athur.-Larissa of Xenophon ?-Resin ?
-Remains.-Pyramid.-Mr. Rich's Voyages down the Tigris to Bag-
dad.--Ancient Sites on the Banks.-His Visit to Mar Mattei.- Villa-
ges of Yezidees and Jacobite Christians.--Ain u Sofra.--Yezidees.
Their Pope.--Some Particulars of their Faith and Worship.-Posi-
tion, Appearance, and Description of the Convent.-History Estab-
lishment.--View from its Terrace.-Ras ul Ain.-Excursion to Rabban
Hormuzd-And Al Kosh.--Character of the Yezidees.-Al Kosh.
Birth and Burial place of the Prophet Nahum.--Ascent to, and Appear-
ance of the Convent of Rabban Hormuzd. -Establishment.-Aspect
of the Priests and Monks.--Discipline.- Period of Founding.--Grot-
toes. -Manuscripts.-Destroyed.-Chaldean Villages populous.--Con-
vent of Mar Elias.-Churches of Mars Toma and Mar Shemaoon.
lars mean Vill. of
The principal places of Upper Mesopotamia have al-
ready been mentioned, and we shall afterward take an
opportunity of adverting to the antiquities they contain,
when describing the country from the accounts of travel-
lers who have lately visited it. We shall act in like man-
ner with regard to Assyria; but there is one object in that
region which, though now its remains are almost utterly
obliterated, demands more than a passing notice, as being
associated with our earliest religious impressions, and
forming a prominent point in the ancient annals of the
East: we mean the capital of Asshur, “Nineveh, that great
city.”
It is remarkable that neither in sacred nor profane his-
tory have we any very particular description of Nineveh.
In the former, indeed, it is often spoke of as “an exceeding
great city of three days' journey ;” but this description is
incidentally introduced, and its name, for the most part, is


NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
145
ces of inscribed gypsum were seen built into the walls of
houses; and one particularly, in a small room occupied
by the women of a villager, was said to be several yards
long, but, except about three feet of it, had all been plaster-
ed over with mud. The stone is rendered more interesting
by the fact that, having been discovered in its original po-
sition while the cottage was in building, it was permitted to
remain just as it was; so that the characters are seen in
their proper light. Certain narrow, dark, and vaulted pas-
sages, with apertures leading into one another, have been
found on the eastern side of the court of the mosque. They
appeared as if intended for the reception of dead bodies,
and were declared to be very ancient.
It is in this mound that the best and most curious an-
tiques have been discovered. A remarkable little stone
chair, in Mr. Rich's possession, was dug up here, with sev-
eral inscribed bricks and cylinders.
The mosque of Nebbi Yunus, which is a considerable
building with a ribbed conical dome, occupies the site of a
Christian monastery that was erected to commemorate the
preaching of Jonah; but there appears to be no ground
whatever for the belief that it covers his tomb.
The vestiges of building within the enclosure, besides
Nebbi Yunus and Tel Koyunjuk, our author informs us,
are but slight; and he gives it as his opinion that the
ground thus enclosed contained merely the citadel or royal
palace, or both perhaps, while, if we are to believe either
the accounts of ancient geographers or the words of Sa-
cred Writ, the town may, and indeed must, have extended
on all sides to a great distance; for Strabo says it occupi-
ed the whole space between the Tigris and the Lycus;
and in Scripture it is declared to be a "city of three days'
journey.” Accordingly, our countryman, in his research-
es around, perceived numerous traces of building of the
same character as that within its limits; such are the
mounds of Yaremjee, nearly four miles to the south ; of
Zembil Tepessi, to the southeast; and the vestiges observ-
ed on the way northward to the Convent of St. George.
We have here given a summary of the observations and
researches on the site of Nineveh made by the English res-
ident. It is a scene, as may be gathered even from our
abridgment, which speaks rather to the feelings than to the
senses; for there is nothing grand or sublime to strike the


146
NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
eye. There is not there the majestic vastness of the Pyra.
mids, nor the lonely grandeur of the “ Throne of Jemshid,"
nor even the scathed and ghastly desolation of Babylon, to
impress the imagination. The dust of Nineveh rests be-
neath a green and smiling sod; but, nevertheless, those
lowly mounds contain all that remains of the second city
of the patriarchal world; of that great capital which, sin-
ful as were its people, the Almighty, once at least, in his
mercy spared : and who is there that could pass them by
with indifference?
About six caravan hours below those ruins and the city
of Mosul are found the vestiges of an ancient place, called
Nimrod by some of the inhabitants (according to Mr. Rich,
regarded as Nimrod's own city), and named by others Al
Athur or Asshur, from which the whole country received
its appellation. That gentleman regarded it as the Larissa
of Xenophon; and there appears some grounds for suppo-
sing that it may represent the Resin of the book of Gene-
sis, for Al Resin, that is, Resin with the Arabic article af-
fixed, might by the Greeks be easily transmuted into La-
rissa. The principal remains found here are a pyramidal
mount of 144 feet in height, which forms the northwest an-
gle of a flat mound, of about 1000 feet north and south by
514 east and west. The area of this platform is somewhat
depressed below the height of the sides, giving the idea of
a wall having surrounded them. The pyramid is steep,
and the top very small; but its base measured upward of
700 feet in circumference. At the western side of this
were found marks of concrete buildings, such as had been
seen at Nineveh; and fragments of bricks with cuneiform
inscriptions were scattered about. They were thicker
than those of Babylon. Both to the north and east there
were ruins to be traced; and the hills on the opposite side
were interspersed with mounds. The country was well
cultivated, and sprinkled with villages, one of which still
bears the name of Nimrod, though sometimes called De-
raweish.
Mr. Rich sailed down the Tigris from Mosul to Bagdad
on a kellek or raft, one of the primitive boats of the coun-
try, described by Herodotus as formed of pieces of wood
supported upon inflated skins. On his way he saw nu-
merous sites, indicated by the usual mounds and heaps.
Among the principal of these were Keshaf, at the mouth of


NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
147
the Zab, supposed to be Haditha of the ancient geogra-
phers, Tel Sitteih, Tel Geloos, Mekook, Toprak Kalaa or
Kalaat ul Shirgath,* Tecreet, Tel el Meheji, Samarra, Ka-
desia, and others which we have already mentioned.
While remaining at Mosul, he was indefatigable in ex-
amining the neighbourhood, and discovered many objects
worthy of attention, among which we may include the con-
vent of Mar Mattei, the Chaldean town of Al Kosh, and
the convent of Rabban Hormuzd.
The convent of Mar Mattei or Sheik Muttee is situated
on a mountain about twenty-five miles east of Mosul; and
Mr. Rich, having passed through the alluvial tract in which
the ruins of Nineveh are situated, rode over an undulating
country to Baasheka, a village of Yezidees and Jacobite
Christians, imbosomed in olive-trees. The oil from this
and a similar wood surrounding Baazani chiefly supplies
the city of Mosul, and is much used in the manufacture of
soap. Baasheka is situated just in front of a defile, where
there is a fountain that appears to be an object of venera-
tion to the Yezidees, who in spring repair thither, and to
another called by them Ain u Sofra, to make merry, offer
sacrifices, play at various games, and to get drunk. “ The
Yezids,” it is remarked, “ seemingly have Christianity, or
some barbarous remains of it, among them. They admit
baptism and circumcision; believe in the metempsycho-
sis; never say 'such a one is dead,' but that he is chan-
ged;' never enter a Christian church without kissing the
threshold and putting off their shoes. Their principal
burying-place is at Bozan, a village at the foot of the
mountain of Rabban Hormuzd, and bodies are carried there
from all parts. It was formerly a Christian village with a
monastery.
“The Khan of Sheik Khan or Baadli is the pope of the
Yezids. He is descended from the family of the Ommi.
ades, and is esteemed the Emir Hadji of the Yezids. Their
great place of pilgrimage is at Sheik Adi, three hours dis-
tant in the mountains beyond Sheik Khan, and it is saidt to
have been a Christian monastery. The church, conventi-
cle, or whatever it may be called, is said to resemble that
at Jerusalem, every different tribe of Yezids having its own
* Or Shirkat, near Al Hadhr.
† A note informs us that it in reality was a Christian church, dedica-
ted to St. Thaddeus.


148
NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
separate station in it. Their peer or sheik reads prayers,
every one at intervals crying out'amen ;' and this is the
whole of their worship. It is true that they pay adoration,
or at least a sort of worship, to Mellek Taous, the figure
of a bird placed on a kind of candlestick.* They will not
spit into the fire, or blow out a candle with their breaths.
When the sun just appears above the horizon, they salute
it with three prostrations. When they are taxed by the
Christians and Turks with having no books, they say it is
because God has so peculiarly enlightened their minds as
to render books and a written law unnecessary. Several
mounds of ancient debris were seen in the country around
this village.”+
Next day, proceeding by a path through defiles and over
hills, Mr. Rich reached the convent, which is situated on
the mountain of Makloube, overlooking the course of the
Bumadus or Ghazir-su, and to which he ascended by a
steep path winding up the face of a precipice. This edi-
fice, he observes," has much the appearance of a strong-
hold, being composed of two large towers, or buildings re-
sembling towers, at each extremity, united by a common
wall. Had this curtain been embattled, and the wall a lit-
tle thicker, it would pass for a very tolerable baron's castle
of the fourteenth century. It is situated on the very edge
of the precipice, and the bare rock rises immediately be-
hind it, in which, indeed, are ensconced many chambers
and parts of the structure. It is, in short, built in the ab-
Ipt face of the mountain, like a martin's nest; and the
general plan is not very easy to describe. It consists prin-
cipally of the aforesaid towers, and two courts between
them, with an infinity of little detached holes, nooks, and
chambers; but, from a great many of them now being in
ruins, it is evident that the whole establishment must at
one time have been much more considerable. Indeed, it
formerly seems to have been a place of strength, for Tam-
erlane took it by storm. He assaulted it from the eastern
side of the mountain, and entered just above its southeast
angle. There were then works built on the rock, which
is now unprotected, and commands it. The present habit-
able part, and the church, which is in the southeast angle,
* It is the figure of a cock, and is produced but once a year for the
purpose of worship.
Rich's Koordistan, vol. ii., p. 69, 70.


NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
149
have been recently fitted up under the protection of the Pa-
cha of Mosul's brother, Hajee Osman Bey; but the skele-
ton of this part of the design seems to have been preserved.
In the highest part of the enclosure up the hill are seen
some lines of large stones, part of the original building.
This convent belongs to the Jacobites, and the abbot is al-
ways a matran or bishop. The present incumbent is an
old man; and, besides himself, he has only one monk, and
a lad who is educating for the priesthood. According to
the abbot Matran Mousa, the convent was founded in 334
A.D. by Mar Mattei, a saint, and companion of St. George,
who fled from the persecution of Diocletian, and took ref-
uge here. Having by his prayers healed the daughter,
named Havla, of the King of the Assyrians, he obtained
permission to build this convent. But this, to the best of
my recollection, is recorded in Assemanni in a much more
authentic manner.*
“The famous Gregory Bar Hebræus or Abul Faraj is
buried here.
“ From the terrace of the south tower, where we are
lodged, we have a noble and extended view, comprising
the whole of Alexander's operations, from the passage of
the Tigris to the arrival at Arbela after the battle of Gau-
gamela. The Bumadus meanders at the foot or southern
extremity of this mountain, and I am now told it rises just
below Amadieh. I can trace the Zab plainly.”+
From this elevated position the geographical lines of the
country were easily comprehended. The mountains of
Accra, with the loftier peaks of Zagros rising behind
them, are plainly visible in the northeast; and a place is
mentioned, called Ras ul Ain-the head of the waters
an old convent at the farther extremity of the plain of Na-
okor, through which flows the Ghazir-su. In the neigh-
bourhood of this establishment there were found several
caves and grottoes, partly natural and partly artificial, the
interior of which contained many inscriptions in the Stran-
ghelo or old Syriac character, in which the more ancient
manuscripts are written.
* According to Assemanni, it was founded, together with one to St.
Jonah, in the time of Shapour, king of Persia, and was called Chuchta.
f Rich's Koordistan, vol. ii., p. 73-76.
# Ras ul Ain is a common name for such localities. Query : Can the
Ras ul Ain of Mesopotamia (the ancient Ressaina) have any pretensions
to being the Resin of Asshur or Nimrod ?
N2


150
NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
Leaving this place, Mr. Rich proceeded to the town of
Al Kosh and the convent of Rabban Hormuzd, situated in
a range of subordinate hills in front of the great Kurdish
Mountains. Crossing the ridge which divides the valleys
of the Gomel and the Khausser, he passed the villages of
Seid Khan, Sirej Khan, and Girghiaour to Al Kosh. The
Yezid capital Baadli, the residence of Meer Sheik Khan,
a chief of very ancient family, and recognised as head of
all the Yezidees, lay only three hours distant northeast of
Sirej Khan, where he halted for a night. The country
was inhabited by Kurds and Yezidees; and at that village
he and his followers were entertained by the performance
of a musician who played them many national airs. He
speaks of the latter people in terms of high praise. “From
what I have seen and heard of the Yezids," says he, “they
seem lively, brave, hospitable, and good-humoured. They
were delighted at this village to see us, and entertained
our people most hospitably. Under the British govern-
ment much might be made of them."*
The country now became broken and confused, consist-
ing of ravines, bare ridges of crumbling sandstone, with
only here and there a patch of vegetation where the soil
admitted of it; and it is observed that the Mosul territory
appeared well cultivated wherever it was susceptible of
improvement. After ascending for some time, a gentle
descent brought the party close to Al Kosh, a little way
up the mountain, having on their right a fine extensive
plain, very well improved and studded with villages. Ba-
adli, which is nine miles distant, under the bare hills, near
a defile whence the Gomel issues, is situated in the terri-
tory of Amadieh. On the left, while descending, was seen
a large artificial mound, which gives its name. Girghiaour
(the infidel's hillock), to the place; and several other such
tumuli of greater or less size were scattered about. Of
Al Kosh, which is entirely a Chaldean town, Mr. Rich
tells us but little, as he did not visit it, choosing to proceed
at once to the convent of Rabban Hormuzd. From his
observations, that the Al Koshites are a very stout and in-
dependent class of men, who can muster about 400 mus-
keteers, we gather that it is not either large or populous;
and perhaps it may derive its chief interest from having
been the birth and burial place of the Prophet Nahum,
* Vol. ij., p. 87.


NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
151
" the El Koshite," who was of a Jewish family that resi-
ded here during the captivity of Nineveh. Israelites from
all parts come on pilgrimage to his tomb.
Having passed very near this town, the party turned to
the right, where, about a mile higher up, in a rocky defile
or opening in the mountains, was the convent, and which
from thence wore a most imposing appearance. “No-
thing,” it is remarked, “was clearly distinguishable but
a heavy square building of a duský red colour, hanging
quite over a precipice, like some lama pagoda. The dark
clouds rolled over the summit of the mountain almost
down to the convent, and greatly increased the gloominess
of its aspect, and its apparent height. We seemed to be
retreating from the world, and entering on some wild and
untried state of existence, when we found ourselves in the
rocky strait by which it is approached. The situation ap-
peared to be well chosen for devotion, but devotion of a
savage and gloomy character. The hills gradually rose
very soon after the slope had terminated. An immense
torrent, now dry, had brought down prodigious fragments
of rock. Keeping along its edge, we reached, at eleven
o'clock, the entrance of the defile along a rocky and rough
road. This defile expands, and scoops out the mountain
into a kind of wild amphitheatre, in which, not half way
up, the convent is situated. It was only the latter part of
the road which was very steep. The red building we had
seen from afar was part of a church, or, rather, churches,
there being several together. All the amphitheatre, from
the top to the bottom, is full of little caves and grottoes,
those near the church, and extending up the rock far above
it, being appropriated to the use of the monks, of whom
there are fifty, only four or five of whom are priests. Each
monk has a separate cell, and the communications be-
tween them are by little terraces. The rocks are craggy
and broken, and of fine harmonious tints, being of free-
stone, of which the church is built. It stands on a plat-
form elevated from the precipice; but very little of the an-
cient fabric remains.
"We arrived at half past eleven. We were accommo-
dated in rather an airy lodging, in a kind of sacristy or
chapel adjoining the church. Our people established
themselves as well as they could in the surrounding caves,
and the horses we sent back to the village.


152
NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
“In the afternoon I went to vespers. The congregation
of rustic, dark-looking monks, together with the gloomi-
ness and simplicity of the church-which is merely a nar-
row arched or vaulted room, with no light but what is ad-
mitted from the small dome-might well remind one of
the solitude of St. Saba. Indeed, the monks were not less
Thebaid in their appearance, being dusky-looking men,
clothed in the coarsest manner like peasants, but more
sombre in their colours, their gown being of a dark blue
or black canvass, with a common abba or Arab cloak of
brown woollen over it. On their heads they wear a sma
scull-cap of brown felt, with a black handkerchief tied
round it. The priests are rather better clothed in black
dresses, with black turbans on their heads. The monks
are of all trades—weavers, tailors, smiths, carpenters, and
masons, so that the wants of the convent are entirely sup-
plied by the convent itself. Their wants are, indeed, very
few, the order being that of St. Anthony, and very rigor-
ous in its observances. The monks never eat meat except
at Christmas and Easter. Sometimes, indeed, if any of
their friends bring them a little as a present, they are not
forbidden to eat it; but no meat is provided for the con-
vent. The daily food is some boiled wheat and bread,
and even this in small quantities. Wine and spirits are
altogether prohibited; and none but the treasurer is allow-
ed to touch money.” To this account the editor adds in a
note, that "the monks live separately and alone in their
cells when not employed at their work, and are forbidden
to talk to one another. A bell summons them to church
several times a day; besides which, they meet in the church
at midnight for prayer; again at daybreak; and at sunset,
when they retire to their cells without fire or candle,
Some of these cells are far from the others, in very lonely
situations, high up the mountains, in steep places, and look
difficult to get at by day; how much more so in dark and
stormy nights! They are surrounded by wild, plundering
tribes of Kurds, who might come down and murder them
in their different retreats, without their cries for help be-
ing heard; but their poverty preserves them from such at-
tacks. There were several young men among them, who
had retired here, being, as they told us, weary of the world,
and hoping to find rest in this solitude, and acceptance
with God through religious exercises of a painful and


NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
153
mortifying nature. They did not look happy or healthy,
and we are told they die young."*
The monastery was founded, according to the abbot's
account, by Tomarsa, patriarch of the Chaldeans at Se-
leucia or Ctesiphon, between A.D. 384 and 392. Asseman-
nit says that Rabban Hormuzd, the bishop, was martyred
about the thirty-sixth year of the persecution, and the six-
ty-sixth of the reign of Shapour; and it appears that John
Sulaca, who was ordained Patriarch of the Chaldeans at
Rome in 377, lived at the monastery of Rabban, which
seems to have then consisted of fifty monks. Rabban
Hormuzd is said to have been afterward the residence of
the Nestorian bishop, the Catholic-Chaldean one residing
at Diarbekr.1
This Hormuzd, who is reported to have been the son of a
king of Persia, and put to death for his faith, is the grand
national saint of the Chaldeans, whether Nestorian or
Catholic. His body was brought from Persia and depos-
ited here.
“ The quantity of caves and little grottoes all over the
hollow of the mountain or rocky amphitheatre," continues
the traveller, “is quite surprising. An earthquake filled a
great many of them, and the natural ruin and crumbling
down of the mountain has also obliterated multitudes.
The monks say they frequently discover grottoes in clear-
ing away rubbish. It is not likely that this immense
number of grottoes, dispersed at all heights and distances,
should have been purposely constructed by the founder
of the church; yet that the greater part cannot be natural
is quite evident on the slightest inspection. Some may
possibly have been made in cutting stone; but this can-
not be the case with by far the greater number, as their
form testifies, being small, oven-like excavations, with a
little aperture, and sometimes two, for a door and a window.
One or two of those which I entered had two stone beds or
niches in the wall, exactly as if they had been intended
for the reception of dead bodies, like those at Kufri. They
may all at one time have served for this, and this immense
amphitheatre have been no more than a dakhmeh or bury-
ing-place of the old Persians. Some of the lost Syriac
* Rich's Koordistan, vol. ii., p. 90–93.
† Vol. i., p. 525.
1 Rich's Koordistan, vol. ii., p. 94, with note to ditto · and Asseman-
ai, vol. i., p. 528, note.


154
NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS.
and Chaldean manuscripts would in all probability have
thrown light upon this curious place. There were for-
merly kept in this convent about 500 volumes of old Stran-
ghelo manuscripts on vellum; but they were thrown to-
gether in an old vault on the side of the hill, a part of
which was carried away by a torrent, and the books, being
damaged, were deemed of no farther value, and, conse-
quently, were torn up and thrown about. Some scattered
leaves were shown to me, which were unquestionably of
the highest antiquity. Manuscripts are fast perishing in
the East, and it is almost the duty of a traveller to rescue
as many as he can from destruction.”*
On their way back to Mosul, Mr. Rich and his party
passed through Teliskof, that is to say, “the Bishop's
Mount," where there are some nuns, but no monastery.
These live in the houses of their parents or relations, as
they do at Al Kosk, there being no female establishment.
Prodigious crowds of Chaldean Catholics assembled to see
the strangers, taking pleasure, as it seemed, in beholding a
Christian coming among them with something like the ap-
pearance and attributes of power,
These villages are described as large and populous.
The Kiahya of Tel Keif, a town wholly inhabited by that
people, informed our countryman that it contained a thou-
sand houses, in some of which were thirty souls. This
may be overrated ; but it was certainly crowded with peo-
ple, who, like most of the race, were dirty, ill favoured,
and dark complexioned, and all much addicted to the use
of strong liquors.
On his return to Mosul, the traveller visited the remains
of the convent of Mar Elias near the town, and the church-
es of Mar Toma and Mar Shemaoon Sava within it. The
former is now a heap of ruins, having been destroyed by
Nadir Shah, but still exhibiting some interesting remains.
It was founded, according to Assemanni, in the latter end
of the sixth century. The church of Mar Toma is un-
questionably ancient, and is divided into a centre and two
aisles by three heavy-pointed but obtuse arches, supported
by octagonal piers. The great door of the sanctuary was
surrounded by a border of carved work in marble, contain-
ing figures of Christ and the twelve apostles in medallions,
* Rich's Koordistan, vol. ii., p. 94–96.


SUBSEQUENT HISTORY, ETC.
155
with twisted scroll-work. Mr. Rich discovered a stone,
which, on examination, proved to be adorned with an in-
scription in flowered Arabic letters of the age of the Sa-
hibs, containing the very chapter of the Koran particular-
ly directed against Christians. “So here,” he observes,
" had these poor people been devoutly rubbing their fore-
heads against a monument, of which, had they known its
import, they would have had the greatest horror and detest-
ation. I believe the archbishop gave orders for its remo-
val from its present place.” The other church is very an-
cient, and, like that of Rabban Hormuzd, consists of a sin-
gle room.
CHAPTER IX.
Subsequent History of Mesopotamia and Assyria.
Rennell's Opinion of Xenophon's Retreat.-Advance of Cyrus.-Battle
of Cunaxa, and Death of Cyrus.--Truce between the Greek Generals
and the King.-The former advance to the Tigris, and cross it at Sit-
tace.-Their March to Opis-And to the Banks of the Zab.-Treach-
ery of Tissaphernes.-Clearchus and other Officers put to Death.-
Farther Attempts at Treachery.-Defeated by the Prudence of the
Grecian Officers.-Xenophon appointed to the Command.—The Greeks
cross the Zah.-Are assailed by Mithradates.-Arrangements for re-
pulsing the Enemy's light Troops.-March to Larissa--To Mespila.
Struggles during their Progress to the Carduchian Mountains.-Re-
solve to ascend them in Preference to crossing the River.- Are reso-
lutely opposed by the Carduchians.--Abandon their useless Slaves and
Baggage.--Difficulties of the Ascent.-Severe Contests with the Ene-
my-And Losses.-Cross the Centrites, and pass into Armenia.
Change of Dynasty.--Battle of Arbela.-The Seleucidæ.--Arsacidæ.
-Appearance of the Romans in Mesopotamia.-Reduced to a Roman
Province. First Expedition of Crassus.--Embassy from Orodes. The
Romans driven out by the Parthians.-Second Expedition of Crassus.
-Advice of the King of Armenia.-Treachery of Abgarus-Who con-
ducts them into the Deserts of Charræ.-Infatuation of Crassus.--His
Army attacked by Surenas.-His Son slain.-The Romans forced to re-
treat with great Loss to Charræ.-Again betrayed and surrounded.
Crassus forced by the Legionaries to negotiate.Is slain during an In-
terview with Surenas.-The Army destroyed.-Reflections on the
Conduct of Xenophon and Crassus.
ALTHOUGH the history of these provinces, as the seat of
a separate nation, undoubtedly terminates with the con-
quest of Babylon by Cyrus, yet their claim to attention can-
not be held to have ceased with their independent exist-


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
157
to the Fountain of Fay mentioned by Rennell,* having in
its vicinity the palace of Belesis, formerly governor of
Syria. That town, according to the same author, who
agrees with D'Anville, is identified with El Der, situated
a little above the mouth of the Khabour. But if Beles
represents Barbalissus, the former must be looked for high-
er up; and recent investigations lead to the belief that it
stood some distance above Racca, on the right bank of the
river: a position which will agree with the subsequent nine
days' march of fifty parasangs to the River Araxes or Kha-
bour. From Thapsacus, where they crossed the Euphra-
tes, the account of their march to the Pylæ or Gates is
very short. These passes are by most authorities placed
at the termination of the hilly tract below Hit, which prob-
ably represented the Caramánde mentioned by Xenophon.
From the Pylæ, Cyrus proceeded through the country
of Babylonia to meet the army of his rival, who had ad-
vanced to oppose him. That he expected not to conquer
without a struggle is known from the reply which he made
to Clearchus, who asked him if he believed the king would
hazard a battle. “Certainly," said he, “if he is the son
of Darius and Parysatis, and my brother, I shall never ob-
tain all this without a stroke;" and, accordingly, both
Greeks and barbarians prepared themselves for fighting.
They had need of all their resolution; for Xenophon states
the reputed number of the Persian host at 1,200,000 men,
and 200 scythe-armed chariots, besides 6000' horse.
Cyrus, having reviewed his troops, which consisted of
10,400 heavy-armed Greeks, and 2400 targeteers, with
100,000 barbarians, and twenty scythe-armed chariots,
marched three parasangs in order of battle, expecting the
enemy would fight that day; but the policy of Artaxerxes
seems rather to have been to embarrass than overwhelm
his opponent, for he caused a trench to be dug near the
Euphrates by way of fortification, leaving, however, a nar-
row pass through which the invading army were permitted
to pass unopposed. This would appear to have been done
in order to throw Cyrus off his guard ; and we according-
ly find that prince riding on the third day in his car, his
soldiers having left their ranks, and many of them laid
their weapons upon sumpter horses or wagons, when Pa-
* Illustrations of the History of the Expedition of Cyrus, &c., 4to,
London, 1816, p. 68.
0


158
SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF
tagyas, a Persian in his confidence, rode up at full speed,
and informed him that the king was actually at hand,
marching in regular order. This news causing an imme-
diate bustle, the men ran to their arms, and prepared for
action. It was the afternoon, however, before "a dust like
a white cloud appeared, which soon spread itself like dark-
ness over the plain. When they drew nearer, the brazen
armour flashed, and their spears and ranks appeared, hav-
ing on their left a body of horse, armed in white corslets
(said to be commanded by Tissaphernes), and followed by
those with Persian bucklers, besides heavy-armed men
with wooden shields reaching down to their feet (said to be
Egyptians), and other horse and archers, all which march-
ed according to their respective countries, each nation be-
ing drawn up in a solid oblong square; and before them
were disposed, at a considerable distance from one anoth-
er, chariots armed with scythes, fixed aslant at the axle-
trees, with others under the body of the chariot pointing
downward, that so they might cut asunder everything they
encountered, hy driving them among the ranks of the
Greeks to break them. But it now appeared that Cyrus
was greatly mistaken when he exhorted the Greeks to
withstand the shouts of the barbarians, for they did not
come on with cries, but as silently and quietly as possible,
and in an equal and slow march.
“Here Cyrus, riding along the ranks with Pigres the in-
terpreter and three or four others, commanded Clearchus
to bring his men opposite to the centre of the enemy (be-
cause the king was there), saying, 'If we break that, our
work is done;' but the latter, observing their position, and
understanding that the king was beyond the left wing of
the Greek army (for his majesty was so much superior in
numbers, that, when he stood in the centre of his own army,
he was beyond the left wing of that of his brother), would
not be prevailed on to withdraw his right from the river,
fearing to be surrounded on both sides, but answered that
he would take care all should go well.
“Now the barbarians came regularly on, and the Greek
army standing on the same ground, the ranks were form-
ed as the men arrived. In the mean time, Cyrus, riding
at a small distance before the ranks, surveying both the
enemy's army and his own, was observed by Xenophon,
an Athenian, who rode up to him, and asked whether he


160
SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF
and when he saw none opposed him in front, nor any mo-
tion made to charge the troops that were drawn up before
him, he wheeled to the left in order to surround their
army; whereupon Cyrus, fearing he should get behind him
and cut off the Greeks, advanced against the king, and.
charging with his 600 horse, broke those who were drawn
up before him, put the 6000 men to flight, and, as they say,
killed Artagerses, their commander, with his own hand.
These being broken, and the 600 belonging to Cyrus dis-
persed in the pursuit, very few were left about him, and
Those almost all persons who used to eat at his table;
however, upon discovering the king properly attended, and
unable to contain himself, he immediately cried out, ‘I
see the man,' then ran furiously at him, and, striking him
on the breast, wounded him through his corslet (as Cte-
sias the physician says, who affirms that he cured the
wound), having, while he was giving the blow, received a
wound under the eye from somebody who threw a javelin
at him with great force; at the same time, the king and
Cyrus engaged hand to hand, and those about them in de-
fence of each. In this action, Ctesias (who was with the
king) informs us how many fell on his side; on the other,
Cyrus himself was killed, and eight of his most consider-
able friends lay dead upon him. When Artagerses, who
was in the greatest trust with Cyrus of any of his sceptred
ministers, saw him fall, they say he leaped from his horse,
and threw himself about him, when (as some say) the
king ordered him to be slain upon the body of Cyrus,
though others assert that, drawing his cimeter, he slew
himself; for he wore a golden cimeter, a chain, bracelets,
and other ornaments which were worn by the me
most con-
siderable Persians, and was held in great esteem both for
his affection and fidelity.
“ Thus died Cyrus, a man universally acknowledged by
those who were well acquainted with him, to have been,
of all the Persians since the ancient Cyrus, endued with
the most princely qualities, and to have appeared the most
worthy of empire."*
The leader of the expedition having fallen in the man-
ner now described, the king attacked the camp of his ene-
mies, which was deserted by the barbarians who had been
* Spelman's Xenophon, 2 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 1776, vol. i., p. 85-95.


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
161
left to defend it. The Greeks, however, saved a portion
of the baggage, while their countrymen continued pursu-
ing the fugitives until they were thirty stadia distant.
When informed of the plunder of their tents, they return-
ed, put themselves once more in a posture of defence, and
even offered to make another attack; but the natives again
fled, leaving their wearied allies to sleep under arms upon
the field they had so gallantly won, un refreshed with food,
and uncertain of the fate of their chief.
Morning brought them the news of their loss, and the
intelligence that they were alone in the country of their
enemies; for Ariæus, who commanded the Asiatics in Cy-
rus's army, and who fled on hearing of his death, declined
the crown which the Greeks offered to win for him in
place of the fallen prince, and soon after proved one of
their worst foes.
The king, in the mean time, finding that to destroy this
valiant band would be a task of much danger, attempted
to effect his purpose by treachery, and accordingly sent
persons to negotiate with them for delivering up their
arms. This being indignantly refused, Tissaphernes came
forward as their friend, to mediate, as he said, between
them and his majesty for a safe conduct beyond his do-
minions; and, after considerable delay, during which food
was provided for the Greeks according to the terms of
truce, they moved across the country from Cunaxa, where
the battle was fought, towards the Tigris. The exact po-
sition of that town is unknown; but it must doubtless
have stood somewhere above the present Felugia, the an-
cient Ancobar or Macepracta, because, in the first place, af-
ter the fight, they passed through the Median Wall on their
way to Sittace, which lay east of it. Now this wall ran
from Macepracta, or Ancobar, or Sippara, to Opis or Sa-
marra, at the confluence of the Tigris and Physcus. Sec-
ondly, there are no hills whatever in Babylonia below Fe-
lugia; and the one of which Xenophon speaks must have
been higher up, and nearer to the Pylæ. We come to the
same conclusion, when we reflect that the two large ca-
nals, which they crossed after passing the wall, must have
been those which branched off below Felugia, and stretch-
ed towards the site of the present Bagdad and Ctesiphon.
Sittace, to which they next came, standing near the
River Tigris, is probably to be looked for at Sheriat el
02


162
SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF
Beitha, above the large village of Kazemeen; this situa-
tion agreeing well with the distance from the river and
from Opis, as it is given by Xenophon. Here the Greeks
appear to have been needlessly apprehensive that they
would not be permitted to pass the bridge of boats, but be
hemmed in between the river and the canal, and destroy-
ed by hunger or repeated attacks. Next morning, howev-
er, they experienced no interruption in passing the bridge,
which consisted of thirty-seven boats or pontoons; and
they afterward made four days' march to the Physcus,
where stood Opis, a large and populous city. This Phys-
cus is the Athem; and the ruins of Opis may be traced at
present, near the junction of that river with the Tigris.
Here the Greeks passed the former stream, 100 feet in
breadth, by a bridge of which no vestige exists, and en-
countered an army marching to the king's assistance un-
der one of his brothers.
From Opis, a march of thirty-five parasangs, performed
in seven days, brought them opposite to Cænæ, a large city
on the banks of the Tigris. Rennell supposes this to have
been the Senn of Eastern geographers, which he places at
the confluence of the lesser Zab with the Tigris. Of the
former river, or Altun-su of the present day, Xenophon
makes no mention. On the other hand, Cænæ cannot, as
Kinneir suggests, be identified with Tecreet, that place
being only between fifty and sixty miles above the Athem,
instead of 120, at least, as indicated by the Grecian histo-
rian. At the Zabatus, which was 400 feet broad—and
which, undoubtedly, was no other than the greater Zab-
the army halted three days, which were passed in suspi-
cious jealousy both by the Greeks and by the barbarians
who accompanied them under Tissaphernes, the officer ap-
pointed by the king to provide for their wants. The result
was a conference, in the course of which he convinced
Clearchus, the Greek general, of his sincerity: a fatal con-
viction, which led to his own destruction ; for, on the very
morning after these solemn assurances, Clearchus himself,
with four other leaders, twenty captains, and two hundred
soldiers, having gone to the tent of the Persian for the pur-
pose of refuting certain calumnies against the loyalty of
the Greeks, the chiefs were seized and afterward executed
by orders of the king, while the soldiers were cut to pieces
by the barbarians.


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
163
Thus deprived of their officers, and fatally convinced of
the hostile designs of the Persians, the Greeks flew to arms,
on which immediately came forward Ariæus, Arteazus,
Mithradates, and others, who attempted to excuse the trans-
action by imputing to Clearchus a violation of his oaths;
adding, that the other generals were safe, and exhorting
the army to surrender their weapons, which were, they
said, the king's property. But the snare was too palpable.
They upbraided Ariæus with his infamous treachery; chal-
lenged the Persians, as a proof of their sincerity, to send
back to them Proxenus and Menon, whom they had de-
clared to be alive; and refused indignantly to abandon
their arms. The royal chiefs retired; and the Greeks, sad
and dejected, passed the night in painful anxiety. Well it
was for them that they had in their number some whose
minds were more strongly nerved, and capable of exertion
in the hour of danger; and one more especially, whose
fortitude, energy, and judgment were fully equal to the
fearful emergency in which they stood.
This leader was Xenophon, an experienced soldier of
mature age, but only a volunteer, associated with Prox-
enus by the ties of friendship and hospitality. Unable, as
may be well imagined, under such circumstances, to sleep
soundly, he arose in consequence of a troubled dream.
As soon as he awoke, the first thought that occurred to him
was this: “Why do I lie here? the night wears away, and
as soon as the day appears, it is probable the enemy will
come and attack us; and if we fall under the power of the
king, what can preserve us from being spectators of the
most tragical sights, from suffering the most cruel torments,
and from dying with the greatest ignominy? Yet no one
makes preparation for defence, or takes any care about it;
but here we lie, as if we were allowed to live in quiet.
From what city, therefore, do I expect a general to per-
form these things? What age do I wait for? But, if I
abandon myself to the enemy this day, I shall never live
to see another."*
He accordingly arose, assembled the remaining captains
of Proxenus's party, forcibly pointed out to them the perils
of their situation, and offered either to take the command,
or follow whomsoever they might appoint to lead them in
* Spelman's Xenophon, vol. i., p. 179.


164
SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF
this extremity. The consequence was an immediate feel-
ing of confidence in Xenophon, and an entreaty that he
would assume the direction of affairs. Before midnight,
the whole remaining officers were assembled; and to them,
at the request of an old captain, Hieronymus of Elis, he
repeated all he had before said, and suggested what he
thought advisable to be done in their position. The result
was a confirmation of his appointment as general, and the
nomination of other officers in the room of those they had
lost. The night was passed in counsel; and by break of
day the soldiers were informed of the resolution taken by
the commanders, tendered their oaths, and received in-
structions. The morning found those who had lain down
a prey to doubt and almost to despair, transformed into a
resolute army, determined to defend themselves to the last
extremity, and to make every sacrifice for the common
welfare.
Another base attempt on the part of Mithradates, to en-
trap the Greeks by professions of friendship, was baffled
by the prudence of the generals; and the very next after-
noon saw them, after having burned all their carriages,
tents, and superfluous baggage, across the Zabatus, unas-
sailed, and marching in order of battle. Upon seeing this,
the treacherous King of Pontus threw aside the mask, and
appeared in the rear with some light-armed archers and
slingers, approaching at first as a friend, but discharging
his missiles at the Greeks, and retiring, while these dared
not leave their ranks to pursue the flying enemy.
The loss thus sustained produced some anxiety; but the
expedient suggested by Xenophon, of selecting the best
Rhodian slingers, and forming a corps of light cavalry to
drive off such assailants, restored confidence, and proved
its wisdom by enabling them the very next day to inflict a
severe chastisement on Mithradates, who accordingly left
them, for the remainder of the march, unmolested. That
night they reached Larissa, which the general describes as
an uninhabited city, two parasangs in circuit, with walls
twenty-five feet thick and 100 high, and built of bricks.
Near it stood a pyramid of stone, 100 feet square and 200
in height. This station, which, as their two harassed
marches were short, could not have been very far from the
Zab, must almost certainly have been the same of which
Mr. Rich describes the ruins under the name of Nimrod,


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
165
and which that gentleman supposes to have been the city
mentioned by Xenophon. The pyramid observed by him,
still 144 feet high, is doubtless the one that, in the days of
the Anabasis, was probably revetted with stone mason-
work, vestiges of which still remain at the western base.
The name, indeed, is puzzling; and the only way to get rid
of the difficulty is to suppose that this city occupied the site
of the Nimrodian Resin, to which, as already suggested,
the people of the country have prefixed the Arabic article
Al. It is true that Ras ul Ain, formerly Ressaina, may,
so far as analogy of sound can be admitted as proof, ap-
pear to have equal, if not superior, claims with Nimrod to
identity with Resin, “which is between Nineveh and Ca-
leh ;' for some persons place Caleh at Hulwan, and oth-
ers near Racca at Callinicum, at the confluence of the Eu-
phrates and Khabour.
If the conjecture of Mr. Rich be well founded, there can
be very little doubt that the ruins of Nineveh must stand
for Mespila, in spite of dissimilarity of name. The march
of six parasangs agrees exactly with the six caravan hours,
or four of a horseman, given by him as its distance (or
that of Mosul) from Nimrod; and there is neither city of
ancient times, nor any other relics at this day, that can at
all answer to the situation of Mespila. The plinth of pol-
ished stone, full of shells, fifty feet in breadth and height,
and the brick wall 100 feet high and six parasangs in cir-
cuit, can apply to no other remains than those of Nineveh,
which, at the era of the Anabasis, must still have been
great and imposing. The haste of a perilous retreat will
account for some inaccuracy of description, and possibly
of name.
From Mespila they continued their way along the coun-
try on the left of the Tigris, occasionally harassed by the
enemy, whom they always repulsed, until the sixth morn-
ing, when, passing over a hilly tract, they suffered from
the slings and darts of the barbarians, who occupied the
heights. They had already found it necessary to make a
change in the order of march, more suitable to the nature
of the country than the hollow square hitherto adopted ;
and, perceiving that they fought with the light-armed Per-
sians at disadvantage, they made a start in the night, by
which they threw their enemies so far in the rear as to be
allowed to proceed three days without interruption. But


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
167
by the missiles of the enemy, some brave men, whose bod.
ies they could neither bury nor carry off. On the follow-
ing morning, having sent a party of volunteers with a guide
to occupy some cliffs that commanded a pass, over which
lay their road, the rest of the army advanced, though ex-
posed to great danger on account of the immense stones
which the barbarians continually rolled down upon them
from the precipices. At night, they took advantage of a
dense mist to press forward; and, coming up with their
rude assailants, they routed them; after which they passed
the first mountain. 'Two others were won in like manner,
with immense toil; and they were congratulating them-
selves on their success, when their active enemy com-
menced an attack in the rear, and cut off a detachment
which had been left to guard a post. Attempts to treat
with them were made in vain. They recovered some of
the dead in exchange for the guides they had captured;
found plenty of provisions in the villages as they passed
along; but every day was a succession of struggles, attend-
ed with great fatigue and loss; for the Carduchians, who
were skilful archers, had very long bows, which they drew
by pressing them with their left foot, and the arrows pier-
ced through the shields and corslets of the Greeks. On
the fifth day's march it appears that they reached the plain
of the River Centrites, which is by Kinneir supposed to be
the Nicephorius of the Romans, and the Khabour of the
present day. But it is clear that these two rivers are en-
tirely different, and could not, by any construction, be rep-
resented as forming the boundary between Armenia and
the country of the Carduchians, which last is barely pene-
trated by the Khabour. From this, indeed, it might be in-
ferred that the followers of Xenophon entered the mount-
ains at a point north of the Buhtan range, in which case
the Centrites might be the Betlis chai, which rises among
the lofty peaks northeast of Lake Van, and may therefore
be fairly held as the southern boundary of Armenia. But,
in fact, the description given by the author of the Anabasis,
however graphic, is of too general a character, and con-
tains too few recognisable points or names to be traced
with accuracy, even were we better acquainted than we
are with the geography of that part of the country. It is
impossible, we conceive, to pronounce where the Greeks
made their ascent, or even to identify the river which they


168
SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF
soon afterward crossed with so much boldness and skill in
the face of a very determined enemy. There, however, we
must take leave of Xenophon and his brave soldiers, who
had yet much toil and danger to encounter before they
could attain a sight of their native land. We have ac-
companied them to the confines of Armenia; and such of
our readers as desire to learn their farther adventures, will
find the narrative of their leader well illustrated by the la-
bours of Rennell.
Seventy years after this celebrated achievement, the bat-
tle of Arbela or Gaugamela transferred the empire of Asia
Irom Darius to Alexander the Great. The events which
led to this revolution belong so entirely to another subject
already handled in this work, that we shall not describe
them here. On the death of the renowned conqueror, Bab-
ylonia and Mesopotamia, together with Syria, passed into
the hands of the Seleucidæ, from whom they were in turn
wrested by the Parthian dynasty of the Arsacidæ, about the
year B.C. 164. In the possession of these last they re-
mained, until the Mithradatic war led Lucullus in pursuit
of Tigranes into Mesopotamia, when he took possession
of Nisibis, B.C. 68. This was the first occasion on which
a Roman army entered into that remote country.
In the year B.C. 64, Pompey reduced Syria to a Roman
province, of which, nine years afterward, Marcus Licinius
Crassus was made proconsul. Being an avaricious as
well as an ambitious man, he regarded with an envious eye
the power and supposed riches of the Parthians; and, in
spite of the remonstrances of certain tribunes of the peo-
ple, who represented them as faithful allies of the Roman
nation, resolved to invade their country. Accordingly,
having arrived at the seat of his government, where one of
his first acts was to plunder the Temple of Jerusalem, he
marched to the Euphrates, which he crossed by a bridge
of boats; and, taking the Parthians at unawares, speedily
overran Mesopotamia, then a part of their empire. But,
instead of pursuing his success, by making himself master
of Babylonia, and penetrating to Seleucia and Ctesiphon,
he repassed the river in the beginning of autumn, leaving
but 7000 foot and 1000 horse to secure his conquests.
This hasty retreat gave the natives time to recollect
themselves ; and Orodes their king, a warlike prince, im-
mediately assembled a numerous army, while he sent am-


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
169
bassadors to Crassus to inquire the reason of his unexpect-
ed aggression. This general, who had spent the winter in
extorting money from the Syrians and shamelessly plun-
dering the temples, but who, at the approach of spring, as-
sembled his army in order to recommence the war, when
the Parthian deputies, reminding him of the treaties which
they had entered into with Sylla and Pompey, offered to
forget the past, and to permit the garrison to retire unmo-
lested out of Mesopotamia, upon the single condition of his
ceasing from farther hostilities, haughtily replied that they
should have his answer at Seleucia. The chief of the am-
bassadors, by name Vageses or Vahesis, smiling at this
response, showed the Roman commander the palm of his
hand, and exclaimed, “Sooner, Crassus, shall you see hair
grow here, than be master of Seleucia ;" and, without add-
ing another word, retired.'
Orodes immediately took the field, leading one half of
his army in person to make a diversion on the side of Ar-
menia, while the other half, under the celebrated Surenas,
marched into Mesopotamia, and soon recovered most of
the cities which the invader had captured in the preceding
year.
This Surenas-an appellation which, we are told by St.
· Martin, was that of a great Parthian family, and not a
title-was not only one of the most influential individuals
about the court of his sovereign, but also a consummate
general. The Romans who had the good fortune to escape
from Mesopotamia brought fearful accounts of the num-
ber, strength, and power of the enemy. They assured
their fellow-soldiers that not only were the Parthians per-
fectly well disciplined, but that, while their defensive ar-
mour was so excellent as to resist the heaviest darts, their
weapons were so sharp and strong that the buckler proved
no defence against them. Crassus, considering these re-
ports as the exaggerations of fear, resisted all remon-
strances, and, being re-enforced with 6000 troops by the
King of Armenia, commenced his march, although that
monarch, even while promising him farther assistance.
advised him by all means to avoid the sandy deserts of
the low country. Accordingly, with several legions, 4000
horse, and a great many auxiliaries, making in all about
40,000 men, he crossed the Euphrates at Zeugma, the pres-
ent Kelaat e Roum. Pressed by the advice of his officers,


170
• SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF
he had consented to keep by the river-bank all the way to
Seleucia, when Abgarus, king of Edessa, whom the Ro-
mans believed to be their friend, but who was in reality
devoted to Surenas, unfortunately prevailed on him to al-
ter his plan. The crafty barbarian represented the Par-
thians as already in utter dismay; and assured him that,
in the war he was going to wage, feet and wings would
be required to catch a flying enemy, rather than arms to
fight a resolute one, and that he himself was prepared to
lead them to certain victory. Conducted by this treach-
erous monarch, the legions entered first a green plain, di-
vided by many rivulets, which afforded them easy and
pleasant marching. But, as they advanced, the scene
gradually changed; the roads grew worse ; and they had
to climb mountains and rocks, which brought them to a
sandy waste where there was neither food nor water to be
obtained. While beginning to suspect the honesty of their
guides, a messenger from the sovereign of Armenia ac-
quainted Crassus that the invasion of his own country by
Örodes would prevent him from sending any farther aid ;
but he repeated his advice to avoid the barren plains,
where his troops would perish with hunger, and take the
mountainous road to Armenia, where he might join forces
with him against the common enemy. Yet the Roman
commander, with a degree of blindness that appears in-
comprehensible, still put faith in Abgarus, who led them
some days across a burning desert, without hill or tree,
or even a blade of grass, and not a drop of water to quench
their increasing thirst.
To this condition were matters reduced when the scouts
gave information that a numerous army of Parthians were
at hand to attack them. Crassus immediately drew up
his fainting and exhausted men, at first following the ad-
vice of the quæstor Cassius, who proposed an extended
line, in order to occupy more ground, but instantly chan-
ged this arrangement, according to the suggestions of Ab-
garus, who, assuring them that the Parthians were but few
in number, advised a compact disposition. So the troops
were drawn up in a square, with a detachment of horse
to support each cohort, twelve of which composed the
front on every side. In this order they came to the banks
of the Balissus, the present Belejick,* where most of the
+ This would lead to the belief that Crassus did not cross the Euphra.


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
171
officers were for encamping, in order to refresh the sol-
diers; but their leader again permitting himself to be de-
ceived, or yielding to the ardour of his own son, only suf-
fered them to snatch a meal as they stood in their ranks,
and then pushed on against the enemy.
Surenas had concealed most of his men, and caused the
rest to cover their armour, so that his force at first seem-
ed very small; but no sooner did he observe that the Ro-
mans had fallen into the snare, than he gave the signal,
when the Parthians, starting up, as it were, out of the
ground, appeared, horse and man, shining from head to
foot in complete steel. Nor had the former time to recov-
er from their astonishment before they found themselves
charged by young Surenas, who, pike in hand, strove to
break through the hostile ranks. But habitual fortitude
and discipline counteracted the effect of surprise. The
assailants, being repulsed, retreated to a safe distance;
whence they darted on the foe a shower of sharp and
heavy arrows. The light-armed foot and archers adyan-
ced to drive them away, but were themselves soon com-
pelled to seek shelter behind the heavy troops; while the
enemy, approaching still nearer, directed a deadly flight
of missiles into the densely-compacted legions, where not
a shaft failed to inflict a wound. The wings next deploy-
ing, advanced to the charge, but all in vain. The Parthi-
an horsemen shot with as much effect while retiring as ad-
vancing; so that, whether the Romans kept their ground
or gave way, they were equally the butt of those dreadful
shafts.
In vain, too, did the latter expect that those weapons
would be exhausted, and their foes compelled to retreat,
for there were multitudes of camels in the rear, loaded
with arrows, from which the mounted archers ever and
anon replenished their quivers. Hence the bravest began
to despair of saving themselves from an enemy whom they
could neither reach nor avoid. At length the proconsul
sent his son with some chosen troops to attack the enemy,
and procure at least a short rest for the legionaries. The
tes at the upper Zeugma or Roumkalah, which is scarcely forty miles
from Orfa, and quite out of the way of the Belejick, and that he must
either have crossed at Beles or the lower Zeugma (Thapsacus), from
whence, as a matter of course, he must have crossed the Belejick in his
way to the plains where he was defeated.


172
SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF
young Crassus advanced, and, seeing the Parthians wheel
and retreat as he proceeded onward, called aloud, “ They
flee before us,” and pressed on with the utmost ardour.
But, when they had drawn him to a sufficient distance
from the main body, they returned furiously to the charge,
upon which he halted to meet the shock. But they, oppo-
sing their heavy-armed horse to his front, surrounded him
on all sides with their light troops, who raised so thick a
dust that none of the Romans could distinguish friend
from foe; while from the dense cloud issued showers of
arrows, that soon covered with dead bodies the ground
where they had stood. In vain did their young command-
er exhort his men to march up to the assailants. In reply,
they showed him their bodies transfixed with missiles,
their hands riveted to their bucklers and their feet to the
earth, and asked how, in such a condition, they could at-
tempt to overtake the enemy. He then charged their
heavy cavalry; and a thousand Gauls whom he had
brought from the West acquitted themselves with dauntless
courage. They closed with the enemy, and sometimes
pulled them from their horses; or, dismounting, pierced
the bellies of the steeds from beneath. But at length, har-
assed with heat and thirst, and having lost most of their
horses, the Gauls fell back upon the infantry, who, as well
as themselves, were immediately surrounded again by the
Parthians, and stood as a mark for their shafts.
Retiring, thus assailed, to a rising ground, the younger
Crassus, while his men fell thick around him, indignantly
refused an offer of two Greeks to conduct him safely to
Ischines, provided he would leave his troops; and at length,
frantic with grief at seeing the bravest of his friend
uselessly sacrificed, and unable any longer to use his arm,
which was transpierced by a barbed shaft, he desired one
of his companions to put an end to his life, that he might
not fall alive into the enemy's hands. This example was
followed by most of the surviving nobility who were with
him; while of the remainder, five hundred were made
prisoners, and the rest were cut to pieces.
The unfortunate proconsul, who had retired to a height
in the rear to wait for his son's return or to mark his prog-
ress, was roused from his dream of hope by a messenger,
who told him that the youth would certainly be lost unless
immediate aid were sent to him. Prudence gave way to


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
173
paternal solicitude and the desire of saying the brave com-
batants; but, before he had advanced far, he was met by
the victorious Parthians, whose shouts of triumph told a
tale which was dismally confirmed to the unhappy father
by the sight of the young leader's head fixed upon a spear.
It was no time for the indulgence of sorrow. “This mis-
fortune is entirely mine," said he to his dismayed troops;
“the loss of one person cannot affect the victory. Let us
charge-let us fight like Romans: if you feel for a father
who has just lost a son whose valour you admired, let it
appear in your rage and resentment against those insulting
barbarians !"
But it was too late. The faintness of their shout gave
proof that their physical strength and courage were alike
exhausted. Again was the air darkened with clouds of
arrows from an enemy whom they could not approach;
and many of the men, in desperation, threw themselves
among the heavy-armed horse to seek a speedier death.
And thus did the fierce attack continue unceasingly till
nightfall, when the assailants retired.
A melancholy night it was to the Romans. Stretched
on the ground, at a distance from his soldiers and his tent,
and shrouded only by his military cloak, their wretched
commander lay writhing under the weight of his shame
and sorrow, insensible to all consolation, and equally pros-
trated in mind and body. One of his lieutenants, Octavius,
after making vain efforts to rouse him to exertion, now
summoned a council of war, in which it was resolved that
the remains of the army should retire in silence, under the
cover of darkness, to the city of Charræ, which was held
by a Roman garrison; a dreadful alternative, as it left the
wounded to the mercy of a savage foe. No sooner did the
movement commence, than the ears of the retreating sol-
diers were assailed by the cries and reproaches of their
wretched companions. Three hundred light-horse desert-
ed, and pursued their way to Zeugma, where they crossed
the Euphrates without halting, except to tell at Charræ
that Crassus had fought a battle with the Parthians
The governor, suspecting from their manner that all was
not right, ordered his men under arms, and, marching out,
met the proconsul, whom, with his broken forces, he con-
ducted into the city; the wounded and fugitives meanwhile
being put to the sword by the enemy, and several smaller
P 2


174
SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF
detachments destroyed. Nor did the walls of Charræ long
prove a protection to Crassus. Surenas, learning that he
had taken refuge in it, sent to inform the garrison, that if
they expected to obtain any terms from him, both the gen-
eral and Cassius the quæstor must be delivered up to him
in chains. A council of war, which assembled to hear
this report, resolved that it was expedient to remove from
the city that very night, and to seek some other asylum;
and secrecy was especially enjoined on all the command-
ers. Yet the infatuated Crassus himself betrayed the se-
cret to Andromachus, whom he had pitched upon as a
guide, and who happened to be a creature of Surenas.
Having given due information of the intended movement
to the Parthian chief, he led the devoted Romans by de-
vious ways into a tract of marshy land, till Cassius, sus-
pecting treachery, refused to proceed, and, taking his own
way, succeeded in reaching Syria with 500 horse. Octa-
vius, having been more fortunate in his guides, pursued his
march to the mountains of Sinnaca with 5000 men, and
there intrenched himself.
The unfortunate proconsul remained entangled in the
marshes into which he had been misled till morning, when
the rising sun saw him surrounded by the Parthian caval-
ry. In spite of opposition, however, he gained a hill not
far from his lieutenant, who, seeing his danger, flew to his
assistance, and charging the enemy, rescued his forlorn
commander, whom the troops bore safely off in a hollow
square, covered by their bucklers. This check appears to
have in some measure disconcerted the pursuers; and
Surenas, observing them reluctant to attack their antago-
nists in position, resolved to compass his ends by treachery.
Feigning a desire to negotiate, and to put an end to a war
which he said would be rendered more bitter and deadly
should a Roman general be made its victim, he invited
Crassus to an interview, advancing with unbended bow
and open arms.
This time it was not the rashness of the leader, but the
turbulence and fears of the legionaries, rendered outrageous
by their sufferings and situation, that led to a fatal result;
for they compelled him, against his better judgment, to
hold a conference with Surenas. Accompanied by Octa-
vius and Petronius, with a few soldiers, he accordingly de-
scended the hill, where he was met by the Parthian in per-


MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA.
175
son, mounted on a superb horse. “What do I see!” he
exclaimed, “a Roman general on foot, and we on horse-
back! Let a horse be brought for him immediately."
“Be not surprised,” said Crassus; "each comes to the con-
ference after the manner of his country.” “It is well,"
said Surenas; “but the articles of peace must be signed
on the bank of the Euphrates, for you Romans do not al-
ways remember your conventions. A gallant steed, with
rich caparison and bit of gold, was then brought and offered
to the proconsul as on the part of King Orodes; upon
which some of the Parthian officers placed him upon the
animal, and began to scourge it forward with great violence.
Octavius resented the insult by seizing the bridle. His
men flocked around him; a scuffle ensued; when, draw-
ing his sword, he killed one of Surenas's grooms, and was
instantly struck down himself by a blow from behind.
The fight soon became general, and ended in the death of
most of the Romans, and of Crassus himself, who thus
fell a victim to an inordinate desire of power or of wealth,
which appears to have utterly blinded his better judgment,
and led him into acts more like those of a madman than
of an experienced leader.
The rest of his army either surrendered to the enemy,
or, dispersing in the night, were pursued and cut to pieces.
Tó Rome, the misfortune was not restricted to the loss of
30,000 brave soldiers and valuable officers, but involved a
severe shock to her military reputation, which that haughty
nation felt so deeply, that the greatest efforts were subse-
quently made to efface the stain, and revenge the insult
offered to her name and arms.
In pondering over this catastrophe and the fate of Cras-
sus, the mind, unavoidably reverting to the very different
fortunes of Xenophon and his Ten Thousand Greeks, is
led to contrast the prudence, the intrepid perseverance, and
admirable conduct of the one commander, with the blind
infatuation and obstinate presumption of the other. Both
alike environed with fierce enemies, in a hostile country,
far from aid, had to depend entirely on their own resources.
In fact, the situation of the Greeks was worse than that of
the Romans, inasmuch as their numbers were smaller,
their foes infinitely more numerous, their distance from
home incomparably greater, and the moral effect, of course,
correspondingly more depressing. It is true that the Per-


176
SUBSEQUENT HISTORY, ETC.
sians of Artaxerxes were inferior to the Parthians of
Orodes in military skill and courage; but, had Xenophon
suffered himself to be cajoled by the treacherous advice
of Tissaphernes and Mithradates, or been induced to cross
the Tigris into the arid plains of Mesopotamia, we may
be certain that none of his followers would ever again
have seen their native country. On the other hand, had
Crassus but paid attention to the sound counsel of the King
of Armenia, and taken the mountainous road to that coun-
try, neither he nor his troops would have fallen unavenged
by the arrows of the Parthian horsemen. But, as the bal-
ance of difficulty and danger was all against Xenophon,
so was that of conduct and moral intrepidity in his favour;
and we may be sure that under no circumstances would
Crassus ever have evinced that admirable presence of
mind which, while it preserved the little band of Greeks
in the plains of Assyria, enabled their commander to make
head against the attacks of the bold Carduchian mount-
aineers, in his arduous march across their almost imper-
vious country.


CONTINUED CONTESTS, ETC.
177
CHAPTER X.
Continued Contests between the Romans and Persians.
The Parthians overrun the Country to Antioch, which is twice saved
with Difficulty.-Antony, having obtained the Eastern Provinces of
the Roman Empire, overtaxes Syria.-That Province, &c., overrun by
Labienus.--Pacoras defeated by Ventidius and slain.--Antony resolves
to invade the Parthian Empire.-His Success at first.-Takes the
Route of Armenia.--Invests Praaspa, the Capital of Media.-Is forced
to raise the Siege and retreat.-Hardships during his Retreat.-Suc-
ceeds in reaching and crossing the Araxes.-His impatient Obstinacy.
-Farther Losses in Armenia.-Augustus Cæsar forces Phraates to
make Peace.--Successes of Trajan.- War continued with various Suc-
cess.-Exploits of Shapoor.-Constantias succeeded by Julian.--Juli-
an's Defiance of Shapoor.--His Expedition.-Successful Career.-
Change of Fortune at Ctesiphon.--He is betrayed-Attacked, and kill-
ed by a Javelin.-Disastrous Retreat of the Roman Army under Jovian.
-Mesopotamia continues the Theatre of War till the Invasion of the
Huns. The Roman Provinces invaded by Nooshirwan.--He is check-
ed by Belisarius.---Victorious Career of Khoosroo Purveez.- Arrested
by Heraclius, who outmanæuvres and defeats the Persians.-Triumph-
ant Expeditions of Heraclius.-Farther Efforts of Khoosroo.—He is de-
feated at all Points.-Destagerd taken.-Khoosroo put to Death by his
Son Siroes, who concludes a Treaty with Heraclius.-Capture of Cte-
siphon by the Moslems, and Incorporation of the two Provinces with
the Dominions of the Caliphs.
After the defeat of Crassus, the Parthians, elated by
success, crossed the Euphrates, and overran the country as
far as Antioch, which they twice besieged. The first time
it was saved by the valour of Cassius and Cicero, and the
second by the intrigues of Bibulus, the Roman governor,
who created a diversion by promoting a rebellion among
them. But their power and their insolence had arrived
at such a pitch, that the great Julius himself, after having
become master of the Republic, considered them as ene-
mies worthy of his sword, and proposed an expedition
against them, which was only frustrated by his murder.
In the partition of empire that followed, Antony hav-
ing obtained the eastern provinces, and overtaxed that of
Syria, the inhabitants invited the Parthians to invade the
country; and, accordingly, led by Labienus, one of Pom-
pey's generals, they overran it, as well as Palestine and


178
CONTINUED CONTESTS BETWEEN
Phænicia, even to the gates of Tyre, making great ad-
vances also in Asia Minor. But the bravery and skill of
Ventidius, who served under Marc Antony, put a stop to
their progress, and restored the Roman affairs. He sur-
prised the invader, who fled to Tauris, and sent to Pacoras,
the son of Orodes, for assistance. But Ventidius entirely
defeated the Parthians, put Labienus to death, and forced
the barbarians to recross the Euphrates. In a second at-
tempt they were still more unsuccessful; for, being de-
ceived by a stratagem, they were utterly routed, Pacoras
himself slain, and most of their army put to the sword.
Unfortunately, perhaps, for the Roman name, the conquer-
or, fearing to excite too far the jealous disposition of his
master, did not push his conquests across the river, nor, as
he might have done, annex Mesopotamia and Babylonia
to the Asiatic provinces, but contented himself with redu.
cing the revolted places in Asia Minor.
Antony had, in fact, already taken umbrage at the great
success of his general, whom, on his arrival in Syria, he
sent to Rome, on pretence that he deserved a triumph, and
he himself immediately assumed the command. The
army, as we learn, amounted to 100,000 men, in a high
state of discipline, and amply provided with military
stores; while, owing to the disturbances which had recent-
ly occurred in Parthia, where the tyrannical Phraates,
having put his father Orodes to death, had disgusted many
of his nobles, there appeared every reason to hope for suc-
cess. And success did at first attend his steps, for he sub-
dued all the neighbouring states, including Armenia ; but
having, while he attempted to cross the Euphrates, endeav-
oured to throw Phraates off his guard by negotiation, he
found himself baffled by the vigilance of his antagonist,
who had guarded the passes. He therefore proceeded to
attack Media.
But, in carrying this measure into effect, he suffered him.
self, like Crassus, to be deceived and betrayed. Artaba-
zus, king of Armenia, who had his own ends in view, led
the army by such circuitous routes that, fatigued and impa-
tient, Antony left his military engines under his lieutenant
Stratianus, with 10,000 men, while he pushed forward to
invest Praaspa, the capital.*
* The site of this Median capital is not known. It has been placed at
Casbin and at Sultanieh ; but D'Anville rejects both these positions.


THE ROMANS AND PERSIANS.
179
To take this place, however, without his battering ma-
chines, he found to be impossible; and the Parthians, re-
solving to frustrate his enterprise, pushed past the belea-
guered city, and cut off the whole of the detachment to
whose care they had been intrusted. The consequence
was, that he was forced to raise the siege; and, after a vain
attempt to conclude a peace, on condition of receiving from
the Parthian monarch the standards and prisoners taken
in the expedition of Crassus, he trusted to an equivocal
promise of safety, and commenced a retreat towards the
Araxes, which, in point of hardship and painful anxiety,
yielded not, perhaps, to that of the Ten Thousand Greeks,
whose sufferings were often in his mind. It is true, he had
but 300 miles to traverse through a hostile country, but his
wily foe was most powerful and active; while the troops
under his command were depressed by ill success, and so
much in want of the necessaries of life, that, before the
march was over, a quart of wheat was sold for fifty drach.
mas, and barley loaves for their weight in silver. Thus
situated, in the course of twenty-seven days he was eigh-
teen times attacked by the whole Parthian forces, besides
incidental skirmishes, in which he lost many men; and
thrice he nearly fell into an ambuscade, from which he was
only saved by the fidelity of his guide, a native of the coun-
try. But so harassing and painful were the circumstances
of the retreat, that his constancy utterly gave way: and.
rushing into his tent, he called on one of his freedmen to
put an end to his life, and conceal his head, that it might
not fall into the hands of the enemy. Nor would he have
altered his intention but for the opportune entrance of the
guide, who assured him that the worst was over. “O the
Ten Thousand !” he frequently exclaimed, as he saw his
men dropping from fatigue, or transfixed by the Parthian
arrows: and when, at length, diminished in numbers,
wounded, and exhausted, they actually recrossed the Arax-
es, the soldiers fell down and kissed the soil, embracing
each other like persons reprieved from death.
But, though Antony in this desperate enterprise display-
ed many of the good qualities of a general, and succeeded
in rescuing the remains of his legions, the impatient obsti-
nacy which led him into his embarrassments was more
disastrous to Rome than even the total failure of Crassus.
Nor did his infatuated imprudence end here; for, eager to


180
CONTINUED CONTESTS BETWEEN
rejoin his mistress, the celebrated Cleopatra, instead of
halting in Armenia to refresh his troops, he led them,
without stopping, over its snow-covered mountains, and
thus added to their previous misfortunes the loss of 8000
men. In short, scarcely one third of his army returned to
Syria.
Some time afterward, Augustus Cæsar, too powerful for
even the Parthians to contend with, compelled Phraates to
conclude a peace, one condition of which was the surren-
der of all the standards and prisoners taken from the Ro-
mans in their several expeditions. After the death of that
emperor, the treaty was frequently violated, particularly
by the first Vologeses, who ascended the throne about A.D.
50, and made war upon the Europeans with various suc-
cess. But Trajan completely turned the tide of 'con-
quest against them, by first overrunning Mesopotamia and
Åssyria, and, secondly, by placing in the hands of Par-
thanaspates the sceptre of Parthia, thus rendering the whole
country tributary to Rome. It is true that matters did not
continue long on this footing, and even Mesopotamia was
frequently abandoned and recovered, till at length the
power of the Arsacidæ was utterly broken by Ardeshir
Babegan, called Artaxerxes in the West, who founded the
new dynasty of the Sassanides.
In the frequent wars which raged between the Romans
and Sassanians, Mesopotamia still continued to be the
great field on which the prize of victory was contended for;
and the city of Orfa (Edessa) witnessed the utter defeat of
the Emperor Valerian by Shapoor. Odenathus, the chief
of Palmyrene, husband of the celebrated Zenobia, revived
the drooping fortunes of Rome; and though the imprudent
rashness of Galerius subjected him to the mortification
of a defeat near the banks of the Euphrates, he soon re-
trieved his error by utterly destroying the army of Nar-
ses, and depressing that monarch to the condition of a vas-
sal.
The result of these victories was a treaty of peace, by
which Mesopotamia and five provinces of Assyria becanie
united to the Roman Empire. The second Shapoor, dis-
tinguished in Persian history by the name of Zoolactaf, a
brave and successful warrior, disputed this arrangement;
and his efforts to reconquer the fine country lost by Narses
rendered the Mesopotamian plain once more a scene of


THE ROMANS AND PERSIANS.
181
devastation. But he lost, in the protracted siege of Nisi.
bis, the advantages he had gained in the battle of Singara;
and a Scythian invasion forced him to an unwilling truce
with Rome. A successful expedition to the banks of the
Oxus, however, enabled the warlike monarch to return
with his ranks re-enforced by a large body of veterans;
and, had he not wasted the flower of his troops and the best
of the season in a tedious investment of Amida, he might
have wrested the whole region from the Roman arms, as
he did the important strongholds of Sinjar and Bezabde.
The efforts of the aged and weak Constantius were un-
able to retrieve the losses in those provinces; but when
Shapoor was informed that the purple had descended on a
younger and more resolute monarch, the celebrated Julian,
he condescended to make overtures of peace. The pride
of the Eastern prince was astonished by the firmness of the
new emperor, who sternly declared that he would never
consent to hold a peaceful conference among the flames
and ruins of the cities of Mesopotamia; and who added,
with a smile of contempt, that it was needless to treat by
ambassadors, as he himself had determined to visit speed-
ily the court of Persia.
'In the spring of A.D.363, accordingly, passing through
Beræa (now Aleppo) to Hierapolis, the appointed rendez-
vous of the Roman troops, he crossed the Euphrates by a
bridge of boats, and advanced immediately to Charræ.
From hence he despatched 30,000 men, under his kinsman
Procopius, and Sebastian, duke of Egypt, towards Nisibis,
to secure that frontier; afterward, with the assistance of the
King of Armenia, to ravage Media and Adiabene, and
then to meet him under the walls of Ctesiphon, whither,
by advancing along the bank of the Euphrates, he hoped
himself to arrive. But the Armenian proved as faithless
to Julian as his predecessor had been to Antony, and when
the day of need arrived, he appeared not. The emperor, a
month after his departure from Antioch, arrived at Circe-
sium, the extreme limit of the Roman dominions ; for the
Khabour had for some time been regarded as their bound-
ary in this direction. Sixty-five thousand effective and
well-disciplined soldiers crossed this stream, accompanied
by all the requisite engines and muniments of war, laden
upon 1100 vessels of various descriptions and burden,
which floated simultaneously down the Euphrates, Fole


182
CONTINUED CONTESTS BETWEEN
lowing nearly the tract of Cyrus the Younger, he spared
Anatho, denounced a heavy doom upon Thilutha, should
he return victorious, and, committing great havoc, in spite
of the presence of a hostile army which hovered round his
legions, in fifteen days arrived at Macepracta, where, after
a hot assault, he took and razed the ill-fated town of Per-
isabor.
The fortress of Maogamalcha, reputed impregnable, was
his next object of attack; and, while the inhabitants were
deriding the assailants, and singing the praises of Shapoor,
a mine, which was silently pushed into the body of the
place, admitted 1500 chosen men. It was forthwith taken;
and the revenge of the soldiers was satiated by a bloody
massacre.
Controlling by a manly address the insolent complaints
of his army, he next led them against Ctesiphon itself,
bringing his fleet across the narrow isthmus of Babylonia
by means of a cut between the Nahr Malikah and a chan-
nėl opened for the same purpose by the Emperor Traian.
By a bold maneuvre, he passed the Tigris itself in the
night, making good his footing on the farther bank, in spite
of the enemy's opposition. Here, however, the fortunes of
Julian changed. His anxious looks towards the northern
plains of Assyria failed to discover the advance of his
troops under Procopius; he was therefore forced to relin-
quish the intention of besieging Ctesiphon; and, rejecting
with a foolish obstinacy the pacific overtures of Shapoor,
he resolved, like Alexander, to carry the war into the heart
of his enemy's country, and force him in the open field to
contend for the dominion of Asia.
But the emperor, however vigilant, appears to have
been open to imposition. A Persian noble, who placed
himself in the dangerous position of a spy, by pretending
friendship, gained an influence over him; and through his
advice, as it appears, he was induced to burn his fleet, and
the greater part of his magazines. The former might
have been useless for remounting the Tigris; but he speed-
ily had to deplore the loss of his provisions. No sooner
did he leave his camp before Ctesiphon, and turn his face
towards Media, than flames arose in every quarter: the
crops were burned with fire; the cattle were driven away;
the inhabitants everywhere disappeared; the desolated
country could no longer supply food to its invaders; and


THE ROMANS AND PERSIANS.
183
they were soon reduced to the scanty supply which they
had saved from their stores. The spy and his associates
disappeared when their work was accomplished, dissipating
the visions of victory which Julian had entertained; and
in their room were seen bodies of Persian horsemen, who
harassed his army as soon as he began to retreat towards
the banks of the Tigris. Next morning he was surround-
ed by vast numbers of the enemy, who proved only the
vanguard of that mighty force which Shapoor had sum-
moned from every province of his dominions. This prince
now resumed the tactics which had ruined Crassus and
Antony, compelling the Romans to retreat under a show-
er of darts, and harassed by constant attacks. A severe
skirmish took place at Maronga, though the famished le-
gionaries could scarcely sustain their arms. After a night
of alarming visions, as Julian led his army through a hilly
tract, the heights and passes of which had been occupied
by the enemy, he was informed that his rear was sudden-
ly attacked. “The heat of the weather had tempted him
to lay aside his cuirass; but he snatched a shield from
one of his attendants, and hastened, with a sufficient re-
enforcement, to the relief of the rear-guard. A similar
danger recalled the intrepid prince to the defence of the
front; and, as he galloped between the two columns, the
centre of the left was attacked, and almost overpowered,
by a furious charge of the Persian cavalry and elephants.
This huge body was soon defeated by the well-timed evo-
lution of the light infantry, who aimed their weapons
with dexterity and effect against the backs of the horse-
men and the legs of the elephants. The barbarians fled ;
and Julian, who was foremost in every danger, animated
the pursuit with his voice and gestures. His trembling
guards, scattered and oppressed by the disorderly throng
of friends and enemies, reminded their fearless sovereign
that he was without armour, and conjured him to decline
the fate of the impending rujn. As they exclaimed, a
cloud of darts and arrows was discharged from the flying
squadrons, and a javelin, after rasing the skin of his arm,
transpierced the ribs, and fixed in the inferior part of the
liver. Julian attempted to draw the deadly weapon from
his side, but his fingers were cut by the sharpness of the
steel, and he fell senseless from his horse. His guards
flew to his relief, and the wounded emperor was gently


184
CONTINUED CONTESTS BETWEEN
raised from the ground, and conveyed out of the tumult of
the battle into an adjacent tent. The report of the melan-
choly event passed from rank to rank; but the grief of the
Romans inspired them with invincible valour and the desire
of revenge." The bloody and obstinate conflict was main-
tained by the two armies till they were separated by the
total darkness of the night. The first words that Julian
uttered, after his recovery from the fainting-fit into which
he had been thrown by loss of blood, were expressive of
his martial spirit. He called for his horse and arms, and
was impatient to rush into the battle. His remaining
strength was exhausted by the painful effort; and the sur-
geons who examined his wound discovered the symptoms
of approaching death. He employed the awful moments
with the firm temper of a hero and a sage; the philoso-
phers who had accompanied him in this fatal expedition
compared the tent of Julian with the prison of Socrates ;
and the spectators, whom duty, or friendship, or curiosity
had assembled round his couch, listened with respectful
grief to the funeral oration of their dying emperor."*
Such was the end of the Emperor Julian: a man whose
gallantry and virtues render still more dark the stain of
apostacy which has obscured his character. The army,
perplexed and confounded at an event so disastrous, eager-
ly adopted the first suggestions offered; and Jovian, who
possessed not a single title to the choice, was elected his
successor. The death of his able opponent renewed the
hopes of Shapoor, who attacked the Romans repeatedly,
always inflicting a heavy loss, until, after encamping at
Samarra and Carche, they pitched their tents at Dura, on
the fourth night after the fall of their leader. An attempt
to cross the Tigris at this place spent in vain two precious
days; but the fainting spirits of the fugitives were here re-
vived by the unexpected sound of peace. The Persian,
who felt that his very success was ruinous, and that, though
he might annihilate the Roman army, it must be at the ex-
pense of his own, condescended to offer terms; and, after
craftily tantalizing the invaders during four days a delay
that exhausted the constancy of the irresolute Jovian as
well as the scanty provisions of his troops-he vouchsafed
* Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by the Rev. H. H.
Milman, 8vo, Lond., 1838, vol. iv,, p. 186–188.


186
CONTINUED CONTESTS BETWEEN
earlier career. Syria was rapidly reduced; Antioch was
taken; and the capital of Cappadocia, with the holy city
of Jerusalem, fell before the arms of this victorious mon-
arch. Egypt again owned a Persian master. “His west-
ern trophy was erected, not on the walls of Carthage, but
in the neighbourhood of Tripoli. The Greek colonies of
Cyrene were finally extirpated; and the conqueror, tread-
ing in the footsteps of Alexander, returned in triumph
through the sands of the Libyan desert. In the same
campaign, another army advanced from the Euphrates to
the Thracian Bosphorus; Chalcedon surrendered after a
long siege; and a Persian camp was maintained above
ten years in the presence of Constantinople."*
But the day of reverse at length arrived. Heraclius,
aroused from sloth or despair, made gigantic efforts, and
evinced a knowledge and conduct in warlike affairs which
he had never been suspected to possess. Concluding a
peace with the Avars, who had advanced to the gates of
Constantinople, he mustered his troops at Issus, adroitly
drew the Persians, who occupied Cilicia, into a general
action, defeated them, marched through Cappadocia, and
wintered his army on the fertile banks of the Halys. The
spring saw him again in movement. Sailing from Con-
stantinople to Trebizond, he gathered together his soldiers,
and, while the enemy was fruitlessly insulting the capital,
he suddenly made his appearance at Tauris, in the heart
of the Persian territories. At the head of 40,000 men,
Khoosroo himself retreated before the emperor, who pur-
sued his victorious career till the approach of the cold
months, when he retired to the plains of Mogam. The
T
succeeding campaign carried his army to Casbin and Is-
pahan, where neyer yet had Romans been seen. The rest
of the season was marked by a series of triumphs; and
another winter of repose only prepared his troops for new
successes. Traversing the mountains of Kurdistan, and
passing the Tigris, the emperor deposited his spoils and
captives at Diarbekir, and informed the senate of Con-
stantinople of his safety and success. Crossing the Eu-
phrates by a ford, he next advanced against a multitude
of barbarians who defended the passage of the Sarus,
overthrew and dispersed them, and, marching through


THE ROMANS AND PERSIANS.
187
Sebaste in Cappadocia, the present Sivas, reached the
coast of the Euxine, just three years from the time he left
it on his long and glorious expedition.
But the ambition of Khoosroo was not yet humbled, nor
his resources exhausted. Hate and a thirst of revenge ex-
asperated the one, a wide realm and a host of tributaries
supplied the other; and a treaty formed with the Chagan
of the Avars gave him additional ground of hope. Three
armies were simultaneously raised: the first, of 50,000
“Golden Spears," was destined to oppose Heraclius; the
second was stationed to prevent his junction with the
troops of his brother Theodorus; the third was directed
to act with the Avars, who advanced with 100,000 men to
besiege Constantinople. The preparations and arrange-
ments of the emperor were not less active and earnest;
but we must refer our readers to the pages of the Ro-
man historian for an account of the deliverance of his
capital. Himself, with 70,000 men, flew to the recovery
of Syria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia; while his intrigues,
or the insane jealousy of the king, produced the defection
of Sarbar, the general of his third division, and neutralized
the opposition he would have made to the Roman arms.
Traversing the country from the Araxes to the Tigris,
Heraelius met and overthrew the army of Khoosroo on
the plain of Nineveh, in a battle that raged from daybreak
till late at night. Those of the Persians who were not
killed in the action dispersed, and the victorious Romans
continued their march unopposed through Assyria to Des-
tagerd. Their way was marked with fire and blood: they
spoiled and destroyed the country in the very wantonness
of vengeance. But “the recovery of 300 Roman stand-
ards, and the deliverance of the numerous captives of
Edessa and Alexandrea, reflect a purer glory on the impe-
rial arms.”
The passage of the Arba or Diala could scarcely have
formed an obstacle to arrest the career of Heraclius. The
rigour of the season-for it was winter-and the fame of
an impregnable capital, may have had their influence. Be
that as it may, the Roman emperor stopped short of Ctesi-
phon; and, passing through Seazurus, the present Shahra-
sour, he crossed Mount Zara of Zagros-probably Avro-
man, and reached Gandzaca, now Tabreez, most fortu-
nately before a fall of snow, which lasted thirty-four days.


188
CONTINUED CONTESTS, ETC.
But the pride of the Persian had not yet sunk to the ley-
el of his fortune. In spite of his disgraceful flight from
Destagerd, he commanded a new army to be raised, and a
new camp to be formed behind the Arba; and rejecting all
pacific overtures, and even solicitations, from a conquer-
or whose retreat had inspired the vanquished with some
confidence, he thought only of continuing the struggle.
But his will was no longer the law in Persia; a conspira-
cy of his nobles, headed by his son Siroes, raised the lat-
ter to the throne, and sent the aged monarch to a bloody
tomb. A treaty was formed between the new sovereign
and Heraclius, who returned to enjoy his well-merited tri-
umph in Constantinople.
The death of Khoosroo occurred A.D. 628. Nine years
afterward, Ctesiphon, his capital, which had been spared
by the Romans, was sacked and destroyed by the victori-
ous followers of Mohammed. In another year the whole
of Syria was wrested from Heraclius, now aged and fee-
ble, by the grasp of the invincible Moslems. The walls
of Edessa and Amida, of Dara and Nisibis, which had re-
sisted the arms and engines of Shapoor or Nooshirwan,
were levelled in the dust; and Mesopotamia and Assyria,
with the rest of Western and Central Asia, became thence-
forth integral parts of the vast dominions of the caliphs
and their successors.


PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA. 189
CHAPTER XI.
Present State of Mesopotomia.
Buckingham's Account of Bir.- Orfa.-Mosque and Pool of “ Abraham
the Beloved.” -Mosques.-Gardens.- Population.- Manufactures.-
Castle.-History.-Haran.--Division of Opinions in regard to its Iden-
tity with the Haran of Genesis.--March to Mardin.--Plundering Arabs.
Mardin described.-Ceremonial of the Syrian Church.--March to
Diarbekir.--Wadi Zenaar.--Approach to Diarbekir.-The City descri-
bed.-Walls.-Mosques and Churches.--History.- Population.-Sin-
jar Mountains.-Dara.- Nisibin.-Sheik Farsee. - Extortion.- Ac-
count of Nisibin.-More Extortion.-Journey to Mosul.- Appearance of
Mosul.Description. -Houses.- Bazars. -Coffee-houses.-Church-
es Population-Government.-Trade.-Climate.-Extent according
to Mr. Southgate.-Sinjar District visited by Mr. Forbes.-Yezidee
Robbers subdued by Hafiz Pacha.-Til Afar. -Bukrah.-Mirka.-Kir-
si.--Kolgha.-Samukhah.Sakiniyah.-Description of the Country.
-Geographical Observations.
We shall now proceed to give some idea of the present
state of Mesopotamia and Assyria, as described by mod-
ern travellers. Beginning with the former of these prov.
inces, and taking Mr. Buckingham, one of the most recent,
as our guide, we cross the Euphrates at Bir. This city,
known as the Birtha of antiquity, stands on the eastern
side of the Euphrates, just below a bend of that river,
which is there about the width of the Thames at Blackfri-
ars' Bridge, and flows to the southward. It contains about
400 houses, five mosques, and from three to four thousand
inhabitants. The hill on which it is situated, and from
which it is built, is of a hard, chalky substance, so that
the whole presents a glaring white mass. A number of
caves and grottoes are found among the rocks, which do
not, however, appear to have been sepulchral, and are now
used by the inhabitants as dwellings, being closed up with
masonry in front. In the centre, on a height, appears an
old fortification; and the walls and towers of a large cas-
tle still crown the perpendicular cliff that faces the water.
Mr. Buckingham also observed here many architectural
relics in the Roman style. The streets are narrow, though,
from their steepness, and the nature of its materials, the


190 PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA.
town is unusually clean. The caravan crossed the river
on large flat-boats, each carrying four camels, a few hor-
ses and asses, with eight or ten passengers, besides about
two tons of merchandise. He saw none of those rafts,
buoyed upon inflated hides, formerly used on the Euphra-
tes between Armenia and Babylon; but men and boys of-
ten passed the stream upon a sheep or goatskin filled with
air, embracing it with their hands, and propelling it with
their feet, and carrying their clothes on their heads.
From Bir the traveller departed on the 1st of June for
Orfa, under the protection of a caravan. The way lay over
an uninteresting country of swelling ridges, scantily covered
with grass, interspersed in the hollows with a few patches
of corn, but without a tree or bush to relieve the monotony
of the scene. He compares its appearance to that of the
undulating waves of the ocean when subsiding after a tem-
pest. The thermometer at sunrise was 78°; at noon, in
the sun, 102°; 96° in the tent; at sunset, 88°; and at mid-
night. 760 ; but the air was ary, r
760: but the air was drv. fresh, and pleasant. This
oman hordes.
plain was sprinkled with tents of Turkoman hordes.
On the fourth day of June he reached Orfa, which was
approached by a broad paved road, and through an exten-
sive cemetery. This town, which is the capital of Diar
Rabiaa, is seated on the eastern side of a hill where it
slopes to the plain, so that its western side rises slightly
above the opposite quarter. The wall is between three and
four miles in circuit, forming an irregular triangle, though
Niebuhr thinks it bears a greater resemblance to a square.
It is well filled with houses, having few open spaces; but
the streets are narrow, and constructed with a paved cause-
way on each side of a central channel for water. The ba-
zars are amply supplied, and separated, as usual, into de-
partments for the various commodities that are sold or
manufactured. The khans or caravansaries are numerous,
some of them excellent, and laid out upon a plan calcula-
ted to supply the traveller with every necessary : lodging,
stabling, food, and water for all purposes are in abundance,
and served in the most convenient manner.
Of mosques, distinguished by minarets, there are about
fifteen; among which that of Ibrahim ul Khaleel is the
most beautiful, though not the largest. This structure,
which has received its name from the patriarch Abraham
the Beloved, or Friend of God, stands by a lake called


PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA. 191
Birket ul Ibrahim ul Khaleel, which is 225 paces long by
twenty-five broad, and five or six feet deep. It is filled
from a clear and copious fountain that rises in the southwest
quarter of the city. At the end where a canal commences,
a room has been built overhanging the stream; and at the
other extremity, the waters run under a bridge into a
smaller channel, which separates into many branches, and
are thus dispersed throughout the town. On the south
side of the canal is a causeway, and behind it fine gardens,
full of mulberry-trees. The one half of the northern bank
is occupied by the grand façade of the mosque, which rises
from its waters. The centre is a square pile, from which
spring three large uniform domes, with a lofty minaret as-
cending from amid a cluster of tall cypresses. At each
end of the edifice are flights of steps, leading down to the
water's edge through a series of open arcades. The wings
are terminated by two solid masses of building similar to
each other; the whole forming one of the most regular
structures in Turkey. The lake is full of fine fish, which.
being held sacred, and thereby protected, are very tame, and
multiply exceedingly.* Bathing, however, is not prohibit-
ed, for many men and boys were seen swimming about in
it. Another fountain in the vicinity appears to be used in
the same way by the females. It is called the Ain el Zil-
gah, and is a delicious place, bordered with gardens and
shady walks.
There are four or five public baths at Orfa, some of them
very commodious, with numerous. well-supplied coffee-
houses and cook-shops. Ice from the summits of Mount
Taurus was plentiful, and sold for a farthing a pound.
The fruits of the season were the white mulberry, quinces,
and apricots; grapes, pomegranates, and pistachio nuts
had not yet come in; nor were there either lemons, oran-
ges, or melons to be seen. The environs are embellished
by many pleasant gardens; and, from Mr. Buckingham's
account, the inhabitants appear to have great enjoyment
in them, passing much of their time in giving entertain-
* Mr. Buckingham appears inclined to derive the veneration for these
fish from the ancient Syrian worship of Dagon or of Venus under the
form of one ; but the fact is, that in most of the fountains of the East
which are held sacred, the fish are always preserved with care, as parta-
king of the sanctity which belongs to the hallowed spring.


192 PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA.
ments, or sitting under the shade of the trees, smoking,
playing on the guitar, and not unfrequently drinking.
The population is stated to be about 50,000, among whom
are 2000 Christians, chiefly Armenians and Syrians, who
have separate quarters, and 500 Jews; both of these class-
es are merchants and traders. The costume of the Mos-
lems resembled that of Damascus, being very gay and
lively, exhibiting a profusion of bright shawls, fringes, tas-
sels, and embroidery. The women wore white outer robes,
with veils of black gauze or horsehair projecting several
inches from the face.
The manufactures are limited to a few coarse articles
of apparel, such as woollen and cotton cloths. The for-
mer resembles the stuff used for sailor's jackets, and is
generally of the native brown of the wool, though some-
times dyed with indigo. The latter are of the nature of
English dowlas, and are worn either undyed or coloured.
When printed, which is done with blocks like those of the
Chinese-a tedious and imperfect process—they are used
for women's gowns or robes, for shawls to veil the head,
bed and sofa covers, and the fronts of the large cushions
that form a Turkish divan; but the slowness of the opera-
tion renders the article very expensive. They also make
a few substantial carpets, haircloth, silk bands and tapes,
with some very good saddlery and smith-work.
All classes are subject to that boil or eruption common-
ly known as the “ bouton d'Aleppe," and which in many
cases greatly disfigures the countenance. It is attributed
by some to the quality of the water, by others to the ex-
cessive use of raw vegetables, and the large quantities of
ice consumed by all classes; but the true cause still re-
mains unknown. Strangers residing for any considera-
ble time in the place are equally liable to it with the na-
tives.
The castle is situated on the summit of a rock, on the
southwestern side of the two springs. The ascent to it is
by a steep winding path, and the enclosure is nearly a quar-
ter of a mile long by 100 yards broad; but it contains only
ruins, among which some fragments of Corinthian columns
and other remains indicate the site of ancient fabrics. Two
of the pillars are still erect.
The government is conducted by a mussellim, who is
deputy of the Pacha of Diarbekir.


PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA. 193
Mr. Buckingham enters at great length into the history
of this ancient and important city, which in various ages
has been known as “Ur” of the Chaldees, Edessa and Cal-
lirrhoe of the Greeks, and sometimes as Roha, from Or-
rhoa, of the Arabs, which is abbreviated into Orha and
Orfa. This last appellation is used by all the Turks, and
most of the Kurds and Arabs in the neighbourhood. It
appears at one time also to have been named Antiochia,
from Antiochus Nicator, which Benjamin of Tudela has
corrupted into Dakia.
Among the places of note in the neighbourhood, the
traveller mentions Haran, about eight hours' distance from
Orfa; and agrees with most geographers in considering it
as identical with the Charræ or Carrhæ of the Romans, and
the Haran or Charran of the Old and New Testaments.
Mr. Beke, in his Origines Biblicæ,* inclines to dispute the
last point, and to transfer the Haran to which Abraham
removed from Ur of the Chaldees to the neighbourhood of
Damascus.
For ten days our countryman was detained in Orfa, ow-
ing to reports that the road to Mardin was beset by preda-
tory tribes of Arabs—the Wahabees, and afterward the
Aneizas-who were plundering all travellers and mer-
chants. But he appears to have passed the time not un-
pleasantly, being feasted both by Turks and Christians.
On the 15th of June, the caravan, upon hearing that the
Arabs had removed, took their departure.
After passing through some rich corn-grounds, they en-
tered a dreary waste, called Burreah, or the open land,"
observing in their way the towers of Haran, distant about
fifteen miles in the southwest, and being frequently alarm-
ed by parties of horsemen. The second day saw them
ascending a path among bare hills, pierced with caves and
grottoes here and there, from the top of which they enjoy-
ed, both towards the east and west, an extensive view of
plains intersected by ridges of rocks. From the stony soil
rose a luxuriant growth of wild poppies, with many a use-
ful as well as poisonous herb; venomous reptiles and in-
sects being very abundant. A few trees were once or
twice observed ; but the land, though bare, was fertile. On
the third day the caravan was stopped by a party of Beni
* Page 124
RE


194
PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA.
Melan Arabs, who had taken post upon a plain between
the roads to Mardin and Diarbekir, and who laid them un-
der contribution, or, rather, plundered them of a considera-
ble sum by way of tribute. Mr. Buckingham, in his turn,
was forced to surrender 1000 piastres, besides 250 more to
redeem a favourite sword. The Arabs then gave the par-
ty a plentiful feast, though somewhat rudely served; after
which, when retiring to their caravan, they found it had
been visited in their absence by a party of Turkoman
horse. This being an interference with their prey, the
Arabs attacked the interlopers, and a battle ensued, which
terminated in the recovery of the plundered goods, and in
the entire defeat of the intrusive marauders. The vic-
tors, it appeared, had shifted their ground from the south-
ward, having been driven from their own haunts by the
more powerful tribe of Aneiza.
The remainder of the march to Mardin lay over a wide
plain, covered with long grass resembling wheat in ear,
and thickly sprinkled with black, porous stones. On the
north and northeast were Karahjah Dag and an elevated
ridge, on which was the city whither they were bound.
Passing through the town of Koach Hassar, containing
5000 dwellings, chiefly occupied by Christians, they reached
Mardin by a very steep ascent, which is seldom attempt-
ed by those who, merely passing along the road, stop at
the village of Soor in the plain below, where they pay the
usual transit-duty. From this village an hour carried the
travellers to the foot of the hill, and another hour to the
town upon its summit, by a very precipitous and neglected
road. Mardin, or Kelaat el Mardin, which is translated
by some the "Madman's Castle,” stands on the top of a
limestone cliff, the perpendicular sides of which assist in
forming the defences. Here resides the mussellim, with
his family, servants, and a guard of fifty soldiers. Below,
on the eastern and southern face of the hill, the town is
surrounded by a wall leading down from the two sides of
the castle, and with it embracing an irregular ascent of
about two miles. The houses are placed in ranges above
each other, like the seats of a Roman theatre; and the
streets, which run along the slope of the hill, are, for the
same reason, so many successive causewayed terraces
with lateral intersections, these last being in fact flights of
steps. The houses, which are built of stone, are of indif-


PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA. 195
ferent masonry; the terrace-roofs are all flat; and in the
paved courts of the upper stories are large wooden stages,
railed around for evening parties, and for sleeping on du-
ring the summer months. There are eight mosques, but
only one of them large, which has a fine minaret and a
ribbed dome, and is said to have been once a Christian
church. The population is about 20,000, of which two
thirds are Mohammedans, the remainder Jews and Chris-
tians. There are also some families of another religious
sect, called Shemseeah, who, as their name implies, are un-
derstood to be worshippers of the sun ; although, from
having been protected by the Syrian patriarch against Sul-
tan Murad, who purposed to put them to death, they are
erroneously regarded as forming part of his flock. This
benevolenť priest, however, has never been able to obtain
the smallest disclosure on the subject of their religion, as
they say such a breach of their rules would be visited
with the severest punishment by their fellows. They
amount to about 1000 families. The governor of this
place is a mussellim, and dependant on the Pacha of
Bagdad.
Mr. Buckingham visited a convent named Deer Zaffer-
any, near Mardin, where the patriarch resided. His ho-
liness received the traveller with much hospitality, and he
had thus an opportunity of witnessing the service of the
Syrian Church, which in many respects resembled the
Catholic ceremonial. The worship was celebrated with
great pomp in the Syriac language by the bishop himself,
most superbly dressed in robes of gold-embroidered satin,
and assisted by inferior priests in garments of correspond-
ing splendour. But while, thus sumptuously clad, he offi-
ciated in a glare of lights before an altar loaded with gold
and silver, there stood behind him a young man, meanly
clad in Turkish breeches, a coarse patched jacket and
tarboosh hanging over his shoulders, who leaned with one
hand on the patriarch's crosier, while with the other he
held an incense-pot and perfumed his holiness from time
to time, uttering the responses alone in a loud voice and
very harsh manner. All the offices of the priesthood were
performed in a deep recess, across which a curtain was
drawn when any change was going on, in order to pro-
duce the proper mysterious effect upon the audience. Du-
ring the elevation of the Host, all the people uttered loud


196
PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA.
groans, the boys within screamed vociferously, so as quite
to drown the voices of the priests; and this confusion of
tongues was still farther increased by the clash of brazen
cymbals behind the scenes, so shaken as to resemble peals
of loud thunder.
After service the pilgrims were called forth, and all,
with heads bare, were invested in succession with a robe
of one of the officiating clergymen. A cross was then
placed in the right hand, and a taper in the left of each,
and all the male part of the congregation walked before
them uncovered, the females standing respectfully at some
distance. They first encompassed the altar, kissing the
curtains, the book, and candlesticks as they passed, and
then saluted the cross borne in the hands of the pilgrims,
beginning with the eldest, an old man of eighty, and end-
ing with the youngest, a boy not more than ten years of age.
The convent was placed, like those near Mosul, on the
side of a hill, with high cliffs behind it, all pierced with
caves and grottoes, evidently sepulchral.
Finding that the caravan was likely to be detained at
Mardin, and there being no other means of travelling from
thence in safety to Bagdad, Mr. Buckingham resolved to go
to Diarbekir, in the hope of finding in that place some Tar-
tars in the service of government. Descending from the
hills into the pleasant Wadi Zenaar, or the “ Vale of the
Girdle," and then crossing a ridge of hills on the north,
they followed the course of another valley, the Wadi Ber-
man-both fertile, well wooded, and cultivated-till it led
them into a tract of limestone hills, sprinkled with brush-
wood, rising nearly to the height of 1000 feet. Another
descent brought them to a waving plain that continued to
the banks of the Tigris. Being well entertained at Poor-
ang, a Kurdish village of about 100 families, next morn-
ing they crossed the river, 100 feet broad and easily forda-
ble. One hour's ride carried them to a point from whence
the town of Diarbekir burst upon their view in a very in-
teresting and pleasing manner. It is a fortified city, placed
upon a commanding eminence, strong by position as well
as art, and presenting a noble group of towers, domes, and
minarets. The lofty mountains of Kurdistan, rising in the
east, added to the grandeur of the scene, which was far-
ther embellished by gardens, bridges, and summer-houses;
and the river, flowing at the foot of the hill on which the


PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA. 197
town is built, completed the picture of beauty, wealth, and
civilized comfort which the whole country displays.
The rock on which Diarbekir stands is basaltic, and ri-
ses from the western bank of the Tigris. The form of the
town is nearly a circle of about three miles in circumfer-
ence. It has four gates, and a citadel at the northeast an-
gle overlooking the river, and affording a noble panoramic
view on all sides, from the lofty hills of Armenia towards
the north, to the waving country that interyenes between
itself and Mardin on the southeast. The walls, which are
high and strongly built, are defended by towers at irregu-
lar intervals, all constructed of basaltic rock, which gives
them so gloomy an appearance as to have suggested the
Turkish appellation of Kara Amid, or the Black Amid.
These ramparts are in tolerable repair, and there is a for-
midable battery of guns to the north; but the citadel itself
is now in ruins, while the dismounted cannon are half
buried in earth and grass.
There are fifteen mosques with minarets, and several
others either with or without domes; five Christian church-
es of the various sects, and a Jewish synagogue; more
than twenty baths, fifteen caravansaries, some of them very
fine; and numerous bazars, well supplied, but rather mean
in their appearance.
· The population, according to the latest estimate, amounts
to about 50,000, chiefly Osmanlis, of all professions: Ar-
menians, Catholics, Syrians, Greeks, and a very few Jews,
make up the rest. The city is the capital of a pacha of
three tails, who derives his appointment from Constantino-
ple; and he has at all times had under his command a con-
sidérable military force. Since the Kurdish war, and as
long as the Turkish territories were threatened by Ibrahim
Pacha from Syria, Diarbekir was the headquarters of a
large army.
This celebrated place, the Amida of antiquity, was, as
we have seen, demolished by Sapor (or Shapoor) in the
fourth century; was again destroyed by the Persians in
A.D. 505; and afterward sacked by Tamerlane and sev-
eral succeeding Mohammedan conquerors. Hence it is
not surprising that few vestiges of its former greatness re-
main; still, however, there are fragments of Ionic columns
and other relics, which obyiously pertain to the period of
its ancient glory and prosperity.
Ř 2


200 PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA.
thermometer at two P.M., under the shade of a double
cloak, being 118°; the glare of the desert plain was over-
whelming; while the snow-covered mountains of Kurdis-
tan seemed to mock their distress. The consequence was,
that, on reaching a stream, the banks of which were so
high that the cattle could not get to the water, they broke
from all restraint, and camels, horses, and men plunged
pell-mell into the ravine, where some were drowned, and
much luggage was lost. From this point the caravan, ma-
king its way over a succession of small calcareous hills,
reached the ruins of Eski, or old Mosul, by noon of the
4th of July. There they rested only till night, after which
our countryman continued his progress along with the
Tartars to Mosul, which he reached on the morning of the
6th.
The first appearance of this place disappointed his ex-
pectations, there being little of the magnificence he had
pictured to himself from the descriptions he had heard. He
approached it through a succession of barren plains and
miserable villages; and, on entering the gates, it struck
him as the worst built and altogether the least interesting
city he had yet seen in the East.* Nor does this impres-
sion appear to have been improved by the two days' exam-
ination which he devoted to its edifices. The general as-
pect is mean; the streets being narrow, irregular, and un-
paved. Nor, with one exception, did he see either the fine
bazars, mosques, or palaces which might be looked for in
such a town. The houses are chiefly constructed of small
unhewn stones, cemented with mortar, and plastered with
mud; and the walls are generally sloped, like the Egyp-
tian temples, having the angles towards the streets round-
ed off. Timber being scarce, they have, for the most part,
vaulted roofs, on which the terraces are formed. The door
and window plates are usually made of marble taken from
the neighbouring hills. The style of the arch is the point-
ed Gothic; sometimes the latter Norman; seldom the Sar-
acenic.
The bazars, though, with one exception, not so fine as
those of Cairo, are numerous and well supplied, but dirty
and deficient in symmetry. In one are sold the produce
and manufactures of India and Europe,
# Vol. ü., p. 20.


PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA. 201
The coffee-houses are large, some having an avenue a
hundred yards long, shaded with matting, and furnished
with benches on either side for the accommodation of
company. There are about thirty baths, but none com-
parable to those of Cairo, Damascus, or Aleppo. Of
mosques there are not fewer than fifty, of which twenty
are large; but the most extensive, which is remarkable for
a very lofty minaret, is in ruins.
Of Christian churches there are fourteen : five belong-
ing to one set of Chaldeans, and four to another; three of
Syrians; one of Jacobites; and one of Roman Catholics.
The most conspicuous have already been described.
The population is estimated at nearly 50,000, of whom
the greater number are Mohammedans, in equal propor-
tions of Arabs, Turks, and Kurds. Of Chaldeans there
are said to be about 1000 families; 500 of Syrians, 300 of
Jacobites, and 300 of Jews.
Mosul is the seat of a pacha of two tails, who, though
his government is small, receives his investiture from
Constantinople. His military force, when the traveller
was there, did not exceed 1000 men, chiefly cavalry; but
the amount fluctuates according to circumstances. The
city is surrounded by a wall, though without cannon. It
has a castle towards the river, small and ruinous, on an
island formed by the waters of the Tigris, which are let
into a wet ditch'on the outside.
The trade, once very considerable, has, like that of the
whole country, sunk to small dimensions. Gall-nuts from
Kurdistan, and Indian goods from Bussora, form the chief
staple; and the only manufacture carried on is that of
coarse cotton cloths, which, being dyed blue, are used by
the lower classes.
Mr. Niebuhr observes that the climate is reputed to be
very healthy; the air and water excellent; but that the
winter is sometimes very cold. As a proof of this, he
states, that the Tigris, about ten years before his visit, had
been actually frozen over, and continued so several days.
Close to the city there are a number of mineral springs,
so strong as sometimes even to taint the waters of the riv-
er with a sulphureous, flavour. In most respects the ac-
count of Buckingham agrees entirely with that of the Ger-
man traveller.


202 PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA.
The Rev. Mr. Southgate,* in 1838, was struck with the
extent of this city, but still more with the numerous ruins
that met his eye while walking through the streets; the
effect, he says, of a famine, which was followed by the
plague. One hundred thousand persons, he was informed,
were cut off; a number which certainly exceeded its pop-
ulation at any one time. According to his estimate, at
that period it contained 40,000 souls. In other respects,
his account coincides with those already given.
Since the foregoing portion of this chapter was written,
an account has been published in the Journal of the Roy-
al Geographical Societyt of a journey made from Mosul
to the Sinjar Hills by Mr. Forbes, from which, as it throws
light upon a part of Mesopotamia hitherto unexplored by
Europeans, we extract the following particulars :
The Sinjarli Yezidees being merciless and incessant
plunderers, it became necessary for Hafiz, commander of
the Turkish forces, and pachå of Diarbekir, in order to
prevent a great part of his government from becoming a
desert, to reduce them to subjection. This object, after an
obstinate resistance, he accomplished in 1837, and appoint-
ed a musellim to watch over them on the part of the sul-
tan, permitting them, however, the exercise of their own
religion, customs, and laws. The danger of a visit to
their country being thus much diminished, Mr. Forbes, af-
ter considerable importunity, obtained from the Pacha of
Mosul permission to go thither; and, having secured the
attendance of a Yezidee sheik, on the 12th of October,
1838, he left Mosul.
During the whole of the first day's march, the way lay
along the banks of the Tigris to the village of Ameidat;
from whence the party, starting on the morrow, proceeded
nearly due west to the town of Til Afar, through a rather
flat country, scantily clothed with dry grass and thorny
shrubs, in which they passed several deserted villages.
Til Afar, the only inhabited place in the wilderness be-
tween Mosul and Sinjar, contains about 1000 houses, of
which only 700 are inhabited. It is built in four divisions,
upon as many steep and rugged hills of limestone rock,
from the base of the highest of which issues a stream of
* Narrative of a Tour through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia, and Mes.
opotamia, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1840, vol. ii., p. 237, 238.
+ Vol. ix., p. 409-430.


204 PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA.
blocks of stone everywhere protruded. After passing for
eight miles through cultivated ground of this kind, they
reached Mirka, a village consisting of three divisions,
with a population of 1200 souls. From thence, continuing
their journey westward, they observed a number of ruin-
ed villages, one of which, Teppah, stands at the source of
the Saluk, a fine stream, which, however, afiel
ter wa
a considerable tract of land, is lost in the desert. In the
evening they reached Sinjar, at one time the principal
town of the district, but now reduced to about eighty hous-
es. Here were seen an arched building, with round tow-
ers, in the Roman style of architecture; and in the plain
below, many Mohammedan edifices and tombs, one of
which, a fine octagonal minaret of yellow brick, with
Arabic inscriptions after the manner of the earlier ca-
liphs, was not less than forty feet high.
Returning to Bukrah, which they again quitted on the
20th, the party took a westerly course, leading through the
villages of Nuksi, Yusufah, Keichkah, Gundagaili, Haldi-
nah-each containing from fifteen to twenty-five houses-
to Nogri and Amr, in the latter of which they halted for
the night. The way lay through a continued plantation of
fig-trees; and they saw several mezars, or tombs of Yezidee
saints. The gardens continued through the whole valley
between the outer and inner hills; the former terminating,
or, rather, being interrupted for a space, through which the
plain reached to the base of the mountain, which is clothed
to the top with dwarf oaks and shrubs.
They halted on the 21st at Kirsi, a miserable place, con-
sisting of thirty decayed houses, and divided into two parts
by a stream which runs through the dale where it is situa-
ted. Their lodging was a mere open shed; but their host,
though a truculent-looking personage, received and treated
them kindly enough. The people were hospitable, and
less inquisitive than usual. This day considerable appre-
hension was occasioned by the appearance of several par-
ties of the Aneiza Arabs ranging the plain below.
The travellers ascended the ravine in which the village
stands to the source of the rivulet just mentioned, a ride of
an hour and a half, through very beautiful and romantic
scenery, and thence to the village of Kolgha, where there
is a sculptured niche, three feet long by one broad, with a
basin-shaped cavity at the bottom, respecting which the


206
PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA.
ded by Arabs and Yezidees. The northern section, called
Shamali, though smallest, is by far the most populous,
well cultivated, and fertile. It contains sixteen villages,
while that named Kibli, or the southern, can boast but of
nine. Figs and grapes, which are the principal fruits, are
good of their kind, especially the former, as they are small
and of the white variety.
Mr. Forbes denounces the general inaccuracy of our
maps, and particularly as regards Sinjar, the Lake of Kha-
tuniyah, and the course of the Hawali. No stream what-
ever runs from the northern or eastern sides of the Sinjar
Hills more than a few miles into the desert; while towards
the northwest, on the way to Nisibin, the first rivulet is the
Hassawi, from Aznowar in Mount Masius, which, flowing
southwest, joins the Jakhjakhah or Mygdonius. The Lake
of Khatuniyah, said to be two hours and a half in length.
and one and a half broad, with its village, is situated about
thirteen miles west-northwest of Samukhah. The Kha-
bour, rising at Ras ul Ain, directs its course to the neigh-
bourhood of Khatuniyah, where it is joined by the united
waters of the Mygdonius and Kokab, and soon after by the
Hawali. It then runs southward, passing close to the Sin-
jar Hills on its way to the Euphrates. The source of the
Hawali is two hours northwest of Khatuniyah; and, after
proceeding two hours in the direction of west-southwest, it
falls into the Khabour.


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
207
CHAPTER XII.
Present Condition of Assyria.
Portion of Kurdistan included in Assyria.--Nestorian Christians of Jewar.
-Sert.-Colonel Sheil's Journey to Jezirah ibn Omar.-Plain of Me-
diyad. Jezirah ibn Omar described. Its Chief.-Swimming the Ti-
gris.-Skirt the Mountains to Accra and the Zab. --Change of Scenery.
-Cross the Zab.--Erbile (Arbela).-Altun Kupri.-Kirkook.-Kufri.
--Antiquities.-Tooz Khoormattee.-Kara Teppe.--Aspect of Lower
Assyria.--Sugramah Pass, and View from it.-Pachalic and Pacha of
Solymaneah.-Present State of the Town.--The Bebeh Tribe of
Kurds.-Climate.--Shahrasour.-State and Chief of Rewandooz.--His
Rise and Character --Pachalic and Pacha of Amadieh.-Dr. Ross's
Description of the Meer, his Camp, Government, Army.--Scheme of
executive Justice. — Fate.- Town of Rewandooz.- Nestorians of
Jewar.-Their Origin-Numbers-Government.Face of their Coun-
try.-Antiquities at Shahraban.-The Zendan.-Kasr Shireen.Ha-
oosh Kerek.-General Meanness of Sassanian Ruins.-Kelwatha.-
Pachalic of Zohab.--Sir e Pool e Zohab. -The ancient Calah or Hul-
wan.--Antiquities there.-Royal Sepulchre.
That part of Kurdistan which properly belongs to As-
syria comprises only the small state of Sert, Jezirah ul
Ómar, part of the pachalic of Amadieh, the government
of Rewandooz, and the pachalic of Solymaneab. The
very remarkable community of Nestorian Christians, who
inhabit the vicinity of Mount Jewar, may also be consider-
ed as more properly appertaining to this province than to
Persian Kurdistan, as the waters from that elevation cer-
tainly flow into the Tigris.
Sert, Isert, or Sered, supposed by D'Anville and others to
represent the ancient Tigranocerta, was, when visited by
Kinneir, governed by a chief subject to the Prince of Zok
-a place between Betlis and Diarbekir—so powerful that
it was said he could bring no fewer than 20,000 men into the
field. In 1836, when Colonel Sheil passed through it,
Reshid Pacha had succeeded in establishing the sultan's
authority over the ruler of Sert, whose territory he had at-
tached to the government of Diarbekir. The town is de-
scribed as being situated in a large undulating plain with-
put a single tree, and surrounded at a considerable distance


208
PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
by high mountains. It is two miles and a half in circuit,
encompassed by a wall with various bastions, but ruinous
in many places, and having no ditch. A large portion of
the enclosed space is void of buildings; and the houses
were understood not to exceed 1000, occupied by Kurds,
Armenians, and Nestorians. There were three large and
several small mosques, two churches, five baths, and one
caravansary. The governor's residence is an extensive
edifice, sunk in a deep moat which can be filled with wa-
ter, and has fortifications in abundance. The houses are
arched, having very thick walls built with stone and lime.
In the midst of each field may be seen a small building,
intended for the protection of the property.
Colonel Sheil's object was to get from Sert to Jezirah
ibn Omar; but the shortest road through Buhtan, a wild
and very mountainous district, being impracticable, owing
to the rebellion of its prince, who still held out against Re-
shid Pacha, he was advised to accompany a party of
troops belonging to the latter, who were to go round by the
Tigris. They, however, departed without him; and he
was under the necessity of hiring a number of mules to
relieve his fatigued horses and cattle. A laborious ride
brought them to the village of Til, where a chief belong-
ing to the district of Sert gave him and his attendants a
good breakfast. While sitting at this meal, they heard
several shots, which he afterward learned proceeded from
skirmishing parties firing at each other across the river.
Near this point they passed the Tigris, 150 yards in breadth,
very rapid, and waist-deep. High mountains rose on each
hand; but there were several villages, which were sur-
rounded with cultivation, and abundance of vineyards,
rice, cotton, melon, and cucumber grounds. N
called Chelek, they left the river, which they did not see
again till they reached Jezirah ibn Omar. The road was
stony, and often very bad; the hills were covered with
wood, chiefly stunted oak, fir, holly, and a few elms, with
raspberries, barberries, and a profusion of small plants.
The plain of Mediyad, of immense extent, though cum-
bered with rocks, is crowded with villages, and covered
with unirrigated cultivation, although the stones were in
some places piled in heaps fifteen feet high. Its inhabi-
tants are Kurds and Yezidees. After rising to the summit
of a ridge, a descent of 1500 feet conducted the travellers
one,


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
209
to the vast plain that stretches almost uninterruptedly to
Bagdad and the Gulf. On this were many mounds scat-
tered, with forts on their tops and villages below; others
were entirely bare and solitary. Many of the hamlets had
been destroyed by the military operations of Reshid Pacha.
Jezirah ibn Omar, that is, the Island of the Sons of
Omar, is surrounded by the Tigris, and presents a town
of the same name, the ancient Bezabde. It occupies near-
Ty the whole surface, which is about two miles and a half
in circumference, and is encompassed by a low ruinous
wall of an oval shape, without a ditch. The arm of the
river which forms the island was at that time (August 3)
not more than a few yards broad, and only ankle-deep. It
was formerly spanned by a bridge, of which five arches
still remain; both it and the walls being built of square
black stones. The main stream, more than 100 yards
broad, flows on the other side, and was formerly crossed
by a bridge of boats. Shut in between high banks, the
heat is extreme; not a tree enlivens the vicinity; and the
town, ruined by plague, cholera, and the army of Reshid
Pacha, presents a scene of utter desolation. It had been
the seat of a Kurdish chief, who used to plunder or levy
contributions on all caravans. Macdonald Kinneir was
imprisoned and heavily fined by this savage, who thought
fit to set Reshid at defiance; upon which the pacha seized
his capital, and, for this reason, he was now in rebellion
in the opposite district of Buhtan. Not a soul was to be
found in the town, nor a hovel to shelter the travellers ;
wherefore, swimming their horses across the Tigris five
miles below, they continued their descent upon the left or
Assyrian shore.
Colonel Sheil, being desirous to join the army of Re-
shid Pacha, left the road to Mosul on the right, and, keep-
ing close to the foot of the hills, pursued his way by Al
Kosh, Akereh, and Zebari to the Zab, which he crossed
at a small village on its western bank. Al Kosh has been
already described. The party passed through many Yez-
idee villages, and found the people uniformly civil and
hospitable. The road, though hilly and bad, is practica-
ble even for cannon; the heat and glare were excessive,
but there was no want either of cultivation or inhabitants.
A kereh is a town of 500 houses, surrounded by fine gar-
dens, and defended by a very strong castle on a rock which
S 2


210
PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
projects from the El Khair range of mountains; but the
garrison surrendered to Reshid on finding themselves with-
in range of a couple of guns brought to bear on them from
the plain.
The country here presented a delightful contrast to that
which the travellers had just left. Villages were enscon-
ced in clefts of the rock, surrounded by trees and gardens,
and torrents gushing from the hills crossed the path; the
El Khair Mountains became lower and more verdant,
while grapes, figs, and walnuts grew wild in the val-
leys. On the 14th August they passed the Zab, 100 yards
broad, rapid and deep, upon a raft composed of inflated
skins and branches of trees, guided by two men, each with
large calabashes under his arms, to assist him in swim-
ming.
Erbile, the celebrated Arbela, is a large artificial mount,
sixty or seventy feet high, 300 yards in length by 200 in
breadth, crowned by a brick wall with bastions and a few
small guns. Beneath there is another town; but both are
very ruinous, and there are no remarkable remains ex-
cept those of an immense brick pillar, which is probably
Mohammedan, standing alone in the plain. When the
place belonged to the Meer of Rewandooz_who took it
from the Pacha of Bagdad—and was visited by Dr. Ross
on his way to Accra, it was prosperous and flourishing :
but resistance having been made to the sultan's troops who
attacked it, a siege took place, a mine was sprung, the
garrison surrendered, and the town suffered severely for
its imprudence, although it is still said to contain about
6000 people. The plain, which extends to Altun Kupri,
though much covered with small stones, is capable of pro-
ducing fair crops, and is in some parts well cultivated.
In May, when Ross passed it, the surface was adorned
with flowers and rich verdure, which, however, soon fade
under the parching heat.
Altun Kupri, the “Golden Bridge,” is situated on an
island in the Lesser Zab, which is crossed by the bridge
that gives its name to the place; and the town, which was
taken by the Meer of Rewandooz, reverted to the pacha on
the fall of that chief. It once contained 8000 inhabitants,
but has been greatly thinned by plague and famine.
The road from hence to Kirkook, the Corcura of Ptole-
my, lies over a stony plain, intersected with numerous


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
211
ridges, but also interspersed with patches of cultivated
land, like most of Lower Assyria. The town is by Buck-
ingham divided into three portions. The first, in which
there is a castellated mount resembling that at Arbela,
contains about 5000 inhabitants, all Moslems. There the
governor resides; and the minarets of three mosques are
seen from below. The second portion, which is spread
out under this castle, affords dwellings, it was said, to
10,000 souls, a mixture of all descriptions of people— Ar-
menians, Nestorians, Syrians, Christians, and Moslems,
It possesses all the caravansaries, coffee-houses, and ba-
zars, having also a large cemetery attached to it. The
third portion, which is rather a suburb, being at the dis-
tance of four furlongs, is small. The population of the
whole, which was then probably overrated at 15,000, is
now not half that number. The most remarkable objects
about Kirkook are the naphtha wells, which abound in its
vicinity, and the subterranean fire which bursts forth at a
place called Baba Gurgur. The former are situated in
the low gypseous hills about three miles northward, many
of them in the bed of a small stream which issues from
the rocks. They are nearly three feet in diameter, some
of them eight or ten feet deep, and emit a very disagreea-
ble smell. The naphtha, which is perfectly black, liquid,
and in quantity inexhaustible, is sent all over the country
for various purposes, besides that of giving light. Baba
Gurgur is a small spot, whence in the night sulphureous
flames are seen to arise, particularly after rain, no doubt
from the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. But at
all times, by thrusting a stick into the soil, a blaze bursts
forth, sufficiently powerful to boil water or cook meat.
The character of the country as far as Kufri is similar
to that already described ; plains, either gravelly or of
rich alluvium, intersected by rocky and gypseous ridges,
green with luxuriant pasture in spring, and brown in sum-
mer and autumn. The town, which is neat-looking and
walled, is situated at the mouth of a ravine, where a little
stream forces a passage through a range of gypseous hills
of a singularly barren and forbidding appearance. About
half a mile eastward of this place, in the bed of the rivu-
let, Mr. Rich found some ruins called Kara Oghlan, which,
on examination, he considered to be Sassanian, the re-
mains of buildings resembling those of Kasr Shireen,


212
PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
Among them were ornaments in gypsum, coloured earth-
enware, jars, sepulchral urns, coins, and antiques ; and the
inhabitants ascribe their origin, as usual, to the ghiaours
or infidels. Sepulchral chambers, like those of the Nak-
shi Rustam in Persia, were observed farther up the course
of the small river. Eski Kufri, an old site, two hours
southwest of the present town, exhibits a great extent of
mounds, fragments of urns, and vestiges of buildings like
those of the Kasr Shireen. One of the mounds resembled
the Mujelibé, with sides almost perpendicular, except
where furrowed by the rains. It was fifty-seven feet high,
about 960 feet long from north to south, and nearly as
much from east to west. In it was found a vault, with
fragments of urns, human bones, and fine pottery ; but the
time did not admit of a strict examination.
On the road from Kirkook to Kufri, and in the same
gypseous hills, is situated Tooz Khoormattee, just where
the Ak-su pierces them. Here, too, are naptha pits, which
are productive and valuable, and generally found at the
edge of the gypsum debris on the side of the streams,
At this place, the date-tree, which is uncertain in point of
produce at Kufri, bears particularly well; though Buck-
ingham states that the heat at three P.M. was 125°, and
the wind suffocating.
After passing Kara Teppé, where there is a succession
of low hills, the country becomes rich as far as the foot
of the Hamrine range. These consist of several ridges
of sandstone rocks, and, as we have seen, extend far on
either side to the northwest and southeast. From the
southern side, the country to Bagdad is entirely alluvial
and very fertile, comprising the districts of Khalis and
Khorasan, the richest, perhaps, in the pachalic.
The following description* of the appearance of Lower
Assyria, and of the pass which leads to it from Solymane-
ah, may convey to the reader a tolerable idea of the as-
pect of this country.
The passt is very striking. The mountains, of which
I have spoken as forming the boundary between the high-
lands of Kurdistan and the plain of Assyria, which ex-
tends to the Tigris, here form a line running about south-
* From Travels in Kurdistan and Mesopotamia, by the author of this
work.
+ That of the Sugramah.


216
PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
six caravansaries, five mosques, and as many baths,
Since that period, war, extortion, cholera, and plague
have wrought a miserable change. The following is a
later sketch of the condition of this once prosperous pa-
chalic:
A couple of marches had brought the travellers from
Sardasht, a town upon the Ak-su (which rises near Lahi-
jan), to the neighbourhood of Solymaneah. Only a single
inhabited village had been seen in all that way, though
the ruins of many which had been lately abandoned met
the eye on all sides. The approach to the capital is thus
described : If the depopulation on the road was depress-
ing, there was little to cheer us on approaching or enter-
ing the town. I never beheld a more miserable collection
of hovels and ruins. We rode through a mass of rubbish
up to what had been the pacha's house, or palace, if you
will. It was as in utter ruin; uninhabitable except in one
small corner, where his harem was bestowed. He himself
occupied a tent outside the town. I had sent a man for-
ward to secure for us a lodging. After a while he found
as picking our way among the rubbish and broken walls,
seeking for some one who might tell us where anybody
might be found. He led us to the place appointed for us
—a perfect wreck-through a labyrinth of mud heaps
which had once been houses. It had been the residence
of some great man, a relative of the pacha, who at this
time was absent at Tabriz. It was well for him. Such
as it was, we had it all to ourselves. It was one great
mass of mud; a dozen open spaces that had once been
chambers, surrounding a large rambling hall, with a great
square hole in the middle, intended as a water-cistern.
On the following morning I strolled out to see the town.
Certainly my first impressions of its wretchedness were in
no degree weakened by farther observations; all was mis-
ery, and filth, and abomination. Not one decent habita-
tion was to be seen. None of the people, high or low, have
had the heart-or means, perhaps—to repair their ruined
houses; so that the huts that have arisen upon the ruins
of the old ones are of a meaner description than usual. I
was told that there were still from 1000 to 1500 families
residing in Solymaneah; but, to judge from appearances,
I should think even the first number overrated.
The dominant tribe of this pachalic, the Bebehs, may


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
217
amount, it is said, to 4000 families; but their subject
tribes are larger and more numerous. The Jaffs are sta-
ted to exceed 10,000 houses, and to be able to send forth
2000 horsemen and 4000 musketeers; while the Hama-
dawnuds, the Tohtiawnuds, the Jelalawnuds, the Daloos,
and many others, all claim the protection of the Pacha of
Solymaneah. Besides these, which are nomades, there
are the fixed inhabitants of the villages, who, before being
thinned by plague and misery, formed a considerable body;
so that the state, though not very extensive, yet possessing
a very large proportion of rich soil, might, if under good
government, be not only prosperous, but powerful,
The climate of Solymaneah is by Mr. Rich said to be
intensely cold in winter, especially when the easterly wind
prevails. Snow sometimes lies on the ground for six
weeks or two months. The weather in summer is pleas-
ant, except when the same wind blows, which it does with
violence, sometimes eight or ten days successively. This
unwelcome breeze is called the sherki, and, coming from
the mountains by which the valley is surrounded, and
which in winter are covered with snow, and in summer
baked in the sun's rays, is either very cold or very hot, ac-
cording to the season, and is much dreaded. Singular
enough to say, its range extends but twelve or fourteen
miles in any direction. The district of Shahrasour, where
a great deal of rice is grown, is said to be extremely un-
healthy; and Mr. Rich's party found Beestan, situated in
the hills, equally so.
Towards the southeastern extremity of Solymaneah,
where it opens out into a wider plain, are seen mounds
marking the sites of ancient buildings, which give their
name of Shahrasour to the district and that part of the
valley. These, or some of them, certainly represent the
Seazūrus, which was visited by Heraclius in his march
after the defeat of Khoosroo Purveez and capture of Des-
tagerd ; and Mr. Rich intended to go thither and examine
them. This, however, he was prevented from doing, and
the task remains still for some future traveller to com-
plete. From natives it is seldom possible to gather any
certain information on such subjects; but the present wri.
ter did hear thus far, that on the plain, which is bounded
by very rugged mountains, there are five or six positions
presenting ancient ruins; one called the Khallah, or for
T


218
PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
tress, a large and lofty mound; Yasseen Tepeh, Goolumber,
Arbut, and Kharabeh were also mentioned; and it was said
that stones of great size, and bearing inscriptions, had been
occasionally dug up. A Boot Khaneh, or image-temple,
was also spoken of as existing in the same plain, in which
was a slab covered with unknown characters. Mr. Rich,
who heard nearly the same account, entertained no doubt
that Arbut, where the most considerable mounds are met
with, is the ancient Shahrasour, though he admits that all
the Kurds deny there ever was a city of that name, which
they maintain applies to the district only.
The state of Rewandooz, the ruler of which rose lately
into much importance, was formerly very small, consist-
ing of not more than a dozen villages, governed by a petty
chieftain, who acknowledged allegiance to the Pacha of
Solymaneah, his neighbour. This personage, Meer Mus-
tapha, resigned the care of his little province to his son
Mohammed, because, as some say, he discerned in the
young man the symptoms of a superior greatness and good
fortune, which he, rather inclined to quiet and contempla-
tion, did not desire to pursue. Others pretend that this
self-denial on the part of the father was brought about by
the son, from motives of ambition. They also insist that
the total blindness which soon after fell upon the old man
was produced by the meel, or red-hot pencil held to the eye-
balls-a common operation in the East. But the last as-
sertion, at all events, is false, because the abdicated ruler
himself told Dr. Ross, who had been sent for by the prince
to cure his parent, that the calamity had been occasioned
by his own imprudence, in placing a cap of snow upon his
head when overheated by ascending a mountain.
Mohammed, who, at the time of that gentleman's visit in
1833, was about forty-five, began his career by taking a
small fortress called Seetuc, near Ooshnoo, from Persia.
He would soon have been forced to abandon his conquest,
but immediately after broke out the war with Russia,
which, obliging the prince-royal to withdraw all his troops
to oppose the more powerful foe, enabled the Meer of Re-
wandooz to extend his territories at the expense of his
neighbours. Solymaneah, torn by civil broils, could op-
pose no effectual resistance to this warlike chieftain, who
accordingly wrested place after place from the pachalic
until he had taken Kirkook and Erbile, and made himself


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
219
master of the whole country as far as the vicinity of Mo-
sul. He then attacked the pachalic of Amadieh, a fertile
and populous district, lying in the mountains that over-
hang the Assyrian plains; a region proverbial for its fer-
tility and beauty. The pacha, who, according to Mr.
Rich, is of the family of Bahdinan, the noblest among the
Kurds, and who, as having some connexion with the ca-
liphs, assumes a peculiar sanctity as well as dignity, lived
in greater state than all other chiefs, and arrogated the
most profound obsequience. No one dared to use the same
pipe, cup, or bath; he always sat alone; and dined so
strictly in private that none of his servants were allowed to
see him eat. Sometimes he even rode out with a veil
over his head, to prevent profane eyes from looking on his
august countenance. But, when in want of money, he
sunk these high honours, and begged from the chiefs un-
der his authority in the form of a stranger soliciting hos-
pitality.
This ruler, of a high line and ancient family, was una-
ble, however, to resist the arms of the Meer of Rewan-
dooz, who could now, as was asserted, muster from 30,000
to 50,000 hardy musketeers, kept by him in constant pay.
By means of these, as well as by sowing dissension in the
pachalic, he first overran the country, and then, by a similar
process, having seduced a nephew of the reigning pacha,
he got possession of the capital, Amadieh. At the time of
Ross's visit, however, he was encamped, with about 10,000
men, before Accra, a very strong fortress which he had
just taken by assault, not having as yet proceeded against
the metropolis.
The doctor describes his camp as having few preten-
sions to military order. Each ashayer, or clan, was pitched
around its chief, in separate groups at will, so that the
whole were spread to an extent which, according to the
rules of European tactics, would have accommodated
50,000 men. The only approach to regularity was in the
disposition of his personal guards, a body of 3000 war-
riors, well armed, who were encamped close to his tent.
Yet there was no want of a certain species of discipline :
not a sound was heard ; and every man could, at the ap-
pointed signal, be at his post in five minutes. . The men,
of their own accord, were continually exercising at marks;


220
PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
and from 100 to 200 of the soldiers, invited from different
tribes, dined every evening in their sovereign's pavilion.
The pacha is described as a benevolent and pleasing-
looking man, fair, marked with the small-pox, and blind
of an eye, which was opaque and depressed. His beard
was about twelve inches long, of a light-brown colour, the
lower half being uncombed, and quite felted together,
though, in other respects, he was rather tidy in his dress.
He was lame of one leg, from the kick of a horse, and
spoke with a weak voice.
But the most singular circumstance respecting this chief
is the great moral change which he effected in the provin-
ces which he had subjected to his sway. Instead of being,
as formerly, a community of robbers, who could not see a
traveller pass without attempting to plunder and strip him,
and who, as they said of themselves, would "cut a man's
throat for an egg in his hand,” there is not a theft commit-
ted in the country. The practice of robbery was cut short
by a summary process. Whoever was caught possessing
himself of the goods of others, was punished on the spot,
or put to death without mercy. For the first offence, ac-
cording to circumstances, an eye, a hand, or the nose was
the forfeit; for the second, some severe mutilation ; but the
third offence was always punished with death. This de-
cree, fearlessly and unsparingly enforced, has had so pow-
erful an effect, that, were a man to see a purse of gold upon
the road, he would not touch it, but give notice to the head
of the next village, who would take care of the property,
and report to the chief in person. A striking instance of
the meer's inflexible adherence to stern justice is given in
his behaviour to his own favourite brother, who, in riding
by a poor man's garden, had plucked a pomegranate with-
out asking its owner's permission. Upon hearing of this,
he charged his relative with the theft, which was not de-
nied. The chief sternly rebuked him, as if it had been a
heinous crime, and demanded which hand he had made use
of to perpetrate the act. The young man held forth the
hand. "And with which finger did you first touch the
fruit ?" "With this," said the culprit. “Then let that
finger be cut off immediately," said the meer; and the sen-
tence was carried into execution on the spot. Nor was he
less unrelenting on such occasions to strangers. A tribe
of the Tace Arabs had settled in his territory, having been


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA. 221
driven across the Tigris by the Jerbah; and he had grant-
ed them permission to reside there on condition of obsery-
ing the rules of his government. For some time the sheik
did so; but, getting tired of inaction and an honest life,
and being tempted by the appearance of a small caravan,
his habitual propensities proved too strong, and he plun-
dered it. But, ere the evening of the next day-before he
had well counted his gains-half a dozen Kurds rode up
to his tent, and, without either explanation or ceremony,
struck off his head at his own door, and then quietly with-
drew.
The career of Mohammed was rapid and fortunate, so
long as his enterprises were carried on against contermi-
nous states and pachas; but the condition of Kurdistan,
and the disorders of its inhabitants, in a country so nearly
bordering upon Syria-then occupied by Ibrahim Pacha's
troops, who threatened farther encroachments on the sul-
tan's territory—had forced the Porte to send an army into
these parts under Reshid Pacha. Though the meer, had
he been faithfully served, might, secure in his mountainous
regions, have defied the whole troops of the empire, yet,
when the inhabitants found themselves actually opposed to
the arms of the sultan, to the Sanjak Shereef-the holy
banner, which all true Sonnees regard as the palladium of
their faith-the hereditary reverence for this venerated
symbol overcame their fear or regard for their military
chief, and they fled, or refused to fight against the sacred
ensign. Their leader, now powerless and despairing, gave
himself up to the Ottoman general, by whom he was sent
in chains to Constantinople. After a few month's deten-
tion, the Porte, acting, or pretending to act, on the sugges-
tion of certain European advisers, sent back the meer, as
was understood, complimented with a khelut of investiture
to the government of his own territories, as being more
likely, from this act of leniency, to prove faithful to his
sovereign. But he was not destined to reach his home, for
on the way he was put to death-no doubt by secret orders
and his brother succeeded to his dominion and to his ha-
tred of the Osmanlis.
Dr. Ross, who travelled through his territory in May and
June, 1833, speaks in high terms of its beauty and improved
condition, which offered a strong contrast to the desolate
state of the country still under the Turkish rule. The vil.
T2


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
223
which, either being removed or let down at one side, the
approach of an enemy is absolutely debarred.
Nor is it alone the singular character of its people and
the wildness of its scenery that render this country so in-
teresting; for here probably are to be found the most an-
cient manuscripts of the Syrian Church, particularly on
biblical subjects. It is satisfactory to be able to add, that
these treasures are now in a fair way of being brought to
light, as an expedition, lately sent out by the Royal Geo-
graphical Society of London, for the purpose of discoveries
in those regions, have been instructed to direct their espe-
cial attention to ecclesiastical records.
There is yet one district of Assyria undescribed, which
possesses no mean claim upon the attention of the anti-
quary: that, namely, which is embraced between a line
drawn from the pass of Kerrend to Kufri on the one hand,
and by Mendali to the site of Ctesiphon on the other. It
is rich in vestiges of antiquity, though most of the re-
mains hitherto traced are only of the Sassanian era. It
was first explored by Mr. Rich, and subsequently, to a cer-
tain extent at least, by Major Rawlinson. The former
gentleman, leaving Bagdad, crossed the Diala at Bakouba,
å large village, on his way to Shahraban, in the vicinity of
which many of the antiquities are found. Five miles to-
wards the south lie the ruins called the Zendan, or prison;
but at a point about half way, the guide conducted him to
a place called Eski Bagdad.' Here are the remains of a
town as large as Ctesiphon, the walls in the same style,
the southwestern parts being the most perfect, and the in-
terior filled with rubbish. Between these ruins and the
Zendan were seen two parallel Sassanian walls, running
northeast and southwest, 600 feet long, and about as much
apart, of the same composition as the structures at Seleu-
cia, having between each tier of bricks a layer of reeds.
Mr. Rich pronounces these ruins to be certainly much old-
er than Islamism, and has little hesitation in considering
them to have belonged to the Destagerd of Khoosroo Pur.
veez, which was taken by Heraclius.
The Zendan is described as a very interesting ruin,
built with great solidity of burned brick and mortar. In
form it is an oblong square, 1600 feet long by about for-
ty-seven feet broad,* and not less than sixteen feet ten
* Rich's Koordistan, vol. ii., p. 254.


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
225
but had been faced with coarse red bricks, with which the
windows and doors are also pointed. On the north and
south are small square courts, with little cells on each side
of them, but quite ruined ; and on the east is a long series
of narrow apartments, which seem to have been vaults.
This may have been the portico of some edifice, often
in ancient times of greater dimensions, and formed of
more solid materials than the buildings to which it led.
Mr. Rich mentions another ruin about the centre of the
town, which he considers the principal one in point of su-
perficial extent. It appears to have been a large platform,
supported by arches forming cells, and very narrow pas-
sages. On the western end of the south side are the ruins
of what seems a portico, with a gate at each extremity.
The north side is open, displaying various cells and com-
partments. On the east and north the platform is entire,
and has on each side a double staircase, underneath which
the vaulted support on which it rests may be clearly seen.
The longest side does not exceed 200 feet, and from eight
to ten feet in height. Another enclosure within the town,
with an arched gateway built of large pieces of sandstone,
and fifteen feet broad, may, it is thought, have been a tank
or reservoir in front of the palace. Besides these princi-
pal ruins, there are the remains of walls and courts, ex-
tending, as the people of the country say, to an immense
distance, as well as traces of aqueducts. But the mount-
ainous character of the whole region shows that this can
only have been, what tradition calls it, a hunting-seat of
the great monarch; and Mr. Rich is undoubtedly right
when he concludes that it is not at Kasr Shireen, that is,
the Palace of Shireen (mistress or wife of Khoosroo), that
we are to look for Destagerd.
Turning westward from this place, the traveller next
pursued his way ten or twelve miles" over wild hills and
among Kurdish tribes” to Haoosh Kerek, a ruin much
like Kasr Shireen, but less decayed, so that the plan was
more comprehensible. The building which bears that
name consists of a platform supported on vaults or cells,
which are a great resort of robbers, and are blackened in-
ternally by the smoke from the fires of those who frequent
them. It is an oblong square, of which the northern side,
including the remains of what is called the Kasr, measured
340 feet, the length from east to west being about double


226
PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
that from north to south. It is a multitude of small rooms
in ruins, all built of round pieces of sandstone, with which
the country is covered. There are some other edifices,
similar in fabric and character, but meriting no minute de-
scription. Mr. Rich considers this, as well as the Kasr
Shireen, to have been one of the monarch's many hunting-
seats and parks, but observes that neither these, nor any-
thing else that he had seen of Sassanian erection, are cal-
culated to give any high idea of their taste or magnifi-
cence. “When richly painted, gilded, and ornamented,
they might have been worth seeing : in their present state
of ruins they are certainly not imposing." Assuredly, ex-
cept the arch and hall at Ctesiphon, there are no Sassani-
an remains that convey to the beholder any idea of much
magnificence and taste; and though, doubtless, the sculp-
tures on the rocks at Shapoor, Naksh e Roostum, Tauk e
Bostam, and Bessittoon, are curious, they dwindle into in-
significance when compared with the stupendous struc-
tures of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, or even with the ven-
erable remains of Persepolis.
These are the principal vestiges of antiquity in this dis-
trict; others are mentioned, but of less importance, and
therefore need not be more particularly noticed. Kelwa-
tha, a heap of extensive mounds at the confluence of the Di-
ala and Tigris, has been already alluded to. Among these
eminences was picked up a small, thin brick, of nearly
four inches long, on which was impressed a figure, tolera.
bly well executed, of a female arrayed in the Babylonish
dress, with a flower in one hand, and an animal of some
sort in the other. The dress is flounced up to the waist,
and the hair falls back in long curls.
In describing the River Diala, mention has already been
made of the pachalic or district of Zohab, which occupies
a triangle at the foot of the ancient Zagros, bounded on
the northwest by the course of the current, there called
the Shirwan, on the east by the mountains, and on the
south by the stream of Hulwan. Although forming one,
of the ten pachalics dependant on Bagdad, it was wrested
from that government about thirty years ago by the Per-
sian prince of Kermanshah, and has never since been re-
stored. It presents an irregular surface of hills and plains,
much of it being capable of culture, but is at present, for


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
227
the most part, overrun by the Eeliaut tribes of Gouran and
Sinjabee, and some other Kurdish and Arabian clans.
In the plain of Hurin in this pachalic, at the foot of a
lofty summit called the Sartak, Major Rawlinson found
the remains of a city, apparently of the most remote anti-
quity. The foundations, composed of huge masses of stone
unhewn, and walls of most extraordinary thickness, are
now all that can be seen; and that gentleman inclines to
refer them to the Babylonian ages. Two fursucks south
of Hurin, in a mountain gorge, the seat of a village named
Sheikhan, there is a small tablet sculptured on the rock,
exhibiting the same sort of device as is seen in the Baby-
lonish cylinders; an armed figure stands upon a prostrate
foe, while another kneels with hands fastened behind, as if
praying for mercy; an upright quiver of arrows is placed
by the victor king; and the tablet is closed by a cuneiform
inscription, written in that complicated character which is
nowhere seen except on bricks and cylinders. The tablet
is only five feet long by two broad, and rather rudely exe-
cuted.
A remarkable mountain, projecting from the lofty range
of Dalahu, rises to the height of 2000 feet, so close behind
the town of Zohab as quite to overhang it. This in an-
cient times was converted into a fortress which might be
deemed impregnable. On three sides the hill ascends with
a very abrupt slope from the plain to within 500 feet of the
summit, the rest being a perpendicular scarp, which has
been farther strengthened by building. On the fourth side,
where it is united to the larger mountain, a wall, which,
to judge by the part now remaining, must have been fifty
feet high by twenty thick, and flanked at regular intervals
by bastions, together with a ditch of most formidable di-
mensions, has been drawn across from scarp to scarp, a
distance of above two miles, thus enclosing a space of ten
square miles. At the northeast angle the scarp rises in a
rocky ridge to join the Dalahu range; and the pass here,
which conducts to the fort, is farther strengthened by a wali
and two formidable castles. This is the stronghold of Hol-
wan or Hulwan, where Yezdegerd, the last of the Sassa-
nians, retreated after the capture of Ctesiphon by the
Arabs, and it is called Banyardeh or Kalah Yezdegerd.
Near the little village of Zardeh there are the remains of
two palaces, the Harem and the Diwan Khaneh of the


228
PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA.
same sovereign, both resembling in material and architec-
ture the Sassanian buildings at Kasr Shireen and Haoosh
Kerek.
Zohab has by some been regarded as the representative
of Hulwan, the ancient Calah and the Halah of the Israel-
itish captivity. But Major Rawlinson denies the correct-
ness of this conjecture, and attributes that honour to the
town of Sir e Pool e Zohab, which is eight miles south of
the present Zohab, and situated at a point where the river
bursts through the rocks which bound on the southwest the
valley of Bishiwah. This, he asserts, is the Chala of Is-
idore of Charax, which gave its name to the district Cha-
lonitis. On the authority of Assemanni,* it was called in-
differently Calah, Halah, and Hulwan by the Syrians, who
established a metropolitan see at this place in the third
century, while to the Arabs and Persians it was known
by the last of those titles. But we must refer to Major
Rawlinsont himself for the proofs on which he founds his
conclusions, and pass on to a short notice of the antiquities
found there. In the gorge through which the Hulwan for-
ces its current, there are several sculptured tablets of Sas-
sanian origin; but over one of these, on the rocks to the
left, there is a bold and well-executed bas-relief of the Ka-
yanian times—that is, of the age of Persepolis and Bessit-
tom. A mile and a half from the gorge is seen a line of
broken mounds, resembling those at Nineveh and Babylon,
and therefore probably belonging to the Chaldean ages, as
well as a vast assemblage of such eminences, which appear
to mark the sites of the principal edifices of the ancient
city. One of these is upward of fifty feet in height; and
in several places brickwork, of the peculiar Babylonian
character, is exposed to view. But the most remarkable
monument is a royal sepulchre at the corner of the up-
per gorge, two miles distant from the sculptures, and pre-
cisely resembling in character the tombs of Persepolis. At
the top of an artificial scarp, seventy feet in height, has
been excavated a quadrangular recess, six feet deep, eight
high, and thirty wide. In the centre of it is the opening
into the tomb, the interior of which is rude, containing on
the left hand the place for depositing the dead, with niches
+ Bibliotheca Orientalis, vol. iii., p. 346 ; vol. iv., p. 753.
+ Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. ix., part i., p. 25,
London, 1839.


PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA. 229
for lights, as usual, but no carving nor ornament of any
sort. At the entrance are two broken pillars, which have
been formed out of the solid rock, one on either side; the
base and a small piece of either shaft appear below; and
the capitals still adhere to the roof. On the smooth face
of the scarped rock is an unfinished tablet, representing the
figure of a Mobid, or high-priest of the Magi, clothed in his
pontifical robes, wearing the square-pointed cap, and lap-
pets over his mouth, which is the most ancient dress of the
period of Zoroaster. This tomb is called Dookani Daood,
or David's Shop; the Jewish monarch being supposed by
the Ali Ullahis, and, indeed, by other Orientals, to have
followed the calling of a smith or armourer. There are
several other Sassanian ruins and spots consecrated by lo-
cal tradition near this place, and many objects in the
neighbourhood interesting to the comparative geographer
and antiquary. At Deira, Gilan, and Zarna, along the
foot of the Zagros range, Major Rawlinson discovered ves-
tiges either of Babylonian or Sassanian cities; but to de-
scribe these would prove inconsistent with our limits. Of
the rest of the country at the base of the hills, all the way
to the borders of Khúzistan, little can be said in addition
to what we have already observed, namely, that it is
swampy and uncultivated, and occupied either by the Lour
tribes of Pushtikoh, or by the Beni Lam Arabs.


230
MODERN BABYLONIA.
CHAPTER XIII.
Modern Babylonia.
Bagdad.-Its Origin, Position, and History.--Walls--Gates-Mosques
and Shrines.-Impressions on entering the City from Persia.- Banks
of the Tigris.--Boats.-Bazars.-Market-places.-Sketch by Bucking.
ham.- Private Houses.-Domestic Habits.--Women.-Georgians and
Arabs.- Population.- Establishment of Daood Pacha.- Plague in Bag.
dad.--Its rapid Progress.- Exposure of Infants.--Inundation.-Condi-
tion of the Pacha.-Instances of sweeping Mortality.Fate of Caravans
and Fugitives.-Subsequent Calamities.--Present Population.-Cos-
tume.- White Asses and black Slaves.-A Battle within the Walls.
Insubordination at Kerbelah and Nejeff Ali.--Sketch of a March in
Babylonia.-Camp of the Zobeid Sheik.--His Tent-And Entertain-
ment.-Expenditure of an Arab Chief.--March towards Sook el Shi-
ook.-Arab Bravado.-Hospitality.--Madan Arabs.-Their Houses-
And Flocks of Buffaloes.-The Montefic Arabs.-Their Reed Huts.
Sook el Shiook. -Interview with the Sheik of the Montefic.
We must now take a glance at Modern Babylonia; and
the first object in it which attracts attention is Bagdad, the
City of the Caliphs, and the present capital of the pachalic.
The Persians, as we learn from D'Herbelot,* claim for their
Mahabadian kings the honour of founding this city, and
attribute it to Zohauk; an obvious confusion of their own
traditions with the Scriptural account, which assigns Bab-
ylon to Nimrod. They add that it was enlarged by Afra-
siab, who called it Bagdad, or the Garden of Dad—the idol
whom he worshipped. But there is little doubt that, in
point of fact, the true founder was Almansor, second ca-
liph of the Abbassides. That prince, disgusted with his
former abode at Hashemiah, near Cufa, began, A.D. 760,
to build the metropolis in question; but it was not finished
until four years afterward, when he bestowed on it the
name of Dar ul Salam, the Dwelling of Peace.
It appears to have been erected on the left bank of the
river,t of a circular shape, enclosed by two walls, which
were flanked by towers; and in the centre there was a
* Bibliothèque Orientale. See the word Bagdad.
† Kinneir says the western side, in which he differs from D'Herbelot
Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire, London, 1813, p. 246.



512
LE
mmm.
.mm
120
2
,
View of Bagdad.





MODERN BABYLONIA,
233
castle which commanded the neighbouring country. It
would farther appear that the same Almansor, desirous to
avoid as much as possible all contact with the rabble of
his new capital, built on the western side of the Tigris a
suburb named Karkh, joined to the eastern part by a bridge,
and in which were the bazars and public markets. This
city rose to its highest pitch of grandeur during the reigns
of the celebrated Haroun al Raschid and his immediate
successors; but, in the fourth century of the Hejira, the
power of the caliphs having declined. we find Bagdad ta-
ken from them, first by Ali Buiyah, the second of the Dile-
mee dynasty, in A.D. 945, and afterward by Togrul Beg,
the first of the Seljuk sovereigns. But these were com-
paratively slight calamities; for, though the glory of the
house of Abbas had departed, their capital remained rich
and populous until the Mogul invasion, under Zinghis
Khan, swept like a deluge over Asia, and overwhelmed
the prosperity of every town on its fair plains in a tor-
rent of human blood. In A.D. 1253, the stern Hoolaku,
grandson of Zinghis, marched against the devoted city,
which was defended by Mostasem, when, not only was it
taken, and the caliph and his two sons put to death, but
the inhabitants also were subjected to a general massacre,
which by some historians has been swelled to an incredi-
ble amount.*
The ruined city remained in the hands of the Moguls
until A.D. 1392, when it was taken from Sultan Ahmed
Ben Avis, of the race of Hoolaku, by the great Tamer-
lane. The former prince, however, having succeeded in
repossessing himself of the capital, it was again attacked
and reduced by the enraged Timur, who punished the in-
habitants by putting the most of them to the sword. In
the contest between the Turkomans of the White and
Black Sheep, which distracted the Persian empire during
the ninth century of the Hejira, it passed more than once
from hand to hand until A.D. 1508, when Shah Ismael, of
the Suffaveans, made himself master of it. During up-
ward of a hundred years it continued to be an object of
contention between the Turks and Persians, till at length,
in A.D. 1637, it was finally taken by Amurath IV., who
* Some say 17,000,000; others are contented with 800,000 : either
amount implies exaggeration.
U2


234
MODERN BABYLONIA.
annexed it to the Ottoman empire, and in the possession
of that power it has ever since remained.
In the course of these revolutions, the position, shape,
and extent of Bagdad were so greatly changed, that it is
scarcely possible to point out the original site. The pal-
ace of the celebrated Haroun is supposed to have stood
on the western side of the Tigris; but from the fact that
the Turks under Tamerlane swam the river from its east-
ern shore to reach the city, we arc led to presume that the
chief portion of it was then to be found on the opposite
bank.
Such, however, has not been the case in more recent
times. The present city is still intersected by the Tigris,
though by far the larger and most important part is that
which occupies its left, or northeastern side; the shape
being nearly that of an oblong square, and the circuit
about five miles. It is surrounded by a high wall built of
bricks and mud, and flanked with towers of different ages,
some of which owe their origin to the successive caliphs.
There are six gates and entrances, three on each side of
the river; seventeen large and 100 small towers on the
eastern bank, and thirteen on the other. On several of
these are cannon mounted, but chiefly unserviceable; and,
besides several large breaches in the wall, occasioned by
the effects of the inundation of 1831, it is altogether in bad
repair. Outside there is a dry ditch, but which cannot be
considered available as a defence.*
Besides the six gates of entrance towards the land, there
is one on each side opening to the river, and one also
which is called the Gate of the Talisman, the handsomest
of all, originally bu lt by Caliph al Naser. It was by this
approach that Amurath entered when he took the city, but
it was built up, and has remained closed ever since. With-
in the walls there are said to be 200 mosques, six colleges,
and twenty-four baths. Of the first, many of which are
attached to the shrines of saints, those of Sheik Abdul
Kader, Sheik Shehab-u-deen, Sheik aboo Yacoob Moham-
med, Sheik Maroof Kerkhée Habeebi-ajamee, Biskir e
Haafee, Hooksam ibn Mansoor, Sheik Junaeed e Bag-
dadee, are the most important. The cathedral mosque of
the caliphs, Jamah el Sook el Gazel, has been destroyed,
* Kinneir's Memoir, p. 248, 249


MODERN BABYLONIA.
237
many points on its banks, which command the whole
reach occupied by the present city.
The first sight of the river did not certainly fulfil the
author's expectations, for he had imagined a broader chan-
nel. With the appearance of the town from thence he
was agreeably surprised ; few blank walls are seen, as
most houses have numerous lattices and projecting win-
dows overlooking the stream; and there is a handsome
mosque, with its domes and minarets close to the bridge-
itself a pleasing object-with a certain irregularity and
loftiness in the line of buildings on the left bank, which
impart a pleasing variety to the view. The right or west-
ern bank is by no means so picturesque in point of archi-
tecture, but its large groves of date-trees, mingled with
houses, render it also a pleasing object from the more
populous side.
Among the objects that add interest to the water scen-
ery of Bagdad are the various sorts of boats which are
seen swarming on the Tigris. Those which trade be-
tween that city and Bussora are vessels of many tons bur-
den, with high, square sterns, the after-part being covered
with a deck, so as to form a cabin for the accommoda-
tion of passengers. The bow is low, but rises above the
water somewhat in the form of those Arab donos which are
observed in the Persian Gulf. They have but one mast,
which rakes forward, and on which is hoisted a long yard
bearing a large square sail. They also have a bowsprit,
on which a jib is set.
The dawk, which is used chiefly for carrying firewood,
is built in the form of a crescent, the horn forming the
bow being the most curved. The breadth exceeds a third
of the length; and the sides, which are flat, fall at an
acute angle to join a keel or floor of two feet broad. The
frame is made of various sorts of light timber and nar-
row plank, rudely joined together with slight iron fasten-
ings, and the whole is thickly coated with bitumen. The
rudder is made of spars formed like a large X; the tiller
a crooked spar, being fixed along the top, while the end is
applied obliquely to the horn of the stern. A tall, thin
mast, bending forward, and secured by a single shroud aft
and amidships, supports a light yard and a triangular sail.
The farradeh is a long, flat-bottomed wherry, made of
planks, sewed or nailed together like the one just mention-


238
MODERN BABYLONIA.
ed, coated also with bitumen, and moved by poles or pad-
dles. Some are so large as to hold thirty armed men.
The gooffah is a round, basket-shaped vessel, from six
to ten feet in diameter, formed of branches of the date,
pomegranate, or osier tree steeped in water, closely wat-
tled or bound together with leaves, and thickly coated
with bitumen. It is moved by a paddle, and with greater
speed than could be expected.
The other Assyrian raſt, called the kelleck, is formed of
a collection of spars tied together, and placed upon a lay-
er of inflated skins. It is steered with a large oar, but can
only float down stream. Most of these specimens of na-
val architecture are precisely the same as they are descri-
bed to have been by the writers of antiquity. There are,
besides, a variety of canoes and small boats used in the
rivers and canals all over the country.
In the bazars of Bagdad there is just cause for disap-
pointment. It is not, however, want of extent, for they
are often very crowded; but there is in their construction
a poverty of design and meanness of execution, with an
appearance of dilapidation, which, though doubtless at-
tributable in part to recent misfortune, arise chiefly from
original defect. Some, and among these a very extensive
range, the work of the late Daood Pacha, are well built
of fire-brick and mortar, with lofty arcaded roofs, but oth-
ers are very ruinous, and have coverings rudely formed
with beams of wood, on which are spread thatch of date-
tree branches or reeds. The shops themselves are poor,
and frequently in disrepair; many are unoccupied, and in
most places there may be traced that air of neglect and
of reckless squalidity which so strongly indicates the ad-
vance of complete decay.
In various parts of the town there are open spaces,
which, from particular descriptions of goods being sold,
have thence received their names, as the “thread-market,”
the “muslin-market," or the “corn-market.” Of these,
the largest and the gayest is one close to the northwest, or
Mosul gate; but none of them has any pretensions to
splendour, or even to cleanliness. The last mentioned is,
in fact, the great place of the city. Horses are here expo-
sed for sale; it is surrounded by coffee-houses, which are
constantly filled with an assemblage of all sorts of people,
smoking and drinking. It is also the general place for


MODERN BABYLONIA.
239
exhibition, and even of execution, for here criminals are
punished with decapitation, hanging, or mutilation; and
sometimes passengers are greeted with the sight of a head-
less trunk, exposed for the day as a warning to evil-doers.
The grave Türk, however, insensible to the horror of the
sight, smokes his pipe quietly, or passes by with indiffer-
ence, simply muttering “ Allah il ullah.” This place of
many uses contains little more than an acre of ground.
The following sketch, given by Buckingham, is so true
and lively, as far as it goes, that we are tempted to insert
it.* “The interior of the town offers fewer objects of in-
terest than one would expect from its celebrity as an Ori-
ental emporium of wealth and magnificence. A large
portion of the ground included within the walls is unoccu-
pied by buildings, particularly on the northeastern side;
and even where edifices abound, particularly in the more
populous quarter of the city, near the river, a profusion of
trees are seen; so that, on viewing the whole from the ter-
race of any of the houses within the walls, it appears like
a city arising from amid a grove of palms; or like what
Babylon is supposed to have been, a walled province rath-
er than a single town.
"All the buildings, both public and private, are con-
structed of furnace-burned bricks of a yellowish-red col-
our, a small size, and with such rounded angles as prove
most of them to have been used repeatedly before; being
taken, perhaps, from the ruins of one edifice to construct a
second, and again from the fallen fragments of that to
compose a third. In the few instances where the bricks
are new, they have an appearance of cleanliness and neat-
ness never presented by the old. The streets of Bagdad,
as in all other Eastern towns, are narrow and unpaved,
and their sides present generally two blank walls, win-
dows being rarely seen opening on the public thorough-
fare, while the doors of entrance leading to the dwellings
from thence are small and mean. These streets are more
intricate and winding than in many of the great towns of
Turkey; and, with the exception of some tolerably regu-
lar lines of bazars and a few open squares, the interior of
Bagdad is a labyrinth of alleys and passages.t
* Travels in Mesopotamia, vol. ii., p. 179-181, 191–193, 494-499
+ It is to be remembered that this traveller came from Egypt and Tur-
key, while our author had travelled from Persia ; their impressions were


240
MODERN BABYLONIA.
“Of the private houses of Bagdad I saw but little, ex-
cepting only their exterior walls and terraces. It struck
me as singular, that throughout the whole of this large
city I had not seen even one pointed arch in the door of
entrance to any private dwelling. They were all either
round or flat, having a fancy-work of small bricks above
ed mosques in which the pointed arch is seen, its form is
nearer to the Gothic than to the common Saracenic shape,
which I had also observed to be the case at Mosul ; so
that Bagdad could not have been the original seat of Sar-
acenic architecture, which probably took its rise much
farther in the West.
“ The houses consist of ranges of apartments opening
into a square interior court; and while subterranean
rooms, called serdaubs, are occupeid during the day for
the sake of shelter from the intense heat, the open terra-
ces are used for the evening meal and for sleeping on at
night. From the terrace of Mr. Rich's residence, wbich
was divided into many compartments, each having its
separate passage of ascent and descent, and forming, in-
deed, so many unroofed chambers, we could command at
the first opening of the morning just such a view of Bag-
dad as is given in the 'Diable Boiteux' of Madrid, show-
ing us all the families of Bagdad, with their sleeping-apart-
ments unroofed, and those near our own abode often in
sufficiently interesting situations. From this lofty station,
at least eight or ten bedrooms in different quarters were
exposed around us, where, as the families slept in the
open air, domestic scenes were exposed to view without
our being once perceived, or even suspected to be witness-
es of them.
"Among the more wealthy, the husband slept on a rais-
ed bedstead, with a mattress and cushions of silk, covered
by a thick, stuffed quilt of cotton, the bed being without
curtains or moscheto-net. The wife slept on a similar
bed, but always on the ground, that is, without a bedstead,
and at a respectful distance from her husband; while the
children, sometimes to the number of three or four, occu-
pied only one mattress, and the slaves or servants each a
therefore different, which will account for apparent discrepancies in their
respective accounts.


MODERN BABYLONIA.
241
separate mat on the earth, but all lying down and rising
up within sight of each other. Every one rose at an early
hour, so that no one continued in bed after the sun was
up; and each, on rising, folded up his own bed, his cov-
erlid and pillows, to be taken into the house below, ex-
cepting only the children, for whom this office was per-
formed by the slave or the inother.
“None of all these persons were as much undressed as
Europeans generally are when in bed. The men retained
their shirt, drawers, and often their caftan, a kind of inner
cloak. The children and servants lay down with nearly
the same quantity of clothes as they had wom in the day;
and the mothers and their grown daughters wore the full
silken trousers of the Turks, with an open gown, and,
if rich, their turbans, or, if poor, an ample red chemise,
stances which we saw, the wives assisted with all due re-
spect and humility to dress and undress their husbands,
and to perform all the duties of valets. After dressing,
the husband generally performed his devotions, while the
slave was preparing a pipe and coffee; and on his seat-
ing himself on his carpet when this was done. his wife
served him with her own hands, retiring at a proper dis-
tance to wait for the cup, and always standing before him,
sometimes, indeed, with the hands crossed in an attitude
of great humility, and even kissing his hand on receiving
the cup from it, as is done by the lowest attendants of the
household.
“While the husband lounged on his cushions, or sat on
his carpet in an attitude of ease and indolence to enjoy his
morning pipe, the women of the family generally prayed.
In the greater number of instances they did so separately,
and exactly after the manner of the men; but on one or
two occasions, the mistress and some other females, per-
haps a sister or a relative, prayed together, following each
other's motions side by side, as is done when a party of
men are headed in their devotions by an imam. None of
the females, whether wife, servant, or slave, omitted this
morning duty; but among the children under twelve or
fourteen years of age, I did not observe any instance of
their joining in it.
“Notwithstanding the apparent seclusion in which wom-
en live here, as they do, indeed, throughout all the Turkish


MODERN BABYLONIA.
243
artillery, kept a brilliant court and encouraged commerce,
so that the city, if not the pachalic, flourished under his
government. But since his days, pestilence, inundation,
and famine have greatly reduced the population of the
town as well as of the country.
It was in the spring of 1831 that the plague, brought, as
is believed, from Persia by the pilgrims to Kerbelah, broke
out in Bagdad ; and a more frightful detail of horrors than
this visitation gave birth to, is not, perhaps, to be found in
the history of human sufferings. The pacha, desirous to
prevent undue alarm, by a mistaken caution prevented the
egress of those who would have fled, so that the disease had
not only full scope. but was even aggravated by a dense
crowd of every sort and condition. On the 10th of April
the deaths had already amounted to 7000; and from 1000
to 1200 were every day added to the number. In no long
time this daily mortality increased to 4000 and 5000.
Many houses were emptied; profound silence prevailed;
no one was to be met in the streets except water-carriers
employed to wash the dead, or those who bore them to the
tomb. But soon the victims became too numerous for the
attention of the living. Water could not be had for the
use of the survivers, nor cloth to wrap the bodies of the
dead, nor persons to inter them. Hence some of the
most considerable people were carried on asses, and
thrown into the river or into some hole; while the poor
were buried imperfectly in the houses where they died, or
were left to taint the air on the spots where they happened
to expire.
The most distressing thing, perhaps, was the abandon-
ment of young children, who were exposed in the streets
by the dying parents, in the hope of attracting the regard
of charitable persons, at a period, alas! when the dread-
ful circumstances of the tinie had deadened all feelings of
sympathy. Yet the sight did occasionally move the pity
of women-mothers, perhaps, themselves-who, most com-
monly, to their humane assistance added the sacrifice of
their lives. Mr. Groves, the missionary who relates these
facts, saw often, in the walks which he took to the British
residency, as many as eight or ten of those helpless little
creatures thus exposed, some of them not ten days old,
which, though heartsick at the sight, he had no means of
saving.


244
MODERN BABYLONIA.
When the mortality was at the highest, the misery of
the wretched inhabitants was increased by another terri-
ble agent. The waters of the river, which had risen be-
yond all precedent, surrounded the town as with a sea,
The wall at length gaye way, and the flood poured in, sap-
ping the mud-built foundations of the houses, of which
7000 fell in the night, burying in their ruins the sick, the
dying, and the dead. Fifteen thousand individuals are
estimated thus to have perished on the eastern side alone;
yet so absorbed was every one with his own grief, that this
event, which in common times would have caused the
greatest excitement, was scarcely noticed by any. The
ground towards the river being higher, a number of hous-
es remained untouched. To these all who had escaped
the effects of the inundation repaired, filling up the blanks
that had been made by death, and bringing fresh food for
the pestilence which lurked in the empty dwellings, whose
late tenants still lay unburied within their walls..
· Nor was the condition of the pacha better than that of
his subjects. His palace was in ruins; his guards were
dead or had fled ; out of 100 Georgians who constituted
his personal attendants, four only were left; of his wom-
en, two alone remained ; and he at length was indebted to
the benevolence of a poor fisherman for a little food to pre-
serve him from starvation. He sought to flee the city,
and desired the use of the residency boat; but of her crew
only one man was alive, and he could not find others to
work her. “Fear of him,” says Mr. Grove, “is passed,
and love for him there is none."
Such havoc could endure but for a season. The pesti-
lence at length mitigated its severity, and by the 26th
of May. the disease was at an end. Lamentable and fear-
ful was the wreck on which the survivers had to gaze.
Of the gross population of Bagdad, there is every reason
to believe that two thirds were carried off, and that the
number of dead did not fall short of 100,000.
The instances of mortality in families and among cer-
tain classes of men were yet more striking. Of eighteen
servants and sepoys left in the British residency, two only
escaped ; and one of them was the sole surviver of a fam-
ily of fourteen. An Armenian of rank assured Mr. Groves,
that out of 130 houses in his quarter, only twenty-seven
of the inhabitants were left. One of the moollahs decla.


MODERN BABYLONIA.
245
red, that in the section of the city where he had lived, he
knew not one remaining; and, as a single instance of its
effects in other parts, it may be mentioned, that the town
of Hillah, which contained 10,000 inhabitants, was entire-
ly depopulated. Some, no doubt, had fled; but the great-
er number fell victims to the disease.
Nor was it confined to cities and villages. A large car-
avan, which had left Bagdad for Damascus at the com-
mencement of the mortality, was at once seized with the
epidemic and surprised by the inundation. Having reach-
ed a comparatively elevated spot, they remained confined
to it during three weeks, the water constantly gaining on
them, and the plague thinning their ranks. Few had the
good fortune to leave the place.
But there were thousands who fled too late, and were
caught without any sufficient vantage-ground within reach;
so that they were forced to remain in the water, which
rose half a yard high in their tents. Without food or the
means of making a fire, neither sick nor whole could lie
down; and, what was still more deplorable, they were not
able to bury their fast-accumulating dead. Some, frantic
with despair, sought to flee, and were drowned in attempt-
ing to return, though it were only that they might expire
at home; and the few who did escape fell into the hands
of the predatory Arabs, who treated them with their wont-
ed barbarity.
Next came famine, which carried off a portion of those
whom pestilence had spared. But the ruin of the sur-
rounding villages, and the effects of rapacity and war,
driving the inhabitants of the country to the town, it there-
by acquired a certain measure of population, which, how-
ever, in the course of the three succeeding years, was
again thinned by the same frightful disease. Under these
calamities the power of Daood Pacha was crushed ; and
Ali Pacha, the present ruler, who had been appointed by
the Porte to supersede him, was enabled to obtain posses-
sion of the city, together with the person of his rival.
Still, though peace has nominally been restored, and
plague has ceased, the population of Bagdad is far from
having reached its former extent. A few years ago its
amount was estimated at about 60,000, of whom the great-
er number were Turks and Arabs; but many were also
true Bagdadees, a somewhat peculiar race, deriving a
X2


246
MODERN BABYLONIA.
mixture of blood from all the neighbouring countries.
Most of the merchants are of Arab descent, though min-
gled with Armenians, Christians of the Catholic and Syrian
churches, and Jews; the bazars being crowded also with
Kurds, Persians, and Bedouins. But the last-mentioned
race do not like to pass the night in the town; and the
greater number of Persians, being pilgrims to the shrines
of Kerbelah and Nejeff Ali, generally take up their quar-
ters at the village of Kazemeen, or outside of the walls to-
wards the northwest.
The costume of Bagdad is described by Mr. Bucking-
ham as being in his day less splendid than that of Con-
stantinople or of Egypt. In the time of Assad Pacha this
may have been the case, but in that of Daood it was cer-
tainly very rich; and the court of the latter, with his mag-
nificently-mounted Georgians, his officers and their trains,
made a very gallant show. It is otherwise now; for the
plainness of the modern Turkish dress has extended to
This city, and the establishment of Ali is somewhat mean
and insignificant.
Still in the bazars there is a good deal of glitter and at-
traction; and a stranger is particularly struck with the
singularly wild attire of the Arabs and the brilliant cos-
tume of the Kurds. The former bind a silk kerchief, in
large bars of yellow and red, round the head with a rope
of camel's hair, and wear the national abba floating loose-
ly from the shoulders, often with very little under it. The
latter appear in rich turbans of red, white, and blue stri-
ped silk, with long fringes hanging down their shoulders;
gay vests and robes, over which is thrown the abba of
white, brown, or striped camlet. Among other striking
objects in the streets of Bagdad are the multitude of milk-
white asses and jet-black negroes. The former are used
by all but the warrior class in preference to horses, and
particularly by the ladies, who may be seen in large par-
ties trotting on their donkeys to pay visits; and such ani-
mals, particularly if possessed of fine paces, sell for a
large sum. The African slayes are quite as much the
fashion, both for male and female attendants, and, it apa
pears, are especially prized for their deformity. They are
all thick-lipped, have broad faces, high cheek-bones, ex-
ceedingly depressed noses, staring white eyes, and are
brought chiefly from Zanguebar by the Imam of Muscat,
who is a great dealer in those unhappy beings.


MODERN BABYLONIA.
249
About three in the afternoon we were greeted with the
sight of a few camels on the verge of the horizon-gener-
ally a sure sign of approach to an Arab encampment; but
this time it deceived us. These animals belonged to the
Jerbah tribe, some of which had wandered thus far. We
had seen smoke, too, which we believed to arise from the
Zobeid camp; but hour after hour passed on, and it ap-
peared no nearer. Towards evening we fell in with more
camels, and next saw a flock of sheep; but still no habita-
tion was perceived ; and, after wandering till dark, we
came to a small party of the natives just described, who
had neither bread nor water, and scarcely a mouthful of
corn for the horses. We all spent the night in anxiety
and unrefreshed; the servants, besides enduring the pangs
of hunger and thirst, being obliged to watch in turn against
the thievish propensities of their hosts.
Next morning, though cold and comfortless, the visiters
resumed their progress, and the River Tigris soon ena-
bled them to quench the thirst of themselves and their hor-
ses. Their way then lay through a sedgy marsh, a large
portion of which, having been set on fire, emitted the
smoke that had caused their disappointment on the prece-
ding day, and was then blazing in a line of flame which
extended for miles. This conflagration was lighted up
by the Arabs in order to bring up a fresh crop of grass in
place of the rank herbage.
A few strings of camels appearing in the distance her-
alded the approach of the tribe, which was in motion, and
the whole horizon was soon covered with these animals,
looking like moving trees in the mirage. After a few
hours more, the party were in the camp of the Zobeid
sheik, where, however, their reception was niggardly
enough, for scarcely could either fire, water, or victuals
be procured. It was the Turkish Ramazan or fast; and
it appeared as if they were resolved to enforce its observ-
ance on strangers as well as on themselves. The fare
and treatment next morning were equally indifferent; and
the ideas of Arab hospitality were waxing very low in the
minds of the travellers, when, on the second evening, they
were invited to an entertainment which produced a more
favourable opinion.
The tent of the sheik, formed of dark-brown haircloth,
was fifty or sixty feet long, supported in the centre by a


250
MODERN BABYLONIA.
row of poles, none of them rising more than nine feet.
The side to windward was pinned down with ropes to
within three feet of the ground, producing a sharp pent,
the opening being closed by a screen of the same materi-
al, which, though thin and pervious to the light, proved a
tolerable protection against the wind. The other side
was open in all its extent; the outer extremity, which
should have been fastened down, being elevated by poles
of about six feet in height, the ropes being proportionally
relaxed. The space thus covered overhead might be from
sixteen to twenty feet broad, by the length already stated.
The tent contained neither goods nor furniture, save to-
wards the upper end, where were some pillows and a few
carpets arranged for seats, and where the chief received
visiters in form. Near the lower end was a fireplace,
marked only by the ashes of successive fires. At this
time flared from it a bright blaze in the faces of as wild a
set of savages as ever surrounded a cannibal's feast, and
who, to the number of twenty or thirty, were seated on
their heels, most of them with shirts and abbas tucked up
to permit their long limbs to rejoice in the genial heat.
The chief and our friend the Kurd received us stand-
ing; but, so soon as a rag of carpet had been thrown down
for our convenience at one point of the circle, we all took
our seats. Never saw we anything so perfectly savage on
so large a scale, for the Kurds are accomplished gentle-
men in appearance compared to the Arabs. Even the
Turkomans stood out in advantageous contrast with these
wild children of the desert. A shirt and an abba were the
general full dress, with a headkerchief that could boast of
no particular colour. The sharp eye, too, gleamed with
scintillating fierceness from among their long black elf-
locks and beneath their contracted brows, so that a stran-
ger, judging from the loud tones of voice in which they
spoke, would have imagined they were just about to use
the sword or large clubbed stick which every one held in
his hand, or had laid beside him on the floor. But we had
not long to dwell on the ever-varying features of this
group; for the cawachee or coffee-preparer of the great
man now stepped forward, and, first sitting down in the
circle and warming his hands, began to pour qut, from
two ample brazen vessels, a sort of liquor composed of
hot water and sugar, flavoured with ginger and spice, with


MODERN BABYLONIA.
251
which it appears these Ramazan ascetics break their fast,
and which is presented also to the guests in little cups not
bigger than a dram-glass. Then came the signal for din-
ner, and we all went to the other end of the tent, where it
was laid out.
In the centre of the space in front of the cushions, which
were covered for the occasion with coarse canvass bags-
by way of tablecloth, it is presumed—there was raised a
sort of platform of wood, about six feet in diameter; and
on this, in an immense copper dish, smoked a heap of rice,
amounting to nearly three hundred weight. Encompass-
ing this grand centre-piece were ranged smaller platters
filled with sundry preparations of mutton and pastry.
The former was boiled or stewed, and dressed up as forced
meat, with plums, raisins, and other good things; the lat-
ter was in still more varied shapes, and, though rather
greasy, all exceedingly good. Most of the dishes, indeed,
were swimming in melted butter and rich sauces, and the
whole exhibited a chief-like profusion. Around this ban-
quet sat about thirty of the savages before described, with
their long, black, disordered locks hanging over the dish-
es; and behind these stood or sat a still more extensive
circle of expectants; for their practice is, that as soon as
any one has satisfied his appetite, he gives place to anoth-
er; and thus the succession proceeds, until the whole par-
ty, often amounting to hundreds, has been fed, should the
viands suffice. It was amusing to witness the vigorous
set-to that was made by one and all the moment the “ Bis-
millah !" was uttered. In one second, every hand was
plunged arm-deep into the rice; and each man vied with
his neighbour in making huge balls of it with the grease
and sauce of the stews, and in the dexterity with which he
stuffed them into his mouth. The sheik, though he did
not forget his own share in the feast, was by no means un-
mindful of his visiters. He took large lumps of the meat
and pastry, and threw them down before us on the rice,
pouring whole dishes of sauce and melted ghee over it to
increase its savouriness. The drink provided to wash
down these solid morsels was a sort of sherbet made of
sugar and water, acidulated, and very agreeable; and it
appeared to be quite as abundant as the eatables.
The guests then rose like the others, washed their hands,
and retired to the withdrawing-room, that is, to the fire-


252
MODERN BABYLONIA.
place at the other end, where the cawachee had resumed
his seat, having before him a row of large coffee-pots, from
which we were soon served with small cups of that bev-
erage, the dose being repeated every ten minutes as long
as we remained. This cook or butler was a miserable
scarecrow, with a face like a reaping-hook, a ragged shirt
and gown, and headgear of unspeakable squalidity; his
coffee, which was excellent, was flavoured with carda-
moms, was handed about by barelegged Ganymedes, in
canvass shirts of pretty much the same colour as the bey-
erage. Being the chief guests, we were served first, and
afterward the whole party indiscriminately; the cawa-
chee helping himself and his cup-bearers as regularly as
the rest.
Entertainments like these, and the practice of a profuse
hospitality, constitute the principal claim on the revenue
of an Arab chief. His personal expenses, or those of his
family, are trifling, compared with the outlay of a Persian
or a Turkish noble; but an almost incredible amount of
viands and provender is expended on numerous occasions.
The daily consumption of the Zobeid patriarch, when
alone, was not more than four sheep, and 250 or 300 lbs.
of rice; but when he had company it varied from ten to
twenty sheep, with rice in proportion. At the entertain-
ments of Suffook of the Jerbah tribe, it was not uncom-
mon to see the carcasses of twenty sheep lying boiled or
roasted upon huge masses of rice, and this repeated three
or four times a day.
The party, having sojourned two days with the sheik,
took a direction down to Jezirah towards the country of
the Montefic. The way for some time stretched over a
flat desert, sprinkled with the small mimosa agrestis, ca-
per bush, camel's thorn, and some salsuginous plants.
These were seen in smaller numbers towards the marshy
land near the River Hye, which is annually overflowed,
and where a few tamarisks are almost the only vegetation
that appears. In approaching the Lemlum marshes, and
the borders of the Euphrates near Grayim, the party had
to make their way through reeds or sedgy grass, which
serves as pasture to numerous herds of buffaloes kept by
the Madan Arabs who frequent these tracts. The whole
country, whether dry or boggy, presents a monotonous
and forbidding aspect, void of all the cheerful tokens of


254
MODERN BABYLONIA.
folly could mean, that worthy only shrugged up his shoul-
ders, and treated the bravado with the contempt it desery-
ed ; but, as it was occasioning very inconvenient delay,
we made the interpreter signify to the guides, that if this
was to be their mode of performing their duty to us, we
should return to the sheik and inform him. This, with a
small show of displeasure, brought the man to his senses;
he untucked his sleeves, resumed his abba, and began,
looking very much like a fool, to excuse his antics by a
detail of the causes of his enmity to those wicked Shum-
murs.
The fact was, he never had the slightest notion of med.
dling with them at all : it was merely a flourish, got up to
impress us with an idea of his courage. Had the stran-
gers indicated the smallest disposition to attack us, he
would have been the first to betake himself to flight. This
incident places the character of Arab courage in those
· parts in its true light.
. A day or two later the party had a specimen of Arabian
hospitality and kindness to strangers. Having bivouacked
in the open plain without food or drink either for their
horses or themselves, they proceeded next morning, hun-
gry, thirsty, and weary, till the appearance of camels at a
distance gave token of an encampment. The men ran
away on the approach of our party, but a horseman was
sent out to satisfy them of our pacific intentions. In the
mean time, three or four more cavaliers, armed with spears,
maneuvred on our right, who, after flourishing about for
a while, came off at full gallop. Another of our Arabs
dashed forth to meet them; down went the butt-ends of
their spears to the ground; and, after a short converse, we
had the satisfaction of seeing the leader and our hero lean
forward and embrace each other from their saddles. All
fear of assault was thus terminated, and our hopes of a
kind reception were confirmed by the welcome which they
gave us as they came forward to join our party. These
expectations, however, proved fallacious. The horsemen,
indeed, rode along with us towards some tents, which now
appeared at a distance; but, finding between them and us
a natural canal, partly filled with mud and water, they
discouraged us from attempting to cross it by asserting
that the occupiers of those tents were unable to entertain
us, and offering to take us to a richer tribe a little farther


258
MODERN BABYLONIA.
Into this emporium the sheik never enters; and he
makes it his boast that he will at no time degrade himself
by advancing within its walls. The Arabs have an in-
stinctive dislike to such enclosures. From their black
tents they can issue forth when they please; but some of
them have, to their cost, found the case otherwise with
walls of brick or mud.
The first interview of the travellers is thus described.
Our watches pointed nearly to eleven P.M., when the
meerza, entering our tent, told us that the bustle of the sa-
laam being over, the great man could receive us in a suit-
able manner, and accordingly we sallied forth. The
sheik had a white tent, part of the present of investiture
sent by Ali Pacha; but not in this did he receive his
friends and the public, it being only his sleeping-place.
His hall of audience was a temporary hut of reeds, con-
structed in about twenty minutes for his accommodation.
It was, indeed, extremely rude. On the floor, round the
sides, was spread a narrow slip of matting; across the up-
per end was laid, in like manner, a ragged strip of carpet.
A dim, dirty linen lantern, which hung from one of the
reed-posts, shed a most dismal light upon two dense row's
of savages, seated with their backs to the maited walls,
and barely rendered visible what seemed a huge bundle
of clothes raised a little above the rest of the assembly,
on a thing like an old hencoop. A fissure in the upper
part of this indescribable apparel disclosed a nose and
iwo glittering eyes, which indicated the august presence
of the sheik.
He did not rise to welcome us, but bowed, and at the
same time uttered certain sounds, which were understood
to express satisfaction. With no small difficulty we made
our way upward to his right hand, where we seated our-
selves; after which, for some time, we all remained in si-
lence. But his highness, happening to discover that one
of his guests was a physician, immediately became ani-
mated. He began a most lively detail of his numerous
ailments, and ended by asking whether the doctor would
feel his pulse that night or the morrow. But he instantly
replied to his own question, and a bony arm was thrust
forth from the mass of coverings. It was not easy to tell
whether the chuckling laugh with which he received the
medical man's report, that "he could find nothing the
co


MODERN BABYLONIA.
259
matter with his worship,” was one of approval or of dis-
appointment.
The state of his health having been amply discussed,
he began to unlock the stores of his own wisdom and
knowledge on other subjects. The affairs of Persia hay.
ing been mentioned, and a remark made concerning the
shah's death, he desired to be informed “who was the
shah ?" On being satisfied in this particular, and, more-
over, being told that the said ruler had expired at Ispahan,
the chief of all the Montefics repeated the word “Ispahan?
Ispahan ? what is it? where is it?-a country ? ā city ?
or what?" On this head, also, due intelligence was af-
forded him; and he then continued, in the most amiable
and condescending manner possible, to gather knowledge
and show forth his own ignorance, without betraying the
smallest symptom of that affectation under which some
are apt to cloak their deficiencies.
In the mean time, ginger tea and bitter coffee were
handed round by a slave. The first was sweet, hotly spi-
ced, and excellent; the latter, like all of Arab manufac-
ture, was strong as brandy, and bitter as gall, but warm
and refreshing. Midnight being close at hand, we thought
proper to withdraw. With regard to the mode of pro-
ceeding on our journey, guides, and other matters, the
sheik vouchsafed us scarcely one word. It was intimated
to us, indeed, that he meant to remain there the next day,
and would then make all the necessary arrangements for
our comfort; but we learned in the morning that he had
risen at an earlier hour than we, and carried off his nobil-
ity to Koote, a place farther up the river, leaving us to
follow at our leisure.


260
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
CHAPTER XIV.
Religron, Character, Manners, and Customs of the Inhabi-
tants of Modern Mesopotamia and Assyria.
Variety of Races.-Arabs.-Countries inhabited by.--Religion.-Char-
acter.-Blood-feuds - Sketches of the Arabs on the Euphrates by El-
liot.--Beni Saeed.-Hamet ul Khaleel – Their Women.-Costume.-
Camp of the Al Fadhlee.--Food.-Jungle Arabs.-Mode of decamp-
ing and encamping.-Contrast between the Jungle, or Fellah and Be-
douin Arabs.--Kurds.-Religion.-Points of Similarity with the Scot-
tish Highlanders.--Manners in Society and in Domestic Life.--Selim
Aga.-Roostum Aga.-National Character.--Personal Appearance.
Women.-Turkomans. -Christian Population.-Nestorians, Chalde-
ans, or Syrians.--Divisions of Sects.-Early Progress of Christianity in
the East.-Christian Bishops and Sees.--The Nestorian Heresy.-Con-
demnation of its Author.---Rise of the Jacobite Schism.-Its wide Dig-
semination.-Number of Sees.--Armenians and Roman Catholics.
Character of the Christian Population. -Chaldeans of Mount Jewar.
Sabæans.-Origin.-Tenets. Persecution.-Places of Abode, and sup-
posed Numbers.-Manicheans.-Doctrines of Manes.--History of the
Sect.-Yezidees.-Supposed Origin.-Various Appellations.--Secrecy
observed by thein concerning their Religion.- Account of their Tenets
so far as is known.--Tribes of the Sinjarli Yezidees.-Their Sacred
Fountains and Repositories of Treasure.-Character by Rich.-Shai-
tan Purust and Chirag Koosh.-Their Origin.--Ali Ullahis.
The extensive and interesting countries which we have
been endeavouring to describe, have at all times been in-
habited by a very mixed population, consisting of many
races, distinguished from each other by religion, by lan-
guage, and by customs. Some of these have been already
noticed; but it will be proper to particularize them some-
what more distinctly.
The great bulk of the inhabitants, besides the dominant
race of Turks, is made up of Arabs, Kurds, Turkomans,
Christians, and Jews. The first, as a matter of course,
compose a considerable proportion of the population of
the towns and large villages, filling nearly all civil and
military offices; and they differ in no respect from the or-
dinary Osmanlis of the Turkish empire.* With regard to
the second, we have already remarked that Mesopotamia,
from the line of the Hermás and Khabour southward, in.


OF THE INHABITANTS.
261
cluding Babylonia and Chaldea, is now, as it always has
been, principally peopled by Arabs, who, however, are not
confined to those limits, but form no minute part of the
population of Assyria, and are found in greater or smaller
numbers even in the most northern parts.
Of the religion of these Arabs nothing more need be said
than that they are Mohammedans of the Sonnee sect. In
character, habits, and customs they resemble, in general,
their brethren of the adjacent peninsula—from whence, at
one period or other, they all originally came-although
modified greatly by circumstances. They all lay claim to
the qualities of hospitality, generosity, justice, incorrupti-
ble integrity, and fidelity to their promise, courage, love of
independence, as much as they did in the days of Hatim
Taee; yet they acknowledge themselves to be robbers and
plunderers, attaching obviously no discredit to the act of
seizing the property of strangers who may not have bar-
gained with them for immunity as to person and goods,
But, whatever may have been the case in former times,
the Arabs of the present day, in the countries which we
are describing, appear to have retained only the vices,
while they have lost the virtues, of their forefathers; for,
so little regard do they now pay to their oaths or to the
true rights of a guest, that, though a traveller may be safe
while in the tent of a Bedouin, the latter thinks it no breach
of honour or humanity to send some one to attack him af-
ter he has quitted his roof, or even to stain his own hands
with violence.
Fortunately, the Arab is not prone to bloodshed, nor fond
of exposing his life to great hazard; so that, in cases of at-
tack where the odds are not very great, a little firmness
will bring him to reason. But, on the other hand, a use-
less opposition to a force who know their power, if pushed
to extremities, is apt to lead to fatal consequences; for,
when their blood has been rashly shed, they give no quar-
ter. Their battles among themselves are seldom attended
with serious casualties, victories being not unfrequently
gained without the loss of a man. But this results as
much from a reluctance to incur the consequences of a
blood-feud as to expose their own persons.
These blood-feuds, as among all other semi-barbarous
nations, are pregnant with horrible atrocities. Among
those which are recorded of more remote times, there is


262
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
none more disastrous and melancholy than that which once
distracted the great tribe of Montefic, consisting chiefly of
two principal clans, the Malik and the Ajwad. The quar-
rel arose out of a question as to right of pasturage on cer-
tain tracts; and the former at length prevailed by extermi-
nating their rival brethren. Excited to desperation by the
songs and remonstrances of the women, every male of the
Ajwad armed himself for battle, and fell in defence of the
spot where his fathers had fed their flocks. But even this
sanguinary triumph was insufficient to satisfy the jealous
tem per of Solyman, the leader of the victorious clan.
Dreading future retribution, should even a single individ-
ual of the conquered tribe survive, he adopted the atro-
cious expedient of putting every female to death, and se-
curing the destruction of progeny by the most appalling
means. One alone, who had thrown herself at the feet of
a Malik chief, was saved by his compassion at the immi-
nent risk of his own life; for he was wounded and nearly
cut in pieces while defending her. Of this young woman,
who was pregnant at the time, was born Abdoollah, after-
ward the founder of a family, which, from the peculiar
origin of its chief, received the appellation of the “Or-
phan's Tribe.” The place of slaughter was one of those
pleasant glens which, even in the steril and rocky soil of
Arabia, are found among the mountains, where water may
be everywhere obtained near the surface, and which in
spring and early summer are covered with a rich verdure.
That which was the scene of this disaster is to be seen
about fifteen miles to the south of modern Bussora, and is
still known as the Wadi ul Nissa, or the “ Vale of Wom-
en," the name which it received upon that fatal occasion.
A catastrophe of a like nature, though confined to the
fate of an individual, was witnessed not many years ago
by an English traveller, who had chanced to become a
guest in the tent of a sheik of the Beni Lam Arabs, as he
was journeying through Kuzistan. In the absence of the
chief, the honours were done to him by his daughter, a
young woman, the only resident in the tent. Towards
morning the stranger was roused from his sleep by shrieks,
and soon distinguished the voice of his young hostess ex-
claiming that she was murdered. All rushed to the spot,
where they found the unfortunate girl in the agonies of
death, her breast pierced in three places with a dagger.



EA
Comed
CELMIKAAT
9
ANDERSON
Mesopotamian Arabs and their Tents.


OF THE INHABITANTS.
265
While gazing on the sight, and offering vain assistance, a
voice was heard from a height close by, exclaiming, “Yes !
it is I. I have done it. Praise be to God, I have murder-
ed her." All eyes turned to the spot, where there was per-
ceived an old woman gesticulating with the utmost vehe-
mence. A rush was made towards her; and she either
ran or was borne back to the brink of the river, on which
the tents were pitched, and, falling from the high bank, was
seen no more.
On inquiry, it appeared that this stern female was moth-
er of a pehlewan or prize-fighter of another tribe, who, not
long before, had killed a son of this sheik, an event which
had excited the half-dormant feud in all its bitterness. A
stranger soon afterward entering the camp, was received
with the usual frankness, and hospitably entertained. Un-
fortunately, he was recognised by some one as the very peh-
lewan who had slain their patriarch's son ; but he was now
their guest, and, by the inviolable custom of the Arabs,
could not be touched. The chief himself was absent; and
the feelings of good faith and humanity were prepondera-
ting, when this young woman, sister of the deceased, enter-
ed the assembly, and upbraided the men with cowardice.
“Shall the murderer of your sheik's son be here, and es-
cape ?" said she, vehemently. “Never let it be told; put
him instantly to death.” But still a reluctance to infringe
the sacred principle in so glaring a manner restrained
their hands, when the young girl herself, maddened with
rage, seized a sword and smote the unfortunate man. The
sight of blood was irresistible. In a moment every weap-
on was sheathed in his body, and he was literally cut in
pieces. The head of the tribe returning, was horrified at
the event, which he would fain have recalled or repaired.
But the mother of the dead would accept no atonement;
she followed the camp for years, thirsting for revenge, and
she found her opportunity that night when the English trav-
eller happened to be the guest of her victim.
Another English traveller,* now dead, gives the follow-
* Mr. Elliot, to whose manuscript papers the author was kindly per-
mitted access by Colonel Taylor, the British resident at Bagdad. The
gentleman here mentioned was a person of great enterprise and high ac-
quirements; and, as he possessed the means of obtaining information
which fall to the lot of few, the Notes which he left are of uncommon
value, more especially as they respect the manners and domestic habits
of the people.


266
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
ing sketches of his intercourse with some of the Arab clan's
on the banks of the Euphrates. Two natives accompanied
him, travelling as dervishes skilled in the art of medicine;
and having passed through certain Kurdish and Turkoman
districts, they at length reached the precincts of the Beni
Saeed. As they approached the tents, one of the leaders,
Hamet el Jassin, threw himself on the ground before them,
and remained prostrate, while the pretended priests passed
over his body. "May the feet of all sheiks (holy men)
be on my neck !" was his humble expression as they step-
ped over him; and one of the traveller's companions did
actually respond to this aspiration by standing on the poor
man's loins some time, while repeating a portion of the
Koran. “Who are ye, fathers ?'' was the question put by
the chief after undergoing this operation. "Dervishes go-
ing to Racca-to the tomb of Wasil Karanee: may God
be satisfied with the act!" was the reply; " and one of us
is a doctor and surgeon.” No sooner was this fact an-
nounced, than forward pressed a crowd of invalids, real
or féigned, to whom remedies were given gratis.
The sheik had, meantime, invited them into the cata-
comb in which he lodged; but he was not the chief of the
tribe. This distinction was enjoyed by Dervish ibn Fakh
ul Saeed, a man held in universal esteem even by the pow-
erful tribe of Aneiza, who pay respect to few. There
were others, however, of the horde whom the traveller
honours with especial regard ; and among them, Hamet
ul Khaleel (or Hamet the Beloved), an old man, whom
he describes as of striking appearance, “whose long white
beard, waving in all directions, and bald head, half cover-
ed with the black silk handkerchief that bound it, gave a
venerable air to his aspect; while his tall, gaunt figure,
but gallant deportment, proclaimed that in his youth he
had been that common character among Arabs, a martial
fop. The hearty welcome, and frequent rounds of right
good coffee, declared him to be what in truth he was, a
generous, noble-hearted old fellow; and the term 'a father
to the poor,' applied to him by the guide, described his
character exactly."
The tribe of Beni Saeed, indeed, so far as the men are
concerned, are favourably represented by our traveller;
but the ladies, both of this and other nations, do not ap-
pear in his pages to equal advantage. He describes the


268
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
rian voice was heard far above the rest. To my astonish-
ment, he even, at times, addressed persons in another tent.
“Here the rule appears to be different from that which
prevails among other tribes, where everything is determin-
ed by the number of votes any man obtains. Every one
spoke together; and it seemed to me that the loudest voice
carried the argument. Whoever first entered the tent,
came to the place or fixed his eye where he intended to
sit. The signal is 'Salaam Alei coum !' on which room
must be made in that particular spot; the man who had
saluted then wedges himself down into his seat. Each
fresh visiter is thus accommodated; even though he had
been sitting in the same tent, and at a distance from the
fire, he may come with his ‘Salaam Alei coum!' and thus
obtain a position near it. There is no respect shown to
age or person, except, perhaps, to those who have the most
impudence.
The Kurd Ali Sinjar gave the letter to the sheik, who,
being unable to read, sent for the moolah, who, after much
difficulty, made it out. The chief, then turning to me,
bawled out, in a tone far above the voices of the rest, each
individual at the same time roaring out his opinion, and
favouring me with directions about my future route. I
never before witnessed such a scene of uproar; but it was
one I had to witness every day and hour from hence to
Anah. Five or six persons insisted upon asking me ques-
tions all at the same moment; and while I was replying
to one, the rest would, on conjecture, answer their own in-
quiries, for the sheer love of speaking. 'Talk,' said my
companion, Dervish Hoossein,' is their fire, their clothing,
and pillow. The sheik, however, gained the day.
“I was much fatigued by the incessant noise and crush-
ing of people before the fire; a circle three or four deep
having been formed, which completely filled up the tent.
The sheik lay near the blaze at full' length; his son, a
spoiled boy of fourteen, sat on our toes, turning round and
nudging us with the points of his fingers (a common prac-
tice) as fast as he could frame questions to put to us. The
crowd was so great, that when I tried to sit cross-legged,
they sat down upon my knees. I begged Omar to act the
part of physician in my room; upon which the Kurd Ali
Sinjar, who retained the place of honour, and was raking
the ashes with a crooked stick, first thrust forth his great


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MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
cutting away the wood, and making a fence of loose
branches five feet high. In this two openings are left, call.
ed Bab ul Gunnum--that is, gates for the sheep-to shut
up which at night spare branches are left, as a protection
at once against thieves and wild beasts. Lions abound;
and a loud shouting was kept up almost the whole night to
scare them away. But the dogs are the best guards, giv-
ing the alarm, in which the men join. It often happened
that, while sitting at meals or in conversation, such a warn-
ing was heard, on which every one began to shout where
he sat until the alarm ceased.
The ground being cleared, each individual takes his sta-
tion exactly as in the last encampment, in order that the
cattle may find their way to their respective homes with
ease; yet they say the animals would find out their masters'
huts even if the order were changed. The tents are opened
out and beaten; the men knock in the pegs and raise the
poles; the women set up the screens and arrange the tent,
which is then brushed to take off the soot. Stakes are
driven into the ground, and a rope passed across at the
farther end, to which halters are fastened for the oxen.
Itheree stalks are collected and thrown in for the cattle by
the women ; while the men, the laziest people on earth, do
scarcely anything. On the whole, he gives a most de-
plorable account of these tribes, as being despicable cow-
ards as well as thieves; but of the Aneiza, who plunder
them, he talks in the highest terms. He dwells particular-
ly on the difference in manner and appearance between the
fixed Arabs and those of the Desert or Bedouin tribes, de-
scribing the latter as naturally noble, of manly carriage
and animated features; the former as clownish, and ill-fa-
voured both in face and figure. “A stranger,” he assures
us, "would scarcely be offended by being plundered by the
Bedoui, while even a compliment from the cultivating
Arab is disgusting. I know no better way to express the
contrast.” Nay, it appears that even in enforcing their
demands upon the subject tribes, however absolute they
may be, they are ever dignified and polite, “as if they
were taking their own. In short, they may be termed the
nobility and gentry of the Arabs, while the cultivators are
the boors of the country.” With this somewhat overstrain-
ed testimony in favour of the predatory bands, we shall
lake leave of those tribes.


272
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
for I observed several persons of mean appearance and
shabby apparel admitted to a high place in the assembly.
"When a friend or a relative arrived from the country,
the heads of the sept went to the door, or beyond it, to em-
brace him. The sons or nephews had probably given the
first welcome when he dismounted ; if not, they came in
and saluted him each in turn; and there was in this re-
ception a sort of pleasing eagerness, which put me quite in
mind of old times at home; and really, the more I saw of
the Kurds, the more did their resemblance to the ancient
Highlanders strike me. The respect of the young for the
aged was particularly remarkable. The son never sat
down in the father's presence, nor the nephew in that of
the uncle, except by especial desire, and then in a distant
part of the room; yet there appeared no want of tender-
ness on the part of the elders, nor of willing and ready
obedience or filial affection on that of the rising generation.
At meals, though the victuals were brought in by servants
who performed the more menial offices, the sons of the
host waited on the guests and attended to their wants,
handed water to drink, assisted them to such things as
were out of reach, trimmed the lights, and exerted them-
selves to increase the comfort of all. The domestics, too,
were treated with great consideration, and even familiarity,
insomuch that it was some time before I could distinguish
the relatives of the family from the hired assistants.
“The great, it is true--that is, the higher chiefs-affect
more state. The khans have their nazirs or stewards,
their head peishkhiinuits (body-servants), furoshes, and the
like, in the same manner as the Persian noblesse; but I
am now speaking of domestic manners, and these were
marked by kindness and good feeling. There was an
open-hearted simplicity about many of these Kurds that
was very refreshing, and which often showed itself in a
manner that amused while it pleased me. Among these,
Azeez Beg was remarkable; not ihat his simplicity at all
indicated weakness-it was rather the overflow of a guile-
less heart, which neither suspected others of deceit, nor de-
sired to conceal a thought of its own.
" They were amused by my telling them that I was my-
self a native of a country not unlike Kurdistan; mount-
ainous, and divided into tribes; often, in times of old, at
war and feud with one another; and as fond as Kurds


274
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
what is a soldier good for when once he has done that?
But the pacha and the Persians will both have what they
demand-so what is left to the ryot but flight ? "Now this
very mild and civil gentleman,' said I to the guide, as we
rode away; 'this aga, who has made us so welcome, and
given us so kind a reception--suppose no envoy from Soly-
maneah had been with us, and that we had met him and
his followers in the open plain, I presume he would have
made no scruple at robbing us if he could.
"By the head of Solyman Pacha,' replied the guide,
laughing heartily, “and by your own life, sir, you appear
to know the man as well as I do myself; you have hit the
mark exactly. Selim Aga is just the man for such a job;
he would eat bread with you as your host, and after the
khoosh amedeed and khodah hafiz (the welcome and fare-
well), he would tie up his beard, turn his turban, and dis-
guise himself and his people so that you should not know
them, and gallop ahead and waylay you, strip you naked,
and leave you on the place. He is the completest napak
(scoundrel) in all Kürdistan–the most remorseless ruf-
fian; why, sir, that fellow has stripped women and left
them in the desert: he would take their shift from their
backs if it were worth threepence, even if they had not
another rag.
"And is not all this held infamous even in Kurdistan ?'
demanded I. “So infamous, sir, that I have not words to
tell you how bad it is thought; but Selim Aga is a beast
that has neither shame nor feeling.'"
Another of these semi-barbarous chieftains was Roos-
tum, aga of the village Ibrahim Khanchee, and of a small
tribe of Kurds. “We were received by his son; but in the
evening he himself came, a jolly, good-humoured, dark-
looking man, with a round face and a careless laugh, who
received us with a boisterous civility. He was one of that
sort of savages who are wonderfully good when they are
not opposed: but the sudden cloud on the brow the mo-
ment he was contradicted, seemed to hint 'I can be a ty-
rant when I will.'
"We were a little reserved at first ; though, as I make a
point on all occasions to conciliate as much as possible,
we soon came to an understanding: but he commenced
after a curious fashion. Calling to my servant, who was
standing in the room, he said, 'What is your name? How


276
MANMERS AND CUSTOMS
the beg, with a whimsical laugh, to the people about him,
But the aga had, it appeared, a good deal of superstition,
for he would not eat out of the same dish with a European;
and declared he had made a vow against wine. When
told of the popular notion in Europe, that the spirits of
murdered persons appear on earth in order to point out the
guilty, or to the murderer himself to force him to confes-
sion, he was greatly struck with the idea, and exclaimed,
'Lah illah il ullah ! if such were to be the case here, who
would ever rob or murder !!
“But the day of repentance for bloodshed and plunder
had certainly not as yet come to Roostum Aga. He dwelt
on the many frays he had been in, and the spoil he had
taken, with a zest and earnestness which showed how
strong the evil principle was yet in him. He told me he
had been wounded at least a dozen times, in spite of the
best of armour. 'I have it of every kind,' said he, "and at
one period I used always to wear it, but I have learned to
put but little trust in it: my trust is in heaven;' and he
spoke with as firm and assured a tone as if his cause had
been the most righteous on earth.
"He lamented, however, the evil days on which the
present race of Kurds had fallen. The golden times of
Kurdistan were gone, he said. “Ride over the country,
and what spirit, what show of gallantry will you find {
All the good horsemen and stout soldiers are dead, or have
fled to other lands; or they have taken to the plough in or-
der to feed their wives and children. When I suggested
that the roads were not yet quite safe, and alluded to some
symptoms I had observed of old practices—Ah,' replied
he, that is nothing; only a few “looties” here and there;
no dashing bands of horsemen now to be met with ; but be
content: I, Roostum Beg, am pledge for your safety; no-
thing shall touch you between this and Kufri; you are a
good fellow, an excellent fellow, and I like you; by your
head I do; be satisfied; you shall see Kufri in safety.”
The appearance and character of the Kurds are thus
summed up. “Like other men and nations, they are the
creatures of education and circumstance, but are possessed
of natural qualities that might be turned to excellent ac-
count. Bold they are, and hospitable after a fashion; but
this last virtue has been sadly dimmed of late years by
poverty and oppression. Like most pastoral and patri.


OF THE INHABITANTS.
277
.
archal people, they are distinguished by a strong love of
kindred, which renders their quarrels fierce and bloody,
each being perpetuated by a series of remorseless murders.
Far from cruel by nature, these feuds and the love of war
have made them reckless of spilling blood, and caused
them to estimate life at less value than it is held in more
peaceful countries; yet the recollection of consequences
tends in some degree to repress this ruthless spirit, and re-
strains the passions in a manner which pity or a sense of
crime would never effect: a compensation for the want of
that more regular control which is ever found under like
circumstances of society.
“In person the Kurds are well made and active, differ-
ing perhaps in that respect but little from their neighbours
the Persians. The national features, however, are very
peculiar. The cast of countenance is sharp, the form of
the face oval, the profile remarkable, owing to the promi-
nence of the nose, and the comparative retrocession of the
mouth and chin, which communicate to its outline a semi-
circular shape. The eyes are deep-set, dark, quick, and
intelligent; the brow ample and clear, but somewhat re-
treating; and the general mould of the features by far
more delicate than those of the Persians, which are usual-
ly somewhat too strong. In Kurdistan you would look in
vain for a snub nose. The mouth is almost always well-
formed, and the teeth fine; the hands and fingers are small
and slender. In short, there is something of elegance in
their form, which would mark them as a handsome nation
in any part of the world.
"The same remarks apply to the women, so far as I
have had opportunities of observation. When young they
are exceedingly pretty; but when old, or even at what,
with us, would scarcely be deemed maturity, the sharp
prominence of feature which characterizes them, in com-
mon with the men, is unfavourable to beauty, and they
soon appear faded and withered. Frequent occasions pre-
sented themselves for observing these particulars, as they
do not wear veils like the Persian females. The utmost
that is practised in this way is to bring the end of the hand-
kerchief which covers their heads across the mouth and
chin. I regret that it is little in my power to follow them
into their privacy, and describe their domestic duties; but,
from what I do know, I have reason to believe that their life
AA


278
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
and occupations resemble in all respects those of the same
order in Persia. Ladies of the richer class who live in
towns remain in the harems of their husbands or fathers,
and veil when they go abroad. The poorer, and all, in-
deed, who spend their days in villages or tents, perform the
laborious duties which, in more civilized countries, be-
long to the men.”
There are, besides the Kurds and Arabs, many tribes of
Turkomans to be found in the extensive plains and wa-
ving downs of Upper Mesopotamia. These originally
formed a portion of the Tartar tribes, which, under various
invaders, conquered the country, and have permanently
settled there. They are Sonnees in point of faith ; of pred-
atory habits like their neighbours, and principally pasto-
ral in their modes of life.
The Christian population, though scattered more or less
over the whole region, is most numerous in the northern
parts of both provinces. In several districts of Upper Mes-
opotamia they form the bulk of the labouring classes; and
in the vicinity of Mosul and of Mardin, and the mountain-
ous country to the north and east of these places,* the
greater number of villages are entirely peopled with va-
rious denominations of believers. Of these the first to be
mentioned are the Nestorians, Chaldeans, or Syrians, as
they are indifferently termed, and who are subdivided into
two sects: those who have acknowledged the supremacy
of the Roman pontiff, and those who adhere to their an-
cient faith; secondly, the Jacobites, who also have under-
gone a like subdivision; thirdly, the Armenians, who cling
to their own church and patriarch; and, fourthly, a very
few who acknowledge an adherence to the Romish com-
munion.
As a full account of these several sects would amount to
a history of Christianity in the East from its earliest origin,
a short sketch of the leading facts must suffice; referring
those of our readers who may be anxious to know more to
the laborious and very erudite work of Assemani,t who has
brought together everything that industry could collect
upon the subject.
* The Rev. Horatio Southgate, missionary, and a late traveller in theso
parts, considers Mardin as the chief place and centre of the Syrian Chris
tians. His work contains many particulars on this subject.
+ Bibliotheca Orientalis, 4 vols. folio, Rome, 1719-1728.


280
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
Rome, and signified to the pope his adhesion to the church,
on which his holiness acknowledged him as patriarch of
the Catholic Nestorians.
The schism was maintained by the successors of these
rivals. Elias, who followed Sulaca, opposed and perse-
cuted Simeon Denha, next in order to Simeon Bar-Mama,
at Diarbekir, until he finally forced him to quit his see,
and take refuge in the province of Zein al Bech, in the
mountains of Ormi, near the confines of Armenia, where
his successors, assuming the distinctive name of Simeon,
remain to this day. Since that time there have been two
distinct patriarchs of the Nestorians; the one, under the
name just given, continues to rule his flock in the mount-
ains of Jewar, following the primitive faith; the other, call-
ed Elias, formerly residing in Bagdad, occupies the mon-
astery of St. Hormisdas, near Mosul, and is the head of the
Catholic Nestorians. It appears, moreover, that towards
the end of the seventeenth century, the efforts of mission-
aries from Italy had occasioned so many of them to ab-
jure their errors and embrace the Romish belief, that Pope
Innocent XI. was induced to constitute for them a new
patriarch named Joseph, whose seat was fixed at Caramit
or Diarbekir. These heretics, in the earlier ages of the
Church, appear to have been numerous, and spread over
the whole of Central Asia. Of their numbers at the pres-
ent day no calculation can be made; but, according to
the information of their countryman Rassam,* the sees of
both sects are reduced to nine, viz., Diarbekir, Sert, Jezi-
rah, Mosul and Al Kosh, Amadieh, Kojannes, Selmast,
Ooroomia, Bagdad.
The Jacobite schism appears to have occurred about the
year 550, originating with a monk named Jacob, who prop-
agated the doctrine that there is but one nature in Christ.
Of these, also, there are two sects, each of which has its
patriarch; the one following the rites of the Latin Church,
the other remaining separate. Divine service is performed
by their priests in the Chaldean language, but the mass is
said in Hebrew. They believe in transubstantiation, and
honour the holy sacrament when borne by Romish priests
* A very intelligent person, son of the bishop at Mosul, who accom-
panied the late Euphrates expedition as interpreter, and is now associa-
ted with that sent by the Royal Geographical Society into Kurdistan
and Mesopotamia.


OF THE INHABITANTS.
281
to sick persons; whereas the Syrians of the Greek Church
refuse this respect to the Eucharist if consecrated by those
who acknowledge the pope.
The Jacobite patriarchs originally took their title from
Antioch, but only the earlier of their number resided there.
It would appear that Tagritis (Tecreet) was one of their
original seats: from thence they removed to Mar Mattei,
near Mosul, the see of which place was joined to that con-
vent. In the time of Niebuhr, the titular patriarch of An-
tioch resided at Diarbekir; but, according to Assemani,
the sect appears to have been very numerous and widely
diffused, for he gives a list of upward of fifty dioceses in
Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Babylonia alone. These, it is
probable, did not all exist at the same period, and some of
them were very small; but their number implies a dense
population and a considerable flock.
Of the Armenians and Roman Catholics there is little
to be said. The first are chiefly found in towns, pursu-
ing the profession of merchants or craftsmen: the latter,
though so few as to constitute but an inconsiderable por-
tion of the population, are more scattered over the country.
There is at Bagdad a vicar appointed by the authority of
Rome to look after this small flock, which does not, we be-
lieve, increase at the present moment.
Of the character of the Christians in that part of Asia,
the little we know is not very favourable. Uneducated
and oppressed, forced still more than their Mohammedan
neighbours to cringe and deceive the despots who rule and
pillage them, with no fit preceptors to teach them the value
either of morality or religion, it is not to be expected that
the cardinal virtues can flourish among them. According-
ly, we hear them spoken of with but little respect. Mr.
Rich alludes to the dirt and bad order of their villages, the
squalidity and drunkenness of their inhabitants. Rassam,
again, though son of the Bishop of Mosul, classes them
with the rest of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, as being
vicious from habit as well as education; asserting, how-
ever, that those who live in towns are industrious, carrying
on useful trades, especially in cotton-cloth and cutlery.
The villagers, he adds, whó cultivate the land in summer,
manufacture calicoes in winter.
The Nestorians of the mountains, those, namely, who
inhabit the highlands of Kurdistan from Ooroomia to Mo-
AA2


282
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
sul, are, he says, a very different race from those of the
plains. They have numerous gardens, the produce of
which they lay up for winter store; and they barter gall-
nuts, yellow-berries, goats' hair and down, sheep's wool,
dried fruits, wax, honey, tobacco, cheese of an excellent
quality, and sheep, for wheat and other necessaries. Their
tobacco, in particular, is excellent.
These people are said to be handsome and strongly
made, great hunters, and excellent marksmen, never go-
ing without their arms, and knowing well how to use
them; in short, their countryman Rassam gives pretty
much the same account of them as others do.
There is yet another sect of Christians found in the re-
gions we are now describing, although their religion is of
very doubtful character. These are the Sabæans, often
called Christians of St. John Mendai, or Mendai Jaja by
themselves, and Sabbi by the Arabians and Persians.
They are sometimes also described as Chaldeans or Syr-
ians, for there is reason to suppose that the creed of both
was originally the same. Their descent has, according to
some authors, been referred to Saba, the son of Cush, whose
progeny are understood to have occupied the remote parts
of the peninsula bordering on the Persian Gulf. But they
themselves contend for the truth of a tradition which de-
duces them from those Arabians who were baptized by
John the Baptist in the River Jordan.
It would appear, however, that they originally came
from Haran, in Mesopotamia, and that, till the time of
Julian the Apostate, they continued to be idolaters, wor-
shipping the planets and host of heaven; after which they
adopted certain of the Manichæan errors, and by degrees
their sacrifices, especially of a cock and a ram. About
A.D. 770, according to Abulfaragius, they were identified
with a class of heretics who were put to death by the Ca-
liph Haroun al Raschid for infamous practices.
That the portion who in later ages have been known as
Sabæans did, however, embrace Christianity according to
the Nestorian persuasion, is certain, although the sect has
for a long time degenerated into a very questionable form.
About A.D. 1480 they refused obedience altogether to the
Patriarch of Babylonia, and separated themselves entirely
from that church. They are said to worship one God, to
revere angels and the stars, to read the Psalms of David,


OF THE INHABITANTS,
283
but chiefly to pay regard to certain books, written in Chal-
daic characters so ancient as now to be almost unknown,
and which they attribute to Adam. They also preserve
and repeat sayings of Seth and Enoch. They pray seven
times a day, fast a month before the vernal equinox, regard
as holy the city of Haran in Mesopotamia, and make pil-
grimages to it. They hold as saints Sabin ben Edris (a
son of Enoch), and Sabin ben Mari (a contemporary of
Abraham); respect the Pyramids of Egypt, in one of which
they say a son of Sabin ben Edris was buried; and also
pay some regard to the Temple of Mecca,
In the times of the Ommiad caliphs, the Sabæans, being
severely treated, emigrated into Persia and the lower parts
of Chaldea, where they remained until after the death of
Tamerlane. They were then once more subjected to a
rigorous persecution by a certain chief, Mubarick, who,
having seized on that part of the country, sought to exter-
minate the nation. This violence forced them to disperse
among the neighbouring countries; some went to Hawee-
za; some to Dorak, to Shuster, Dezphool, Rumez, or Mi-
nas; others remained in Bussora, Jessayer, and other
places; while a third party proceeded to Babylonia. As-
semani* considered that in his day their numbers might
amount to 20,000 or 25,000 families; and they continue
still to reside in the places we have named.
Among other peculiar customs of this people, it is said
that, in order to prevent the violation of their sepulchres,
they seal the grave-clothes with a certain signet, on which
are engraved the figures of a lion, a wasp, and a scorpion,
surrounded by a serpent; and the following story implies
a belief that the charm was effectual: Nadir Shah, for
the purpose of maintaining the efficiency of his army and
preventing desertion, made the byractars or ensign-bearers
answerable for the appearance of every man under their
respective colours; and in all cases of casualties, these offi-
cers were obliged to produce the nose of the deceased as a
proof of his death. It happened that a desertion occurred
in a corps at Dezphool in Kuzistan, and the byractar of
the company, in order to escape punishment, bethought
himself of the expedient of taking the necessary token
from the visage of the last-buried person in the place.
* Bib. Orien., vol. iv., p. 610.


OF THE INHABITANTS.
285
filled, and he returned to his throne within the sun, leaving
his apostles to propagate his word, and promising the Com-
forter, or Paraclete, whom Manes asserted to be himself.
Such is a slight sketch of his scheme of faith; his system
of morals appears to have been more perfect. He incul-
cated on all his followers a life of virtue, combined with
great moderation and temperance; while on the Elect, or
chosen few, he enjoined the greatest austerity, privation,
and voluntary poverty. Their food was to be just suffi-
cient to support life; while celibacy and abstinence from
every pleasure were absolutely insisted on. The Scrip-
tures were read at their meeting for public worship, as
well as the writings of Manes. They observed the two
Christian sacraments, baptizing after the Catholic fashion;
fasted on the Lord's day; kept Easter and Pentecost; and,
in the month of March, celebrated the anniversary of the
martyrdom of Manes.
The Yezidees, as they are called, are a far more singu-
lar, though a less numerous race than the Christian popu-
lation, and not the less interesting that their origin remains
quite uncertain. Their principal abode for a considerable
time past has been in the mountainous range of Sinjar, in
Mesopotamia; but they are also pretty numerous in Assyr-
ia, particularly in the neighbourhood of Mosul and an-
cient Nineveh, where there are many villages entirely in-
habited by them. Indeed, there are some circumstances
which might lead to the conclusion that their original seat
was rather in that part of Assyria than in Mesopotamia. :
This people, we learn from Niebuhr and Rich, call them-
selves Dassinis or Dawassinis, not Yezidees, which appel-
lation appears to be a term of reproach bestowed upon them
by the Mohammedans, who hate them.
On everything relating to their origin, their religion, and
customs, they maintain a profound silence. The best-in-
formed of their Sonnee neighbours and of the Christians
of those parts, judging from what they have seen, not less
than from what they have heard, say that they are the
descendants of those Arabs who, under the directions of
Shummur, the servant or follower of Yezid bin Moaviah,
put Hassan, the son of Ali, to death. They are led to this
belief, it appears, because, as they assert, Shummur is re-
garded as a great saint by the Dawassinis; and the Sheahs,
in consequence, hold it meritorious to kill any of this sect.


OF THE INHABITANTS.
287
turnt
are in the habit of throwing into it gold and silver in hon-
our of the sheik; a practice which, being discovered by a
Nestorian in the neighbourhood, he contrived one night to
enter the enclosure in pursuit of these treasures. The
daughter of the keeper, having accidentally gone thither
to draw water while the thief was searching the reservoir,
conceived it could be no other than Sheik Adi himself
come to inspect the offerings, and retired immediately to
tell the extraordinary news. The Dawassinis were en-
chanted with the honour done them by their saint, while
the Nestorian took care to keep his secret and the money.
There is said to be a similar basin at Sinjar, which is
applied to the same uses. This came to the ears of the
celebrated Solyman Pacha of Bagdad, who, thinking he
cou
eik's treasu
sure to better account, visited the
place with a powerful force; but, though he succeeded in
dispersing the tribes of Sinjarlis, and put many to the tor-
ture of the bastinado, he failed in discovering the treasury.
The Yezidees are said to be a lively, brave, and hoš.
pitable people, good-humoured, well made, and comely.
Those of Sinjar may be divided into fixed and roving in-
habitants. The former cultivate the village grounds, and
resemble the Fellah Arabs, as the mountaineers do the
Bedouins. The latter, who are the plunderers, are the ter-
ror of caravans on this road; and who, permitting their
hair and beard to grow, wear an aspect as uncouth as
their manners are savage. No one is suffered to approach
their haunts except a few Jews, who live in the town Kha-
tuniyah, situated on an island in a lake of that name, and
who act as brokers in disposing of the goods that are taken
by the marauding parties.
In reference to the origin of the Yezidees, or, as they are
sometimes called in the East, Shaitan purust Worshippers
of Satan—we are tempted to mention a curious legend
which exists in Seistan, an eastern province of Persia,
among the inhabitants of which are not only many fire-
worshippers or ghebres, but a considerable number of these
Shaitan purust, and of another pagan sect called Chirag
Koosh, or Light-extinguishers, who seem to be but a modi-
fication of the former, as both venerate or deprecate Satan.
The account is as follows:
In former times there existed, they say, a prophet na-
med Hanlalah, whose life was prolonged to the measure of


288
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
1000 years. He was their ruler and benefactor; and as, by
his agency, their flocks gave birth to young miraculously
once a week, though ignorant of the use of money, they en-
joyed all the comforts of life with much gratitude to him.
At length, however, he died, and was succeeded by his
son, whom Satan, presuming on his inexperience, tempted
to sin by entering into a large mulberry-tree, from whence
he addressed the successor of Hanlalah, and called on
him to worship the Prince of Darkness. Astonished, yet
unshaken, the youth resisted the temptation. But the mir-
acle proved too much for the constancy of his flock, who
began to turn to the worship of the devil. The young
prophet, enraged at this, seized an axe and a saw, and
prepared to cut down the tree, when he was arrested by
the appearance of a human form, who exclaimed, “Rash
boy, desist! turn to me, and let us wrestle for the victory.
If you conquer, then fell the tree.”
The prophet consented, and vanquished his opponent,
who, however, bought his own safety and that of the tree
by the promise of a large weekly treasure. After seven
days, the holy victor again visited the tree to claim the
gold or fell it to the ground; but Satan persuaded him to
hazard another struggle, on promise that, if he conquered
again, the amount should be doubled. The second ren-
counter proved fatal to the youth, who was put to death
by his spiritual antagonist; and the result confirmed the
tribes over whom he had ruled in their worship of the
tree and its tutelary demon.
In this legend, the leading doctrine of all these Eastern
religions—the constant contention between the powers of
good and evil-is plainly shadowed forth, with the addi-
tional moral, that as long as he was actuated by a disin-
terested zeal for religion, the young prophet was victorious
over the spirit of evil, but failed so soon as that zeal gave
place to a sordid cupidity for earthly treasure.
This legend becomes still more interesting when com-
pared with the following passage, which is taken from As-
semani,* in the part where he treats of the religions of
Mesopotamia and Assyria: “According to the natives of
the country, the Yezidees were at one time Christians,
who, however, in the course of ages, had forgotten even
* Vol. iii., p. 493.


OF THE INHABITANTS.
289
the fundamental principles of their faith. I am, neverthe-
less, not inclined to believe this their origin; for I am of
opinion that the word Yezidee is derived from Yezid, which
in the idiom of Persia signifies God. Yezidee, therefore,
the plural of Yezid, indicates the observators of supersti-
tious doctrines (as may be seen from Antonio Gyges, Tesoro
della Lingua Arabrica). Yezid was, in fact, the name of
the idol which Elias, bishop and missionary of Mogham,
overthrew with three blows of an axe; and this fact sustains
the opinion I have advanced. Monseignore Tommaso,
bishop of Marquise, who lived in the commencement of
the ninth century, relates that when this Elias, after having
been chosen Bishop of Mogham, a city on the frontiers
of Persia, and near the Caspian Sea, proceeded to enter on
the duties of his diocese, he found it occupied by a barba,
rous people immersed in superstition and idolatry.
"The bishop, however, commenced his instructions, and
his flock confessed that they received them with pleasure,
were convinced of their truth, and were inclined to return
to the true God, but that they were terrified at the thought
of abandoning Yezid, the object of religious veneration of
their ancestors. This idol, they said, conscious of ap-
proaching rejection and contempt, would not fail to revenge
itself by their total destruction. Elias desired to be led to
this object of their adoration. They conducted him to the
summit of a neighbouring hill, from whence a dark wood
extended into the valley below. From the bosom of this
rose a plane-tree of enormous height, majestic in the spread
of its boughs and deep obscurity of its shade; but, trans-
ported with holy zeal, he demanded a hatchet, and rushing
to the valley, sought the idol, whom he found lowering with
a dark and menacing aspect. Nothing daunted, however,
he raised the axe, smote down the image of the Prince of
Darkness, and continued his work till not only was the
mighty tree laid prostrate, but every one of the numerous
younger shoots, termed by the barbarians the children of
Yezid, were likewise demolished.” The similarity of these
two legends, coming from such opposite quarters, is very
remarkable, and can scarcely be quite accidental.
In addition to the religious sects already mentioned, we
must not omit to mention that of the Ali Ullahis, who take
their name from one of their tenets, which taught that the
Spirit of God has appeared on earth in a succession of in-
BB


290
NATURAL HISTORY.
.
carnations, one of which was in the person of Ali, the son-
in-law of Mohammed; in other words, that Ali was God,
as the term signifies. Of the other articles of their faith
we are but ill informed, as they, like the Yezidees, being
regarded with ill-will by the dominant sect of the Moham-
medans, maintain great secrecy on all matters that respect
their religious opinions. By some they are held to be the
same with the Chirag Koosh, who have some abominable
rites and customs. But this is certainly not the case; and
some of the most powerful tribes of Kermanshah and
Mount Zagros, as the Gouran, and Zengenah, and Kelhore,
are Ali Ullahis.
CHAPTER XV.
Natural History.
Introduction. GEOLOGY.-FIRST DISTRICT-Primary Rock.-Keb-
ban Silver and Lead Mines.-Copper Mines.-Carbonaceous Marls and
Sandstones.-Coal.-SECOND DISTRICT-Supercretaceous Deposite.
Limestone Deposite.-Compact Chalk.--Plutonic Rocks.-Forma-
tions near Orfa and Mosul. --Marble.--Sulphur Springs.-Mines.-
Hills of Kurdistan.-Calcareous Gypsum.-Hill of Flames.-Kufri
Hills. - Hamrine. - Formation of Euphrates.-Gypseous.-Plutonic
Rocks.-Marls.-Hills of Denudation.-Sand Hills.-Naphtha Springs.
-THIRD DISTRICT-Limits.-Moving Sand Hills.-Salt Emorescen-
ces.-Marshes.-Water Country. BOTANY.-FIRST or MOUNTAIN
DISTRICT-Forest Trees.-Cultivated Plants.-Gallnuts.--Gum Ar-
abic.---Manna.-SECOND DISTRICT-Plains of Assyria.-Spring Flow-
ers.-Summer.-- Common Plants.- Potherbs. -- Fruits. - Cultivated
Plants. - Vegetables. - THIRD DISTRICT — Alluvial.-- Succulent
Plants.--Grasses.-Sedges.-Babylonian Willow.-Limit between the
Land and the Water.-Mariscus Elongatus. ZOOLOGY.-MAMMALIA
of First District-Plantigrade Carnivora.-Felines.-Rodents.-Rumi-
nants.-- Angora.-Taurus.-Goat.-Other Districts -- Bats.--Insecti-
vora. --Carnivora. — Lions. — Tigers.-- Chaus.- Lynx. - Hyenas.-
Wolves, &c.-Domestic Cats.--Dogs.---Turkoman Dog.-Rodents.-
Pachydermata.-- Boar.- Horse.- Ass.- Ruminants.-- Dromedary.-
Camels.- Gazelle.-Sheep.- Bovida.-ORNITHOLOGY – Raptores.-
Vultures.- Eagles.-- Owls. - Incessores.-- Cranes. - Nightingale.-
Larks.- Sparrows.- Bee-eaters, &c.- Game-birds.--Grouse. -Par-
tridges.-Cursores.--Ostrich.-Grallatores.--Palmipedes.- REPTILES
-Tortoises.-Lizards.--Frogs, &c.--Fishes.-INSECTS.
The limited sources of information regarding the natural
history of Assyria and Mesopotamia, and the incomplete-
ness of such as do exist, instead of leading us to dismiss


292
NATURAL HISTORY.
GEOLOGY.
In this sketch of the physical formation and natural his-
tory of the districts included in the basins of the Euphrates
and the Tigris, we shall adopt the very natural and simple
plan suggested by Mr. Ainsworth, when he observes that
Assyria, including Taurus, is distinguished into three Dis-
TRICTS: By its structure, into a district of plutonic and met-
amorphic rocks, a district of sedimentary formations, and
a district of alluvial deposites: by configuration, into a dis-
trict of mountains, a district of stony or sandy plains, and
a district of low watery plains: by natural productions, into
a country of forests and fruit-trees, of olives, wine, corn,
and pasturage, or of barren rocks; a country of mulberry,
cotton, maize, tobacco, or of barren clay, sand, pebbly or
rocky plains; and into a country of date-trees, rice, and
pasturage, or a land of saline plains.
First District.—That part of the Taurus which is con-
nected with the basins of the Euphrates and the Tigris
has been divided into three portions. The most northerly
range comprises the Niphates Mountains; the central
comprehends the Azarah Dag, and the mountainous coun-
try between Kebban-Madan and Kharput; and the most
southerly, the ancient Masius, including the Karah-jah
Dag. Jibel-tur, and the Baarem Hills. The central nu-
cleus of these vast ridges consists of granite, gneiss, and
mica-schist, associated with limestone, greenstone, and
hornblende; the lateral formations are composed of dial-
lage rocks, serpentine and slate clays, and the outlying
ones of sandstone and limestone. The structure of the
Niphates Mountains has not yet, we believe, been scien-
tifically examined; the Azarah Dag chain is formed of
diallage rocks, serpentine, steatite, and limestone; the Ji.
bel-tur, of various limestones and the chalk formation; the
Baarem Hills consist of greenstone and basalt. The most
northerly range is probably the highest of the Taurus, tow-
ering above the line of perpetual snow, which in this lati-
tude may be estimated at the height of about 10,000 feet;
the crest of the second range, viewed as a mean between
the highest points and the passes, is about 5053; and the
plain of Diarbekir, between the second and third district,
is at an elevation of 2500 feet.
We commence our more particular survey in the central


294
NATURAL HISTORY.
marks that the sandstone contained beds which were high-
ly carbonaceous, and others that were distinctly ferrugi-
nous. The former were converted into stone-coal, with a
vitreous fracture and dark shining surface; but they were
non-bituminous.* He does not appear to have discovered
any
seful coal. Southward of this succeeds the plateau
of Diarbekir, with a mean elevation of 1900 feet, and being
for the most part a uniform flat, cut up towards the east by
the Tigris. The rocks of the table-land of Jezirah, at an
elevation of 1540 feet, are of the same mineral character,
and consist of basalts with augite, titaniferous iron, and
calcareous spar.
We may here remark, that neither the geological struc-
ture nor the correct topography of the Masius chain, inclu-
ding the Baarem Hills and Jibel-tur, have hitherto been
described in a way that is at all satisfactory.t
We now proceed to the Second District, which extends
from the thirty-seventh degree north latitude to the thirty-
fourth, and comprises laterally the basins of the two cele-
brated rivers, from the confines of Syria to the mountains
of Kurdistan, possessing a mean breadth of about 200 miles.
The character of the plains in this district varies with
their latitude and altitude; with the quality of the soil, and
the quantity of moisture. From Jezirah, westward to near
Nisibin, there are felspathic plutonic rocks, with a mean
elevation of 1550 feet, and which form a stony wilderness
with little or no cultivation, but where. nevertheless.
merous flocks of sheep and cattle obtain a scanty support
during a part of the year. The great plains of Northern
Mesopotamia, from Orfa to Nisibin, and thence to the plain
east of Mosul, the site of ancient Nineveh, have an eleva-
tion of about 1300 feet, are nearly of a uniform level, with
a soil possessing good agricultural qualities, but barren for
want of irrigation. An exception in regard to this sterility
invariably occurs where the plains are intersected by hills
or groups of hills—an arrangement by no means infrequent.
As instances, we may specify the Babel Mountains, south
Euphrates Expedition, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,
vol. vii., p. 438.
* Researches, p. 271, 272.
+ See an interesting account of a journey in this district by Mr. Brant,
in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. vi., p. 208. In the
accompanying map, the geographical aspect is better represented than in
any other we have seen.
nu-


GEOLOGY.
299
of the calcareous deposite at the Abu Gerger of the Arabs,
"the father of boiling," a place remarkable for the exhibition
of flames (hence called Hill of Flames), which appear to
have been in existence from the most remote period. The
limestone at this place entirely supersedes the marls and
gypsum, and the gases escape in a little central depression
on the summit of the ridge. The spot whence the flames
issue has a dull, dusky, grayish aspect in broad daylight,
and they are only visible upon near approach. The evo-
lution of sulphureous acid is so great that it soon becomes
intolerable; and a thermometer held in the evolved gases
rose to 2206. Wherever a spear is thrust into the ground,
a new blaze bursts forth; not the pale lambent stream pro-
duced by carburetted hydrogen, nor the flickering light of
hydrosulphuric acid in combustion, but a fierce and ardent
fire, like that which would be produced by the mingled
burning of sulphur, coal, and bitumen. Hence it would
appear that these flames are not connected with the great
volcanic phenomena which act, through fissures or rents.
from the deep portions of the earth's crust, but belong to
some peculiar and local chemical action. Appearances
very similar have been noticed on the coast of the county
of Kerry; at Charmouth, in Dorsetshire; and at Aubin and
Dutivielle, in Prussia. The most striking feature in the
present case is the great extent of the phenomenon; its ex-
ceeding duration; and that, according to report, it is con-
tinued during the driest weather.*
The chain of the Kufri Hills, which rises more than 300
feet above the plain, is composed of alternating beds of
gypsum, red sandstone, and clays, the first of these being
transparent and crystalline, or snow-white and fibrous.
About eight miles to the northwest a fresh-water limestone
makes its appearance, hard and sonorous, with vesicular
and other cavities. This rock soon supersedes the gyp-
sum. The highest range of the Hamrine Hills is the most
easterly, and reaches an elevation of about 500 feet. It is
capped with a deposite of pebbles, which alternates with
the upper silicious beds. The second range is composed
of red sandstone, with occasional thin veins of gypsum,
and brown argillaceous beds. The third is gray or bluish
sandstone, containing red nodules of a silico-magnesian
* Ainsworth’s Researches, p. 243.


300
NATURAL HISTORY.
substance; and the western outliers at Delli-Abbas consist
of red friable sandstone. The general direction of the
chain is from southeast to northwest.
A very few remarks on that portion of the Euphrates we
left undescribed, and in which we shall give a prominence
to the gypseous deposites, will close our geological survey
of this most important District.
To the south of Kara Bambuch, the valley of the Eu-
phrates begins to widen, the banks are occupied by exten-
sive alluvial plains, while low hills of transported pebbles,
with huge fragments of limestone superimposed, diversify
the level. About fifteen miles from the pass, hills com-
posed of alternating indurated and friable beds advance to
the river-side from the east, where they attain an elevation
of 800 feet. On the western side is an isolated eminence
of similar features, and capped by a stratum of indurated
chalk.
The first appearance of gypsum where the formations are
on a large scale, showing a tendency to a new order of
things, wherein the lime enters into different chemical re-
lations, is of a very remarkable character. The same for-
mation, which soon assumes a prodigious development, is
he e thrown into the most circumscribed limits; and, al-
though accompanied by its usual associated marls, presents
no traces of fresh-water shells, while in its subsequent ex-
pansion there is the same order of attending phenomena
as are observed in other countries. To the south of Jaber,
a level range of marls, capped by gypsum, occurs on the
right' bank, about two miles long, and 300 feet high. At
the northern end the gypsum is from twenty to twenty-five
feet in thickness, and reposes upon cretaceous marls 150
feet deep: the former soon attains a thickness of upward
of 40 feet, till at the next southerly headland it occupies
the whole depth of the cliff, forming hills about eighty feet
high. On the left bank in this district, formations of a
similar character recede to a greater distance from the riv-
er; and the hills, scarcely 100 feet in height, are composed
towards the north of mural precipices of gypsum repo-
sing upon yellow marls. From Beles to Racca is a dis-
tance of seventy miles, of which sixty are occupied by the
same formation; and no alteration of geognostic charac-
ters is met with till the river passes through the prolonga-
tion of the Jibel Buchir at Zenobia, a farther distance, by


GEOLOGY.
301
its banks, of ninety-one miles. At that point the hills con-
sist of marls and gypsum, covered by an overlying forma-,
tion of plutonic rocks and crystalline breccia. The gyp-
sum at first alternates with the marls, but soon assumes a
predominating development. It occurs snow-white and
saccharoidal, also small-grained and granular: it is like-
wise met with transparent, laminar, in thin beds, and in
small masses, variously arranged like brick-tiles. At Sal-
ahiyah, the formations at the base of the cliffs are consti-
tuted of the usual gypsum and marls. Of the first there
are no fewer than twenty-four beds, from two to four feet
thick, alternating with marls, some of which are divided
by veins of laminar transparent gypsum, which may be
obtained for optical purposes, and as a subtitute for glass.
Superimposed upon these is a red ossiferous limestone brec-
cia developed to the extent of many feet in thickness. It
gives origin to a level and uniform plain, stony, and ex-
ceedingly destitute of vegetation, stretching to the extreme
verge of the horizon. It would be difficult to imagine a
more desolate scene than is here presented. !
On the right bank of the river, between Anah and Had-
isah, the Jibel Abu extends in uniform summits above cul-
tivated plains; and the country farther west is occupied by
the low hills usually called the Jibel-Til Antah, followed
by the Jibel Kaifel Rusajah, and the Jibel Bajan. To the
east, the hills of Rechanah are succeeded by an interval of
low and fertile land to the districts of the Lagadahr Hills
and the Moherah. These are not groups of hills with dis-
tinct acclivities and great intervening longitudinal valleys,
but almost always fragments of the high country in the in-
terior, cut off by the action of ordinary or extraordinary
powers of denudation into distinct ranges. Often, as in
the Moherah Hills, a great number of circumscribed val-
leys, like indentures in the uplands, become so complex in
their relations as in fact to constitute hilly groups; in oth-
ers, such as the Lagadahr, a long range is sent off to the
southwest, while another branch goes to the southeast
under a different name, leaving a great plain, deeply inter-
sected by tributary rivulets to the south, in the angle be-
tween the two. In a geological point of view, they are in
all cases hills and valleys of denudation, and in no instance
mountains of elevation or valleys of subsidence. The con-
stant order of the succession of strata is sandstone and
CC


302
NATURAL HISTORY.
ironstone, breccia and gravel, green and red marls, yellow
marls, bituminous or black coarse marls, rude bituminous
rock, limestone, and saliferous clays. On reaching Hit, in
descending the stream, everything characteristic of solidity
and durability has disappeared. The plains are wide, the
hills low, and the rock formations coarse, non-crystalline,
and friable. To the east the Meridj-Suab ridges exhibit
nothing but the straw-yellow limestones, and they are suc-
ceeded by mounds of sand; and a little beyond, sections
appear which furnish green marls, gypsum, hard marls,
and gypsum again in beds a few feet thick. Gravel and
mud repose on these deposites.
From these few hints it will appear, that the prin
ect of contemplation in the structure and development
of the rocks in the basin of the Euphrates is the great ex-
tent of the tertiary, more accurately the cretaceous and su-
percretaceous deposites. They occupy a space in a straight
line of six degrees and a half of latitude, and among them
the chalky and gypseous beds assume by far the most ex-
tensive development. The intercalation, at the limits of
the chalk formations, of marls and gypsums unprovided
with lacustrine shells in the cretaceous layers, is another
very striking fact; for in this case the intervening clays
and limestone appear to be totally wanting, and gypseous
deposites to have taken their place. The most remarkable
peculiarity in the inferior gypsum is the eruption of pluto-
nic masses, which phenomenon has evidently occurred at
a period posterior to the elevation of the Taurian chain, as
the formations now described are superimposed upon the
last deposite by transport, which contains pebbles from
those regions.
A short notice of the celebrated NAPHTHA Springs in
this district must not be omitted. First of all, it is worthy
of remark, that whether at the eastern or western side of
the great basin, they occupy very much the same geologi-
cal position, and are found at the extreme limits of the lat-
eral series of rock formation, and just at the point where
these come in contact with the oldest alluvial deposites.
Thus is it at Hit, on the banks of the Euphrates, in refer-
ence to the lateral formation of the Taurus, and so also to
the east, near the Tigris, in regard to the lateral ranges of
the Kurdistan Mountains. Two localities have been pre-
eminently signalized; the one situated at Hit, the ancient Is,


GEOLOGY.
303
celebrated from all antiquity for its never-failing fountains
of bitumen, which furnished the imperishable mortar of
the Babylonian structure. We know it was visited by
Alexander, Trajan, and Julian; and now it is used only
for daubing gopher-boats on the Euphrates. In this local-
ity there are several fountains, and at some distance from
each other. Round a few of them the soil is converted into
rude salt-pans or reservoirs, from which the water evapo-
rates, and whence, by means of this simple process, immense
quantities of fine salt are obtained. The temperature of
one spring was at 88°, of another at 98º. The taste is bit-
ter-sweet; the water is clear and transparent; the odour
ammoniacal and sulphureous. They evolve gases in abun-
dance, and produce bitumen, according to the estimation
of the natives, at the rate of many gallons an hour. The
springs appear in argillaceous limestones, containing mag-
nesia, and imbibing moisture with facility. Upon this for-
mation a gypseous deposite is superimposed throughout
the surrounding country, but not in the immediate vicinity
of the fountains.
If, on the east of the Tigris, the naphtha springs are not
so productive as those above alluded to, they seem to be
decidedly more numerous. In Mr. Rich's interesting work,
allusion is made to several. Thus he informs us that the
naphtha pit, which is in the pass of the hills at Tooz Khoor-
mattee, is about fifteen feet deep, and to the height of ten
filled with water, on the surface of which the black sub-
stance floats. This is skimmed off, and the water convey-
ed into reservoirs, where it crystallizes, becoming excel-
lent salt of a fine white brilliant grain, without bitterness:
it is worth about 20,000 piastres annually. The daily pro-
duce of the mineral oil is about thirty pints. He adds,
that the principal springs are in the hills towards Kufri;
that they are five or six in number, and are much more
productive; but that no salt is found there. Indeed, it is
probable that naphtha may be found in almost any part of
this chain.* In Mr. Ainsworth's volume we find it more-
over stated, that not far from Abu Gerger are several wells
from which petroleum is obtained in large quantities: the
number of springs is continually varying; for, dig where
you will, the mineral oozes out over an area of about 300
square yards.t
* Rich's Narrative, vol. i., p. 28, 29.
+ Ainsworth's Researches, p. 244.


GEOLOGY.
305
a mna
ere jES
DI POT
enas
IND
eplica
OD
aplica
het
cribed
tertia
Tards
Pedia
winds alter their form without affecting their position.
They are objects of superstition to the Arabs.
Emorescences, both of common salt and saltpetre, are
abundant in these plains; and it is of importance to distin-
guish them, as the one is probably derived from the decom-
position of vegetable matter, characteristic of good vege-
table mould, or of alluvium originating in rivers or lakes;
while the other is no less strongly indicative of deposition
from the sea, except when there are local formations of
rock-salt.
The soil of the marshes of Lemlum consists for the most
part of a soft alluvial clay and mud, containing only fresh-
water shells. The greater part of the basin, however, is
occupied by aquatic plants; and the whole comprehends a
district of nearly forty square miles. The extensive plains
of Chaldea, eastward, are upon a somewhat higher level,
and present a territory which is the seat of cultivation du-
ring the dry months. The soil here is a strong tenacious
clay, of a deep blue colour, argillo-calcareous, and very
uniform in its character; it abounds in shells which belong
to a very few genera, and these almost entirely marine.
To the south of the point of union between the Euphra-
tes and Tigris the surface is perpetually occupied by wa-
ter, and covered with a corresponding vegetation, deriving
its character from a species of bent-grass, Agrostis, which
has very much the appearance of the true reed, Arundo
northern Europe. These tracts exhibit great uniformity of
feature, together with a boundless growth of plants of the
same aspect, which are everywhere intersected by artificial
canals, or spotted with ponds and lakes.
The district which extends from the point of junction of
the rivers to the embouchure in the Persian Gulf, is char-
acterized on the eastern bank, and as far south as the
mouth of the Karoon, by a fringe of date-trees, to which,
at some distance inland, succeeds a band of reeds and rush
marshes, then some pasturage, and, finally, a small portion
of cultivated land. Beyond this tract there is a level and
uniform plain, which is sprinkled with occasional tama-
risks, acacias, and saline plants one half of the year, and
inundated during the other. The opposite or western bank
of the stream is, for the most part, covered with date-trees;
the succeeding tract of vegetation is very narrow, being
often confined by ranges of sandhills to a few hundred
rock
ite to
ni ti
it, the
eeded
more
70US
aber
ting
ng
Сс 2


308
NATURAL HISTORY.
Ilex aquifolium.. Common holly. Clematis Orienta- Oriental clema-
Common hop l is ........... tis.
Ostrya vulgaris..
hornbeam. Cistus incanus .. Hoary rock-rose.
Daphne Pontica. Pontic Daphne. Jasminum fruti- Common yellow
Daphne sericea.. Silky Daphne. cans.......... jasmine.
Buxus sempervi- Common box. Caprifolium Periw
er {Woodbine.
rens ......... tree.
clymenjum....
Prickly-leaved Rhamnus Alater- | Broad-leaved
Eleagnus spinosa
oleaster. nus .......... buckthorn.
Bryonia Cretica . Cretan bryony. Rhamnus Paliu- | Paliurus buck-
Dianthus arbore- Tree pink.
rus........... thorn.
us............5
Poterium spino- | Prickly shrubby
Clematis Vitalba Travellers' joy. sum..........1 Burnet.
The broad and the narrow leaved Phillyrea show them-
selves only on the northern side of the Íaurus; and the
common and large Rhododendrons first appear beyond the
Chamlu Bel. Heaths are rare; the tree-heath, Erica arbo-
rea, flourishes near Sis.
Among the useful and cultivated plants of Taurus may
be noted the vine, the fig-tree, almond-tree, the olive, wheat,
spelt-wheat (Triticum Spalta), winter barley (Hordeum hex-
astichon), and common barley. Gallnuts are gathered
chiefly from the Dyer's, Velonia, and Kermes oaks. There
are also pears, apples, and apricots in abundance. The
roots of the great yellow milk-vetch (Astragalus Christianus)
and Eastern sea-kale (Crambe Orientalis) are sought as ar-
ticles of food. Sumach (Rhus Cotinus) is used for tanning
skins red, and buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus), as well
as jointed Valantia (V. articulata), for giving them a yellow
hue. We may here add, from Mr. Rich's valuable Narra-
tive, that in Kurdistan, gallnuts are produced in great
plenty, especially in the dwarf-oak (Quercus nana) forest
of Kara Dag; and “the plant which produces gum-arabic
grows wild in the mountains; it has a purple flower, and is
called ghewun.” We should at once have referred this
statement to the Acacia Arabica, the gum-arabic tree, whose
habitat is said to be the East Indies, had not the author re-
marked that the flower is purple, while that of the other is
white.
"Manna," continues Mr. Rich, “called in Turkish the
divine sweetmeat, in Kurdish ghezo, is found on the dwarf-
oak, though several other plants are said to produce it, but
not so abundantly or in such good quality. It is collected
by gathering the leaves of the tree, which, after being al-
lowed time to dry, are gently thrashed on a cloth. The


310
NATURAL HISTORY.
ephemeral vegetation. It is not, however, less true, that
there are numerous districts of great beauty. Such in Mes-
opotamia are the valleys of Orfa and Harran, so interesting
as connected with the history of the patriarch Abraham ;
and those in Assyria are in no respect inferior. That this
remark holds good even in modern times, notwithstanding
the misrule and neglect to which the country has been sub-
jected, may be demonstrated by a few short sentences.
“ The character of the desert,” says Mr. Forbes, "improves
gradually towards Mardin: and that portion of the great
plain of Mesopotamia which lies in the direction of Koach
Hassar, equals, if it does not surpass in fertility, the richest
soils in the world."* “At length,” remarks Mr. Rich,
“we reached the beautiful village of Deira, imbosomed
in a wood of the finest walnut-trees I ever saw. Gardens,
vineyards, and cultivation surrounded the village in every
available spot on the sides of the mountains. The vines
in many places crept up the trees, and extended from one
to another, forming festoons and drapery. Multitudes of
springs burst from the sides of the hills, and dashed over
the roots of the trees in innumerable little cascades. No-
thing was heard but the murmuring of waters; and it was
not easy to pass so beautiful a spot without a pause to en-
joy its loveliness.”+ And once more: Lieutenant Lynch,
in the year 1839, writes, “The upper plain or country near
and above the Hamrine may be called a prairie, high and
undulating, with the range of the Karachok Hills rising
east of it, far from the Tigris, and cleft in the centre by the
Zab. I am told the climate is delicious except in the
heats of summer, which are healthy; and when I have
been strolling along the banks of the river, it has been a
luxury to breathe."'!
From Mr. Ainsworth we learn respecting Assyria gen-
erally, that during two months of the year, namely, Octo-
ber and November, vegetation entirely ceases; everything
is burned up, and no new forms appear; but after this pe-
riod, the clouds from the Lebanon in Syria, and a softening
in the mountain temperature to the north and east over
* Visit to the Sinjar Hills in 1838. Journal of the Royal Geographic
cal Society, vol. ix., p. 422.
+ Rich's Narrative, vol. i., p. 261.
# On the River Tigris, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical So-
ciety, vol. ix., p. 442.


312
NATURAL HISTORY.
The useful plants which occur in this zone, either cultiva.
ted or not, are still very numerous. Among the grains are
wheat, barley, lentils (Ervum Lens), common chick-pea
(Cicer arietinum), the garden-bean, chickling vetch (Lathy-
rus sativus), red fowered vetch (Vicia Nissoliana), the kid-
ney bean, millet (Holcus Sorghum), and Lucerne. The
Arabs eat the Holcus bicolor.
The quantity of Potherbs now cultivated, where Euro-
pean plants have been introduced, is considerable, though
more or less characteristic. Of these may be named the
cucumber, melon, the egg-plant (Solanum Melongena), the
eatable Hibiscus, and various kinds of gourds. Among the
fruits are the olives, the pistachia-tree (P. officinalis), the
white and common mulberry, the common fig, cherry,
apricot, peach, and three varieties of plums; also the ap-
ple, pear, quince, dogwood (Cornus mas), sweet almond,
walnut, hazel, lotus-tree, beech, chestnut, Siberian pine,
nuts, and such like. Among cultivated plants there is to-
bacco, oil-grain (Sesamum Orientale), castor-oil, hemp,
common fenn-greck (Trigonella Fænum Græcum), the car-
thamus (C. tinctorius), and cotton. Among the useful ve-
getables furnished by the fields, are the
Capparis spinosa
as Common caper-/Satureja hortensis Summer savory.
Common caper-/Satureja hortensis Sun
tree.
Sinapis Orientalis Oriental mustard.
Borago officinalis Common borage. Tordylium Syria- / Syrian hart-
Malva rotundifo-Mallows.
cum ..
Swort.
Glycyrrhiza gla- ( Common liquor-
Rumex acetosa.. Common sorrel. bra........... ice.
S. Nasturtium... Sisymbrium.
Common aspar-
uff. A. officinalis ....
Lycoperdon tube- | Tuberose puff-
agus.
rosum ........ ball.
The leaves of the Egyptian Arum (A. Colocasia) are used
as paper on the Chaldean plain: east of Mosul, a species
of viper's-grass (Scorzonera) abounds, and affords a plen-
tiful nutriment. Gum tragacanth is obtained from several
species of Astragalus; in Persia, according to Olivier, from
A. verus; but at Aleppo it is obtained from the great goats'-
horn species (A. tragacantha), the fox-tail (A. alopecuroides),
the small goats'-horn (A. Poterium), and apparently from
other species, for twelve are met with in the neighbourhood.
The Henna plant, with the pink juice of which the Egyp-
tian women dye their nails, is obtained from the Lawsonia
inermis. On the Euphrates the Arabs eat the leaves of
several species of lettuce, thistle, and sow-thistle (Lactuca,
lia ............


314
NATURAL HISTORY.
and rocky tracts of Mesopotamia are here completely su-
perseded by the succulent species. The genera Salicornia,
Crassula, also Glassworts, Saltworts (Salsola), and Tra-
gia, with certain Fig-marigolds (Mesembryanthema) and
Asters, with their representatives, cover the plains of Bab-
ylonia and Chaldea, and spread themselves wherever the
alluvial soil is impregnated, as it so frequently is, with
nitre or marine salt. Among the marshes of Lemlum, the
preponderance of sedges, cats’-tail (Typhacea), and the
large grasses, announce, as in the temperate zone, the
aquatic character of the country, and a comparatively cold
and humid climate. The shallow sheets of water, which
are dispersed amid this marsh of reeds and rushes, like the
meres of England, are generally invaded by a host of water-
plants (Alismacea), water-lilies, and ranunculaceæ; and in
the dry parts of Chaldea the vegetation is characterized by
the usual saline plants, the river-banks being fringed by
shrubberies of tamarisk and acacia, and occasional groves
of poplar. The weeping-willow (Salix Babylonica) is not
met with in Babylonia. The common tamarisk of the coun-
try is the Tamarix Orientalis of Forskal. The solitary tree
“of a species altogether strange to this country,” according
to Heeren, and which Rich calls Lignum Vitæ, growing
upon the ruins of Kasr at Babylon, and supposed to be a
last remnant of the hanging gardens, that appeared to
Quintus Curtius like a forest, is also a tamarisk. Others
exactly resembling it are frequently found overshadowing
the wells of Farsistan, and are common in the country of
the queen for whose solace those gardens are said to have
been erected. .
Finally, the vegetation at the extreme limits of the allu-
vial soil is not a little singular, and has been well deseri-
bed by Mr. Ainsworth. At the points, he remarks, where
land is first gained from water, the soil is clothed with a
uniform vegetation. A solitary plant, everywhere propa-
gated over those great tracts, acts as umpire between these
two elements of the terraqueous surface, and first reclaims
new territories to the former. It is a species of Mariscus,
approaching very closely to the M. elatus of the East In-
dies, of which it is, perhaps, but a variety, as it differs from
it only in the marked elongation of the spikelets. This
species, which has been called elongatus, flowers in May,
at a mean temperature of 84°, but under great atmospheri-


316
NATURAL HISTORY.
as also a sable (Martes Zibellina, Linn.) and a genet (Vi-
verra genetta, Linn.). Mr. Ainsworth states that the pan-
ther (Felis pardus) is said to inhabit Taurus; and the F.
Pardina of Oken and Temminck, the Loup cervier of Pe-
rault, abounds in Amanus. On one occasion, a hunting.
party of the Euphrates Expedition encountered egiht of
these animals. The black-eared lynx also frequents this
district; the wolf is common in the heights both of Tau-
rus and Kurdistan, as also the common fox. The Sper-
mophilus citillus (Mus citillus, B., Pall.), the Alpine Mar-
mot (Arctomys marmotta), the German Marmot of Penn
(Cricetis vulgaris), and the great and common dormice, are
tenants of the mountain forests. Of the Cervida, the fal-
low deer (Cervus dama) is common in some parts of Tau-
rus; and it is said that the stag (C. elephas), the red deer
of Pennant, occurs in the same district; the roebuck, too
(C. capriolus), is not uncommon. Of Antelopes there are
several species; one of which, the mountain, having the
back and neck of a dark brown colour, bounds with ama-
zing agility. The goat of those hills is usually designated
the Angora goat, as we learn from Mr. Ainsworth ;* and
yet, upon a later testimony of the same traveller, it would
appear, erroneously, for in a communication transmitted
by this gentleman, in the year 1838, from the town of An-
gora, he remarks: The length and softness of Angora
goats' hair are evidently to be attributed to an extreme cli-
mate. Cold winters (in December, 1838, the snow was
upward of a foot in depth, and the minimum temperature
was 3º Fahrenheit) have everywhere the effect of lengthen-
ing the hair or fleeces of animals, or of supplying them
with an under-down, while the hot summers give to the
hair its siłky lustre and softness. He adds, the circum-
scribed limits generally assigned to the country of this
breed of goats are, as far as we have vet seen, correct;
they are not met with to the east of Kizil Irmak.t This
limitation removes the true Angora goat probably from the
entire district of the Taurus, and far, certainly, from the
great ridges near the Euphrates. These views have re-
cently been abundantly confirmed by Lieutenant Conolly,!
who, moreover, states that there is a second race of goats,
* Researches, p. 41.
† Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. ix., p. 275.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for May, 1840, No. vi., p. 159.


ZOOLOGY.
319
The asses are of a common breed, but larger than in Brit-
ain: there is also an improved variety, tall, delicately
limbed, swift, and easy in pace; and, lastly, the Damascus
ass, with very long body, pendulous ears, smooth skin, and
dark colour.
At the head of the Ruminantia are the camels, of which
the first in point of importance and utility is the Arabian
(C. dromedarius), with one hunch, and pale fawn-coloured
brown fur; the second is the Bactrian or Persian (C. Bac-
trianus), with two hunches, and plentiful hair upon the
· upper part of the neck. There are two varieties of the
former: first, the dromedary, decidedly the highest breed,
of slight make, clean limbed, with small hunch; it ambles
with great agility, and is used for war and expresses, as
well, indeed, as for any other duty requiring haste or fa-
tigué. Lieutenant-colonel Sheil speaks of this animal in
these words: “ It seems able to travel in all situations ;
mountains and plains, blazing sun, frost and snow, seem
alike to him. These beautiful creatures are unlike the
awkward, heavy camels of Persia and India; they are slen-
der, active animals, and nearly white.”* The common Ara-
bian camel is of a light dun colour; it is content to browse
on thistles and prickly shrubs; can bear the want of water
a long time, but it seldom carries more than 250 pounds
on each side. Besides these two species, there is the
common Turkoman camel, which, though a mule, the
produce of the Arabian and Bactrian, is found to be of
great utility. It is larger, stouter, and more hairy than the
others, but is not so tractable, and less capable of endu-
ring heat than the Arab camel; its common load is about
400 pounds on each side, and some can carry a much
greater weight. Of the Cervide, by far the most common
in the plains is the gazelle (A. dorcas), a species which
is often so tame as to feed freely along with the flocks of
sheep. It is, consequently, highly gregarious; is very
fleet, though not so active as its congeners in the mount-
ain districts; and is of a lighter colour than most of these,
though not so delicately shaped. On the Tigris, near
Koote ul Amara, the A. subgutterosa of Güldenstedt repla-
ces the gazelle.
+ Journey through Kurdistan, in the Journal of the Royal Geographi-
cal Society, vol. viii., p. 97.


320
NATURAL HISTORY.
The sheep are of two kinds: the common Tartarian,
with an enormous tail, weighing generally fifteen or six-
teen pounds, and sometimes much more; the second or
the Bedouin, the tail of which is only a little larger and
thicker than that of our own domestic breeds. The Oris
Ammon or Argali has been observed at Azaz. The Bo-
vide present forms belonging to the Bubaline, the Bison-
tine, and the Taurine groups. The first is represented
by the common buffalo (Bos bubalus), which is most es-
teemed by the Turkomans and Arabs upon the Euphrates;
the second, by the zebu, with a hunch between its shoul-
ders, also frequent on the Euphrates; and the third by the
common bull and cow. Of this last there are two vari-
eties : one of a large size, with long legs and slender body;
the other smaller, with short limbs. We need scarcely
remark that it is in the marshes of the lower districts of
the country that the buffalo, in vast herds, loves to feed.
Ornithology.-In turning to the ornithology of these coun-
tries, upon which little precise information has been col-
lected, we commence by remarking that the type of the
northern districts is generally supposed to associate itself
with that of the Taurus range, which constitutes a portion
of what has been designated the Caucasian or European
Zoological Province. Hence it is believed that the feath-
ery tribes of these regions have a strong general resem-
blance to those of Europe, while the southern districts are
considered remarkable only for possessing very few and
uninteresting groups.
In the alpine country birds of prey are particularly
abundant. The Egyptian neophron or vulture (V. perc-
nopterus) is common in almost every town, where it lives
in the shambles and burial-grounds; and a griffon (V. ful
vus) was shot by Dr. Helfer at Bir.' The sea-eagle or os-
prey (Falco ossifragus of Gmel.) is not infrequent; the kite
(F. milvus) sweeps along the plains, and the kestril (F.
tinnunculus) and Falco gentilis are brought up for the
chase. Owls, too, are numerous in the Taurus, and in
the chalk cliffs of the Euphrates; the species which have
been observed are the great-horned or eagle owl (Strix
bubo), the barn owl (S. flammea), the passerine or little
owl (S. passerina), and the Ural owl (S. Uralensis). Or
another common family, namely, the crows, there were
noticed the raven, the carrion and hooded crow, and the


ZOOLOGY.
321
jackdaw. The jay made its appearance in the month of
October; and an oriole (0. graculus) departed the same
month. Besides these European species of well-known
birds, there were others which, though peculiar, were not
determined. A roller was seen, and a starling more brill-
iant than our own.
Of the Insectivorous birds there were found the song-
thrush, the blackbird, and three other European species;
also a rock-thrush, and the Turdus rufus and roseus, which
last is the celebrated locust-bird of Pliny; also a water-
ouzel and a species of shrike (Edolius). Few opportuni-
ties occurred to the naturalists of the Euphrates Expedition
of studying the interesting groups of warblers and wag-
tails. The bulbul of Syria is our nightingale, and that of
Persia is a thrush. The becafico is called the fig-sparrow;
the golden-crested wren is a bird of passage; the common
wren and two species of stonechat were occasionally seen.
Among the Granivorous birds, the genus Alauda furnish-
ed many species, among which the skylark was most rare,
and the crested lark the most common. There were also
the shorelark, and the A. calendra, and the Tartar lark (A.
Tartarica of Pallas). The great and the cole tit, the orto-
lon and yellow buntings, and four or five species of finch-
es, were encountered, of which the goldfinch was one. It
was noticed that the common sparrow, far from being sta-
tionary about towns, sometimes followed the migratory
tribes in their numerous peregrinations; and in other ca.
ses, in the lower districts of the country, far away from
the habitation of man, and among the jungle, they built
their nests in dense congregations.
The common cuckoo was seen : the order of Climbers
appears to be rare, even in the woods; the familiar nut-
hatch (Yunx torquilla) and two species of woodpecker
constituting all that were met with. The hoopoe was ob-
served everywhere. Among the Alcyones, the bee-eater
(Merops apiaster) and the M. cærulo cephalus were noticed.
Birds of this genus, as is well known, build in sandbanks
and mounds of earth, where they are exposed to the attacks
of jackals, who, after destroying their victims, appropriate
their retreats. Mr. Ainsworth states that in these coun-
tries the birds were observed to prepare their excavations
not only near, but actually beneath the highways; the only
assignable reason for which arduous labour appeared to be


ZOOLOGY.
323
species; of herons, seven; of the rail, two. · Fulica porphy-
ris, a species of coot, is common in the Euphrates, as is
likewise Machates pugnax.
Of the Palmipedes, there occur the pelican, about ten
species of the genus Anser, geese and ducks, including the
A. niger, A. clypeata, the shoveller duck, the common wild
duck (A. boschos), and the A. sirsæir of Forskal; to which
may be added, the goosander (Mergus merganser) and the
black-throated diver (Colymbus auritus). On the Euphra-
tes were observed two species of gull, one of the petrels,
and a cormorant.
With respect to the marshy regions of the lower district
of the country, Mr. Ainsworth intorms us it is a common
practice, during the dry season, to fire the desiccated vege-
tation, when the slightest breeze spreads the flames with
fearful rapidity. On these occasions, numerous birds of
prey, kites, vultures, and large gray crows, are seen hover-
ing in the air, and sweeping through the dense piles of
smoke, which curl like clouds above the region of devas-
tation, in the train of which they are ever and anon seen
to alight, as an abundant destruction of animal life attends
the progress of the fire. Small quadrupeds, such as ger-
boas and shrew-mice, hurried out of their holes, fall vic-
tims to the kites and falcons; while a rich feast of half-
broiled snakes and lizards awaits the vultures and the
crows.*
Reptiles.- In the class of Reptiles our notices are scanty,
though the species are numerous. Two kinds of land-tor-
toise occur in the plains, one of which resembles the com,
mon tortoise (Testudo Græca); two fresh-water species
(Emys) were found in the Euphrates, and two of the soft
tortoise (Triony:c). There were observed among ruins
three different species of gecko, and the common char
leon in woody and sheltered districts. The Saurians of the
plains vary in their character according to their means of
subsistence; they are chiefly Iguanida, and Lacertinida
and not unfrequently Ophiaia. Wherever rock, clay, or
sand has the slightest tendency to vegetation, there insects
* Ainsworth, p. 137. A similar practice, namely, that of firing the
grass and brush wood, exists in many parts of South Amcrica, and is in-
teresting as showing the different dispositions of the Raptorial birds,
which assemble on these occasions under very peculiar circumstances,
A curious account of several occurrences of this kind will be found in M.
Alcide D. D'Orbigny's “ Voyage dans l'Amerique meridionale."


324
NATURAL HISTORY.
multiply, and lizards make their appearance. The funda-
mental forms which prevail on the plains are those with
large heads and bodies, the skin being lubricated, and, by
means of a secretion, well defended from the burning sun.
Lizards of a long slender form and smooth do not prosper
on arid and steril spots. Agama appear at intervals over
extensive tracts of country, and furnish nourishment to va-
rious mammifera and birds. It appears that the numerous
large and non-venomous serpents which frequent the plains
feed upon these lizards; vipers confine themselves to the
Rodentia. The snakes in the neighbourhood of Solymaneah
are reported by Mr. Rich to be numerous, large, and also
very venomous.
On the more fertile and productive banks of the Euphra-
tes, gigantic species of Ameiva are common, and are met
with in the adjacent plains and among ruins. A specimen
captured at Balis was, including the tail, two feet six inch-
es in length. It is still uncertain whether a crocodile fre-
quents the Upper Euphrates. The frog-like family, Ba-
trachia, which furnish many species in the rivulets of the
upper districts, are unknown in the plains, and on the lower
Euphrates and Tigris. An observation by Mr. Rich on an
animal of this group, evidently one of the tree-frogs, is too
curious to be omitted. “There is a green frog in Kurdis-
tan which climbs trees, and catches flies and locusts like
a cat, by striking out with its fore paw. I have often seen
it perform this feat. It is in every respect like the common
frog, but is of an apple-green colour and smooth skin. I
have seen them roosting in bushes at night."*
Fishes.-Among the fish which have been observed are
the Aleppo eel, described by Gronovius, and designated by
Dr. Solander and Sir E. Home Ophidium masbacambelus';
two siluri; the bearded roach (Cobitis barbatula); and the
barbel (Barbus vulgaris) the most common fish of the Upper
Euphrates and of the pond Djami Ibrahim, near Orfa. The
chub (Cyprinus cephalus, Linn.) and several binnies were
seen; also eels, carp, and loach. The celebrated Shar-
muth or blackfish (Siluris anguillaris of Hasselq. and
Linn.), of so much value as an article of food in Egypt
and Syria, likewise occurs: it belongs to the modern genus
Macropteronotus. Trout are common in Taurus and Kur-
distan.
* Rich's Narrative, vol. i., p. 173.


326
NATURAL HISTORY.
leoptera and Lepidoptera of the adjoining Arabian peninsula,
viewed at large, differ only specifically from those of the
Mediterranean region, and that the greater part are also
found in Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia. It may, perhaps,
upon the whole, be not far from the truth to affirm, that
throughout the southern parts of the country, nearly the
same genera prevail as in Arabia, Persia, and on the east-
ern shores of the Mediterranean, but that the species are in
most instances distinct. The northern division, however,
from its comparatively elevated character, possesses a very
different entomological fauna. It is nearly related to that
of the Caucasus, which is remarkable for producing many
fine species of Carabida, a tribe which seems to have its
principal seat in the mountainous districts of Western
Asia.* Not a few European and even British forms, such
as Papilio machaon, Parnassius Apollo, Pieris brassica, and
Limenitis aceris, are well known to occur in the Himalayan
range; and it is very probable that they likewise exist on
the Taurus and its subordinate branches, as a kind of inter-
mediate locality.
Dr. Helfer had made a considerable collection, more
particularly on the Euphrates, the publication of which
was anxiously expected by entomologists. In the mean
while we present ihe following short summary, which ap-
pears in Mr. Ainsworth's work. The most characteristic
groups during the dry months are Truxales, Locusta, and
Acridium ; some striped Lepidoptera, chiefly of the genus
Maniola, also still flutter about. Four species of Pimelia
occur in the most arid spots, two of which are very com-
mon. After the rains, 200 Coleoptera were obtained, among
which many genera, supposed to be exclusively proper to
the temperate and northern parts of Europe, or which have
only a few representatives in a southern region, occur.
Such are the Brachyletrous beetles, of which forty species
were found, and five of Pselaphon, the type of which is
considered Swedish. Dr. Hope had questioned whether
there were a true Carabus on these plains; but Dr. Helfer
* See Ménétie's Catalogue des objets d'histoire naturelle, recueillis
dans un voyage fait au Caucase, &c., and the Bulletin de la Soc. des Nat.
de Moscou.
† We regret to learn that this accomplished naturalist, having incau-
tiously exposed himself on the Andaman islands, Bay of Bengal, was cut
off by the savage inhabitants on the last day of January, 1840. See Asi-
atic Journal, vol. xxxii., May to August, 1840, p. 152.


ZOOLOGY.
327
found the C. Hemprichii one of the most common insects
there. Melasoma and Pimeliaria are very numerous. The
Curculionides furnished sixty species; Coccinelle were in
abundance; Crysomelina, rare; the Lamellicornes also fur-
nished a bad harvest. Aphodi were particularly common,
in certain seasons in flights like locusts. The prevailing
types during spring are the Heteromera, and among these,
especially, Pimeliariæ.*
A few cursory remarks were made by Mr. Rich in his
travels through the eastern parts of the country, which may
here be introduced. When describing his house at Soly-
maneah, he says, “ In the divan khaneh (that part of the
house where the master sees his visiters, and the men-ser-
vants reside) is a large hall, supported by posts, and al-
most dark: ihis is said to be a cool retreat in summer; but
much annoyance arises from scorpions, which are said to
be numerous, large, and venomous. Centipedes are also
found here, but, I believe, are not much dreaded.” In an-
other place he remarks that a great quantity of honey of
the finest quality is produced in Kurdistan, the bees being
kept in hives of mud. Moschetoes and fleas, however, ev-
idently attracted the largest share of this gentleman's at-
tention. He talks of the latter as a terrible nuisance all
over the East. Again, when courting repose at Solyman-
eah, swarms of sandflies soon demonstrated the folly of the
attempt, “and our beds,” he states, “were drawn into the ta-
lar; here our success was no better, and we were kept
awake by these Kurdistan tormentors.” In allusion to the
Tigris, near Bagdad, he says, “The swarms of mosche-
toes are incredible; they literally filled the air, though
there was a good strong breeze from the northwest, and the
wind was cold. It was impossible to obtain the slightest
rest for a moment.”+
If we are to give credit to Keferstein, the Cossus of the
Greeks and Romans, which was regarded as a great luxu-
ry, was the larva of a large species of weevil (Calandra),
and was brought from Persia and Mesopotamia to supply
the tables of the rich. However this may be, we know
that a large species of the same genus (C. palmarum) is in
great request in Brazil, of which country it is a native, as
an article of food.
* Ainsworth's Researches, p. 47.
† Rich's Narrative, vol. i., p. 84-86, 142 ; vol. ii., p. 167.





INDE X.
123.
A..
cient and modern divisions, 20-
ABBASSIDES, p. 230.
25. Formed the ninth satrapy of
Abulfeda's account of Babylonian Darius, 20, 29. Present condi-
canals, 30, 32. Marshes and lakes, tion of, 207-229. Town of Sert,
35, 36.
207, 208. Jezirah ibn Omar, 209.
Accad, ancient city of, 99, 129. Arbile, the celebrated Arbela,
Ainsworth's account of the Babylo 210. Altun Kupri, ib. Kirkook,
nian canals, 30, 34. Marshes, 211. Kufri, ib. Aspect of Low-
35, 36. His geological observa er Assyria, 212–214. Pachalic
ions, 96-98. See also Geology and town of Solymaneah, 214–
of Assyria and Mesopotamia. 218. Rewandooz and Amadieh,
Akkerkoof, an ancient Babylonian 218-223. Antiquities at Shahra-
ruin, 99, 128, 129.
ban, 223. The Zendan, ib. Pa-
Ak-su, River, 28.
chalic and town of Zohab, 226-
Aleppo, pachálic of, 22.
229.
Alexander the Great, 31, 70, 72, Assyrian monarchy, history of, 37-
124.
60. Uncertainty of the early
Al Heimar, mound of, 116, 118, 122, chronology, 37. Errors of, and
discrepancy of opinion between,
Ali Ullahis, sect of, 229, 289.
various authors, 37-39. Mode of
Al Jeudi, mountains of, 199.
notation adopted, 39. Sources
Al Kosh, town of, 150.
of information-Sacred Writ-
Alp Arslan, a Seljuk monarch, 235. Greek historians, ib. Herodotus,
Altun Kupri, town of, 28, 210.
ib. Ctesias, ib. Commencement
Amadieh, pachalic and pacha of, of the empire according to each,
219.
40. Syncellus and Polyhistor, ib.
Amran, hill of, 111, 117, 120.
Scriptural account, 41. List of
Anah, town of, 27.
kings to the fall of Babylon, 42-
Aneiza Arabs, a powerful tribe, 45. Claims of Ctesias to credit
247, 266.
discussed, 45. His account of the
Angora goat, 316.
Assyrian monarchy, 46, 47. Ni-
Antony, Marc, 178; invades the nus, ib. Semiramis, 47-51. Nin-
Parthian Empire, 178–180.
yas, 51. Thonos Concolerus : his
Arab bravado, 253. Arab hospital identity with Sardanapalus, 52.
ity, 254, 255.
Errors of Ctesias, 52-54. Histo-
Arabs, various tribes of, 22, 23, 260. ry of the monarchy according to
Their religion, 261. Character, Scripture and Ptolemy's Canon,
261, 262. See Religion, and El 54-60. Asshur its founder, 54.
liot's Sketches.
Pul-Tiglath-Pileser, Shalmane-
Arbaces and Belesis, their revolt, ser, 55. Sennacherib, ib. Esar-
; and capture of Nineveh, 52, 53, 61. haddon supposed to be Sardana-
Arbela, battle of, 18, 168, 210.
palus, 56. Saosducheus suppo-
Arghana, copper mines of, 24, 27, sed to be Nabuchodonosor, 57.
293.
Fall of Nineveh and of the em-
Asshur, founder of the A
pire, 58-60.
kingdom, 41, 54, 74.
Assyrians, origin of, 74. Govern.
Assyria, boundaries of, 19. Its an- ' ment, 75. Řeligión, 75, 87, 88.
E E2


330
INDEX.
Astronomical knowledge of the an- | abundant, 95. Ruins of the cap-
cient Chaldees, 89, 90,
ital, ib. Discussions regarding
Athem, River, 33.
the identity of site of ancient Ba-
bel and Babylon, 95, 96. Mr.
B.
Beke's speculations, 96, 97. Ains-
Babel Mountains, 24, 29
worth's geological observations,
Babel, tower and city of, 79, 89, 96, 96-98. Akkerkoof and other ru-
97, 98.
ins, 128 - 141. Teredon, 130.
Babylon, ancient, 18. Taken by Workha, 131. Sunkhera, ib.
Cyrus, 69-71. Fulfilment of the Iskhuriah, 132. Zibliyeh, 135.
prophecies concerning, 70, 71. Other ruins, ib. Seleucia and
Its gradual decay, 71. Its de Ctesiphon, 135, 136. Site of
struction by Darius, ib. By Opis, 136. Median wall, 137.
Xerxes, 72, By Selenicus, 72, 73. Sittace, 138. Samarra, ib. Te-
Accounts of its desolation by va creet and Hatra, 139–141. Felu-
rious authors, 73. The Chalde gia, 141.
ans the dominant people, 84, 85. Babylonia, modern, 230-259. Bag-
Its vast ruins, 95. Discussions dau, 230-247. Sketch of a march
regarding its site, 95, 96, 98. De in, 248-259. Camp of the Zobeid
scription of, 101. Its extent, ib. sheik, 249-252. Arab bravado
Height and structure of its walls, and hospitality, 253-255. Madan
ib. Streets, ib. Intersected by Arabs, 255, 256. Montefic Arabs,
the Euphrates, 102. New palace 256-258. Interview with their
and hanging gardens, 102, 103. chief, 258, 259.
Temple of Belus, 103, 104. Oth- Babylonian empire, its rise and fall,
er gigantic works, 104. Canals, 60-74. The only authentic rec.
ib. Artificial lake, 104, 105. Pop ord contained in Holy Writ, 60.
ulation, 105. Space occupied by Ptolemy's Canon affords the only
buildings, ib. Scriptural denun true chronology, 61. Nabonas-
ciations against, 106. Allusions sar, ib. Merodach Baladan, ib.
to the ruins by ancient authors, Esarhaddon, the warlike king of
107, 108. Described by Niebuhr Assyria, 62. Nabopolassar, his
and Beauchamp, 108. By Oli power, ib. Nebuchadnezzar, ib.
vier, 108, 109. By Rich, 109-116. He carries the Jews into captivi-
Principal mounds described, 110, ty, ib. Humbles Pharaoh Necho,
111. Hill of Amran, 111. El ib. His dreams, 63. Evil Mer-
kasr, 111-113. Mujelibé, 113, odach, the Belshazzar of Daniel,
114. Birs Nimrod, 114-116. Oth 66-68. Neriglissar, 68. Labo-
er ruins, 116. Buckingham's ac rosoarchod, ib. Nabonadius, ib.
count of the ruins, 116–119. Sir Nitocris, ib. Finally subverted
Robert Ker Porter's description by Cyrus, 69, 70. See Babylon,
of the same ruins, 119-121. Dif ancient.
ficulty of reconciling the position Bahylonian kings, lists of, 42–45.
of these ruins with ancient histo- | Babylonians, government of, 76.
ry, 121-125. Ainsworth's sug Names of their monarchs, ib.
gestion of a change of names for Officers and functionaries, ib.
the ruins, 125, 126. Vitrified Their titles, ib. Royal establish-
masses, 126, 127. Much room ment, ib. Laws, 77. Religion,
for investigation respecting these ib. Mythology, 87, 88. Manners
ruins, 127.
and customs, 88. Learning and
Babylonia, ancient, 20, 24. Its fer science, 89-91. Manufactures,
tility, 29. Canals and system of 91. Commerce, 91-94.
irrigation, 29-33. Marshes, 35. Bagdad, city of, 70, 230. Its origin
Antiquities of, 94, 95. Vestiges and history, 230-234. Walls and
of former greatness everywhere gates, 234. Mosques and shrines,
to the ruin described by By Oli-


332
INDEX.
mia, 292
, 292.693. Copp
D.
Daniel, the prophet, 63, 66, 70, 76. Geology of Assyria and Mesopota-
Darius, king, 71, 72, 106.
mia, 292-306. First district, pri-
Delaim Arabs, 23.
mary rock, 292. Kebban lead
Diala, River, 28, 33, 226.
and silver mines, 293. Copper
Diarbekir. district of. 22. City of, mines of Arghana, ib. Carbona-
196, 197. Its population, 197, ceous marls and sandstone, 293,
198.
294. Second district, formations
Dijeil Canal, 35.
between Orfa and Mosul, 294-
296. Plutonic rocks, 295. Lime-
stone deposites, ib. Marble, 297.
Edessa, ancient city of, 21. See
Sulphur springs and mines, ib.
Orfa.
Hills of Kurdistan, 298. Hill of
Elliot, Mr., his sketches of the
Flames, 299. Kufri and Hamrine
Arabs on the banks of the Eu-
Hills, ib. Valley of the Euphra-
phrates, 265-278. Beni Saeed,
tes, 300-306. Formations, 300,
266, 267. Kurds, 267. Their
301. Hills of denudation, 301.
mode of decamping and encamp Sandhills, ib. Naphtha springs,
ing, 269, 270. Their manners
302, 303. Third district, its lim-
and character, 271-273. Selim
its, 304. Moving sandhills, ib.
Aga, 273, 274. Roostum Aga, Salt efflorescences, 305. Marsh-
274–276. National character of es, ib. Water-country, 305, 306.
the Kurds, 276, 277.
Gerrha, town of, 92.
Erbile (Arbela), 210.
Gordyæan Mountains, 22, 23.
Erech, ancient city of, 98, 99.
H.
Erzen, River, 27.
Erzeroum, 25, 93.
Hales, Dr., his chronology of the
Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, 56. Assyrian monarchy, 37, 38.
He reduces Babylon, to which he Hamrine Mountains, 24, 212, 295.
carries Manasseh, king of Judah, Geology of, 299.
captive, 57, 62.
Haran, identical with the Charræ
Euphrates, River, 25-27. Its navi- of the Romans, 193, 283.
gation, 25. Scenery and places Hatra, ancient ruins of, 139–141.
along its banks, 25, 26. Its peri- Heraclius, Emperor, his triumphant
odical inundations, 26, 27. Mag- expeditions, 186–188.
nitude, ib. Its division into two | Hermas or Huali, River, 28.
streams, 31. Canals connected Herodotus, his description of the
with, 29-35. A branch of it in boundaries of Assyria, 20, 29.
tersected Babylon, 102. Changes His account of Nitocris, 69. Of
in its course, 123. Geological the taking of Babylon, ib. Of the
formation of the valley of, 300 city, 101, 102, 124. Of the canals,
306.
104, 105.
Evil Merodach, 57. Considered the Hillah, town of, 25, 26, 32.
Belshazzar of Daniel, 66, 67. Hit, town of, 25, 26, 302.
Holofernes, general of Nabuchodo-
nosor, his defeat and death, 57, 58.
Faber's account of the ancient Chal-Hulwan, River, ruins near, 228.
deans, 78–82. Remarks on his
theory, 83.
I.
Feilee Arabs, 23. .
India, trade of ancient Babylon
Felugia, ruins of, 141.
with, 93, 94.
Fishes of Assyria and Mesopotamia, Insects of Assyria and Mesopotamia,
324, 325.
325-327.
Forbes, Mr., his journey from Mo- Irak-Arabi, its fertility, 23. Ves.
sul to the Sinjar Hills, 202-206. tiges of its former greatness, 95.


INDEX.
333
28.
· Irrigation, system of artificial, in Manichæans, their history and doc-
ancient Babylon, 29; 34.
trines, 284, 285.
Iskhuriah, ancient mounds and ru- Manufactures of the ancient Baby-
ins, 132.
lonians, 91.
Mardin, town of, 193–196.
Marshes of ancient Babylonia, 35
Jacobite Christians,
Masius, Mount, 21, 24, 27.
Schism, 280, 281.
Median Wall, joining the Euphrates
Jerbah Arabs, 23.
and the Tigris, 21, 136, 137.
Jewar, mountains of, 24, 222. Mediyad, plain of, 208.
Jezirah, district of, 22.' Town of, Merodach Baladan, king of Babylon,
209.
41, 60, 61.
Jezirah ul Omar, town of, 27. Mesopotamia and Assyria, interest
Jonah the prophet sent to the King attached to their early history,
of Nineveh, 41, 53, 54.
17. Ancient boundaries and di-
Julian's expedition to the East, 181. visions, 19-22. Modern divisions,
His death, and disastrous retreat
22. Inhabitants, ib. Soil and
of his army, 183-185.
climate, 23, 24. Mountain-ranges,
24. Rivers, 24-28.
K.
Mesopotamia and Assyria, subse-
Kadesia, on the Tigris, ruins of, quent history of, 155-176. Ar-
139.
taxerxes and Cyrus, 156. Battle
Karkisia, the ancient Circesium,
of Cunaxa and death of Cyrus,
156-160. Retreat of the Ten
Kasr, an ancient ruin, 111, 120, 125. Thousand Greeks, 161-168. Bat-
Kerbelah, city of, 248.
tle of Arbela, 168. The Seleuci-
Kerrend, pass of, 19.
dæ, ib. Arsacidæ, ib. Expedi-
Khabour, River, the ancient Cha tions of Crassus, 168, 169; who
boras, 27, 28, 206.
is attacked by Surenas, 170–173.
Khatuniyah, Lake of, 206.
Death of Crassus and destruction
Khezail Arabs, 23.
of his army, 175. Reflections on
Khoosroo Purveez, his victorious the conduct of Xenophon and
career, 185, 186. Opposed by Crassus, 175, 176. Parthians
Heraclius, 186, 187. His death, overrun the country, 177, 178.
188.
Invaded by Antony, 178-180.
Kirkook, town of, 211.
Successes of Augustus Cæsar,
Korna, town of, 27, 28, 36.
180. And of Trajan, ib. Julian's
Kufri Hills, geology of, 299.
expedition, 181-184. Jovian's
Kufri, town of, 211.
retreat, 184, 185. Invasion of the
Kurdistan, mountains of, 24, 298. Huns, 185. Nooshirwan's career
Kurds, 22, 267-278. See Elliot, checked by Belisarius, ib. Inva-
Mr., his sketches of the Arabs on
sions of Khoosroo Purveez arrest-
the Euphrates.
ed by Heraclius, 185–188.
Mesopotamia, present state of, 189-
L.
206. Account of Bir, 189, 190.
Lake, artificial, in Babylonia, 104,
Orfa, 190–192. Haran, 193. Mar
105.
din, 194–196. Diarbekir, 196–
Lemlum Marshes, 23, 35, 305. 198. Nisibin, 199. Mosul, 200-
202. Description of the Sinjar
M.
district, 202-206.
Madan Arabs, 255, 256. Their | Mesopotamia and Assyria, religion,
houses and flocks of buffaloes, character, manners, and customs
256.
of the inhabitants of, 260–290.
Manasseh, king of Judah, carried in Variety of races, 260, 261. Arabs,
chains to Babylon, 62.
their religion, character, and


334
INDEX.
0.
feuds, 261-265. Mr. Elliot's its environs, 142–155. Account
Sketches of the Arabs on the Eu of, by Diodorus, 143. Mentioned
phrates, 266-278. Christian pop by Herodotus, ib. By the proph-
ulation, 278. Nestorians, Sabæ ets Jonah and Nahum, ib. Mr.
ans, and other sects, 278-290. Rich's account of its ruins, 143-
Montefic Arabs, 32, 256. Their 146 ; his voyage down the Tigris
reed huts, 257. Their town, ib. -ancient sites on the banks, 146 ;
Interview with the sheik, 258, his visit to numerous ruins and
259. Their blood-feuds, 262. remarkable objects in the neigh-
Mosul, city of, 200. Its population, bourhood of Mosul, 147-155.
201. Trade, ib. Climate, ib. Ninus, king of Assyria, 45-48. .
Geology, 297. See Nineveh, an- | Ninyas succeeded Semiramis on the
cient.
throne of Assyria, 48–51.
Mujelibé, an ancient Babylonish | Niphates Mountains, 27. Geology
ruin, 110, 113, 114, 117, 120, 125.| of, 292.
Nisibin, modern town of, 199.
N.
Nisibis, ancient city of, 21, 185. "
Nabonassar, king of Babylon, 41, Nitocris, queen of Babylon, 66, 68.
45, 61.
Nooshirwan, his exploits, 185.
Nabopolassar, in alliance with C
Checked by Belisarius, ib.
axares, overthrows Nineveh, 58–
60. Removes the seat of empire
to Babylon, 62.
Opis, ancient city of, 136, 137, 162.
Nabuchodonosor, king of Babylon, Orfa, city of, 180, 190–193, 296.
57, 58.
Population, 192. Manufactures,
Nahrawan Canal, 33, 36, 139. Its l ib.' Identity with ancient Ur,
magnitude, 33.
193.
Nahr Malikah Canal, 30, 182.
Nahr Sares Canal, 30.
P.
Naphtha springs on the Euphrates, Pacoras defeated by Ventidius, 178.
302, 303. On the Tigris, 303. Pallacopas, ancient canal of, 31, 32,
Natural History of Assyria and Me! 306.
sopotamia, 290–327.' See Geolo Parthian Empire invaded by Anto-
gy, Botany, Zoology.
_ny, 178–180.
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon Parthians overrun Mesopotamia
58, 62. Overruns Syria and car and Assyria, 177. Are defeated
ries the Jews into captivity, 62, by Ventidius, 178. Their wars
64. Humbles Pharaoh Necho, with the Romans, 177-185.
62. His dreams, 63, 64. Divine Perisabor, town of, 182.
predictions, 65. His humiliation, Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, 62.
repentance, and death, 65, 66. Porter, Sir R.K., his description of
Hanging gardens of Babylon Babylonian ruins, 119-121, 123.
erected by, 102.
Ptolemy's divisions of Assyria, 20.
Nejeff Ali, city of, 247.
His account of ancient canals, 30.
Nejeff, Lake or Sea of, 31, 32. His canon, 41, 61. Affords the
Neriglissar, king of 'Babylon, 67, only true chronology of the Baby-
lonian empire, 61.
Nestorians, 207, 222, 223. Various Pul, king of Assyria, 54, 55, 87,
sects of, 279-282.'
100.
Nimrod, founder of the Babylonian
kingdom, 18, 41, 79, 80, 98-100.
Nineveh, ancient, 18, 19.' Is taken | Ragau, battle of, 57.
by Arbaces and Belesis, 52, 53. Rawlinson, Major, remarks on an-
Its destruction by Cyaxares and cient ruins by, 227, 228.
Nabopolassar, 58-60. City and Religion of the inhabitants of mod-
68.
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