32101073337972



VETVS & TESTA-
NOVIM MENTVM
E-VIGET
AISVB-NYMINE-VICH
PRINCETON
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY








Gt. Brit. Admiralty.
For Official Use only.
Attention is called to the penalties attaching to any infraction
of the Official Secrets Act.
A HANDBOOK OF
MESOPOTAMIA
VOLUME I
GENERAL
Prepared on behalf of the Admiralty and
the War Office
ADMIRALTY WAR STAFF
INTELLIGENCE DIVISION
(No. 1118)
August, 1916





1794
•402
v.





NOTE
Mesopotamia is treated in four volumes. This first introductory
volume contains matter of a general nature. The other volumes
are devoted to the detailed description of the river and land routes.
The second volume covers the regions of the Shatt el-'Arab and
Kārūn, and of the Tigris and Euphrates up to Baghdad and Fellūjeh.
To the third volume are assigned the Tigris and Euphrates from
Baghdad and Fellūjeh to Mosul and Meskeneh, the Lesser Zāb,
the country east of the Tigris towards the Persian frontier, and the
routes running westward from the Euphrates valley across the
Syrian desert. The fourth volume treats of the country north of
the line joining Rowanduz, Mosul, Meskeneh, and Aleppo up to
Van, Bitlis, Diarbekr, Malatiyeh, and Marash.











CONTENTS
PAGE
·
.
·
·
.
.
·
.
14
.
·
.
.
·
·
·
·
.
·
·
·
.
·
.
.
·
·
·
.
·
.
.
·
·
.
·
·
CHAP.
I. BOUNDARIES AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
II. CLIMATE . . .
.
III. MINERALS . . . . . . .
IV. FAUNA AND FLORA .
V. HYGIENE . ..
VI. HISTORY
.
VII. INHABITANTS .
VIII. RELIGIONS . . .
IX. ADMINISTRATION ..
X. IRRIGATION OF IRAK . .
XI. AGRICULTURE . . . . . .
XII, COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY ..
XIII, CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES .
XIV. COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT . .
·
·
.
·
.
·
.
·
·
. .
·
.
·
·
.
·
·
.
·
·
::.
.
·
.
·
. 125
:
·
.
·
.
·
·
.
.
.
.
.
.
160
·
TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH
NAMES · · · · ·
·
· · 178
VOCABULARIES
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
. 181
INDEX .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. 353


LIST OF MAPS
MAP
1. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS AND CHIEF Towns.
2. RACIAL DIVISIONS.
3. AREA AVAILABLE FOR IRRIGATION.








CHAPTER I
BOUNDARIES AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
This handbook deals principally with the area comprised within
the following boundaries : to the S. the Persian Gulf; SE., E., and
NE. the chains of mountains that are the rim of the great plateau
of Irān or Persia; to the N. the similar ranges which form the
edges of the table-lands of Armenia and Asia Minor; to the W.
the Syrian desert, and to the SW. the desert of Northern Arabia.
The well-defined limits mentioned above enclose what, relative to
the surrounding highlands, is a vast depression of the surface, which,
however, as explained below, contains a low plateau in itself. This
depression falls away from the northern mountains, at first at a
steep and then at a slowly diminishing gradient, till it reaches
the point where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers approach to within
40 miles of each other, viz. on the line Baghdad-Fellūjeh. Here,
now at a very low altitude, it changes suddenly into the great
alluvial basin which, in almost a dead flat, stretches southwards for
350 miles, to end at the Persian Gulf. The heights of the mean
river levels above the sea at the following places will illustrate
conveniently and graphically the scale of declivity of this depression
from north to south, till the sea is reached : Samsat, 1,615 ft. ;
Birijik, 1,115 ft. ; Diarbekr, 1,900 ft. ; Mosul, 980 ft. ; Baghdad,
105 ft. (350 miles from the sea in a straight line); Basra, 5 ft.
(55 miles from the sea in a straight line).
By its structure and configuration the whole area is divided
into three districts or zones : by structure into a zone of older
rock; a zone of younger sedimentary formations; and a zone of
alluvial deposits. By configuration it is divided into a district of
mountains and hills ; a district of rolling and undulating plain inter-
sected here and there by outcrops of rocks and by spurs from the
mountains ; and a district of watery dead plain of an astonishing
fertility. The great depression which is the bulk of Mesopotamia,
and with which we are chiefly concerned, is composed of the second
and third zones and districts.


10
BOUNDARIES AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
Before describing it, a brief allusion may be made to the first
zone and district. South-eastward and eastward, beyond the Tigris,
and to the north, between the Tigris and Euphrates, towers the
highland zone ; range upon range of massive limestone mountains,
till the passes to the plateaux behind them rise to 5,000 ft. and
6,000 ft., and the peaks to over 11,000 ft. The width of the moun-
tain belt averages about 100 miles, and its parallel ranges number
from five to ten. Between them lie valleys of varying size and eleva-
tion, generally more or less habitable, especially in the northern
portion of the belt. A few have no outfall; but the majority discharge
the copious water which pours from the snow-clad ridges through
great gorges and tremendous chasms into more westerly and southerly
channels, and so eventually into a few large rivers—the Euphrates,
the Tigris, and their main affluents. In the south-eastern section
three of the largest—the Kārūn, Jerrahi, and Zāb-join their mud-
flats with those of the Shatt el-'Arab, and have created an alluvial
area nearly half as large as Babylonia ‘between the rivers'; more
encumbered by silt, but with lowlands almost as fertile. All along
these rocky and most rugged walls of Mesopotamia the terrain
rises gently at first in a wide expanse of rolling country. Then,
where the first mountains stand up and catch the moisture from the
winds, come patches of forest-first oak, then pine and cedar ; finally,
on the great heights, come Alpine conditions. There is thus a regular
sequence of alluvium, sloping glacis, foot-hills, and high ranges
on the south-east, east, north-east, and north. To the west the
sequence is only one of alluvium and relatively low, featureless
desert (the Arabian) for the lower part of Mesopotamia ; and shelving,
undulating plain and the desert again (the Syrian) for Upper Mesopo-
tamia. This desert slopes steadily up westwards; it is traversed by
numerous water-courses which trend to the Euphrates and are merely
dry torrent beds that contain no water above the ground, but carry
off such rains as fall.
Reverting now to the great depression between the mountain
walls and desert already described, it falls, as stated above, into two
most distinct zones or districts. The boundary between them is
at or about a line from Beled, north of Baghdad to Fellūjeh on the
Euphrates. The country between the rivers to the north of this line is
known as Jezīreh (the island); the alluvial plain to the south is Irak.
Jezireh is a low plateau, composed of limestone and sedimentary
formations, detritus, intersected by low ranges of limestone, gypsum,
and basalt, which slopes from the southern spurs of the Taurus and
other ranges southwards to where it ends in the great alluvial
plain of Irak. In its northern half, Jezīreh is distinctly a sub-








BOUNDARIES AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
11
montane belt merging gradually into a rolling and undulating
plain, and presents all the characteristics of such regions-good soil,
plenty of water, fair rainfall. These favourable conditions diminish
with increasing distance from the mountains, where the sloping plain
assumes the character of the Syrian desert to its west. The ruins
of innumerable towns and villages ; the existence of the Assyrian
Empire with Nineveh, its capital, at Mosul ; the importance of this
tract in Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arab times, testifies to what it
was in the past, and may be again in the future under a good and
settled government. The Jebel Sinjar range is a rough boundary
between Upper and Lower Jezireh ; the latter is, and always has
been, an unmitigated desert.
Irak is a perfect plain. In 350 miles it falls only 220 ft. to the sea.
It is a sheet of the most fertile alluvium, an argillaceous, calcareous
loam, interspersed with occasional, unimportant, pockets of stiff
clay or else pebbles; sand is sometimes met with, but not to any
appreciable degree. There is not a stone on the surface. This
loam-plain bears depressions of vast extent in which the floods of
the rivers have formed, especially during the later centuries of
Turkish misrule, enormous permanent marshes and swamps, more
particularly on the lower course of the Euphrates river. These are
among the unpleasant existing features of the country, but no doubt
many of them could be drained. Throughout the great alluvial plain
the boundless horizon is unrelieved by a single range, hill, or natural
eminence, and is unbroken save by the artificial mounds which are
the silent evidence of the existence of bygone civilizations. There
remains the most important feature of Mesopotamia, its river and
drainage system : the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Kārūn.
The Euphrates passes through three distinct phases in its course
to the sea ; its two main sources lie deep in the Armenian plateau :
from the northern flows the Furāt Su, which after a course of about
275 miles joins the larger southerly arm, the Murād Su (about 400
miles). Their united waters flow for 115 miles to Samsat, above
which place they burst through the mountains in a terrific cañon.
Thence, for 720 miles from Samsat to Hīt, the river crosses open,
treeless country which becomes more level and barren as the river
proceeds south. From the west it receives only one important
tributary, the Sajur, which comes in quite high up some 20 miles
south of Jerablūs, and from the east only two, the Belikh and the
Khabūr, both in the middle third of this section. As far as the
Khabūr the country extending east and west from the river valley is
cultivable, and here for the last 30 years Arabs and Kurds have
been gradually settling down to till the soil. Where cultivation


12
BOUNDARIES AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
does not yet, or cannot, exist, there stretches a steppe-like desert,
covered with verdure in spring and bare and brown during the rest
of the year. The river itself flows in a trough generally a few
miles wide which it has carved through the desert. The stream
meandering from side to side in this trough contains many islands
and a number of rapids. The valley floor is for the most part covered
with alluvium, and contains bays of varying extent which are capable
of cultivation, but are generally, owing to the insecurity which
prevails and the sparse population, a wilderness of tamarisk jungle
and reeds, the natural home of numberless wild pig. Halfway down
the olive gives way to the date palm. At Hīt the river enters its
delta, after passing through a reef of limestone rocks with outcrops
of sulphur, brine, and bitumen springs. The river here is about
250 yards in width and still flows briskly through this last obstruc-
tion. In Irak the river flows through alluvial plain and marsh, its
waters finding their way through successive bifurcations of the
channel (between Museyib and Samāweh, and between Nāsirīyeh
and the Shatt el-'Arab) and forming large shallow lakes surrounded
by reedy swamps, which have been compared to Norfolk broads.
The course of the Tigris is geographically similar. Two chief
sources, rising near those of the Euphrates, drain the south-eastern
ranges of Armenia. They unite some 58 miles below Diarbekr,
which lies on the main or western branch that bears the name of
Tigris, the eastern source being called the Batman Su. From their
junction to Samarra the distance is about 250 to 300 miles, the river
flowing first through winding gorges, then below Jezīret-ibn-Omar
through rolling country, and below Mosul through steppe and desert
interrupted by the Hamrīn Geya. A short distance below Samarra
it reaches the alluvial plain. Like the Euphrates, it flows from
Mosul to Samarra in a wide trough with similar characteristics to
the Euphrates trough. The affluents of the Tigris are on its left
bank, where the drainage of the Kurdish hills is brought in by
a number of streams, of which the most notable are the Greater and
Lesser Zāb and the Diyāleh. Consequently the Tigris brings down
eventually somewhat more water than the Euphrates, and also on
its swifter current more silt. At Baghdad and in the alluvial area,
the Euphrates and Tigris are within 40 miles of each other, but soon
diverge again to a distance of 100 miles. Below Amara the Tigris
is much reduced by the numerous canals which carry a great propor-
tion of its water into extensive swamps, particularly at the inlet of
the Suweib about 3 miles below Kurna, which also bring an access
of water from Karkeh river. The waters of the Euphrates join
those of the Tigris partly at Kurna, 240 miles in a straight line








BOUNDARIES AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
13
below Baghdad, and partly at Gurmat 'Ali, a few miles above Basra.
Together they form the Shatt el-'Arab, a noble river 1,200 yards
wide, navigable up to Basra for ocean-going steamers. Twenty
miles below Basra it receives the Kārūn river at Mohammareh,
and at Fāo it flows into the sea.
The Kārūn river takes its rise in the highlands of Luristan, enters
the plains at Shushtar, and breaking through a low transverse range
at Ahwaz, flows in a steady and tortuous course through sparsely
inhabited but not unfertile country, the plains of southern Arabistan,
to join the Shatt el-'Arab at Mohammareh.


CHAPTER II
CLIMATE
INTRODUCTION
The climatic conditions of Mesopotamia are those of a subtropical
area which lies at a distance from any ocean, and therefore are of
a semi-arid type, although an appreciable amount of rain falls in the
winter months. In the winter the atmospheric pressure is compara-
tively high over Northern Syria and Mesopotamia, since they lie on
the outskirts of the great high-pressure system of Central Asia ; and
while the air-currents at this season are somewhat variable in their
directions, winds from the north-west predominate in all parts of
the country.
Rain occurs during the passage of cyclonic depressions, some of
which come from the Eastern Mediterranean, and others probably
pass across Asia Minor, but at other times the north-westerly winds
descending from the high plateau to the northward arrive at the low-
lying Jezīreh as dry and comparatively warm winds. In summer
this effect is more strongly marked, and these north-westerly winds,
warmed by their descent from the plateau and in their passage to
lower latitude, sweep over the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates as
hot, dry winds, which blow fairly continuously from May until
October. At this season the great low-pressure area of North-West
India, which is related to the monsoon of the Indian Ocean, extends
to the Persian Gulf, and the pressure gradient which exists from the
Eastern Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf maintains this flow of air
over Mesopotamia throughout these months.
Consequently the land depends on the waters of its two great rivers
for its fertility, since the rainfall alone is insufficient to maintain
vegetation through the summer. Drawing their supply largely from
the snowfall in the mountains of Armenia, the levels of the Tigris
and Euphrates increase in the spring months, and begin to diminish as
midsummer draws nigh. As in Egypt, the cultivator is dependent
on the water of the rivers for bringing his crops to maturity, but in
Mesopotamia they are at their highest in April and May, whereas the








CLIMATE
15
rains of Abyssinia from June to September produce the annual Nile
flood of Egypt in August and September.
In a region so sparsely inhabited and so little civilized as Meso-
potamia the places at which meteorological observations have been
made are naturally few. Some have been carried on for short periods
among the foot-hills of the Taurus in the northern portion of the
basin of the Euphrates, while others have been made for longer
periods at Baghdad and Basra, and have been published in the
Meteorological Reports of the Indian Government. Besides these,
a series of observations which extends over five to six years has been
provided by the activity of an archaeological mission engaged upon
investigations on the site of the ancient city of Babylon.
We have therefore meteorological observations from the following
places in Mesopotamia, but they are too few in number and extend
over too limited periods to represent adequately the extensive basin
of the Tigris and the Euphrates :
Place.
Period of
Observations.
Altitude.
Latitude N. | Longitude E.
Years.
Feet.
(3,200
72,755*
'1,870
1,950
I 980
830*
37° 4'
37 13
37 54
37° 35'
38 47
2-4
3-4
Upper Mesopotamia :
‘Aintāb
Urfeh.
Diarbekr
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad
Babylon
Basra .
Mohammareh
Persian Gulf:
Bushire
Babrein
Jask
Muscat .
21
44
26
5-6
11
120
100
25
8
25 47
23 37
57 48
58 35
* The altitudes of some stations are uncertain. Those marked with an
asterisk are taken from the Royal Geographical Society's map of 1910, the other
value being that quoted in the observations.
Of these twelve stations 'Aintāb, Urfeh, and Diarbekr represent the
climate of the hilly country which lies immediately to the southward
of the mountain ranges which extend from the Gulf of Iskanderun
on the west to Lake Van on the east, where they join the mountains of


16
CLIMATE
Western Persia which form the eastern boundary of Mesopotamia.
This region, which forms a part of the upper basins of the Euphrates
and the Tigris, lies at an altitude of 1,500 to 3,000 feet, while many
of the hills rise to greater heights. At 'Aintāb the observations.
which relate to rainfall only, extend over thirty-two years. At Urfel.
and Diarbekr the periods are shorter, being seven (1900-6) and two
to four years (1901-5) respectively, but the observations are mori
complete and include all climatic factors.
Situated on the banks of the Tigris about 100 miles farther south
than Diarbekr and more to the eastward, is Mosul, where observations
have been made for three to four years (1908–11). This town, which
is about 900 feet above sea-level, represents the climate of the southern
part of Upper Mesopotamia, where more arid conditions prevail than
in the foot-hills. At Mosul itself the winter rainfall is considerable,
but in the Jezīreh it decreases gradually as the hill-country is left
behind.
UPPER MESOPOTAMIA
Temperature (Tables I-VII, pp. 28 ff.)
The coldest month is January, while the hottest is July or August,
there being but little difference between these two months. The
mean temperature of the day (Table I) varies from about 40° F. in
January (31° F. at Diarbekr) to about 90° F. in July and August, the
increase being at the rate of about ten degrees per month from April
onwards. September sees a definite reduction of temperature after
the summer heat, while in October and November the temperature
diminishes rapidly.
The difference between the temperature at Mosul and that of the
stations in the hills is not very apparent in the mean temperature
but is clearly seen in the daily and monthly extremes (Tables II-VI).
The mean daily maximum temperature in Mosul in July is 110° F.
or 11° higher than at Diarbekr, while the mean monthly maximum,
the highest temperature which may ordinarily be expected in the
month, is 116.6° F. or 11° and 12° above that recorded at Diarbekr
and Urfeh respectively.
Fairly low temperatures occur at all these stations annually, the
mean daily minimum being 26.4° F. at Diarbekr and 32° F. at Mosul
in January, but occasionally much lower readings are recorded. The
mean monthly minimum in January is 27.1° F. at Urfeh, 19.2° F. at
Mosul, and even 10.9° F. at Diarbekr. This severe cold at Diarbekr
is doubtless due to its position in a basin into which the cold air
drains from the surrounding mountains.








CLIMATE
17
The lowest and highest temperatures which have been recorded
i show the same wide range, though the observations have not yet
· extended over a long period, seven years being available for Urfeh,
but from two to four for Diarbekr, and from three to four years
Ñ for Mosul.
Place.
Highest
Temperature
recorded. °F.
Month.
Lowest
Temperature
recorded. °F.
Month.
Range.
F.
Urfeh
Diarbekr
Mosul.
110.7
107.8
118.8
July
August
July
22:1
-0.4
4.3
February
January
88.6
108.2
114.5
This represents the extreme range of temperature which has
been recorded for each place during the period for which observa-
tions are available. If, however, the difference between the lowest
mean monthly minimum and the highest mean monthly maximum
(Tables III and VI, pp. 28 and 30), that is, between the lowest and
highest temperatures which may ordinarily be expected in any year,
be taken, the annual range is : for Urfeh, 77.1° F. ; for Diarbekr,
94.4° F.; and for Mosul, 97.4° F.
Rainfall (Tables IX and X, pp. 34-5)
In Upper Mesopotamia the rainfall is moderately plentiful at
-stations in and near the mountains, but it diminishes rapidly towards
the alluvial plain of the Euphrates and Tigris.
The station of ‘Aintāb, which is situated in the hills about
60 miles to the north of Aleppo, has an average annual rainfall of
22.05 inches, as deduced from a series of observations which extends
over 32 years (Table IX, p. 34). The greatest amount of rain falls in
December (4.13 inches), while more than 3 inches are recorded in
November, January, and February. The months of July, August,
and September are rainless, while the average rainfall in June is
only 0.24 inch.
At the other stations the observations are probably too few as
yet to furnish satisfactory averages, but they all show the heaviest
rainfall as occurring in March, with a secondary maximum in
December at Urfeh, and in November at Diarbekr and Mosul. This
approximates to the yearly distribution of rainfall at stations in
Western Persia. The number of rainy days show maxima in the
same months (Table X, p. 34), and call for no special remark.
Snow occurs in Upper Mesopotamia in December and January and
MES, I.


18
CLIMATE
sometimes in February and March as well. It is recorded on eight
days on the average at Diarbekr and two at Urfeh during the winter.
Humidity (Table VIII, p. 32)
The mean relative humidity at Urfeh is remarkably low, and, if
the figures are correct, must be ascribed to the föhn effect when the
winds blow from the northward over the high mountain ranges
of Asia Minor and descend to the much lower level of the basin of
the Euphrates as warm and dry winds. In summer the humidity
is particularly low, being from 26 to 29 per cent. At Mosul it is
considerably higher, especially in December and January.
Thunderstorms (Table XII, p. 38)
Thunderstorms are moderately common, and occur most frequently
in April and May, when the average number for the month is 4
at Diarbekr and 3 at Urfeh, the total number in the year being
14.6 at the former and 10-3 at the latter place.
Cloud (Table XIII, p. 38)
Observations of the amount of cloud are available from Urfeh, and
also from Mosul, where observations were made three times daily.
While the summer months, June to September, are almost cloudless,
the amount increases rapidly in the autumn, until during the winter,
months the mean amount is from 4 to 5, Mosul showing a maximum
of 5 to 6 in April (Table XIII, p. 38) on a scale in which 10 represents
a completely overcast sky.
LOWER MESOPOTAMIA
The northern portion of Lower Mesopotamia extends from about
Baghdad on the Tigris to Kurna at the junction of the Euphrates
and the Tigris, and its extremely hot and dry climate is represented
by the meteorological observations which have been taken at Baghdad
and Babylon. At Baghdad these extend over a period of twenty-one
years, while at Babylon they were made regularly for six years by an
archaeological mission which was carrying out excavations there.
To the south of the junction of the two rivers at Kurna the climate
becomes very damp as well as hot, and heavy dews are of frequent
occurrence, the conditions approximating to those of the Persian
Gulf. Basra, a station where meteorological observations have been








CLIMATE
19
made for eleven years past, represents this portion of the country,
while some observations made during four months in the summer of
1885 at Mohammareh, are also available.
Temperature (Tables I to VII, pp. 28 ff.)
In Lower Mesopotamia the mean temperature ranges from 47° F.
in January to 95° F. in July, while at Baghdad and Basra the range
is somewhat less. January is the coldest month, and February is
only slightly warmer, but from March onwards the temperature rises
steadily at the rate of about 10° F. per month until June. June,
July, and August are the hottest months of the year, the maximum
usually falling in July or August.
As is to be expected in this semi-arid region, the maximum tem-
peratures are very high. The mean daily maximum is from 57° F.
to 60° F. in January, and rises to 110° F. and 111° F. in August at
Baghdad and Babylon, and to 104° F. at Basra. The mean monthly
maximum temperature for August is considerably higher, being
119.5° F. at Baghdad, while the highest temperatures which have
been recorded at these four stations are 121.3° F. at Babylon and
121.0° F. at Baghdad in August. While such high temperatures
are annually experienced in the summer, frost occurs occasionally in
December, January, and February. The mean monthly minimum
temperature in January is 27.5° F. for Baghdad, and 26.1° F. at
Babylon, while the lowest temperature which has been recorded is
20.8° F. for both of these places.
The extreme annual range of temperature is hardly so great as in
Upper Mesopotamia, although the maximum in August is higher,
since the minimum in January is not nearly so low as, for instance,
at Diarbekr.
Highest
Temperature
recorded.
Range.
Place.
Month.
Lowest
Temperature
recorded.
°F.
Month.
OF.
OF.
August
January
Baghdad.
Babylon .
Basra
121.0
121.3
111.4
20.8
20.8
23.7
2
100.2
100.5
87.7
July
The greatest range of temperature which may ordinarily be
anticipated, i.e. the difference between the mean monthly maximum
and mean monthly minimum temperatures, are 97.0° F., 91.9° F.,
and 76.5° F. for these three stations.
B 2


20
CLIMATE
Rainfall (Table IX, p. 34)
While the rainfall of Lower Mesopotamia is less than that of
Upper Mesopotamia, still an inch of rain usually falls in each
of three months of the year. At Baghdad and Babylon the largest
rainfall is in February, while at Basra the total for January is the
highest, being thus intermediate between the later date of the
maximum rainfall at places in the upper reaches of the river, and
December, when the heaviest rainfall at places in the Persian Gulf
is recorded. The total amount is not large at any station, ranging,
on the average, from 4 to 7 inches. June to September are practi-
cally rainless, and in April, May, and October the amount which falls
is small. The rainy days are consequently few (see Table X, p. 34),
the highest average number being 3.6 in March at Baghdad and 5.0 in
December and January at Babylon, while at Basra it is 2.6 in
January.
Snow falls occasionally, and as many as four days of snow were
recorded in January, 1912, at Babylon.
Humidity (Table VIII, p. 32)
The mean relative humidity at Baghdad lies between 60 and
80 per cent. from November to April, but falls much lower in
the summer, and is only 38 per cent. in June, from which it rises
slowly to 44 per cent. in September. At Babylon the values are
lower. Here, even in the winter, very low relative humidities
occur, 10 per cent. or less having been recorded in every month
except December and January during the period 1907–11.
Thunderstorms (Table XII, p. 38)
Thunderstorms appear to be rather frequent, for at Babylon,
which is the only place at which they have been regularly recorded,
they show a well-marked maximum in April and May, when nearly
five occur on an average. During the five years over which the
observations extended 8 occurred in April of one year and 10 in
May of another. In July, August, and September none occurred,
and only a few in the autumn, which thus exhibits in this respect
a marked difference from the spring.
Cloud (Table XIII, p. 38)
Cloudiness is naturally much less in the arid climate of Southern
Mesopotamia than under the somewhat moister conditions of the








CLIMATE
21
country to the north of Baghdad. Both that station and Babylon,
however, show a well-marked cloudy season from December to
April, while from June to September the sky is almost cloudless.
A similar annual variation of cloudiness is noticeable at the northern
end of the Persian Gulf, while at places nearer to the Indian Ocean,
such as Jask and Muscat, July and August are months of much
cloud.
Winds (Table XI, p. 36)
The winds of Mesopotamia have been observed at five stations,
viz. Urfeh, Mosul, Baghdad, Babylon, and Basra ; but at Baghdad and
Basra the observations have been made at 8 a.m. only, while at the
other places three observations daily—at 8 a.m., 2 p.m., and 7 p.m. or
8.30 p.m.—are available, and give a better representation of the
air movement.
The mean wind directions for each month, expressed as per-
centages of the total directions observed in the month, are given
in Table XI, p. 36, where it will be seen that the dominant wind
direction in all months is the north-west, inclining at one time
more to the west and at another to the north. In the summer
the north-west wind shows the greatest steadiness at all stations,
when it reaches a percentage frequency of 70 to 80. In winter and
spring the southerly and easterly winds attain their greatest fre-
quency, but there is a recognizable difference at the different stations.
At Urfeh calms are not indicated in the observations, and in the
winter months easterly and southerly winds have each about half
the frequency of the north-westerly. At this station southerly
winds are fairly frequent at all seasons, but, as elsewhere, are at the
minimum in the summer months.
At Mosul calms are few, and the north-westerly winds are still
predominant, reaching 77.7 per cent. in the summer months. At
that season southerly winds are comparatively rare, but they reach
30.3 per cent. in the winter months, and as south-easterly winds con-
tinue into April and May. At Baghdad the observations were made
at 8 a.m. only, and a very high percentage of calms was recorded-
from 58.4 per cent. in December to 22.9 per cent. in July. This high
proportion may be due to local conditions, but also the light airs of
the winter mornings have probably been recorded as calms, since
Dr. A. Schläfli, who resided there in 1862–3 and made careful
meteorological observations, notes that calms are comparatively rare.
Even though very light airs prevail in the early morning, the wind


22
CLIMATE
rises steadily in the forenoon, and by the early afternoon is blowing
freshly to drop again at sunset, and this diurnal variation in the
strength of the wind is a normal condition in all the months of
the year except during periods of cold and rainy weather in
winter.
Southerly winds are frequent in the winter, but they fall to a very
small number in the summer months. At Babylon, some seventy
miles south of Baghdad, where observations were taken three times
daily for more than five years, hardly any calms were recorded.
Southerly winds were frequent in the winter months and in April
and May, but were always greatly inferior to the north-westerly
winds, which in the summer months reached the proportion of
85.5 per cent. At Basra the proportions do not differ greatly from
those of the stations higher up the river, but southerly winds have
a rather greater prevalence in the summer months than farther
northward.
The general character of the air circulation over Mesopotamia
is well indicated by these observations. Throughout the year
a prevailing current from the north-west sweeps over the country
from the hilly country in the north to the shores of the Persian
Gulf. This air has for the most part descended from altitudes
of 4,000 feet or more on the plateaus of Asia Minor and Kurdistan,
and therefore reaches the northern part of Upper Mesopotamia
as a dry wind. This is clearly indicated by the low value of the
relative humidity of Urfeh. Passing southwards and entering suc-
cessively warmer regions, the air of Mesopotamia is everywhere dry,
except in the delta, where the climatic conditions agree closely with
those in the Persian Gulf. The frequent occurrence of easterly winds
in the northern part of Upper Mesopotamia during the winter and
spring is probably connected with the occurrence of depressions
in the Levant, many of which pass over Northern Syria or Palestine
into Mesopotamia. Data bearing on the velocity of the wind are
very scanty.
There is probably a well-marked diurnal variation in both the
direction and the force of the wind in all parts of the country,
but the wind directions at the three hours of observation have been
published for Babylon only. Here the north-westerly wind of the
morning becomes more northerly and even passes to the east of
north by the afternoon, especially in the summer months. Except
in the cold weather or during the passage of depressions, the increase
of wind velocity during the day is usual and is especially marked
during the hot months. From light airs at sunrise the wind
increases to a moderate breeze by about 10 a.m., and by 2 p.m. to








CLIMATE
23
4 p.m. has become a fresh or even a strong breeze. It is strong
enough to raise dust and even sand, so that in the afternoon the
horizon is usually obscured. About sunset the wind drops, to rise
again an hour or two later as a light breeze which may continue
during the night, falling to a calm before sunrise.
Gales are said to be rare, but probably high winds occur when
depressions pass over the country in the rainy season. In the
summer the afternoon wind is said occasionally to reach gale force,
but this seems to be exceptional.
Sand Storms
The occurrence of sand storms during 1911 and 1912 was noted
at Babylon, 12 and 4 being recorded respectively. They seem to be
most common in the spring months, but the observations were too
few to support any definite conclusion. It appears that these sand
storms were strong winds carrying dust and sand similar to the
Khamsin of Egypt, and not the Simoom (the hot wind accompanying
a cloud of sand and dust which sweeps across the arid country
as a disturbance of comparatively slight depth and short duration).
Preceded by dull or cloudy weather of great heat and oppressiveness
and usually by a light southerly wind, the squall of the Simoom
itself, accompanied by a dense sand cloud which it has raised,
advances with great rapidity, and often blows with extreme violence.
After its passage the air quickly clears and a cooler period with
northerly winds follows.
CONDITIONS AFFECTING AVIATION
Density.— The density of the air in Mesopotamia has been computed
for four months of the year, including those of mid-winter and mid-
summer, and the results are given in the following table :
TABLE OF DENSITY IN GRAMMES PER CUBIC METRE
Place.
January.
April.
July.
October.
Mosul.
Baghdad
Babylon
Basra .
1,233
1,254
1,260
1,250
1,170
1,194
1,166
1,185
1,089
1,127
1,121
1,130
1,149
1,172
1,177
1,176
.


CLIMATE
Visibility. In all hot countries where the ground is heated to
a high temperature in the summer months, the air in contact with it
is much hotter than that at a short distance above the ground. The
density of this layer which is in contact with the ground is conse-
quently less than that of the upper layers, and all objects seen
through these heated layers appear to be below their true position.
This effect, known as mirage, leads to a part of the sky being seen as
though on the surface of the desert, where it appears to be a sheet of
water, and to hills, rocks, and other objects being distorted. Visi-
bility is thereby greatly interfered with whenever the line of sight is
inclined at a small angle to the ground; for a line of sight from any
considerable height this form of interference would not be serious,
but when the ground is highly heated, as in the case of a semi-arid
and subtropical region, the ascending hot air and the cooler air which
descends to take its place will probably produce a general haziness
throughout the hottest time of the day. Further, the increased
velocity of the wind after midday raises a considerable amount
of fine dust which remains in suspense until sunset, and diminishes
the visibility of objects at a distance.
Clouds are rare in the summer months, and the few that do occur
are cirrus clouds which are situated at high altitudes. Occasionally,
when unsettled weather is imminent, overcast skies are experienced,
but these are uncommon and do not usually last for any time.
Temperature.— The difference between the highest and lowest
temperatures in any month is very considerable ; the mean range,
or the difference which is ordinarily experienced in the course of the
various months, is given in the following table:
MEAN MONTHLY RANGE OF TEMPERATURE
Mosul.
| Baghdad.
Month.
Basra.
Babylon.
Bushire.
°F.
F.
LOF.
°F.
OF.
January
February
March
April . .
May . .
June :
July. .
Augusti
September .
October .
November .
December.
............
..........
41.2
40.8
36.4
45.2
41.8
44:7
443
44:1
47.7
44.8
44:1
34.8
41:1
41.9
45.0
43.5
46.5
42-5
42.7
45.4
47.7
47.4
45.5
40:3
43-0
45.9
48.8
54.0
50.8
49.2
47.5
49.4
53.1
51.0
51.4
46.3
37.3
37.7
37.7
37.6
38.0
30.9
32:3
33.8
39.8
39.8
40.3
33.5
35.2
30.7
35.5
36.9
33.5
26:7
24.8
27.0
27.1
30.0
34.5
33.3
...








CLIMATE
25
The average range of temperature in a single day is naturally much
less, and is given below for the same places.
AVERAGE DAILY RANGE OF TEMPERATURE
Mosul.
Baghdad
Month.
Basra.
Babylon.
°F.
OF.
Bushire.
°F.
OF.
.
.
.
.
.
.
January
February
March.
April .
May ·
June.
July
August
September.
October
November .
December.
18.0
17.7.
18.9
22.5
27.0
28.9
29.6
31.5
31.1
28.4
22.5
18.0
21:3
22.8
23:3
24:7
25.4
28.4
29.8
30.8
30.8
29.3
24.6
20.5
20:3
24.6
26.7
26.8
29.0
33:6
35.1
36.3
36.4
31.7
27.9
23.0
16.2
16.4
17.3
18.8
19.6
18.9
21.5
23.5
24.6
22:7
18.3
13:7
13.0
12.6
13.4
14.1
13.5
11.2
11.0
13.0
14.8
16:3
15.6
13:3
.
.
.
.
.
.
Winds.—The prevalent winds are shown in Table XI, p. 36, for
the different stations at which observations have been made. The
north-westerly and northerly winds blow with great steadiness,
especially in summer, when there is a steep pressure gradient from
the north of Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf. In consequence
of heating, the lower layers of air which are in contact with the
ground rise, and in this way a mixing of the lower and upper air
takes place as the day advances. The result is that the more
rapid motion of the upper layers is imparted to the lower layers
with which they are being mixed, and increased velocity of the
surface wind in the midday and afternoon hours is thus brought
about.
Observations of atmospheric pressure have been made at few
places in Mesopotamia, but from these and others in the Persian
Gulf, in Syria, Egypt, Arabia, and India the general trend of
the isobars can be deduced for the summer months May to October,
when there is a well-defined pressure gradient towards the Persian
Gulf. In the winter months the gradient is slight, and the data are
insufficient for reliable deductions to be made of the velocity of the
upper air currents. An approximate value can, however, be obtained
for the summer months, and the estimated velocity of the winds
at from 1,500 to 4,000 feet (gradient wind) is given in the following
table :


26
CLIMATE
ESTIMATED VELOCITY OF THE GRADIENT WIND IN LOWER MESOPOTAMIA, BAGHDAD
TO BASRA
June. | July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
-
Metres per second
Miles per hour .
.
.
.
9.4
. . 21.0
7.0
15.7
|
5.4
12.1
5.4
| 12.1
10.9
| 24:4
Further eastward these velocities appear to increase to 30.0, 25.6,
24.8, 23.7, and 24.4 miles per hour respectively. ..
In the summer half-year the change of pressure (reduced to
sea level) is comparatively rapid as the Tigris or Euphrates is
ascended, and the average increase of pressure for Mesopotamia may
be taken as being about 1 mb. for 125 kilometres or 77.7 statute
miles, in going from the head of the Persian Gulf to Upper Mesopo-
tamia. In the months before and after July the gradient is less, but
from October to April the distribution of pressure is too imperfectly
known for isobars of any reliability to be drawn.








TABLES
.
.
PAGES
. 28-29
. 28-29
·
·
.
28-29
·
·
.
.
.
·
SUMMARY
TABLE
I. Mean Temperature . . . . . . .
II. Mean Daily Maximum Temperature . . . .
III. Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature .
IV. Absolute Maximum Temperature . . . . .
V. Mean Daily Minimum Temperature
VI. Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature .
VII. Absolute Minimum Temperature . .
VIII. Relative Humidity . . . . .
IX. Mean Monthly Rainfall . . .
X. Rain Days
• :
XI. Wind Directions as Percentages of Total Observations.
XII. Thunderstorms . . .
XIII. Mean Amount of Cloud . . . . . . . .
30-31
30-31
30-31
32-33
.
.
·
.
·
:
·
.
. 34-35
36-39
38-39
. 38-39
.


28
CLIMATE
TABLE I
MEAN TEMPERATURE
Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June.
Upper Mesopotamia :
Urfeh . . . . 40•3 47.8 52.3 62.6 71.2 81.7
Diarbekr. . , 30.9 40.5 47.5 58.5 68.2 78.8
Mosul .
41:0 460 52:0 62.6 76.5 86.5
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad. ..
48.8 52.8 59.2 68.0 78.8 87.3
Babylon.
46.6 53.8 61.9 76.1 84.0 91.3
Basra * .
51.8 55.6 63.0 72.9 81.9 87.3
Mohammareht.
86.4 90.1
Persian Gulf :
Bushire . .
: 57.5 58.8 64.5 72.9 81.1 84:9
Bahrein *. .
61:2 62.2 67.2 74.3 83:1 87.2
Jask
66.7 67.9 71:3 79.0 84.3 88.2
Muscat
69.3 69.8 73.2 81.9 87.6 89.7
TABLE II
MEAN Daily MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE
Upper Mesopotamia :
Diarbekr. · · · 39:0
39.0 48.2 56.1 67.6 78.6 90.3
Mosul .
50.0 54.9 61.5 73.
9 90.0 100.9
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
59.5 65.8 72.9 82.8 93.7 104.5
Babylon.
57.2 66.7 75.4 85.6 97.7 106.3
Basra
59.9 65.4 73.6 83.8 93.9 99.7
Persian Gulf :
Bushire
64.4 65.5 72.4 81.2 89.1 91.8
Bahrein .
: 66.7 67.5 73.8 81.4 90.7 93.9
Jask
73.8 74.8 79.2 86.5 92.2 95.9
Muscat
73.5 73.9 78.4 86.5 93.7 95.9
TABLE III
MEAN MONTHLY MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE
Upper Mesopotamia :
Úrfeh . .
. 53.2
.
60.1 71.4 82.0 90.9 100.6
47.5 54.7 65.3 77.4 87.1 99.9
Mosul
. 60•4 64:8 70.9 84.9 97.0 108.7
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad . .
68.6 75.9 85.0 93.7 106.1 113.4
Babylon.
69.1 76.8 87.3 99.9 109.6 114.3
Basra .
70.0 75.1 83.2 93.3 103.2 106.3
Persian Gulf :
Bushire .
75.4 75.6 86.2 94.3 101.2 100.9
Bahrein . .
76.6 75.2 85.7 92.6 102.6 101.4
Jask
78.7 81.4 87.9 92.0 101.6 104.5
Muscat
: 80-7 79.2 89.4 96.5 104.5 106.6
* Deduced from Max. Min.
:-a correction derived from the observation of
Baghdad and Bushire respectively.
† For 1885 only.
·
....
·
·
·
....
.
Diarbekr
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.








TABLES I-III
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
88.9
87-4
88.9
87.3
93.4
80.4
76.5
85.5
70.0
63.9
73.2
55.4
50.4
59.0
46.0
40:1
48.2
94.8
92.1
94.8
90.2
94.8
92.5
93.7
90.7
92.1
86:0
88.0
85.3
76.3
77.2
77.4
61.5
61.3
64.9
52.5
50.9
56.0
Upper Mesopotamia :
Ürfeh.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad."
Babylon.
Basra.*
Mohammareh.t
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.*
Jask.
Muscat.
88.5
90.3
89.0
88.2
89.4
91.2
88.2
85.0
85.8
87.8
86.3
84.4
78-2
80.9
81.8
82-2
69.6
73.7
75.4
77.1
61.6
65.0
70.2
72.4
99.0
1101
98.1
1090
86:0
101:1
73.8
87.4
58.1
70.2
48.0
57.4
109.4 110.0
110.5 110.7
10303 104.5
103:3
105.8
99.5
92.3
93.0
89.1
75.1
75.7
75.3
63.1
62.4
63.3
Upper Mesopotamia :
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat.
95.3
96.9
98.4
94.3
87.6
88.5
90.3
88.2
94.0
94:6
93.0
89.1
77.9
79.9
83.4
82-5
68.5
70-8.
77.6
76.9
97-7
96.0
93.2
89.1
104.0
105.3
116.6
104-2
105:1
115.0
95-5
92.8
109.8
87.4
83.3
96.1
72.5
68.2
81.0
59.2
59.9
65.7
116.8
116.4
108.5
119.5
117.0
109.2
112.6
114.1
106:0
101.8
101.7
97.5
86.
9
86.5
86.8
72-1
73.2
72.0
Upper Mesopotamia :
Urfeh.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat,
102.3
102:7
103.6
103.1
104.4
103:8
101:3
98.8
997
100:7
99.8
98.3
94.0
95.2
96.8
97.0
88.2
89.2
88.7
90.1
79.0
79.7
82.8
83.1


CLIMATE
June.
106.3
104.9
110.3
TABLE IV
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE
Jan Feb. Mar. April. May
Upper Mesopotamia :
Urfeh
. 59.0 69.1 83:1 894 97.3
Diarbekr.
. . 51.1 60.1 65.7 79.7 91.6
Mosul
62.6 66.4 71.1 87.6 103.5
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad,
79.9 84:8 98.8 99.1 109.9
Babylon.
75.4 81.7 95.7 105.3 114:1
80.1 83.3 91.
9 99.9 114.2
Mohammareh * .
98.4
Persian Gulf :
Bushire
80.0 84.6 104:7 102.5 106.5
Bahrein
83.1 83.
2 9 5.2 96.5 108.8
Jask
82.2 88.3 92.3 102.2 110.2
Muscat
85.9 85.3 96.8 103.3 110.3
119.2
120.7
111.4
106.3
Basra
,
109.3
106.7
109.8
114.3
58.5
63.0
65.5
72.0
TABLE V
MEAN DAILY MINIMUM TEMPERATURE
Upper Mesopotamia : ..
Diarbekr.
. 26.4 33.4 38.8 49.3
Mosul .
32.0 37.2 42.6 51.4
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
38.2 43.0 49.6 58.1
Babylon. . . 36.9 42:1 48.7 58.8
43.7 49.0 56.3 65.0
Persian Gulf :
Bushire . .
. .
.
514 52.9 59.0 67.1
Bahrein . . .
56.4 57.6 63.0 9.7
Jask
60.6 62.0 66.6
Muscat
67.1 67.5 72.0 79.7
68.3
68.7
74.3
76:1
72.7
80.8
Basra
75.6
78.0
78.4
85.7
80.6
83.1
83.3
88.5
61.2
55.9
64.0
TABLE VI
MEAN MONTHLY MINIMUM TEMPERATURE
Upper Mesopotamia :
ūrfeh
. 271 31.3 35.6 44.6 52:7
Diarbekr. .
10.9 22.3 29.5 39.6 51.8
Mosul
19.2 24.4 34.5 39.7 55.2
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad
27.5 34.0 40.0 50.2 59.6
Babylon.
26:1 30.9 38.5 5.9 58.8
Basra
32.7 37.4 45.5 55.7 65.2
Persian Gulf :
Bushire
. 40.2 44.9 50.7 57.4 67.7
Bahrein
46.7 49.6 54:4 60.7 70.3
Jask
50.6 54:3 58.5 65.4 72.3
Muscat
60-6 62:8 65.7 71.5 79.3
* For 1885 only.
70.9
65:1
75.4
74.2
76.1
78.1
832








TABLES IV-VI
July.
110.7
106.2
118.8
Aug.
108.5
107.8
117.7
Sept.
101.8
93.2
113.9
Oct.
90.5
84.9
97.0
Nov.
78.8
69.8
86-5
Dec.
61.7
62.4
71.8
120-2
119.3
114.4
110.5
121.0
121.3
113.9
113.2
117.2
116.1
109.4
108.0
104.4
101.4
95.3
90.9
92.4
81.0
80.8
76.6
Upper Mesopotamia :
Ürfeh.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Mohammareh.*
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat.
109.5
105.7
111.8
110.3
115.0
107.5
106.7
105.3
107.5
105.4
104.8
102.8
101.0
104.7
102.2
102.3
91.3
92.4
92.3
96.3
86.6
84:1
86.3
88.3
36:1
75.0
79.5
74-8
77.5
64.0
70:0
44.4
47.7
59.0
39.4
79.6
75.4
81-8
79.2
74.5
81.0
72.5
69.4
74.9
63.0
61.3
66.4
50.5
47.8
57.0
12.6
39.4
49.6
Upper Mesopotamia :
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat.
84.3
85.4
85.5
87.5
83.9
86:1
84:1
84.0
79.2
82.5
81:1
83.1
71.3
76.0
75.9
80.6
62:3
68.4
69.0
75.2
55.2
59.7
64.0
70-3
69.8
69.3
72.3
69.4,
69.4
70.9
57.4
55.8
62.1
51:6
44:2
51.3
41.4
36.5
36.9
32.7
29.1
30.9
74:1
68.9
76-2
74.1
67-6
75.4
64.9
61.0
66-2
54.4
50.7
57.7
41.4
35:1
46.5
31.8
26.9
38.5
Upper Mesopotamia :
Urfeh.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat.
45.7
77-5
80-0
51.0
77.4
80-5
79.9
78.7
72-6
76.4
75.4
79.2
64.0
69.1
69.2
75.3
53.7
60.8
62.1
69.7
82-3
58.0
65.6
81:7


32
CLIMATE
TABLE VII
-
0.4
.
ABSOLUTE MINIMUM TEMPERATURE
Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June.
Upper Mesopotamia :
Urfeh
. 23.0 22.1 30.2 39.2 45.5 53.6
Diarbekr
17.2 26.1 36.5 46.0 52.9
Mosul
5.2 34.5 37.6 53.2 61.9
Lower Mesopotami
Baghdad.
20.8 29.8 33.5 43.8 50.0 62.8
Babylon.
20.8 25.9 32.9 41.7 57.7
Basra .
23.7 31:1 39.7 52.3 59.1
Mohammareh * .
67.8 71.8
Persian Gulf :
Bushire
32:0 37.2 45.4 50-4 57.7 67.2
Bahrein .
40:8 44.8 51:3 57-3 65.3 72-3
Jask
41.8 51.3 47.3 61.3 69.3 73.7
Muscat .
57-5 627 62:1 70.6 78.1 78.3
....
61.3
70.3
....
29
43
TABLE VIII
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (Mean of Day)
Upper Mesopotamia :
Urfeh . . . . 50 53 48 43 36
Mosul
: . . 87 87 78 76 65
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad f.
72 71 60 52
Babylon .
. . . 67 55 47 42 34
Basra f ..
71 66 61
Persian Gulf :
Bushire
71 66 62
Bahrein . .
78 74 68
Jask
Muscat
5959
...
.
....
68
.
68
.
* For 1885 only.
† 8 a.m. only.








TABLES VII-VIII
July.
Nov.
Dec.
66.2
67-5
Aug.
67.1
66.2
67.1
Sept.
51.8
54:3
58.3
Oct.
48-2
43.5
48.9
47-5
46-0
52-5
37.6
32.9
29.1
19.4
16.3
27.9
71-2
71.1
60.1
70.7
80.8
68.9
63.0
68.7
75.9
56.0
57.2
59.7
29.5
27:1
35.7
18.6
18.9
29.9
Upper Mesopotamia
Urfeh.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Mohammareh.*
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat.
74.0
76.8
76.2
77.3
69.1
79.3
76.8
77.1
63-2
74.4
70.0
77.3
55.4
55.9
65.2
74:7
46.3
52.9
52-3
67.1
39.4
43.0
53.8
63.5
24
26
28
29
49
80
50
86
66
80
3942
35
68
Upper Mesopotamia :
Urfeh.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad. f
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat.
22
59
65
77
68
74
69
77
66
66
68
81
HES. 1.


34
CLIMATE
June.
Aintāb
.
.
TABLE IX
- MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL (inches)
Jan. Feb. Mar. April May
Upper Mesopotamia :
. 3.23 3.54 2.76 2:36 1.30
Urfeh
2.64 2.64 2.91 1.18 0.87
Diarbekr.
. 2.05 1.97 4.10 2.84 1:54
Mosul
. 2.49 3.06 3.37 2.090.48
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
1.04 1:37 1.41 0.81 0.23
Babylon.
. 0.95 0.36 1.09 0.20 0.02
Basra
. 1.17 1.05 1.090.48 0.46
Persian Gulf :
Bushire
2.68 2:06 0.91 0.48 0.02
Bahrein
0.37 0.59 0.38 0.17 0.10
Jask
0.79 0.86 0.77 0.06
Muscat
. 1.08 0.78 0.76 0.11 -
0.24
0.04
0.16
0.11
-
....
0.05
0:15
TABLE X
RAIN DAYS (>0-2 mm. or 0.008 in. of rain)
.
....
7.9
7.0
.
9.2
7.0
11.0
11.3
13.0
9.3
8.8
12.0
9.6
0.6
2.5
5.9
6.0
.
3.6
2.1
Upper Mesopotamia :
Ürfeh
Daten..
Diarbekr. .
Mosul .
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad ..
Babylon.
Basra
Persian Gulf :
Bushire
Bahrein :
Jask
Muscat
...
se and a
...
3
2.6
2:1
1.5
2.4
4
2.5
3.8
1.7
1.8
1.6
1:1
0.9
0.9
....
....
2.2
1:1
1.7
1.9
2.2
0.2
0.4
1.8








TABLES IX-X
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
0-08
3:35
1.81
0.16
0.04
0:31
1.06
0.47
0.71
0.26
4.13
2.72
2.68
1.91
3:15
2.10
0.05
0.08
0-40
0.08
0.79
0:45
0.89
1.17
0.78
0.82
Upper Mesopotamia :
Aintāb.
Urfeh.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat.
0:19
0:01
0.10
0:01
0.04
0.07
3.25
0.81
1.27
0.62
0.04
0.32
0.35
0-01
0:02
0.8
2.5
3.2
4-5
2.5
7.8
10:0
6:0
9.5
12.0
7.0
1.5
.
5
Ill ||| ||1o
||| öll ||11
Upper Mesopotamia :
Urfeh.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein.
Jask.
Muscat.
TOS
2.5
0.1
0.3
0.6
0.8
0.1
c2


CLIMATE :
N.
.
S.
.
........
........
N.
.
NE.
3.9
.........
.........
N.
.
5.0
TABLE XI
WIND DIRECTIONS AS PERCENTAGES OF TOTAL OBSERVATIONS
Jan Feb. Mar. April. May. June.
Urteh :
. 14 11 9 9 11 11
NE..
10 13 12 6 11
E. .
10 13 12
SE..
9 11 14 12
SW.
W..
16
NW.
34
Mosul :
13.9 14.6
8.4
14.7 23:1 21.9
8.4 4.9 33 3.4 5:1
E. .
10.2 15.0 14:7 10.2 10.7 3.0
SE..
15.4 15.3 23.7 20.6 13.8 4.5
S. .
6.6 11.7 11.4 6.1 4.5 1.1
SW.
5.5 52 4:0 5.9 2.9 6:7
W..
11.7 13.7 14:4 12.1 13.5 19.8
NW.
28.2 19.5 20.1 27.0 26.4 35.7
3.4
Baghdad:
12.9 12.4 15.6 13.6 18.1 30.8
NE.
0.3 1.9 1.7 4.4 4.8
E. ..
1.0
1.9
3.7 2.1 1.9
SE..
1.7 4:3 5.7 1.7 1.3 1:0
7.5 9.3 10.1 7.0 3.2 0.6
SW.
2:7
1.7 2.2
W..
7.5 - 5.4 3.7 7.0
2.0
12:2 11.6 8.1 13.6 15.8 34-2
54.0 53.1 50.1 49.0 47.0 25.8
Babylon :
13:1 18.6 15.2 17.8 21.8 23.9
4.9 4.5 5.5 7.7
2.1
5.9 7.4 6.8 72 7.1 2.4
SE..
18.0 20.1 17.3 12:7 9.3 2.7
S. .
7.2 5.7 8.7 6.7 7.7 2.0
SW.
4.4 5.7 5.3 5.6 5.1
17.0 15.5 13.1 13.0 14:7 15.8
NW.
26.7 20.3 26.0 26.3 26.7 47.0
2.6 2.3 2.4 2.9 1.9
Basra :
29.3 21.6 19.8 33.4 27.2
NE.
0.6 2.2 4.5 3:7 2.4 0.7
E. .
1.3 1.3 1.8 2.4 0.7
6.4 3.6 8.6
3.7
1.0
17.7 20-6
17.8 10.0 4.2
SW.
5.8
3.1
3.9 1.8
W. .
13.5 14.4 8.9 11.6 15.1 20-1
NW.
14.4 15-8
12.3
11.6 15.7 41.6
C. .
12.3 13.7 18.5 10.0 18.8 2.8
0:7
S.
.........
.........
5-6
NW.
C.
.
N. .
NE.
E. .
5.7
........
........
2.5
0
W..
1.6
N
.
27.1
SE.
4.5
S.
.
..........
23.0
.......
6.8
6.3








TABLE XI
July. Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
nowerwe
Urfeh :
N.
NE.
0w 500 watt
Tavomas
SE.
S.
SW.
12
*
W.
co
19
NW.
Mosul :
.
N.
*
18.6
2-5
5.9
4-5
2-5
5-6
20.6
39.8
2.0
4.2
4.2
3.0
7.5
23.6
37.6
16.7
3:0
3.9
6.2
5.3
5.9
20.8
38.0
11.6
5.9
8.6
14.8
4.8
NE.
E.
SE.
14:7
8.7
5.9
10.8
8.5
6.2
12.7
32.5
S.
7.4
13.9
33.0
34.0
SW.
W.
NW.
c.
Baghdad :
18.4
20.2
1.7
20-6
14.4
N.
1.0
22.5
2.8
1.0
1.7
NE.
1.0
11.3
1.0
1.3
4.9
5.9
E.
0:3
SE.
SW.
0:3
1.7
1.7
6.2
2.0
2:7
11.6
58.0
1.6
7.1
W
.
50.3
0.3
6-5
22.5
42-0
6.7
38.2
2.0
125
4.3
11.2
58.4
NW.
22.9
31.2
53.2
DOMA OOONON NOTO OCC OCO
Babylon :
15.0
16.5
N
.
15.8
1.3
1:3
2.1
NE.
5.5
2.2
10.7
3.7
4:0
11.6
7.0
E.
1.2
SE.
2.5
11.0
5.0
4.9
11.4
3:3
4.8
18.3
35.9
5.3
1:2
2.6
1.3
1.6
20.6
51.8
3.8
2.2
18.6
3.9
3.1
SW.
12.4
18.2
W.
56.5
17.3
43:1
6:0
30:8
34.5
NW.
1.6
5-6
5.0
Basra :
32:8
6.2
16:1
N.
1.2
4.7
2.6
1-2
1.5
22.1
1.8
1.8
2.4
6.7
10.7
2-3
3.1
| 2-3
14.8
40.6
13.3
11.6
2.0
1.3
10.7
14.0
- 3.0
26.0
16.7
14.7
0.6
4.5
9.7
3.9
31:0
10:3
21.2
15.3
1.8
1.8
5.7
11.5
6.1
28.5
18.5
10.8
5.2
NE.
E.
SE.
S.
SW.
W.
NW.
12-5
C.


38
CLIMATE
TABLE XI (continued)
WIND DIRECTIONS AS PERCENTAGES OF TOTAL OBSERVATIONS
SUMMARY
Nov.-March.
April-May.
SE.
W.,
SE.,
NE
NW.,
&N
S., &
Sw
· NW.,
NE.
& E.
& E.
&N
SW
Percentage.
Urfeh
Mosul
Baghdad . .
Babylon . .
Basra
52.4
| 52.6
30.0
58.8
53:3
24.4
17.1
3.2
10.5
3.4
23.2 61.5
30.3 584
13.0 53:3
26.7 l 60.2
29.3 57.3
13.5
14:7
6:2
13.9
2.1
25.0
17.9
2.8
23.6
23:1
.
TABLE XII
DERSTORMS
Jan
Feb.
Mar. April. May. June.
Ürfeh
.
0.4
.
Upper Mesopotamia :
Diarbekr .
Lower Mesopotamia :
Babylon. ..
1.2
1.0
3.0
1.7
1.4
2.5
0.3
4.0
sy Tº Maximum in any year 2.0
2.0 44 88 46058
10
3.9
0.9
1.4
5.5
5.6
2.
1
TABLE XIII
MEAN AMOUNT OF CLOUD I
Upper Mesopotamia :
Ürfeh * .
4.7 4.7 3.6 2.8
Mosul * . .
. 5.2
5.1
3.6
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad †
2.8 2.7 2.9 2.1 1.6
Babylon *.
3.9 3.6 3.9
Basra † ...
. 3.6 3.4 3.9 2.7 2.6
Persian Gulf :
Bushire t .
2.7 3.7 3.2 2.2
Bahrein f .
1.8 1.0 0.9
Jaskt
2.8 2.4 1:5
Muscat .
0.7
* 8 a.m. only.
+ Three observations, at 8 a.m., 2 p.m., and 7.30 or 8.30 p.m.
| 0 = cloudless sky; 10 = completely overcast.
2.8 2.3 2.3
1:1
3.2
0-3
0.9
0.1
0.1
1.8
2.8
0.5








TABLE XI-XIII
June-Sept.
October.
W.,
SE.,
NE.
W.,
NW.,
W
NE.
SE..
, & | NW
S., &
& E.
E.
& N.
& E.
& N.
SW.
SW.
27.0
70-2
77.7
64.9
85-5
75.2
9.5
14.2
3.3
9.0
3.6
20.2 65.0
7.8 69.7
1.4 35:1
6:7 61.9
11.5. | 57.4
8.0
10.2
5.9
11:8
3.2
20:1
5.8
20.8
18.1
Percentage.
Urfeh.
Mosul.
Baghdad.
Babylon.
Basra.
|
July. Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
0.8
1.3
Nov. Dec.
0.3
1.5 0.3
0.3
2:0
Upper Mesopotamia :
Ürfeh.
Diarbekr.
Lower Mesopotamia :
Babylon.
„Maximum in any year.
0.4
0.4
0.2
1.0
1.4
2.3
2.4
3.3
4.8
4.7
0.5
5.3
2:3
03
0.5
0.1
0:3
0.1
1.5
2.6
1.9
3:1
0:6
Upper Mesopotamia :
Urfeh. *
Mosul.*
Lower Mesopotamia :
Baghdad.
Babylon.*
Basra. †
Persian Gulf :
Bushire.
Bahrein. †
Jask.t
Muscat.
0.5
1
.9
2.
2
3.5
(
6
0.8
3.2
0.4
0-7
0:1
2-0
3:2
1:1
0.3
0.9
0.6
0:1
1.5
1:1
2:7
0.5
1.9
1.5
2-4
2.6
2-7
2.8
2.5


CHAPTER III
MINERALS
As might be expected from the configuration of the country, the
existence of minerals occurs almost exclusively in the hilly and
mountainous borders of the great plains. Where the Euphrates
debouches into the Jezīreh, gypsum and fuller's earth abound in the
flat plains on both sides of the river. There are extensive salt works
at Berareh, where the Jebel Sinjar approaches the Khabūr stream,
and sulphur springs at Ras el.'Ain. Further eastwards in the hills
of Diarbekr traces of minerals increase, and five mines are known
to exist, of which three are at present worked-one by the State and
two by lessees. The Government mine, of copper, is situated about
50 miles NW. from Diarbekr on the road to Kharpūt, at Arghana,
and appears to have been discovered in A.D. 1096. The ore is a
mixture of iron and copper pyrites, one or other predominating as
the case may be. The total annual production may be estimated at
about 1,200 tons. The ore is either roughly treated on the spot, the
working methods being exceedingly primitive, or else it is exported
in its natural condition. The two mines worked by private enterprise
are a copper mine near Palu, N. of Diarbekr, and a mine producing
galena at Tkil, NW. of Diarbekr. Seams of coal are reported at
Hazo, NE. of Diarbekr, and at Harbol, across the Tigris, E. of
Jezīret-ibn-Omar; the latter are in use. Salt works, yielding
about 5,000 cwt. of salt a year, exist at Lijjeh, 50 miles NNE. of
Diarbekr, and there are salt-fields and salt works at Samarra. In
the hills of the Mosul tract several mines of copper, argentiferous
lead, and even of gold were worked in former ages, but owing to the
general insecurity of the country have been closed for centuries;
in the neighbourhood of Mosul deposits of sulphur, asphalt, and
orpiment are still being worked. Sulphur springs are found to the
north in the immediate neighbourhood of Mosul; also, on the right
bank of the Tigris, about 13 miles down-stream, there are the hot
saline springs of Hammām 'Ali, which have markedly medicinal
properties. The soil near them is impregnated with bitumen,
sulphur, and salt; and close by is a bitumen spring which also








MINERALS
41
produces oil in considerable quantity and of fairly good quality.
Shows' of oil and of bitumen are met with at various spots farther
south; the Kaiyara naphtha springs, 50 miles from Mosul and
2 miles from the right bank of the Tigris, where a native of Erbil
has set up a small refinery for oil which is sold for local consump-
tion at Erbil ; again between Erbil and Kirkuk, and the latter
place and Salāhiyeh (Kufri). There are also coal workings at
Nasaleh, E. of Şalāhiyeh, which yield coal of poor quality (deeper
borings may produce better results). There are oil wells at
Chiah Surkh, N. of Qasr-i-Shirin, where the Anglo-Persian Oil
Company has a branch. Farther south-eastwards, along the same
submontane region, there is an outcrop of oil at Mandali, on the
Persian frontier, and traces at various other points towards Shushtar
till the oil-fields of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company at Maidān-i-
Naftūn, 30 miles E. of Shushtar, are reached. Springs of white oil
are worked by the same company at Naft-i-Safid, about 20 miles S. of
Maidān-i-Naftūn. Wells have also been drilled at Ahwāz. The
importance of the oil-springs of this region and the extent and value
of their output dwarf all the mineral products of Mesopotamia put
together.
In the south of the Jezīreh, gypsum is found at Tekrit, Samarra,
and Mahmūdiyeh, and a whitish yellow clay, suitable for pottery, is
found on the banks of the Tigris. On the Euphrates there is an
important deposit of oil and bitumen at Hīt, and of bitumen at Anah.
Large quantities of bitumen can be obtained at these two places, but
cost of freight at Basra, and difficulty of shipment thence, have
prevented its export from Mesopotamia. The quality of the bitumen
produced is poor, owing to inferior methods of extraction and prepara-
tion, What is now produced is consumed locally in covering the
bottoms and sides of native craft, floors of hammams, &c., bridges, &c.
The desert round Baghdad contains good clay for bricks, and on
the outskirts of Baghdad city is a small salt-field. Considerable salt-
fields exist at 'Azīziyeh, Shatret el-Amāreh, Kerbela, Nejef, and
Nāsirīyeh. Saltpetre is extensively found in the soil of Irak, but no
use is made of it.


CHAPTER IV
FAUNA AND FLORA
FAUNA
To judge from the reliefs and paintings discovered at Nineveh,
Nimrūd, Babylon, and elsewhere, lions must have been very numerous
in Mesopotamia, but at present, if they exist at all, a few may be
met with near the Khabūr and on the border of Persia. Tigers
do not occur, leopards are found in the hill country, and wolves are
fairly common in the north, but the latter are comparatively seldom
found in Irak. Hyaenas, jackals, foxes, and hares are common
throughout Mesopotamia. Bears, black and brown, are not un-
frequent in the higher ranges of the borders towards Kurdistan
and Armenia. There are many wild pig in the marshes and
tamarisk-covered stretches by the river sides, and gazelles abound
in the upper Jezīreh, and are also common farther south and in
Irak. Throughout the Jezīreh antelopes are to be found, but the
wild ass is now rare. The beaver is reported to have been seen on
the Euphrates and Khabūr rivers. Various species of jerboas inhabit
the plains; porcupines, rats, and mice are common. Of domesticated
animals the camel takes the first place; it is of the one-humped
species, and presents two varieties : the riding camel, of high breed,
slight make, clean limbed, thoroughbred, and capable of great and
continuous exertion, ambling at a steady pace of 6 miles an hour for
several days consecutively; and the baggage camel, which corre-
sponds to the cart-horse, is of heavy build, carries from 400 to
600 lb., and can march from 15 to 25 miles a day. Without their
camels the nomad Arab tribes could not exist. Next come horses,
chiefly of Arab stock (for riding mainly); asses, of which a noted
white variety is used for transportation by wealthy men and ladies ;
buffaloes, cattle, goats, and sheep of both the long-tailed and fat-
tailed varieties. Dogs of the common or 'pariah' class abound in
the towns and villages; shepherds keep a breed of powerful, hairy
dog of the mastiff type, and Arabs and Kurds, for sporting purposes,
possess hounds of the well-known ‘Persian greyhound' class.
Of birds there are vultures, eagles (in the mountains), kites, hawks








FAUNA AND FLORA
43
and falcons, ravens, crows, owls; in the upper Jezireh the bustard
and the ordinary game birds of the East: partridge (black and grey),
quail, geese, duck, snipe are plentiful ; while the great marshes teem
with herons, bitterns, pelicans, and other aquatic birds in enormous
numbers.
Snakes are common, and flies are a plague as in Egypt; in and near
the marshes mosquitoes and sand-flies are unpleasantly numerous.
From time to time plagues of locusts visit Mesopotamia. The rivers
produce fish, but not of many species that are fit to be eaten-by
Europeans at any rate. The best known are the bizz, which is often
6 to 7 ft. long and over 100 lb, in weight; the shabūt, which weighs
from 2 to 6 lb.; and the bunni, which is a smaller but better tasting
fish than the shabūt. Water-tortoises are found in the rivers. Sharks,
up to 6 ft. in length, visit Baghdad in the hot season, and are said to
penetrate occasionally as far up-stream as Samarra. The marshes
harbour frogs in myriads.
FLORA
The flora of Mesopotamia is necessarily limited in view of the
physical and hydrographical characteristics of the country and its
scanty rainfall. Only an account of the wild flora is given here—the
description of crops and produce will be found in the section on
Agriculture, Chap. XI.
In Irak natural wooding hardly exists except upon the banks of,
rivers and canals, where the Euphrates poplar, a tree that does not
attain to any great size, grows interspersed with low tamarisk jungle;
there is also a kind of osier and willow, known as safsāf, which
gives a good shade. The white and black mulberry, the ber, the
plane and sumach, and various kinds of acacias are among the self-
propagating trees of the country, also a mimosa which goes by the
name of shok esh-shāmi (camel thorn). An aromatic plant called shiah
is fairly common. There is no lack of reeds, sedges, and rushes in
the great swamps and morasses. A small thorny plant, called simply
shök, is common everywhere in the dry tracts, and affords fuel and
camel grazing. In the desert to the SW. there are found, in addition
to forage plants common to arid Eastern tracts, a shrub called haram
and a grass called sahbah, both of which are eaten by camels. Two
vegetable products, natural but possessing a commercial value, are
the colocynth and liquorice. The former occurs everywhere, and is
obtained in large quantities from the waste between Baghdad and
Hilla, the dried pulp only being exported and not the whole fruit.
The liquorice plant grows chiefly in river bends on the concave side
of the curves, and is said not to be found at more than two miles


44
FAUNA AND FLORA
distance from the water's edge. It benefits by occasional floods.
Liquorice root is a staple article of fuel at Baghdad.
Vegetation in the Jezīreh corresponds with the physical and
climatic conditions of this tract as contrasted with Irak. In Lower
Jezīreh, except in the river troughs, there are few trees, and those
that exist are the same as in Irak. The central desert, lying between
the two rivers, bears hardly any vegetation except a little coarse
grass and some camel thorn. In Upper Jezīreh matters in this
respect improve as the distance to the highlands of Diarbekr decreases.
Towards the southern part of Upper Jezireh the country is steppe,
the vegetation of which is that which prevails in similar soil from
Central Asia to Algeria, though many arborescent plants that grow
in the rockier and more irregular plateaux of western Asia and
Persia are missing. Here the cycle of vegetation begins in November:
the first winter rains clothe the plain with verdure, and in spring the
ground is a carpet of flowers embedded in luxuriant grasses; bulbous
plants, especially crocuses, colchicums, and tulips, are most plentiful,
and aromatic plants are not uncommon. The full summer develop-
ment is reached by the end of May, and when August comes every.
thing is burnt up. Trees are entirely wanting. As the spurs of the
Taurus highlands are reached, the steppe-like aspect of the country is
varied by cultivation and by the presence of trees, both cultivated
and wild. Among the latter are most conspicuous the noble chenār
or Persian planes, which, growing singly or in clumps, tower over the
surrounding landscape ; other prevailing trees are poplars, elms, and
walnuts, which clothe the lower sides of the hills. The northern
slopes further up are partially covered with junipers, hill oaks, and
stunted cedars; and the peaks and summits are wooded with
pines, which on the highest mountains form forests of considerable
dimensions.








CHAPTER V
HYGIENE
DISEASES
MALARIA is the principal disease of the country. In Baghdad it is
on the whole comparatively insignificant, though its incidence here
becomes fairly serious in years when the country round Baghdad is
flooded. It is found in a severe form at Basra, and the marsh-
regions and the Mandali and Beled-Ruz districts have a bad name
for this disease. Small-pox, diphtheria, dysentery, ophthalmia,
typhoid fever, tuberculosis (which is on the increase), syphilis and
other venereal diseases are all more or less endemic, especially in the
towns, while rheumatism in its various forms is commonly reported
from the submontane tracts and from Baghdad and other towns,
especially in the winter months. Ankylostomiasis (Egyptian
anaemia) is a common disease. Leprosy occurs mostly round
Amara. Bilharziasis is found to some extent in the districts N.
and NW. of Basra, especially in the region of Samāweh and round
the Bahr-i-Shināfiyeh and the Bahr-i-Nejef. The principal epidemic
diseases are cholera and bubonic plague. The latter has been less
in evidence of late than in former years, when its ravages were
often of appalling severity. Irak is, in fact, one of the oldest
endemic centres of this disease. There were outbreaks in 1773,
1800, 1832, and 1877. In 1832, 60,000 persons out of a total
population of 150,000 perished in Baghdad, the city thereby sustain.
ing a loss which succeeding years have scarcely made good. There
has been plague at Basra as recently as 1910: still, plague is
no longer the scourge of Mesopotamia, as it used to be ; indeed
cholera is probably in these days a much more potent evil. It is to
be hoped, and there is some reason to believe, that plague has entered
upon a dormant period, which, if it last for any length of time, will
be of great advantage to the country.
The Baghdad Boil.— The · Baghdad boil' (the native Ukht) is a
disease peculiar to the city from which it takes its name, though the
same affection under various other names occurs in many towns


46
HYGIENE
of Turkey (e.g. Mosul, Diarbekr, and Aleppo) and Persia. It is a
slow, sloughing ulcer, which generally attacks the face, hand, wrist,
and ankle, not generally amenable to treatment, but disappearing
of itself after a tedious course, perhaps of about one year (hence the
Persian name yalek meaning "yearly sore ). With hardly a single
exception, Europeans are attacked within a year of their arrival ; nor
do the indigenous population enjoy immunity, for in the affected
towns the children contract the disease when quite young, while
the adults who have it mostly come from some place where the sore
is not found. Treatment by carbonic acid snow will possibly reduce
the boil for a time, but in that case it is likely to return sooner or
later. If the boil is left alone, the disease will not come back when
once it has run its course. The natives and even some Europeans
will inoculate the sore on the arm to avoid the possibility of
acquiring a disfiguring sore on the face. The name date-mark',
which is applied to it, indicates one of the popular, but erroneous,
origins ascribed to the disease, namely over-indulgence in dates. The
water is also blamed, but the parasite causing it, a flagellate called
Leishmania, is certainly injected by the bite of some noxious insect,
probably a sand-fly, which may itself receive the parasite from dogs.
It is doubtful whether even improved sanitary conditions would
eliminate the Baghdad boil.
Precautions to be taken against the sun are in general the same as
those observed in India. The smiting power of the sun in Mesopo-
tamia is very great, and consumption of alcohol should be most
moderate, especially in the case of those whose work exposes them
to the sun-rays. Alcohol should not be taken before sunset.
Moderation in the use of cold baths is advisable. Bathing in the
river is best practised only in the early morning and after sunset.
The disease of Bilharziasis, mentioned above, is the result of
drinking stagnant water left by the river as the floods subside ; such
water should therefore be carefully avoided in the districts where this
disease is prevalent.
Disease and Religious Pilgrimages.—No small part in the dissemi-
nation of this and other epidemic diseases is borne by the religious
pilgrimages, or caravans of the dead, which converge from all direc-
tions upon the shrines at Kerbela and Nejef. It is the ambition of
every Shiah, rich or poor, to visit in his lifetime, or at least to be
buried after death in, the sacred precincts of the tombs of Husain
or Ali. From all parts of Asia, and especially from India and Persia,
crowds of pilgrims, the majority of whom have covered long distances
on foot, come every year to visit the holy places. Obviously the
physical condition of these pilgrims, ill fed and debilitated by constant








HYGIENE
47
journeying, must predispose them to an attack of disease. Their
situation is made still more precarious when, as often, they are
carrying with them the dead bodies of their relatives.
SANITARY SERVICES
It has been debated whether it would not be better policy to
allow these caravans to continue on the march rather than pen them
up in quarantine camps. Still, the Turkish Government deserves
some credit for the solicitude it displayed for the physical welfare
of these pilgrims. There was a sanitary department at Baghdad,
controlled by a medical officer (the mufattish or inspector) who
received his orders direct from the International Board of Health at
Constantinople. One of his principal subordinates was a doctor with
three assistants at Khanikin, whose duty it was to inspect all corpses
entering the country from Persia for interment at the holy places ;
there were also establishments for the maintenance of sea quarantine
at Fão and Basra. After these the sanitary posts at Nejef and
Kerbela ranked next in importance, while Mamurs of the depart-
ment were stationed also at Amara on the Tigris, Samarra,
Kazimain, Museyib, and Qatif-all places frequented by Shiah
pilgrims. It is worthy of remark that the department also levy
a tax upon all corpses transported for burial, with a view to the
upkeep of these sanitary services, which tax must be distinguished
from the fees charged at the actual places of burial by the religious
authorities according to the sanctity of the locality selected.
Sanitation in the Towns. — Except in the matter of quarantine, there
is little or no effort towards efficient medical control. Baghdad
is a municipality, and as such its affairs are supposed to be regulated
by a municipal council working under the supervision of the civil
authorities. In point of fact they can do little beyond offer suggestions
to the Vali, their powers of expenditure being limited to a sum of
£1 12s. It is not surprising in these circumstances that few signs
of their activity are observable. The streets are ill kept, and
generally too narrow for the passage of a wheeled vehicle. In
Baghdad every house is a cesspool-not sufficiently emptied.
Sewage is carried on donkeys to gardens outside the city, and
vegetables such as lettuce are grown on sewage-impregnated soil.
Only about 300 houses are supplied with Tigris water in pipes, by the
agency of a 20 h.p. oil engine, but even so no attempt is made to
filter it or deposit the silt before delivery. Elsewhere water is supplied
by carriers, in skins balanced on the backs of donkeys, at a cost which /
varies according to distance from Rs. 2-8-0 to Rs. 4-11-0 per 100


48
HYGIENE
skins. Private wells exist, but the water they provide is not as
a rule fit for human consumption. Water is filtered in the houses
through large porous jars called zeers, and these and the wells, being
left uncovered, form breeding grounds for the mosquitoes (chiefly
culex and stegomyia) which infest the houses. The result of this
mismanagement is to preserve in active working order every channel
by which contagion can be spread or disease imported, whether it
be the myriads of flies that swarm by day or the sand-flies and
mosquitoes that render night intolerable. Nazim Pasha, when he
was Vali of Baghdad, attempted to exterminate the pariah dogs of
the city, but as these had at least performed to some extent the work
of scavengers, the measure was unfortunate in its results. At Basra
the municipal authorities vie with those of Baghdad in the matter of
inefficiency and impotence. The main town is notoriously insanitary;
the streets unpaved, strong faecal odours abound everywhere, while
the Ashar canal serves the lower orders at once for drinking water,
washing, and as a receptacle for filth and sewage of every description.
Much the same is true of Mohammareh, though the present Sheikh has
erected some fine modern buildings. There are three public baths and
a good brick bazaar, but the sanitary condition of the place remains, in
spite of what has been done, deplorable—the only method of drainage
consisting in a channel down each street, which is generally choked
up, except after rain. It is well that the Kārūn river and Shatt el-
Arab provide these towns with a comparatively pure water-supply,
for those at least who choose to make use of it. Far too large a pro-
portion of the population rely on creeks and irrigation channels (like
the Ashar at Basra) or brackish wells, which expedients are nothing
but a standing invitation to disease and pestilence.








CHAPTER VI
HISTORY
The history of Mesopotamia falls into two clear divisions : first,
the period when it contained great independent states ; secondly, the
period of its subjection to one after another of the great military
Powers-Persian, Greek, Parthian, Sassanian, Arab, and Turk-
which in succession have held the Near East or Persia, as the case
may be, in dominion. The first period dates from before the dawn
of history till in 539 B.C. Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon ; the
second has continued from that date to the present year.
THE KINGDOMS OF ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA
In considering the first section of Mesopotamian history it must
be borne in mind that the physical conditions of the whole country
differed greatly from those of modern times. Upper Mesopotamia (the
Jezīreh) must have been much more wooded, highly cultivated, and
densely populated than (say) after the Arab conquest; while in Irak
or Lower Mesopotamia, when recorded history begins, the sea was at
Eridu, 125 miles from the present head of the Persian Gulf; the
country S. of a line drawn from Kut el-Amara to Sūq esh-Shuyūkh
was a huge lagoon or shallow prolongation of the gulf, and the great
swamps of the Euphrates at Kūfeh did not exist; the culturable
area of Irak was less in extent, but was much better adapted for
irrigation works and for cultivation.
The early history of Mesopotamia is that of Babylonia and Assyria.
The strength of Assyria lay in the Eastern Jezireh and the uplands
of the mountainous regions to its east and north ; the root of Baby-
lonia was firmly planted in Irak ; at first in its lower half, but from
the year 2100 B.C. onwards permanently in its upper portion, where
for the past 4,000 years the cities of Babylon, Seleucia, Ctesiphon,
and Baghdad (all lying within a circle of 30 miles radius at the
point where the Tigris and Euphrates approach each other) have,
one after the other, been the capital cities of Mesopotamia and the
chief commercial centres and emporia of the Near East. Babylonia
was incomparably the more important; Assyria was only an episode in
MES. I.


50
HISTORY
211378132
comparison. Indeed Babylonia has undoubtedly exercised an even
greater influence in moulding the conditions in Nearer Asia than
the civilization of the Nile basin. In the remotest antiquity we
find it encroaching on Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, even Arabia
and the rugged countries to the east-Elam, Persia, and Media. All
the surrounding nations looked up to and were attracted towards the
seat of this ancient civilization, whether they were under its supre-
macy or whether they imposed their own rule on it. For over
a thousand years cuneiform writing and the Babylonian language
were the medium of diplomatic and commercial international corre-
spondence throughout the countries from Egypt to Armenia, from
the Mediterranean and Black Sea to the Persian Gulf. Babylonian
religion, Babylonian weights, measures, and currency, astronomy,
divisions of time, and banking system profoundly influenced the
successors of Babylonia in culture and civilization.
The existence of a vast alluvial plain with a soil of astonishing
fertility, an inexhaustible supply of water for irrigation, and
a hot climate, favoured the creation of a wealthy and populous
agricultural and industrial community. The growth of international
communications, the main routes of which crossed each other in
Mesopotamia from west to east, from the Mediterranean to Central
Asia, and from north to south, from the Black Sea and Asia Minor
to Arabia and the Persian Gulf, stimulated commerce and the
development of a commercial state with the concomitant charac-
teristics of the policy of such : stability, caution, tenacity of purpose,
moderation, tact, and a marked preference for the employment of
diplomacy rather than of force. Assyria, on the other hand, was and
ever remained a purely military community, relying on violence, and
subject to a sudden and total collapse when violence failed.
The very earliest records show Lower Irak in the possession of an
apparently Turanian people already in a high state of civilization.
They seem to have come from Central Asia originally. In their
final home between the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the sea they must
have spent thousands of years before they had reached the point
of having introduced an elaborate system of canalization; industries
had made much progress; they had invented cuneiform writing;
had evolved an elaborate religious system and ritual; they lived
in cities around which the population was grouped in a series
of small city states independent of and warring with each other ;
complicated laws and customs, which had been reduced to writing,
regulated social and commercial relations and transactions. It
is impossible to be sure of the origin of this comparatively
advanced civilization ; only one thing is certain, that before 3000 B.C.








HISTORY
51
it was in full vigour and flourishing. Sumer, as this country
was called, and its inhabitants, the Sumerians, were defended from
aggression to the south by the lagoons and marshes then existing at
the head of the Persian Gulf, and to the east by the mountains of
the Persian plateau, though these from time to time gave passage to
the irruptions of barbarians. These, however, had first to penetrate
the territory of Elam, an ancient and semi-civilized power which
acted as a buffer on the eastern flank of Sumer, and although Elam
was rarely friendly to the Sumerians it saved them from worse.
On its other sides Sumer was indeed open to attack ; but it must
have had a long and prosperous existence and a dense population
prior to its contact with the peoples of Arabia – the Semites. The
Arabian desert has been well described as one of the earth's great
reservoirs of men. At various dates, in prehistoric times, its over-
flow must have found its way via Palestine and Syria, acquiring
some civilization and agricultural habits on the road, slowly east.
wards to the Upper Euphrates and Tigris and down these streams,
leaving a detachment in Assyria, to Upper Irak and to the neigh-
bourhood of rich and fertile Sumer.
The coming of the Semites into Babylonian life seems to include
both the chief forms of contact between the nations of antiquity,
viz. the bodily migration of a whole people and commercial traffic ;
the latter probably preceding and leading to the former. What hap-
pened before 3000 B.c. it is as yet impossible to say. But that there
had been a Semitic immigration en masse, in all probability eastwards
from Syria and down the rivers, there can be no doubt. For the
Semites are found firmly settled and forming the bulk of the popula-
tion in Upper Irak, at first in small city states after the fashion of the
Sumerians, but soon coalescing into a firmly knit, homogeneous
nation. Their receptive genius enabled them, in a short time, it
seems, to assimilate the Sumerian civilization and religious system
to a remarkable extent, and (what is still more remarkable in men
who were then of lower development) without losing their national
speech, or their national characteristics of superior energy, driving
power, and capability to organize, develop, and consolidate. In civi.
lization they became Sumerians; in character, speech, and all mental
essentials they remained Semites. First, they proceeded rapidly to
annex the Sumerian south, and then were able with united forces to
cross the Tigris and occupy Elam. Other campaigns covered the
Jezīreh up to the foot-hills in the north and opened up trade routes
towards Syria, the Mediterranean, and Asia Minor. Both in Sumer
and in Elam the Semites succeeded in imposing their own language
on their subjects ; in Elam only for official purposes (much as Persian
D 2


52
HISTORY
is still used in Afghanistan), but in Sumer to the exclusion of the
native tongue, which was preserved, however, for astronomical,
antiquarian, and especially for ritual and religious uses ; and
survived till the times of the Greeks.
A second great wave of Semitic immigration appears to have
occurred circa 2500 B.C. The immediate consequence of this is seen
in the installation of a dynasty of great vigour and prestige in
Akkad (Northern Irak). It definitely conquers and incorporates
the south, assumes the title of Kings of Akkad and Sumer, borne
ever after by the kings of Babylonia, and makes Babylon-hitherto
a city of insignificant rank-into the capital of a compact and united
kingdom, and a pre-eminent political, commercial, and industrial
centre, which was to endure for 2,000 years. Hammurabi (2183-
2081 B. C.), king and founder of Babylon and of the united Babylonian
state, is famous as the ruler who issued the earliest legal code known
to history. In his reign can be first discerned the working of the
Babylonian state policy, a stable line of action which steadily aimed
at the expansion of commerce, the opening of trade routes, and the
spread of civilization. His name may well be included in a list of
the greatest men of history. Under him and his successor the
Babylonian empire embraced the whole of Mesopotamia, Assyria
being held as a garrisoned province, and stretched across the Upper
Euphrates to the Mediterranean Sea ; Syria and Western Palestine
were occupied, relations opened with Egypt, and a firm grip laid on
the one side upon the trade routes from the Euphrates through the
Syrian desert to the west, and on the other side through Elam and
across the now Kurdish range to Persia and Central Asia. The policy
thus enunciated by Hammurabi and his dynasty was never dropped
by the state of Babylonia, but was reasserted whenever an oppor-
tunity offered.
This Semitic incursion which thus led to the founding of Babylon
also gave rise to Assyria, at first, as stated above, a province of
Babylonia, but afterwards to become the rival and enemy of the
southern kingdom. Here the Semites appear to have amalgamated
with an indigenous population more barbarous than the Sumerians,
to which element may be traced the strain of brutal ferocity which
is so marked a trait in the Assyrian character, in contrast to the
more humane and statesmanlike bent of Babylon.
The brilliant first epoch of Babylonia was eclipsed by the invasion
of the Kassites, who overthrew the Semitic dynasty and reigned in
its stead at Babylon, becoming rapidly absorbed in the local popu-
lation. Who they were is not known ; most probably they descended -
on Mesopotamia from the Persian plateau through Elam. But since








HISTORY
53
it is at this period that the then civilized world became acquainted
with the domesticated horse, there is every reason to believe that the
Kassites brought the horse with them and owed their success to this
most important factor in war, which must have worked a revolution
in the methods of the fighting of the time. It was no doubt the
chief weapon of this invasion of nomads.
The Kassites ruled over a diminished Babylonian empire for 400
or 500 years and then their dynasty fell before a third incursion of
Semites, which appears to have entered Mesopotamia, circa 1500 B.C.,
simultaneously from the north in the shape of the Aramaic horde,
and from the south where the Chaldaeans advanced on Sumer. In
the anarchy which followed the collapse of the Kassites came the
first chance of Assyria, which, between circa 1280 B.C. and 1100 B.C.,
established an empire that reached the Mediterranean seaboard,
penetrated into Asia Minor, and treated on equal terms with the
kings of Egypt. At this time the Assyrians attempted to secure
their conquests by sending out colonies of the peasantry which
composed the bulk of their armies.
Meanwhile Babylonia' was assimilating its new rulers. Now
again the advanced civilization of the country and its dense popu.
lation were influences too strong for foreign conquerors to with.
stand. Shortly after 1100 B.C. the Assyrian empire declined ; the
causes are obscure, but were probably due chiefly to pressure from
Asia Minor and the highlands to the north-east. In proportion
Babylonia rose for a time, resisting its Assyrian and Elamite neigh-
bours, eventually falling first under the suzerainty of Elam and
then of Nineveh, but apparently never losing its identity as a cor-
porate unit.
· About 750 B.C. the Assyrian empire burst forth into another and
its greatest period of splendour, in which its kings fought and con-
quered in Media, Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, and
Babylonia. But these victorious wars gradually drained the
strength of Assyria, and the second empire fell at the end of the
seventh century B.C. before a political combination of Media and
Babylonia, the latter having for a century been reduced to a
province of Assyria. In its second phase the Assyrian empire had
lost what would otherwise have proved a firm base for its continued
existence--its peasants. They had been used up in the series of con-
stant wars and colonizations; those who remained in their original
home had become serfs, and the state had been driven to the employ.
ment of mercenary armies whose pay had to be defrayed by a policy
of spoliation and oppression of conquered territories. In consequence
the fall of the empire before the allied Medes and Babylonians


54
HISTORY
was complete and irretrievable. Its territory was divided between
them, the former taking the north and the latter the south.
Now comes the final epoch of Babylonian independence and
glory, of which Nebuchadnezzar the king is the most notable figure.
Apparently some sort of balance of power was arranged, the Medes
being given an open door to Asia Minor, and Babylonia reserving
for herself Syria with Palestine and the trade routes to the west from
Mesopotamia, also the right of dealing with Egypt if thought
advisable. The arrangement worked for 70 years, and was then
overthrown by the sudden rise of Cyrus the Persian. His policy
was one of a political union under the Great King with the concurrent
retention of local laws, customs, and religions; a policy, in fact, of
political and religious toleration so far as was consistent with
the maintenance of a central authority, which was responsible for
the preservation of order and the proper employment of the imperial
forces. After conquering Media, Cyrus appeared at the gates of
Babylon in 539 B.C., and was quietly accepted by the inhabitants as
their over-lord, and the indigenous dynasty vanishes. Henceforward
the history of Babylonia is that of a province. She had fulfilled her
mission. Mainly owing to Babylonian influence and Babylonian
policy, the seeds of civilization had been spread far and wide through-
out the Near East.
MESOPOTAMIA UNDER FOREIGN RULE
It must not be supposed that with the extinction of national inde-
pendence the city of Babylon straightway fell into insignificance and
decay. It continued to be the winter residence of the monarch
for seven months in the year; the Persians were careful to preserve
the ancient system of irrigation which was the life-blood of Mesopo.
tamia; and the evidence of contemporary Greek eyewitnesses testifies
that during Persian rule Babylon remained the great market and
industrial centre of the world which she had been for thousands
of years. The city must have contained over a million inhabitants.
In the matter of taxation Mesopotamia defrayed one-third of the
expenditure of the Persian empire, and Babylonia was its richest
province by far. On the arrival of Alexander the Great, Babylon is
still the premier mart of Asia. Whether he meant to make it his
capital is not clear, but on his return from India he went to live
there, the last months of his life being occupied with plans and
preparations for making the city a great port; being a Greek his
thoughts naturally turned to the encouragement of traffic by sea, and
he may have intended to balance Alexandria at the head of the Red
Sea by a similar distributing port located at the head of the Persian








HISTORY
Gulf. However that may be, his death in 323 B.C. put an end to
these schemes, and incidentally to Babylon as well, for Seleucus, to
whom fell Mesopotamia with the Farther East on the partition of
Alexander's heritage, determined to found a city on the Tigris. No
doubt he was moved to this step by the deterioration of the
Euphrates as a source of irrigation and as a navigable river, and
by the superior advantages of the Tigris as a channel for water-borne
traffic. But inasmuch as it was always a natural necessity that there
should be a centre in Northern Babylonia round which its dense
population could gather, and at which merchants, passing along the
trade routes that here crossed each other from the four corners of the
earth, could meet and do business, he selected a site only 40 miles
north of Babylon and 18 miles south of the modern Baghdad, on the
right or western bank of the Tigris. Seleucia grew rapidly in size
and importance. It was equally suitable with Babylon for the pur.
poses of inter-continental land trade and better adapted for marine
traffic; moreover, it was one of the capitals of the Seleucian kingdom.
Without any sensible pressure on the part of royal authority, the popu.
lation of Babylon gradually migrated to Seleucia ; and after the lapse
of two or three generations only a few mounds of clay were left
to mark the site of the older city. Seleucia remained a centre of
Hellenism long after Babylonia had reverted to Asiatic rule.
From 312 B.C. Mesopotamia was for 175 years a possession of the
house of Seleucus, whose descendants appear to have governed the
province well and in no wise to have detracted from its wealth
and productivity. The Parthian dynasty, which, originating from
Khorassan, had gradually extended its power westwards over the
Iranian plateau at the expense of the Seleucid Empire, made repeated
attempts to seize Mesopotamia, and succeeded at last, after the
Seleucids had exhausted their strength in their struggles with the
Romans. Following the usual custom of Orientals, the new rulers
chose a capital city of their own making, and founded Ctesiphon,
on the left or eastern bank of the Tigris, exactly opposite to Seleucia,
which, however, in no way suffered thereby. Arab historians state,
700 years later, that at the time of the Moslem conquest of Mesopo-
tamia both cities were flourishing, of great extent and importance.
In A. D. 226 the Parthians gave way to the Persian dynasty of the
Sassanids, who thereafter held Mesopotamia till in A. D. 642 the
victorious Moslems put an end to the Sassanid kingdom. The
monarchy of the Parthians and Sassanids was constantly at war with
the Roman Empire which was established in Syria. At first the
middle Euphrates was the boundary between the two Powers.
There was a long struggle for the protectorate of Armenia, which


56
HISTORY
ended in a compromise favourable to Rome. Trajan (A. D. 115-117)
tried to settle the Eastern question by the conquest of the whole of
Mesopotamia down to the Persian Gulf, but his gains could not be
maintained, and under his successor Hadrian the original boundaries
were restored. In the middle of the second century A. D. a successful
war gave Rome the western part of the Upper Jezīreh (region of
Urfeh and Harrān), and at the end of the same century the eastern
portion of the Jezīreh north of the Sinjar hills also came under her
control. A number of Roman fortresses were established in the
country, the principal of which was Nisibis. The Upper Jezīreh
was thenceforward the scene of numerous campaigns, but though
successful Persian invasions were not uncommon and the frontier
shifted backwards and forwards, the country was generally under
Roman rule. In Northern Jezīreh there are still to be seen memorials
of the Roman Empire in city-walls (Urfeh, Diarbekr), and remains
of bridges, forts, &c. Under Parthian and Sassanid in the south
and Roman rule in the north, Mesopotamia long continued to
flourish. Like Cyrus and his successors, the Parthian and Sassanid
kings spent their winters at Ctesiphon. The great arch of Ctesiphon
belongs to the Sassanid period. Babylonia was still extraordinarily
rich : the Jezīreh contained numerous great cities, and, besides fertile
irrigated areas, much pastoral wealth. But towards the end of the
Sassanid Age, civil and foreign war and weak government were
beginning to affect the prosperity of the country.
The last stage but one of Mesopotamian history is ushered in by the
advent of the Moslem Arabs. In A. D. 628 Mohammed, then at Medina,
dispatched the following letter to the “Great King': 'In the name
of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. From Mohammed, the
Messenger of God to Khuson, son of Hormuzd. Verily I extol unto
thee God, beside whom there is no other God. Oh Khuson! Submit
and thou shalt be safe or else prepare to wage war with God and
with his Messenger, a war which shall not find them helpless.
Farewell.' According to tradition the Great King tore up the letter ;
and on hearing this, Mohammed exclaimed : ‘Even thus, oh Lord !
rend Thou his kingdom from him !' The necessity for the previous
consolidation of Arabia delayed the execution of Mohammed's plans.
His death in A. D. 632 was the signal for fresh trouble in Arabia,
which was successfully suppressed, and by the end of A.D. 633
Islam went forth on the conquest of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and the
kingdom of the Sassanids. As it happened, the last had just gone
through a prolonged period of internal disorder. The king, Khuson
Parvez, the same who had been addressed by Mohammed in A. D. 628,
was killed in that year as the result of a conspiracy headed by the








HISTORY
57
nobility and the commanders of the garrison at Ctesiphon. His
succession was long in dispute ; eventually Yezdigird III, the last
of the Sassanid kings, ascended the throne in A.D. 634. He had not
long to wait for the determined onslaught of the Moslems, whose
relatively small numbers were more than counterbalanced by the
fanatical fury with which they set out, to gain treasure in this world
and merit in the next. The attacks on Syria and Mesopotamia were
delivered simultaneously. On the borders of the latter the result
was indecisive; which made it clear to the Moslems that the Persian
state possessed a greater power of resistance than they suspected.
Fortunately for them, the fall of Damascus in A. D. 635 set free the
main Moslem army, which joined the Mesopotamian column. In
A. D. 636 the combined forces met and utterly defeated the Persians
in a most stubbornly contested battle at Kadisiyeh, on the fringe of
the desert, 15 miles west of Kūfeh, on the right bank of the Euphrates.
This battle practically settled the fate of the Persian monarchy. That
it was a complete rout is patent from the leisurely manner in which
the Arabs proceeded to settle and colonize Mesopotamia. Ctesiphon,
with Seleucia, fell in A. D. 637, and in the same year Kūfeh and Basra
were founded as Arab strongholds; the latter superseding the
Sassanian port of Ubuka for the trade with the Persian Gulf and
India. There followed a migration en masse of Arabs with their
families and belongings, who descended upon the country and made
it their own. What became of the former inhabitants is not clear :
owing to the uncompromising character of Islam and the relatively
low standard of civilization of the invaders it was not feasible for the
resident population to assimilate and absorb their new masters, as had
happened with the three preceding Semitic invasions that have been
mentioned above. Many of the resident Mesopotamians perished by
the sword; many fled ; others fell victims to the floods and to plague
and famine, which raged at this period, and many of the remainder
embraced Islam. The Arab conquest was eventually carried up to
the Taurus range. In Northern Mesopotamia a numerous Christian
population continued to exist under Moslem rulers (see p. 87).
The disastrous effect of the Mohammedan conquest on Babylonia
was enhanced by an occurrence at this juncture which helped to start
the ultimate decay and ruin of Mesopotamia, in spite of the temporary
resuscitation of its fortunes under the earlier Abbasid caliphate. The
great swamps on the Euphrates are the bane of the country. Their
origin appears to date from the end of the fifth century A. D., when
a heavy flood in the Tigris burst its banks and overflowed the lands
to the south and south-west, probably impeding the current of the
Euphrates. The Sassanids, however, repaired the damage, and most of


58
HISTORY
the flooded lands were brought back into cultivation. But about the
year A. D. 629 the Euphrates and the Tigris came down in such floods
as had never before been seen. Both rivers burst their banks in
innumerable places, and finally laid all the surrounding country
under water. The Sassanid king, Parvez, made desperate efforts to
reclaim the country, sparing neither money nor men's lives; 'indeed',
the Arab historian reports, 'he crucified in one day forty canal
workers at a certain breach and yet was unable to master the flood.'
The swamps thus formed became permanent, for during the succeed-
ing years of anarchy, when the Moslem armies began to overrun
Mesopotamia, and the Sassanian monarchy perished, the dykes, such
as still existed, naturally remained uncared for, ' and breaches came
in all the embankments, for none gave heed and the landowners were
powerless to repair the dykes, so that the swamps every way lengthened
and widened'. Nor did their previous training or temperament
qualify the Semitic invaders to take the charge of complicated works
of irrigation. There is every ground for holding that the three first
invasions of Semites were those of sedentary peoples, accustomed
to agriculture and inoculated with a certain amount of civilization,
whereas the fourth irruption was one of mere nomads, who
were not without the ability to appreciate civilized influences,
but whose fame and success depended mainly upon the work
and genius of their Greek and Persian ministers and administra-
tive staffs. But it must not be supposed that the circumstances of
Mesopotamia were even then, and for centuries to come, anything like
what they are at the present day. In spite of the floods and swamps
a very considerable area still flourished, was still inhabited and
irrigated; the Abbasid caliphs, till they lost their vigour and power,
attended carefully to what had been saved from the wreck of the older
world; and it required six centuries of subsequent Mongol and
Turkish misrule and apathy to bring the country to its present
miserable condition.
Mesopotamia was but a province of the Arabian Empire from the
battle of Kadisiyeh, A. D. 636, till A. D. 762. The Abbasid caliph
Mansūr, after the destruction of the Omayyad dynasty, which ruled
from Damascus, perceived that a new capital was needed for the new
dynasty. The decay of the Arab tribal system, on which the military
power of the Omayyads depended, and the support given to the
Abbasids by the Neo-Moslems of the former Sassanian territories,
decided him to move the seat of government to Mesopotamia. . The
causes which led to the selection of the sites of Babylon, and sub-
sequently of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, which are mentioned above,
were still in force, and accordingly Mansur, in A. D. 762, founded








HISTORY
59
Baghdad on the Tigris, 20 miles above Ctesiphon. For the same
reasons that led to the rapid growth and permanence of its pre-
decessors, Baghdad soon rose to eminence. It was second only to
Constantinople in size during the Middle Ages, and was unrivalled
for splendour throughout Western Asia. Wars and sieges, the
removal by the caliphs for 60 years, on political grounds (A. D. 836
to 892), of the seat of government to Samarra, and even the almost
entire destruction of the city by the Mongols in A. D. 1258, have never
permanently affected the supremacy of Baghdad, and now after
the lapse of eleven and a half centuries it is still the capital of
Mesopotamia. The country shared in the general prosperity of
the golden age of Islam, which culminated during the reign of the
caliph Harūn er-Rashid, A. D. 786-809. The inevitable decay of the
Abbasids set in about A. D. 861 with the assassination of the caliph
Mutawwakil, though there is evidence to show that even before that
date the central power had passed into the hands of the Turkish
bodyguard, who, after the custom of their race, during the dissensions
of the various claimants to the caliphate, seized any chance that
offered itself for harrying Mesopotamia. In the tenth century the
whole of North Mesopotamia became an independent Arab kingdom
under the Hamdaneds. Order was for a time partially restored
by the advent of the Seljuk Turks, whose chief, Toghoul Bey,
was invested, in A.D. 1005, by the then caliph, with what prac-
tically amounted to the temporal sovereignty of Iran, Mesopotamia,
and so much of Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine as was in
the power of Islam. The caliphs are mere honorary figure-heads
living in a mysterious seclusion; the fountains of honour and title
like the later emperors of Delhi, but without any temporal power
outside of Mesopotamia, although the objects of the deep religious
veneration of all Moslems and sacrosanct in their capacity of Suc-
cessors of the Prophet. The break-up of the Seljuk power enabled the
caliphate to assert a brief flicker of independence, which was extin-
guished in the cataclysm of the Mongols. In February, 1258, Hulaku
Khan took Baghdad ; the city was sacked, and the last caliph of the
Abbasids was taken prisoner and killed. The wealth and treasures
of ages were plundered; priceless literary and artistic remains were
destroyed. An irreparable blow was delivered at the heart of Moslem
civilization. This is the end of Arab rule in Mesopotamia. It was
accompanied by the ruin of the whole system of irrigation, and the
country which had known prosperity for thousands of years became
a waste of unfruitful waters in arid plains of dust and sand. The
work of three hundred generations of men was destroyed in a single
year; and the desolation of the Mongols has endured to this day,


60
IIISTORY
The destruction of the sources of wealth in Mesopotamia had a pro-
found effect on the Middle East; it was as if the keystone had been
taken out of the ancient structure. Though Baghdad continued to
exist, shorn of its splendour, Mesopotamia practically disappears from
history for the next 300 years. Instead of being the focus of the
Oriental world it became a blank. It followed the fortunes of
whatever dynasty or tribe rose to be a brief power in its neighbour-
hood. For a short time it was included in the dominions of Timur.
Eventually the Turks laid hands on it in A.D. 1534, and till 1914,
with one short interval, it has been at least nominally a Turkish
possession. In 1603 Shah Abbas of Persia conquered Mesopotamia,
but it was retaken by the Turks in 1638. At this time the fortunes
of Baghdad had reached their lowest ebb, and the city contained
only 14,000 inhabitants. But Turkish sovereignty could not be
vigorously enforced. The Kurds of the northern and eastern hills
were practically independent, and in the plains the nomad Arabs,
taking advantage of the absence of strong government, the decay
of irrigation, and the decline of population, had been gradually
encroaching on the settled areas, and could not be brought under
control by the Turks. The most important movement of nomad
Arabs in this period was the Shammār invasion. About the middle
of the seventeenth century the Shammār migrated from Central
Arabia to the Syrian desert, pushing before them various smaller
tribes into Mesopotamia. Following on their occupation of the
tracts west of the Euphrates, the Anazeh came up behind them
from Arabia. After a protracted struggle the Shammăr were com-
pelled to move on, and, crossing the Euphrates, gradually occupied
the whole of Jezīreh, exclusive of the hills, driving out the Tai, the
Jebūr, the Baggāra, the Weldi, Hadadin, and other smaller clans
who had been their predecessors in this tract, and were now forced
either to cross the Tigris or to settle down as cultivators on the
banks of the two great rivers. Since then Jezīreh has been
practically a country of the Bedouins, and cultivation has only
existed on sufferance. Similar incursions took place from time to
time in Irak. Till the recent consolidation of Turkish authority,
which gradually asserted itself during the last century, the Pashas
maintained a semblance of power by playing off one Bedouin tribe
against another, Anazeh against Shammār, Muntefiq against Beni
Lām, &c. In consequence the status of the nomads, except in the
vicinity of the cities and settled tracts along the rivers, varied from
semi-independence to complete freedom from all control, a condition
of insecurity which for long effectually hampered the development
of Mesopotamia. The remaining centres of order and civil life, to








HISTORY
61
a great extent isolated by the unsettled areas, were beyond the
effective control of the Sultan's government. In 1732 Nadir Shah
laid siege to Baghdad, but was driven off by the Turkish Pasha, who
was for all practical purposes an independent ruler. From the end
of the seventeenth to the end of the eighteenth century Mosul was
governed by a local aristocracy; and in Basra a powerful native
chief, Afrasiāb, succeeded in founding a virtually independent little
state, which collapsed in 1779 : at this time its inhabitants had
shrunk to a few thousands. From 1817 to 1832 Daud Pasha.
a Georgian, held office at Baghdad, and under his energetic and intelli-
gent administration the city and province began to recover, in spite of
a terrible epidemic of plague during 1830-1, which is said to have
carried off 50,000 persons in Baghdad alone. Heavy floods in the
Tigris simultaneously swept the country. Famine followed these
disasters, and in 1837 there are said to have been only 40,000
inhabitants in Baghdad.
On the conclusion of the Crimean War, the Porte found itself in
possession of a large army and plenty of money, and determined to
assert itself in Mesopotamia. Omar Pasha, then governor of Aleppo,
at the head of a considerable number of troops, marched down the
valley of the Euphrates and took possession of Ja'abar and Deir.
Deir was then held by fellahin Arabs, who had enjoyed a semi.
independence under Anazeh protection. It now became the head of
a Turkish province, under the vali of Aleppo. This policy of enforced
Turkish authority was carried on by Midhat Pasha, who, among
the other important offices he held, was governor of Baghdad between
1869 and 1872, and made great efforts to develop Mesopotamia. His
administration was at least vigorous, and, if he sometimes failed
rather disastrously, he was certainly honest in intention. He was
an enthusiastic reformer on Western lines, but failed in many cases
to foresee the cost or consequences of his innovations. He built
forts to protect the Euphrates navigation and the route to Aleppo,
and he initiated a service of Ottoman steamers on the Tigris. He
started the tramway, still running, between Baghdad and Kazimain,
and is said to have tried to get the treasures accumulated at Nejef
devoted to public improvements. He also endeavoured, with
indifferent success, to get Turkish suzerainty recognized by Arab
chiefs whose autonomy had hitherto been practically unquestioned,
such as the Sheikhs of Koweit and Bahrein. Among his failures
must be reckoned his removal of the old walls of Baghdad, which
left the city liable to Arab attack, and his irrigation work there,
which was so badly conceived that at flood time Baghdad was con-
verted into an island.


62
HISTORY
During the reign of the late Sultan Abdul Hamid (1876–1909) the
Turkish administration on the whole effected some progress, in spite
of its mistakes and crimes. The Kurds were brought under some
degree of control, partly by force, but more by the congenial employ.
ment which Abdul Hamid found for them as Hamidiyeh, irregular
cavalry in the Sultan's service used for the purpose of repressing
such elements in the population of Northern Mesopotamia and
Armenia as were suspected of disloyalty. The Hamidiyeh were in
fact privileged to behave as they chose ; and their excesses, though
mainly directed against Christians, did not spare Moslems; yet
economic development was not altogether checked by their depreda-
tions. The efforts of the Government to control the Arabs were
still spasmodic and marked by an impolitic mixture of laxity and
oppression; yet, in spite of outbreaks of disorder, Turkish power
was growing, and cultivation and trade were developing more
or less slowly in the river-valleys. A considerable proportion of
the nomad Kurds and Arabs were compelled or induced to take to
a more settled way of life. The action of the Sultan in converting
into his private property (Sanīyeh) 30 per cent. of the best cultivated
lands in the vilayets of Basra and Baghdad, and a considerable amount
in the northern provinces, although accompanied by much injustice,
was probably of some economic benefit to the country. The Sultan's
estates were comparatively well managed, and law and order were
enforced at least within their limits. The native population generally
was living in expectation of greatly increased prosperity which was
to be the result of the projected Baghdad railway.
Nevertheless the methods of the Sultan's Government-its corrup-
tion, fraud, and violence-aroused considerable discontent throughout
Mesopotamia. The Turkish Revolution of 1908 was welcomed by
the bulk of the population, as most sections of it hoped to profit by
the change. These hopes were generally disappointed by the deter-
mination of the Young Turks to carry through a centralizing and
levelling policy, and by their methods which were not more
scrupulous than those of the old régime. The Government achieved
some successes : Ibrahim Pasha, the head of the Milli Kurd
confederacy, was put out of the way; Nazim Pasha obtained the
submission of the Northern Shammār and appointed a paramount
chief in the Turkish interest; and strong measures were taken
against the depredations of the Hamawand Kurds near Kirkuk.
But there was much disorder in Irak, and the unsuccessful Turkish
wars with Italy (1911) and the Balkan States (1912) made matters
worse. The permanent ill feeling of the Arabs against the Turks
was now taking shape in a Pan-Arab movement, and in this way the








HISTORY
63
Arab disaffection in Mesopotamia was brought into connexion with
the anti-Turkish movement in Arabia. Opposition to the Govern.
ment grew even in Basra and Baghdad. Ajaimi Ibn Sa'adun, para-
mount chief of the Muntefiq, who was on bad terms with Ibn
Rashid, the comparatively pro-Turkish Emir of Jebel Shammār, was
reported to be planning an attack on Basra ; the waterways between
Baghdad and the Persian Gulf were rendered insecure by the
prevalent disorder; and a general rising of the Southern Mesopotamian
Arabs was feared, but did not come to a head. Meanwhile, lawless-
ness was increasing in Kurdistan, where a number of chiefs were
entering into relations with Russia. The whole situation was still
uncertain when the European war broke out.
The interests of Great Britain in Mesopotamia had grown up
before the revival of the authority of the central Turkish Govern-
ment. A British Resident was first appointed to Baghdad at the
end of the eighteenth century. These interests were partly com-
mercial, partly political. Great Britain established and maintained
order and security in the Persian Gulf, which she cleared of slavers
and pirates, policed, and charted, and in protecting her commerce
she established a paramount political influence along the shores of
the Gulf and up to Baghdad. She was also concerned to guard the
interests of the large numbers of Shiah Indians who made the
pilgrimage to Kerbela and Nejef, and the British Indian Government
was trustee for a number of endowments founded by Indians at these
places. Moreover, British predominance in the Gulf and in Irak
was considered necessary for the security of India against attack
from without. In the early part of the nineteenth century, before
the cutting of the Suez Canal, the possibility of establishing a regular
commercial and post route between India and England across
Mesopotamia was much discussed, and the famous expedition of
Chesney (1835–7) was a reconnaissance made with this scheme in
view. The opening of the Suez Canal for some time threw this
project into the background. But British commerce continued to
develop without serious competition on the Shatt el-'Arab and lower
Tigris and Euphrates, British protection was afforded to the
practically independent Sheikhs of Koweit and Mohammareh, and
British prestige in Irak remained very great. There was, however,
much latent jealousy on the Turkish side, and this was stirred to
activity about the beginning of the present century, as the result of
German influence, by this time predominant in Turkey. The pro-
posed advance of a German-owned railway from Anatolia to Baghdad
and Basra was in fact a serious menace to the position of Great Britain
in the East, and the British Government was unwilling to see such


64
HISTORY
a railway extended south of Baghdad. The Turks were beginning
to show signs of wishing to increase their power in NE. Arabia and
the Persian Gulf at the expense of Great Britain. Their intrigues
became more persistent and open after the Revolution of 1908 and
the rise to power of the German-controlled and chauvinistic Com.
mittee of Union and Progress. An unsuccessful attempt was made
to induce the Sheikh of Koweit to renounce his connexion with the
British Government, and an encroachment was made on the territory
of the Sheikh of Mohammareh, who is ruler of Southern Arabistan,
owning a nominal allegiance to Persia. Mohammareh and the
Kārūn region had recently become exceedingly important to Great
Britain from a military as well as from a commercial point of view,
owing to the discovery of the oil wells in the Shushtar region: these
are now worked by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, in which the
British Government has acquired a predominant interest. The
Turkish intrigues failed, and the troubles of the Turkish administra-
tion led to a partial cessation of these attacks. Meanwhile, deter-
mined efforts were being made by the Germans to compete with
British trade on the Kārūn and Tigris, and the question of the
Baghdad railway was still under discussion. Shortly before the
present war Great Britain declared herself ready to permit the exten-
sion of the Baghdad railway as far as Basra, in return for what was
in effect to be British control of the Shatt el-'Arab, of steam-navigation
on the Tigris and Euphrates between Basra and Baghdad, and of any
extension of the railway that might be made from Basra to the
Persian Gulf.








CHAPTER VII
INHABITANTS 1
RACES AND APPROXIMATE NUMBERS
.
..
.
.
.
.
·
In the absence of anything like a census and of any trustworthy
official records whatsoever, it is impossible to calculate the population
of Mesopotamia with any accuracy. The following figures convey
merely a rough estimate :
Jezīreh
Mutessariflik of Zor .
84,000
Vilayet of Diarbekr.
393,000
- „Mosul
250,000
Irak
727,000
Vilayet of Baghdad.
719,000
» » Basra .
792,000
1,511,000
S. Arabistan . . . . . . 200,000
Mesopotamia' Grand Total 2,438,000
Taking the total area to be 180,000 square miles, this gives
132 inhabitants per square mile. This is a sparse population ;
enormous areas in the plains are, however, uninhabited desert (either
from all times or in consequence of the destruction and loss of
irrigation canals), and in Kurdistan there are extensive uninhabitable
and inaccessible mountain ranges.
The succeeding section gives a detailed account of the religions,
shrines, places of pilgrimage, and religious leaders in Mesopotamia.
But, since religion in this country is mostly a matter of race (for
instance, with the exception of a few converts by missionaries, every
person of Arab, Kurdish, Turk, or Persian descent is Mussulman,
every Armenian or Syrian is a Christian), a religious classification
is not out of place as indicating racial factors.
See Map 2.
MES, I.


INHABITANTS
Province.
Mohammedan Mohammedan antion ! There
ian Christian. Jew.
Sunni.
Shiah.
Yezidi.
Zor
Diarbekr
Mosul
Baghdad
Basra
S. Arabistan
82,000
274,000
218,000
245,000
218,000
1,000
110,000
25,000
6,000
5,000
1,500
5,500
50,000
3,000
7,500
13,500
420,000
553,000
200,000
Total
1,037,000
| 1,173,000
147,000
60,000
21,000
These figures, it must be remembered, are only approximate. The
Mohammedans altogether number 2,210,000; all others 228,000;
roughly there are ten Mohammedans to everyone non-Moslem.
The Sunni Mussulmans, as also the Christians, are found chiefly
in the north, the Shiahs in the south. Jews are most numerous in
the Baghdad province, principally in the city of Baghdad itself.
Sunnis and Shiahs appear to be of about equal strength.
The races which form the composite population of Mesopotamia
are : Arabs, Kurds, Turks and Turkomans, Persians, Syrians,
Armenians, Yezidis, Jews, Circassians, Sabians, and Chabaks. The
numbers of the different races may be assumed to be :
Arabs, 1,650,000
Yezidis, 21,000
Kurds, 380,000
Jews, 60,000
Turks 1 and Turkomans, 110,000 Circassians, 8,000
Persians, 70,000
Sabians, 2,000
Syrian Christians, 2 60,000
Chabaks, 10,000
Armenians,3 57,000
Miscellaneous, 10,000
But this is only a rough estimate. The Arabs are clearly the
weightiest element in the population. If they were united in
pursuits, disposition, character, religious sect, and interests, they
would constitute a very formidable body. The cleavage, however,
between Sunni and Shiah, and between sedentary and nomad Arab,
is profound ; nor do these lines of division coincide : a Sunni Arab
is not necessarily a nomad, nor is a Shiah Arab necessarily a culti-
vator. So far as the Arab race is concerned, it is only the Bedouins
or purely nomad Arabs, with some semi-nomads, that present a
1 Exclusive of the troops.
2 These include Jacobites and Chaldaeans, but not the Syrian Nestorians (see
p. 76, note 1), who are chiefly found in the vilayet of Van.
3 Before the massacres of this year. Probably the Armenians here were less
affected than those in Armenia itself.








INHABITANTS
67
real difficulty for the administration. Somewhat similar conditions
exist among the Kurds, in that it is the nomad and semi-nomad
sections who principally give trouble. With the Kurds, though
they are all Sunnis, tribal cohesion and a general national feeling
appear to be less marked than with the Arabs ; blood-feuds and
intertribal enmities are strong obstacles to united action, and a
general combination of the Kurds seems therefore to be unattainable,
or at any rate to be exceedingly improbable. The chief anxiety that
the administration has with them arises from the raiding instincts
and predatory habits of the nomad and semi-nomad tribes. The
other races are politically of no account; the 100,000 Turks being
partly real or reputed Turks that live in the cities and towns, and
partly peaceful cultivators residing in the northern hills. Persians,
Syrians, Jews, and the like have no political influence; and the
other races are numerically far too feeble to exercise any effect on
a political situation.
ARABS AND KURDS
Distribution
As regards their geographical distribution, the matter is simple :
the Arab is essentially a man of the plains ; in Mesopotamia (as
elsewhere, e. g. N. Africa) he remains in the great deserts, or the
open country, and penetrates rarely into the montane regions. On
the other hand the Kurd prefers the hills and the submontane
glacis. The Arabs compose at least 95 per cent. of the population of
S. Arabistan, and in Irak probably between 85 and 90 per cent.
The desert west of the Euphrates, the alluvial trough itself of the
Euphrates in Lower Jezīreh, the desert between the Euphrates and
Tigris south of the Jebel Sinjar, and the greater part of the alluvial
trough of the Tigris south of Mosul, are firmly in the hands of the
Arabs. The Lower Jezīreh is in short effectively possessed by the
Arabs, as far as the sloping glacis of the hills and higher ranges to
the east and the Jebel Sinjar to the north. Here the Arabs im pinge
on the Kurds, a virile race always prepared to hold their own and to
give back as much as they get, and more if possible. In the main,
the issue of perennial conflicts between the two races is determined
by the terrain : the Arabs predominate in the plains, the Kurds
in the hills. On the east the Tigris is an effectual barrier to
collisions on a large scale, neither side caring to cross it in force;
and a sort of modus vivendi appears to have been established between
the two races. In the northern section of the Jezīreh circumstances
are different. Till the hills are reached there is no such natural
E 2


68
INHABITANTS
barrier to combined movements. The Arabs have been unable to
reduce the Jebel Sinjar, which is held mainly by Yezidis, or to
dislodge the Kurds from the Jebel Tur and the Qarajeh Dāgh and
their spurs. The fertile, undulating plain along the foot of these
ranges is the subject of contention, the Arabs ever striving to extend
their summer pastures as far north as possible, and the Kurds trying
to keep the Arabs out of land which is capable of rich cultivation.
This standing feud between Arab and Kurd has a most important
bearing on the maintenance of peace in Northern Jezīreh. But
the antagonism between the two races must not be exaggerated.
There is a certain amount of intermarriage between Arabs and
Kurds in Northern Jezīreh and along the middle Tigris, and the
country west of the Euphrates between Meskeneh and Aleppo is
inhabited by a population of mixed Arab and Kurdish blood.
Moreover, in Northern Jezīreh it is not uncommon for Arab and
Kurdish tribes to ally themselves.
The Kurds are found in Irak, chiefly on the Tigris. Kurdish com-
munities are also said to be at Suweira and 'Ali el-Gharbi on the Tigris,
and there are about 5,000 Kurds in Baghdad. Part of the popula-
tion at Hai and Qal'at Sikr upon the Shatt el-Gharrāf are Kurds, and
Bedrah and Jessān, which lie nearer to the hills, are predominantly
Kurdish. The Kalhurs, of mixed Kurdish and Lur origin, inhabit
the country on the Baghdad-Kirmanshah road, between the Turco-
Persian frontier and Kirmanshah. The Faili Lurs, who live in the
Pusht-i-Kūh and descend to the plains of Irak from October to
April, are probably to be classed ethnically as Kurdish, though they
themselves consider it an insult to be confounded with the Kurds.
In the province of Mosul, the population to the east of a line
drawn from Qizil Rībāt to Mosul is wholly Kurdish as far as, and
beyond, the Turco-Persian boundary. All this tract is a portion of
Kurdistan proper. There are also some Kurdish villages in the trough
of the Tigris. Kurds are very numerous in the hills immediately
north of Mosul, and form a large part of the population in the
province of Diarbekr, especially in its southern portion in the
Jebel Tur, the Qarajeh Dāgh, and their southern outspurs, and occur
mixed with Arabs within the northern border of the province of Zor,
but never far from the hills.
Characteristics
The Arab mind is lively, imaginative, and subtle, and Arabs
frequently show remarkable power of discussing intelligently any
subject within the range of their experience: they are quick to








INHABITANTS
69
follow arguments and are sensitive to vivid and telling phrases.
Yet in practical issues, where constructive ability, energy, and
dexterity are needed, they often seem to the European more or less
incompetent and lazy. A contempt for manual labour as degrading
is common among them. The pure-bred tribesmen and the urban
Arabs of the upper class have generally an aristocratic ideal of
conduct which includes courtesy, dignity, hospitality, and generosity,
and they admire, in themselves or in others, actions which display
such qualities. On the other hand they are often apt to evade
the spirit of their code of honour while satisfying themselves
by observing the letter of its rules. The Arabs seem to have a
natural bent for intrigue. They are inclined to "think lightly of
a promise, at least when it has not been made with solemn forms
of oath or under circumstances which appear to them as peculiarly
affecting their honour (as in the matter of defending à guest). They
are exceedingly fond of money, and not very scrupulous in their
efforts to obtain it. Moreover, they are in general time-servers ;
their loyalty to any cause which they think lost is easily dropped :
and on the other hand they are not likely to change sides till they
have reason to believe that they can do so safely. The Arab tribes.
man is used to continual but fairly harmless warfare, made up of
raids, loose skirmishes, and running fights. He frequently commits
acts of treachery and he is generally ready to rob or blackmail
a weaker neighbour ; but in inter-tribal warfare he does not show
himself bloodthirsty, and surrenders are readily accepted. In war-
fare with regular troops he usually confines himself to guerilla
methods, the harassing of retreats, or sudden but not very deter-
mined attacks. The Arab is said to be an inferior horse-master and
a poor shot. A really strong wave of religious fanaticism, which is
always to be counted on as a possibility in a Mohammedan country,
might make the tribal levies far more dangerous; but in modern
times the Mesopotamian Arabs have had the reputation of being
comparatively free from fanatical religious feeling. : :
The Kurds are a heterogeneous race including many groups of
tribes which differ widely in character, mode of life, and physical
appearance. The Kurdish language (Kermanji) is a patois of Persian,
but several peculiar dialects are spoken in secluded districts by
tribes usually considered Kurdish. The lowest Kurdish tribes (for
the most part nomadic) have been given a bad character as cruel,
cowardly, treacherous, and stupid. But most of the semi-nomadic
and sedentary Kurds who live east of the Tigris or descend at
certain seasons into the plains of Upper Jezīreh, have won the
respect of European observers. These people, though not nearly so


70
INHABITANTS
intellectual and imaginative as the Arab, have a shrewd appreciation
of practical issues, and are far superior to the Arab in energy, enter-
prise, and industry. Though a large part of the race are robbers by
tradition, most Kurds are hard workers. The sedentary Kurds are
generally good agriculturists, and many of the semi-nomadic tribes
east of the Tigris are capable weavers, smiths, &c. They treat their
women well and do not veil them. They are usually generous and
very hospitable. They are continually engaged in blood-feuds,
inter-tribal skirmishes, raids, &c. As fighters they are brave
and determined, and cooler and steadier than the Arab. The semi-
nomadic Kurds are admirable horsemen, and it has been thought
that they might provide material for an excellent mounted infantry.
The Kurds are at all times callous and reckless in taking human
life-far more so than the Arabs—and they may at times act with
extreme brutality. Their disregard of the laws of war has given them
an extremely bad reputation for treachery. Their simplicity, courage,
energy, predatory instincts, and savagery have made them very
useful instruments of misgovernment and massacre in the hands
of the Turkish administration. It may be noticed that the Kurds
are looked down on by the other races of the Turkish empire, and
they themselves seem to accept the idea of their inferiority at least to
other Moslem races.
Occupations
As regards mode of life, both of these races fall into the same
classes and almost in the same proportions-urban, agriculturist,
semi-nomads, and nomads pure and simple. There is no need to
enter at length into what is meant by 'urban' or 'agriculturist'—
the former term explains itself; the latter applies to cultivators who
do not move away from their habitations at any time of the year.
Probably something like one-half of the Arabs and Kurds are
included in these categories. “Semi-nomads' may be defined as
sections that own and cultivate land, but, having large stocks of
domestic animals as well, spend part of their time at or on their
cultivated lands, and the rest of the year move with their flocks and
herds to more or less distant pasture lands. With such classes the
degree of 'nomadism’ varies widely. Some live in permanently
built houses and huts, and are absent from their fields for only
a few weeks or months every year. Others, again, erect temporary
shelters of reeds and bushes, or else simply pitch their tents near
their fields and move off on finishing agricultural operations—these
latter classes have naturally the nomad instinct more strongly








INHABITANTS
developed than the house-owning tribes. Among the semi-nomad
Arabs may be classed the marsh-dwellers who are found among
the great swamps of Irak. The last class are the 'nomads', who
are wholly graziers, who own no land and have no habitations
except their tents, and who are prepared at any moment to wander
to any distance. It is these nomads and semi-nomads that con.
stitute the most difficult element with which an administration
has to deal in Mesopotamia. With little or no immovable stake
in the country, they are from an administrative standpoint like
birds of the air. For the Bedouins, the deserts of Jezīreh and
the great Syrian wastes have ever been a secure refuge; to the
nomad Kurds either Persia or Turkish territory is a safe asylum,
according as they generally live on one or the other side of the
boundary. Where, as in Kurdistan or in the river-valleys of
Mesopotamia, nomads or semi-nomads move through country
inhabited by a sedentary population, there is naturally much
plundering and blackmail practised on the latter. Fortunately the
numbers of pure nomads are relatively few in either case; probably
not more than one-fifth of the non-sedentary sections. In the
matter of domestic animals there is an important difference between
Arabs and Kurds : both keep horses, sheep, and goats in great
numbers, but whereas much of the wealth of the non-sedentary
Arabs lies in their herds of camels, the Kurds keep no camels,
but their consequently inferior mobility has a compensation in the
inaccessible nature of the higher portions of Kurdistan and the
proximity of the Turco-Persian boundary. Both nomad Arabs and
nomad Kurds have with about equal success been able to defy
authority, and to retain a semi-independence which, according
to the vigour or feebleness of the Turkish administrators, has at
times merged into actual independence. Moreover, though the
nomads and semi-nomads on the whole give most trouble to the
administration, not all the communities of sedentary cultivators are
law-abiding. The villagers of the Kurdish hills, for instance,
are accustomed to tribal fighting and raiding. It is noticeable,
however, that since the Crimean War, but more especially since the
accession of the late Sultan, the grasp of the Turks on Mesopo-
tamia has steadily and materially strengthened : many tracts that
were insecure have been opened up to traffic, and tribes that were
rebellious brought into some kind of subjection. To some extent,
and especially in the case of the Arabs, the task of the administra-
tion has been facilitated by the need of the nomads to visit the
towns from time to time in order to procure such supplies as they
do not produce for themselves or cannot obtain by raiding. In a


72
INHABITANTS
number of cases nomad communities have been induced or compelled
to settle down. Latterly there has been little real independence,
though much lawlessness and disorder. Tribal feuds and petty
raiding have continued both on the Mesopotamian plains and in the
Kurdish hills : taxes have been irregularly or never paid by many
tribes, and skirmishes-sometimes successful--fought from time to
time with Government troops. Nevertheless the increase in the
Government's authority during the last half-century has been very
great.
In Irak, with the important exceptions of the cities of Baghdad
cum Kazimain and of Kerbela, the Arabs form the bulk of all
the urban communities; and in Irak (except in the eastern districts
of Irak where there are Kurds) and in S. Arabistan practically all
the agriculturists are Arabs. In Jezīreh the Arabs prevail in the
towns and villages of the lower portion ; in the upper half they
have no hold on the soil, but are found in the larger towns such
as Mosul and Diarbekr. The town Arab has naturally lost
much of the national tribal' characteristics and qualities : he is
described as not fanatical, but grasping in money matters : he suffers
from a rooted disinclination for hard work. Arab agriculture is
said to be shifting and desultory, as might be expected. Semi-nomad
Arabs are of course very numerous in Irak and S. Arabistan. Nomad
Arabs are comparatively rare in Irak and S. Arabistan-apparently
they constitute only one-tenth of the population; but in Jezīreh
probably half of the Arab population is Bedouin, and they are
a political factor of great importance.
As regards the Kurds, they occur in Irak as urban dwellers in
the cities and towns mentioned above and as cultivators in villages
towards the east, and are described as being among the finest
classes of men in the country. A sturdy and capable race and
well represented in the army and military police, they have also
been known to rise to posts requiring some intellectual ability,
such as judgeships. They are said to be hasty in temper and quick
in revenge, but, in the plains, peaceable and law-abiding subjects.
In the north the sedentary semi-nomadic and nomadic Kurds form
the greater part of the population in the belt of land from the
plains flanking the Tigris to the higher ranges. In this area there
are a number of country towns and large villages which are
inhabited entirely or mainly by Kurds, such as Kufri, Sulei-
māniyeh, Chemchemal, Kirkuk, Altun Köprü, Erbil, Raniyeh,
Rowanduz, Köi Sanjaq, Zakho, and Jezīret-ibn-Omar. There are
many Kurds also resident in Mosul. As far up-stream as Jezīret-ibn-
Omar the Kurds do not cross the Tigris. The semi-nomad and








INHABITANTS
73
nomad Kurds spend the winter (October-February) in villages or
camps in the Tigris plains, to the east of the river, and in the
cultivated belt just mentioned. In March the semi-nomad villagers
usually go into tents and remain there till June, when, the harvest
being over, they migrate with their flocks and herds to the lofty
pastures of the backbone of mountains, which from the Argot
Dāgh in the north, 10,500 feet high, to the Avromān Dāgh in the
south, forms the boundary between Mesopotamia and Persia. The
pure nomads seem to leave the plains or lower valleys somewhat
earlier. Similar movements take place from the rolling plains
and lower valleys of Mosul to the high Armenian plateau round
Lake Van. The sedentary mountain Kurds are industrious agricul-
turists, and active fighters and hunters. They spend the summer
either in tents close to their villages or on the roofs of their houses.
Their villages often contain a double-bastioned block-house. In the
province of Diarbekr the Kurds are a considerable section of the
population in the towns of Diarbekr, Mardin, and Nisibin, and
almost entirely people the towns of Arghana, Palu, and Veirān
Shehr. Kurdish villages and semi-nomad and nomad settlements
abound throughout the province. The Jebel Tur and Qarajeh Dāgh
buttresses of the higher ranges are special strongholds of the Kurds,
whence they endeavour with varying success to hold the plains of
the Upper Jezīreh against the Bedouins. The more hilly portions of
this rolling country appear to be in their permanent possession.
The great confederacy of the Milli Kurds spends the months from
January to April on the lower slopes of the Qarajeh Dāgh. In April
they come down to the plains to the south of that mountain, in
order to take advantage of the spring pasture. From June to
September they are on the move northwards towards Diarbekr :
from October to December they are moving southwards again to the
Qarajeh Dāgh. Other tribes similarly descend from the hills to the
plains every spring.
Tribal System
A complete list, even if obtainable, of Arab and Kurdish tribes,
clans, sections, and subsections, and of their infinite ramifica-
tions, would run into hundreds of names and could serve only
a purely statistical object. For reasons given immediately below,
these tribes are not final units, without capability of expansion
or reduction, as for instance in Albania or on the Pathan borderland
of India, but are in a constant condition of flux. Nor in political
affairs and great movements do the smaller clans exert any power or


74
INHABITANTS
influence. A relatively small community may strike the match that
sets the train on fire, like the Madda Khel in the Indian frontier
rising of 1897, or the Montenegrins who started the Balkan War of
1912; but they can act only with the permission of the big tribes,
and by their express or tacit consent.
The tribal system of the Arabs, and still more so that of the
Kurds, is not so exact, so rigid, and so well ascertainable as those, for
example, of the Highland clans in Scotland, or of the Pathan tribes
on the North-West Frontier. Among the latter, descent of all the
clansmen from a common ancestor is either an actual fact or else is
so firmly believed in as to come to the same thing. The tribal bond
is one of blood. A man is born a fellow clansman ; outside com-
munities may in rare cases be brought into the tribe, but obviously
they can never share the link of joint paternal descent from the first
ancestor. With the Arabs, the tribal names in many instances show
a patronymic character; in others they are evidently names adopted
by confederacies of tribes who, beginning as associates for offence or
defence, have become welded into large compact bodies like the
Shammār, and are now to all intents one single tribe; in others again
the tribal appellations are clearly territorial. Among the Kurds, the
idea of common descent appears to have been obliterated in the
course of time, if it ever existed as a vital principle. Kurdish tribes
seem to be agglomerations of families and sections that have lived
together for long periods in the same locality or have grouped them-
selves for protection or aggrandizement round some prominent family
or leader, in either case gradually acquiring the tribal feeling and
tie. These ties and feelings are naturally non-existent or very weak
among theurban Arabs and Kurds; less weak among the agriculturists :
they are stronger and more vivid in the semi-nomad tribes and live
in full force among the nomad sections. The consequence of the
local weakness of the tribal idea, as compared with clan systems
elsewhere, is that at one moment an Arab or Kurd tribe may consider
itself an independent unit, and at another may represent itself or be
considered to be a subsection of some other tribe; and vice versa,
subdivisions separating from the parent bodies. Outside sections
are freely received into tribes. There is, too, a tendency to class
a small tribe which depends upon the assistance of a larger tribe in
war as a section of the larger. The political alliances which thus
determine classification are unstable and fluctuating ; in consequence
there is much confusion. The tribes are managed through their
chiefs, whose power depends almost entirely upon their qualifications
for the office, and is therefore a variable quantity, contingent on the
individual himself, and his near relations, if he possesses the art of








INHABITANTS
75
carrying them with him. To some chieftainships a religious
authority is attached, and in such cases the chief's influence usually
extends beyond a single tribe. The Moslem Kurdish Sheikhs of
Neri and Suleimāniyeh and the head of the Nestorian Christian
tribes in the Hakkiari country have wide secular influence based
largely on religious authority. Chiefs must as a rule belong to one
particular family ; but succession to office is not necessarily heredi-
tary, although in the case of a powerful chief with a capable eldest
son the office would no doubt descend to him without question.
Ordinarily, however, on the death of a chief his successor is chosen
by the headmen of the tribal subsections, who are not bound in their
selection by the wishes or even by a nomination of the late chief.
In deciding between claims they pay great attention to fitness and
experience. If they disagree, the tribe is as likely as not to break
up and form two distinct tribes under the rival claimants. Disputes
in ordinary life which neither side feels inclined to submit to the
arbitrament of the vendetta are settled by the chiefs, or by holy men
agreed upon by the litigants, or by tribal councils, or by all three
sitting together. There is, however, nothing to prevent a dissatisfied
party’to a case which he has lost from clinching matters by murder.
He would labour under the disapprobation of public opinion no doubt,
but that is a matter for him and his relatives to consider ; the public
or the chief would not stir to interfere actively. Although this
is so, it must not be inferred that public opinion in tribal society
is not a powerful force ; it has many ways of making itself felt,
and it can and does exercise a very real pressure, but only towards
the preservation of ancient custom. An obstinate minority, which is
determined to go to any lengths in the vindication of its views, can
in any tribe paralyse the authority of a chief, however powerful,
as well as defeat the wishes of the majority, since no one, unless
under extreme pressure, cares to incur the blood feud which would
be the inevitable sequel to a forcible coercion of the recalcitrant
minority. Hence the interminable length and tortuous ways of
tribal councils. The blood feud and ancient custom are the chief,
if not the only, sanctions of tribal society, the vendetta being a
sacred and honourable obligation. The two stringent articles of
the unwritten tribal code relating to protection and assistance
are a more pleasing feature of tribal life. A person throwing him-
self on the protection of another must be defended, and may not
be given up whatever it costs; and a guest formally claiming
assistance is entitled to full support. This latter injunction would
prove intolerable were it not that pride and custom forbid a tribes-
man from availing himself of it except as a last resource. A


76
INHABITANTS
blood feud may be composed by the payment of a fised sum of blood
money, the amount of which varies locally. But, since the payment
is a confession of weakness, and pride a conspicuous tribal charac-
teristic, it is a point of honour not to compose a blood feud, but to
fight it out to the end. A temporary suspension of the vendetta
may take place for such sufficient reasons as inter-tribal war, a rising
against the Government, &c.
TURKS AND OTHER RACES
The Turks being the governing race, a few are met with every-
where in official positions, but otherwise Turks are not found in
Irak in any numbers outside the city of Baghdad, where a few
thousand of the inhabitants claim to be of that race ; many of these,
however, are Turks only in name, being of very mixed lineage. In
Irak the Turk is not a trader or agriculturist; but in Upper Jezīreh,
and especially in the province of Diarbekr, he appears in both
capacities; there are some Turks in the city of Mosul, more in
Diarbekr, but most of them are peasants in the Diarbekr vilayet,
where they bear a good character. About one-third of the total
number of Turks live in Irak and two-thirds in Upper Jezīreh.
Turkoman villages and nomad sections exist in the province
of Diarbekr, also near Erbil and Kirkuk: relics of former migrations
of peoples, and now of no significance. There are Turkoman
elements in the population of Kirkuk itself and of Altun Köprü.
These people are Sunni Mohammedans and speak a form of Turkish.
- ? ! All the Persians in Mesopotamia live in cities and towns; about
40,000 in Kerbela, 12,000 in Nejef, 7,000 in Basra, 5,000 in Bagh-
dad ; and the remainder are scattered in Kazimain and among the
towns near the Persian frontier. They are of course all Shiahs, and
gain their livelihood by trade, as carriers to Persia, and in ministering
to the wants of the numerous pilgrims to the great Shiah shrines
of Kerbela, Nejef, and Kazimain.
The Syrian Christians (Jacobites, or West Syrians and Chaldaeans)
have their homes in the vilayets of Diarbekr and Mosul, and are
mostly agriculturists; but they are also found as artisans and
traders in the towns of Upper Jezireh, and the Chaldaeans (especi.
ally those of Talkaif) enjoy a complete monopoly as deck hands and
firemen on the river-steamers of Irak, and also work as raftmen
on the Tigris. The Syrian Christians speak Syriac.
1 The East Syrians, or Nestorians, are Syriac-speaking Christians who live for
the most part the ordinary life of sedentary or semi-nomadic tribesmen in the
hill-country between Lake Van and Mosul. They are good fighters, but have








INHABITANTS
The Armenians are found almost exclusively in the Diarbekr
province as agriculturists, traders, bankers, and artisans. They are
all Christians. Relatively few occur in Irak, and only in the large
cities, especially in Baghdad and Basra, where they are often wealthy
men of business. But latterly they have lost ground here owing to
Jewish competition.
Yezidis may be considered as a branch of the Kurds. They
speak a dialect of Kurdish; many of their sections are undoubtedly
of Kurdish blood ; and in great racial questions they might possibly
range themselves with the Kurds as against Arabs or Turks. But
on the other hand their religious tenets (see page 93) very
markedly separate them off from the Kurds generally, and it may
be best to assign to them a distinct position of their own. Their
principal chief or Mir lives at the Ba Idri. Their chief shrine is at
Sheikh 'Adi, 30 miles NNE. of Mosul ; and their main stronghold is
the Jebel Sinjar, which they have defended successfully against the
Arab tide of encroachment. Of the (estimated) number of 21,000
Yezidis in Mesopotamia (there are also some near Van), about 13,500
live in the province of Mosul, principally in the Sinjar range and
SW. of Mardin, also round about Sheikh 'Adi; and 7,500 in the
province of Diarbekr near Midiat. They are mostly of sedentary
pursuits, cultivators and artisans; but have a few nomad sections
who move in summer with pastoral Kurds to the Bohtan Su and
winter in the neighbourhood of Jebel Sinjar. Outside Jebel
Sinjar they have the character of being quiet, peaceful, intensely
clannish men-a disposition which is not unnatural in view of
their small numbers and the surrounding population, to whom their
beliefs are, theoretically, detestable. The Yezidis of the Sinjar are
a wilder people and more capable of self-defence.
Of the Jews it may be said that they live exclusively in cities
and towns-about 50,000 (or possibly more) in the city of Baghdad,
3,000 in Basra and Mohammareh, 1,000 in Diarbekr, and 5,000 in
Mosul itself and Jezīret-ibn-Omar. They follow the occupations,
trade and money-lending, common to Jews all the world over ; some
of the richest men of Mesopotamia belong to their community.
They are an important element in commercial affairs: the trade of
Baghdad and Basra is much under their control; many Jews from
there visit England, and some have remained as agents for partners
recently suffered much through the inferiority of their weapons to those of their
Kurdish neighbours and enemies. Their secular head is also their patriarch, who
lives at Kochannes. Their tribes are under Maliks, and each village has its Rais
or headman. See further, pp. 66, 91. It may be noted that in Upper Jezīreh
Syrian 'is used as equivalent to Christian'.


INHABITANTS
and relations in Baghdad. The local native Christian merchants of
Baghdad are reported to have mostly disappeared during the last
twenty years, in consequence of Jewish competition, and Mohammedan
merchants in Baghdad have felt it advisable to take Jews into
partnership as a measure of self-defence. The leading native firms
at Basra are also mainly Jewish. The Jews, here as elsewhere,
were strong supporters of the Revolution of 1908.
The Circassians are found chiefly at and in the neighbourhood of
Ras el 'Ain, where they were planted by the Turkish Government
after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–8, to act as a buffer between
the Arabs and the Kurds. According to the common fate of buffer
interpolations, they have suffered much and impartially at the hands
of their more powerful neighbours ; nor were their reckless, tur-
bulent, and criminal propensities such as to make them popular.
They are much reduced in consequence. They are all Sunni
Mohammedans.
The sect or community of the Sabians is located in Irak,
dispersed in small bodies, but united everywhere by a common
religion, the exact nature of which is not yet clearly ascertained
(see page 93, below). Sūq esh-Shuyūkh on the Euphrates is now
their head-quarters, but they are numerically strongest at Amara ;
some live in Nāsiriyeh and Shatrat el-Muntefiq; and a few are met
with in S. Arabistan. In dress they are indistinguishable from
Arabs, but have a peculiar and striking physiognomy, and are said
to speak Syriac in their homes. Few or none are agriculturists,
the majority working in silver and antimony; many are boat-
builders and carpenters.
The Chabaks or Shabaks are another community living scat-
tered in small villages south of Mosul, along the eastern bank of
the Tigris. They are cultivators, speak a dialect which is more
closely allied to Persian than to Kurdish, and in matters of religion
are believed to have some affinity with the ‘Ali Illahi sect of Persian
Kurdistan.
Foreigners in Mesopotamia are European, American, or Asiatic.
Of the former two classes, before the war, there were barely two
hundred in the whole of Mesopotamia: a few British officers of the
Political Service at Baghdad, Basra, Mohammareh, and Ahwāz;
about 150 are accounted for by business men and their families at the
same places; and the employés of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company
at Maidān-i-Naftūn, near Ahwāz, and 'Abbādān below Mohammareh ;
the balance were missionaries in Basra, Baghdad, and in the
provinces of Mosul and Diarbekr. The Asiatic foreigners, exclusive
of Persians, are generally natives of India, Afghanistan, and the Indo-








INHABITANTS
Afghan frontier, who have been attracted to the country by the
sacred places of the Shiahs or by the Sunni shrine at Baghdad,
and the descendants of such. The ubiquitous Afghan and Pathan
adventurers, by their superior physique and force of character, com-
mand respect, like the Albanian farther west ; and in Baghdad there
is a considerable body of them in service as doorkeepers, orderlies,
· and watchmen.
In this chapter no attempt has been made to describe in detail the Arab
nomads of the Jezīreh and the Syrian Desert, since they are not tied to the soil,
and are regarded by the Bedouins of Arabia as forming a social aggregate with
- themselves. Certain constituents of the great Anazeh group, for example, still
pass at regular seasons southward into the Arabian peninsula, while others
have their home ranges in the peninsula itself. Moreover, many tribes, among
them the Ruweileh, Dhafir, and Huweitāt, move habitually from one side to the
other of the border-line; and some, such as the Mesopotamian Shammar, though
they stay to the north of it, are integral parts of larger tribal units still at home
in the south. The northern nomads have therefore been treated with the
Bedouin tribes of the Arabian peninsula, in the Handbook of Arabia, vol. i,
chap. iii, pp. 43 ff., where full details as to their numbers, distribution, and
organization are given, based on native information obtained since the outbreak
of the war with Turkey.


CHAPTER VIII
RELIGIONS
Of the 2,438,000 persons composing the population of Mesopotamia,
as shown in Chapter VII, the vast majority, that is to say 2,210,000,
profess the Moslem religion. Christianity comes next with 147,000
adherents, and Judaism third with 60,000. Yezidis (21,000), Sabians,
Chabaks, and Hindus complete the list-all, except the Yezidis, of
comparatively slight importance.
ISLAM
The preponderance of Islam in Mesopotamia rests even less on
numerical superiority than on the historic part played by Irak in
the development of the Mohammedan power and faith. It was
here that the events occurred which gave birth to the Shiah schism,
here too was the seat of the Baghdad Caliphate, and here-at
Kerbela, Kazimain, Nejef, and Kūfeh—are shrines venerated at
least equally with Mecca and Medina in Shiah Moslem estimation.
The tenets of Islam, which claims to be a divinely revealed religion,
given to the world by Mohammed as the last of a succession of inspired
messengers, may be briefly summarized under (i) Doctrine, (ii) Worship.
The doctrine and practices are to be found in (a) the Book of God-
the Koran-which was sent down from the highest heaven to Gabriel
in the lowest, who revealed it in turn by sections to Mohammed ;
(6) the collections of tradition (hadith) containing the sayings and
manners of life (sunna) of the Prophet; (c) the use of analogy (qiyas)
as supplied to (a) and (6); (d) the universal consent (ijma) of the
believers. Orthodox Islam recognizes the Koran as the work not
of Mohammed, but of God; but Moslem theologians recognized
some revelations as inconsistent with others, and so developed the
doctrine of nasikh and mansukh (abrogation), whereby it is taught that
in certain definite cases a later revelation supersedes an earlier.
Upon the nature of God Islam is very explicit. God is one and uni-
versal from the beginning, His unity being emphasized as against
the Christian Trinity. The cosmology of Mohammedanism is too
elaborate to be here reproduced, but some reference to its ethics is








RELIGIONS
essential. These latter are based on belief (iman), good works,
complete surrender to God's will (islam) as the necessary condition
of religious life, and fear of His judgement. The eschatology of the
Koran includes resurrection, last judgement, paradise, and hell.
Qiyas is the process by which a belief or practice is justified on the
ground that something similar is expressly enjoined by the Koran,
tradition, or ijma. Ijma is the universal consent, which is held to
justify practices or beliefs, although they are not warranted by the
Koran or tradition, and may be inconsistent with the teaching of
one or both. Law in Mohammedan countries is in theory essentially
religious, based on the Koran and the traditions, but in the Ottoman
Empire much civil and criminal law has been borrowed from Europe.
The acts of worship enjoined by Islam are five in number: (a) the
recital of the creed ; (6) observance of the five daily prayers ; (c) fast
in the month of Ramadan; (d) giving of alms ; (e) the pilgrimage to
Mecca. The creed (“there is no God but God, Mohammed is the
messenger of God') is the main article of belief, to be professed
without hesitation at any time until death. The prayers consist of
prescribed ejaculations, petitions, and recital of parts of the Koran,
accompanied by certain gestures of the body, at the following five
stated times : dawn, just after noon, before sunset, just after sunset,
and after the day has closed. The worshipper must be in a state of
ceremonial cleanness, for which certain ablutions are required. In
order to prevent contact with anything unclean prayer is usually
performed on a praying-carpet. The extent to which this obligation
is discharged varies greatly in different places, and with social and
other conditions: it is on the whole more scrupulously observed in
the towns than in the desert, and by the poor than by the rich.
Where prayer is offered in assembly, there is a leader who repeats
the formulae in front of the congregation. The Mosque, where
public prayer is offered, has one or more minarets, from the top of
which the Muezzin call the devout to prayer at the appointed time.
Attendance at public prayer is theoretically obligatory on Fridays at
noon, when a short sermon of about 5 minutes length is delivered.
The presence of strangers at these services is usually keenly resented,
and in some places hostility may be aroused by Christians who at
any time enter, or show curiosity in, a mosque. The Shiahs at
Kerbela and Nejef exclude unbelievers from their holy places. The
fast is in the month Ramadan, 'wherein the Koran was revealed':
it is perhaps borrowed from the Jews or Eastern Christians. By
fasting is meant abstinence from food, solid and liquid, and from
smoking from sunrise to sunset. Owing to the fact that the Moslem
calendar is lunar, Ramadan falls at different periods in different
MES, 1.


82
RELIGIONS
years. In 1916 it lasted from June 21st to July 21st. The fast,
when it comes in summer, is a cause of great suffering to those who
observe it, who are the same class as those who perform their
prayer with regularity. So far as is possible the inconvenience is
met by sleeping in daytime. The fast is thought not to be in-
cumbent on those who are travelling or on service, though they
should compensate for such neglect by fasting at another period of
the year. The day which follows the end of Ramadan is one of the
great feasts of the year, the other being the tenth day of the month
of pilgrimage. That month in 1916 will begin on September 18th
(other feasts are not common to the whole Moslem world, but are
merely sectarian). Alms are of two kinds, legal and determined
(zakat), and voluntary (sadaqat). The pilgrimage is to be performed
once by every Moslem ‘if he is able', that is, if he can provide or
obtain the means to support himself on pilgrimage and his family
during his absence, and if he is physically capable.
Food and Drink Taboos.—The pig is as much of an abomination to
the Moslem as to the Jew, from whom his taboo seems to have been
taken over by Islam. The normal sentiment is also very strongly
against the use of wines, spirits, &c., though there is a certain
amount of laxity in this matter among Moslems accustomed to
European ways. The use of tobacco is very widespread, though it
has been condemned by certain of the more recent sects, and opinion
in religious circles has recently been setting against it.
MOHAMMEDAN DENOMINATIONS
The two chief denominations of Islam are the Sunni and the
Shiah sects. The Sunnis of Mesopotamia include the Arabs of the
Jezīreh, the Kurds, the Turks, the Turkomans, and the Moslems
of Syria. Most of the Arabs of Irak and S. Arabistan and the
Persian element in the population are Shiah. Though a line drawn
from Baghdad to Fellūjeh may be taken as the boundary between
the portions of Mesopotamia in which Sunnis and Shiahs respectively
predominate, there is a considerable Sunni element in the population
of Basra and Zobeir, and certain sections of some of the Irak tribes
are of this sect. On the other hand the population of the left bank
of the Tigris above Baghdad to Samarra is mainly Shiah. The
numerical proportions (see p. 66) are estimated as follows : Sunni,
1,037,000 persons; Shiah, 1,173,000. The historical occurrences
which gave rise to these two denominations having occurred in
Irak itself, and a proper comprehension of them bearing directly
upon the subject of Shiah pilgrimage, it will be advisable to review
them briefly at this stage.








RELIGIONS
THE SHIAH SECT
The division between Sunni and Shiah is based primarily on
political theory. The Sunnis regard as legitimate successors of the
Prophet the first three Caliphs who ruled as heads of the Moslem
community, whereas the Shiahs hold that they and all the Caliphs
who followed them were usurpers, the rightful succession lying in
their view with 'Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, and
with 'Ali's descendants. ‘Ali himself, who was assassinated at Kūfeh,
his son Hasan, who is said to have been murdered at the instigation of
the Caliph Moʻawīyeh at Medina, and above all Husein, the second
son of ‘Ali, who with his followers was slain at Kerbela by the
troops of Yazid, Moʻawiyeh's successor, are venerated by the Shiahs
as martyrs and even as semi-divine. These persons, in the senti-
ment if not in the theory of the Shiahs, almost take precedence of
the Prophet himself. Shiah religious feeling centres especially
round the story of Husein's death. The inspiration and semi-divine
powers that belonged to the true head of the Moslem world were
continued in a series of Imāms or Mahdis, the last of whom is
believed to have disappeared mysteriously either at Nejef or
Samarra in A. D. 873. This Imām, or a reincarnation of Husein, is
expected to return some day to establish the true faith among men.
Meanwhile the Shiahs may give their adhesion to the constituted
temporal authorities of the countries in which they live. The
Sultan of Turkey may be obeyed as Sultan, though not as Caliph.
The Shiah system of belief, which arose in Irakand spread to
Persia and India, has accumulated round it much mystical theology
and philosophy which are abhorrent to Sunnis as perverting or,
in their view, contradicting, the revelation of the Koran. The
sects also differ in a number of points connected with ceremonial :
e.g. whereas the Sunnis recognize meat slaughtered by Jews and
Christians as lawful, the Shiahs do not.
* Shiah Shrines in Mesopotamia.—The Shiah shrines of Mesopotamia
may be divided into three groups: those connected with the death of
‘Ali, those connected with the battle of Kerbela, and those connected
with Imāms later than Husein.
i. Sacred places associated with the death of 'Ali.— The spot where 'Ali
received his mortal wound is still shown at Kūfeh, enclosed by iron
gratings, in the great mosque, 12 miles from the present town. His
reputed tomb is at Nejef, though some authorities maintain that he
was buried where he fell, at Kūfeh. The tomb rises in the centre of
the town of Nejef, and surpasses in splendour even the shrine of
F 2


84
RELIGIONS
Husein at Kerbela. The town about it contains a population of
30,000, most of whom live on doles from pilgrims.
ji. Sacred places connected with the battle of Kerbela.— The authenticity
of the shrines at Kerbela is not disputed. They are five in number:
(a) The tomb of Husein, called Dargah Hazrat Husein, stands in
the old town towards its western end. It consists of a large enclosure
(Sahn) with seven entrances, in the midst of which stands the Haram
or sanctuary proper, surmounted by a lofty dome. . The 72 martyrs
(Shuhada), who died with Husein, are buried in the same place.
(b) The tomb of'Abbās, half-brother of Husein, is situated farther E.
It is similar to, but smaller than Husein's.
(c) The Khaimahgah marks the site of Husein's tent before the
battle. It is small and unpretentious.
(d) The tomb of Aun, Husein's sister's son, is 7 miles NE. of
Kerbela on the road to Museyib.
(e) The tomb of Hurr, who joined Husein from the ranks of his
enemies just before the battle, is 3 miles to the NW.
iii. Sacred places connected with the later Imāms. -- At Kazimain
is the burial-place of the 7th and 9th Imāms, Musa-bin-Tafar and
Mohammed-bin-Ali (Kadhim, the self-restrained'). The tombs of
the 10th and 11th Imāms, ‘Ali-bin-Mohammed and Hasan-bin-'Ali,
are to be seen at Samarra, where also a well is exhibited, said to be
the scene of the disappearance of Mohammed-bin-Hasan-el-Mahdi,
12th Imām. Other minor shrines are those of Abul Qasim and
Seyyid Ibrahim at Museyib; Hamzah and Yasim at Hilla; and Ibn
el-Hasan, the Banat el-Hasan, and Ibn el-Hamzah near Tawarīj.
· The management of these Shiah shrines is vested in the Auqaf or
Department of Religious Endowments. At each principal shrine
there is a custodian (kiliddar), chief attendant (sarkhidmah), and lesser
attendants (Khadim). The Auqaf are responsible for the finances of
the shrines, which are supported partly by large endowments in the
shape of lands, houses, and shops, partly by special contributions ;
and for the sacred treasure, the value of which is not known even
approximately to outsiders.
Shiah Pilgrimages.-A pilgrimage to the shrines of Irak is con-
sidered by Shiahs to be highly meritorious, more especially because
it is voluntary, instead of being obligatory like the Hajj to Mecca or
Medina. There is no fixed time for these pilgrimages, though certain
days of the Mohammedan year are considered more auspicious than
others for the performance of the ceremonies prescribed for visitors
to the holy places ; consequently pilgrims arrive and depart at all
seasons of the year, preferably however in winter, between November
and April. ( Two routes are commonly followed: pilgrims from








RELIGIONS
85
NW. Persia cross the frontier at Khanikin ; those from S. Persia,
India, and the Persian Gulf mostly arrive by sea at Basra. The
influx of pilgrims varies considerably from year to year—there were
57,567 officially returned in 1890 as having entered Irak from all
directions. Probably far more have made the journey in recent
years, and there is also an immense pilgrim traffic from within
the bounds of Mesopotamia itself. Some aspects of these migrations
have already been discussed, for instance their share in the dis-
semination of disease (p. 46), and they supply a considerable stimulus
to trade both external and internal. It remains to describe
the procedure generally followed on arrival. Each pilgrim band
| has a conductor, who carries a flag inscribed with a text from
: the Koran or with the names of the Imāms. Pilgrims coming by
land from Persia ordinarily visit Kazimain first from Baghdad,
thereafter proceeding to Kerbela and Nejef ; this is in fact the course
followed by most of the pilgrims from the Gulf also, who take the
river steamer from Basra to Baghdad. ) Arrived at the shrine, the
pilgrim first purifies himself by certain prescribed ablutions. At
the threshold he seeks the saint's permission to approach, circum-
ambulates the grave three times, and finally prostrates himself twice
before the tomb, to an accompaniment throughout of prayers and
recitations. The visit to the shrine is called ziyaret : and the pilgrims
provide themselves at the shrines with rosaries, tablets of sacred earth
(turbah), and shrouds for future use, stamped with texts from the Koran.
Consecrated Shiah Cemeteries.—The desire for burial in sacred
ground at one or other of the holy places in Irak is based upon the
belief that the protection of the saint, whose tomb adjoins, is thereby
assured. The principal Shiah cemeteries, apart from the shrines
themselves, in whose precincts burials also take place, are the
following: the Wādi es-Salām (vale of peace') at Nejef; Wādi
el-Aoman (vale of security ') at Kerbela ; Maqabir el-Quraish at
Kazimain; and Tarmah at Samarra. Corpses are brought for
interment in one or other of these places by caravan in wooden
coffins covered with thick felt. A pack animal with a coffin slung
each side of it is one of the commonest objects to be encountered on
a journey from Kerbela to Baghdad. The cost of burial in this way
is by no means nominal. Apart from the expense of carriage, the
Turkish Government charged the equivalent of nine shillings for an
import pass, half this sum being levied in addition for sanitary
purposes. Corresponding fees, but on a lower scale, were levied on
the transportation of Ottoman Shiah subjects. Quite independent
again were the charges for actual interment, which varied from £40
(at Ruwaq in Nejef) to 75. 2d. (at Samarra).


86
RELIGIONS
The introduction of bodies from countries where epidemic diseases
prevail has been from time to time interdicted by the Porte, and
since 1897 the importation of bodies from India has been prohibited
on account of bubonic plague in that country.
Shiah Mujtahids.—The term Mujtahid was originally applied to
any Mussulman divine who had attained the highest eminence in
his profession. But at the present day it is in use only among
Shiahs. The modern Shiah Mujtahid combines in himself several
functions: lecturer on Mohammedan law and theology, judge of
ecclesiastical suits, and registrar of wills and other documents. The
ascendancy they enjoy is very remarkable. Among Shiahs their word
is law : they disburse large sums received from their co-religionists
for sacred and charitable purposes; and occasionally they exercise
strong political influence, even in opposition to the established
government of the country. The Mujtahids of Nejef and Kerbela
are the most distinguished, their power predominating throughout
the entire Shiah world over that of all other Mujtahids: collectively
they are known as Atabah, 'the Threshold'. Though some 2,000
claimants to the title exist at Nejef and 200 at Kerbela, inquiries
made in 1903 elicited the fact that not more than 41 enjoyed
, undisputed authority.
THE SUNNI SECT
The historical origin of the differences between Sunni and Shiah
has been noted above (p. 83). To the Sunnis the Caliphate, or
headship of the Moslem world, now belongs to the Sultans of Turkey.
The Sunnis profess an unquestioning faith in the Koran, and in the
accepted Tradition (sunna), which is a record of the sayings and
doings of the Prophet that serves as a supplement to the Koran. On
this basis various systems of Sunni law have arisen, the differences
between which are merely trifling. The official code of the Ottoman
Empire, in so far as it is still truly Moslem, is that of Abu Hanifeh.
The Shiahs in theory reject the authority of the Sunni Tradition
altogether, but in fact their law is to a great extent borrowed from
the Sunni schools.
The Arab Sunnis of Mesopotamia are said to be on the whole not
fanatical. Sunni feeling is now very much stronger among the
Kurds. The Government of Constantinople has done much in
recent years to encourage Sunnism among the Kurdish tribes, in
the hope of increasing their respect for the Sultan as Caliph. This
policy apparently had a considerable measure of success in Abdul
Hamid's reign. The most important Sunni shrine in Mesopotamia
is that of Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gilani, at Baghdad. This Abdul








RELIGIONS
87
Qadir (A. D. 1077-1165) was a Sufi preacher' of renown in his day,
being credited with miraculous powers. His mosque and tomb,
honorifically known as “Janab Ghauth el-Adham Dastgir', form not
only one of the principal sights of Baghdad, but a religious centre
frequented by Sunni Mussulmans from regions as remote as Afghani-
stan and India. Poor pilgrims are gratuitously supported, and
sometimes as many as 4,000 loaves of bread issue in a single day
from the kitchens of the Pir-i-dastgir. Other Sunni shrines exist
in Irak, but none comparable with that of Sheikh Abdul Qadir,
such being the Maqam Yunas at Kūfeh and tomb of Ezekiel at Kifl,
though the latter is more venerated by Jews than Mussulmans.
Much the most influential Sunni in Mesopotamia is the Naqib of
Baghdad, the official head of the Arab community in that town.
Appointments to the Naqibat have been made by the Sultan hereto-
fore, but in practice the succession is treated as hereditary: nor can
there be any doubt that the importance of the Naqib in the present
day depends much less upon Turkish recognition than upon his
descent and position as the custodian of the shrine of Sheikh Abdul
Qadir Gilani. It is worthy of note that extreme deference is paid to
the Naqib of Baghdad and his family by many of the most influential
and wealthy, as well as the humblest and poorest, of Indian and
Afghan Moslems. Compared with this high dignitary of Baghdad,
the Sunni Naqib of Basra is an inferior being, whose importance
depends chiefly on his wealth and employment by the Turkish
Government in political affairs.
CHRISTIAN SECTS .
Some information regarding the numbers, distribution, organiza-
tion, &c., of each of the various Christian sects which are represented
in Mesopotamia and Kurdistan will be found on pp. 90 ff.
The great majority of Christians living in this area are to be found
in the Vilayet of Diarbekr. A considerable number live in and near
Mosul, and there are Christian communities in Baghdad, Basra, and
some other towns of Irak. It is said that many Christians have
recently been driven by the attacks of the Kurds to migrate from
the north to the towns of Irak. In Northern Mesopotamia the
term Syrian' is equivalent to Christian’.
It will be noticed that the Christian bodies dealt with on pp. 90 ff.
may be divided into three groups: (i) the independent Asiatic
Churches (the "Gregorian’ Church of Armenia, the Nestorian or
East Syrian Church, and the Jacobite or West Syrian Church);
(ii) the bodies called Uniate, which, while they are derived from


88
RELIGIONS
one or other of the independent Churches, are now in communion
with the Roman Catholic Church (Armenian Uniates, Chaldaeans,
Jacobite Uniates, or Syrian Catholics); (iii) a miscellaneous group,
including Protestant converts from the independent and Uniate
Churches (chiefly Armenian), and secessionists like the New
Chaldaeans, and Orthodox Armenians.
Origin of the Independent Asiatic Churches.—(a) The Church of
Armenia derives its name Gregorian from St. Gregory the Illuminator
(A. D. 255–326), who brought about the conversion to Christianity of
the main part of the Armenian nation. As Armenia was a country
over which the East Roman Empire of Byzantium exercised only
a loose and intermittent protectorate, it was natural that the
Armenian Church should gradually lose connexion with Byzantine
ecclesiastical organization and doctrine; and finally, in the middle of
the sixth century, when the heretics called Monophysites (who denied
the human element in Christ) were actively proselytizing in Syria
and Mesopotamia, their doctrine found general acceptance in Armenia.
The Gregorian Church is still Monophysite.
(6) The Nestorian Church is a remnant of the great body of
Nestorian Christians who in the Middle Ages were to be found
throughout Asia. The “Nestorian' doctrine had arisen in the East
Roman Empire during the fifth century, its general position being
that Christ was not one person, but had two distinct natures, a divine
and a human. The Nestorians were condemned as heretics at the
Council of Ephesus in A. D. 431, and were forced to take refuge
beyond the borders of the Roman Empire. In Mesopotamia and
Persia their form of Christianity spread with great rapidity. Nestorian
missionaries made converts in Malabar, China, and the Mon-
golian plains (hence probably the mediaeval legend of ‘Prester
John'). The Arab conquerors on the whole treated the Nestorians
with toleration, and though they increased and flourished till about
the year 1400, Timur Lang (Tamerlane), the Mongol, persecuted them
with wholesale massacre. Of the isolated remnants, one of the most
considerable was that which lingered in the plains of Assyria round
Mosul and in the mountains south of Lake Van and Urmia. This
body of Nestorians was, however, reduced in the sixteenth century
by the adhesion of the majority of the plain-dwelling part of the
community to the Church of Rome. The East Syrian Church, which
still maintains its independence, is now confined to the mountains.
(c) The West Syrian or Jacobite Church traces its origin to the
work of a certain Jacobus Baradaeus ('James of the horse-cloth', so
called from the appearance of his dress), who in the sixth century
was successful in establishing a large number of Monophysite com-








RELIGIONS
89
munities in Syria and Mesopotamia. In spite of persecution by the
Byzantine Government, this Monophysite Church maintained its
existence near the borders of the East Roman Empire, until it was
able to enjoy the modified tolerance extended to all Christian sects
by the Arab conquerors. The Jacobite Church is still Monophysite.
Uniatism.—There are three Uniate Churches in Mesopotamia--the
Armenian Uniate, the Chaldaean or East Syrian Uniate, and the West
Syrian or Jacobite Uniates—and these communities have only three
points in common, viz. that they acknowledge the spiritual supremacy
of the Pope, and that they accept the decrees of the Councils of
Ephesus, A. D. 431, and of Chalcedon, A. D. 451, which respectively
condemned the heresies of Nestorianism and of Monophysitism. In
other matters-ritual, liturgy, ecclesiastical laws and customs-each
community is independent of the others and of the Roman Catholic
Church ; each has its own separate hierarchy, although the Pope
exercises some limited power in the appointment of the bishops
and patriarchs. Within the Uniate Churches there is apparently
a tendency to resent an assertion of Roman authority.
Millets. From time to time the most important of these Christian
religious bodies have obtained recognition from the Turkish Govern-
ment, and have been constituted into millets. Each of these millets
has its own civil head, appointed by the Turkish Government; in
practice the Turkish Government appoints to this post the spiritual
head of the Church. Originally the head of the millet was respon-
sible for the civil government of his people, collecting taxes from it
and administering civil justice. Of late years the administrative
functions of the heads of millets have been much reduced. Collection
of taxes has been taken over by Turkish officials, and though
a Patriarch, who is respected, may still be much appealed to as an
arbitrator by his own people, Christians appear recently to have
been made liable, at least in most respects, to the Turkish Courts,
where law modelled on Occidental models has to a considerable
extent replaced in practice the old Mohammedan code. Probably
the Patriarch who wields most secular authority at the present time
is Mar-Shimum, as he is the hereditary chief of the Nestorian high-
landers. But in all Churches the Patriarch is still highly influential
in secular matters; and as head of the millet he is still primarily
responsible to the Government for the political management of
his millet.
French Dominican Mission in Mosul.—An Italian Dominican mission
was established in Mesopotamia in the thirteenth century, which had
its head-quarters at Mosul in the sixteenth century. This mission
was abandoned in A. D. 1730, and was re-established in 1750 by


90
RELIGIONS
three Dominicans. This, too, was abandoned in its turn from 1805
to 1840, but from the latter date the Dominicans have continued
their mission either at Mosul itself or in its near neighbourhood.
At the present time there are a Dominican community and some
nuns at Mosul, together with schools for boys and girls, and
a printing-press from which religious books are issued in various
languages. For the neighbourhood of the town there are a dozen or
more schools conducted by this mission. They carry on educational
work among the Chaldaeans and other Uniates. The Dominicans of
Mosul are French, and apparently include a considerable number
of Alsatians. As a result of their work, a fair number of Chaldaean
priests can speak French.
Protestants. These are mostly Armenians, but there are also a few
converts from the Chaldaean, Jacobite, and Nestorian Churches. Pro-
testantism is the result of American mission-work, and Oriental
Protestants can often speak some English, which they have learnt in
American mission schools. On the whole the Oriental Protestants
of Mesopotamia seem to have made an unfavourable impression on
travellers; but it must be remembered that the judgements of the
latter have usually been based on superficial observations.
The Sects.—(i) The Gregorian Church is the national Church of
Armenia, and represents and fosters Armenian national aspirations.
To it belong the great majority of Armenians in Mesopotamia. The
total number of its members is perhaps 3-37 millions, of whom
nearly 2 millions are in Russian and Turkish Armenia, and the
remainder scattered over the rest of the Russian and Turkish Empires,
Persia, India, and other countries. The Church constitutes a millet
in the Turkish Empire. Of the four patriarchates, the chief is that
of Echmiadsin, about 15 miles west of Erivan. The chief Patriarch
is selected by the Tsar from two candidates chosen by the General
Assembly of the Church. The Patriarch of Constantinople ranks
next to the chief Patriarch. A college education is obligatory on
the Gregorian monks, some of whom have the title of Vardapet ;
from these bishops are selected. The parish priests, who are allowed
to marry, are elected and supported by their congregations. The
deacons are also allowed to marry. The General Assembly is com-
posed of Bishops, Vardapets, and one layman and one priest from
each see. The Gregorian Church is Monophysite and not in com-
munion with Rome.
(ii) Armenian Uniates are a much smaller community (perhaps
70,000 in all), and are found in Western Kurdistan and in the SE.
corner of Anatolia. As their name implies, they are in communion
with Rome. They have an archbishop at Mardīn in Upper Jezīreh








RELIGIONS
91
and bishops elsewhere. There are some Armenian Uniates at
Baghdad. The Church is recognized as a millet.
(iii) Armenian Protestants (perhaps some 45,000 in all; a few
thousand in Mesopotamia) are found mostly in the Armenian high-
lands. Armenian Protestantism is the result of the proselytizing
work of the American missionaries—mostly Presbyterians. Many
Armenian Protestants have been educated at American mission
schools and can speak English. It may further be noted that a con-
siderable number of leading Armenians belonging to other sects
have been educated at the American College-Roberts College-at
Constantinople.
(iv) Some Armenians belong to the Greek Orthodox Church, but
they do not appear to be represented in any appreciable numbers in
Mesopotamia.
(v) The Nestorians or East Syrians (also called by foreigners
Assyrians, and by themselves Easterns or Syrians) form a fairly
united body in the mountains of Central Kurdistan, between Lake
Van and Urmia in the north, and Mosul in the south. They are
highland tribesmen of the ordinary half-civilized type. For their
history see p. 88; see also p. 76, foot-note. They constitute a millet
in the Turkish Empire. Their Patriarch (called Mar-Shimum) is
over-chief of the tribes, into which they are divided. He is elected
from the members of a family in which the office is hereditary. The
present Patriarch is a young man, but is said to have shown himself
a capable and conscientious ruler. He resides at Kochannes, near
Julāmerk. The parish priest is usually the chief man in his village,
and is held in great honour., Priests and deacons are allowed to
marry. There are a few monks and nuns. Fasts are long and
severe, the chief being the Advent Fast (25 days) and the Lent Fast
(50 days), 3 days at the end of the winter, and Fridays. An English
mission has been established among the Nestorians for about 30 years
(the Archbishop of Canterbury's Mission to the Assyrian Christians).
Its efforts have been directed towards education, medical work, and
support of the Nestorian Church. In recent years the Nestorians
have shown signs of wishing to put themselves under Russian pro-
tection. The Nestorians form an independent Church not in com-
munion with Rome. Their language is Syriac.
(vi) The Chaldaeans (East Syrian Uniates, see p. 89) are in com-
munion with the Roman Catholic Church. Their numbers are
perhaps about 30,000. They are found chiefly in and around Mosul,
where their Patriarch resides, though he retains the title of Patriarch
of Baghdad and Babylon. A community of Chaldaeans exists at
Baghdad. Many of their priests have been educated at the Dominican


92
RELIGIONS
mission at Mosul and can speak French. For the occupations of the
Chaldaean laity, see p. 76. Their language is Syriac.
A body of some 2,000 Chaldaeans seceded in 1869 on the question
of Papal Infallibility. It does not seem certain whether this so-called
New Chaldaean community still exists.
(vii) There are a very few converts to Protestantism from the
Nestorian and Chaldaean Churches. Most of them live at Mosul.
They have been proselytized by American Baptist and Congrega-
tionalist missionaries.
(viii) The Jacobites or West Syrians are found in the country in
and near Mosul, in the Vilayet of Diarbekr, and in the northern part
of Syria. There is a Jacobite community at Baghdad. Their Church
is independent, professing Monophysite doctrine, and is recognized as
a millet. The Patriarch (called Patriarch of Antioch) resides at
Mardīn, while the Maphrian, or first bishop, has his see at Mosul.
The Patriarch is generally chosen by the bishops, though there have
been cases of election by lot. Bishops elect must be monks or
widowers. There are three orders of priests-monks, parish priests,
and chor-episcopi (the leading priests in large towns). Parish priests
must marry before ordination, and may not remarry. As the popular
feeling is strongly against unmarried parish priests, a widower, unless
he becomes a bishop, usually retires into a monastery. A priest is
chosen by a council, composed of the deacons and lay representatives
of his congregation. He is usually influential. The order of deacons
is large and important. Education is provided by the Church, and
most of those who remain in Jacobite schools till the age of fifteen
become deacons, but the greater number do not become priests, but
are occupied in secular business. Jacobites keep five yearly fasts.
Their language is Syriac.
(ix) Jacobite Uniates (or Syriani) are found in Mosul, Diarbekr,
and Baghdad, as well as in Syria. They have a bishop at Mosul.
Their Patriarch resides at Baghdad.
(x) There are a few Protestant converts from the Jacobite Church
(mostly Congregationalists and Baptists) who have been proselytized
by American missionaries.
THE YEZIDIS
The Yezidis are found SW. of Mardın, in the Sinjar Mountains
W. of Mosul, and again in the low hills NE. and E. of that town.
These Yezidis (the name is probably derived from the Kurdish
and Persian Yazdan, God) number some 21,000, of whom all but
6,000 live in the Mosul vilayet, and the rest in Diarbekr. Their
language suggests a Kurdish origin. A Shiah theory that their








RELIGIONS
93
founder was Yazid, the murderer of Husein, is doubtless based on
little save a desire to discredit them in the eyes of Mussulmans.
The oldest Yezidi traditions centre round the shrine of Sheikh 'Adi,
their saint and prophet, in the hills 30 miles NNE. of Mosul. The
Sheikh appears to have been outwardly a Moslem, but his shrine is
built on the site of an old Nestorian church, which may account for
some of the Christian elements in their sacred writings.
The Yezidis have suffered much persecution, and are still regarded
as idolaters beyond the pale. Yezidism has points of resemblance
with old Iranian and Assyrian beliefs, as well as with Manichaeism
and Nestorianism. Thus they regard the Devil as the creative
agent of the Supreme Being, a reinstated fallen angel who is the
author of evil. He is never mentioned except as the Peacock King
(Malik-i-tāūs). As for their traditions regarding the Deluge, Crea-
tion, and Judgement, they appear to be appropriations from Biblical
sources, overlaid with a mass of fable. They regard Christ as an
angel in human form, and recognize Mohammed as a prophet with
Abraham and the patriarchs.
Rites and Customs.-The Yezidis have no central ecclesiastical
authority, but a hierarchy of castes and sects, of whom the highest are
Mirs, or princes. Next come the Sheikhs, Mullahs, Qawals (preachers),
Pirs (who exercise priestly functions); and lastly the Kieucheks and
Faqirs, who tend the shrine of Sheikh 'Adi. The ritual practised by
the itinerant Qawals is of a highly esoteric nature, having to do with
the worship of the Peacock King, and strangers are rigidly excluded.
Both baptism and circumcision are customary in the case of infants.
Divorce is permitted only upon proof of infidelity. In the matter
of fasts they follow Moslem customs. The pilgrimage to Sheikh
Adi is an annual affair, accompanied by much ceremonial and
festivity : there are lesser shrines, such as Mohammed Resham,
Khasia, Sitt Nefisse, and Abdi Resho, also much in favour. The
dress of most Yezidis is white, with a short brown cloak. Some of
their religious leaders wear black.
THE SABIANS
The Sabians are a remarkable people, dispersed in small com-
munities over parts of Irak and Arabistan, but united everywhere by
the bond of a common religion. Their head-quarters are at Sūq esh-
Shuyūkh, but they occur in considerable numbers at Amara, Qal'at
Sālih, and Nāsirīyeh also. The Sabians were mentioned in the
Koran together with Christians and Jews, and like them entitled,
in the view of older Mohammedan theologians, to tolerance as the
possessors of a written revelation. The exact nature of their religious


94
RELIGIONS
beliefs has not been properly determined. Baptism is one of their
principal rites, and frequent ceremonial ablution is enjoined: they
are said to venerate Yahya, or John the Baptist, as being a rein-
carnation of Seth, but consider both Moses and Christ to be false
teachers. They place Paradise in the Pole Star. They are an un-
circumcized, but not monogamous race. Their ceremonies are said
to be conducted in Syriac and closed to strangers. They possess
scriptures of their own.
THE JEWS
The connexion of the Jews with Mesopotamia dates from the
Captivity (597 B. C.), when large numbers were carried away into
Babylonia by their Assyrian conquerors. Many of the exiles accepted
their lot with resignation, initiating under the guidance of the
prophet Ezekiel that strong religious development which was to
remain for all time characteristic of Babylonian Judaism. The
dynastic changes of the next seven centuries affected the Jews but
little on the whole-Persians, Greeks, and Romans alike found them
submissive and obedient. For the Jews responded to the influences
of their environment and won the respect of the aliens, whom they
despised, while the law which they cherished kept them at once
united and conscious of their unity. Even the destruction of
Jerusalem in A. D. 70, which meant for the Jews of Palestine national
annihilation, hardly disturbed the even tenor of religious life in
Babylonian Jewry. Mesopotamia was to prove a field more fruitful
to the growth of orthodox Judaism than Palestine itself. In the
first centuries of the Christian Era the Jews of Babylonia, racially of
purer extraction than those of Judaea, gradually arrived at a position,
if not of opposition, at least of friendly rivalry, towards the land of
their origin. Here, rather than in Palestine, was reared the enduring
edifice of rabbinism. The population of S. Mesopotamia was at this
time mainly Jewish, practically independent, with an exilarch or
prince of the Captivity to rule their community as a vassal of the
Persian throne. Great rabbinic academies grew up at Sura and
Nehardea, of supreme importance to the Jewish world. These
Babylonian academies combined the functions of specialist law-
schools, universities, and popular parliaments. They were a unique
product of rabbinism: and the authors of the system were also the
compilers of its chief literary product, the Talmud, better known
and more influential (A. D. 500) than the Palestinian version.
Judaism and Islam.—The stimulus to this religious activity was in
part provided by the pressure of an alien and unsympathetic govern-
ment. Under the Sassanians the Jews suffered much from the








RELIGIONS
95
fanaticism of the Magi. Islam, on the other hand, was at first
curiously accommodating. It would seem as if the earlier Caliphs
originally cherished the idea of incorporating Jewry in the Moslem
fold. For Islam had no place in theory for tolerated religions; its
root principle was fundamentally intolerant: in the presence of the
mosque there was no room for church or synagogue. Its efforts
towards reconciliation unrewarded, the Caliphate proceeded to regu-
larize the relations of Islam with Judaism by definite enactments
not at all to the advantage of the Jews. The Caliph Omar (A. D, 634-
44) instituted a code which required Jews among other things to
wear a peculiar dress, denied them the right to hold State offices or
possess land, inflicted a poll-tax upon them, and refused permission
to enter mosques or even build synagogues for themselves. From
time to time these ordinances were re-enacted in subsequent ages,
and intolerance for Jews is still a feature of Mohammedan law.
Yet Islam has often shown itself milder in fact than in theory, and
the mediaeval Jews lived under the Crescent a life on the whole
fuller and freer than was permitted to them under the Cross. As
regards doctrine, the Jews of Mesopotamia continued on the exclusive
and uncompromising lines which distinguished them from the first.
The rise of the Karaite sect, which occurred at Babylon during
the eighth century-it still survives in small numbers at Hit on
the Euphrates-typifies this tendency in Babylonian Judaism. As
'sons of the writing' (Bene mikra) these schismatics insisted, like
the Sadducees, on the written word and rejection of all oral testi.
mony'. There is a strain of gloom in Karaism, which was more.
over in its attitude towards doctrinal opponents frankly polemical.
In their rigorous interpretation of law and obligation, especially
as regards marriage and observance of the Sabbath, the Karaites
reflected, and indeed exaggerated, the essence of the religion to
which they professed allegiance.
The Jews of Baghdad.- Despite the chaos which succeeded the
Mongol invasions, when the Jews suffered no less than the Moslem
and Christian populations, their community has survived and now
enjoys a position of unusual strength and importance. Surrounded
(Azair and Kifl) by monuments of the Captivity, with the tombs of
Ezra and Ezekiel in their midst, it is not surprising that they still
display exceptional bigotry and devotion to minutiae in the inter-
pretation of their religious ordinances. In Baghdad city they
amount, at a modest estimate, to more than 45,000 persons, out-
numbering even Turks and Arabs. The trade of the place has
largely passed into their hands. At Basra the leading native
firms are Jewish also. Trade and money-lending are the main


96
RELIGIONS
occupation of the Jewish population, many being altogether absorbed
in these pursuits.
THE CHABAKS
The Chabaks are said by some to be Shiahs. Others assert that
they have a secret religion; others say that they have some
affinity to the ‘Ali Illahi sect of Persian Kurdistan; others that they
acknowledge a prophet named Baba.








CHAPTER IX
ADMINISTRATION
THE TURKISH ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
PREVIOUS to the beginning of the sixteenth century the Turkish
Government was an Oriental despotism, based on force. The Sultan
was a feudal War Lord, receiving obedience from a number of feudal
sub-chiefs.
In 1517 Sultan Selim, the Grim, usurped the Caliphate, or Papacy
of Islam, from the Arabs and united the spiritual and temporal
power in the person of the Sultan-Caliph of Constantinople. The
Ottoman Government thus became a theocracy, deriving its inspira-
tion from the Koran. At the time of the capture of Constantinople
in 1453 the Turkish State already rested on an Islamic basis, and
Mohammed the Conqueror decided that the religious and purely
internal affairs of the Orthodox Christian communities which had
survived the Turkish conquests should be delegated to their respec-
tive religious heads, the chief of whom was the Orthodox Patriarch
of Constantinople. The Jewish community was similarly dealt
with. The Turkish conqueror was too contemptuous of the infidels
and their ways to condescend to deal with the affairs of their com-
munities, which were called 'millet', really meaning a 'nation’.
The root of this policy was, perhaps, the incompatibility of Koranic
law with Christian jurisprudence, as a Moslem court could not admit
the testimony of a Christian witness against a Moslem. The
Christians, called 'rayah', had no real rights and were treated
as helots. Until 1839 there were four such non-Moslem 'millets ::
the Greek, Armenian, Roman Catholic, and Jewish communities.
Subsequently the Bulgarians, Maronites, Nestorians, and Protestants
were also recognized. The fact that the Patriarchs and other
religious heads were the recognized channels of communication with
the Porte in all matters affecting their communities gave them
a position of considerable influence and prestige. Foreign Christians
had an analogous position. In virtue of the Capitulations they
MIS. I.


98
ADMINISTRATION
were subject in common-law cases to the jurisdiction of their own
consuls and embassies, but were not allowed to hold real property.
From 1453 to the beginning of the nineteenth century the Turkish
State was a loosely jointed structure. The Turk's ideal was to live
on his conquests and conquered, and his organization was purely one
adapted to the needs of war against the infidel.
The Sultan-Caliph delegated most of his religious authority to the
Sheikh el-Islam, who appointed the religious functionaries in the
provinces and supervised all matters appertaining to Islam. The
Ottoman Sultan similarly transferred a certain meed of his temporal
power to his Grand Vizier, through whom all the high officers
of State, both in the capital and in the provinces, were nominated.
The Empire was divided into immense provinces called Eyalets,
presided over by a Pasha of three tails, e. g. the Pasha of Belgrade was
Viceroy of all Turkey in Europe south of the Danube; the Pasha of
Erzerum ruled all Kurdistan and Armenia ; the Pasha of Baghdad
exercised authority over the Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra regions; while
the Pasha of Damascus controlled all Syria. When Russia's wars
for the liberation of her Orthodox Christian brethren' from their
yoke as rayahs resulted in the shrinkage of the Ottoman Empire, the
necessity of internal change on the lines of a more closely knit
system was felt. The Janissaries and the feudal chiefs were
removed by massacre and a regular army established with a Minister
1 of War. The Eyalets were abolished and replaced by the smaller
divisions called Vilayets, governed by a Vali, with an Accountant-
General (Defterdar) for finance, a Secretary-General (Mektubji),
representative of the Public Works, Public Instruction, and other
departments in the capital. The Vali was further assisted by an
Administrative Council (Idare Mejlis). Each Vilayet was divided
into two or three Sanjaqs, administered by a Lieutenant-Governor
(Mutessarif) appointed by Imperial decree. The Sanjaq had a finance
officer (Muhassebeji), a secretary (Tahrirat Mudiri), and representatives
of the various ministries, with also an Idare Mejlis, as in a vilayet.
Each Sanjaq was subdivided into from three to six Kaza, adminis-
tered by a sub-governor called Kaimmakam, appointed by the Govern-
ment, while the Kaza was further subdivided into three or four
Nahiyes presided over by a Mudir. In each Qariyeh, or village,
there was a Mukhtar, or headman.
These and other similar changes were effected during the first half
of the nineteenth century and were confirmed and amplified by the
Hat-i-Humayun of 1856 after the Crimean War. Equal civil,
political, and religious rights were promised, if not actually granted,
to all the inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire, without distinction of


مر





ADMINISTRATION
99
race or creed. A Penal Code, a Commercial Code, a Vilayet Law,
and other such modern changes were instituted by Imperial decree,
while a regular Ministry of twelve members, inclusive of the Grand
Vizier and the Sheikh el-Islam, was formed, and a Council of State
was established. These changes did not materially alter the character
of the Turk or of his administrative methods. They were honoured
more in the breach than in the observance. Fresh disorders and
massacres of Christians occurred, and the Serbian and Russo-Turkish
wars (1875-8) ensued. A desperate effort was made to modernize
Turkey by introducing representative institutions in 1876, in the
shape of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies with a Ministry respon-
sible to the Sultan. This system was soon found unworkable and.
unpalatable to the new Sultan, Abdul Hamid II, who in 1878
prorogued Parliament indefinitely and governed through the Palace
and Porte for over thirty years. The abuses and disorders continued,
and culminated in the Macedonian agitation during the first eight
years of this century. In July, 1908, the Turkish army took the
situation in hand, forced the ex-Sultan to revive the Constitution of
1876, dethroned him, installed the Young Turk Government in
power with the present Sultan as their nominee and creature, and
modified the Constitution by introducing Parliamentarism, or re-
sponsibility of the Ministry to the Chamber. The Sultan and Senate
were shorn of all power, and, as the people were totally lacking in
political instinct or education, the Young Turks, who constituted
but an infinitesimal minority of the population, found that they
could only govern by putting the Chamber of Deputies under the
shadow and terrorism of the court martial and the state of siege
which they established in the capital in 1909 and have maintained
till the present day (1916).
All real power was vested in this secret court martial, whose pro- !
ceedings were manipulated by the central office of the irresponsible
Committee of Union and Progress. This body established branches
in all the provincial centres to control the action of the official local
authorities, i.e. the Valis, Mutessarifs, Kaimmakams, &c. As the
central court martial was composed of officers who, either from
having studied in Germany or for other reasons, were under German
influence, the German Ambassador and his military attaché became
the real arbiters of Turkey, and the directors of its central and
provincial administration
The German aim was to secure for their representative at Con-
stantinople the position which Lord Cromer built up in Egypt, and
in this they had partially succeeded when the Great War broke out.
The Young Turks, allured by the prospect of freeing their country
G 2


100
ADMINISTRATION
from all non-Turkish trammels, proceeded to abolish the Capitula-
tions and the rights of the non-Moslem millets, and then, despite the
written assurances of territorial integrity offered them by Great
Britain, Russia, and France, boldly plunged into war by attacking
Russia and Egypt. Since the inauguration of the Young Turk
régime in July, 1908, the Ottoman Empire had up to March, 1916,
lost 1,005,460 square miles of directly or indirectly administered
territory in Europe, Africa, and Asia, there being some 700,000
square miles (i. e. three times the size of Germany) still remaining.
ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS OF MESOPOTAMIA
The following table gives a list of administrative sections in each
vilayet' exclusive of Nahiyes :
Zor, which was not divided into Sanjaqs, was administered by
a Mutesarrif, who nevertheless took his orders direct from Con-
stantinople, and it was consequently known as a Mutesarriflik.
The Mutesarriflik of Zor appears to have been created in 1874, after
the extension of Turkish influence over the desert tribes. The Vali
of Baghdad took precedence of the other Governors.
I. Zor-(No Sanjaqs).
Kazas :
Deir ez-Zor.
Achareh.
Ras el-'Ain.
Al Bū Kemal.
II. Diarbekr-
Sanjaqs :
Kazas :
| Diarbekr
Severek
1. Diarbekr... Derek
Silvan
Lijjeh
(Arghana
2. Arghana .... | Palu
Chermuk
Mardin
Nisibin
3. Mardin . . . Jezīret-ibn-Omar
Midiāt
Avineh
i See Map 1.








ADMINISTRATION
101
III, Mosul -
Sanjaqs:
1. Mosul.
Kazas :
(Mosul
Dohuk
Zakho
Zibār
Sinjar
\'Aqreh
Kirkuk
Erbil
Raniyeh
Rowanduz
Köi Sanjaq
Kūfri or Salāhiyeh
Suleimāniyeh
Baziān or Chemchemal
Gulambar
Chāh Bazār
Markeh
2. Shahrizor. .
.
3. Suleimāniyeh. .
IV. Baghdad-
Sanjaqs :
1. Baghdad ...
Kazas :
Anah
Azīziyeh
Bedrah
Baghdad
Dileim
Jezīreh
Kazimain
Khanikin
Khorāsān
Kut el-Amara
Mandali
Samarra
Diwāniyeh
Hilla
Samāweh
(Shāmiyeh
Hindiyeh
Kerbela
Nejef
Razazeh (a nominal district
I only)
2. Diwāniyeh
..
3. Kerbela
...


102
ADMINISTRATION
V. Basra—
Sanjaqs :
Kazas :
Amara
Tawarīj
1. Amara · · · Shatret el-Amāreh
Zobeir
Basra
2. Basra . . i . Fão
(Kurna
(Hai
Nāsirīyeh
3. Muntefiq · · · Shatret el-Muntefiq
(Sūq esh-Shuyūkh
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Every civil officer from the Vali down to the Mukhtar was assisted
by a civil administrative council, of which he was ex officio president,
composed in part of officials and in part of non-official members who
were selected by the local government from short lists of names sub-
mitted by the communities concerned. These councils had only
| advisory powers, and met about four times a year. The head-quarter
towns of sanjaqs and kazas were organized as municipalities, and
the affairs of each were supposed to be administered by a municipal
committee. These committees had no more powers than the adminis-
trative councils. Even the municipal committee of so large a city
as Baghdad, with at least 140,000 inhabitants, could not of itself
expend any sum larger than 200 gold piastres, or thirty-six shillings !
Naturally few signs of municipal activity were observable.
On paper the administrative scheme was admirable: the provinces
were of an easily manageable size, still more so the internal sections
and subsections of each province; the chain of authority and links of
responsibility were complete in every province from the provincial
chief to the headman of each village therein. The administrative
councils that should have enabled the administration to be in
close touch with local public opinion provided at least a semblance
of representative institutions. As a matter of fact the actual
system was bad, quite apart from the vital questions of the quality
and qualification of the administrative personnel for their work.
In size and population, the vilayets correspond to average 'dis-
tricts' in India; to place such relatively small units directly under
the Central Government was a characteristic piece of centralization
on the part of the Ottoman Government, and had all the evils
attendant on such a course. The Valis had no power of appointment








ADMINISTRATION
103
!
over their subordinates. The local councils and committees would,
with their limited or rather non-existent powers, have been nominis
umbrae in Europe, not to speak of the East. A host of spies pervaded
the provinces and reported direct to Constantinople. The Valis
had no concern with, and no power or control over, one-half
of the administrative machine, viz. the Departments of Public
Justice, of Land Records, Posts and Telegraphs, Religious Endow-
ments, Customs, Public Debt (which was virtually the Excise
Department), the Tobacco and Salt Monopolies, Public Instruction,
and Sanitary Service. These departments may be termed the
' Imperial' Departments, in contradistinction to the Provincial',
Departments which were in charge of the Valis and which are ;
specified below. The local chiefs of the Imperial Departments
received their orders direct from, and reported direct to, Constanti-
nople. Copies of such orders were sometimes sent to the Vali for his
information, and it was his duty to investigate complaints against
the proceedings of any department in his vilayet outside his
control-a wise provision, considering what Orientals are. Lastly,
in Baghdad the chief vilayet of no less than one-third of the
whole cultivated area was the private, personal property of the Sultan
(as will be explained below), which was managed by the Sultan
himself through his private staff. With this area the Vali would
naturally not think of interfering. To some extent the same
condition of things obtained in the province of Basra also, where
the Sultan owned a considerable private estate. A theoretically
good plan of administration was in practice paralysed.
PROVINCIAL DEPARTMENTS
The Vali of each vilayet was the head of the non-Imperial,
otherwise the Provincial, Departments, which were : (a) the gendar-
merie, (b) the civil police, (c) the revenue-collecting establishment
and department of general accounts. The Vali was also the
political representative of the Ottoman Government in his own
vilayet, and the conduct of all dealings with foreign consular
officers or foreign subjects, and with the semi-independent tribes
of the country (Arab or Kurd), was in his hands. He had no
authority over the troops of the regular army in his province, but he
could summon the military commander to take such steps as might
be necessary for the attainment of political or administrative ends..
Occasionally, for very special reasons, the same officer might be
invested with the highest civil and military authority in the same
vilayet, as was the case at Basra in 1906-7 ; but as a rule the late


104
ADMINISTRATION
Sultan had far too profound a mistrust of his officers to put muchy
power in their hands.
As regards the Provincial Departments, (a) the maintenance of
law and order throughout the country in times of peace depended
on the force which was officially given its modern name of the
gendarmerie, but is more familiar by its time-honoured appellation
of zaptiehs. Their organization was military, and the force was
under the control of a special section of the Turkish War Office ; but
it was distributed under the orders of the civil authorities as a mili.
tary police. The zaptiehs were half mounted and half infantry,
and were commanded in part by officers seconded from the regular
army, and apparently in somewhat larger part by civilians who held
i special commissions. The strength in each province varied with
local conditions ; in Baghdad there were supposed to be about 1,500
mounted and 1,000 unmounted zaptiehs ; in Basra 350 cavalry and
1 400 infantry. As a rule they were scattered up and down the
country in small detachments, and, besides their proper duties, were
employed on all kinds of miscellaneous work, such as collection of
revenue from the tribes, furnishing of garrisons for posts, domestic
duties in the establishments of civil officers, escorts for European
travellers, &c., &c. The men are described as not smart in appear-
ance, but as useful and hardy. Whether the actual corresponded
with the nominal strengths of each troop and battalion is doubtful.
Their pay was very often in arrears.
(6) In the larger centres of population and in places of administra-
tive importance there existed a purely civil police, whose authority,
however, did not extend to the surrounding villages or open country.
Its numbers were small, and, when they required men, the officers of
the civil police were entitled to make use of zaptiehs.
(c) The tax-collecting and revenue account departments were
relatively small in numbers, as the taxes of which they held charge
were mostly farmed, but they were lucrative posts. A brief state-
ment of the taxes with which they were concerned will not be out of
place here.
The tent and hut tax was collected, at the rate of 8s. 4d. (50 gold
piastres) per annum, wherever collection was feasible, from each
household of the agricultural population, both settled and semi-
nomad. Besides this household tax, a cess of 11d. (52 piastres)
was levied as a contribution towards educational and military expendi-
ture. These taxes were farmed.
The various taxes on domestic animals fell principally on the
nomad and semi-nomad tribes, and were farmed to the chiefs. Con-
sequently anything like a collection of the full amount was impos-








ADMINISTRATION
105
sible, especially as all reliable statistics on which to base recovery
were absolutely wanting. The chiefs collected what they could
squeeze out of their clansmen, but, on the other hand, screened
them against the Government. If a tribe was powerful, it practically
escaped payment of this tax altogether.
The land taxes, which were farmed, were mostly levied in kind,
and gave therefore naturally every opportunity for chicanery, bribery,
and evasion. Freehold lands were assessed to pay from one-tenth to
one-fifth of the gross produce, according to facility of irrigation ; excep-
tionally favoured lands paid up to one-third of the gross produce.
The rent charged for the use of State or Crown lands (see below) was
a matter of arrangement between the department concerned and the
tenant, and varied from one-tenth to even one-half of the gross produce.
Taxes on date and orange trees were levied in cash, 3d. (7 Rāij
piastres) per tree on the former and 1d. to 2d. (2-4 Rāij piastres) on
the latter.
The 'forests ’, from which a small revenue was derived, are mostly
ilantations of poplars and tamarisks on the Euphrates and Tigris.
The royalty on minerals varied from 5 to 15 per cent, ad valorem,
but was practically confined to the copper mines at Arghana in the
vilayet of Diarbekr. In the whole of Irak this tax produced only
about £180 a year. Municipal taxation consisted largely of octroi,
a lucrative impost for the collectors thereof, which may account
for the liberal number of municipalities. All local products paid
7 per cent. ad valorem on entering a town; there were also a number
of other taxes on local industries, trades, and handicrafts ; and all
these imposts, when not evaded, were further enhanced by the method
of affixing stamps to receipts given for them, these stamps having
to be supplied by the taxpayer, after the method mentioned in
connexion with the Customis.
In connexion with taxation generally it is a significant comment
on the system which obtained under the Turks that it has been
asserted by good and recent authority that in the vilayet of
Basra alone, which was comparatively well in hand and contained
a large settled population under the eye of the authorities, seven-
tenths of the people escaped scot free of all taxation, and paid nothing
whatever, except perhaps in bribes.
IMPERIAL DEPARTMENTS
Of the Imperial Departments there were three classes :
1. Public Justice.
2. Revenue Departments.
3. Departments relating to the convenience of the public.


106
ADMINISTRATION
1. Public Justice. There were four kinds of Courts : Ecclesi.
astical, Criminal, Civil, and Commercial.
Only questions arising under the law of the Koran were cognizable
by the Ecclesiastical Courts; the judges were Kazis, recognized and
paid by Government, one at the head-quarters of each Vilayet,
Sanjaq, and Kaza. Appeals lay from the lower to the higher Kazis,
and from the latter to the Sheikh el-Islam at Constantinople.
Authorized and officially recognized jurisconsults, or Muftis, existed
at the head-quarters of each Vilayet and Sanjaq, whose duties were
to resolve legal difficulties and give authoritative opinions under the
Shar' or holy law, especially in questions connected with inheritance
and marriage.
The Civil and Criminal Courts were divided into : Courts of the
First Instance, located at the head-quarters of each Vilayet, Sanjaq,
and Kaza; High Courts at the head-quarters of each province; and
the Supreme Court at Constantinople, which had only appellate juris-
diction. Each of these three tribunals had a civil and a criminal
side, the judges in each being distinct sets of individuals. The
language of the Courts was Turkish. The civil judges were all
Mohammedans; in Criminal Courts non-Mohammedans were included
in the Bench. Crime was divided into three categories : petty,
ordinary, and heinous. The Courts were assisted by a Public
Prosecutor and his subordinates. Courts of the First Instance dis-
posed of petty crime without appeal, except on a point of law.
Before charges of ordinary or heinous crime were tried, the accused
went before an Examining Magistrate, who, after investigation,
either discharged the accused or committed for trial-in the case of
ordinary crime to the Court of First Instance, in the case of heinous
offences to the High Court. In each instance an appeal lay from the
Court trying the case to the Court immediately superior to it. No
charge against a British subject could proceed except in the presence
of a British Consul, and no sentence on a British subject was valid
until concurred in by a British consular representative; differences
of opinion between a Court and a Consul were referred for settlement
at Constantinople by the British Ambassador and the Turkish
Minister of Justice.
Commercial Courts at the head-quarters of vilayets dealt with
mercantile suits, causes relating to bills of exchange and promissory
notes and matters of the kind, subject to appeal to the local High
Court on the civil side. The procedure of these Courts is stated to
have been based on the Code Napoléon. If a foreign subject was
a party to a suit in the Commercial Court, one or two assessors of the
same nationality as the foreign subject were added to the Court; the








ADMINISTRATION
107
proceedings were watched by a representative of the foreigner's con-
sulate, and an appeal lay to the Chief Commercial Court at Con-
stantinople. Such was the scheme of justice, good on paper but
incurably vicious in practice by reason of interminable delays and
gross corruption.
2. Imperial Departments of Revenue. These were the Customs,
Public Debt, Tobacco and Salt Monopolies, and Land Records.
Customs was one of the most important revenue agencies, pro-
ducing more in Baghdad and Basra than even the land taxes. The
Department was under a Director-General at Baghdad, who dealt
direct with Constantinople, and had a deputy with his establishment
at Baghdad and at Basra ; officials of lower rank and clerks were
stationed at Khanikin, Qizil Ribat, Mandali, and Bedrah on the
Persian frontier, at Nashweh and Kurna on the Shatt el-'Arab, at
Sūq esh-Shuyūkh on the Euphrates, and on the Tigris at Qal'at
Sālih, Amara, Kut el-Amara, Suweira, and Kazimain. By agree-
ment with the Powers, the import duties were, in 1907, raised to
11 per cent. ad valorem. The export duty was 1 per cent. ad valorem,
and a refund of 10 per cent. ad valorem was permitted on goods
exported within six months of importation. Without an agreement
with the Powers, these duties were enhanced from time to time by
the ingenious device of requiring various stamps of different and
varying denominations to be affixed to documents presented to the
Customs House. Some of these stamps were ostensibly earmarked
for the cost of the Hejaz Railway, others were simply revenue stamps.
In some cases this imposition entailed as much as 50 per cent.
additional on the customs duty proper. That the administration of
the customs was highly corrupt goes without saying. It is reported
that at Basra the export trade evaded taxation altogether. The
import duties actually paid are said to have averaged not more
than 6 per cent., including duty, bribe, and porterage, instead of
11 per cent.
The Department of Public Debt existed for the benefit of the
European bondholders of the Ottoman Government, and was subject
to international control. It was represented by superintendents
at provincial head-quarters, with assistants at all more important
places, and travelling inspectors. The principal sources of revenue
made over to the Public Debt for management were fisheries,
liquor, salt, silk, and stamps : it was practically an Excise Depart-
ment.
The Tobacco Monopoly was in the hands of a company known
briefly as the Régie which held the lease or farm of the manufacture,
collection of duty, and sale of tobacco throughout the Turkish


108
ADMINISTRATION
Empire. Its offices were at the head-quarters of the vilayets, with
branches at the principal centres of tobacco cultivation. The duty
appears to have been 1s. 3d. per 21 lb. (78 gold piastres per kilo-
gramme) of superior quality, and 7d. (3.9 gold piastres) per the same
weight of inferior quality of tobacco. Persian tobacco, which is
largely imported for smoking in 'narghilehs', paid an import duty
of 6d. per 21 lb. (3 gold piastres per kilogramme).
The Land Records Department dealt with all lands and buildings,
except the private property of the Sultan, to which reference is
made below.
There are five kinds of landed property : the first is ‘mulk', which
corresponds to our freehold and passes by inheritance, gift, exchange,
or will; it escheats only on the failure of heirs.
The second is 'mīrī'or Crown lands, not to be confounded with
the Sultan's own estates. Such land consists chiefly of pastures and
forests, with some arable land.
The third is waqf' or lands assigned in religious endowments.
Such as were under the Department of Religious Endowments were
free from taxation, but those in the hands of private individuals paid
land tax like non-waqf lands. The large landed properties, however,
which are in the hands of the Naqib of Baghdad have been specially
exempted from taxation by an Imperial order, and may therefore
be classified as 'waqf'.
The fourth is ‘matrūkah' or lands left unoccupied for the public
benefit.
The fifth and last is 'mawāt’ or dead lands which have remained
unoccupied and uncultivated from time immemorial.
The Department of Land Records, of which the offices were at
Baghdad, Mosul, and Diarbekr, was divided into two sections: the first,
or • Tapu', registered all transactions in, and arrangements relating
to, the ownership of land generally, and managed the second class of
landed property, viz. the Crown lands. These were mostly let
to tenants whose tenure was undisturbed provided they paid
the rent or did not discontinue cultivation for more than three
years. The second or ‘Amlak' section of the department dealt
with similar matters relating to buildings. Both sections levied
fees.
3. The Departments relating to the convenience of the public were:
Posts and Telegraphs, Public Health, Religious Endowments, Public
Instruction.
The first two of these are dealt with in other chapters. The
Department of Religious Endowments was represented by accoun-
tants at the provincial head-quarters. In the Baghdad province
TU.








ADMINISTRATION
109
it had much to do in superintending the finances of the great
Shiah shrines at Kerbela, Nejef, Kazimain, and Samarra. Public
Instruction was provided by a system of primary schools at the
head-quarters of every Sanjaq and Kaza, with secondary schools at
provincial head-quarters; there were also industrial schools at Bagh-
dad and Basra. Education at the primary and secondary schools
was free. State schools were largely supplemented by a denomi-
national school system, supported by the various religious bodies ;
thus in Mosul there were 16 Christian schools, at Kerbela the
Shiahs have a number of religious high schools, and in Baghdad the
Jewish, Syrian, Chaldaean, and Armenian communities each maintain
a good school of their own.
THE DĀʻiraT ES-SANĪYEH
In conclusion, the private estate of the late Sultan claims a para-
graph of its own, on account of the intrinsic importance of the
subject, and because the circumstances in connexion with the estate
throw an instructive light upon one at least of the causes which led
to the deposition of Sultan Abdul Hamid Khān in 1909. The best !
authorities agree in estimating that some years before the Sultan
was deposed, the cultivable area of the Baghdad vilayet was held
as follows: one-third by the Sultan personally, one-third by the
State, half of the remainder or one-sixth by private individuals,
and one-sixth was unclassed. In other vilayets also large areas
had been acquired by the Sultan : in the Basra vilayet he became
the owner of some of the finest wheat, rice, and date-growing tracts.
The 'acquisition of such an estate, from private owners as well
as from State or public property, was probably too much even for
Turks to view with complaisance.
This private estate belonging to the Sultan was known as the
Dāʻirat es-Sanīyeh, and was administered by a central committee
which sat at Baghdad, and corresponded direct with the Minister of
the Civil List at Constantinople. It consisted of two branches, one
dealing with lands and irrigation, and the other with the navigation
section of the Saniyeh. Its lands in the Baghdad and Basra vilayets
fell into four groups, according as they relied for irrigation on
the Euphrates, the Shatt el-Gharāf, the Tigris, and the Shatt el-'Arab
respectively. In addition to these, there were Sanīyeh lands in the
valley of the Diyāleh, and even at Khanikin, close to the Persian
border. - On the Tigris the Sanīyeh had acquired the whole Dujeil
canal and the areas watered by it. Below Baghdad the valuable
estate of Shādi in the Kaza of Azīziyeh was held by the Sanīyeh ;


110
ADMINISTRATION
also lands along the right bank of the river from Tawl to Umm el-
Ajāj, and on the left bank from Samr to Imām Mahdi, in each case
up to 20 miles inland from the river. The right bank of the Tigris,
together with the country behind it to a depth, it is said, of about
40 miles, from the point where the Shatt el-Gharāf leaves it as far as
Sheikh Sa'ad, belonged to the Sanīyeh. From Kumeit to the
Bitaireh canal the Sanīyeh estate occupied the right bank and
extended inland some 30 miles. On the left bank the Sanīyeh
extended almost continuously from Amara to a point opposite
Azair, and inland almost to the Hawīzeh marshes. A quantity of
land in the Muntefiq Sanjaq, irrigated by the Shatt el-Gharāf, was
Sanīyeh. The Sanīyeh properties irrigated by the Euphrates were
large and numerous, above and below Museyib; near Hilla, the
Hamidiyeh canal was Sanīyeh property in the Shāmiyeh Kaza ; and
it owned extensive domains on the right bank of the Shatt el-Arab.
In the neighbourhood of Mosul also the Sultan possessed large
chifiliks (the word for these estates in the northern parts of the
empire). Enough has been said to show the extent and value of
the Sanīyeh landed estate.
! The navigation branch of the Sanīyeh came into being in 1904,
when it 'acquired'the whole stock and assets of the Oman Otto-
man' branch of the Turkish Ministry of Marine, viz. three river
steamers, barges, workshops, a dry dock at Basra, and offices and
warehouses at Baghdad, Kut el-Amara, Amara, and Basra. It is
on record that less than 10 per cent. of the market value of the office
buildings was paid by the Sanīyeh to the State. In 1905 the
Sanīyeh bought two more steamers which were added to its fleet.
Its competition with the private companies interested in Tigris
navigation was close, and it of course monopolized all Govern-
ment traffic, such as the transport of troops, military stores, &c.
A striking feature of the administration of the Sanīyeh was the
fact that on its large executive staff there were a number of military
officers who were borrowed from the State, receiving a departmental
allowance in addition to their military pay.
It has been claimed for the Sanīyeh that its policy in managing
the Sultan's property was one of enlightened self-interest, which is
very probable ; its relations with its tenants were generally good,
and it endeavoured to give satisfaction on its navigation side to
traders and travellers. It has also been claimed that the intelligent
and energetic policy of the Sanīyeh set a good example to the
rather apathetic public of Mesopotamia, stimulating them to
follow the lead of the Sanīyeh in the management of their private
properties and affairs : this seems less probable, seeing that good,








ADMINISTRATION
111
fertile, and well-managed estates were pretty sure, sooner or later,
to be acquired by the Saniyeh.
Since the Revolution of 1908, the influence of the Dā'irat es: 1
Sanīyeh has considerably declined.
1 The Young Turks, after dethroning the ex-Sultan Abdul Hamid in 1909,
transferred from the Civil List to the Ministry of Finance all the properties in
Mesopotamia which had belonged to the Dā'irat es-Sanīyeh. The management
and revenues were taken over by the State, while a fixed Civil List and stipends
were allocated to the Sultan and the Imperial Princes. The ex-Sultan had
spent the revenues of the Sanīyeh on payments to Sheikhs in all parts of the
world for Panislamic purposes and on gratifications to State functionaries and
others with a view to maintaining and enhancing the prestige of the Sultanate.
The Young Turks devoted them mainly to analogous purposes in the interests of
their Committee of Union and Progress.


CHAPTER X
IRRIGATION OF IRAK
IRRIGATION UNDER THE CALIPHATE
A NOTICEABLE feature of Irak is the large number of old canal-beds
which traverse the plains in all directions. The largest of these have
banks rising 20-30 feet above the plain, which, owing to the mirage,
often have the appearance of lines of low hills when seen from a dis.
tance. The beds of these canals are often 20-30 yards wide, and
are usually above the level of the surrounding plain. Though many
canals of which the remains exist date from very early times, most
of them carried water in the period of the Caliphate (8th-13th cen-
turies A. D.), and an account of the irrigation system of Irak as it
then existed is given below.
Centres of Cultivation ; Course of the Tigris and Euphrates
Each of the dynasties which ruled in Irak (Babylonia) signalized
its period of power by the construction of irrigation works, of
which the remains exist to this day, in the particular region where
its strength was established. At first in the lower reaches of the
two rivers, between Nippur and Ur of the Chaldees, then in the
tract between Sippara and Babylon, in the Parthian and Sassanid
times at Seleucia-Ctesiphon and the country thereabouts, lastly,
with the Arab conquest, to the Delta and Baghdad, the centre of
cultivation veered and shifted in a manner not easily susceptible of
analysis. Oriental powers, of course, generally prefer to build upon
fresh foundations rather than the ruins of their predecessors. Still,
the changes here described were much less the result of caprice
than of necessity, induced by the altered physical conditions in
Irak itself. At the time of the Arab conquest, the middle of the
seventh century, Ctesiphon was the chief city of the province
and the winter capital of the Sassanian kings. But the Arabs
required centres for their own people, as well as head-quarters for
their armies, so the three cities of Wasit, Kūfeh, and Basra sprang
into being and rapidly grew to be the chief towns of the new








IRRIGATION OF IRAK
113
Moslem province. Later, when the Abbasids supplanted the Omay-
yads, fresh changes ensued, and the twin capitals of Irak-Kūfeh and
Basra-gave place to Baghdad. The decay of irrigation in Meso-
potamia has its immediate cause in the vagaries of the Tigris and
Euphrates and the consequent ruin of the numerous irrigation
channels. To-day the Tigris, following a winding course SE., is
joined at a point 250 miles below Baghdad by the waters of the
Euphrates at Kurna. In early Moslem times, and probably as late as
the middle of the sixteenth century, this was not the case. The
Tigris, 100 miles from Baghdad, turned S. from its present bed
at Kut el-Amara and flowed along the Shatt el-Hai past Wasit,
expending most of its waters by the way in irrigation channels,
into the Great Swamp. At its NW. end the swamp receives the
waters of the Euphrates a few miles to the S. of Kūfeh : for the main
channel of the Euphrates was in those days the Kūfeh arm of the
river, that which flows by Hilla being then only a great irrigation
canal called the Nahr Sura.
The Great Swamp
The Great Swamp covered an area 50 miles broad by 200 in
length and extended from Kūfeh to Basra. Its origin, according
to the historian Baladuri, dates as far back as the reign of
Kubadh I, the Sassanian king of the fifth century A.D., when
the dykes along the Tigris burst and the river flooded all the
low-lying land to the S. and SW. There were partial repairs
under Nushirvan the Just, but about A.D. 629 the waters rose again
in a flood which surpassed all previous records and laid the sur-
rounding country once more under water. These inundations have
been already dealt with in their political connexion on pp. 57, 58.
The swamps thus formed became permanent, for during the
succeeding years of anarchy, when the Moslem armies overran
Mesopotamia and the Sassanian monarchy tottered to its fall,
the dykes remained untended and the marsh lands spread. But
it was in no sense a region of dearth or distress. Its whole area
was dotted with towns and villages, each situated on its own
canal, round and about the great city of Wasit; the reed-beds
harboured immense quantities of fish, which were salted and
despatched in all directions; great barges or light-draft wherries
drove a busy trade along the waterways and lagoons; while the
soil, where it could be drained and cultivated, yields an abundant
harvest. The Tigris itself flowed out into the swamp by five
navigable waterways. Thence from Katr eastward the channel led
MES. I.
Н


114
IRRIGATION OF IRAK
through a succession of open lagoons to the Abul Asad canal, by
which the waters of the swamp drained into the Shatt el-'Arab at
Basra, through communication with the sea being thus established.
A more momentous change in the physical aspect of a country can
scarcely be conceived than this, which occurred in Irak with the
shifting of the Tigris from its eastern channel to the Shatt el-Hai.
But it was not less remarkable than the return, nearly a thousand
years later, to its present course. All this time the country
bordering the older course remained a desert, just such a desert
as the Great Swamp itself now consists of. This return to the
older course was doubtless gradual and due to the silting up of the
western arm : the date is uncertain, though it cannot have occurred
much earlier than the fifteenth century. But dates in this connexion
are of no great importance: what signifies is the actual existence
of the Great Swamp, its effect on the courses of the Tigris and
Euphrates, its vital bearing on the history and development of
Lower Mesopotamia all through the caliphate.
Ancient Canals of the Tigris
The system of canalization inherited by the Arab conquerors
of Mesopotamia is the key to a proper understanding of the
situation in Irak during the caliphate, for the natural fertility
of the country could never have been exploited as it was without
the strictest economy in the use of the water-supply. All Irak
N. of the swamp between the two rivers was traversed by a
succession of canals like the bars of a gridiron which drained into
the Tigris: while E. of the Tigris a canal, 200 miles long, the
Nahrawān, starting from below Tekrit and re-entering the river
50 miles N. of Wasit, fertilized the country as far as the Persian
foothills with the surplus waters of the Tigris and the overflow of
the mountain streams from Kurdistan. Yet other canals took off
from the Tigris in the vicinity of Samarra, the Abbasid capital from
836-92, once the rival of Baghdad in the grandeur of its buildings
and pleasure grounds. Here, too, the Tigris would appear to have
changed its course, for at least one author speaks in A.D. 1300 of
the present channel as the 'lesser stream', and it is chronicled by
the caliph Mustansir (A. D. 1226–42) that he dug many canals to
irrigate the lands left dry by the shifting of the main stream.
Moreover, it must be remembered that the Tigris once received,
in the waters of the Tharthar, a notable contribution to its volume,
which exists no longer. This stream, perhaps as recently as the
Mustansierta dry by the shift the Tigris








IRRIGATION OF IRAK
115
thirteenth century, carried part of the Khabūr into the Tigris at
Tekrit, and was actually navigable by boats, though now no river exists
at all. N. of Tekrit few irrigation works worthy the name existed
in antiquity. River water was of course employed from the earliest
times throughout Jezīreh to assist cultivation, but no schemes
comparable with the system of canalization in Irak ever seem to
have been attempted, except perhaps at Mosul, where there are
signs of a very ancient barrage.
Of the Tigris system in Irak the following brief summary will
suffice:
i. The Nahrawān.-The great Nahrawān canal was designed to
intercept the Adheim and other torrents from the Persian hills,
and so eminent an authority as Sir W. Willcocks has pronounced
it to be an engineering work as bold in its conception as any of the
ancient canals in Egypt. It was destroyed by a change in the course
of the Tigris, which swept part of the head entirely away ; but
before this, in the thirteenth century, the lower portion had already
ceased to be of service. In its palmy days, however, the Nahrawān
irrigated all the lands E. of the Tigris from above Samarra to about
100 miles S. of Baghdad. Connexion was maintained with the
Tigris by three canals S. of Samarra, the three lesser Katuls, which
irrigated the fertile district S. of that city. Similarly, between
Baghdad and Nahrawān town three branches—the Khālis, Nahr Bin,
and Diyāleh River-flowed back to the Tigris after watering the
district E. of Baghdad. The Nahrawān itself probably joined the
Tigris somewhere in the vicinity of Kut el-Amara.
ii. The Dujeil.-The Dujeil canal originally connected the Euphrates
and Tigris and watered the rich district of Maskin, NW. of Baghdad.
But by the tenth century its western portion silted up, and a new
channel was excavated below Kadisiyeh to clear its eastern and
lower course. The Dujeil region, with Harbeh for its chief town, is
described as having been one of amazing fertility.
iii. The Samarra Canals.- Three of the Samarra canals, the Katuls,
have already been mentioned. There remains the Ishaki channel,
which took off some miles N. of Samarra from the right bank of the
Tigris and rejoined the river below the town opposite Matireh.
The Euphrates Canals
The Euphrates system, considered from N. to S., may be said
to begin with the Nahr Isa, the first of four great canals which
connected the Euphrates and Tigris in the vicinity of Baghdad.
At its head lay the city of Anbar, where the first Abbasid caliph
lived and died. The canal itself was the work of an Abbasid
H 2


116
IRRIGATION OF IRAK
prince Isa, who made it navigable as far as Baghdad. At the
point where it flowed into the Tigris, the caliph Mansür built, in
A.D. 762, the Round City, which became the nucleus of Baghdad.
Next in order came the Nahr Sarsar, passing S. of Baghdad, and
also navigable for boats. The third was the Nahr el-Malik, which
began at Fellajeh and flowed into the Tigris about 9 miles below
Madain. The district served by this canal numbered 300 villages,
famous for their cornlands and palm-groves. Last came the Nahr
Kutha, named, according to Moslem tradition, after no less a per-
sonage than the grandfather of the patriarch Abraham, and situated
about 9 miles S. of the Nahr el-Malik.
Bifurcation of the Euphrates
In the tenth century the river Euphrates bifurcated at a point
some 18 miles below the head of the Kutha canal. Both branches
poured their waters into the Great Swamp, the western or main
channel by way of Kūfeh, the eastern, called by Arab geographers
the Nahr Sura, past the ancient city of Hilla. The Sura branch,
unlike the other, broke up into several channels. Its impor.
tance, moreover, seems to have increased after the tenth century,
so that by the twelfth it was regarded as the main Euphrates
river, as it was to the end of the nineteenth. Above Bābil
the last of the many canals traversing the space between the
two rivers took off from it. This waterway, which still exists as
the Shatt en-Nīl, though known in antiquity as the Great Surat,
flowed eastward past the city of Níl and finally sought the Tigris by
two outlets—the canals called Upper and Lower Zāb--at Namaniyeh
and Nahr Zabus. Further down, at Hilla, the Sura itself bifurcated,
the right arm continuing S. past the city, while the left arm, called
the Nahr en-Nars, turned SE. to Hammān Omar and Niffür, where
it mingled its waters with the Badat canal--this latter being a long
drainage channel from the Kūfeh branch, which traversed the N.
limit of the Great Swamp and discharged itself finally at Niffür
after receiving on its left bank both the Lower Sura and Nars canals.
Canals of the Shatt el- Arab
The Shatt el-'Arab began in ancient times at the exit of the
Abu'l Asad canal, being variously known as the Blind Tigris (Diqlah-
el-Awra) or estuary (Fayd) of Basra. This great commercial port
lay some 12 miles W. of the river, with which it was connected
by two navigable canals : from the NE. came shipping from Baghdad
by the Nahr Ma'qil, while SE. by the Nahr el-Ubulleh sea-borne traffic








IRRIGATION OF IRAK
117
passed to the Persian Gulf at 'Abbādān. Numerous smaller chan.
nels drained the waters of the Great Swamp N. and S. of Basra, or
irrigated the vicinity of the city, of which the pasture lands, gardens,
and palm-groves enjoyed a fame equalled by few cities in Irak. It
is worthy of note that the Kārūn River did not always flow into
the Shatt el-'Arab as it does now, but possessed an outlet of its own
into the Gulf at Suleimanan, while at the site now occupied by
Mohammareh, a broad artificial channel, the Nahr Bayan, joined the
two estuaries. Other important channels, such as the Fayyan, E. of
the Tigris, helped to fertilize this favoured region.
MODERN IRRIGATION
Historical records testify to the success achieved by the ancient
inhabitants of Mesopotamia in this complex business of irrigation.
Herodotus describes the country as studded with a vast number of
great cities': Pliny and Berosus are eloquent upon its agricultural
wealth, while Ammianus states that the space between the point
reached by Julian's army and the shores of the Persian Gulf was
filled with one continuous forest of verdure. It remains to see
how far the present rulers of Mesopotamia have fulfilled their trust.
From Beled downwards the greater part of the country consists at
first of nothing but bare plains of clay, ridged and furrowed with
the silt banks of countless canals, showing the struggle for existence
in which the cultivators must have found themselves involved,
when dams were carried away and the water-level fell. Stretches
of level country alternate with low sand-drifts, destitute for the
most part of vegetation save for leguminous thorn-bushes or jungles
of liquorice near the rivers, with occasional belts of poplar or
willow. Further S. salt lands and marshes increase, but of cultiva-
tion or date-palms hardly a vestige, except here and there by rivers
or canals. Only along the lower reaches of the Euphrates and the
Shatt el-'Arab are there any appearances of prosperity. The general
impression is one of blight, failure, and neglect.
Irrigation from the Tigris
Being less constant in its flow, and running in a deeper bed
than the Euphrates, the Tigris is probably inferior for the purposes
of irrigation to its sister stream. Even so, there is no essential
reason for the wretched conditions now obtaining over most of
the country, which nature intended it to fertilize. N. of Baghdad
the plains of the Diyāleh are well irrigated by the Khālis, Khorāsān,
and Beled-Ruz canals ; only good regulating heads, bridges, and drains


118
IRRIGATION OF IRAK
are needed to restore it in full. On the W. side of the river the
old Dujeil, reduced from a width of 40 yards to 3, has been
brought into service on a small scale by the Dā'irat es-Saniyeh (as
regards the functions of this body see pp. 109 ff.). Of the Nahrawān
not even as much as this can be reported. In fact, above Kumeit,
with the exceptions above recorded, there is no modern irrigation
worth the name, and what exists below is wasteful and inefficient.
The Bitaireh canal, on the right bank, a few miles above Amara, and
the Jahāleh on the left, are said between them to carry off nearly half
the supply of the river, but most of it only goes to form swamps.
From Amara to Qalʼat Salih many short canals take off from both
banks, some of them being Dā'irat es-Sanīyeh property. Then come
the marshes, and below the marshes canals only exist to carry
back the overflow from the swamps to the river. Something might
have been done to relieve waterlogging in this tract if canal heads
had been reconstructed, but the Turkish Government was either
too apathetic or feared too much a conflict with local tribesmen
to undertake such experiments.
Irrigation from the Euphrates
As in antiquity so in modern times, irrigation from the Euphrates
is mostly confined to the country between Fellūjeh and Diwāniyeh.
With its broad, shallow stream and sluggish current this river
had advantages over the Tigris as a source of perennial irrigation
which were exploited to the full in the past. The supply of
water is also more constant, in fact the Euphrates possesses only
one serious defect in this respect, the weakness of its left bank
in the region W. of Baghdad, which has resulted in destructive
floods extending sometimes as far as the Tigris. So that, although
the area now irrigated is probably not a hundredth part of that
formerly supplied, conditions on the Euphrates are at any rate
less deplorable than those obtaining on the Tigris. The existing
canals are briefly as follows: Saqlāwiyeh, ‘Abu Ghoreib, Radwaniyeh,
Mahmūdiyeh, Latīfiyeh, Iskandariyeh, Museyib, Nāsirīyeh, Mahāwil,
Khātūniyeh, Nīl, Wardiyeh, Huseiniyeh, and Dighāreh. Of these
the Saqlăwiyeh, 8 miles N. of Fellūjeh, is now blocked by wheat
fields, in view of the assistance it afforded to floods making in the
direction of Baghdad ; the Huseiniyeh, which takes off from the
right bank at Museyib, is important as supplying Kerbela 18 miles
away ; while the Dighāreh, with its head on the left bank 35 miles
below Hilla, after feeding a number of villages apparently returns
to the Euphrates under the name of Shatt el-Khār a good deal lower








IRRIGATION OF IRAK
119
down. The aggregate discharge of the other canals at low water does
not exceed 564 cubic feet per second. In flood the total discharge
may rise to 7,000 feet per second, but this would cause inundations.
Precautions against flood are inadequate, and the rate of clearance is
not abreast of silt deposit, so that even this modest performance
is not being kept up. Nearly all these canals belong to the Dā'irat
es-Saniyeh.
The Shatt el-Hindiyeh and Hilla Branches
The great waterway known as the Shatt el-Hindiyeh was ori-
ginally nothing more than a canal. Its conversion, partly by
nature and partly by art, into the main bed of the river is an
extremely interesting historical and hydrographical fact. Until
the nineteenth century the Hilla branch undoubtedly carried the
main stream, and its supersession by the Shatt el-Hindiyeh cannot
have begun much before 1865. The chief factor was probably a
gradual rise in the river-bed above Hilla through silt deposit:
this, coupled with certain favourable physical features in the upper-
most reaches of the Hindiyeh-their straightness, for instance-
diverted the bulk of the river to the Shatt el-Hindiyeh, which was
thus restored to its functions of 1,000 years ago and became once
more the Euphrates. A barrage was constructed by the Turkish
Government in 1890. Its object was twofold: to preserve from inunda-
tion and consequent ruin the Hindiyeh country, now submerged,
and to revive the Hilla channels, largely deprived for the time
being of their accustomed supply. But this barrage gave way in
1903, and the last state of affairs was worse than the first, for the
whole Euphrates, and not the greater part only, poured down
the Hindiyeh, while the Hilla branch dried up altogether. Pro-
tective measures, which it will be necessary to describe in some
detail, were required and taken without delay. Meanwhile the lower
course of the Shatt el-Hindiyeh calls for brief notice. From Tawarīj
to Kūfeh it is well defined, with firm banks and a fair amount of
cultivation. 15 miles below Kūfeh it passes through the Bahr-i-
Nejef, a shallow lake 21 miles broad. At Shināfiyeh it issues from
the Bahr-i-Nejef by the Atshan channel and finally joins the
Euphrates 5 miles above Samāweh. Exact information is naturally
wanting as to the precise quantity and quality of irrigation dependent
on the Shatt el-Hindiyeh, but it would appear to be both extensive and
successful. The date palms on the Tawarīj-Kifl section are estimated
at 400,000, those on the Kūfeh reach at 170,000. Rice has been driven
down-stream by the barrage works, but cereals have taken its place
with advantage to all concerned. Speaking generally, the country on


120
IRRIGATION OF IRAK
both banks is well cultivated, and only liable to inundation when the
stream rises above its normal level. More detailed information
about the Shatt el-Hindiyeh is contained in vol. ii, Route IV C,
Samāweh to Museyib.
The New Hindiyeh Barra, e
To return to the Hindiyeh-Hilla question : the course finally
approved by the Turkish Government was to depute Sir W.
Willcocks to devise means generally for reinstating the irrigation
of Mesopotamia. Sir W. Willcocks issued his final report in 1910,
making the construction of a new barrage near Museyib one of his
main proposals. It was not the first in importance, but the state
of the Hilla branch made it the first in order of urgency, since
the execution of the project could no longer be postponed. Sir
William had already taken temporary steps to close the breach
in the old barrage ; but these works only shared the fate of their
predecessors, and there was nothing for it but to build de novo.
The wisdom of the older engineers was indicated by the fact that
the site of the new barrage lies only 1 mile up-stream of the old.
In February, 1911, its construction was entrusted, to the firm of
Sir John Jackson, Ltd. : by the end of 1913 it was completed,
the rapidity with which the undertaking was dealt with being little
short of marvellous, when the scope of the operations is fully
realized—the construction of a barrage across a diversion of the river
Euphrates, damming of the original channel, its diversion for a length
of 5,000 ft., erection of a head regulator for the Hilla branch, and
cutting of a new channel to convey water from the river to a point
below the silted area. The barrage itself consists of 36 openings,
each 16 ft. 5 in. wide, surmounted by brick arches on piers 23 ft. in
height, and containing in each arch two sluice gates 15 ft. broad x 62 ft.
high. Above the arches there is a gangway, 12 ft. wide, extending
across the entire width of the barrage. The Hilla regulator is
similar in appearance to the main barrage, except that it has only
six openings, each 9 ft. 10 in. wide, the details of construction being
otherwise similar to the main barrage. The effect of the whole
scheme will be to raise the ordinary summer level of the river some
16 ft. 6 in., which will permit of an ample supply being diverted
into the Hilla channel. The exigencies of navigation have at
the same time been kept in view, the main barrage being provided
with a lock, while the Hilla regulator has also a navigable opening,
the width being in each case 26 ft. 3 in.; and further, as a part of
the contract, Sir John Jackson, Ltd., have cleared the Hilla channel
of silt for 50 miles and excavated a connexion with this channel








IRRIGATION OF IRAK
121
with a bottom width of 114 ft. As a supplement to the barrage
works this firm has also been engaged upon the construction of
an escape at Habbaniyeh. For most of the year the river carries
a head of water at best inadequate to the needs of irrigation, having
regard to silt deposit and the demolition of barrages; at times, how-
ever, inundations occur, which in the past have converted whole
districts into swamps. Just as the barrage will remedy shortage in
supply, so the Habbaniyeh escape is expected to eliminate, or at least
greatly reduce, the risks from inundation. There can be little doubt
that, given efficient regulation of the headwater and attention to
silt clearance, the land that was anciently Babylonia has before
her an era of prosperity equal to, if not exceeding, that in her past.
Irrigation on the Shatt el-'Arab
As a natural irrigation canal and fertilizer of a date-growing
country, probably the most extensive and prolific in the world, the
Shatt el-'Arab has an importance not inferior to that which it pos-
sesses as an artery of travel and commerce. Below Mohammareh the
river is rich in silt, contributed chiefly by the Kārūn: even in the
higher reaches its fertility is considered by Sir W. Willcocks to
depend largely on the admixture of mud from the Kārūn carried
up-stream by tidal action. Be that as it may, no part of Mesopo-
tamia so nearly recalls its splendid past as the area commanded by
the Shatt el-'Arab. Everywhere the banks are low, indeed, at certain
points—as in Holland-high tides have to be kept out by means of
dykes. The plantations can therefore be very readily irrigated,
since the sea tides force fresh river water twice a day up all the
creeks and distributaries to within 2 ft. of the ground level. Between
Basra and Mohammareh date-groves are continuous to a depth inland
of 1-2 miles. The number of trees in Turkish territory is esti-
mated at 1,900,000. Below Mohammareh the belt of palms is nearly
as continuous, though less dense and unbroken, the number being
approximately 250,000.
Future of Irrigation in Mesopotamia
There is a great difference between the irrigation system of the
Nile and that of the Tigris and Euphrates. In Egypt the Nile
water, received into its historic basins at the flood between August
and October, can be utilized to some extent, and when necessary
discharged into the falling river in November. No such system
is possible in Mesopotamia. The floods of March, April, and May


122
IRRIGATION OF IRAK
are succeeded by the rainless months of June, July, and August,
when no crop can be brought to maturity save by artificial means.
In the case of Mesopotamia one must seek analogies in India, the
classic home of perennial canals, rather than in Egypt. One may
proceed to consider the relative capacities of the Tigris and
Euphrates to meet the demands which might be made upon them.
MEAN DAILY DISCHARGE OF THE TIGRIS AND EUPHRATES
TIGRIS.
EUPHRATES.
TOTAL.
Month.
Thousands of cubic ft.
per second.
Thousands of cubic ft.
per second.
Thousands of cubic ft.
per second.
January
16
18
33
February
49
35
85
March
62
106
April
106
97
203
May
97
June
62
62
July
35
35
August
19
September
14
16
October
11
14
November
:
14
19
December
16
18
33
Year
39
As regards levels both are most happily placed. The Euphrates
can be made to irrigate the whole area capable of irrigation between
Fellūjeh and Kut, together with the Hilla and Hindiyeh branches
throughout their entire lengths. The Tigris, on the other hand, is
capable of irrigating much of the country N. of Baghdad, as well as








IRRIGATION OF IRAK
123
the lands commanded by the Shatt el. Hai (or ancient Tigris) and its
present course beyond Amara. Despite discrepancies, to which allusion
has already been made, the two rivers have much in common : the
average gradient is the same (about 1 in 13,000); the average velocity
is the same; the diagram of periodic increase and decrease is approxi.
mately the same. But the rise of the Tigris in flood is greater than
the Euphrates, and may amount at Baghdad to 10 ft. and more.
Floods in the Tigris ordinarily arrive a week in advance of the same
event in the Euphrates, and the level of the Tigris has been known to
rise by 12 ft. in a single day. The liability of all Mesopotamian rivers
to sudden inundations is a factor of which irrigation engineers must
take careful account. The remedy lies in barrages, embankment
at critical points, and the provision of escape areas. But when all
is said, the possibilities of the country are wellnigh infinite. As
regards capacity and discharges the table opposite well illustrates
the immense volume of water available at all times of the year.
The soil lends itself very readily to reclamation, while the relics
of bygone ages attest achievements which can undoubtedly be
repeated.
The following is a brief analysis of Sir W. Willcocks' schemes.
They embrace the country as a whole : they were conceived upon
a scale which may appear to be prohibitive at first, since the total
estimate of cost amounts to £15,000,000 ; but they nevertheless
represent the considered opinion of an expert personally familiar
with every feature requiring to be taken into consideration :
i. Provision for excessive floods on the Tigris and Euphrates : by
escapes, with regulators, into depressions such as the Habbaniyeh
(see p. 121 above), and strong embankments : closing of existing
breaches.
ii. Barrage on the Euphrates at Fellūjeh-without this, perennial
irrigation will be impossible : whereas by its means conditions
similar to those obtaining in former days (for which see pp. 114 ff.
above) could easily be created.
iii. Provision of drainages and afforestation-wherever natural
depressions occur.
iv. Conservation of navigation on the Tigris—at least until com-
munication by railway is available, Baghdad and Basra being at
present not otherwise connected.
v. Kut Barrage on the Tigris--mainly for the purpose of restoring
the old Shatt el-Hai as a source of perennial irrigation ; its prosperity
under the Caliphs has already been described.
vi. Basra project-reclamation of swamps at the confluence of the
Tigris and Euphrates.


124
IRRIGATION OF IRAK
vii. Hindiyeh Barrage--already an accomplished fact. See above,
p. 120.
viii. Barrage at Beled-for the reclamation lands extending from
Beled to Baghdad.
ix. Restoration to service of the Nahrawān Canal-probably best
achieved by leading the waters of the Diyāleh into the old Nahrawan
channel.
The approximate positions of the areas in Mesopotamia which
could be irrigated are shown in Map 3.








CHAPTER XI
AGRICULTURE
SOIL
General Characteristics.--The general character of the soils from
both the Tigris and Euphrates valleys is that of a light calcareous
loam, remarkably free, even in its natural state, from sterilizing salts.
This is especially true of a large tract E. of Baghdad and the country
between the Tigris and Euphrates in the same latitude. Near the
Euphrates, however, saline efflorescence is to be observed in places ;
and below Kut el-Amara on the Tigris and Diwāniyeh on the
Euphrates, the proportion of sand is said to be excessive, except in
the marshes. This admixture of sand is probably due to the sand
blown in by sand-storms from the Arabian desert, which form, as
has been elsewhere observed, a regular feature of the Mesopotamian
summer. Though friable and porous-qualities which render it
unusually easy to work and permeable by water for drainage pur-
poses—the soil of the alluvial region is nevertheless rich in the
essentials of plant food and of great fertility. North of the alluvium
is a stony marl, requiring only water to render it productive, save
in areas subject to saline action, of which there are several near
the Jebel Sinjar. The areas commanded by the Kārūn are even
richer ; indeed, it is an easy matter in the more sluggish channels
of this river near its mouth to create in a few seasons an island
of exceptional fertility by the erection of a simple wattled dam,
a practice at which the riverain Arabs are adept.
Chemical Constituents.—The most striking feature in the composition
of these soils is the high proportion of lime, which averages about
12 per cent. (In Egypt the quantity seldom reaches 5 per cent.) It is
this which accounts for their good working properties - if the power
to retain moisture is thereby somewhat diminished, the fact is of little
moment where water is abundant. Of more valuable ingredients
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash -- there are full percentages.
The nitrogen is about as high as in average soils of Egypt, and
certainly as high as one would expect in culturable land. Probably
much of this nitrogen is in a very unvariable form, but cultivation


126
AGRICULTURE
would remedy this, especially by the agency of pulse or leguminous
fodder crops. Phosphoric acid is normal, 0.2 per cent. ; that is to say,
it occurs in quantities sufficient for the growth of most crops without
the application of special manures. Potash is present in more than
average amounts (4 per cent.—6 per cent.) : there is enough to meet
the demands of any ordinary crop. The average percentage of total
soluble salts is 5.28 per cent., the bulk of it common salt (sodium
chloride) and sodium sulphate, with small quantities of the sulphates of
lime and magnesia. The texture and physical contents of the soil are
generally such that reclamation should offer no difficulties, provided
always that a sufficient supply of water is at hand. Lands in Egypt,
containing as much as 10 per cent. of injurious salts, have been success-
fully reclaimed within three years, though the Egyptian soils are
generally heavier and certainly more difficult to wash than those of
Mesopotamia. In effect, agricultural experts, who have analysed
samples of the alluvial soil, are of opinion that it may be regarded
as excellent for cultivation.
TIVATION
Unfortunately, these promising diagnoses in the matter of soil
afford no index to actual agricultural conditions as they existed
before the war. In Mesopotamia water and not land is the measure
of production. Where there is irrigation, crops and trees alike
flourish ; but the productive area at present is confined to narrow
belts of land adjoining rivers, canals, or marshes. The aspect of
Irak remains, on the whole, that of a barren wilderness (chol),
sprinkled with camel-thorn and wild caper, carpeted at times with
thin herbage, treeless, except for date palms, found where there is
sufficient water, and some willows and poplars along the rivers, and
peopled in the main by semi-nomad tribes, who eke out a pre-
carious existence by the aid of random tillage. All this is true of
a region described in antiquity as the 'granary of the world', and
so thickly wooded that a bird could fly between Baghdad and Basra
from branch to branch without setting foot on the ground'. Of
course the submontane tract about Urfeh, Diarbekr, and Mosul differs
in many respects. Here the rainfall, sufficient in itself to bring
crops to maturity, the pastures ample enough for the sustenance
of flocks and herds, and the mountain streams providing a perennial
water-supply, furnish the conditions for supporting a much larger
population than is actually found in this region. The mountain
region is for the most part bare, arid and treeless, but there are
cultivated patches along the bottoms. It is a fact that not 5 per cent.
of the culturable area in Mesopotamia bears a crop at the present








AGRICULTURE
127
day, for which deplorable condition of affairs there are causes
worthy of consideration in some detail.
Economic Conditions. —The rural population, Arab or Kurd, may
be divided into : the wholly settled cultivators and stock-farmers ;
the purely nomad Kurds and Arabs, and, between these two
extremes, the semi-nomads who, as is the case with a large part
of the Arab population, have rather recently given up a purely
nomadic life, and have not yet acquired fully settled habits ; or,
as is the case with some Kurdish tribes, have for generations been
accustomed to migrate with their flocks and herds for certain periods
of the year from the valleys or plains to the uplands or vice versa.
Black tents of hair-cloth or grass huts, which grow more frequent
the farther north one goes, betray the nomad propensity.
However, these migratory tendencies are only partially responsible
for the backward condition of agriculture. In one place it may be
attributable to want of irrigation facilities: elsewhere insufficient
drainage is an equally serious obstacle; scarcity of labour, in a thinly
populated country, and the depredations of Bedouin or Kurdish
raiders are also contributory causes ; but in the end it is the in-
efficiency of the Turkish Administration, with its disregard of
political and economic requirements, conspicuous among which is
its failure to provide adequate means of internal communication,
which has been the principal factor in maintaining the unsatis-
factory agricultural situation. What Mesopotamia needs more than
anything else for the proper development of its potentialities is
security and settled government, capital and the scientific develop-
ment of irrigation. The new régime of 1908 made large promises
of reform, but the real nature of the administration remained un-
changed. If the ineptitude of the Government has helped to
stifie agricultural development, the cultivators themselves must
bear a share of the blame. Subsisting with admirable sobriety
on the little that nature provides, taking no thought for the
morrow, ignoring all modern processes, with the conservatism
characteristic of their race, and viewing life with Oriental in-
difference, they fail altogether to atone by any display of enter-
prise for the apathy of their rulers. The villages are generally the
property of a landowner, and the produce is divided after the
Government has deducted its share in proportions which vary
according to the class of land and nature of the crop. Grain
for seed is supplied sometimes by the owner, sometimes by the
cultivator.
The replacement of usurers by agricultural banks would materi-
ally assist in the development of the country.


128
AGRICULTURE
Methods of Cultivation.—Cultivation is primitive, except in certain
estates administered by the Dāʻirat es-Sanīyeh, but although intensive
methods are little known outside the vicinity of the towns, the
usages sanctioned by custom and precedent as best adapted to local
conditions are effective enough, and go far to justify the rural popu-
lation in their aversion to innovation. Cultivated lands are usually
classified, according to the means of irrigation, as follows :
i. Dependent on rainfall alone (daim). In Irak this seldom occurs
except in depressions, where there is surface drainage and probably
also subsoil moisture drawn up by capillary attraction. On the
steppes these predisposing conditions are unessential, the rainfall
being often sufficient to mature crops by itself, apart from local
peculiarities which might aid germination. This is, of course, even
truer of the submontane region, where much more rain is available.
ii. Watered by lifts, with pulleys (bakrah), or buckets (sagi).
Water-lifts are generally used for date gardens, but arable land along
the rivers is also irrigated in this way. Lifts are of two kinds, the
karad and naur : in the former case a camel-skin bucket (dala) is
used to hoist up water by means of a rope working on a pulley; the
naur method raises the water by a series of buckets slung from a
revolving wheel. The latter is a comparatively recent innovation,
cheaper, but less effectual, than the karad. Both are actuated by
animal power, and both have their counterparts in India. In the
vicinity of Baghdad, where there are 169 water-lifts, centrifugal
pumps, worked by oil engines, have been successfully introduced
of late. As elsewhere observed, lift irrigation is easiest in the Shatt
el-'Arab region, where the sea tides raise the fresh water twice a day
almost to the level of the cultivated lands.
iii. Land irrigated from canals is known as saih. The subject of
canal irrigation has been so fully dealt with elsewhere (chap. x)
as to require no further remarks in this connexion.
iv. Marshland subjected to cultivation (kibi).
v. Where moisture is conveyed by little runnels, e.g. in the rice
fields ; land so cultivated is known as chaltiq.
There is as yet little demand for agricultural machinery. Pumps
and winnowing machinery have been imported, but without very
conspicuous success. Only wooden ploughs of the crudest descrip-
tion are employed in S. Mesopotamia : what is required is the
light-draught steel plough now increasingly used in India. Such
implements, generally of German manufacture, are not unknown in
Diarbekr. To the introduction of more complicated devices, such
as threshing-machines, insuperable obstacles exist at present, the
difficulty of obtaining fuel, lack of good roads, popular ignorance








AGRICULTURE
129
and prejudice upon the subject of machinery, expense of upkeep, and
absence of co-operative spirit.
CROPS
Introductory.—The agricultural production of Mesopotomia is of
the type commonly found in northern tropical latitudes with a
dry climate. Soil and temperature being constant factors, and
rainfall generally insufficient, it follows that the crops vary with the
amount of water available for the purposes of irrigation. There are
two harvests, spring (shitwi) and autumn (saifi). The autumn crops,
for the most part great consumers of water, are sown or planted
during the spring inundations and matured in autumn; they com-
prise the following: dates, rice (timn or shilib), mash (a lentil), millets
(chiefly dukhn), lubiyeh (a kidney pea), sesame, and maize. The
principal spring crops are wheat, barley, and beans. The table,
herewith appended, shows the agricultural products of each ad-
ministrative area, arranged in order of importance.
--- -- - -- ----
Mutessariflik, Sanjaq, or
Principal Crops, arranged in Order of Importance.
Vilayet.
Sanjaq of Urſeh .
.
Wheat, barley, millets, lentils, maize, peas, sesame,
oats, rice, hemp, cotton, tobacco, apples, grapes,
olives, melons, pears, apricots, pomegranates, figs,
&c., vegetables.
Mutessariflik of Zor
.
Maize, wheat, barley, sesame.
Vilayet of Diarbekr
.
Wheat, barley, lentils, raisins, sesame, rice, cotton,
pomegranates, melons, grapes, apples, apricots, figs,
&c., almonds, olives.
Vilayet of Mosul .
.
Barley, wheat, melons, grapes, oranges, pumpkins,
figs, pomegranates, olives, dates, beans, rice, cherries,
plums, potatoes, nuts, maize, almonds, apricots, peas,
lentils, mulberries, apples, pears, quinces, &c.
Vilayet of Baghdad
.
Dates, vegetables (tomatoes, onions, artichokes,
pumpkins, &c.), barley, wheat, citrons, oranges, figs,
grapes, pomegranates, rice, melons, mulberries, mil-
lets, apricots, beans, maize, apples, mash, sesame,
potatoes, cotton, tobacco.
Vilayet of Basra .
.
Dates, wheat, barley, rice, maize, millets, mash,
sesame, figs, pomegranates, mulberries, grapes,
citrons, quinces, apples, olives, oranges, apricots.
MES. I.


130
AGRICULTURE
This table includes only the results of actual cultivation, not wild
or natural growths like gall-nuts, gum tragacanth, or liquorice.
Export crops will be presently distinguished from those produced
for home consumption, for it is the absence of outlets for export
in Upper Mesopotamia, no less than their presence in Lower
Mesopotamia, which gives to the production of these regions its
characteristic complexion : some statistics of export will also be
given under specific crops. But the question of export generally
is discussed in the section on Commerce and Industry. For an
investigation of this sort there is an absence of data upon which
accurate conclusions may be based. Government returns, where
they exist, are a very imperfect guide, while the consular reports
seldom deal with the area now under treatment as a single whole.
This is why no estimate can be supplied of the precise annual
production under each of the heads shown in the table. Where
such figures can be quoted with confidence, they are reproduced
below : quantities actually exported from Basra are shown else-
where (see p. 146). But these latter, as disregarding home
consumption, yield no adequate indication of the actual output of
agriculture ; while the former, it must always be remembered, are
the results of inference and deduction, not official compilation. With
these introductory remarks the principal crops will be severally
discussed.
Dates.-As the most valuable product exported by sea, the staple
article of food in the country, and the chief source of national wealth,
the importance of the date in Mesopotamia cannot be too strongly
emphasized. Though found at Mosul, it only begins to be exten-
sively cultivated at Baghdad. There is a fine belt of date groves
extending for 30 miles above and below Hilla on the Euphrates ;
groves exist at Shifātheh, W. of Kerbela ; yet more round Baghdad,
Kerbela itself, and Kūfeh-in fact, plantations occur as far N. as
Anah on the Euphrates and Samarra on the Tigris. But the real
habitat of the date palm in Mesopotamia is the Shatt el-'Arab
between Fāo and Kurna. The immense plantations, which here
extend almost continuously above and below Basra for a depth of
2 miles inland, are probably the finest in the world. Some idea
of its commercial value to the country may be gathered from the
following statistics : export was valued at £582,074 in 1913; prob-
ably 2, 150,000 tons of fruit ripen annually, of which about 75,000
tons are exported; while the number of trees cultivated is perhaps
10,000,000. Epidemic diseases, especially cholera, are responsible
for the imposition of embargoes from time to time upon the export
of the date from Gulf ports, or may lead to its being refused entry








AGRICULTURE
131
in one country or another ; again, floods and droughts may affect
the normal output adversely. But it remains, despite these draw-
backs, which cause the trade in dates to fluctuate a good deal, the
mainstay of Lower Mesopotamia and the principal prop of trade at
Basra.
The date palm is a beautiful tree, growing to a height of 60–
80 ft., and its stem, which is strongly marked with old leaf-scars,
terminates in a graceful crown of shining pinnate leaves. The trees
are reared from offshoots. As they require regular irrigation, they
are best planted by rivers: the date gardens on the Shatt el-'Arab
are intersected by irrigation trenches leading to the creeks, which
fill with the rising of the tide. Where water is plentiful and soil
good, the shoots take root and develop rapidly, bearing fruit within
seven or eight years of planting. The flowers spring in branching
spadices from the axils of the leaves. The trees are monoecious,
and it is necessary for successful cultivation to fertilize the female
flowers by artificial means. This is done in April, and the fruit
is gathered in September and October, when there is a great influx
of labour to the palm-growing centres. Fertilization by natural
means is unsatisfactory, the male palm not always scattering properly ;
while if, through neglect or oversight, the female palm is not fertilized
at all, the fruit it bears is seedless and insipid. Dates intended for
local consumption are spread on the ground and left to dry about
a month in the sun. For export they are sold damp to the brokers,
and generally packed in that condition. There are said to be sixty-
two varieties, of which the following are exported : hallawi, khadrawi,
sair, zehdi, deri. The uses of the date palm are not confined to its
fruit; on the contrary, all parts of it yield valuable economic pro-
ducts. Its trunk furnishes timber for house-building and furniture ;
the leaves supply thatch ; while their footstalks are used as fuel, and
also provide a fibre from which cordage is spun. In fact, as an Arab
proverb puts it, the date palm has as many uses as there are days in
the year.
Wheat and Barley.- Wheat and barley are the principal crops
nearly everywhere, except in the date-growing regions. Their
popularity is due no less to their hardy nature than to the value
they possess as articles of food or export. As requiring little atten-
tion, and only a moderate supply of water, they are naturally
in favour with cultivators like those of Mesopotamia. In Irak,
however, the rival claims of rice and dates, together with the
uncertainty of canal irrigation and the scanty rainfall, rather militate
against their success. But in Zor, Diarbekr, and Mosul conditions
are entirely favourable. The annual output is roughly as follows :
1 2


132
AGRICULTURE
Diarbekr, 77,800 tons; Mosul, 168,400 tons; Basra and Baghdad,
91,700 tons. In Lower Mesopotamia the principal centres for the pro-
duction of these cereals are Hilla and Amara. They are also grown
extensively on the Shatt el-Hai and are collected at Kut. Export is
practically confined to wheat grown S. of Baghdad, which is con-
veyed in boats down the river. The production of Mosul or Diarbekr
is used to supplement the needs of neighbouring tracts to the N.
or S. The high cost of freightage and absence of proper com-
munications by road greatly impede free export from these sub-
montane regions, and, storage being also generally inadequate, there
is often much unnecessary waste. In Irak droughts, and consequent
restriction of export by Government, have sometimes rather stifled
the trade in these cereals, which is always subject to considerable.
fluctuation. The total export in recent years from Basra was valued
as follows: 1911, £967,364 ; 1912, £1,361,544; 1913, £372,699.
Sowings are either in September-October (hirfi) or November-
January (athli), that is, before or after the first cold days of winter
(jawairid). The harvest begins in April, when the grain is threshed
after being dried in stacks by the sun's heat.' The process of
threshing is generally performed with the aid of buffaloes or cows,
which tread the corn. but threshing machines (jarjar) of native
manufacture are sometimes used near towns. The presence of alwas
(grain-stores) in many country towns attests a frequent surplus
in the production of cereals, but inclement weather conditions
or the admixture of dirt are nevertheless responsible for much
deterioration in quality. In fact, dirt is often deliberately added
as a makeweight, and buyers generally deduct 5 per cent. on this
account. The wheat produced is not of first-class quality, being
a hard red wheat somewhat retentive of moisture, and it is used
mainly for mixing with softer kinds. The barley is in better
demand. There are two kinds, black and white-- the latter alone
being used in export. The best, called arag, comes from Hilla; but
Amara barley, which is inferior, reaches the market first and sets
the standard for export. If arag were only properly cleaned before
shipment, it might compete with the best barleys in the world.
There is also great and unnecessary delay in shipment, by no means
due to the vagaries of the river. Until these defects are remedied,
Mesopotamian cereals will remain in poor repute as marketable
commodities.
Rice. - After dates, rice is the chief item in the autumn harvest.
Four varieties are usually recognized in the Baghdad market : (i) nak-
kaza, and (ii) ambarba, the latter peculiarly scented and much
esteemed by Indians and Persians, (iii) shimbah, commonest of all,








AGRICULTURE
133
and (iv) hawaizawi, a cheap reddish rice consumed by the poorer
classes. Rice straw, called buh, is used as fodder for cattle. Rice
is grown in every part of Mesopotamia, that of Diarbekr being
particularly fine: but the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates
actually produce the largest quantities, e. g. the Shatt el-Hindiyeh
between Tawarīj and Kūfeh, the Dighāreh canal, the kazas of
Shāmiyeh and Samāweh, and the sanjaqs of Amara and Muntefiq.
Though primarily grown for home consumption, rice is neverthe-
less increasingly exported--for instance, 67,270 tons were loaded at
Basra in 1912, and there is a surplus in Diarbekr which finds its way
to neighbouring tracts; but this crop, like other cereals, suffers much
from the fluctuations in the supply of river water. Thus in 1913 the
river rose late and rice failed altogether, while in 1908 there was
a shortage of 1,300,000 tons. At such times India supplies the
deficiency. Nevertheless there are possibilities for “Persian' rice,
as this commodity is termed in business circles, if seed could be
eliminated from the finished article and a little more care exercised
in storage, cleaning, and shelling. At present it is distinctly unpopular
with European millers.
Maize, Millet, and Sesame. --These cereals belong mostly to Irak,
and are grown almost exclusively for home consumption. Maize
(idrah) is sown in March and reaped in August or September.
Similarly with millet (dukhn), which is largely cultivated on both
rivers, being partly used locally as food for cattle and poultry, partly
mixed with wheat to make bread, and partly exported by way of
Basra. Sesame is grown on land inundated by flood-water, or along
creeks taking off from the Shatt el-'Arab; it is mostly pressed for oil
and used for the purposes of cooking or lighting, though sometimes
roasted and eaten with bread or manufactured into sweetmeats
(halawah). There is some export of sesame from Basra.
Mash occurs mainly in the vilayets of Baghdad and Basra. There
are two kinds, green and black, both sown at the end of June ; but
the green ripens at the end of September, the black not till the
beginning of November. Mash is cultivated on damp, sandy plains,
and requires little water; the natives mix it with rice to make soup,
and a certain quantity is exported to India.
Fruits. ---The climatic changes obtaining between Diarbekr in
the N. and Basra in the S. of Mesopotamia are well illustrated
by the wide range of fruits produced in these latitudes. A few are
common to all parts of the country-grapes, olives, figs, melons,
pomegranates, apricots, and apples -- but the rest are confined to one
or more tracts, as the case may be. Those of Urfeh, Mosul, and Diar-
bekr not above enumerated belong essentially to the S. European


134
AGRICULTURE
type, e.g. pears, pistachio nuts, almonds, raisins, walnuts, quinces,
cherries. To begin in the N., Diarbekr is famous for its vines and
preserved fruits, while Mosul, enjoying as it does a milder climate
than the Taurus foot-hills, is a sort of half-way house in this con-
nexion-oranges, for instance, appear here for the first time. Pro-
ceeding southward, yet others enter the lists—the mulberries and
citrons of Baghdad and Basra, while the orange becomes as universal
as the principal varieties cited above. From Anah to Hit on the
Euphrates orchards line the river banks continuously ; and the fruit
trees in and about Baghdad are said to number 130,000, mainly
figs, pomegranates, plums, and apricots. Farther down the date
palm dominates the landscape.
Vegetables.—There is hardly less variety among the vegetables,
which include the following : onions, radishes, beetroot, garlic,
cucumbers, cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, carrots, tomatoes, arti-
chokes, ladies' fingers, brinjal, lettuce, cress, pumpkins of three
kinds, and potatoes. Of these, garlic is not an important crop,
most of that required for local consumption being imported from
Persia, while the potato is a recent innovation, which has as yet
found acceptance only with the well-to-do. It is unnecessary to
discriminate as to the localities favourable to particular vegetables ;
the output in the vicinity of Baghdad, however, exceeds that of all
other products, dates alone excepted.
Miscellaneous Crops.—Other crops include beans, peas, linseed,
cotton, tobacco, oats, and hemp, and may be briefly dismissed.
Cotton is confined to the northern regions and at present is of little
consequence: its wider application is discussed below. Tobacco,
as a State monopoly, is also reserved for separate treatment. Oats
are raised in the submontane regions, and also in Irak, where
a variety called by the name of hurtuman is sown in January
and reaped about the end of May. Beans are of various kinds,
including the broad, French, and haricot species. Large quantities
are dried and exported to India or Red Sea ports. They are planted
about the end of September and harvested in April : but green beans
appear in the market as early as the beginning of February. Lubiyeh
is a kidney pea found in Irak; it is sown in June and harvested
in October, growing on river banks or land otherwise subject to
inundation : in June or July it is sold as a vegetable in the green
state ; later on it appears dry-in two forms, red or white, of which
the red is cheaper. Lubiyeh is both locally consumed and exported to
India. Hemp and linseed occur so seldom as to require no more
than a passing reference.
Tobacco.-Tobacco (dukan or tutun) is grown in certain localities





AGRICULTURE
135
only, chiefly Kerbela and Nejef, the Diyāleh valley NE. of Baghdad,
Mosul, and Diarbekr. It is a product of intensive cultivation, for
which much previous preparation and manuring is necessary.
Sowings begin in March, and the harvest is about the end of August.
The crop is distributed somewhat as follows: to the State i, to
the cultivator 1, to the proprietor. The tobacco grown is usually
of three kinds : shaur and quzi (superior), khurdah (inferior).
There is a considerable import from Persia also, amounting to
£30,200 in 1911: this is in the hands of an Ottoman company
called the Société de Tabac, not to be confused with the Tobacco
Monopoly, which is virtually a branch of the Public Debt, though
technically a joint stock company with a monopoly for the manu-
facture and sale of tobacco in the Turkish Empire. The Tobacco
Monopoly is represented at Baghdad by a nadhir ; there is an
office at Basra also, with mudirs or mamurs at Amara, Bedrah,
Bāqūbeh, Hilla, Kerbela, Khanikin, Kut el-Amara, Mandali, Nejef,
Samarra, Samāweh, and Tawarīj, under the orders of the nadhir.
These officials supervise the cultivation of tobacco, and collect
the taxes due thereon, which amount to 78 gold piastres per
kilogram on best qualities and 3.9 on inferior sorts. Persian
tobacco pays an import duty of 2 gold piastres per kilogram plus
1 piastre droit de monopole’ to the Régie. The total output of tobacco
in Mesopotamia is probably not less than 1,550,000 kilograms per
annum, of which Diarbekr produces 430,000 kilograms.
Wild Growths. —The chief wild or natural growths are gall-nuts,
liquorice, and gum tragacanth. They figure prominently among the
exports (cf. below, p. 146).
Gall-nuts are produced in the Kurdistan hills, and sold by the
tribesmen who collect them to dealers at Mosul, Rowanduz, and
other places. Dealings are in three kinds--blues, greens, and whites.
Blues are in most demand for export, and whites are not exported at
all. Export is to London or Bombay. New season galls begin to
come into Mosul about the middle of July, and the supply continues
till October. Severe winters give good crops of galls.
Liquorice.-The liquorice plant grows wild in patches of varying
size along the Euphrates from Meskeneh to Diwāniyeh and along the
Tigris from Mosul to Kut el-Amara : also in the dari fields of the
Khabūr river, the gardens of the Diyāleh river, and the north end of the
Shatt el-Hai, the soil conditions being more favourable than elsewhere.
Collections are made chiefly in the winter months, and some 5,000
Arabs live by digging liquorice root. The quantity collected does
not exceed 10,000 tons per annum. After gathering, the root takes
about four months to dry, and in the process loses some sixty per


136
AGRICULTURE
cent. of its weight. About eighty-five per cent. of the dried root, after
being hydraulically pressed into bales at Basra, is exported to America.
Practically the whole of the liquorice business is in the hands of an
American firm established at Basra, Baghdad, and Mosul.
Gum tragacanth.—The better class gums come from Kirmanshah
and Kurdistan, the gum found in N. Mesopotamia being of inferior
quality. Increased buying by Russia has reduced the export under
this head in recent years. In Mesopotamia itself the trees are
generally good, but the people do not cut them in the right way.
With improved methods of collection much more could be obtained.
Export is mostly to London and Marseilles.
Agricultural Possibilities. — With an efficient system of irrigation
there can be little doubt that nearly all the crops which flourish
under a subtropical sun could be successfully raised in Mesopotamia,
conditions in the matter of soil and climate being what they are.
Most of them exist already. Forage crops will always be a difficulty,
not in the winter, when rapid growth would always be assured, but
in the summer, when the strong sun and dry atmosphere would
render their success difficult of attainment. Lucerne would not
only improve the soil, but remove all stringency as regards summer
forage-it is, in fact, already grown successfully at Basra. But
preference should always be given to forage crops of a leguminous
nature, because these soils in particular will need constant renova-
tion under heavy tillage. An improvement in methods of fruit-growing
is also to be recommended, more especially by the introduction of
superior varieties. This is especially true of dates. But it is as
one of the cotton countries of the future that Mesopotamia is most
favourably regarded by agricultural experts. Falling as they do
within the cotton-belt', the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates
would appear to possess all the necessary qualifications for the suc-
cessful culture of this crop—a high temperature, a sufficiently long
growing period, and an absence of sudden climatic variations. The
question of seed selection applies very closely to the future of cotton
in this country. Though the finest cottons are grown where tem-
peratures are lower and the degree of humidity greater, there is
reason to suppose that high yields could be obtained by the selection
of suitable varieties : Egyptian cotton, for instance, might certainly
be the subject of experiment. Sugar-cane, on the other hand, is
probably not very well suited to Mesopotamian soils, these being
in the nature of calcareous loam, not the rich porous clay with
which cane is usually associated. Moreover, the severe cold of
Jezīreh might affect this crop adversely, though climatic con-
ditions are on the whole not unfavourable elsewhere. But in








AGRICULTURE
137
discussing the suitability of this or that innovation, it must not be
forgotten that Mesopotamia is primarily a country for cereals, oil-
seeds, and pulses, such as exist already. Much has been done in
Egypt and India towards the substitution of pure varieties for
indigenous types : and similar action would doubtless be greatly to
the advantage of Mesopotamia, whose peasantry probably lack even
the limited enlightenment of the Indian ryot. Be that as it may,
the agricultural future of Mesopotamia depends in the main on the
enforcement of order, the development of irrigation, the increase
of population, the improvement of means of communication, and
the establishment of a just and sound financial system.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS
The subject of domestic animals is here treated from an agricultural
point of view : as commercial products, they are also considered else-
where (see Chap. XII, pp. 144, 145). It is worthy of remark at
the outset that pasturage is nowhere permanent in Mesopotamia,
except in the extreme north and in the vicinity of swamps and
rivers ; in bad years it is liable to failure altogether, at which times
the pastoral tribes congregate near the riverain lands. But it is im-
possible in all seasons for these tribesmen to keep their animals for
more than a time in the same place, hence to a large extent the
nomad propensity which distinguishes them.
The following table, compiled from sources now rather out of date
and probably far from accurate even at the time of compilation, will
serve, despite those defects, to illustrate the relative wealth in domestic
animals of the different administrative divisions, and roughly the pro-
portions in which the different species occur.
Centres of Domestic Animals in Mesopotamia
Name of Vilayet
or Mutessariflik.
Baghdad.
Basra.
Zor.
Diarbekr.
Mosul.
Cattle.
Buffaloes
Horses.
Donkeys
Mules.
Camels.
Sheep •
Goats
120,000
80,000
88,000
110,000
10,000
4.000
1,700
8,500
155,000
80,000
85,000
100,000
4,000
95,000
2,100,000
4,000
20,000
8,000
40,542
40,000
23,106
2,000
815,488
330,070
500,000
260,000
6,000
16,000
90,000
{1,600,000
125,000 4,000
1,200,000 | 450,000








AGRICULTURE
139
Urfeh, and Diarbekr each have indigenous varieties of the Arab species
worthy of commendation. Basra is, of course, more interested in
export than local production ; but the vilayet of Mosul is a breeding-
ground of greater significance, at least as regards quantity, than any
other in Mesopotamia. The Kurdish ponies of those parts are of a
very serviceable type, while particular tribes, like the Shammār and
Anazeh Arabs (as well as others), find a very ready sale for their
animals with dealers.
Donkeys are bred largely in Irak, not so much in Diarbekr, and
less still in Mosul. Two breeds occur in Baghdad and Basra. The
first came originally from Nejd, and is reared chiefly in the vicinity
of Baghdad, Hilla, and Samāweh: the El-Seleb tribe generally pro-
duces some of the best specimens. It is characterized by its white
colour, long tail, large size, and strong constitution. Donkeys of
this class are much in request all over the Ottoman Empire for
riding purposes, and prices rule high. The other breed is black,
and dark brown, and is small and wiry in appearance. They are kept
in herds for the transport of merchandise, water, or pilgrims' baggage,
as occasion may demand. In the vilayet of Diarbekr donkeys of a
dark colour are kept in large numbers by Kurdish villagers.
Mules exist practically only in Baghdad, Diarbekr, and Mosul,
Persia and Kurdistan being in fact the principal breeding.grounds.
The carriage services radiating from Baghdad create a demand for
an animal with solid qualities, and there was a regiment of cavalry
mounted on mules at Baghdad also : so that local breeding in that
vilayet attained a very respectable standard. Diarbekr mules are
inferior, though largely exported to Syria ; they are used for
domestic purposes, being often yoked to the plough.
Camels are peculiar to desert, or at least plain, country; as far
as Mesopotamia is concerned, they are confined for practical purposes
to the vilayets of Baghdad, Basra, and Mosul. As a rule only nomad
tribes keep camels : with these, however, they form the subject of
very special care and regard; for without camels' milk, camels'
hair clothing, and the use of the camel as a beast of burden, these
tribesmen could hardly continue to exist. It is unnecessary to dis-
tinguish between breeds of camels, and mention has already been
made of the riding camel as distinguished from the pack camel.
Goats, being more partial to mountainous country, are not numerous
in Irak. Nor are they so useful commercially as sheep, their flesh
being less appetizing and their hair less serviceable. However, as
providing the material from which the black Arab “tents' are made,
goatskins are in a sense indispensable, quite apart from export or the
purposes of the tanner. Kurdistan is the principal habitat of the


140
AGRICULTURE
domestic goat in Mesopotamia. In Mosul three breeds occur—the
Syrian, the Angora, and the Kurdish—the last two producing fine
silky mohair.
Tame birds include pigeons, fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese.
Tawarīj and Amara produce poultry of exceptional quality, and the
fighting cocks of Baghdad are much esteemed by connoisseurs: in
fact the turkeys and fowls are generally above the average all over
Mesopotamia.








CHAPTER XII
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
MESOPOTAMIA is now essentially an agricultural country, and as such
possesses few manufacturing industries and little external trade.
It was not always so. From the time of Hammurabi, c. 2000 B. C.,
down to the rule of the Abbasid Caliphs, Mesopotamia was the centre
upon which converged the trade of Persia, Arabia, and India, bound
by way of Basra for Europe ; and Babylon and Baghdad were the
world's great markets. The Mongol invasion and the discovery of
the route to the East by the Cape of Good Hope destroyed the
position of Mesopotamia as a centre of international trade. Under
present conditions Mesopotamia stands in a backwater, occupied with
a commerce of no more than local importance. Although it is true
that during the last thirty years a substantial, and on the whole steady
increase has taken place, attributable to the spread of what has been
called 'comparative civilization' in the country itself, and a larger
demand in Persia for the comparative luxuries' which that country
* obtains through Mesopotamia, yet (trade is practically limited to an !
interchange between one province and another of agricultural com-
modities produced in excess or defect as the case may be, or the )
distribution of necessary imports by sea. These imports constitute
the most important feature in the trade of Mesopotamia. Overland,
import is almost confined to gums, opium, and carpets from Persia.
Nor is export by sea, in view of the limited area under cultivation
and the trivial character of the manufactures, at all remarkable. So
that in effect the foreign trade of Mesopotamia, considered as a
whole, is of moderate dimensions only, having for one of its most
important items the land-borne traffic on the Persian side.
INDUSTRIES
The industries of Mesopotamia may be conveniently considered
under the following heads : textiles, metal work, house decoration,


142
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
distilling, leather. Baghdad is the chief industrial centre, but even
here only two wool presses and the Army Flour and Cloth Mills are
driven by steam. There are wool presses also at Basra, Amara, and
Kut: but this is practically all the steam machinery devoted to the
ends of industry. Boats and canoes are built at Qalʼat Sālih, Shatret
el-Muntefiq, Sūq esh-Shuyūkh, and other places.
Textiles. The silk industry was formerly one of the most im-
portant in Irak. It has now revived after a period of depression,
though confined to three localities only-Baghdad, Diarbekr, and
Mosul. At Bāqūbeh, near Baghdad, and Diarbekr, mulberry trees
are now extensively cultivated : in the latter district as many as
800,000 were planted in 1906. The quality of the egg and cocoon
produced is very high, but reeling is primitive, especially at Diar-
bekr, and the silk is badly yarned, so that it is not in demand for
European markets. However, the surplus not required by local
weavers is sold at Aleppo. Silk-weaving is a considerable industry
at Baghdad. The silken thread (shari) there produced is woven
into a stuff called aghabani, from which light summer clothing is
manufactured. Silk is also used to embroider turbans, girdles,
tablecloths, curtains, and counterpanes, the art being confined
almost entirely to Jewesses and a few Christian women. Long
pieces, known as kashidah, or squares (chargand), for head-dresses, are
exported to N. Africa. There is some silk-weaving also at Kazimain.
Other textiles are manufactured in great quantity at Baghdad, for
instance male garments (zabun, antari), jackets (duglah), women's
veils (yashmaq), shawls (charshap), belts, cloaks (izar), and hand-
kerchiefs—all of fine cotton, wool, or silk, as the case may be.
Coarse cotton cloth for the poorer classes is made at Baghdad, also
+ canvas for tents. Woollen rugs (haramat) and coarse carpets (zull)
are manufactured at Kut el-Amara and Samāweh, and rough
Kurdish carpets, both cheap and durable, at Amara town. The silk
and woollen industries at Nejef afford employment for some 200
looms. At Diarbekr silk stuffs form the principal article of local
industry. There are 300 looms, and the annual production has
reached £T35,000. Women's veils and handkerchiefs are chiefly
made. Diarbekr is also an important centre for the manufacture of
cotton tissues, 500 looms being thus employed.
The manufacture of abas, an Arab cloak, is a characteristic industry
at Baghdad, Kazimain, Kerbela, Nejef, Amara, Sūq esh-Shuyūkh, and
Kurna. Those of Baghdad may be of silk, or wool with gold or silk
embroidery ; those of Nejef are frequently of silk, embroidered with
gold; while those of Kurna, called khachiyah or batiyah, are famous
for their lightness.








COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
143
Metal work.-Jewellers are found in all the principal towns of Mesos
potamia, the Sabian gold and silversmiths of Sūq esh-Shuyūkh, Shatret
el-Muntefiq, and Amara being accounted the best. The jewellers of
Amara have an art, perhaps peculiar to themselves, of inlaying silver
with antimony. Combs and small objects of ivory, wood, and tortoise-
shell are made at Kazimain, chiefly by Persians, and filigree work
in the precious metals, as well as engraving in mother-of-pearl, is
executed at Kerbela. The coppersmiths of Baghdad are experts in the
manufacture of boilers, kettles, coffee pots, and large copper dishes.
House decoration.—House decorationis generally understood through-
out Mesopotamia. The juss, or gypsum-mortar, commonly used, is
prepared in large quantities at Mahmūdiyeh, between Baghdad and
Museyib, and Zobeir near Basra. Encaustic tiles (kashi) are made by
Persians chiefly at Kerbela, Kazimain, and Baghdad ; and there are
some very skilful Persian painters and decorators at Kazimain. The
clay earthenware of Baghdad, very light coloured and porous, is
exported to Basra and other nearer places, the commonest articles of
this manufacture being water-coolers and filters, called habbs (often
very large), and jarrahs or goblets.
Distilling.–Araq, a native spirit, is distilled at Qarareh on the Tigris,
three miles from Baghdad, and consumed either there or in the Basra
vilayet. The basis of the spirit is derived from zahdi dates; other
ingredients are aniseed, orange-peel, mastic, and cardamoms. There
is some distilling at Hilla, but the produce is said to be inferior.
Leather.—Tanning and working in leather are among the most solid
industries in the country. Baghdad city, with its suburbs, is the prin- i
cipal centre. The tanneries are mostly at Moʻadhdham, where 5,000
sheepskins and goatskins are treated weekly in forty establishments ;
at Kazimain there are smaller tanneries, also at Mosul and Diarbekr;
‘Aintāb is a great tanning centre for skins destined for Egypt, where
the demand is for the highest quality. The finish of Mesopotamian
leather is generally poor and the skins badly handled, and it is a
matter of the greatest difficulty to introduce the smallest improve-
ments, yet the leather, though only rough tanned, finds a ready sale
in Europe. Sheepskins, goatskins, lambskins, foxskins, otterskins,
stone martens, buffalo, ox, and cow hides are the chief sources of the
raw material. Much leather is used locally in the manufacture of
yamanis, the red and yellow shoes much affected by old-fashioned
Baghdadis, slippers (papush, babuj), or the yellow top-boot known as
masht.


144
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
TRADE
Export by Sea
The most conspicuous feature in the statistics of export from
Basra, which include also produce from Baghdad and Upper Meso-
potamia destined for export by sea, is the fluctuation in the
quantity of goods exported. This is due chiefly to variations in
the world's market prices, to droughts in the country itself (which
reduce water-supplies in the river and consequently affect the output
of grain and dates adversely), and to labour troubles among the
floating population engaged in the transport trade. The exceptional
liability to periods of depression militates somewhat against the
successful competition of Mesopotamia with other countries more
fortunately circumstanced. The chief exports, which are agricultural
and vegetable, have already been dwelt upon in the chapter on Agri-
culture (above, pp. 129 ff.). The animal and commercial exports also
bear witness to the potentialities of the country.
Horses are all exported to India. The trade in horses has fluctuated
owing to the restrictions placed upon it from time to time, and is at
all times dominated by prices in the Bombay market, which in recent
years have ruled high. The breeds exported are almost entirely
Arab, but occasionally Persian or Kurdish.
Hides and skins.-There is a fair export of hides and skins to
Constantinople, France, and England. The skins are usually rough-
tanned before export: sheep, lamb (for gloves), goat, and fox skins,
with ox and cow hides, are the articles of this class most commonly
dealt with at Basra.
Ghi is exported to Bombay, the Red Sea, and even to Levant ports.
It is collected in skins from Arab villages, which have access to the
Baghdad and Basra market, some coming even from Mosul.
Wool goes to London, America, or the Continent. It is the most
considerable non-agricultural product. Three kinds are exported :
(a) Arab, so named from the owners of the sheep producing it, which
are reared on the plains of Mesopotamia. Its characteristics are a
crinkly staple of fairly fine fibre, with a bright appearance. Arabs
are careless breeders, and take no precautions against weakly stock
or improper selection of colours: there is also much false packing.
(6) Awassi wool takes its name from a tribe of nomad Arabs between
Mosul and Aleppo. It possesses the characteristics both of Arab
and Karadi wool, viz. crinkly as well as straight hairy fibres, for
Arab crosses with Kurdish sheep produce it. In recent years the
Arab characteristics have appeared to predominate. (c) Karadi or
Kurdish wool comes from sheep bred N. and W. of Mosul on








COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
145
the Kurdish hills. It has a long, coarse, and hairy staple, and is
used chiefly for carpets and other such heavy material. Baghdad,
Kut, Amara, Mosul, and Diarbekr are the principal wool markets.
It is a speculative trade, prices sometimes ranging higher than their
equivalents in Europe. The merchants generally advance money to
the flockmasters months before the wool season, and agree to pay the
market price of the day at some appointed collecting station. Awassi
and Karadi wools come from Mosul by raft. Baking by hydraulic
pressure is generally done at Baghdad, Kut, or Amara.
Mohair is clipped from Angora sheep in the Kurdish hills. Export
is small, but constant. Dealings are with the heads of the Kurdish
tribes (Aghas), who assist buyers to fix prices, for which they receive
a commission called aghawaghi, and occasional advances of money.
Mosul and Diarbekr are chief centres of the mohair trade, but export
is all through Baghdad and Basra.
There is also a very considerable export trade in opium and in
carpets, both of which come from Persia overland to Basra. The
carpets are exported to Constantinople, Syria, London, and America.
Sundries include dog-manure, used in Austria for the preparation
of fine leather ; intestines, exported to the Continent for sausages ;
silkware; almond kernels, required in the manufacture of prussic
acid ; and colocynth, which grows in fair quantities round Mosul.
Export by Land
There is an overland traffic in animals between Syria and Mesopo-
tamia. Camels, sheep, and cattle are all disposed of in this way. Of
camels, as many as 14,000, bred for the most part in Muntefiq, Beni
Lām, and Mosul, are exported in a single year, ultimately bound for
Egypt. Sheep are handled almost exclusively at Mosul and Diarbekr,
some 100,000 in all being exported annually. Cattle start from Bagh-
dad and Mosul for Damascus and Egypt, buffaloes for Kaisarieh and
Erzerum. Other commodities also are the subject of overland export
to some extent, for instance ghi, for which there is a considerable
demand in Syria, from Diarbekr, as well as hides and skins of all sorts.
From Mosul sheep, lamb, goat, ox, otter, and stone marten skins are
all exported N. to Russia or NW. to Constantinople ; while the
traffic from Diarbekr is even greater. The Irak - Nejd trade routes
via Nejef and Samāweh were mentioned briefly above: also the
Nejef-Jebel Shammār traffic. Yet another, Basra--Nejd, is now less
frequented than before. In any case the exports to Nejd are few and
simple-chiefly cotton prints, cotton and silk handkerchiefs, sugar,
coffee, enamelled iron, and grain.
к
MES. I.


146
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
Exports from Basra (1911-13)
Year.
1911. 1912.
Barley
Carpets
Dates .
Gall-nuts
Ghi .
Gum .
Hair and mohair
Hides and skins
Horses . .
Liquorice . .
Opium
Rice.
Seeds .
Wheat . .
Wool
Miscella neous
772,025
76,224
442,905
71,056
86,230
27,536
10,480
53,070
36,500
44,530
117,500
127,090
97,290
195,339
246,449
106,733
1,118,490
35,008
456,240
152,219
54,038
26,432
11,928
46,056
35,325
13,052
97,600
341,664
156,614
243,054
303,030
140,931
1913.
£
362,690
47,530
563,004
66,393
59,933
19,528
12,072
57,594
43,725
36,521
137,500
19,250
37,990
10,009
310,744
135,706
.
.
.
.
Total .
.
.
.
2,510,957
3,231,681
1,920,189
Imports at Basra
The increase of 48 per cent. in imported goods during 1913
is due mainly to the large quantity of material ordered for the
Baghdad Railway. Foodstuffs were also required to a greater
extent owing to bad harvests in Mesopotamia. A similar increase is
to be observed in the importation of petroleum, machinery, and
cement, though for different reasons. But quite apart from acci-
dental or ephemeral causes, which might serve to inflate the
statistics, imports at Basra have increased all round since the time,
only eight years ago, when their total value could not be assessed at
more than £1,300,000. It is only necessary to notice the leading
features of this import trade. But for the recent increase in iron
and steel, cotton cloths have always easily held the field—at
Baghdad they probably amount to three-fourths of the total import.
This trade in cotton is largely a Jewish monopoly. Manchester,
and to much less extent India and the Continent, are the sources
of supply. A small part of the imports under cloth and haber-
dashery are of silk and wool : here France, Germany, and Austria
show to better advantage, but the whole trade in silks and
wools is of comparatively small account. The coal comes from
Wales, the coffee from Brazil or Arabia-it is curious that this
market should be closed to Indian coffees, but such is the case.








COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
147
Gunnies (for packing) come exclusively from India: also indigo. But
the iron and steel, imported in such large quantities recently, would
appear to have come chiefly from Belgium and the United Kingdom.
Petroleum is supplanting candles: Russia, America, and Persia are
the only suppliers. It is satisfactory to note that the Anglo-Persian
Oil Company, though only recently established, has gained immediate
popularity in respect both of price and quality, and now provides
more than half the petroleum required. Machinery is steadily in-
creasing ; pumps, oil engines, and sewing machines are the principal
articles imported underthis head, but not as yet agricultural machinery.
Rice is not imported except in small quantities: but in 1913 the
local harvest failed, and India had to be drawn on for the deficiency.
The unprecedented increase in sugar is somewhat remarkable ; it
would appear to be due to speculation, stocks at Basra in 1914 being
in excess of requirements. Wood is required both for date boxes and
building purposes : in the former case it nearly all came from Austria,
in the latter from India. Yarns and twist are also an Indian import.
Not much need be said about the miscellaneous smaller imports.
India supplies tea, spices (i.e. pepper, turmeric, ginger, cinnamon,
and cardamoms), and charcoal ; Persia, tobacco ; Belgium, cement, an
import appearing for the first time in 1913; Sweden, matches.
Imports at Basra (1911-13)
Year.
1911.
1913.
£
..
Cloths, haberdashery
Coal. .
Coffee
Copper . .
Gunnies . ..
Indigo .
Iron and strel.
Petroleum .
Machinery
Provisions ..
Rice.
Stationery .
Sugar .
Wood.
Yarns and twists
Miscellaneous
1,239,360
45,032
72,688
51,540
111,027
21,150
54,677
13,769
59,275
74,886
24,608
41,310
534,157
151,380
70,520
270,096
1912.
£
1,156,325
52,974
58,540
47,778
95,784
19,875
20,325
57,530
64,830
80,385
18,792
38,154
292,227
116,310
73,980
344,000
842,080
39,904
33,080
54,168
76,992
15,575
1,207,882
91,484
96,873
100,562
126,371
30,360
721,099
133,559
70,600
258,684
Total .
.
.
.
2,835,475
2,537,809
3,899,273
K2


148
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
British Trade and Foreign Competition
Of steam tonnage entering the port of Basra in 1913, 78 per cent.
hailed from the United Kingdom, 17 per cent. from Germany, and
3 per cent. from Russia. Much the most significant of these items is the
figure appertaining to German trade. In Anatolia, even in Syria,
Germany possesses substantial and legitimate trade interests, but
this is not the case in Mesopotamia. The establishment of a German
bank at Baghdad was not justified by the condition of German
commerce in that town and vilayet, and the German steamers to
Basra ran at a loss. The fact that the German tonnage entering
Basra in 1913 amounted to 55,149 as against 30,948 in 1912, that the
German returns show £1,957,489 worth of imports in 1913 as com-
pared with £528,415 in 1912, require some investigation. The chief
causes of German success are active encouragement by the home
Government of German export trade, exploitation of the Eastern
taste for cheap goods of inferior quality, cultivation of personal
relations by the German trader with his customer without regard to
race or creed, consideration for small orders or special requirements,
and for the ignorance of European languages and trade conventions,
from which the local merchants generally suffer.
Business Methods
At Baghdad two functionaries exist, both indispensable to the
trade of the country: one the gabauchi, or public weighman, who
visits the premises where his services are required and receives
fees from the merchant employing him. The other is the dallal,
or commission agent, without whose presence no bargain is ever
struck. Even European merchants at Baghdad find it wise to
defer to these customs: there are, however, no gabauchis at Basra.
Cash transactions are uncommon in internal trade, and the usual
method of settling accounts is by kambiyala, a promissory note payable
at date and perfectly negotiable when backed by a good name. In
foreign trade, orders for goods are sent direct to Europe by the larger
firms only: hence the number of commission houses, whereby orders
are gathered from all quarters and trade greatly facilitated. The
small trader pays a percentage against his order to the patron, who
obtains and pays for the whole consignment. A European firm at
Baghdad generally conducts its business through native corre-
spondents, and seldom has occasion to complain of dishonesty. One
more institution deserves to be noticed—the saraf or money-changer.
He is, however, much more than this, being in fact the soul of trade.








COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
149
His functions may be summarized as follows: (i) to assay liras and
mejidiehs professionally, (ii) to collect bills and payments, (iii) to act
as a banker pure and simple. But over and above this he is at once
a diviner of needs, a supplier of wants, a warder-off of catastrophe.
Acting together, the sarafs can fix the rates of trade bills for the
mercantile community; whereas in their individual relations they
are often able to preserve the dignity of a customer by using suasion
with a troublesome creditor.


CHAPTER XIII
CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
CURRENCY
Baghdad. Currency.—The question of currency will be first con-
sidered with reference to Baghdad. Even at the capital it is both
difficult and complicated. There is a nominal currency with the
lirah, or Turkish pound, as the fixed standard of value, to which
all other denominations must be regarded as subsidiary; and as
these are in some cases fictitious and in others liable to fluctuation
in value, the need for careful elucidation is apparent. Apart from
this, the system of coinage is quite different, and its relation to the
official currency must be made clear, while the free circulation of
foreign coin (despite regulations to the contrary) adds further
confusion.
The lirah is habitually resolved into no less than six different
varieties of piastre or qursh, all of which are fictitious. The first of
these is the gold piastre, which is both of a lirah and the official
piastre of the Turkish Government. All taxes and payments to State
departments must be rendered in gold piastres ; for example, a one
piastre postage-stamp can only be purchased for a coin which, what-
ever its denomination, is currently worth both of a lirah. The
next three kinds of piastres are all called mejidiyeh, though the name
belongs properly to the first alone, of which 102.6 go to a lirah. The
Imperial Ottoman Bank keeps its accounts either in gold piastres
or this first mejidiyeh, properly so called. Of the remaining two
mejidiyeh piastres, 103.5 and 108 respectively make one lirah: the
former of these is used by merchants in keeping their own accounts
and for wholesale transactions generally, the latter partly on account
of its close correspondence in value to the actual silver coin known
as a qursh sagh and partly for convenience in calculation. Two raij
piastres remain: of those, in the one case 414, and in the other 432,
go to a lirah, from which it will be clear that they are merely
quarters of the second and third mejidiyeh piastres, standing at 103.5








CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
151
and 108 to the lirah. Raij piastres are chiefly used in retail trade
accounts.
Turkish Coinage. There are five Turkish gold coins, of 5, 23, 1, ,
and 1 lirahs respectively, the first two very rarely seen and the last
infrequently. The chief silver coin is the mejidi, the value of which
in terms of the official currency is as follows:
✓ 18.5 Gold piastres
19 Mejidiyeh , I
II
20
III
76.6 Raij
80 ,
19.1
%
,
II
In cash transactions, where no special understanding exists, 5.4
mejidis are accepted as the equivalent of one lirah. Lesser coins,
with their approximate English values, are as follows :
S. d.
5 Paras = 1 Fulsain.
• vi.. . . =
2 Fulsain = 1 Qursh Raij or Mitliq . . =
2 Mitliqs = 1 Qamari . .
4 Mitliqs = 1 Qursh Sagh .
5 Mitliqs = 1 Ruba Bashlik or Abu Khamseh =
8 Mitliqs = 1 Qurshain Saghor Abu Tha-
maniyeh . .
10 Mitliqs = 1 Nasf Bashlik or Abu Ash reh
2 Nasf Bashliks = 1 Bashlik or Ruba Mejidi =
2 Bashliks = 1 Nasf Mejidi
· 2 Nasf Mejidis = 1 Mejidi .
Of these the para is an imaginary coin : but the rest have a
material existence. The fulsain and mitliq are nickel ; the qamari,
ruba bashlik, and nasf bashlik, alloy; and the remainder silver. The
1 and 1 bashlik are uncommon, and the others, except the mitliq, by
no means plentiful.
Foreign Coins.--The deficiency in local coinage is made up with
foreign coins, chiefly Persian. Little Persian gold is to be seen ;
but various Persian coins make up the bulk of the silver currency,
namely the double qran of 8 d., the qran of 44d., the qran of 2d.,
the i qran of 1d., and a sittah fulus of d. A Persian copper coin,
erroneously called a shahi and worth iad., is also in use. There
are over 50 qrans to the lirah : but merchants' accounts, where they
deal in qrans, are generally reckoned in an imaginary qran, of which


152
CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
34.4 go to the lirah. Indian silver is current, but occasionally im-
pounded under the regulation above mentioned prohibiting the use of
foreign silver; Persian silver, being indispensable to business, escapes
seizure by the authorities. Some English, French, and Russian gold
is in circulation. It remains to notice one more coin, and that
fictitious—the shami, which is the unit of computation in the date
trade. An actual coin so named once existed, with a nominal value
of 10 gold piastres, but that figure having been reduced after the
Russo-Turkish War of the last century to 5 gold piastres, which was
less than the value of the metal contained in the coin itself, it was
everywhere melted down, and has now altogether disappeared except
from the quotations of the date market.
Exchange.--The rate of exchange with Europe is variable, falling
as low as 1051 per cent. in the date season, and rising to 110 or
higher in winter. The Baghdad money market is controlled by rich
sarafs, who keep themselves informed by telegraph of exchange rates
at Bombay, Constantinople, Paris, and London. The drafts most in
request at Baghdad are those payable by the Kermanshah, Teheran,
and Tabriz branches of the Imperial Bank of Persia at 3 and 4
months' sight. The money-changer's business is rendered highly
lucrative by the multiplicity of coins in circulation. Each merchant
must use what method suits him best for disposing of the funds he
has in hand ; but the device most generally approved is to purchase
drafts which will enable the coin to return to the country whence it
issued, these drafts having a rate of their own altogether distinct
from the coinage. The abnormal quantity of Persian silver dealt
with in Baghdad is attributable to several causes. Pilgrims prefer
to carry coin, and merchants have always made it a custom to send
down specie when rates are unfavourable for drafts. The saraf
moves the specie silver from Persia and so to India, if the price of
silver renders such a course advisable. The selection of Baghdad as
a centre for the collection of coin to be consigned in bulk elsewhere
is due to its situation near the frontier and the comparatively safe
trade route therefrom.
Basra. Currency and Exchange.—The coinage of Basra is the same
as Baghdad-gold being the standard for trade purposes, silver for
the payment of Government dues and date purchases. But Persian
coinage plays a very large part in financial dealings at Basra owing
to its position as a port and consequent facilities for the transport
and insurance of specie. The Turkish currency constitutes the basis
upon which prices are quoted for labour and retail trade; the value of
produce, however, is calculated in qrans according to rates of exchange
with the Turkish lirah. As at Baghdad, there is a fixed rate for book





ལམ་ཁག།


CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
153
purposes of 34.4 qrans to the Turkish lirah. The evolution of this
book-qran was due originally to fluctuations in the value of the
qran in Persia, which are of interest as explaining the instability of
exchange at Basra, e. g. :
No. of Qrans to
Year.
£1 sterling.
1874 . . . . .
25
1888 . .
1897 . .
50
1900.
1907 . . .
; le principal causes of this fluctuation in exchange would appear to
, the passion for hoarding specie, and the continuous drainage of
silver from Persia into Mesopotamia.
37
.
.
53
59
GHTS
Baghdad.—The standards of weights vary from place to place.
Even at Baghdad, the commercial capital, there is much unnecessary
complication. Two systems prevail :
(i) Local, based on the Baghdad oke (huqqah) of 8 lb. 12 oz. 8 dr.
(ii) Non-local, based on the Constantinople oke of 2 lb. 12 oz. 12 dr.
The scale of local weights is as follows:
I. CORRESPONDING TO ENGLISH AVOIRDUPOIS
English
(avoirdupois).
Turkish.
Ib.
dr.
1 Ruba
1 Waqiyeh (= 4 Ruba) .
1 Huqqeh ( = 4 Waqiyehs)
1 Charak ( = 11 Huqqehs)
1 Mann (= 4 Charaks)
1 Wazneh (= 4 Manns) .
1 Taghar ( = 20 Waznens)
ORENDO ce co
6100999000
52
210
4,215
The above are used for local produce and remain constant, whatever
the substance weighed. The non-local weights, on the other hand,
vary according to the commodity in question, these variations being
due to the addition or subtraction of allowances customary in each
case; for example :








CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
155
Basra.-At Basra the local unit is a huqqeh of 2 lb. 12 oz., and
the local waqiyeh = 21 huqqehs. Weighment is usually by maunds,
but the number of huqqehs to the maund varies somewhat as
follows:
i. For grain, lime, wool, and skins :
1 maund = 60 huqqehs.
ii. For meat, provisions, and groceries :
1 maund = 10 huqqehs.
iii. For ghi :-
1 maund = 50 huqqehs.
iv. For dates :-
1 maund = 54 huqqehs.
The Basra taghar, containing 1,200 huqqehs, is in practice regarded
as the equivalent of 12 tons. The weights corresponding to English
Troy, in use among goldsmiths and jewellers, are as follows:
24 hubbe = 1 miskal = 4 dwt. Troy.
A Persian miskal, weighing 10 per cent. less than the Arabic or
87 gr. Troy, is generally employed for pearls.
Two scales of weights obtain at Mosul :
1b.
I. Ordinary:
avoirdupois
1 Ogia
· = 0.28
1 Oke (Mosul) = 16 ogias or 1.6 Constantinople
okes . . .
. . . .= 4.53
1 Wazneh or mun = 61 Mosul okes or 10.6
Constantinople okes . . . . . = 29.47
1 Kantar = 20 waznehs . . . . . = 589
The above are used in weighing wool, mohair, galls, gum, grains,
seeds, peas, beans, ghi, cheese, and flour. Meat, bread, vegetables,
cream, &c., are sold by the local oke of 16 ogias in the bazaar.
lb.
II. Atari, or grocers' weights:
avoirdupois
1 Dirhem . . . . . .
0.007
1 Ogia = 4 dirhems . . . . . . = 0.28
1 Oke = 12 ogias or 1.2 Constantinople okes .= 3.4
1 Mun = 6 Mosul okes or 7.2 Constantinople
.
. .
. =
=
okes . . . . . . . . = 20.4
1 Kantar = 30 muns. . . . . . = 612


156
CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Atari weights are used for sugar, metal, soap, indigo, dates, tea,
nuts, spices, &c. ; but the Constantinople oke of 2 lb. 12 oz. 12 dr. is
mostly employed by retail trades in imported articles. For local
produce the Baghdad oke of 8 lb. 12 oz. 8 dr. is the usual medium.
Troy weight has its counterpart at Mosul, as follows:
grains Troy
1 Qirat . . .
1 Denk = 4 qirats . . . . . =
1 Dram = 4 denks.
. = 64
1 Miskal = 11 drams
80
As at Baghdad, the Mosul apothecaries employ the French metric
system.
Diarbekr.- The scale of weights in use at Diarbekr is as follows:
16
lb.
avoirdupois
1 Oke = 400 dirhems . . . . . = 2.82
1 Batman = 6 okes.
. = 16.9
1 Kantar or kile = 30 batmans at Diarbekr . = 507
1 Kantar or kile = 40 batmans at Mardin . . = 676
The kuchek is lath of a kile, equivalent accordingly to 3111 lb. at
Diarbekr or 421 lb. at Mardin. The terms 'nugi' for half an oke,
and "tukht' for a quarter of an oke, are commonly used in this
vilayet.
Precious stones and gold are weighed as follows:
1 Gūd = 4 bugdeh
1 Miskal = 24 gūd
(1 Miskal = 11 drams)
MEASURES
I. Linear
Baghdad.— Three systems prevail, each based upon a different
dhara or yard'.
i. The Dhara Baghdad, or cubit of Baghdad, is the one most
generally used for cotton cloths, &c.
inches
1 Dhara Baghdad = 4 charak
292
1 Charak = 4 aqad . . . . . = 716
1 Aqad . . . . . . . = 152








CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 157
ii. The Dhara Haleb, or cubit of Aleppo, is used for silks or
woollens.
inches
1 Dhara Haleb = 4 charak.
= 262
1 Charak = 4 aqad
ud
.
. . . . . = 63
1 Aqad . . . . . . . = 111
iii. The Dhara Shah is used for measuring carpets or other dealings
with Persians.
inches
1 Dhara Shah = 4 raba or charak,
= 42
1 Raba or charak = 4 aqad . .
101
2 Aqad. . . . . .
. = 25
British goods are measured in English yards, continental goods in
metres. It will be observed from the above tables that three different
charaks of length obtain at Baghdad besides the charak of weight, and
one raba of length besides the raba of weight. A mason's cubit
(mamar), equal to 311 in., is used chiefly by builders and for land
measurement.
Basra.—The English yard of 36 in. is in general use, being known
as dhara and subdivided into 16 aqads. But the Aleppo dhara of
27 in. is also employed.
Mosul.—The dhara at Mosul measures 312 3 in., being as elsewhere
divided into 16 agads.
Diarbekr.-The dhara here measures 29.9 in. and is also called
arshin. As elsewhere, it is divided into 4 charaks or 16 qieh, which
latter would appear to be synonymous with aqad.
II. Distance
Distances, except in official measurements, which are made by
kilometre, are calculated in hours and days. The unit is the space
covered by a walking horse in 60 minutes, and so fluctuates between
3 and 41 miles. It is well to allow a liberal margin in calculating
distances, as they are usually under-estimated. Both natives and
Europeans refer vaguely to camel hours' or 'pack-animal hours ',
the real unit being the post hour, which is an official measurement.
Troops on the march can only cover an hour's distance in an hour's
time under exceptionally favourable circumstances.


158
CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
III. Square Measure, applicable especially to Land
Baghdad.—The commonest unit of land measurement is the
faddan, which term is here defined as “the area which two men can
cultivate', or 'a surface which can be completely sown with 500
huqqehs of wheat and 700 huqqehs of barley', in all 1,200 (Constanti-
nople) huqqehs. The Baghdad faddan is subdivided into donums,
square jaribs, and square dharas (mamari), as follows:
approximately
1 Faddan = 200 Donum atik . . = 447 acres.
1 Donum atik = 1,600 sq. Dhara mamari 0.24 ,
1 sq. Dhara mamari . . . . =
8.34 sq. ft.
1 Faddan = 18 sq. jaribs . . . = 443 acres.
1 sq. jarib .
= 2:47 ,
The jarib is a measure of length, equal to 100 metres or 109 yards.
In Khorāsān, N. of Baghdad, there is a faddan of 513 donums or
1231 acres, and on the Khalis canal one of 340 donums or 813 acres.
The juft is the area which one yoke of oxen can plough, and it varies
from 70 to 100 donums (16.8 to 24 acres).
Basra.—For the purpose of land or surface measurement at Basra
a dhara of 19 in. is employed, and 61 dharas = 1 gusba (about
10 ft. 21 in.). 20 sq. gusbas (204) ft. x 2041 ft.) = 1 jarib = 41,6841
sq. ft. = 0.95 ac.
The jarib is also subdivided as follows:
1 jarib= 10 gifiz . . . . = 41,6841 sq. ft.
1 gifiz = 10 esbran .
4,1681
19
1 esbran . . .
4163
The donum system prevails as far as Mosul and Diarbekr.
3 aa
IV. Liquid Measure
There is no standard measure for liquids, which are sold by the
pot or bottle, the pots being of all sizes and the bottles generally
reputed pints or quarts.
V. Time
The day is divided into 12 hrs., of which the 12th ends at sun-
set, or rather 7 mins. after. Thus, when the sun sets at 6 p.m.,
7 o'clock by local time corresponds to 1 p.m. European style. Sun-
set is the fixed point of reckoning for each day.








CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
159
At the March and September equinoxes 6 o'clock Turkish = noon.
The Eastern custom of referring to a night or evening as part of
the day following, rather than the day preceding, is productive of
much confusion : e.g. Monday night or evening means the night
or evening between Sunday and Monday (cf. our Christmas Eve,
Easter Eve), not Monday evening in its current modern sense.
' Monday evening’according to European idiom must be described as
the evening of the day of Monday.


CHAPTER XIV
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
RAILWAYS
The only line which at present concerns Mesopotamia is the
Baghdad section of the great Berlin-Persian Gulf scheme. This
section, on the 4 ft. 81 in. gauge, was projected as follows: From
Aleppo to Jera blūs on the Euphrates, where it crosses the river ;
thence over the Upper Jezīreh via Harrān, Ras el-'Ain, and Nisibin
to Mosul on the Tigris ; thence down the river on its right bank (thus
avoiding the large and numerous affluents on its left bank) via Tekrit
and Samarra to Baghdad. The alignment for the Baghdad-Basra
extension of the line, with a terminus (only temporary, it was hoped)
at Basra, had been selected when the war broke out, and passed slant-
ing south-eastward across the neck of land between the Tigris and
Euphrates to Museyib on the latter river, then over the Euphrates
to Kerbela, Nejef, and down the right bank of the Euphrates,
along the edge of the desert to Zobeir and Basra. The alignment
of a branch line to Khanikin (which lies on the Persian frontier
close to the Diyāleh affluent of the Tigris) was being surveyed in
1914, and it had been practically decided that it should leave the
main line at Sumeikeh, cross the Tigris to Sa'diyeh, and thence run
almost straight to Khanikin. For list of stations on the portions of
the railway completed, see vols. ii, iii, and iv.
In 1915 it was known that the part of the line from Samarra to
Baghdad had been finished in November, 1914, and was open for
traffic, being used for the transport of troops. At the other end of
the Aleppo-Baghdad project, recent reports indicate that towards
the end of 1915, with the exception of the tunnels through the
Taurus and Amanus, the line had been finished as far as Ras el-
'Ain, 100 miles E. of Jerablūs, and that the earthwork was complete
as far as Nisibin, though Ras el-Ain was still rail-head. The gap
in the line in the Taurus was covered by road in two days. The
tunnel here between Qara-Punār and Derek had apparently not
been pierced at the end of 1915, and it was thought the work would
take at least some months. The Bāghcheh tunnel in the Amanus








COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
161
(Giaour Dāgh) has been pierced, and a light railway has been
working since the beginning of February, 1916. The gap in the line
in the Amanus still made a three days' journey by road necessary at
the beginning of 1916, but it was expected that the line through the
Amanus would be soon ready for traffic. Ras el-'Ain, the present
rail-head, is at the very least, as the crow flies from point to point,
350 miles distant from Samarra ; or not less than 400 miles allowing
for curves and deflexions. At the beginning of 1916 the journey
for passengers from Haidar Pasha, the terminus on the Asiatic side
of the Bosphorus, to Ras el-'Ain was calculated to take ordinarily
about a week, and that from Ras el-'Ain to Baghdad 10-12 days.
TRAMWAYS
An electric tramway to connect Baghdad with the suburbs of
Moʻadhdham and Qarareh to the north and south was under con-
templation, and a horse tramway, 4 miles in length, ran to Kazimain,
another suburb to the north, on the right bank of the river, when
the war broke out. It is reported that Fellūjeh on the Euphrates is
also connected by Decauville railway with Baghdad. Kūfeh is con-
nected by tramway with Nejef.
ROADS
General accounts of the route systems of Irak, Lower and Upper
Jezīreh, and the areas lying to east and west of these regions will be
found in vols. ii, iii, and iv. In Irak land-routes are subordinate to the
great water-ways, owing to the difficulties of movement in a country
covered with marshes, lagoons, irrigation cuts, and areas liable to
inundation, or, on the other hand, waterless. Before the war
wheeled traffic was used south of Baghdad only on the road from
Baghdad to Kerbela and Nejef, and to some extent on that between
Baghdad and Hilla. There were no roads in Irak. In the plains
and rolling country of the Jezīreh, the Syrian Desert, and the
area (plains and easy country) between the Tigris and the eastern
mountains, the ground is usually more or less passable for wheels,
though the going is often rough and (after rain) heavy. The chief
obstacles, apart from the few large rivers, are the numerous nullahs
or wādis. The difficulties of movement in this area are due chiefly,
not to the ground, but to the desert and waterless character of most
of the country. No roads here were metalled before the war, except
for a stretch on the Baghdad - Aleppo caravan-route N. of Deir. In
the northern part of Upper Jezīreh, where the country becomes more
populous and cultivated and contains a number of towns, the
principal places are joined by tracks which, though often rough and
MES 1.


162
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
stony, are generally passable for wheels, and roughly metalled in
parts. Wheeled transport can find easy routes from Mosul to
Aleppo via Jezīreh, Nisibin, Mardin, Diarbekr, and Urfeh. A number
of routes for wheeled traffic lead out of Jezīreh W. and SW. to
Aleppo, Alexandretta, Adana, &c. ; and northwards across the mass
of mountains which bound the area under consideration on the north
there are the chaussée Diarbekr--Kharpūt, the route Diarbekr-
Lijjeh-Erzerum, the routes from Diarbekr to Bitlis, and from
Jezīreh to Bitlis, which are all either passable for wheels or easy to
make so. Lastly, E. of Sairt and Jezīreh, to the valley of the Zāb
and the Persian frontier, and south from the Zāb valley between the
line Erbil- Kirkuk-Salāhiyeh (Kufri) and the Persian frontier, are
the high and rugged mountain-ranges which cut off Mesopotamia
from Van and NW. Persia. In this area before the war there were
almost no routes (and certainly none of first-class importance) which
were passable for wheels throughout their length. The most
northerly route for wheeled transport leading from Mesopotamia
across the Persian frontier was then the Baghdad--Khanikin--
Kirmanshah caravan road.
It must be borne in mind that, with the exception of short
stretches here and there, as on the Baghdad-Aleppo road above
Deir, no road in Mesopotamia is metalled.
Khāns
Accommodation for travellers is of the usual primitive description,
familiar in the Near East: at halting-places on the main routes, as
well as in most towns and villages, caravanserais-khāns as they are
called-or hostelries are generally found; they consist of quadrangular
enclosures surrounded on the inside by small rooms and stables built
against the outer wall of the serai ; in the better class of khān there
is a second story with a few superior rooms. All rooms are innocent
of furniture. The central space is occupied by the camels, mules, &c.,
of the caravans or travellers. Some khāns have been endowed by
pious founders and provide Moslem pilgrims with free accommodation,
but the majority are privately owned or leased by the Government,
and accommodation must be paid for. At some, supplies can be
obtained ; there is no sanitation whatever.
Bridges
All bridges in Irak over the Euphrates and Tigris are invariably
of boats. These, or pontoons of some kind, are constructed of
wood and smeared with bitumen; they are secured to one another
by lashings, and the whole bridge is held in position by cables








COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
163
made fast to the bank and by moorings in the stream ; where
rivers are navigated, a section of several boats is so constructed as to
be movable. The bridge at Baghdad is passable for all vehicles, but
the other boat-bridges have such narrow and bad gangways as to be
difficult for animals, and it would require considerable adjustment to
fit some of them for wheeled traffic. Before the war, boat-bridges
existed in Irak at Kazimain, Baghdad, Qarareh, Kut el-Amara,
and Amara on the Tigris, and at Fellūjeh, Museyib, Hilla,
and Sūq esh-Shuyūkh on the Euphrates; at Tawarīj, Hamādiyeh
on the Hamidiyeh channel below Kifi, Kūfeh on the Shatt el.Hin-
diyeh, and on the Diyāleh just above its confluence with the Tigris.
In Jezīreh the stone bridge across the Euphrates at Deir was still
unfinished when war broke out. The iron railway-bridge across
the Euphrates at Jera blūs is now completed. Across the middle
Tigris in 1914 there were boat-bridges at Samarra, Mosul, and
Jezīret-ibn-Omar, and a stone bridge at Diarbekr. Over several
of the streams among the mountains of Upper Jezīreh there are
good stone bridges ; on the Keser Su at Degalan; on the Sairt-
Bitlis road ; on the Bitlis Su near its junction with the Bohtan,
and another near Ziyāret; and on the Batman Su east of Farqin.
There are stone bridges, passable for pack-animals, across the two
arms of the Lesser. Zāb at Altun Köprü. The wooden bridges
over the irrigation cuts in Irak, and over the streams in the northern
hills, are not passable for wheels.
Flood Seasons
The flood seasons in Jezīreh are during the winter rains, from the
middle of December to the middle of March, and again during the
period when the snows melt on the higher ranges, April to the end of
June; of the two seasons the latter is more serious, since the floods
are greater in volume and more persistent in duration than those
caused by the sporadic but often violent rains of winter. In Irak,
where the floods render movement by land in the neighbourhood of
the rivers almost impossible, the more important high-water season
is from April to the end of June. Serious floods may also occur
here in December and January as the result of heavy winter rains.
The times at which the rivers rise and fall and their discharge during
their flood seasons vary to a certain extent from year to year.
Land Transport
On land, transport before the war was carried on by coaches,
carts, and pack animals. The coaches are in use on the roads from
Baghdad to Fellūjeh and to Kerbela and Hilla ; some ply also on
L 2


164
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
the road from Baghdad to Khanikin and to Samarra; there are
a few at Basra. They resemble covered wagonettes, have four
wheels, and are drawn by four horses or mules; the usual fare
between Baghdad and Kerbela is one mejidi, about 3s. 6d. No data
exist as to their numbers ; probably there are not more than 200 at
the most. The arābeh is a four-wheeled cart drawn by 2 or 3
horses, or occasionally by bullocks. It can carry up to 1,500 lb. in
summer and up to 1,000 lb. in winter. It is impossible to give
their number; they are much in use on the great trade-routes from
Baghdad to Persia via Khanikin, and are not uncommon elsewhere,
wherever the tracks are practicable for cart traffic, especially round
about Basra, Baghdad, Kerbela, and in Upper Jezīreh. The yaīleh,
found in Upper Jezīreh, is a light waggon on springs capable of
holding 2 on a box and 2 inside, and drawn by 2 or 3 horses.
Many yallehs are made at Amara, costing each about £T40.
A motor-car service between Baghdad and Bāqūbeh was in
existence in 1913. At various times schemes for a motor service
between Aleppo, Damascus, and Baghdad have been proposed, but
although in 1911 the matter had gone so far as the preparation of
a draft concession in favour of a French company, it subsequently
dropped, and up to date nothing has been done in that connexion.
Motor-cars had on a few occasions made the journey from Aleppo to
Baghdad along the Euphrates valley, and once the left bank of the
Tigris between Baghdad and Mosul had been ascended by a motor
with some difficulty.
But in the matter of transport by land, throughout Mesopotamia,
local transport is mainly by means of beasts of burden. Among
these the camel stands pre-eminent, next come mules and donkeys
and, to a very minor extent, baggage ponies. Camels are employed
all over the plain and undulating country, in the lower hills, and
in the mountains along the more easy routes. It is surprising what
relatively bad going in rough parts is practicable for lightly but
well-laden camels, if they are accustomed to the hills. Mules are
almost exclusively used for hilly routes; in the plains only where
rapid marching is desired. Donkeys are much in request in the
plains for short journeys, and in the hills where sure-footed animals
are necessary and time is no particular object. Baggage ponies are
little used. The following are the average loads and rates of pace of
the pack animals:
Camels : load 360 to 400 lb., pace 2 to 27 miles an hour.
Mules : ,, 200 to 250 , „ 35 to 4 , , ,
Donkeys : ,, 120 to 150 , 3
Baggage ponies : same as for mules.
܂
ܕܕ
ܕܕ
ܕܕ








COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
165
This applies to loads well and carefully put on and secured by
trained men-a badly laden animal can neither carry as much nor
proceed as quickly or as far as a pack animal dealt with by pro.
fessional carriers or men who are trained ad hoc. The average
march for a laden camel is from 10 to 20 miles a day, according to
terrain and load, for a mule 15 to 30 miles, for a donkey 10 to
20 miles, and for a baggage pony the same as for a mule. Camels,
it should be noted, are absolutely useless on muddy roads or wet
clay; and mules, donkeys, and ponies are much hampered and
fatigued by loose sand.
The native shoe covers the whole frog of the hoof as if by a tin
plate, and only a small oval aperture is left in the centre. The
result seems to be that animals are frequently lamed by pebbles,
&c., which insert themselves into the hoof through the hole in the
shoe.
It is impossible to give even an approximate estimate of the
numbers of pack animals available in Mesopotamia, as no statistics
exist that are in the least degree reliable. In 1892 M. Cuinet pub-
lished a statistical account of Turkey in Asia which contains the
following figures for the then (Turkish) administrative provinces
composing Mesopotamia :
A. Born annually in :
Mutessariflik of Zor -
Horses .
1,700
Mules and Donkeys . . . 8,500
Camels .
4,000
Vilayet of Diarbekr-
Horses .
40,000
Mules and Donkeys i
63,000
Camels :
2,000
Vilayet of Baghdad-
Horses . . . . .
85,000
Mules and Donkeys . . . 103,000
Camels . .
95,000
Vilayet of Basra-
Horses
80.000
Mules and Donkeys.
110,000
Camels
.
:
. . . . 125,000
B. Actually existing in :-
Vilayet of Mosul
Horses
. . . . 260,000
Mules and Donkeys . . .
16,000
Camels . .
. . 90,000
·
.
· ·
..
·
· · ·
·
·
.
·
. .
·
.
·
. .
.


166
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT.
On the other hand it is reported that, in 1905, in the Vilayet of
Baghdad the number of pack animals on which tax was collected
was:
Camels :
. . . . 87,787
Mules and Donkeys . . . 67,416
which figures are quite at variance with the numbers which Cuinet
states are born annually in this vilayet. To complete the confusion,
it appears that in the year 1903 the camel tax in the two vilayets of
Baghdad and Basra (where, according to Cuinet, 220,000 camels are
born a year) produced £4,200 at the rate of 1s. 6d. per head, which
gives 56,000 camels. Evidently Cuinet's figures are purely con-
jectural. The records of the Turkish Administration in respect of
the taxation of animals are quite untrustworthy, for reasons that are
patent to any one acquainted with Eastern methods. There are, in .
short, no data to go upon. But no doubt large numbers of camels,
mules, and donkeys could be collected at suitable centres, such as
Basra, Kerbela, Hīt, Baghdad, Mosul, Diarbekr, especially if the
owners are persuaded that generous rates would be faithfully and
promptly paid.
WATER COMMUNICATIONS
As explained above, these are at present of chief importance in
Irak, not so in Jezīreh. Prefixed to a brief account of modern means
of communication, viz. steamers, on the rivers, the following is a
short description of native craft. The chief kinds of boats in use on the
rivers, canals, and marshes of Irak are the safīneh or maheileh, and
the bellam and dänak; the mashhūf is a canoe ; the quffeh (“gopher' of
travellers) is a kind of coracle, and the kelek is a raft of timber or
poles and brushwood supported on inflated skins—the mussack of
India Safinehs are found everywhere from Fào to Baghdad ; they
vary in length from 30 to 80 feet with a beam of from 10 to 25 feet,
open, but with a poop in the larger specimens, and carry one mast
provided with a lateen and a stay-sail. The safīnehs that are built
at Baghdad are coated with bitumen. When wind or stream are
adverse they are either poled, or towed by a rope from the top of the
mast. From 10 to 100 tons of cargo can be carried. The draught
of a loaded safāneh is 31-41 ft. The crews vary from 3 to 8 men
and a large safīneh can carry up to 60 passengers. The bellam is the
principal boat of the Shatt el-'Arab, and its usual range is from
Kurna to Fão, but it is found on the Euphrates as far up as
Nāsirīyeh. It is about 20 ft. long by 3 ft. across, in shape long
and narrow ; it can be rowed or sailed, but is more generally towed
or punted. A larger, cargo-carrying variety of the bellam is the








COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
167
‘arāgiyeh, which go up to 60 ft. in length and carry 50 tons: they
are found on the Euphrates and Hindīyeh from Samāweh to
Hilla. The dānak has much the same distribution as the safineh,
but is not so common, except on the Euphrates in the neighbourhood
of Hilla and Diwāniyeh. It is an open boat, 30 ft. to 40 ft. long,
with a mast and lateen sail, apparently flat bottomed, and poled in
shallow water ; capacity about 12 tons; much used for carrying stalks
and other produce loaded up in high heaps. The mashhüf is a reed
canoe, covered with bitumen, which is used in the marshy tracts on
the Euphrates and Tigris above Kurna. The length is from 15 ft. to
18 ft., and it is easily and rapidly propelled by one man who sits
as low and as far aft as possible and uses a paddle. A mashhüf
can carry 4 to 5 men, with occasionally a second paddler in the bow
On the Euphrates above Fellūjeh down-stream navigation is carried
on by the flat-bottomed boats known as shakhtūrs, which are built
only at Birijik. They are oblong in shape, 18 ft. long, 8 ft. wide,
with a depth from gunwale to flooring of about 27 ft. When fully
loaded they draw 11 ft. The bottom consists of tree-trunks sawn in
half, beneath which flat boards are nailed: and a flooring of flat
boards is fastened 1 ft. above the bottom. The sides and ends of the
boats consist of flat boards roughly nailed together, the interstices
being stuffed with rags daubed with bitumen. The cost of building
a boat of this sort is said to be about £T41. One boat carries
about 5 tons. Shakhtūrs nearly always travel in pairs, fastened
together side by side. They are steered by clumsy sweeps, pulled in
the bow, and are so unmanageable that they can only travel in a flat
calm. They are liable to be stopped by the slightest wind. The
time taken by them in their journeys from Birijik to Fellūjeh varies
enormously, between 12 and 60 days. They take merchandise down-
stream and are towed back empty-usually by Anah men.
Baghdad is the head-quarters of the quffeh, and 500 are said to
belong to that place ; but it is seen as far south as Basra and as far
west as the Huseiniyeh canal. This is a coracle-shaped craft peculiar
to Mesopotamia, and of very ancient origin, being frequently depicted
on the Chaldaean and Assyrian ruins. It is a strong wicker-
work basket thickly coated with bitumen, in appearance a hollow
spheroid with the central portion of the top removed ; and ordinarily
4 ft. to 5 ft. in diameter. The usual quffeh is propelled by two men
with paddles, and will carry 4 to 5 passengers, but a very large one
can convey as many as 20. The quffeh cannot of course proceed well
against the current, but it is more safe than it looks. Finally,
the last and most primitive kind of river craft is the kelek, which has
been described above. It is used for floating passengers and goods


168
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
down the Tigris and Euphrates from Jezīreh to Irak. The size of
a kelek is reckoned by the number of skins, and payment is made
accordingly. A good-sized raft would be 400-500 skins. The largest
rafts in use have about 800 skins. A kelek of 1,000 skins has been
tried, but was found unmanageable. New skins, tanned, cost on the
average 13 pence each. The hire of the poles in the case of a large
kelek may cost about £T15 to £T25 (roughly £13 to £22). A kelek
of 200 skins is said to measure about 29 ft. X 20 ft. The load of
a kelek varies from 5 to 36 tons, according to the number of the
skins; they can only move with the current, and if well constructed
are practically unsinkable. They are kept in mid-stream by two
rough sweeps. On arrival at their destination, the timber or scantlings
are sold, and the deflated skins are carried back to the original points
of departure.
Everywhere inflated skins are used by individuals for crossing
or for floating down the rivers.
It is not possible to obtain any definite idea of the number of boats,
official registration by the Turks having been entirely defective. At
Basra, 635 mastless and 475 masted vessels were on the books in
1903–4, but there can be no doubt that large numbers were not
registered; for instance, some 200 boats owned by an official.
An account of the steamers plying before the war on the rivers will
be found below; for more detailed information on all points con-
nected with navigation reference must be made to the Persian Gulf
Pilot and other works of this nature.
Kārün River to Ahwaz
The Kārūn river flows into the Shatt el-'Arab at Mohammareh,
which lies on the Haffār branch of the Kārūn. It is navigable by
river steamers of 2 ft. draught at any time, and of 5 ft. draught when
the river is high ; but vessels of 12 ft. draught can reach the Samaneh
bend, 14 miles above Mohammareh. The channel is very narrow in
places, especially at the bends; and sandbanks extend from most of
the points, often half-way across. The river is lowest from August
to the end of October ; the tide is felt to 30 miles above the entrance.
The river flows in a tortuous course through open, waste country,
which in summer is totally deserted and in winter contains some
camps of Arab nomads. Before the war British and Persian steam
vessels ran about weekly between Mohammareh and Ahwāz, the
upward passage taking 30 hours and the return 13 hours. Con-
nexion with Shushtar from Ahwāz was maintained by (Messrs.
Lynch's) SS. Shushan and by (the Nāziri Co.'s) SS. Muavin, every 8
days, by the Āb-i-Gargar channel. The rapids at Ahwāz are an








COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
169
att the point and Euphrat e tKurna, the str
almost insuperable obstacle at present for continuous navigation to
Shushtar. A tramway built by Haji ut-Tujjar of Mohammareh runs
from Nāzirī below the rapids to Ahwāz above them. (For further
details regarding the Kārūn river, see vol. ii, Route II A.) The
right of armed vessels or boats under foreign flags to enter the
Kārūn is pro formâ disputed by the Persian Government, but its
action goes no further than a protest.
Shatt el-Arab
This is a fine river, formed by the conjunction of the Euphrates
and Tigris, and is navigable from its mouth at Fāo on the Persian
Gulf to Basra, 70 miles, by any vessel that can cross the bar at the
entrance. (For a description of the bar, see vol. ii, Route I A.)
Vessels of more than 11 ft. draught must here wait for the flood
tide. Ships drawing more than 20 ft. can cross the bar at the top of
the highest spring tides ; at neap tides vessels of 17 ft. can cross.
The Shatt el-'Arab is navigable by vessels of 15 ft. draught as far
as Kurna, the point where this river is formed by the con-
fluence of the Tigris and Euphrates, about 49 miles above Basra.
The tide is distinctly perceptible at Kurna, and for about 30 miles
above it, in the Tigris, but on this section the stream always runs
down, the tidal effect gradually decreasing to nil.
Tigris
The Tigris (local name, Dijleh) is at its lowest from September
to November, and rises about a foot from rains in December, which
keep the river fairly high till about the middle of March. Then
the river swells with the water from the melting snows of Armenia
and Kurdistan, and is at its greatest height in May and June, falling
during July to low-water level in August. A rise at Mosul takes
three days to reach Baghdad, and about the same time thence to
Kurna. Exceptional floods are not infrequent, of from 2 ft. to 8 ft. ; in
January, 1896, for instance, very heavy rainfall caused the river to
rise 8 ft. in one night, the embankments gave way, and a lake 25 miles
by 6 was formed round Baghdad. A sudden rise of 7 ft. took place
at Kut el-Amara in January, 1916. It has been stated that vessels
of 10 ft. draught might go 60 miles above Kurna, and vessels of 9 ft.
draught about 80 miles farther. But as a general rule vessels of
3 ft. draught ascend the river to Baghdad in the dry season, and
those up to 5 ft. draught at other times ; in May and June vessels
of 6 ft. to 7 ft. draught might be able to reach Baghdad, 400 miles by
river from Kurna. The most difficult part of the navigation begins
30 miles above Kurna, and continues for about 80 miles owing to


170
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
the narrow and sharply twisting channel. There are also some
difficult reaches between 'Azīziyeh and Ctesiphon. The navigation
channel is liable to frequent alteration owing to the action of the
yearly floods on the soft bed and banks of the river. It may be
noticed that up to Amara the difficulties in navigation are due
chiefly to the narrowness of the river and its sharp bends : above that
point they arise rather from shifting sand-banks. The principal
places between Kurna and Baghdad are Amara, 90 miles from
Kurna, and Kut el-Amara, 152 miles.
Before the war, traffic between Kurna and Baghdad was carried
by steamers of the Turkish Government River Administration, of
Messrs. Lynch and Co., and of the Arab Steamship Co. These
vessels drew, fully loaded, 4-41 ft., and with towing barges could
convey up to 400 tons of cargo in the flood and 280 tons in the dry
seasons. They went up in about 5 days and returned in about 4.
There were also 3 small stern-wheel native steamers. A con-
siderable number of country craft ply between Kurna and Baghdad,
conveying grain and bulky goods, and also passengers for inter-
mediate villages, in fact everything that has no objection to delay,
and prefers low freights; a native boat of 30 tons, with 12 hands,
takes from 30 to 40 days tracking to Baghdad.
About 100 miles above Kurna cultivation ceases, and the country
is pasture and waste, and population scanty.
Baghdad may be taken as the present upper limit of steam
navigation on the Tigris (for the steam-boat which plied between
Baghdad and Samarra before the war was only a launch), though in
1838 the SS. Euphrates, drawing 3 ft., succeeded in reaching the
great ‘Band' (an ancient river barrage, now in ruins), 28 miles
below Mosul. Possibly changes in the river have made navigation
above Samarra more difficult in the last 70 years.
The Diyāleh affluent of the Tigris, which it joins near Baghdad, is
navigable as far as the town of Bāqūbeh by native craft from the
beginning of December to the middle of April. It is reported that
river-steamers could ascend the Lesser Zāb in the high-water
season as far as Altun Köprü, but the experiment has not yet been
tried, and its feasibility has been doubted. There is down-stream
raft-traffic on this river from Taktak.
Euphrates
A glance at the map will show that, owing to the vast swamps on
its lower course, the rapids that occur between Fellūjeh and
Meskeneh, and the extraordinary ramifications and changes of the





mm AMB 时时89 peDeeds ARHB 的团TWE仙阳ms印旺山旺99


COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
171
se, Furat) feet there in boat which
stream, the Euphrates (local name, Furāt) offers no such facilities as
does the Tigris for steam navigation. In fact there is none on the
Euphrates, although in 1838 the SS. Euphrates (the same boat which
went up the Tigris to within 30 miles of Mosul) passed from
Baghdad by the Saqlāwiyeh canal to the Euphrates ; in June,
1872, the Turkish Government steamer Furāt, drawing 27 ft., in
command of an officer of the then I. N. and with the famous
reforming governor Midhat Pasha on board, proceeded from Fellūjeh,
not without difficulty, all the way up to Meskeneh in 18 days.
The small steamer (originally built for the Rhine) which made very
slow annual voyages up the river (taking for instance on one
occasion 34 days from Fellūjeh to Deir) broke down in the nineties.
In 1911 an attempt was made to establish a regular service between
Fellūjeh-Meskeneh, which was to be carried on by two motor-boats,
65 ft. long, and drawing about 21 ft. (70 cm.). One of these boats
covered the distance between Fellūjeh and Meskeneh in 5 days and
the down-stream journey in 3 days; but it was favoured by ex-
ceptionally high water for the time of year. One boat broke down,
and the difficulties of navigating the channel at Anah and else-
where of the Upper Euphrates led to the discontinuance of the
scheme.
As regards the lower Euphrates, small steamers have in recent
years ascended the river as far as the Hindiyeh barrage. The course
above Samāweh runs by the Shatt Khansār, the Bahr-i-Shināfiyeh
and the Hamidiyeh (or 'Shāmiyeh ') channels. The Turkish
Government had two small steamers on the river for the transport
of troops. R.I.M.S. Comet ascended with difficulty as far as Sūq
esh-Shuyūkh.
There may be a future here (as elsewhere in Irak and on the Tigris
between Baghdad and Mosul) for light-draught motor-boats, but
steam navigation appears, under present conditions, to be out of the
question. The case is different with native craft, which ply to some
extent, but they have to depend largely on the wind, and when both
wind and current are adverse progress stops. In the absence of
wind and with an average current a native boat in the section below
Hīt can drop down-stream at the rate of about 4 miles an hour.
The influence of the tide is felt as far up as Durāji, 30 miles above
Nāsirīyeh.
Native boats ply on the Hindiyeh and Gharāf branches, and on
the Huseiniyeh and Jahāleh canals of the Euphrates and Tigris
respectively.


172
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
Post, TELEGRAPHS, AND TELEPHONES
The Turkish postal service in Irak has now disappeared ; doubt-
less in the Upper Jezīreh it still works after a fashion ; but at its best
before the war it was, like the telegraph, of an erratic nature, and
liable to constant interruptions and delays. Private messengers
were much used, and the people were in the habit of availing them-
selves of the good offices of travellers and passing muleteers.
There was a wireless station at Basra before the war.
There is an overhead telephone from the Maidān-i-Naftūn, the
oil-field of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co., to their refinery and dépôt on
the 'Abbādān island, 131 miles below Mohammareh.
The Indo-European Telegraph Co.'s cable lands at Fāo, where
there was a combined Anglo-Turkish telegraph office, now all British.
Before the war, a Turkish mainland line along the right bank
of the Shatt el-'Arab went from Fāo to Basra, Kurna, Baghdad, and
Mosul, via Kirkuk and Erbil. From Kurna a branch went to
Sūq esh-Shuyūkh, Samāweh, Hilla, Kerbela, Museyib, and
Baghdad. From Baghdad another main line led to Fellūjeh, Hīt,
Anah, Meskeneh, and Aleppo; and a third main line from Baghdad
to Khanikin, Kirmanshah, Teheran, and Ispahan.
From Erbil lines went to Rowanduz, and via Raniyeh to Kaladiza
on the Persian frontier.
From Mosul there is the line Mosul - Nisibin-Mardīn--
Diarbekr.
Diarbekr is a central point of the telegraph system, whence lines
radiate as follows:
Diarbekr-Batman- Sairt-Bitlis.
» Kharpūt.
Severek—Urfeh- Aleppo.
From Bitlis one line went to Mush (whence branches ran to
Erzingan and the Russian frontier), and another to Van and Bāsh
Qal'ah.
From Bash Qal'ah lines ran to Julāmerk and Neri respectively, and
a third to Dilman-Urmia or Dilman-Tabriz.
From Malatiyeh, which is connected with Sivas, a line runs to
Andiaman, whence branches go to Besreh and Niakhka.
There is a Persian line from Mohammareh to Ahwāz, Shushtar,
Dizful, and Isfahan.








TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC, PERSIAN,
AND TURKISH NAMES
An attempt has been made in the Handbook to transliterate
Arabic, Persian, and Turkish names upon a uniform system,
which is explained in detail in the following paragraphs. The
aim has been to assist the reader in their correct pronunciation,
without overburdening the text with a large number of dia-
critical marks. It will be noted that a long accent is used to
mark the length of a vowel above which it is placed (ā, i, o, ū);
the only other symbols employed are' for the consonant 'Ain,
and’ for the Hamzah, or cutting off of the breath which can
precede or follow a vowel. Conventional spellings have been
retained when sanctioned by general usage ; a list of examples,
with their correct equivalents, is given on p. 180.


174
TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC NAMES
TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC, PERSIAN, AND
TURKISH NAMES
ARABIC
I. Consonants
1. -(Hamzah)='except at the beginning or end of a word, and
in common terms such as Bir and Ras, when it is omitted in
transliteration ; e.g. Ahmad, Rejā, Medā’in.
j = dh b =t
u.
C
)
7
o
:
L.
C
m.n
6
&: į
C.
N N Non
&
6:
= = y
vo= dh
G
II. Vowels
2. (i) — (Fet-hah) = a or e according to pronunciation, e. g.
Jebel, Qalah.
(ii) 1 = (Fet-hah + Alif) = ā, e.g. Jemāl.
(iii) s (Fet-hah + final ye, rare in place-names) = a, e.g.
A'ma.
3. (i) = (Kesrah) = i, e. g. Dizful.
(ii) : - (Kesrah + Ye) = i, e.g. Mināb, Qasīm.








TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC NAMES 175
4. (i) – (Dhammah) = u or o according to pronunciation, e.g.
Jubb, Hodeideh.
(ii) , - (Dhammah+wau) =ū or o according to pronunciation,
e. g. Shush, Khor.
III. Diphthongs
5. 9 – (Fet-hah + wau) = an, e.g. Haurān. .
6. ; = (Fet-hah + double wau) = aww, e.g. Fawwāreh.
7. . - (Fet-hah+ye) = ei or ai according to pronunciation,
e.g. Sheikh, 'Ain.
8. Tev (Fet-hah+double ye) = eyy or ayy according to pronun-
ciation, e.g. Feyyādh, 'Ayyād.
IV. Remarks
9. Teshdid () is represented by doubling the English con.
sonant over which it stands, e. g. Mohammed, Jinn.
10. In the Definite Article (J!), spelled as usually pronounced el,
the usual assimilation of the l is made before dentals, sibilants,
and l, r, n; e.g. Sūq esh-Shuyūkh, Harūn er-Rashid.
11. A Hyphen is used only in the following cases :-
(1) After the Definite Article.
(2) Between the following consonants when they belong to
different syllables, s-h, d-h, t-h, k-h, z-h, to prevent confusion with
the single consonant sh, dh, th, kh, zh ; e.g. Is-hāg.
12. Final ó (the feminine ending) = eh or ah (et or at before a
vowel), e. g. Meskeneh, Qalah, Birket esh-Shuyūkh.
13. Finaläng= iyeh (iyet before a vowel), e.g. Zāwiyeh, Zāwiyet.
Final = īyeh (żyet before a vowel), e. g. Nāsirīyeh.


176
TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC NAMES
V. Compound Words
14. The two components in a compound name (in the absence
of the izāfat or Jl between them) are written with a capital and
without a hyphen connecting them, e. g. Bandar ‘Abbās, Hayāt
Dāūd.
15. When, however, the second member of the compound is
a verbal root or is inseparably connected with the first, the whole
has been treated as one word whether written in vernacular as one
word or two, e.g. Imāmzādeh, Sabzabād.
16. Words which have become Europeanized are left in that
form, e.g. Mecca (for Makkah), Basra (for al-Basrah), Medina (for
al-Medinah).
17. The Arabic article Jl prefixed to names has been omitted
in English, except in cases where its retention is authorized by
general usage.
18. The word ibn occurring in the name of a person is written
without a hyphen before or after it, e.g. Yusuf ibn Ibrāhīm.
II
PERSIAN
I. Consonants
19. The same as for Arabic, plus :
w=
p j =z Wo=Z.
=
v or w
8 = ث
zh = ژ
g = گی
=ch
II. Vowels
20. The same as for Arabic.








TRANSLITERATION OF PERSIAN NAMES
177
III. Diphthongs
21. The same as for Arabic.
IV. Remarks
22. 'Izāfat' is transliterated by į with a hyphen before and
after, e.g. Koh-i-Siyāh.
23. Final he (8) is transliterated only when pronounced, e.g.
shah, deh.
III
TURKISH
24. The same as for Arabic, plus:
Modified vowels ö, ü.
25. A few Turkish words where two vowels come together, as
in Bair, are written with a Hamza, e.g. Ba’ir.
26. In Turkish a half audible y sound is introduced between
k and following vowel.
IV
(a) CONSONANTS
LETTER
NAME
TRANSLITERATION
Final
Medial
Initial
Arabic
Persian, Turkish
-
alif
[
os
.
( E C
- 11:
59
si 1:
usus su
the


178 ARABIC, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH ALPHABETS
(a) CONSONANTS (continued)
LETTER NAME
TRANSLITERATION
Final
Medial
Initial
Arabic
Persian, Turkish
P
jīm
che
sV
he
w We Wwgis
V
H. n
khe
dāl
dhāl
re
ze
zhe
sīn
shin
sād
:G au COCQ & G. 6. min 666.& {{l; Low cum AA
min 3 3 3 3 3 is a wigigg bos
3 52 I leida.ch
ia kika
dhād
tta
dha
'ain
ghain
fe
qāf
kef
ك
گر
gāf
lām
mím
cu i į
nün
v or w
wau
he
ye








ARABIC, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH ALPHABETS 179
(1) VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS
ARABIC, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH
Short
= (Fet-hah) = a or e
= (Kesrah) =i
(Dhammah) = u or o
Long
1 (Fet-hah + Alif) = ă
= (Kesrah + Ye) = 1
- (Dhammah + Wau) = ū or o
· Diphthongs
– (Fet-hah + Ye) = ai or ei
— (Fet-bah + Wau) = au, and also ü and ö (Turkish).


180
V
.
EXAMPLES OF CONVENTIONAL SPELLING
RETAINED
Acre
Akka
Aden
Adan
Akaba
'Aqabah
Aleppo Halab
Alexandretta Iskandarūn
Alexandria Iskandarīych
Algiers Al-Jazā’ir
Anazeh 'Anzeh
Asir
'Asīr
Basra
Al-Basrah
Bedouin Badawi
Beyrout Bairūt
Cadi
Qādhi
Cairo Al-Qāhireh
Caliph Khalīfah
Damascus Dimashq
Dervish Darwish
Diarbekr Diyār Bekr
Euphrates Al-Furāt
Fakir
Faqir
Fa's
Hejaz Hijās
Kaimmakam Qā’im Maqām
Kerbela Karbalā
Khedive Khidīv
Koran
Qur'an
Koweit Kuwait
Mecca Makkah
Medina Al-Madinah
Meshed Mashhad
Mocha Mokhah
Moslem Muslim
Mosul Al-Maușil
Muezzin Mu'adhdhin
Muscat Masqat
Oman
'Omān
Suez
Suwais
Tangier Tunjah
Teheran Tihrān
Tripoli Tarābulus
Vizier
Wazīr
Fez








VOCABULARIES
PRONUNCIATION
Consonants.
'= a slight stop, as in the middle of the compound
word sea-eagle
'= a weak aspirate pronounced in the throat
dh like th in this
a guttural r.
a strong aspirate
like ch in loch
q a guttural k
r to be distinctly pronounced
ş emphatic s
emphatic t
th as in thing
ļ emphatic
zh like the s in pleasure
Other consonants pronounced as in English.
Vowels.
a pronounced as a in about
as in far
as in get
e (Turkish) as e in father
é (Turkish) as in met
é (Syriac) as a in gate
as in hit
as ee in seen
as in go
as u in fun
as in pull
as oo in pool
as u in tu
Diphthongs.
ai pronounced as i in mind
au
as ou in out
1650
MÉS. I


VOCABULARIES
English.
able, to be
Arabic.
qadar
Persian.
tawānistan
Turkish
bilmék
I can
aqdir
mi-tawānam
bilirim,
about (ap- taqrīban taqriban, ashāghi-yuqāri
proximately)
kam-wa-pish
above fauq
bar bālā-yi, yuqāri-da
bālā-yi
abroad fil-bilād al- dar khārij dishāri-da
khārijīyah
abuse (v.) shatam, yash- fuḥsh dādan, süymék
tum
deh or la‘n
kardan, kun
accidentally khata'an sahvan qazā-rā, qazā
olaraq
accompany, sāḥab,
hamrāh raftan,réfāqat étmék,
I accompany uşāḥib
hamrāh mī- bérābér géli-
ravam
orim
admiral amīr al-bahr daryā-begi, amirāl, qapu-
amīr-i-bahr dān pasha
Admiralty Nazārat al- wazārat-i Bahrīyé qa-
bahrīyah bahrīyeh pusu
adrift
‘ā’iman
rū-yi-āb suyun aqin-
tése-ilé
advanced muqaddamat muqaddame- pīshdār
al-askar yi-lashkar
aeroplane țaiyārah (pl. taiyāreh taiyāré
țaiyārāt)
afloat tā'if
bālā-yi-āb yüziyor
guard
aft
qich
after
afternoon
mu'akhkhar
as-safīnah
ba'd
ba'd az-zuhr
ba'd az -soñra (suffix)
ba'd-az-zuhr ikindi








VOCABULARIES
English. Armenian. . Kurdish. Syriac.
able, to be garogh, kārin
garoghonal
I can
garogh yem azdkārim, az Ibī, mşin
shém
about (ap- shoureh, mod nézik taqrīban
proximately)
above
verev, i versar, lasar l'él
abroad ardasahman walāté gharīb l'athra khenna
abuse (v.) thshnamanel, lauma kir m şa’oré
nakhadel
mşū’éré
accidentally
badahmamp
bakhalat
bghelța
accompany, ungeranal, gal chõin īzāla emm
I accompany yes g’unger- azé galwi bzāli emm
anam
dchém
admiral dzovagal saré baḥré résha dyāma
Admiralty Dzovayin na-
khararoutiun
adrift herratsial, sar avé chõin țeplé resh māyā
alevar
'advanced
péshé ‘askaré qamayūtha
guard
d'askar
aeroplane otaparig țaiyāra taiyārah
afloat
resh māyā
aledzoup, sar avé
dzpoun
hedguys navi pé gamiya
aft
after
afternoon
hedo
heding,
natem
pāshé
irig- pāshé nīvro
kharāya
dgamiya
bāthar
bāthar palga
dyauma
M
2


184
VOCABULARIES
English.
ahead
Arabic.
quddām
haiy
Persian.
pīsh, jilau
zindeh
Turkish.
ileri-da, ün-da
sāgh
alive
all
lafā)
pahlū
kull
hameh, jamĩ hép
allowed, to be jāz, yajūz an rukhşatyāftan, braqilmaq
yāb
ally
halīf (pl. ḥu muttaḥid, muttafiq
muḥālif
almost taqrīban taqrīban az qalde, hé-
man-héman
alone
waḥīdan tanhā
yaliniz
alongside bi-jānib
yanena, ya-
nenda, borda
bordaya
already qad (followed qabl az in shimdi bilé,
by verb)
zātan
although maʻa inna
agarcheh
eyerché
altogether jami'an tamā man, bi- bitün bitün
jumlagi
always dā’iman hamīsheh dā'imā, hér
zémān
ammunition dhakhirah zakhīre-yi- jébhāné
jang
ammunition- 'arabīyat adh- ‘arābe-yi- jébhāné-'ara-
wagon dhakhirah jubbekhāneh base
anchor (n.) marsa (pl. langar
démir
marāsi)
wa
u or wa
ve
angry
ghadhbān khishmnāk darghen
ankle
kaʻb (dual. qūzaq topuq
ka‘bain)
answer (v.) ajāb, yujib jawāb dādan, jevāb vérmék
deh
anvil
sindān
sindān urs
anywhere fi aiy makān har jā bāshad hér nérédé
appoint ‘aiyan, taʻyin kardan, taʻyin étmék
yu‘aiyin kun
approach taqarrab ila, nazdik āma- yanashmaq.
yataqarrab dan, āi
ila
and








186
VOCABULARIES
•
English.
April
Arab
Arabia
arm (n.)
armed
armour
arms
army
army corps
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
Nisan
Nīsān
Nisan
‘Arabi (pl. ‘Arabi, Tāzi “Arab
‘Arab)
Bilād al-Arab ‘Arabistān 'Arabistān
dhirā'
bāzū (upper), qõl
sāʻid (lower)
musallah musallah silāhli
dir
zireh
zirh
aslihah asliheh silāh
jaish (pl. ju- lashkar ordu, ‘askér
yūsh)
firqah (pl. urdū
ordu
firaq)
rattab, yurat- tartib dādan, qararlashder-
tib
deh or ārā- maq, tértīb
stan, ārā étmék
waqqaf, tauqif kardan, tévqif étmék
yuwaqqif
kun
wașal, yaşil rasīdan, ras vārmaq, gél-
mék
madāfi' tūp-khāneh toplar
ramād
khākistar kül
'ala’l-barr bar zamīn
qaraya, qarada
sa’al, yas’al pursīdan,purs sormaq
as'al
mī-pursam sorarem
arrange
arrest (v.)
arrive
artillery
ashes
ashore
ask
I ask
tas'al
thou askest
he asks
we ask
yas’al
nas'al
mi-pursī
mi-pursad
mi-pursīm
sorarsin
sorar
sorariz
you ask
tas'alūn
mī-pursīd
sorarsiniz
they ask
yas’alūn
mi-pursand
sorarlar
I shall ask
sa-as’al
sorajaghm
I asked
ass
sa'alt
ḥimār (pl.
ḥamīr)
khalf
khāham
pursīd
pursīdam
khar, ulāgh
sordum
éshék
‘aqab, dar pai arqasena, ar-
astern
denda








VOCABULARIES
187
· English.
April
Arab
Armenian. Kurdish.
April
Nīsān
Arab
‘Arab
Syriac.
Nisan
‘Arabāya
Arabia
Arabia
arm (n.)
‘Arabistān
bāsk
‘Arabistan
dra'a
tev
armed
armour
arms
army
zinvadz
zrah
Zenq
bchak
zir
chak
‘askar
bchakké
dir
chakké
‘askar
Zorq
army corps
Zorakound
ordū
ordū
arrange
garkatrel
paikāt kerimțukeslé
arrest (v.)
guert
erélé
pantargel
hasnel
arrive
gahesht
mțélé
artillery
ashes
ashore
ask
I ask
thou askest
he asks
we ask
thntanotq
top-khāna top-khāna
ajiun, mokhir kholli
qețma
i tsamaq sar 'ard resh ara
hartsnel, peşiār ker mbugéré
yes
peşiār kerim mbaqren
g’hartsnem
tou g’hartsnes ta peşiār kerī mbaqret
an g'hartsne au peşiār ker kimbāqer
menq g'harts- ma peşiār mbaqrokh
neng
kerin
touq
hūn peşiār mbaqrūtū
g’hartsneq kerin
anonq g'harts- awān peşiār kimbaqrī
nen
kerin
yes bidi harts- azé peşiār kim bedmbaqren
nem
yes hartsri ma peşiār ker mbūqéri
esh, avanag kar
ḥmāra
you ask
they ask
I shall ask
I asked
ass
astern
bkharayūtha
i hedoust navi, la pāshé
navi yedeven


188
VOCABULARIES
English.
Arabic.
Persian.
‘ala, bi, fi nazd, dar
Turkish.
-a, -da (suffix)
at
at least
at most
at once
attack (n.)
attack (v.)
August
Austria
Austrian
‘ala’l-aqall aqallan hich olmaz issé
‘ala’l-akthar muntahāsh én nihāyét,
'ala’l-éksér
fil-hāl
ḥālā, fauran birden biré
hujūm
hujām hujūm
hajam 'ala, hujām kardan, hūjām étmék
yahjum ‘ala
kun
Ab
Ab, Murdad Agostos
Nimsā
Namseh Némsé
Nimsāwi Namsāwi Avstriale, Ném-
séle
kharīf
khizăn son bahār
intaqam, yan- intiqām kashi- intiqām étmék
taqim or dan, kash
akhadh ath-
thār, yaʼkh-
udh ath-thār
fa's (pl. fu’ūs) tabar balta
mihwar miḥwar mīl
radi
bad
fenā
autumn
avenge
axe
axle
bad
baggage
bake
matā', 'afsh asbāb-i-safar éshyā
khabaz, yakh- pukhtan, paz furunda pishir-
biz
or biryān kar- mék
dan, kun
bālah
basteh, bār bālya
bale (n.)
pārsang
safra, kum
ballast şabūrat al-
markab
bandage (n.) rubāt
bank (of river) shāți
‘işābeh
sārghe
kināreh
sū kénāre,
irmaq kénāre
jau
barley
barometer
sha'ir
arpa
mīzān at-taqs mīzān-i-hawā havā-térazisi,
barometro
qishlah
qishleh, sar- qishla
bāz-khāneh
barracks








VOCABULARIES
189
English.
at
Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
(not in use sepa- é (as termina- bi
rately)
tion)
keth, arr nvazn bkémāhīé bqalīlūtha
arr arravel bgalakiyé bkabīrūtha
at least
at most
at once
attack (n.)
attack (v.)
isguyn
hartzagoumn
hartsagil
ḥālan
palāmard
hujām ker
ḥālan
hujām
hjimlé
August
Austria
Austrian
Okostos
Avstria
Avstriatsi
Tabbākh
Namsa
Namsi
Tabbakh
Namsa
Namsāya
autumn
avenge
Ashoun
paḥīz
tõl standin
chérī
shqillé tõl
axe
axle
bad
gatsin
taver
nara
arrants mihvar qāra
kesh, vad pīs, nachāk bīsha, la
randa
ireghen, kuyq tisht, kerpāl kherrūmerré
khorovel pézhin īpélé
våa
baggage
bake
bale (n.) balia, apranqi bār . ţéna, farda
berrn
ballast navakhij pārsé gamiye şabūrta
dmarkwa
bandage (n.). patet, gab, péchik rībāța
patatan
bank (of river) kedap terefé āvé siptha dyāma,
siptha
deshațţa
barley kari
jah
şāré
barometer dzanrachap,
otatsuyts
barracks zoranots
qishla
qishla


190
VOCABULARIES
English.
barrel (of a
gun)
barricade
basket
baths
battalion
battery
Arabic.
Persian.. Turkish.
umbūb lūle-yi-tufang tuféng démiri
maḥajar
sangar
métrīs
safat
sapad, zambil sépéd
ḥammām ḥammām hammām
tābūr
ţābūr
tābūr
bațarīyah baţarīyeh tābiyé (for-
tress) batāriya
(movable)
waqʻah jang
muhārébé
mudarra'ah jahăz- (or harb séfinése
kashtī) i-jangi
khalīj
khalīj
körfez
harbah sar-naizeh süngü
shāți
sāḥil, kināreh yale kénāre,
déniz kénāre
fanār, manārah nishān-i-ātashī fanār
battle
battleship
bay
bayonet
beach
beacon
beans
fūl
lūbiya, bāqilā baqla, fas-
sulya
rīsh
saqāl
jihét
beard
bearing
lihyah
jihah
beat (v.) . dharab, yadh- kūtak zadan, vurmaq
rib
zan
beautiful jamil
khushnumā, güzel
khūb
because li'anna
zīrā, chirā ki zīrā
bed
farshah takht-i-khāb yatāq.
bedroom hujrat al-ma- ātāq-i-khāb yatāq odase
nām
beef
laḥm baqar gūsht-i-gāu üküz éte,
segher éte
beer
birah
āb-i-jau arpa suyu, bira
shawandar chughundar panjar
before (time) qabl
qabl az -dan évvél
(suffix)
before (place) quddām qabl az önendé (suffix)
begin
ibtada, yab- āghāz kardan, bashlamaq
tadi
kun or shurūs
kardan, kun
beet








VOCABULARIES
191
Armenian. Kurdish.
klan (hratsani) lūlāé tufaka
English.
barrel (of a
gun)
barricade
basket
baths
battalion
battery
badnesh
goghov
baghniq
vasht
bātaria, sharq
thntanotits
chapar
selā, sebed
ḥammām
țābūr
Syriac.
lwishta de-
tfakta
chapara
qartāla
ḥammām
tābūr
battle
battleship
baderazm
rrazmanav,
mardanav
khorsh, dzots
svin
dzovap
sharr
sharré
gamiyé sharré markwa
dsharré
khalīj
khīstah þarbah, khishta
terafé shațţé siptha dshatta
bay
bayonet
beach
beacon
nishāné āgiré nīshan dnūra
hranshan,
gragi nshan
fasoulia, lobi
beans
bāqillé
lõbia, bāqillé
diqna
beard
bearing
moroug rih
goghm, tirq,
untatsq navi
zarnel, dzedzel lédā
beat (v.)
mkhélé
beautiful
sherīn, dalāl
randā, sqila
because
bed
siroun, ,
keghetsig
vorovhedev
angoghin
nnjaran,
nnjaseniag
yezan mis
bedroom
lebar, bo min sabab
nivīn, dõshak shwitha
manzālé nevis- õda didmākha
tiné
gõshté gāh pişra dtaura
beef
bira
shawandāré
qam
beer
karechour
beet
pazoug shawandār
before (time) arrach peshin
before (place) arrach, arrchev labar
begin
usgsel
dastpékir
qam
mdūshinné


192
VOCABULARIES
English.
behind
believe
Arabic.
warā, ‘aqab
i'taqad,
ya'taqid
taḥt
Persian. Turkish.
pusht, pai ard, arqa
bāvar kardan, inanmaq
kun
zīr
alt, altenda
below
bend (v.)
berth
besiege
hana, yahni kham kardan, eyrimék
kun
firāsh
jā-yi-khāb yatāq
ḥāşar, yuḥāșir muḥāşareh muhāséré ét-
kardan, mék, qushat-
kun
maq
ghadar, khiyānat kheyánét étmék
yaghdir
kardan, kun
ahsan
behtar, daha éyi, én
behtarin éyi, én ala
betray
better, best
between
bain
beyond
warā
mā bain, dar ara-sinda
miyān
ān ţaraf-i-..., üte-sinda
warā-yi...
buzurg büyük
buzurgtar, dahā büyük,
buzurgtarin en büyük
big
kabir
bigger, biggest akbar
bill
hisāb
hisāb
hisāb
aje
billet (v.) askan, yuskin jā dādan, deh oturtmaq
bird
țair (pl. tuyūr) murgh
gūsh
bit (of horse) lijām
dahaneh, lijām gém
bit (piece) qit'ah
pāreh
pārcha
bitter
murr
talkh
black
aswad
siyāh
qara, siyāh
blacksmith haddād āhangar démirji, na'al-
band
blame (v.) lām, yalūm or malāmat qabāhat bul-
dhamm, ya- kardan, kun maq, zémm
dhumm
étmék
blanket lihāf
liḥāf, gilim yorgan
bleed (intrans.) nazaf, yanzif khūn jārī qanamaq
shudan,
shau








VOCABULARIES
193
English.
behind
believe
Armenian.
edev
havadal
Kurdish.
pāsh, la pīsht
bāwar kir
Syriac.
bkharāyūtha
mhūmenné
below
tsadz, nerqev
bin
iltekh, khô-.
thed
tiplé
bend (v.)
theqel, dzrrel
chamīn
berth
besiege
nav-angoghin
basharel
ḥaşār kir
qamarah
mḥūşéré
betray
madnel
kheyānat kir khinné
better, best
chéter
bish tau
aveli lav,
lavokuyn,
amenala v
michev
between
bén, não
bén
beyond
antin
idī teraf
lau bāla khenna
big
medz
mazin
rāba
bigger, biggest aveli medz, mazintir, galak bish rāba, ka-
medzakuyn, mazin
bīra rāba
amenamedz
bill
hashiv hisāb, zhmār- hisāb, khush-
tin
bāna
billet (v.) deghavorel
bird
trrchoun țairek, bāldār taira
bit (of horse) santz
lijām, hafsār leghéma
bit (piece) badarr, pegor pechak, parcha parcha
bitter
tarrn, leghi taḥl, tāl m arīra
black
sev
kõma
blacksmith tarpin, yer āsengar, ḥadād ḥaddāda
gatakordz
blame (v.) barsavel razīl kir mrūzellé
rash
blanket vermag
bleed (intrans.) ariunel
laḥéf, jājīm
khūn dā
laḥéfa
mujrélé dimma








VOCABULARIES
195
English. Armenian. Kurdish.
blind
guyr
kör
blockade (n.) basharoumn șişār
Syriac.
simyā, köra
muḥāşarah
blood
blow (v.)
ariun
harvadzel,
khūn
werzin
dimma
mkhélé paukha
zarnel
blow (n.)
blue
blunt
boat
body
harvadz, zarg
gabuyd
koul, pout
navag
marmin
sil
shin, kau
kop
gamī, belem
lash
laşşa
milāna, zarqa
köpa
gamīyah
paghra
kalandi
калап
murthekhlé
kul bi
rthekhlé
boil (trans.) yerratsnel
(water),
khashel (egg)
boil (intrans.) yerral
boiled rice khashadz
printz, plaf
boiler
san, gatsa
vosgor
pirinjé kalandī,rizza mbūshla
pilāu
qāzān
destītha
hastī, isqān garma
bone
book
kirą
ktaib, daftar kthāwa
boot
jazma, kaosh põtīné, jazma
goshig
goshigi thel
boot-lace
rīsé ķundarah gdhādha
dqundaré
shūsh
shūsha
bottle
shish
bottom hadag
bin
shitta
bow (of ship) arrachagoghm péshīné qamayūtha
navi
gamiyé dmarkwa
bowels aghiq
millāk, rīkhlu millāké
box
doup, sndoug sandūq şandūqa
boy
manch
kurr
brāna
brackish
aghi
nakhwash
malūkha


196
VOCABULARIES
English.
brave
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
shujā', dilāwar yiyit, jesūr
shujā
manghal
ékmék
qirmaq
brazier manqalah manghal
bread
khubz
nān
break
kassar, yukas- shikastan,
sir
shikan
breakfast futūr
chai-i-şubḥ
breech (of gun) madhkhar al- teh
bunduqīyah
qahwalte
top kuyrughu,
top qiche
breeze
nasim
brick (burnt) țābūqah
nasīm, bād
ājūr
rüzgyār, yél
tūla
libn
khisht
kérpich
brick (un-
burnt)
bridge
jisr, pul
küprü
qanţarah (pl.
qanāțīr) or
jisr (pl. jusūr)
jisr al-markab
bridge (of
ship)
pul-i-jahāz
bridle (v.)
aljam, yuljim
lijām kardan, gém vurmaq
kun
fauj
liwā
brigade
liwā
bright
bring
lāmi', mudhi raushan parlaq
ahdhar, yuḥ, āvurdan, ārgétirmék
dhir
'arīdh
pahn, ‘arīz génish
“urdh
shallīk
alabanda
broad
broadside
broken
brother
mukassar, shikasteh
munkasir
akh (pl. ikh- birādar
wān)
asmar
gandumi
qiriq
qardash
qahvé réngi,
ésmér
brown








VOCABULARIES
197
brave
nān
English. Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
qaj, gdrij dildār, juwā- mar-jūrʻitta
mér
brazier
gragaran manqal, pall manqal, gūmré
bread
hats
likhma
break
godrel
shikast, shi- twéré
| kiãn
breakfast nakhajash taisht, fitrah fțarta
breech (of gun) hednadzag jihé phīshaka dūktha
hratsani,
dfīshakké
pampousht
Enelou dzag
breeze
zepiurr
paukha
brick (burnt) aghius karpich Tūné
(thrtzadz)
gghmindr
brick (un aghius (houm) karpīch, hājūr lūné
burnt)
bridge gamourch küpri, jisrgishra
pгeeдe
иерит
bà
bridge (of
ship)
jisré gamiyé
gishra dmar-
kwa
nava-
gamourch,
gamrchag
santzel
bridle (v.)
disgin, laghāu leghéma
brigade
bright
bring
kound, zora- firqah firqah
kound
zvarth
ruhnā, rūzhin mabehrāna
perel
īnān
muthélé
broad
broadside
pān, pehn
pāniyé
pethyā
pethyūtha
layn
goghm navi
ousti thnta-
nota g’ar-
tsagvin
godradz
broken
shekast
twira
brother
brā
akhõna
yeghpayr,
aghpar
thoukh
brown
asmar
rengitāri,
esmar
MES, I


198
VOCABULARIES
English.
brush (n.)
Arabic.
furshah
Persian.
furcheh
Turkish.
fercha
bug
baqq
būą
bucket dalw
sațl, dūl
qogha
buffalo
jāmūs
gāvmīsh manda
sās, malleh takhta-bit
bugle
shaifūr b oru
build
bana, yabni binā kardan, yapmaq, binā
kunorʻamārat étmék,
kardan, kun qurmaq
bull
thaur
nar gau bogha
bullet
raşāşah (pl. gulūleh qurshun
raşāş)
bullock thaur makhşi nar-gāu üküz
buoy
shamandarah langar-gir shamandra
Bureau-de- Dukkān aş-şar- Dukkān-i Sarrāf
Change rāf
şarrāf
dukyāne
burn (trans.) aḥraq, yuḥriq sūkhtan, sūz yaqmaq
burn (intrans.) ishtaʻal, yash- sūkhtan, sūz yanmaq
taʻil
bury
dafan, yadfun dafn kardan, gömék, défn
kun
étmék
bush
siyāj, ‘irq bīsheh
chāle
busy
mashghūl mashghū] méshghūl
but
walākin lākin
ammā, lākin
butter
zibdah
kareh
saï-yaghe,
téré yaghe
button (n.) zirr (pl. azrār) dukmeh duymé
ishtara, yash- kharīdan, saten almaq
tari
khar
by (near) qarīb min, “ind nazdik, pahlūi yaninda,
yaqenda
cabin
qamārah qamāreh qamara
cable
silk (pl. sulūk) țanāf, șabl qablo, khalāt,
zinjir (chain)
cake
kaʻk
kulicheh chörék, qora-
biye
calf
'ijl
gū sāleh dana
call (summon) nāda, yunādi sadā kardan, chaghermaq
kun
call (cry out) şāḥ, yaşīḥ faryād kardan, baghermaq
kun
buy








VOCABULARIES
199
English.
brush (n.)
Syriac.
furchah
bucket
buffalo
Armenian. : Kurdish.
khozanag, furchah
frcha
duyl, chri tuyl döl, şatlök
komesh
gāmīsh
paytochil ishpish
shepor
būrī
shinel,
chai kir
garroutsand
bug
daula
gamésha
bāqa
būrī, boqa
bnélé
bugle
build
bull
tsoul
gāh, gānair taura
bullet kndag gulla
gunbulta
bullock yerinch gāhé khaşi
taura khişya
buoy
kharskhanish
Bureau-de Loumayapokh, şarrāf şarrāfa
Change saraf
burn (trans.) ayrel
shawétandi mūqidhlé
burn (intrans.) ayril
shawețī, sūti īqedhlé
bury
thaghel
washartin
qwéré
bush
busy
but
butter
matsarr
uspaghvadz
payts
garak
dārek, belek
bshūla
ammā
rūn, karā
sia’a
mūshila
illa
mishkha
button (n.)
buy
gojag
knel
dūgma, pūlak zirr
zwinné
kirri
by (near)
mod, gov
nézik
bqurba
cabin
cable
navaseniag
herrakratel,
baran
katha, qeyq
cake
qamarah qamarah
warīs, zenjir khaula
kāda, kulaicha kullaiché
gölik, jūnagāh sharkha
khwastin
qrélé
calf
horth
call (summon) ganchel
call (cry out) korral, kochel dang kir
mʻūyitlé
N2


200
VOCABULARIES
English.
calm (n.)
Arabic. Persian.
huduw
ārām
Turkish.
limanleq
calm (adj.) hādi
camel
jamal
camel driver jammāl
camel (riding) hajīn
camp (n.) mu´askar,
mukhaiyam
can
I can
aqdir
ārām
limanleq
shutur
dévé
shutur-bãn dévéji
shutur-i-sawārī
lashkargāh chādir yére
mi-tawānam
bilirim
thou canst
taqdir
mī-tawāni
bilirsin
he can
yaqdir
mi-tawānad
bilir
we can
naqdir
mī-tawānīm
biliriz
you can
taqdirūn
mī-tawānīd
bilirsiniz
they can
yaqdirūn
mi-tawānand bilirler
Tu
qanāl
I cannot mā aqdir namī-ta- qadir deyil im
wānam
can you ? hal taqdirūn mi-tawānid ? bilir
missiniz?
canst thou ? hal taqdir mī-tawāni ? bilir missin ?
cai
turʻah jū, nahr
candle
shama' (pl. shama' mūm
shumū)
canoe
zauraq
qayiq
canter (v.) hadhab, yah- yurgheh raftan, rahvān gitmék
dhib
rau
canvas
jimfās kirbās yélkén béze,
yélkén
cap
țarbūsh kulāh
fés, kaskét,
shapqa
cape (promon- ra’s jabal ra's
burun
tory)
capstan daulāb al-ḥabl charkh-i bojorghat,
langar ürgāt








VOCABULARIES
201
English.. Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
calm (n.) meghmoutiun huduw, bédan- nikhūtha
gāhi
calm (adj.) meghm hādi, bédang nikha
camel
oughd héshter gūmla
camel driver oughdaban héshtervān jammāl
camel (riding) nsdelou oughd héshterswār rkūlé lgūmla
camp (n.) panag, zora- ürdi
maʻaskar
panag
can-
garogh
I can
yes garogh az tshem, ibi
yem
kārim
thou canst tou garogh tū tshé, kāri ibokh
yes
he can an garogh e au tshét, ībé
tkāret
we can menq garogh am tshén,
yenq
tkārin
you can touq garogh hūn tshén, ibaukhū
eq
tkārin
they can 'anonq garogh wān tshén, ibai
yen
tkārin
I cannot yes ch’em az nashshim, laibī
garogh
nekārim
can you ? garogh eq hūn tshén? gallo ībaukhū
artiog ? tkārin ?
canst thou? ch'es garogh tu tshé ? gallo ibokh
artioq ?
tkāri ?
canal
chrants kanāl
néhra
candle
mom, jrak mūm, shemāl sham’ah
ucu,
īban
she?
canoe
canter (v.)
maguyg
salasmpakel
mütrélé
charlập chẽ,
| bãz chỗ
canvas
arrakasd
cap
klkharg, kdag klo, kopīn
kūsītha
saré chžāé
résha dtūra
cape (promon- saravand,
tory)
hrwandan
capstan
anvord
dūlābé warīsé dūlāba
dkhaula


202
VOCABULARIES
English. Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
captain (of qabțān or ra’īs nā-khudā, ra’īs re’is, gémi
ship)
al-markab
suwārisi,
qapudẫn
captain yūzbāshi yūzbāshi yūzbāshi
(military)
captive asīr (pl. usarā) asīr
esir
capture (men) assar, yu’assir asir giriftan, esir almaq
gir
capture
(place)
caravan
careful
cargo
.carpenter
carpet
carry
cart
qabadh 'ala, giriftan, gir zabt étmék
yaqbidh 'ala
qāfilah kārawān, kyārvān
qāfileh
mutaḥadhdhir bā-ḥazar diqqatli, gyuzu
achiq
himl
ḥaml hamulé, yük
najjār najjār
doghramaji,
marangos
bisāt
qālī, farsh kilim, hāle
ḥamal, yaḥmil ḥaml kardan, tashemaq, gö-
kun or naql türmék, naql
kardan, kun étmék
'arabīyat an- 'arabeh 'araba, yük
naql
'araba-si
khartūshah fishang fishénk
(pl. khartūsh)
maslak (pl. rāh-i-'arabi- 'araba yolu
masālik) yeh
qașr (pl. quşūr) burj, qal'ah qal'a
hirr (fem. gurbeh kédi
hirrah)
qabadh, yaq- giriftan, gir tutmaq, yaqa-
bidh
lamaq
mawāshi ḥaiwānāt bahāim, hai-
wānlar.
khail, khaiyā- suwāreh suwāri
lah
ghār
ghār
maghāra
cartridge
cart-track
castle
cat
catch
cattle
cavalry
cave
cellar
sardāb
makhzén, qilar
sirdāb (pl. sa-
rādīb)
kils
cement
sārūj
chimento








VOCABULARIES
203
Kurdish.
qapțān, saré
gamīyé
Syriac.
qapțān
yūzbāshi
yūzbāshi
English. Armenian.
captain (of navabed
ship)
ontain
captain hariurabed
(military)
captive keri
capture (men) prrnel, keri
prrnel
capture kravel
(place)
caravan garavan
girti
éria, ḥbīsa
erélé
girt
zabt kir, ștand shqillé
kārwān
karwan
careful
zkoushavorhishshār, āgāh fațīn
cargo
carpenter
nava perr bār
ţéna
hiusn, adagh- najār, dārtāsh nagāra
tsakortz
kork, carpet berzin, fersh mahfūrta
danel, grel bir, hal girt tenné
carpet
carry
cart
sayl, garrq
‘ara bayé bāré araba dténa
cartridge
pampousht
fishak
fishakka
cart-track
sayli jampa
rīā ‘arabāna
ūrkha d'araba
castle
cat
amrots, tghiag qala, kushk
gadou
ketek, psuk
qaşra
qațūtha
catch
prrnel
girt
erélé
cattle
anasoun
dawār, sawāt haiwāné
cavalry
hedzelazorq
suwār
rakāwé
cave
ayr, qarayr
cellar
marran,
ngough
shaghakh
mughāra, kal- guppītha
waz
zāgha, sardāp sardāpa
géj
kelsha
cement


204
VOCABULARIES
English.
centre
certainly
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
markaz markaz mérkéz, orta
yaqīn
albatteh élbétté,
shübhésiz
kursi
sandalī, kursi sandaliyé
silsilah, zinjīr zinjīr
zinjir
tur'ah
tang-i-daryā boghaz
kharīțah kharīțeh, jad- kharīta
chair
chain
channel
chart
wal
cheap
cheek
cheerful
rakhīs
khadd
bashshāsh,
masrūr
jubn
dujājah
ujūz
yanaq
güler yüzlü
arzān
rukh
khush-ḥāl,
masrūr
panīr
jūjeh
cheese
chicken
pénir
pilij
chief (n.)
children
raʼis, shaikh
aulād, aţfāl
khān
re'īs, bash
bachagān,ațfāl evlād,chojūqlar
chin
chisel
dhaqan
mibra
zanakhdān
ishkaneh
chené
qalém
choose
Christmas
ikhtār, yakh- guzīdan, guzīn séchmék
tār
or intikhāb
kardan, kun
‘Id al-mīlād “Id-i-mīlād Mīlād-i-'Isa
yortusu
kanīsah kilīsā
kilīsé
church
circle
dā'irah
dā’ireh
dā’iré, yuvārlaq
clan
clean (adj.)
clean (v.)
qabīlah (pl. qabīleh qabilé, 'ashirét
qabā'il) or
Cashīrah (pl.
‘ashā'ir)
nazīf
témiz
nazzaf, yunaz- pāk kardan, témizlémék
kun or tanzīf
kardan, kun
şāfi
şāf
achiq
pāk
zif
clear








VOCABULARIES
205
English.
centre
certainly
Armenian.
getron
anshoushd
Kurdish. Syriac.
nāvraz, markaz markaz
haré, di bħaqūtha
chair
chain
channel
chart
kursī, chwārpé kursī
zinjir
shishilta
kharīțah
athorr
shghta
chrantsq
nava qardez,
qardez
azhan
ayd
ourakh
cheap
cheek
cheerful
arzān
gūp, chūr
shād
arzāni
lāma, pāthā
pşikha
cheese
chicken
banir
varriog
pénīr
gūpta
chūchik farkha,
kthaītha
sar, māqūl résha
bechūk, mīnal yālé zõré
chief (n.)
children
bed
yerekhaya
chin
chisel
dznot
chin, zinj daqintha
krich (qanta- askana, mabrad
goghats),
qandagich
kortziq
undrel
bzhārain, hal mgūbélé
chinin
choose
Christmas
Dznount
Biyaldé
church
dér
éta
circle
yegeghetsi,
zham
shrchan,
shrchanag
dohm, tşegh
gér, hāwīr
dā'irah, hūdhra
clan
õjākh, khil
'ashīra
clean (adj.)
clean (v.)
maqour
maqrel
pāqij, pāk
pāqij kir
m
nadifa
undiflé
clear
hstag, barz
zalāl, ruhnāk şepya


206
VOCABULARIES
English. Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
cliff
jurf (pl. jur- partgāh uchurum, qaya
fān)
clock
sāʻah
sā'at
sā‘at
close (v.) sadd, yasudd bastan, band qapamaq
cloud
ghaim (pl. ghu- abr
bulut
yūm)
coal
faḥm ḥajarizughāl-i-sangi kümür
coast
sāḥil (pl. sawā- sāḥil
déniz kénāre,
hil)
sahil
coffee
qahwah
qahweh
qahvé
cold (in head) zukām
zukām, sarmā nézlé
cold (in chest) su'āl
surfeh
bard.
sarmā
soghūq
cold
(temperature)
cold (adj.) bārid
collar
yāqah, tauq
sard
soghūq
fukul, yākheh yaqaliq, yaqa
collect jama', yajma' jam' kardan, toplamaq
kun
collision muşādamah taşādum musādémé,
chārpishma
colonel mīrālai sartīp
qāim-maqām
(lieut.-col.),
mīrālai (full
col.)
colour laun (pl. alwān) rang
rénk
colours (flag) aʻlām
bairaq
bairaq, sanjaq,
‘além
colt
muhr
kurreh
tāi
come
jā, yaji āmadan, āi gélmék
comfortable mustarīḥ rāḥat
rāḥat
command (n.) amr (pl. awā- farmān
émr, buyū-
mir)
ruldu
commander qamandān sardār qumandān
commerce tijārah
tijārat alish-vérish,
tijārét
commission wazifah ma'mūrīyat me'mūriyét.








VOCABULARIES
207
English.
Kurdish.
kandāl
Syriac.
kandāla
cliff
Armenian.
kahavand,
zhayrrap
zhamatsuyts
pagel
amb
clock
close (v.)
cloud
sā‘at
bestin
aur
sā'ah
eérélé, skéré
aiwa
coal
faḥm, kemūr shekhõré
kénār
rakhkha
dmāyā
qahwa
qahwā
sarmā
shauba, zukām
adzoukh
coast
dzovezr,
dzovap
coffee
sourj, kafe
cold (in head) harpoukh
cold (in chest) gourdzqi
tsourd,
mrsadz
(gourdzqen)
tsourd
(temperature)
cold (adj.) bagh, sarrn
collar
otziq
cold
sār
qarīrūtha
qarīra
yākhah
sār, zukum
milwānka,
yākha
pin khestin,
gilir kir
muşādama
collect
havaqel
mjüméº lé
collision
untharoum
mkhāya lekh-
dhādhé
miralāi
colonel
kndabed
miralāi
colour
colours (flag)
kuyn
trosh
rang
sanjaq
gauna
bairaq
hāt
colt - mdrouk
come
kal
comfortable hankist
command (n.) hraman
juwāni, kurrah mūhirtha
īthélé
rāḥat, hisā rāḥitta
amr
pugdāna
commander
commerce
hramanadarqömandān qomandān
arrevdour tujāret, ālish- bāzerganūtha
véresh
badver, hants- sepārish wazifā
nararoutiun
commission


208
VOCABULARIES
English.
commodore
Arabic.
ra’īs uştūl
Persian.
daryā-begi
Turkish
filo suvārisi,
qumidor
quțb
N.
communica- muwāşalah muwāşaleh mukhābéré
tion
companion şāḥib (pl. aș- rafīq, hamrāh arqadash
ḥāb) or rafiq
(pl. rufaqā)
company jamāʻah
gurūh
sürü
company
bulūk
dasteh
bülük
(military)
compass
qibleh numā pussla
shamăl
shamāl shémāl, yildiz
N.E.
shamāl sharqi shamāl-i shémāl-i-
sharqi sharqi
sharq
mashriq sharq, gün
doghusu
S.E. janūb sharqi janūb-i jénūb-i-sharq,
sharqi
késhishlémé
janūb janūb
jénūb, qibla
S.W.
janūb gharbi janūb-i jénūb-i-gharb
gharbi
W.
gharb maghrib gharb, gün
batese
N.W.
shamāl gharbi shamāl-i shémāl-i-
gharbi gharb, qara
yél
complain shaka, yashku shikāyat kar- shikyāyét ét-
dan, kun or mék
nālīdan, nál
condition ņāl (pl. aḥwāl) ḥālat
hāl
(state)
condition shart (pl. shu- shart
shart
(stipulation rūț)
confess aqarr, yuqirr i tirāf kardan, i'tirāf étmék,
or i'taraf, kun
iqrār étmék
ya'tarif
Constanti Istāmbūl Istāmbūl Istambol
nople
content
qāni'
qāni
rāzi.





VOCABULARIES
209
Kurdish.
Syriac.
English.
commodore
Armenian.
navi koumar-
dagi hrama-
nadar
haghortag-
tsoutiun
ungeragits
mukhābara
mukhābarah
communica-
tion
companion
hāval, dost
khaura
jamā'ah
company
company
(military)
compass
N.
N.E.
hasaragoutiun jamā‘at
koumardag bulūk
(250 zinvor)
goghmatsuyts
hiusis
shimāl
hiusis-arevela
garbya
B
arevela
tāvhalsān
saq yoma,
madenkha
S.E.
haraf-arevela
ţarafé qiblaté taimna
S.W.
haraf
haraf-arev-
mouda
areymoudq
W.
rūjāvāī,
gharb
magenyāna
N.W.
hiusis-arey-
moudq
complain
kanka dil
gili (or) shikāt mūshkélé
kir, gāzin kir
vijag
ḥāl, aḥwālḥāl
condition
(state)
condition
(stipulation)
confess
bayman
shart
shart
khostovanil
iqrār kir
mūdélé
Istambūl
Istambūl
Constanti-
nople
Constantnu-
polis, or
Bolis
content
koh
rāzī, kādin
pşīkha


210
VOCABULARIES
English.
contraband
convenient
convoy (n.)
cook (n.)
cook (v.)
cool
copy (n.)
Arabic, Persian. Turkish.
mamnūó qachaq, ma- qachaq māl
mnū'
munāsib muwāfiq münāsib
ghafar, badraqah qonboy, qo-
khafārah
ruma
țabbākh āsh-paz
āshji
țabakh, yaț- pukhtan, paz pishirmék
bukh
bārid
khunuk soghūq
nuskhah (pl. nuskheh nuskha, sūrét
nusakh)
nasakh, yan istinsākh kar- sūrét chékmék,
sakh
dan, kun istinsäkh ét-
mék (writing)
habl
rīsmān ip, qaitān
sidādah (stop- sar-shīsheh tapa (in bottle),
per), fillin
mantār (sub-
(substance)
stance)
þubūb
gandum boghdāi
önbāshi
wakil
on-bāshi
copy (v.)
cord
cork (n.)
corn (cereal)
corporal
cotton
count (v.)
quặn
ḥasab,
yaħsub
bilād
pambeh
shumurdan,
shumār
mamlakat
pambūq
sāimaq
country
courageous
course
shujā
jihah
dilir
jihat
mémlékét,
watan
yiyit, mutéjassir
géminin yolu
(ship’s)
divān-i-harb
court-martial hukm ‘askari dīvān-i-ḥarb
pūsh
cover (v.) ghatta, yug- pūshīdan, örtmék
hatti
cover, take tawāra, yata- panhān shu- siper almaq,
wāra
dan, shau gizlémék
or ikhtafa,
yakhtafi
cow
baqarah gāu
inék
cowardly (adj.) jabbān
tarsū
qorqāg
creek
khalīj
murdāb qoi, boghaz








VOCABULARIES
211
English.
contraband
convenient
convoy (n.)
Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
maqsakhuys qachāgh muķerma qa-
chāgh
harmar munāsib munāsib
bahag, hede himāyat, gha- mḥamoyé
vort
fārat
khoharar āshchi mbashlāna
yepel
kalāndi, ăsh mbūshellé
kir
sār, jamid qarira
orinag, pad. naskha naskha
jen
orinagel shekil (or) nsekhlé, kthūlé
nasekh kir
cook (n.)
cook (v.)
cool
zov
copy (n.)
copy (v.)
cord
cork (n.)
baran, clar warīs, rīs, bāng khaula
khtsan, man- sar-shūsha pūkra
tarr
corn (cereal)
corporal
ganim, dakhl dakhla, khetté
onbāshi önbāshi
tsoren
dasnabed,
yenthaspah
pambag
hashvel
cotton
count (r.)
pāmbuk, lūka ktāna
zhmārtin mnélé
country
kavarr
walāt
athra
courageous
course
gdrij
dildār
jihat
mar libba
jihah
untatsq
court-martial baderazmagan
adian
cover (v.) dzadzgel, pagel pushānd,
ghatā kir
cover, take badsbaril, washārtin,
bashdbanvil hashār kir
mkūsélé
mţūshélé
tawerta
zado’a
COW
gov, cov chél, māngū
cowardly (adj.) yergchod, vad tersūk
creek
khorsh, poqr
navahankisd


212
VOCABULARIES
English.
crew
crooked
Arabic. Persian.
mallāhah ahl-i-jihāz
a‘waj
kaj
Turkish
gémi tā’ifési
éyri
crops
crowd (n.)
maḥşūlāt
ziņām
maḥşūlāt
izdiņām
mahsūlāt
qali-baliq
cruel
cruise (n.)
qāsi, şārim
safar
bi-raḥm, zālim zālim, ghaddār
daryā-gardi dolashmaq
cruiser
cultivation
kruasör
zirā‘at
ţarrād
zirā'ah, ņirā- ābādāni
| thah
finjān
piyāleh, jām
jarayān
cup
current
kyāssé, finjān
aqinté
sail
custom-house gumruk
daily
gumruk
har-rūzeh
gümrük
hér günki
yaumi
dam
damage
damp
dangerous
sadd
khisārah
rațb
mukhţir
sadd
zarar, ziyān
namnāk
khatarnāk
sédd, bénd
zarar
némli
téhlikeli, qor-
qūlū
qaranleg
dark
daughter
day
qiz
muzlim
tārīk
bint (pl.banāt) dukhtar
yaum (pl. rūz
aiyām)
maiyit
murdeb
gün
dead
ülü, ülmush
deaf
atrash
karr
sāghir
dear (person) “azīz
'azīz
'azīz
dear (price) ghāli
girān
pahale
death
maut
marg
ülüm
deceive
khada', yakh- firīftan, firīb aldatmaq,
or gūl zadan, hilé-étmék
zan
December Kānūn al-au- Dai, Kānūn-i- Kyānūn-i-
auwal
évvél
deck
sath
şafḥa-yi-kashtī göverté
da
wal








VOCABULARIES
213
English. Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
crew
navasti, navaz
crooked
gor, dzourr kiwān, kezh, plima
lār
crops
hountza haşād
khsāda
crowd (n.) ampokh, qala bālikh qalabālikh
khouzhan
cruel
ankout
zālim
qeshya
cruise (n.) nayayin
safar.
safar
bduyd, had-
zoumn navi i
dzovou
cruiser hadzavorag
cultivation mshagoutiun chāndiné, zarraʻūtha
jutyārīyé.
cup
pazhag finjān, piyāla finjān, qatkha
current hosanq,
riā-āvé, sail sail
hortsanq
custom-house maqsadoun
gumruk gūmruk
daily
oragan, am har-rõj kud-yom
enoria
dam
thoump sadda, bend sikra
damage vnas, gorousdzyiān, zerar khisārah
damp
khona v
tarr, shil talīla, ratiwa
dangerous vdankavor khatardar, mar darak
bdarak
dark
mouth
tār, dārk kheshka
daughter toustr,aghchid kich
brāta
or
yoma
day
roj
mitha
dead
merradz, mer- mīrīā
rial
deaf
khoul
karr
dear (person) sireli
'azīz
dear (price) sough, thank giran
death
mah
merin
deceive khapel gharrānd,
khalațānd
karra
‘azīza
agran
mauta
mut'élé
December
TegtemperKānūné auwal Kānun qamāya
tstigon-navi
deck
MES, I


214
VOCABULARIES
Persian.
iʻlān-i-jang
Turkish.
i-lān al-harb
i'lān al-ḥarb
English.
declaration
(of war)
deep
deer
dérin
‘amiq
ghazal
‘amig
āhū
géyik
defeat (n.)
defeat (v.)
inkisār, hazī- shikast khur- inhizām
mah
dan
kasar, yaksur shikast dādan, inhizām
deh
étmék
dāfa', yudāfi difā' kardan, muhāfaza
kun or himā- étmék, qoru-
yat kardan, maq
defend
kun
deficiency ‘adam kifāyah, kami noqsān
nuqşān
dense mushtabik ghalīz, mush- seq
tabik
depreciation khalal, nuqşān nuqşān khalal
(of troops,
guns, &c.)
describe wașaf, yaşif
wașaf, yaşıt bayan
bayān kardan, taʻrīf étmék,
kun or waşf anlatmaq
kardan, kun
desert (n.) barīyah, şaḥrā biyābān yabān
desert (v.) tarak, yatruk guzāshtan, braqmaq, térék
or harab, yah- guzār
étmék
rub
deserter munhazim, gurīkhteh qachaq
hārib
despatch (n.) risālah risāleh, murā- tahrirat
saleh
destroy hadam, yahdim talaf kardan, mahv etmék,
or dammar, kun
bozmaq
yudammir
determination jazm, taşmin taşmīm sélābét
diarrhoea
is-hāl
is-hāl
is-hāl
die
māt, yamūt
murdan, mir ölmék, véfāt
étmék








216
VOCABULARIES
English.
difficult
şaʻb
dig
dinner
dirty
disappear
Arabic. Persian. Turkish
mushkil zör, güch
hafar, yaḥfir kandan, kan qazmaq
ta'ām, 'ashā shām
akhsham
yéméyi
wasikh chirk
pīs, kirli
ghāb, yaghīb gum shudan, ghāib olmaq
shau or ghā'ib
shudan, shau
kashaf, yak- daryāftan, bulmaq, késhf
shif
d aryābétmék
maradh, 'illah nā-khushi khastaliq
discover
disease
dishonest
khā'in, makkār nā-durust
khersez, insāf-
sez
disobedient
‘āşi
sarkash, 'āşi
itā‘atsez, dik-
bāsh
qazā, nāhiya
district
nāḥiyeh
nāḥiyah (pl.
nawāḥi)
ghauwāş
diver
ghauwāş
dalghech
divide
division
do
dock
dockyard
qassam, yu- taqsim kardan, taqsīm étmék,
qassim
kun
ayirmaq
firqah (pl. firqah firqa
firaq)
faʻal, yaf'al kardan, kun yapmaq,
étmék
haudh al-ma-
gémi hauze,
rākib
térsāné hauze
mīnā li-ta'mir kār-khāneh-i- térsāné
as-sufun kashti-sāzi
ţabīb, hakim tabīb, hakim hékim
kalb (pl. kilāb) sag
köpék
himār (pl. ha- khan, uläghi éshék
mīr)
bāb (pl. ab- dar
qари
wāb)
shakk, ya- shakk kardan, shübhé étmék
shukk
kun
rasam, yarsum rasm kardan, résm étmék
kun
doctor
dog
donkey
door
doubt (v.)
draw
(map, &c.)








VOCABULARIES
217
English.
difficult
dig
dinner
Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
tzhvar
zahmat ‘asqa
porel
kulān, kāndin khpéré
jash, unthriq nānishāo ghadāya
(evening meal)
aghdod pīs, chirkin mțūmya
anhedanal ħindā (or) nā- fetlé, ghiblé
diyār, bu
dirty
disappear
discover
disease
kdnel, yerevan dīt, kashf kir mgūlélé
| hanel
hivantoutiun nasākhi nassakhūtha,
marā
anbargeshd khāin, bé khā'in
sharm
anhnazand
dishonest
disobedient
āsā
‘āşi
district
qaza
gheslé
diver
divide
kavarr, qaza, walāt
shrchanag
loughag, hou- chõ bin ãvé
zag, chri dag
souzogh
pazhanel qismat kir,
bahré da
chogad
unel, anel kir
mpūlélé
division
do
ewedhlé
dock
gayan navi,
avazan navi
navaran
dockyard
doctor
pzhishg
shoun
esh
hakim
seh
þakkima
kalba
dog
donkey
door
dourr, tourr
darī, dergā
tar'a
doubt (v.)
shakk
gasgadzil, shakk kir,
daragousil bsubhat bū
kdzel kdzakrel rasem kir
rshimlé
draw
(map, &c.)


218
VOCABULARIES
English. Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
draw up rasam, yarsum rasm kashīdan, tanzīm étmék
(document) or katab, yak- kash
tub
draw up (line şaff, yaşuff şaff bastan, tanzīm étmék
of troops)
· band
dress (v.) labis, yalbas pūshīdan, geyinmék
pūsh
rabat, yarbuţ marham gu- (yari) baghla-
(a wound)
zāshtan, maq
guzār
drift (v.) tafa, yațfu bā sail raftan, suyun aqinté-
silé qapilmaq
drink (n.) mashrūb sharbat
ichqi
dress
:
rau
rab
drink (v.) sharib, yash- ashāmīdan or ichmék
nūshīdan,
nūsh
drive (trans.) sāq, yasūq rāndan, rān sürmék, qosh-
durmaq
drown
ghariq, yagh- gharq shudan, boghmaq
(intrans.) raq
shau
drown (trans.) aghraq, yugh- gharq kardan, boghulmaq
riq
kun
dry (v.) nashshaf, yu- khushk kar- qurutmaq
nashshif dan, kun
dry (adj.)
yābis
khushk
quru
duck
battah
ūrdak
ördék
dust
ghubār
gard
töz
dynamite dināmīt dināmīt dinamit
dysentery
ear
early
earthen
earthwork
east
is-hālad-damm is-hāl
is-hāl
udhn (dual. gūsh
qulaq
udhnain)
bākiran zūd
érkén
turābi, țīni khāki
topraqdan
mitrās
khāk rīz istihkýām
sharq
khāwar, sharq sharq, gün-
doghusu
'Id al-fash 'Id -i-faşḥ Büyük pas.
qālya
Easter








220
VOCABULARIES
egg
yemurta
Maşr
English. Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
eastern sharqi
sharqi sharqi
easy
sahl
āsān
qolaï
eat
akal, yaʼkul khurdan, khur yémék
baidhah (pl. tukhm-i-
baidh) murgh
Egypt
Mișr
Misr
Egyptian
Maşri
Mişrī
Misrli
embark rakab (yar- bar kashtī gémiyé bin-
(intrans.) kub) fi safi- suwār shudan, mék
nah
shau
embarkation rukūb
rukūb
gémiyé bin-
méklik
employ (thing) ista‘mal, yas- isti“māl kar- qullanmaq
ta'mil
dan, kun
employ (men) shaghghal, tashghil kar- ish vérmék
yushaghghil dan, kun
empty (v.) farragh, yu khālī kardan, boshatmaq
farrigh
kun
empty (adj.) fārigh
khālī
bosh
encamp khaiyam, khaimeh za- chādir qūrmaq
yukhaiyim dan, zan
encampment khiyām, mu- chādir gāh chādir yére
(of nomads) khaiyam
end (trans.) azāl, yuzīl, anjām dādan, bitirmék
or atamm, deh or tamām
yutimm kardan, kun
endure sabar 'ala, taḥammul dayanmaq
yaşbir ‘ala namūdan,
numā
engine ālah
māshin
makina
engineers muhandisīn muhandis-hā istihkyām alai
England
Englishman
enough
ensign
Inkiltarah
Inklīzi
bil-kifāyah
‘alam (pl.
aʻlām), liwā
(pl. alwi-
yah)
zarf
Inglistān
Inglīsī
bas, kāfi
bairaq
Ingilterra
Ingliz
yetishir, kyāfi
sanjaq, bairaq
envelope
zarf, pākat
zárf








VOCABULARIES
221
English.
eastern
easy
eat
egg
Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
arevelian zh-tavhalsān madenkhāya
heshd, tiurin hāsān, sānāhī sanāhi
oudel
khwārin ikhellé
havgith, tzou | hék, khả
bétah
Egypt
Egyptian
embark
(intrans.)
Ekiptos
Ekiptatsi
nav mdnel
Misr
Mişrī
sar gamīya
cho
Meşer
Meşrāya
rkūlé bmarkwa.
embarkation nav mdneln
employ (thing) kordz adzel
istīmāl kir
mustu‘millé
employ (men) vartzel
īsh dā
wellé shūla
msūpeqlé
spīqa
dag
empty (v.) tadargel, khāli kir
barbel
empty (adj.) tatarg, tar- khālī, wālā
encamp
panagel, panag vār kir
tnel
encampment vran tneln, zõm, vār
(of nomads) panagoum
end (trans.) avardel khalāş kir
ītūlé
zoma
khlişlé, timlé
endure
handourzhel,
dogal
şabr kir, jān- sbéré
hishik bu
engine
engineers
mākīnah
muhandis
mākinah
muhandis
England
Englishman
enough
ensign
meqena
meqenaked,
yergrachap
Anglia
Angliatsi
pavagan
nshan, trosh
Inglistān Engilterra
Inglīzi Inglézāya
bass
bassa, kmālé
sanjaq, bairaq bairaq
envelope
ar
zarf
zarf
zarf


222
VOCABULARIES
English.
equip
hiz
err
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
jahhaz, yujah- tajhīz kardan, téjhīz étmék,
kun
donatmaq
(ship)
ghaliť, yagh- ghalaț namū- yanesh(+ suffix)
laț, or akhţa, dan, numā vār
yukhti
harab, yahrub rastan, rah or qachmaq
or naja, yanju rahāi yāftan,
yāb
ḥāris, khafārah badraqah qonboy
ḥaras, yahrus hamrāh raftan, raqabét étmék
escape
escort (n.)
escort (v.)
rau
evad
khalla, yu-
khalli, or far-
ragh, yufar-
takhliyeh
kardan,
kun
takhliyé étmék,
boshatmaq
righ
evening
every
masā
kull
shām
har
akhsham
hér
everything
everywhere
examine
(facts, v.)
kull shai hameh chiz hér shei
fi kull makān har jā hér yére, hér
yerde
faḥaş, yafḥaş taftish kar- téftīsh étmék,
(a question), dan, kun yoqlamaq
imtahan,
yamtaḥin (a
candidate)
illā
bi-juz az -dan bashqa
(suffix)
‘adhar, maʻzūr dāsh- 'afv-étmék
ya'dhir tan, dār
tamrīn mashq taʻlīm (drill)
except
excuse (v.)
exercise (n.)
explain
explode
(trans.)
explode
(intrans.)
fassar,yufassir ħālī kardan, anatmaq, ta'rif
or baiyan, kun
étmék
yubaiyin
fajjar, yufajjir infijār kardan, patlatmaq
kun
infajar, yan tarakīdan, patlamaq
fajir
tarak








VOCABULARIES
223
Armenian. Kurdish.
sparrazinel;
zinel
English.
equip
Syriac:
err
moloril
khalat kir
ghletlé
escape
pakhchil,
khuys dal
khalāş bu, ravī ‘réqlé (or)
khlişlé
escort (n.)
oughegits,
hedevortą
oughegtsil
escort (v.)
șimāyat kir
mḥūmélé
evacuate
hélān
tadargel,
barbel
shwéqlé
evening
every
évar, hingür
hammi, har
‘āserta
kull
irigoun
amen mi,
amen meg
amen inch
amenoured
everything
everywhere
hammi tesht
har ‘arda
kull mindi
kull dūka
examine
(facts, v.)
qnnel
faḥş kir, qanj fủeşlé, mpū-
teshlé
dit
except
patsi
illa, magar
illa
excuse (v.)
nerel
exercise (n.) marzanq
hijjah, gāzin þūjta
garrāndin, tā- jūrāba, isti'māl
lim kir
tafsīr kir, hāl mpūsheqlé
gotin
explain
patsatrel
baytetsnel
āgir dā
mushqillé nūra
explode
(trans.)
explode
(intrans.)
baytil
shqillé nūra
āgir girt,
taqāndin


224
VOCABULARIES
English.
explosion
exposed
Arabic.
infijār
ma‘rūdh
Persian.
infijār
ma'rūz
Turkish.
patlama
ma'rūz
ewe
eye
göz
face
faithful
fall
family
famous
naʻjah
mādeh mīsh dishi-qoyūn
‘ain (dual. chashm
‘ainain, pl.
uyũn).
wajh (pl. rūi, şūrat yuz
wujūh)
amin, şādiq wafādār sādiq, doghrū
saqat, yasquţuftādan, uft düshmék
'ā'ilah
ahl-i-khāneh familya, év,
choluq chojuq-
lar
mashhūr mashhūr, méshhūr
nāmdār
muta'assib mutaʻaşşib muta'assib
ba'id
dūr
uzaq
mazra'ah mazra'
chiftlik
na“āl
naʻl-band na‘l-band, bai.
tār (vet.)
samin
farbeh sémiz, (man)
shishman
ab
pidar
bābā, pédér
khāf, yakhāf tarsidan, tars qorqmaq
Shubāt Shubāt Shubāt
ma‘bar ma‘bar, géchid yére
guzar-gāh
fanatical
far
farm
farrier
fat
father
fear (v.)
February
ferry (n.)
humma.
fetch
fever
field
fight (v.)
fight (n.)
jā bi-, yaji bi- āwurdan, ār, gétir
tab
sitma
ḥaql, mazraʻah chaman
tarla
qātal, yuqātil jang kardan, muhārébé ét-
kun
mék
qitāl
jang
ghavgha, mu-
hārébé
mala, yamla pur kardan, doldurmaq
kun
muhrah madeh kuteh israq tải
fill
filly








VOCABULARIES
225
Syriac.
English.
explosion
exposed
Armenian. Kurdish.
baytiun
nshavag, yen- pésh
thaga(vdanki,
yevaln)
maqi,vochkhar meh
achq
chāv
qam (prep.) ni-
shan tā
ewe
erba, wāna
aīna
eye
face
yeres
rū, damuchāv pātha
faithful
fall
family
havadarim
ihnal
undaniq
rāst
ketin
khān
amin
npillé
baitha
famous
fanatical
far
farm
farrier
hrrchagavor,
anvani
molerrant
herrou
akarag
baydarr
mashhũr, khu- mushhũr
dān nāv
mutaʻaşşib mutaʻaşşib
dūr
raḥūqa
mazra'ah zrāta
naʻalband na‘alband
fat
father
fear (v.)
February
ferry (n.)
ker, kiroug qalāo, wiz qshīța,
shamīna
hayr
bāb
bābā
vakhnal tersin
zdélé
Pedrvar Sibāt
Eshwat
navag, last, gāmī, kalak gamiya,
kedi
qāyegh
mius goghmn
antsnelou
perel, danelinānd
müthélé
dent, jerm tā
shātha
tashd, dasht, dasht, chamm chamma, ḥaqla
grrvel, bader- sharr kir éwedhlé sharré
azme!
grriv
sharr, jang sharré
fetch
fever
field
fight (v.)
fight (n.)
fill
Itsnel
tezhi kir, purr mlélé
kir
filly
.
mdroug (tzi)
jūāni"
mūhertha
mu








VOCABULARIES
227
English.
find
finger
Armenian.
kdnel
mad
Kurdish. Syriac.
dīt, paidā kir khzélé
tili, amust şūbéta
fire-place
fire-wood
varraran
varrela payd
firing line
gragi sahman
bikheri bikhériyé
hizh, chilka, qaisé, ḥațab
dār
ardé sharr
lé sharr dūktha
dsharré
zakhm, rraq, khailāna
qawi
firm
amour, bind
fish (n.)
flag
tzoug
troshag
māsī
bairaq
nūnta
bairaq
flat
dapag, harth
dasht, sāwi
shțīḥa
flea
lou
kaich
perţéna
flee (v.)
pakhil
ravi
ʻreqlé
fleet
flesh
flock (n.)
floor
navadorm,
dormigh
mis
hod
hadag
gösht
tarsh, gārān
‘ard
peşra
tarsha
ar'a
flour
flower
ār, ārd
aliur
dzaghig
ţkhūna
warda
gul
fly (n.)
janj
maish, mūz
didwa
fly (v.)
fog
follow
trrchil, trril ferrīn
téré
mshoush, mar- mizh, tam | khépütha
rakhough
hedevel legal (or) lepa izellé bathré
hātin
snount, gera- khwārin, tesht ikhāla
gour
voda
aqla
food
foot
pé
footpath
shavigh


228
VOCABULARIES
Arabic.
English
for-
Persian.
barāyi
li-
Turkish.
-ichin (follow-
ing word)
benim-ichin
senin-ichin
for me
for thee
lak
barāyi-man
barāyi-tū
for him
for her
for us
for you
for them
forbid
.
lahu
lahā
lanā
lakum
lahum
naha, yanha
barāyi-ū ānin-ichin
barāyi-ū ānin-ichin
barāyi-mā bizim-ichin
barāyi-shumā sizin-ichin
barāyi-īshān anlar-ichin
qadaghan, qa- yasāq étmék
dagh or man
kardan, kun
guzār-gāh
ford (n.)
makhādhah
géchid
forecastle
gémi bashe
qamarase
jangal, bīsheh ormān
forest
ghābah
forget
onūtmaq
forgive
nasi, yansa farāmūsh
kardan, kun
‘afa ‘an, ya'fu bakhshīdan,
bakhsh
shaukah changal
'an
baghishlamaq,
‘afv étmék
chatāl
fork
formerly sābigan
fortifications șişārāt
sābiqā
șişār-hā
sābiqā, évvélja
istihkyāmāt
fortify
fortunate
fowl
fox
istiḥkām
dādan, deh
nīk-bakht
murgh
rūbāh
istihkyām
étmék
bakhtyār
tawuq
tilki
France
free (adj.)
Frenchman
fresh
Friday
ḥaşşan, yu-
þaşşin
saʻīd
dajājah
thaʻlab (pl.
tha'ālib
Frānsah
þurr, mutlaq
Frānsāwi
jadīd, rațīb
Yaum al-
jum'ah
bi-mahabbah
Firānseh
āzād
Frānsāwi
tāzeh
Jum'ah
Fransa
sér-bést
Fransez
tāzé
Jum'a
friendly
dūstāneh
dost








VOCABULARIES
229
English.
Armenian.
Kurdish.
bo, li
Syriac.
for
hamar
ţa, li
for me
for thee
for him
for her
for us
for you
for them
forbid
intz hamar bömin
tāli, qəti
qez hamar bota
țālokh, qā-
tokh
anor hamar bowi
tālé, qāté
anor hamar bowi
tālah, qātah
mez hamar bõma
tālan
tzez hamar bowā
tālaukhūn
anontz hamar bāwān
tālaihi
arkilel
þarām kirm uhrimlé
ford (n.)
borr, derbāz
borré
forecastle
hegheghad,
houn kedi
verin masn
khelats navi
andarr
forest
ghābah
ghābah,
tarrāsh
zhbin chõn
forget
morrnal
nghélé
forgive
nerel
shweqlé
zhé bhurtin,
'afū kirdin
changāl
chengāla
fork
padarrakagh,
chatal
formerly gankhav
fortifications amroutiunq,
pert
fortify amratsnel
paishīn, barin bqamaitha
chapar chaparé
istiḥkām kir
muzkhimlé
pakhta vor
fortunate
fowl
fox
hav
khudān-bakht mar gāda
mirrishk kthaitha
rūvi
téla
aghves
France
free (adj.)
Frenchman
fresh
Fransa
azad
Fransatsi
tharm
Ourpath
Fransa Faransa
āza, sarbast āza
Faransāwi Faransāya
tāza, nū, tarr khātha, tarra
Ainé, Jūmah Érūta
Friday
friendly
paregamagan
bdõstāhi
bkhūrūtha
MES. I


230
VOCABULARIES
English.
frighten
Arabic. Persian.
khauwaf, yu- tarsānīdan,
khauwif tarsān
min
az
Turkish.
qorqutmaq
from-
from me
from thee
from him
from her
from us
from you
from them
frost
minni
minka
minhu
minhā
minnā
minkum
minhum
az man
az tū
az ū
az ū
az mā
az shumā
az ishān
yakh
-dan (following
the noun)
bén-den
sén-dén
ān-dan
ān-dan
biz-dén
siz-dén
ānlar-dan
qeraghe, don,
meivé, yémish
jalīd
fruit
fuel
odun
thamar,
miweh
fawākih
waqūd, miḥrāq sūkhtanī,
himeh
mal'ān
pur
madkhanah dūdkash
full
funnel
dolu
baja
fuze (n.)
fatilah
zauba'ah
gale
fatileh
fetil
tūfān, bād-i- firtina
shadid
chār na‘l raftan durt na‘l
gitmék
darwāzeh qари
gallop (v.)
rakadh,
yarkudh
băb (pl. ab-
wāb)
ālāt
gate
gear
rakht, asbābālatlar,
taqim
bār-gir, ākhteh idish āt, bégir
gelding
șişān makhşi
general
gentle
German
Germany
get
amīr, qā'id sardār fariq
latif
narm, mulāyim mulāyim
Almāni
Almānī Alemān
Almānyā Almān Alemānya
þaşşal, yuḥaş- yāftan, yāb almaq, nāil
étmék, yetish-
mék,
qām, yaqūm bar khāstan, qalqmaq
or nahadh, khiz
yanhadh
şi]
get up (rise)








VOCABULARIES
231
English.
frighten
Armenian. Kurdish.
vakhtsnel tersāndin
Syriac.
muzdélé
from-
min
from me
from thee
from him
from her
from us
from you
from them
frost
(not in use se- zh
parately)
intzme
zhmin
kezme
zhtā
anke, anorme zhwi
anke, anorme zhwi
mezme
zhmā
tzene
zhwā
anontsme zhwān
yeghiam, sarr- jamid
namaniq
bdough méwah
minni
minnokh
minnéh
minnah
minnan
minnaukhu
minnaihi
jalīd, qarazīva
fruit
péré
fuel
varreliq
full
funnel
tizhī, tér
milya
li, letsoun
dzkhneluyz,
tzakarr
baythoutsich
potorig
fuze (n.)
gale
gallop (v.)
tūfān
karapéch, to-
pāna
muţrélé
qarrasmpakel bezāndin
tarbas dergā, dari
gate
tara
gear
gelding
general
gentle
German
Germany
get
sbasq, gaz- alat, khirrū- ālitiātha
madzq
mirr
vortzad (nerqi- bārgil bargila
nialsial tzi)
zoravar sar-askar sar-askar
azniv
narm, khwash nīkha
Kermanatsi Almāni Almnāya
Kermania Almānya Almānya
tserrq perel paidā kirin mḥūşellé
get up (rise)
yelnel
rābi
qimlé
P2


232
VOCABULARIES
Turkish.
English.
girl
girth
give
give in
Arabic. Persian.
bint, şabīyah dukhtar
daur al-ḥizām tang
a'ța, yu'ți dādan, deh
istaslam, taslīm
yastaslim shudan, shau
farḥān, masrūr khush-ḥāk
qiz
muhit
vérmék
téslīm-olmaq
glad
mémnun
qadéh
glass (for
drinking)
gloves
ka's (pl. ku’ūs) piyāleh
kufūf
dastkash-hā
éldiven
go-
go away
go in
rāḥ, yarūḥ raftan, rau gitmék
dhahab, or rawāneh gitmék
yadhhab
shudan, shau
(gum shau !
'go away!
get out!')
dakhal, yad- dakhil shu ichéri-gitmék,
khul
dan, shau girmék
kharaj, yakh- bīrūn raftan, chiqmaq
rau
ma'z
buz
kechi
dhahab
zar, talā
altun
khūb
iyi, güzel
go out
ruj
goat
gold
good
jaiyid
goose
governor's
office
grass
grateful
wazzah
dār al-
ḥukūmah
hashīsh, ‘ushb
shākir
öt
qāz
gāz
maħall-i-ḥukū- qonaq
mat
giyāh
haqq-shinās, mütéshékkir
shakūr
buzurg büyük
bālā pūshi qapot
sabz
yéshil
taḥīyeh kar selam-vérmék
dan, kunorsa-
lãm kardan,
great
greatcoat
green
greet
‘azim
‘abā
akhdhar
sallam 'ala,
yusallim ‘ala
kun
ashhab
grey
guide (n.)
dalil
khākistari
rāhbar
qer, gümüshü
izji, qulawuz.








VOCABULARIES
233
English.
girl
girth
give
Armenian.
aghchig
pog, gab
dal
antznadour
linel
ourakh
Kurdish. Syriac.
kich, kanishk brāta
bartāng
ānga
dān
iwellé
taslim kir msūlemlé
give in
.
glad
dilkhwash, pşikha
shād
tarār, shūshah kāsa
pazhag
glass (for
drinking)
gloves
tzerrnots
lapik, shelik bra’īdhātha,
lapikkātha
chön
izellé
zhdarva chõn npiqlé
yertal
go away
herranal
go in
ners yertal
hātindaré
iwéré
go out
tours yertal
chõnzhdar
npiqlé barāyé
goat
gold
good
aydz
vosgi
pari.
bizin
ezza
zér
déhwa
chāka, bāsha, tāwā, randa
qanj
qāz, sonā qāza
sarāi
şarãi
sak
goose
governor's
office
grass
grateful
garravar-
chadoun
khot
yerakhtaked
già
gilla
shekerdār
shakāra
great
greatcoat
green
greet
medz
mazin, gaurā rrāba
hard verargou sāko, abā ‘abāyah, sāko
ganach
shin, kask yarūqa
parevel, vogh- salām dā drélé shlāma
chounel
grey
guide (n.)
· korsh
arrachnort,
oughetsuyts
spi
khwāra
dalīl, shārazāi dalīl


234
VOCABULARIES
English. Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
guide (v.) hada, yahdi or rāhnumā'ī, yol göstérmék,
dall, yadull kardan, kun délálét étmék
guilty mujrim, jāni muqaşşir qabāhatli
gulf
khalīj
khalīj
körféz
gun (cannon) madfa' (pl. tūp
top
madāfi“)
gunboat ghānbot
ghānbot
hail
barad
tagarg, tagar dolu
hair
shaér
mūi
sāch
halt (v.) waqaf, yaqif wā istādan, eilénmék,
ist
dūrmaq
hammer (n.) matraqah chakush chékij
hammer (v.) daqq, yaduqq kūbīdan, kūb chaqmaq
hand
yad (pl. aidi) dast
hand grenade qumbalat al- khumpare-yi- él-qombarase
yad (pl.qanā- dast
bil al-yad)
hang up ‘allaq, . āwīkhtan, :āsmaq
yu‘alliq āwiz
harbour mīnā (pl. ma- bandar liman
: wāni)
hard
şulb
sakht, sift sért, qate,
hate (v.) karih, yakrah karāhiyat ‘adāvét étmék,
kardan, ikrāh étmék,
kun
sévmémék
have-
(pronominal dāshtan, dār (pronominal
suffix added
suffix added
to preposition
to the thing
‘ind, with)
possessed,
followed by
vār)
I have
thou hast
he has
she has
we have
you have
they have
'indi
'indak
‘indahu
‘indahā
'indanā
'indakum
‘indahum
dāram
dārī
dārad
dārad
dārīm
dārīd
dārand
-im vār
-in vār
-i (or si), vār
-i (or si), vār
-imiz vār
-iniz vār
-léri (or lari),
vār
yõq (used like
vār)
have not
mā “indi
(etc.)
na-dāshtan,
na-dār








VOCABULARIES
235
English. Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
guide (v.) arrachnortel riā nishān dā mūkhwélé
ūrkha
guilty
hantsavor günahkār gunahkār
dzots, khorsh
gun (cannon) thntanot top
topé
gulf
hail
hair
bardha
mezzé
mutūlé, klélé
gunboat thntanotana v
gargoud tairk, zīpek
maz
mū, par
halt (v.)
gank arrnel
rāwastan,
dainān
hammer (n.) mourj
chākuch
hammer (v.) tarpnel daq kir
hand
tzerq
dast
hand grenade tzerrqi rroump,
rrmpag
chākuch
mdūqiqlé
idha
hang up
gakhel
tlélé
halāwistin,
āwiz kir
harbour
navahankisd
mīna
hard
hate (v.)
gardzr
adel
sakht, rraq qeshya, sart
wakī dizhmin snélé
girt
have-
ounenal
I have
thou hast
he has
she has
we have
you have
they have
ounim
ounis
oni
oni
oninq
ouniq
ounin
min haya
ta haya
āu haya
āu haya
ma haya
wa haya
wān haya
ittī, ith lī
ittokh
itté
ittāh
ittan
ittaukhū
ittai
have not
ch’ounenal
min nina, &c. latti


236
VOCABULARIES
English.
have you?
Arabic. Persian. - Turkish.
hal ‘indak ? āyā mī-dārīd ? -iniz vār-mi ?
hay
quru ot
‘alaf, tibn giyāh-i-
khushk
he
hua
ū
head
ra's (pl. ru’ūs) sar
headache şudāʻ, waja“ dard-i-sar
ra's
headland ra's (pl. ru’ūs) rās
head-quarters markaz al- markaz-i-
qā'id al-'āmm sipah-sālār
bash
bash āghrisi
burun
qarārgyāh
healthy mutaʻāfi
tandurust, saghlam
chāgh
heap (n.) kõm.
tūdeh
yighin
heap up
kauwam, tūdeh kardan, yighmaq
yukauwim kun
hear
sami', yasma' shunīdan, ishitmék
shunau
heart qalb (pl. dil
yürék, günül
qulüb)
heat.(v.) sakhkhan, garm kardan, ésitmaq,
yusakhkhin kun
qezdermaq
or aḥma,
yuḥmi
heat (n.) þarārah
garmā þarārét, sijaq
heavy
thaqil
sangin
helm
daffah
sukkān dumén
help (v.) sāʻad, yusā'id madad dādan, yardem-étmék
deh
help (n.)
musā'adah yāwarī yardem
herd
sirb (pl. asrāb) galleh
sürü
here
hunā
bura, burda
hide (trans.) akhfa, yukhfi panhān kar- saqlamaq,
dan, kun gizlémék
hide (intrans.) ikhtafa, yakh- panhān saqlanmaq,
tafi
shudan, shau gizlenmék
high
'āli
buland yüksék
high-road tariq (pl. tu- rãh, shāh-räh jāddé yol
ruq)
agher
injā








VOCABULARIES
237
English.
have you ?
Armenian. Kurdish. '
ouniq? ouniq ta haya ?
toug?
khod
gīā, kā
Syriac.
gallő ittokh ?
hay
tūna
he
:
head
headache
an, aniga
kloukh
klkhatsav
Õ
sar
dardé sar
āwa
résha
mara drésha
headland sar, saravant shākh, halāt rūmta
head-quarters sbayaguydi
vayr, zorad-
deghi
healthy arroghj sākh, sāghlam sāghlam, sākh
heap (n.) tez, guyd shkerr kūmah, shkerra
heap up
tizel, goudagel sar dā, takwim mkūwimlé
kir
hear
Isel
behīstin shmélé
heart
sird
dil
libba
heat (v.)
dagtsnel
garm kir
mūshkhenné
heat (n.)
heavy
helm
help (v.)
garm
girān
khemma
yaqūra
dzanr
gheg
oknel
hāri dā
'inné
aun
hārī, yāri
gārān, rān
harah, éra
washārtin
būqra
ākha
mţūshélé
help (n.) oknoutiun
herd
nakhir
here
hos, asd
hide (trans.) thaqtsunel,
dzadzgel
hide (intrans.) thaqchil,
dzadzgvil
high
partzr
high-road arahed,
arqouni
țshélé
h
bilind
rīā, shahri
rrāma
ūrkha


238
VOCABULARIES
English.
high-water
Arabic.
madd al-mā
Persian. Turkish.
madd-i-daryā, méddi kyāmil,
déniz qabar-
masi
hill
tall (pl. tulūl) kūh, tappeh
tépé
him
his
hillock tall şaghir kūh-i-kūchak tépéjik
hilly
dhāt tulūl past u buland enishli-
yoqushu
-hu, -hi (suffix) ū-rā, -ash ona, onu
(suffix)
hinder mana',
man' kardan, braqmamaq,
yamna'
kun
mani' olmaq
-hu, -hi (suffix) -i-ū,-ash (suffix) onun
hit (v). aşāb, yuşīb zadan, zan vurmaq
hither
ila hunā bi-injā būraya
hobbles (n.) “iqāl
pā-band
hold (v.) masak, yam- giriftan, gir tūtmaq, yiqala-
suk
maq
hold (contain) iḥtawa, yaḥ- gunjāyish almaq; to be
tawi
dāshtan, dār contained, .
sighmaq
hold (a posi- ḥāma, yuḥāmi nigāh dāshtan, tūtmaq
tion)
dār
hold out taḥammal, mudāwamat dayanmaq
yataḥammal kardan, kun
hole
naqb (pl. sūrākh délik
anqāb)
honest şādiq
durust-kār, doghru
amin
hook
qullāb (pl. qa- qullāb chéngél
lālīb)
hope (n.) amal, rajā umid
hope (v.) raja, yarju umid dāshtan, ümid étmék
dār
horse
hişān
asp
horseshoe na'l faras naʻl
āt
na'l
hospital
mustashfa
bīmār-khāneh khasta-khāné








VOCABULARIES
239
239
Kurdish.
Syriac.
English..
high-water
Armenian.
maguntatsou-
tiun (partzr),
chourn
partzratsadz
plour
hill
girik, hardā,
chia
tella
hillock
hilly
plrag
plrayin
khūdān chžā
qarāj
him
āwa, h (suffix)
hinder
mniʻlé
his
wi
hit (v.)
hither
hobbles (n.)
zaniga (accus.) au
anor (dat.)
khapanel, man' kir
arkelq linel
anor
zarnel
lédā, lékhest
ays degh lharā, lérā
vodnagab kūbā
(tziou)
prnel
diyé, h (suffix)
qihlé
lākha
kitwé
hold (v.)
girtin
erélé
hold (contain) barounagel
mḥūmélé
mşūbéré, dimlé
hold (a posi- kravel, ounel
tion)
hold out timanal, dogal thabāt kir,
dast girt
hole
dzag
kunā
honest bargeshd rāst, dilpāk
nūqba
kéna
hook
jang, gerr
hope (n.)
hope (v.)
huys
housal
changāl, qullāf qullāba
émūd, hīví émūd
emūd (or) rajā itté (declin.)
kir
émūd
hasp
sūsa
naʻl
naʻla
horse
horseshoe
tzi
bayd, bayd
tziou
hivantanots
hospital
khastakhāna, khastakhāna
māristān








VOCABULARIES
:
241
English.
hostile
Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
tshnamagan dizhmen, dizhmen
nayār
daq (water),
garm
khamīma
doth (air)
zham
sāʻat
sāʻah, shétha
doun
māl, khāni baitha
vorchap
chand, chiţof kma
hot
hour
house
how much
how many
hungry
hurry (n.)
hurry (v.)
husband
vorqan, qani
anothi
shdab, shoud
pouthal,
shdabel
amousin
yes
sarouts, sarr
yethe
dked, anous
chand, chiţof kma
bersi
k pīna
lazī, ‘ajalah ‘ajalah
lazi (or) ‘ajalah mqulqillé
kir
mér, shū gaura
az, min
bafr, sāhul talga
agar, haka in
nazān
nazānī, jāhil
, ull
āna
ice
ignorant
ill
hivant
nasākh
krīha
illness
hivandoutiun
nasākhi, ésh
kurhāna
impossible
angareli
imprison
rel
pandargel
nābī, nāwū, lābarāya
ghair mumkin
hapis kir, dū- Ảbeslé
sākh kir
béḥaya dla nekhpa
impudent
lirp, anzkam
in-
i, mech
inconvenient anharmar
nīv, não
nā munāsib
bgav, b (prefix)
la munāsib
shadtsnel
ziāda kir
mūzedlé
shadnal
increase
(trans.)
increase
(intrans.)
India
Indian
indigestion
Hndgastan
Hndgagan
anmarsoghou-
zāid (or) galak zidlé
(or) mazin bū
Hindustān Hind
Hindi Hindwāya
tiun


242
VOCABULARIES
English.
infantry
Arabic.
piyādah
Persian. Turkish.
sarbāz-i piyādé ‘askér
piyādeh
sārī
bulashir, sāri
khabar dādan, bildirmék
infectious
inform
deh
in front
mu'di
akhbar,
yukhbir
quddām,
amām
quddām,
amām
fil-mustaqbil
pish
iléri
in front of
pīsh-i-
ön (+ suffix) dé
in future
ink
inlet,
hibr
khalīj şaghir
innocent
bari
dar āyandeh bundan soñra,
atida
murakkab mürékkéb
khalīj-i aghez, boghaz
kūchak
bi-gunāh qabāhatsez,
ma'sum
andarūn, dar ichindé
ihāneh kar- haqārat étmék
dan, kun ,
ihāneh haqārat
inside
insult (v.)
dākhil
ahān, yuhin
insult (n.)
ihānah
intelligent
‘āqil
hūshdār, ‘āqil ‘aqlli
intend
interpret
interpreter
into
invent
:1htiras
invite
arād, yurīd niyyat kardan, niyyét
kun
(+ suffix) vār
tarjam, yutar- tarjumeh térjumé étmék
jim
kardan, kun
tarjumān mutarjim térjumān
fī, ila
dar dăkhil ichiné
ikhtara', yakh- ikhtirāí ijād étmék
tari'
namūdan,
numā
daʻa, yadéu or da'wat kardan, daʼvét étmék
‘azam, yaʼzim kun or mih-
mān kardan,
kun
ḥadid
āhan
démir
hadidi
āhanin
démirdén
asqa, yusqi āb dādan, deh sūlamaq
jazīrah (pl. jazīreh
āda
jazā'ir)
iron (n.)
iron (adj.)
irrigate
island








VOCABULARIES
243
English.
infantry
Syriac.
paiyāda
Armenian. Kurdish.
hedevag, hede- payāda
vaga zor
varagieh
sārī
imatsnel khabar dā
infectious
inform
matepiāna, sārī
mukhbéré
in front
arrchev
péshin
qamāya
in front of
arrchev
pésh
qam
in future
abakayin
pāshé
bzamna d’āthé
ink
inlet
hobér, mūraken ḥuber
melan
moudq, khorsh
innocent
anmegh
kéna, dla gnabā
inside
insult (v.)
bégunā, bé-
quşūr
niv, não
khabarr got
i nersn, nersn
anarkel,
nakhadel
nakhading
gawāyé
mşū’éré
insult (n.)
dizhmināı, şa’oré
khabarr
‘āqil, tezhfām āqil, haunāna
intelligent
intend
oushim,
khelatsi
mdatrvil,
gamenal
tarkmanel
khwāst, ma- b’élé
rām kir
terzumānī kir mpūshiqlé
interpret
interpreter
into
invent
tarkman
i, i nerks
hnarel
tarjumān
niv, la
dīt
tarjamān
b. l. (prefix)
khzélé, ewedhlé
ikhtirā
invite
hravirel
mkuremlé,
dāwat kir,
gāzī kir
qrélé
āsin
prezla
iron (n.)
iron (adj.)
irrigate
island
yergat
yergatia
vorrokel
gghzi
āv dā
jazīrah
mūshqélé
jazīrah


244
VOCABULARIES .
English.
is there?
0
its
jackal
jam
January
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
hal?
hast? bulunur-mu ?
vār-mi ?
-hu, -hi, -hā ān
(suffix)
-hu, "-hi, -hā -i-ān (suffix) onun
(suffix)
wāwi (pl.wāwi- shughāl
chagāl
yah)
murabba murabba réchél, tatle
Kānūn ath. Kānūn-as-sāni Kyānūn-i-sāni
thāni
rasif, musan- iskaleh
iskélé
nāyah
Yahūdi (pl. Yahūdi Yahūdi
Yahād)
safar
safar
séfér, yoljuluq
ibriq
āftābeh, kūzeh desti
Tammūz Tammūz Témmūz
qafaz, yaqfiz jastan, jeh atlamaq
jetty
Jew
alar
journey
jug
July
jump (v.)
June
jungle
Hazīrān
ghābah
Haziran Hazīrān
jangal, bīsheh ormān
justice
keel
keep
kettle
key
kick (v.)
inşāf, 'adl inşāf, 'adl doghruluq,
huqūq
qā'idat al-
omurgha
· markab
ḥafiz, yaḥfaz nigāh dāshtan, saqlamaq
dār
kitri, ghal āb-garm-kun, qazan, ibriq
lāyah
kitri
miftāḥ
kilid
anakhtar
rafas, yarfus lakad zadan, tépmék, tékmé
zan
atmaq
jadyż
buzghāleh oghlaq
qatal, yaqtul kushtan, kush öldürmék,
késmék
mun‘im, ḥalim mihrabān iyi, insāniyetli
jins (pl. ajnās) nau'
név, turlu
malik (pl. shāh
mulūk)
kid
kill
kind (adj.)
kind (n.)
king
qral








VOCABULARIES
245
English.
is there?
Armenian.
ga artiog ?
Kurdish.
haya !
Syriac.
gallo īth ?
ayn
āu
āwa, āya
its
iur
wi (suffix)
éh, āh (suffix)
wāwi, tārītha
jackal
shnakayl
chaqal
jam
January
jam, mourabā murabba murabba
Hounvar Kānūné sānī Kānun kharāya
navamaduyts askalah
askalah
jetty
Jew
Hria
Juhi
Hudhāya
journey
jug
July
jump (v.)
janportoutiun safar
safar
gouzh
ibriq, āvtān talma, danta
Houlis
Tammūz Tāmuz
tsadgel, bānz dā, shwéré
vosdnoul jenqin
Hounis Khezīrān ziran
andarr
ghābah, jangal ghābah, tar-
rāshé
artaroutiun “adālat kénūtha, inşāf
June
jungle
justice
keel
kok, hadag
navi
bahel
keep
girtin nţéré
qāzān, tenjūr destītha, maqlé
kettle
san
key
kick (v.)
kilīla
pé lé dān
qdhila
mkhélé rapsé
panali
qatsi dal,
aqatsel
oul
spanel
kid
kill
kār
kūshtin
gidhya
qţille
kind (adj.)
kind (n.)
king
pari
desag
takayor
dilsoz, þebbi mraḥmāna
jins
ginsa
sultān, khum- malka
kār
MES. I


246
VOCABULARIES
English.
kingdom
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
mamlakah (pl. mamlakat mémlékét
mamālik)
mațbakh āshpaz-khāneh matbakh, ash-
khăné
rukbah zānū
diz
kitchen
knee
knife
sikkin (pl. chāqū, kārd bichaq
sakākīn)
knot (distance) mīl (pl. amyāl) mīl
mīl, déniz mīli
know
‘araf, yaʼrif dānistan, dān bilmék
Kurdistan Kurdistān Kurdistān Kurdistān
lack (v.) iḥtāj ila, kam shudan, eksik olmaq,
yaḥtāj ila shau
lāzim
lake
buhairah daryācheh göl
lamb
ţali(pl. țulyān) barreh
quzu
lame
aʻraj
lang
topāl (man),
aqsiyor (horse)
lamp
sirāj
chirāgh lampa, qandil
lance
rumḥ (pl. naizeh mizrāq
rimāḥ)
land (n.) ardh, barr zamīn
qara, érz
landing party tāli'in al-barr
qaraya cheqan
language
lughat, zabān
dil, lisān
lughah (pl.
lughāt)
kabir
ākhir
large
buzurg
ākhir, wā-pa-
last
büyük
sõn, géchén
sin
late
géch
laugh (v.)
muta’akhkhir, dir
bați
dhaḥik, khandīdan,
yadhḥak khand
zauraq
gülmék
launch (n.)
qānūn
qānūn
guzāshtan,
law
qānūn (pl.
qawānin)
lay (place, put) wadha',
yadha
kaslān
lead (metal raşāşi
adj.)
guzār
lazy
sust, tambal
surbi
qomaq,
yatirmaq
témbél
qurshūn








VOCABULARIES
247
English.
kingdom
kitchen
Armenian. Kurdish, Syriac.
takavoroutiun daulat, mam- dawelta, mal-
lakat
kūtha
khohanots mațbakh, āsh- mațbakh
khānah
dzoung zhnū, kõdk, birka
zrānī
tanag, zmeli kérek
skina
knee
knife
knot (distance) mghon
know
kidnal
zānin
Kurdistan Kurdistan Kurdistān
lack (v.) bagasil, nvazil bḥauja bū
īdhélé
Kurdistan
sniqlé
lake
lamb
lame
lij, ljag
karrn
.
bahr
barkh
leng, kullak
yāma
barkha
shilla
gagh
lamp
lance
lapter, lampa
nizag
chirā, lampā
rūmm, ram
lampa
rūmḥa
land (n.) tsamaq ‘ard
ar'a, yaushāna
landing party tsamaq elnogh
khoump
language
zimān, azmān lishāna
large
khoshor, medz mazin, gaurā rāba
last
verchin
pāshé, ākhir kharrāya
lezou
late
oush
khndal
kani
gkheklé
laugh (v.)
launch (n.)
shokenavag
law
orenq
qānūn qānāna
lay (place, put) tnel, barrgets- dainānd, hélā mutūlé
nel
lazy
dzuyl tembal kislān
lead (metal, gabaria qlā, ziriji, surb min rişāş
adj.)
Q2


248
VOCABULARIES
English. Arabic.
lead (metal n.) raşās
Persian.
surb
Turkish.
qurshūn
lead (v.)
qād, yaqūdrāh-numā’i
kardan, kun
naqb, thuqb sūrākh
gétirmék, ileri
düshmék
délik
leak (n.)
jild
chap
leg
saq
lean (adj.)
naḥīf
lāghar za'if, jiliz
learn
ta'allam, āmūkhtan, örénmék
yataʻallam āmūz
leather
charm, pūst méshin
leave (v.) tarak, yatruk guzāshtan, braqmaq,
guzār
térék étmék
leech
'alaqah (pl. zālū
sülük
'alaq), dūdah
(pl. dūd)
left
shimāl
sol
pā, sāq ayaq
lend
daiyan,
qarz dādan, udunj vérmék
yudaiyin(mo- deh or ‘āriyeh
ney); aʻār, dādan, deh
yu‘ir (gene-
ral)
length :
dirāzi
boi, uzunluq
less
kamtar daha az,
-dan āz (suffix)
letter
maktūb (pl. maktūb, méktūb
makātīb), nāmeh
risālah
(pl. rasā'il)
level (adj.) sahl (ground), musaţtaḥ, düz
mutasāwi
hamwār
lie (on a bed, idhțaja', dirāz kashi- yatmaq
&c.)
yadhtaji' dan, kash
lie (to tell a) kadhab, durūgh guftan, yalān söilémék
vakdhib gū
lie (n.) kidhb
durūgh. yalān
lieutenant mulāzim mulāzim mülāzim
tūl
aqall








VOCABULARIES
249
English. Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
lead (metal, n.) gabar (metal),
rişāş
hramanada-
routiun,
arrachnor-
toutium (of
army)
lead (v.) varel, arrach- pésh girtin, mūkhwélé
nortel
rīā nīshān dā ūrkha
leak (n.) jeghqvatsq, kunā, kunn nuqba
dzag
lean (adj.)
nihar
larr, razhi daqiqa, za'if
learn
sorvil
dasgirtin ileplé
leather
leave (v.)
gashi
thoghoul
charm
hélān
gilda
shweqlé, treklé
leech
dzroug
zūrī, dizrūk
‘alaq, zurūwa
left
leg
lend
tzakh
sroung
pokh dal,
shnorhel
chap
pé, sāq
bdain dā,
bqarz dā
chappé
shāqa, aqla
mdūyenné
(money);
iwellé
(general)
length
less
yergaynoutiun drézhi
nvaz
kémter
yerkhūtha
besh qişşa
letter
namag
kthāwa
kāghad,
mektūb
rāst
shțiņa, rāst
.
level (adj.) hart, havasar
lie (on a bed, barrgil
&c.)
lie (to tell a) sdel, soud
khosel
lie (n.) soud
lieutenant deghagal
rra keutin, ne- shteḥlé
westin
drāu kir mdugillé
drāu, drū dūgla


250
VOCABULARIES
English.
life
life-belt
Arabic.
‘umr, hayāt
hizām an-
najāt
Persian. Turkish.
zindagī, hayāt hayāt
kamarband-i- yüzméyé
najāt makhsūs
kémér, jān
qurturān
kémér
bar dāshtan, qaldirmaq
dār
subuk
khafīf
lift
rafa', yarfa'
khafif
light (of
weight)
lighter
dūbah
maʻūna
line
lip
lights
anwar
chirāgh qandiller,
fénérlér
limit
ħadd (pl. ḥadd
hadd, kénār
hudūd)
limp (v.) ‘araj, ya'raj langīdan, lang topallamaq
khatt (pl. satr
khatt, chizgi
khuộut) .
shafah (dual. lab . dudāq
: shafatain)
listen
aşgha ila, gūsh dādan, dinlémék
yuşghi ila or deh
sami', yasma'
little (adv.) qalīlan kam
az
little(quantity) qalil
andak, kam küchük, az
‘āsh, ya‘ish zindagāni yashamaq
kardan, kun
live (i.e.dwell) sakan, yaskun manzil dāsh- oturmaq,
tan, dār muqim olmaq
lively
nashīt khush tab janle
live
ver
liver
kabid
load (v.). ḥammal,
yuḥammil
load (n.) himl
load (a gun) “ammar,
jigar
qara-jiger
bār kardan, yüklémék
kun
bār . yük, hamulé
pur kardan, doldurmaq
yu'ammir
lock (n.)
kun
qufi
kilid
quf








VOCABULARIES
251
English.
life
life-belt
Armenian. Kurdish.
gianq zhi, umr
gensakodi
Syriac.
khãyé
lift
partsratsnel,
muremlé
grel
helānin, bar
girtin
sūk, sevekk
thethev
qalūla
light (of
weight)
lighter
lasd, navag
perrnagir
jrak
lights
rūhnāí, rozhnāībéhra
limit
sahman
hadd, senār
hadd, tkhūma
limp (v.)
gaghal
kulak bu, shil mkūleklé
bu
réz
réza
line
kidz
lip
lév, līw
siptha
shourtn (pl.
shrtoung)
Isel
listen
gūhdārin,
mūşithlé
little (adv.) sagav
little(quantity) sagavalhiv
live
abril
hendek, pe-
chak
zora
zhīn
qişşa
khélé
live (i.e. dwell) pnagil
manzil kir, sā- skenné
kin bū
chaspān kashshīra
lively
gaydarr,
arruyk
liart
perrtsnel
liver
load (v)
kauda
jerk
bār kir
muţenné
load (n.)
load (a gun
perr
itsnel
bār
ţéna
girtin, darmān mdūrmenné
da
qifl
qifla
lock (n.)
pagana


252
VOCABULARIES
English.
lock (v.)
Turkish.
kilidlémék
Arabic. Persian.
qaffal, yuqaffil qufi zadan,
zan
jarād
malakh
qurmah
chūb
locust
chékirge
odun
log
log (of ship)
barnāmaj
uzun
long
look at
ţawil
nazar ila,
yanzur ila
ḥāris
look-out (n.)
loot (n.)
rūz-nāme-yi- jurnal
kashtī
dirāz
nigāh kardan, baqmaq
kun
nigāh bān vārda
nöbétjisi
ghārat, yaghmā yaghmā,
ghanimét
gum kardan, ghāib étmék
kun
ziyān
zarar, zayāt
nahb, ghani-
mah
faqad, yafqid
lose
loss
khasārah (pl.
khasā'ir)
qaml
wāți
jazr al-mā
louse
low
low-water
bit
shipish
past
jazr-i-daryā
alchaq
déniz jézri, dé-
niz chékilmasi
magazine
(powder)
maize
makhzan al-
bārūd
dhurah
makhzan-i.
bārūd
zurrat
bārūt makh-
zane,jéb-khāné
misr boghdayi,
dāri
bimbāshi
major
bimbāshi
sarhang
make
man
map
yapmaq
adam
kharīta
March
Mart
şana', yaşna' sākhtan, sāz
rajul (pl. rijāl) mard
kharīțah kharīțeh,
naqsheh
Adhār, Mārs Farwardin,
Azār
zaḥaf, yazhaf kūchidan,
or masha, kūch
yamshi
faras
mādiyān
‘alāmah (pl nishān,
‘alāmāt) 'alāmat
march (v.)
yörümék
mare
mark (n.)
qesraq
nishān











VOCABULARIES
255
English.
market
marsh
Armenian.
shouga
jahij, mor
Kurdish.
sūq
hez, bésha
Syriac.
shüqa
waḥla
mast
gaym
master
varbed khudān, āgha stādha, raīs
matches loutski kibrīt, sha shakhāté,
khātah . kibrit
May
Mayis
Iyār
İyar
me
zis (accus.), mi, min i (suffix)
intz (dative)
mealies simit, tarm zūrat
dhūra
egyptatsoren
mean (v.) gamil, mida
khwast, qșidlé
sunenal marām kir
measure (v.) chapel pīvīn, qiyās kir kellé, qeslé
measure (n.) chap
pīwān, qiyās kaila, qyāsa
meat
mis
gösht
medicine tegh
darmān, ‘alāj darmāna
meet
hantibel räst hātin, Ibar khzélé
yak bū
melted butter iugh, yegh rūn
meshkha, du-
hāna
mend
norokel, gar- pīnā or ruq‘at mrūqélé
kir, dūrānin
peşra
gadel
merchant
vajarragan
medagh
bāzirgān, tujār tajāra, bāzar-
gāna
.mādan ma'dan
metal
metalled road khjoughi
.
middle
niv, naurās
palga
michin, mech
degh
mghon
zinvoragan
mile
military
milk
mill
millet
gath
mīl
‘askari
shīr
āsh
gāris
mīla
Saskari
khelya
ūrkhé, arkhel
gāris, dikhna
aghoriq
goreg


256
VOCABULARIES
English.
mine (pron.)
mine (n. ex-
plosive)
minute
Turkish.
benimki
laghm
daqiqa
Arabic. Persian.
-1 (suffis) māl-i-man
lughm (pl. lagham
alghām)
daqiqah (pl. daqiqeh
daqā'iq)
mafqūd gum shudeh,
nāqiş
khalaț, yakhliț āmīkhtan,
āmiz
khānqāh
missing
eksik, ghāib
mix
qarishdirmaq
monastery
dair
tékké
Monday
Dūshambeh
Bāzār-irtési
Yaum al-ith-
nain
monitor
monitor
monitor
monitor
séfinési
month
ai
shahr (pl. ash- māh
hur)
qamar
māh
moon
āi, mahitāb
ziyādé, dabā
more
akthar
ziyādtar
morning
şabāḥ
şubḥ
sabāh
fam
mosquito baʻūdhah pashsheh sivri sinék
mother
umm
mādar
ana, vālidé
mountain jabal (pl. kūh
dāgh
jibāl)
mountain silsilat jibāl kūhistān dāgh silsilési,
range
sira dāghlar
mouth
dahan
aghz
mouth (of fam an-nahrdahaneh (irmaq) aghzi,
river)
achig
move (trans.) þarrak, yuḥar- tahrik kardan, naql étmék
rik
move (intrans.) taḥarrak, yata- ḥarakat kar- qimildanmaq
harrak
dan, kun
much (adj.) kathir
bisyār
much (adv.) kathiran khaili
choq
mud
wahl
chamur
kun
choq
muddy
muwaħħal
gil-ālūd
chamurli








VOCABULARIES
257
Armenian. Kurdish.
ims, imins yāmin, émin
agan
robe, vargian daqiqah
English.
mine (pron.)
mine (n. ex-
plosive)
minute :
Syriac.
di’ī
daqiqah
missing
gorsvadz
hindā bū
msūkra
mix
kharrnel
taik dā, khalaț khletlé
kir
dér
daira
monastery
vang,
menastan
Yergoushapti
Monday
Dūshambah
Trūshāba
monitor
aztarar
month
amis
haiv, māh
yarkha
moon
lousin
séhra
more
a veli
māh, haiv, :
mong
galakter,
peterr
şubaḥī, subā
besh kabīra
morning
arravod
mosquito
mother
mountain
qadamta, be-
şpāré
bāqa
yemma
tūra
khépā
dā, dyā
chia
mayr
lerr
mountain lerrnashghta
range
mouth
peran
mouth (of keda peran
river)
move (trans.) sharzhel
dav
sarakāni
kemma
sarakāni
takāndin, tāḥ- mḥūriklé
rik kir
move (intrans.) sharzhil
galak, zõf, zūr kabīra
much (adj.) shad
much (adv.) · shad, huyzh
mud
tsekh, dighm
gerrek, herī,
qum
tīna, waḥla,
taqna
muddy
tshekhod


258
VOCABULARIES
Persian,
English.
mud flats
Arabic. .
dihlah, tamyŭ
Turkish.
balchiq
mule
muleteer
must
mutiny (n.)
mutton
my
nail (iron)
baghl (pl. bi- astar, qātir qater
ghāl)
baghghāl, mu- charvadār qaterji
kāri
lāzim an bāyad (imper. -meli, mali (suf-
sonal) · fix to verbal
root), lāzim
‘aşyān, thau ‘aşyān ‘isyān, tughyān
rah
laḥm dhāni gūsht-i- .
qoyun éti
gūsfand
-1 (suffix) -i-man, -am bénim, -im
(suffix) (suffix)
mismār (pl. mikh
chivi, mikh
masāmīr)
zifr (pl. azfār) nākhun tirnāq
dhaiyiq tang
dār
bahri
daryā'ī, bahri bahri
qād al-markab, kashtī rāndan, qapudanliq
yaqūd al- rān
étmék
markab
milāḥah, qiyā- rāh barī-yi- qapudanliq
dat al-markab jahāz
uştūl, 'imārah jahāzāt donanma
baḥrīyah
qarib
nazd, nazdik yaqen
nail (finger)
narrow
naval
navigate
navigation
navy
near
nazd ,
necessary it
lāzim, gérék
is)
neck
need (v.)
wajab, yajib or lāzim ast
lazim, yalzam
raqabah gardan
iḥtāj ila, muḥtāj shu
yaḥtāj ila dan, shau
ibrah
sūzan
boyun
muhtāj olmaq,
istémék
iyné
needle
neither ... nor lā ... wa-lā
nah... nah
né ... né
net
shabakah
dām
āgh








VOCABULARIES
259
Kurdish.
Syriac.
English.
mud flats
Armenian.
dghmayin
keda peran
chori
mule
éster
ködhenta,
kawedhna
qāterchi
muleteer
choreban
éstervān,
qāterchi
lāzim, garak
must
bedq e
lāzim
mutiny (n.)
absdampou- 'eşiān
tiun
vochkhari mis gõshté pazz
‘āşiyūtha, mā-
rõdhūtha
pişra d’érba
mutton
my
im
min (suffix)
i (suffix), di'i
nail (iron)'
kam, pevert
bizmār
bismāra
nail (finger)
narrow
yeghoung
ninuk
tang, task,
jemik
ţipra
‘iqa
negh
naval
navigate
navayin
navargel
navigation
navargoutiun
navy
dormigh
is)
near
mod, merdz- nézik
qariwa
avor
necessary it anhrazhesht e lāzim, garak klāzim, kimwā-
jib
neck
viz
ustū, hafk, mil qdhāla
need (v.) bedq ounenal, bħaujah sniqlé
garodil
needle asegh
sūzhen, derzi khmāta,
mkhāța
neither ... nor voch... yev nā...nā lā... wlā
voch
net
ourrgan, shabāk, dam shabākah
tsants


260
VOCABULARIES
English.
never
new
newspaper
nice
night
no
noon
no one
north
northern
nose
nosebag
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
abadan abadan (fol- bich ( +nega-
lowed by nā, tive)
not)
jadīd
nau
yéni
jarīdah (pl. rūznāmeh ghazéta
jarā'id)
malīḥ
latīf, khush iyi, güzél,
tatle
lailah
shab
géjé
lā
nā-khair khair, yoq
zuhr
zuhr
öilén
lã wahid hīch kas hich bir kimse
shamal
shamāl yildiz, shémāl
shamāli shamāli shémāli
anf
dimāgh, bīnī būrūn
‘alīqah,
tūbreh
yém torba-si
mikhlāt
mā (with
deyil, mā (with
verbs), ghair
verbs)
(with adj.)
lā lā
hargiz (fol- hich, assla (both
lowed by ne- followed by ne-
gative). gative)
la shai hich (with hīch bir shei
negative)
lis-sā' mā (fol- tā-bi-ḥāl daha deyil,
lowed by verb)
henüz deyil
Tishrin ath- Tishrin-i-sāni téshrin-i-sāni
thāni
alān.
aknūn, alān shimdi
mā [ + verb] fi hīch jā hich bir yerde
aiy makān
‘adad
"adad ‘aded, miqdār
miqdāf
pārū
kürék
dausar, shūfān dausar
tā'i', muți'
muțī
itā'atle
not
nā
not at all
nothing
not yet
November
now
nowhere
number (n.)
oar
yulaf
oats
obedient
obstinate
‘anid
‘inādji
sar-kash,
khud-sar
Tishrīn-i-
auwal
October
Tishrin al-
auwal
Téshrin-i-évvél








VOCABULARIES
261
English.
never
Armenian. Kurdish.
voch yerpeq, hich, abadan
pnav
Syriac.
abadan, hich
new
nor
therth Izakir
nū, nishk
gāzétā
khātha
gāzéta
newspaper
nice
azniv, qnqoush bāsh, chāk
randa
la
night
no
noon
no one
north
northern
nose
nosebag
kisher
voch
ges or
voch voq
hiusis
hiusisayin
qith
dobrag (tziou
snounti)
voch, ch'
shav
lailé
no, na
nīvro, nīmarö palgé dyoma
chū kas chữ khả
shimāl garbya
difin, qupu
juhor, tūra
nakhira
‘alīqah, juhorré
not
nā
lã
not at all
amenevin
qat'an, abadan qat'an, abadan
nothing
vochinch
chữ tesht, hich chữ mindi
not yet
November
terr voch,
dogavin voch
Noêmper
hésh nā, hīzhi hésh lā
nā
Teshrīni sānī, Tchérī kharāya
pāīz
nuhā, istāka daha.
bchū jā, bchū bchū dūktha
ardā
‘adad, azhmăr minyāna
now
nowhere
hima, ayzhm
voch oureq,
voch mi degh
thiv
thi, thiag
varsag
hnazant
number (n.)
oar
oats
obedient
obstinate
hamarr
ţāi, āti muti', mshu'-
bdha
kalahishk, anid, 'āşī
'anid
Teshrīni auwal Chérī qamāya
October
Hogtemper
MES. I


262
VOCABULARIES
English.
officer
Arabic.
dhābiţ
often
mirāran
Persian. Turkish
şāḥib-
zābit
manşab
bārhā, mukar- choq kérré,
raran
choq défa
roghan
kohneh éski, qadim
kohneh, far- eski
sūdeh
ikhtiyār
yagh
oil
old (ancient)
old (worn)
zait
fatig
bāli
old man
shā'ib,
pir
‘ajūz
old woman
omelet
‘ajúz
‘ijjah,
khāgīnah
on
'ala
pireh zan qoja qāri
khāgīneh qaighana
bālā'i ustundé,
uzérindé
yak, dū mar- bir kérré, iki
tabeh, seh kérré, üch
martabeh kérré
once, twice,
thrice
marrah, mar
ratain, tha.
lāth marrāt
only (adv.)
open (adj.)
open (v.)
or
order (v).
faqat
ū bas (at end) anjaq, yaleniz
maftūḥ kushād, maf- achiq
tūh, wāz
shudeh
fataḥ, yaftaḥ kushādan, achmaq
kushād
au
yā ... yā yā ... yākhod
amar, yaʼmur farmūdan, émr étmék,
farmā
buyūrmaq
amr (pl. awā- farmān, amr émr, firmān
mir), nizām
-nā (suffix) -i-mā (suffix) bizim
mālnā, lanā māl-i-mā bizimki
min
bīrūn, az an- -dan, -dan di-
darūn
shāri
qarāwu!
. qarāwul
ileri qol
na
order (n.)
our
ours
out of
outpost
outside
oven
khārijan
tannur
bīrūn
tannūr
disharda
furun
overboard
fil-bahr
dar āb uftādeh dénize düsh-
müsh








VOCABULARIES
263
Syriac.
English.
officer,
Armenian. Kurdish.
sba, zinvora- zābit
zābit
gan
often
hajakh
kabīré gahātha
oil
tzet, iugh
old (ancient) hin
old (worn) mashadz
purrjārān,
galak jārā
rūné zait
kõhn, 'atīq
pīra, parpetī
zaitha
atiqa
jīqa
old man
dzer
ikhtiār, pīr
sāwa
old woman
omelet
barrav
tzvatsegh
pīrazhin
sauta
on
i vera, vra
Isar, labān
elled, l'él
once, twice, mi ankam, jārak, dū jāra, khdha gaha,
thrice
yergou an sé jāra tetté gahātha,
kam, yereq
tellath gahā-
ankam
tha
only (adv.) miayn, sagayn bas
bass, faqat
open (adj.) pats
va, wa
pthīkha
open (v.)
panal
vakirdin
Un
pthékhlé
gam
or
order (v.)
yā, yān au
hramael, amr kir, naid pqidhlé, mūşélé
badvirel da
hraman, bad- farmān, amr pugdāna, amr
order (n.)
ver
our
ours
out of
mer
-ma (suffix) -an (suffix)
mern, merinn yāma, māléma diyan ,
ardaqo, tours zh (prefix) min
arrachabah péshé ‘askaré qamayūtha
(zorg)
outpost
outside
oven
d'askar
toursn
deri
barāyé
pourr
fūrī, tannūr tanūra
vra, verev
naven tours,' labaḥré bgo yāma
dzov angial
overboard
R2


264
VOCABULARIES
English.
owing to, be-
cause of
ox
pack-saddle
(camel)
pack-saddle
(mule)
pain
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
li-ajl
az barāyi -ichin, -dolayi,
sébébilé
baqar
nar gāu üküz
khurj al-jamal khurjīn-i dévé khamūti
shutur
khurj al-baghl khurjīn-i-qātir sémér
waja'
dard
āghri
Palestine
paper
pass (defile)
Filistin
Filistin Filistin
waraq, qirtās kāghaz kyāt
manfad (pl. tang, gardaneh boghaz, géchid
manāfid)
passage
password
mimarr
ism al-lailah
guzār-gāh
ism-i-shab
géchid
parola
path
patrol (n.)
patrol (v.)
pay (n.)
maslak(pl. ma- rāh-i-kūchak iz, méslék:
sālik), darb
(pl. durūb)
ḥāris, nātūr pāsbān qol
haras, yaḥrus pāsbānī kar dolashmaq
dan, kun
ujrah, shah- ujreh, mawā- ma‘āsh
rīyah
jib
dafa', yadfa' adā kardan, parasene vér-
kun
mék, maʻāsh
vérmék
şulḥ
şulḥ
sulh
pay (v.)
peace
qalam
qalam
pen
pennant
alam
qalém
filandéré
periscope
Persia
Persian
people
periskop
Bilad al-'Ajam frān
'Ajami, Fārisi Irānī
nās
périskop,
dürbin
‘Ajemistān
‘Ajemi
khalq, éhāli
bibér
mardum
filfil
filfil
pepper








VOCABULARIES
265
OX
gāh
pain
English. Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
owing to, be- badjarrav Ibar, bo min sabab
cause of
yez
taura
pack-saddle palan, hamed
(camel)
pack-saddle palan, hamed kurtān, palān rashwāna, kur-
(mule)
tāna
tsav
aish, zhān, mar'a
dard
Palestine Baghesdin Filistin Filliştin
paper
thoukht kāghaz warāqa
pass (defile) antsakir (per- galī, böghāz bõghāz, rāõla
mit), girj (of
galīya
mountains)
passage antsq
ré, rīā, rābörī ūrkha
password : antsaparr,
parola
path
shavigh, hedq rré, rīā ūrkha
nātoré
patrol (n.)
patrol (v.)
bahaban, kis- pāsbān,
hertabah naubachi
patrol unel naubah kir
hertabahel
vjar, vartsq haq, pārā
nţéré
pay (n.)
ḥaq
pay (v.)
vjarel
ḥaq dā
murzélé, iwellé
þaq
peace
pen
pennant
khaghaghou- şulḥ
şulḥ, shlāma
tiun
krich
qalam, khāma qalāma
droshag
(arrgakh tro-
shag navi vra)
periscop
periscope
tidag
Persia
Persian
people
pepper
Barsgastan
Barsig
zhoghovourt
bghbegh
'Ajam, Irān 'Ajam
‘Ajami 'Ajamāya
khalq, mīrāvā nāshé
filfil
f


266
VOCABULARIES
Arabic. Persian.
fotogrāf, şūrah ‘aks
Turkish.
fotograf
English.
photograph
(n.)
pickaxe
picket (n.)
mi'wal
khafar
bīl, tīsheh
talāyi
qazma
qaraqol
pier
iskaleh
iskélé
rasīf, musan-
nāyah
pig
pillow
pilot (n.)
khinzir (pl. khūk, khinzir domūz
khanāzīr)
wisādah, mukhaddeh, yasdiq
makhaddah bālish
qā'id al-mar- rāh numā qélaghuz
kab
(-yi-jahāz)
qiyādah ujrat-i-kashtī- qélaghuz üjréti
bānī
kalbah
ambur késsaj
pilotage
pincers
pistol
țabānjah
pīshtāv
tabānja
yér
place (n.)
makān (pl. makān, jā
amākin)
şaḥrā, maidān dasht, şaḥrā
plain (n.)
ova
plant (n.) nabāt (pl. nabāt fidan
nabātāt)
plate
şaḥn (pl. būshqāb, zarf tabaq
şuḥūn)
play (v.) laʻib, yalab bāzī kardan, oinamaq
kun
pleasant latīf
khush, latīf hosh, lézīz
pleased, to be imbasat, yam- masrūr shu- sévinmék,
basit
dan, shau mémnūn ol-
maq
plough (n.) miḥrāth, fad- shukhm saban
dān
plunder (v.) nahab, yan chāpīdan, yaghma étmék
hab
chāb or tārāj
kardan, kun
pony (bag șişān al-ḥaml, yābū yük béghire
gage)
kidīsh





VOCABULARIES
267
Kurdish.
Syriac.
Armenian.
lousangar
English.
photograph
(n.)
pick-axe
picket (n.)
pier
mourj kulāng, māwal ma'wal, nara
arrachakound,
picket
navamaduyts askalah askalah
pig
khoz
pillow
partz
khinzir, barāz khezūra
barāza
bālgī, bālif,
spadītha
seringnia
qapțān
pilot (n.)
pilotage
navoughigh,
navavar
navavarou-
tiun
aktsan
pincers
pistol
adrjanag,
pistol
degh, vayr
place (n.)
māshik, gāzek kalbtain
kalbtīn
dabanja dabanja
jā, ‘ard dūktha
dasht, chõl chõl, maidan
dashta
dār, nabāt īlāna, gilla
plain (n.)
tashd, tash-
davayr
plant (n.)
doung
plate
bnag
şahna
şaḥn, tapsī,
'amān
bāzīn
play (v.)
khaghal
mţū’ellé
pleasant hajeli
pleased, to be koh linel
khwash, bkaifa randa
khwash bū, pşikhlé
kaifāwī hāt
aror
jot
bdhāna
plough (n.)
plunder (v.)
aror
goghobdel
tālān kir, nahb nhiblé
kir
pony (bag-
gage)
krast
bargil
bargil, gidīsh


268
VOCABULARIES
English.
pontoon
Arabic. Persian.
jisr naqqal jisr
Turkish.
tombaz
pool
poor
birkah, ḥaudh ḥauz
hauz
faqir, miskin darvīsh, miskin fuqara (sing.
faqīr)
laḥm khinzir gūsht-i-khūk domuz éti
pork
bandar
liman
port
mīnā (pl.
mawāni)
port (of ship) jānib al-aisar
hard a-port ila jānib al-
aisar
porthole shubbāk
géminin iskelé
tarafe
alabanda iskêlé
lumbar déliyi
post-office
potato
bõstah
bațāțah
post-khāneh
sīb-i-zamīn
posta-khāné
patātés
pour out
sakab, yaskub rīkhtan, rīz
dökmék
prefer
powder (gun-) bārūd
bārūd
bārūt
praise (v.) madaḥ, yam- sitūdan, sitā médh étmék
daḥ
fadhdhal, tarjiḥ dādan, térjih étmék
yufadhdhil deh
prepare ista'add, āmūdan,āmā or hāzirlamaq
yastaʻidd
ḥāzir kardan,
kun
pretty jamil
khushnumā, güzél, dilber
qashang
thaman
fiyyét
prison ḥabs
zindān
habs-khāné
price
qimat
néfér
khususi
private nafar
nafar
(soldier)
private (room, khuşūşi khuşūşi
&c.)
projectile qadhīfah (pl. khumpareh
qadhā'if)
mérmi








VOCABULARIES
269
English.
pontoon
pool
Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
pontoun, nava- prt, jisr, kuprī gishra, jesr
gamoureh
ljag
bõrr, birkah, birké
þau?
aghqad miskin, faqir miskéna
khozi mis göshté barāz pişra dkhu-
zūra
navahankisd mīnā
mīna
poor
pork
port
port (of ship) navi tzakha-
goghmn
hard a-port ghegn teb
tzakh
porthole badouhan
tntanotits
navi
post-office namagadoun
potato
patates
pour out
letsnel
posţakhāna postakhāna
patāta, patāté
sévéardé
lvakhwārené msūreqlé'
dā-raizhīn
bārūd, téz bārud
madiḥ kir mdiḥlé
powder (gun-) varrot
praise (v.) kovel
prefer
keratasel
tafzīl kir
mfūzillé
prepare
badrasdel
paikīnā, ḥāzir ewedhlé pék,
kir
mūḥdhéré
pretty
siroun
chāk, dalāl
jūndāya
price
prison
kin, arzheq
pant
bahā, qīmat
ḥaps, girti.
khana
nafar
haqq, tīmé
ḥaps
nafar
private zinvor
(soldier)
private (room, arrantzin
&c.)
projectile ungetsiq
khuşūşī
khuşūşi
gullā
gunbilta


270
VOCABULARIES
English.
promise (v.)
propeller
province
pump (n.)
punish
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
wa'ad, ya'id waʻdeh dā söz vérmék,
dan, deh va'd étmék
laulab, daulāb charkb vaporun per-
vanési
wilayah vilāyat vilāyét
tulumbah tulumbeh tulumba
‘āqab, yu‘āqib sazā dādan, mujāzāt étmék
deb ormujāzāt
dādan, deh
tatabba', ya- taʻaqqub kar- qoghalamaq
tatabba' or dan, kun ta'qib étmék
taʻaqqab,
yata‘aqqab
ḥatt, yaḥuţt guzāshtan, qomaq
or wadha', guzār
yadha'
lifāfat ar-rijl bastan-i-pā dolaq
pursue
put
puttee
quarantine
quarter (v.)
maħjar șiḥhi, qaranțin qarantina
qarantīnah
askan, yuskinmanzil dādan, oturtmaq
deh
raşīf
iskaleh rikhtem, is-
kélé
zūd
chabuk, téz
sarī'an
zūd, bi-zūdī chabuk
quay
quick
sarī:
quickly
quiet
quilt
raft
rails
railway
hādi
sākit, ārām rāhat, ūslū
lihāf
lihāf
yorghān
kalak
kalak
kélék sal
khuộut
'amūd-hā-yi- rai
ḥadīdīyah rāh-i-āhan
sikkat
rāh-i-āhan demir yol,
al-ḥadid
chemin de
fer, trén
maḥattah maḥațțah mahatta,
istasion
matar
bārān
yaghmūr
națaḥ, yanțiḥ kūbīdan, kūb basmaq
masāfah,mada āmāj, masāfat atem
railway-
station
rain (n.)
ram (v.)
range








VOCABULARIES
271
English.
promise (v.)
Armenian.
khosdanal
Kurdish.
wa‘dah kir,
qaul dā
Syriac.
mwū‘idlé
propeller
province
pump (n.)
punish
vanich, navi
bdoudag
nahank
chrhan
badzhel
wilāyat wilāyah
trumbā trūmbah
tarbya dā, pé mqūşişlé
gahin
pésh chẽ, ‘réqlé bathré
ravāndi
pursue
hedabndel,
haladzel
(enemy)
put
dā niān
mutūlé
puttee
pasta, shībāqa
zankabanag,
dzngagab
qarantin
quarantine
karantina
karantīna
quarter (v.)
manzil dā
deghavorel,
pnagetsnel
qarap
mu'méré, mus-
kenné
askalah
quay
askalah
quick
zū, sevek, gurj qalūla
zū
quickly
qalūla
quiet
quilt
arak, shdab
shdabav,
shoudov
handard
vermag
lasd
tsang, vanta-
hādī, sākit nikha, hidya
laḥéf, urghān laḥéfa
kalak
kalak
raft
rails
railway
rīā pāpāré
ūrkha diprizla
railway-
bārān
mitra
gabad
yergatoughi
gayaran
station
rain (n.)
ram (v.)
range
antzrev
khoy
asparez,
michots
hangau, masā- masāfa, qyās
fah


272
VOCABULARIES
English.
rarely
Arabic. Persian.
nādiran nādiran
Turkish.
nādiran
read
qara, yaqra
khāndan,khān oqumaq
red
ready
hādhir
āmādeh, ḥāzir hāzir
rear
warā
‘aqab géri, arqa
rearguard mu'akhkhar, faqab-i-lashkar dumdār
al--askar
reckless jasūr, ghair bī-parwā, mutéjassir
muktarith bī-i'tinā
recruit ‘askari jadīd sarbāz-i-tāzeh yéni qur'a,
'ajemi néfér
aḥmar
qirmiz, surkh qermeze
refuse (v.) aba, ya'ba inkār kardan, istémémék
kun
regiment
ālai, fauj fauj
ālāi
regret (v.) asif li-, afsūs khurdan, té'éssuf étmék
ya'saf li-
regulation qānūn (pl. qānūn, qā'ideh nizām,
qawānīn)
usül
reinforcements madad madad, qu- imdād,
shūn-i-tāzeh istinādāt
reins
‘inān, zimām 'inān
gém qāyishi,
dizgin
release (v.) ațlaq, yuțliq rahānīdan, salevérmék
rahān
reliefs
madad
madad
tébdīlāt
khur
remain
baqi, yabqa
remember
repeat
tadhakkar,
yatadhakkar
karrar,
yukarrir
qarrar,
yuqarrir
māndan, mān qalmaq,
durmaq
yād dashtan, khātirlamaq
dār
takrār kardan, tékrār söilémék
kun
iţtilā' dādan, taqrīr étmék,
ishāré étmék,
khaber vérmék
iţtilā
taqrīrāt
report (v.)
deh
report (n.)
taqrīr








VOCABULARIES
273
English.
rarely
read
Armenian Kurdish. Syriac.
toun-oureq, bkémāhī, nā- nādiran, bkém-
sagav-oureq diran
āūtha
gartal
khwāndin, qrélé
khwinin
badrasd ḥāzir
hādhir
hedguys, ye- dūmāhī, lbathra
devn
lapāshé
verchabah pāshé “askaré kharayūtha
(zorg)
d'askar
anhok
jasūr, béparwa jasūr
ready
rear
rearguard
reckless
recruit
‘askar nū
norahavaq
zorq
garmir
merzhel
nazāma
khātha
smõga
la qbillé, rfizlé
red
sõr, āl
qabūl nākir
refuse (v.)
regiment
regret (v.)
regulation
zorakount
tsavil, apsosal asaff kir, tengi m’usūflé
gark, ganon
qānūn
qānāna
reinforcements nor uyzher
imdād, hāri madad
reins
yerasan, santz lighāu
léghéma
release (v.)
artzagel
āz kir, berdān ewedhlé āza
reliefs
zoravik, baha- īsāī, hār, hāwār hāwar, ‘aun
gapokhoutiun
zorats
mnal
māīn, rāwastin pishlé
remain
remember
hishel
labīr hātin
ithélé lbālé,
tkhéré
tnélé
repeat
grgnel
takrār kir
report (v.)
lour dal,deghe- iqrār kir
gakrel
ewedhlé iqrār,
shidhlé
report (n.)
deghegakir
taqrir
iqrār, sāhdū.
tha


274
VOCABULARIES
English.
reserve (n.)
Arabic.
radīf
Persian.
radīf
Turkish.
rédif, ihtiyāt
resistance
muqāwamah, muqāwameh muqāvémé
thābit, ‘āzim bā ‘azm sābit qadém
difā'
resolute
rest (v.)
istarāḥ,
yastarīḥ
maţ'am
natījah
ārāmīdan, istirāhat ét-
ārām
mék
āshpaz-khāneh loqanda
natījeh nétījé
restaurant
result
retreat (n.)
retreat (v.)
return (v.)
taqahqur ‘aqab nisha- géri chikilish,
stan
rij‘at
adbar, yudbir ‘aqab raftan, géri chikilmék,
rau
rijºat étmek
raja', yarji bāz āmadan, dönmék, géri
gélmék
thaurah . thaureh, haya- téhavvul
jān
āi
revolution
· (revolt)
pahlū
rich
ride
revolver musaddas, shish-lūleh alti-patlar,
warwar
révolvér
rheumatism waja' al-mafā- dard-i-mafāşil yél
şil
rib
dhil' (pl. ustukhān-i- gaburgha
dhulū“)
rice
ruzz
birinj pirinį
ghani
tawāngar, zengin
mutamauwal
rakib, yarkab suwār shudan, binmék, āt ilé
shau
riding-horse șişān ar asp-i-suwārī binék āti, āt
rukūb
rifle
bunduqīyah tufang tufénk
right yamīn (right rāst
doghru
hand), muşīb
(straight) sāgh
(correct)
(right hand)
right away ķīlan! birau ! bis doghrudan-
mi'llāh ! doghruya
right (of direc- mustaqim, rāst
-é (suffix) yol
tion)
‘adl
gitmék








276
VOCABULARIES
English.
ripe
Turkish.
õlmush
river
Arabic. Persian.
nādhij, rā’ij rasīdeh,
pukhteh
nahr (pl. rūd-khāneh
anhār)
ţarīq (pl. rāh
turuq)
ţarīq al-jimāl rāh-i-shutur
ţarīq al-bighāl rāh-i-qātir
shāri' muzallat shöşeh
nehir, sū
road
yol
dévé yolu
qāter yolu
shõsé
road (camel)
road (mule)
road
(metalled)
road
(unmetalled)
rock (n.)
ţarīq waʻir
rāh-i-waʻir
'ādi yol
sang
qaya
şakhr (pl.
şukhūr)
şakhri, wa‘ir
saqf
qayali
rocky
roof
sang-lakh
bām
dām
room
root
rope
rotten
rough
round
hujrah
ūtāq
oda
aşl
bīkh
kük
ḥabl (pl. hibāl) rīsmān ip, bālat (cable)
fāsid, (smelling) pūsīdeh chürük
mutaʻaffin
khashin durusht, zibr puruzlu, sért
dalghali (sea)
mudauwar mudauwar, yuvārlaq,
gird . déyirmi
jadhaf, yajdhuf părū zadan, kürék
zan
chékmék
aḥmar
qirmizī,
qezel
surkh
kharābāt wairānhā vīrāné
jara, yajri dawīdan, dau qoshmaq
qaşab
qamesh
row (v).
ruddy
ruins
run
rushes
nai
Russia
Russian
Rūsiyah
Rūsi
Rūs, Urūs
Rūsi
sack
sad
kis
hazin
juwāl
ghamgin
Rūsya
Moskov,
Rūsyāle
turba
mükédder,
mahzūn
éyér
saddle (n.)
sarj
zin








VOCABULARIES
277
ripe
English. Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
hasoun
gehia, gahish- bshila
tū, chébia
river
ked
āv, rūbār néhra, shatta
road
janabar, oughi rré, rīā, raiga ürkha
jampa
road (camel) oughdi jampa
road (mule) chorii jampa
road
khjoughi,
(metalled) shose
road
hasarag jampa
(unmetalled)
rock (n.) zhayrr bar, sūg, git képa
rocky
roof
zhayrrayin
daniq
room
root
rope
rotten
seniag
armad
baran, chvan
pthadz
sarbān, sar- biqarshé, saqaf
khăné
manzal, öda öda, manzal
rih, kok aşl, qāra
warīs, bāng khaula
razīā, pīs spisa, serya
rough
goshd
zbīr
la randa
round
glor
mudauwar, mudauwar,
girover, khirr glõla
row (v.)
thiavarel
ruddy
ruins
run
rushes
Russia
Russian
garmrorag, şör, qirmizi smoqa
garmrakuyn
averag
kharābah kharāba
vazel
ravī, ling dā ʻriqlé
hartzagmounq, chiqa
qanyé
khoyanq
Rousia Urūs, Misqof Misqof
Rousiatsi, Misqofī, Urūsī Misqofāya
Rous
barg, dobrag juwāl, kīsā kīsa
dkhour dāmāi, dilşõtī, ghbīna
khamin
thamp
zin
sarga
sack
sad
saddle (n.)
MES. I


278
VOCABULARIES
English. Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
saddle (v.) asraj, yusrij zīn kardan, éyérlémék, éyér
kun
vurmaq
saddlebag khurj khurjin heibé
safe (adj.) ämin
bi-salamat sāgh
sailing-vessel safīnah kashtī-yi-bādi yélkén gémisi
shurā'īyah
sailor mallāḥ kashti-bãn, gémiji
mallāh
sails
| bād-bãn, shira' yélkélér
salt
milaḥ
namak tuz
salute (n.) taḥīyah, salām taḥīyeh, salām selām
salute (v.) sallam, salām kardan, selāmlamaq
yusallim
kun
sally out (v.) kharaj 'ala, khārij shudan, chiqish étmék
yakhruj ‘ala shau
same
mithl, nazir hamīn, barā- bir farqsez,
bar
aini
it is the same hua bi-'ainihi hamin-ast ikisi bir
qilā'
this is the hādha mithl in bā ān yakīst ikisi bir
same as that dhāk
sand
raml
rīg
qum
sandbank shatý ramli pushte-yi-rīg sighliq
sandy
Saturday
ramli
rīgi
Yaum as-sabt Shambeh
qumlu
Jum'a-értési
saucepan
save
qidr
anqadh,
yunqidh
dīgcheh ténjéré
rahānīdan, qurtarmaq
rahān or najāt
dādan, deh
arreh
déstéré
saw (n.)
minshār
say
qāl, yaqil
guftan, gūi
söilémék, de-
mék
déyorim
I say
aqūl
mī-gūyam
thou sayst
taqūl
mi-gū’i
déyorsin








VOCABULARIES
279
English.
saddle (v.)
Kurdish.
zin kir
Syriac.
msūreglé
Armenian.
thampel,
hamedel
bayousag,
khourjin
abahov
saddlebag
khurjin
safe (adi.)
pāshazīn,
khurjīn
amin, dla
darak
amīn, panā
sailing vessel arrakasdanav
sailor
navasti
arrakasta
sails
salt
salute (n.)
salute (v.)
agh
voghchuyn
voghchounel
khwé
salām, selāv
selāv dā
melkha
shlāma
drélé shlāma
sally out (v.) khoyanal,
hartzagel
same
nuyn
zhdarvā hāt
wak, nazīr
npiqlé barāyé
mukhdaigid
it is the same ' nuynn e har au bukh- āwa bigiāné
waya
this is the jisd ador bes e au wak awā ādhi mukh-
same as that
daigid adhi
sand
avaz
khīz, raml khīzé, epra
sandbank avazap, ava-
zathoump
sandy
avazod
Saturday Shapat Shambā, Yauma
Shamū dshabtha
saucepan san, aman qāzān, tanjūra distītha, qidhra
save
prgel
khalāş kir mkhulişlé
saw (n.)
sghots
harrek, mashār masarta, min-
shär
say
usel, asel
baizhin, gotin iméré
I say
thou sayst
yes g’asem or az dabaizhim kimrin
g’usem
tou g’ases or tū dabaizhé kimret
g'uses
S2


280
VOCABULARIES
English.
he says
Arabic.
yaqūl
Persian.
mi-gūyad
Turkish.
déyor
we say
naqūl
mi-gū’īm
déyoriz
you say
they say
I shall say
I said
ՑԱՆՁm
scarcely
scatter
taqūlān mi-gū’īd déyorsiniz
yaqūlūn mi-gūyand déyorlér
.sa-aqūl khāham guft déyéjéyim
qult
guftam dédim
nādiran bi-dushwārī nādiran, hé-
man, güch
; hāl ilé
nathar, yan- pāshidan,pāsh dāghitmaq,
thur
sachmag
maktab maktab, mad- méktéb
(pl. makātib) raseh
miqaşs miqrāz 'maqass
rā’id (pl. jasus
ruwwād)
laulab, daulāb charkh
vaporun
pervānési
bahr
daryā
déniz
nūr barqi chirāgh-i késhf-i-ziyā
barqi
school
scissors
sca
scout (n.)
izji
screw (pro-
peller)
sea
searchlight
season
faşi
faşl
mévsim
sea-wall
musannāyah
secret (n.)
secret (adj.)
secretary
sirr (pl. asrār)
sirri
kātib
sirr, rāz
sirrī
dabīr, kātib
déniz rikh-
témé, dalgha
qiran
sirr
sirr, gizli
kyātib, sirr
kyātibi (private
secretary)





VOCABULARIES
281
English.
he says
Kurdish.
au dabaizhet
Syriac.
kimer
we say
am da baizhin kimrokh
you say
kimrūtün
Armenian.
an g’ase or
g’use
meng g’asenq
or g’usenq
touq g’aseq
or g’useq
anonq g’asen
or g’usen
yes bidi asem
or bidi usem
yes asetsi or
usi
haziy
they say
hūn dabai-
zhin
wān dabai-
zhin
az da baizhim
kimri
I shall say
bid'amren
I said
ma got
imérī
scarcely
nādiran
nādiran,
bkémāhī
scatter
tsrvel
blāu kir, wa- mburbizlé
rāndin
maktab madrasah
school
tbrots
scissors
scout (n.)
mgrad
ted, bahaban
miqāsh
jāsūs
miqqaş
gashosha
bdoudag
burghi,charkh burghi, charkh
screw (pro-
peller)
sea
searchlight
baḥré, daryā
yāma
dzov
lousakhuyz
(parosneren
yev naveren
artzagvadz
khouzargou
luys)
yeghanag
season
faşlé sālé
shukhlāpa
dshāta
sea-wall
dzova-badnesh
sirr, penhāni rāza
secret (n.)
secret (adj.)
secretary
kaghdniq
kaghdni
qartoughar,
krakir
kātib
kātiba


282
VOCABULARIES
Turkish.
English.
secretly
gizli
see
görmék
Arabic. Persian.
sirri, makh- makhfī,
fīyan
panhăn
shăf, yashūf or dīdan, bin
ra’a, yara
talab, yațlub justan, jū
or fattash,
yufattish
qabadh 'ala, giriftan, gir
yaqbidh 'ala
seek
aramaq
seize
zabt etmék,
tūtmaq, girift
étmék
kéndi
self
nafs (pl. nufūs) khud, khīsh
sell
bāʻ, yabī'
satmaq
furūkhtan,
furūsh
ishāreh
namā'ī
ser
semaphore
simafor
sémafor
send
arsal, yursil
sentry
firistādan, göndérmék,
firist
irsāl étmék
qarāwul, nöbétji
pāsbān
tafriqeh kar- ayirmaq
dan, kun
ghafīr (pl.
ghufarā)
farraq,
yufarriq
separate
(trans.)
September
Ailūl
Eilūl
Mihr-māh,
Ailūl
wakīl
naukar
sergeant
servant
chāwūsh
khādim
chāwūsh
hizmétji
serve
khadam,
yakhdim
khaiyat,
yukhaiyit
suds dā'irah
khidmat kar- hizmet étmék,
dan, kun ishini görmék
dūkhtan, dūz dikmék
sew (v.)
sextant
uşturlāb
sextant
shade (n.)
shake
zil]
nafadh, yan-
fudh
sāyeh
gülgé, sāyé
takān dādan, sārsmaq
deh








VOCABULARIES
283
English.
secretly
Armenian
kaghdnapar
Kurdish. Syriac.
bdizī, zhépāni brāza, bţushwa
see
desnel
khzélé
dītin, chāu
pāī kir
taftīsh kir,
pé garriān
seek
pntrrel
mputishlé
seize
prnel
girtin
erélé
self
sell
semaphore
inqn
khwa, bkhwa begiãn (with
pronouns)
dzakhel ferõhtin, mzūbenné
feroshtin
tzaynadar,
tzaynapogh
(kortzig vorov
navabedn
g’khosi)
ghrgel, ou henārtin, mshūdéré
ghargel
shāndin
bahnort naubachi naubachi
send
sentry
separate
(trans.)
anchadel,
pazhnel
judā or jīā kir, preshlé
pishirāndin
September
Sepdemper
Ailūl
Îlun
sergeant
servant
serve
sew (v.)
hisnabed chāwish chāwish
dzarra, sbasa- khulām, nāu- ghulāma, khā-
vor
ker
dim
dzarrael, khizmet kirkhdimlé
sbasavorel
garel
dīrūn, dūrān- khetlé
din
sextant,
angiunachap
shouk, sdver sī, keresī ţella
tsntsel, takāndin, ju-
sharzhel māndin, we- npişlé
shāndin
sextant
shade (n.)
shake


284
VOCABULARIES
. English.
shallow
Arabic.
qish, dhaḥl
Persian.
pāyāb
Turkish.
sigh
shave (v.)
ḥalaq, yaḥliq
'trāsh étmék
tirāshīdan,
tirāsh
gūsfand
sheep
qoyun
kharūf (pl.
khirfān)
sharshaf
sheet
chādar
charshaf
shell (n.)
shell (v.)
ship
shoe (n.)
na‘l
shoe (v.)
qumbulah (pl. khumpareh mérmī, qum-
qanābil)
bara
rama bil-qanā- khumpareh an- qumbara
bil, yarmi bil- dākhtan, an- atmaq
qanābil
dāz
markab
kashtī, jahāz séfiné, gémi
kafsh, pīneh papush, qun-
dura
na“al, yuna“il na‘l band kar- na‘lamaq
dan, kun
rama, yarmi gulūleh an- tufénk atmaq
or qauwas, dakhtan, an-
yuqauwis dāz or tīr an-
dākhtan,
andāz
dukkān (pl. dukkān dükyān
dakākīn)
sāḥil
kinār, sāḥil sāhil, sū kénāre
shoot
shop
shore
short
shot
shoulder
shout (v.)
qaşīr
kūtāh
qissa
ramyah, ițlāq tīr, gulūleh qurshun,
sachma
katif (dual dūsh
omuz
katifain)
bāng zadan, baghermaq
zan
miḥfar
pārū
kürék
azhar, yuzhir namūdan, göstérmék
numā
shrapnel . shrapnel shrapnel
shovel (n.)
show (v.)
shrapnel








VOCABULARIES
285
English.
shallow
Armenian.
dzandzagh
Kurdish. Syriac.
borr
borré, dūktha
dipsa'a
tirāsh kir, kūr gré’lé
kir
méh, paz erba
shave (v.)
adzilel
sheep
vochkhar
sheet
ghatā, jājimi
savan(for bed), jājīm, char-
therth (for chaf
paper)
shell, rroump
gunbilta dţõpé
shell (n.)
shell (v.)
shellel, rrmpa-
harel
ship
gami, markab markwa
şõl, pélāv, na‘l şāulé, naʻla
shoe (n.)
nav
goshig
baydel, nalel
shoe (v.)
shoot
shoot
naʻl kir m nu'ellé
āvītin, taqān- twéré nīshan
din
kndagaharel,
zarnel
shop
dikkān
dikkāna
khanout,
krbag
ap, yezerq
shore
nézīké āvé, sā- siptha dmāya
hil
short
shot
kndag
shoulder
shout (v.)
garj
kurt
kerya
harvadz, şachma, rişāş gunbilta, şach-
ma
ous, thigounk mil, pil rūsha
kochel, tsayn dangor hāwār mʻuyițlé,
dal
kir, kālin şrekhlé
thiag
pārū, hestīvroshta, marra
tsuyts dal nīshān dā mukhzélé,
mukhwélé
shrapnel
(pegorq bay-
thogh kndagi)
shovel (n.)
show (v.)
shrapnel


286
VOCABULARIES
English Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
shut (see close) sadd, yasudd bastan, band qapamaq
sick
maridh
khasta, keifsez
side
jānib
slege
muḥāşarah
sight (of gun) nishān
signal ishārah
bīmār, nā-
khush
pahlū
muḥāşareh
nishāngāh
yān, jānib
muhāséré
nishān-gyāh
ishārat
ishārét
silent, to be sakat, yaskut khāmūsh shu- sésiz olmaq or
dan, shau or sukūt olmaq,
sākit shudan,
shau
silting radm, imtilā gil-band qum vé cha-
mur séddi
silver (adj.) min fidhdhah nuqrā'ī gümüsh
silver (n.) fidhdhah nuqreh
gümüsh
since
mundhu tā, az waqti keh -dan béri(suffix)
sink (trans.) gharraq, yu- gharq kardan, bātirmaq
gharriq
kun
sink (intrans.) ghariq, gharq shudan, bātmaq
yaghraq
shau
sister
ukht (pl. khāhar,
qiz-qardash
akhawāt) hamshireh
sit
jalas, yajlis nishashtan, oturmaq
nishin
skilful
māhir
hunarmand, hünerli
zaring
skin (inflated) qirbah
mashk sāl, kélék
slaughter (n.) dhabḥ
kushtār qirim
slaughter (v.) dhabaḥ, kushtan, kush késmék, hélāk
yadhbaḥ
étmék
sleep (n.) naum
khābīdan ūyqū
sleep (v.)
nām, yanām
ūyūmaq
khābīdan,
khāb
āstīn
sleeve
kol
kumm (pl.
akmām)
bați
slow
yawāsh
yavāsh








VOCABULARIES
287
English. Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
shut (see close) kotsel, pagel bestīn, kuch- ghleqlé
ändin
sick
hivant nāsākh, nākh- krīha
wosh
side
goghm
teref, jānib jānib, dipna
siege
basharoumn șişār
þişār
sight (of gun) nshanatsuyts nīshāngāh sipā nīshangāh
(hratsani)
signal nshan, aztan- nīshān nīshan
shan
silent, to be Irrel, lourr dav girt, bé shtiqlé
mnal
dang bū
silting
dghmalits
gilbānd
skāra
ziv, ziw
zhwakht
silver (adj.) ardzathia
silver (n.) ardzath
since
horme hede
sink (trans.) souzel,
ungghmel
sink (intrans.) souzil,
ungghmil
sister
quyr
séma
min
mughriqlé
dabinda or bin ghriqlé
Lãy chỗ
khushk, khātha
khung
rūnishtin itūlé
sit
nsdi]
skilful
jardar, hmoud ‘āqil, tézhfahm shāțir, māhir
skin (inflated) dig, barg
slaughter (n.) godoradz
slaughter (v.) godorel,
sbanel
sleep (n.)
charm, ziqq ziqqa
nkhāra
kūshtan, zabḥ nkhéré
khawā, khāu
shintha, dmā.
kha
sleep (v.)
qnanal
newestin
dmikhlé
sleeve
tezaniq
bāl, hūchik
darpilta, brai-
dhātha
yaqūra
slow
gamats
pégirān, ya,
wāsh


288
VOCABULARIES
English.
slowly
Persian.
āhisteh
Turkish.
yavāsh
Arabic.
yawāsh,
‘ala mahl
şaghīr
aşghar
small
smaller
kūchak
kūchaktar
ufaq, küchük
daha küchük
զoզն
qār
smell (n.) rā'iḥah
bū
smell (trans.) shamm, bū kardan, qoqlamaq
yashumm kun
smell (to stink) taʻaffan, mutaʻaffin qoqmaq
vata'affan shudan, shau
smoke (n.) dukhān
dūd
duman
smoke (v. to sharib ad-duk-tutūn kashī- tütün ichmék
bacco) hān, yashrab dan, kash
ad-dukhān
smooth amlas
şāf, hamwār düz
snow (n.) thalj
barf
soap
şābūn
şābūn
sābūn
soft
nāʻim
narm
yemushaq
soldier ‘askari, jundi sarbāz. Saskér
şalb, matīn mujassam métin, qavi
sometimes baʻdh al baʻzī auqāt, baʼze kérré
auqāt,
ahyānan
ihyānan
somewhere fi makānin mā yak jā bir yére, bir
yerde
son
ibn
pisar
oghl
song
ghinā (pl. āwāz
türkü, sharqi
aghāni)
soon
‘an qarīb
chabuk, téz
sound (adj.) sālim
sālim
sāgh, saghlam
sound (noise) saut (pl. aşwāt) şadā
sés
solid
zūd
miqyās al-mā miqyās
isqandil étmése
sounding
(water)
soup
sour
sour milk
south
southern
spade
shurbah
ḥāmidh
laban
janūb
janūbi
misḥāt
āb-i-gūsht
turush
māst
janūb
janūbī
bil
chorba
ékshi
yoghurt
jénūb, qibla
jénūbi
bél








290
VOCABULARIES
.
English.
spark
Arabic.
sharārah
Persian.
akhgar,
sharāreh
guftan, gūi
Turkish.
qighiljim
speak
söilémék
takallam,
yatakallam
khuşūşan
specially
khuşūşan
bāshlija
speed
sur'ah
sur'at
sür'at
spirits
‘araq
‘araq
rāqi
qāshūq
bahār
chashmeh
qāshiq
ilk beħār
punar, cheshme
spoon
mal'aqah
spring (season) rabī
spring (of ‘ain mā
water)
spur
mihmāz
squadron
dunanmā
(nautical)
mihmīz mahmuz
daste-yi-kash- donanma, filo
tihā-yi-jangi
bora
squall (wind) nau (pl. anwā) bād-i-tund
square (adj.) murabba murabba
durt kushéli
stable
staircase
akhur
merdiven
iştabl, akhūrţawīleh
daraj
nardbān,
palleh
sāq, qaşab shākheh
sāplar
stalks (of
millet or
maize)
stallion
faḥl (pl.fuḥūl) asp-i-nar
aighir, āt
stand (v.)
waqaf, yaqifor īstādan, ist
qām, yaqūm
najm (pl. sitāreh
nujām)
jānib al-aiman rāst
ayaqda dur-
maq, dikilmék
yildiz
star
starboard
sanjaq, yale
alabanda yale
ila jānib al-
aiman
ḥāl (pl. aḥwāl) ḥāl
hard a-star-
board
state (condi-
tion)
station (rail-
way)
hal
maḥattah
maḥattah
mahatta,
istasion








VOCABULARIES
291
English.
spark
Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
prisk, chrisk, sharāritha
gaydz
pāll
speak
khosel
götin, akhāftin muḥkélé
speed
spur
specially hadgabes khuşūşan, ga- khuşūşan
lagter
arakoutiun lazī, sur'at sur'ah, qalū-
lūtha
spirits vokelits umpe- ‘araq
"araq
liq, oghi
spoon
ktal
kauchik, hask matamta
spring (season) karoun
bahār
bahār
spring (of aghpiur kāni
aina
water)
khthan, mtrag pishin sqāta
squadron
koumardag,
(nautical) dormigh (of
battleship)
squall (wind) jich, aghaghag, bā mazin karapéch
potorig
square (adj.) qarragousi chārgāh, mu- murabba'
rabba'
stable
akhorr, kom pāga, ākhūr bikāré
staircase sandsukh pilakān, erde- simalta
văn salal
stalks (of tsoghoun shākh, pāl qörma
millet or
maize)
stallion krasd (mada- faḥl, tamāzalk faḥla
gakhantz)
stand (v.)
ganknel
rāwustan qimlé, klélé
star
asdgh
stār, hassāra
kaukhwa
starboard
rāst
liamné
arrachagoghm
navi
ghegn tebi
ach .
vijag
hard a-star-
board
state (condi- •
tion)
station (rail-
way)
ķāl
ḥāl
gayan, gaya-
ran





VOCABULARIES
293 -
English.
steal
Armenian.
koghnal
Kurdish.
dizin
Syriac.
gnūlé
steam
shoki
bukhan
bukhār, hau-
hāra
steamer
shokenav
steel (n.) boghbad pūlā
põladh
steel (adj.) boghbadia
min põladh
steering-gear sharzhich
kortziq, aniv
stem (of ship) klkhadzayr
(navi)
stern
verchadzayr
(navi)
steward dndes,sbasavor khādim, khiz- ghulāma
(navi)
matkār
stick (n.) kavazan dār, gopāl qatta
still (adv.) dagavin ḥatta nuhā hul dahā
stirrups asbantag auzūm, zengī rekkébé
stock (of a gun) goth (hratsani) qundākh
qūndākha
stoker
navl-gragarar
qar
stomach porr, stamox zik, māda ma‘dah, kāsa
stone
bar
képa
stony
qarod
stop (intrans.) gank arrnel rāwustān, klélé, smikhlé
sakinin
stores
mtherq zakhīra, anbār zakhīra, ‘anbar
lar, thel
storm
potorig, mrrig tufān, farta- ţāvia, kara-
nah
péch tufān
stormy potorgalits
straight
drest, rāst drest, ‘adil
oughigh
strange
odar
gharīb
nakhrāya
strap
yeriz, pog
qāish
qāīsha
strategy
rrazmakidou-
tiun
straw
hart
- kā, kah tūna
shidag,
MES. I


294
VOCABULARIES
Persian.
English.
stream
street
strength
Arabic.
nahr saghir
shāri'
quwwah
jūi
Turkish.
chāi, sū
soqāq
quvvét
khiyābān
zūr
strike
strike camp
string
strong
stupid
quvvetli
dharab, zadan, zan vurmaq
yadhrib
qala' al-khi- chădirhā chādirléri
yam, yakhla' kandan, kun qaldirmaq
al-khiyam
khait
rismān
qawi
qawi
balīd, aḥmaq nā-dān ‘aqlsez,
shashqen
ghauwāşah ghauwāşeh tahtu'l-bahr
bil-marrah, nāgāh
āp-ānsez, bir-
fuj'atan
dén-biré
sukkar qand, shakar shékér,
qaşab as nai-shakar shékér qāmishi
sukkar
muwāfiq munāsib münāsib, lāiq
submarine
suddenly
sugar
sugarcane
suitable
şaif
summer
tābistān yaz
sun
shams
āſtāb
günésh
Sunday Yaum al-aħad Yekshambeh Bāzār-günü
sunrise ţulū' ash- tulūʻ-i-āftāb gün doghusu
shams
sunset ghurūb ash- ghurūb-i-āftāb ghurūb, gün
shams
batese
supplies ma’ünah, ta’- zakhīreh lévāzimāt
diyah
surgeon jarrāḥ
jarrāḥ
jarrāh
surrender sallam, yusal- sipurdan, teslim etmek
(trans.). See lim
sipār
also“ give in'
suspected maznūn maznūn shubhéli
sweet
swim (v.)
ḥulw, 'adhb shirin
tatle
(water)
sabaḥ, yasbaḥ shināwarī kar- yüzmék
dan, kun
saif (pl. suyūf) shamshir qilij
sword








VOCABULARIES
295
English.
stream
street
strength
Armenian.
arrou, vdag
poghots
uyzh, zorou-
tiun
zarnel, khpel
Kurdish.
āv, rūbār
kõlān
zūr, hāz,
quwwat
Syriac.
néhra, rubāra
alõla
zakhmūtha
strike
strike camp
vranel
bār kiriné
maț'oné
string
strong
stupid
lar, thel
zoravor
aboush
risī, pat gdhādha
khurt, qawi zakhma
bémézh, aḥ- sakhla, aḥmaq
maq
submarine
suddenly
submarin
hangardz
shghaflé
ghaflatan,
zhneshkiwa
shakar
shékar
sugar
sugarcane
shakar
shaqareghek
suitable
harmar
summer
sun
Sunday
sunrise
amarr
arev
Giragi
arevadzak
munāsib, léhā- munāsib, lāiq
tin
hāvin
qaița
tāv, tāu shemsha
Yekshamb Khaushāba
rūhalāt, şu īsāqa dyauma
baḥi
khwārāwā, gnāya dyauma
ghurūb
zakhīra zakhira
sunset
arevamoud
supplies
bashar eghen
jarrāḥ, þakim jarrāḥ
teslim kir msulemlé
surgeon
virapuyzh
surrender hantznel
(trans.). See
also give in'
suspected gasgadzeli
khū shubha
bshubha,
bgumān
shirin
sweet
anoush
ḥalūya
swim (v.)
loghal
malavāu bū
şkhélé
sword
sour, thour
shir
saipa
T2


296
VOCABULARIES
English.
Syria
table
tactics
take
Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
Bilād ash- Shām
Shām
Shām, Sūriya
mā'idah mīz
trébézé, sofra
tadābīr al-ḥarb tadābīr-i-har- tértīb ul-jeish
bīyeh
akhadh, giriftan, gir almaq
ya’khudh
takallam, þarf zadan, gonūshmaq
yatakallam zan or
guft-u-gū
kardan, kun
ţawil
buland bālā ūzūn boilu
alīf, ahli
dast-āmūz térbiyé
hadaf, nīshān nishān nishān
talk (v.)
tall
tame
target
taste (v.)
tea
teach
dhāq, yadhūq chashīdan, tātmaq
chash
shāi
chāi
chaï
Sallam,
taʻlīm dādan, örétmék
yu'allim or deh or
darras, yudar- āmūkhtan,
ris
āmūz
mazzaq, pāreh kardan, yertmaq
yumazziq kun
telegrāf
teleghrāf . télégrāf
telegrāf teleghrāf- télégrāf-khāné
khānah
khāneh
nāzūr
dūrbīn buzurg dūrbīn
qālli-, yaqūl li- guftan, gūi söilémék
tear (v.)
telegraph (n.)
telegraph-
office
telescope
tell
tent
chādir
khaimeh,
chādir
mikh
tent peg
chādir qāzighe
tent rope
rasan, țanāb
chādir ipi
khaimah (pl.
khiyam)
watad (pl.
autād)
ţanāb (pl.
atnāb)
min
shakar,
yashkur
ann
dhālik (fem.
tilk)
than
thank
az
-dan (suffix)
shukr kardan, téshékkür
kun
étmék
ki
În
ki
that (conj.)
that (pron.)
0, ol








VOCABULARIES
297
English.
Syria
Armenian. Kurdish.
Syria
Shām
Syriac.
Sūrīya, Shām
table
tactics
take
seghan méz, şifrā méz, şifra
rrazmakhagh,
tactis
arrnel, vertsnel helgirtin, shqillé
birīn, stāndin
zroutsel, gātin, akhāv- muḥkélé
khosel
tin
talk (v.)
tall
tame
target
yergayn drézh
undani, undell kedī, ahli
nshaged, nīshān
nshan
jashagel tām kir
yarikha
kadī, ahli
nīshan
taste (v.)
tmé’lé
chāi
tea
teach
chay, they
sorvetsnel
ousoutsanel
chāi
tālim kir, dast muliplé
dā
tear (v.)
badrrel
telegraph (n.) herrakir
telegraph- herrakradoun
office
telescope herratidag
tell
usel, asel
deryān, bizdān- jiqlé
din
teleghrāf
téleghrāf
teleghrāf- teléghrāfkhāna
khānah
dörbīn dorbīna
gātin, khabar mukhbéré -
dā
māl, kūn, chā- kwina, chāder
dir
senk, mīkh stunta
tent
vran
tent peg
vranatsits,
vrani tsits
vrani lar
tent rope
bãng, rist
khaula dek-
wīna
min
shkéré
qan
than
thank
zh .. la ..
shiker kir
that (conj.)
that (pron.)
shnorhagal
linel
the, zi, vor
at, ayt, ayn
av, au
āwa


298
VOCABULARIES
English. Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
thaw (n.) dhawabān gudāz-i-yakn qārlarenérimési
thee
-ka (fem. -ki) tu-rā
sana (dat.), séni
(accus.)
their
-hum, -hini -i-īshān (suffix) onlaren
(fem. -hunna,
-hinna)
theirs
mālhum
māl-i-ishan onlaren-ki
them
-hum, -him ishān-rā onlara (dat.),
(fem. -hunna,
onlare (accus.)
-hinna)
then (at that 'ind dhālik dar ān waqt ol vaqet
time)
then (after thumma ba'd az an ondan sora
that)
thence min hunāk az ānjā oradan
o biri, o birléri
dīgar,
dīgarhā
the other(s) al-ākhar (pl.
al-ākharūn),
fem. al-ukhra
(pl. al-ukhar)
there
hunāk
thermometer mizān al-
þarārah
these (pron.) hā’ulā
hum (fem
hunna)
thick
ghalīz
ānjā
miqyās-i-
þarārat
inhā
ishān
orada
mizān-i-
harārét
bunlar
onlar
they
thief
thimble
thin
þarāmi
kushtubān
kuluft, ambūh qālen
(of trees, &c.)
duzd
khirsiz
angushtāneh yüksük
lāghar, nāzik injé, zaʻif
raqiq
thine
thing
think
-ka (fem. -ki) māl-i-tū
shai
chiz
iftakar, yaf- pindāshtan,
takir
pindār
‘atish, ya'țash tishneh shu-
dan, shau
‘atshān tishneh
hādha (fem. in
hādhihi)
séninki
shei
düshünmék,
zann étmék
sūsuz olmaq
thirst (v.)
thirsty
this
sūsuz
bū








VOCABULARIES
299
English.
thaw (n.)
thee
Armenian. Kurdish.
tsogh
av buyān
kez, skez tā, tū
Syriac.
pishrāna
-ōkh (fem.-akh)
their
anonts
-wān, awān
-waihi
theirs
them
anontsn yāwān
zanonq (accus.) -wān
anonts (dat.)
dīvaihi
-naihi
then (at that an-aden avjār, wéjāré āi gah
time)
then (after aba, hedo
that)
thence andi, ande- zhwédaré, min tāma
ghen
zhéra
the other(s) mius, mius- édī, dītīr
aukhenna, an
nern (pl.),
khenné
ayl, aylq (pl.)
there
ayn-degh, ant audaré, āora tāma
thermometer chermachap
these (pron.)
asona
anong
they
văn, amān
văn, awān
āni
ānī
thick
tantzr, khid
thief
thimble
thin
kogh, avazag
madnots
nosr
ustūr, tīr
(liquid)
diz
kishtabāni
zrāva, larr
ghalīz, qishya
(liquid)
ganāwa
kishtabāni
naqidha, ra-
qiqa
dyõkh
mindi
mtukhminné
thine
thing
think
qougt
pan, ir
mdadzel,
khorhel
dzaravil
yāta, māléta
tishtak
fakkirin
thirst (v.)
tihnā or tī, bū şhélé
thirsty
this
dzaravi
ays
tina, ti
av, ama
şehya
ādhi








VOCABULARIES
301
English.
thither
those (pron.)
Armenian. Kurdish.
on antr, hon lawédaré
adonq, anonq văn
tou
tū
thel, tertzan risī, dezhī,
machir
sbarrnal tahdid kir
Syriac.
tāma
ānai
āyet, āté
gdhādha
thou
thread
10 lir
threaten
ewedhlé tahdid
throat
gogort
gūrī, gilū, qur- qdhāla
rig
thunder
Thursday
tick (insect)
tidal
vorodoumn dandar, dangī gargimma
āsmān, hāu-
rataqa
Hinkshapti Penjshamb Khamshau-
shāba
tziasdats
(michad),
gene, gana
deghadvayin
yev magn-
tatsayin .
magntatsou-
tiun yev-degh-
advoutiun
(flow and ebb)
gabel
giri kir, sha- īşéré
dāndin
bind, birg tang
hazīqa,
þezyõqa
minchev ḥatta, tā hūl
zhamanag zamān, wakht zauna
tide
tie (v.)
tight
till
time
timid
tired
to
tobacco
yergchod tersõk, kemdil zado’a
hoknadz wastā, mānig jihya
arr, i
la, -é (suffix) 1 (prefix)
dzkhakot, tu- tutun
tutun
tun
aysor
avrõ, amrő idyo
vodqi mad tel pé
şubéta d’aqla
vaghn
şubaḥi, baiānī sapra
azmān, zwān lishāna
to-day
toe
to-morrow
tongue
cou


302
VOCABULARIES
English.
to-night
Arabic.
al-lailah
Persian.
imshab
Turkish.
bū gejé
tonnage
too (also)
tool
tooth
toothache
top-boot
torpedo (n.)
ḥamūlat al- maḥmūl géminin
markab
tonélatase
aidhan
ham
dakhi
ālah (pl. ālāt) alat
ālét
sinn (pl. dandān
dish
asnān)
waja' al-asnān dard-i-dandān dish-āghrisi
jazmah
chakmeh chizme
lughm (pl.
torpil
alghām)
mass, yamass dast zadan, doqunmaq
zan or lams
kardan, kun
şalb
sift,
sért, qate
naḥw
sū-yi-
tarafina (after
the word)
fūțah
dastmāl haule, péshgir
touch (v.)
tough
towards
towel
tower
burj (pl. burūj) burj
qulé
town
madinah
track
translate
athar țarīq
tarjam,
yutarjim
tarjumah
shahr, qaşabeh shéhir
(small)
rāhcheh yol, iz
tarjumeh kar- térjumé étmék
dan, kun
tarjumeh térjumé
translation
treacherous
tree
ghaddār
dirakht
khain
aghach
trench
gaudāl,
khandaq
héndéq, siper
tribe
ghaddār
shajarah (pl.
shajar)
khandaq (pl.
khanādiq)
qabilah (pl.
qabā’il)
khabb,
yakhabb or
harwal,
yuharwil
hidnah
qabīlé, ‘ashirét
trot (v.)
luk luk raftan ris gitmék,
ilgār gitmék
truce
hidnat, tark-i- mutéréké
aslihah





VOCABULARIES
303
Am
English.
to-night
Armenian.
ays kisher
Kurdish.
av shavā, am
Syriac.
idlailé
shāu
tonnage
too (also)
tool
tooth
daroghoutiuni
(navi)
nuynbes zhi, zi, ham
kortziq
älat
ādam
dudān
ham
ālitta
kāka
dardé dudān mar’a dkāka
toothache
top-boot
torpedo (n.)
adamnatsav
yergan goshig
torpedo
touch (v.)
shoshapel
tpchil
dast girtin
gishlé b-
tough
towards
gardzr, bind
tebi
sart
țarafé
sart, qeshya
Ibālad, l-
towel
kafīya, khaoli kaflīya
tower
srpich,
yeressrpich
ashdarag,
amrots
qaghaq
burj
būrja
town
shahr, bāzhar mdhīta
track
translate
heda
tarkmanel
daus
tarjamat kir
daus
mturjimlé
translation
tarjamah
tarjamah
tarkmanou-
tiun
nengavor
dzarr
treacherous
tree
ghaddār, khāin ghaddār, khāin
dār
īlāna
trench
khram
tribe
tsegh, dohm
‘ashīret, māl 'ashīrah
trot (v.)
suyr, yerakn-
thats
luk lok cho
mluqliqié
truce
zinatatar
havālīyé
ithāya likhdha-
dhé


304
VOCABULARIES
English.. Arabic. Persian.
truck ‘arabah ‘arabīyeh
Turkish
vagon
true
try
Tuesday
tug (boat)
Turk
şaḥīḥ
rāst
doghru, sahīh
jarrab, yujar- kūshīdan, chaleshmaq,
rib
, kūsh
téjribé étmék
Yaum ath- Sehshambeh Sále-günü
thalāthā
markab jarrār jahāz-kash remorqueur,
chatana
Turki (pl. Turk, 'Osmānī ‘Osmānle, Turk
Atrāk)
Turkīyā Rūm, Khāk-i- Mémālik-i-
‘Osmānī "osmānīyé,
Turkiya
raja', yarji bar gardīdan, géri dünmék
gard
burj (pl. burūj) kungureh top qulése
maghshi 'alaih bi-hūsh baighin
Turkey
turn back
turret
unconscious
under
taḥt
zīr
altinda
understand fahim, yafham fahmīdan, anlamaq
fahm
under way musāfir rawāneh harékétdé
olan gémi
undress oneself khala' ath-thi- rakht kandan, soyunmaq
yāb, yakhla' kan or lukht
ath-thiyāb shudan shau
unexpected ghair munta- nāgahān umūlmamish
zar
uniform
(soldier's)
unjust
unlucky
kiswat 'askarī- rakht-i-nizāmī forma
yah
?ālim
bī-inşāf, zālim,
sitamkār i nsāfsez
ghair maimūn bad-bakht bakhtsez,
zévalé
thaqil, ghair nāpasand nakhosh
lațīf,
ghair munāsib nā-muwāfiq yaramaz
unpleasant
un
unsuitable








306
VOCABULARIES
English.
untrue
Arabic.
ghair şaḥīḥ
us
-nā (suffix)
use (v.)
istaʻmal, yas-
ta'mil
Persian. Turkish.
durūgh (lie) yalān (lie);
doghru deyil
mārā
bizé (dat.),
bizi (accus.)
isti'māl kar- qullanmaq
dan, kun or
bikār burdan,
bar,
bā fā'ideh, sūd- fā'idéli
mand
bī-fā'ideh fā'idé-sez, bosh,
yaramaz
'ādatan
'adetan,
éksériya
‘abath
nāfilé
useful
mufid
useless
ghair mufid
usually
'ādatan
vain, in
'abathan
valley
valuable
veal
wādi
thamīn
laḥm ‘ijl
arreh
qimatdār
gūsht-i-
gūsāleh
sabzi
déré
qimétli
dana éti
vegetables
sébzévāt
mukhadh-
dharāt
tha'r, intiqām
shifāhan
vengeance
verbally
intiqām
zabāni
intiqām
shifāhan
very
victory
jiddan, kathir
nașr
bisyār pék, choq
fatḥ, ghalabeh nusrét, ghalébé
victuals
maʼkūlāt
yéyéjék iché-
khurdani,
āzūqah
deh
jék
village
qaryah (pl.
köi
qura)
violent
shadid, ‘anīt
sakht, tund
shiddétli
visit (n.)
visit (v.)
ziyārét
ziyārét étmék
ziyārah ziyārat
zār, yazūr ziyārat kar
dan, kun
şaut (pl. aşwāt) āwāz
safar al-bahr safar-i-daryā
voice
voyage
sés
déniz séféri











310
VOCABULARIES
wea
qamā
English. Arabic. Persian. Turkish.
we
naḥnu
mā
biz
weak
dha'if
za‘īf
quvvétsez
zaʻīf
wear (trans.) labis, yalbas pūshidan, geimék
pūsh
weather
hawā
hawā
havā
wedge
safin
mikh
Wednesday Yaum al Chahārsham- Charshamba
arbaʻā
beh
week
usbū' (pl. hafteh
hafta
asābī“)
weigh (trans.) wazan, yazin sanjīdan, sanj tartmaq
weight
wazn
sang, wazn aghirliq
well (healthy) mutaʻāfi khūb
iyi
well (n.) bi’r (pl. ābār) chāh
well (Persian nāʻūr
sū dolābi
wheel)
well-known mashhūr mashhūr méshhūr
qüyū
west
gharb
maghrib gün batese,
gharb
western
gharbi maghribi gharbi
wet (adj.) mablūl tar, namnāk yashli (day),
némli, islān-
mish (thing)
what
mā
āncheh (=that né
which)
what ?
mā?
cheh ?
né?
wheat
hintah
gandum boghdayi
wheel
‘ajalah
charkh . tékérlik
when (adv.) idhā
chūn, vaqti né-zémān?
keh
when ? mata ?
kai ?
né vaqet ?
whence min ain
az kujā nérédén
whenever kulla mā har gāh hér né vaqet
where
ain
kujā
nérédé (in),
néréyé (to)
wherever ainamā har kujā hér nérédé
whether...or hal (or in)... khāh... khāh yā ... yākhod
am








VOCABULARIES:
311
English. Armenian. Kurdish. Syriac.
we
mena
mā
akhnī, akhnan
weak
dgar, thuyl béwaj, zabūn, za‘if, mḥīla
sīs
wear (trans.) haknel libās or bar, kir lweshlé
weather ot, yeghanag hawā, rūjgār paukha
wedge
seb, kam
seppéna
Wednesday Choreqshapti Chārshamb Arbaushāba
hafta
shabtha
pīvān, kishān tqillé
kīsh, girānī tuqla
week
shapat
weigh (trans.) gshrrel
weight gshirr, dzan-
routiun
well (healthy) lav, agheg
well (n.) hor
well (Persian chrhori aniv
wheel)
well-known qajadzanot,
anvani
west
areymoudq
sākh
bīr, kānī
sākh
béra
idhi'a, mashhūi
maghrib, rujā- maʻrwa, gharb
wāi
western
wet (adj.)
areymdian
thats,
thrchvadz
shil, tarr
talila, talla
what
inch
tesht
mā, mindi
what ?
wheat
wheel
when (adv.)
chi ?
ganim
mahā ? mā?
khetté
inch ?
tsoren
aniv
yerp
waki
iman
when ?
whence
whenever
where
yerp?
ousdi
yerp-ev-itse
our
kengi?
lakū, zhekū
har jār
iman?
min aika
kull gaha d-
wherever our yev itse
whether ... or artioq
harjā
aikazd
U 2





VOCABULARIES
313
English.
whip (n.)
Armenian. Kurdish.
kharazan qāmchi
Syriac.
qāmchi
white
whither
who, which
sbidag
spī, bõz
our, ouranorla'ardé ki
ov, vor
ki
khwāra
laika d-
d (prefix).
mani?
who ?
whole (adj.)
why
wide
widow
ov?
ki ?
polor, ampoghj sākhlam, sālim sāghlam, salīm
inchou böchī, chirā tamaha, qawi
layn
pehn, ferrah pethya, wasī
ayri gin, ayri zhinābi, bémér armiſtha
wife
wild
gin
zhin
kūvī, dāba
bakhta
barbrāya
vayreni
willing
hozharagam
mutī, dvét
muți“, kba’é,
kibé
ghliblé
win
haghtel
wind (n.)
wind (v.)
qami
volorel,
bdoudagel
ghālib bū,
birrin
bā, wā
pīchāndin,
pichin
paukha
mukhdhéré
window
shabbāka
shabbāka,
penjara
windy
badouhan,
lousamoud
hoghmalits,
qamiod
kini
wine
wing
māi, sharāb
bāl, bāsk
khamra
parra
zewestān
-
sitwa
winter
wire
tzmer
medaghatel,
herrakir
antel herrakir
wireless-
telegraphy
wise
‘āqil, zāna
‘āqil, fahima
imastoun,
khelatsi
tsangal
wish (v.)
khwāzin, ma- mshuhélé
rām kir
b (prefix)
bā
with (instru-
mental)
(not in use
separately)


314
VOCABULARIES
Persian.
Turkish.
ilé bérābér
bà
bi-, bidūn-i-
-sez (suffix)
English. Arabic.
with (accom- ma‘a
panying)
without bi-ghair, bi-
dūn, bi-lā
witness (n.) shāhid (pl.
shuhud)
dhi'b (pl.
dhiyāb)
woollen
min şūf
woman imra'ah (pl.
nisā) ;
shāhid
shāhid
wolf
gurg
qurt
pashmin
zan
yunlu
khanum (lady),
qaden
(common)
odun
ormān
hizam
wood (fuel) șațab
wood (forest) ghābah
bīsheh
süz
word
kalimah (pl. kalimeh
kalimāt).
work (intrans.) ishtaghal, kār kardan, ishlémék, cha-
yashtaghil kun
lishmaq
world
dunya
dunyā
dunya
worse, worst sharr (min, badtar, daha féna,
than), asharr badtarīn én féna
worth (be) sāwa, yusāwi arzīdan, arzqīméti -- (its
worth is —-)
wound (v.) jaraḥ, yajraḥ zakhm kardan, yaralamaq
kun
wound (n.) jurḥ (pl. jurūḥ) zakhm
yara
wound-dresser rabbāt al-jurņa marham guzār timarji
wounded
wreck (n.)
wreckage
majrūḥ zakhm
yaralanmish
khurdeh
markab kashti-yi gharq
madmūr shikasteh
damār khurdahā-yi- qerente,
kashti - kharābé
katab, yaktub navishtan, yazmaq
navis
aktub
mi-navīsam yazarim
taktub
mi-navisí yazarsin
yaktub mi-na vīsad yazar
write
I write
thou writest
he writes








316
VOCABULARIES
English.
we write
you write
they write
I shall write
Arabic.
naktub
taktubūn
yaktubūn
sa-aktub
Persian. Turkish.
mi-navisīm yazariz
mī-navisid yazarsiniz
m7-navīsand yazarlar
khāham yazajaghm
navisht
khāhī navisht yazajaqsin
sa-taktub
thou wilt
write
he will write
sa-yaktub
yazajaq
we shall write sa-naktub
yazajaghiz
you will write sa-taktubūn
yazajaqsiniz
sa-yaktubūn
khāhad
navisht
khāhīm
navisht
khāhid
navisht
khāhand
navisht
navishtam
na vishtī
navisht
navisht
navishtīm
they will
write
I wrote
thou wrotest
he wrote
she wrote
we wrote
yazajaqlar
katabtu
katabta
katab
katabat
katabnā
yazdim
yazdin
yazdi
yazdi
yazdiq
you wrote katabtum navishtid yazdiniz
they wrote katabū navishtand yazdilar
I do not write lā aktub nami-navīsam yazmam
he does not lā yaktub nami-navīsad yazmaz
write
we do not lā naktub namī-navīsim yazmaiz
write
you do not lā taktubūn nami-na vīsid yazmasiniz
write
they do not lā yaktubūn nami-navi- yazmazlar
write
sand
do you write? hal taktubūn? mī-navisid ? yazar-misiniz?
nīst
ghalați
there is not laisa
wrong ghair şaḥīḥ,
khața
yacht yakht (pl.
yukhūt)
yard (measure) dhirā:
yoq dir
dogħru deyil
yāt, sir gémisi
arshin, yārda
gaz





VOCABULARIES
317
English.
we write
you write
they write
I shall write
Armenian. Kurdish.
menq g’krenq am niwīsin
touq g'kreq hūn niwīsin
anong g'kren wān niwīsin
yes bidi krem az déniwīsim
Syriac.
kathwökh
kathwūtū
kathwi
bedkathwen
tou bidi kres
tu déniwīsi
bedkathwet
thou wilt
write
he will write
an bidi kreau déniwīsa
bedkāthū
sin
we shall write menq bidi am déniwīsin bedkathwökh
krenq
you will write touq bidi hūn déniwīsin bedkathwūtū
kreq
they will anonq bidi wān déniwi- bedkathwi
write
kren
I wrote
yes kretsi az niwīstim kthūli
thou wrotest tou kretsir tu niwīsti kthülükh
he wrote an krets au niwīst kthūlé
she wrote ne krets au niwīst kthūlā
we wrote menq kre am niwīstin kthūlan
tsing
you wrote touq kretsiq hūn niwīstin kthūlaukhu
they wrote anong kretsin wān niwistin kthūlai
I do not write yes chem krer az nā niwīsim lak-kathwen
he does not an, chkrer au nā niwīsa lak-kāthū
write
we do not meng che'nq am nā niwīsin lak-kathwökh
write
krer
you do not touq ch'eq hūn nā niwi- lak-kathwūtū
write
krer
sin
they do not anonq ch'en wān nā niwī, lak-kathwi
write
krer
sin
do you write ? touq g’kreq hūn niwīsin ? gallo kath-
artioq?
wūtū ?
there is not ch’ga, chiga nina
laith
wrong
anirav
khalaț, nā ta- ghelța
mām
yacht
zposanav
yard (measure) yarda, kan
gaz
koun
dra'a





VOCABULARIES
319
English.
year
Armenian.
dari
Kurdish.
sāl
Syriac.
shāta
ayo
yellow
ganach
yes
yesterday yereg
yet (of time) terr, dagavin
nevertheless sagayn yey
aynbes
you
touq
zar
sha’ūtha
haré, balé na'im, balé
duhī, dwaika timmal
hézh, hizhi hésh
walau
immed ādhi
Jeres
hūn
akhtun
young
your
yeridasart
tzer
juwān
-wā (suffix)
jwanqa
khu (safia)
yours
tzern, tzerinn māléwā
diyaukhū
zone (of fire)
Shrchan, kodi “ardé sharré
dūktha dsharré
NUMERALS
English.
Armenian.
meg
FBoconosor HA CON
yergou
yereq
chors
hink
vets
yot
out
inn
dasn
dasnmeg
dasnyergou
dasnyereq
Kurdish.
yak, ék
dū, duān
sé, siãn
chār, chwār
penj
shash
haft
hasht
nah
dah
yāzdā
dwāzdā
saizdā
Syriac.
khā
trai
țlātha
arba
khamsha
ishta
shau’a
tmanya
tesh'a
işra
khadésar
traisar
teltāsar
Guinea E
dasnchors
chārdā
arbāsar
dasnhink
pāzdā
khamshāsar


320
VOCABULARIES
English.
Turkish.
on-alte
on-yédi
on-sékiz
on-doquz
yirmi
yirmi-bir
Arabic. Persian.
sittatah 'ashar shūnzdeh
sabʻatah ‘ashar hifdeh
thamāniyatah hizhdeh
‘ashar
tis'atah 'ashar nūzdeh
‘ishrīn
bīst
wāḥid wa bist-ū-yak
‘ishrīn
thalāthin
arba'in
chihil
khamsin panjāh
sittin
shast
sabʻin
haftād
thamānin hashtād
tis'in
nawad
mi'ah
mi'ah wa şad-ū-yak
otuz
qirq
élli
altmesh
yétmesh
séksén
doqsan
yüz
yüz-bir
100
şad
101
wāḥid
110
111
120
• 121
130
mi'ah wa şad-ū-dah yüz-on
'asharah
mi'ah wa şad-ū-yāzdeh yüz-on-bir
iḥda ‘ashar
mi'ah wa şad-ū-bīst yüz-yirmi
‘ishrin
mi'ah wa şad-ū-bist-ū- yüz-yirmi-bir
wāḥid wa yak
‘ishrin
mi'ah wa-
şad-ū-si yüz-otuz
thalāthin
mi'atain diwist
iki-yüz
mi’atain wa- diwīst-ū-yak iki-yüz-bir
wāḥid
mi'atain wa- diwīst-ū-dah iki-yüz-on
‘asharah
mi'atain wa diwīst-ū-yāz- iki-yüz-on-bir
iḥda ‘ashar deh
mi'atain wa- diwīst-ū-bīst iki-yüz-yirmi
'ishrin
mi'atain wa-. diwist-ū-bīst- iki-yüz-yirmi-
wāḥid wa ū-yak
bir
‘ishrīn
201
210
211
220
221





322
VOCABULARIES
.
English.
230
Turkish.
iki-yüz-otuz
Arabic. Persian.
mi'atain wa- diwīst-ū-si
thalāthin
thalātha-mi'ah sīşad
arbaʻa-mi'ah chahār şad
khamsa-mi'ah pansad
300
400
500
üch-yüz
dört-yüz
bésh-yüz
bin
dah
600 sitta-mi'ah shish şad alte-yüz
700
sab‘a-mi'ah hafşad yédi-yüz
800 thamāni-mi'ah hashșad sékiz-yüz
900 tis-a-mi'ah nuhşad doquz-yüz
1,000
alf
hazār
1,001 alf wa-wāḥid hazār-ū-yak bin-bir
1,010 alf wa-'asha- hazār-ū-dah bin-on
rah
1,011 alf wa-iḥda hazār-ū-yāz- bin-on-bir
'ashar
1,020 alf wa-‘ishrīn bazār-ū-bīst bin-yirmi
1,021 alf wa-wāḥid hazār-ū-bīst bin-yirmi-bir
wa-'ishrīnū -yak
1,100 alf wa-mi'ah hazār-ū-şad bin-yüz
1,101 alf wa-mi'ah hazār-ū-sad- bin-yüz-bir
wa-wāḥid ū-yak
1,110 alf wa-mi'ah hazār-ū-sad- bin-yüz on
wa-'asharah ū-dah
1,121 alf wa-mi'ah hazār-ū-sad- bin-yüz-yirmi-
wa-iḥda wa- ū-bīst-ū-yak bir
‘ishrin
2,000 alfain
dū hazār iki bin
10,000 ‘ashratah ālāf dah hazār on bin
100,000 mi’at alf şad hazār yüz bin
nişf
nim, nisi yarim, (- and
5) — buchuq
rub:
rub', chāryak cheirék
both (of them) kilāhuma har dū
ikisi
4
first
auwal
birinji
nukhust,
auwal
dūwum
sivum
ikinji
second
third
thāni
thālith
üchünjü





QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
325
Come up!
Arabic. Iş'ad (pl. Iş'adū)!
Persian. Bi-yā (= Come on!); Bar
kbīz (= Rise up!).
Turkish. Yuqāreya gél !
Arm. Ver yeg (sing.), ver yegeq
. (plur.)!
Kurd. Wara héra!
Syriac. Hayyū lākha !
Wait for me.
Arabic. Intazar-ni (pl. Intazarū-
ni).
Persian. Muntazir-i-man bāsh.
Turkish. Béni béklé.
Arm. Sbasetseg intz.
Kurd. Būmin chāv vakā.
Syriac. Hmõl ellī.
Go down!
Arabic. Inzil (pl. Inzilū) !
Persian. Bi-rau pā'īn!
Turkish. Ashāgha git!
Arm. Var kna (sing.), var
knatseq (pl.) !
Kurd. Harra khwāré !
Syriac. Nkhoth !
Come with me.
Arabic. Ta‘al ma‘i (pl. taʻālū
ma‘i).
Persian. Hamrāh-i-man bi-yā.
Turkish. Bénim ilé gél.
Arm. Yegeq intz hed.
Kurd. Lagal min warā.
Syriac. Hayyo emmi,
Go away.
Arabic. Ruh (pl. Rūķū).
Persiam. Bi-rau! gum shau!
Turkish. Haidé git.
Arm. Herratseq.
Kurd. Harrā.
Syriac. Si.
Turn to the right (left).
Arabic. Hauwid 'ala yamīnak
('ala shimālak).
Persian. Bi-taraf-i-rāst (chap) bi-
rau.
Turkish. Sāgha dön, sola dön.
Arm. Ach tartzeq, tzakh tart-
zeq.
Kurd. Bezeverra larāst (lachap).
Syriac. Dor lyamné (Ichappé)
In which direction ?
Arabic. Fi aiy jihah ?
Persian. Bi-kudām taraf ?
Turkish. Hangi tarafa ?
Arm. Vor oughghoutiamp?
Kurd. Lachi rakhā ? .
Syriac. Şūb aika ?
Stand still there.
Arabic, Qif hādiyan (pl. Qifū
bādīn).
Persian. Anjā bi-īst.
Turkish. Rāhat dur.
Arm. Hantart ketseq hot.
Kurd. Lavé daré rāwusta.
Syriac. Klī nīkha tāma.
In that direction.
Arabic. Fi tilk al-jihah.
Persian. Bi-ān ţaraf.
Turkish. O tarafa.
Arm. Ayt oughghoutiamp.
Kurd. Lavé rakkhé.
Syriac. Şūb tāma.
MES. I


326
VOCABULARIES
How far is it?
At six o'clock.
Arabic. Esh bu'd ?
Arabic. As-sāʻah sittah.
Persian. Chi-qadar rāh-ast?
Persian. Bi-sāʻat-i-shish.
Turkish. Né qadar uzaq dir ?
Turkish. Sā‘at alteda.
Arm. Vorqan herrou e?
Arm. Zham vetsin.
Kurd. Chand haya la ?
Kurd. Bisā'at shash.
Syriac. Kmailé raḥūqa ?
Syriac. Sāʻah b’eshshet.
It is not far!
Arabic. Ghair baʻid !
Persian. Dūr nīst !
Turkish. Uzaq deyil !
Arm. Herrou che !
Kurd. Nā dūra !
Syriac. Lailé raḥūqa !
In the morning.
Arabic. Şabāḥan.
Persian. Subḥī.
Turkish. Sabāh léyin.
Arm. Arravodian. .
Kurd. Subaḥī.
Syriac. Bişparé or qadamta.
Two hours' distance.
Arabic. Masāfat sā'atain.
Persian. Bi masāfe-yi-dū sā'at, or
Dū sā‘at rāh.
Turkish. Iki sā'atleq yol.
Arm. Yergou zhamya jampa.
Kurd. Rīā dū sā'at.
Syriac. Urkhad tetté sā'é.
At noon.
Arabic. Zuhran.
Persian, Zuhr.
Turkish. Oilé-yin.
Arm. Ges orin.
Kurd. Nīvro.
Syriac. Palged yauma.
When will he come ?
Arabic. Mata yajī ?
Persian. Kai mī-āyad ?
Turkish. Né zémān géléjék ?
Arm. Yerp bidi ka ?
Kurd. Kangé dé’ét ?
Syriac. Îman bed’āthé ? .
In the evening.
Arabic. Masā’an.
Persian. Shab (night), Waqt-i-
ghurūb (sunset).
Turkish. Akhshamleyin.
Arm. Irigvan, yeregoyan
Kurd. Évār.
Syriac. 'Aşerta.
At what o'clock ?
Arabic. Aiy sā'ah ?
Persian. Chi waqt ?
Turkish. Sā‘at qachda ?
Arm. Vor zhamin ?
qaniin ?
Kurd. Chi sā'at ?
Syriac. B’aima sā‘ah ?
zham
Very early.
Arabic. Badri jiddan.
Persian. Khailī zūd.
Turkish. Pék érkén.
Arm. Shad ganoukh.
Kurd. Galak zū.
Syriac. Kabīra qalūla.





328
VOCABULARIES
3. THE ROAD
Where does this road go ?
Is it safe on the road ?
Arabic. Ain yarūḥ hādha't-țarīq? Arabic. Hal at-tarīq ma'mūn?
Persian. În rāh kujā mī-ravad ?
Persian. Dar in rāh amnīyat ast?
Turkish. Bū yol néréyé gider ? Turkish. Yol qorqusuzmu dur ?
Arm. Our g’erta ays janpan ?
Arm. Jampan artioq abahov
Kurd. Av riā kūdaré tchet ?
e ?
Syriac. Laika kīza adh ūrkha ? Kurd. Av ré amina ?
Syriac. Gallo ūrkha amīnila ?
Does this road go to — ?
Arabic. Hal hādha'y-tariq yarūh
ila — ?
Persian. In rāh bi — mi-ravad ?
Turkish. Bū yol — é gidér-mi ?
Arm. Ays jampan artioq.
g’erta — ?
Kurd. Av rīā tchet la — ?
Syriac. Gallo kīza adh ūrkha l-?
How many hours is it to - ?
Arabic. Kam sā'ah ila — ?
Persian. Chand sāʻat-ast bi — ?
Turkish – é qach sā‘atleq yol
vār?
Arm. Qani zham e minehev-?
Kurd. Chand sā‘at haya la — ?
Syriac. Kma sā‘é ith ta — ?
Which road goes to — ?
Arabic. Aiy tariq yarūḥ ila — ?
Persian. Kudām rāh bi — mi-
ravad?
Turkish. --é hangi yoldan gitméli?
Arm. Vor janpan g’erta — ?
Kurd. Chī rīā tchet la — ?
Syriac. Aima ūrkha kīza 1—?
Take me to —
Arabic. Dall-ni ila — (pl. Dallū-ni
ila — ).
Persian. Marā bi — bi-bar,
Turkish. Béni – é götür.
Arm. Dareq intz minehev -
Kurd. Nīshāmin bedé la —
Syriac. Naubelli l-
Which is the shortest way?
Arabic. Aiy țarīq aqrab ?
Persian. Kudām rāh nazdīk-tar
ast?
Turkish. Én qissa yol hangisi dir ?
Arm. Vorn e amenagarj jam-
Where is there drinking water on this road?
Arabic. Ain mā ash-shirb fi
hādha'ç-țarīq ?
Persian. Dar in rāh āb-i-khur-
dani kujāst?
Turkish. Bū yol-da ichiléjék sū
nérédé dir ?
Arm. Our khmelou chour ga
ays janpou vra ?
Kurd. Kāné avé vakhwārené
bvi rīā ?
Syriac. Aikailai māya deshtāya
b’adh ūrkha ?
pan ?
Kurd.
Syriac.
Chi rré nézīktera ?
Aimaila ūrkha besh krī-
tha ?








QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
329
Is it a camel road ?
Is it only fit for men on foot ?
Arabic. Hal aț-țarīq yuwāfiq Arabic. Hal hua yuwāfiq. lil-
. lil-jimāl ?
mushāt faqat ?
Persian. Rāh-i-shutur ast ?
Persian. Faqat az barāyi piyā-
Turkish. Dévé yolu-mi dir ?
dagān khūbast ?
Arm. Oughdi jampa e artiog ? Turkish. Yaliniz yāyan gidén-
Kurd. Av rīā bo heshter bāsha ?
léré iyi-mi dir ?
Syriac. Kkhaskha adh ūrkha ta Arm. Mithe miayn hediodn
gūmlé ?
martots harmar e ?
Is it only a mule road ?
Kurd. Av ré bas payā ra ?
Arabic. Hal hua ţarīq lil-bighāl
Syriac. Gallo bas kkhashkha ta
faqat ?
nashé rakhanhé ?
Persian. Faqat az barāyi qātirhā
khūbast?
Turkish. Yaliniz qater yolu-mi dir?
Arm. Miayn chorii jampa e
artioq ?
Kurd. Av riā bas bā hesterāna ?
Syriac. Gallo ūrkha dkawedhnéla
ūbass ?
4. A VILLAGE OR Town
What is this place called ?
Where is the post ?
Arabic. Mā ism hādha'l-makān ?
Arabic. Ain al-bõstah ?
Persian. Bi injā chi mi-gūyand ?
Persian. Post khāneh kujāst?
or Injā chi nām dārad ?
Turkish. Postakhāné nérédé dir ?
Turkish. Bū vérin ismi né dir ?
Arm. Our e namagadounn ?
Arm. Inchbes g’gochvi ays
Kurd. Põstakhānah lakū da-
deghn ?
réya ?
Kurd. Nāvé av ‘ard chia ?
Syriac. Aikaila põstakhānah ?
Syriac. Mīlé shimma d'adh dūk-
tha ?
How many houses in this village ?
Arabic. Kam bait fi hādhihi'l-
qaryah ?
Show me the telegraph office.
Persian. Dar in deh chand khāneh Arabic. Ain bait at-telegrāf.
dārad ?
Persian. Teleghrāf-khāne-rā
Turkish. Bū köide qach év vār ?
bi-man nishān bi-dihid.
Arm. Qani doun ga ays kiughin Turkish. Bana téléghraf-khāné-yi
mech ?
göstér.
Kurd. Chand māl haya lavī Arm. Our e herrakradounn.
gund ?
Kurd. Teleghrāf khānah nīshā-
Syriac. Kma bāté 7th b’adh mā-
min beda.
tha ?
Syriac. Makhzéli teleghrāf khāna.


330
VOCABULARIES
Is there a telephone office here ?
Arabic. Hal yūjad mahall-talfūn
hunā ?
Persian. Injā telefūn dārad ?
Turkish. Burda téléfon mérkézi
vār mi ?
Arm. Hos herratzayn ga
artioq?
Kurd. Téléfon khānah lahara
haya ?
Syriac. Īthākha dūkthat télé-
fon?
Where is the inn?
Arabic. Ain al-khānah ?
Persian. Khān (kārwānsarāi,
chāpārkhāneh) kujāst?
Turkish. Khān nérédé dir ?
Arm. Our e otevann ?
Kurd. Khān lakudaréya ?
Syriac. Aikaila khān ?
We are going to stay the night here.
Arabic. Nabīt hunā.
Persian. Imshab injā mi-mānīm.
Turkish. Biz géjé burda dura-
jayiz.
Arm. Kishern hos bidi mnanq.
Kurd. Av shav am lahéra débim.
Syriac. Bdamkhākh ākha idlailé.
5. AT A RIVER
What is this river called ?
Where is the nearest bridge ?
Arabic. Mā ism hādha'n-nahr ? Arabic. Ain al-jisr al-aqrab ?
Persian. In rūd-khāneh chi nām Persian. Kudām pul nazdiktar-
dārad ?'
ast?
Turkish. Bū irmaghen ismi né Turkish. Én yaqen köprü nérédé
dir?
dir ?
Arm. Inchbes g’gochvi ays Arm. Our e amenamod gam-
kedn?
ourchn ?
Kurd. Navé av āv chia ?
Kurd. Nézīkter pro lakū da-
Syriac. Milé shimma d'adh
réya ?
néhra ?
Syriac. Aikailé gishra āu bish
qariwa?
How deep is the river ?
Arabic. Esh ‘umq hādha'n-nahr ?
Persian. Rūd-khāneh chi-qadar Take me there.
"amīq-ast ?
Arabic. Khudh-ni ila hunāk.
Turkish. Sū né qadar dérin dir ? Persian. Marā ānjā bi-bar.
Arm. Vorchap khor e ays kedn? Turkish. Béni oraya götür.
Kurd. Vī āv chand kūra or Arm. Hon dareq zis.
‘amīqa.
Kurd. La āu daré nishāmin
Syriac. Kmailė ‘amūqa adh
beda.
néhra ?
Syriac. Naubellī ltāma.


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
331
Show me the nearest ferry.
Arabic. Ain al-ma‘bar al-aqrab.
Persian. Guzār-gāhi ki nazdiktar
bāshad bi-man nishān
bi-dih.
Turkish. Bana én yaqen géchid-
yérini göstér.
Arm. Tsuyts dveq intz amen-
amod kedantsn.
Kurd. ‘Ardé nézīkter bā darbāz
nishāmin beda.
Syriac. Aikaila · dūktha depsa’a
āi besh qarūta.
Get hold of a boat (canoe).
Arabic. Jīb-li balam.
Persian. Kashtī paidā kun.
Turkish. Bir qayiq bul.
Arm. Mi navag kdeq.
Kurd. Gami paida beka.
Syriac. Khzī kha qāyegh.
Where is the easiest place to swim across ?
Arabic. Aiy makān al-as-hal
ḥatta nasbaḥ wa-
na'bur ?
Persian. Kujā mītawānam bi-āsāni
bi-shināvarī bi-guzaram?
Turkish. Ö bir tarafa yiizérék
gitmék ichin én qolaï
yér nérédé dir ?
Arm. Our e amenaheshd vayrn
loghalou antin ?
Kurd. Chi 'ard āsāntira ta am
bmalavānyé darbāz kin?
Syriac. Aimaila duktha ai besh
sanāhi tad sākhokh wpa-
sokh ?
Take us aeross.
Arabic. 'Abbir-nā (pl.‘Abbirū-nā).
Persian. Mārā bi-ān ţaraf bi-barīd.
Turkish. Bizi qarshiyé géchir.
Arm. Antin dareq mez.
Kurd. Ma darbāz bika.
Syriac. Mapsīlan.
You will be rewarded.
Arabic. Nujāzik (pl. Nujāzīkum).
Persian. In‘ām khāhīm dād.
Turkish. Bakhshīsh véréjéyiz.
Arm. G’vartzadrenq tzez.
Kurd. Amé teshtak din ta.
Syriac. Bed yawekhlokh kha
mindī.
You must go in front of me.
Arabic. Lāzim tamshi quddāmi.
Persian. Bāyad jilau-i-man bi-
ravid.
Turkish. Iléri gitmelisin.
Arm. Arrcheves yertalou eq.
Kurd. Lāzima tu péshémin
deché.
Syriac. Klāzim dzālokh qamāya
minni.
Is there a raft here?
Arabic. Hal yūjad kalak ?
Persian Kalak injā paidā mī-
shavad ?
Turkish. Burda sal vār mi ?
Arm. Hos lasd ga artioq ?
Kurd. Kalak lahéra haya ?
Syriac. Gallo īth kalak ākha ?
Is the current strong ?
Arabic. Hal jarayān al-mā sarī” ?
Persian. Āb tund mi-ravad ?
Turkish. Aqinté choq vār mi ?
Arn. Mithe hosanqn zoravor e?
Kurd. Av zakhma ?
Syriac. Gallo māya zarbānélai ?


332
VOCABULARIES
What lies on the other side ?
Arabic. Mā ‘ala’l-jānib al-ākhar ?
Persian. Chi jā (place, or) shahr
(city) dar ān ţaraf ast?
Turkish. Uté tarafda né vār ?
Arm. Inch degh e timatsi
goghmn ?.
Kurd. Lavé ţarafé chi haya ?
Syriac. Mā īth lāu bāla khinna ?
Is it far to the mouth ?
Arabic. Hal baʻid ila maşabb (or
fam) an-nahr?
Persian. Az injā tā ānjā ki dar
daryā mi-rīzad dūr-ast?
Turkish. Chai aghzi uzaq-mi dir ?
Arm. Kedaperann herrou e
artioq?
Kurd. Zh-harā ḥattā vī āv dchet
baḥré dūra ?
Syriac. Gallo raḥūqtaila ūrkha
min. ākha hul d’āwir
adh néhra lyāma ?
6. A MOUNTAIN OR HILL
What is this big mountain called ?
· Arabic. Mā ism hādha’l-jabal al-
kabīr?
Persian. În kūh-i-buzurg chi mi-
gūyand ?
Turkish. Bū büyük dāghen ismi
né dir ?
Arm. Inchbes g’gochvi ays
medz lerrn ?
Kurd. Nāvé vī chīā mazin chia ?
Syriac. Mīlé shimma d’adh tūra
rāba ?
What is the easiest way up the hill ?
Arabic Aiy țarīq al-as-hal naş'ad
at-tall ?
Persian. Bi-kudām rāh bi-āsāni
mi-tuwān bi-qulle-yi-ān
kūh rasīd ?
Turkish. Yuqāriyé én qolaï yol
hangisi dir ?
Arm. Vorn e amenaheshd jam-
pan tebi plourn?
Kurd. Cħi ré āsāntira lasaré vi
chia ?
Syriac. Aimailā ūrkha ai besh
sānāhī tad asqokh l’adh
tūra ?
How high is the mountain ?
Arabic. Mā ‘aluw al-jabal ?
Persian. În kūh chi-qadar buland
ast?
Turkish. Dāgh né qadar yüksék
dir?
Arm. Vorchap partzr e ays
lerrn ?
Kurd. Vī chíā chand bilinda ?
Syriac. Kmailé rāma adh ţūra ?
is it very steep?
Arabic. Hal hua kathir muta-
haddir ?
Persian. Khailī sar-ā-bālāst?
Turkish. Pék dik mi dir ?
Arm. Shad zarrivir e artioq?
Kurd. Galak zaḥmata ?
Syriac. Gallo kabīra ‘asqailé ?








QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
333
Is it dangerous ?
Yes, but they cannot be got down on the
other side.
Arabic. Hal hua mukhțir ?
Arabic. Na*am, walakin la yum-
Persian. Khatar-nāk ast?
kin tanzīl-hum min al-
Turkish. Qorqulu mu dir ?
jāpib al-ākhar.
Arm. Vdankavor e artioq ?
Persian. Balī, ammā az ān țaraf
Kurd. Khatar tédā haya ?
nami - shavad pā’in
Syriac. Gallo mar darak ilé ?
āvardan.
Turkish. Évét, ammā üté tarafda
indirilóméz.
Arm. Ayo, paytsche garili
zanonq var ichetsnel
Can one get up on horseback ?
mius goghmn.
Arabic. Hal yumkin naş'ad rāki-
Kurd. Haré, amma am nikārin
bin ?
lāav terefé wān lakh-
Persian. Suwār mí-shavad raft. ?
wār bestīnin.
Turkish. At-ilé chikilé bilirmi?
Syriac. Na'm, illa laiban dman-
Arm. Tziov artioq gareli e ver
khthukhlai mau bāla
elnel ?
khenna.
Kurd. Am tkārin bechim lasar
beswārī ?
Are there several ways down ?
Syriac. Gallo iban asqokh braka-
Arabic, Turuq kathīrah lin-
wūtha ?
nuzūl ?
Persian. Āyā, chand rāh hi-pā’īn
dārad ?
Turkish. Aslāgheya bir qach
yol vār mi?
Can the guns be got up ?
Arm. Artioq shad jampaner
gan tebi var ?
Arabic. Hal yumkin taş'id al Kurd. Galak rīā haya lvéré ?
madāfi' ?
Syriac. Gallo īth kabīré ūrkhātha
Persian. Tūp-hā-rā mi-shavad
linkhātha ?
ānjā burd ?
Turkish. Toplar yuqāriyé chikar- Are there any robbers about ?
ela bilirmi?
Arabic. Hal tūjad ḥarāmīyah ?
Arm. Artioq gareli e tntanot Persian. Dar in jā-hā duzd dārad?
nern ver hanel ?
Turkish. Etrafda khersez vār mi ?
Kurd. Am dikārin topā lasar Arm. Avazagner gan artioq ays
helinin ?
goghmern ?
Syriac. Gallo iban dmasqökh to Kurd. Diz haya ?
patha ?
Syriac. Gallo ith ganāwé ?


334
VOCABULARIES
7. A FOREST
How big is the forest ?
Can mounted troops get through the forest ?
Arabic. Esh kubr al-ghāb ?
Arabic. Hal yumkin al-khaiyālah
Persian. În bīsheh (or jangal) chi-
ya'burūn al-ghāb ?
qadar buzurg-ast ?
Persian. Qushūn-i-suwār mī-ta-
Turkish. Ormān né qadar büyük
wānad az bīsheh bi-
dir ?
guzarad ?
Arm. Andarin vorchap medz Turkish. Ormāndan süvāri géché-
e ?
bilirmi?
Kurd. Av ghābah chand mazina? Arm. Hedzelazorq grna artioq
Syriac. Kmaila rabtha adh
antsnel andarri mechen?
ghāba ?
Kurd. Dikārin suwāri déchin
nivā vi ghābah ?
Syriac. Ibai rakāwé pasī b’adh
How wide is it?
ghāba ?
Arabic. Esh ‘ardh-hu ?
Persian. Pahnāsh chi-qadar
buzurg-ast?
Turkish. Né qadar génish dir ?
Arm. Vorchap layn e ?
Yes, but I don't think one can get through
Kurd. Pehnéwi (or ferrahéwi)
with the guns.
chanda ?
Arabic. Na'am, walākin mā azunn
Syriac. Kmaila pethyūthah ?
mumkin lil-madāfi'.
Persian. Bali, ammā gumān nami
-kunam ki tūp bi-ravad.
Where does the road go through the forest ?
Turkish. Évét, faqat zann ét mém
ki top ilé géchilébilir.
Arabic. Fi aiy jihah min al-ghāb
Arm. Ayo, payts chem gardzer
at-tarīq ?
gareli e tntanotnerov
Persian. In rāh ki az janga! mī-
antznel mechen.
guzarad kujā mī-ravad?
Kurd. Haré, amma ţõpā nikärin
Turkish. Bū ormāndan géchén yol
bechin.
néréyé gidér?
Syriac. Na‘m, illa la kyainin țo-
Arm. Our g’erta jampan an-
pātha ibai d’aurī.
darri mechen ?
Kurd. Ré bvi ghābah lakū daré-
ya ?
Syriac. Aikaila ūrkha b’adh ghā-
ba ?








QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
335
ast?
8. RAILWAY STATION
Is it far to the railway ?
Where is the next train coming from ?
'Arabic. Hal baʻīd ila’s-sikkat al Arabic. Min ain yajī al-qițār
ḥadīd ?
ath-thāni ?
Persian Āyā, bi-rāh-i-āhan dūr Persian. Qițār az kujā mī-āyad ?
Turkish. Ö bir trén nérédén gélir ?
Turkish. Démir yoluna uzaq-mi Arm. Ousti gu’ka hachort
dir ?
knatsqn ?
Arm. Yergatoughin artioq her Kurd. Pāpor zhkū daré déét ?
rou e?
Syriac. Min aika bed athya ūrkha
Kurd. Rīa papūré chand dūra ?
diprizla ?
Syriac. Kmaila raḥūqta ūrkha Stop the train.
diprizla ?
Arabic. Waqqif al-qițār.
Persian. Qiţār-rā īstādeh kun.
Only half an hour.
Turkish. Tréni durdur.
Arabic. Faqat nişf as-sā'ah.
Arm. Knatsqn getsoutseq.
Persian. Nim sā‘at rāh-ast ū bas. Kurd. Pāpor besakkina.
Turkish. Salt varim sā‘at dir. Syriac. Maḥmella ūrkha diprizla.
Arm. Miayn ges zham.
Get me a porter.
Kurd. Nīv sā‘at ūbas.
Arabic. Jīb-li ḥammāl.
Syriac. Palgé dsāʻah bas.
Persian. Hammālī paidā kun.
Turkish. Bana bir hammāl gétir.
When does the train arrive ?
Arm. Perrnagir jareq.
Arabic. Mata yaşil al-qițār ? Kurd. Hammālak bõmin paidā
Persian. Qițār kai mī-rasad ?
bekā.
Turkish. Trén né zémān gélir ? Syriac. Maithélī khā ḥammāla.
Arm. Yerp knatsqn g’haspi ? What is the fare?
Kurd. Rīa paporé kangé déét ? Arabic. Kam al-ujrah ?
Syriac. Îman bed athya ūrkha Persian. Chand bāyad bi-diham ?
diprizla ?
Turkish. Yol parase né qadar dir ?
Arm. Vorqan e jana barha.
When does the train go to — ?
dzakhon?
Arabic. Mata yusāfir al-qițār
Kurd. Chand ḥaq az bedem ?
ila ?
Syriac. Kma tīmé yawin?
Persian. Qiţār bi — kai mi-ravad? Where is my luggage ?
Turkish. Tréné né zémān Arabic. Ain asbābi (or 'afshi) ?
gider ?
Persian. Asbāb-i-man kujāst ?
Arm. Yerp knatsqn gồmegni ? Turkish. Éshyām nérédé dir ?
Kurd. Pāpor kangé déchet la— ? Arm. Our e ireghens ?
Syriac. Iman bedzāla ūrkha di Kurd. Asbābémin lakū daréna ?
prizla 1—?
Syriac. Aikailai sabābi ?





QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
337
In which direction have they marched ?
Arabic. Ila aiy jihah mashū ?
Persian. Bi-kudām taraf rawāneh
shudeh-and ?
Turkish. Hangi jihété harékét
étdilér?
Arm. Vor goghm qaletsin ?
Kurd. Lachi tarafé chõyen ?
Syriac. Gallo Ⓡūbaima taraf
zellai ?
Take me to the Colonel.
Arabic. Waddīni ila’)-mīrālai.
Persian. Marā pīsh-i-sartīp bi-
bar.
Turkish. Béni mīrālāya götür.
Arm. Dareq zis kndabedin.
Kurd. Péshé mīralāi min bé-
. birra.
Syriac. Naubellī Igébed mīralāi.
Where is an officer ?
Arabic. Ain adh-dhābit ?
Persian. Şāḥib-manşabī kujāst ?
Turkish. Zābit nérédé dir ?
Arm. Our ga mi sba ?
Kurd. Zābiť lakū daréya ?
Syriac. Aikailé zābit ?
I have a letter from our General.
Arabic. 'Indi maktūb min mu-
shīr-nā.
Persian. Kāghazī dāram az sardār
Turkish. Qomāndānimizdan benda
bir mektūb vār.
Arm. Namag ounim mer zora-
beden.
Kurd. Kāghazak zhsar-aska-
réma lagal min haya.
Syriac. Îth immi kha kthāwa
min sar-askar dīyan.
10. FOOD AND DRINK
I am hungry, I wish to eat.
Arabic. Anā jūóān, arīd sbai
a’kul.
Persian. Gurasneh-am, mi-khāham
bi-khuram.
Turkish. Qarnem ach, yéyéjék bir
shei istérim.
Arm. Anotiyem,'oudel g'ouzem.
Az bersīma, ma tishtak
tvét.
Syriac. Kpīnaiwin, kibin d'akh-
I am thirsty, I wish to drink.
Arabic. Anā ‘atshān arīd shai
ashrab.
Persian. Tishneh-am, mi-khāham
bi-nūsham.
Turkish. Sūsuzem, - sū ichmék
istérim.
Arm. Dzaravi yem, khmel
g'ouzem.
Kurd. Az téhnim, vakhwāriné
ma tvét.
Syriac. Șihyaiwin, kibin dshātin.
lin.


338
VOCABULARIES
Where can I get food ?
Arabic. Ain aḥaşşil at-taʻām ?
Persian. Az kujā mī-tawānam
khurdanī paidā kunam?
Trirkish. Nérédé yéyéjék būla bi-
Jirim ?
Arm. Our grnam oudeliq
kdnal ?
Kurd. Teshtak bõ khwāriné
lakū daré az paidā
bikim ?
Syriac. Gallo min aika khāzin
khā mindī ta īkhāla ?
Have you enough for all my men ?
Arabic. Hal ‘indak shai yakfi
kull rijāli ?
Persian. Ayā, az barāyi hame-yi-
ādamhā-yi-man kāfī dā-
rid ?
Turkish. Néférlérimin hépisiné yé-
téjék qadar vār-mi ?
Arm. Artioq pavaganachap.
ouneq polor martots's
hamar ?
Kurd. Lagalta haya tesht bo..
hammū mérémin ?
Syriac. Gallo ittokh mindi dik-
mālé ta kullai nāshé
dī?
Innkeeper, we want a meal.
Arabic. Yā sāhib al-bait. nurid
akl.
Persian. Mī-khāhīm chīzī bi-
khūrīm.
Turkish. Khānji, yémék istériz.
Arm. Bantogabed, geragour
gouzenq.
Kurd. Khānchi, ma tesht tvét.
Syriac. Khānchī, kibokh ikhāla.
Is the water good here ?
Arabic. Hal al-mā hunā jaiyid ?
Persian. Ab dar injā khūb-ast?
Turkish. Buranen sūyu iyi mi
dir?
Arm. Chourn artioq lav e hos ?
Kurd. Āv lahéra khwasha ?
Syriac. Gallo māya d’ākha ran-
délai ?
Give me something to drink. .
Arabic. A'țini farid shai ashrab.
Persian. Chīzi nūshīdani bi-man
bi-dihīd.
Turkish. Bana ichéjék bir shei vér.
Arm. Khmelou mi pan dveq.
Kurd. Teshtak bo vakhwāriné bo
min beda.
Syriac. Hallī khā mindīta shtāya.
Have you fresh eggs ?
Arabic. Hal 'indkum baidh ?
Persian. Tukhm-i-murgh-i-tāzeh
dārīd ?
Turkish. Tāzé yemurtanez vār
mi?
Arm. Artioq ouneq tharm
havgit ?
Kurd. Nū hěkā lagalwā haya ?
Syriac. Gallo ittaukhū bé'é
randé ?





QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
339
Bring bread and cheese.
I am going to pay for it.
Arabic. Jib-lanā khubz wa-jubn. Arabic. Anā adfa' thamanha.
Persian. Nān ū panīr bi-yār.
Persian. Pūl-i-ān-rā mī-khāham
Turkish. Ekmék ilé pénir gétir.
bi-diham.
Arm. Peretseq hats, yev banir ? Turkish. Parasene véréjéyim.
Kurd. Nān ū penīr bo ma bīna. Arm. Bidi vjarem ador hamar.
Syriac. Maithélan likhma ūgūpta. Kurd. Az ḥaqqéwī bidem.
Syriac. Bidyawin ḥaq dīyé.
Bring us coffee with milk,
Arabic. Jīb-lanā qahwah bi-ḥalīb.
Persian. Qahweh bā shīr-i-gāu bi-
yār.
Turkish. Bizé sūtlū qahvé gétir.
Arm. Gathov sourj peretseq
mez.
Kurd. Qahwa ū shīr bõma bīna.
Syriac. Maithé lan qahwa ū
khelya.
Bring us the bill.
Arabic. Jīb şūrat al-ḥisāb.
Persian. Hisāb-rā bi-yār.
Turkish. Bizé hisāb gétir.
Arm. Peretseq hashivn.
Kurd. Hisābéma bīna.
Syriac. Makhzélan ủisāb dīyan.
How much do we owe ?
Arabic. Kam naḥnu madyūnīn ?
Persian. Chand bāyad bi-dihim?
Turkish. Borjumuz né qadar ?
Arm. Vorqan g’bardinq tzez ?
Kurd. Haqqéta chanda ?
Syriac. Kmailé ḥaq dīyokh ?
Hurry up, we haven't much time.
Arabic. Ista‘jil, mā “indnā waqt.
Persian. Zūd bāsh, khailī waqt na-
dārīm.
Turkish. Chabuk ol, choq vaqe-
- temez yoq.
Arm. Shdabetseq, shad zham-
anaq ch’ounenq.
Kurd. Lazī bika, wakht mā
nīna.
Syriac. ' Qalūla, lattan ‘iddāna.
How much does this cost ?
Arabic. Kam thaman hādha ?
Persian. In chand mi-arzad ?
Turkish. Bunun fi’ate né dir ?
Arm. Ays vorqan arzhe ?
Kurd. Haq avi chanda ?
Syriac. Mīlé tīmed ādhi ?


340
VOCABULARIES
11. BILLETS, LODGING AND STABLING
I want quarters for 50 men.
Arabic. Arīd maḥall yasi' khamsin
nafar.
Persian. Az barāyi panjāh ādam
manzil mi-khāham,
Turkish. Élli néfér ichun yér
Where is the owner of the house ?
Arabic. Ain şāḥib al-bait ?
Persian. Sāḥib-i-inkhāneh kujāst?
Turkish. Év sāhibi nérédé ?
Arm.
Our e ays dan dern ?
Kurd. Khudāné vi māl lakū
daréya ?
Syriac. Aikailé māred adh bai-
tha ?
istérim.
Arm. Hisoun marti hamar
degh g’ouzem.
Kurd. Az fard dikhwāzim bo
penji zalām.
Syriac. Kibin dūktha ta khamshi
näshé.
Give me better quarters.
Arabic. A'țini mahall ahsan.
Persian. Manzilī bihtar az in bi-
man bi-dih.
Turkish. Bana būndan iyi bir yer
vér.
Arm. Aveli lav degh dveq intz.
Kurd. 'Ard khwashter bõ min
beda.
Syriac. Hallī dūktha besh tauta.
Light the fire, please.
Arabic, Arjük ish‘al an-nār.
Persian. Luțfan ātash-rā bi-
afrūz.
Turkish. Kérém ét, atéshi yaq.
Arm. Hajetseg gragn varrel.
Kurd. Bkaraméta, āgir bika.
Syriac. Kmarjin minnokh, ewodh
nūra.
Have you found me quarters yet ?
Arabic. Hal wajadta-li mahall ?
Persian. Manzilī az barāyi man
hanūz paidā kardeh-īd ?
Turkish. Bizim ichun yér daha
buldun mu?
Arm. Intz hamar degh kdaq
the voch ?
Kurd. Ta ‘ard bõma paidā kerī?
Syriac. Gallo khzélokh dūktha
tāli ?
I want stabling for 16 horses.
Arabic. Arīd akhūr li-sittatah-
'ashar þişān.
Persian. Az barāyi shūnzdeh asp
ţawīleh mi-khāham.
Turkish. On alte āt ichun akhur
º istérim.
Arm. Dasnvets tzii hamar
akhorr g’ouzem.
Kurd. “Ard bo shāzdā asp dikh-
wāzim.
Syriac. Kibin dūktha ta ishtāsar
sūsé.


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
341
Thanks, we want nothing more.
Arabic. Ashkurak, hādha kull
må aradnā.
Persian. Lutf-i-shumā ziyād, di-
gar chīzī lāzim na-
dārīm.
Turkish. Téshékkür édérim, bashqa
bir shei istéméyiz.
Arm. Shnorhagaloutiun, aveli
pan chenq ouzer.
Kurd. Shukur, lateshtak di
hauja nīna.
Syriac. Shakrinnokh, lak sanqokh
Imindī khenna.
Clear those houses; we are going to
quarter our men in them.
Arabic. Farrigh tilk al-buyūt ;
narīd nusakkin rijālnā
fīhā.
Persian. Ăn khāne-hā-rā khālī
kun: mī-khāhīm
ādam-hā-yi khud-rā
ānjā manzil bi-dihīm.
Turkish. Shu évlerdén éhāliyi
chiqār, néfératemeze
orada oturtajaghez.
Arm. Maqretseq ayt dounern,
anonts mech bidi
deghavorenq mer mar-
tiqn.
Kurd. Vān mālā khālī bika, amé
mérékhwa lavédaré dai-
nin.
Syriac. Msapqū an bāté, bed-
matwokh nāshan bga-
waihī.
Tell all people not to be afraid.
Arabic. Qul li-jami' an-nās lā
yakhāfū.
Persian. Bi-mardum bi-gū na-
tarsand.
Turkish. Bitün éhāliyé söilé qorq-
mazsenlar.
Arm. Amen martots aseq vor
ch’vakhnan.
Kurd. Bo hammu khalq khabar
bida nātersin
Syriac. Makhber kullai nāshé dla
zad'ī.
Where is there some clean water ?
Arabic. Ain najid mā şāfi ?
Persian. Āb-i-pāk kujāst.
Turkish. Témiz sūnérédé bulunur?
Arm. Our ga maqour chour ?
Kurd. Lakū daré āv khwash
haya ?
Syriac. Aikă īth māya randé ?
MES. I
Have you smallpox in this village ?
Arabic. Hal jidri fi hādhihi'l-
qaryah ?
Persian. Dar in deh ābileh dā-
rad ?
Turkish. Bū köidé chichék khasta-
leghe vār mi ?
Arm. Dzaghgakhd ga artioq
ays kiughi mech?
Kurd. Awlek (or khūrī) lav
gūnd haya ?
Syriac. Gallo ith shalqo (or
shikhna) b’adh mā-
tha ?
Y


342
VOCABULARIES
Tell me the house where there are sick men.
Arabic. Akhbirni ain al-ḥõsh al-
ladhi fīhi mardha.
Persian. Marā ān khāne-rā nishān
deh ki-mardum-i-nā-
khush, dar ānjā ha-
stand.
Turkish. Ichindé khasta bulunan
évi bana göstér.
Arm. Asatseq intz ayn doun'n
our hivant martiq
gan.
Kurd. 'Ardé nāsākha nishāmin
beda.
Syriac. Makhzélī dūktha d'īth bā
krīhé.
Is it feverish here ?
Arabic. Hal hādha'l-makān fīhi
humma ?
Persian. Injā tab dārad ?
Turkish. Burase sitmale mi dir ?
Arm. Artioq chermod degh e
hos ?
Kurd. Tā lahérā haya ?
Syriac. Gallo ith shātha b'adh
dūktha ?
Is it healthy here?
Arabic. Hal hādha'l-makān mu-
wāfiq liş-şiḥḥah ?
Persian. Injā sālim-ast?
Turkish. Buranen havāse iyi-
mi dir ?
Arm. Artioq arroghch degh e
hos ?
Kurd. Bāyé vī ard khwasha ?
Syriac. Gallo manākh d’adh dūk-
tha randailé ?
12. STRANGERS OR SUSPECTS
Stop ! or I shall shoot.
Arabic. Qif! wa-illā uqauwisak.
Persian. Bi-īst, wa-illā tīr mi-
andāzam.
Turkish. Dur! yoqsa atésh
idérim.
Arm. Getseq! yethe voch gʻzar-
nem.
Kurd. Rawuştā! (or bisakkinā)
yān az ta kuzhim.
Syriac. Įmõl ! illa bedmākhin.
Don't move from the spot.
Arabic. Lā tataḥarrak min
makānik.
Persian. Az ānjā ki hastī harakat
na-kun.
Turkish. Oradan qimildanma.
Arm. Mi sharzhir deghed .
(sing.), ch’sharzhiq deg-
herned (pl.).
Kurd. Zhvédaré nacha.
Syriac. La mḥarkit min dūk-
thokh.








QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
343
Stand a little further off.
Arabic. Qif ab'ad.
Persian. Qadrī dūrtar bi-īst.
Turkish. Bir az daha uzaqda dur.
Arm. Poqr inch aveli herroun
getseq.
Kurd. Dūrter bisakkinā.
Syriac. Ņmõl besh raḥūqa.
Surrender.
Arabic. Sallim nafsak.
Persian. Khud-rā taslim kun.
Turkish. Téslīm ol.
Arm. Antznadour yegheq (in
imperative).
Kurd. Taslim beka.
Syriac. Msālim.
Come closer.
Arabic. Taqarrab (pl. Taqarrabū).
Persian. Nazdiktar biyā.
· Turkish. Daha yaqen gél.
Arm. Aveli mod yegeq.
Kurd. Nézīkter wara.
Syriac. Hayyo besh qarīwa.
You may not talk to any one.
Arabic. Lā tatakallam (pl. tata-
kallamū) ma‘a ahad.
Persian. Na-bāyad bā kasī þarf
bi-zanī.
Turkish. Hīch bir kimséilé qonush-
mayajaqsin.
Arm. Ourishi hed khoselou
ch'eq.
Kurd. Lagal kas nā khéva.
Syriac. La maḥkit immed chū
kha.
Turn round.
Arabic. Dauwir (pl. Dauwirū).
Persian. Bar gard.
Turkish. Dön.
Arm. Tartzeq (in imperative).
Kurd. Bezevirra.
Syriac. Pthol or khdhor.
Hands up!
Arabic. Arfa' yadaik !
Persian. Dast bar dārīd !.
Turkish. Éllerini qaldir !
Arm. Tzerrqernit partzra-
tsoutseq!
Kurd. Dastéta helīna !
Syriac. Maurim idhāthokh !
Put down your arms.
Arabic. Irmi asliḥatak (pl. Irmū
asliḥat-kum).
Persian. Asliḥah rū-yi zamīn bi-
guzār.
Turkish. Silāhene yéré brāg!
Arm. Zenqernit var dreq.
Kurd. Chakkéta bāvézha.
Syriac. Mḥālik chakkokh.
You are trying to deceive me.
Arabic. Anta tarīd an takhda'-ni.
Persian. Mi-khāhīd marā gūl hi-
zanid.
Turkish. Béni aldatmagha chā-
lishyorsun.
Arm. . G’ashkhadiq khapel zis.
Kurd. Ma khalatāndin ta
khwast.
Syriac. Kibet tad maghelțettī.
You are lying !
Arabic. Anta kadhdhāb!
Persian. Durūgh mī-gū’ī!
Turkish. Yalān söiléyorsun!
Arm. Soud g’khosiq!, g’sdeq !
Kurd. Tū drāu kir.
Syriac. Kimdaglit.
Y
2








QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
345
Where are you wounded ?
Arabic. Ain injaraḥt ?
Persian. Zakhm-at kujāst?
Turkish. Nérédé yaralesin ?
Arm. Vor deghen viravorvadz
eq?
Kurd. Brīnéta lakū daréya ?
Syriac. Aikaiwet jrīḥa ?
Sit down, lie down.
Arabic. Uqʻud (pl. Uqʻudū), idh-
ţaji' (pl. idhțaji'ū).
Persian. Bi-nishin, bi-khāb.
Turkish. Otur, yat.
Arm. Nsdetseq, barrgetseq.
Kurd. Rūna, rāḥat bistīnā or
draizh biba.
Syriac. Îtū, irokh.
In the knee, the foot.
Arabic. Fir-rukbah, fil-qadam.
Persian. Dar zānū, dar pā.
Turkish. Dizimdén, ayaghemdan.
Arm. Dzounges, vodqes.
Kurd. La zhnū (or la zarāni), la
pé.
Syriac. Bgõ birkā, bgo aqla.
Undress yourself.
Arabic. Ikhla' thiyābak.
Persian. Rakht-i-khud-rā bi-kan
or lukht shau.
Turkish. Soyun.
Arm. Hanvetseq.
Kurd. Jilkéta beshalīna.
Syriac. Shlokh jullokh.
Give me water.
Arabic. A'țini mā.
Persian. Ab bi-dih.
Turkish. Bana sū vér.
Arm. Chour dveq intz.
Kurd. Av bida min.
Syriac. Hallī māya.
Keep quiet.
Arabic. Uskut (don't talk), lā
tataḥarrak (don't move).
Persian. Asūdeh bāsh.
Turkish. Qimildanma.
Arm. Hantard getseq.
Kurd Nākhéva (don't talk),
harakat naka (don't
move).
Syriac. Shtoq (don't talk), la
mḥarkit (don't move).
Here is water and brandy.
Arabic. Hādha mā wa-kunyāk.
Persian. Inak, āb ū konyāk.
Turkish. Ishté sana sū ile konyāk.
Arm. Aha chour yev coniac.
Kurd. Avā āv ūkonyāk.
Syriac. Hā māya ū könyāk.
Give me a bandage.
Arabic. Afțini rabāțah.
Persian. “Işābe-yi bi-man bi-dih.
Turkish. Bana bir yara sarghese
You mustn't speak.
Arabic. Lā tatakallam.
Persian. Na-bāyad þarf bi-zanīd.
Turkish. Laqerde étmémélisin.
Arm. Bedq che khosiq.
Kurd. Nākhéva.
Syriac. La mahkit.
vér.
Arm.
Kurd.
Syriae.
Viragab dveq intz.
Pāta bā min bīna.
Hallī khdha pasta.





QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
347
Good morning, Sir
Arabic. Şabāḥ al-khair yā-saiyidi.
Persian. Şubḥ-i-shumā bi-khair.
Turkish. Sabāheniz khair olsun,
efféndim.
Arm. Pari luys, baron.
Kurd. Subaḥī bkhair!
Syriac.
How are you?
Arabic. Kaifa hālak (pl. ḥāla-
kum)?
Persian. Aḥwāl-i-shumā chi țaur-
Speak slowly.
Arabic. Takallam yawāsh (or bi-
ta'anni).
Persian. Yawāsh harf zan.
Turkish. Yavāsh söilé.
Arm.
Gamats khosetseq.
Kurd. Yawāsh bākhéva.
Syriac. Mahkī bnīkhūtha.
There is a fire.
Arabic. 'Inda-nā nār.
Persian. Atash dārad.
Turkish. Atésh vār burda.
Arm. Grag ga.
Kurd. Agir haya.
Syriac. Ith nūra.
ast?
Turkish. Nasl siniz.
Arm. Inchbes eq?
Kurd. Kaifāta chāwaya ?
Syriac. Dékh iwet ?
I am sorry.
Arabic. Anā muta’assif.
Persian. Afsūs mi-khuram.
Turkish. Yaziq.
Arm. G’tsavim.
Kurd. Az khamīnim.
Syriac. Kim’asfin.
Impossible,
Arabic. Ghair mumkin.
Persian. Muḥāl, ghair-i-mumkin.
Turkish. Olmaz.
Arm. Angareli..
Kurd. Nā mumkina (or nābit).
Syriac. Ghair mumkin (or la
barāya).
What is the news ?
Arabic. Mā’l-akhbār ?
Persian. Chi khabar-ast ?
Turkish. Né khaber vār ?
Arm. Inch lour ga ?
Kurd. Chi khabar haya ?
Syriac. Mā khabra īth ?
Please come in ; sit down !
Arabic. Tafadhdhal udkhul,
ugʻud !
Persian. Bi-farmā’īd; bi-nishinīd !
Turkish. Buyurun; oturun !
Arm. Hajetseq ners; nsdetseq!
Kurd. Wara ; rūna !
Syriac. Tafadhdhal hayyo; itū!
God grant it !
Arabic. In shā Allāh !
Persian. Khudā kunād! In
sha’llāh !
Turkish. Inshallāh !
Arm. Asdvadz da! Amen!
Kurd. Khuzzī, īshallah!
Syriac. Khuzzī, in shā allah!
'Do you know English ?
Arabic. Hal ta'rif (pl. taʻrifūn)
inglīsi ?
Persian. Inglīsī-rā mī-dānīd ?
Turkish. Ingilizjé bilirmisiniz?
Arm. Anglieren kideq ?
Kurd. Tu inglīsī zāni ?
Syriac. Gallo kyadh'et inglīsī?


348
VOCABULARIES
It is true.
Arabic. Şaḥīḥ.
Persian. Rāst ast.
Turkish. Doghru dir.
Arm. Jisht e.
Kurd. Rāsta.
Syriac. Tamām.
Please.
Arabic. Tafadhdhal.
Persian. Lutfan.
Turkish. Kérém ét.
Arm. Hajetseq, khntrem.
Kurd. Bkhairéta.
Syriac. Min fadhl diyokh.
What are your wishes ?
Arabic. Mādha turīd (pl. turi-
dūn)?
Persian. Chi mī-khāhīd ?
Turkish. Né istérsiniz?
Arm. Inch e tzer papakn ?
Kurd. Ta chi tvet (or dkhwāzī) ?
Syriac. Mā kibet?
Thank you.
Arabic. Ashkurak or Ahsant.
Persian. Iltifāt-i-shumā ziyād.
Turkish. Téshékkür ederim.
Arm. Shnorhagal yem tzez.
Kurd. Min zhta minata.
Syriac. Minta minnokh (or ksha.
krennokh).
Thank God! I am well!
Arabic. Al-ḥamdu lillāh anā bi-
khair!
Persian Al-ḥamdu lillāh, aḥwāl-
am khūb-ast!
Turkish. Al-hamdu lillāh iyi yim!
Arm. Parrq Asdoudzo, lav
yem !
Kurd. Shukur lakhudé, az sā-
khim!
Syriac. Kshakrin õlaha, sākh
īwin!
Do you understand ?
Arabic. Hal ‘arift (pl. (ariftum)
or Hal tafham (pl. taf-
hamūn)?
Persian. Ayā, fahmidi?
Turkish. Anladen mi ?
Arm. G’hasgnaq ?
Kurd. Tu fahm deki ?
Syriac. Gallo kfahmit ?
I don't understand.
Arabic. Anā mā fahimtu.
Persian. Namī-fahmam.
Turkish. Anlamam.
Arm. G'hasgnam.
Kurd. Az fahm nākim.
Syriac. Lak fahmin.
You are welcome.
Arabic. Marhaban bika (pl.
bikum).
Persian. Khush āmadīd.
Turkish. Khosh geldiniz! Safā
geldiniz!
Arm. Parov yegaq.
Kurd. Marhaba! tu khwash
hāti.
Syriac. Marhaba !
All right.
Arabic. Taiyib..
Persian. Khailī khūb.
Turkish. Pék ‘ala, pék iyi.
Arm. Shad lav!
Kurd. Chāka (or qanja).
Syriac. Randa.








QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
349
There is no news.
Arabic. Mā fi khabar.
Persian. Khabarī nīst.
Turkish. Khaber yoq.
Arm. Lour ch’ga.
Kurd. Chū khabar nīna.
Syriac. Laith chū khabra.
Rain threatens.
Arabic. Ad-dunya mațțārah.
Persian. Dārad bārān bi-bārad.
Turkish. Yaghmur yaghajaq gibi
Arm. Antzrev g’sbarrna.
Kurd. Dunyā bārāna.
Syriac. Dunyé mițranīthaila.
It is moonlight.
Arabic. Ad-dunya muqmirah or
nür qamar.
Persian. Mahtāb-ast.
Turkish. Mahitāb havāse vār.
Arm. Lousnga e, lousniag
kisher e.
Kurd. Rõzhnāhié haīva.
Syriac. Béhra dsérailé.
How do you know ?
Arabic. Kaif taʻrif ?
Persian. Az kujā mī-dānīd ?
Turkish. Nasl bilirsiniz?
Arm. Inchbes kideq ? inchen
kideq ?
Kurd. Tu chāwa (or kusā) tzāni?
Syriac. Min aika kyadh'et ?
It is false.
Arabic. Laisa şaḥīḥ or kidhb!
Persian. Durūgh-ast.
Turkish. Yalān dir.
Arm. Skhal e, soud e.
Kurd. Drawa.
Syriac. Duglailé !
I am glad.
Arabic. Al-ḥamdu lillāh.
Persian. Khush-am mī-yāyad.
Turkish. Mémnūn um.
Arm. Ourakh yem, ko yem.
Kurd. Az khwashim.
Syriac. Pșīkhaiwin.
How old are you?
Arabic. Kam sanah ‘umrak ?
Persian. Chand sālagī dārid ?
Turkish. Qach yashenda sin ?
Arm. Qani daregan eq?
Kurd. 'Umréta chanda ? (or ta
chand sāl haya ?)
Syriac. Kmailé ‘umr diyokh ?
I must go.
Arabic. Lāzim arūḥ.
Persian. Bāyad bi-rawam.
Turkish. Gitméliyim.
Arm. Yertalou yem, bardim
yertal.
Kurd. Lāzima az déchem.
Syriac. Lāzim tad zālī.
Is he at home ?
Arabic. Hal hua fil-bait ?
Persian. Dar khāne-ast ?
Turkish. Évdé mi dir ?
Arm. Dann e artioq ?
Kurd. Au Imāla ?
Syriac. Bgo baithailé ?
Possible.
Arabic. Mumkin.
Persian Mumkin.
Turkish. Mumkin, olabilir.
Arm. Gareli.
Kurd. Mumkina (or dbit).
Syriac. Mumkin (or kbāré).


350
VOCABULARIES
Who is it?
Arabic. Man hua ?
Persian. Kīst ?
Turkish. Kim dit ?
Arm. Ove ?
Kurd. Āu kīā ?
Syriac. Manīlé ?
Pleasant journey.
Arabic. Safar maimūn.
Persian. Fi amān illāh.
Turkish. Selamétlé, oghurlar-ola.
Arm. Pari janportoutiun.
Kurd. Safaréta pīrõz bit.
Syriac. Safar diyokh hāwé brīkha.
Let him enter.
Arabic. Da'-hu yadkhul.
Persian. Biyāyad.
Turkish. Buyursun.
Arm. Ners thogh ka.
Kurd. Bilā bét.
Syriac. Shud āwer.
Of course.
Arabic. Tab'an.
Persian. Albatteh.
Turkish. Élbétté.
Arm. Anshousht.
Kurd. Māʻlum.
Syriac. Maʻlūm.
Please tell me.
Arabic. Tafadhdhal qul-li.
Persian. Luțfan marā bi-gū.
Turkish. Rija idérim bana soilé.
Arm. Khntrem aseq intz.
Kurd. Zhkaraméta, khabar beda
min.
Does the water boil ?
Arabic. Hal al-mā fār (or ghalā) ?
Persian. Āb jūsh mi-khurad ?
Turkish. Sū qainayor mu ?
Arm. Chourn g’erra artioq ?
Kurd. Av kul bū ?
Syriac. Gallo māya birthākhai-
lai ?
Good-bye.
Arabic. Auda‘nākum.
Persian. Khudā ḥāfiz.
Turkish. Allāha ismarladeq.
Arm. Mnaq parov.
Kurd. Bkhātirāta.
Syriac. Posh bishlāma.
Syriac. Kmarjin minnokh, ma-
khbérī.
What did you say ?
Arabic. Mā-dha qulta ?
Persian. Chi guftid ?
Turkish. Né dédiniz ?
Arm. Inch usiq? inch asctsiq?
Kurd. Ta chi got ?
Syriac. Mā mérokh ?
Au revoir.
Arabic. Nashūf wajhak ‘ala khair.
Persian. Dūbāreh shumā-rā
khāhīm did.
Turkish. Yaqinda görüshürüz in-
shallāh.
Arm. Yertaq parov.
Kurd. Az jārak dī tā debīnim.
Syriac. Bidkhāzinnokh gaha
khirta.
What did he say ?
Arabic. Mā-dha qāl ?
Persian. Chi guft?
Turkish. Né dédi ?
Arm. Inch usav, inch asets ?
Kurd. Chi gõt?
Syriac. Mā iméré ?





QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
351
Excuse me.
Arabic. Al-'afwŭ or sāmiḥ-ni.
Persian. Bi-bakhshid.
Turkish. ‘Afv édérsiniz.
Arm. Neretseq.
Kurd. Gāzin naka.
Syriac. Al'afū (or la audhit gā-
zin).
You are mistaken.
Arabic. Anta ghaltān.
Persian. Khațā kardīd.
Turkish. Yanleshiniz vār.
Arm. G’skhaliq.
Kurd. Tu khalaţi.
Syriuc. Ghelțaiwet.
No matter.
Arabic. Lā bas.
Persian. 'Aibī na-dārad.
Turkish. Zarar yoq.
Arm. Hok che.
Kurd. Bilā bit.
Syriac. Shud hāwé (or lā bās).








354
INDEX
112
105
Baghdad (cont.) — | Basra (cont.) –..
Bohtan Su, 77
education, 109
history, 57, 61, 63, Bombay, 144
floods, 123, 169
Brine, 12
history, 49, 59, 60, industry, 142
Bubonic plague: see
113.
measures, 157, 158 Plague
industry, 142, 143 population, 76, 77, Buffalo, 42, 137, 138
irrigation, 128
78, 82
Bulgarian Church, 97
local government, religion, 87
Bunni (fish), 43
102
sanitation, 48
Bushire, 16, 24, 28-39
measures, 156, 158 telegraph, 172 Bustard, 43
population, 68, 72, trade, 41, 133, 136,
76-78
141, 145, 146, 147,
religion, 87, 91, 95
148
sanitation, 47
weights, 155
Caliphs, the, 83, 95, 97
telegraph, 172
Basra (vilayet), 98, 102 Camel, 42, 137, 139, 145,
trade, 136, 144, 145, administration, 103, 164-166
148
Camel-thorn, 43, 44, 126
weights, 153
cultivation, 129, 132, Caper, 126
Baghdad (vilayet), 98,
133, 134, 136 Carpets, 142, 146
101
fauna, 137, 138, 139 Cattle, 43, 137, 138, 145
cultivation, 129, 130, land ownership, 109 Cedar, 10, 44
132, 133, 134
population, 65 Chabaks, 66, 78, 80, 96
fauna, 137, 138, 139
religion, 66
Chāh Bazār, 101
land ownership, 109 transport animals, Chalcedon, 89
population, 65
165
Chaldaeans, 53, 65, 76,
religion, 66, 92 Batman, 172
88-91, 109
transport animals, Batman Su, 12, 163 Chemchemal, 72, 101
165, 166
Baziān, 101
Chenār (tree), 44
Baghdad boil, 45
Bean, 129, 134
Chermuk, 100
Baghdad railway, 62, 64, Bear, 42
Cherry, 129, 134
146, 160
Beaver, 42
Chesney, 63
Bahrein, 15, 28-39
Bedouins, 60, 66, 71-73, Chiah Surkh, 41
B: hrein, Sheikh of, 61 127
Cholera, 45, 130
Bahr-i-Nejef, 45, 119 Bedrah, 68, 101, 107, 135 Christianity, in Mesopo-
Bahr-i-Shināfiyeh, 45, Beled, 124
tamia, 66, 80, 87
171
Beled-Ruz, 45
Circassians, 66, 78
Ba Idri, 77
Beled-Ruz canal, 117 Citron, 129, 134
Baladuri, 113
Belgium, trade, 117 Clay, potter's, 41
Balkan War, 1912, 62
Belikh R., 11
Cloud, 18, 20, 24, 38
Banat el-Hasan, 84 Bellam (boat), 166
Coal, 40
Bāqūbeh, 135, 142, 170 Beni Lâm (tibe), 60, 138, Code Napoléon, 106
Barley, 129, 131, 146
145
Colchicum, 44
Bāsh Qalah, 172
Ber (tree), 43
Colocynth, 43, 145
Basra, 9, 13, 47, 64, 85, Berosus, 117
Committee of Union and
87, 104, 110, 117, 135' Besreh, 172
Progress, 64
climate, 15, 18-24, | Bilharziasis, 45, 46 Constantinople : trade,
28-39
Birijik, 9
145
communications, Bitaireh canal, 118
Copper, 40
123, 160, 164, 166 Bitlis, 162, 172
Cotton, 129, 134, 136, 146
169
Bittern, 43
Council of Ephesus, 88,
currency, 152
Bitumen, 12, 40, 41, 162, 89
customs, 107
Crocus, 44
diseases, 45
Bizz (fish), 43
Cromer, Lord, 99
education, 109
Blind Tigris, 116 | Crow, 43
167





INDEX
355
Fellūjeh, 116, 123, 129,
133, 161, 163, 167, 171
Fig, 129, 133
Fish, 43, 113
Floods, 57, 58, 123, 163
Fly, 43
Föhn, 18
Fowls, 140
Fox, 42
France: trade, 144, 146
Frog, 43
Fuller's earth, 40 -
Furāt Su, 11
172
Ctesiphon, 49, 55, 56, 57 | Dizfūl, 172
Currency, 150
Dog, 42, 48
Cyrus the Great, 49, 54 Dohuk, 101
Dominican Mission, 89,
91, 92
Donkey, 137, 139, 164-
166
Dā'irat es-Sanīyeh, 109, Duck, 43
118, 119, 128
Dujeil canal, 115, 118
Damascus, 57, 58, 98, Durāji, 171
145, 164
Dysentery, 45
Dūnak, 166
Dargah Hazrat Husein,
84
Date, 12, 105, 109, 117, Eagle, 42
119, 121, 126, 128, 129, Earthenware, 143
130, 134, 136, 146, 154 Echmiadsin, 90
Daud Pasha, 61
Egypt, 14, 52, 53, 56,
Defterdar, 98
121, 125, 137, 145
Degalan, 163
Elam, 50, 51, 52, 53
Deir ez-Zor, 61, 100, 163, Elm, 44
171
El-Seleb (tribe), 139
Density (atmosphere), 23 Erbil, 41, 72, 101, 162,
Derek, 100, 160
Diarbékr, 9, 12, 56, 108 Eridu, 49
climate, 15, 16, 18, Erzerum, 98, 145, 162
28-39
Erzingan, 172
communications, Euphrates R., 9-11, 55,
162, 163, 166
63, 113, 138
disease, 46
bridges, 162
industry, 142, 143
communications, 164
measures, 157, 158 discharge, 122
telegraph. 172
floods, 57
trade, 145
irrigation, 109, 115,
weights, 156
118
Diarbekr (vilayet), 100 navigation, 64, 167,
cultivation, 126, 128,
170
129, 131, 133, 134, soil, 125
135
vegetation, 134, 135
fauna, 137, 139 Europeans, in Mesopo.
population, 65, 68, tamia, 78
72, 73, 76, 77, 78% Eyalet, 98
religion, 66, 87, 92 Exilarch, 94
transport animals, Ezekiel, 94
165
Ezekiel, tomb of, 87, 95
Dighāreh canal, 118, 133 Ezra, tomb of, 95
Dileim, 101
Dilman, 172
Diphtheria, 45
Diseases, 45
Faili Lurs (tribe), 68
Diwāniyeh, 101, 138, 167 Falcon, 43
Diyāleh R., 12, 109, 115, Fão, 13, 47, 102, 166, 169,
117, 124, 132, 135, 163, 172
| Fayyan, 117
Galena, 40
Gales, 23
Gall-nut, 130, 135, 146,
154
Garlic, 134
Gazelle, 42
Germans, in Turkey, 99
Germany, 63, 99, 146, 148
Ghi, 144-146
Giaour Dāgh, 161
Goat, 42, 71, 137, 139
Gold, 40
Good Hope, C. of, 141
Goose, 43
Gopher: see Quffeh
Grand Vizier, 98
Grape, 129, 133
Great Britain : interests
in Mesopotamia, 63
trade, 144, 147, 148
Great Swamp, 113, 116,
117
Greek Orthodox Church,
91, 97
Gregorian Church, 87, 88,
90
Gulambar, 101
Gum, 146, 154
Gum tragacanth,
135, 136
Gurmat 'Ali, 13
Gypsum, 40, 41
130,
Habbaniyeh, 121
Habbaniyeh canal, 123
Hadadin (tribe), 60
170


INDEX
357
Leprosy, 45
Levant, 22, 144
Lijjeh, 40, 100, 162
Lime, 125
Lion, 42
Liquorice, 43, 117, 130,
135, 146
Locust, 43
Lubiyeh (pea), 129, 134
Lucerne, 136
Luristan, 13
Lynch, Messrs., 168, 170
M
Kerbela (cont.) -
communications,
160, 161, 163, 166
cultivation, 136, 135
education, 109
industry, 142, 143
population, 72, 76
sanitation, 47
Kermanji language, 69
Keser Su, 163
Khabūr R., 11, 115, 135
Khālis canal, 115, 117
Khamsin, 23
Khān, 162
Khanikin, 47, 85, 101,
107, 109, 135, 160, 162,
164, 172
Kharpūt, 162, 172
Khasia, 93
Khātūniyeh canal, 118
Khorāsān, 101
Khorāsān canal, 117
Khuson Parvez, King, 56,
58
Kifi, 87, 95
Kirkuk, 72, 76, 101, 138,
162, 172
Kirmanshah, 136, 162,
172
Kite (bird), 42
Kochannes, 77
Köi Sanjaq, 72, 101
Koran, 80, 83, 86, 97, 106
Koweit, Sheikh of, 61,
63
Kubadh I, 113
Kūfeh, 57, 80, 83, 87,
112, 116, 130, 161, 163
Kurdistan, 22, 63, 65, 71,
87, 91, 98, 135
Kurds, 60, 62, 66-72, 74,
77, 127, 145
Kurna, 12, 102, 107, 113,
142, 166, 169, 170, 172
Kut el-Amara, 101, 107,
110, 113, 135, 142, 145,
163, 169, 170
Mahāwil canal, 118
Maheileh : see Safīneh
Mahmūdiyeh, 41, 143
Mahmūdiyeh canal, 118
Maidān-i-Naftūn, 41, 78,
172
Maize, 129, 133
Malatiyeh, 172
Mandali, 41, 45, 101, 107,
135
Manichaeism, 93
Mansūr', Caliph, 58, 116
Maphrian, 92
Maqabir el-Quraish, 85
Maqam Yunas, 87
Mardin, 73, 90, 92, 100,
162, 172
Markéh, 101
Maronite Church, 97
Mar-Shimum, 89, 91
Mash (lentil), 129, 133
Mashhūf (boat), 166
Maskin, 115
Measures, 156
Media, 50, 53
Mektubji, 98
Melon, 129, 133
Meskeneh, 171, 172
Mesopotamia :
administration, 97
climate, 14
communications,61,
63, 160
cultivation, 14, 126,
128, 136
currency, 150
diseases, 45
economic condition,
127
Mesopotamia (cont.) –
exports, 130, 133,
135, 141, 144
fauna, 42, 137
flora, 43'
geology, 10
history, 49
imports, 141, 146
industry, 141
irrigation, 59, 61,
112, 126, 128, 131
minerals, 40
mountains, 10, 15
physical geography,
9
population, 65, 127
post, 172
religion, 65, 80
rivers, 10, 11
soil, 125
trade, 141, 144
transport, 163
Metal work, 143
Midiāt, 100
Midhat Pasha, 61
Millet, 89, 97, 129, 133
Mir (chief), 77
Mirage, 24
Mo‘adhdham, 143, 161
Moʻawīyeh, 83
Mohair, 145, 146
Mohammareh, 13, 15, 19,
28–39, 48, 77, 78, 117,
168
Mohammareh, Sheikh of,
63
Mohammedanism, 65, 66,
80, 95
Mohammed-bin-'Ali, 84
Mohammed - bin - Hasan
el-Mahdi, 84
Mohammed Resham, 93
Money, 150
Mongols, 59, 141
Monophysite doctrine,
88, 90, 92
Mosque, 81
Mosquito, 43, 48
Mosul, 9, 11, 61, 98, 101,
climate, 15, 16, 18,
21, 23, 24, 28-39
communications,
160, 162, 163, 166
108"
Latifīyeh canal, 118
Lead, 40
Leather, 138, 143
Leopard, 42








INDEX
359
Latif, 47
1 114, 130, 135, 160, 163, Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gi-
Qizil Rībāt, 107
164
lani, 86
Quail, 43
Samāweh, 12, 45, 101, Sheikh 'Adi, 77, 93
Quffeh, 166, 167
133, 135, 139, 142, 145, Sheikh el-Islam, 98
Quince, 129, 134
172
Shiah Indians, 63
Samsat, 9, 11
Shiahs, 46, 66, 76, 79,
Sand-fly, 43, 46, 48
80, 81, 82, 83, 96, 109
Sandstorm, 23, 125
Shiah (plant), 43
Sanitation, 47
Shok esh-shami: see Camel-
Radwaniyeh canal, 118 Sanīyeh, 62
thorn
Railways, 160
Sanjaq, 98
Shok (plant), 43
Rainfall, 14, 17, 20, 34, Saqlāwiyeh canal, 118, Shushtar, 13, 64, 168,
49, 128, 129
171
172
Raisin, 129, 134
Sassanians, 94
Silk industry, 142
Ramadan (fast), 81
Sassanids, 55, 112
Silvan, 100
Raniyeh, 72, 101, 172 Schläfli, Dr. A.., 21 Simoom, 23
Ras el-'Ain, 40, 78, 100, Seleucia, 49, 55, 57, 112 Sinjar, 101
160
Seleucids, 55
Sitt Nefisse, 93
Rat, 42
Seleucus, 55
Sivas, 172
Raven, 43
Selim, Sultan, 97
Small-pox, 45
Rayah (Christian), 97 Seljuk Turks, 59
Snake, 43
Razazeh, 101
Semites, 53, 58
Snipe, 43
Red Sea, 144
Sesame, 129, 133
Snow, 17, 20
Rheumatism, 45
Severek, 100, 172
Société de Tabac, 135
Rice, 109, 119, 129, 132, 1 Seyyid Ibrahim, 84
Suez Canal, 63
146
Shabaks : see Chabaks Sugar-cane, 136
Roads, 161
Shabūt (fish), 43
Suleimanan, 117
Roberts College, 91 Shādi, 109
Suleimāniyeh, 72, 75,
Roman Catholic Church, Shah Abbas, 60
101
88, 91, 97
Shahrizor, 101
Sulphur, 12, 40
Roman Empire, 55
Shakhtūr (boat), 167 Sumach, 43
Rowanduz, 72, 101, 135,
Shāmiyeh, 101, 133 Sumeikéh, 160
172
Shammār tribe, 60, 62, Sumer, 51, 52
Russia, trade, 147, 148 74, 139
Sunnis, 66, 76, 78, 79,
Ruwaq, 85
Shark, 43
82, 83, 86
Shatret el-'Amāreh, 41, Sunstroke, 46
102
Sūq esh-Shuyūkh, 49, 78,
Shatret el-Muntefiq, 78, 93, 102, 107, 142, 143,
102, 142, 143
163, 171, 172
Sabians, 78, 80, 93, 143 Shatt el-'Arab, 10, 12, Sura, 94
Sa'diyeh, 160
13, 48, 63, 64, 109, 114, Suweib R., 12
Safīneh (boat), 166
116, 117, 121, 128, 130, Suweira, 68, 107
Sufsaf (tree), 43
133, 166, 168, 169, 172 Sweden, trade, 147
Sahbah (grass), 43
Shatt el-Gharāf, 109, | Syphilis, 45
St. Gregory the Illu 171
Syria, 22, 98, 138, 139,
minator, 88
Shatt el-Hai, 113, 114, 145
Sairt, 172
123, 135
climate, 14
Sajur R., 11
Shatt el-Hindiyeh, 119, historical relations,
Salāhiyeh, 72, 101, 162 133
50-53, 55, 56, 59
Salt, 40, 41, 126
Shatt el-Khār, 118
population, 71, 82
Saltpetre, 41
Shatt en-Nīl, 116
religion, 89, 92
Samaneh, 168
Shatt Khansār, 171 Syriac, 76, 78, 91, 92, 94
Samarra, 12, 40, 41, 43, | Sheep, 42, 71, 137, 138, Syrian desert, 10, 161
. 59, 83-85, 101, 108, L 145
Syrians : see Nestorians